THE MECHANICAL ARTS 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 PRACTICAL TREATISES 
 
 ON THE VARIOUS 
 
 ANUAL ARTS, TRADES 
 
 AND 
 
 ANUf ACTURES 
 
 gUustrafcfc numerous engrabmsr# 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 * 
 
 PRINTED FOR RICHARD REES, 62, PALL MALL; 
 
 GALE, CURTIS, AND FSNNRft; SHERWOOD, NEELEY, AND JONES, P/ TERN0ST£R*R< 
 
 W, curtis. Plymouth. 
 
 KMj YE NT 
 
 
THE 
 
 CIRCLE 
 
 THE MECHANICAL ARTS 
 
THE MECHANICAL ARTS; 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 PRACTICAL TREATISES 
 
 ON THE VARIOUS 
 
 MANUAL ARTS, TRADES, AND MANUFACTURES. 
 
 By THOMAS MARTIN, Civil Engineer, 
 
 ASSISTED BY EMINENT PROFESSIONAL MECHANICS AND 
 manufacturers. 
 
 iV 
 
 3 llustrateu bp numerous engrabtngs. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 , 
 
 PRINTED FOR RICHARD REES, 62, PALL MALL; 
 
 GALE, CURTIS, AND FENNER; AND SHERWOOD, NEELEY, AND JONES, PATERNOSTER-ROW; 
 AND W. CURTIS, PLYMOUTH. 
 
com 
 
 
 m*r V 
 
 
 
 ► 
 
 i 
 
 J. M'Creery, Printer, 
 Black-Horse-Court, London. 
 
 * 
 
 ' 
 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The work now presented to the public, in its complete form, will, it is presumed, recom- 
 mend itself to general attention, as well from its novelty as from the importance of the subjects 
 of which it treats. Of all the numerous Dictionaries of Arts and Sciences published in this 
 country, there is no one that bears any resemblance to “ the Circle of the Mechanical Arts.” 
 
 In France, indeed, there have been works of the same kind, but they are all executed on too 
 large a scale to become generally useful ; and, by their price, they are necessarily confined to 
 the libraries of the rich, or to the repositories of the learned, which have been founded and 
 maintained at the public expense. Those for whom such works are chiefly adapted, can 
 rarely obtain even a sight of them, and they are thus almost entirely destitute of that utility in 
 improving the arts and manufactures, for which they were naturally designed. Hence has 
 arisen the difficulty and obstacles which the editor of this volume has met with in seeking 
 information on the various topics tWt have come under discussion. In almost all instances he 
 has found persons engaged in trade extremely unwilling to. communicate the processes and 
 manipulations which distinguish their several arts; ana, tn the course of his inquiries, he 
 had frequently to regret that those who were most disposed to afford him assistance were, 
 from want of all literary habits and practice, utterly incapable of rendering him that aid 
 which he could have hoped for by the communication of their ideas in writing. Many 
 persons refused him help lest they should be thought to betray the secrets of their trade, and 
 others were equally reluctant to enter into the nature of their profession, fearing that a free 
 communication of their own thoughts would expose their ignorance of its principles, or 
 would prove that its excellence did not depend upon any thing secret, or that could be 
 concealed. 
 
 Without, however, troubling the reader with a further enumeration of the difficulties 
 which have beset the editor in his pursuits, and impeded his progress in the attainment of 
 
 a * practical 
 
IV 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 practical knowledge, he will proceed briefly to state some peculiar features of the work 
 which he has, notwithstanding the hinderances thrown in his way, at length, accomplished. 
 
 The “ Mechanical Exercises,” published by Moxon, more than a century ago, have become 
 exceedingly scarce : in some respects, it has been the wish of the editor of the “ Circle” to 
 follow the example set him by his precursor, yet he has been ambitious of surpassing him in 
 the extent and variety of information contained in his book. Mr. Moxon treated almost 
 exclusively of the arts and trades connected with building ; the editor of the Circle, disdaining 
 so limited a plan, has taken a much more extensive range, and included, in his work, practical 
 treatises on a great variety of other manual arts, trades, and manufactures. 
 
 The attention of the reader is particularly directed to the long and elaborate article on 
 Carpentry, which forms so large a' proportion of the volum^ and which, it is presumed, 
 will be found the most complete treatise ever published on the subject. No expense has been 
 spared to illustrate this article by numerous engravings. The other articles connected with 
 building, viz., Sawing and Planing, BRiCK-making and BRicx-laying, Slating, Plas- 
 tering, Plumbing, Painting and Glazing; and Turning, which is common to 
 many branches of trade, will be found under their respective heads ; as well as the more 
 general treatises of Architecture, and Masonry. 
 
 Among the useful and important manipulations common to every individual, as well as to 
 people in distinct trades, will be found, in tIie alphabetical order, Baking and Brewing, 
 with such rules and recipes vriil shew that the convenience of private families have been 
 consulted equally with the interests of those who manufacture on a large scale for the 
 public. • ' , • ^ 
 
 In the arts connected with, or depending upon, or, at least, which are materially benefited 
 by the principles of modern Chemistry, may be mentioned, Dyeing, and HAT-making; 
 GLAss-making ; Pottery, including the manufacture of Porcelain; SoA.p-making ; 
 STAKCii-making, and Tanning; also Rectification and Distillation, both included 
 under the former term. 
 
 Of the manufactures carried on to a vast extent in several of the large towns in the northern 
 parts of England, as Manchester, Sheffield, and Birmingham, the reader may be referred to 
 
 Cotton- 
 
PREFACE.' v 
 
 CoTTON-manufacture and Weaving; BuTTON-making, and Cutlery; to the manu- 
 facture of Files and Nails, and to Wir E-drawing. To these may be added, the manufacture 
 of Guns and Shot, which trades are carried on upon an extensive scale at Birmingham, 
 though the best warranted guns are said to be the production of London workmen, to one of 
 whom, eminent in his profession, the editor, as has been acknowledged in the article, is 
 indebted for the facts contained in his account of the business. 
 
 Ship building was reckoned too extensive an article for a work to be comprised in a single 
 volume, and has been omitted; nevertheless, the manufacture of Blocks and Roves, connected 
 with it, has been rather fully treated of. 
 
 The trades, on which the literature of the country depends, will be found in their respective 
 places, as PAPER-making ; Printing, by moveable letters, and on the stereotype plan; and 
 BooK-binding : to these may be added another branch of business, not indeed connected with 
 books, but of which paper is the staple commodity, viz., Staining of Paper, chiefly used in 
 the decoration of our apartments. Hence we have been led to treat of other branches of 
 business not absolutely necessary to the convenience of life, but which are found in every 
 stage of improved society, such are CoACH-making, with which is allied the Wheelwright ; 
 Enamelling; Carving,* and Gilding; GoLD-beating ; Japanning; Engraving, 
 and the Staining of Glass, found under the articles Glass and Glazing. 
 
 To the public it was a matter of importance that a full article should be given on Watch 
 and CLOCK-making ; this has been done, including a description of all the tools used in 
 the art, and of the facts which led to the invention, and of the principles on which these 
 useful instruments depend. 
 
 The Cooper, the CoMB-maker, the Currier, and the BASKET-maker, will perceive that 
 considerable pains have been taken to collect and diffuse information respecting the trades 
 which they practise, and which are exceedingly useful in domestic life ; some, indeed, not 
 only on their own account, but for the aid which they afford to other manufacturers. 
 
 * By mistake, a figure is referred to in this article, which was not intended to be engraved ; and in the article Bridges, 
 page 41, references are erroneously made to Plate II, which was not necessary to illustrate the subject. 
 
 To 
 
Vi 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 To the article Engineering, we may call the attention of our readers, being, if we mistake 
 not, wholly omitted in Cyclopedias ; and, as connected, in some measure with it, we may 
 point out Mining; and Founding, in all its different branches, from the grosser metals to 
 the coining of gold and silver money. 
 
 As the Mechanical Arts depend much upon the principles of Geometry, we have, by 
 way of Appendix, given a treatise on the practical parts of that science. 
 
 Upon the whole, we may recommend the Circle of the Mechanical Arts to persons of 
 various classes and ranks in life; as to Gentlemen who are fond of mechanical pursuits, 
 or, who, for amusement, superintend the works going on upon their own estates, or, who 
 wish to be informed of the manufactures established in their own neighbourhood, or which 
 they may meet with in their travels. It will likewise be found extremely useful to persons 
 engaged in trade; to youths apprenticed to learn the arts described; as well as to practical 
 mechanics in general. 
 
 Finally, the editor throws himself upon the candour of the public $ he does not presume 
 that he has performed all that every reader will expect to find, but he is confident that much is 
 done, and that the favour which he has experienced during the publication of his work in 
 separate parts, will be augmented now the publication is completed. 
 
 It was originally intended to have given a Second Part , chiefly as a Dictionary of 
 Terms, assimilating itself to other Dictionaries ; but, at the desire of many of his subscribers, 
 the Editor has confined the work to its present extent. 
 
 London, 
 March 25, 1813. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 1 
 
 BRIDGES 33 
 
 BAKING 45 
 
 BASKET-MAKING 62 
 
 BLOCK-MAKING 69 
 
 BOOK-BINDING 74 
 
 BREWING 85 
 
 BRICK-LAYING 90 
 
 BRICK-MAKING 98 
 
 BRUSH-MAKING 105 
 
 BUTTON-MAKING . . • 107 
 
 CABINET-MAKING 110 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 122 
 
 CARVING AND GILDING 211 
 
 COACH-MAKING 218 
 
 COMB-MAKING 231 
 
 COOPERING 234 
 
 COTTON MANUFACTURE 239 
 
 CURRYING 253 
 
 CUTLERY 260 
 
 DYEING 264 
 
 ENGINEERING 293 
 
 ENAMELLING 317 
 
 ENGRAVING 326 
 
 FILE-MAKING 336 
 
 FOUNDING . 342 
 
 GLASS-MAKING 368 
 
 GLAZING 380 
 
 GOLD-BEATING AND GILT WIRE-DRAWING 385 
 
 GUN-MAKING 389 
 
 HAT-MAKING 400 
 
 JAPANNING 409 
 
 MASONRY 414 
 
 Page 
 
 MINING 437 
 
 MODELLING 443 
 
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENT-MAKING .... 448 
 
 NAIL-MAKING 454 
 
 NEEDLE-MAKING 458 
 
 PAINTING (HOUSE) 460 
 
 PAPER-MAKING 465 
 
 PATTEN-MAKING 475 
 
 PIN-MAKING 476 
 
 PIPE-MAKING 478 
 
 PLANING 481 
 
 PLASTERING 484 
 
 PLUMBERY 492 
 
 POTTERY 496 
 
 PRINTING 504 
 
 RECTIFICATION 513 
 
 ROPE-MAKING 518 
 
 SAWING 522 
 
 SHOT-MAKING 526 
 
 SLATING 527 
 
 SOAP-MAKING 532 
 
 STAINING OF PAPER 538 
 
 STAKCH-MAKING 539 
 
 TALLOW AND WAX CHANDLERY . . .540 
 
 TANNING 542 
 
 TIN-PLATE-WORKING 546 
 
 TURNING 548 
 
 WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING .... 563 
 
 WEAVING 596 
 
 WHEEL-WRIGHT 601 
 
 WIRE-DRAWING 605 
 
 WOOL-COMBING 606 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY 610 
 
 *a 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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THE 
 
 CIRCLE 
 
 OF TITE 
 
 MECHANICAL ARTS. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Architecture is the art of planning and 
 erecting buildings of any kind, as churches, palaces, 
 temples, dwelling-houses, bridges, <Scc. 
 
 It has been too generally imagined, that the study 
 of Architecture is of little or no use to any persons, 
 but those who are immediately concerned in build- 
 ing; nothing, however, can be more erroneous than 
 such an idea, as there is scarcely any profession in 
 which it is not, directly or indirectly, of the great- 
 est importance. The knowledge of its beautiful 
 proportions and ornaments, has given to many 
 of the articles manufactured in this country a 
 great superiority over those of any other nation. 
 The proper application of its ornaments, aided by 
 chemistry, enabled our ingenious countryman, Mr. 
 Wedgwood, to carry the porcelain manufacture to a 
 perfection and elegance, till then unknown in 
 Europe; affording a sufficient proof, if proof were 
 wanting, of the utility this art may be of in pro- 
 fessions at first sight w holly unconnected w ith it. The 
 smith, th? cabinet-maker, the turner, the founder, 
 and in short every workman who has to give form 
 to rude materials, will find it highly advantageous to 
 devote a portion of his time to the acquirement of 
 this sublime and useful art. 
 
 It being our intention in the present work to treat 
 only of the practical part of the arts, it will not be 
 necessary for us to enter largely into the history of 
 Architecture. We shall content ourselves, there- 
 fore, with pointing out such circumstances as will 
 account, in some measure, for the origin of, and the 
 striking peculiarities which mark the different or- 
 
 ders. It is a very natural supposition, that in cli- 
 mates, where rain seldom falls, it is unnecessary to 
 guard so carefully against the inconveniences which 
 attend exposure to the atmosphere, as in those 
 more subject to wet. The primitive habitations, 
 therefore, it is probable, were constructed with flat 
 roofs, which were nothing more than poles laid from 
 one tree to another, and covered with such materials 
 as nature most readily presented, as brushwood, 
 turf, leaves, or grass ; these affording a sufficient 
 protection in those delightful climates, where 
 Architecture first had its origin. As population 
 increased, and agriculture improved, it became 
 necessary for the inhabitants of woods to seek situa- 
 tions in the open country, more favourable to 
 their occupations ; lienee other means for construct- 
 i ing habitations became necessary, and men find- 
 I ing the advantages of living in society, began to 
 erect habitations of stone. These improvements 
 being but gradual refinements on their rude huts, 
 carried with them a portion of the character, 
 which necessity, or rather convenience, first sug- 
 gested. We may, therefore, conclude that the 
 trunks of trees, set upright at proper distances, first 
 gave the idea of a range of columns; whilst the 
 bands or rings placed round them to prevent them 
 from splitting, and a flat stone at the top and bot- 
 tom to carry off the rain, and to give them a more 
 solid bearing, may sufficiently account for the origin 
 of the capital and base. The materials which con- 
 stituted the covering, and which it is probable pro- 
 jected, and were laid on of a considerable thickness, 
 B bear 
 
g 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 bear some resemblance to the entablature. The origin 
 of the pediment is more obvious, having nearly 
 the same offices assigned to it as gave it birth, name- 
 ly, the angular or rising - roof. 
 
 These observations on the origin of the column 
 and entablature, are made with a view that all those 
 who study architecture, may know the uses for 
 which the different parts were originally intend- 
 ed. Though many of these have ceased to be neces- 
 sary from the various improvements in the art, and 
 others are so ornamented as to conceal their original 
 design — it must never be lost sight of, that each 
 member had originally its uses, which will prevent 
 errors by the indiscriminate misapplication of them. 
 
 Most persons who have written on architecture, 
 agree that the Greeks had their first ideas respect- 
 ing it from the Egyptians. The latter, long before 
 it was practised with anything like order in Greece, 
 had made considerable progress towards its perfec- 
 tion; but, though their works were grand, they 
 were deficient in delicacy and taste. It was reserved 
 for the Greeks to impart to this art elegance and 
 symmetry, and to unite with these comfort and c >n- 
 vemence. What we have said respecting the origin 
 of Grecian architecture, may account for the pecu- 
 liar character of the Arabian, Chinese, and what 
 is commonly called Gothic. The last is the com- 
 mon appellation by which the architecture of the 
 middle ages, is known. In the Arabian mosque, we 
 cannot but see the strong resemblance it bears to a 
 number of small bell tents, encircling a larger one. 
 The caravansary is a court surrounded by small tents, 
 each having its own dome, to which the Greek church 
 of St. Sophia, at Constantinople bears a striking simi- 
 litude. The Chinese architecture appears to be de- 
 rived from the construction of wooden buildings; 
 and Sir George Staunton informs us, that the roofs 
 are of the same^shape as the cover of a square tent. 
 Thus we may trace the different stiles of architecture 
 to the formation of primitive huts; which were con- 
 structed so as best to afford the purposes of shelter 
 or shade, as the climate in which they were erected 
 demanded ; and ofthe most abundant and best calcu- 
 lated materials to answer these ends. We must 
 therefore look to these sources, if we wish to obtain 
 a just idea of the origin of stiles, differing so widely 
 from each other. 
 
 The architects who built most of the cathedrals in 
 Europe, departed from the stile of Greece and 
 Rome, and introduced another, in which arcades 
 made the principal feature. Not finding in every 
 place quarries, from which blocks could be raised of 
 sufficient size for forming the far projecting cornices 
 ofthe Greek orders, they relinquished these propor- 
 tions, and adopted a style of ornament which did not 
 require such projections. By substituting arches for 
 the horizontal architrave or lintel, they were able to 
 erect buildings of a vast extent, and with spacious 
 openings, using only small pieces of stone. The 
 form adopted for a Christian temple occasioned many 
 
 intersections of vaultings, and multiplied the arches 
 exceedingly. Constant practice afforded opportu- 
 nities of giving all possible variety to these intersec- 
 tions, and taught the art of ballancing arch against 
 arch in every situation. In process of time arches 
 became principal ornaments, and a wall or a ceiling 
 was not thought properly decorated, until it was 
 filled with mock arches, crossing and cutting each 
 other in every direction. 
 
 We call the middle ages rude and barbarous, and 
 give to their style of Architecture the appellation of 
 Gothic; but there was surely much knowledge in 
 architects, who could execute such magnificent and 
 difficult works - »s they have left us. More appro- 
 priate appellations for these species of Architecture, 
 would be Sa.von and Norman , so far as relates to 
 buildings of this kind in Britain ; the Saxon being dis- 
 tinguished by the circular, and the Norman by the 
 pointed arch; for, under the guidance of these re- 
 spective nations, each kind displayed its grandeur 
 and peculiarites in the greatest perfection. The ar- 
 chitects of whom we now speak, do not appear to 
 have studied the theory of equilibri ited arches. 
 For a long period, they adopted an arch which was 
 very strong, and permitted considerable irregularities 
 of pressure, namely, the pointed arch. The very deep 
 mouldings with which this arch was ornamented, 
 made the arch-stones very long in proportion to the 
 span ofthe arch. They had, however, studied with 
 great care the mutual thrust of arches on each other ; 
 and they contrived that every invention for this pur- 
 pose should become an ornament, as well as a neces- 
 sary part of the building. Thus we frequently see 
 small buildings having buttresses on the sides. These 
 buttresses are necessary in a large vaulted building, for 
 withstanding the outward pressure of the vaulting; 
 but they are useless when there is a flat ceiling. 
 Pinnacles on the heads of buttresses are - now con- 
 sidered as ornaments; but, originally, they were 
 put there to increase the weight of the buttresses. 
 Even the great tower in the centre of a cathedral, 
 which now constitutes its chief ornament, is a load 
 almost indispensably necessary, for enabling the 
 four principal columns to withstand the combined 
 thrusts of the aisles, the naves, and the transepts. 
 In short, the more closely we examine the ornaments 
 of this style of Architecture, the more shall we per- 
 ceive that they are essential parts ; and the more we 
 consider the whole style, the more clearly shall we 
 see, that it is all deduced from the relish for arcades 
 indulged to extremes, and pushed to the utmost limit 
 of possibility in the execution. This pure Gothic 
 was followed by a middle stile, in which the Grecian 
 and Gothic were blended together. Although the 
 Grecian did not become prevalent in England, until 
 the time of Inigo Jones, yet there existed some speci- 
 mens of it long prior to his day. Perhaps the 
 earliest was Somerset-house, in the Strand, built in 
 1549. Towards the end of the 15th and beginning 
 ofthe 16th centuries, learning- and the chaste architec- 
 
 - ture 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 tnre of the Greeks and Romans began to revive. It 
 first dawned in Italy; and its revival may be attributed 
 to the remains of those magnificent structures which 
 were to be found in that country. From thence an 
 improved method of building was gradually intro- 
 duced into all parts of Europe : and although the 
 Italians for a long time retained the superiority over 
 the other European nations as architects, vet as men 
 of genius from all quarters constantly visited Italy, 
 for the purpose of improvement in this, as well as in 
 the other arts, they were in the course of time equal- 
 led, if not surpassed, by the architects of other na- 
 tions, and even by those of our own country. 
 
 The orders as now executed bv architects, ore five, 
 viz. the Tuscan , the Doric , the Ionic , the Corinthian, 
 and the Composite, which are distinguished from 
 each other by the column, with its base and capital, 
 and by the entablature. The Tuscan and Composite 
 orders are rejected by many, because they differ but 
 little from the other three, either in their ornaments, 
 or in the offices assigned to them. The Tuscan re- 
 sembling the Doric, deprived of some of its mould- 
 ings; and the Composite differing from the Corin- 
 thian only, by the introduction of the Ionic volute into 
 its capital. The Tuscan order is characterized by its 
 plain and robust appearance; and is, therefore, used 
 only in works where strength and plainess are want- 
 ed; it has been introduced with great effect and taste 
 in that durable monument of ancient grandeur, the 
 Column of Trajan, at Rome. Indeed, general 
 consent has established its proportions, for such j 
 purposes, to be beyond all the other orders. The j 
 Doric possesses nearly the same character for 
 strength as the Tuscan, but it is enlivened by its j 
 peculiar ornaments, the triglyph, mutules, and guttas ; 
 or drops, under the triglyph ; these decorations j 
 characterize the Doric order, and in part are insepa- i 
 rable from it. Its proportions recommend it where | 
 united strength and grandeur are required. The j 
 Ionic partakes of more delicacy than either of the 
 former, and is on that account as well as on account 
 of its Origin, called feminine, and not improperly I 
 supposed to have a matronly appearance. It is com- j 
 posed of a medium between the masculine strength 
 of the Tuscan and Doric, and the slenderness of the 
 Corinthian. The boldness of the capital, with the 
 beauty of the shaft, makes it eligible for porticos, 
 frontispieces, entrances to houses, &c. Dentiles 
 were at first added to the cornice of this order. The 
 Corinthian possesses more delicacy and ornament 
 than either of the other orders; the beauty and 
 richness of the capital, and the delicacy of the shaft, 
 render it the most suitable in those edifices where 
 magnificence and elegance are required. On this 
 account it is frequently used for the internal decora- 
 tion of large state rooms, in which it has a chaste 
 appearance, though at the same time beautiful and 
 superb. The Composite order is the same as the 
 Corinthian in its proportions: and these two orders are 
 nearly alike in their ornaments. The addition of the 
 
 modern Ionic volute to the capital, gives it alwlder 
 projection. It is applicable in the same manner, and 
 in the same cases as the Corinthian. 
 
 General principles of Architecture. When about 
 to build, choice of situation is the first thing to be 
 considered. For dwelling houses, a spot should, if 
 possible, be chosen sufficiently elevated to be free 
 from damps and noxious vapours, and at the same 
 time sheltered from the severity of winter. The 
 neighbourhood of fens, and stagnate waters, should 
 always be avoided. It should be a spot where water 
 can be conveniently procured ; where drains may be 
 made with facility and with a proper fall ; and where 
 the principal apartments may have the advantage ot 
 southern and western aspects. Tiie nature of the 
 soil should likewise be examined, either by means of 
 borers or by sinking holes, in order to ascertain if a 
 firm foundation can be. had. Stony or gravelly soils 
 generally afford the best foundation ; yet these are 
 sometimes deceitful, for underneath, layers of gravel, 
 large cavities, or earth of a loose and hollow sub- 
 stance, have frequently been found. In order to de- 
 tect such deceptions, a celebrated Italian architect 
 has recommended that great weights should be for- 
 cibly thrown on the ground, so that by attentively 
 listening to the sound, some idea may be formed ot 
 its firmness or hollowness. A foundation of sand is 
 proverbially bad; marshy, rotten, or boggv ground is 
 equally insecure, and can only be built upon by 
 piling, planking, laying large ledges, &c. In build- 
 ing near the water, great care should be taken to 
 ascertain the depth of the soil to the very bottom ; 
 and this caution should likewise be well attend- 
 ed to, when the ground has been wrought or 
 dug before, or when it has been lately formed by 
 accumulated earth or rubbish. 
 
 The situation being chosen, the attention of the 
 architect should next be directed to the form of the 
 proposed edifice, together with the arrangement ot 
 the different apartments it is intended to contain. A 
 plan should be made w ith an elevation of each front, 
 and also two or more sections. If the building be a 
 considerable one, it would be advisable to have a 
 perfect model formed with all its minute parts; and 
 that the judgment may not be prejudiced, the model 
 should be made plain, without colours or other 
 beautifying. As the number and distribution of the 
 rooms must depend on the establishment, and niode 
 of living of the employer, the following observations 
 can only be considered as general hints. Utility and 
 external appearance should, undoubtedly, as far as 
 possible, be combined; but in dwelling houses, very 
 little of the former should be sacrificed to the latter. 
 It is generally desirable to di\ide the principal front 
 into three parts; a centre, and two wings. The centre 
 should not appear of too great a magnitude for the 
 wings, nor the wings too magnificent for the centre. 
 The parts should bear a pleasing proportion to each 
 other, both w hen separately considered, and unitedly. 
 A pyramidicul form generally produces, a happy 
 
 effect ; 
 
4 ARCHITECTURE* 
 
 effect; but tee choice of the external appearance 
 must depend much on the situation, adjacent scenery 
 Sec. Sec. Boldness and simplicity should be distin- 
 guished from heaviness or poverty; lightness and 
 elegance from frippery and whimsicality. Buildings 
 intended solely tor utility, ought in every part to cor- 
 respond precisely with that intention. The least 
 deviation from use, though contributing to ornament, 
 w ill !>e disagreeable; tor every work of use being 
 considered as a mean to an end, its perfection as a 
 mean is the most important consideration, and every 
 thing in opposition to that, is to be neglected 
 as improper. On the other hand, in buildings in- 
 tended solely for ornament, as columns, obelisks, 
 triumphal arches, &c. beauty alone ought to be re- 
 garded. The principal difficulty in architecture lies 
 in combining use and ornament. In order to accom- 
 plish these ends, different and even opposite means 
 must be employed, and this is the reason why 
 they are so seldom seen united in a due degree. 
 Hence, in all buildings, the only practicable method 
 is to prefer utility or ornament, according to its 
 character; in palaces, and such buildings as admit 
 of a variety of useful contrivances, regularity ought 
 to be preferred; but in dwelling houses that are too 
 small for variety of contrivance, utility ought to 
 prevail; regularity being neglected as far as it 
 stands opposed to convenience. 
 
 The proportions of doors are determined by the 
 uses for which they are designed. The door of a 
 dwelling house, which ought to correspond to the 
 human size, is confined to seven or eight feet in 
 height, and three or four in breadth. Doors of en- 
 trance vary in their dimensions according to the 
 bright of the story, or according to the magnitude of 
 the building, in which they are placed. j,n private 
 houses, four feet may be the greatest width, vujd in 
 general three feet will be sufficient, except under 
 some peculiar circumstances. A good proportion for 
 doors is that in which their dimensions are in the ! 
 ratio of three to sevep, in small doors, and one to 
 two in large doors. Double doors, with sufficient 
 room between to allow of the one being shut before 
 the other is opened, will contribute much to keep 
 up an equal temperature through the house, especial- 
 ly where the lobby is warmed by a stove, in the 
 entrance doors of public edifices, where there is a 
 frequent ingress and egress ofa multitude of people, 
 their width may be from six to twelve feet. Inside 
 doors should in some measure, be regulated by the 
 height of the stories: this, however, hast* its limit, as 
 there is a certain dimension which ought not to be 
 exceeded, for th p difficulty of shutting the door will 
 be increased by its weight* therefore doors for pri- 
 vate edifices, which are intended to be shut with one 
 close, should never exceed three feet six inches in 
 breadth. In palaces, and in the houses of noblemen, 
 where much company resort, all the doors are. fre- 
 quently thrown open; these maybe much larger 
 than those of inferior edifices; and their width may 
 
 l>e from four to six feet. In modern houses, it is 
 common to have large folding doors for throwing tw i> 
 rooms into one; in such cases, the proportion of the 
 aperture will often be of a less height than that of 
 twice the breadth, as the doors in the same story are 
 generally one height throughout. The lintels of 
 doors should range with those of the windows, and 
 their breadth should never be less than that of the 
 windows. In the fourth book of Vitruvius, rules 
 are laid down for Doric, Ionic, and Attic doors, all 
 of which have their apertures narrow er at the top 
 than at the bottom, in conformity to those w hich are 
 seen in the ruins of ancient Greek and Roman edi- 
 fices; as in the temple of Minerva Polias, at Athens, 
 and the temple of V esta at Tivoli. Doors of this 
 form have the property of shutting themselves, which 
 reason, probably, occasioned their invention : they 
 have been introduced by a few modern archi- 
 tects, particularly Mr. Soane, in the Bank of Eng- 
 land. As to the situation of the principal entrance, 
 it is evident that the door should be in the middle, 
 as it will not only contribute better to symmetry, but 
 will communicate more readily with all the other 
 parts of the building. Where the internal arrange- 
 ment of the rooms is injured by the door being in 
 the center of the front, a blank door or w indow, 
 having' the appearance of a door, should be substi- 
 tuted, and the entrance made w here it is more con- 
 venient The apertures of exterior doors in blank ar- 
 cades, are generally placed at the same height as the 
 springing of the arch; or if they have dressings, the 
 top of the dressing, whether it l>e the architrave or 
 cornice, is generally placed on the same level with 
 the impost. The most common method of adorning 
 the aperture of a door is with an architrave sur- 
 rounding it; or with a cornice surmounting the 
 architrave : or with a complete entablature. Some- 
 times consoles are introduced, dunking the architrave 
 jambs, and sustaining the ends of the cornice. Some- 
 times the architrave jambs are flanked with pilas- 
 ![ ters of the orders, or of some analogical form, in 
 I which case, the projections of their bases and capitals 
 ! are always less than that of the surrounding archi- 
 trave: and the architrave over the capitals of the 
 pilasters is the same with that of the head of the door. 
 Sometimes the door is adorned w ith one of the live 
 orders. The entrance doors of grand houses are fre- 
 quently adorned with porticos, after the manner of 
 Grecian temples. 
 
 With regard to windows, the first considerations 
 j are their number and their size. They must be so ar- 
 ! ranged, gs to admit neither more nor less light than 
 I mav be requisite. In the determination of this sub- 
 j ject, regard must be had to the climate, the aspect, 
 the extent, the elevation of the building, and its des- 
 tination, gpel also to the thickness of the walls in 
 which the windows are to be placed; on this circum- 
 stance will partly depend the greater or less quan- 
 tity of light that will be admitted. Where the 
 vyalls are thick, as they commonly are in stone 
 
 buildings 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 5 
 
 buildings, the windows should have a considerable 
 splay on the inside, which will admit almost as 
 much light, as it'the windows were externally of the 
 same size with the increased internal dimensions. 
 
 Sky lights are sometimes used to light stair-cases, 
 but unless they are made with great care, they are 
 very subject to leak, in a country like ours whefe so 
 much rain and snow tails; when they are introduced 
 for stairs, they ought to be double, with a large 
 space between: otherwise they contribute greatly 
 to render houses colder, because they form uneasy 
 communications between the int >rnal warm, and the 
 external cold air. In hot countries, where the sun 
 is seldom clouded, and where its rays dart more in- 
 tensely upon the earth, the light is stronger than in 
 tho<e which are temperate or cold; therefore, a 
 smaller quantity of it will suffice, and more than a 
 sufficiency should not be admitted, as the conse- 
 quence would be the admission of heat. The 
 same happens in respect to a southern aspect, which 
 receives more heat, and consequently more light, 
 than a northern, or even an eastern or western one. 
 A large lofty space requires a greater quantity of 
 light then one circumscribed in its dimensions; and 
 art demands, that the quantity introduced should be 
 so regulated, that it may excite gay, cheerful, or 
 solemn sensations, in the mind of a spectator, ac- 
 cording to the nature and purposes for which the 
 structure is intended.* 
 
 Wherever sun-shine predominates, light must 
 be admitted and distributed w ith caution, tor where 
 there is an excess of light, the heat becomes dread- 
 fully incommodious to the inhabitant, and in- 
 jurious to the furniture. In Italy, and some other 
 hot countries, although the windows in general are 
 less than ours, their apartments cannot be made 
 habitable, but by keeping the window' shutters al- 
 most closed, while the sun appears above the 
 horizon. Rut in regions w here clouds prev ail eight 
 months in the year, it will always be right to admit 
 a sufficiency of light, to counteract the gloom of wet 
 and cloudy seasons, and have recourse to blinds or 
 shutters whenever the appearance of the sun renders 
 it too abundant. 
 
 The proportions for the apertures of windows 
 depend upon their situation. Their width in all 
 the stories must be the same: but the different 
 heights of the apartments, make it necessary to vary 
 the height of the windows likewise. In the prin- 
 cipal floor it may be from tw o and one eighth of the 
 w idth, to two and one third, accordingly as the rooms 
 have more or less elevation. In the ground story, 
 where the apartments are lower, the apertures of 
 the w indows seldom exceed a double square, and 
 
 * W'e rannot but regret (lit* influence the w indow tax has on the 
 appearance of most of our modern houses ; w aim are not only les 
 beautiful, but for want of a safari-nt number of these necessar- 
 apertures, are rendered Jess ruin forcible and heat til v to ue persons 
 iu habiting them. ' ‘ 
 
 when they are in a rustic basement, they are fre- 
 quently made much lower. The height of the win- 
 dows of the second floor may be from one and a haif 
 of their width, to one and four-fifths; and attics and 
 mezzanines maybe either a perfect square, or some- 
 what lower. 
 
 The window's of the principal floor are generally 
 most enriched. The simplest method of adorning 
 them, is, with an architrave surrounding the apt •: 
 ture, and crowned with a frieze and cornice. The 
 windows of the ground floor are sometimes left en- 
 tirely plain, without any ornament, and at others 
 they are surrounded with rustics, or a regular 
 architrave, with a trieze and cornice. Those of ti e 
 second floor have generally an architrave carried 
 round the aperture ; and the same method is adopt- 
 ed in adbrning the attic and mezzanine windows; 
 but the two last have seldom either frieze or cor- 
 nice, whereas the second floor windows are often 
 crowned with both. The breasts of all the windows 
 on the same floor should be on the same level, and 
 raised above the floor from two feet nine inches, to 
 three feet; six inches, at the most. When the 
 walls are thick, the breasts should be reduced under 
 the apertures, for the conveniency of looking out. 
 When the building is surrounded with gardens, 
 law ns, or other beautiful objects, 'the French method 
 of continuing the windows quite down to the floor, 
 renders the room exceedingly pleasant; but when 
 this mode is adopted in close streets, where it con- 
 tributes to nothing but rendering houses colder, it 
 is truly ridiculous. The intervals between the 
 apertures of windows, depend in a great measure 
 on their enrichments. The breadth of the apertures 
 is the least distance that can be between them ; and 
 twice that breadth should be the largest in dwell- 
 ing-houses: otherwise the rooms will not be suffi- 
 ciently lighted. The windows in all the stories of 
 the same aspect must be placed exactly above one 
 another. The mathematical rule of apportioning 
 light to rooms, is as follow s; — multiply the length 
 of the room by the breadth, and multiply the height 
 bv the product of the length and breadth ; and out 
 of that product extract the square-root, which is the 
 light required. For example, suppose a room to 
 be forty feet by thirty, and the height sixteen feet, 
 the square-root willbe 198 feet four inches; wife i 
 may be divided into four windows, and each window 
 will contain ‘Jb feet, superficial. The height of each 
 of these windows will be 9 feet, and the width 
 4 feet. Suppose a room to be Sti feet bv h?l, and 
 15 leet m height, ti e square-root will be ! !,‘j feel ; 
 which divided into four parts, or windows, will <>i\o 
 ~8 feet three inches to each window. The height 
 of these windows will be S feet six inches, and 
 the Width 3 feet tour inches; and so for any 
 others by the same rule of proportion. Steps of 
 stairs should likewise be accommodated to the hu- 
 man figure, without regarding any other proportion; 
 
 C they 
 
6 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 they are accordingly the same both in large and 
 small 'buildings. In sumptdous buildings, the steps 
 should not be less than four, nor more than six 
 inches high; not more than eighteen, nor less than 
 twelve inches broad; nor less than six feet, nor 
 nor more than lifteen feet long. In ordinary houses 
 they may be somewhat higher and narrower, and 
 tliey must be much shorter in general, but eight or 
 even seven inches is too high for an easy ascent, 
 and they ought never to be less then nine or ten 
 inches broad, nor shorter then three teet. The 
 steps should be laid somewhat sloping, or a little 
 higher behind, which is formed to lessen the labour 
 of ascending. 
 
 (See mure of this in the articles Carpentry and 
 Joinery.) 
 
 We come now to consider the form of the build- 
 ing. A cube or square, is a more agreeable figure 
 titan an oblong, or parallel opipedon. This con- 
 stantly holds good in small figures : but a large 
 building inform of a cube, is lumpish and heavy; 
 therefore an oblong form is always preferred for 
 dwelling houses. Care should, however, be taken 
 to avoid making the plan longer titan necessary, as 
 there will be great waste in the passages, and con- 
 siderable difficulty in lighting them. 
 
 With regard to the internal divisions, it is found 
 more convenient that the rooms should be rectangu- 
 lar, to avoid useless spaces. An hexagonal, or six 
 sided figure leaves no void spaces ; but it determines 
 the rooms to be all of one size, which is both in- 
 convenient and disagreeable for want of variety. 
 Though a cube be the most agreeable figure, and 
 may answer for a room of moderate size : yet, in a 
 very large room, utility requires a different form, j 
 The best form for a long room, is that of a parel- 
 
 * All prec.nitions to prevent t lie communication of sound to th e 
 bed rooms should be taken. To this end it is advisable to till tb <> 
 >l>;ice between the joists of the floor, above the bed room, with saw" 
 dost, which must be sustained by short pieres of board, nailed 
 against the joists, above the ceiling of the lower apartment. In the 
 distribution of rooms for servants we ran only consult the facilities, 
 of our general plan, and, if possible,- to give every bed room a fire 
 place. There are two things to be attended to in the situation of 
 the kitchen, first to place it as near the dining apartment as possible: 
 secondly to contrive it so that the eiHuvia from the cooking, shall not 
 enter the dining-room through the pa-sage, which should always be 
 a covered one. In town houses it is generally most convenient to 
 place the kitchen beneath the parlour floor ; to prevent the lighter, 
 warmed air charged with the smell from cooking, rising into the 
 
 dining ns; a seperate funnel like the kitchen chimney, carried 
 
 op in the same stark, will always afford a remedy. A communica- 
 tion w ith thi- flue must be made hy means of an opening in the ceil- 
 ing of the kitchen, this opening may he closed bv a door, w hen noth- 
 ing^ going on in the kitchen to occasion an unpleasant smell. In every 
 modern house of respectable size water closets are introduced, which 
 of course are situated so as to he convenient to the whole of the house, 
 and at tile same time as iniieh concealed as circumstances will admit 
 of; water closets are now so much improved, that they mav he placed 
 in any part of the house, without the least danger of any unpleasant 
 smell ; tltis, is in a great measure etfected b y means o' pipes, bent 
 down, so as to form ail elbow, in the lower part of which, the last 
 portion of water which is thrown down lodge-, and completely pre- 
 vents anyefliuvia from rising. This contrivance is equally applica- 
 ble to drains, w Inch w ill be treated of in their proper places. Care 
 should be l iken to prevent fie water in tiie pipes from freezing, bv 
 keeping them from the influence of the external air, as it would 
 most infallibly buiat them. 
 
 leiogram, and this figure is also best calculated for 
 the admission of light ; because, to avoid cross 
 lights, all the windows ought to be in one wall ; and 
 if the opposite wall be at such a distance as not to 
 be fully lighted, the room must be obscure. Dining 
 rooms should be so situated, as to give an easy 
 access to servants who wait at table ; and the fire- 
 place so placed as to warm the room uniformly. 
 In the building of chambers, regard ought to be 
 had, as well to the place of the bed, which is gener- 
 ally six or seven feet square, and the passage, as 
 to the situation of the chimney, which for this con- 
 sideration ought not to be placed just in the middle, 
 but distant from it about two feet, or two feet six ; 
 this, however, will be unnecessary in very large 
 bed-chambers. The height of a room, exceeding 
 nine or ten feet, has little relation to utility; there- 
 fore proportion is the only rule for determining the 
 height, when above that number of feet. Artists, 
 who deal in the beautiful, love fo entertain the eye; 
 palaces and sumptuous buildings, in which grandeur 
 and beauty may be fully displayed, give them an 
 opportunity of shewing their taste. Hut such a 
 propensity is peculiarly unhappy with regard to 
 private dwelling-houses; because in these, utility 
 cannot be sacrificed to magnificence, without hurt- 
 ing their intrinsic worth. There is no opportunity 
 for great variety of form in a small house; and in 
 edifices of this kind, internal convenience has not, 
 hitherto, been happily aclj listed to external regu- 
 larity. Perhaps an accurate coincidence in this 
 respect is beyond the reach of art. Architects, how- 
 ever, constantly split upon this rock, for they never 
 can be persuaded to give over attempting to recon- 
 cile these two incompatible objects; how otherwise 
 should it happen, that of the endless variety of pri- 
 vate dwelling-houses, there should not be one found 
 that is generally agreed upon as a good model ? 
 The unwearied propensity to make a house regular 
 as well as convenient, obliges the architect, in some 
 instances, to sacrifice convenience to regularity, and 
 in others, regularity to convenience; and accord- 
 ingly the house which turns out neither .regular nor 
 convenient, never fails to displease. — Nothing can 
 be more evident, than that the plan of a dwelling- 
 house ought to be suited to the climate ; yet no 
 error is more common than to copy in Britain the 
 form of Italian houses, not forgetting even those 
 parts that are purposely contrived for collecting 
 air, and for excluding the sun ; witness our collon- 
 nades and logies, designed by the Italians to gather 
 cool air, and exclude the beams of the sun ; conve- 
 niences which the climate of this country does not 
 require. 
 
 We shall next view architecture as one of the 
 fine arts : which will lead us to the examination of 
 such buildings, and parts of buildings, as are cal- 
 culated solely to please the eye. Variety prevails 
 in the works of nature ; but art requires to be guid- 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 7 
 
 ecj.byru.le and compass. Hence it is, that in such 
 works of art as imitate nature, as in Laying out 
 pleasure grounds, planting, &c. the great aim shonld 
 be to hide every appearance of art, which is done 
 by avoiding regularity, and indulging variety. JBut 
 in works of art that are original, and not imitative, 
 such as architecture, strict regularity and uniformity 
 ought to be studied, as far as consistent with utility. 
 
 Proportion is not less agreeable than regularity 
 and uniformity; and, therefore, in buildings inten- 
 ded to please the eye, they are all equally essential. 
 It is taken for granted by many writers, that in all 
 the parts of building there are certain strict propor- 
 tions which please the eye, in the same manner as 
 in sound, there are certain strict proportions which 
 please the ear; and that in both the slightest devia- 
 tion is equally disagreeable. But it ought to be 
 considered, that there is no resemblance or relation 
 between the objects of different senses. What 
 pleases the ear in harmmony, is not the proportion 
 of the strings of the instrument, but of the sounds 
 which these strings produce. In architecture, on 
 the contrary, it is the proportion of different quanti- 
 ties that pleases the eye, w ithout the least relation to 
 sound. Perrault in his comparison of the ancients 
 and moderns, goes to the opposite extremes, main- 
 taining that the different proportions assigned to 
 each order of columns are arbitrary, and that the 
 beauty of these proportions is entirely the effect of 
 custom. But he should have considered, that if these 
 proportions had not originally been agreeable, they 
 could never have been established bv custom. 
 
 For illustrating this point, we shall add a few ex- 
 amples of the agreeableness of different proportions. 
 In a sumptuous edifice, the capital rooms ought to 
 be large, otherwise they will not be proportioned to 
 the size of the building; for the same reason a very 
 large room is improper in a small house. But 
 in things thus related, the mind requires not a pre- 
 cise or single proportion rejecting all others; on 
 the contrary, many different proportions are equally 
 agreeable. It is only when a proportion becomes 
 loose and distant, that the agreeableness abates, and 
 at last vanishes. Accordingly, in buildings, rooms 
 of different proportions are found to be equally 
 agreeable, even v\ here the proportion is not influ- 
 enced by utility. With regard to the proportion 
 the height of a room should bear to the length and 
 breadth, it must be extremely arbitrary, considering 
 the uncertainty of the eve as to the height of a 
 room, when it exceeds l(j or 17 feet. In columns, 
 again, every architect must confess, that the propor- 
 tion of height and thickness varies betwixt eight 
 diameters and ten, and that every proportion be- 
 tween these two extremes is agreeable. Besides 
 there must certainly be a further variation of pro- 
 portion, depending upon the size of the column. 
 A row of columns ten feet high, and a row twice 
 that height, require different proportions; the 
 
 inter-rolumniations must also differ in proportion 
 according to the height of the row. 
 
 Proportion of parts is not only itself a beauty, but 
 is inseparably connected with a beauty of the high- 
 est relish, that of concord and harmony ; which will 
 be plain from what fellows. A room, the parts of 
 which are all finely adjusted to each other, strikes 
 us not only with the beauty of proportion, but tv itli 
 a pleasure far superior; the length, the breadth, 
 the height, raise eacli of them a separate emotion. 
 These emotions af-e similar; and though faint when 
 separately felt, they produce in conjunction, the 
 emotion of concord or harmony, which never fads to 
 please. On the other hand, where the length of a room 
 far exceeds the breadth, the mind, comparing to- 
 gether parts so intimately connected, immediately 
 perceives a disagreement or disproportion which 
 offends. Hence a long gallery, however convenient 
 for exercise, is not an agreeable figure for a room. 
 In buildings destined chiefly or solely to please the 
 eye, regularity and proportion are essentially neces- 
 sary, because they are the means of producing 
 beauty. But a skillful artist will not confine bis 
 view to regularity and proportion; lie will also 
 study congruity, which is perceived when tiie form 
 and ornaments of a structure, are suited to the pur- 
 pose for which it is appointed. Hence every build- 
 ing ought to have an expression suited to its desti- 
 | nation. A palace, ought to be sumptuous and 
 grand ; a private dwelling, neat and modest ; a 
 play-house, gay and splendid; and a monument, 
 gloomy and melancholy. Columns, besides their 
 chief destination of being supports, contribute to 
 that p< c diar expression which the destination of a 
 building requires. Columns of different propor- 
 tions serve to express loftiness, lightness, &c. as 
 well as strength. Situation may also contribute to 
 expression: conveniency regulates the situation of 
 a private dwelling-house; and the situation of a 
 palace ought to be lolly. The external structure of 
 a house, leads naturally to its internal structure. A 
 large and spacious room, which is the first that com- 
 monly receives us, is a bad contrivance in several 
 respects. A more agreeable arrangement is a hand- 
 some portico, proportioned to the size and fashion 
 of the front, leading into a waiting-room of a larger 
 size, and this to the great room, all by a progression 
 from small to great. 
 
 The several offices, which have a place in the plans 
 of houses, should be so arranged, as to appear to 
 compose an inferior part of the whole building ; not 
 totally detached, yet in such order as to keep the 
 more offensive ones as remote as possible from the 
 principal parts of the house. 
 
 It has been doubted whether a building can admit of 
 any ornaments beyond such as are useful, or at least 
 that have the appearance of being so. But, regarding 
 architecture no less as a fine, than as a useful art, 
 both kinds may be introduced ; though it requires 
 
 great 
 
8 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 great judgment as to the quantity and the 
 arrangement, A private house, and other edifices, 
 where use is the chief aim, admit not indeed of any 
 ornaments but such as have the appearance of utili- 
 ty. But temples, 'triumphal arches, and such build- 
 ings as are chiefly intended for show, may be highly 
 ornamented without any regard to their seeming 
 usefulness. Hence it is that a threefold division of 
 ornaments has been suggested. These are, first, 
 ornaments that are beautiful without relation to 
 use: such as statues, vases, &c. Secondly, objects 
 in themselves not beautiful, but possessing the beau- 
 ty of utility, by imposing on the spectator, and 
 appearing to be useful; such as blind windows. 
 Thirdly, where things are beautiful in themselves, 
 and at the same time assume the appearance of use ; 
 such as pilasters. With regard to the first, we 
 naturally require that a statue shall be so placed as* 
 that it may be seen in every direction, and at vari- 
 ous distances, by having an opportunitv of receding 
 or advancing as we please; statues placed in the 
 niches in fronts of houses, or on the tops of their 
 walls and roofs, ought not to be admitted. Their 
 proper places are in large halls, and in passages that 
 lead to a grand stair-case, &c. To adorn the top of 
 a w r all with a row of vases, is an unhappy conceit ; by 
 placing a tiling, whose natural destination is utility, 
 where it cannot have even the least appearance of it. 
 Firmness and solidity being the proper expressions 
 of a pedestal, whether of a column, or of a statue, 
 it ought to be sparingly ornamented. The ancients 
 never ventured on any bolder ornament than the 
 basso relievo. 
 
 With respect to ornaments of the second kind, it 
 is a great error to contrive them so as to appear 
 useless. A blind window, therefore, when necessa- 
 ry for regularity, ought to be so disguised as to ap- 
 pear a leal window; when it appears without dis- 
 guise, it is disgustful, as a vain attempt to supply 
 the want of invention ; it shews the irregularity in 
 a stronger light, by signifying that a window ought 
 to be there in point of regularity, but that the archi- 
 tect had not skill sufficient to connect external re- 
 gularity, with internal convenience. As to the 
 third; it is very injudicious to sink pilasters so far 
 into the wall, as to remove totally, or mostly, the 
 appearance of use. They should always project 
 so much from the Avail, as to have tiie appearance 
 of supporting the entablature over them. 
 
 Of all ornaments the pillar gives the greatest 
 elegance to extensive buildings. The destination 
 of a pillar is to support, really, or in appearance, 
 another part, termed the entablature. With regard 
 to the form of a pillar, it must be observed, that a 
 circle is a more agreeable figure than a square; a 
 globe than a cube ; and a cylinder then a parallel- 
 opipedon. This last, in the language of architec- 
 ture, is saying, that a column is a more agreeable 
 figure than a pilaster; and for that reason it ought 
 to be preferred, Avhen all other circumstances are 
 
 equal. Another reason concurs, that a column 
 annexed to a Avail, Avhich is a plain surface, makes 
 a greater variety than a pilaster. Besides, pilasters, 
 at a distance are apt to be mistaken for pillars ; anil 
 the spectator is disappointed, AAdien, on a nearer 
 approach, he discovers them to be only pilasters. — 
 Ornaments intended to decorate the orders, should 
 be judiciously adapted to the proper character </{ 
 each. Plain and rusticated embellishments would 
 be extremely discordant Avith the elegance of the 
 Corinthian column: and sAveet and delicate enrich- 
 ments very ill suit the strength and simplicity of the 
 Doric. Til kinds of fanciful and trifling devices, 
 all fashionable finery, should be for eAer excluded 
 from the smallest place in our Avorks. Sir Christo-, 
 pher Wren, very justly censures this species of fri- 
 volity, Avhen speaking of tire palace of Versailles. 
 Much to tire honour of Sir William Chambers, 
 architect of that great national ornament Somerset- 
 house, he has never depraved the art Avith any land 
 of capricious innovation. He has ever made the 
 ancients his models; and he has not pretended to 
 vary and invent, Avhere variation and invention are 
 not only superfluous, but mischievous. He has 
 only, Avith great taste and judgement, selected and 
 compounded Avhat he has already found perfect to 
 his hands. His buildings are consequently alAA ays 
 grand, yet simple; not distracting the eve with 
 broken lines, petty divisions, or arbitrary and 
 meretricious ornaments; but presen ing ahvays that 
 unity of design, and that magic of effect, AAhich 
 render them the best comments on his oAvn excel- 
 lent treatise on the Science of Architecture. 
 
 We shall noAv give some rules for Avorking the 
 orders of Architecture. An order consists of three 
 principal members, or parts: which are, the pedestal, 
 the column, and the entablature. Each of these 
 parts is again composed of three others; the pedestal, 
 having its base, its die or trunk, and its cornice. The 
 column has its base, its shaft, and its capital. And 
 the entablature consists of the architrave, frieze, and 
 cornice. A competent knoAA ledge of the methods of 
 drawing and Avorking the five orders, may be said to 
 be the very foundation ofthe art of building; since 
 from these, with their several proportions and orna- 
 ments, arises all that is great, elegant, or harmonious, 
 in the,noblest structure. It should, therefore, be the 
 earnest endeavour of those ay ho study architecture, 
 to obtain a thorough knowledge of each distinct 
 order, its parts, proportions, and genuine figure, as 
 being absolutely necessary to every one aa ho aspires 
 to eminence in this profession. The following rules 
 are given aa ith this vieAv, and are adapted to the pre- 
 sent taste ; and they are so clearly explained by <’ e 
 figures and measurements on the plates, that a little 
 attention will enable every person readily to compe- 
 hend the proportion, use, and situation of each mem- 
 ber; and also the several methods adopted in cal- 
 culating the parts, and setting them off for practice. 
 As architecture is more the study of forms than 
 
 precepts, 
 
ARCHITECTURE; 
 
 9 
 
 'precepts, we regret that the limits of the present 
 work, do not enable us to give many plates of 
 examples from antiquity, which would tend much 
 to confirm what has already been said. We there- 
 fore recommend to the attention of those who may 
 wish to know more oft’iis subject, the following excel- 
 lent works : — Nicholson's Principles of Architecture; 
 
 Fhiarts’ Athens, and Sir Win. Chambers’ Treatise 
 on Civil Architecture. 
 
 Of diminishing the Shaft of a C ohunn. Tn effecting 
 the diminution of the shaft cf a column, the ancients 
 adopted a variety of methods; beginning sometimes 
 from the foot of a shaft, and at others from one quar- 
 ter, or one third of its 1 eight, the low er part being 
 perfectly cylindrical. The former of these was most 
 in use among the ancients, and, being the most na- 
 tural and graceful ought to have thepreferenee, though 
 the latter lias been more universally . practised by 
 modern artists. The first architects, says M. Auzoult, 
 probably made their columns in straight lines, in im- 
 itation of trees, so that their shaft was the frustrum 
 of a cone; but, finding this form abrupt and dis- 
 agreeble, they made use ofseme curve, which, spring- 
 ing from the extremities of the superior and inferior 
 diameters of the column, swelled beyond the sides of 
 the cone, and by that means gave a more pleasi ng fi- 
 gure to the contour. Vitruvius, in the second chap- 
 ter of his third book, mentions this practice, but in so 
 obscure and cursory a manner, that his meaning has 
 not been understood : and several of the modern ar- 
 chitects intending to conform themselves to his doc- 
 trine, have made the diameters of their columns great- 
 
 
 I 
 
 er in the middle than at the foot of the shaft. Leon 
 Baptists, Alberti, and others of the Florentine and 1 
 Roman architects, have carried this to a very great 
 excess, for which they have been justly blamed, as 
 it is neither natural, reasonable, nor beautiful. M. 
 Auzouit observes, that a column supposing its shaft 
 to be the fne tram of a cone, may have an additional 
 thickness in the middle, without being swelled there, j 
 beyond the bulk of its inferior parts; and supposes 1 
 the addition mentioned by V itruvius, to signify no- 
 thing but the increase towards the middle of the co- 
 lumn, occasioned by changing the straight line, which I 
 at first was in use for a curve. This supposition is 1 
 extremely just, being founded on what is observed in ■ 
 the works of antiquity ; yvhere there is no instance of 
 •ulumns thicker in the middle than at the bottom, 
 though all have the swelling hinted at by Vitruvius, ! 
 all of them being terminated by curves, some gra- 
 nite columns excepted, which are bounded bv 
 straight' lines: a proof, perhaps, of their great anti- 
 quity. M. Blonael teaches various methods of di- 
 minishing columns, the best of which is by 
 means of that instrument, which Nicomedes invent- 
 ed to describe the first couc.oid, for this, being j 
 applied at the bottom of the shaft, performs at one 
 sweep both the swelling and ti e diminution : 
 giving such a graceful form to tee column, that it is j 
 generally allowed to be the most perfect practice j 
 
 hitherto discovered. The columns iii the Pantheon, 
 accounted the most beautiful among the antiques, 
 are made in this manner; as appears by the exact, 
 measures of on*' of them to be found in Desgodetz’s 
 Antiquities of Rome. To have ,an accurate idea of 
 the operation, it will be necessary first to describe 
 Vignola’s method ofdiminution, on which it is groun- 
 ded. Having described the height of the shaft, a id 
 its inferior and superior diameters, draw a line inde- 
 finitely from C through D nerjiendicedar to the axis 
 of the column, (See P'ate I, Figure I.) this done, 
 set olf the distance C D, w hich is the inferior semi*- 
 dianieter from A, th° extreme point of the superior 
 diameter to B, a point in the axis. Then from A 
 through B, draw the line A B E, which will cut 
 the indefinite line C D in E; and from this point of 
 intersection E, draw through the axis of the column 
 
 the interval C I), may be found anv number of 
 points, as a a a, &c. through which, if a curve lie 
 drawn, it will describe the swelling and diminution 
 of a column. 
 
 Though this method be sufficiently accurate for 
 practice, especially if a considerable number of 
 points be found, vet strictly speaking, it is defective, 
 as the curve must either be drawn by hand', or by 
 applying a flexible ruler to all the points: both of 
 which are liable to variations. Blonde!, therefore 
 to obviate this objection, after having proved the 
 curve pissing from A to C, through the points a a a 
 & c. to be of the nature of the first conchoid of the 
 ancients, employed the instrument of Nicomedes to 
 describe it, the construction of which is as follo’vs; 
 having found the length of the shaft, with Vie in- 
 terior and superior diameters of the column, and the 
 length of the line C 1) E, (in architecture, plate us 
 before , ) take three rulers either of w ood or of metal, 
 as F G, I I), an l A II of which let F G and I I), 
 be fastened together at right angles in G. Cut a 
 dove-tail groove in the middle of F G, from top to 
 bottom, and at the point E, on the ruler I D, ( whose 
 distance from the middle of the grove in F G, is the 
 same as that of the point of intersection from the 
 axis of the column,) fix a pin: then on the ruler A II 
 set olf the distance A B equal to C !), the inferior 
 semi-diameter of the column, and at the point B fix 
 a button, whose head must be exactly fitted to the 
 groove made in F G, in which it is to slide; and at 
 the other extremity of the ruh-r A If, cut a slit or 
 channel from II to K, whose length must not be less 
 than the dike re nee oflength between E B and E D, 
 and whose breadth must be sufficient to admit the 
 pin fixed at R, which must pass through the slit, that 
 the ruler n:i y -life thereon. The instrument being 
 thus comnleated, if the middle o*’the groove in the 
 ruler F G, be placed exactly over the axis of the 
 column, it is evident that the rufer A If, in moving 
 along the groove, will, with its extremity A, dis- 
 cribe tfic curve A a a C; winch curve is the same as 
 D that 
 
 anv number of ravs, as L B A; on each ot which, 
 from the axis towards the circumference, setting on 
 
ARCJITTFCTHlE. 
 
 W 
 
 that produced by Vignola’s method of diminution, 
 supposing it done with the utnnr- ! accuracy for the 
 interval A 13, a b, is always tlie same*, and the point 
 E is the origin of an infinity of lines, of which the 
 parts 13 A, A a, b a, extending from the axis to the 
 circumference, are equal to each other, and to I) C. 
 And if the rulers be of an indefinite size, and the 
 pins at E and 13 be made to move along their re- 
 spective ruler, so that the intervals A 13 and D E 
 may be augmented or diminished at pleasure, it is 
 likewise evident, that the same instrument may be 
 thus applied to columns of any size. With regard 
 to the generally received opinion, that, in propor- 
 tion as columns are elevated, the eye is deceived 
 in the contour, and, therefore, they require a differ- 
 ence in the diminution to allow for this effect, it 
 seems proved by Perrault to be on most occasions a 
 mistake. If we judge by the rigour ?.f optical 
 laws, it must be remembered, that the proper point 
 of view for a column of fifty feet high, is not the 
 same as for one of fifteen, but on the contrary, more 
 distant, in the same proportion as tjie column is 
 higher; and that consequently, the apparent rela- 
 tion between the lower and upper diameters of the 
 column will be the same, whatever be its size. 
 Eor, if we suppose A figure 2. Piute 1, to be a point 
 of view, whose respective distance from each of the 
 columns f g, F G, is equal to the respective 
 heights of each, the triangles f A g, F A G, will 
 be similar; and A f, or Ah, which is the same, 
 will be to A G as A F, or its equal All is to A G ; 
 therefore if d e be in reality to b c, as D E, is to 
 13 C, it will likewise be apparently so ; for the 
 angle d A e , will then be to the angle b A c, as the 
 angle D A E, is to the angle 13 A C ; and if the real 
 relations differ, the apparent ones will likewise 
 differ. In this figure, the eye of the spectator at 
 A, is supposed to be in a line perpendicular to the 
 foot of the' shaft; but, if the columns be proportion- 
 abty raised to any height above the eye, the argu- 
 ment will still remain in force, as the point of view 
 must of course be proportionally more distant ; and 
 even when columns are placed immediately on the 
 • ground, which seldom or ever is the case, (lie alter- 
 ation occasioned by that situation is too trilling to 
 deserve notice. When, .therefore, a certain degree 
 of diminution, which, by experience, is found pleas- 
 ing, has been fixed Upon, there will be no necessity 
 for changing it, whatever be the height of the co- 
 lumn ; provided the point of view is not limited. 
 J3ut in close places, where the spectator is not at 
 liberty to choose a proper distance tor his point of 
 sight, the architect, if he inclines to be scrupulously 
 accurate, may vary ; though it is in reality a matter 
 of no importance, as the nearness oftlie object, will 
 render the image thereof, indistinct, and conse- 
 quently, any small variation will be imperceptible. 
 
 By the following method also, columns may be 
 diminished with great ease and facility, only by the 
 fie Ip of a common measuring rule,' which every 
 
 workman may make. Describe a semi-circle, on 
 the bottom of the column A 13, as shewn at Figure 
 4, Platt 1; from the top of the column draw the 
 line E 4, parellel to the axis, D C, or middle line 
 of the column, cutting the semi-circle at the base in 
 4: divide the arch 13 4, into 4, or any other number 
 of equal parts, and divide the height, C D, into the 
 same number of equal parts : as, 1, 2, 3, through 
 the divisions 1, 2, 3, 4, of the semi-circle, at the 
 ba-e, draw r lines la, 2 b, 3e, and 4 d, parallel to, 
 A 13; set off these parts from each side of the axis, 
 on the corresponding numbers of the shaft : then, 
 by bending a thin lath or slip round pins or nails 
 fixed in those points, it will give the contour, cr 
 curve of the column : and the reverse of this will be 
 the edge of the diminishing rule for working it by. 
 j Or, divide the height of the diminishing rule 13 E, 
 
 | into any number of equal parts, as four, at a, b, e, 
 j and divide the difference of the semi-diameter at 
 J the top and bottom, into the same number, viz. — 
 
 '< four, and draw lines from each div ision parallel to 
 ! the base, through 1, 2, 3, which points wili produce 
 ! a curve of a very regular and pleasing form, that 
 i may be drawn on the edge of the rule, or on the eo- 
 : lumn itself, as is most convenient for the workmen. 
 
 Mouldings. — 1st. Mouldings are figures com- 
 posed of various curves and straight lines. If they 
 are only composed of parts of a circle, they are call- 
 ed Roman, because the Romans, in their buildings, 
 seldom, or never employed any other curve for 
 mouldings than that of a circle; but if they are 
 made of part of an ellipsis, or a parabole, or an 
 hyperbole, the mouldings are then in the Grecian 
 taste. Hence, mouldings in the Greek taste, are 
 | of a much greater variety then those of the Roman, 
 where only parts of circles are concerned ; and they 
 have various names, according to the manner in 
 w hich they are curved. 
 
 2d. Tlie straight lined part under or above a 
 moulding, in general is called a fillet. 
 
 ^d. If the contour of a moulding be convex, and 
 a part of a circle equal to, or less than a quadrant, 
 then the moulding is called a Roman ovolo, or 
 echimes. 
 
 4th If the contour of the moulding be concave, 
 and equal to or less than a quadrant, it is call- 
 ed a cavetto, or hollow, so that a cavetto is exac 
 the rev * rse of an ovolo. 
 
 5th A bead is a moulding, whose contour is 
 simply a convex semi-circle. 
 
 (jth. If the contour be convex, and a complete 
 semi-circle, or a semi-ellipsis, having a fillet above 
 or below i‘, the moulding is called a torus. Thus, 
 a torus is a bead with a fillet, and is more particu- 
 larly distingubhed in an assemblage of mouldings 
 from a bead, by its convex part being much great- 
 er. 
 
 7th. If the contour of a moulding be a concave 
 ' semi-ellipsis, it is called a scotia 
 j 8th. If tlie contour be convex, and not made of 
 
 any 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 5 A 
 
 any part of a circle, but of some other of the conic 
 sections, having a small bending inwards towards 
 the top, the moulding is called a Grecian ovolo, or 
 echinus. 
 
 9th. If the contour be partly concave, and partly 
 convex, the moulding in general is called a cima- 
 tinm. 
 
 10th. If the concave parts of the curve project 
 beyond the convex parts, the cimatium is called a 
 cima recta. 
 
 Jlth. If the convex part project beyond the con- 
 cave, the cimatium is called a cimakecta, or ogee. 
 
 12th. The bending, or turning inwards, of a 
 smali part of the convex curve of a Grecian mould- 
 ing, is, by workmen, called a quirk. 
 
 PLATF; IT. 
 
 To describe the torus. Figure 1. — Divide the 
 height into two, equal at r, and on e, as a centre, 
 describe a semi-circle to that height, and it will 
 form a torus. The bead Figure 2, is formed as the 
 torus. 
 
 To describe an ovolo. Figure 3 . — Take the 
 height a ft, set the compasses in ft, describe an arc, 
 and with the same distance, on the projection at r, 
 describe an arc cutting the former at a , then on a , 
 as a centre, describe an arc, b c, and the ovolo will 
 be completed. 
 
 To describe a caveto. Figure 4 . — On ft, with the 
 height a ft, describe an arc on the projection at r, ! 
 with the same distance deseribe another arc, cutting 
 the former at d ; then with the same extension on 
 d, describe the arc ft r, and it will be a cavetto. 
 
 To describe a cimarecta. Figure 5. — Join the 
 projections at each end by the right line, A B, divide 
 it into two equal parts, at ft, and in order to make 
 it look bold, divide A B into three equal parts, or 
 nearly so, and with one third, on A and ft, as centres, 
 describe arcs, cutting each other at d ; and in the 
 same manner, find the intersection, on the opposite 
 side of the line at c ; lastly on d, and r, describe the 
 arcs A ft, and ft B, and it will form the cimarecta 
 required. These are the forms of regular mould- 
 ings. viz. — the height, equal to the projection; but 
 there are other forms, where the projection is often 
 less than the height, and the curvature of tiie 
 moulding much flatter ; however the same methods 
 for describing the one, will do for the other. 
 
 MODERN, OK. QUIRKED MOUT.MN'OS. 
 
 To describe the cima reversa. Figure (j. — -join the 
 projections at a, and ft, by tiie line a ft, and proceed 
 in the same manner as with the cima recta, before ■ 
 described. 
 
 To describe a quirked cima reversa. Figure 7. — 
 Divide the perpendicular height into seven parts ; i 
 with two of the parts describe a semi-circle, r e , on 
 u draw a line from e c, and on the height of the first : 
 division, from 1 he bottom ft, describe the arc c d, and 
 it will complete the moulding. 
 
 To describe a quirked ovolo. Figure 8. — Divide 
 the height into four equal parts, wifli one part on c, 
 
 1 1 describe the arc a f g. Join r ft, to the fillet below; 
 on ft, describe the arc c d on r, with the dista ■ a ft, 
 describe an arc cutting the former at d; to rough 
 d and r, draw the line d c f, cutting the small circ'e 
 at f, then with a radius df, describe the arc /ft, and 
 it will complete a quirked ovolo. 
 
 To describe the quirked moulding, Figure 9, 
 flatter in the lower part than that at Figure 8.-— 
 Describe the smaller circle as in the iast, and 
 through its centre, and the end ft, of the fillet, <h w 
 the line e ft e, taking the point e, according as you 
 intend to have the under part, of the moulding, 
 flatter or quicker: take the distance e r, am! on ft, 
 describe an arc at d, then take the distance e a< that 
 j is e c, made less by the radius e a , of the smaller 
 I arc a f g, on r, with that distance, describe an arc, 
 
 ! cutting the former at d ; lastly on d, with a radius 
 ! d f, describe the arc / ft, and it will complete the 
 quirked ovolo required. 
 
 These are the most proper for the workman's 
 purpose, though various other methods may be 
 shewn to answer the same purpose: 10, 1 1, 12, 13 
 Id, which are traced from a semi-circle, by applying 
 the same projections to a line of any inclination 
 required. 10 is a torus moulding taken from a 
 semi-circle : and may he applied where the projec- 
 tion of the upper fillet is greater than the projection 
 of the lower. 
 
 To describe a scotia. Figure 15. — From the top 
 of the fillet draw B A, perpendicular, cutting the 
 bottom of the fillet at A; from g, the end of the 
 bottom fillet ; draw the line g u r, parallel to B ; 
 make g r/, equal to twice g A, on A ; describe the 
 semi-circle g e < , cutting the line g n e , at r, through 
 r, and the end of the fillet, at B, draw the line c B e 
 cutting the semi -circle at e: draw the line ad e, 
 cutting A B, in d ; lastly on d, describe the arc e j » 
 and it will complete the scotia. 
 
 l(i is a scotia, described by a similar method to 
 the ovolo’s 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, viz. through points 
 found from a semi-circle, to the height of the mould- 
 ing. 
 
 To descrilie a Grecian ovolo or echines. — -Have 
 two tangents to the curve, and the points of contact 
 given, one of the points of contact being the great- 
 est projection, and the other being the lower extre- 
 mity of the curve. 
 
 Figures 17 and 18, — let A B, B C, be the two 
 tangents, A the point of contact at the greatest pro- 
 jection, and C', the lower extremity of the curve; 
 draw A E, parallel to B C, and C E, parallel to 
 B A; produce U E, to F, making E F, equal to 
 E C ; divide A E, and A B, each into the same 
 number of equal parts; from the point F, draw 
 lilies through the points of division in A E, and also 
 from the point (', draw lines to the points of divi- 
 sion in A B, to meet the others through the divi- 
 sions of A E; through tiie intersections, draw a 
 curve, which will be the contour of the ovolo re- 
 quired. 
 
 The 
 
12 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 The moulding will he filter or quicker, aceord- 
 in,> - m the oo ; nt 8, the extremity of the tang -nt 
 B C, is nearer or more remote from A, the greatest 
 projection. 
 
 Figure 19. — Draw ATI, parallel to the fillets; 
 produce the vertical line (’ IT, to K, making H K, 
 equal U C, and H I, equal to B I): join A I: 
 divide A I, and A B, each into the same number of 
 equal parts, and through the points of division in 
 these lines, and through the points k and C, draw 
 lines to rrmet each other, and t rough these points 
 draw a curve, and it will be the ovolo required. 
 
 If B I), were less than the half of A D, the 
 moulding would be elliptical, and if B I), were 
 equal to the half of A f), the moulding would be 
 parabolical. In this example B D, is greater than 
 the half of A D, the moulding is hyperbolical. Of 
 this form is the echinus in ail the Grecian Doric 
 capitals, except the Doric portico at Athens, in 
 which the echinus of the capital is elliptical. 
 
 Figure 21, is a scotia ortochilus, the fillets may 
 be considered as tangents, and the line parallel to 
 the line joining the fillet as another tangent. 
 
 Figure 22, a cimarecta, compounded of two 
 quarters of an ellipse upon the axis, Figure 23, a 
 eimareversa compounded of two quarters of an 
 ellipse, from conjugate diameters, which are given 
 in position. These are described upon similar 
 principles to Figures 17 and 18. 
 
 Figure 20. To describe a hollow to touch with 
 two straight lines B, D and B, A, one oftliem at a 
 given point A. — Let D, be the point of their meeting, 
 make 1) B, on the other line equal to I) A : from the 
 points A and B. draw perpendiculars to each of the 
 lines 1) B, and D A, meeting at (’ • on C, as a cen- 
 tre with the radius C B, or C A, describe an arc B 
 A, and it is done. 
 
 TO DRAW THE FLUTES OF THE COLUMNS, 
 
 To draw the flutes of the Doric columns. — On 
 A B, Figure o, — Plate 1. the diameter of the 
 column, describe a semi-circle, and divide the semi- 
 circle into two equal parts: (as the Doric column 
 usually contains twenty flutes, which are in general 
 made shallow, and without fillets) : through every 
 t wo of the divisions draw lines E l, E 2, E 3, E 4, 
 to E 10, between any two divisions, (as Sand 4), 
 describe two arcs, whose vertex is C; on E with a 
 radius E (’, describe the quadrant G, H, J, K, L, 
 M, cutting the lines E A, E 1, E 2, E 3, E 4, «kc. 
 in the points G, H, 1, K, 1/, M, whicu are the 
 centre-; for the flutes ; but if the flutes are wanted 
 deeper, you may make the distance 5 D, half the 
 Lre >dt‘i of a flute, and proceed as shown on t. e 
 other quadrant, and from o, /;, c &c. draw perpen- 
 diculars to the bottom of the column. 
 
 The Ionic: Corinthian, and Composite orders, have 
 in general twenty four flutes, with a njiet between 
 each; (toe fillet or.e third of a flute, ) in order to 
 have that numb- r, and preserve the just proportion 
 •fa Lute u> a inlet, observe tke loilowh-g rule; 
 
 divide the semi-circumference. ( Piute 1. Figure 7.) 
 into twelve equal parts, at 1, 2, 3, &c to !2, divide 
 ’ any division into eight equal parts, as that between 
 five and six, then take three of these parts, and on 
 j 1,2, 3, &c to 12, as centres; describe arcs which are 
 | nearly semi-circular as in the plate, and then draw 
 I them to the column. 
 
 I TO DRAW THE FLUTES AND FILLETS HOUND THE 
 SHAFT OF A COLUMN. 
 
 If the columns are of stone, or wood, the whole 
 or any part mav be fluted in the following manner; 
 j after being properly rounded, and the ends or joint# 
 made parallel to eacii other, find -the centres of the 
 circles at each end; and if they are not already 
 foWid, cut two holes, directly in the middle at each 
 end, perpendicular to the joints, so that the centers 
 shall be in the middle of the holes ; this being done 
 drive in two pieces of wood, so as to be quite tight 
 in the holes, and to project out about five or six 
 inches ; let the projecting parts be well rounded off, 
 so as to be exactly in the middle of the ends; then 
 make a diminishing rule, as in Plate 1. Figure 3. 
 To fit the curve of the column, let t_-e ends of this 
 diminishing rule be fixed into two pieces a b , 
 which are made to revolve round the pins at the 
 j ends, by means of -notches, or an^ other convenient 
 j wav, so that the curved edge ot the rule, be very 
 I near to the curved surface of the column ; and one 
 side of the rule to tend exactly to the centre. To keep 
 j the rule steady from bending sideways, fix a rule 
 | to the other side, the whole length of the diminislt- 
 j ing rule, of a sufficient strength to keep the dimin- 
 | ishing rule from bending; so that the breadths of 
 I the two rules will be at right angles to each other, 
 
 I the two end pieces and diminishing rule being fix- 
 | j ed last together, the whole may be turned round 
 
 I the pins at the ends as centres, like one entire 
 | piece ; then the operation of drawing the flutes and 
 fillets will be as follows; — suppose ii were re- 
 quired to flute the Ionic, Corinthian, or Composite 
 ! ! columns, the circumference at either end will be 
 
 I I divided into six equal parts, by taking half the 
 j diameter at that end, and applying it round the said 
 1 1 circumference; then each of these divisions being 
 
 divided into four, the whole circumference will be 
 divided into twenty-four; in order to have the pro- 
 portion of a flute to a fillet, as 1, to 3, tlivide any 
 one of the last divisions into four equal parts, and 
 one of these parts will lie the breadth of a fillet; 
 which being set off from toe same side of each divi- 
 sion, the whole column will lx 1 divided into flute* 
 and fillets : then by turning the rule round to each 
 mark, or division, you may make a piece of sharp 
 steel draw on the shall of the column, the flutes, 
 j and fillets, to the greatest exactness, by keeping it 
 : close to the side of the rule. 
 
 This method by far the most ready, as well as 
 the most correct of any tha- we have \et seen; t i* 
 machine is shewn complete on the plate, and we 
 . Lope a careful inspection will render it sufficiently 
 
13 
 
 AftCHIT 
 
 plain ; there are otlier methods of drawing: the flutes 
 on the shaft of a column, as bv drawing- two parallel 
 lines through the centre, at each end of the column, 
 and dividing tiie circumferences at the ends, into a 
 number of flutes and fillets, then bending- a thin 
 rule from the respective divisions at each end. It 
 is necessary to be careful, that the edge of the rule 
 by which you draw, touch the curved surface of the 
 column only ; but, this method however, simple, i-; 
 very liable to error. The methods that some 
 workmen make use of, for setting off the flutes and 
 fillets round the shaft of a column, are as follow : — 
 To draw the fairs and fillets on a column or pilaster. 
 
 ■ — Plate 1. figure 9. — A B, is any line divided into 
 flutes and fillets, greater than the circumference at 
 the base; on A B, describe the equilateral triangle 
 A B G, draw all the points in A B, to G; then if 
 G C, and G I), are equal to the circumference of 
 the column at the bottom of the shaft, the line C D, 
 will he equal to the same circumference; lay a 
 piece of parchment, or any thing that is pliable, on 
 C 1), and mark all the flutes and fillets on it, then 
 apply this round the column at the bottom, and 
 prick them round it, divide the circumference at 
 top, in the same manner as E E, and draw the flutes 
 with a thin rule, as before. 
 
 P/'eite 1. Figure 10 — is another method for mark- 
 ing the Aides and fiilets round the ends of the co- 
 lumn ; the line A B, is a line -divided into flutes and 
 fillets, less than tlie circumference of the top part of 
 the column; draw any number of parallel lines, 
 from the divisions of A B, let B C, B I), B E, be 
 at the top or bottom diameter : set one foot of the 
 eompasses in B, and cross the line A F, at G I), or 
 E, draw the line B C, B I), or B E, and either 
 will be divided into flutes and fillets, as before. 
 
 Plate 1. Figure 11. — Let A B, be the breadth of 
 the pilaster, draw any line A C, take your compass- 
 es at any convenient opening, and run twenty-nine 
 times the said opening, from A, to C : , and join B C, 
 then set your level to the angle A G B, and from 
 the points on A C, draw lines cpttrng A B, as is 
 shewn by the figure, and from tfid-'points on A B, 
 draw the flutes and fillets, with a common guage. 
 
 There is another method of drawing the flutes of 
 a diminished pilaster, with oifo garage, and at one 
 movement, by making the guage equal to the width 
 ©f the bottom, or something -wider ; ;bdt as this 
 method is erroneous in its principle, no diagram is 
 exhibited. 
 
 The best method to draw the flutes on a dimin- 
 ished pilaster; is to divide the height of the trunk 
 into any convenient number of equal parts, on a 
 longitudinal line, passing through the middle of the 
 breadth at top and bottom, and through the points 
 of division, draw transverse lines to the longitudinal 
 line; set off the flutes and fillets on each transverse 
 line ; take nails or brads in each corresponding 
 point of each transverse line-, and bend a pliably sjip 
 
 ECTURE. 
 
 i of wood round the nails, and draw a line, and pro- 
 ceed till every set of corresponding points are used, 
 and the pilaster will have itsfaGe drawn for the flutes, 
 j- To describe the Ionic Volute , Plate 3, Fig. 4. — Di- 
 vide the height P Q, into 7 parts, upon the third divi- 
 ! sion describe a circle about G, as a centre, whose 
 diameter will be equal to one of the parts ; draw V 
 W, X, 17, and in that square draw another, w'ose 
 angles shall touch the sides of the former square in 
 tiie middle. In order to make the construction or* 
 I the centres appear plain, the centre part is shown 
 j above, of a larger size, aiul the same letters of re- 
 j ference put to each ; divide C 1, and G 2, eqch into 
 three equal parts, at 9, 5, 10 and 6, divide C, 10, 
 into two equal parts at .r, if toe volute is intended 
 to bp at the right hand, as in this example; but if 
 on the left, divide G 9, into two equal parts, and 
 proceed in each case as follows; from x draw the 
 perpendicular line, cutting the side S F, of the 
 square at 1) : from D, make 1) E, and D F, equal 
 to G 1, or G 2, ; join E 1 1 and F II, draw 5 4, 9 8, 
 10 1 1, and 6 7, parallel to the perpendicular side of 
 the square, cutting E H, and F II, at 4, 8, 3, 7, 11; 
 then I, 2, 3, 4, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1, and 12, are tho 
 centres. Begin at 1, and with the radius 1 A, de- 
 scribe the quadrant A B, of the volute ; on 2, with 
 the radius 2 B, descrii>e the quadrant B C ; on 3 
 describe the quadrant C D ; proceed in this man- 
 ner with ail the quadrants, till you touch the eye at 
 U, and it will complete one side of the fillet. 
 
 To' draw the inside of the fillet. — Divide the thick- 
 ness of the list A a, at the top, into twelve equal 
 parts by means of the scale N O R, as follows ; — 
 begin at N, and with any opening of the compass 
 run it twelve times from N, to O ; draw O R, 
 making any angle with O N; make O R. equal the 
 thickness of the fillet at A a; join It N, draw all, 
 b 10, c 9, d 8, & c. parallel to It O, make the thick- 
 ness of the list B 6, equal to a J I ; and D d equal 
 to b 10, &c. at the beginning of every quadrant; 
 join a 6,:jand bisect it by a perpendicular, meeting- 
 the eye a-little within the first centre, set the small 
 distance, within all the other centres, and proceed 
 to describe! the inside of the list, in the same man- 
 ner as the outside, and it will end in a point with 
 the outsidferat U, and the volute will be completed. 
 
 To draw an angular volute . — Divide the perpen- 
 dicular .height A B, as in Plate 3. Figure 5. into 
 twenty-three equal parts ; take the centre G, ten 
 divisions from the bottom, or thirteen from the top, 
 through the centre G, draw H I, perpendicular to 
 A B; bisect the angle B 10 I by the diagonal line 
 D C; through the first division O above H, on the 
 line A B, draw O E parallel to II I, cutting the line- 
 D C at E, on G as a centre, with a radius G E, des- 
 cribe a circle cutting I) G on the opposite side of the 
 centre at F; divide F E into six equal parts at 3,5, 
 G, 6, 4 F, then on E as a centre with a radius E P 
 describe an arc P C cutting D C at C on F w ith a 
 E radius 
 
H 
 
 architecture. 
 
 radius F C describe the semicircle C I K, cutting 
 C D at K, on 3 with a distance 3 K describe a semi- 
 circle K L on 4 as a centre with the radius 4 L 
 describe a semi-circle L M, on 5 as a centre, with a 
 radius 5 M, describe a semi-circle M N : lastly on 
 6, with a radius 6 N, describe a semi-circle N E , 
 touching the centre at E, then figure 1 will be com- 
 pleted. This method will describe an elliptical 
 volute, to a given height, but not to any given 
 width, this is only a preparation to what follows. 
 
 To describe an elliptical volute , to any given 
 height and projection from the centre. — Div ide the 
 given height L M, Plate 3. Figure 6. into twenty- 
 three equal parts as before, taking the centre E, ten 
 from the bottom, or thirteen from the top, through 
 N, the first division above E, draw N F, cutting 
 the diagonal line E O, at F, on E as a centre, with 
 a radius E F, describe the dotted circle, or through 
 E, draw P Q, at right angles to the diagonal line 
 O S, make E P and E Q, each equal E F, on F, as 
 a centre, with the distance L F, describe an arc L 
 H, cutting E II at right angles to L M at II, from 
 E, make E G, equal to the distance the projection 
 of the volute is intended to be from the centre, 
 divide G II into six equal parts, and set one of the 
 parts to I, make E K, and E R, each equal to the 
 sum of the two lines E F, and G I, through the 
 points K, P, R, Q, complete the parallelogram A, 
 B, C, I), whose sides A B, D 0, are parallel to P Q 
 and AD, 11 C, parallel to K R, draw the diagonals 
 A C and B D, and divide each of them into six 
 equal parts, then on B as a centre, with the radius 
 B L, describe the arc L b , cutting A B, produced 
 at b, on A as a centre, with the radius A b, describe 
 the ate be, cutting A D, produced at c, on D, as 
 eentre with the radius D e, describe an arc c d, cut- 
 ting C D, produced at d, on G, as a centre, with a 
 radius C d, describe an arc d e , on 3, as a centre, 
 with a radius 5 e , describe an arc e f, on 6 as a 
 centre with the radius 6f, describe an arc f g, on 7 
 as a centre, with the radius 7 g, describe an arc g h 
 on 8 as a centre, with the radius 8 h, describe an 
 arc h i , proceed in tiiis manner, beginning the third 
 revolution at 9, till you end at 12; lastly describe 
 an ellipsis touching the last centre of the third re- 
 solution E, being its centre, and its transverse and 
 conjugate axis being in the same ratio as the length 
 or height of the volute is to its width, and it will be 
 finish ed. 
 
 Directions for drawing the Tuscan or any other 
 order . — 
 
 A. 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 B. 
 
 Cima recta 
 
 
 C. 
 
 Fillet 
 
 Moulding 
 
 D. 
 
 Corona 
 
 > IN THE 
 
 E. 
 
 Ovolo 1 
 
 C'ORNXt’fi 
 
 F. 
 
 Fillet 
 
 
 G. 
 
 Cavetto J 
 
 
 r Fascia > 
 r Fascia y 
 
 H. 
 
 I. Tenia 
 
 K. Upper 
 
 L. Lower 
 
 M. Abacus 
 
 N. Ovolo 
 
 O. Fillet 
 
 P. Neck of the 
 
 Capital 
 
 Q. Bead 
 
 R. Fillet 
 
 S. Fillet 
 
 T. Torus 
 V. Plinth 
 
 Frieze 
 
 Architrave!. 
 
 Capital 
 
 Astracal 
 
 Base. 
 
 In the instances which we have chosen of the five 
 orders, the height and projection of the mouldings 
 are marked in minutes, for finding which, a rule is 
 hereafter subjoined. 
 
 Divide the diameter of the column at the bottom, 
 into two equal parts, called modules, divide each 
 of these into thirty, which are called minutes ; then 
 every member of the order is so many minutes of 
 this scale, either in height or projection ; the opera- 
 tion is as follows ; draw an axis or perpendicular, 
 through the middle of the column ; on this line set 
 all your heights, or on any other line parallel to it ; 
 then make another line parallel to the axis, at the 
 distance of twenty-five minutes, which allows five 
 minutes on each side, for the diminution at top ; 
 from this line set off your projections, as figured at 
 Plate 4 Architecture, for example, the projection of 
 the top fillet A, is 66 minutes, and the projection of 
 the next fillet C is 34 minutes and a quarter; 
 then proceed to draw the cima-recta, as already 
 shewn at Plate 2. Figure 5. and afterwards all the 
 other members. 
 
 In the Tuscan order, the column is seven diame- 
 ters high, that is, seven times its diameter at the 
 base, the entablature is one-fourth of the height of 
 the column ; but if the order has a pedestal, which 
 is seldom the case, it will be one-fifth part of the 
 entire order in height. To make this practice 
 obvious to the reader, the following examples will 
 be Useful ; — - 
 
 To find the diameter of the Tuscan column, when 
 that alone is to be executed. — Rule. Divide the 
 height of the column by seven, and the quotient 
 will be the diameter. 
 
 Example 1. — Suppose it were required to execute 
 the Tuscan column alone, to the height of 22 ieet 
 three inches; demanded the diameter of the co- 
 lumn. 
 
 7)22. .3 
 
 3 ..2\ 
 
 So that the diameter of the eolumn is three feet two 
 inches and one-seventh part of an inch. 
 
 To find, the height of the Tuscan entablature P and 
 
 the 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 ii 
 
 the diameter of its Column, the entire height of the 
 column and entablature being given. — Rule. Divide 
 the height by five, and the quotient will give the 
 height of the entablature last found from the entire 
 height, and the remainder will be the height of the 
 column ; divide this remainder by seven, as before, 
 and the last quotient will be the diameter of the 
 column. 
 
 Example 2. — Suppose it were required to exe- 
 cute the Tuscan with its entablature, to the height 
 of twenty-two feet one inch ; demanded the height 
 of the entablature, and the diameter of its column. 
 5)22.. 1 
 
 4 .. 5 height of the entablature 
 7 ) 17 .. S height of the column 
 
 2 .. 6- diameter of the column. 
 
 The diameter of the column being thus found, it 
 will easily be put in, as follows ; suppose it were 
 required to execute a column to two feet six inches 
 and two-seventh parts of an inch ; take a rod of that 
 dimension, and divide it into six equal parts, and 
 the first part again into ten, for minutes, then pro- 
 ceed for practice in the same manner as if the draw- 
 ing were to lie on paper. 
 
 To find the diameter of the column , the height of 
 the entablature, and height of the ptdestal, when the 
 whole is to be executed to a given height . — Rule. 
 Divide the entire height by live, and the quotient 
 will be the height of the pedestal; subtract this 
 height from the entire height, and the remainder 
 will be tiie height of the column, with its entabla- 
 ture. Divide the remainder again by five, and the 
 quotient will be the height of the entablature; sub- 
 tract the quotient from the first remainder, and the 
 last remainder will be the height of the column ; 
 and this last remainder, being divided by seven, 
 wiilgive the diameter of the column. 
 
 Example 3. — Let it be required to execute the 
 Tuscan order complete, with an entablature, co- 
 lumn, and pedestal, to the height of thirty feet ; 
 demanded the height of the pedestal, height of the 
 entablature, and diameter of the column ? 
 
 5 ) 30 
 
 6 feet, the height of the pedestal. 
 
 5 ) 24 height of the column and entablature. 
 
 4 .. 9~ height of the entablature 
 
 7 ) 19 .. 2- height of the column. 
 
 2 .. S 5 diameter of the cckiHVn. 
 
 To draw the Tuscan column to a given height . — ■ 
 Divide the height into seven equal parts, as in the 
 second example ; one will be the diameter of the 
 column, and a scale whereby to proportion the 
 other parts. 
 
 To draw the Tuscan column, with its entablature , 
 to a given height. — Divide the given height into five 
 equal parts; allow one for the height of the entabla- 
 ture ; and then divide the remaining four into seven 
 parts, of which one will be the diameter of the co- 
 lumn. 
 
 To draw the Tuscan column and entablature , 
 standing upon a sub-plinth. — Divide the whole 
 height, into twelve equal parts, one will be the 
 height of the sub-plinth ; divide the remaining 
 eleven into five equal parts, one will be the height 
 of the entablature ; divide the remaining four parts 
 into seven, and one will be the diameter of the co- 
 lumn. 
 
 To draw the Tuscan order entire, with a pedestal - 
 Divide the whole height into five equal parts, the 
 lower one will give the height of the pedestal; di- 
 vide the remaining’ four into live equal parts, the 
 upper one will give the height of the entablature; 
 divide the remaining four of these into seven equal 
 parts, and one is the diameter of the column. 
 
 The manner of setting off* the parts of the Doric 
 order, is much the same as in the Tuscan; the 
 heights and projection of the parts being taken from 
 the diameter of the column at bottom, forms a scale 
 for each of the orders ; so that the drawing and ex- 
 ecuting of the Tuscan, if well understood, teaches to 
 draw the Doric, or any other order, without further 
 instruction or repetition. The greatest difficulty of 
 the Doric order are the triglyphs ; these, in modern 
 building’s, are placed exactly over the centre of the 
 column, tiiirty minutes wide, so that fifteen minutes 
 are on each side of the axis of the column • the 
 mutules iu the cornice are exactly over them, and 
 of the same breadth ; the small conical trust nun- 
 under the triglyphs are called drops, or bells ; the 
 manner of drawing the triglyphs and bells is as 
 follows ; divide the breadth into twelve equal 
 parts, give one to each half channel on the outside ; 
 two for each space- or interval, and two for each 
 channel, and one space will remain iu the middle; 
 every two divisions or parts is the width of a bell; 
 the side of every bell, if continued, would terminate 
 in a point at the top of the fillet above them ; the 
 spaces between the triglyphs, called metopes, are 
 always square, and sometimes enriched with ox- 
 heads, and sometimes with pateras, according to 
 fancy ; when the column is lluted it has twenty in 
 number, and without fillets. 
 
 TO PROJECT THE DORIC ORDER. TO A GIVEN 
 HEIGHT. 
 
 For the column. — Divide the height into eight 
 equal parts, one of the parts is the diameter of the 
 column^ which diameter is to bo divided into 
 
 sixty 
 
*6 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 sixty minuses, as has "been 'before directed, for prac- 4 
 lice. 
 
 For the column and entablature . — Divide the given 
 height into five equal parts, and the upper part 
 ■will give the height of the entablature; divide the 
 remaining four into eight equal parts, and one will 
 give the diameter of the column. 
 
 For the column and entablature upon a sub-plinth. 
 
 — Divide the given height into twelve equal parts, 
 the lower one will give the height of the sub-plinth, 
 divide the remaining eleven into five equal parts, 
 the upper one is the height of the entablature; di- 
 vide the remaining four parts into eight, and one of 
 these is the diameter of the column. 
 
 For the column and entablature upon a pedestal . — 
 Divide the given height into five equal parts, the 
 lower one is the height of the pedestal ; divide the 
 remaining four into five equal parts, and the upper 
 one is the height of the entablature ; divide the re- 
 maining four of these, into eight equal parts, and one 
 vrill give the diameter of the column. 
 
 TO PROJECT TIIE IONIC ORDE*R TO A GIVEN 
 HEIGHT. 
 
 For the column and entablature . — Divide the 
 whole height into six equal parts, give the upper 
 One to the entablature, divide the lower five into 
 nine parts, and one will give the diameter of the 
 column, to be divided into sixty minutes as a scale 
 either to work or draw hv. 
 
 For the column and entablature on a sub-plinth . — 
 Divide the whole height into twelve equal parts, 
 give the lower one to the 1 sub-plinth, and proceed 
 with the remaining eleven as above, which will give 
 the height of the entablature, and the diameter of 
 the column. 
 
 For the column , entablature, and pedestal . — In this, 
 or any of the five Orders, the height of the pedestal 
 is always one-fifth part of the entire height : there- 
 fore the height of the entablature, and diameter of 
 the column, may lx? found as before. 
 
 TO DRAW, OR PROJECT THE CORINTHIAN 
 ORDER. 
 
 To find the places of the stems of the leaves, 
 divide the semi-plan into eight equal parts, and 
 draw the plan of the leaves, with their stems; firom 
 the side of each stem draw the perpendicular lines 
 to the elevation of tse capital, and it will give the 
 breadth of each stem on the front ; the projection 
 of the top of the leaves, is from a line joining the 
 top of the abacus, and the astragal, at the bottom of 
 the capital. A li the different, parts’ of this order 
 being: figured on the plate, will render any further 
 explanation unnecessary. With respect to the mea- 
 surement, the diameter of the column is one-tenth 
 part of its height; the height of the entablature, and j 
 pedestal, are found in the same manner as in the | 
 Ionic order: that is, the height is divided into six I 
 equal parts, the upper one is for -he height of the J 
 entablature, one half of which will of course be the j 
 diameter of the column. The pedestal takes one- 
 
 j fifth of the entire order, the sub-plinth one- twelfth. 
 Ti e diameter of the column is one-tenth of its 
 
 height. 
 
 TO DRAW, OR SET OFF THE COMFOSITF, ORDER. 
 
 T' e upper part of this order being the same as 
 the lou.ic angular capital, and the lower part for 
 leaves, the same as the Corinthian: the general 
 heights of the cornice, frieze, architrave, capital, 
 shaft, and base, are consequently the same as that of 
 ti e Corinthian ; the diameter of the column is oi e- 
 tenth part of its Height, as in the Corinthian: the 
 heights and projections of the members are obvious 
 by the same rules. 
 
 The five orders, correctly drawn from the most 
 approved examples, being given in three plates, 
 might be there referred to as a further illustration 
 of the present subject. 
 
 OF LINES roll DESCRIBING PEDIMENTS. 
 
 To elucidate this subject, we have given at Fig. 
 1, in architecture Plate 3, an elevation of a 
 triangular pediment with its whole extent divided 
 into nine eqwd parts, two of which are assigned fi.r 
 the perpendicular height of the pitch, set off from 
 the upper line of the entire h vel cornice. If the 
 pediment is intended to be open, divide the raking 
 pitch into five equal parts, as in the figure, and give 
 one from the centre each way, for the opening. The 
 same j roportions are to be adopted when the pedi- 
 ment is circular, whether it be close, or open : and, 
 to describe the curve, nothing more is requisite, 
 than to consider the raking lines of this Figure J, as 
 chord lines of a circular pediment, which being 
 bisected, and lines drawn at right angles to the rake, 
 will meet in t e true centre from which the arch i* 
 to be described. In this example, the rakirg cor- 
 nice consists only of the cima recta, which may be 
 practised in cases where the tympan is required to 
 be large, for the admission of groups, or other con- 
 siderable ornaments. Commonly, however, the 
 entire cornice is placed in the raking part, whether 
 close or open: and it must ever he observed, that 
 the face of the tympan, and t: at of the frieze of the 
 level cornice, must be in a right line with each 
 other. It must also be observed, with respect to 
 pediments of the different orders, that when mutules 
 or modillions*, or dentiies, are introduced in tlie* 
 level or lower cornice, the same are likewise to be 
 placed in the rakirg part, ; i d ;n a line with tl em. 
 And lienee, in an open pediment, the due space as- 
 signed for the opening must always give way to a 
 punctual regard to place dentile perpendicularly 
 Cver dentile, from end to end of the pediment. 
 But let it be remembered, that open pediments 
 ought never to be adopted in extern i works. 
 
 | - In order to manage with accuracy the mitering of 
 | the raking mouldings with their respective returns, 
 let it be observed that three different profiles are re- 
 quisite, shewn at Figure 2, and £f, where a D the 
 i level, b the raking, and r the return moulding of an 
 open pediment. Divide the contour of a into four 
 1 OF 
 
ARCHIT ECTURE. 
 
 mote equal parts, as at 1, 2, 3, &'c. through wlticli 
 draw right lines parallel with the rake, and from the 
 points 1,2, 3, 4, draw lines parallel with the level 
 moulding; then draw e d at ft perpendicular to the 
 rake, and take the projections 4, 4, &c. and place 
 them on the rake at ft, as shewn in the figure ; and '• 
 through these points describe the contour of the eima |. 
 recta moulding of the raking cornice. Lastly at c, 
 divide f g in the same manner as before at a, and let 
 fall perpendiculars, which by intersecting their re- 
 spective raking-lines, will give the true curve, as will 
 evidently appear by inspecting Figure. 2, where 
 observe, that the projections of the level moulding 
 a are taken from level lines ; but, at ft, the same 
 projections are laid on the raking-lines. Again also 
 at c, 1, 2, 3, are on a level line, taken from 1, 2, 3, 
 on the rake; and tiie same points may be found by 
 taking the several leffgths at 1, 2, 3, 4, on the raking- 
 lines of fl, and placing- them on the similar raking- 
 lines at c. Some architects perform this operation 
 bv bisecting the hypothenusal lines of each moulding, 
 which answering as chords to each curve, the centre 
 at L, Figure 3, is found by the common method of 
 describing a circle that will pass through three given 
 points. 
 
 PROPORTIONS AND CHARACTERS OF THE 
 ORDERS. 
 
 • As the ancients vary much in the proportions 
 they have assigned to each order, and as they not 
 only differ from each other, but from themselves 
 also, even in the same edifice; it is reasonable to 
 suppose that they were not bound by any settled 
 rules. M. Perrault has been at great pains to es- 
 tablish this point by chitsing the mean of the two 
 extremes, but it is surely much better to leave this 
 to the judgement of the architect who, if frittered 
 with rules, which confine him to certain proportions, 
 will not be able to use his discretion or taste: so as 
 to meet anv new circumstances in the situation or 
 building in which he may be employed. We do | 
 rot, however, mean to say that the architect is to be j 
 left without compass or guide, but we agree with [ 
 the before cited author, in thinking that the beauty 
 of a column cannot be injured by a deviation, so tri- 
 fling as a few minutes upon the height, and which 
 the most accurate eye cannot detect. It is a re- 
 mark worthy of notice, that the ancient architects 
 did not follow in a servile manner the rules deli- 
 vered by Vitruvius; yet certainly what he wrote 
 ' were the rules by which they planned their great 
 outline, or design, however they might vary the 
 smaller or inferior parts of an edifice. To enumer- 
 ate a few instances of variation : the temple of Min- 
 erva Pollias has six columns in front, yet is prostyle, 
 although Vitruvius allows but four to this order. | 
 The temple of Jupiter Olympus at Athens has no 
 more than eight columns in front, yet is hypsethral, . 
 to which Vitruvius gives ten columns in front. 
 This is a variation recorded by himself, and without 
 any particular notice of the violation of the yule; 
 
 17 
 
 from which it should appear as not considered of 
 much consequence. 
 
 This difference is also to be observed betw een the 
 temples built by the Greeks, and those by the 
 Romans. The rule of the former was, to give tb 
 the flanks one column more than double the number 
 of those in front ; thus an octastyle would have se- 
 venteen columns in the flanks, as to the temple of 
 Minerva at Athens. The Romans, on the contrary, 
 gave only double the number of intercolumniations; 
 thus, to an hexastyle, they would make only eleven 
 columns in the flanks, that is, ten intercolumniations, 
 making two columns less in the flanks than the 
 -Greeks made; as is to the temple ol’ Fort una Viri- 
 lis at Rome, and to the temple at Nismes in 
 France. The walls of the cell were always placed, 
 opposite the columns of the pronaos, and posticum, 
 according to the rule ; at least w e know of but one 
 example to the contrary, which is the temple oF - 
 Theseus at Athens. We thought it necessary to . 
 notice these instances of the variation of the ancient 
 architects, that the researches and genius of modern 
 times might not tae led into error, or fettered by ob- 
 serving as law, that which was not adhered to by 
 those we wish to imitate. We have given plates of 
 some of the most approved examples of the orders, 
 with the measurements of each part, as they are in 
 the originals. In the modern proportions in the fol- 
 lowing descriptive account, we have followed Sir 
 William Chambers’s Treatise on Civil Architecture, , 
 which by comparison, will shew the variations of the 
 moderns from the ancients. 
 
 TUSCAN ORDElt. 
 
 Of the Tuscan order little historic can be said; 
 its plainness of ornament gives it the first place in 
 most treatises; there is no regular example of this 
 among the remnants of antiquity. Piranisi has 
 given a drawing of a Tuscan base found at Rome, 
 but of what date is uncertain. Vitruvius, in an 
 indistinct manner, lias mentioned the general pro- 
 portions, but through Ins whole book does not refer 
 to one structure of this order. The Trajan and 
 Antonine columns at Rome are reckoned of the 
 Tuscan order, though they have eight diameters for 
 their height: the torus and capitals are certainiv 
 more ornamented than is consistent w ith Tuscan - 
 . plainness. The fluting to the necks also are af- 
 ter the most ancient Doric examples. It is some- 
 what singular there should be no remains of this or- 
 der; and, were it not tor w hat little Vitruvius has 
 written of it, it certainly might have been lost to the 
 moderns. The plainness of its appearance, no doubt, 
 caused it to be neglected at Rome ; but in no other 
 place has been discovered any truly ancient exam- 
 ple. Of the Doric there are unquestionably many 
 remains of a very ancient date; which leads to a 
 probable supposition that the Tuscan is no other 
 tban the Doric more simplified, or deprived of its 
 ornaments to suit certain purposes, where strength 
 and cheapness were banted ; nevertheless it is ap- r 
 
IS 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 plied with propriety and effect, to the entrance of j 
 cities, large gateways, and in military architecture, j 
 -■where dignity and massive .strength are required, j 
 The profile of this order is selected from Palladio j 
 .he having -seen. some remains in Italy, which might j 
 lead him to more Just ideas of the style the ancients j 
 practised. It certainly derived its name, though 
 ‘.not its origin, from the people of Tuscany, who 
 were fond of introducing it into every large and 
 stately edifice. 
 
 Sir William Chambers gives the Tuscan order 
 the following proportions ; 14 The height of the co- 
 lumn is fourteen, modules, or seven diameters; that 
 .of the whole entablature three modules and a half, 
 which being divided into ten equal parts, three are 
 'for the height of the architrave, three for the frieze, 
 and the remaining four for the- cornice : the capital 
 is in height one module; the base, including the 
 lower cincture (which is peculiar to the measurement 
 of this order) of the shaft, is also one module; and 
 the shaft, with its .upper cincture and astragal, is 
 •twelve modules; in interior decorations, the height 
 of the column may be fourteen modules and a half, 
 or even fifteen modules, which increase may be in 
 the column only.” It is customary in executing j 
 this order to diminish it one quarter, perhaps with- 
 out sufficient reason ; as its character ofextraordina- j 
 tv strength would be better preserved by the usual 
 diminution of one-eighth or one-sixth. 
 
 DORIC ORDER 
 
 Of this there are many examples still remaining; 
 gome of very high antiquity, and of proportions so 
 dissimilar to the practice of later times, that one 
 cannot help concluding they were produced before ; 
 experience had matured the rules of art. In several i 
 buildings exhibited in the ruins of. Paestum, Ionia, 
 and Athens, the height of the columns does not ex- 
 ceed four diameters, or at most four and a half; the 
 Jew appearance of these in large buildings, must 
 surely convince us, usefulness w as regarded more 
 than elegance of design. Indeed the history of tbe 
 Doric order may be divided into three epocha. 
 First, when the columns did not exceed four diame- 
 ters in height, as to the temple called Thoricion , fen 
 leagues from Athens ; here the columns have four 
 diameters, and are not fluted, except four and a half 
 inches under the capital, w ith regular Doric fluting; 
 the rest is smooth. Also to a temple at Corinth, 
 where the columns are only three and a half diame- 
 ters, and are fluted. To which may be added those 
 remaining at Paestum, in Italy; where to one temple 
 the columns are four diameters high, to another 
 about one-third less, and to the other about one-third 
 more. The second era may be presumed, when the 
 columns had not six diameters in height; as to the 
 Propvlea, or grand entrance into ti e citadel of 
 Athens, to the temples of, Minerva and Theseus at 
 the same place, which were built in the flourishing- 
 time of Pericles, whose columns are only five and 
 a quarter diameters high. Also the more ancient 
 
 temple of Apollo, at Delos, where the' columns have 
 five diameters, and, are smooth or plain; having 
 twenty channels or ilulings three inches long in the 
 neck, or top of the column, and as many at the foot, 
 two inches long. The third point of time is when 
 six or more diameters were allowed, as to the tem- 
 ple , of Augustus at Athens ; eras Stuart, on good 
 evidence, calls it, “ the entrance to a market,” where 
 six diameters are used. These are all w ithout bases' 
 in this division must be included the temple of Her- 
 cules, at Cora, where the columns have eight and 
 three quarters diameter, and are on bases. Vitru- 
 vius allows this to be the most ancient order, and 
 gives the following account of its origin; “Dorns, 
 the son of Helen is and the nymph Optyce, built a 
 temple in the ancient city of Argos, to the goddess 
 Juno which happened to be of this order, but w hich 
 then had no regular proportions; it derived its 
 .name from the patron of the building. This exam- 
 ple, or order, was followed by all the cities of 
 Achaia. Ion, the son of Xuthus afterwards built 
 a temple in Asia, to Apollo Panionius, of this order; 
 and, to render it more agreeable to the eye, he gave 
 six diameters to the column, being guided therein 
 by the example of nature, w hich has given, to the 
 height of man six times the length of his foot.” 
 
 Modern practice allow s eight diameters, and a 
 base, which was never given to the Doric order by 
 .the ancients; this is another mark of its antiquity ; 
 for certainly the base is no less proper than elegant. 
 Concerning the flutings, whether they were at first 
 practised or not, is impossible to determine; the re- 
 mains of this order of the oldest date have flutings. 
 It appears probable, that, when any thing like orna- 
 ment w as w ished to be added, the fluting of co- 
 lumns early presented itself. There are examples 
 among the antiques of the column being squared off, 
 or wrought with pans, as they are called, instead of 
 hollows- Of this kind is the temple of Minerva at 
 Syracuse, of very ancient Doric ; the pillars are cut 
 in pans or angles, and are without bases. The 
 temple of Diana at the same place is also in the same 
 style of Doric. To the temple of Hercules at Cora, 
 the columns have tlie lower third part with pans, 
 and the upper part of the shaft with the regular 
 Doric fluting, which is a singular instance of mix- 
 ture of style in antique columns. These columns 
 have eight and three quarters diameters for their 
 height, and stand upon bases of a very ungraceful 
 form. 
 
 The triglyph, a characteristic mark of this order, 
 has the appearance of art; the ends of projecting 
 rafters wi.il produce this effect, or near enough, to 
 he improved into w hat w e at present see them ; the 
 places assigned them also corroborate this idea. 
 .Vitruvius says, that in building, they laid the joists 
 from the interior wall to the exterior parts, and as 
 much of the joist as appeared unhandsome w'as saw- 
 ed off, which, not having a pleasing effect, they 
 made tablets like tlie triglyphs now in use, fixed 
 
 them 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 19 
 
 ■them against the sawed ehd^, and painted them in 
 .ivax, &c. Thus the triglyphs, inter joists, and metope, 
 in Doric work, had their origin from the disposition 
 of the timbers in the roof; afterwards, in other 
 .works, some made the rafters that were perpendicu- 
 larly over the triglyphs to project out, and carved 
 their project u re ; lienee, as the triglyphs arose from 
 the exposition of the joists, so the mutules under the 
 corona w ere derived from the prefecture of the raf- 
 ters ; wherefore, in stone or marble structures, the 
 nnitules were represented declining, in imitation of 
 the ratters ; and also, on account of the droppings 
 from the eaves, it is proper they should have such 
 a declination. This also explains, the ornament and 
 situation of the gnttae, or drops. The ornaments on 
 the metope, or the space between the triglyphs* may 
 have been originally trophies of the Deity, or imple- 
 ments of sacrifice placed there; the bull’s skull is 
 peculiar to the Doric order. M. Winkelman has 
 taken some pains to prove, from a passage in Euri- 
 pides, that the metopes or spaces between the trig- 
 lyphs were open in the most ancient temples. Ilow 
 this may have been, cannot now' be determined: 
 those structures which remain have the space filled 
 with masonry. 
 
 The profile we have given is taken from Pal- 
 ladio, which has been considered as a just propor- 
 tion for this masculine order. 
 
 The modern proportions, from the before-cited 
 author, are as follows. The height of the column, 
 Including its capital and base, is sixteen modules; 
 the height of the entablature, four modules ; w hich 
 being divided into eight parts, two are for the 
 architrave, three for the frieze, and three for the 
 cornice; the base is one module in height; the 
 capital thirty-tw o minutes, or a little more. 
 
 IONIC ORDER. 
 
 The origin of this order is accounted for by 
 Vitruvius, in the following manner : — -“Ion, (the 
 same as before-mentioned,) building a temple to 
 Diana, and seeking some new manner to render it 
 more elegant, had recourse as before in the Doric 
 .order, to the human figure; and gave to this new 
 order a feminine delicacy; thus he was the first 
 who gave eight diameters to a column, that, the 
 aspect might lie mere pleasing; and, that its ap- 
 pearance might be more lofty, he added a base, in 
 imitation of a shoe ; the volutes, like locks or plaits 
 of hair, hanging on each side, he gave to the capital, 
 ornamented w ith fruits, or flowers, in festoons and 
 furrows, or flutihgs dow n the column were wrought, 
 resembling the folds or plaits of a matron’s gar- 
 ment. Thus he invented two kinds of columns, in 
 the Doric imitating a manly robust appearance, 
 without ornament; in the Ionic, regarding a female 
 delicacy, accompanied with ornaments pleasing and 
 elegant. Succeeding architects, much approving 
 the taste and ingenuity of this design, allowed 
 eight diameters and a half to this order.” Vitru- 
 vius records ah anecdote much in praise of the 
 
 I 
 
 Ionic order, in the following- words : “ the difficul- 
 ty attending the proper adjustment of the mutules, 
 metopes, and triglyphs, in Doric structures, v, us 
 such, as frequently to be a cause of mych inconve- 
 nience and trouble to architects, in large buildings, 
 and also rendered tl eir asrect co; fused: and em- 
 barrassing : • on which account, and the massy ap- 
 pearance of the Doric column, it was thought, im- 
 proper for snored buildings: of this opinion were 
 Tarchepius and Pytheus, with many ancient archi- 
 tects; also the celebrated Hermogenes, who,. ?w ben 
 he was building the temple of JJacchos at Teos, 
 rejected the Doric, though all the marbles were 
 ready cut, and in its stead erected a torn pie of the 
 Ionic order. Our tw o examples of this order arc 
 taken from the two- celebrated edifices, the temple 
 of Eortuna Virilis, and the theatre of Marcellas at 
 Rome. The modern Ionic has tide volute of the 
 capital executed on an angular plan, the same as in 
 the Composite order; so that, viewed every way, it 
 lias the same appearance ; this differs from the ge- 
 neral mode of the antiques, which was to have the 
 volutes parallel. And to Michael Angelo this was 
 attributed as a new invention; but examples are 
 found in the capitals of the angle columns in the 
 temple of Erictheus at Athens, and in the temple of 
 Fortuna V irilis at Rome. Piranasi has endeavoured 
 to prove the first idea of the Ionic volute to have 
 been derived from shells ; and certainly many pleas- 
 ing forms pf convolution may be obtained from the 
 section of shells. 
 
 The standard of the modern proportions is as fol- 
 lows: The height of the column is eighteen mo- 
 dules, and that of the entablature four modules and 
 a half, or one quarter the height of the column, as in 
 the oilier orders, which is a trifle less than in the re- 
 gular antique Ionics: the capital is twenty-one 
 minutes, and the base thirty minutes in height; the 
 shaft of the , column may be plain, or fluted, w ith 
 twenty or tw enty-four flutings, w hose plan may be a 
 trifle more than a semicircle, because they then ap- 
 pear more distinct ; and the fillet or interval between 
 them must , not be broader than one-third of the 
 breadth of the fluting, nor narrower than one quar- 
 ter thereof; the ornaments of the capital are to cor- 
 respond with the flutings of the shaft; and there 
 must be an ove above the middle of arch fluting. 
 The entablature being divided into ten equal parts, 
 three are for the architrave, three for the frieze, and 
 four for the cornice. In interior decorations, where 
 much delicacy is required, the height of the enta- 
 blature may be reduced to one-fifth of the height of 
 the column. , 
 
 CORINTHIAN ORDER. 
 
 This differs from the Ionic only in it&capital; the 
 Ionic capital having no more than one-third of the 
 diameter of the column for its, height; but the Co- 
 rinthian capital is allowed one entire diameter, 
 which gives to the column a noble but delicate 
 j grandeur. The other members placed on the Co- 
 rinthian 
 
■s* AltCHlTEfcTtJftE. 
 
 rinthian pillar, are common to the TDoric and Ionic 
 orders; for it has no particular species of ornament 
 peculiar to its cornice ; sometimes it has the Doric 
 mutule3 and triglyphs in the architrave; sometimes 
 an Ionic frieze, with dentiles in the cornice ; in a 
 manner, it is no more than a third order, risen out 
 of the former two, which has nothing peculiar to 
 itself but the capital. Its origin Vitruvius records 
 as follows: “A marriageable young lady of Corinth , 
 fell ill, and died; after the interment, her nurse col- j 
 lected together sundry ornaments with which she 
 used to be pleased, and, putting them into a basket, 
 placed it near her tomb; and, lest they should be 
 injured by the weather, she covered the basket with 
 a tile. It happened the basket was placed on a root 
 of acanthus, which in spring shot forth its leaves : j 
 these, running up the side of the basket, natural- 
 formed a kind of volute, in the turn given by the tile 
 to the leaves. Happily Callimachus, a most ingen- 
 ious sculptor, passing that way, was struck with the 
 beauty, elegance, and novelty of the basket sur- 
 rounded by the acanthus leaves ; and, according to 
 this idea or example, he afterwards made columns 
 for the Corinthians, ordaining the proportions such 
 a# constitute the Corinthian order. ” Vitruvius, in 
 the foregoing account, forgot the peculiarities of the 
 Corinthian cornice, or the entablature to that order 
 was not then practised in the manner we find re- 
 maining among ancient buildings ; for to this cornice 
 the modilion is ever an attendant. Hut exactly ac- 
 cording to this description of Vitruvius, is the cor- 
 nice of the portico at Athens, called Poikilie, as re- 
 piesented by the indefatigable Stuart, in his valua- 
 ble antiquities of that ancient city. 
 
 The beauty and elegance of this order have ren- 
 dered it famous, and the many examples existing 
 among the fragments of antiquity, sufficiently evince 
 the great esteem with which it was regarded. The 
 ravages of cruel and desolating war, however, have 
 not left us one remain of this order, from amoii" the 
 many celebrated examples which the city of Corinth 
 possessed, where arts of every kind, and particularly 
 architecture, eminently flourished and were carried 
 to perfection. In later times the conduct of Lucius 
 Muinrmus, in the destruction of that polished people 
 and city, would have justly been considered as the 
 grossest barbarism ; the temples, the sacred build- 
 ings, were destroyed, and levelled with the ground; 
 so that at one stroke the works of ages were desola- 
 ted, the labours and ingenuity of thousands were 
 destroyed; and posterity deprived of every trace of 
 this orcbr, in the place of its nativity and nurture. 
 Although Home would not suffer Corinth to exist as 
 a rival city, there is no doubt but she deigrted to fol- 
 low the rules and laws of art established by her van- 
 quished enemy, especially in architecture. The 
 elegance and purity of style in many ef 'her build- 
 ings clearly evince Grecian ingenuity and refine- 
 ment. 
 
 Thr profile we have given, is according do Pal- 
 
 ladio’s measurements; the universal celebrity of 
 this master, pointed it out as a proper example. 
 The modems have adopted the following propor- 
 tions; the column is twenty modules in lieignt; the 
 entablature five modules; the base one module, and 
 may be either Attic or Corinthian ; the capital has 
 seventy minutes in height; the proportion of the 
 members of the entablature is the same as in the 
 Tuscan and Ionic orders. If the entablature is en- 
 riched, the shaft; of the column may be fluted, and 
 the flutings may be filled to one-third part of their 
 height with cabling, which will strengthen the 
 lower part of the column, and make it less liable to 
 injury. In very rich interior decorations, the ca- 
 biing may be composed of reeds, ribbands, husks, 
 flowers, &c. The capital is enriched with olive- 
 leaves, as almost all the antiques at Koine of this 
 order are ; the acanthus is seldom employed but in 
 the Composite order : the entablature may be redu- 
 ced to two-ninths, or one-fifth of the height of the 
 column; in which case it is best to use the Ionic 
 entablature, or reduce the dentiles of the cornice. 
 
 COMPOSITE ORDER. 
 
 The Composite, or Roman order, seems to owe 
 its origin to that constant solicitude after novelty, 
 which ever renders the mind of man restless in en- 
 lightened and highly cultivated ages. The desire of 
 variety and novelty, either of new invention, or com- 
 bination, probably engaged the Roman architects to 
 unite with the proportions and enrichments of the 
 Corinthian order, the angular volute of the Ionic, 
 and by this union to compose a new order. The 
 introduction of the angular Ionic volute, and the 
 omission of the upper row of leaves in the capital, 
 certainly give it a more bold and noble aspect than 
 that of the Corinthian capital, yet different from any 
 of the other orders, possessing an elegance and pro- 
 jection very pleasing, and may be used with very 
 agreeable and happy effects. There are many ex- 
 amples remaining at Rome, which shew the general 
 estimation of this order, in the height of its splen- 
 ! dour and prosperity. In their triumphal arches, it 
 was used w ith good effect, where it produced an 
 agreeable boldness, uniting elegance and ornament. 
 The example given in the annexed plate, is after 
 Vignola ; the justness of the proportions, with the 
 elegance of the ornaments, mark it as a proper 
 standard for the Composite order. The proport ions 
 adapted to it by the moderns are as follow: the 
 height of the column is twenty modules ; and that 
 of the entablature five modules; the capital has 
 seventy minutes in height ; the base measures 
 the same as in the Doric and Ionic orders: and, as 
 the module is less, all its parts will of course be more 
 delicate; the shaft may be enriched with flutings, to 
 the number of twenty or twenty-four, as in the ionic 
 order: there is no reason why they should be aug- 
 mented. The principal members of the entablature 
 I may have the same proportions as the two former 
 j orders, viz. being divided into ten equal parts, 
 
 three 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 21 
 
 three are for the height of the architrave, three for 
 the ifrieze, and four for the cornice. 
 
 We may add here, more to complete the history 
 than to recommend their use, that there are ancient 
 examples of oval columns: where the circle of the 
 column is elongated by a broad plain space on the 
 two opposite sides of the shaft. Of this kind were 
 some fragments found in the island of Delos, by M. 
 le Roy. There are two others at La Trinite du 
 •Mont, at Rome : also in the tomb near Mylassa, m 
 Greece, according" to M. de Choiseul, this elegant 
 structure is very perfect ; is of a square form, on a 
 basement; the pillars are insidated, and support a 
 vaulted ceiling highly enriched; each front has two 
 oval tinted columns with the narrow face outwards; 
 at the angles are pilasters having the same enrich- 
 ments as the columns ; the capitals are Composite, 
 and the volutes are omitted. This elegant little 
 morceau is of white marble, and about nineteen feet 
 square. 
 
 It has often been contended, that, strictly speak- 
 ing, there are only three orders in architecture, 
 namelv, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian; the other 
 two, viz. the Tuscan and Composite, being only va- 
 rieties. And perhaps it would simplify mid facili- 
 tate the study of architecture,, were this restriction 
 universally to take place. The only circumstances 
 that can serve to distinguish one order from another, 
 are the form of the column, and its destination. To 
 make the first a distinguishing mark, without regard 
 to the other, would be to multiply orders without 
 end. Destination is more limited, and it leads us to 
 distinguish three kinds of orders ; one plain and 
 strong, for the purpose of supporting plain and 
 massy buildings ; one delicate and graceful, for 
 sustaining buildings of that character; and between 
 these a third, tor supporting buildings of a mixed 
 nature. So that, if destinatioji alone were to be 
 •regarded, the Tuscan is of the same order w ith the 
 Doric, and the Composite with the Corinthian. 
 
 An order may be divided into two parts, the co- 
 lumn, including the plinth of its base, with the aba- 
 cus of the capital ; and the entablature, which 
 includes all above the capital, and may be divided, 
 in the large, into the architrave, the frieze, and the 
 cornice. 
 
 By examining the antiques, it will be found, that, 
 in all their profiles, the cyma and the cavetto are 
 constantly used as finishings, and never applied 
 where strength is required; that the ovblo and talon 
 are always employed as supporters to the- essential 
 members of the composition, such as the modillions, 
 deutiles, and corona: that the chief use of the torus 
 ■and astragal, is to fortify the tops and bottoms of 
 columns, and sometimes pedestals, where they are 
 frequently cut in the form of ropes; and that the 
 scotia is employed only to seperate the members of 
 bases, for which purpose the fillet is also used, not 
 only in bases, but in all kinds of profiles. An as- 
 
 semblage of essential parts and mouldings, is termed 
 a profile ; on the choice, disposition, and propor- 
 tion of these, depends the beauty or deformity of 
 the profile. The most perfect are, such as are com* 
 posed of few mouldings, varied both in form and 
 size, fitly applied with regard to their uses, and so 
 disposed, that the straight and curved ones succeed 
 each other alternately. 1 u every profile there should 
 be a predominant member, to which all the others 
 ought to be subservient, and seem made either to 
 support, to fortify, or to shelter it from the injury of 
 the weather, as in a cornice w'here the corona is 
 principal, the cyma or cavetto cover it, and the mo- 
 diilions, deutilcs, ovolo, and talon, support it. 
 
 When ornaments, are employed to adorn the 
 moHldings, some of .them should be left plain, in 
 order to form a proper repose ; for, when all are 
 enriched, the figure of the profile is lost. In a cor-, 
 nice the corona should not be ornamented, nor the 
 modillion band ; neither should the different facias 
 of architraves, the plinths of columns, fillets, nor 
 scarcely any square member, be carved ; for they 
 are generally speaking, cither principal in the com- 
 position, or used as boundaries to other parts ; in. 
 either of which cases, their figures should be distinct 
 and unembarassed. The dentile band should re- 
 main uncut, where the ovolo and talon immediately 
 above and below it are enriched; for, when the den- 
 tiles are marked, particularly if they be small, the 
 three members are confounded together, and, being" 
 covered with ornament, are much too rich for the 
 rest of the composition; a .fault carefully to be 
 avoided, as the just and. equal distribution of enrich- 
 ments is on all occasions to be attended to. For, 
 in effect, the ornaments of sculpture in architecture, 
 are like diamonds in a lady’s dress, with which it 
 would be absurd to cover her face, and other parts 
 that are in themselves beautiful.. When mouldings 
 of the same. form and size are employed in one pro- 
 file, they should be enriched with the same kind of 
 ornaments. It must be observed, that all the orna- 
 ments of mouldings are to be regularly disposed, 
 and answering perpendicularly above each other; 
 the middles of the modillions, dentiles, oves, and 
 other ornaments, all in a line ; for nothing is more 
 confused and unseemly, than to distribute them 
 w ithout any kind of order. The larger parts are to 
 regulate the smaller ; all the ornaments in the enta- 
 blature are to be governed by the modillions or mu- 
 tinies; and these are to be. dependant upon the 
 intervals of the columns, and so disposed, that one 
 of them may correspond w ith s the . k axis of each co " 
 lumn. It is farther to be pbserved, that the orna- 
 ments must partake of the . character of the order 
 which they enrich ; and those used in the. .Doric and 
 Ionic orders must be of a simpler kind, and grosser 
 make, than those employed in the Composite, and 
 Corinthian, In the exterior, whatever does not 
 contribute to the general effect pf.the whole build- 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 in", is ih a great measure useless, and an expence 
 that might more judiciously be employed in places 
 where it could be more attended to. The parts that 
 are in themselves large, and so formed and disposed 
 as to receive broad masses and strong impressions 
 of light and shade, will of course excite great ideas; 
 but, if they are broken into a number of small divi- 
 sions, and their surface so varied as to catch a thou- 
 sand impressions of light, demi-tint, and darkness, 
 the whole will be confused, trifling, and incapable of 
 sousing any great emotions. 
 
 The appearance of columns is often varied by ad- 
 ding rusticated cinctures at equal (or other) dis- 
 tances to a column : this is a modern invention, 
 which gives a very unnatural appearance, and dis- 
 guises the noble figure of the column. Rustic work 
 is with greater propriety, and better effect, introdu- 
 ced into large entrances, parks, and gardens; also 
 into grottos, baths, or fountains, where an irregular 
 and rough appearance better suits the place 1 and 
 purpose. Le Clerk says, these kind of rustic orna- 
 ments are never to be imitated, excepting in the 
 gates of citadels or prisons, in order to render their 
 entrances more rugged and frightful. 
 
 The flutings of columns are sometimes wrought 
 pound, or spirally on the column ; there is an ancient 
 example of this, in a small temple below Trevi, in 
 Italy, the plan and elevation of which are given by 
 Palladio, where, of four columns in front, two have 
 their columns spirally, and the two centre onc9 are 
 wrought with leaves on the shaft. 
 
 The rule for the diminution of columns has ever 
 varied ; the ancients frequently diminished the co- 
 lumn, from the very foot, or from one-quarter or 
 one-third of its height; the latter method is now ge- 
 nerally practised ; the diminution should be seldom 
 less than one-eighth part of the lower diameter of 
 the shaft, nor more than one-sixth, this latter is the 
 more graceful : some, by way of giving a better 
 contour or appearance, allow a small swell, or bcl-. 
 lying, in the lower part of the middle division of the 
 pillar. 
 
 It w ill here be proper to give the general rules to 
 be observed ia pedestals, where it is necessary to 
 introduce them. Tliey consist of three principal 
 parts ; the base, the dye, and the cornice. A deter- 
 minate rule, however, cannot be given, as they must 
 be made to vaij in height according to the circum- 
 stances which Tender them useful ; they have ever 
 been considered as mere auxiliaries, to give height, 
 and elevate the column above surrounding objects 
 which impede its view. When they are used by 
 choice, it is common to give them one-third, or one- 
 quarter part of the height of the column and enta- 
 blature, which is thus divided : of nine equal parts, 
 two are for the base, one for the cornice, the re- 
 gaining six for the dye, of the pedestal, which is 
 equal in size to the plinth of the column; the en- 
 richments should be regulated by those of the enta- 
 blature, &c. whereby they are made subservient to 
 
 each distinct order. When columns are in couples, 
 if pedestals are used, they should have but one; 
 also in a colonnade or peristyle there should be but 
 one pedestal continued, having breaks or projec- 
 tions in the cornice, <Stc. so that each column may 
 seem to have its particular pedestal. 
 
 Each column has its particular base. The Tus- 
 can base is the most simple, having only a torus and 
 plinth. The Doric base has ail astragal more than 
 the Tuscan. To the Ionic base the torus is larger 
 on a double scotia, with two astragals between. 
 The Corinthian base has two toruses, two scotjas, 
 and two astragals. The Composite base has one 
 astragal less than the Corinthian. The Attic base 
 consists of two toruses and a scotia, and is applica- 
 ble to every order except the Tuscan, which has its 
 particular base 
 
 Pilasters differ from columns only in their plan ; 
 winch is a square, as tliat of columns i3 round. 
 Their bases, capitals, and entablatures, have the 
 same parts, with the same heights and projections^ 
 as those of columns ; they are also distinguished in 
 the same manner, by the names of Tuscan, Doric, 
 Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite. Th column is 
 undoubtedly more perfect than the pilaster; how- 
 ever, .they may be employed with great propriety 
 on many occasions. $ome authors declaim against 
 pilasters, because, according to them, they do not 
 admit of diminution. But this is a mistake; there 
 are many instances, in the remains of antiquity, of 
 their being diminished. Seamozzi always gives his 
 
 f ulasters the same diminution as bis columns: Pal- 
 adio and Inigo Jones have likewise diminished 
 them in many of their buildings. Pilasters are 
 employed in churches, galleries, halls, and other 
 interior decorations, to save room : tor, as they 
 seldom project beyond the solid wall, above one- 
 quarter of their diameter, they do not occupy near 
 so much space as columns. They are likewise 
 used in exterior decorations; sometimes alone, 
 instead of columns, on account of their being less 
 expensive ; and sometimes they accompany co- 
 lumns, being placed behind them to support the 
 architraves, where they enter the building, as in, 
 the Pantheon at Rome; or, in the same line with 
 them, to fortify the angles, as in the portico of Sep- 
 timius. When pilasters are dsecl alone, they should 
 project one-quarter of their diameter beyond tie 
 walls. When placed behind columns, especially if 
 they be very near them, they need not project above 
 one eighth of their diameter. Rut, when placed on 
 a line with columns, their projection must be re- 
 gulated by that of the columns ; and consequently 
 it can never be less than a semi-diameter, even 
 when the columns are engaged as much as possible. 
 The shafts of pilasters are frequently adorned with, 
 flutings in the same manner as those of columns; 
 the plan of which may be a trifle more thau a 
 semi-circle ; their number must be seven on each 
 face, which makes them nearly of the same size 
 1 with 
 
architecture. 
 
 with those of' columns. The interval?, or fillets, 
 must either be one-third or one-fourth of the fluting 
 in breadth. The capitals of pilasters are profiled 
 nearly in the same manner as those of columns. 
 
 Attics had their origin in Athens, where it was 
 for many ages a rule in building- to conceal the roof. 
 For this purpose, nothing served so well as a kind 
 of low or little order ranged in a continued line, 
 singly, or with the interruption of balusters ; which 
 rising above the rest of the work and before the 
 roof, hid it perfectly, and placed something agreea- 
 ble in view. The place of attics, therefore, is at 
 the uppermost extremity of a building, to which 
 they serve as a crown, or very properly make a 
 finishing for the other orders when they have been 
 used in the structure. They must never stand 
 Wider any thing except such ornaments as are 
 placed at the very top. These attics should never 
 exceed in height one-third of the height of the order 
 on which they are placed, nor be less than onc- 
 quarter of it. The base, dye, and cornice, of which 
 they are composed, may bear the same proportions 
 to each other as those of pedestals do ; and the base 
 and cornice may be composed of the same mouldings 
 as those pedestals. Sometimes the attic is con- 
 tinued throughout; at others, it projects, and forms 
 a pilaster over each column of the order. The 
 breadth of this pilaster is seldom made narrower 
 than the upper diameter of the column below it, and 
 never broader. Its projection may be equal to ouc- 
 quarter of its breadth. 
 
 Besides columns and pilaster?, it is sometimes 
 customary to employ representations of the human 
 figure, to support entablatures in buildings. The 
 male figure's are called Persians; and the female. 
 Carians, or Caryatides. The Persians are so called 
 from a victory gained over the Persians by Pausa* 
 ntas, who hav ing brought home spoils and trophies 
 to the Athenians, they fixed upon Persian figures tor 
 those which should support entablatures, and thus 
 kept in mind that there were once Persian slaves in 
 Athens. To represent these conquered people in 
 the lowest state possible, they loaded them with the 
 heaviest entablature, viz. that oi the Doric order. 
 In process of time, however, other figures besides 
 those of Persians were introduced, and other enta- 
 blatures put over them; but the name was still re- 
 tained. The proper Cary . tides are women dressed 
 in long robes, after the Asiatic manner; and the ori- 
 gin oi the device was a9 follows: The Carlans had 
 been long at war with the Athenians* but, being at 
 le jgth totally vanquished, their wives vvere iedaway 
 captives ; and, to perpetuate the memory of this 
 event, trophies were erected, in which figures of wo- 
 men dressed in the Caryaiic manner* were used to 
 support entablatures like the Persians ; and thougli 
 other female figures were afterwards used in the 
 same manner, the name, of Caryatides was tftwavs 
 ’Retained. 
 
 &§ 
 
 The ancients made frequent use of Persians and 
 Caryatides, and delighted in diversifying them a 
 thousand ways. The modern artists have followed 
 their example ; and there is a great variety of com- 
 positions of this kind to be met with in different 
 parts of Europe. The Caryatides, or female fi- 
 gures, should never much exceed the human size. 
 But the Persians, or male figures, may be of any 
 size ; and the larger the better, as they will strike 
 the beholder with the greater awe and astonishment. 
 Persians may be used with propriety in arsenals* 
 galleries of armour, &c. under the figures of cap- 
 tives, heroic virtues, &c. Their entablature ought 
 to be Doric, and bear the same proportion to them 
 as to columus of the same height. The entablature 
 for Caryatides ought to be either Ionic or Corin- 
 thian according as the character of the figure is 
 more or less delicate. 
 
 Termini are sometimes employed, instead of Per- 
 sians or Caryatides, to support the entablatures of 
 monuments, chimney-pieces, and such-like composi- 
 tions. These figures owe their origin to the stones 
 used by the ancients to mark the limits of particular 
 possessions. Nurna Pompilius, to render these in- 
 violable, consecrated the Terminus into a deity, and 
 instituted festivals and sacrifices to his honour. In 
 a short time, what was formerly only large upright 
 stones, were represented in human shape ; and after- 
 wards introduced as ornaments to temples and other 
 buildings. The Termini are now principally used as 
 ornaments for gardens and fields. 
 
 OF THE SACRED BUILDINGS OF THE ANCFEN-TS. 
 
 The elegance and magnificence of a structure 
 depending very much on. the proper placing of the 
 columns, we shall add the rules laid down by Vi- 
 truvius, as observed by the ancients, and allowed 
 by the moderns, in t.he disposition of columns, 
 called by that writer the five species of building; 
 which are as follow ; — 1st, the Pycnostyle, that is- 
 thick of columns: 2d, the iSystyle,. that are a little 
 wider; 3d, the Diastyle, still wider; >1 fh, the 
 A roepstyle, more distant than is proper; a pd 5th, 
 the Eustyle, which i&Ahe proper distance. 
 
 To the pycnostyle* the distance of the inter- 
 colurnniations, is one diameter and a half of the 
 column ; as in the temple of the divine Julius : the 
 temple of Venus in Ciesar’s Forum, and many 
 others after tile same manner. _ The svstyle lias tw o 
 diameters of the column between the nitercoluninia- 
 tion, and the plinths of the- base are equal to the 
 space which is between two plinths; ns in the tem- 
 ple of Fortuna Equestris, near the Stone Theatre ; 
 and others made after the same proprotions. Bet* 
 these sorts are inconvenient; by the frequency of 
 the columns, the view of the door, and the signs qjt 
 trophies- of the deity, are hid, and the narrow ness of 
 the porch is inconvenient for walking. The dias- 
 tyle has this distribution, viz. three diameters of the 
 columns between the intercolumuiations, as in the. 
 
 tenipik 
 
n ARCH II 
 
 templeof Apollo and Diana. Tins has its inc cmo- 
 niences ; because the architrave, on account of the 
 distance between the columns, is liable to break. 
 Ip the aroeostyle they use neither stone nor marble, 
 but make the beams of durable timber. This kind 
 of building is straggling and heavy, low and broad. 
 The pinnacles are generally ornamented with fictile 
 or earthen-ware, or brass gilt after the Tuscan man- 
 ner, as in the Circus Maximus at the temple of Ce- 
 res, and in Pomney’s temple of Hercules, and also 
 in the capitol. The eustvle manner, for its useful- . 
 ness, beauty, and durability, merits every commen- 
 dation. It is formed by allowing to the distance of 
 the interccdumriiations two diameters and a quar- 
 ter, and to the middle i ntercolumniation only, 
 both before and behind three diameters. Thus 
 
 the figure has a beautiful aspect, is accessible, 
 without impediment, and round the cell is a 
 stately ambulatory. The rule is this: the front 
 of the building of it is tetrastylc (four co- 
 lumns), is divided into eleven parts and a half, 
 without reckoning the projection of the base of the 
 colump. If it is hexastyle (six columns), it is divi- 
 ded into eighteen parts. If it is octastyle (eight co- 
 lumns), it is divided into twenty-four parts and a 
 half. Of these parts, one, whether the building be 
 tetrastyle, hexastyle, or octastyle, shall he a module, 
 xvhich is to be the thickness of a column. ‘Each fil- 
 tered umni at ion, except the middle one, must be two 
 modules and a quarter; the middle one snail have 
 three modules both before and behind; the height 
 of the columns shall be eight modules and a half: 
 by this division of the i ntercolumniation, the co- 
 lumns have a just proportion. Rome affords no ex- 
 ample of this kind; but at Teos in Asia, is one, the 
 temple of Bacchus, which is octastyle. 
 
 Hermogenes was the first inventor of these pro- 
 portions; he also first used the octastyle pseudo- 
 dipteral; he first contrived to take away, without 
 (injuring the beauty, the inferior range of columns 
 in the dipteral (which are thirty-four), thereby very 
 much decreasing both the lab ur and expence ; this 
 also gave a very large ambulatory round the cell, 
 and, without missing the superfluity, preserved the 
 majesty of the whole; for the walls and the columns 
 were thus first disposed, that the view, on account 
 of the asperity (asperitas) of the intcrcolumniation, 
 should have more majesty; besides, it has this con- 
 venience of sheltering a great many persons from 
 rain, as well round, as within the cell, which in- 
 cludes a great space. This disposition of pseudo- 
 dipteral buildings was first discovered by the labour 
 of the great and discerning spirit of Hermogenes ; 
 which, like a fountain, will serve posterity from j 
 whence to draw rules for the science of architecture. 
 
 The columns to the a ram style should have for j 
 their thickness one-eighth part of their height. I 
 Tor the diastyle, the height of the column is to be [' 
 divided into eight parts and a half; one part for the I 
 
 thickness of the column. For the systyle, the height 
 shall be divided into nine parts and a half; one part 
 for the thickness of the column. Also for the pyc- 
 nostyle, the height shall be divided into ten parts; 
 one part tor the thickness of the column. The eu- 
 style al-o is divided into eight parts and a half, the 
 same as the diastyle ; one part is given for the tliick- 
 liess-rof the column; and for the solidity of its 
 parts it shall have its proper iutercoluraniation. As 
 the space between the columns increases, so ought 
 also the thickness of the columns. If it is araeostyle, 
 and they should only have a ninth or tenth part for 
 their thickness, they will then appear tall and slen* 
 dor, on account of the length of the intervals; for 
 the aisle will in appearance diminish the tiiickness 
 of the columns. On the contrary, if it is pvenostyle, 
 and the columns have an eighth part of their thick- 
 ness, they have a clumsy and ungraceful appearance, 
 on account of the frequency of the columns, and the 
 narrowness of the intervals : for this reason, the 
 symmetry and proportion of each order should be 
 attended to. Also the thickness of the corner co- 
 lumns must be increased one-fiftieth part; for, by 
 tire great surrounding space, they will appear small- 
 er to the view, and it is necessary art should rectify 
 this defect of vision. 
 
 APPLICATION OP TIIR FIVE ORDERS IN 
 IJUILDINC. 
 
 Among the ancients, as we have already seen, the 
 use of the orders was very frequent, many of their 
 cities were provided with spacious porticos, their 
 temples were surrounded with colonnades, and their 
 theatres, baths, basilicas, triumphal arclies, mauso- 
 leums, bridges, and other public buildings, were 
 profusedly enriched with columns; as were'likewise 
 the courts, vestibules, and halls, of their private 
 villas and houses. 
 
 In imitation of the ancients, the moderns have 
 made the orders of architecture the principal orna- 
 ments of their structures. We find them employed 
 in almost every building of consequence; where 
 they are sometimes merely ornamental, but at other 
 times- of real use, serving to support the incumbent 
 weight of any structure erected upon them. On 
 some occasions they are employed alone ; the whole 
 composition consisting only of one or more ranges 
 of columns, with their entablature. Upon other 
 occasions the intervals between the columns are 
 filled up and adorned with arches, doors, windows, 
 niches, statues, basscr-relievos, and other similar 
 inventions. The columns are either placed imme- 
 diately on the pavement, or raised on plinths, pedes- 
 tals, or basements; either engaged in the walls of 
 the building, or standing detached, either near, or 
 at some distance from them; and frequently dif- 
 ferent orders are placed one above another, or inter- 
 mixed with each other on the same level. In these, 
 and in all other cases, in which the orders are intro- 
 duced, particular measures, rules, and precautions, 
 
 are 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 are’ to be observed, which we shall now endeavour 
 to explain and illustrate. 
 
 - OF INTERCOLUMNIATIONS AND ARCADES. | 
 
 Columns are either engaged or insulated : and, 
 
 when insulated or detached from the wall, they are 
 either very near, or at a considerable distance from 
 it. When they are placed at a considerable distance 
 from the wail, they are destined to support the en- 
 tablature ; and their distance from each other should 
 bo con sistant both with their real and apparent soli- 
 dity. Engaged columns are attached to the wall, 
 and are not limited in their intercol animations, as 
 they depend on the breadth of the arches, doors, 
 windows, niches, or other decorations, placed in 
 them. 
 
 Palladio says, the intercolumniation of the Tus- 
 can order was adapted to farm-houses and other rus- I 
 tic works, as it afforded a passage for carts, and 
 was attended with the least expence. In structures 
 built entirely, of stone, they used a shorter interval, 
 more suitable to the length of their marble blocks, 
 and more agreeable to the ponderous fabric which 
 they occasionally supported ; for which reason the 
 diastyle and eustyle inodes were sometimes applied 
 to this order. The moderns have indeed adopted 
 these two as their general rule, and apply them to 
 every order except the Doric. The areostyle, how- 
 ever, is sometimes, by a modern contrivance autho- 
 rised by a fl w examples of the ancients, introduced 
 in porticos and peristyles. This mode of the areos- 
 tyle is from Perrauit, and is managed by placing 
 two columns together at the angles, so close as to 
 admit the two capitals nearly into contact. This 
 manner which is termed grouping, takes off from the 
 excessive width of this kind of interval, whilst it 
 adds to it botii real and apparent strength, as is ex- 
 emplified in St. Paul’s church in London, and in the 
 palace of the Louvre at Paris. 
 
 Arches, or arcades, are not so magnificent as colo- 
 nades; but they are more solid and less expensive. * 
 They are proper for triumphal entrances, gates of 
 cities, of palaces, of gardens, and of parks, and, in 
 general for all openings that require an extraordi- 
 nary breadth. There are various maimers of adorn- 
 ing arches. Sometimes their piers are rusticated ; 
 sometimes they are adorned with pilasters, termini, 
 ©r caryatides ; and sometimes they are made suffi- 
 ciently broad to admit niches or windows. The 
 circuit'- part of the arch is either surrounded with 
 rustic key-stones, or with an archivoit enriched with ' 
 mouldings ; which, in the middle, is sometimes in- i 
 terrupted by a console, or mask,, serving at the same 
 tirrv as a key ^to the arch, and as a support to the 
 architrave of the order. The archiv oit is sometimes 
 supported by an impost at the head of the pier; and 
 at oiners by columns placed on eac. side of it, with 
 a regular entablature, or architrave and cornice. 
 There are also instances of arcades without piers ; i 
 the arcnes being turned on single columns, as in the 1 
 
 2b 
 
 temple of Faunas at Rome, <Src. But this practice 
 ought to be seldom imitated, as it is neither solid 
 nor handsome. When, however, arcades are em- 
 ployed to ornament domestic apartments, the breadth 
 of the pier need not exceed one-quarter of the open- 
 ing of the arch. When arches are closed up to re- 
 ceive doors, windows, or niches, the recess should 
 be sufficient to contain all the projections of what is 
 placed therein, otherwise their appearance is clumsy, 
 and will become too principal, which produces a bad 
 effect in the composition. 
 
 When arches are large, the key-stone should never 
 be omitted, but cut in the form of a console, and 
 carried close under the soffit of £he architrave, 
 which, on account of its extraordinary length, re- 
 quires a support in the middle. The imposts of 
 arches should never be omitted; at least, if they be, 
 a platform ought to supply their place. If columns 
 are employed without pedestals in arcades, they 
 should always be raised on a plinth. In arches of 
 great magnitude, the circular part ought not to 
 spring immediately from the impost, but take its 
 rise at such a distance above it as is necessary in 
 order to have the whole curve seen at the proper 
 point of view. 
 
 The void or aperture of arches should never be 
 higher, nor much lower,, than double their breadth; 
 the breadth of the pier should seldom exceed two- 
 thirds, nor be less than one-third, of the breadth of 
 the arch ; and the angular pier ought to be broader 
 than the others, by one-half, one-third, or one- 
 fourth; the impost should not be more than one- 
 seventh, nor less than one-nintli, of the aperture; 
 and the archivoit must not be more than one-eighth, 
 nor less than one-tenth, of it. The breadth of the 
 console must, at the bottom, be equal to that of the 
 archivoit; and its sides must be drawn from the 
 centre of the arch the length of it must not be less 
 than one and a half of its smallest breadth, nor more 
 than double. The thickness of the pier depends on 
 the breadth of the portico; for it must be strong 
 enough to resist the pressure of its vault. But, to 
 give beauty to the building, it should not be less 
 than one-quarter of the breadth of the arch, nor 
 more than one-third. 
 
 The proportions peculiar to the Tuscan arch 
 without pedestals, are as follow : In height, their 
 aperture is seven diameters and a quarter, in width 
 four, and from centre to centre of the columns six 
 diameters. According to the preceding- remarks^ 
 the archivoit and imposts are half a diameter, and 
 from the top of the archivoit to the under side of 
 the architrave should not be less than fifteen mi- 
 nutes. The bread ti> of the key-stone at the bottom 
 is equal to it archivoit; and its spreading sides are 
 determined by lines drawn from the centre of ' le 
 arch. The Tuscan arch with pedestals is in width 
 four and a halfj and in height eight diaweters and a 
 quarter; and from centre to ceutre of each pier is 
 II si,x 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 86 
 
 six and three-quarters. In every other particular < 
 they are subject to the preceding rules. 
 
 The intercolumniation of the Doric order is often 
 attended with peculiar difficulty, arising from the j 
 strict regard that is necessarily paid to the width of 
 the triglyph, and the p er feet ly - square form of the 
 metopes, or their intervals. Resides that, it is ab- j 
 solutely requisite, that a triglyph should be placed 
 •exactly over the centre of every column. For j 
 these reasons, the mutules and triglyphs have been 
 omitted in capital works, both ancient and modern . 
 as in the Coliseum at Rome, and the Royal Hospi- 
 tal at Greemvjch. Pallado lias, however, given one 
 instance of an ancient temple with angular trig!vphs. 
 This structure, which he terms the Temple of Piety, i 
 is mentioned by Vitruvius, with ail eye to the ' 
 difficulty occasioned by the triglyphs being thus \ 
 "placed; which reduces the intercolumniation of the ! 
 two angular columns to one diameter and a quarter, 
 which is less than the pycnostyle. The next inter- II 
 •column iation is still greater, approaching nearly to jl 
 the pireostyle, as is evidently necessary to bring the il 
 triglyph over the centre of the third column from 
 the angle. The next, which is the centre interco- 
 lumniation, and faces the entrance of the temple, is 
 rather more than eustyle, or two diameters and a 
 quarter; and has, in the metope, ditriglvph. Hut 
 the intervals between the triglyph are much too nar- 
 row for their heights, so as to produce an unfavour- 
 able effect. The other spaces are monotriglyph, 
 and are perfect. The regular intercolumniation of 
 the Doric order in the mouotriglyph, or pycnostyle, 
 which admits of one between two columns. The 
 ditriglvph, or euslyle, admits two ; and the araeostvle ! 
 is tritriglypli, or consisting of three; but the most 1 
 -perfect -of t-.iese is the ditriglyph. 
 
 When the capitals and bases of coupled Doric co- 
 lumns have their proper projections, and are at any 
 distance from each other, the metope between them j 
 will l>e rather too wide.; but that may be avoided j 
 "by confining the projections, or making the triglyph j 
 one minute more than 4t really should bo, and plac- i 
 ing or removing its centre a minute within the axis i 
 "Of the column, which trifling differences will not be I 
 perceived without the nicest examination. In small 
 buildings, such as temples and other similar orna- 
 * merits for gardens, the intercolumniations may be 
 determined without paying a strict regard to the ge- 
 neral rules for the distances of columns ; always 
 observing, however, that such works must have an i 
 interval that will admit of an easy passage between j 
 tern. 
 
 Doric "arches, without pedestals, are seven 'dia- 
 meters and three-fourths high, and in width four i 
 diameters and fifteen minutes. The piers are two 
 .modules in front, and in thickness one module, 
 twenty-two minutes and a half; or in proportion to 
 their distance from the wall. From centre to cen- 
 tre each pier F six diameters and fifteen minutes. I 
 
 Arches of this order, with pedestals, have thdif 
 apertures in height nine diameters and thirty mi- 
 nutes, and in their width five diameters fifteen mi- 
 nutes. The piers are two diameters and fifteen 
 minutes w ide in front, and from centre to centre of 
 each is seven diameters fifteen minutes. 
 
 With respect to the intercolumniation of the 
 Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite orders, what has 
 been already observed on the subject will suffice : 
 and, as to the arches peculiar to each order, ali that 
 is necessary, after what has been remarked on the 
 two preceding orders, is a careful inspection of the 
 plates, whereon all the dimensions are ascertained, 
 
 OF ORDERS UPON ORDERS, AND OF BASEMENTS. 
 
 When, in a building, two or more orders are em- 
 ployed, one above another, the laws of solidify 
 require the strongest should be placed lowermost. 
 Hence the Tuscan must support the Doric, the Do- 
 ric the Ionic, the ionic the Composite or Corin- 
 thian, and tke Composite the Corinthian. This rule, 
 however, is not strictly adhered to. Most authors, 
 place the Composite above the Corinthian. There 
 are likewise examples where the same order is re- 
 peated, as in the theatre of Statilus Taurus, and in 
 tiie Coliseum, and others, where an intermediate 
 order is omitted, and the Ionic placed on the Tus- 
 can, or the Corinthian on the Doric. Hut none of 
 these practices ought to be imitated. In placing 
 columns above one another, the axis of all the co- 
 lumns ought to correspond, or be in the same per- 
 pendicular line, at least in front. 
 
 W ith regard to the proportions of columns placed 
 above each other, Scamozzi’s rule, that the lower 
 diameter of the superior column should constantly 
 be one, equal to the upper diameter of the inferior 
 is universally esteemed the best, and giv es all 
 the columns the appearance of one long tapering 
 tree, cut into several pieces. In this country, there 
 are few examples of more than two stories of co- 
 lumns in the same elevation; and though in Italy, 
 and other parts of Europe, w e frequently meet w ith 
 three, and sometimes more, yet it is a practice by no 
 means to be imitated; for there is no possibility of 
 avoiding many striking inconsistencies, or of preser- 
 ving the character of each order in its intercol um- 
 nia 1 decorations. 
 
 Instead of employing several orders one above the 
 other, the ground-ifoor is more judiciously made in 
 the form -of a basement, on which the order that de- 
 corates the principal story is placed. The propor- 
 tions of these basements are not fixed, but depend 
 on the nature of the rooms on the ground floor. In 
 the place of the Porti in Vicenza, the height of the 
 basement is equal to that of the order. In some 
 buildings, its height exceeds two-thirds of that ofthe 
 order: and, in others, only halfthe height ofthe or- 
 der. It is not, however, adviseable to make the 
 basement higher than the order it supports ; neither 
 should it be lower than one-half of the order. 
 
 The 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 £7 
 
 The usual method of decorating- basements is with 
 rustics of different kinds. The best, where neat- 
 ness and finishing is aimed at, are such as have a 
 smooth surface. Their height, including tiie joint, 
 should never be less, nor much more, than half a 
 module of the order placed on the basement. Their 
 figure may be from a square to a selquialtera : and 
 their joints may he either square or chamfered. The 
 square ones should not be broader than one-eighth 
 of the height of the rustic, nor narrower than one- 
 tenth; and their depth must be equal to their 
 breadth ; those that are chamfered must form a rect- 
 tangle: and the breadth of the whole joint may be 
 from one-fourth to one-third of the height of the 
 flat surface of the rustic. 
 
 OF PEDIMENTS. 
 
 Pediments among the Romans, were used only as 
 coverings to their sacred buildings, till Caisar ob- 
 tained leave to cover Ins house with a pointed roof, 
 after the manner of temples. In the remains of an- 
 tiquity we meet with two kinds of pediments, the 
 triangular and circular. The former of these are 
 promiscuously applied to cover small or large bo- 
 dies : but the latter, being of a heavier figure, arc. 
 only vised to cover doors, niches, windows, or gates. 
 
 As a pediment represents the roof, it should never 
 be employed but as a finishing to the whole compo- 
 sition. The ancients introduced hut few pediments 
 into their buildings, usually contenting themselves 
 with a single one to adorn the middle or principal 
 part. But some of the moderns, and particularly 
 the Italians, have been so immoderately fond of 
 them, that their buildings frequently consist of; 
 scarcely any thing else. The girder being a ncces- j 
 saw part in the construction of a roof, it is an im- 
 propriety to intermit the horizontal entablature of a 
 pediment, by which it is represented, to make room 
 for a niche, an arch, or a window. 
 
 In regular architecture, r.o other form of pedi- 
 ments can be admitted besides the triangular and 
 circular. Both of them are beautiful: and when a 
 considerable number of pediments are introduced, 
 as when a range of windows are adorned with them, 
 these two figures may be used alternately, as in the 
 riches of the Pantheon, and in those of the temple 
 of Diana at Nisn.es. The proportion of pediments 
 depends upon their size: for the same proportions 
 will not do in all cases. When the base of the pe- 
 diment is short. its height must be increased; and, 
 when the pediment is long, the height must be 
 diminished. The best proportion for the height is 
 from one-fifth to one-fourth of the base, according 
 to the extent of the pediment, and the character of 
 the body it covers. The materials of the roof 
 must also he attended to : for, if it be covered with 
 
 tiles, it will be necessary to raise it more than one- 
 quarter of the base, as was the custom of the an- 
 cients in their Tuscan temples. The tvmpan is 
 always on a line with the front of the frieze; and, 
 when large, admits of various ornaments, as ill the 
 
 pediment tp the western elevation of the temple of 
 Minerva at Athens. 
 
 OF BA LEV ST HADES. 
 
 Ballustrades are sometimes of real use in build- 
 ings; and at other times they are only ornamental. 
 Such as are intended for use, as when they are em- 
 ployed in stair-cases, before windows, or to inclose 
 terraces, &c. must always be nearly of the same 
 height; never exceeding three leet and a half, nor 
 ever less than three. But those that are principal- 
 ly designed for ornament, as when they finish a 
 building, should be proportioned to the architec- 
 ture they accompany ; and their height ought never 
 to exceed four-fifths of the height of the entabla- 
 ture on which they are placed ; nor should it ever 
 lie less than two-thirds thereof, without counting- 
 the zoebolo, or plinth, the height of which must be 
 sufficient to leave the whole ballustrade exposed 
 to view'. 
 
 Tbc best proportion for ballustrades is to divide 
 the whole given height into thirteen equal parts; 
 eight of these for the height of the bailustre, three 
 for the base, and two for the cornice or rail : or 
 into fourteen (if it be required to make the bailus- 
 tre less), giving eight parts to the bailustre, four to 
 the base, and two to the rail. One of these parts 
 may be called a module ; and, being divided into 
 nine minutes, may serve to determine the dimen- 
 sions of the particular members. 
 
 in ballustrades, the distance between two bal- 
 lustres should not exceed half the diameter of the 
 bailustre measured in its thickest part, nor be less 
 then ene-third of it. 
 
 The breadth of the pedestals, when they are 
 placed on columns or pilasters, is regulated by them; 
 the die never being made broader than the top of 
 the shaft, nor much narrower; and, when there are 
 neither columns nor pilasters on the front, the dye 
 should not be much lower than a square, and sel- 
 dom higher. On stairs, or any other inclined 
 planes, the same proportions are to be observed as 
 on horizontal ones. 
 
 OF A’ I CUES ASD STATUES 
 
 It has been the custom of every age to enrich 
 different parts of buildings with representations of 
 the human body. Thus the ancients adorned their 
 temples, baths, theatres, &c. with statues of their 
 I deities, heroes, and legislators. The moderns still 
 [ preserve the same custom, placing in their churches, 
 i palaces, &c. statues of illustrious persons, -and even 
 j groups composed of various figures, representing 
 j occurrences collected from history, fables, &c. 
 j Sometimes these statues or groups are detached, 
 liaised on pedestals, and placed contiguous to the 
 | walls of a building, or in the middle of a room, 
 
 I court, or public square. But they are most fre- 
 j quentlv placed in cavities nlude in the walls, called 
 j niches. Of these there are two sorts, the one forni- 
 ed like an arch in its elevation, and semi-circular 
 j or semi-elliptical in its plan ; the other is a paral- 
 ‘ jelogran* 
 
S3 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 lelcgram both in its plan and elevation. The pro- 
 portion of both these niches depends on the charac- 
 ters of the statues, or the general form of the groups 
 placed in them. The lowest are at least a double 
 square in height : and the highest never exceed two 
 ami a half of their breadth. 
 
 With regard to the manner of decorating them, 
 when they are alone in a composition, they are ge- 
 nerally inclosed in a pannel, formed and proportioned 
 like the aperture of a window, and adorned in the 
 same manner. In this case the niche is carried 
 quite down to the bottom ; but on the sides and at 
 the top, a small space is left between the niche and 
 the architrave of the pannel. And when niches are 
 intermixed with windows, they may be adorned in 
 the same manner with the windows, provided the 
 ornaments be of the same figure and dimensions with 
 those of the windows. 
 
 The size of the statue depends on the dimensions 
 of the niches. They should neither be so large as to 
 have the appearance of bei ng rammed into the niches, 
 as in Santa Maria Majora at Rome; nor so nar- 
 row as to seem lost in them, as in the Pantheon. 
 The distance between the outline of the statue and 
 side of the niche should never be less than one-third 
 of a head, nor more than one half, whether the niche 
 be square or arched ; and, when it is square, the 
 distance from the top of the head to the ceiling of 
 the niche should not be greater than the distance 
 on the sides. Statues are generally raised on a 
 plinth, the height of which may be from one-third to 
 one-half of a head ; and sometimes, where the niches 
 are large, the statues may be raised on small pedes- 
 tals. The character of the statue should always 
 correspond with the character of the architecture 
 with which it is surrounded. Thus, if the order be 
 Doric, Hercules, Jupiter, Mars, yEsculapius, and all 
 male statues, representing beings of a robust and 
 grave nature, may be introduced; if Ionic, then 
 Apollo, Bacchus, &c. and, if Corinthian, Venus, 
 Flora, and others of a delicate nature, should be 
 employed. 
 
 OF CHIMNEYS AND CHIMNEY PIECES. 
 
 Chimney-pieces are either made of stone, of mar- 
 ble, or of a mixture of these; also of wood, scaglio- 
 la, or-moulu, or some other nnfragile substances. 
 Those of marble are most costly, but they are also 
 most elegant, and the only ones used in highly-fi- 
 nished apartments; where they are seen either of 
 white or variagated marbles, sometimes inlaid and 
 decorated wit' the materials just mentioned. Ail 
 their ornaments, figures, or profiles, are to be made 
 of the pure white sort; but their friezes, tablets, pan- 
 nals, shafts of columns, and other plain parts, may 
 be of party coloured marbles, such as the yellow of 
 Sienna, the Brocatello of Spain, the Diaspers of Si- 
 cily, and many other modern as well as antique 
 marbles, almost always to be had in London. Fes- 
 toons of flowers, trophies and foliages, frets, and 
 other such decorations, cut in white statuary marble, 
 
 and .fixed upon grounds of these, have certainly a 
 very delicate effect. But there should never be a- 
 bove two or at most three, different sorts of colours 
 in the same chimney-piece, all brilliant, and harmo- 
 nizing with each other. Neither the Italians nor 
 French have excelled in compositions of this kind ; 
 but Britain, possessed of many able sculptors at 
 different .times, has occasionally surpassed all other 
 nations, both in taste of design and workmanship. 
 
 The size of the chimney must be regulated by 
 the dimensions of the room where it is placed. In 
 the smallest apartments, the breadth of the aperture 
 , should never be less than three feet, or three feet 
 six inches. In rooms from twenty to twenty-four 
 feet square, or of equal superficial dimensions, it 
 may be from four to four and a half feet broad ; in 
 those of twenty-four to twenty-seven, from four 
 and a half to five; and, in such as exceed these 
 dimensions, the aperture may even be extended to 
 five and a half to six feet. The chimney should- 
 always be situated so as to be immediately seen by 
 those w ho enter the room. The middle of the par- 
 tition-wall is the most proper place in halls, saloons, 
 and other rooms of passage ; but in drawing-rooms, 
 dressing-rooms, and the like, the middle of the 
 back wail is the best situation, in bed rooms, the 
 chimney is alw'ays in the middle of one of the par- 
 tition-walls ; and in closets and other very small 
 places, to save room it is put in a corner. Where 
 ever two chimneys are used in the same room, they 
 should be placed either directly facing each other, 
 if in different walls, or at equal distances from the 
 centre of the wall in which they both are. 
 
 The proportion of the apertures of chimney- 
 pieces of a moderate size is generally a perfect 
 square ; in small ones it is a trifle higher, and, in 
 large ones, a trifle lower. In designing them, re- 
 ; gard must he had to the nature of the place where 
 j they are to be employed. Such as are inte ded for 
 I halls, saloons, guard-rooms, galleries, and other 
 ; large places, must be composed of large parts, few 
 in number, of distinct and simple forms, and having 
 a bold relief; but chimney-pieces for drawing-rooms 
 dressing-rooms, &c. may be of a more delicate and 
 complicated nature. 
 
 OF CEILINGS. 
 
 Ceilings are either flat, or coved in different man- 
 ; ners. The simplest of the flat, kind are those adorn- 
 1 <'d with large compartments, surrounded with oue 
 ! or several mouldings, or borders, either let into.^he 
 | ceiling, or projecting beyond its surface; and when 
 I the mouldings that torn) the compartments are en- 
 riched, and some of the compartments adorned with 
 well executed ornaments, such ceilings have a good 
 effect. The ornaments and mouldings do not re- 
 quire a bold relief; but, being near the eye they 
 must be finished with taste and neatness. The 
 principal effect of ali fiat ceilings depends very 
 much upon tne richness and beauty of the cor- 
 nice. 
 
 Coved 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 29 
 
 Coved ceilings are more expensive : but they are 
 likewise more beautiful. They are used promis- 
 cuously in large and small rooms, and occupy from 
 one-fifth to one-third of the height of the room. If 
 the room be low in proportion to its breadth, the cove 
 must likewise be low; and when it is high the cove 
 must be so likewise, by which means the excess of the 
 height will be rendered less perceptible. But, where 
 the architect isat liberty to proportion the height ofthe 
 room to its superficial dimensions, the most eligible 
 proportion for the cove is one-fourth of the whole 
 height. The figure of the cove is commonly either 
 a quadrant of a circle or of an ellipsis, taking its rise 
 a little above the cornice, and finishing at the bor- 
 der round the great pannel in the centre. The bor- 
 der projects somewhat beyond the coves on the 
 outside; and, on the side towards the pannel, it is 
 generally made of sulficient depth to admit the or- 
 naments of an architrave. In Britain, circular 
 rooms are not much in use ; but they are very beau- 
 tiful. Their height must be the same with that of 
 square rooms ; their ceilings may be flat : but they 
 are handsomer when coved, or of a concave form. 
 
 When the profiles of rooms are gilt, the ceilings 
 ought likewise to be gilt. The usual method is to 
 gib! ail the ornaments, and to leave all the grounds 
 white,- pearl colour, light blue, or of any other tint 
 proper to set off the gilding to advantage. Histori- 
 cal and oilier paintings are often used with good 
 effect in the centre and angular compartments of 
 large ceilings ; and since the rapid and elegant im- 
 provements in plaster and stucco have been intro- 
 duced, a late invention of painted silk and sattin in 
 various ornaments, from antiques, have likewise 
 been adopted, to adorn the profiles or walls of 
 rooms. These are inclosed in pannels, pilasters, 
 and tablets, according to their destination; and, 
 when they have suitable gilt mouldings, they pro- 
 duce a very gay and splendid effect. 
 
 Among the greatest ornaments and completest 
 models -of modern architecture in Great Britain, 
 Somerset-place in the Strand, and St. Paul’s cathe- 
 dral rank the first; and, as they might justly be . 
 considered national specimens of the “ sublime and 
 beautiful in building, ” we think it incumbent upon 
 us to describe them here. 
 
 Somerset-place is erected on the scite of old So- 
 merset-house, on the banks of the Thames. The 
 front towards the Strand is but little more than one 
 hundred and thirty feet long ; and all that an archi- 
 tect could do in so small a compass, and all that he 
 seems to have wished, was to produce an object that 
 should indicate something more considerable within, 
 and excite the spectator’s curiosity to a nearer exa- 
 mination of the whole fabric, of which this is only 
 one external part. His style, in consequence, is 
 bold, simple, and regular, it is an attempt to unite 
 the chastity and order of the Venetian masters with 
 the majestic grandeur ofthe Roman. The parts are 
 few, large, and distinct; the transitions sudden, and 
 
 strongly marked. No breaks are seen in the gene- 
 ral course of the plan, and little movement in the 
 outline of the elevation ; whence the whole struc- 
 ture has acquired an air of consequence, which few 
 artists, in so narrow a limit, would have given it. 
 This front consists of a rustic basement, supporting 
 columns of the Corinthian order, crowned in the 
 centre with an attic, and at the extremities with a 
 ballustrade. The basement is composed of nine 
 large arches, the three centre ones of which, being 
 open, form the principal entrance ; the others are 
 filled w ith Doric windows, ornamented with pilas- 
 ters, entablatures, and pediments. The key-stones 
 of the arches are adorned with nine masks or heads, 
 finely carved in alto relievo, descriptive of the 
 ocean, and the follow ing principal rivers of England ; 
 Thames, Severn, Humber, Mersey, Tyne, Medway, 
 Dee, and Tweed ; and to these masks are added 
 various emblematical devices, denoting the respec- 
 tive properties and peculiarities of each ; and, as 
 they are executed with much taste and skill, they 
 merit a particular description. 
 
 Ocean is placed in the centre, and is represented 
 by the venerable head of an old man, whose flowing 
 beard resembles waves, which are filled with various 
 kinds' offish. A crescent is on his forehead, deno- 
 ting the influence of the moon on its waters, and his 
 temples are adorned with crowns, tridents, anti 
 other marks of royalty. Thames is on the right of 
 Ocean; a majestic mask, crowned with billing 
 swans, and luxuriant garlands of fruits and flowers. 
 The hair and beard are nicely dressed and plaited, 
 and the features are expressive of good sense, good 
 humour, and every species of urban perfection. 
 Humber is the next in order to the right ofthe cen- 
 tre; a striking contrast to the Thames. It is an 
 athletic hardy countenance, with the beard and hair 
 disordered by the fury of tempests. The cheeks and 
 eyes are swollen with rage, the mouth is open, and 
 every feature distorted, expressive of the boisterous 
 intractable character of that river. Next are the 
 Mersey and the Dee ; one crowned with garlands of 
 oak, the other with reeds, and divers aquatic pro- 
 ductions. The four first of these are executed 1 by 
 Mr. Wilton, and the last by Signor Carlini. 
 
 The masks which decorate the arches on the left 
 side, are, first, the Medway ; a head similar to that 
 of - the Thames, but expressive of less urbanity, 
 more negligently dressed, and bearing for emblems 
 the prow of a ship of war, with festoons of hops, and 
 such fruits as enrich its banks. Tweed is next in 
 order ; a rustic mask, with lank hair, a rough beard, 
 and other marks of rural simplicity ; yet hath the 
 ingenious sculptor artfully given it a character of 
 sagacity, valour, fortitude and strength. It is 
 crowned with a garland of roses and thistles. These 
 are by Mr. Wilton. Tyne and Severn are the re- 
 maining two. Tyne is a head-dress artfully com- 
 posed of salmon, intermixed with kelp, and other 
 sea-weeds. Severn is a similar head-dress, cornpo- 
 I sed 
 
30 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 sed of sedges and cornucopias, from whence flow 
 abundant streams of water, with lampreys and other 
 fish that abound in that river. These are by Signor 
 Carlini. 
 
 The floor consists of a principal, and a mezzanine; 
 and before the windows of the building is a ballus- 
 trade. They are besides ornamented with Ionic pi- 
 lasters, entablatures, and pediments: and the three 
 central ones have large tablets, covering the archi- 
 trave and frieze, on which appear medallions of the 
 king, the queen, and the prince of Wales, supported 
 by lions and ornamented with garlands of myrtle, 
 oak, and laurel. The windows of the mezzanine 
 floor are only surrounded with architraves. The 
 attic consists of three divisions, separated by Colos- 
 sal figures, placed above each of the columns. The 
 figures represent four venerable statesmen, in senato- 
 rial robes, each having on his head ,i cap of liberty, 
 and in their hands they bear the emblems of strength 
 and power, derived from unanimity, and maintained 
 by justice, prudence, moderation, and valour. The 
 attic is crowned with a group, consisting of the im- 
 perial arms of the kingdoms, one side of which is 
 supported by the Genius of England, and tire other 
 by Fame, sounding her trumpet. 
 
 The front of this building, towards the principal 
 court, is considerably longer than that towards the 
 Strand, being near two hundred feet in extent. The 
 centre of t is front is also better distinguished than 
 that towards the Strand; it exhibits a plainness and 
 repose, whereon the eye may rest with pleasure, as 
 on a principal. It is composed of a corps de logis , 
 with two projecting wings; the style of decoration 
 is, however, nearly the same ; the principal variation 
 consisting in the doors, windows, or smaller parts, 
 which are of other forms, and of different dimensions. 
 The five masks on the key-stones of the arches re- 
 present tutelar deities of the place, executed by Mr. 
 Nollekens. Near this front are two sunken courts, 
 surrounded wit i elegant arcades, serving to give 
 light to the basement story of the royal academy, 
 the royal society, and the rooms wherein are depo- 
 sited (he national records. In the middle of each of 
 these courts is a reservoir of water, for the purpose 
 of serving the apartments below, and to be ready in 
 ca«e of fire. They are supplied from the New 
 River. 
 
 The buildings towards the court form three sides 
 of a square : the style of architecture, and the deco- 
 rations of the wings, differing in form and dimen- 
 sions. The statues of the attic represent America 
 breathing defiance, with the three other quarters of I 
 the globe loaded witli fruits and other tributary 
 treasures; and these are crowned with the British 
 arms on a cartel, surrounded with sea-weeds, sup- 
 ported by Tritons armed with tridents, and holding ! j 
 nets containing fish and other maritime productions, j 
 
 This truly magnificent building is constructed for 
 the purpose of transacting the business of several j , 
 
 of His Majesty’s public offices, viz. the privy-seal 
 and signet, the navy, navy-pay, victualling, sick and 
 wounded, ordnance, stamp, lottery, salt tax, hack- 
 ney-coach, hawkers and pedlars, the surveyor-gene- 
 ral of the crown-lands, the duchies of Cornwall and 
 Lancaster, the two auditors of Imprests, the pipe, 
 comptroller of pipe, clerk of the estreats, and trea- 
 surers’s remembrancers. Here are houses for the 
 treasurer, the pay-master, and six commissioners of 
 the navy. Also for three commissioners of the vic- 
 alling and their secretary ; for one commissioner of 
 the stamps, and one of the sick and wounded ; and 
 other apartments for inferior officers. 
 
 That part of the edifice which fronts the Strand is 
 in possession of the royal society, the antiquarian 
 society, and the royal academy of artists ; and here 
 the annual exhibition of paintings and sculptpre is 
 held. These respectable bodies are also accommo- 
 dated with halls and apartments for their libraries, 
 models, &c. with rooms for their officers, and every 
 other requisite which their national consequence 
 could demand from an enlightened and liberal go- 
 vernment. 
 
 The buildings which contain the above-mention- 
 ed public offices form the principal court. They are 
 grand, elegant, of great extent, and strikingly indi- 
 cate an exertion of great inventive faculties in the 
 architect, Sir William Chambers ; while the gene- 
 ral disposition affords a pleasing satisfaction. The 
 front towards the Thames is truly magnificent ; it 
 is finished with a noble terrace, with a bullustrade 
 towards the river, and an extensive gravel way for 
 carriages to go all round the external fronts of the 
 whole building. 
 
 The next noble structure, which does honour to 
 the national character, as well as to the cause of re- 
 ligion, is the cathedral church of St. Paul. This 
 amazing edifice is situated upon a rising ground, be- 
 tween tiie entrances of C icapside and Ludgate- 
 street, in the very centre of the city of London, and 
 upon the scite of the old Cathedral, which vva 3 
 burnt to the ground in the general conflagration of 
 1G66. Sir Christopher Wren wasthe architect; and 
 he was desired to prepare the plan of a new fabric, 
 that should excel every building in the universe for 
 magnificence and splendour. To give effect to the 
 execution of so grand a design, the chamber of Lon- 
 don was made an office for the receipt of contribu- 
 tions to defray the expences ; into which, in ten 
 years only, was paid the sum of £ 120,000. Charles 
 If. generously gave a thousand pounds a-year out 
 of bis privy-purse, besides a duty on coals, which 
 produced £5000 a year, over and above all other 
 grants in its favour. Sir Christopher prepared a 
 design well studied and truly magnificent, conforma- 
 ble to the best style of the Greek and Roman ar- 
 checture which all approved except the bishops, who 
 thought it not sufficiently laid out in the cathedral 
 fashion. The design was therefore varied in many 
 
 respects, 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 31 
 
 respects, until the plan of the present mighty strnc 
 ture, which is in the form of a long cross, was na- 
 nimously approved ; soon after which the buildin 
 was put in .and, and tiie first stone was laid by Si 
 Christopher himself, on the 21st of June, 1675. 
 
 T ie foundations being laid, Portland stone w>. 
 chosen to complete the superstructure. The wai 
 are wrought in rustic, and strengthened, as well a 
 adorned, by two row* of double pilasters, one ov< 
 the other; the lower of the Corinthian order, an 
 the upper of the Composite. The spaces between 
 the arches of the windows and the architrave of ti* 
 lower order, are filled with a great variety of gran 
 enrichments, as are also those above. The we* 
 front, towards Ludgate-street, has a most noble at 
 pearance, and is ornamented with a magnificent por 
 tico, a grand pediment, and two stately turrets. 
 The ascent is by a beautiful flight of steps, of black 
 marble, that extends the whole length of the portico, 
 which is formed of twelve lofty Corinthian column^ 
 below, and eight of the Composite order above 
 these are all coupled and fluted. The upper series 
 support a noble pediment, crowned with its acrote- 
 ria, in which is a beautiful representation, in bass- 
 relief, of the conversion of St, Paul, executed in a 
 very masterly manner. The magnificent figure of 
 St. Paul on the apex of the pediment, with St. Peter 
 on his right hand, and St. Jame9 on his left, have 
 also a fine effect. T ie four evangelists, with tueir 
 proper emblems, on the front o! the towers, are judi- 
 ciously disposed and well executed. St. Matthew is 
 distinguished by an angel, St. Mark by a lion, St. 
 
 L ;ke by an ox, and St. John by an eagle. In the 
 area of this front, on a pedestal of excellent work- 
 manship, is a statue of Queen Ann, formed oi 
 white marble, with proper decorations. The figures 
 on the base represent Britannia with her spear, G 1- 
 lia with a crown, Hibernia with a harp, and Ame- 
 rica with a b w. On ascending the steps, we ap- 
 proacn the interior of the churc ■ by three doors, or- 
 namented on trie top with bass-relief: the middle 
 door, whic : is- by far the largest, is cased with white 
 marble, and over it is a fine piece of basso-relievo, 
 in which Si. Paul is represented preaching to ti*e 
 Bereans, To the north portico there is an ascent 
 by seventeen circular steps of black marble ; and it 
 has a dome, supported by six large fluted columns of ; 
 the Corinthian order, forty-eight inches in diameter. 
 Beneath the upper part of its dome, is a large and 
 vv ! I -proportioned urn, finely ornamented with fes- 
 to ms, and over it a pediment, supported by pilasters 
 in the walls, in the front of which is carved the 
 royal arms, with the regalia, supported by angels ; 
 and on the top, at proper distances, are placed the 
 statues of live of the apostles. The south portico 
 answers in uniformity to the north, and has a dome 
 supported by six beautiful Corinthian columns; but, 
 as the ground is considerably lower on this than on 
 the other side of the church, the ascent is by a flight | 
 
 of twenty-five steps. This portico has also a pedi- 
 ment above, in w ,ic!i is a phoenix rising out of the 
 lames, with the motto /t esurgam, underneath it, as 
 oeing emblamatical of the present cathedrals rising 
 >ut of the fire of London. On this side of the 
 .nilding are also five statues, which take their situa- 
 ion from that of St. Andrew, on the apex of the 
 ast-mentioned pediment. At the east end of the 
 church is a swoe : .’, or circular projection, for the 
 iltar, finely ornamented with a great variety of the 
 orders, and decorated with sculpture. 
 
 The dome, that great master-piece of classical 
 architecture, which rises in the centre of the whole 
 fabric, appears exceedingly grand ; twenty-five feet 
 above the roof of the church, is a circular range of 
 thirty-two columns, with niches placed exactly 
 igainst others within ; these are terminated by their 
 entablature, which supports a handsome gallery, 
 adorned with a balustrade, above these columns is 
 i range of pilasters, with windows between, and 
 from the entablature of those the diameter decreases 
 very considerably, and two feet above that it is again 
 contracted. From this part the external sweep of 
 the dome begins, and the arches meet at fifty -two 
 feet above ; on the top of the dome is an elegant 
 balcony, and from its centre rises the lantern, 
 domed with Corinthian columns; and the whole is 
 terminated by a ball, on which stands a cross, both 
 af which are elegantly gilt. When these parts are 
 viewed from below, they greatly deceive the eye of 
 the beholder, on account of their great height, as 
 >hey appear exceedingly small in comparison with 
 their real size, which is amazingly large. 
 
 This extensive fabric is surrounded, at a proper 
 distance, by a dwarf stone wali, on which is placed 
 the most magnificent ballustrade of cast iron, per- 
 haps in the universe, of about five feet six inches in 
 height, exclusive of t e wail. In this enclosure are 
 seven beautiful iron gates, which, together with the 
 ballustrades, in number about 2500, weigh 200 tons 
 and 811b. which having cost 6d. per pound, tue 
 whole, with other charges, amounted to 1 1,2021. 6d. 
 Tue total cost of the whole fabric, even in those 
 cheap times, wa- 736,7521. 2s. 3£d. 
 
 On entering at the western door, the mind is 
 struck by the grandeur of the vista; an arcade sup- 
 ported by massy and lofty pillars on each side, 
 divide the church into the body and two ailes, and 
 the view is termina‘ed by the upper extremity of the 
 choir; though it is in some measure obstructed by 
 the organ. T e pillars are adorned with columns 
 and pilasters of the Corinthian and Composite orders, 
 and the arches of the roof are enriched with shields, 
 festoons, chaplets, and other ornaments. Its dimen- 
 sions are as follow : 
 
 THE PLAN, OR LENGTH AND BREADTH. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Whole length of the church and porch - - 500 
 Whole length of the cross ------ 250 
 
 Breadth 
 
32 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Breadth of the front with the turrets ... 
 Breadth of the front without the turrets - - 
 
 Breadth of the church and three naves - - 
 
 Breadth of the church and widest chapels 
 
 Length of the porch within 
 
 Breadth of the porch within - 
 Length of the platea at the upper steps - - 
 
 Breadth of the nave at the door - - - - 
 
 Breath of the nave at the third pillar, and 
 
 tribuna 
 
 Breadth of the side-ailes 
 
 Distance between the pillars of the nave - - 
 
 Breadth of the same, single pillars - - - 
 
 Two right sides of the great pilasters of the 
 cupola ----------- 
 
 Distance between the same pilasters - - - 
 
 Outward diameter of the cupola - 
 Inward diameter of the same - - - - - 
 
 Breadth of the square by the cupola - - - 
 
 Length of the same 
 
 From the door within to the cupola - - - 
 
 From the cupola to the end of the tribuna - 
 Breadth of each of the turrets ----- 
 Outward diameter of the lantern - - - - 
 
 Whole space upon which one pillar stands - 
 Whole space upon which all the pillars stand 
 
 THE ELEVATION. 
 
 From the ground without to the top of the 
 cross - -- -- -- -- -- - 
 
 The turrets - 
 
 To the top of the highest statues on the front 
 The first pillars of the Corinthian order - - 
 
 The breadth of the same ------ 
 
 Their basis and pedestals ------ 
 
 Their capital - -- -- -- -- - 
 
 The architrave, frieze, and cornice - - - 
 
 The Composite pillars at St. Paul’s - - - 
 
 The ornaments of the same pillars above and 
 below - -- -- -- -- -- 
 
 The ball in height - 
 
 The cross, pedestal, and base - - - - - 
 
 The triangle of the mezzo relievo, with its 
 cornice - -- -- -- -- -- 
 
 Width 
 
 The basis of the cupola to the pedestals of 
 
 the pillars - - 
 
 The pillars of the cupola ------ 
 
 Their basis and pedestals ------ 
 
 Their capitals, architrave, frieze and cornice 
 From the cornice to the outward slope of the 
 cupola - -- -- -- -- -- 
 
 The lantern from the cupola to the ball - - 
 
 The statues upon the front, witli their pedes- 
 tals -.--- - 
 
 The outward slope of the cupola - - - - 
 
 The cupola and lantern, from the cornice of 
 the front to top of the cross - - - - - 
 
 The height of the niches in the front - - - 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Width - -- -- -- -- -- - 5 
 
 T 1 e first windows in the front - - - - 13 
 
 Width --- 7 
 
 Tue extent of the ground-plot, on which the 
 building stands, is two acres, sixteen perches, 
 twenty-three yards, and one foot. 
 
 All the floor of the church and choir, to the altar, 
 is paved with marble ; the altar is paved with por- 
 phyry, polished, and laid in several geometrical 
 figures. The vaulting of the roof is hemispherical, 
 consisting of twenty-four cupolas, cut off semicircu- 
 lar, with segments to join to to the great arches one 
 way, and the other way they are cut across with 
 elliptical cylinders, to let in the upper lights of the 
 nave ; but in the aisles, the lesser cupolas are cut 
 both ways in semicircular sections, and altogether 
 produce a graceful geometrical effect, distinguished 
 with circular wreaths, which is the horizontal sec- 
 tion of tiro cupola. The arches and wreaths are ot 
 stone, carved; the spandrels between are of sound 
 brick, invested with stucco of cockle-shell lime, 
 which becomes as hard as Portland-stone: and 
 which, having large planes between the stone-ribs, 
 are capable of further ornameuts of painting, if 
 required. Besides these twenty-four cupolas, there 
 is a half-cupola at the east: and the great cupola of 
 108 feet diameter in the middle of the crossing of 
 the great ailes; it is extant out of the wall, and is 
 illumined by the windows of the upper order, which 
 strike down the light through the great colonnade 
 that encircles the dome without, and serves for the 
 hutment of the dome, w hich is brick, of two bnclts 
 thick; but, as it rises every way live feet high, it lias 
 a course of excellent brick of eighteen inches long, 
 i bending through the whole thickness: and, to make 
 1 it still more secure, it is surrounded with a vast 
 chain of iron, strongly linked together at every ten 
 feet: this chain is let into a channel cut into the 
 bandage of Portland-stone, and defended from the 
 weather by filling the groove with lead. Over the 
 first cupola is raised another structure of a cone of 
 bricks, so built as to support a stone lantern of an 
 elegant figure, and ending in ornaments of copper, 
 gilt; the whole church above the vaulting being 
 covered with a substantial oaken roof and lead, so 
 this cone is covered and hid out of sight by another 
 cupola of timber and lead : between which and the 
 cone are easy stairs, which ascend to the lantern. 
 The contrivance here is astonishing. The light to 
 | these stairs is from the lantern above. 
 
 The inside of the dome is painted and richly de- 
 corated by Sir James Thornhill, who, in eight com- 
 partments, has represented the principal passages in 
 the history of St. Paul’s life, namely, his conversion; 
 his punishing Elymas the sorcerer with blindness ; 
 his preaching at Athens ; his curing- the poor 
 cripple at Lystra, and the reverence there paid 
 him by the priests of Jupiter as a god; his conver- 
 sion 
 
 Feet. 
 
 180 
 
 110 
 
 130 
 
 180 
 
 50 
 
 20 
 
 100 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 17 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 25 35 
 
 40 
 
 145 
 
 100 
 
 43 
 
 3 28 
 
 190 
 
 170 
 
 35 
 
 18 
 
 875 
 
 7000 
 
 340 
 
 222 
 
 135 
 
 33 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 29 
 
 18 
 
 74 
 
 38 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 50 
 
 240 
 
 14 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 ^io» of the gaoler ; his preaching at Ephesus, and 
 the burning the magic books in consequence of the 
 miracles lie there wrought ; his trial before Agrippa : 
 his shipwreck on the island of Melita, or Malta, and 
 his miracle of the viper. 
 
 The highest or last stone, on the top of the lan- 
 tern, was laid by the hands of Christopher Wren, 
 the surveyor’s son, in the year 1710. Thus was 
 this mighty fabric, lofty enough to be discerned at 
 sea eastward, at Windsor westward, in the space of 
 thirty-five vears, begun and finished by one archi- 
 tect, and under oue bishop of London, Dr. Henry 
 Compton. Whereas St. Peter’s at Rome, the only 
 edifice that can come in competition with it, conti- 
 nued in building 145 years, under twelve successive 
 architects, assisted by the police and interests of the 
 Roman see ; attended by the best artists of the 
 world in sculpture, statuary, painting, and mosaic 
 work, and facilitated by the ready acquisition of 
 marble from the neighbouring quarries of Tivoli. 
 
 This grand cathedral, thus finished, as an excel- 
 lent author observes, “ is undoubtedly one of the 
 
 ] most magnificent modern buildings in Europe; all 
 the parts of which it U composed are superlatively 
 beautiful and noble. The north and south fronts in 
 particular are very perfect pieces of architecture ; 
 neither ought the east to go without due applause. 
 The two spires at the westend are in a finished taste; 
 and the portico with the ascent, and the dome that 
 rises in the centre of the whole, afford a very august 
 and surprising prospect.” In short, in surveying 
 this stupendous monument of our country’s genius, 
 the imagination is filled with a lofty kind of admira- 
 tion, which no building of less majesty and grandeur 
 could possibly excite. 
 
 We might instance as beautiful specimens of the 
 art the fragment of a palace at Whitehall, now used 
 as a chapel, and justly deemed one of the noblest 
 productions of that incomparable master, InigoJones; 
 also, the interior of St. Stephens Church, Walbrook, 
 by Sir Christopher Wren, deemed by foreigners a 
 more splendid proof of his abilities than even St 
 Pauls itself. 
 
 BRIDGES. 
 
 Bbidce, in Architecture, is a structure of Ma- 
 sonry, Carpentry, or iron-work, built over a canal, 
 river, or valley, erected for the convenience of pas- 
 sing from one side to the other, and supported by 
 arches or links, and these again supported by piers 
 or hutments. 
 
 Bridges generally form the continuation of a road 
 or highway, or of a street; in the first case they are 
 often built in a rude and cheap manner, and without 
 attention to those principles which alone insure 
 permanence and solidity; but when they form the 
 entrance to or form the principal street of a large 
 city, their construction is most generally attended 
 w ith great expence, and a degree of elegance and 
 durability is required in their formation, that calls 
 for the utmost skill of the architect. Palladio, in 
 this case, tells us, that bridges ought to have the 
 same qualifications that are judged necessary in all 
 other buildings, namely, that they should be conve- 
 nient, beautiful, and lasting. The perfection of a 
 bridge consists in its having a good foundation, 
 which makes it lasting ; an easy ascent, which makes 
 it convenient ; and a just proportion in its several 
 parts, wbicli renders it beautiful. In the erection of 
 stone bridges, there are several requisites which 
 demand our attention. In the first place, the hut- 
 ments not only receive tjie pressure of the arches, 
 with which they are connected, but they must be 
 capable of resisting in some measure the force of the 
 whole combined. Hence the necessity of a solid 
 
 I foundation at the opposite sides of the river; with- 
 out which all the arches will be subject to the least 
 partial rents. 
 
 Bridges ought always to be constructed at right 
 angles to the current, and the piers ought not to bo 
 larger than w hat is absolutely necessary for the sup- 
 port of the arches ; for when they are constructed of 
 an unnecessary thickness, it contracts the current of 
 water, which it is well known w ill increase its velo- 
 city, and thereby render the foundation of each piei* 
 more liable to be undermined. Lastly, we are t« 
 decide on the number and figure of the arches, 
 which are points of great consequence to the whole^ 
 in relation to its strength, usefulness, beauty, and 
 economy. 
 
 We find a great difference of opinion among ar- 
 chitects in the choice of arches ; and even among 
 mathematicians, who are unquestionably the best 
 judges of the subject; for the strength and solidity 
 of a bridge must depend on mathematical principles. 
 Some have contended that semicircular arches ought 
 in most cases to be preferred, because they press 
 more perpendicularly on their piers, and in propor- 
 tion Jo their number will diminish the pressure on 
 the hutments. Others have preferred elliptical, 
 arches, when they are to be large and but few in 
 number; because the extensive radius of the semi- 
 circular arch would occasion the centre of the bridge 
 to be so high as to render the passage of carriages 
 exceedingly troublesome; an objection which is re- 
 1 ly moved 
 
Si 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 moved completely In the elliptical form, its eleva- 
 tion being considerably below the semicircle ; and 
 Mr. Muller asserts, that the elliptical arch does not 
 press against the piers with a greater force than a 
 circular one; and being lighter, and constructed 
 with less materials, will consequently be more 
 lasting. ” 
 
 There are others, however, who prefer the Cate- 
 narian arch to all others, for the purpose of bridges. 
 The celebrated Emerson, in his principles of me- 
 chanics, insists that it is the strongest arch possi- 
 ble to be made, for supporting a, 'great weight.’ 
 But the learned Dr. Ilutton, late professor of the 
 mathematics to the royal military academy, asserts, 
 that the arch of equilibration is the only perfect one 
 •adapted to the principles of bridges. This arch, 
 being in exact equilibrium in all its parts, and 
 having no tendency to break in one part more than 
 another, is therefore the safest and strongest. 
 Every particular figure of the estrados, or upper side 
 of the wall above an arch, requires a peculiar curve 
 for the underside of the arch itself, to form an arch 
 of equilibration ; so that the incumbent pressure on 
 every part may be proportional to the strength or , 
 resistance there. When the arch is equally thick j 
 throughout, a case that can hardly ever happen, j 
 then the Catenarian curve is an arch of equilibration, I 
 but in no other case ; and therefore it is a great 
 mistake in some authors to suppose that this curve 
 is the best figure for arches in all cases, when in 
 reality it commonly the worst. 
 
 TABLE FOR CONSTRUCTING THE CURVE OF 
 EQUILIBRATION, 
 
 Value of 
 
 K I 
 
 Value of 
 
 I C 
 
 Value of 
 
 K I 
 
 Value of 
 I .C | 
 
 Value of 
 K. I 
 
 Value of 
 
 I C 
 
 0 
 
 6.000 
 
 21 
 
 10.381 ! 
 
 36 
 
 21.774 
 
 2 
 
 6.035 
 
 22 
 
 10.838 j 
 
 37 
 
 22.948 
 
 4 
 
 6.144 
 
 23 
 
 1 1 368 
 
 38 
 
 24.190 
 
 6 
 
 6.324 
 
 24 
 
 11.911 
 
 39 
 
 25.505 
 
 8 
 
 6.580 
 
 25 
 
 12 489 
 
 40 
 
 26.894 
 
 JO 
 
 6.914 
 
 26 
 
 13 106 
 
 41 
 
 28364 
 
 12 
 
 7.330 
 
 27 
 
 13.761 
 
 42 
 
 29.919 
 
 13 
 
 7.571 
 
 28 
 
 14.457 
 
 43' 
 
 3 1 .563 
 
 14 
 
 7.834 
 
 29 
 
 1 >.196 
 
 44 
 
 33.299 
 
 15 
 
 8.120 
 
 SO 
 
 15 980 ; 
 
 45 
 
 35.135 
 
 16 
 
 8.430 
 
 31 
 
 16.811 
 
 46 
 
 37.075 
 
 17 
 
 8.766 
 
 52 
 
 17 693 
 
 47 
 
 59.126 
 
 18 
 
 9.168. ! 
 
 - S3 
 
 18.627 
 
 48 
 
 41.293 
 
 19 
 
 9.517-; 
 
 34 
 
 19716 
 
 49 
 
 43.581 
 
 20 
 
 9.934 j 
 
 . 35 
 
 20.665 
 
 50 
 
 46.000 
 
 Explanation of the above Table. 
 
 L'd Figure 1 Plate Bridge, represent, an arch of 
 equilibration, in which suppose D K be 6, D Q be 
 
 40, and V Q 50; then the correspondirg values of 
 K I and I C are very readily found by the prece- 
 ding table; thus, if Iv I beSO, then I C is 15‘980. 
 
 Among all the arches, there is no one, except the 
 mechanical curve of the arch of equilibration, that 
 can admit of an horizontal line at top; }'et this arch 
 is of a form both graceful and convenient, and it 
 may be made higher or lower at pleasure, with the 
 same span or opening. All other arches require 
 extrados that are curved, more or less, either up- 
 wards or downwards. Of these, the elliptical arch 
 approaches the nearest to that of equilibration for 
 equality of strength and convenience; and it is also 
 the best form for most bridges, a it can be made of 
 any height to the same span, its handles being at the 
 same time sufficiently elevated above the water, even 
 when it is very fiat at top. Elliptical arches also 
 look bolder anil lighter, are more uniformly strong, 
 and much cheaper than most others, as they require 
 less materials and labour. Of the other curves, the 
 cycloidal arch is next in quality to the elliptical one, 
 for those properties ; and, lastly, the circle. As to 
 the others, the parabola, hyperbola, and catenary, 
 they are quite inadmissible in bridges that consist of 
 several arches ; but may, in some cases, be employed 
 for a bridge of one single arch which may be in- 
 tended to rise very high, as in such cases they are 
 not much loaded at the hanches. 
 
 The dimensions of the piers for bridges must be 
 determined by those of the arch. According to 
 Palladio, they should never exceed one-fourth, nor 
 be less than one-sixth of its width. The plans of 
 piers for bridges are generally drawn ofan hexagonal 
 form, having its two long sides parallel to each 
 other ; and at the ends are placed two short ones 
 facing the course of the river at right angles to each 
 other : though sometimes they are made semicircu- 
 lar facing the stream, in order to divide the water, 
 that those things which are impetuously brought 
 down the river, when they strike against them, nay 
 be thrown from the piers, and pass through the 
 middle of the arch. Palladio assigns to the dimen- 
 sions of key-stones, one-seventeenth part of the 
 width of the arch, which judicious proportion we 
 ! may safely venture to recommend. Of a bridge 
 which that celebrated architect designed, lie gives 
 the following proportions: the river w*as ISO feet 
 wide, which he divided into three arches, giving 
 sixty feet to the centre arch, and to the other two, 
 forty-eight feet each. The piers were twelve feet 
 thick, or one-fifth part of the width of the middle 
 arch, and a fourth-part of the smaller ones. The 
 arches were a small portion less than a semicircle; 
 and their key-stone one-seventeenth part of the 
 opening, of the middle arch, and one-fourteenth part 
 of the .other two. In an arch of twenty-four ihet, 
 Palladio makes the length of the key-stone about 
 sixteen inches, w hich is considered as a very eligible 
 size 
 
 Bridges are generally constructed about thirty 
 
 feet 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 feet wide; but in large ones near great towns, a 
 banquette, or raised foot-path, is added on each 
 side, for the convenience of passenges, from six to 
 nine feet each, and raised about a foot above the 
 middle or horse passage; the parapet walls are 
 about eighteen inches thick, and four feet high ; they 
 generally project from the bridge with a cornice un- 
 derneath. In good bridges, to build the parapet 
 but a little part of its height close or solid, and upon 
 that a balustrade of stone or iron, has an elegant 
 effect. The ends of bridges open from the middle 
 of the two large arches with two wings, making an 
 angle of forty-five degrees with the rest, in order to 
 make their entrance more free; these wings are 
 supported by a continuation of the arches; that un- 
 der each wing being smaller than the rest; but the 
 wings of bridges are generally supported by the solid 
 abutments alone. 
 
 Autumn is considered the most proper season for 
 laying the foundations of a bridge ; because, then 
 the waters are the lowest, and the weather most fa- 
 vourable for such operations. 
 
 The most simple method of laying the foundations, 
 and' raising the piers up to the water mark, is to 
 turn the river out of its course above the place of 
 the bridge, into a new channel cut for it near the 
 place where it makes an elbow' or turn ; or by rai- 
 sing an enclosure to keep off the water, by driving a 
 double row of stakes very close to one another, with 
 their tops above the surface of the water, like a 
 trench. Hurdles are then put within this double 
 row of stakes, and the side of the row which is next 
 to the intended pier, must be closed up and the hol- 
 low between the two rows filled with rushes and 
 mud, rammed together so hard, that water cannot 
 possibly get through. Then the mud, sand, &c. 
 within the inclosure, must be dug out until a solid 
 foundation appears ; when this cannot be found, a 
 foundation made of wooden piles charred at their 
 ends, are driven in as close as possible. Many eminent 
 architects have made a continued foundation r.f the 
 wdiole length of the bridge, and not merely under 
 each pier. To effect this, one part of the river was 
 excluded at one part, then another, and so joining 
 the whole together by degrees; for it would he im- 
 possible to repel the whole force of the water at 
 once. If the expense of a continued foundation 
 should be thought too great, a separate foundation 
 may be formed lor eacli particular pier, in the form 
 of a ship, with an angle in the head and another in 
 the stern, lying directly even with the current of wa- 
 ter, that tise force of the water may be broken by the 
 angles. Palladio, whose opinion ought generally to 
 be respected : says “ To lay the foundations of pilas- 
 ter-, if the bed of the river be stone- or gravel-stone, 
 you have the foundation without any trouble; but, 
 in case the bottom be quicksand, er gravel, you 
 must dig therein til! you come to solid or firm 
 ground ; or, if that should he found too laborious er 
 
 35 
 
 impracticable, you must dig moderately deep in the 
 sand, or gravel, and then you must trust in oaken - 
 piles, which will reach the solid or firm ground, with 
 the iron by which their point’s are to be armed. A 
 part only of the bed of the river must be inclosed 
 from the water, and then we are to build there; 
 that the other part being left open, the water may* 
 have its free current; and so go from part to part, 
 j When a river is deep and destitute of a natural 
 : good bed, a foundation may be formed by driving a 
 double row of piles, and filling them in between with 
 ! close materials, and afterwards pumping out the 
 | water, and driving other piles witliin them. When, 
 a river is but moderately deep, and lias a natural 
 good foundation in its bed, capable of supporting a 
 heavy pier ; then a strong oaken frame is to be 
 formed, which is to be buoyed up with boats; oil 
 this frame is laid a thick stratum or layer of stone, 
 cramped together with iron, and joined with strong 
 terrace mortar, the whole of which is to be let gent- 
 ly down to the bed ofthe river, in the place intended 
 for the pier. Lastly when a bridge is to be built a- 
 cross a fordable river or a canal, and where there is 
 a suitable place for turning the course ofthe water, 
 either by a wooden fence placed in a sloping direc- 
 tion across the river, or by a channel sunk on one 
 side of the bed of the river; then a dam must be 
 made entirely across the river with the piles, and 
 sufficiently wide to form the piers in; and the 
 ground dug until a proper foundation appears, and 
 then the piers may be raised all together above low- 
 water mark, and the water turned again into its ori- 
 ginal channels. 
 
 The ingenious Mr. Robert Semple laid the foun- 
 dation of Essex-bridge in Dublin, in a very deep and 
 rapid stream, in the year 1753, by the following 
 method : round the place where the intended pier 
 was to be built, two rows of strong piles were dri- 
 ven, about thirty inches distance from each other, 
 and which were left at low-water mark. These piles 
 were lined with planks, within which was rammed a 
 quantity of clay, and thereby the external wall of the 
 coffer dam formed. Within this wall were driven a 
 row of piles at about the same distances, and dove- 
 tailed at their edges so as to receive each other, and 
 which formed the extremities ofthe plan of the piers 
 at the level of the bed ofthe river. After having 
 dug to a fine stratum of sand about four feet lower, 
 within these were a great number of other piles 
 driven as deep as they could possibly be* made to pe- 
 I netrate. The intervals of these piles were filled up 4 
 ' and in order to produce a. solid foundation, the first 
 i course was laid with mortar made up of roach-lime 
 ! and sharp gravel, and on this, large fiat stones were 
 ! rammed to about a foot thick. On this first course 
 was laid a thick coat of dry lime and gravel of the 
 same quality, on w hich was again laid stones, and 
 the mortar as at first ; and so on alternately until 
 i arrived a perfect level with the piles. Three' beams 
 1 stretclfing 
 
m 
 
 ARC II I T E CTUU E. 
 
 stretching' tbe whole length of the pier, from sterling 1 
 -to sterling, were fastened down to the end of these 
 piles, and their intervals filled up with masonry. 
 On this platform’ which was four feet six inches 
 under low water mark, was laid the first course of 
 atones for the pier, cramped together, and jointed 
 with terrace mortar as usual; courses of stones were 
 laid in this manner until arrived to a level with the 
 xvater at ebb tide. The following method of laying 
 the foundations ofwharfs, piers, &c. is the invention 
 of 8. IJentham, esq. engineer of Ilis Majesty’s navv, 
 and is guaranteed to him by letters patent, dated 
 April 2, 1811 ; and which he describes as follows ; 
 
 “ I Samuel Bentham do hereby declare that the 
 nature of my said invention, and in what manner 
 the 6ame is to be performed, is described by the 
 -drawings and referances hereunto annexed (See 
 Plate \.) and the following description thereof, that 
 is to say, to whatever depth the foundation of any 
 structure is to be laid, underwater or ground. 
 
 First I combine together above ground or above 
 water, either over the place into which the founda- 
 tion is to be forced, or elsewhere, stone or brick, 
 or other artificially-composed materials, (with or 
 without the introduction of wood or iron in the 
 bottom, or for ties, as occasion may require,) into 
 sometimes a number of distinct masses, and some- 
 times into one entire mass, which when put where 
 they are, or it is to remain, shall constitute the 
 foundation or lower part of any structure, together 
 with more or less, or even the whole of the struc- 
 ture. 
 
 Secondly. I place those masses, or this mass, in 
 their or its required situation, without the need of, 
 clearing away the water or ground to the depth of | 
 winch they or it are or is to be laid, and in case of j 
 works under water, without the use of any cassion 
 or dam, composed of w ood or other materials, to 
 inclose the work while building, conveying to tlie 
 spot where it is to be deposited or depositing*. 
 
 Thirdly. I press the foundation masses or mass 
 into the ground, either in its natural or in its arti- 
 ficially prepared state, whether under water or not 
 with a degree of pressure, such as shall be deemed 
 sufficient to prevent the farther injurious yielding | 
 of the ground when the superstructure shall be 
 built up and be applied to use, and in giving this 
 pressure previously to the proceeding with that part 
 ot the superstructure in regard to which any further 
 sinking of the foundation would be injurious*. As 
 to the formation of these masses, they may he either 
 solid or hollow ; or though hollow at first, for the 
 convenience ol floating ; or otherwise removing 
 them from place to place, or of depositing them, 
 they may afterwards be more or less filled up. The 
 exterior may be of one material, for lightuess or 
 
 { 
 
 1 
 
 for appearance sake, and tbe interior, for cheapness 
 or for strength, of some different material, as, for 
 instance, the mass may be first formed of a thin 
 bottom, and their walls of brick, for the sake of 
 .lightness ; the walls may afterwards be thickened, 
 or the interior be intire] v filled in with stone, with 
 bricks, or with other artificially composed materials. 
 Wood and iron may be employed as ties, as well as 
 for beams, rafters, or any part of *the superstructure 
 of these masses, as is usual in building of B which the 
 w alls are of masonry or brickwork. 
 
 The masses may be of any size or shape, from the 
 depth, supposing them solid, of only a few bricks, 
 and of the horizontal dimensions of a square of nine 
 inches, (being the length of an ordinary brick,) or 
 even less, to the size and shape, if hollow, adapted 
 to contain the largest ship, or even several ships at a 
 time, so as to form in one mass a dock or lock, or 
 any other more extensive work. 
 
 As then the particulars of these masses may vary 
 so much, the selection, in the instance of each parti- 
 cular work, of the most suitable form, material, and 
 i mode of proceeding, must consequently be left to the 
 engineer, architect, mason, bricklayer, or other work- 
 man, to whom the management of the work may be 
 intrusted ; 1 proceed to specify, in the w ay of exam- 
 ple, some particular shapes and dimensions of the 
 masses, and some of the modes which may he em- 
 ployed for the conveying them to their places, depo- 
 siting them, and pressing them down, which shall 
 be metable * to some works of considerable impor- 
 tance and variety, so that a skilful engineer, archi- 
 tect, mason, or bricklayer, assisted in regard to the 
 management of.the masses that are to float by some 
 one conversant in the management of floating bodies, 
 may be enabled, by the consideration of these exam- 
 ples, to vary the construction of the masses and the 
 mode of proceeding in the use of them, according to 
 the nature of the particular w ork he has to carry on, 
 and according to tlie circumstances under which it is 
 to be executed. Supposing that in a situation where 
 at low water the depth of the water is twenty-four 
 feet, and consequently w here a ship of the line may 
 at all -times lie afloat, and where the ground is of 
 such a nature as that within a depth of from five to 
 ten feet from its surface is deemed incapable of bear- 
 ing a solid Avail with the weight of the several arti- 
 cles that may come to be deposited upon it, it be 
 required to construct a wliarf-wal], it mav be pro- 
 ceeded Avitli, according to my mode, as folfoAvs. 
 
 First let it be ascertained, by means of a probe or 
 otherwise, to Avhat depth, by a knoAvn Aveight pres- j 
 sing upon a base of knoAvn superficial extent, the 
 ground in the -cite of ti e proposed Avail will be 
 penetrated. Let the spot in question be then levell- I 
 
 ed 
 
 Compired with <he oifire copy. 
 
 Stands so in the office copy. 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 37 
 
 ed where requisite, by means of an engine for dig- 
 ging underwater, or otherwise; and if in the in- 
 tended line of wall the evenness of the ground be 
 interrupted by any matter too large to be removed, 
 such, for instance, as portions of an old ship, let the 
 ground in such parts be raised somewhat above the 
 most prominent obstacles, bv depositing stones, shin- I 
 gles, gravel, or other such materials, with a mixture, ! 
 w here con venient, of sea-w r eed, and with the addi- 
 tion of some lime, or other cement, if it be thought ! 
 requisite to cement these materials together. Se- 
 condly, let hollow masses, twenty-one feet square at 
 their base, with perpendicular sides, be prepared on | 
 a platform, in a situation where the tide, at the 
 time of high water, rises sixteen feet above the plat- 
 form. Let them be built of brick, cemented with 
 Roman cement bottom and sit les, so as to be water- | 
 tight, of the form and dimensions shewn by Figure 
 1, up to the height of twenty feet, letting in water on \ 
 the rise of the tide, by means of a syphon or other- J 
 w ise, to prevent their floating and running out the 
 water by the same means as the tide falls. Thirdly, i 
 let the masses, when so far built, remain a short time 1 
 on the platform, a week or more, so that the cement 
 may indurate. Then let the vrater be drawn or j 
 pumped out of them, so that by their buoyancy they 
 luay float olf the platform. Then havir g passed I 
 ropes or chains round them and under them, and 1 
 having put up a pol« in each corner, for the more 
 convenient managing them w hen afloat, let them be 
 taken immediately over the spot where thev are to 
 be deposited, or previously to some other place, 
 where, on account of smoother water, or better pro- 
 tection, or on other accounts, they may lie more con- 
 veniently. And let them be built up to the height 
 of thirty-five feet, beginning as soon as the buoyancy 
 will admit of it to thicken and strengthen the bottom 
 and lower part of the sides with additional brick- 
 work, and filling in shingle, rubble, or other mate- 
 rials, mixing them with mortar or lime, so that these 
 materials may indurate, and giro strength to the 
 bottom. 
 
 Fourthly. Having floated one of the masses as 
 exactly as possible over the spot ou which it is to be 
 deposited, let water into it bv means ofa syphon, or 
 otherwise, so that it may sink to the ground: then 
 there w ill remain perhaps about eight or ten feet 
 above water at the time of low water. 
 
 fifthly. Having prepared a vessel laden so as 
 tf--.it the total weight of the vessel and lading shall 
 be somew hat more than the supposed weight of the 
 additional superstructure, Which will rest upon one 
 mass, together with that of the heavy articles which 
 the wall when finished maybe supposed liable to 
 bear, let t!u.^ \essel be brought over the mass at the 
 time of high w ater, and be placed so as to ground 
 upon the mass when the water falls, having pre- 
 viously, according to the shape of Aie bottom of the 
 vessel, made some preparation, by laying timbers on 
 
 the mass, or otherwise, to cause the pressure to be 
 sufficiently distributed over the surface of the mass, 
 and observing*, in case the mass should have rested 
 out of the level, to place the vessel so as to press- 
 most on the highest side of the mass. 15y the time 
 of low water, the vessel having rested entirely on 
 the mass, unsupported by the water, the mass will 
 have been pressed down more or less ; and if it be 
 materially out of the perpendicular, or other direc- 
 tion more desirable, let the vessel be removed during 
 another high water to another part of the mass, so as 
 to bring it into the proper direction ; and let this 
 operation be repeated- until the position of the mass 
 is corrected. If, however, from some unfavourable 
 accident or otherwise the mass should not by these 
 means be brought into the required situation, let the 
 water during the recess of the tide be pumped out 
 of the mass, so that it may be made to float again, 
 w hich may be easily done, unless the bed on which 
 it rests be such as to exclude the water from insinu- 
 ating itself under the bottom, and let the bed itself 
 be raised or levelled in any required part, so that on 
 depositing and pressing the mass again it may rest, 
 in the desired situation. In the same manner let the 
 other masses be brought over and deposited in their 
 respective places. For the more easy adjustment of 
 one mass in aline with the others, an indenture may- 
 be formed on the side of one mass, and a correspond- 
 ing projection in the contiguous side of the other 
 mass : or a perpendicular groove may be formed on 
 the sides of each mass, corresponding with similar 
 grooves in the sides of the contiguous masses, into 
 w hich grooves, pieces of timber, iu the form of fold- 
 ing wedges, may be inserted during the time of plac- 
 ing one mass against the other; after which the 
 timbers may easily be taken out, and the spaces they 
 occupied, as well as the joints or intervals between 
 the contiguous masses, may be filled up with brick- 
 work and grout, rubble-work, or other materials. 
 
 The data, dimensions, and materials described in 
 this example being given only as the illustration of 
 the general method, it is not meant as being essen- 
 tial to the execution of the wharf-wall upon my plan 
 that the mode as above described should be minutely 
 followed, but on the contrary, in my mode, work for 
 a similar purpose may be executed in any depth of 
 water, on any soil, of any dimensions, and of any 
 materials, such as brick, stone of any kind, natural 
 i or artificial, or of any mixture of the smaller stones, 
 
 ' such as shi note or gravel, artificially combined to- 
 gether with Roman cement, mortar, or other indu- 
 rating material, taking care in each instance to cal- 
 culate the weight of the materials of each intended 
 mass previously to its construction, as also the quan- 
 tity of water it w ill displace; so that by duly pro- 
 portioning the thickness of the bottom and w alls to 
 1 the quantity of water the mass will displace, its 
 j buoyancy may be insured, taking care that the w ork 
 I be executed so as to be water-tight. 
 
 When 
 
architecture. 
 
 38 
 
 When the masses forming component parts of the 
 foundation have been deposited and pressed with the 
 pressure into their places, which pressure 
 mav be applied either gradually or suddenly, ana be 
 made to continue a longer or shorter time, accwd 
 to the nature of the soil, the completion of the su- 
 perstructure of the wall may be eM, eiRmr U 
 continuin' 1 ' these masses up distinctly, u ithout. 
 r "o work of one with {hat of the other, so tha Up 
 tfate of any unprovided-for- occurrence, one mass 
 mav be at liberty to settle farther w ithout the otlu r, 
 cr the work may be carried up m the usual b.) , 
 bonding that over one mass with that over he adjej 
 cent one, so as to unite the who ie to 1 > . ‘ 
 thereby the better ensure ^ against a "^*'^ c ou £ 
 from partial causes- O. f ■ delay of 
 
 mav be prepared, of a height to reach from the top 
 of the foundation masses, up, in some case *, as aga 
 as the wall is required to be carried ; and these mas 
 
 ESHSSsSsfl 
 
 u oner masses should coincide in dimensions, and 
 £5 over one of the lower ones, or so as to 
 cvteXver two or more of the foundation masses 
 to form bond The masses, whether under or upper 
 ones miv either have their walls thickened alter 
 they are deposited, or they may be entirely filled 
 
 im or they may be made to serve fox cellars or stoie 
 Sms, o7 Other useful purposes, having been pro- 
 
 tf to -Lwhile at the 
 
 instead of forming an entire pier ot masonry foi such 
 a purpose, or by throwing down 8ton^ or 
 
 of any kind, to form a mound, which would totally 
 
 interrupt the passage of the current below, as well a, 
 oppose the violence of the waves above two or move 
 r oWs of distinct masses might be deposited in the di- 
 rection of the intended break- water, leaving 1 
 vow of masses an interv al between mass and mass for 
 the free passage of the tide or current, but placing 
 Z masses of L interior row ^ opposite i to the, inter- 
 vals of the exterior row, so that tue whole t B 
 ■should form a complete impediment to tne direct ac- 
 tion of the waves, yet allowing the tide 
 pass below between the masses even in a cojitraiy 
 direction. Supposing in this case the masses to be 
 cylindrical, say fifty feet diameter, the interval be- 
 tween mass and mass in the row also fifty feet, then, 
 by tw o such rows of masses, those el one row not 
 
 more than twenty-five or thirty feet distant from 
 I f i JOS e of the other row, the impediment thereby at- 
 forded to the waves, whether coining at right angles 
 ! or oblique to the direction of such break-water, 
 
 'j wou ]d in most cases be sufficient for the purpose ot 
 
 insuring smooth water within the space protected by 
 those masses, while the passage of the tide or cur- 
 ! rent would in no part of the pier be dimimslu draoiv 
 than half. Rut with the view to tne affording a 
 more complete impediment to the action ot the 
 waves, and at the same time a still less impediment 
 to the course of the tide or current, masses nug.it be 
 i constructed and deposited of a form suited to seive 
 I as foundation masses in the manner of the piers ot a 
 bridge; and superincumbent masses, prepaied ot a 
 form suited to the extending from one foundation 
 mass to the other, might be deposited, jesting each 
 end upon a foundation mass, forming altogether as 
 ft were a bridge, but differing from an ordinary 
 bridge, inasmuch as with a view to the not op- 
 posing the under surface of the superincumbent 
 mass to the violence of the waves, and to the 
 affording as complete a protection during low watei 
 as at overtimes, the lower part of the continuous 
 structure should be kept as low as to be always 
 under water, even during low w ater. 
 
 These superincumbent masses haying been made 
 in the first instance hollow, with a view to the fioat- 
 them to the others, on which they are to be depo- 
 sited, if it should not be deemed necessary afterwards 
 to fill them up, to afford greater strength or weight, 
 might be formed with sloping si(ks towards the sule 
 exposed to the violent action of the sea, but w ith 
 perpendicular sides towards the still water, and 
 miilit be made to afford wharfage, and a gieat 
 quantity of inclosed space, applicable to various 
 
 US S^ipposni^it " be desired 'to build a bridge where 
 the ground on which the piers are to stand has been 
 found, by probing as well as boring, to be of an 
 
 uniform /enacity," equally yielding, or Jn -Ua 
 
 be made so by the deposit of any materials, let the 
 foundation of each pier, with more or less of the 
 superstructure, at least so much as t° reach above 
 low water, be of one single mass, and let it be 
 floated, deposited, and pressed in the same manner 
 as is described in regard to the wharf wall. Should 
 the ground be of unequal degrees of <** 
 
 on any other account it should be advisable that 
 the foundation of each pier, with more or less of its 
 superstructure, should be formed of any greate 
 number of distinct masses, either contiguous to, or 
 more or less distinct from one another, let each 
 pier be proceeded with in distinct masses, as » the 
 ’are of the wharf wall, but varying the forms ol the 
 masses, as may he most eligible for theparmular 
 ourpose of the pier. In cases where the bi id b e is 
 to serve the purpose of a dam, with a sluice 01 a 
 lock, between any of the piers, let a maw be ^con- 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 struct*? d, of such form and dimensions as shall com- 
 prehend at least all the under- water part of the 
 whole of the sluice, or other work requisite between 
 the piers, together with a part, say half, of each ot 
 the piers, one on each side of the sluice. The bot- 
 tom of each sluice or lock, may be in the form of an 
 inverted, arch, or otherwise; but as a mass so 
 shaped would form only the bottom and two sides 
 of the four requisite to form a cavity, by means of 
 which the mass might be made buoyant, let the two 
 other sides, or ends be formed, in a temporary man- 
 ner, across the space between the half piers, one at 
 each end, so as to keep out the water while such a 
 mass should be building, or at least while it should 
 be transporting to the place in which it would be de- 
 posited, and so that these temporary ends should 
 afterwards he readily taken away. These tempo- 
 rary ends might conveniently and economically be 
 formed of two floating dams, which being- analogous 
 in their use to floating darns employed instead of 
 gates to keep the water out of docks, might be 
 made on the same principles, or otherwise. And if 
 all the arches of a bridge or dam were made of the 
 same size, these two floating dams would serve not 
 only as the temporary sides of the foundation masses 
 for forming all the spaces between the piers, but 
 they would afterwards serve to exclude the water 
 from any of these spaces during the examination, the 
 adjustment, or the repair of the sluices, or other work 
 that might be requisite within these spaces. In a simi- 
 lar manner sluices or locks may be constructed in 
 other situations than that of forming part of a bridge 
 when the perpendicular wall, instead of forming 
 halves of piers, may be made to join into walls of an 
 embankment, or of a bason or canal. In like man- 
 ner a dry dock, for the reception of one or more 
 ships, of any size may be constructed, excepting that 
 in this case the head of the dock would probably be 
 composed of the same material as t!i<- sides, and 
 only one floating dam, o«* other temporary boundary 
 Would be required for one of the ends of the mass, 
 which might be the same dam or gates that would be 
 requisite afterwards for the exclusion of the water 
 from the dock when in use. For the forming an 
 embankment in a situation where there is not, and 
 where it is not required that there should be, a 
 depth of water of more than eight or ten feet where 
 the ground is uniform, and if not level, such as may 
 easily be made so by a digging engine, or otherwise; 
 and w lere cellar room, store-house room, and habi- 
 tations are wanted as near as possible to the water ; 
 masses for an embankment, under such circumstances 
 may be built of any suitable dimensions, in the mode 
 exhibited by Figure 2 ; so as when deposited, to 
 form at once fifty or one hundred feet or more of 
 embankment, the expence of which would little ex- 
 ceed that of a building of the same size, constructed 
 elsewhere, for the other purposes to which such a 
 mass would be at the same time applicable. If it be 
 
 39 
 
 required to stop the passage of a great body of 
 water, as in the case of damming up a river, masses 
 may be prepared, of the requisite depth, according to 
 the situation they are respectively to be deposited 
 in, and the bed may be prepared in a manner suited 
 to their settling into the ground water-tight ; aud 
 the sides being prepared with or without corres- 
 ponding indentures, and with or without the inter- 
 position of some compressible or elastic substance 
 they may be brought together and deposited at the 
 time of still water, whether high or low water, as 
 best suited to the purpose ; and by placing them in 
 a line somewhat curving towards the side from 
 which the pressure will come, they may, as soon as 
 a difference of level occasions a pressure, be forced 
 by that pressure close together, and into the banks 
 against which they are required to abut. 
 
 As to the general means of rendering masses for 
 the before-mentioned purpose buoyant and strong, 
 it is evident that, in point of buoyancy, nothing more 
 is required, as before observed, than that they should 
 be of a capacity in proportion to the weight of 
 materials employed, so as to displace a quantity of 
 water sufficiently great for its weight to exceed 
 that of the materials used; so, in regard to the 
 giving the requisite strength, the force with which 
 water presses at different depths is well known, as 
 are various means of using different materials to the 
 best advantage to resist that force. Rut as the 
 forming the sides as well as the bottoms of the 
 masses in the first instance as light as possible, 
 (however much they may be strengthened by ad- 
 ditional materials afterwards) is a matter of more 
 importance than in buildings of the usual kind, I 
 have to observe, that one mode, of very extensive 
 application for giving to such work great strength, 
 with little weight, is the making the walls of the 
 masses double, with cellular partitions, and the 
 bottoms at first very thin, but strengthened by ribs 
 of stone, or brick-work, which may be made in 
 some cases, no thicker than the thickness of au 
 ordinary brick, if the cement be strong, as shewn by 
 Figures 2 and 4. Bottoms of masses so constructed, 
 however great their superficial extent, may be ad- 
 vantageously built on platforms, not more than five 
 or six leet below the level of high water, since by 
 that means the work would be but little iuterrupted 
 by the tide, and they might also be constructed on a 
 platform composed of logs of timber floating on the 
 water ; and as soon as the sides of the masses were 
 carried up sufficiently liigh to make them buoyant, 
 the logs of timber might be drawn from under them. 
 Or cellular bottoms may be formed, by preparing, 
 first, small portions of this bottom, as represented 
 by Figure 4, which portions being applied together, 
 side by side, when floating in the water, and held 
 by some temporary means close together, grout may 
 be applied in the interstices at the place of juncture, 
 so as to cement the portions together; after which 
 
 these 
 
4.0 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 these other si taped compartments, may be raised 
 upon, over thej tinctures so as to connectthese several 
 portions more firmly together, and the work may be 
 proceeded with as if the whole bottom had been built 
 ashore, and united together in one mass in the first 
 instance. The masses for the above mentioned pur- j 
 poses being all of them structures in water, have 
 been spoken of as hollow, a mode of forming them 
 which seems in general preferable for water-works, 
 on account of the facility of floating them about, and 
 of raising or lowering them by the rise and fall of 
 the tide. I have to observe, however, that accord-, 
 ing to my mode masses for such purposes might in 
 many cases be made solid ; and being formed over 
 the spot on which they are to be deposited, they 
 might be supported by tackles, or otherwise, during 
 their construction, and be lowered down into the 
 water as their structure is proceeded with: or they 
 might be formed on land, and slid down on a kind 
 of rail roads, or otherwise, in an inclined direction, 
 one over the other, so as to form a progressive pro- 
 jection from the land into the sea ; or, although 
 formed elsewhere, they might bo floated between 
 vessels, or otherwise, to the place where they are to 
 be deposited. They might also be made hollow, 
 though without being water-tight, and be floated to 
 their places, or even be built afloat, supported by 
 buoyant bodies of various kinds, and in masses 
 of various shapes, particularly in regard to cy- 
 lindrical masses. A cylindrical vessel of wood, 
 hooped together like a cask, might be applied on 
 the inside of a cylindrical mass, by means of which 
 interior support with or without the addition of some 
 farther support, applied on the outsides of the mass, 
 •such a mass might be thus built and deposited, and 
 afterwards be pressed, without the need of making 
 it water-tight, or without the mass itself having* any 
 bottom. 
 
 In the cas* of a wall, or other erection of an em- 
 bankment, or for other purposes, being to be con- 
 structed on ground which, though dry at the time of 
 low water, is considerably, say five or six feet, un- 
 der water at the time of high water, the foundation 
 iii that case may be laid in distinct masses, built up- 
 on the spot contiguous to one another or not ; of 
 large dimensions, or small, like piles, to such an 
 height as that a fl it bottomed Vessel, loaded with 
 the requisite weight, may be grounded upon them, 
 whereby the stability of the work may be ensured 
 before the superstructure is proceeded with, w ith the 
 same ease as if the work had been more under water. 
 In regard to the masses proper for forming the 
 foundations of structures on land, in the case of the 
 ground being such as though at the surface it be un- 
 fit for the support -of the ^structure, yet there being a 
 firm stratum at no great depth, but varying at dif- 
 ferent parts under the scite of the structure, suppo- 
 sing it be required to make the structure rest on 
 
 the ribs or walls dividing the bottom into squares, 
 piers, on which, by the turning ofarches from one to 
 the other, or otherwise, an entire support for the 
 superstructure may be found at the surface of the 
 ground, or above it, for the forming of those piera. 
 Let distinct masses of stone, brick-work, or other 
 such materials, be built up, standing* first on the sur- 
 face of the ground, sinking down more or less du- 
 ring their construction ; and when built up to such 
 height from their bottoms as may be supposed suffi- 
 cient to reach to the solid ground, let weights of any 
 kind, such, for instance, as iron ballast, be laid upon 
 them, to press them through the yielding soil on to 
 or into the hard stratum : the foot of each pier being, 
 if requisite, adapted in shape to penetrate the soil 
 with or without a sfloe of cast-iro 1, or other mate- 
 rials, particularly suited to the purpose ; or let this 
 pressure be assisted or be giveji wholly by percus- 
 sion, applying some intermediate substance upon the 
 head of the piers, for the beater to strike upon, with 
 such other precautions as to the weight and velocity 
 of the beater as are known to be suitable to the forc- 
 ing down brittle materia s without injury. Incases 
 where the stability of the structure is made to de- 
 pend on the extent to which the foundation is spread 
 for procuring the requisite support, having estimated 
 the weight, which a given extent, say a yard square, 
 of the foundation, under the dilferent parts of the 
 building, is required to sustain: and having probed 
 the ground, to form some opinion of the depth to 
 which a square yard of surface must be pressed be- 
 fore it will support that weight, let distinct masses be 
 built up perpendicularly on bases of the extent of, 
 say ;t*yard square, contiguous to one another, over 
 the whole scite of the foundation, and up as high as 
 it is supposed they will be pressed into the ground, 
 each mass respectively more or less, in consequence 
 of any variations there may lie in the nature of the 
 ground, or in the weights to be supported by different 
 parts of the foundations. Then let the requisite 
 weight be applied upon each mass, respectively, or, if 
 the means be easy, on several contiguous ones at the 
 same time ; or (as before) let percussion be employed 
 either to a degree calculated to lie at least equal to 
 that of the requisite pressure by weight, or let 
 weight and percussion be jointly employed, until the 
 whole of the distinct masses, constituting the foun- 
 dation, have been submitted to the requisite pressure, 
 f .i cases where the pressure, which different parts of 
 the foundation will have to support, is very different, 
 as that of the foundation for the steeple of a church 
 compared to that of the lighter parts, let the mass or 
 masses forming the foundation for the heavier parts, 
 be always distinct from those for the lighter parts, 
 and let them be pressed with a proportion ably hea- 
 vier weiglit'. These masses when placed contiguous 
 to one another in a proper direction, one with regard 
 to the other, may then be pressed clown, and when 
 
 pressed 
 
ARCHITECTURE-. 
 
 pressed down, and when pressed down tlrey may be 
 connected together before the superstructure is pro- 
 ceeded with : and in some cases it may be expe- 
 dient to make these masses no larger than piles ot' 
 v/ood, to which, however, they might be preferable, 
 as being of cheaper and more durable materials. 
 EXPLANATION of FIGURES ill PLATE 1 of im4XMG.ES. 
 
 “ Figure 1, (Plate ] ) A, section. B, plan of a foun- 
 dation mass of brick-work, for a wharf wall in deep 
 b b, parts added gradually to the bottom. 
 
 Figure 2, A, section of a mass of brick-work to 
 form part of an embankment, and at the same time 
 to serve other purposes of an ordinary building; 
 part of which shews the superstructure, and the parts 
 gradually added to the bottoms to strengthen them 
 as the superstructure advances, and as by that means 
 a sufficient buoyancy is obtained. B, plan of the 
 same. 
 
 Fiigurc 3, A, section. B, plan of a cylindrical 
 mass of masonry or brick-work, applicable for the 
 foundation of a break-water, or for other purposes. 
 The lines a a distinguish the superstructure and the 
 parts added. 
 
 Fi"iirc 4, A, longitudinal section. B, transverse 
 section. C, plan of one of the constituent parts to 
 be prepared ashore for the bottom of a mass of any 
 ex^nt, which may be formed by a number of such 
 constituent parts put together afloat. ” f 
 
 Wooden Bridges now demand our attention. 
 There are various methods of constructing wooden 
 bridges, so as to answer valuable purposes, even 
 to last a very considerable time. The simplest case 
 of these edifices is that, in which the road-way is 
 laid over beams placed horizontally, and supported 
 at each end by piers or posts. This method, how- 
 ever, is deficient in strength, and width of opening: 
 it is therefore necessary in all works of magnitude, 
 to apply the principles of trussing, as used in roofs 
 and centers. Wooden bridges of this kind arethere- 
 lore stiff frames of carpentry, in which, by a proper 
 disposition, beams are put, so as to stand in place of 
 solid bodies, as large as the spaces which the beams 
 enclose ; and thus two or more of these are set in a 
 butment with each other, like vast arch, stones. One 
 of the most important points to be considered in 
 wooden bridge building, is the seasoning and pre- 
 paring of the wood, so as to make it lasting. In 
 seasoning of wood for this purpose, the following 
 particulars should be attended to : it is well known 
 that the decay of fir timber is generally owing ro the 
 sappy nature of its exterior surface, which is by no 
 means capable of being removed by any immediate 
 application of paint, previous to its being seasoned : 
 ©n the contrary, it has been proved, that such an 
 application is actually injurious, since it hinders the 
 free admission of air and heat, which w ould have the 
 property of extracting that sappy quality which so 
 much contributes to decay and rottenness. In con- 
 sequence of this practice, the sap strikes inwardly, 
 
 41 
 
 and makes its way to the heart of the wood, the sub- 
 stance of which is presently destroyed. As a means 
 of preventing this evil, some burn and scorch the 
 timber over a flaming fire, turning it about till every 
 side acquire a sort of crusty surface; and in doing 
 this, it necessarily follows, that the external moisture 
 is dissipated. After this process, a mixture of pitch 
 and tar, sprinkled with sand and powdered shells, 
 may be advantageously applied to the parts under 
 water. Those more in sight, after being well 
 scorched, and while the wood is hot, should be rub- 
 bed over with linseed oil, mixed with a little tar. 
 This will strike deeply into the grain of the wood, 
 and will soon harden so as to receive as many coats 
 of paint as may appear necessary. It has been found 
 that fir timber, this prepared, is nearly equal to oak 
 for durability. 
 
 Palladio has given several excellent designs of 
 wooden bridges, Figure 1 Plate 2, of Bridges , one 
 of which was erected on the river Cismone, which 
 separates Italy from Germany, and is 100 feet wide ; 
 this width is divided into six equal parts, and at the 
 end of each part, excepting at the banks, which are 
 strengthened with pilasters of stone, the beams are 
 placed, that form the breadth of the bridge, upon 
 which, a little space being left at their ends, were 
 placed other beams lengthways, which form the. 
 sides. Over these, directly upon the first, the king 
 pos-ts are disposed on each side ; these king posts 
 are connected to the beams, which form the breadth 
 of the bridge; by means of irons passing through the 
 pro jecting ends of the beams, and bolted and pinned 
 through both. The invention of this bridge Palladio 
 considers as very worthy of attention, as it may serve 
 on all occasions where posts cannot vvitli convenience 
 be introduced in the river. lie describes also other 
 methods of constructing wooden bridges, without 
 posts in the water, like the fore-mentioned. The 
 bridges after the first method are to be made in this 
 manner : Figure 2, the banks being strengthened by 
 pilasters when necessity requires, one of the beams 
 forming the breadth of the bridge is to be placed 
 with one end upon the pier, and ti e other end abbut- 
 ting against the first queen post, which is to be con- 
 nected with the beams by irons. Then the second 
 beam being placed at a distance equal to the space 
 between the first beam and the pier, which is to be 
 supported in like manner with a queen, and strut 
 and queen posts, and thus proceeding, as far as re- 
 quired, observing to have a king post in the middle 
 of the length, in which the struts meet both w ays, 
 and collar beams between all the posts, which stiffen 
 and support the whole construction. It should be 
 recollected that when bridges pre constructed after 
 this manner that they are to be wider at the extre- 
 mities, and contract towards the middle. 
 
 The bridge represented in Fig. 3, is also from 
 Palledio. Its upper part, which is the support of 
 the whole, is inscribed in a flat segment of a circle ; 
 
 M the 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 the braces which go from ene kingpost to another, 
 are so disposed, that they cross each other in the 
 middle of the spaces between the kin" posts. The 
 beams that form the floor of the bridge are bound 
 to the king pests, with irons ; and for still greater 
 strength struts may be added at each end, reaching 
 from the piers to the first beams. 
 
 The design delineated in Figure 4, may be made 
 with a greater or less arch than is there shown. The 
 height of the bridge in which are placed the braces 
 between 1: e king posts, Palladio recommends to be 
 an eleventh part of the span. The French army 
 destroyed in the year 1799 at Schafhussen in Swit- 
 zerland, a wooden bridge, which was erected in the 
 year 1740, by a carpenter of Appenzel, named Ulric 
 Grubenman. At that place the Rhine is exceeding- 
 ly rapid, and several stone bridges, erected by emi- 
 nent architects, had been repeatedly sw'ept away by 
 the torrent. In consequence of this, the above- 
 mentioned ingenious mechanic, offered to erect a 
 wooden bridge, with only one arch, and which should 
 overcome every difficulty, though the river at that 
 place is near four hundred feet across. The magis- 
 trates of Schafhusen would not consent to his pro- 
 posal, but required that it should be built with two 
 arches, and that the middle pier of the old bridge 
 should be employed for that purpose. Ulric Grub- 
 enman obeyed ; but framed his timbers on so curi- 
 ous a principle, that he has left it a doubt w ith sub- 
 sequent architects, whether the bridge really deriv- 
 ed any permanence from the middle pier ; or whe- 
 ther it would not have been equally as secure, if it 
 had been formed only of one arch. A man of the 
 lightest weight, in walking over it, could feel the 
 bfidge tremble under him ; and yet waggons w'ith 
 the heaviest loads passed over it, without appear- 
 ing to be affected by its elastic motion. 
 
 This simple but truly ingenious notion of Grub- 
 enman has been greatly improved by an engineer 
 in the erection of a bridge in North America. 1\ e 
 span of the arch is about 250 feet, and its rise very 
 small. 
 
 Figure 6, Plate 2, of Bridges represents three 
 beams of the arch. They are formed of logs of 
 timber 10 or 12 teet long of a suitable curvature 
 without trimming across the grain. Each beam is 
 double, and consisting of two logs applied to each 
 other, side to side, by breaking joints. They are 
 united together by wedges and keys, driven through 
 them at short distances, as at K, U, See. by the me- 
 thod illustrated in the joining of timbers sideways, 
 see Article Carpentry. This being understood, we 
 proceed to exhibit a method by which a number of 
 beams may be united together, so as to compose an 
 arch of any thickness. The beams have other mor- 
 tises worked out of their inner sides, half out of each 
 half of the beam, and the mortises formed as des- 
 cribed in the article alluded to above. Long keys 
 B B, C C, are then made to fit them properly, the 
 
 notches being so placed as to keep the beams at tlieiF 
 proper distances from each other, and a long wedge 
 A A driven in between the keys will bind the whole 
 together. 
 
 Timbers by this method are brought into a firm 
 and uniform abutment ; it is indeed extremely flex- 
 ible, having nothing to keep it from bending by an 
 inequality of load, but the transverse strength of the 
 beams at the same time. It is evident that this ten- 
 dency to flexibility may be counteracted by the in- 
 troduction of diagonal pieces ; by which means this 
 construction may be strengthened to any degree of 
 stiffness, and thereby enable it to bear any inequa- 
 lity ofload. 
 
 When strengthened and supported in this manner 
 it w ill be decidedly preferable to anv construction 
 which has yet been made known ; and it possesses 
 besides the peculiar advantage of having any piece 
 of timber taken out and repaired, without disturb- 
 ing the rest, or by any means endangering the struc- 
 ture. 
 
 Iron Bridges . — Modern invention has produced 
 bridges of cast iron, which are cheaper than those 
 built with stone. Iron bridges are the exclusive 
 invention of British artists ; and that metal being 
 abundant and cheap, has of late been employed in 
 many works where great strength was required in 
 proportion to the weight of the material. 
 
 “ Fusible iron, as a material for bridges, ha3 
 many advantages over stone or wood. It is supe- 
 rior to the first in tenacity and elasticity : and from 
 thence in strength, in the facility of formation, and 
 in the extent of the masses in which it can be ex- 
 hibited ; all which, make it superior, in lightness 
 and cheapness. To wood it is superior in all the 
 same particulars, and in that of durability besides ; 
 in which respect alone, it is inferior to stone. 
 
 The greatest durability of stone, arises in the first 
 instance, from its being less acted on by the weather, 
 and in the second, from its experiencing less vibra- 
 tion from the motion of carriages on account of the 
 great masses in which it is used. But there are se- 
 veral ways °f guarding against the deficiency of 
 iron in these respects ; paint w r ill prevent corrosion 
 from rust for many years, and instances could bq 
 shewn, where cast iron carriages of garrison guns, 
 have been preserved thus, in an unimpaired state, 
 from the time of the last king William, and the 
 vibration can he greatly diminished, if not totally 
 prevented, by the use of triangular framing through • 
 out, and by putting sheet lead between the joints of 
 the frames. But it is probable both evils might be 
 prevented more effectually by the mode proposed 
 by the late Mr. Samuel Wyatt, to the House of 
 Commons, of filling the vacancies between the iron 
 frames, with some compact cheap material, and none 
 would be more effectual for this purpose, or perhaps 
 cheaper in- the end, than brick cemented by Roman 
 cement, or pozzoiana, or tarras, which, owing its 
 
 binding 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 binding nature chiefly to iron ©xyd, would unite to 
 the iron of the bridge in the closest manner, and 
 defend it from every access of air, while the increas- 
 ed mass that would be thus produced, would annihi- 
 late vibration, or reduce it to an imperceptible 
 quantity. But as lightness is a desirable quality 
 in these bridges, perhaps it might be advisable to 
 form hollow bricks purposely for this use ; which, 
 on account of the more complete baking, or burn- 
 ing in the kiln, of which they would be capable, 
 would, perhaps, be equally durable as any stone. 
 As a proof of which opinion, the thin bricks used by 
 the Romans, are still in perfect preservation in 
 many places. Filling up the intervals of the iron 
 bars would also have the advantage of preventing 
 almost entirely their expansion and contraction from 
 change of temperature. 
 
 Iron may be used for bridges either on the prin- 
 ciple of equilibration, as stone is, or on that of con- 
 nection by framing, as wood is in some bridges, but 
 more generally in roofs. For large bridges, the 
 first is preferable, according to the best opinions : 
 but probably the latter mode would be found cheaper j 
 for small bridges. There has been one specimen of j 
 a wooden bridge built on a very different system J 
 from others, (of which many models are preserved 
 though the French have destroyed the original) that . 
 seems worthy of being imitated in iron, on a greater 
 scale, which is the bridge of 'such a curious structure 
 that stood so many years at Schafhaussen ; and it is 
 probable if the model was studied with this view by 
 an experienced engineer, many useful ideas might 
 be obtained on the subject. The greater flatness of [ 
 the arch, which iron admits of, is an advantage it 
 has over stone, which should not be omitted. It is 
 capable of demonstration, (and has been proved, see 
 Mr. J. W. Boswell’s paper on Roads and Whee l 
 Carriages, inserted in vol. 17, of the Repertory of , 
 Arts, &c.) that every increase of ascent in a road, j 
 adds to the expence of conveying goods over it, in j 
 a greater degree than has been suspected. A lofty j 
 arch has in this respect all the disadvantages of j 
 a high hill, while a flat arch either affords a level 
 road, or one nearly so.” 
 
 u The difficulty of preparing centering for the 
 large arches (the capability of producing which is 
 one of the greatest advantages of the art of framing 
 iron bridges) is now in a great measure removed, | 
 by the ingenious mode proposed by Mr. Selford, in 
 his Report to the House of Commons on the propos- 
 ed bridge over the Menai.” See Repertory of Arts, 
 &>c. No. 114. For the method of constructing and 
 centering, after the ingenious mode proposed by 
 Mr. Telford, see (enter, article Carpentry. 
 
 The first iron bridge of any importance seems to 
 be that of Colebrookdale, in Shropshire. This 
 bridge is composed of five rib«, and each rib of three 
 concentric arcs connected together by radiating 
 pieces. The interior arc forms a semicircle, but the 
 ethers extend only to the ciils under the roadway. 
 
 4$ 
 
 These arcs pass through an upright frame of iron at 
 each end, which serves as a guide ; and the small 
 space in the haunches between the frames and the 
 outer arc, is filled in with a ring of about seven 
 feet diameter. Upon the top of the ribs are laid 5 
 cast iron plates, which sustain the road way. The 
 span of this arch is 100 feet 6 inches, and the height, 
 from the base line to the centre, 40 feet. The road 
 over the bridge is 24 feet wide,, and is imbedded - 
 with clay and iron flag a foot deep. The most ele- 
 gant and ingenious structure of this kind, is the- 
 bridge erected over the Wear at Sunderland, by R. 
 Burdon, Esq, being the result of an invention guar- 
 anteed to him by letters patent, dated September 
 18, 1795, and whicli he describes as follows: “ I, 
 Rowland Curdon, do declare, that my invention con- 
 sists in applying iron, or other metallic composi- 
 tions, to the purpose of constructing, arches, upon 
 the same principle as stone is now employed, by a 
 subdivision into blocks, easily portable, ansvvering- 
 the key stones of a common arch, which, being 
 brought to bear on each other, gives them all the 
 firmness of the solid stone arch ; whilst, .by the great 
 vacuities in the blocks,. and their respective distances 
 in their lateral position, the arch becomes infinitely 
 lighter than that of stone: and, by the tenacity of 
 the metal, the parts are so intimately connected, that 
 the accurate calculation of the extrados and intradosy 
 so necessary in stone arches of magnitude, is render- 
 ed of much less consequence. The connecting prin- 
 ciple of these iron blocks will be better understood 
 by a reference to the annexed plate of bridge*,, 
 where Figure 6 represents a block of cast iron, five 
 feet in depth from A to A, and tour inches in thick- 
 ness ; having three arms B, B, B, and making a part 
 of a circle or ellipsis; the middle arm is two feet in 
 length from B to C, and the other two are in propor- 
 tion. On each side of the arms are grooves three- 
 quarters of an inch deep, and three inches broad, for 
 the purpose of receiving maleable or bar iron; and in 
 each arm are two bolt holes. D, Figure 7, represents 
 two of these blocks united together, and the joints 
 confined to their respective positions by the bar iron 
 on each side of the arms, as at E, E, E : which, with 
 other similar blocks, so united and bearing upon each 
 other, becomes a rib. F, F, Figure 7, are hollow 
 tubes, six feet long,, and four inches in diameter, 
 having shoulders at each end, with holes answering 
 to those of the blocks. G is- a block of another rib, 
 
 connected with the former by the tubes F, F, placed 
 horizontally. Through the holes in the shoulders, 
 and arms of the block and bar iron are bolts (fast- 
 ened with cotterels or forelocks) as at H, II , H, H. 
 The blocks being united with each other in ribs, and- 
 the ribs connected and supported laterally, by the^ 
 tubes, as above described, the whole becomes one- 
 mass, having the property of key-stones cramped 
 together. 
 
 The bridge consists of a single arch, whose span 
 is 23G feet j and as the springing stones on each side 
 
 project 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 44 
 
 project two feet, the whole opening- is 240 feet. The 
 arch is a segment of a circle whose diameter is about 
 414 feet, its versed side being 34 feet: the whole 
 height from low water about one hundred feet. A 
 .series of one hundred and iive blocks form a rib and 
 six of these ribs compose the width of the bridge. 
 The spaces between the arch and the read-way are 
 holed up by cast iron circles, which touch the 
 outer circumference of the arch, and at the same time 
 support the road-way, gradually diminishing from 
 •tiie abutments towards the centre of the bridge. 
 Diagonal iron bars are laid on the tops of the ribs, 
 and extended to the abutments to keep the ribs from ' < 
 twisting. The superstructure is a strong frame ot , 
 timber planked over to support the carriage road, 
 which is composed of marl, limestone, and gravel, 
 with a cement of tar and chalk immediately upon the 
 planks to preserve them. The whole width of the 
 bridge is thirty-two feet. The abutments are mas- 
 ses 'of almost solid masonry, twenty-tour feet in 
 thickness, forty-two in breadth, at bottom, and thir- 
 ty-seven at top. The weight of the iron in this 
 bridge amounts to 260 tons ; 214 of these are cast, 
 and 46 maleable. The w hole expence was 27;00Q1. 
 
 A very elegant bridge was lately erected over the 
 river Thames at Staines, by the ingenious Mr. 
 Thomas Wilson, who was employed by Mr. Eurdon, 
 in the erection of the preceding bridge. This bridge 
 consisted of a single arch, 181 feet in span, and 16 
 leet 16 inches in rise, being a segment of a circle 
 whose diameter is4S0 feet. The blocks of winch the 
 ribs were composed, were similar to those in the 
 Wearmoutli bridge, except that these had only two 
 concentric arcs instead of three, as at the latter. 
 The arcs were cast hollow, and the blocks connected 
 by means of dowels and keys. Four ribs formed the 
 breadth of the arch, which were connected together 
 by crossed frames. The spaces between the arch 
 and the road- way were filled up with circles, which 
 supported a covering of iron plates an inch thick ; ] 
 on this was laid the road-way, twenty-seven feet | 
 wide. 270 tons was the weight of the iron employed | 
 in the bridge, and 330 of the road-wav. This ele- | 
 gant bridge, which was considered by far ike most 
 .complete in design, and the best executed, has fal- 
 len, but under circumstances rather to prove its su- 
 periority, than to depreciate the design or the exe- 
 cution ; for ti;e iron-work did not give way until the 
 stone abutments first yielded- the fault was there- 
 
 fore in the construction of the abutments, and not ih 
 the iron framing. 
 
 Drazc- Bridge, one that is fastened with hinges at 
 one end only, so that the other may be drawn up; 
 in which case, the bridge stands upright, to hinder 
 the passage over a ditch or moat. 
 
 11 yin g- Bridge, one made of leather boats, pon- 
 toon--, casks, hollow- beams, &c. laid on a river, and 
 covered with, planks, for the passage of an army. 
 
 Tlying-Bridge, a bridge composed of one or more 
 boats, connected together by a sort of flooring, and 
 surrounded with a ballustrade or railing; having 
 also one or more masts, to which is fastened a cable, 
 supported at proper distances by boats, and extend- 
 ed to an anchor, to which the other end is made fast, 
 in the middle of the water. This contrivance per- 
 mits the bridge to move from one side of the river to 
 the other, without any other help than that of the 
 rudder. These bridges consist sometimes of two 
 stories, for the quicker passage of a great number of 
 men, or that infantry and cavalry may pass at the 
 same time. 
 
 1 loatiyg-Bridge, is generally constructed of two 
 small bridges, laid one over the other, in such a 
 manner as that the utmost stretches and runs out, by 
 the help of certain cords running through pullies 
 placed along the sides of the under bridge, which 
 push it forw ard till the end of it joins the place it is 
 designed to be fixed on. When these two bridges 
 are stretched out to their full length, so that the two 
 middle ends meet, they are not to be above four or 
 five fathoms long, because, iflonger, they will break. 
 
 Bridges of Boats are made of wooden or copper 
 boats, fastened with stakes or anchors, and laid over 
 with plank. 
 
 Pendent or Hanging Bridges, often called Philoso- 
 phical Bridges , are those which are supported only 
 at the two ends on butments, w ithout posts or pillars. 
 Instances of such bridges are given by Palladio and 
 others. The celebrated Dr. Wallts gives the design 
 ofa timber bridge seventy feet long, without any 
 pillars or supports whatever. Dr. Plot also informs 
 us, that there was formerly a large bridge of this 
 kind over the Castle ditch at Tutbury, in Stafford- 
 shire, constructed of pieces of timber only a yard 
 long each, and without any sort of prop w hatever. 
 
 Rtishen Bridges are made of large sheaves of 
 rushes, covered with planks : they are used for cross'- 
 ing of ground that is boggy, rotten^ or miry. 
 
BAKING. 
 
 Bakikg is the art of preparing bread, or of reducing 
 meals of any kind, whether simple or compound, in- 
 to bread. 
 
 Man, who appears to be designed by nature to eat 
 of all substances that are capable of nourishing him, 
 and still more of the vegetable then the animal kind, 
 has, from the earliest times, used farinaceous grains as 
 his principal food ; but as these grains cannot be eaten 
 in their natural state without difficulty, means have 
 been contrived for extract ing the farinaceous part, and 
 of preparing it so as to render it a pleasant and whole- 
 some aliment. 
 
 Those who are accustomed to enjoy all the advan- 
 tngesofthc finest human invention, without reflecting 
 on the labours it has cost to complete them, think all 
 these operations common and trivial: no wonder that 
 tosuch there should appear nothing more easy, than to 
 grind corn, to make it into a paste, and to bake it in a 
 oven. 
 
 It is, however, certain, that for a long time men no 
 otherwise prepared their corn, then by boiling it in 
 water, and forming viscous cakes, which were neither 
 agreeable to the taste nor easy of digestion. To make 
 good bread, it was necessary to construct machines 
 for grinding and separating the pure flour with little 
 labour and trouble ; and inquires, or perhaps accident, 
 which some observing person availed himself of, dis- 
 covered, that flour, w hen mixed with a certain quan- 
 tity of water and moderately heated, would ferment, 
 by which its viscidity would be nearly destroyed, and 
 would make bread more pleasant to tile taste, and easy 
 of d igestion. 
 
 There are few nations who do not use bread, or a 
 substitute for it. The Laplanders having no corn, 
 make a kind of bread of dried fish, and the inner rind 
 of the pine, which last is added to make a <Jry food, 
 for which mankind seem to have an universal inclina- 
 tion, in preference to that of a bland, slippery muci- 
 laginous nature. 
 
 This is not commonly accounted for, but it seems to 
 depend on very simple principles. The digestion of 
 our food requires the mixture of the animal fluids in 
 every stage; among others the saliva is necessary, 
 which requires dry food to bring it forth ; fluid ali- 
 ments do not remain long enough m the mouth to 
 produce this effect, which is the reason we use bread 
 with our meals. 
 
 When, therefore, it is considered how large a portion 
 .of our sustenance is derived from bread, and that it 
 forms part ot every meal ; it is surprizing that die art of 
 bread-making l as not been, till of late years, a subject 
 ot scientific investigation. The researches of Count 
 Rumfoid and M, Parmentier have, however, at last 
 
 induced a great number of ingenious men. to apply 
 themselves to the study of this most important sub- 
 ject, who by the results of their experiments, have ren- 
 dered the art of making and baking good bread more 
 certain and economical.* 
 
 To bake well requires many precautions, and a de - , 
 gree of skill, which practice alone can secure. It is 
 probably owing to these circumstances, connected 
 with the real importance of the art, that those who 
 first began to pursue it as a profession, were held iu 
 such high estimation in their several nations. At 
 Rome, into w hich regular bakers seem to have been in- 
 troduced from Greece about the year of the city 58 3, 
 they were so much esteemed, as to be occasionally 
 admitted into the senate; and to enable them the bet-, 
 ter to devote more of their time to the study of their 
 business, they were altogether exempted from guar- 
 dianships and other troublesome offices, to which the 
 rest of the Roman citizens were liable. 
 
 In treating of this subject we shall pursue the fol- 
 lowing arrangement, in conformity to the plan adopt- 
 ed by Mr. Edlin, in his tieatise on bread-making. 
 
 1 . Observations on the mealing trade . — 2. Analysis 
 of reheat flour . — 3. Remarks on yeast. — 4. On the 
 ihconj of fermentation of bread.-— 5. On the prepar- 
 ation of bread . — (>. Substitutes for xeheaten bread . — 
 7. Remarks on the structure of a bake-house , with 
 observations on the different construction of ovens, S?c. 
 
 Ox the Meal Trade. — The great corn-market 
 in this kingdom, is the Corn-Exchange, in Mark- 
 lane, where on Mondays and Fridays are exposed 
 samples, sent by the farmers and corn-merchants tied 
 up in small bags, with a label on each, stating the 
 number of quarters, and at what plac they arc de- 
 posited. 
 
 Tib within the last sixty years, the dealers in com 
 carried on their trade at Rear Quay, but finding it on 
 many accounts extremely inconvenient, the present 
 Corn-Exchange was erected by a- company of pro- 
 prietors, for their accommodation, and is managed by 
 a committee of three trustrees, chosen by the proprie- 
 tors, who have allotted seventy-two stands, on which 
 the samples are exposed for sale ; sixty-four of which 
 numlxg arc leased out to factors; the other eight are 
 reserved for the Kentish Hoy men. The practice of 
 sending samples instead of the article in bulk, we arc 
 persuaded is injurious to the purchaser ; this evil is 
 expressed by the committee of the House of Commons 
 
 respecting 
 
 * We believe the first regular treatise on the art of bread-making', 
 was written by Mr. Kdlin ; to which publication we are indebtedf»r 
 much of the information contained in the present article. 
 
 N 
 
46 ' 
 
 BAKING. 
 
 respecting corn, who state, in their report, that this 
 practice enables the broker to keep back, or expose the 
 quantity on sale as best suits his ends. 
 
 To this market the millers, mealmen, and corn- 
 chandlers from different parts of the country, resort to 
 transact business The broker has a commission of 
 one shilling per quarter for selling foreign wheat, and 
 sixpence per quarter, for all that comes coastwise ; 
 The buyer has to pay the corn-meter one penny per 
 quarter, as a consideration for ascertaining that the 
 quantify in bulk correspond to the quantity marked on 
 tire sample bag. The purchaser is not compelled to 
 complete his bargain, unless the report of the corn- 
 meter makes the quantities agree. This saves the 
 buyer much trouble, as it frequently happens that the 
 corn does not arrive at Bear Quay for many days after 
 the purchase is made. Most country towns have 
 their markets on stated days, where the corn is com- 
 monly exposed in bulk by the farmer, which is a 
 much fairer way ; as by this the purchaser is enabled 
 to judge how far the market is ill or well supplied 
 with grain. The custom of preventing the sale of 
 corn till a particular hour, is also a very proper one, 
 and although we disapprove of the interference of 
 Government in matters of trade, we cannot sec any 
 evil that could possibly accrue from compelling all 
 sales of corn to be made in (he market, which it in-' 
 convenient to be sent in bulk, might certainly be done 
 by samples 
 
 Management of the grain in granaries. — 
 After the grain is purchased it is sent to the granaries, 
 wnich, are large buildings of many stories, each of 
 which consists of one entire apartment, where, by 
 turning and screening, it is deprived of its superfluous 
 moisture, and rendered more fit for grinding into 
 flour. These operations arc performed in the follow- 
 ing manner ; the corn being deposited on one of the 
 floors, it is tossed by means of shovels from one end 
 of it to the other, in which operation the dust and 
 any other light substance falls to the floor, w hilst the 
 grain being heavier, reaches the farther end of the 
 loft. 
 
 It is then screened and spread on the floor about 
 half a foot thick, turning it twice a week, and screen- 
 ing it once, which management must be continued for 
 the first two months. The grain is then laid a foot 
 thick, and for the two next months is turned once a 
 week, and screened less frequently. This manage- 
 ment is to be continued for five or six months, wiien 
 it may he encreased to two feet thick, and the former 
 operations repeated as occasion requires, which will 
 he more frequent in damp than in dry weather. 
 
 After a year it may be increased in thickness to 
 ib ree feet and turned and screened once in three weeks 
 or a month. By this means corn has been kept in 
 this country more than thirty years, and it is observ- 
 ed that the longer it is kept the more flour it yields, 
 and the purer and whiter is the bread which it 
 makes. 
 
 Corn is preserved on the Continent in the following 
 manner, for fifty or one hundred years. Grain treat- 
 ed in the same manner as before described, to dry out 
 all superfluous moisture, is deposited in a pit and co- 
 vered with quick lime a little wetted ; this induces 
 the corn to shoot to about the depth of an inch, form- 
 ing thereby a crust which is impervious to air and 
 insects. The pit is then secured by planks laid over 
 it and fastened together. 
 
 In LordGardenstones’ travels, we meet with the fol- 
 lowing account of preserving corn at Geneva. While 
 the grain conlinues new it is turned about once every 
 twenty days . till it requires a sufficient degree of firm- 
 ness, which generally requires two years. It is then 
 moderately kiln dried, and stowed in the lowest flat of 
 the granary, as high as the floor of the next flat ; on 
 (his manner they proceed lessening the quantity as 
 they rise in each flat, for the purpose of saving ex- 
 pence. By this method they preserve the grain sound 
 for many years. 
 
 Mr. lidlin relates that, after a thunder storm, corn 
 that is perfectly dry and sound before, will frequently 
 feel quite clammy, and that, if not very well turned 
 and dried, it will be totally spoiled. This effect does 
 not happen to corn above a year old, unless it be such 
 as was not sweated sufficiently in the straw, before it 
 was thrashed out 
 
 To preserve grain from insects, Mr. E. recommends 
 frequent screening, ventilation, and lodging it dry. 
 As a further preventat’ve, he recommends the floors 
 being rubbed with garlic and dwarf elder, the smell 
 of which will drive them away. 
 
 Good wdieat should look plump, feel heavy in the 
 hand, and be of a clear transparent amber colour ; 
 and when masticated some time in the mouth, a consi- 
 derable portion of a thick glutinous matter, free from 
 meal, will he left behind. Its taste should be sweetish. 
 W heat with a thick skin yields less meal and darker, 
 and of course fetches a less price. That part of the 
 grain which produces the finest flour is the heart or 
 centre ; this meal ferments readily; but ihe meal pro- 
 duced from that part of the grain immediately under 
 the coating, and which being softer than the. heart, is 
 not so easily reduced to powder, is of an inferior kind, 
 and ferments with yeast with difficulty. 
 
 Having shewn the manner of preserving grain, we 
 shall now endeavour to give some account of the man- 
 ner of its being ground and manufactured into flour. 
 Mills for grinding corn are generally called grist- 
 mills, and are mostly driven by water. The building, 
 ot the largest mills is commonly three stories high ; 
 on the first floor the corn is ground by means of two 
 mill stones one above the other ; the lower stone is 
 fixed, but the upper one turns upon a spindle, to 
 which motion is given from the water wheel by moans 
 of toothed wheels acting in each other. The surfaces 
 f the two stones, between which the corn is ground, 
 is not flat or plane, the upper one being hollow, and 
 the lower one rounding upwards, or convex ; but as 
 
 the 
 
CAKING. 
 
 47 
 
 the cencavity or hollow of tlie upper stone exceeds \ 
 tlmt of the convexity or rounding up of the lower, 
 it must be obvious, that the stones come nearer toge- 
 ther at the edges than in the middle. The corn being 
 drivelled from the hopper throngh a hole in the cen- 
 tre of the upper stone, is worked between the stones 
 near two-thirds of the way from (lie centre to the 
 edges, where it begins to be ground, the space at that 
 place being but one-half or three-fourths of the thick- 
 ness of the grains of corn ; it may* however, be in- ' 
 creased or diminished whenever the miller thinks 
 proper, by raising or sinking the upper stone, which 
 w ill of course make the flower finer of coarser. There 
 are furrows cut in the stones, from the centre to the 
 sides, which causes them to cut quicker. When the 
 corn is quite reduced to flour, ii is thrown out of the 
 mill by the centrifurgal force of the upper stone, 
 through a hole made for that purpose into a trough, 
 and from thence descends by means of a wooden 
 trunk into a bin on the ground floor, which is divided 
 into two parts by a partition, and provided with a 
 cover. The bunt or sieve through which the meal 
 passes to rid it of its bran, is a skeleton of aeilindri- 
 cal form, made of iron bars, and extending from one 
 end to the other of (lie bin, not horizontal but a little 
 inclining at one end. T his skeleton is covered with 
 an exceeding fine wove; wire for the first half its 
 length, and the other half with wove wire somewhat 
 coarser; into the upper end of this bunt tlie meal is 
 conducted, and a rotary motion given to it by con- 
 necting it w ith the machinery ; the fine flour falls 
 into the first division of the bin, and the coarser into 
 the second, the bran is discharged at the low er end 
 into the joggling screen, to separate what meal is 
 remaining in tlie bin, which runs downs in a locker 
 below . The meal thus separated is again caught by 
 a second screen, which in the same way separates 
 the twenty-peni v, and what passes down the third 
 screen is called rough stuff, and is made into 
 w hat the corn chandlers call pollard. What conies 
 through the first division of tlie boult is termed fine 
 or household flour ; that which passes through the 
 second division is called sharps ; these are suffered 
 to remain till a sufficient quantity is collected when 
 they are re-ground, the stones being sat closer toge- 
 ther for that purpose and bouited through the cloth, 
 No 17, this is found to produce better flour than if 
 the stones were set sufficiently, close the first grind- 
 ing, ana what does not pass through this cloth is 
 passed through, a cloth of a coarser kind; No. 15, 
 which forms the fine middlings, and that which will 
 not pass No. 15, is dressed through a still coarser, 
 No. 13, and is denominated tuarse middlings, the 
 refuse of which is mixed with the pollard. Sharps 
 are not always re-ground, as they are found to make 
 a biscuit of an excellent quality, which keeps longer 
 then w en made of flour alone ; it is sold to con- 
 tractors for the supply of the navy. 
 
 The finest English wheat that can be procured is 
 
 ground, without the admixture of foreign, and sold 
 to the pastry cooks and others, as Hertfordshire 
 whites. 
 
 This is the .usual course of the mealing trade, and 
 the. following is the produce of a quarter of wheat. 
 
 Fine Flour 5 Bushels 3 pecks. 
 
 Seconds ........ half a bushel. 
 
 Fine Middlings . . 1 Peck. 
 
 Coarse ditto .... half a peck. 
 
 Bran 3 Bushels or half a sack. 
 
 Twenty-penny . . Ditto. 
 
 Pollard 2 Bushels. 
 
 The flour is now put into sacks, each sack con- 
 taining five bushels or two hundred and eighty 
 pounds. Flour is better for keeping a short time 
 after being ground, as it seldom makes light bread, 
 when new. 
 
 Fine flour is very apt to breed insects if kept too 
 long after being ground, which are very destructive ; 
 flour so infested must immediately be made into- 
 bread. 
 
 The following account, taken from the second 
 volume of “ the Repertory of Arts and Manufac- 
 tures, ” may serv e as a caution to those who may 
 have large quantities of meal in store at one time. 
 On the 14th of December, 1795, about six o’clock in 
 the evening, there took place in the house of M. 
 Giacomelli, baker, in this city of Turin, an explo- 
 sion that burst out the windows and window frames 
 of his front shop, and the report was so loud as to be 
 heard at a considerable distance. At the moment 
 of the explosion a very bright flame, which lasted 
 only a few seconds, was seen in the shop which con- 
 tained near three hundred sacks of flour. In 
 this place a boy w r as employed in emptying out some 
 flour by the light of a lamp. He had his face and 
 arms terribly scorched by the explosion, his hair 
 was burnt, and it w as more than a fortnight before 
 his burns were healed. ” 
 
 It does not appear that the flour, which caused 
 the above accident, was damp; and Count Morozzo, 
 w o gives the account, mentions several explosions 
 which happened at different places and times. We 
 insert this account to guard those who may have 
 large quantities of flour under their care, to prevent 
 their carrying candles into the store, as it may be 
 attended with the most dreadful consequences. 
 
 We shall now notice some experiments which 
 were made by Mr. Edlin to ascertain tlie constituent 
 parts of weight. 
 
 This gentleman took one pound of the seed of 
 wheat that grew on a well-cultivated soil, and 
 ground it in a hand mill; the meal was then sifted 
 through a fine lawn sieve, and when the flour was 
 separated there remained three ounces of bran and 
 twelve ounces of fine Hour: this last was put into a 
 hair sieve, and a stream of water gradually poured 
 ovor it, whilst he k .eaded it into a paste; more 
 water, was added from time to time till the following 
 
 appearances 
 
48 BAKING. 
 
 appearances took place : A glutinous substance re- 
 mained in the hand, which was very elastic. The 
 powder which subsided td the bottom of the vessel 
 was starch, and the liquor in which the foregoing 
 articles were suspended, was of a brown colour and 
 a sweetish taste. These were all put by for future 
 experiments, the result of which was as follows : 
 viz. — That the glutinous elastic substance, when 
 dried, became perfectly brittle, resembling glue, and 
 weighed six drachms. Mr. Edlin is -of opinion that 
 to this gluten wheat owes the property of forming 
 an adhesive paste, and its fecility to rise w ith lea- 
 ven, not that it contributes immediately to produce 
 iermentation, which is by no means the case ; but in 
 forming a more tenacious dough or paste. This 
 property exists only in a small degree in barley, and 
 is altogether wanting in potatoes, which our author 
 thinks is the cause why bread, made from these tw o 
 articles, is so difficult of fermentation. That this is 
 •the case, seems certain from the experiments of M. 
 Beccari, of Bologna, and Dr. Cullen, wdio, by adding 
 this substance to barley and potatoes, produced 
 better bread from each, then could be obtained w ith- 
 out this addition. Parmcntier asserts that bread 
 may be made from potatoes alone, this opinion, 
 however, seems to be contrary to the experiments 
 of Mr. Edlin and Dr. Pearson/both being decidedly 
 of opinion that this root cannot be fermented so as to 
 make bread without the admixture of wheaten flour. 
 Hence, they conclude, that no farinacious or mealy 
 substance can be made into good bread, that has 
 not the three constituent parts of wheat ; for, if to 
 the starch of potatoes, some of this glutinous sub- 
 stance be added, with yeast and water, it w ill not 
 form a bread, owing to the -absence of the saccharine 
 or sugery extract, on which the process of fermen- 
 tation depends, and which, if this last substance be 
 added, even in a concentrated state, will immedi- 
 ately commence. 
 
 It has not yet been ascertained in w hat proportion 
 the glutinous substance is found in wheat, Mr. Win- 
 ter states that it is'less in wet than in dry seasons, 
 and Mr. Edlin thinks it more abundant in wheat 
 growing on land well manured, then from that 
 which is the produce of neglected soils. 
 
 The fa'cula, or starch, deposited in the bottom of 
 the vessel, was next dried, and was found to be tine 
 w hite starch; as this forms by much the most 
 considerable pa r£ of the grain. Mr. Edlin, thinks 
 it the principal elementary substance of bread, and 
 this opinion is strengthened bv the fact of many 
 thousands of the inhabitants of Ireland, living prin- 
 cipally upon potatoes, which contain starch, in con- 
 siderable quantity, and are altogether destitute of 
 gluten, which has been so much insisted upon, as 
 being so extremely nutritive : this is also corrobo- 
 rated by experiments on feeding animals. It seems j 
 
 and saccharine extracts. The next experiments 
 were made on the sugary, or saccharine extract, 
 which proved that however small the quantity may 
 be which wheat contains, yet its presence is abso- 
 lutely necessary in the formation of good bread. 
 
 Mr. Edlin next made a variety of experiments on 
 the composition of yeast, in order to ascertain what 
 share it has in producing fermentation in bread. lie 
 found that the same effect was produced by using 
 the fixed air, or sulphuric acid gas, which was dis- 
 engaged by pouring some diluted sulphuric acid 
 upon powdered marble ; he also collected the gas 
 iroduced by the fermentation of some newly tunned 
 >eer, which likewise produced good bread, similar 
 in all respects, to that made in the usual way. 
 From these experiments he concludes that the 
 principles which enter into bread, are gluten, starch, 
 sugar, and fixed air. 
 
 THEORY OF FERMENTATION IN BREAD. 
 
 In order to make this understood by persons 
 altogether unacquainted with chemistry, it is ne- 
 cessary that the following facts should be known - 
 that there are three states of fermentation, which 
 takes place in the following order, viz. the Vinous, 
 which produces wine, beer, &c. the Acetous, and 
 Putrid. All fermentation is an intestine motion of 
 the constituent particles of a moist, fluid, mixed, or 
 compound body, by the continuance ot which motion 
 the particles are gradually removed from their for- 
 mer situation or combination, and again, after some 
 visible separation is made, joined together in a 
 different order and arrangement, so that a new com- 
 pound is formed. 
 
 The usual method of making bread with yeast, is 
 very simple, and soon performed. The yeast is ad- 
 ded to a part of the flour and well kneaded ; this in 
 a short time swells and rises in the trough, and is 
 called by the bakers setting the sponge. Afterwards 
 the remainder of the flour is added, with a sufficient 
 quantity of water to make it into dough, the whole is 
 then left to ferment and rise. 
 
 The water being added to the yeast, warm, ex- 
 tricates the air in an elastic state, and the whole 
 being well diffused and mixed with the* mass, every 
 particle must be raised ; the air being kept from 
 escaping by the viscidity of the dough. In this state 
 it is neaded, and made up into loaves, which are 
 then baked, the increase of heat disengaging more 
 of the fixed air, which is further prevented from 
 escaping bv the forming of the crust, the process 
 continuing, the superfluous water is driven out, and 
 the bread becoming firmer, retains that spungy 
 hollowness which distinguishes good bread. 
 
 From what has already been said, it appears that 
 the saccharine extract of the wheat flour, in conse- 
 quence of moisture, has ’ its constituent principle 
 disengaged, the oxygen seizing the carbenaccous 
 matter, and forming carbonic acid, which is dis- 
 engaged in the form of gas, occasioning the intestine 
 
 motion. 
 
BAKING. 
 
 49 
 
 motion alkl swelling of the dough just described; 
 but this proeess, if left to itself without the addition 
 of yeast, is extremely slow. This is what is called 
 leavened bread. 
 
 In making bread without yeast, the process is 
 more tedious, a small quantity of Hour is wetted, 
 and allowed to remain several hours covered up. 
 
 In this case the water is decomposed : the oxygen 
 of that fluid uniting with the saccharine extract, j 
 bring on fermentation, which is not of a vinous but 
 •of an acetous nature, more flour and water are from 
 time to time added to the leaven, till a sufficient quan- 
 tity is ready for baking. Much nicety is required 
 in conducting this operation, which, if left too long 
 will make the bread sour, and if time enough is not 
 allowed for its raising, heavy bread will be the 
 result. 
 
 There are many articles in use for exciting speedy | 
 fermentation in flour, which may be all brought un- * 
 der the two following heads : either they are impreg- 
 nated with carbonic acid gas, or contain the princi- 
 ple of acidity : hence we are able to account why 
 light bread is made at Paris with the waters of 
 Gencsse, without yeast. At Pyrmont the same thing 
 is done with .Saltzer water, and in England with ar- 
 tificial Saltzer. There arc also two springs at Sara- j 
 toga, in America, which are possessed of the same j 
 properties. All these waters are highly inipregna- I 
 fed with fixed air. 
 
 In warm climates where no beer is brewed, the i 
 inhabitants commonly raise their bread by the ace- j 
 tous method as described before, which is generally lj 
 to be perceived by -the sourness of their bread. It -| 
 is. however, possible to make good bread by fliis pro- j I 
 cess, and the mode is often adopted on board our j 
 men of war, in the West Indies, by mixing water ! 
 which has become sour in casks, with the flour, j 
 which uill excite fermentation almost as speedily 
 as yeast. ! 
 
 in the East Indies, where fermentation is extreme- j 
 Jy qurck, a liquor, called toddy, procured by an in- j 
 - cison being made in the branches or fibres of the co- jj 
 coa nut tree, is used to promote fermentation. 
 
 OF THE PREPARATION OF BREAD. 
 
 In order to prepare bread, flour and water are i| 
 kneaded together into a tough paste; this contains j[ 
 the principles of flour, but very little altered, and j 
 not easily digested bv the stomach. The action of j 
 heat produces a considerable change, it renders the j 
 compound more easy to masticate as well as to di- , 
 gest. Bread made in this manner is called unlea- | 
 veiled, and is used for shipping in considerable 
 quantities; but most of the bread used in France, ! 
 Germany, and other European countries, is made i 
 to undergo, previous to baking, a kind of ferment. I 
 The effect of this fermentation is found to be, that I 
 the mass is rendered more digestable and light, by j 
 which expression it is to be understood that it is jj 
 more porous, by ike disengagement of an elastic 1 
 
 fluid that separates its parts from each other, as be- 
 fore explained, and greatly increases its bulk. 
 
 The operation of baking puts a stop to this pro- 
 cess, by evaporating great part of the moisture, and, 
 probably. also, by still farther changing the nature 
 of (he component parts. Bread made according to 
 the preceding method, will not possess that unifor- 
 mity which is requisite, because some parts may 
 be mouldy, while others are not sufficiently changed 
 from dough. The same means have been used in 
 this case as have been found effectual in promoting 
 the fermentation of large masses ; this consists in 
 the use of a leaven or ferment, which is a small 
 portion of some rnatteT of the same kind, but in a 
 more advanced state of fermentation. After this 
 leaven has been well incorporated, by kneading it 
 into fresh dough, it not only brings on the fermen- 
 tation with greater speed, but causes it to take place 
 in the whole mass at the same time : a’nd as soon 
 as this dough lias, by tins means, acquired a due 
 increase of hulk from the air which endeavours to 
 escape, it is judged to be • sufficiently fermented, 
 and ready for the oven. 
 
 The bread principally used in this country is fer- 
 mented u ith yeast, or the froth which arises on the 
 surface of beer, in the first stage of fermentation. 
 When it is mixed with the dough, it produces a 
 much more speedy fermentation than that obtained 
 from leaven, and the bread is accordingly much 
 lighter, and, unless it is improperly prepared, is 
 never sour. 
 
 Having thus briefly touched' upon the different 
 kinds of bread, we now pass on to its preparation, 
 which we shall divide into three kinds; 1st, un- 
 leavened bread, 2d, leavened bread, and 3d, car- 
 bonic bread. 
 
 1st. — ( idea veiled bread is that which the Jews 
 eat during their passover: the 'custom HvaS intro- 
 duced in remembrance of their hasty departure 
 from Egypt, when they had not leisure to bake 
 leavened, but took the dough before it was ferment- 
 ed, and baked unleavened cakes. In Roman Ca<- 
 tholic countries it is still used, and is prepared with 
 the finest wheaten flour, moistened with Mater, and 
 pressed between two plates, graven like wafer 
 moulds, being first rubbed with wax to prevent the 
 plate from sticking, and when dry it is used. 
 
 The common method of making unleavened bread 
 is as follows : — Put a peck of. Hour into a kneading- 
 trough, three ounces of salt, and a sufficient quan- 
 tity ot Marin Mater; knead them well together till 
 intimately blended, then roll the dough out into 
 thin cakes, and bake them in a quick oven, in order 
 to render them more porous, taking care to turn 
 them flu ring baking. 
 
 To make Arabian bread, from' M. Neibuhr’s 
 Travels. — The modes of making broad are different 
 in different parts of Arabia ; but the following man- 
 ner of pounding the grain, however troublesome, 
 O is 
 
BAKING. 
 
 m 
 
 is in most general practice, and considered plea- 
 santer to the taste than meal, that has been ground 
 in a mill. In the first place, two stones are pro- 
 cured, one convex, and the other concave ; the grain 
 is then placed on the lotver one, and a nian bruises 
 it till it is reduced to a meal ; it is then mixed up 
 with water, and divided into small cakes. In the 
 mean time, an earthern pot, glazed on the inside, 
 is filled with charcoal and set on the fire, and when j 
 it is sufficiently heated, the cakes are laid on the 
 outside of it, without removing the coals, and in a 
 few minutes the bread is taken oft*, half roasted and 
 eaten hot. 
 
 The wandering Arabs of the desert, when they 
 have not this convenience, use a heated plate of iron, 
 or a gridiron, to bake their cakes ; and when these 
 are wanting, they roll the dough into balls, and put 
 it into a fire of camels’ dung, where it remains 
 covered up till it is sufficiently penetrated by the i 
 heat. Bad as this bread is, it is better than the 
 durra bread, which is in general use among the 
 common people; it is made of coarse millet, knead- 
 ed up with camels milk, oil, butter, or grease, 
 pounded together, and then baked in the embers. 
 M. Neibulir, observes, thgt he could not eat this 
 bread at first, but the people of the country being 
 accustomed to its use, prefer it to barley bread, 
 which they think too light. 
 
 2d. Of leavened bread. — This operation consists 
 in keeping some paste or dough till the acetous fer- 
 mentation takes place, when it swells, ratifies, and 
 acquires a sourish and rather disagreeable taste. 
 This fermented dough is then well worked up with 
 Some fresh dough, which is, by that mixture and 
 moderate heat, disposed to a similar but less ad- 
 vanced fermentation than that above mentioned. 
 
 By this fermentation the dough is attenuated and 
 divided, air is introduced, which being incapable of 
 disengaging itself from the tenacious and solid 
 paste, forms it into small cavities, raises and swells 
 it : hence the small quantity of fermented paste 
 which disposes the rest to ferment, is called the 
 little leaven. 
 
 When the dough is thus raised, it is in a proper j 
 state to be put into the oven ; where, while it is ! 
 baking, it dilates itself still farther by the rarefec- 
 t.ion of the air, and forms a bread full of eyes or 
 cavities, consequently light, entirely different from 
 the heavy, compact, visous, and indigestible masses 
 made by baking in fermented dough. 
 
 It often happens that bread made with leavened 
 dough, acquires a sourish, and disagreeable taste, 
 which is said to proceed from too great a quan- 
 tity of leaven, or from leaven in, which the fermen- 
 tation has advanced too far. This circumstance 
 was explained in the last chapter, where it was 
 stated, that unless the principal of acidity is gene- j 
 rated, it will not ferment at all. However, as it | 
 is a subject that deserves particular investigation, 
 
 we propose, in the following experiments, to enquire 
 if this disagreeable flavour, when it does occur, can 
 be counteracted. 
 
 Mr. Edlin took one pound of wheat flour, and put 
 it into a kneading trough, and mixed it up into a 
 paste with eight ounces of water, at the temperature 
 of 65°. of Farenheit’s Thermometer. Thisjmixture 
 was placed in 76 degrees of heat. In twelve hours 
 no apparent change had taken place ; but, on ex- 
 amining it at the end of twenty-four hours, he ob- 
 served several bubbles of air, which increased in 
 number on kneading the dough, and on introducing 
 the thermometer, it stood at 70, 1 -fourth, an increase 
 of 5, 10-fourths in the heat, inconsequence of the fer- 
 mentation. 
 
 At the expiration of thirty six hours he found this 
 little leaven in a complete state of fermentation, and 
 much thinner than on the preceding day; it was 
 also of a sourish taste. lie then added three pounds 
 more flour, one ounce of salt, and a pound and a 
 half of water, by weight ; the w hole was kneaded 
 for about half an hour, and left to ferment again for 
 six hours longer. 
 
 It was then made up into a proper consistence 
 for baking, which required eight ounces more flour ; 
 and in weighing the whole, it turned out exactly 
 six-pounds, the quantity used in the experiment. 
 His reasons for determining its weight was, to as- 
 certain whether, during fermentation, any sensible 
 quantity of air was absorbed. 
 
 It was now divided into six equal portions, and 
 made into as many loaves, These w ere placed in 
 the oven, and after remaining in that situation halt* 
 an hour, they were found to be sufficiently baked. 
 This is known by tapping with your finger on the 
 bottom crust, and when done, the sound emitted is 
 sonorous, but if not baked enough, dense. It is a 
 sound difficult to be understood, and can only be 
 learnt by practice. 
 
 The loaves were removed from the oven, taken 
 off the tins, and placed on a board ; one of them was 
 wrapped in flannel, w hile the others were exposed 
 to the air. When cold they where all weighed, and 
 turned out five pounds two ounces, fourteen ounces 
 less than when they were put into the oven, and ten 
 ounces more than the flour used in the experiment. 
 
 On weighing the loaf that w as covered with the 
 flannel, and one of the others that had been exposed 
 to the air, though they w'ere of equal weight 
 when taken out of the oven, yet now r the one that 
 was covered up proved to be four scruples heavier 
 than the other, making a difference of three quarters 
 of an ounce in the quartern loaf. 
 
 They w'ere both cut asunder, and the bread looked 
 porous, w r as tolerably light, and absorbed moisture 
 readily; but the taste was sourish; it seemed as if 
 a small quantity of vinegar was added to the dough, 
 j but still it was palatable. 
 
 On tasting the crusts, that which had been cover- 
 ed. 
 
BAKING. 
 
 51 
 
 ed up was crisp and easily masticated, while the j 
 other was tough, dense, and in every respect disa- I 
 greeable. 
 
 In order to make leavened bread without this sour 
 taste, the following experiment was made. 
 
 lie took one pound of Hour, and mixed it up 
 w ith eight ounces of water, at the temperature of 
 68°. This was covered up, and set in a warm 
 place for thirty-six hours, at the expiration of which 
 time, he found it in a state of fermentation, and 
 quite sour. — A quart of warm water was added, and 
 suffered to stand for twelve hours more; the clear 
 liquor was then decanted off, which had a taste si- 
 milar to diluted vinegar, and a smell notunlike that 
 emitted from an old pickle jar. 
 
 Twenty grains of prepared kali was then added 
 to this liquor, which occasioned an effervescence si- 
 milar to that observed in preparing saline draughts. 
 When subsided, as it still continued sour, the like 
 quantity was again added, which entirely destroyed 
 the acidity ; but to be convinced, by a chemical test, 
 a paper was introduced dipped in tincture of turn- 
 sol, which it no longer turned red. 
 
 It was now evaporated to the consistance of ho- 
 ney, and put by for the night in the morning cry- 
 stals of acetated kali were observed. 
 
 From the result of these experiments, it may, 
 with probability, be concluded, that, in making lea- 
 vened bread, one ounce of vinegar is generated from 
 a pound of flour during the fermentation of the little 
 leaven ; but as this acid is not necessary, and indeed 
 ought not to be present in good bread, it will be 
 worth while to enquire by what means it might be 
 destroyed, without impeding fermentation. 
 
 To one pound of flour was added a sufficient 
 quantity of warm water; this was suffered to fer- 
 ment as the last (having ascertained the quantity of 
 vinegar generated in a pound of flour) forty grains of 
 prepared kali were mixed with a little warm water 
 and added to the leaven; on kneading it tog-ether 
 an instant increase of bulk was observable, during 
 which time , the carbonic acid gass, or the principles 
 of yeast was extricated; fo prevent its escape, the 
 dough was sprinkled with a little flour, and covered 
 up with a cloth. 
 
 Tw o hours after it was found to be amazingly in- 
 creased in bulk, and much more porous than common 
 leaven. Another pound of flour, and a quarter of 
 an ounce of salt were added, and after standing two 
 hours to prove, it was divided into two loaves, and 
 put in the oven. 
 
 On comparing it when baked with a loaf of lea- 
 vened bread with the same quantity of flour in it, it 
 appeared considerably larger ; and on cutting it the 
 bread was much lighter and more spungy than com- 
 mon leavened bread, without the least acidity. 
 
 TO MAKE LEAVENED BREAD, BY THE HON. C AT- 
 TAIN COCHRANE. 
 
 Take a piece of dough, of about a pound weight, 
 
 and beep it for use, it will keep several days very 
 well. Mix the dough with some warm water, not 
 very hot, and knead it with some flour to ferment 
 andspunge; then take half a bushel of flour, and 
 divide it into four parts : mix a quantity of the flour 
 with the leaven, and a sufficient quantity of water to 
 make it into dough, and knead it well. Let this re- 
 main in a corner of your trough, covered with flan- 
 nel, until it ferments and raises properly ; then dilute 
 it w ith more water, and add another quart of the 
 flour, and let it remain and rise. Do the same with 
 the other two quarters of the flour, one quarter after 
 another, taking particular care never to mix more 
 flour till the last has risen properly. When finish- 
 ed add six ounces of salt, then knead it again, and 
 divide it into eight loaves, making them broad, and 
 not so thick and high as is usually done, by which 
 means they w ill be better soaked. Let them remain 
 on the board to rise, in order to overcome the pres* 
 sure of the hand in forming them ; then put them in 
 the oven, and reserve a piece of dough for the next 
 baking. The dough thus kept, may with proper 
 care be prevented from spoiling, by mixing from 
 time to time small quantities of fresh flour with it. 
 
 od. Of Carbonic bread. — The invention of beer, 
 furnishes a new matter useful in making bread; this 
 is tl»e froth or yeast formed on the surface of these 
 liquors during fermentation. When it is mixed with 
 J tiie dough, it rises better and more quickly than 
 ordinary leaven, and by means of this the finest and 
 lightest bread is made. 
 
 Bread well raised with yeast, and baked, differs 
 from the preceding kinds, not only in being less 
 compact, lighter, and of a more agreeable taste, but 
 also in being more miscible in water, with which it 
 does not form a vicous mass, which is of the great- 
 est importance in the progress off digestion, as al- 
 ready observed. 
 
 There are several preparations of this kind of 
 | bread, made not only with wheat flour, but also 
 j with barley, rye, oats, buck-wheat, maize, rice, 
 beans, and potatoes, the principal preparations of 
 j which will be detailed in their proper orders. 
 
 The common family way of making bread. — To 
 ' half a bushel of flour add six ounces of salt, a pint 
 j of yeast r and six quarts of water, that has boiled; in 
 warm weather, put the water in nearly cold, bu.t in 
 winter, let it be as warm as the hand can be endur- 
 ed in it without causing pain. This is deemed a 
 good proportion, and the mode of proceeding- is ass 
 follows : — 
 
 Pot the flopr into a kneading trough, or other 
 vessel used for that purpose, and make a hole in the 
 middle of the flour, put the water into it ; to which, 
 add the yeast and salt, stir them together, and mix 
 up the flour with it till the dough becomes of a very 
 | thick consistence. Cover the whole up warm to 
 ferment and rise, particularly in cold weather; 
 this is called setting the sponge and ou a due ma- 
 I nageraenjfc 
 
52 
 
 BAKING. 
 
 r.ngement of this part of the business, depends the 
 goodness of the bread. 
 
 After letting it lie in this state as hour and a half, 
 more or less according to the state of the weather, 
 knead it well together, be not sparing of labour, and 
 afterwards lay the whole thick at one end of the 
 kneading trough, and let it lie some time longer 
 covered up. During this part of the process, the 
 oven must be heated; when that is effected, and 
 properly cleansed from ashes, cinders, &c. make the 
 bread into eight loaves, and place them in the oven 
 as expeditiously as possible, observing- to leave a 
 little fire on one side of the mouth of the oven, to 
 give - light while setting, and also to prevent the 
 external air from cooling it. Stop the oven up 
 close, and draw the bread out when baked. The 
 proof of its being well fermented and baked, will 
 appear on putting a slice in water; if it is good 
 bread, it will dissolve entirely into a paste, in the 
 -coiu se of a few hours, without rendering the water 
 turbid or mucilaginous. 
 
 To make French bread. — Put a pint of milk into 
 three quarts of water: in winter let it be scalding 
 hot, but in summer only milk warm. Then take a 
 quarter of a pound of salt, and a pint and a half of 
 good ale yeast ; stir it into the milk and water, and 
 then with your hand break in a little more than a 
 quarter of a pound of butter; work it well till it be 
 dissolved, then beat up two eggs in a bason, and 
 stir them in. Take about a peck and a half of the 
 finest wheaten flour, called Hertfordshire whites, 
 and mix it with your liquors. In winter vour dough 
 must be pretty stiff, but more slack in summer, so 
 that you may use a little moi'o or less flour according 
 to the stiffness of your dough, but mind to mix it 
 frelJ, and the less you work it the better. You 
 must stir the liquor into the flour as you do for pie- 
 ■£ rust, and after your dough is made, cover it with a 
 -elcth. and let it lie. to rise while the oven is heat- 
 ing. Make it up into bricks or loaves, and put 
 them into the oven ; when they have lain about a 
 quarter of au hour turn them to the other side, and 
 let them lie a qnarter of an hour longer. When 
 done," do not cover them up as bread usually is, but 
 leave them on the board til! they are cold, then 
 chip them all round with a knife, which will be bet- 
 ter than rasping, and make them look more spongy, 
 and of a fine yellow colour; whereas the rasping 
 lakes oft' that fine yellow colour, and makes the 
 bread look too smooth. 
 
 _ TO MAKE BROWN WHEATEN BREAD, BY SIR 
 JOHN CAI.I,. 
 
 Suppose a Winchester bushel of good wheat 
 weighs fifty-nine pounds, let it be sent to the mill 
 wnd ground, entirely dovyn, including the bran, the 
 meal will then weigh fifty-eight pounds, for not 
 more than a pound will be lost in grinding; it 
 mu't the:' lie mixed up with water, yeast, and salt, 
 and the dough weighed before it is put into the 
 
 oven, which win appear to be eighty-eight pofinds. 
 Let it be divided into eighteen loaves, put into the 
 oven, and thoroughly baked ; after they are drawn 
 out and left two hours to cool, they will weigh 
 seventy-four pounds and a half. 
 
 The bread thus made will be found excellent, and 
 fit for any household use: and was the broad bran 
 taken out, of which there may be about five pounds, 
 in a bushel of wheat, thus manufactured, it w ould ! 
 produce sixteen loaves and a quarter. 
 
 TO MAKE BREAD WITH ALE THE BRAN ADDED 
 TO IT, BY T. BERNARD, ES.Q. 
 
 Take seven pounds of bran and pollard, and four- 
 teen quarts of water; boil the whole very gently 
 over a slow fire. When the mixture begins to 
 swell and thicken, let it be frequently stirred, to pre- 
 vent its burning to the bottom or sides of the pan. 
 With two hours boiling it will acquire the consis- 
 | teuce of a custard pudding ; then put it into a clean 
 j clot!:, and twist it until the liquor is squeezed 
 i out ; with a quart of which mix three pints of 
 yeast, and set the sponge for twenty-eight pounds of ; 
 
 | flour. The bran and pollard, which, when the li« 
 j quor has been squeezed out, is above four times its 
 original weight, before it was boiled, is then to be 
 | set near the fire, in order that it may be kept warm, 
 j In about two hours the sponge will be sufficiently 
 I risen, upon which the bran and pollard, (then lnke- 
 ) warm, but not hot, and into which is to lie sprinkled 
 j about half a pound of salt), should be mixed with 
 j flour, and the whole kneaded up very well together, 
 with a quart of the bran liquor, and it should then 
 ! be baked for two hours and a quarter in a common 
 I oven. 
 
 The produce weighed, w hen cold, will he half as 
 much again as the same quantity of flour w ould pro- 
 duce in the common way, without the addition of 
 bran. Most of the objections to the use of bran in 
 bread, appear to be founded on a presumption, that • 
 no mode of preparation will make any difference in 
 the degree of nutriment to be derived from it as a 
 food. Though the subject is as yet but little under- 
 stood, yet we have gone far enough to ascertain the i 
 j fact, that in most kinds of grain some increase of j 
 | the ordinary nutritive power may be produced by 
 j culinary process ; the very making of bread affords 
 j an example of this increase. In rice it is very 
 ! | great, and in barley meal, particularly when ‘ used j 
 j j in soup, its increased power of nutriment may be I 
 extended to a surprising degree ; as it is 1 ovv j 
 | well known, that rice, w hen increased by water to a 
 j solid substance of five times its original weight, or I 
 j by the addition of milk, to eight times what it j 
 i originally weighed, is converted from a hard in- 
 I digestible grain, into a wholesome nourishing j 
 j food. 
 
 ! To make pan bread. — Put a peck of fine flour 
 1 into a wooden howl that has been previously warm- \ 
 i etl: let it stand before the fire for about an hour, 
 
 then I 
 
BAKING. 
 
 53 
 
 then mix up a sufficient quantity of salt and yeast 
 with warm water, and make up the bread at once. 
 Cover it with a cloth and let it stand before the fire 
 for about three hours; then make it up into loaves, 
 and put it into earthenware pans, and set them in 
 a quick oven. When well soaked, and nfearly clone, 
 the bread must be taken out of the pans, and set on 
 tins for a few minutes that the crust may brown, 
 they must then be taken out, and wrapped in flannel, 
 and when cold rasped. 
 
 Bread made in this manner, is much lighter than 
 the common baker’s bread, and when cut, puts on 
 the appearance of honey-comb. It is necessary to 
 remark, that the dough must not be so still’ as usual. 
 TO MAKE BREAD THAT W 1 El/ NEVER RE BITTER, 
 BY MR. JAMES STONE. 
 
 It frequently happens, iu the summer season, 
 that the brewers, in order to prevent their beer from 
 turning sour, are obliged to use more hops than usual ; 
 the consequence is, that the yeast is very bitter, and 
 gives a disagreeable flavour to the bread. To obvi- 
 ate this inconvenience, Mr. Stone has recommended 
 the following method of raising a bushel of flour 
 with only a tea-spoonful of yeast. 
 
 If you want to bake a bushel of flour, put it into 
 your kneading trough, then take about three quar- 
 ters of a pint of warm water, and one tea-spoon full 
 of yeast. Stir it, till it is thoroughly mixed with 
 the water; then make a hole in the middle of the 
 flour, large enough to contain two gallons of water. 
 Four in your small quantity ; then take a stick, and 
 stir in some of the flour, until it is as thick as you 
 would make for a batter pudding ; then strew some 
 of the dry flour over it, and let it stand for an hour. 
 Then take a quart more of warm water and pour 
 iri, and with your stick stir in some more flour, 
 until it is as thick as at first ; then shake some 
 more dry flour over it, and leave it for two hours 
 longer, when you will find it rise and break through 
 the dry flour again : you may then add three quarts 
 or a gallon of water, and stir in as before directed, 
 taking care to coyer it with dry flour again, and in 
 about three or four hours more, you may mix up 
 your dough, and cover it up warm. In four or five 
 hours more, you may make it up into loaves, and 
 put it into the oven, and your bread will be as light 
 as if you had used a pint of yeast. 
 
 It does not require above a quarter of an hour 
 longer than the usual method of baking, forthere is no 
 •time lost but that of adding the water several times, 
 and the bread is always good and never bitter. 
 
 TO MAKE VV HE ATEN BREAD, AS PRACTISED BY 
 THE BAKERS. 
 
 Mr. Fdlin wishing to obtain every information on 
 this subject, procured access to a bakehouse, and has 
 given us the following account. 
 
 “At three o’clock they prepared to set the sponge, 
 for which purpose, two sacks ofhousehold flour were 
 carefully sifted through a brass wire sieve. The 
 
 
 
 following mixture was then prepared. Two ounces 
 of rockey which is a solution of alum * was first put 
 into a tin vessel with a little water, and dissolved 
 over the fire, which bakers call liquor; this w'as 
 poured into the seasoning tub, and nine pounds of 
 salt was thrown in, over rvhich they poured two 
 pails full of hot liquor; yvhen cooled to 84° ofFa- 
 renheit’s thermometer, six pints ofyeast were added; 
 this composition was then stirred yvell together, 
 strained through the seasoning sieve, and emptied 
 into a hole madein the flour, yvhen it yvas mixed up 
 w ith it to the consistency of thick batter. Some 
 flour yvas sprinkled over the top, yvhen it was cover- 
 ed up, to keep in the heat. This operation is called 
 setting quarter sponge. 
 
 In three hours, two pails full more of yvann liquor 
 were stirred in, and the mass covered up as before. 
 This is termed setting half sponge. 
 
 Five hours afterwards five more pails of yvarm li- 
 quor were added, and yvhen the yvhole was intimate- 
 ly blended, it was kneaded for upyvards of an hour. 
 The dough yvas then cut into pieees, and throw n 
 oy er the sluice board, and penned to one side of the 
 trough ; some dry flour being sprinkled over, it yvas 
 left to prove, till about three o’clock in the morning, 
 yvhen it was again kneaded for the space of half an 
 hour. The dough yvas taken out of the trough, put 
 on the lid, and cut into pieces. It was then weigh- 
 ed, and four pounds fifteen ounces yvas allowed tor 
 each quartern loaf, the baker observing, that a loafof 
 that size, loses from ten ounces and a half to eleven 
 ounces, while in the oven. It yvas then worked up, 
 and the separate masses were laid in a row till the 
 whole were weighed, and, on counting them after- 
 wards, he found they were equal to one hundred and 
 sixty-three and a half quartern loaves; but this cir- 
 cumstance is variable, as some flours kneaded better 
 than others. 
 
 It sh&uld have been mentioned that the fire yva? 
 kindled at two o’clock, and continued burning till 
 near four, when the oven was cleansed from dirt and 
 ashes. 
 
 The bread being put in, the oven was close stop-* 
 ped, till seven o’ clock, when it was opened, and the 
 bread yvithdrawm. 
 
 TO MAKE ROLES, AS PRACTISED BY BAKERS, 
 
 The flour yvas sifted and mixed in the same man- 
 ner as yvas done for the bread ; at half past six o’clock 
 they were moulded up, and a slit was cut along the 
 top of each with a knife ; they w ere then set in rows, 
 on a tin, and placed in a proving oven to rise, till a 
 
 quarter 
 
 * This practice, though general, ought to be discarded, as R pro- 
 duces obstinate rostjveness, and the hue Dr. Lake, in his treatise on. 
 tae diseases of the viscera, assert* from his own knowledge, that, 
 jalap is often introduced to counteract the astringent quality of the 
 ium. It it proper to add, that there is a very heavy penalty ets, 
 this species of adulteration. 
 
M 
 
 BAKING. 
 
 quarter of an hour before eight o’clock, when they | 
 were drawn, and set in the oven, which w as closed as 
 before ; at eight o’clock they were taken out, and 
 were slightly brushed over with a buttered brush, 
 which gave the top crust a shining appearance, they 
 were then covered up with flannel till wanted for 
 sale. 
 
 TO MAKE FRENCH ROLES. 
 
 Put a peck of flour into a kneading trough, and 
 sift it through a brass wire sieve, then rub in three I 
 ^quarters of a pound of butter, and, when it is inti- 
 mately blended Vith the flour, mix up with it two 
 quarts of warm milk, a quarter of a pound of salt, 
 and a pint of yeast; let these be mixed with the flour, 
 and a sufficient quantity of w arm water to knead it 
 into a dough; it must then stand two hours to prove, 
 when it may be moulded into rolls or bricks, which 
 must be placed on tins and set for an hour in the pro- 
 'vgr. They must then be put into a brick oven for 
 fwenty minutes, and when draw n, rasped. 
 
 SO MAKE HOUSEHOLD BREAD, AS PRACTISED 
 BY THE BAKERS. 
 
 Household bread undergoes the same prepara- 
 tion as wheaten bread, with this difference, that, 
 instead of being made w ith fine flour, it is made of 
 an inferior sort, called seconds flour, and the loaves 
 instead of being marked with a W, are marked with 
 an If : and bakers neglecting this distinction are 
 liable to be fined ; but like all good laws, it is some 
 times evaded, by mixing the two flours together, i 
 and making, the mixture into white bread, w .ich is ! 
 -coloured with chalk or whiting, that the fraud may 
 *iot be detected. 
 
 TO MAKE STANDARD WHEATEN BREAD. 
 
 | Send a quarter of wheat to the mill, and let it be 
 -so ground that the flour shall weigh three fourths of 
 the wheat from whence it w'as made, without any 
 mixture or addition ; then let it undergo the same 
 ■preparation as that for wheaten bread, observing 
 before the loaves are put into the oven, to mark 
 them with the letters S W. * 
 
 SUBSTITUTES FOR WHEATEN BREAD. 
 
 Since wheat forms our principal support, it is not 
 to be wondered, that from time to time attempts 
 have been made to discover a substance that w ould 
 ^altogether, or in part, supply its place; and we feel 
 •much pleasure in saying, that the enquiry, has been 
 ■so far successful,- that were the public to avail them- 
 selves in times of scarcity, of the advantages of these | j 
 discoveries, it Would very much contribute to lessen ; 
 the consumption, and consequently the price of this 
 staff of life. I 
 
 Tiie subject of this enquiry is at this time more 
 particularly important, owing to the excessive high, 
 and increasing price of v. beaten-flour ; and we most 
 earnestly recommend to all, at lea t to avail them- 
 selves of the advantages which these experiments, j 
 which we are about to lay before them may afford, j 
 and to such as have Insure for the farther prosec u- i 
 
 tion of a subject, to the importance of which, every 
 other pursuit seems trifling. 
 
 The Board of Agriculture, anxious to know what 
 quantity of flour each of the following sorts of grain 
 won Id produce, caused a bushel of each- sort to be 
 purchased, and grqund for their inspection, the re- 
 ! suits of which are as stated in the following tables. 
 
 I 
 
 | One bushel of 
 
 i G ,,„. 
 
 Weighed. 
 
 1 
 
 Weight of Flour. AVeightof Bran., 
 
 Barley 
 
 461b. 
 
 381b- KHoz. 
 
 51b. 10|oz. 
 
 BuckWheat 
 
 46* 
 
 38. .9 
 
 5. .5 
 
 Rye 
 
 54 
 
 43. .0 
 
 9. . b\ 
 
 Maize 
 
 53 
 
 44. .0 
 
 8. .10* 
 
 Rice 
 
 6 1 1 
 
 60. .0 
 
 
 Oats 
 
 
 ' 23. .5 
 
 13. .104 
 
 ! Beans 
 
 57* 
 
 43. ,5f 
 
 12. . 0 
 
 Pease 
 
 61* 
 
 47. .0 
 
 J2. . 5 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 58 
 
 8 . .0 
 
 
 This estimate was made when the price of the 
 several articles were as follows : — in the first column 
 is the price of the grain, and in the second the price 
 per pound of each kind of flour, the bran is general- 
 ly considered as an equivalent for the grinding. 
 
 Grain. 
 
 Price per bushel 
 
 , Flour per pound. 
 
 Barley 
 
 5s.. 
 
 .6d. 
 
 j 0s.. .lid. 
 
 Buck Wheat 
 
 6 . 
 
 .0 
 
 I 0 . .1* 
 
 Maize 
 
 7 . 
 
 .6 
 
 i 0 . .2 
 
 Rye 
 
 6 . 
 
 .6 
 
 ! 0 ..if 
 
 Rice 
 
 23 . 
 
 , .0 
 
 0 . A 
 
 Oats 
 
 4 . 
 
 .0 
 
 0 .J 
 
 Beans 
 
 5 . 
 
 , .6 
 
 0 ..If 
 
 Peas 
 
 10 , 
 
 . .0 
 
 1 0 . .3* 
 
 Barley is employed as a part of diet ip many 
 parts ot this country. Next to wheat, it is the most 
 profitable of the farinaceous grains, and w hen mix- 
 ed w ith a small preparation of that flour, makes as 
 light, and as good bread as that grain, and infinitely 
 cheaper; but bread made of barley flour is not so 
 spongy, and feels heavier in the hand than wheaten. 
 But this is no proof that it is not equally nutrici- 
 ous, as it is a well known fact, that thousands of the 
 healthiest and most robust peasants of this country, 
 never taste any ether bread than that prepared from 
 this grain. 
 
 It is necessary to remark, that in grinding barley 
 to flour, the French stones should be used in pre- 
 ference to any oilier, as experience has ascertained 
 that they produce flour of a brighter colour, and 
 preserve what the bakers term, the life of the flour; 
 and they are of opinion, that barley ground w ith 
 these stones, raises the bread to the greatest height 
 it can possibly be brought Ao. 
 
BAKING. 
 
 No chemical analysis has yet been made to ascer- 
 tain the composition of barley flour, but we have 
 every reason to believe, that it is either destitute of 
 the glutinous substance of wheat, or possesses it in 
 a very trifling degree. With respect to the starch, 
 on which its nutrickms properties principally de- I 
 pend, that consists of the most considerable part of j 
 the grain : and there can be no doubt, from the 
 facility with which it is converted into malt, that the 
 saccharine extract is more abundant than in wheat. 
 Supposing this statement to be correct, whoever : 
 requires a light porous bread to be made from bar- 
 lev, will find it necessary either to add some of the 
 glutinous substance of wheat, which may lie obtain- 
 ed at the starch manufactories ; or what is common- | 
 Iv practised, a certain proportion of fine wheaten ! 
 Hour. Other substances are sometimes made up j 
 with barley into bread, but that bread must necessa- 
 rily be heavy, unless it contains this peculiar gluten, 
 without which, no light porous bread call be made. 
 To remedy this defect, it is always best to set the 
 sponge with wheat flour altogether, as barley flour 
 does not ferment readily with veast, and add the 
 barley flour, when the dough is going to be made. 
 Bread made in this way requires 1o be kept a lon- 
 ger time in the oven than wheaten bread, and the jj 
 heat should also be somewhat greater. 
 
 TO M AKE BARLEY litlEAl), BY SIR J. CALL.. || 
 
 Take forty-four pounds of barley meal; and let it ; j 
 be kneaded up, into dough, with water, yeast, and 
 salt, and divided into eight loaves; wlven thorough- * 
 Iv baked, drawn out of the oven, and left two hours 
 to cool, they will weigh about sixty pounds, 
 
 This barley bread is very good, and is such as is ; i 
 eaten bv many of the farmers in Devon and Corn- j 
 wall, by most of the labourers in husbandry, and 
 by almost all the miners, even when wheat was 
 much more plentiful, and not above half the price 
 it was during the season of scarcity, 
 
 TO M AKE MIXED BREAD, BY DU. PENNINGTON. 
 
 Take fourteen pounds of barley flour, and the 
 same quantity of pulp of potatoes, which is pre- 
 pared by paring the potatoes, and then grating them 
 down into an earthern vessel, and pouring w ater 
 upon them. This must be poured off' in about three 
 hours, as it has a disagreeable earthy taste, and 
 fresh water poured on, which, when changed, will 
 be found nearly clear and insipid. ■ The pulp musi j 
 then be taken out and put in a sieve, that the water i 
 may drain from it, and when tolerably dry, it will | 
 be fit to mix with the flour. Let it be kneaded 1 
 up into a dough with warm water, and a sufficient 
 quantity of yeast and salt, and after standing, the 
 usual time to prove, they will be found to weigh 
 twenty-eight pounds. 
 
 Another method of making mixed bread, is, to 
 take two pecks of barley flour, and one peck of rice ; 
 flour. Let these be kneaded up into a dough, ami j 
 baked m the usual wav, when they vyiii be found to 
 
 
 produce a very good and nourishing bread. 
 
 TO MAKE MIXED BREAD, FROM THE REPORTS OF 
 THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Take four bushels of wheat ground to one sort of 
 flour, extracting only a very small quantity of the 
 coarser sort of bran. Add three bushels and a half 
 of barley flour, bolten through a twelve or fourteen 
 shilling cloth; then mix them up into a dough, in 
 the usual manner, with salt, yeast, and warm water, 
 and let it be divided into half peck loaves, and put 
 into the oven, which must be made hotter than for 
 wheaten bread. Let them remain in three hours 
 and a half, when it will be found a very nourishing 
 good bread. 
 
 Buck-wheat is so little used as an aliment in this 
 country, that there is little opportunity of studying- 
 its effects ; but ,from all appearance, it has the com- 
 mon quality of the other species of grains. A con- 
 siderable quantity is annually grown in Norfolk; 
 but, it is principally consumed by swine and poul- 
 try, both of which it fattens quick and well. In 
 France, particularly in Britany it is much used^ 
 and is there accounted a very wholesome and nou- 
 rishing grain ; and when properly ground, make* 
 an agreeable and nourishing bread. 
 
 ,'i peculiarity attends the management of this 
 grain at the mill, which, if not attended to, the flour 
 will not make a bread that is any way palatable. 
 The following account of the mode of using and 
 grinding buck-wheat, in Britany, was communicat- 
 ed to the Board of Agriculture, by an intelligent 
 emigrant from that province. In the first place^if 
 the heat of the sun is not sufficiently powerful to 
 cure it properly, it must be dried in a kiln, and 
 then as much is sent to the mill as is wanted foB a 
 fortnight, or three weeks at the farthest. The mil- 
 ler is careful to grind, in the first instance, so as to 
 separate the meal and the bran from the black, hard, 
 and triangular husk, without grinding it down ; for 
 this purpose, he places the stones in such a manner 
 as only to press lightly, which, takes orf the husk, a 
 process termed running it through the mill-stones. 
 The farinaceons part of the grain is then easily 
 separated from the husk, by winnowing* This pro- 
 cess being over, he proceeds with his grinding and 
 dressing-, the same as with any other grain. 
 
 TO MAKE BUCKWHEAT BREAD, FROM THE RE- 
 PORTS OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Take a gallon of water, set it over the fire, and 
 when it boils, let a peck of the flour of buck-wheat 
 be mixed with it by degrees, keep it constantly stir- 
 red, so as to prevent any lumps from being formed, 
 till a thick batter is inacle like that of Scotch or 
 Yorkshire pottage. Some salt must be added, then 
 set it over the fire, and allow it to boil an hour and 
 a half. The proper proportion for a cake is then to 
 be poured into an iron kettle that hangs over the 
 fire, and baked, taking care to turn it frequently, lest 
 it should burn, 
 
 TO 
 
BAKING. 
 
 56 
 
 TO MAKE MI'XEB BREAD THE REPORTS OF 
 
 THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Take a peck of the flour of buck-wheat, mix it, 
 and boil it with water, as before described. While 
 this process is going on, let a peck of wheat flour be 
 put in a kneading 1 trough, and rather more than the 
 usual proportion of yeast mixed with it. When the 
 batter is boiled enough, it should be taken off the 
 and fire, when cooled to the degree of blood heat, 
 should be poured into the trough, with the wheaten 
 •flour and yeast ; the whole should now be well 
 kneaded, and stand two hours to prove, when it is 
 to be divided into loaves, and baked, remembering 
 to ke^p it in the oven rather longer than wheaten 
 bread. 
 
 Bread made in this manner can be safely recom- 
 mended, as certainly, at least not less nutricious, 
 and perhaps more palatable when properly baked, 
 than any other ; but to have it light and good, re- 
 quires some experience, otherwise it w ill be com- 
 pact and heavy. 
 
 Bye is a grain, whose cultivation is not much en- 
 couraged in this kingdom, but, in the northern parts 
 of Europe it is much used, and considered as nou- 
 rishing food. Bread made of this grain alone, is of 
 a dark colour, and sweetish taste. In some parts 
 of this kingdom, a mixture of rye and w heat is 
 reckoned an excellent bread, and is esteemed more 
 wholesome than that which is made from wheat 
 alone, and as it is well known to be a nutricious 
 grain, its consumption cannot be too strongly re- 
 commended. 
 
 TO MAKE MIXED BREAD. 
 
 Take a peck of wheat flour, and the same quan- 
 tity of rye flour ; let these be kneaded together with 
 a-sufficient quantity of yeast, salt, and warm water. 
 It should be covered up w r arm for tw r o hours, to fer- 
 ment, and then divided into loaves, and baked in 
 the usual w ay. 
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD HOUSEHOLD BREAD, FROM THE 
 REPORTS OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Suppose a bushel of rye to weigh sixty pounds, 
 to that add fifteen pounds of rice. This, when 
 ground down, and only the broad bran taken out, 
 •which seldom exceeds five pounds for that quantity, 
 is thus prepared for household use. 
 
 Take fourteen pounds of this flour, a sufficient 
 quantity of yeast, salt, and warm water, and let it 
 be made up and baked in the usual way, and it will 
 be found to produce twenty two pounds weight of 
 bread, which is a surplus of three pounds and a half 
 in fourteen pounds, over what is usually produced 
 in the common process of converting household 
 wheat flour into bread. 
 
 Respecting maize, no direct experiments have yet 
 been made to ascertain its component parts; as it 
 possesses but little sw'eetuess, and does not ferment 
 with yeast, so as to make a light bread; w r e may 
 conclude, that it cither wants the saccharine princi- 
 
 ple, and the glutinous substance, which render 
 wheat so susceptible of fermentation, or that it pos- 
 sesses them in a very small degree ; at the same time 
 it affords an abundant quantity of starch of the best 
 quality, the imperfections of which may be easily cor- 
 rected by adding a proportion of w heat flour to it, 
 when it may be fermented into a perfect bread. 
 
 Bice is a hard grain with a coarse while husk, 
 somewhat resembling barley, only whiter, and much 
 harder. From the tedious and defective manner in' 
 which it is cleaned from the husk, ti:e Board of Ag- 
 riculture are of opinion that it might be obtained 
 at a much lower price if imported with the husks on; 
 for from the perfection of our machinery, it might be 
 cleaned at a much less expense than by manual la- 
 bour. 
 
 The art of making bread from rice, though much 
 spoken of, seems to be very little know n. When the 
 rice is reduced to flour take as much of it as you 
 | think necessary and put into a kneading trough; at 
 the same time heat some water in a saucepan, and 
 having thrown into it a few handfuls of rice, let them 
 boil together for some time; the quantity of rice 
 must be such as to render the water very thick and 
 glutinous. When this glutinous matter is a little 
 cooled, it must be poured upon the rice flour, and 
 the whole well kneaded together, adding thereto a 
 little salt, and a proper quantity of veast. The 
 dough must then be covered with warm cloths, and 
 suffered to stand till it rises. During the fermenta- 
 tion, this paste, which, when kneaded, must have 
 such a proportion of flour as to render it pretty firm, 
 becomes so soft and liquid, that it seems impossible it 
 should be formed into bread, and must be treated as 
 follows. 
 
 When the dough is rising, the oven must be heat- 
 ed, and w hen it is of a proper degree of heat, take a 
 stew-pau of tin or copper, tinned, to which is fixed a 
 handle of sufficient length to reach to the end of the 
 oven. A little water must be put into this stew-pan, 
 and then it is to be filled with the fermented paste, 
 and covered with cabbage leaves or a sheet of paper. 
 When this is done, the stew-pan is to be put into the 
 oven, and pushed forward to the part where it is in- 
 tended the bread shall be baked ; it must then be 
 quickly turned upside down. The heat of the oven 
 acts upon the paste in such a way as to prevent its 
 spreading, and keeps it m the fonn the stew-pan has 
 given it. 
 
 In this manner pure rice bread may be made; it 
 comes out of the oven of a fine yelloiv colour, like 
 pastry which lias yolks of eggs in it. It is as agreea- 
 ble to the taste as to the sight, and may be used like 
 wheat bread to eat or put in broth. 
 
 TO PREPARE BREAD FROM RICE, BY THE MAT- 
 RON OF THE FOUNDLING HOSPITAL . 
 
 Boil a quarter of a pound of rice till it is quite 
 soft ; then put it on the back part of a sieve to drain, 
 and when it is cold, mix it up with three quarters of 
 1 a 
 
BAKING. 
 
 57 
 
 h pound of flour, n spoonful of yeast, and a small j 
 table-spoonful of sail. L: t it stand for three hours, ! 
 then knead it up, and roll if in about an handful of ' 
 flour, so as to make too out i de-dry enough to put in j 
 the oven. About an hoar and quarter v, ill bake if, 
 and it will produce one pound fourteen ounces of 
 good white bread, but it should not be cut till if is 
 two days old. 
 
 To make mixed bread. — Take half a. perk of rice 
 flour, and one peck of wheat seconds flour, mix 
 them together, and knead the dough up with a suffi- 
 cient quantity of salt, yeast, and warm wafer, then 
 divide it into eight loaves and bake it. 
 
 To make mixed bread. — Take a peek of rice, boil 
 over night till it becomes soft, then put it in a pan, 
 and bv the morning it will be found to have swelled 
 very much. A peck of potao.es, should now be boil- 
 ed, skinned, and mashed into a fine pulp, and while 
 hot. be well kneaded up with the rice, and a peck of 
 wheat flour; a sufficient quantity of yeast and salt 
 should now be added, and the dough left in the 
 kneading trough two hours to prove; it is then to be 
 divided into loaves and baked in the usual way. 
 
 To make oat bread. — Take a peck of oatmeal and 
 an ounce of salt, stir them up into a stiff paste with 
 warm water, roll it out into thin cakes, and hake 
 them in an even or over the embers. 
 
 This kind of bread is much used in Scotland, a- 
 mong the lower order of peoide, who, from long- cus- 
 tom. prefer it to the best wueaten bread. In some 
 cottages H undergoes the acetous fermentation, and 
 is thereby rendered lighter and more easy of diges- 
 tion : but the generality of people merely soften tiieir 
 oatmeal with water, and bake it over the lire. 
 
 TO MAKE MIXED DREAD, BV 1)R. R^RIERSOX. 
 
 Take a peck of oatmeal, the same quantity of se- 
 conds flour, and half a peck of boiled potatoes, skin- 
 ned and mashed, let them be kneaded lip into the 
 dough, with a proper quantity of y east, salt, and 
 warm milk; it should then be made up into loaves, 
 and put into the oven, where it is to remain three 
 hours. 
 
 The bread thu« prepared rises well in the oven, 
 is of a light brown colour, and by no means unplea- 
 sant flavour: tasting so little of the oatmeal as to be 
 taken, 1 >y those who are unacquainted with its com- 
 posuion, for barley or rye bread. It is sufficiently 
 moist, acrl if put in a proper place, keeps well for a 
 week. Bread made in this way is about eight- 
 ponce kail-penny a peck cheaper then w' beaten bread ; 
 w hich in large lam dies, w ill, at the y ears end amount 
 to a very considerable saving if it was substituted for 
 it. ^ 
 
 To make mixed bread. — Take one peck of oat meal, 
 -and the satue quantity oi’ rice flour, let these be knead- 
 ed up with a sufficient quantity of warm milk, yeast, 
 and edit, and after standing- a proper time to prove, 
 w ill !>e found a very palatable and wholesome bread. 
 
 Beans, when dry and husked, are readily broke 
 
 : dow n into a flue flour of the same nature and proper 
 ! ties as the meal of other grains ; they have a sweeter 
 ! taste, and afford, by proper treatment, a starch equal 
 i to that of wheat : the tbv >ur of bean floor is disa- 
 fyecable ; but if steeped in water Ik fore it is used, 
 
 this unpleasant will then be hardly perceived. 
 
 To > : dm bran bread.— -Take a quarter of a peck 
 of bean {‘our, and a little salt, mix them up info a 
 ! thick batter with .wafer, then pour a sufficient quan- 
 I tity to make a cake into an iron kettle, and bake it 
 : over the lire, taking - care to turn it frequently lest' it 
 I should burn. 
 
 TO MAKE MIXED BREAD, FROM THE REPORTS OF 
 THE BOARD OP AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Send a bushel of good dry beans to the mill, let 
 1 the husks be taken oft’, and then grind the meal into 
 a fine flour, which if good, will produce a full bushel 
 I of this flour. Jk< t a peck be soaked for three days in 
 a nan of water, c‘ anging the water every day to take 
 I on its disagreeable flavour; then pour the water 
 | dear off, and put the meal into a sieve to drain: 
 while this fls drying, put a peck of wheat flour in the 
 kneading trough, and mix it up with some salt and 
 yeas!. After it has properly fermented, knead the 
 [ bean flour with it into a dough, and after it has stood 
 a sufficient time to prove, let it be divided into 
 loaves and baked. 
 
 To make pea bread. — Take a peck of the flour of 
 peas, the like quantity of oatmeal, and two ounces 
 of salt ; knead them up into a stiff paste, w ith warm 
 water, let it be rolled out into thin cakes, and baked 
 over the embers. 
 
 To make mixed bread. — Take (bur pounds of pea 
 flour, steep it in w ater, as directed for bean*, then 
 knead it up with four nounds of jiotatoe flour, and 
 double that quantity of seconds wheat flour, which 
 has been previously fermented with yeast, and a 
 proper quantity of salt, and let the dough stand to 
 rise, when it must be divided into loaves, and 
 baked. 
 
 To reduce potatoes to flour. — Put a bushel of 
 kidney potatoes into a large tub, and clean them 
 from the dirt, afterwards scrape them clean with a. 
 brush, and let them be rasped into a pulp, on a 
 bread grater, into a hair sieve, that is placed over a 
 broad deep pail. Lst some water be poured occa- 
 sionally, by one person, oyer the pulp, while ano- 
 ther stirs it with his hand ; (he water iti its passage, 
 j carries the starch with it, which is deposited at the 
 j bottom of the pan. After standing a night, the 
 : water is poured off, and the starch remaining be- 
 | hind is taken out and put into conical baskets like 
 ! those used for salt, covered with cap paper, and 
 '■ hung in a stove to dry by a gentle heat. It is then 
 ! ground in a hand mill, aud passed through a fine 
 j lawn sieve, when it will have the exact appearance 
 of starch, be of a beautiful white colour, and is then 
 ready to make into bread. This powder, with the’ 
 addition of a small quantity of gum fragacanth in 
 Q powder, 
 
BAKING,. 
 
 powder, is in universal request, as a light nourish- ' 
 iug food for invalids, and, is sold in the shops under > 
 4he name of Indian Arrow Root. A bushel of 
 potatoes that weighs sixty pounds, if they are mealy 
 ought to produce, in this way, eight pounds of flour 
 at least : and suppose an acre of good land, w r ell 
 managed, would yield three hundred bushels, near 
 a ton and a quarter of this flour might be produced : 
 from it. j 
 
 To make potatoe bread. — Pare one peck of i 
 potatoes, put them into a proper quantity of water, 
 and boil them till they are reduced to a pulp, then j 
 beat them up fine in the water they are boiled in, and j 
 knead them with two pecks of wheat flour, with a j 
 sufficient quantity of yeast and salt, into a dough ; 
 -cover it up, and allow' it to ferment for two hours or 
 upwards, according to the state of the weather ; then 
 make it up into loaves and bake them. 
 
 To make potatoe bread. — Choose the most mealy 
 sort of potatoes, boil and skin them, take twelve 
 pounds, break and strain them through a very coarse 
 "sieve of hair, so as to redyce the roots as nearly us 
 possible to flour. Mix it up well w ith twenty pounds 
 of wheaten Sour; of this mixture make and set the 
 dough exactly in the same manner, as if it were 
 wholly wheaten. 
 
 .‘SO MAKE POTATOE BREAD, BY P. COLQUKOEN ESQ: 
 
 Take three pounds of potatoes, put them into a 
 'skillet with cola water, hang it ata distance over the 
 Are, so that they may not boil ; then skin and mash 
 them, and whilst warm, bruisfe them with a spoon, 
 put them into a dish before the fire to evaporate the 
 moisture, stirring them frequently, that no part may 
 grow hard: w'hen dry, take them up and rub them 
 as tine as possible between the hands, then add niue 
 pounds of wheaten flour, and with a sufficient quanti- 
 of yeast, and salt, knead it up as other dough. After 
 laying a little while to prove, it should be made into 
 small loaves and baked in a hot oven. 
 
 To make acorn bread.— Take a quantity of acorns, 
 fully ripe, deprive them of their covers and beat them 
 into a paste, let them lie in water a night, and then 
 pr-’ss it from them, which deprives the acorns entire- 
 ly of their ^stringency. Then dry and powder the 
 mass for use. When wanted, knead it up into a 
 dough with water, and roll it out into thin cakes, 
 -which are to be baked over the embers. 
 
 TO MAKE CHESNtTx BREAD, BY M. ? ARMENTIEE. 
 
 Take a peck of horse chesnuts, peel the tkfrs off 
 them, let them be bruised into a paste, dilute the 
 mass with water, which destroys their astringency, 
 and strain them through a sieve; a milky liquor is 
 thus separated, which, on standing, deposits a fine 
 white powder : this, on being dried and ground into 
 Hour, is (bund 'to be without smell or flavour. It is 
 then made up, sometimes by itself, and not unfre- 
 quently with an equal portion of wheat flour, into 
 a paste, with warm mil-, and a lit tie salt, and when 
 kaked makes very good and palatable bread. 
 
 TO MAKE TFRXIP BREAD, BY J. SANDS, ESQ. 
 
 Boil the turnips till they become soft enough to 
 mash, and press the water well out of them ; then 
 mix them with an equal weight of wheat meal and 
 make the dough in the usual way, taking care to let 
 the loaves remain rather longer in the oven than for 
 wheaten bread. 
 
 Sea biscuit is a sort of bread, much dried, to 
 make it keep on long voyages. It was formerly 
 baked twice, or oftener, and prepared six month* 
 before the embarkation. 
 
 The process of baking biscuit, for the British na- 
 vy, is as follows; — and it is equally simple and inge- 
 nious. The meal, and every other article lieing sup- 
 plied with much certainty and simplicity, large 
 lumps of dough, consisting merely of flour and water 
 mixed up together; and as the quantity is so im- 
 mense, as to preclude the possibility of kneading it 
 by hand, a man manages, or as it is termed, rides a 
 machine, which is called a horse. This machinq is 
 a long roller, about four or five inches in diameter, 
 
 ! and about seven or eight fret iu length ; it has play 
 to a certain extension, by meaus of a staple in the 
 wall, to which it is connected by means of a sw ivel 
 making r&s action like the machine, by which they 
 cut chaff' for horses. The lump of dough being 
 placed exactly in the centre of a raised platform, 
 which is placed directly under the horse ; the man 
 I its upon tue end of the machine, and literally rides 
 up and down throughout its whole circular direction 
 j till the dough is equally indented ; and this is re- 
 peated till the whole is sufficiently kneaded ; at 
 which times, by the different positions of the line, 
 large or small circles are described, according es 
 they are near to, or distant from the centre of motion 
 of the horse. 
 
 | The dough, in this state, is handed over to a 
 j second workman, who slices it with a prodigious 
 knife, and it is then in a proper state for these ba- 
 I leers, who attend the ovens ; those are five in num- 
 l>er : and their different departments are as well cal- 
 i culated for expedition and correctness, as the mak- 
 ing of pins, or other mechanical employments. On 
 i each side of a large table, where the dough is laid, 
 stands a workman : at a small table near the oven, 
 j stands another; a fourth stands bv the side of the 
 ! oven, to receive the bread ; and a fifth to supply the 
 peel. By this arrangement, the oven is as regularly 
 filled: and the whole exercise performed in as ax- 
 act time, as a military revolution. The manat the 
 further side of the large table, moulds the dough, 
 having previously formed it into small pieces, till it 
 has the appearance of muffins, although thinner, and 
 , which he does two together, with each hand; and as 
 fast as he accomplishes this task, lie delivers his 
 work over to the man on the other side of the table, 
 who stamps them with a docker, on botli sides with 
 a mark. As he rids himself of this- work, he throws 
 the biscuits on the smaller table, next the oveu, 
 1 where 
 
BAKING. 
 
 
 where stands the third workman, whose business is 
 merely to separate the different pieces into two, and 
 place them immediately under the hand of him who 
 supplies the oven, whose work of throwing, or rather 
 chucking the bread upon the peel, must be so exact, 
 that if he looked round for a single moment, it is 
 impossible he should perform it correctly. The ! 
 fifth receives the biscuit on the peel, and arranges it J 
 in the oven : in which duty he is so very expert, j 
 that though the different pieces are thrown at the i 
 rate of seventy in a minute, the peel is always disen- j 
 gaged in time to receive them separately. 
 
 As the oven stands open during the whole time of j 
 filling it, the biscuits first thrown in, would be first j 
 baked, were there not some counteraction to such I 
 an inconvenience. The remedy lies in the ingenuity i 
 of the man w ho forms the pieces of dough ; and who, | 
 by imperceptible degrees, proportionally diminishes | 
 their size, till the loss of that time, which is taken up i 
 during the filling the oven, has no more elfect to the j 
 disadvantage of one of the biscuits, than to ano- j 
 ther. 
 
 So much critical exactness, and neat activity occur 
 in the exercise of this labour, that it is difficult to 
 decide whether the palm of excellence i- due to the 
 moulder, the marker, the splitter, the chucker, or 
 the depositor; all of them, like the wheels of a ma- ! 
 chine, seeming to be actuated by the same principle. | 
 The business is to deposit in the oven seventy biscuits J j 
 in a minute; and this is accomplished with the j] 
 regularity of a clock; the clack of the peel, during j| 
 its motion, in the oven operating like the pendulum. 
 
 The biscuits, thus baked, are kept in repositories, j 
 which recei ve warmth from being placed in drying | 
 lofts over the ovens, till they are sufficiently dry to be 
 packed into bags, without danger of getting mouldy ; 
 and when in such a state, they are then packed into j 
 bags of a hundred weight each, and removed into | 
 storehouses, for immediate use. 
 
 The number of bakehouses belonging to the j 
 victualling office, at Plymouth, are two, each of ; 
 which contains four ovens, which are heated twenty 
 times a day, and in the course of that time bake a 
 sufficient quantity of bread for 16,000 men. 
 
 The granaries are large, and well constructed. 
 When the wheat is ground, the flour is conveyed 
 into the upper stories of the bakehouse, whence it 
 descends through a trunk in each, immediately into I 
 the hands of the workmen. 
 
 The bakehouse belonging to the victualling office, : 
 at Deptford, consists of two divisions, and has twelve 
 ovens, each of which bakes twelve shoots daily; the j 
 quantity of flour used for each shoot, is two bushels, j 
 or 112 pounds, which baked, produce 102 pounds of ; 
 biscuit, Ten pounds are regularly allowed on each : 
 shoot, for shrinkages, &c. The allowance of biscuit 
 in the navy is one pound for each man per day, so 
 that one of the ovens at Deptford, furnisnes bread i 
 daily for 2,040 men. \\ 
 
 ON THE PREPARATION AXl) PR ESEIi V ATIOS QF 
 YEAST. 
 
 To make yeast from potatoes, by J. Kirby, Esq. 
 
 Boil potatoes of the mealy sort, till they are 
 thoroughly soft, skin and mash them very smooth, 
 and put as much hot water on them, as will make a 
 mash of the consistency of common beer yeast, but 
 not thicker. Add to every pound of potatoes, tw r o 
 ounces of treacle, and when just warm, stir in for 
 every pound of potatoes, two large spoonfuls of 
 yeast. Keep it warm till it has done fermenting, 
 and in twenty-four hours it will be fit for use. A. 
 pound of potatoes will make near a quart of yeast, 
 and will keep three months. This yeast has been 
 found to answer the purpose so well, as not to be 
 able to distinguish the bread made with it, from 
 brewers yeast. 
 
 TO MAKE YEAST, BY DU. LETSOM. 
 
 Thicken two quarts of water, w ith four ounces of 
 fine flour, boil it for half an hour, then sweeten it 
 with three ounces of brown sugar; when almost 
 cold, pour it with four spoon-fuils of bakers yeast 
 into an earthen jug, deep enough for the fermenta- 
 tion to go on without running over ; place it for a 
 day over the fire, then pour off the thin liquor from 
 the top, shake the remainder, and close it up for 
 use, first straining it through a sieve. To preserve 
 it sweet, set it in a cool cellar, or hang it some 
 depth m a well. Keep some of this to make the 
 next quantity wanted. 
 
 TO MAKE YEAST, AS PRACTISE!* AT EDINBURGH, 
 BY THE HON. CAPTAIN COCHRANE. 
 
 Take two ounces of hops, boil them for an hour 
 m two gallons of water, and while boiling hot, scald 
 ten pounds of flour, and stir it very well into a 
 paste ; do this about eleven o’clock in the forenoon, 
 let it stand till six o’clock in the evening, then add 
 about a quart of yeast, to forward the fermentation, 
 and mix them well together. Next morning add as 
 much more flour and water sufficient to make it 
 into a dough, and in- the afternoon it will be fit for 
 setting sponge and baking. Reserve always a pic-; e 
 of old dough to mix with the new batch, instead of 
 yeast, which is necessary, only the first time to 
 hasten the process. 
 
 THE METHOD OF MAKING YEAST, BY MR. GIL- 
 
 LISPIE, A BAKER AT LEITH, WHO USES IT IN 
 PREFERENCE TO DISTILLERS YEAST. 
 
 In the first place you must have a boiler, cooler, 
 vats, and all the apparatus that would be necessary 
 for a small brewery. Then take four bushels of the 
 best malt, ground as for beer, and mash it in the 
 same manner the brewers do, with sixty-two gallons 
 of water, at the temperature of 180° ; let it be close 
 covered up for two hours, then draw the liquor clear 
 off, and pour on the same quantity of water upon 
 the grains a second time, at nearly the boiling point; 
 let this stand an hour, then draw it off, and mix it 
 
BAKING. 
 
 69 
 
 m the coolers with the first wort, and when -it is 
 about blodd warm, add foiy* English quarts of yeast, 
 to produce the fermentation, and after it has began 
 to ferment t:;e first time, (the froth running over into 
 a receiver for the purpose.) throw it back again, and 
 when ii nas fermented again, throve it back a second 
 time, and it will after the third fermentation, be fit 
 for us", as will be perceived b\ its bring <>• the 
 thickness that good yeast ought to be. Fnm bi-,i;eSs 
 of malt, made in tins way, produces about 
 wratv-iour quarts of yea l ; it is an expen-i i "and 
 troublesome way of procuring it, but Mr. Cillispic 
 finds, that a quart ol it will go as far as a gallon of 
 distillers yeast. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OR THE RAKE HOUSE. 
 
 The bake liousc is si manufactory where bread is 
 Bjade for sale, la order to render it convenient, it 
 should be attached to the dwelling house, and have ' 
 an inner door opening into the kitchen, and likewise 
 an outer door opening into a small yard, in which 
 there ought to be a well or pump, and also, a shod 
 tiir piling away faggots. The room should be large 
 and commodious, and the iloor laid with stone.i or 
 tiles. On one side should be erected a dresser or 
 counter, with suitable shelves about it; on another a 
 kneading trough, about seven fret long, three feet 
 high, two ami a half broad at top, and sixteen inches 
 at the bottom, with a sluice board to pen the dough 
 up at one end. and a lid to shut down like that of a 
 box. On the third side a copper that will contain 
 from three to four pails of water should be erected, 
 which is far preferable to the filthy custom of heat- 
 ing the water in the oven ; and on the fourth side 
 the oven should be placed. A bakehouse built upon 
 this plan will, perhaps, be as commodious as art can 
 render it ; but of late years, an alteration has been 
 made iu the manner of fitting up the oven and 
 copper, that both may be heated with the same fire. 
 
 In order to comprehend the usefulness of this im- 
 provement, it will be necessary to state that an oven, 
 built upon the old principle, is usually of an oval 
 shape ; the sides and bottom of brick, tiles, and 
 lime, and arched over at top with a door in front ; 
 and, at the upper part, an enclosed closet with an 
 iron grating, for the tins to stand on, called the 
 proving oven. To heat these ovens, the faggots are 
 introduced and burnt to an ash : it is then removed, 
 and the bottom cleaned out. This takes up a con- 
 siderable space of time, during which period a great 
 deal of heat escapes. A still farther length of time 
 is necessary for putting in the bread, and unless 
 much more fuel is expended than is really necessary, 
 in heating an oven upon this principle, it gets chilled 
 before the loaves are all set in, and the bread is, 
 therefore, liable to fall : a circumstance that una- 
 voidably renders it heavy. 
 
 To remedy this inconvenience, many intelligent 
 bakers have, within these few years past, had their 
 evens built upon a solid base of brick -ml lime, with 
 a door of iron, furnished with a damper to carry off 
 
 the steam as it rises. On one side of it is placed a 
 fire with a grating, ash-hole, and iron door,. similar 
 to that under a copper, with a partition to separate 
 it from the oven, and open at one end. Over this 
 is erected a middling-sized rapper with a cock at the 
 bottom, and on one side of it is placed the proving 
 oven -. the whole being diced with brick and plaster. 
 
 When this oven is required to be heated, the 
 copper is idled with water, and the fire being 
 kindled with coals, the flame runs round the oven, 
 hi a circular direction, and renders it as hot as if 
 heated with wood, without occasioning the least dirt 
 or ill smell ; and the smoke escapes through an 
 ire, whicji passes into the kitchen chimney. 
 When the coal is burnt to a cinder, there is no nc- 
 ■ cessitv to remove it, as it prevents the oven from 
 < ool’ug while the bread is setting in, ami keeps up a 
 regular heat till the door is closed. The advan- 
 tages ofau ow n built upon this construction, are so 
 considerable, independent of the great saving in 
 fuel, that when its principles come to be generally 
 known amongst bakers, there is no doubt but that 
 they will prefer it to those heated w ith wood. 
 
 In great bakehouses, where rolls and French bread 
 are wanted every half hour, from eight o’clock in 
 the morning t ill eleven, the perpetual oven invented 
 by Count liumford, will be found particularly use- 
 ful: more especially if they, are called upon to bake 
 treat, puddings, and pies, at different hours in the af- 
 ternoon, At present, after they are done, they are 
 obliged to keep the m warm in the proving oven ; but 
 : the crust always becomes heavy, and the meat sod- 
 | (lened :> but in one of these perpetual ovens, they 
 1 might have such things baked, at the time their cus- 
 tomers required them, without putting themselves to 
 any material inconvenience, and besides, /there 
 would be this farther advantage attending the bak- 
 ing, that the effluvia arising from the different sorts 
 of meal would never be mixed, and occasion an ill 
 ! taste, as it now does iu the great ovens. The follow- 
 j ing is the description given of it by the Count, with 
 I the manner of using it. 
 
 In the centre of a circular, or, rather, a cylindrical 
 | mass of brick work, about eight feet in diameter, 
 which occupies the middle of* a large room on the 
 ground floor, I constructed a small, circular, closed 
 fire place, for burning either wood, coals, turf, or 
 peat. The diameter of the fireplace is about eleven 
 inches : the grate being placed about ten inches 
 above the floor, and the top of the fire place contract- 
 ed to about four inches. Immediately above (Ids 
 narrow throat six separate canals (each furnished 
 ! with a damper, by means of which its opening can 
 be contracted more or less, or entirely closed), go 
 off horizontally, by which the flame is conducted in- 
 to six separate sets of fines, under six large plates of 
 cast iron, which formed the bottom of six ovens on 
 the same level, and joining each other by their sides, 
 which are concealed m the cylindrical mass of brick 
 work, ifiach of these plates of cast iron, being in 
 
BlKINf? 
 
 fil- 
 
 th e ferm of an equilateral triangle, they all mde in \ 
 the centre of the cylindrical mass of br;-k v-»rk ; c >.i- I 
 sequenflv the two sides of each, unite i.i a point at 
 the bottom of it, forming an angle of sixty degrees. 
 The flame, after circulating under the bottoms of 
 these ovens, rises up in two canals, concealed in the 
 front wall of each oven, and situated on the right 
 and left of its mouth; and after circulating again in 
 similar flues, on the upper flat surface of another 
 triangular plate of cast iron, which forms the top of 
 the oven, goes off upwards, by a canal furnished with 
 a damper, into a hollow place, situated on the top 
 of the cylindrical mass of brick-work, from which it 
 passes oil’ in an horizontal "iron tube, about seven 
 inches in diameter, suspended near the ceiling, into 
 a chimney, situated on one side of the room. These 
 six ovens, which are contiguous to each other in this 
 mass of brick- work, are united by their sides, by 
 walls made of tiles, about an inch and a half thick, 
 and ten inches square, placed edgwise, and each 
 oven having its separate canal, furnished with a 
 register, communicating with tiie fire place. Any 
 one, or more of them, may be heated at the same 
 time without heating the others, or thp heat may be 
 turned off from one of them to another, in continual 
 succession, and by managing matters properly, the 
 process of baking may be uninterrupted. As soon 
 as the meat pies, or puddings are drawn out of one 
 oven, the tire may be immediately turned under it, 
 to heat it again, whil • that from under which the 
 lire is taken, is tilled with other dishes and closed 
 up. 
 
 A detail of the -utensils in use, in a bakehouse, 
 may appear uninteresting; and some of our readers 
 may think it perfectly unnecessary; but those bakers 
 who are solicitous to have good bread, would deem 
 the subject incomplete, without noticing them. The 
 o flowing are the most useful and indispensible 
 requisites. 
 
 The seasoning tub . — This is of the size and shape 
 of the common wash tub, and is intended for mixing 
 the veast, salt, and water together, before the sponge 
 is sot. i 
 
 The seasoning sieve. — This is a common sized hair 
 sieve, and is used for straining the mixture through, 
 (hat is prepared for setting the sponge. 
 
 The zc arming pot . — This is a large copper pot, 
 lined with tin, capable of holding two pails f ill of 
 water. It is filled and set in the oven to warm, 
 before the baker sets his sponge. These are net in 
 universal use, as some people use earthern ones; 
 •but this mode of warming the water, however ob- 
 jectionable, is daily practised by the most respecta- 
 ble linkers in the metropolis. 
 
 The brass-wire sieve . — This is a large round sieve 
 covered with a sheet of very fine wove, brass- wire; 
 its use is not only to sift the flour before it is knead- 
 ed, but also to detect any lumps, or other impurities 
 that may be contained iii it. 
 
 The pail. 
 
 The bow!. 
 
 The spade. 
 
 These are requisite for a variety of purposes, and 
 are of the same kind as are in common use. 
 
 The sa't-bin. — This is a bin with a lid to it, simi- 
 lar to a corn-bin. It should hold ttvo sacks of salt, 
 and is usually placed near the oven. 
 
 The i/cast-tub. — This is a common six-gallon cask, 
 with a larg 1 bung-hole,, and cover, and is used for 
 preserving the yeast. 
 
 The dough-knife. — This is usually of the size of a 
 large carver, with a round point and blunt, like a 
 painters pallet knife. Its use is to cut the dough, 
 when the baker is kneading it, before he throws it 
 over the sluice board. It is also used when the 
 bread is weighed, to divide the different portions 
 before they are put in the scales. 
 
 Scales and weights. 
 
 'The scraper. — This is a small scraper, like a gar- 
 den hoe, fixed in a short wooden handle. Its use is 
 to scrape the sides and bottom of tiie trough, to pre- 
 vent the dough from adhering and drying there. 
 
 Marks. — These are four large tin letters, fixed in 
 a wooden handle. One is marked SV. another if. a 
 third S. W. and the fourth M. : and every loaf, whea- 
 ther wheateii, household, standard wheaten, or mix- 
 ed bread, is obliged in conformity to act of parlia- 
 ment, to be marked with' one of those instruments, 
 before it is put into the oven. 
 
 The rookcr. This is a long piece of iron, in -shape 
 somewhat resembling the letter L, fixed in a wood- 
 en handle. — Its use is to draw out the ashes from all 
 parts of the oven to the mouth. 
 
 The hoe. — This is a^piece ofiron, similar to a gar- 
 den hoe, fixed in a handle, partly wood, and- partly 
 iron. Its use is to scrape up such dust and loose 
 ashes as escaped the rocker. 
 
 The szoabber . — This is a common pole, abouteight 
 feet long, with a quantity of wet netting fastened to 
 the end. Its use is to clean out the bottom of the 
 oven, after the ashes have been removed, previous to 
 setting in the bread. 
 
 P< eles . — There are usually four peeles kept in a 
 bakehouse, viz. the quartern peele, to set in the 
 quartern loaves; the half quartern peele, for the 
 half quartern loaves; the drawing peele, for draw- 
 ing out the bread; and the peele for placing and 
 removing tiie (ins. The quartern peele is a pole 
 about eight feet long, with a wooden blade; about a 
 foot wide -and sixteen inches long, fixed at the end 
 with strong screws. The half quartern peele is of 
 the same kind; about half tiie length, and much 
 smaller. Tiie drawing peele is a strong pole, ten 
 feet long, with a blade, thicker, broader, and longer 
 tfian the others; the peele for setting in the tins,, has 
 a strong blade of iron, instead of wood, which is 
 fixed wiin sen ws brio the hafidle. 
 
 Tins, — These are iron plates of different sizes. 
 
 li The 
 
GS BASKET-MAKING. 
 
 The most usual are about an eighth of an inch thick, |! and are used for covering up the bread, and rolls af- 
 two feet wide, and three feet long. The rolls, pies, j ter they are taken out of the oven, 
 and puddings are put upon these tins and then the The' rasp . — This is a large, coarse, broad, (lab 
 
 baker runs the blade of the peel under each of them, steel tile, with a wooden handle that runs over the 
 and places them into any part of the oven, with the )| hack. Its use is for rasping the burnt crust off the 
 Utmost facility. Il bread, a«d a finer one is kept to rasp the French 
 
 Hamids , — These are squares of coarse flannel, l| rolls. 
 
 BASKET-MAKING. 
 
 Tiir, ancient Britons have been celebrated for 
 their skill in the manufacture of baskets, from the 
 time of the Romans ; and so much were the baskets 
 of this country valued by that people, that immense 
 quantities of them were exported to Rome, where 
 they were held in great estimation, and bore so high 
 a price, that they are mentioned by Juvenal, among 
 the extravagant and expensive furniture of the Ro- I 
 man tables, of his time. 
 
 Adde et bascaudas et inille esc aria. 
 
 Add baskets, and a thousand other dishes. 
 
 That these baskets were manufactured in Britain, 
 We learn from the following epigram of Martial : 
 Barbara de pictis veni baseauda Brilannis, 
 tied me jam mavult die ere Roma suam. 
 
 A basket, 1, by painted Briton’s wrought, 
 
 And now to Rome’s imperial city brought. 
 
 Baskets are made either of rushes, splinters, or 
 willows, which last are, according to their growth, 
 called osiers, and gallows. 
 
 Osiers for white work are deprived of their bark, 
 by means of an instrument called the brakes. This 
 instrument has two round legs, proceeding out of, 
 and kept asunder by a spring similar to the sheep 
 shears ; from the back of (his spring projects a point 
 or spill, serv ing to attach the tool to a stake. The 
 osier being placed between- the prongs or legs of the 
 brakes is drawn through with the right hand, whilst | 
 •the left hand clasping the ends of the round legs, 
 presses the osier, and thereby bruises and strips the 
 skin. They are afterwards completely cleaned by 
 a common knife. 
 
 This operation is generally performed by women 
 and children, who, as soon as the osiers are stripped, 
 expose them to the sun and air, in order to dry 
 them ; they are then housed and kept carefully from 
 moisture, which, if attended to, will preserve them 
 tor many years. 
 
 The same precaution is necessary for preserving 
 ©siers with their bark on, damp being equally in- j 
 
 jurious to them. When these osiers are intended 
 to be used, they are soaked in water a few days 
 according to their age and dryness. Osiers depriv- 
 ed of their bark, are assorted by the basket-maker 
 into large and small rods, according to the work for 
 which they are intended, the large ones serving to 
 form the slat and skeleton of the basket, and the 
 smaller ones for weaving the bottom and sides. 
 For common work, such as clothes baskets, market 
 baskets, See. the rod is used whole, but for the finer 
 work, as table mats, fruit and work baskets, and 
 such like, the osier is divided into splits and skains, 
 which words denote the different degrees of fine- 
 ness, to which the rods are reduced. The splits 
 are osiers divided into four parts, by means of a 
 tool, called the cleaver, w hich is made by turning a 
 piece of box wood to .a cane, two inches long, and 
 one and a half inches diameter at its base, this is 
 notched in a direction from the base to the point, 
 leaving between the notches four leaves or edges, 
 projecting from the core or centre, so that a section, 
 the short, or transverse way at any part from the 
 large to the small end, would resemble crosses of 
 different sizes, till it terminated in the point. To 
 use it, the osier is cleft across at the large end, 
 directly through the centre or pith, the point of the 
 cleaver is then introduced, cadi leaf or edge of 
 which falls into the cross cleft, made with the knife, 
 and being forced on with the hand from the large 
 to the small end of the osier, divides it into four 
 equal parts, called splits. These are again parsed 
 through another tool, called the shave, which is in 
 many respects similar to the common spoke-shave; 
 but, as it is intended to be held in the left hand, 
 whilst the split is drawn through with the right, it 
 is fitted in a square instead of a long handle. In 
 set-ting tl'.e iron, which is done by means of two 
 screws, one end of it is kept at a greater distance 
 from the stock than the other; the small end of the 
 split being introduced between the iron an< »he 
 
 stock, 
 
BASKET-MAKING. 
 
 stock, at that one! of fhe blade which is most distant 
 from the stock, taking' care to keep the out -ide or 
 grain of the split next the wood, whilst the pith is 
 presented to tiie iron, in this way it. is drawn 
 through, forcing it as it advances towards <hat end 
 of the blade which is set finest, by which means it 
 is reduced to any degree of thinness recjuired; but 
 as it still remains of very unequal w'idth, it is passed 
 through another tool called the upright. 
 
 This tool is made of a flat piece of thin steel, 
 sharpened at each end with cutting edges, in the 
 manner of a common chissel, .the steel having been 
 previously bent round so as to bring the ends to ap- 
 proach each other ; in which situation they are kept 
 by means of two screws, which act against the out- 
 side of the tool, and serve to set the tool, to cut 
 narrower or wider, as the nature of the work re- 
 quires. The whole is fixed to a wooden stock, of 
 the same size as the shave, and when used, is held 
 in the left hand, the fore-finger of which keeps the 
 split fiat oil the stock, and presents it properly to 
 the cutting edges of the tool, whilst it is" drawn 
 through by tiie right hand, 
 
 This operation reduces the splits to skains of 
 parallel width and thickness. These are sometimes 
 dyed of different colours, and when judiciously in- 
 troduced in weaving the basket, produce a happy 
 effect. 
 
 The following is a list of tools used by basket- 
 makers not already described. 
 
 Kniv's of differ, nit sizes for cutting the osiers, &c. 
 
 Bodkins, for boring. 
 
 Leads, for keeping the basket steady w hilst mak- 
 ing, and which i- only used for small light work. 
 
 The beater , a piece of iron of about nine inches 
 long, shaped like the common cleaver, but without 
 a cutting edge, its use is to beat the work close to- 
 gether, as the basket proceeds. 
 
 The method of making a basket of the common 
 kind, is as follows; the workman having cut off the 
 large ends of as many osiers as he deems necessary, 
 and of a length somewhat more than the width of 
 the bottom, lays them on the floor in pairs, at a 
 little distance from each other, all ranging the same 
 way: he then places on them two of the longest 
 osiers with their large ends towards him, crossing 
 the direction of the former; on the large ends of the 
 two long osiers, he places his foot, weaving each alter- 
 nately under and over the pairs of short ends, w hich 
 confines them in their place, and forms, what is 
 called the slat or slate, which is the foundation of 
 the basket. The workman next takes the long end 
 of one of the two rods, and proceeds to weave it 
 under and over the pairs of short ends, all round 
 tl><? bottom, until he has wove in the whole of it, 
 tins is likewise done with tiie remaining osier, and 
 after this is exhausted, other long, osiers are w ove 
 in, until tiie bottom is of a sufficient size tor the in- 
 tended basket. 
 
 is 
 
 Proceed to sharpen the large ends of as many- 
 long and stout osiers as may be necessary (o form 
 the ribs, or skeleton of the basket, the sharpened 
 ends are planted or forced between the reds of the 
 bottom, from the edge towards the centre, and are 
 turned up in the direction of the sides; and t! eft 
 other rods are wove in and out, between each oi 
 those, until the basket is raised to the intended 
 height. To finish the edge or brim of the basket, 
 the ends of the ribs which ape now standing up per- 
 pendicularly, are turned down over each other in a 
 manner more easily seen by inspecting a basket than 
 described. 
 
 There remains only to add the handle ; this is 
 done by planting, or forcing down close to each 
 other between the weaving of the sides, two or three 
 osiers sharpened and cut to a proper length ; when 
 in their place, a hole is made through them about 
 two inches from the brim, into which a pin is put to 
 prevent their being drawn out, they are then cover- 
 ed or spliced together with skains sometimes of 
 various colours, forming different kinds of platting 
 on the handle. 
 
 Expert workmen produce a great variety of fancy- 
 baskets, by varying the kinds and colours of the 
 skains, and rods .they use, as well as by various 
 different modes of w orking or weaving them, for the 
 modes of colouring which, directions will be given 
 in the second part of this work, 
 
 The following particulars relative to the propaga- 
 tion and culture of osiers, are copied from the 
 “ Transactions of tiie Society for the Encouragement, 
 of Arts eye.” to which they were communicated by 
 Mr. John Phillips, of Ely, who received the sil- 
 ver medal, — “ Since i had the honour of addressing 
 the Society, I have made many experiments on diff- 
 erent soils, w ith the view of ascertaining which are 
 most appropriate to osier plantations; and which of 
 the almost infinite variety of osiers, are best adapted 
 to the different soils, but as my plantations are 
 chiefly in the Fens, I have directed my attention 
 more particularly to determine what species of osiers 
 are most profitable in a black peat soil, which is the 
 most advantageous way of planting them, and at 
 what season of the year. It would have been ofinuch 
 public utility, if the basket makers had given a spe- 
 cific description of the kind of osiers, the planting of 
 which they wish to be encouraged by premiums. 
 The planters who intended becoming candidates for 
 the reward or honours of the society, would in that 
 case have procured those only ; much expense would 
 have been saved by other gentlemen as well as my- 
 self, and a very considerable addition would have 
 been made in our plantations, to tiie stock of the best 
 osiers which are imported from abroad. As we have 
 no generic or specific terms, 1 will endeavour to give 
 a plain Vulgar account of those only w hich are selected 
 by the most experienced planters in this neighbour- 
 hood. Osier, in common parlance, is a word of very 
 
 indeterminate 
 
64 
 
 BASKET-M AKTXG. 
 
 indeterminate signification ; it is certainly a species 
 of the Salix, bat admitting ofraan^ varieties. I have 
 endeavoured to reduce them to’ two classes; first, 
 those which are so called by the grow ers and basket 
 makers, distinguishable by their more blunt, mealy, 
 or downy leaf: and secondly, those that have a leaf 
 more pointed, smooth, and green, resembling that of 
 a myrtle. Of the first class 1 have nire or ten vari- 
 eties, all of which 1 shall eradicate, save one, \ iz. 
 that which is called the grey or brindled osier. It 
 has, in common with the others, the light coloured 
 leaf, but known by having its bark streaked with red, 
 or blood colour. It has not been long introduced in- 
 to this country. It grows vigorously, is very hardy 
 and tough, and bleaches well. All the others of the 
 first class, delight in a wet soil, and will flourish 
 even in the most barren kind of peat; but they are 
 . coarse and spongy, have a large pith, are brittle, and 
 very perishable; they are, however, sometimes used 
 for the stouter parts of large baskets, and, unpeeled, 
 for wine hampers. They grow quick and large, and 
 a small number will fill the ell bunch, bv which all 
 osiers are sold; they are profitable to those growers 
 only who live near London, or whose plantations are 
 contiguous to water carriage. I have some acres of 
 thorn; and were 1 to send them there by waggpn, 
 which is our only mode of conveyance, they would 
 not pay for the carriage. Iu time of war, when our 
 intercourse with France and Holland has been inter- 
 rupted, where they grow better sorts, they have been 
 much resorted to, which has brought ouf baskets into 
 disrepute, and lessened the demand for them in fo- 
 reign markets; this, together yvith the advanced 
 price of insurance, accounts for the fact, that war 
 makes osiers in this kingdom both dear and cheap ; 
 that is, dear at the commencement for want of impor- 
 tation and cheap during its progress, for want of ex- 
 portation, after having been manufactured into baskets 
 and other works to which they are applied. Of the 
 second class are, first, th eWelch, both red and white ; 
 the red having the preference, and said to have been 
 brought originally from Wales, they form an almost 
 essential part of every plantation, as no other is fit to 
 tie the bunches after the rods have been peeled and 
 whitened. A bunch is formed bv compressing the 
 osiers in an iron hoop or band, of an ell in circum- 
 ference; eighty bundles make a load, which four 
 yeais back sold at. £ IS. it is not now worth £12. 
 The best land will produce a load on an acre, but 
 half a load is not a very bad crop on badland. The 
 expense of weeding, renewing, cutting, and peeliug, 
 is about £5. per acre, when the business is well done; 
 but they often go unweeded, when they are sold at a 
 1 >vv price, to the great decay of the plantations. The 
 Welch are also used to tie reed sheaves for thatch ; 
 they are so bitter, that cattle will not browse them, 
 unless driven to the extremity of hunger, and rats 
 will not touch them, although they will destroy 
 almost every kind of bandage. They were formerly 
 
 -rown fin- the coopers, to bind their hoops; but, for 
 is u - they have long given wr-v to th« hazel : they 
 - very tough and durable, and would rank with 
 t ie b; *t sorts for the use of basket-makers, were 
 they of a better colour when peeled. 
 
 2d. The [Vest c::v zhy Spaniard . — Tt is supposed 
 
 to bavc been first introduced into the west of Eng- 
 
 Ih.e 
 
 Spaniard, which is a species of the large willow, 
 
 land, from Spain. It is very different from 
 Spaniard, which is a species of the large wihuw, 
 and used for hedging-wood and hurdles, In the 
 Isle of Ely, it was long in high estimation, until 
 others were introduced, supposed to be superior in 
 some of their qualities ; the bark is of a blueish 
 grey colour, it grows stout and stately, and objects 
 to no soil; tlie grower, however, urges against it, 
 what he thinks to be a strong objection, viz — that 
 it produces a small crop. It bares comparatively 
 | only a few shoots on a head; this is certainly true; 
 i but what then ? — then it is not so profitable. I admit 
 i it, provided only an equal number to be planted on 
 j an acre with those that bear more shoots; but why 
 should the grower tie himself to plant an equal mim- 
 | her of different sorts on a given quantity of land? 
 The nursery man is governed bv no such rule • and 
 the fanner woujd become an object of pity, w ere he 
 to sow an equal quantity of every sort ofgrain on an 
 acre. The Society is bound to draw some line to 
 i prevent fraud, but the planter and farmer would be 
 guided only by the burthen which the land is capa- 
 i file of bearing, fvly experience teaches, that an 
 acre of land will carry of this sort, 14,000 plants 
 with more ease than 12,000 of the best new- kind. 
 
 3d. I have not been able to learn where the new 
 hind originated. It is well known every where ; 
 
 ! and although it must be much older in some conn- 
 1 lies than others, it is universally called by that name, 
 j There are, however, two sorts : the other is called 
 the last, or best new kind. The bark of the former 1 
 l is of a light brown colour; that of the latter resem- 
 | bles rusty iron, with light longitudinal stripes; it is 
 j on that account called, by some persons, the Corduroy. 
 
 When the new kind was first introduced into the 
 I Isle of Ely, it soon expelled most of those of the first 
 I class; the few that are retained are used by the fish- 
 j ermen to make grigs, or twig tunnels, to catch eels 
 | and other fish ; it still maintains considerable repu- 
 tation, but yields to the last new kind, which, be- 
 j sides possessing most of the best properties, produces, 
 on an average, at least four shoots on the head more 
 than any other, and it w ill grow well in a dry mel- 
 low sail. As its shoots are more numerous, a great- 
 er space should be attached to it, to draw nourish- 
 ment from tire earth, and to admit the rays of the 
 sun and circulation of air, so necessary to the growth 
 of every plant : 11.000 an acre is quite sufficient on 
 good land. But the best of all, considered in a 
 public or political view, is 
 
 4th, The lunch. Under this name the ground 
 setter is frequently sold; and 1 am informed that it 
 
BASKET-MAKING, 
 
 was so called from its tendency, whennoglected, <o i 
 direct its sh ots among t grass and weeds, parallel 
 with, and near the ground. It is of the same quali- 
 ty, colour, and appearance, w ith tlie French, except 
 that it has, at the i oint, atuf formed. of leaves urled 
 inwards, wiiich has the appearance of a small wither 
 ed rose-bud. You will easily know both from all 
 others, thus ; draw them through your fist from the 
 too to the bottom, and the leaves w ill snap oil’ with 
 the brittleness of glass. The ground-setter grows 
 very slow ly, and is rejected by the planters that 
 account. The French, although more luxuriant, is 
 also comparatively of slow growth, and it requires a 
 great number to m; ke up the bunch; but it is ex- 
 ceedingly taper, pliant, close grained, tough, and 
 durable. The basket- makers are more desirous of it 
 than any other, as it is best suited to make the smal- 
 ler and finer baskets, hats, fans, and other delicate 
 articles. As it is much disregarded by the planters 
 in this kingdom, the basket- makers, in times of 
 peace, import vast quantities from France, the Aus- 
 trian Netherlands (Belgium), and Holland, where it 
 is cultivated with great success. It is singular that 
 it should be imported cheaper than our planters can 
 a fiord to grow it ; the lands in France and Holland 
 are much dearer than our fens. As an article ul 
 commerce, it deserves -every encouragement that tie 
 public or individuals can give it; and if ii be not so 
 profitable to the grower, it is always of ready sale. 
 
 i : ave heard of another sort, which is well spoken 
 of, called the Rtd Kent Willow ; but 1 am doubtful 
 whether 1 am possessed of it or not. We have in 
 this neighbourhood a very hard, tough w Tow, of a 
 reddish colour, of wuich hurdles, cribs, &c. are ge- 
 nerally made. J printed it last year, in footsets, for 
 the use of basket-nm h°rs ; but as the experiment is 
 now only i.i process, 1 can say nothing of its utility. 
 
 L : ope tliat those xv.o shall hereafter become candi- 
 dates for premiums, will give a. description of the 
 sor's planted by them; and of all the others that are 
 most esteemed in their neighbourhood, perhaps some 
 of vo. r correspondents, who may not be candidates, 
 will favour the public with their knowledge on the 
 subject. 
 
 As to the most advantageous way of planting, 
 there is some difference of opinion. The different 
 qualities and situations of soils are not always at- 
 tended to: we are often deceived by a single expe- 
 riment; vyhat may hit, or tail, one year, may be the 
 reverse the next; it requires a diversified series of 
 experiments to enable us to form a right judgement. 
 My pi n rations of the year 1791, made on banks of 
 aeil thrown out of ditches on each side, and those 
 made on the level ground, flourished equally well 
 that year. It was difficult to judge of them the next 
 ye r, for they had been more or less injured by t'-e 
 Va-t inundation of all the fens of the Isleof Ely, and 
 wnkb wa. not removed in many places until late in 
 the summer ; but in the third year tue advantage 
 
 was- manifestly in favour of those which hasl been 
 made on banks, or qlevated beds. 
 
 We have in this district from ten to fourteen 
 inches of vegetating soil on the surface : immediately 
 beneath it, is a black or brown barren peat, of a loose 
 texture. In the drought of summer, when the moist* 
 ure is exhaled from the upper and more tenacious 
 soil, the water instantly filters through the peat, and 
 leaves the plants destitute of their best nourishment ; 
 bin when the peat is thrown upon tlie solid earth, it 
 w ill prevent the rays of the sun from penetrating to- 
 the bottom: and when the waterfalls in the ditches, 
 the lower and more tenacious soil, will retain a suf- 
 ficient quantity of it for the use of the plants. 
 Care should be taken to insert the sets through' the 
 peal into this lower stratum. They will strike their 
 radicles the first year into this more solid earth ; but 
 w hen tlie peat has been meliorated by tlie sun and 
 air, and been compressed, and become more adhe- 
 sive, they will strike higher in the stem, until tlie 
 radicles or fibres approach the surface. It must be 
 admitted that this is an expensive method, and les- 
 i sens the quantity of land to be planted upon. To 
 remedy this inconvenience, I lay out my land in 
 j beds or barrows, of eighteen feet wide; ditches, of 
 nine feet wide, are dug on each side, the top of 
 which; fourteen inches thick, is laid on the barrows; 
 turf for fuel is then dug in the ditches, the expenco 
 of which is about Is. 8d. a thousand; they are sold- 
 tor 2s. 6d. 
 
 Tne beds or barroxvs, now consisting of about two 
 feet and a alf thick of solid earth, above the surface 
 j of the peat, are planted the following autumn, and- 
 l produce good crops W aen t :e water is sufficiently 
 low, 1 cast upon these beds a fetid vegetable sub- 
 stance, vulgarly called bear’s muck; it resembles 
 wet shag tobacco, and lies under the peat: it is ex- 
 tremely useful to the plants; and although it is, ir» 
 its primitive slate, a perfect caput mortuum , when 
 exposed sometime to the air, it put rifies, affords mu> 
 cillagf, and becomes a good manure. In embanked 
 districts, subject to frequent and long inundations, 
 two cither advantages are obtained from these raised 
 beds: the osiers are thereby removed farther from 
 the reach of the ice, which on a thaw floats into the- 
 lower plantations, and does them much injury. 
 When the waters are high, in the cutting or plant* 
 
 I ing season, the beds are more accessible than the 
 level ground; but having had the command of t* e 
 water 1 s" summer, by a null or engine, I dug out 
 the peat into turf, having first laid qside tlie uppmr 
 I spit: t e turf beipg remove; , I shall return this spit 
 into the ditch, and plant upon it; thus no ground 
 xvi ! i be lost. 
 
 In the year 1796 I made an experiment on an 
 ! acre of land of this quality. I ploughed one half of 
 ! it, and t !i e other haif-was. dug with the spade, about 
 i fourteen inches deep; the sod of that thickness was 
 
 inverted by the spade. The plantation on t c 
 1 8 ploughed 
 
BASKET-MAKING. 
 
 stf 
 
 ploughed land was very weak, aiul tailed in many 
 places; that which followed the spade did belter ; 
 but they are both so bad, that they must be renewed 
 this year. On the former, the best land lay upper- 
 most, which, when deprived by the heat, of itf. mois- 
 ture, derived no assistance to suppovt the plants from 
 the peat that lay underneath ; on ihe latter, some of 
 the best land was laid in the ground, but not deep 
 enough to retain a sufficient quantity of moisture. 
 The preceding year 1 planted in a piece contiguous, 
 on banks. as before described; and there the osiers 
 do well. 
 
 I have a rich loam lying on a bed of potter’s clay. 
 The situation is low, and exposed to the water. 
 French osiers were very scarce, and I could procure I 
 only a few hundreds last year: .determined to eke j 
 them out as far as J could. I laid them down in their j 
 whole length, and pegged them on the* ground; I 
 they struck good roots into the earth, and threw out ! 
 abundant shoots. 
 
 This experiment, together with that of planting t 
 upon banks, wiil enable us to answer the question , 
 often asked, a Of what length ought the set to be : ” j 
 it depends entirely upon the nature and situation of j 
 ihe land. There should be so much of it in the 
 ground as to enable it to procure moisture; and so 
 much of it out of the ground as to make it accessible 
 in the cutting season, where much weeding is not 
 required : and W'here there are no floods, or where 
 they subside quickly, there ought to be very little of 
 it out of the ground. The nourishment, in that case, 
 w'ill pass immediately from the roots to the rods, or i 
 shoots, without the burden of first, supplying the ! 
 head or stock. 
 
 Every experiment that I have made confirms my , 
 opinion, that the autumn, and not the spring, is the 
 most proper season for planting. Those who think 
 with me say, that the fall of the leaf indicates the 
 proper time to cut the sets ; it certainly is so in ge- 
 neral ; but the leaf of the osier, like that of the oak i 
 and other trees, will sometimes prolong its depar- 
 ture. The stagnation of the juices is the true crite- 
 rion by which to judge; not on account of the set, j 
 but of the trunk, lest, if you amputate it whilst the , 
 juices are in circulation, it should bleed to death. I 
 have planted in the first week- of October, and the ! 
 sets appeared to remain torpid for the remainder of j 
 the year; about Christmas I took up several of them, | 
 and was much pleased to fir.d they had struck root, 
 although they had given no outward appearance of 
 vegetation from the time of planting. It is probable j 
 that the earth retains a sufficient portion of the sum- | 
 rner heat until toe autumn, to give life to plants at 
 the root, w hen the atmosphere at that time may be 
 so cold, as to discourage any exertions above ground ; 
 and perhaps nature may i;e more vigorous when her 
 operations are confined to one point. 
 
 When you plant in spring, the set seems (if I may 
 speak so figuratively) to have its attention distracted 
 by tw® operations not very homogenous, the one up- 1 
 
 wards, the other downwards. It is impelled to shoot 
 its radicles into the earth, to form its stability, and 
 procure sustenance ; and it is called upon at the same 
 time to put forth its leaver and branches. To speak 
 without a figure, the prolific sun and air conduce to 
 exhaust the juices, in extending the shoots before 
 the roots are sufficiently strong and large to support 
 the drainage; hence it is that, contrary to the com- 
 i monly received opinion, a warm and dry spring is 
 always injurious to the young plantations. If there 
 be not sufficient rain to convey sustenance by the 
 leaf and bark, in aid of the small quantity procured 
 by the root, the plant must die or dwindle, and it is 
 very observable that the first vigour of the late 
 planted set is a sure prognosticator of its decline or 
 dissolution. In the autumn of 1795, 1 made a small 
 plantation, and on the remainder of the piece I 
 planted in March follow ing. In the beginning of 
 May, those last planted were the forwardest, which, 
 for a time, staggered my opinion of the most proper 
 time for planting: but in June, those planted m the 
 autumn had much the advantage, and have conti- 
 nued to grow well. Those that were set in the 
 spring, decayed in summer, and many of them died. 
 When the fibres have been formed before the winter, 
 or when a tendency to form them has been observed, 
 by the swelling of the hark, and particularly at the' 
 eye, the plant is enabled to charge itself with a suf- 
 ficient portion of the juices to answer the demand 
 of spring. 
 
 The rule, therefore, which I lay down for myself, 
 w'here no obstructions are raised by the water, is to 
 plant as early in the autumn as i can cut the sets, 
 without endangering the parent stock. ” 
 
 Notwithstanding the prevailing notion, that osiers 
 will not thrive in any situations but such as are wet, 
 we have the testimony of a considerable planter to 
 the contrary. This person has some of the most 
 healthy and flourishing plats we have ever seen, in 
 situations high and dry; and we are informed by 
 him that the basket-makers prefer, for tlie generality 
 of work, osiers grow ing in these situations, to those 
 produced in low and marshy ground. 
 
 Flis ground was well manured and sown with tur- 
 nips, and the sets or cuttings (which were eighteen 
 inches in length) put about -ten incites into the 
 ground, and about one foot nine inches asunder. 
 This person differs from Mr. Phillips, and prefers 
 I spring planting, which w r e believe to he the prevail- 
 ing custom in the western counties, where the fol- 
 lowing sorts are mostly planted ; namely, the 
 brown-red, orange-red, and yellow. Uut as the 
 basket-maker has occasion for various qualities of 
 osiers, and each of these kinds has its peculiar advan- 
 tages, the planter should put in some of each sort; 
 as this will enable him in a short time to ascertain 
 what kind suits best with the soil and situation. 
 
 In the trial of another cultivator, detailed in the 
 Transactions of the Society of Arts , — “ the soil is a 
 strong clay, resting on a retentive clay subsoil of 
 
 great 
 
*AKKET-MAKI\«f. 
 
 67 
 
 great depth. It has lung been in a state of tillage, 
 and is inclosed by Hourihing woody hedges. The 
 soil is naturally of a weak nature, has been much 
 impoverished by bad management, and, as arable 
 land, is not worth five shillings per acre. Th 
 greater part of the plantation in the year 1800. 
 consisted of oats, and received only one ploughing 
 of a mean depth, previous to planting. Nine acres 
 were wheat in 1800, after the summer fallow. 
 Three acres in the same field with the nine, were 
 sown with grass seeds, in the autumn of 1800, and : 
 were planted at the same time with the rest, with- ' 
 out any preparation whatever, except that of liar- 
 rowing once in a place. Eight acres, which were 
 last planted, were in various states of tillage ; some ! 
 were a good fallow in 1800; some were sown with i 
 grass seeds in the autumn of that year ; and some ! 
 w re very grassy, and lmcl lain all the summer j 
 without ploughing. The grassy part, and the part 
 sown with grass seeds, were ploughed once before 
 planting, but the part which was summer fallow, 
 was not ploughed. The planting was began on the 
 9th of February, 1801, and continued till the whole 
 was finished, which was on the 23d of March. The 
 sets were large cuttings of about eighteen inches in 
 length, thrust into the ground by hand, having from 
 four to six inches of their length above the surface. 
 They w re all planted in rows, from twenty-t.vo, to 
 thirty inches asunder, anil the sets from twelve to 
 twenty-four inches asunder in the rows; but lew 
 were planted at the widest distances.” 
 
 He adds, that the plants made a more vigorous 
 shoot in spring, then t ey did afterwards; but they 
 are allowed by judges to- look uncommonly well, j 
 Very few sets have failed, perhaps not above a*' 
 hundred on an acre, except in {fie field last planted 
 where the dead sets are more numerous. This 
 may be owing more to the treatment tue sets receiv- 
 ed, than to the time in which they were planted. 
 
 Ti es were brought round the North, and Soot 
 Forelands, were put out of the ship into a barge, 1 
 and from thence into a vtaggon, and then remained 
 some, time before they were planted. Those plant- j 
 that succeeded, wheat are much the best osiers : am 
 those planted on the seeds without ploughing art 
 the worst. They are invariably the best where the 
 ground is cleanest; and from this circumstance be 
 is led to think, that summer fallowing before plant- 
 ing would be judicious management A neighbour 
 of his, he says, planted 350 sets in his garden, 341 
 of which produced osiers ; the rest died. The soil 
 of the garden is clay. They were planted the latter 
 end of March, in rows, thirty inches by twenty-one 
 inches asunder, with beans between the rows. Thr 
 341 sets, have produced a bundle of osiers of about 
 thirty-eight inches iii circumference ; and. some of v 
 them are upwards of ten teet in length. This * 
 thinks proves, that the soil is congenial, and the 
 
 tillage favourable to the growth of osiers, iu the , 
 9 
 
 plantation already mentioned, there are several 
 sorts, bnt principally those known by the name of 
 the tic zc Icii/ii." This experiment was made by Mr- 
 ’berry, at New- wood farm, Stoke D’Auberton, in 
 Surrey. 
 
 The following method is practised, as stated in 
 tlje fifth volume of the Farmer’s Magazine, 1>i the 
 fens, many holts (as they are provincially called,) 
 or plantations of osiers are rais d, which beautify 
 the country, keep the stock warm in the winter, and' 
 irovide much useful wood for baskets, cradles, and 
 all kinds of wicker work, and also for cribs for cat- 
 tle to eat straw or hay out of, and to make stows or 
 hurdles to fence in stacks, part land, &c. &c. or they 
 make hedges that will last four years well, and if 
 allowed to grow live years, many of them would 
 make fork shafts for hay or corn. 
 
 These holts or plantations of osiers are commonly 
 made in the middle of the land, in the north and east 
 corners, and sometimes at any end, side, or place, 
 that appears most easy, or in any respect, the most 
 desirable. 
 
 The situation and size of these holts vary exceed- 
 ingly. Sometimes they are made in the middle of 
 lauds, from 10 to 00 yards square, and in others, in 
 the sides or ends, of from 1 yard wide to 11, and 
 from 10 to 100 yards long. 
 
 The mode of planting is very simple ; it is, first to 
 dig the land from 0 to 12 inches deep, and ti.en to 
 prick down cuttings of 4 years growth, and IS inches 
 long, at about three feet distance from each other. 
 The soil should be moor or clay, or any that is low 
 and wet ; if drowned half the year, it will be but lii.tle 
 the worse.. > 
 
 These holts or osier plantations must be fenced 
 round, either with dikes which is most common, or 
 with hedges Which is most convenient. The proper 
 season for making them (they seldom fail of growing 
 at any time) is from the fall of the leaf: till very lfite - 
 in the spring, and the sets are very cheap. Such 
 plantations are cut annually for baskets, skrps-, scut- 
 tles, cradles, and all kinds of wicker work, but when, 
 the osiers are kept for. sets, or to make hedging wood, 
 or for stows or hurdle's, they are cut only once in 
 four years. Wherever tiie farmer lias lands that 
 are suited to this sort of cultivation, as there is a con- 
 ■taut demand tor such articles, he should never ne- 
 glect making plantations, as nothing that he can put 
 upon such land will pay him so well. 
 
 It is observed by Mr. A. Young, that the late Mr. 
 Forby, of Norfolk, knew the value of these planta- 
 tions well, for various purposes. Osiers planted in 
 - nail -mots, and along some of his hedges, supplied 
 nitn with hurjlle-stut? enough to make many eozdns 
 every year, so that he supplieoljumseif entirely with 
 
 at article, as well as with a profusion of all sorts 
 of baskets, especially, one kind treat ie used for mov- 
 ing cabbage plants, for which purpose they were 
 much better than tumbling the plants loose in a. 
 
 cart. . 
 
BASKET MAKING, 
 
 cart. The common osiers lie cut for this purpose at 
 three years, and tiiat with y> Dow bark at four. 
 
 As the planting ofosiers is considered very profit- 
 able to those who may have ground well adapted to 
 it, we subjoin tne following account of the expenses. 
 Of one icr< j »nd a half of osiers, having fourscore 
 boults (of forty-two inches girt) to the acre. 
 
 Weeding twice or weeding and hoeing, j£l 10 0 
 Catting 2s. (id. per score 15 0 
 
 Sorting 2s. (id. per score 15 0 
 
 Whiting or stripping per load, all expenses 2 2 0 
 
 Binding per load 7 0 
 
 A load consists cf sixscore boults of green or four- 
 - score bo aits of white. 
 
 The business of a basket maker requires but a 
 small capital either of money or ingenuity, in conse- 
 •squenfce ofwhic , it has b< en fixed upon as one of the 
 most proper occupations for that class of our suffer- 
 ing fellow creatures, the indigent blind, for whom an 
 A vlum was first opened in Liverpool in the year 
 1790, under the auspices of the Revd. Henry Dan- 
 net, Minister of St. Johns. The following account 
 •fthe institution, selected from Aikin’s History of 
 .Manchester, cannot fail of being interesting to all 
 our readers. “ In reflecting on the situation of 
 those persons who labour under that heavy calami- 
 ty the loss of sight, it must occur to every one that 
 this misfortune is aggravated by the want of employ- 
 ment for the mind, and by a consciousness of being 
 useless to themselves, and in many cases a burthen to 
 ©tears. Frequent experience lias, however, shewn, 
 that blind persons are capable of becoming expert 
 in various mechanical employments, and in some ca- 
 ses of making a surprizing proficiency in useful ac- 
 complishments. The education of persons in this 
 ■situation requires, however, a different process from 
 that which is usually adopted : and it was there- 
 fore suggested that if a school of industry were es- 
 tablished for the blind, vvitii proper instructors, the 
 •ngost Demticial effects might be derived from it. A 
 subscription for this purpose was accordingly open- 
 ed, an t wo -ouses fronting i:;e area before the in- 
 forwKiry, w dye. ly.nied, as a temporary accomodation 
 
 l for the pupils. The earnestness with which the be~ 
 
 ' nefits held forth by t is institution, were grasped at 
 by the u- fortunate objects of its kindness, is a con- 
 j vine! g pi’ of. > ai their inactivity was not voluntary, 
 nor t. eir situation ’ opeless. Several pupils were 
 Immediately admitted of different ages, most of 
 w <<m applied themselves dibgontly <» the j- art icti- 
 j lar employment to which their talents,! r their farcy 
 directed them. The principal occupations, < ich 
 after a trial of sonae*ye irs, are found most sui able 
 for the blind, independent of the use of musical in-, 
 struments, are the making of baskets and ' ampere, 
 of various kinds, of white and tarred bears or loer 
 mats, foot- cloths, lobby-cloths, the weaving A' sheet- 
 ing, hag-abag, window sash, and curtain line, and^ 
 the manufacture of riding- whips, the latter of v ich 
 they execute with peculiar neatness. Besides affor- 
 ding the pupil instruction gratis, the Asylum allows 
 them a weekly sum proportioned to the nature of 
 their work, and t' e proficiency made by them, which 
 with a small addition, in some instances, from their 
 friends, - r parishes, enables them to provide for 
 their e.wn support: thereby relieving them in a great 
 degree from the painful idea of absolute dependence 
 on the bounty 'of others ; and which is scarcely of less 
 i importance, affording them an active employment for 
 i those hours,- which would otherwise be spent in des- 
 pondency and gloom. ” We are nappy in having it 
 in our power of stating, that a great many institutions 
 of a similar kind, have been set on foot in different 
 I large towns throughout the kingdom. 
 
 I Baskets have, of late years, been introduced by 
 ■ coach makers, to form the bodies of gigs, for which 
 ! purpose they are particularly well calculated, as we 
 : know of no other means whereby so much strength 
 ! can be obtained with so little weight. The mail 
 I carts in London are baskets, and many of the tage 
 | coaches have baskets placed behind them for the pur- 
 ! pose of carrying parcels; and we are convinced that. 
 
 ! tiie principle of basket-making might be extended, 
 j with good effect, to many ot. er purposes, where the 
 ' three qualities of strength, -lightness, and elasticity, 
 
 ! are required. 
 
BLOCK-MAKING, 
 
 The art of Block-making was, formerly, executed 
 entirely fcv hand with no. other mechanical aid, than 
 could be obtained by the use of a common turning- 
 lathe: but within these few years, the navy has been 
 supplied v. ith blocks made in the Dock-Yard at 
 Portsmouth, by a set of machines erected there by 
 the ingenious Mr. Brunei, which is conceived to be 
 the most complete piece of mechanism in England, or 
 perhaps in the world. 
 
 By means of this machine, the whole process, from 
 the tree to the finished block, is performed with no 
 other assistance than can be given by the most un- 
 taught labourer, as the only aid required is to con- 
 vey the work, in its various stages, from one part of 
 the machinery to another. 
 
 It would be useless toeive a particular descrip- 
 tion of the various parts of this complicated machine 
 under this head, as the exclusive right of using it is 
 secured bv letters patent to the inventor. Another 
 reason is the great expence attending the erection of 
 it, which would scarcely answer for any private con- 
 cern. We shall, however, give a description of it 
 under the article Machines, in the second part of 
 this work, as various parts of the contrivance are 
 applicable to many other purposes. The block 
 used on shipboard consists of the shell, usually made 
 of elm or ash; the pulley or sheave, made either of 
 lignumvit® or cast metal ; the pin or axis of the 
 pulley ; and the strap, which is sometimes made of 
 rope and sometimes of iron. 
 
 The different kinds of blocks are very numerous, 
 depending on their size, use, form, number of pul- 
 lies, &c. the bare enumeration of which would take 
 considerable room. They may, however, be gene- 
 rally reduced to the following kinds: single, double, 
 triple, and fourfold blocks, according to the number 
 of sheaves they contain, which, for some particular 
 purposes, extend to eight. 
 
 We shall now endeavour to give some idea of the 
 manner of manufacturing blocks, as it is commonly 
 practised, describing each part under its particular 
 head, and beginning with the shell. 
 
 Having sawn out the wood to its proper width, 
 length, and thickness, the corners are taken away: 
 after which, if it is for a single block, the workman 
 gauges the mortise hole, which is to receive the 
 sheave in the middle of the block, allowing it one- 
 sixteenth wider than thq thickness of the sheave, 
 and once the thickness longer than the diameter of 
 the sheave. But, where more than one sheave is 
 placed in the same shell, partitions between each 
 sheave are necessary, otherwise the rope would be 
 subject to slip out of the groove in the edge of the 
 
 ! I sheave, and the pin, from the width between the 
 I two cheeks, 'would be very 'apt to bend; these jiar- 
 li tit ions are allowed one-sixth le«s t'.:- -heave 
 
 | hole. The block thus gauged, is fixed firmly to the 
 I bench or cleave, in which situation it is held by 
 wedges, and a hole being bored at each end of the 
 shea ve hole, half the way through its thickness, it is 
 reversed, and being fixed again, the holes are met 
 by boring from this side; the remainder of.the wood 
 | is then removed by a mortise chisel w ith a bar, simi- 
 lar to those made use of by wheelwrights for mortis- 
 ing the knav es of wheels. 
 
 "if the block is intended to have an iron strap, it 
 should be applied before the mortise or- sheave hole 
 is cut out of the middle of the block; but this is not 
 the case where rope is mad? use of, that being ap- 
 plied bv the rigger after the blocks are on board the 
 ship. Straps of this kind are usually fitted with an 
 iron eye or thimble, and sometimes with -a hook, ac- 
 cording to the purposes for which they are designed. 
 There remains now, only to make the hole for the 
 reception of the pin; it must be about one-tenth 
 smaller than the diameter of the pin for which it is 
 ! intended, in order to make it drive tight : this hole 
 I is made square on one side, and the pin is left square 
 I at one end for the purpose of preventing it from 
 turning round in the hole. 
 
 Tiie edges and corners of the shell are next round- 
 ed, first’ with the stock shave, which removes the 
 j larger parts, and then with the spoke shave, to fin- 
 j ish and smooth them. 
 
 I Blocks that are intended for the merchant service, 
 | differ from those used in the royal navy; the 
 former being rounded off, leaving a small square 
 j on the edges, and the latter are left thicker upon the 
 ed«es of the cheeks. 
 
 j The next operation is the scoring, or grooving, 
 
 I for the reception of the strap; for which purpose the 
 ! blocks are gauged, and being fixed as before, the 
 groove is cut so deep at the ends as half the thick- 
 ness of the strap, anil gradually tapering to nothing 
 at the pin. The same rule holds good for double 
 strap blocks, first gauging it on both sides of the pin 
 for that purpose. 
 
 After the score is cut, the sheaves are fitted ; they 
 are one-tenth thicker than the diameter of the rope 
 j intended to run on them, and five times that thick- 
 ness in diameter. The’ hole for the pin is made 
 through the centre of the sheave by a bit, fitted to 
 the turning lathe, or with a stock and bit, and open- 
 ed out with an auger, one-sixteenth larger than the 
 J pin, to enable the sheave to turn freely. 
 
 | Cocked sheaves are such as have brass centres, or 
 T coakes 
 
BLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 19 
 
 coakes, let in on each side the sheave, made of caA 
 bell metal, of a triang ular form : the corners of both 
 the coakes are kept opposite each other, so as to ad- 
 mit of three rivets passing- through them, for the 
 purpose of confining them together. When this is 
 done, and the hole made, the sheaves are fitted to 
 the turning lathe, where they are faced, and the 
 groove turned on the edge for the rope to run 
 on. 
 
 The pins are also fitted m the lathe, and turned 
 smooth and cylindrical, except the head, which is 
 left square for the purpose before stated. 
 
 After the sheaves are fitted, the inside of the 
 sheave hole, at one end of the block, is gauged hol- 
 low, to admit the rope, and correspond with the 
 sheaves ; and a small neat chamfer is taken olF the 
 edges. 
 
 Tor the strapping of Blochs, the following rules 
 will be found serviceable. A seventeen-inch block 
 has a five-inch rope strap, and every inch in length 
 above or under, to a twelve-inch block, has half-an- 
 inch, more or less, sized rope allowed for the strap; 
 an eleven-inch block has a three-inch strap, a ten 
 and a nine-inch block two-inches and half; an eight 
 and a seven-inch block, two inches ; a six-inch block 
 one and half inch ; a live and a four-inch block one 
 inch. 
 
 When blocks are bound with iron, the score is 
 sunk sufficiently deep to admit of the whole thickness 
 of the strap, except at the pin. Iron straps vary in 
 thickness, from one inch to a quarter of an inch, al- 
 lowing for their breadth three times their thickness, 
 or thereabouts; of course it is ever to be taken into 
 the account, that if the blocks are intended to bear 
 any extraordinary strain, it will be necessary to give 
 tile straps more strength than the above proportions 
 admit of, more particularly as this extraordinary 
 strength is required, most commonly, in parts of the 
 ship where the weight of the block is of less impor- 
 tance. The case is, however, very different lor 
 such blocks as are intended to be used aloft, where 
 weight is ever to be avoided; it should, therefore, 
 be the object of the workman to give as much 
 strength as possible, with little weight: and this is 
 best done, by using the choicest materials for work 
 of this kind. The cat-block must have a strong- 
 strap and large iron hook, which hooks the ring ot 
 the anchor in catting. The top-block should have 
 a stout iron binding, with a strong short hook. 
 Top tackle blocks have strong iron bindings, the 
 upper block with a tackle -book, and the lower block 
 with a swivel-hook. The swivel, in iron bound 
 blocks, serves to turn it occasionally, in order to un- 
 twist the parts of the rope which form the' tackle, 
 otherwise a considerable loss of power would be the 
 
 ! 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 
 consequence. 
 
 In rigging, the whole length of all the different 
 sizes cf block-strapping, is got upon the stretch, and 
 hove out tight, for worming and serving; it is then 
 
 wormed and served, and cut into shorter lengths, 
 suited to the different blocks. 
 
 The strapping of jur-blocks is wormed, parcelled, 
 and served: strapping of four inches diameter, and 
 above, is wormed and served, and all under four 
 inches are only served with spun-yarn: except the 
 sprit-sail brace, bunt-line, and leech-line blocks, 
 that, are lashed under the lops; these are served 
 with spun-yarn over the splice, and the tail left half 
 a fathom in length. Jur- blocks are double scored, 
 and the double and triple blocks are strapped with a 
 double strap, thus : the block is spliced together at 
 the ends, and, when doubled, to be the size of the 
 block and circumference of the yard; it is then dou- 
 bled, and the block seized in the bight, with a long 
 and short leg'; the splice laying in the arse of the 
 block. 
 
 Before the strap is applied, the pin and sheave 
 should be examined, and the score should be well 
 tarred. The block is set well intp the strap w ith 
 wedges, in the following manner : the four parts 
 are trapped together with rope-yarn under the block, 
 with a chock between; and the wedges are set be- 
 tween the breast of (lie block and the chock. Then 
 the strap is nippered with a heaver round the block ; 
 t he wedges, chock, and fl apping, taken away, and the 
 block hung upon the stake-head, or post, and the 
 strap w r ell seized together, close under the block, 
 with nine under, and eight riding-turns, every turn 
 strained tight round with a heaver, and crossed each 
 w r ay two turns. 
 
 jur-blocks of the mast-heads, are strapped with 
 long eyes, to receive many turns of the lashing; and 
 the block is seized into the strap, as before, as are 
 all the seizing blocks according to their sizes. 
 
 A TABLE OF THE DIMENSIONS OF STRAPS FOR 
 LASHING AND SEIZING BLOCKS- 
 
 Size of 
 tiie 
 
 Blocks. 
 
 Circumf. 
 
 of 'the 
 1 Straits. 
 
 Length of the 
 Straps. 
 
 I ii< hi* 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 7 4 
 
 lb 
 
 4f 
 
 6 8 i 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 0 0 j 
 
 14 
 
 Si 
 
 5 4 
 
 13 
 
 3i 
 
 4 ii 
 
 12 
 
 3{ 
 
 4 G 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 4 2 
 
 • 10 
 
 3 
 
 3 9 
 
 9 
 
 2r 
 
 3 4 
 
 S 
 
 2i 
 
 3 0 
 
 7 
 
 2 \ 
 
 2 9 
 
 C 
 
 2 
 
 2 6 
 
 5 
 
 n 
 
 1 9 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 * « 
 
 Blocks, strapped with eyes or thimbles, s 
 the ends, are seized tight into the biglit,. 
 
 pliccd in 
 and the 
 
 le«>s 
 
BLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 n 
 
 legs left long enough to lash through the eyes, round I 
 a mast, yard, Sec. as the top-sail clue-lines, clue- j 
 garnets, and sprit-sail clue-lines, &c. 
 
 Blocks strapped with a thimble, or hook and thim- j 
 ■ble, have the straps spliced together at the ends. | 
 The block is fixed in one bight, for the splice to lay i 
 on the arse of the block, and the thimble in the other 
 bight; the seizing is put on between the block and 
 thimble, with eight under and six riding turns, ac- 
 cording to the size of the block, each turn strained 
 tight by a heaver; the turns double crossed, and the 
 ends stopped with a wall knot crowned. 
 
 Blocks strapped with double tails are fixed in the 
 strap similar to blocks with eye-straps; and those 
 with a single tail are spliced in .and served with 
 spun-yarn over the splice. Girt-line blocks are 
 strapped in the house, and the gift-lines reeved, 
 See Elements and Practice of Rigging. Vo/. 1. 
 
 Bee-blocks are made of elm, in length seven- 
 ninths, the length of the bee in depth, two inches 
 for every foot of length, and in thickness seven- 
 eighths of the depth. A block of this kind is trim- 
 med square, chamfered on the outside edges, and 
 fitted with a sheave in one end, and in the other end j 
 is cut a hole, to be fitted with a sheave, in case the ; 
 other should fail. The sheave-hole is two-sevenths ' 
 of the length of the block, and one-fourth the length 
 of the sheave hole, in breadth, and half the length 
 of the sheave-hole within the end. 
 
 Bee-blockp are bolted to the outer ends of bow- 
 sprits, under the bees, and the bolts serve like ( the j 
 axis or pin for the sheaves to work upon ; the fore- 
 top-mast stay, reeves through the sheave-hole at the \ 
 foremost end of the starboard bec-biock, and the 
 fore-top-mast preventer, or spring-stay, throng 1 : the | 
 sheave- hole, at the after end of the larboard bee- 
 block. 
 
 Thick and thin , or quarter -block, is a double I j loci. ! 
 with one sheave thicker than, t.e other, and is used i 
 to lead down the top-sail-sheets, and clue-lines. — | 
 Although these are used for the top-sail-sheets, and 
 intended for the clue # liues, a single block would be I 
 cheaper and better, as the thin sheave is seldom I 
 used for the clue-lines, it being found rather to 
 impede than to facilitate. Small ships in the 
 merchant service, have a double block lashed in the 
 middle of the yard, as he quarter block-, through 
 which the sheets reeve, and lead down on opposite 
 sides. Large si.ips in the merchant service, have a 
 single block lashed on each side of the middle of the 
 yard, and the sheets reeve on their respective sides, 
 and lead down by t’ e mast. 
 
 Brail-blocks, in rigging the mizen yard, are strapt 
 together in one strap, and lie over the yard, and 
 seize together- tmderneqth ; the t'roat- blocks next 
 the cleats to the mast; the middle-blocks in the 
 middle between the throat-block and peek; the 
 pppk-blocks ‘about three or four feet within the 
 cleats at the peek. 
 
 Vo jaf, or viol-block , is a single sheaved block. 
 The ■length is ten times the thickness of the sheave- 
 hole, which is three-eighths more than the thickness 
 of the sheave ; the thickness of the sheave is one- 
 tenth more than the diameter of the viol; and the 
 diameter of the sheave is seven times the thickness. 
 The breadth of the block should be eight times the 
 thickness df the sheave, and the thickness two - 
 sevenths of the length. This block is double scor- 
 ed, the sheave is coaked with brass, and the pin is 
 iron, and nearly as thick as the sheave. It is used 
 in heaving up the anchor. The viol passes round 
 the jeer capstan, and through the block, which is 
 lashed to the main-mast, and the cable is fastened in 
 a temporary manner to the viol in several places. 
 It is seldom used except in the largest ships in the 
 royal navy. 
 
 Check blocks, or half-blocks , are made of elm 
 plank; the length being twice and a half the depth 
 of the top-mast head; the breadth is seven-eighths of 
 the depth of the top-mast-head, and the thickness half 
 that depth. The depth of each tenon, and thickness of 
 the cheek, when the sheave-hole is cut, is each three 
 eighths of the whole thickness, so that the remaining 
 two-eighths are the sheave-hole. The three tenons 
 each are two inches square, one in the middle, and 
 one at each end ; and tne length of the holes is more 
 than the breadth of the block, by the thickness of 
 the sheave. The back of the block is divided into 
 three parts, and one-third on each side is bearded 
 down to one-third the thickness of the cheek on 
 each edge. Pins of iron are made for fastening 
 them to the top-mast head, and for durability, the 
 sheave-holes are coppered. Cheek-blocks are bolt- 
 ed to the thwart-ship sides of the top-mast heads, 
 close up under the cap, the bolts serve as the pin, 
 or axis, for the sheaves to work on; the jib- stay, and 
 haliards, and foretopmast stays, sail-stay, and ha- 
 liards reeve through the cheek blocks at the fore- 
 topmast head, and the maintop mast stay-sail haliards, 
 and middle-stay sail-stay and halyards reeve 
 through the cheek blocks, at the main-top- mast, 
 head. 
 
 Sister-blocks, are similar to two single blocks, and 
 are formed out of a solid piece, about twenty inches 
 long, one above the other. Between the blocks is a 
 scoring for a middle seizing : a round head is turned 
 at each end, and hollowed underneath to contain the 
 end seizings; along the sides, through which the pins 
 are driven, is a groove or scoring, large enoug i to 
 receive part of the topmast shrouds, in w .k li it is 
 seized. These blocks receive the lifts and reef tackle 
 pendants of the top-sail-yards. 
 
 Clue line-blocks, in rigging the sprit-sail-yard, are 
 strapped with two eyes, and are lashed’ through 
 those eyes round the yard, three feet without tiie 
 slings ; the lashing to be upon the yard. In rigg- 
 ing die sprit-sail top- -ail-yard, these blocks are strap- 
 ped with two eyes, and are lashed through those eyes 
 
 round 
 
round the yard, about two f-*et w : * Iscut (ho slii-gs. j 
 The fine-line k belts, in rigging the top-fail yard?, \ j 
 a re si rapt \v i.tvtf lashing eyes, and Irish upon the 
 yard three feet without the slings ; the l.h eks bang* • 
 ing underneath the yard, through which the due-linn i 
 reeves, and is strap! with a knot, and leads down 1 
 upon the deck. In rigging the top-gallant jards, tl.e 
 blocks are strap! with two lashing eyes, and lash j 
 upon the yard three feet without the slings. The jj 
 ■blocks hang under the yard, through which is reev- ] • 
 ed the clue-line, which is stopt with a knot. The 
 leading part leads down the mast, and into the lower 
 shrouds. Some sloops and light rigged vessels have 
 ■no clue-line blocks ; they lower the yards. 
 
 Mr. Brunei has made a great improvement in 
 these blocks. The old clue-line, or clue garnet- 
 block, (for they are the same except in size) was a 
 single sheaved block, strapped with two eyes ; a 
 knot was made in the end of the clue-ling or gar- 
 net, just at the place where it was attached to the j 
 clue of the sail, to prevent the corner thereof 
 being drawn into, the block. This was not ef- 
 fective, and frequent inconvenience arose, for the I 
 sail being constantly in motion, the rope had a great j 
 tendency to get entangled with the sail, and .drawn j 
 over the sheave. To prevent this, the sheave is j 
 situated in the centre of the block, so as to be whol- 
 ly inclosed except a mortise, where the sheave is j 
 put in. The strap surrounds the lower part of the 
 block, then both ends pass through a hole in the 
 upper part, crossing each other. They are then 
 formed into an eye, by which the block is suspended | 
 from the yard. By this means no accident can hap- ! 
 pen, as the garnet rope is so inclosed in the block. 1 
 
 Strap bound blocks , are single blocks, with a j 
 shoulder left on each side, at the upper part, to ad- 
 mit the strap through a little above the pin. These 
 blocks are used at the clues of the square-sails for 
 the clue-garnets, or clue-lines ; and under the yards, 
 the shoulder prevents the strap from chafing. 
 
 Nirte-pin blocks , are used to lead the running 
 ropes in an horizontal direction. The shells, made 
 of ash, or elm, resemble the form of a nine pin, 
 though flattened on the sides. Their lengths are 
 generally confined to the places in which they are 
 fixed, and this is for the most part under the cross 
 pieces of the fore-castle and quarter-deck bitts. 
 The breadth of the block, sheave, &c. is governed 
 by the rope, and taper at the ends to three eighths of 
 the breadth of the middle ; the pins at each end ser- 
 ving as a vertical axis, is two-thirds of the size cf 
 the end. The thickness is five-eighths of the breadth. 
 These blocks may be turned in a lathe, and flatten- 
 ed afterwards with a spoke-shave. 
 
 Shoulder -block, is a large single block, left nearly 
 square at the upper end of the block, and cut slop- 
 ing in the direction of the sheave. Shoulder-blocks 
 are used on the lower yard arms, to lead in the top- 
 sail-sheets; and on top-sail yards, to lead in ihetopi- 
 
 g d 1 ■ : '-beets, and by means of the shoulder are 
 
 ke< ’ ••mrg’-.t, and prevent the sheets from jambing 
 betv. ■;■. rite. block and the yard; they are also used 
 at t ho outer end ofihe bomkins, to lead in the fore 
 tackle. 
 
 Hack blocks, are a range of small single block*, 
 made from one solid, by the same proportions as 
 single block-, which ends in form of a dove’s tail for 
 the lashing, by winch they are fastened athwart the 
 bowsprit, to lead- m the running ropes; they are 
 seldom used. 
 
 Long tackle blocks , are two single sheaves placed 
 one above the other in the same shell. The lower 
 sheave is only two-t birds the size of the other; it is 
 used in combination w ifh a common single block, to 
 form the long tackle, for loading, or any other pur- 
 chase. In the navy and East India service they are . 
 used as yard tackles. The rope is reeved through it 
 in the same manner as it would be through a com- 
 mon double block ; but it is preferred where it is con- 
 venient, because the strap being in the center of the 
 resistance, it hangs more steadily than when the 
 sheaves are on one pin. 
 
 Monkey blocks, are sometimes used on the lower 
 yards of small merchant ships, to lead (into the mast, 
 or clown upon the dock) the running rigging belong- 
 ing to the sails. The shells are made of ash or elm. 
 Some are only small single blocks attached bv a 
 strap and iron swivel to iron straps, which embrace 
 and nail to the yard the block turning to lead the 
 small ropes in any direction; ethers are nearly eight 
 square, with a roller working in the middle, and a 
 wooden saddle beneath to fit and nail to the yard. 
 
 • Shoe blocks, are two single blocks, cut in a solid 
 piece, transversely to each other ; they serve for legs 
 and falls of the bunt-lmes, but are seldom used. 
 
 I) blocks are lumps of oak in the form of the let- 
 ter D, from 12 to 16 inches long, and 8 or 10 ieet 
 wide; they are boiled to the ship’s side in the chan- 
 nels to receive the lifts. 
 
 Main sheet block is used for the sheet tackle of the 
 mam-sail- booms of small vessels. The pin projects 
 from each side of the block, being in all the same 
 length as the block : the fall or rope of the tackle is 
 belayed or twisted round this pin, to stop it. This 
 block is either single or double, and has a hole 
 through the end to receive its strap. 
 
 Snatch block, is a single sheave, with a notch cut 
 through one of its cheeks, to admit the rope or fall 
 to be lifted in and out of the block, without putting 
 its end through first. It is a convenient block for 
 heaving any rope in the navy. The snatch blocks 
 are iron bound, terminating at the notched end of 
 the block, with a swivel hook or an eye-bolt, large 
 enough to receive several turns of lashing, which 
 fastens the block to its fixed support. That part of 
 the strap over the notch in the side lifts up with a 
 hinge, and is confined down, when the rope is in the 
 block, by a small pin put across through the end of 
 
CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 n 
 
 tSie pin ofthe sheave, which projects up the block, 
 sufficiently to pass through an eye made in the hinge 
 part of the strap. The strap on the other part of 
 the block is let into the block, and confined by the 
 
 ! >in and some nails. These blocks are used for 
 leavv purchases, where a warp or hawser is brought 
 to the capstan. 
 
 Clue-garnet blocks. — These are single sheaves sus- 
 pended from the yards, by a strap w ith two eyes : a 
 lashing surrounds the yard and passes through the 
 eyes, so as to suspend the block beneath the yard ; 
 these blocks receive the clue-garnets or ropes which 
 haul up the clues of the sail; this is applied to the 
 main and fore-yard. 
 
 Deep scalim block , is a small wooden snatch-block, 
 from about nine to ten inches long. 
 
 The blocks lashed to a ships principal yards, are 
 as follow. 
 
 To the lozcer i/ctrds. — The jeer-block ; buntline- 
 blocks; leech-line-blocks ; lift-blocks, and topsail- 
 sheet blocks, strapped together ; quarter and slab- 
 line-blocks, strapped together ; clue-garnet blocks ; 
 tricing-blocks ; preventer brace blocks ; pendant 
 blocks; studding-sail halyards blocks. 
 
 To ike topsail -yards. — Buntline and tye-blocks 
 strapped together; top-gallant-sheet block, and lift 
 block strapped together; jewel block and brace 
 pendant blocks ; clue-line blocks, and block to lead 
 down the top-gallant sheets. 
 
 To the top-gallant yards. — Jewel, clue-line, and j 
 brace pendant blocks. 
 
 To the when yard. — Jeer-block; derrick-block: j 
 signal halyard block ; throat brail, middle brail, : 
 and cook brail-blocks. 
 
 To the cross jack-yard. — Quarter-blocks ; jeer j 
 blocks : and lift and topsail-sheet blocks strapped ! 
 together. 
 
 Vo the bozesprit. — The bee block, bolted to the 
 bowsprit at the outer end under the bees; forebow- 
 line-blofcks, lashed on each side the fore-stay collar; ! 
 fore-topsail-boW line-block lashed to an eye bolt in ; 
 the bowsprit cap. 
 
 Fish-block, is hung in a notch at the end of the da- | 
 vit, and serves to haul up the flukes of the anchor to j 
 the ships bow’. 
 
 Girl-fine blocks , in rigging the fore mast and main 
 and mizen masts, are lashed round the mast head, 
 above the top of the cap; one to hang on each side. 
 The girt lines that reeve through them, lead down 
 upon deck for hoisting the rigging, tops, and cross- 
 tree, and the persons employed to place the riggiug 
 over the mast head. 
 
 ( al-bloek. is employed to draw the anchor up at 
 the cat-head. 
 
 Bunt-line blocks, are lashed in rigging the lower- 
 yards, like the leech-line blocks in the middle be- 
 tween them and the slings of the yard. These, in 
 rigging the topsail yards, are spliced round the strap 
 «i the topsail tye-block upon the yard. 
 
 Deirick-block, in rigging the mizen yard, is strap- 
 ped with eyes, that go round the yard, and lash un- 
 derneath, between the slings and the outer yard-ana 
 or peek; the other block is ^ross seized into the 
 strap, has an eve spliced in each end, and lies upon 
 the mizen cap, and seizes or hangs through the eye* 
 under the cap, or upon the upper side of it. 
 
 Leech-line-blocks, in rigging the lower yards, arc, 
 lashed round the yard, and through the eye of the 
 strap, ten feet within the cleats on each yard-arm; 
 the blocks hang on the fore part of the yard. 
 
 Lift-blocks , in rigging the lower yards, are spliced 
 unto the top of the topsail sheet blocks; the lift* 
 reeve through the block ntthe span round the mast - 
 head, between that and the top-mast, then lead down 
 abreast the shrouds, and reeve through a block fas- 
 tened to the side, and are there belayed. In rigging 
 the-topsail yards, the lift blocks are strapped w ith 
 an eye to the side of the yard arm. The lift reeves 
 through the lower sheave in the sister-block in the 
 topmast-shrouds, and through the block on the yard - 
 arm. The standing part hooks to a becket round 
 the topmast-cap, and the leading part leads dowu 
 the side of the mast, and belays to the dead eyes in 
 the low er shrouds. 
 
 Made blocks, have the shell firmed of several 
 pieces of elm plank, suited to the thickness of the 
 cheeks, sheave holes, and middle part*, and are 
 strongly bolted together with three bolts at each end, 
 driven through and clenched on a ring at the points. 
 These blocks have flatter cheeks and more square ed- 
 ges, than other treble and four-fold blocks. Of this 
 sort are large treble and four-fold blocks, for heaving 
 down sliips, or other heavy purchases. Smaller 
 made blocks of modern invention, are formed of two 
 pieces, joining in the middle; the pin working as 
 patent rollers, let into the inside ofthe cheeks, which 
 are bolted or ri vetted together at the ends. These 
 blocks are thought too complex for the Royal Navy/ 
 and are not so easily remedied in case of failure. 
 
 Slab-fine blocks, in rigging the lower yards, are 
 strapt with a short lashing eye, that seizes to the 
 span ofthe quarter-blocks underneath the yard. 
 
 Top -ga llant-s heel blocks , in riggiug top-sail yards, 
 are strapt with two lashing eyes, and lashed upon the 
 yard, close within the clue-line blocks on e^ch side. 
 
 Top-sail-sheet blocks, in rigging the low er yards, 
 are put over the yard-arms, strapped with an eye of 
 the size ofthe yard-arm. 
 
 Tricing-blocks, for the yard-tackles, are strapped 
 with a short lashing eye, that seizes round the yard 
 about one third ofthe length within the arm cleats; 
 the blocks hanging under the yard. 
 
 Tye-blocks, in rigging the top-sail-yards, lashed at 
 the top-mast-head close up to the rigging, under tlu; 
 collar of the stay, as the lower ones ; and the blocks 
 on the yards lash under the fore-part of the yard, as 
 the lower ones, and reeve with a double tye, in large 
 ships, and with a single tye, like the lower, in small 
 L 1 
 
7*4 g?- ON -BINS TNG. 
 
 ones. The staTiUlng part* ©ft!ie dfvubte tyes clinch [' 
 round the mast-head, then reeve through the double 
 block upon the yard, and up again, and reeve through 
 the block on each side of the mast-head. The blocks 
 are then spliced in their loner ends, and connected 
 by their haliartls to a single block, that is 'strapt 
 with a long strap, with a hook and thimble, that 
 books to a swivel eye-bolt in the channel on each ; 
 side ; the leading part comes in through a block 
 lashed on each side ; the foremost ones abaft the 
 forecastle, and the after ones on the quarter deck. 
 
 Warping block is made of elm or ash board,; 
 shaped like the body of a bellows : the sides or 
 «heeks are 8T inches broad, in the middle, ami 
 tapered to two inches broad at the ends ; the, back 
 or longest check, is sixteen inches long, and 7- 
 pighths of an inch thick, with a hole bored through 
 the upper end to receive a leathern strap ; the upper 
 cheek is 12 inches long, and 7-cighths of an inch 
 thick, except the lower end, which is 1. 7-eighths 
 
 1 
 
 inch thick, apd fartfl? fhe s? 5 e?.ve-Iio?e. The sheave 
 is 1, 1- 'fourth inch thick, and 7, I -ha if incises in 
 diameter, mad* of lignumvitae, coaked w it!» brass ; 
 it is let into the checks one eighth of an inch, to 
 prevent the yarn from getting between the sheave 
 a: d the cheeks. The cheeks are fastened together 
 at the lower end with three screws qnd nuts; and 
 the pm, which is iron, is seynn inches long, driven 
 through the middle of the block, with a shoulder cn 
 the upper side, and clinched at the point on the 
 lower side of the shell : the upper part of the pin is 
 tapered small, am! a wooden handle ri vetted upon 
 it. The cheeks have a broad chamfer round the 
 outer edges; the inside edges, and inside of the 
 block above the sheave, are lined with thin iron 
 neatly screwed on, to prevent the block from wear- 
 ing. This block is finished in a neater manner than 
 blocks in general, and is seldom used but by rope- 
 makers, to warp olf the yarn into hauls, for tarring. 
 
 BOOK-BINDING. 
 
 The art of Bookbinding, there can be little doubt, 
 must be as ancient as that of writing books; for, 
 whatever might be the substance on which the work , 
 was written, some mode or other of uniting the parts 
 became necessary. The earliest method that we are 
 acquainted with, is that of rolling the different parts 
 ©r sheets round cylinders. Phillatius, a learned 
 Athenian, was either the inventor or improver of 
 this mode of binding, his countrymen having erected ,, 
 a statue to his memory on that account. This method 
 consisted of first glueing together the leaves, and 
 then attaching them to cylinders, round which 
 thev were rolled, this is called Egyptian binding. 
 
 The present manner of binding books is, however, 
 of great antiquity; some authors state it to be the 
 invention of one of the Attali, kings of Pergamus, to 
 whom w e are also indebted for the mode of prepar- 
 ing parchment. 
 
 Modern, or square binding, is of two kinds : the 
 one particularly adapted to printed books, where 
 leather forms the general covering, and the other 
 more immediately applied to account books, where 
 parchment or vellum is made use of as the outside 
 covering. We shall begin with the former, and for 
 the purpose of rendering the subject as clear and in- ! 
 telligible as the nature of it w ill allow, we shall ar- j 
 
 I range it under different heads, beginning with a de- 
 scription of the tools. 
 
 1st, The Slarufitig Press, which is a large press, with 
 it s screw perpendicular, and . similar to those used by 
 1 paper-makers; this is strongly fastened to the room 
 in any convenient situation, its use being to press 
 tlse books flat, in various stages of their progress. 
 
 2d, The Cutting Press. This is very different from 
 i the former, and consists of two cheeks, or beams, of 
 [ about three feet in length, laying horizontally on a 
 I tub or frame; in the off cheek is cut two inside 
 screws, and in the near cheek, exactly opposite, is 
 | bored two cylindrical holes, near the ends, through 
 i which two w ooden screws pass, and enter the nuts or 
 ; inside screws in the off cheek. These screws are 
 ' about eighteen inches long, having large heads, 
 i through which are bored at right angles to each 
 other, two holes, for the purpose of introducing the 
 j press pin, by which the books are pinched between 
 | the cheeks. Whatever, therefore, is to be put into 
 j this press, must not exceed in length the distance bf- 
 i tween the two screws. On the upper side of the off 
 i cheek, and running lengthw ise, are nailed two slips, 
 about an inch and Half asunder, forming a groove cr 
 channel, in which the cutting plough is to run. 
 
 3rd. The Plough. This, like the former, con- 
 L • _ sists 
 
ROOK-BINDIN& 
 
 gists of two checks, made light and small, which arc ' 
 drawn together Dv a single screw. To one of its 
 cheek- is affixed a knife, which lies flat upon the up- j 
 per face of the cutting pre.-«. The inode of using it ! 
 is this : having placed the book intended to be cut j 
 in the cutting press, with as much of its leaves as j 
 you intend cutting away, rising above it, place the j 
 plough in the groove, and open its cheek so much as 
 to let the point of the knife pass without cutting any 
 part of the book. Grasp with the right hand the 
 head, and with the left hand the other end of the 
 screw, and proceed to draw it towards, and push it 
 from you, shuffling the screw a little each time it 
 passes the book ; and in this manner proceed until 
 the knife has removed that part of the book which is 
 intended to be cut away. 
 
 4th. The '.-'ezcing Press. Tiie bed of the sewing 
 press is commonly a piece of hard wood, about one 
 inch thick, one foot wide, ami about two feet long. 
 
 A groove is cut through it, which extends near its 
 whole length, and about one inch in, from one of its 
 edges; this groove may be about three quarters of 
 an inch wide. Into the bed is fixed two wooden 
 screws furnished with nuts, on that side the board 
 in which the groove is made, and as near the ends as 
 is consistent with strength, and the centre of the 
 screws agreeing with the centre of the groove; a 
 piece of wood is then fitted on the screws, having- 
 two holes in its ends, of sufficient size to admit of 
 its sliding freely up and down on the threads of the 
 screws. The middle of this bar is turned round, 
 leaving the ends fiat, for the purpose of making the 
 holes ; and, as the bar rests upon the nuts, it rises 
 or sinks with them. Its use is to stretch the cords 
 or bands to which the sheets or sections of a hook are 
 sewn. To perform tin's, fasten one end of the cord 
 to the bar, and the other end to a small key, first 
 passing the cord down through the groove : proceed 
 to fasten the number of hands required (which is six 
 for folios, and five for quartos and smaller sizes) in 
 the same manner, and bring the whole to a proper 
 degree of tightness, by means of the two nuts, which 
 force the bar up from the bed of the press. 
 
 oth. The Beating Stone is commonly fourteen or 
 fifteen inches square on the upper surface, which is 
 required to be smooth. The stone should lie hard 
 and sound, and of considerable thickness. It is ge- 
 nerally placed in a barrel nearly filled w ith sand, 
 which kerns it from springing. 
 
 Gth. The Beating Hammer. A short heavy 
 hammer, sometimes twelve or fourteen pounds, re- 
 sembling- in some measure the shoemakers’ hammer, 
 having a smooth and convex or round face, the han- 
 dle being about six indies long-. Its use is to beat 
 the book until it becomes solid, fiat, and smooth ; to 
 perform which, about one hundred pages are laid on 
 the beating stone at a time, and held by the corner, 
 firmly, between the finger and thumb of the left 
 hand, to prevent the sheets shifting, whilst they arc 
 
 beat with the hammer in the right hand, taking care 
 to change the book about, so as to beat the whole 
 equally, and frequently changing the order of the 
 sheets so as to present cadi sheet to the action of the 
 hammer. When books are fresh printed great care 
 must be taken not to beat them too hard, that the 
 print from one page, may not set oft’ on that which i? 
 opposite; and when there are prints, silver paper 
 should be placed before them, to prevent the same 
 thing happening ; indeed, where the engravings arc 
 valuable, they should not be put into the book until 
 it has been beaten. 
 
 7th. Gold Knife, commonly a long spatula, or 
 painter’s knife, which is used for cutting the gold 
 leaf into proper sizes on the gold cushion. 
 
 8th. The Gold Cushion. This is made by lay- 
 ing a quire of blotting, or other soft paper, on a flat 
 board of the same size, and covering it with a piece 
 of rough calf skin. It should be kept carefully from 
 grease, which is best clone by rubbing some warm 
 ashes over it before it is used. 
 
 9th. The Backing Hammer. For this purpose 
 the common shoemaker’s hammer is used, of the 
 largest size. 
 
 iOth. Ivor a or Bone Knife, for folding- or cut- 
 
 ting paper. 
 
 11th. Pressing Boards , are flat boards made of 
 well seasoned beech, the small ones being about 5- 
 eighths of an inch thick, and the large ones one inclj. 
 The sizes depend on the books they are intended 
 to press, and therefore, are known by the same 
 name, as octavo boards, quarto boards, See. 
 
 12tb. Cutting Boards, are slips of feather edged 
 board, thinner one side than the other, the thick 
 side being from one half to one inch, which is re- 
 duced half on the thin side. 
 
 13th. Backing Boards. These are the same as 
 the cutting boards, with this difference, that they 
 are a little bevelled on the thick, or upper edge, in 
 order to make the groove which they are intended 
 to form, sharper. 
 
 TOOLS FOR FINISHING OR HAVING ON THU GOHP. 
 
 14th. J tolls. These are brass wheels of various 
 thicknesses, having different figures and designs en- 
 graved, or rather embossed on their edges. They 
 are mounted on a spill of iron, terminating on two 
 checks, through which a hole is made to receive the 
 pin on which the roll turns; the spiil is driven into 
 a long wooden handle, which, when used, rests 
 against (he shoulder ; they are used for rolling the 
 hands on the backs and sides of books. 
 
 15th. Pallets are pieces of brass of about two 
 inches long, set in a handle, and engraved like the 
 former. They are much less expensive, but do not 
 make the same dispatch, and they are only applica- 
 ble to the backs of books. 
 
 I Gth. Back tcojs, are buttons of brass, of various 
 sizes, set in handles, and cut or embossed with vari- 
 ous devices, such as flowers, stars, &c. 
 
 17th. 
 
BOOK BINDING. 
 
 
 17th. Alphabets of different sizes, all of brass, , 
 for lettering the backs' of books; they are distin- j 
 guishod by octavo, quarto, and folio alphabets, ac- 
 cording to their size. The manner of using the 
 finishing tools will be given when we treat of that 
 part of the art. 
 
 Books are sent from the printer in quire's ; the 
 sheets are then folded into a certain number of 
 leaves, according to the form in which the book is 
 to appear, viz.— two leaves for folio, four for 
 quarto, eight for octavo, twelve for duodecimo, &c. 
 This is done with the .ivory knife or folder, and in 
 the arrangement of the sheets, the workman is di- ! 
 reeled by the catchword and signature at the bottom 
 of the pages. Great care should be taken in the 
 folding of a book, as its beauty will be much injured 
 by anv inattention to this particular; for when cut, 
 the margin will appear unequal, and in books with 
 small margins, there is some danger of cutting the 
 print. When the leaves are thus folded, they are 
 next beaten, as before described, and the blank 
 paper at beginning and end being added, each book 
 is divided into small parcels, between each of which, 
 a pressing board is to be placed, and the whole put 
 into the standing press, where they should remain 
 for some hours. 
 
 When the sewing press is prepared with bands or 
 cords, according to the foregoing directions, the 
 books are taken from the standing press, and placed 
 upon the table or bench, with the title-page up- 
 wards. The band* arc now to be adjusted, which is 
 done by keeping them at an equal distance from 
 each otfier, allowing the distance between that band 
 next the head of the book, to be somewhat greater 
 than the distance between themselves, and the dis- 
 tance of the band, which is next the tail or bottom of 
 the hook, to be greater than either. It should here 
 be observed, that when the bands are meant to pro- 
 ject, as is sometimes the case, they are suite red to 
 lie on the surface of the back, but when the back is 
 intended to be fair and smooth, grooves are cut in 
 the back, by screwing the book in the cutting press, 
 and making' a saw-carf for the bands to lie in ; in 
 either case the mode of proceeding is as follows ; 
 lay the blank leaf section on the bed of the sewing 
 press, with its head from von. and. having put the 
 left hand into the middle of tue section, wit!) which 
 you must keep it against the cords, pass with the 
 right hand the needle through the middle of the 
 section, about one inch from the head, turn it round 
 the first band and go to the second, and so cu to the 
 last, and finally, bring the needle out about one 
 inch and half from the bottom. This fixes the first 
 or blank leaf section. The second, or title sheet 
 is proceeded with in the same wav, only changing 
 the direction of the work, this being from tail to 
 head, and the former from head to tail ; but as the 
 back would be too much swollen with the thread, 
 were each set or sheet sewii throughout (unless in 
 
 | 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 cases where the section or sheets are thick,! it hs 
 necessary to sew on two or three sheets in once pass- 
 ing from head to tail, by taking one stitch in the 
 first sheet laid down, and placing a bit of card in t‘>e 
 middle of the sheet before the left hand is withdrawn, 
 in order to find it again with readiness ; then lay 
 down a second sheet and make the second stitch in 
 th is, just as if the first had been continued, withdraw 
 the hand from this, and place a card as before ; then 
 return to the first sheet and make the third stitch, 
 and again return to the second sheet, and so on al- 
 ternately till you reach the end, which is called the 
 kettle stitch. The last two or three sheets should 
 be sewn all through like the first, as the beginning 
 and end ofabook servingfor the hinge ot the covers, 
 require more strength. If three or more sheets are 
 sewn on, the same method is pursued. A little 
 paste should be rubbed along between the first and 
 second sheet, to attach them more firmly together. 
 ( are should be taken not to draw too hard on the 
 thread at the kettle-stitch, which would make the 
 book thinner there than elsewhere. 
 
 Before the book is glued, stand the book on the 
 table with its back uppermost, supporting it between 
 the two hands and with the thumbs, open and adjust 
 the sets, so as to make it equally thick on all parts ; 
 then knock the back even and flat by turning it down- 
 wards and striking it smartly on the table, while it 
 is held firm betw een the hands. Hold the book in the 
 left hand, with the back upwards, and with a brush 
 glue the back even and well, with glue of a tolerable 
 consistence. This should always be done near the 
 fire in cold weather, as the glue is apt tq be chilled, 
 in which case it will not take sufficent hold on the 
 paper. After the books are glued they must not be 
 dried too hastily as that would render the glue too 
 crisp. When the glue is sufficiently dry, paste the 
 first and second leaves of the end or blank paper to- 
 gether, and w ith a blunt knife, after having untwist- 
 ed the cords or bands, scrape them to a point: then, 
 with the backing hammer, round the back by laying 
 the book on its side with its back from you, hammer- 
 ing gently on the edge of the back, while the hand 
 draws the upper part of the book towards you ; then 
 turn the book and repeat the same on the other side. 
 By this means the back is rounded and prepared for 
 backing, or in other words, for forming a groove or 
 shoulder for the paste-board sides of the bock to lie in ; 
 to accomplish which, having. placed the i .pperor thick 
 edge of* a backing board about one eighth of an inch 
 from the back, with the cords or bands free, turn 
 the book and place another backing board on the 
 other side in the same manner, holding the book 
 firm between the fingers and thumb of the left hand, 
 and taking great care that the boards do not slip, to 
 prevent w hich, wet them a little with the tongue; in 
 this position, with the book suspended between the fin- 
 gers and thumb of the left hand, drop it between the 
 cheeks of the putting press, and screw it up with tlie 
 
BOOK-BINDIN^; 77 
 
 right hand, letting it ri.se a very little above the j 
 Surface of the press ; examine whether the boards j 
 and back keep their position • tlien, with the press 
 pip, screw the book up as tight as possible, ai:d 
 with the backing hammer beat the liack round and 
 even, causing it to spread as much as possible, and 
 thereby forming the grooves for the reception of the 
 boards. 
 
 The paste-boards being roughly cut with shears 
 to something like the size, are cut to a proper width 
 before they are put on the book, with the plough, to 
 ascertain which, take the width of the book by 
 placing one foot of the compasses close against the 
 shoulder of the groove, and extend the other foot to- 
 wards the fore-edge, piercing two or three leaves 
 with it, in order to ascertain how much it is neces- 
 sary to cut away ; then allow as much more in width 
 as you desire the boards should project bey ond the 
 book, mark it on them, and proceed to cut them 
 with the plough. Place a paste-board on each side 
 the book, and with the bodkin, scratch where the 
 bands come, then lay the boards singly on a block 
 and w ith the hammer and bodkin make two holes 
 to each scratch, one about one quarter of an inch 
 from the edge, and the other half an inch farther in. 
 With a little paste betw een the finger and thumb rub 
 the hands to a point, mid pass them in through the 
 first, and out through the second hole, and then 
 draw them as close home as possible, cutting off the 
 ends of the bands to about half an inch in length, rub 
 the ends w ith a little more paste, and lay the hoard 
 flat on the edge of the press' hammering smartly on 
 the bands to close the holes on them and to make 
 them flat and smooth. 
 
 The book being now' in hoards, with a fine point 
 or knife, mark where the boards come on the side 
 near the fore-edge. The next step is to cut the edges ; 
 beginning with the fore-edge, which is concave 
 or hollow. This operation, though difficult to des- 
 cribe, is nevertheless very simple. To perform it, 
 the hack, which is now round, is made flat by intro- 
 ducing 2 pieces of thin iron 4 or 5 inches long near 
 the head and tail of the book, between the paste-hoard 
 and the back; the ends of the iron resting on the in- 
 side of the boards, and the back on the middle, the 
 boards standing out from the book at right angles, 
 forming a figure somewhat resembling the letter 1, 
 the stem of the letter representing the .leaves, and the 
 arms, the boards. In this position the leaves are 
 pressed between the fiat of both hands, and the book 
 struck upon the flat of the cutting press so as to take 
 the round out of the back. Two cutting boards are 
 now applied, one before and the other behind, bring- 
 ing the front one, or runner, up so near to the mark, 
 which w as before described, as to leave the boards a 
 sufficient square or projection bey ond the leaves of 
 the book ; then raise the book, by pressing the 
 boards between the fingers and thumb of the left 
 hand, slipping out the irons as you raise it, but taking 
 
 great care to keep the book from shifting. Then 
 j drop it between the cheeks of the press, which when 
 done and the screws are pressed gently upon it, force 
 it down till the runner, or front board, comes exact- 
 ly even with the surface of the press, the back board 
 rising as much above it as that part of the leaves of 
 the book intended to be cut away, and proceed to 
 cut it as before described. To cut the head and 
 tail, the boards must be drawn as far down from the 
 head, as the bands will admit. Then place the 
 cutting boards as before, having previously marked 
 on the paste boards, with a square, the quantity 
 intended to be cut away ; and cut through boards 
 and all. To cut the tail of the book, draw the boards 
 from the tail tow ards the head, and proceed as be- 
 fore. This is called cutting in boards. To cut out 
 of boards, which is the way in which all school books 
 are done, the fore-edges of as many as can be con- 
 veniently held in the hand, are cut before the backs 
 are rounded, after which they are rounded, backed, 
 and boarded, w hen they are again put into the standi- 
 ing press, and suffered to remain for some hours, 
 and then taken out and the heads and tails cut ajs 
 other books ; but the paste-boards not having been 
 cut to the proper width, previous to their being put 
 j on, are then cut, allowing a proper square, by means 
 of a large pair of shears, like those used by tinmen. 
 
 | AH kinds of account books are sewed on slips of 
 parchment or vellum, and after being' glued, the 
 edges are cut, and coloured, and tlien the boards put 
 to them by pasting, the board to. the first blank leaf, 
 and the ends of the slips of parchment on which the 
 book is sewn. 
 
 To return to the printed book ; the edges must 
 now be coloured, and having cut away a very 
 small bit of the four corners of the paste-boards, next 
 the back, it w ill be ready for head-banding, a name 
 given to the small rope of coloured silk or w'orsted 
 which is put at the head and tail of the back, the 
 mode of doing which is, to roll paper under a board 
 to tlieyequiredsjze having, previously pasted it, and 
 having taken a piece of it of a proper length for 
 the book, (which must be fixed in the end of the 
 press) with a needle and silk of one or two colours as 
 is desired, pierce the back at one corner and bring it 
 round the roll of paper, and having fixed the roll, 
 tw ist the different colours of the silk alternately 
 round the band or roll, crossing the one over the 
 other as you change them, and fastening it occasion- 
 ally as you proceed by repiercing the back with the 
 needle. The back must now receive another coat of 
 glue, and be lined with cartridge or other paper in 
 order to render it smooth and to fix the head-bands. 
 To cover it, you must wet the leather first, and ha- 
 ving pressed the water well out, lay it on a paste- 
 board, avoiding touching it with steel or iron, as 
 that will turn it instantly black; and having cut it to 
 the size required, pare the edges thin on a piece of 
 marble or other smooth stone, with the common 
 X shoe-makers 
 
78 BOOK-BINDING. 
 
 shoe-makers paring knife, cutting from the rough or 
 flesh side of the leather; when thus prepared, paste 
 it evenly over with good paste, and laying the book 
 on its side on it, bring the leather as tight over the 
 sides as you can, turn the edges in, making the cor- 
 ners as neat and flat as possible, by cutting away all 
 the leather which projects beyond the corner of the 
 board, and doubling one over the other by stretching 
 the leather a little, setting and patting {jie leather 
 close as you proceed. After this lay the hook again 
 on its side, and rub the leather smooth, with the edge 
 of the ivory folder or paper knife, drawing the lea- 
 ther up over the head-bands, and setting it in, square 
 and neat on them, and tye twine or thread round 
 the book to nick in the leather by the ends of the 
 head-bands. In drying it, set it with its back to- 
 wards the fire on a clean board at some distance 
 from it, (or, if in summer, in the sun) till the back is 
 nearly dry, which is known by the leather assuming 
 its primitivecolour ; as soon as this is perceived to 
 be the case, with a folder, rub the back up and 
 down, whilst warm, and the glue being softened by 
 the water of the paste and the heat, attaches the 
 leather strongly to the back; whilst the superfluous 
 quantity, if any, is driven out at the head-bands, from 
 which it must be removed with care, that they may 
 not suffer injury from it. 
 
 Great care should be taken if books are dried bv 
 the fire, not to place them too near it, as the glue is 
 very apt to show through the leather, and the books 
 should frequently be examined, lest they should get 
 too dry for setting. It should here be observed, 
 that if the book is to be bound in rough calf, i. e. 
 with the flesh side of the leather outward, it should 
 not be wetted, but pasted on the grain side, and 
 suffered to lie till sufficiently softened. The next 
 stage is to marble, colour, or spot the sides and 
 back, directions for which, and for colouring the 
 edges, will be found at the end of this treatise, w ith 
 the manner of preparing the colours. After the 
 back is marbled or stained, it is ready for the let- 
 tering piece on the back. Take a piece of morocco, 
 and proceed to strip or divide the grain from the 
 •flesh sif(e, as follows ; having cut through the grain 
 or coloured side, in an oblique direction, with a 
 knife, raise it with your nail so as to take hold of it, 
 then by pulling the one from the other, it will render 
 it thin and fit for your purpose. It is to be obser- 
 ved, however, that some parts of a skin of morocco 
 are more difficult to separate than others, particular- 
 ly near the neck : these parts will therefore be best 
 reserved for other purposes, or they may be pared 
 1o a proper thickness. The back of your book being- 
 diviaed, with a pair of compasses, into seven com- 
 partments, allowing a large one for that next the tail, 
 proceed to put on the lettering piece by cutting a 
 piece of the thin morocco ot‘ the proper size, and, 
 paring its edges on the paring stone wit 1 a very 
 gltarp knife, and having pasted it well, apply it to 
 
 the back and rub it well in ta contact, by laying a 
 piece of paper over it, and rubbing it w r ell down 
 with the folding stick. It should have been remar- 
 ked, that after dividing the hack into compartments 
 with the points of the compasses, in order to have a 
 guide in rolling the bands on the back in finishing, 
 a pie.ce of paper, previously doubled many times, 
 is laid across the back where the points of the 
 compasses have marked,, holding it down with the 
 fingers and thumb against the sides ofthe book, and 
 marking by its edge on the back with a folder. The 
 book is now' ready for gilding or, as it is called, Jinish- 
 ing. The back and sides ofthe book are now' to re- 
 ceive three coats ofglaire, which is made by beating 
 the whiles of eggs, with about two drops of sw'eet oil 
 ! to each, until they are quite thin; this is best done by 
 j splitting a small piece of cane or stick, six inches 
 long, and putting through it, at right angles with it, 
 bits of quill: by immersing this in the cup, and roll- 
 ing it round briskly between the palms of the hands, 
 the eggs w ill soon lose their ropiness and be fit for 
 use. Let each coat dry before another is put on. 
 When the last coat ofglaire is dry, rub the back 
 with a greasy or oily rag; and having laid a sheet of 
 gold on the cushion, and divided it into strips suffi- 
 cient to cover the back, lay the back on it gently, 
 and the gold will attach to it; then turn the back up, 
 and press it into contact with a little cotton wool. 
 
 As the handling of gold is a matter of great nicety, 
 and requires a great deal of practice to do it well, 
 we shall describe the proper manner as near as 
 possible, and give such cautions as are necessary. 
 Books of gold contain 20 leaves, and that sort 
 which is used by binders, is called deep gold, ex- 
 cept for gilding the edges of books or paper, when 
 ale gold is often used, being somewhat cheaper, 
 jay the book of gold on the cushion, and open with 
 the left hand the first leaf, about half way, by doub- 
 ling back the first paper leaf, pressing at the same 
 time with the fingers of the left hand to keep the 
 other parts of the book still; then blow gently 
 against the fore-edge of the book of gold, which 
 will cause the first leaf of gold to rise and turn itself 
 back on the lialfleaf of paper, the other part of the 
 leaf of gold being kept firm by the remainder of 
 the leaf of paper; you must now place the gold 
 knife flat on that part of the book from which the gold 
 was blow'n, by blowing in a contrary direction, so 
 as to drive it into its former situation ; the knife now 
 being under it, the paper is to be removed and the 
 gold raised on the knife, and floated gently tnrough. 
 the air by waving the hand, and deposited flit on the 
 cushion. You must avoid touching the gold or the 
 knife with the hand, as the least grease will cause it 
 to stick. After the gold is placed on the cushion, to 
 cut it, you must first place tiic edge ofthe knife firm- 
 ly and steadily on the gold without drawing it 
 either way, then draw the knife once forwards and 
 backwards keeping it in the v.me direction and 
 
 pressing- 
 
BOOK-BINDING. 
 
 79 
 
 pressing: pretty haul on it, this will divide the gold 
 without crumpling it. 
 
 When the book is to be full gilt, or what is termed 
 extra, it is common to gild the back all over in the 
 manner before described, and work the tools on it ; 
 but when it is to be less finished, called calf neat, 
 or half extra, the lettering piece alone is covered 
 with gold, and the bands rolled by laying, or rather 
 taking up on the roll, strips of gold, by rubbing the 
 edge of the roil when hot all over with the oil rag, 
 and pressing it gently on the gold, which is previous- 
 ly cut to the proper width on the gold cushion. The 
 proper degree of heat which the tools ought to be of, 
 is generally known by wetting the finger in the 
 mouth, and applying it to the tooi : if it frizz a little 
 while, it is considered a proper beat, but if the spittle 
 suddenly run off, or disappear, ti e tool is too hot ; 
 it must however he allowed that this is a very vague 
 manner of judging, and a little experience is the only 
 mode by which it is to be ascertained. 
 
 lu lettering books, which is the first thing done 
 towards finishing, screw them in the cutting press 
 with their heads from you, and the tail inclining a 
 little downwards; and having fixed on the words, 
 select the letters and place them to the fire, seven 
 or eight at a time ; you must now consider how far 
 asumler they ought to be kept, so as to fill the lino, 
 take then two or three of the letters from the fire, 
 and having ascertained whether they are of a prop- 
 er heat, rest the elbow of the left hand on the press, 
 leaning the body forward over the book, raising the 
 left hand, so as to steady the right which grasps the 
 letter, then breathe on the gold, and firmly imprint 
 the letter in its proper place. You may mark the 
 line as a guide, to keep the letters straight on the 
 lettering piece, previously to laying on the gold ; 
 but this is only necessary for beginners. All the 
 back tools and pallets are used in the same manner 
 as letters. 
 
 The manner of using the rolls, is too obvious to 
 require any other instruction, than what has already 
 beer, given. 
 
 The gold is now to be cleaned away by rubbing it, 
 with an oil rag, which done, it must be polished with 
 the polishing iron. This tool is a round pipce of 
 iron, 4 or 5 inches long, alittle swelling inthe middle, 
 and polished on one side, out -1 the upper side pro- 
 ceeds a spill, to which is affixed a long wooden 
 handle. w ! ice, when used, rests, against the shoulder; 
 before used, it is heated pretty warm and rubboo j 
 upon an old leather back, on which some fine ashes j 
 are occasionally thrown-, to clean and polish it ; in | 
 this state h is rubbed over the back and sides of tae 
 book, which require to be lightly touched with the 
 oil rag. during the operation. Extra work is some- , 
 times pressed again between horns, which gives it 
 a more exquisite polish. 
 
 M ISCRTjT, A N EOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 All stationary work is sewn with strong waxed I 
 
 thread, and as the vellum or parchment is never at- 
 tached to the back like leather, but lies hollow and 
 loose when the book is open, it cannot of course 
 afford that security to the back, which leather does; 
 it is therefore common to line the back between the 
 slips, with coarse canvas or slips of leather, letting 
 them come as much over the sides, as to paste down 
 with the boards and slips. Tire boards for stationary 
 are not so thick in propoi'tion as for printed work, 
 and, when put on, are placed at least half an inch 
 from the back. On each side the parchment slips 
 which books are sewn upon, you must cut with sciss- 
 ars a very narrow strip, which is not to be pasted 
 down, but left for the purpose of drawing through 
 the parchment when the cover is applied, and serv- 
 ing to attach the cover, before it is pasted to the 
 boards. Parchment or Vellum covers should always 
 be lined before they are put on, and applied before 
 they are quite dry. The edges of stationary work 
 are most commonly sprinkled, and not burnished ; but 
 printed books, whether sprinkled or coloured, are 
 burnished with a dog’s tooth, or agate, set m a long 
 handle, and the leaves of the book being screwed 
 tight between boards in the cutting press, are rub- 
 bed over with them till they have acquired a gloss. 
 
 In warm weather, gild but a few backs at a 
 time befere finishing, otherwise they wall get too dry. 
 
 All extra binding is rolled round the sides of the 
 cover, both within and without, and the head-band 
 is generally a double one ; it is also usual to put a 
 register of coloured ribbon, which must be pasted 
 in before the leather back is put on. It is now 
 very common to give an artificial kind of grain 
 to the backs of russia and calf books ; this is done by 
 pressing them between boards, cut for the purpose. 
 
 Russia leather, being harsh, should be well soaked 
 for half an hour in water, and beat, and rolled, before 
 used. 
 
 Morocco, requires less glaire for finishing than 
 other leather, and is only rubbed well with a piece 
 of rough calf skin. Polishing with the polishing 
 iron, spoils the grain and destroys its colour. 
 
 Rough ^ aJf books are finished with hot tools 
 without gold ; the tools should be heated a little hot- 
 ter for the purpose. Keep your gold free from 
 damp, as it spoils it. 
 
 A charcoal stove, similar to that used by tinmen, 
 is preferable to a coal tire, as the letters and tools 
 suffer less from the former than the latter; another 
 advantage is, that it may be placed near the 
 work. 
 
 In rolling P>e bands on- the back, the book should 
 be held again i a board, winch is screwed firmly 
 in the cutting press, and projecting nearly the 
 height of the book above it. 
 
 All extra books nave marblfe paper at beginning 
 and end, besides blank leaves, which when pasted 
 to the cover, is rubbed into the joint neatly, and 
 suffered to dry whilst the book is. open. 
 
 Befere 
 
Is BOOKBINDING. 
 
 Before gilding 1 fnssia leather, yrasli the cover 
 ©nee with serum of bullocks blood ; this gives it a 
 proper gloss, and prepares it better for receiving 
 the gold. 
 
 Calf should be glaired three times, and sheep 
 twice, before gilding or polishing. 
 
 When quarto plates are to be put into an octavo 
 book, the plate should be neatly doubled in the 
 middle, with its face inwards, and a small slip of 
 paper about an inch wide, affixed to the back, half 
 of which is pasted to the front, and the other half 
 left projecting beyond it, to affix it to the book ; 
 this is called guarding. 
 
 As it sometimes happens, that port- folios for prints 
 are wanted of a larger size than paste-boards are 
 commonly made, the way to obviate this difficulty is 
 to make each cover of two layers of boards, by 
 bringing the joints of one layer, over the middle of 
 the boards which form the other layer, or as it is 
 called by bricklayers and masons, breaking the 
 joints ; by this contrivance, boards may be formed of 
 any size required. You must lay the boards on an 
 even tloor whilst they are drying, placing paste- 
 boards and other heavy substances on them, as they 
 are of course too large for the press. 
 
 A very good kind of paper for covering memoran- 
 dum and copy books, may be made by mixing with 
 paste any cheap colour, and going over any printed 
 or waste paper with it, then with a comb or piece 
 of flat wood broken across the grain, wave it over 
 the colour, and hang it up to dry. In boiling paste, 
 add a little pouudedjalum to the flour and water 
 before you boil it; and always boil it as thick as 
 vou can, as it keeps much better, and can be thinned 
 l>y adding water as you want it. 
 
 Always keep good old glaire for finishing, as it 
 produces better impressions of the tools, and gives 
 the gold a better colour. 
 
 It is a proper thing to keep a second plough, with 
 an old knife in it, for cutting the paste boards, other- 
 wise your knife will never be in order, and will cut 
 the edges rough. 
 
 Mix a little paste with your common colours, 
 for sprinkling and colouring the edges, to bind 
 them. 
 
 Too much attention cannot be given to the qua- 
 lity of the thread for sewing the books ; to be 
 good, it should be strong and not too hard twisted, 
 which common threads generally are. Keep thread 
 and silk always well secured from the air. Some- 
 times raised bands are put on books, which have 
 been sewed for flat or fair backs, this is best done 
 by slips of paste board, or vellum, many times 
 doubled, cut in square slips, and glued to the back ; 
 which gives a very rteat effect, if the sharpness and 
 squareness of the artificial bands is preserved after 
 tiie leather is put on, particularly if the bands are 
 given a different colour from that of the back, and 
 tooled neatly. Sometimes head-bands, instead of 
 
 being round, are square ; the same materials ate 
 made use of for them, as for the hands of backs. In 
 half bound books, parchment corners are preferable 
 to leather ones, as they resist blows better, and ary 
 less troublesome. Before lining your parchment 
 covers for stationary, spunge them with water and 
 lay them one on the other, w ith a weight on them 
 to soften. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MARBLING AND SPRINKLING 
 THE SIDES OF BOOKS. 
 
 Let the book be put between two wands or slips 
 of wood, with their ends resting on boxes or any 
 other thing that w ill keep the books at a sufficient 
 or convenient height from the floor, inclining the 
 book in any way that you would have the marble- 
 run, which will ever follow the direction that the 
 book is inclined to ; but should it be w ished that 
 the marble he of the tree kind, having a centre or 
 stern, it is easily done by bending each side of the 
 book in the middle, forming a kind of shoot or 
 gutter, so that the water or colour being thrown on, 
 runs first from the sides to the centre, and then 
 through this gutter to the tail of the book, forming 
 a marble somewhat resembling a tree. Let a suffi- 
 cient quantity of each colour be taken out of the 
 bottles, in open cups, w ith a common painters dust- 
 ing brush for each, of a size proportioned to the quan- 
 tity of colour required ; provide also a large pan of 
 clear water, with a large piece of sponge in it for 
 washing away the colours when they have remained 
 a sufficient time on the cover. Every thing being 
 thus prepared, throw on water with a bunch of 
 quills tied together by the feather ends into a kind of 
 brush, in large splashes, by dipping the quills in 
 the water and knocking them gently against the iron 
 press pin, which is held in the left hand, then take a 
 small quantity of any of the colours as hereafter di- 
 rected, on your brush, and having knocked out the 
 superfluous colour by striking it lightly against the 
 press pin, holding it over the cup, from which you 
 took it, then hold the press pin over the book, and 
 strike the brush, so as to let the colour fall in a kind 
 of rain on the cover of the book; and so proceed with 
 all the colours, following the one upon the other as 
 quick as possible, that the whole may run together ; 
 then with the sponge and water wipe them lightly 
 over, and stand them on their ends to dry. 
 
 If the book is to be spotted or sprinkled, it should 
 be kept flat, not inclining either way ; but should you 
 w ish to have it splashed or mottled, a small degree 
 of inclination may be given to the book, to induce the 
 colours to run together, which sometimes has the 
 happiest effect. 
 
 To sprinkle the sides or edges of books the pro- 
 cess is the same, having a stiff hair brush cut off 
 square at the ends : you dip it in the colour, and 
 holding it in the left hand, rub over the ends of the 
 brush the folder or ivory knife, this causes the colour 
 to kill on in fine or coarse spots according as the 
 
BOOK- BINDING. 
 
 8 ] 
 
 brush is more or less charged with colour. 
 
 Let vour brushes and sponges be always used for 
 the same colour, ar.d never add spirit to colours 
 till they are about to be used. Always wash out the 
 brushes and sponges in pure water alter using, other- 
 wise they will be soon destroyed. 
 
 RECE1TTS FOR MARBLING AND STAINING THE 
 BACKS AND SIDES OF BOOKS. 
 
 Blaclc. Boil half a pound of copperas, in two 
 quarts of soft water ; when a good black and settled, 
 put it into a clean bottle for use. 
 
 Brown. Haifa pound of the best potash, dissol- 
 ved in one quart of rain water, and when clear bot- 
 tle it for use. 
 
 Vitriol neater. One ounce of the best oil of vitriol, 
 mixed with three ounces of water : boil it for use. 
 
 Vinegar blade. Steep iron filings in vinegar or 
 table beer, for twenty-four hours; then give them a 
 quick boil on the fire, and when settled, strain and 
 bottle the liquid for use. 
 
 Dark sprinkle. Wash the cover of the book with 
 a sponge and very weak potash w ater, and immedi- 
 ately place it between wands or sticks, letting the 
 leaves of the book drop between them, whilst the 
 covers remain extended flat, and sprinkle them very 
 fine and dark with the copperas. 
 
 Another beautiful sprinkle may be done by giving 
 in addition to the dark sprinkle, a sprinkle of brow r 
 atid vitriol water. 
 
 Common marble. Wash the cover with weak 
 potash water, and give it a coat of glaire made with 
 whites of eggs ; w hen the cover is dry, put the book 
 between the wands, throw on water, w ith a bunch of 
 qnills, in all directions, and immediately sprinkle 
 with the copperas water and brown ; let the marble 
 remain a few minutes, and then wash it with a clean 
 sponge and water. 
 
 Another marble. Wash the cover with strong 
 potash water, glaire it, throw on water, use the 
 vinegar black, and lastly throw on a fine sprinkle of 
 vitriol water, which will be a great addition to the 
 marble. 
 
 A marble in the form of trees may be made by 
 bending the boards in the centre, after their being 
 glaired and washed as before directed. 
 
 Red spots. Aqua regia. Mix, in a quart bottle, 
 tw F o ounces of the best double aqua fort is ; one table 
 spoonful of spirits of salts ; half an ounce of grain 
 tin, and four ounces of rain water. The whole must 
 remain twenty-four hours before using. 
 
 Black the cover of the book w ith copperas w ater,, 
 and when dry give it a coat of brazil red. Mix a lit- 
 tle aqua regia and dry brazil together, and w hen set- 
 tled, spot the cover, w hen between the wands, with 
 the red liquid. When the spots are perfectly dry, 
 wash the cover with a sponge and water. 
 
 Yellow spots. Black the cover of the book, a nd 
 when dry, put it between the w ands. Mix aqua 
 regia and turmeric together, and when settled throw 
 on large, cr small yellow' spots. 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Red and Yellow spots. Black the Cover, throw on 
 the yellow spots, and when dry, throw on small 
 spots of liquid red. Wash the cover with a clem 
 sponge and water. Mix no more colours with the 
 spirit than what are wanted for immediate use, as i< 
 destroys the colour. 
 
 Transparent marble. Marble the boards of the 
 book with a tree down each centre, place it between 
 the wands, and put on each board an oval, made of 
 a thin piece < f press paper, with a piece of lead on 
 each. Black the cover on the outer parts of the oval, 
 and when dry, go over the same with strong brazil 
 water. Throw on red spots, let them dry, then re- 
 move the ovals : wash the cover, where the red spots 
 are, with a clean, sponge and water. Colour the 
 inside of the oval with the following liquid, which 
 will have a beautiful effect. Mix an ounce of spirits 
 of wine and a table-spoonful of powdered turmeric 
 together, in a bottle ; shake the liquid well, and let 
 it settle before using. 
 
 Give the ovals two fine coats of the liquid, w ith a 
 camel’s hair brush, and when done, cork up the bot- 
 tle to prevent evaporation. 
 
 Egyptian marble. Before covering the book, 
 colour the leather with Scott's liquid blue, and im- 
 merse in water, to extract the spirit. When the 
 cover has been half an hour in the water, take it out 
 and lay it between pieces of brow n paper till almost 
 drv. Cover the book, place it at a little distance 
 from the fire till perfectly dry, and glaire it. Put 
 the book between wands, throw thereon potash water 
 w ith a bunch of quills, and, lastly, a fine sprinkle of 
 the vinegar black. The book must remain till near- 
 ly dry, and be washed with a sponge and water. 
 
 Purple marble. After the book is covered and 
 dry, colour the cover with strong hot purple liquid, 
 two or three times. Glaire the cover when dry, 
 and put the book between wands; throw on water 
 with quills, and sprinkle it with strong vitriol water, 
 which will produce bright red veins. After the 
 colours are dry, wash them with a sponge and water. 
 
 Stone marble. Glaire the cover, and when dry, 
 put the book into the cutting press with the boards 
 sloping, to cause the colours to run gently down. 
 Throw on copperas water freely, with a brush, dip a 
 sponge into the strong potash water, and press it out 
 on different parts of the back, so that the colour may 
 run down each side ; where the brown has left a 
 vacancy, apply vitriol water in the same manned. 
 Let the book remain till the colours are perfectly 
 drv , then wash the cover. 
 
 Rice marble. Colour the cover with spirits of 
 wine and turmeric, put the book between wands, 
 and throw on rice very regular. Throw on a fine 
 sprinkle of copperas water, till the cover is nearly 
 black, and let it dry. The cover may be sjiotted 
 with red liquid or potash water, before the rice 19, 
 throw n off. 
 
 Chinese marble. Colour the cover of the book 
 w ith a dark brown, and put it between wands ; mix 
 Y whiting 
 
BOOK-BINDING. 
 
 whiting and water of nt hick consistency, and throw 
 it on in spots or streaks, which must remain till dry. 
 Spot or sprinkle the cover with liquid blue, and 
 lastly, throw ou large spots of the liquid red. The 
 colours must be dry before washing oft' the whiting-. 
 
 Another marble. Black the cover with copperas 
 water, let it dry, and give it two coats of strong- brazil 
 water. Throw on whiting as above-mentioned, 
 and give the cover a bold sprinkle with the red 
 liquid. 
 
 Red marble. Before covering the book, it will be 
 necessary to spunge the cover well with lime water, 
 and dry it in brown paper. 
 
 Boil, on a slow fire, one ounce of brazil dust ; a 
 tea-spoonful of powdered cochineal; a little alum, 
 and half a-pint of the best vinegar, till the whole 
 produce a bright red. 
 
 Colour the cover two or three times over, while 
 the liquid is hot, and then immerse it in alum and 
 water, previously dissolved. Cover the book in the 
 usual manner, and let it be perfectly dry. Giaire the 
 cover, and put the book between wands; throw’ on 
 potash water with quills, and sprinkle w ith vinegar 
 black. 
 
 A few drops of aqua regia may be put into the | 
 liquid before colouring the cover, which will give it | 
 a brighter and more permanent red. 
 
 Wainscot marble. Colour the cover with strong 
 brown, giaire it, and place the book in the cutting 
 press or wands, having the boards flat and even. 
 Throw on water till every part of the boards is cover- 
 ed. Take a sujficient quantity of copperas water in 
 the brush, and dash it on the boards freely ; do the 
 same with potash water, and lastly a boid sprinkle 
 of vitriol water. This marble will have a fine 
 effect, when great attention and care is paid thereto. 
 
 Japan colouring. After the book is covered and 
 dry, colour the cover with potash water, give it two 
 good coats of brazil wash, and giaire it. Put the 
 book between wands, allowing the boards to slope a 
 little. Dash on copperas water, then with a sponge 
 full of liquid red, press out on the back, and on dif- 
 ferent parts, large drops, which w’ill run down each 
 board, and make a fine shaded red. When the cover 
 is dry, wash it over two or three times with brazil 
 wash, to give it a brighter colour. 
 
 Green shade. In addition to the stone marble be- 
 fore mentioned, use Scott’s liquid blue in the same 
 manner as the other colours, before finishing the 
 marble with vitriol water. 
 
 In every recipe for marbling, be careful to let the 
 colours have time to dry, as they then will have their 
 full effect, and shew their brightness to great advan- 
 tage. 
 
 When the backs are intended to be of one colour, 
 which is very fashionable, and shews the gold to the 
 greatest advantage, a piece of thin pasteboard must 
 be put thereon, previous to marbling, colouring, &c. 
 which will prevent the backs receiving any cowur. 
 
 The following will be found to answer that pur- 
 pose. 
 
 Green. Colour the back twice with Scott's liquid 
 blue, when dry, wash it two or three times with 
 sponge and water. 
 
 Purple. Rub the strong purple wash well on the 
 back, near the fire, three or four times, and wash it, 
 when dry, with clear water. 
 
 Blue. Colour the back with copperas water, and 
 give it two coats of liquid blue. 
 
 Brown. Colour the backs with strong potash 
 water. 
 
 Bead colour. Colour the back with very weak 
 copperas water, or give it a coat of copperas and 
 po'ash water mixed. 
 
 The backs being so coloured, there will be no oc- 
 casion for coloured lettering pieces, or pieces for the 
 number of volumes. All these are laid on with a 
 sponge. 
 
 RECEIPTS FOR COLOURING EDGES OF BOOKS, &C. 
 
 Blue. Two ounces of fine powdered indigo, dis- 
 solved in two onnees of double oil of vitriol, and a 
 tea-spoonfull of spirits of salts. 
 
 This liquid must be kept iu an open earthen vessel, 
 and remain for a week before it is used ; when a lit- 
 tle is reduced with water, it will make a beautiful 
 sprinkle for the edges. 
 
 Green. Two ounces of French berries, and a 
 little alum, boiled in a pint of rain water for an halt 
 an hour. Strain the liquid through a fine piece of 
 flannel, and add a little of the liquid blue. 
 
 The green must be kept in a glass bottle, well 
 corked up, and used for sprinkling, or colouring the 
 edges with a sponge. 
 
 Purple. Half a pound of logwood chips ; two 
 ounces of powdered alum ; and a small piece of cop- 
 peras ; boil them in three pints of soft w ater, till re- 
 duced to two, and strain the liquid. This purple 
 will be found a cheap colour for sprinkling common 
 work. 
 
 A fine purple for immediate use, may be obtained 
 from strong potash water and brazil dust. Should 
 any of the colour remain unused, it will, iu a few 
 hours, change to a brown. 
 
 Orange, f wo ounces of brazil dust ; one ounce of 
 French berries bruised; and a little alum ; boil them 
 to a pint of soft water, and strain and bottle the co- 
 lour for use. This colour may be spotted on the 
 edges, to fancy, with other colours. 
 
 Brown. Boil in rain Water equal quantities of. 
 logwood and French berries; and to give the colour 
 a darker shade, add a little copperas ; when it is 
 eool, strain and bottle it for use. 
 
 Red. Half a pound of brazil dust, and two 
 ounces of powdered alum ; boil them well in a pint 
 of vinegar, and a pint of water, till reduced to a 
 pint; strain it through a fine cotton cloth. This 
 liquid red will ba of great use for sprinkling and 
 spotting the edges, together with brown and purple. 
 
 Gold 
 
BOOK-BINDING 
 
 S3 
 
 Gold sprinkle. Put into a marble mortar, half an 
 ounce of pure honey, and one book of gold leaf; rub 
 them well together until they are very fine : add 
 half a pint of clear water, and mix them well to- 
 gether; when the water clears, pour it ofl'a.nd put 
 in more, till the honey is all extracted, and nothing- 
 remains but the gold. 
 
 Mix one grain of corrosive sublimate, with a tea- , 
 spooufull of spirits of wine, and when dissolved, put 1 
 the same, together with a little thick gum water, to | 
 the gold, and bottle the liquid for use. 
 
 Theedffes of the book may be coloured or sprink- ! ; 
 led, with blue, green, or purple ; and lastly, with j j 
 gold liquid, in small or large spots, shaking the bottle 1 1 
 before using. Burnish the edge when dry, and j I 
 cover it with paper. This gold sprinkle, will be j 
 useful for extra binding. Ladies may also use it for j | 
 ornamenting their fancy works, putting it on with a j j 
 pen or camel hair pencil, and burnishing it with a | 
 dog’s tooth. 
 
 Rice marble. When the fore edge of a book is j 
 cut, let it remain in the press, and throw on rice in a 
 regular manner, sprinkle the edge witli any dark j 
 colour, till the white paper is covered, then shake off 
 the rice. Various colours may be used, the fore j 
 edge may be coloured with yellow or red, before j 
 using the rice. By laying anv other substance in- j 
 stead of the rice, so as to obstruct the sprinkled I 
 colour, various effects may be produced. 
 
 Fancy colouring. Let the book remain in the 
 press when cut on the fore edge ; mix whiting and 
 w ater to a thick consistency, and with a small brush, 
 throw it on the edge, in spots or streaks ; w hen the 
 whiting is almost dry, spot the edge with blue, 
 green, purple, and brazil red. When quite dry, 
 shake off the whiting, and brush the edge w ith a 
 soft brush. A sprinkle of dark blue thrown on im- 
 mediately after the whiting, will produce a beautiful 
 shaded edge. 
 
 Water marble. Provide a wooden trough, two 
 inches deep, and six inches wide. Pour hot water 
 in it till nearly full, and put therein three ounces of 
 gum dragon, which must be dissolved before mar- 
 bling. Grind the following colours on a marble 
 slab, with old ox gal!, very smooth and fine, and 
 procure a small brush and cup for each. 
 
 Prussian blue. 
 
 King’s yellow. ' 
 
 Rose pink, or lake, j 
 
 Flake white. 
 
 Lamp black. 
 
 Green. — Blue and yellow. 
 
 Orange. — lied and yellow. \ 
 
 Purple. — Blue and red. 
 
 Erozon. — Black and yellow. 
 
 To prevent the water entering the leaves of 
 the book, tie it tight between cutting boards <>< an 
 equal size. Plac^ * e trough in . steady situation i 
 aul throw on the colours with their respective i 
 
 brushes, beginning with the blue, or any dark colour, 
 and so on till the surface of the water, is covered, 
 The colours may remain in this situation, or be 
 waved with a small iron pin. Hold the book with 
 the edge downwards, and press it even and lightly 
 with the colours, and it will immediately be marbled* 
 Two or three colours only may be used, or as many 
 as the marbler may think proper. 
 
 Should any of the colours not swim well, which is 
 seldom the case, a few drops, of spirits of wine may 
 be added. 
 
 Soap marble. The following is a recent discove- 
 ry, by very simple means, and may be used for mar- 
 bling stationary book-edges, or sheets of paper for 
 ladies fancy work. 
 
 Grind, on a marble slab, prussian blue, with a 
 little brown soap, and water, to a fine pliable con- 
 sistency, that it may be thrown on with a small 
 brush.— Also king’s yellow in the same manner, with 
 white soap. 
 
 When green is intended for the ground colour, 
 grind it with brown soap, and have king’s yellow 
 with white soap. Lake may be used for a ground 
 colour, and prussian blue ground with white soap. — 
 Brown umber for ground colour, and flake white 
 ground with white soap. Any colour of alight sub- 
 stance may be used for marbling. 
 
 Marbling. Pour hard clear water into any vessel, 
 large enough for marbling ; throw on large spots of 
 prussian blue, till the surface of the water is nearly 
 covered; then throw on king’s yellow, in small spots,, 
 which will immediately run into streaks or veins in 
 all directions. 
 
 When marbling book edges, tie the fore edge &c, 
 between boards before rounding the back, and press 
 it lightly on the surface of the colours , which wild 
 make a beautiful marble, and burnish well if requi- 
 red. 
 
 In like manner, all colours as above mentioned, 
 will have the same effect, provided the ground colour, 
 (that is), the colour thrown in first, be ground with 
 brown soap, and that for the veins with white soap. 
 
 Sheets of good strong paper may be marbled for 
 ornamenting fire screens, &c. or a thinner kind for 
 half bound books, without any preparation whatever* 
 except a vessel large enough to receive the sheets, 
 and putting them on in a careful manner, that the 
 whole may receive the colours. 
 
 Gilding vellum . — Glaire the cover once, let it be 
 perfectly dry, and rub it over with the oil rag, 
 where the gilding is intended to be. Make flie roil 
 hot, and work it firm and strong, to make a good 
 impression. 
 
 Gilding paper and book edges . — With the white of 
 an egg-j mix twice that quantity of water; a table- 
 spoonful of bullocks blood, taken from the top, w • on 
 it lias settled some time; beat them well together 
 for an hour, let the whole stand three days befi re 
 using. The paper must be well pressed, and w on 
 
 cut. 
 
BOOK- BINDING. 
 
 ZV 
 
 cut, made very smooth with a piece of glass, or an 
 iron scraper. Put the gilding boards even, on each 
 side of the paper, and screw it tight in the cutting 
 press. With yellow ochre, and gold size mixed 
 together, colour the smooth edge, rub it till it is 
 quite dry, with paper shavings, and burnish the 
 same with the dog’s tooth. Cut the gold leaf, and 
 with a thin piece of paper, previously rubbed on 
 your forehead, to induce the gold to adhere, press 
 it on the gold gently, which will attach itself to the 
 paper, and proceed until there is sufficient to cover 
 the edge. With a camel’s hair brush float the edge 
 with a gilding size, hold the paper on which the 
 gold is, with the lingers of each hand, and lay it 
 gently on the size. When the whole is covered, 
 let the superfluous size run from under the gold, by 
 inclining the press ; stand it a ‘little distance from 
 the fire, till dry ; to ascertain w hich, breathe on the 
 gold, and if it immediately becomes bright, you may 
 conclude it is ready for burnishing. 
 
 Red Inks — Half a pound of brazil dust, half an 
 ounce of powdered cochineal, a piece of lump sugar 
 and four quarts of vinegar. Let them steep for 
 twelve hours, and boil them on a slow' fire till you 
 have a good red. When the ink is settled, strain it 
 through a piece of fine cotton, and bottle it for use. 
 
 Slate paper . — Boil glue and water to a good con- 
 sistency, and when on the fire, add lamp-black, and 
 fine powdered emery. Give the paper two coats of 
 the liquid with a fine brush. 
 
 Splash paper . — Before colouring the paper, it will 
 be necessary, in the first place, to prepare the pro- 
 per colours, and have them bottled for use. They 
 must also, after being boiled, be steeped for twelve 
 hours, in their respective quantities of water and 
 Vinegar, as follows :■ — 
 
 Purple. — Half a pound of logwood chips, with 
 
 vinegar and water, each half a pint. 
 
 Dark red . — Half a pound of brazil dust, with 
 vinegar and water, each one pint. 
 
 Bright red .- — Before colouring, put a few drops 
 of aqua regia into a small quantity of the dark red. 
 
 Green . — Half a pound of French berries, bruised; 
 water and vinegar, each one pint, with two ounces 
 of liquid blue. 
 
 i Brown . — Two ounces of strong potash water, 
 
 with one ounce of brazil dust, which must not be 
 boiled, but remain till the colour change from a 
 light purple, to brown. 
 
 ! 1> How .-—Half a pound of French berries, water 
 
 ! and vinegar, each one pint. 
 
 The above colours must have a small quantity 
 of alum bruised, put therein, and boiled over a slow 
 fire. Strain them through a piece of fine flannel, or 
 cotton cloth, till quite pure. 
 
 Dissolve half a pound of alum in two quarts of 
 rainwater; sprinkle it on the sheets of paper for 
 colouring, and lay one upon another. Put the 
 paper between boards, w ith a little pressure thereon, 
 and leave them to soak for five hours before splash- 
 ing. 
 
 I Purple splash . — Place small stones at a little dis- 
 
 tance from each other, and lay the sheet thereon ; 
 throw on w ith a brush, purple liquid in splashes. 
 
 Tortoise shell . — Splash on black ink, and throw on 
 dark red, and yellow spots where the paper is white. 
 Various other combinations may be formed by 
 using different colours. 
 
 To colour i ellum green. Dissolve an ounce of 
 verdigrise, and an ounce of white wine vinegar, in 
 a bottle, and let them remain near the fire for five 
 days, shaking the bottle three or four times each day. 
 Wash the vellum over with weak potash water, and 
 colour it over tliree times with the green liquid. 
 
 I 
 
BREWING 
 
 Brewing is the art of making porter, beer, -or, 
 ale. This art is undoubtedly a branch of chemistry, 
 and depends on fixed and invariable principles. 
 Those principles not having been thoroughly inves- 
 tigated, no just and certain theory has yet been ob- 
 tained. We shall, however, insert the best rules 
 which practical observations and experience have 
 hitherto laid down. 
 
 Malt liquor is essentially composed of water, and 
 the soluble parts of malt and hops, fermented with 
 yeast. 
 
 Ofzoater. Lightness is considered as a perfec- 
 tion in water, that which weighs least, being gener- 
 ally the purest. In brewing, the difference of 
 water, whether rain, spring, river, or pond, is of 
 little importance, provided it be equally soft and 
 pure ; the chief art consists in the due regulation 
 of heat ; and as soft waters ai«e found in most places, 
 and become more alike when heated to the degree 
 necessary to form extracts from malt, it is evident, 
 that any sort of beer or ale may be brewed with 
 equal success, in all places where malt and hops can 
 be procured. 
 
 Of Malting . — Malt is barley rendered fit for the 
 purpose of brewing, by being made' to sprout or 
 germinate with degrees of heat nearly equal to 
 those which the seed should be improssed with, 
 when sown iq the ground; and dried with a heat 
 superior to that of vegetation, and capable of check- 
 ing it. The barley is put into a cistern that holds 
 five, ten, twenty, or more quarters, and covered 
 with water about five inches, to allow for its swell- 
 ing; it should remain in the cistern two or three 
 days, more or less, in proportion to the heat of the 
 air, and the state of the barley ; that which has 
 been washed by rains, requires less time than the 
 dryer grain that was saved well, and grew on dry 
 ground. To judge when the corn is fully saturated, 
 some persons drop an iron rod perpendicularly into 
 the cistern ; if the grain readily gives way, it is then 
 considered time to draw off the water. Others take 
 some of the corns, end wavs, between their fingers, 
 and gently crush them ; if they are in all parts mel- 
 low, and the husks open, or start a little from the 
 body of the corn, they conclude it has soaked long* 
 enough. The nicety of this is a material point ; 
 for if it is infused too much, it will lessen the sweet- 
 ness and the spirit of the malt, and cause the beer 
 or ale made from it, to become dead and sour in a 
 short time. 
 
 The water being well drained off, the grain- 
 should be taken out of the cistern, and laid in a 
 
 heap, about two feet in height. The corn should 
 not be suffered to acquire so great a degree of heat, 
 in this heap, as to carry on germination too fast, for 
 this would cause the malt to become bitter and ill 
 tasted. Before the acrospire is perceived to length- 
 en, the barley must be dispersed in bpds, on the 
 floor of the malt house, and be turned every four, 
 six, or eight hours, the outward parts inwards, and 
 the bottom upwards, always keeping a clear floor, 
 that the corn, which lies next it, may not be chilled. 
 As soon as it begins to come, or spire, it should be 
 turned every three, four, or five iiours, according 
 to the temperature of the air, (by which this ma- 
 nagement ought to be governed ;) as it comes or 
 works more, the heaps must be spread wider and 
 thinner, in order that it may cool. Thus it may 
 lie, and be worked upon the floor, two or three feet 
 thick, ten or more feet broad, and fourteen or more 
 teet in length, to chip or spire ; and when it is come 
 enough, it is to be turned twelve or sixteen times in 
 twenty-four hours, if the season is warm. When it 
 is fixed and the roots begin to die, it must be thick- 
 ened again, and often carefully turned and worked, 
 that the growth of the root may not revive. The 
 floor should be kept clear, and the malt turned 
 often, that it may neither mould nor acrospire ; i. e. 
 that the blade may not grow out at the opposite 
 ! end to the root ; for if it does, the strength of the 
 ! malt will be destroyed. 
 
 It is of great consequence in making of malt, that 
 the grain be dried by a very slow and gradual heat; 
 for this purpose it should be thrown into a large 
 heap, and there suffered to grow sensibly hot; in 
 this active condition, it is spread on the kiln, where 
 it is exposed to a heat greater than is necessary for 
 vegetation, by which its further growth is stopped. 
 The time usually allowed for drying a kiln of malt, 
 is from eight, to twelve hours. »When the colour of 
 the barley has not been greatly changed by the heat, 
 it is called pale malt; in proportion to the degree of 
 heat it has been exposed to, the deeper will be the 
 colour, each shade being distinguished by’a different 
 ! name, as brown malt, amber malt, &c. Malt when suf- 
 j ficientlydried, must be taken from the kiln and spread 
 ! in an airy place till it is thoroughly cool; and then 
 put into a heap. When malt is suffered to grow too 
 much, or until the spire has shot through the skin of 
 the barley, though ail that is left be malt, it is not fit 
 | to brew drinks for long keeping. Some maltsters 
 J sprinkle water on malt newly removed from the kiln, 
 to make it appear to have been made a long time, 
 j or, as thej say, to plumo it ; this is a deceit which 
 j Z cannot 
 
SG 
 
 11 li i:\vl\g. 
 
 cannot be too much exposed, as by this practice, the 
 
 i nirchaser is grossly imposed on. The grain by 
 )eing moistened, occupies a greater volume, and 
 soon grows mouldy, heats, and is thereby greatly 
 injured. 
 
 There are several contrivances made use of for 
 the purpose of drying the malt on, as the iron plate 
 frame, and the tile frame, which are both full of 
 little holes; the brass wired and iron wired frames, 
 and the hair cloth. The iron and tiled frames, were 
 chiefly invented for drying brown malt, and saving 
 of fuel ; these, when thoroughly hot, will scorch the 
 corn in a short time. The w ire frames are better, yet 
 they are apt to scorch the outward part of the corn, 
 which cannot be got off so soon as the hair cloth ad- 
 mits of. The last three ways are much used for 
 drying pale and amber malts, because the malt can 
 be more gradually dried ; but the hair cloth is con- 
 sidered the best of all. 
 
 Malt is dried with several sorts of fuel, as coke, 
 culm, Welch coal, straw, wood, fern &c. Coke is con- 
 sidered the best, if properly made, because it does 
 not send forth smoke to injure the flavour of the malt. 
 Some persons put a peck or more of peas with every 
 five quarters of barley, to be made into malt, which 
 greatly mellows the drink: beans will do so like- 
 wise, but they will not come so soon, nor mix so con- 
 veniently with the malt as peas. 
 
 Oats malted in the same manner as barley, will 
 make a weak, soft, mellow, and pleasant drink; but 
 wheat, so treated, will produce a strong, heady, 
 nourishing and line liquor. 
 
 To know good from bad malt, examine if it has a 
 round body, breaks soft, is full of flour, smells well, 
 and has a thin skin ; chew some of it, and if you find 
 it sw eet and mellow, it is good. If it be hard and 
 steely, and retains something of the nature of barley, 
 it has not been rightly made, and will weigh heavier 
 than that which has been properly malted. 
 
 Pale malt is the slowest and slackest dried cf any; 
 and will produce a greater length of wort than the 
 brown high dried malt ; for which reason it is sold 
 for two, three, and four shillings per quarter more : 
 it is of all others, the most nutritious, being the 
 most simple, and nearest to its original barley-corn ; 
 and will retain an alkaline and balsamic quality 
 much longer than the brown sort. 
 
 Amber-coloured malt is dried in a degree between 
 pale and brown ; and is much in use, though but 
 seldom used alone. 
 
 .Brown malt is the highest dried, and will not ad- 
 mit of as much wort being drawn from it as pale and 
 amber malt. 
 
 According to Mr. Combrune’s statement, 120 de- 
 grees is the lowest heat for drying pale malt, and 150 
 the highest for brown malt; and he assumes it as a 
 rinciple, that the heat of the extracting liquor should 
 e in prof ortic n to that with which the malt was dried. 
 When the exciseman takes his gauge ou the floor, 
 
 he allows ten in the scare; but at times he gauges 
 in the cistern, couch, floor, and kiln ; and where he. 
 makes most, there he fixes his charge. 
 
 Of Grinding . — It is necessary for malt to be 
 ground, in order to facilitate the action of the water 
 on the grain, which otherwise would be obstructed 
 by the outward skin. Every corn should be cut, 
 but not reduced to flour or meal, for in this state the 
 grist would not be easily penetrable; it is therefore 
 suilicient that every grain be divided into two or 
 three parts. In every brewing, the intention of 
 grinding is the same ; and the transparency of the 
 liquor doss not depend outlie cut of the corn, as is 
 supposed bv many persons. It has been recommend- 
 ed to bruise the malt between two iron cylinders, in- 
 stead of grinding it: if by this means, some of the 
 fine mealy parts are saved, which would otherwise 
 be lost in air, it must be very inconsiderable, and 
 perhaps not equal to the disadvantage of the water 
 not coming in immediate contact with the flour of 
 the grain, so that, upon the whole, the difference 
 between bruising and grinding the grain can be of 
 no great consequence. 
 
 The constituent parts of malt, like those of all ve- 
 getable sweets, are so inclined to fermentation, that, 
 when once put in motion, it is difficult to retard their 
 progress, retain their preservative qualities, and pre- 
 vent their becoming acid. Among the many means 
 put in practice, to check this forwardness of the malt, 
 none promised so much success as blending with 
 the extracts, the juices of such vegetables as of them- 
 selves, are not easily brought to fermentation. Hops 
 were selected for this purpose, and experience has 
 confirmed their wholeSomeness and efficacy. 
 
 Hops are an aromatic, grateful bitter, endued 
 with an austere and astringent quality, and guarded by 
 a strong resinous oil. The aromatic parts are volatile, 
 and disengage themselves from the plant with a 
 small heat. To preserve them in the processes of 
 brewing, the hops should be put into the copper as 
 soon as possible, and be thoroughly wetted with the 
 first extract, while the heat of the wort is at the 
 least, and the fire under the copper has little or no 
 effect thereon ; by this means that flavour is retained 
 which would otherwise be dissipated. 
 
 After hops are bagged, the sooner and tighter they 
 are strained, the better they will keep. If in brew- 
 ing, part of a bag or pocket be left unused, let the 
 upper part of the bag be covered close over the re- 
 mainder, and a heavy weight put upon it, to exclude 
 the air. 
 
 Of mashing . — The first step in the process of 
 brewing, is mashing, which is performed in a large 
 circular wooden vessel, called a tun, shallow in 
 proportion to its extent, and furnished with a false 
 bottom, a few inches above the real one, pierced 
 with small holes, and made either moveable or fix- 
 ed. There are two side -openings in the interval 
 between the real and false bottom, to which pipes 
 
 are 
 
BREWING. 
 
 87 
 
 are fixed, one for the purpose of conveying- water 
 inio the tun, and the other for drawing the liquor 
 out of it. The malt is to be strewed evenly over 
 the false bottom of the tun, and then, by means of 
 the side pipe, a proper quantity of hot water is in- 
 troduced from the upper copper. The water rises 
 up through the malt, or, as it is called, the grist, and 
 when the whole quantity is introduced from the 
 upper copper, the mashing begins, the object of 
 which is to effect a perfect mixture of the malt with 
 the water, so that the solute parts may be extract- j 
 ed by it ; for this purpose the grist is incorporated i j 
 with the water, by means of iron rakes, and then ! | 
 the mass is beaten and agitated bv long flat wooden ; 
 joles, resembling oars, which are either worked by j 
 land or machinery. When the mashing is com- | j 
 pleted, the tun is covered, to prevent the escape of | 
 heat, and the whole is suffered to remain at rest for j 
 some time, in order' that the insoluble parts may ! 
 separate from the liquor; the tune it is allowed to j 
 remain still, is various, according to the nature ot‘ the ' 
 liquor to be brewed, and is called the standing of 
 the mash. The side hole is then opened, and the 
 clear wort allowed to run off slowly at first, but 
 more rapidly as it becomes fine, into the lower or 
 boiling copper. 
 
 Many ingenious machines have been invented for 
 the purpose of mashing: we shall give a description 
 of two, which w r e conceive the best, one of w hich 
 w'as invented by Mr. Goodwynne, the other by Mr. 
 Silvester. 
 
 Mr. Goodwynne’s mashing engine is of the figure 
 of a half cylinder, with the central line placed hori- 
 zontally. In this central line, an iron shaft is fitted, 
 and turned round by wheelwork from a steam en- 
 gine. It has several iron arms fixed perpendicular- 
 ly upon it at different parts of its length, which, as 
 the shaft revolves, sweep the whole contents of the 
 tun, and having teeth fixed in them, mash the grist. 
 These arms are not all fixed on the same side of the 
 axis, but are arranged at equal angles round it, so as 
 to dip in succession. When by their continual 
 motion the grist is accumulated at one side of the 
 tun, the motion of the shaft is reversed, and this 
 brings the grist back again. 
 
 Mr. Silvester’s machine, consists of a vertical 
 spindle, in the centre of the mash tun; and upon 
 this an iron arm, of a length sufficient to exiend 
 across the diameter of the tun, slides up and down, 
 through the grist. The arm is provided with teeth, 
 projecting from one side of it like a rake ; and these 
 teeth are so contrived, that when the arm descends, 
 they hang down vertically : but when the arm reaches 
 the bottom of the tun, the teeth are turned by the 
 machine, so as to be horizontal, and are then drawn 
 up, during which action they raise a portion of the 
 grist from the bottom to the top. The next time 
 the arm descends, it is turned round with its spindle, 
 a few degrees, so as to take a fresh portion of the 
 
 tun ; and in this manner its action continues, till in 
 about bO or 40 strokes it completes its revolution 
 round the tun. This construction admits of the 
 mash tun, being covered close over by large doors, 
 a circumstance of great importance for retaining the 
 heat. 
 
 The chief thing to be attended to in mashing, is 
 the temperature of the mash, which depends on the 
 heat of water, and on the state of the malt; it t! e 
 water was let in upon the grist boiling hot, the 
 starch which it contains would 1 e dissolved, r.nd 
 converted into a gelatinous substance, in which all 
 the other parts of the malt, and most of the water 
 would be entangled beyond the possibility of reco- 
 very. The most eligible temperature for mashing 
 appears to be from 185° to 190 Q of Fahreneit; tor 
 the first mashing, the heat of the water must be 
 somewhat below this temperature, and low er in pre- 
 portion to the dark colour of tiie malt made use of; 
 for pale malt, the water may be 180 u , but for brown, 
 it ought not to be more than 170°.* The w ort of the 
 first mashing is by much the richest in saccharine 
 , matter ; but to exhaust the malt, a second and a 
 third mashing is required, in which the water may 
 I be safely raised to 190° or upwards. The propor- 
 j tion of w ort to be obtained from each bushel of malt, 
 j depends entirely on the proposed strength of the li- 
 I quor. It is said that 25 or SO gallons of table beer 
 ! may be taken from each bushel of malt. For ale 
 and porter of the superior kinds, only the produce of 
 the first mashing, or six or eight gallons per bushel, 
 are to lie taken. 
 
 Of boiling and hopping. If only one kind of 
 liquor is made, the produce of the three mashings are 
 to be mixed together; but ifbotli ale and table-beer 
 are required, the wmrt of the first, or of the first and 
 second mashing, is appropriated to the ale, and the 
 remainder is set aside for the beer. All the wort 
 distined for the same liquor, after it has run from the 
 tun, is transferred to the large lower copper, and 
 mixed with a certain proportion of hops. The bet- 
 ter the wort, the more hops are required. In private 
 families, a pound of hops is generally used to every 
 bushel of malt ; but in public brew eries, a much 
 smaller proportion is deemed sufficient. When both 
 ale and table-beer are brewed from thesame malt, 
 the usual practice is to put the whole quantity of 
 hops in the ale wort, which having been boiled some 
 time, are to be transferred to the beer wort, to be 
 again boiled w'ith it. 
 
 To preserve porter for twelve months, when fer- 
 mented 
 
 * The process of brewing has within a few years been rendered much 
 more certain by the use of the thermometer, to determine the degree 
 of heat proper for mashing ; and an instrument called a sacchrome- 
 ter, to ascertain the strength and goodness of the wort. This last ir«- 
 strument is a kind of hydrometer and shews live specific gravity of 
 the wort, rather than tlie exact quantity of saccharine matter which 
 it contains. 
 
88 
 
 BREWING. 
 
 mentedat forty degrees, twelve pounds of hops are | 
 considered sufficient for the produce of one quarter 
 of malt; but if heated to sixty degrees, rather more | 
 than double the quantity of hops will be required to 
 preserve the beer the same length of time. For : 
 small beer to be fermented at 40 degrees, three i 
 poundstothe quarter will be sufficient: but atsixty ! 
 degrees, it will require six pounds of new hops, or ! 
 six and three-quarters pounds of old hops, which are j 
 such as have been kept one year, and have, in con- [ 
 sequence, lost some of their good qualities; but this J 
 difference is not worthy of notice, w hen only small 
 quantities are used. 
 
 - When the hops are mixed with the wort in the 
 copper, the liquor is made to boil, and the best 
 practice is to keep it boiling as fast as possible, till { 
 upon taking a little of the liquor out, it is found to | 
 be full of small tlakes like those of curdled soup. 
 The boiling copper in common breweries, is un- , 
 covered; but in those on a very large scale, it is 
 fitted with a steam-tight cover, from the c ntre of 
 which passes a pipe, that terminates bv several 
 branches in the upper mashing or copper. The steam 
 therefore produced by the boiling, instead oi being 
 wasted, is let into the cold water, and thus raises it i 
 very nearly to the temperature required for mashing, 
 besides impregnating it very sensibly with the essen- 
 tial oil of the hops, in which the flavour resides. 
 
 Of cooling. When the liquor is boiled, it is dis- 
 charged into a number of coolers, or shallow' tubs, 
 in which it remains until it becomes sufficiently cool 
 to be submitted to fef mentation. It is necessary 
 
 that the process of cooling should be carried on as 
 expeditiously as possible, particularly in hot weather, 
 and for this reason, the coolers in the great brew- 
 houSes are very shallow. Liquor made from pale 
 malt, and which is intended for immediate drinking, 
 need not be Cooled lower than seventy-five or 
 eighty degrees ; of course this kind of beer may be 
 brewed in almost the hottest weather ; but beer 
 brewed from brown malt, and intended to be kept, 
 must be cooled to nearly sixty degrees, before it is 
 put into a state of fermentation, lienee, spring and 
 autumn have been deemed the most favourable sea- 
 sons, for the manufacture of the best malt liquors. 
 In the summer, worts must bo got as cool Us the 
 Weather will admit of: and it being found, that 
 about three o’clock in the morning is the coolest 
 period of the tw enty-four hour*, this is the time that 
 they should be set to work. 
 
 • Wr. Jonathan Dixon has a patent for forming the 
 Various vessels in a brewery of cast iron. I his 
 metal seems Very well adapted to the formation of | 
 coolers, Us it Allo ws the heat to pass off more readily 
 than Wood, is not liable to crack in hot weather, and 
 >s altogether free from the great repairs necessary to 
 Wooden ones. 
 
 O f fermentation. Beer receives its strength and j 
 
 spirit 'from the process of fermentation, during which j 
 
 a quantity of fixed air is given out of the fluid,., the 
 wort loses its viscidity and sweet taste ; its specific 
 gravity is diminished, and an inebriating quality is 
 given to the liquor. When the wort is at a proper 
 temperature, the yeast is added to it, in the gyle tun, 
 or square, and in a short time the fermentation be- 
 gins at the sides of the tun, and gradually advance** 
 towards the middle, till the whole surface is covered 
 w ith a white scum, formed of small bubbles, which 
 increase in size as the fermentation advances, form- 
 ing- a head of yeast. Some of the bubbles, on reach- 
 ing the surface, burst, and the film of yeast which 
 covered them sinks, but is again borne up by the 
 ascending bubbles. These films form at first a yel- 
 low, and, as the process advances, a dirty, brown, 
 uneven covering to the yeast, giving it the appear- 
 ance of rocks. In this state the fermentation is at 
 its crisis, and afterwards diminishes. When the 
 head begins to sink, which it does first in the middle 
 of tiie tun, the fermentation is to be checked by 
 cleansing, that is, dividing it into small casks, and 
 allowing any farther yeast which it may produce, 
 to flow off as fast as it rs formed; taking care to keep 
 the casks filled up with fresh liquor, till this discharge 
 ceases, when the bung-hole is to be closed ; and the 
 liquor, after having stood a sufficient time to fine, 
 will be fit for use. In London, from the large 
 capital required in the brewing trade, the brewers 
 find it necessary to make a quick return, and there- 
 fore send the beer out in the rough, as they term it, 
 that is, before it has stood a sufficient time to fine; 
 in this case, a proper quantity of fining is sent with 
 it, which is composed of isinglass dissolved in very 
 sour beer, brewed on purpose, without hops, from a 
 fourth mash. The innkeeper puts the fining into the 
 cask, which mixes with the fecula floating in the 
 beer, and forms a kind of net work, which gradually 
 sinking to the bottom, carries all the impurities with 
 it. Heat increases the violence of fermentation, and 
 and if too great, the process advances so rapidly as 
 to render it difficult to check it at the proper stage, 
 which, if not effected, the acetic fermentation will 
 commence before it has precipitated the mucilage, 
 or m the brewer’s language, purged itself, and cause 
 an unpalatable mixture of acid, from the* excessive 
 fermentation ; and of bitter, from the excess of muci- 
 lage. In the other extreme, where the heat is not 
 sufficient for the fermentation, a decomposition of the 
 wort takes place, and produces an unpalatable liquor, 
 containing a combination of sweet and bitter. In 
 strong pale ales, it is the object of the brewer to 
 give them the greatest possible strength, together 
 w ith a very clear and fine light colour, without con- 
 taining much of vegetable flavour. In brown ales, 
 and porter, a fulness of palate, deep colour, glutinous 
 teste, and vegetable flavour are produced by retain- 
 ing part of the farinaceous matter, instead of expell- 
 ing the whole of it, as in the former instance. ' 
 When the heat of the atmosphere is more than 
 
 sixty 
 
BPEWINa 
 
 Kilty degrees, the cool of the night must he chosen, j 
 to put tlie wort to work. In lower degrees of the i 
 atmosphere, the wort must be set at a greater heat j 
 than that of the air; for as the tendency to fermen- j 
 tation increases with the heat of the weather, it is 
 necessary to correct it, by putting the liquor 
 to Work colder, in hot weather, than in cold. 
 
 If the air is at 30 degrees of Fahrenheit, small beer 
 should be set to work at about 70 degrees; beer in- 
 intended for keeping, at 50° ; and amber or gluti- 
 nous ales at 54 w . Wien the air is at 50 w , all these 
 kinds may beset to work at 50°. In the process of 
 fermentation, the temperature of the wort is often 
 increased as much at 10° ; and it may in general be 
 considered, that the wort will be 10° higher at the 
 height of the fermentation, than it was when first 
 put to work, supposing the heat of the air continues 
 the same. 
 
 Of yeast. The yeast produced from strong beer 
 is the best to effect a temperate and regular fermen- 
 tation ; that from weak small beer should not be 
 used when the other can lie procured ; it being apt 
 to act violently for a short time, and then cease. The 
 quantity of the yeast has some effect on the degree 
 of fermentation; a greater quantity will increase 
 the rapidity of the process, in the same manner as a 
 greater degree of heat would, and vice versa; hence ' 
 a greater proportion of yeast is required in winter 
 than in summer. Small beer intended for immedi- 
 ate use, when the temperature is as low as 40 de- 
 grees, will require about eight pints of yeast t< one 
 quarter of malt; at GO degrees six pints ; at 70 v five 
 pints; and at 80 degrees, only four pints. 
 
 All kinds of beer intended lor keeping, will re- 
 quire only six pints at 40°, five pints at 60 v four 
 pints at 70°, and three pints at SO 15 . 
 
 Of colouring- The colour and flavour of porter 
 and brown beer, was formerly derived from high 
 dried malts, which were scorched and partially 
 charred on the kiln, but this practice being found to 
 cause a great waste of the fermentable matter, which 
 might otherwise be extracted from them, has given 
 place to the more economical plan of colouring beer, 
 obtained from pale malt ; the cheapest method of 
 effecting this purpose, is by the addition of burnt 
 sugar, which gives it the desired flavour as well as 
 colour. 
 
 The mode of preparing the sugar for colouring, is 
 as follows. One hundredweight of coarse brown 
 sugar is put into a cast iron boiler, of a hcmespbe- 
 rical figure, with one gallon of water. This is boil- 
 ed, and kept constantly stirred, till it turns black, 
 and is of the consistence of treacle; the smoke 
 rising from it is now set on fire, and this commu- 
 nicates to the whole, which is suffered to bum about 
 ten or twelve minutes, and then extinguished by 
 putting on the cover of the boiler. While it is hot, 
 it is diluted with water, to bring it into a liquid state. 
 Three parts of the sugar will make two parts of this j 
 
 P9 
 
 colour. When used, it is put into the gyle tun, 
 in the proportion of two or three pounds <r > a 
 barrel ; but this depends upon the colour of the 
 malt from which the liquor is brewed, and the co- 
 lour which tiie beer is intended to have. 
 
 To avoid the prejudice which tjie public have ge- 
 nerally entertained against the introduction of any 
 matters into the beer, excepting malt and hops, some 
 porter brew ers have of late used a portion of their 
 richest wort, instead of sugar, for making the colour- 
 ing. This is concentrated by boiling it in an iron 
 pan, and is burnt in the same manner as the sugar, 
 over which it has some slight advantage, as the 
 burning the farinaceous matter contained m the wort 
 gives it an agreeable bitter. M. De Roche took out 
 a patent in 1809, for using the husks of the malt for 
 colouring, by burning them to a coffee colour, and 
 mixing them with the malt, at the rate of thirty-one 
 pounds to a quarter of malt ; or the water may be 
 coloured before brewing, by infusing these roasted 
 skins in it. 
 
 If wort is suffered to remain in the under back too 
 long, a premature fermentation will take place, 
 called by the brewers, foxiness, and the beer pro- 
 duced from such wort, will be nauseous and un- 
 palatable. 
 
 A grist of malt is said by brewers, to be set, when 
 instead of separating for extraction, it runs in clods, 
 increases in heat, and coagulates. This accident is 
 owing to the over quantity of heat in the water, ap- 
 plied in the extraction. 
 
 The air included in the grist, whifch is a principal, 
 agent in resolving the malt, being thereby expelled, 
 the mass remains inert, and its parts, adhering too 
 closely together, are with difficulty separated, 
 Though an immediate application of more water to 
 the grist i9 the only remedy, yet as the cohesion is 
 speedy and strong, it seldom takes effect. New 
 malts, w hich have not lost the heat received from the 
 kiln, are most apt to lead the brewer into this error, 
 and generally in the first part of the process. 
 
 Ol' THE SIGNS W HICH GENERALLY DIRECT THE 
 PROCESSES IN RRE\yiNG. 
 
 1. When a white flour settles either in the under 
 back or copper back, which is sometimes the case 
 of a first extract, it is a sure sign such an extract 
 has not been made sufficiently hot, or in technical 
 terms, that the liquor has been taken too slack. 
 
 2. Thb first extract should always have some 
 froth, or head, in the under back. 
 
 3. The head, or froth, in the under back appear- 
 ing, red, blue, purple, or fiery, shews the liquors to 
 have been taken too hot. 
 
 4. When the grist feels slippery, it generally is a 
 sign, that the liquors have been taken too high. 
 
 5. Beer ought always to work kind, out of the 
 cask, when cleansed, but the froth in summer will be 
 somewhat more open than in winter. 
 
 G. When the head of yeast in the gyle tun begins 
 A a * to 
 
DO 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 to 9ink, it is a sign that the vinous fermentation is 
 ended. 
 
 UTENSILS USED IN A BREWI10USE. 
 
 1. The liquor-bark is a cistern in which the cold 
 water (or as it is called the liquor,) is reserved for 
 use. 
 
 2. The copper , used for heating the liquor. 
 
 3. The copper bach. 
 
 4. The mash tun in which the operation of mash* J 
 ing is performed. 
 
 5. The under back , into which the wort is drawn I 
 off after mashing. 
 
 6. The jack-bark which receives the wort after it has | 
 
 been boiled with the hops, and has, in some brew* 
 eries, a cast iron floor, pierced with small holes, to 
 admit the wort, but retain the hops. 
 
 7. The coolers are shallow vessels, in which the 
 wort is soon cooled, by presenting a large surface 
 to the air. 
 
 8. The gyle-tuns , or squares in which the liquor 
 is first put to ferment. 
 
 9. Working tuns , in which the liquor is cleansed. 
 
 10. Store-vats are immense tuns used in large 
 breweries, for keeping beer till wanted for sale. 
 
 11. Casks t large and small. 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 Bricklaying is the art of cementing bricks, by 
 lime, or some other cement, so as to form one body. 
 
 Bricklayers are, in London, by charter, in 1568, a 
 corporate company, consisting of a master, two war- 
 dens, twenty assistants, and seventy-eight on the 
 livery. For the laws relating to bricklayers, see 
 building jct, in the second part of this work. 
 
 In London, Bricklaying includes the business of 
 walling, tiling, and pav ing with bricks or tiles ; and 
 it is sometimes united with plaistering. In the coun- 
 try, it is very common for the same person to exer- 
 cise masonry, bricklaying and plaistering. 
 
 Bricklaying is of great antiquity, for we read of 
 it very early in the Mosaic history. 
 
 TOOLS USED BY BRICKLAYERS. 
 
 1st. Walling Tools. — The brick trowel , which is 
 used for taking up and spreading the mortar, in or- 
 der to cement the bricks together, and for cutting 
 the bricks to any shape required. 
 
 2d. The hammer , which is used to cut holes in 
 brick walls. 
 
 S i. The plumb rule , which is generally about 4 
 feet long, and used with a plumb line, to carry tiie 
 faces of wails up perpendicularly. 
 
 4th. The level is from 6 to 12 teet long, and used 
 to fry the level of work as it proceeds, more particu- 
 larly window 'ills and wall plates. 
 
 5 : h large square, f>r trying and setting out 
 
 the sides of buddings at rigid angles. 
 
 j 6th. The rod, for measuring, is either 5 or 10 feet 
 long, and divided by notches on the edge, into as 
 many feet, the last foot of which is divided into 
 inches. 
 
 7th The jointing rule, 8 or 10 feet long, for run- 
 ning the joints of brick work. 
 
 8th. The jointer is made of steel, and shaped like 
 the letterS; with this and the rule, the joints in 
 brick-work are marked. 
 
 9th. The compasses. They are used for traversing 
 arches, &c. 
 
 10th. The raker is a piece of iron, bent like the 
 letter Z. and pointed at both ends : its use is to pick 
 or scrape decayed mortar out of joints in old walls, 
 
 ' to be replaced by new. 
 
 11th. The hod, which consists of two boards put 
 j together at right angles, with a handle or leg, some- 
 what resembling the letter Y, fastened to that part 
 where the two sides meet ; one end of the trough is 
 open and the other closed ; its use is to carry moriar, 
 bricks, stones, &c. up the ladders, on the shoulder, 
 the handle serv ing to k°ep it steady while ascending, 
 and to rest it upon when on the scaffolding. Some 
 sand or dust, is generally strewed over the inner sur- 
 face, when mortar is carried, to prevent its sticking. 
 
 12th. The line pins. They are two iron pins for 
 fastening and stretching the line, for the purpose 
 , of laying the courses level. 
 
 IStii. The rammer. When ground is of a loose 
 * kind. 
 
BRICKLAYING 
 
 01 
 
 kind, this tool is used for compressing it, by beating ' 
 on its surface. 
 
 14th. The iron crow and pick axe are used for the 
 purpose of breaking through walls; the crow bar is i 
 used alone for raising large stones, or any other 1 
 heavy bodies. 
 
 15th. The grinding stone, which is used for sharp- I 
 ening any of the tools. 
 
 16th. y The banker is a high bench of 6 to 12 feet 
 long, 2 or 3 feet wide, and 2 feet 8 inches high from 
 the ground, and serves as a bench to rub bricks for 
 arches or other work upon. 
 
 17th. The camber s/ip, which is a piece of wood 
 of at least half an inch thick, with one of its edges 
 curved, and rising about one inch in six feet ; its use 
 is for drawing the soffit lines of straight arches. If 
 the other edge is curved, it should rise one half as 
 much: this is used for drawing the upper side of 
 straight arches, to allow for their settling. Some 
 w : kmen prefer the upper side of the arch straight. 
 
 W en the lines are drawn, the camber slip should | 
 be given to the carpenter, to enable him to form the ; 
 centre to the curve of the soffit 
 
 18th. The rubbing stone, generally of a cylindric 
 form, about 20 inches m diameter, iixed at one end 
 of the banker. When the bricks are brought a* 
 near the shape as convenient, by the axe, they are 
 bv this rubbed smooth; it is also used for rubbing 
 headers and stretchers, called rubbed returns. 
 
 19th. The bedding stone, formed of a piece of mar- 
 ble, about 18 inches long, and 8 or 10 inches wide, 
 with one fair side; its use being to try the rubbed 
 Sides of the brick, which must be first squared, in or- 
 der to try whether the surface of the brick is straight, 
 so as to fit upon the leading- skew-back, or leading 
 end of the arch. 
 
 20th. The small square, for trying the bedding of 
 the bricks, and squaring the soffits across the breadth 
 of the bricks. 
 
 21st. The betel, for drawing the soffit line on the 
 face of bricks. 
 
 22d. The mould is used in giving form to the | 
 back and face of the brick, that it may have its thick- j 
 ness reduced to its proper taper, tc which end, one i 
 edge of the mould, (which has a notch for every j 
 course of the arch,) is brought close to the bed of the j 
 brick already squared, 
 
 23d. The scribe is any piece of iron ground to a 
 point, to mark by the edge of the rule or mould. | 
 
 21th. The tin saw is for cutting the lines upon j 
 the bricks about one eighth of an inch deep, that 
 when the axe is used, the edges may not spalter j 
 away. It is also used in cutting the soffit through 
 its breadth, in the direction of the tapering lines, 
 drawn on the face and back of the brick ; the cut 
 being made deeper on the lace and back than in the 
 middle of its thickness, for the purpose of entering 
 the axe. The saw i; also usetui in cutting false 1 
 joints. 
 
 25ih. The brick axe is used for axing off the 
 soffits of bricks to the scribes, and saw cuttings. The 
 more care that is taken in axing the less will be the 
 labour of rubbing. 
 
 26th. The tamplet is used in taking the leng th 
 of the stretchers and width of the header. 
 
 Note. The last ten articles relate to the cutting of 
 gauged arches. 
 
 27th. The chopping block is any convenient piece 
 of wood, placed so as to be three inches from the 
 ground, supported either on legs, or piers, and used 
 lor axing bricks on. Its length must be according 
 to the number of men that are to work at it. 
 
 28tli. The float stone. — This is used to rub the 
 curved surface of the bricks smooth ; it is necessary 
 to bring it as near as possible to the figure of the 
 surface intended to be rubbed before the operation 
 is began. 
 
 OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF ERICKS. 
 
 Bricks are a kind of artificial stone, made by tem - 
 pering clay to a proper consistence, and forcing it 
 into a mould, to give it shape, which is that of rec- 
 tangular prism, 10 inches in length and 3 in breadth ; 
 these are dried in the sun and then burnt in stacks 
 or clamps, or in a kiln ; in which operation they are 
 reduced to 9 inches long, 4{ broad, and 2{ thick, 
 this, however, varies according to the quality of the 
 clay, and the quantity ofburning. 
 
 There are several kinds of bricks, as marls, 
 stocks, and place bricks. The principal difference 
 consists in the care in tempering the clay, and diffus- 
 ing the heat through the whole in burning. The 
 finest kinds of marls are called firsts, and are selec- 
 ted for arches over doors and windows, for w r hich 
 they are rubbed to their proper forms ; there are 
 also seconds, which are used for fronting. 
 
 The best marls are superior to stock bricks in- 
 colour, which is a pale yellow, and consequently 
 more chaste for the front of a house, red being too 
 glaring, particularly for country houses, where it 
 very ill accords with the surrounding scenery. 
 
 There are also' gray stocks, which are of an in- 
 ferior kind. 
 
 What are left of the clamp after the marls are se- 
 lected, are called place bricks, packings or sandal 
 bricks; these are of a very inferior quality, not 
 uniformly burnt, and are of a redder colour. 
 
 Burrs, or, as they are sometimes called, clinkers,, 
 are such as are so much over burnt, as to vitrify and 
 run two or three together. The best red brick, made 
 out of the neighbourhood of London, are used for 
 rubbers. 8ome very good are made at lledgerly, 
 near Windsor, and are called Windsor bricks ; they 
 are very hard, of a fine red colour, and preferred as 
 fire bricks, for which purpose they are much used. 
 Their thickness is only 1} inch, but their length and 
 breadth, are the same as the stock brick. All bricks 
 are sold by the thousand, and each brick, according 
 
 ta 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 4)2 
 
 to Act of Parliament, must measure 3} Indies long, ] 
 4 inches wide, and inches thick. 
 
 There is a kind of brick imported from Hol- 
 land, called Dutch clinkers, very hard, and of a light 
 yellow colour, used much for paving. They mea- 
 sure six inches long and three broad ; the best mode 
 oflaying them is herring-bone wavs. 
 
 Paving Tiles are a long flat kind of brick, used 
 for laying the floor of dairies, cheese-houses, See. 
 their size is about nine inches long, 4f broad, 
 and l{ thick. 
 
 The different sorts of tiles for covering houses, 
 are pan tiles, which are IS inches long’, and eight 
 broad, and about half an inch thick; their trans- 
 verse section somewhat resembles the letter, efi being 
 two portions of cylindric surfaces on both sides. 
 The part which is of the greatest radius serves as a 
 channel for conducting the rain, whilst the lesser 
 overlops the edge of the adjoining tile. In the for- 
 mation of the pan tile, a nob is made to project from 
 the surface of the upper end, which serves to hang it 
 on the lath. Laths for tiling are about three-fourths 
 of an inch thick, and 1| inch broad, and most 
 commonly made of deal. The other sorts of tiles 
 are plain tiles, hip tiles, and ridge tiles. 
 
 FOUNDATIONS. 
 
 The first thing to be Considered w hen a building 
 is about to be erected, is the foundation. 
 
 If there are cellars or underground kitchens, it is 
 commonly found that they are of sufficient depth to 
 find a good and solid foundation ; but where this is 
 not the caste, the remedies are to dig deeper, or to 
 drive in large stones with the rammer, or by laying 
 in thick pieces of oak, Crossing the direction of the 
 wall, and planks of the same timber, wider than the 
 intended wall, and running ill the same direction 
 with it. These last are to be spiked firmly to the 
 cross pieces, to prevent their sliding, the ground 
 having been previously well rammed under them. | 
 
 The mode of ascertaining if the ground be solid, i 
 is by the rammer; if by striking the ground with J 
 this tool, it shake, it must be pierced with a borer, ; 
 such as is Used by well diggers; and having found ] 
 how deep the firm ground is below the surface, you ! 
 must proceed to remove the loose or soft part, taking I 
 care to leave it in the form of steps if it is tapering, |i 
 that the stones may have a solid bearing, -and not j 
 be subject to slide, which Would be likely to happen, | 
 if the ground were dug in the form of an inclined \ 
 plane. 
 
 If the ground prove variable, and be hard and 
 soft at different places, the best Way is to turn arches J 
 from one hard spot to another. I inerted arches 
 have been used for this purpose with great success, 
 by bringing up the piers, which carry the principal I 
 Weight of the building, to the intended height and 
 thickness, and then turning reversed arches, (as 
 shewn in plate 1 .Jig. 10. J from one pier to another, 
 ft is clear that by this means the piers cannot sink, 
 
 without carrying the arches, and consequently the 
 ground on which they stand, with them. This con- 
 trivance was recommended by Alberti, and was 
 adopted by Mr. Hook, in building Montague House; 
 and J believe is never omitted, where circumstances 
 of the kind before stated, occur, and w here the ar- 
 chitect employed has any regard to his own or his 
 employer’s interest. 
 
 Where the hard ground is only to be found under 
 apertures, build your pierson these places, and turn 
 arches from one to the other. In the construction 
 of the arches, some attention must be paid to the 
 breadth of the insisting pier, whether it will cover 
 the arch or not ; for suppose the middle of the piers 
 to rest over the middle of the summit of the arches, 
 then the narrower the piers the more curvature the 
 supporting arch ought to have at the apex. When 
 arches of suspension are used, the inlridos ought to 
 be clear, so that the arch may have the full effect ; 
 but, as observed before, it w ill also be requisite hero 
 that the ground be uniformly hard on which tliepiers 
 are erected, for it is better that it should be uniform, 
 though not so hard as might be wished, than to have 
 it unequally so ; for in the former case the piers 
 w'ould descend uniformly, and the building remain 
 uninjured ; but in the latter, a vertical fracture 
 would take place, and endanger the whole edi- 
 fice. 
 
 WALLS. 
 
 The foundation being ready, according to the 
 foregoing directions, the destination, or use of the 
 building, with its magnitude, &c. must be consider- 
 ed, in order to use such materials as are best suited 
 to the end required. Thus, in places much ex- 
 posed to the weather, the hardest and be*.t bricks 
 must be used, and the soft reserved for in-door work, 
 or places where they are less tried ; but in this, re- 
 gard must also be had, to the importance of the 
 building, and whether it is designed for long dura- 
 tion. (n slacking lime, use only as much water as 
 will reduce it to a powder, and only about a bushel 
 of lime at a time, covering it over with sand, in or- 
 der to prevent the gas, which is the virtue of the 
 lime, from escaping . — ( See Cements , in the second 
 part.) 
 
 This is a better mode than slacking the whole at 
 one time, as there is less surface exposed to the air. 
 Before you use the mortar, it should be beat three 
 or four times over, so as to incorporate the lime and 
 sand, and to reduce all knots or knobs of lime that 
 may have passed the sieve. This very much im- 
 proves the smoothness of the lime, and by driving 
 in ail* to its pores, will make the mortar stronger: as 
 little water is to be used in this process as possible. 
 Whenever mortar is suffered to stand any time be- 
 fore used, it should be be beat again, so as to give it 
 tenacity, and prevent labour to the bricklayer. In 
 dry hot summer w eather, use your mortar soft, in 
 w inter rather stiff. 
 
 If 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 03 
 
 ifvou lay your bricks in dry weather, and the I 
 work is required to be firm, wet your bricks by dip- 
 ping 1 them in water, or by causing water to be 
 thrown over them before they are used, and your j 
 mortar should be prepared in the best way. Feu i 
 workmen are sufficiently aware of the advantage of j 
 wetting bricks before they are used, but experience ! 
 has shewn that works in which this practice has j 
 been attended to, have been much stronger, than j 
 others, where it has been omitted. It is particular- 
 ly serviceable where work is carried up thin, or in 
 putting in furnaces, grates, &c. 
 
 In winter, as soon as frosty and stormy weather set 
 in, cover your wall with straw or boards; the for- 
 mer is better than the latter if well secured, as it 
 protects the top of the wall, in some measure from 
 frost, which to building is very prejudicial, particu- 
 larly, when it follows much rain ; for the rain pene- 
 trates to the heart of the Wall, and the frost, by con- 
 verting the water into ice, expands it, and causes the 
 mortar to assume a short and crumbly nature, and 
 altogether destroys its tenacity. 
 
 In working up the wall, it will be proper not to 
 work more than four or live feet at atime, for as all 
 walls, immediately after building-, shrink, the part 
 which is first brought up will remain stationary, and 
 when the adjoining part is raised to the same height, 
 a shrinking or settling- will take place, and separate 
 the former ti'om the latter, causing- a crack which 
 will become more and more evident, as the work 
 proceeds. In carrying up any particular part, each 
 side should be sloped off, to receive the bond of the 
 adjoining work on the right and left. Nothing but 
 absolute necessity can justify the work being carried 
 higher, in any particular part, than one scaffold, for, 
 wherever it is done, the workman is certainly answer- 
 able for all the evil which may arise lrom such pal- 
 pable error. 
 
 There are two kinds of bond in brickwork, which 
 differ materially from each other, and as the subject 
 is of the highest importance to the bricklayer, we 
 shall lay before our readers some excellent remarks, 
 contained in a pamphlet, written on this subject, by ! 
 Mr. G. Saunders, who has treated it with a degree 
 of attention which its importance requires. 
 
 t; Bricks laid lengthways in the direction of the 
 wall are called stretchers, and those laid in an oppo- 
 site way crossing the direction oAthe wall, are called 
 eaders. 
 
 Old English bond, is a continuation of one kind 
 throughout, in the same course or horizontal layer, 
 and consists of alternate layers of headers and 
 stretchers, (see Figure 1, 2, 3, 4, Plate 1) the head- 
 ers serving to bind the wall together, in a longitudi- 
 nal direction, or lengthways, the stretchers, to pre- 
 vent the wall splitting crossways, or in a transverse 
 direction. Of these two evils, the former is by much 
 the worst kind, and is therefore most dreaded by the 
 bricklayer.” 
 
 Mr. Saunders is of opinion, that old English 
 brick work is the best security against these acci- 
 dents, as work of this kind, wheresoever it is so 
 much undermined as to cause a fracture, is not sub- 
 ject to either of the above evils, but separates by 
 breaking through the solid brick, just as if the wall 
 were composed of one entire piece. 
 
 The brick work of the Romans was of this kind 
 of bond, but the specimens of their work, which re- 
 main, are of great thickness, and have three or 
 sometimes more, courses of brick laid at ceitain in- 
 tervals of the height, stretchers on stretchers, and 
 headers on headers, opposite the return Avail, and 
 sometimes at certain distances in the length, forming" 
 piers, that bind the Avail together in a transverse di- 
 rection ; the intervals between these piers were fill- 
 ed up, and formed pannels of rubble or reticulated 
 work ; consequently great substance Avith strength 
 Avas economically obtained. 
 
 Flemish bond , ( see Plate 1, Figure 5, 6,7,) which 
 is the second kind, consists in placing in the same 
 course alternate headers and stretchers, Avhich dis- 
 position, according to our author, is decidedly inferi- 
 or in every thing but in appearance, and even m 
 this, the difference is so trifling, that few common 
 observers would be struck Avith any great superiori- 
 ty, that the former possesses over the latter. To 
 obtain this, strength is sacrificed, and bricks of tivo 
 qualities are fabricated for the purpose ; a firm brick 
 often rubbed and laid in Avhat the Avorkmen term a 
 putty joint, for the exterior, and an inferior brick for 
 the interior substance of the wall; as these did not 
 correspond in thickness, the exterior and interior sur- 
 face of the Avail, Avould not be otherwise connected 
 together, than by an outside heading brick that 
 was here and there continued of its Avhole length ; 
 but as the Avork does not admit of this at all times, 
 from the want of agreement in the exterior and inte- 
 rior courses ; these headers can only be introduced . 
 where such a correspondence take place, Avhichsome- 
 times may not occur for a considerable space. 
 
 Walls of this kind consist of tivo faces of four 
 inch work, Avitli very little to connect them together, 
 and what is still worse, the interior face often con- 
 sists ot brick, little better than rubbish. Notwith- 
 standing this, the practice of Flemish bond, has con- 
 tinued from the time of William and Mary, Avhen 
 it was introduced, Avith many other Dutch fashions ; 
 and our Avorkmen are so infatuated Avith this prac- 
 tice, that there is scarcely an instance to be seen of 
 the old English bond. 
 
 To the Flemish bond alone must be attributed the 
 frequent splitting of Avails into tAvo thicknesses, and 
 various schemes have been, from time to time adopt- 
 ed, for the prevention of this formidable defect. 
 Some have laid laths or slips of hoop iron, occasion, 
 ally, in the horizontal joints between the tAvo cour- 
 ses ; others lay diagonal courses ofbricks at certain 
 heights from each other; but the good effect of this 
 B b last 
 
94 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 .last practice is much doubted, as in the diagonal 
 course, by their not being continued to the outside, 
 the bricks are much mangled where the strength is 
 wanted. 
 
 Many other practices are enumerated, to unite cot** 
 plete bond with Flemish facings, but with no better 
 success. In figure 5 Sf G, the interior bricks are dis- 
 posed with intention to unite these two particulars,- 
 the Flemish facings being- only on one side of the wall : 
 but this at least fails far short of the strength, ob- 
 tained by the English manner. There is another 
 evil attending this disposition of the brick, which is 
 the difficulty of its execution, as the adjustment of 
 the bricks in one course must depend on the course 
 beneath, which must be seen or recollected by the 
 workman; the first is difficult, from the joints of the 
 under course being covered with mortar, to bed the 
 .bricks of the succeeding course, and for the workman 
 to carry in his mind, the arrangement of the pro- 
 ceeding course, is more than can reasonably be ex- 
 pected from him, and, unless it be attended to, the 
 joints will be frequently brought to correspond, 
 dividing the wall into several thicknesses, and ren- 
 dering it subject to separation or splitting. 
 
 In the old English bond, the outside of the last 
 course, points out how the next is to be laid, so that 
 the w orkman cannot easily err. 
 
 The outside appearance is all that can be urged 
 iu favour of Flemish bond, but even in this, Mr. 
 Saunders is of opinion that were the English man- 
 ner executed with the same attention and neatness 
 that is bestowed on the Flemish, it would be con- 
 sidered as equally handsome. However this maybe, 
 it is surely the duty of all who are concerned in this 
 business, to recommend the adoption of the old 
 English bond, and the following are directions for 
 the execution of it. 
 
 1st. Each course to be alternately of headers and 
 stretchers. 
 
 2nd. Every brick in the same course must be laid 
 in tiie same direction ; but in no instance is a brick 
 to be placed with its whole length along the side of 
 another, but to be so situated, that the end of one 
 may reach to the middle of the others -which lay 
 contiguous to it, except the outside of the stretching 
 course, where three quarter bricks necessarily occur 
 at the ends, to prevent a continued upright joint 
 in the face work. 
 
 3rd. A wall which crosses at a right angle with 
 another, will have all the bricks of the same level 
 course in the same parallel direction, which com- 
 pletely bonds the angles. See Fig. 1, 2, and 3. 
 ( For the measuring of allkinds of brickzcork sec j\ Jcn- 
 suration.) 
 
 Description of Plate I. — Fig. 1,2 ,3, and I, shew 
 the arrangement of bricks in depths of different 
 thicknesses, so as to form English bond. 
 
 Fig. 1, is the bond of a wall of 9 inches. To 
 prevent two uprig.it or vertical joints running over 
 
 j each other, at the end of the first stretcher from the 
 J corner, place the return corner stretcher, which is a 
 i header, in the face that the stretcher is in below, and 
 | occupies half its length ; a quarter brick is placed 
 ) next on its side, forming together 6| inches, and 
 i leave a lap of 2| inches for the next header, which 
 lies with its middle upon the middle of the header 
 below, and forms a continuation of the bond. The 
 i three quarter brick, or brick-bat, is called a 
 1 1 closer. 
 
 ! Another way of effecting, this, is by laying a fbat 
 i at the corner of the stretching course, for when the 
 corner header comes to be laid over it, a lap of 2| 
 incises will be left at the end of the stretchers below 
 for tiie next header, which when laid, its middle 
 will come over the joint below the stretcher, and in 
 this manner form a bond as before. 
 
 Fig. 2. A fourteen inch or brick and half wall. 
 In this the stretching course, upon one side, is so laid 
 that the middle of the breadth of the bricks upon the 
 opposite side, falls alternately upon the middle of 
 the stretchers, and upon the joints between the 
 stretchers. 
 
 Fig. 3, a two brick wall. In tbe heading coui'se, 
 
 ] every alternate header is only half a brick thick on 
 ! both sides, which breaks the joints in the core of 
 i wall. 
 
 | Fig. 4, a two brick and a half wall. The bricks 
 j are laid as in Fig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 5, Flemish bond, for a nine inch wall, where 
 j two stretchers lie. between two headers, the length 
 of the headers and the breadth of the stretchers, ex- 
 ! tending the whole thickness of the wall. 
 
 Fig. 6. a brick and half Flemish bond, one side 
 being laid as in Fig. 4, and the opposite side with a 
 half header opposite to the middle of the stretcher, 
 and the middle of the stretcher opposite the middle 
 of the end of the header. 
 
 Fig. 7, Another arrangement of Flemish bond ; 
 here the bricks are disposed alike on both sides the 
 ; wall, the tail of the headers being placed con- 
 tiguous to each other, so as to form square spaces in 
 the core of the wall for half bricks. 
 
 Fig. 8, the corner coin of an upwright wall, 
 English bond. 
 
 Fig. 9, the coin of an upright wall, Flemish 
 bond. 
 
 Fig. 10, Reversed arches, to prevent the ground 
 giving way or sinking. 
 
 Fig. 1 1, a straight arch, which is usually the 
 height of four courses of brick work; the manner of 
 describing it will be shewn in the following 
 figure. 
 
 Fig. 12, to draw the joints of a straight arch, let 
 A. 11. be the width of the aperture ; describe an 
 equilateral triangle A. D. ('. upon this width; 
 describe a circle round t* e point C\ equal to the 
 thickness of the brick. Draw D. E. parallel to A. 
 II. at the distance equal to the height of four courses, 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 95 
 
 and produce C, A. and C. B. to d. e. lay the straight 1 
 edge of a rule from c. to d. and with a pair of com- 
 passes, opened to a distance equal to the thickness 
 of a brick, cross the line d. e. at F. removing the 
 rule from the points C. and D. Place the straight 
 edge againt the points C. and F. and with the same, 
 extend the points of the compass, cross the line I). E. 
 at G. proceed in this manner until you come to the j 
 middle, and as it is usual to have a brick in the cen- | 
 tre to key the arch in, if the last distance, which w e 
 will suppose to be h. i. is not equally divided by the 
 middle point K. of D. E. the process must be re- 
 peated till it is found to be so. 
 
 Though the middle brick tapers more in the 
 same length than the extreme bricks, it is conven- 
 ient to draw' all the bricks with the same mould, 
 which is a great saving of time, and though this is 
 not correctly true, the difference is so trifling as not 
 to affect the practice. It may, however, be proper to 
 observe, that the real taper of the mould is less than J 
 in the middle, but greater than either extreme dis- lj 
 tance; but even the difference bet ween this is so ! j 
 small, that either may be used, or taking half their \ ; 
 difference will come very near the truth. This diff- j 
 erence might easily be shewn by a trigonometrical I 
 calculation, the middle being an isoceles triangle, of 
 which the base and perpendicular are given, the ! j 
 base being a certain part of the top line. In the j 
 triangle upon the sides, you have one angle equal to j 
 60 degrees, and the side D. F. is given, and 1) G, j 
 = ( D. K. 2 -fK. C 2 )| can easily be found, so that in i ! 
 this triangle the two sides and the contained angle j I 
 are given. 
 
 Fig’. 13 and 14. — Ornamental brick cornices. The : 
 first is an imitation of the Grecian doric, and t' ; e ! 
 second a dentil cornice. A variety of pleasing 
 symmetry, may be formed by yarious dispositions of 
 the bricks, and frequently without cutting, or it' cut, 1 
 chamfering only may be used. 
 
 J ig. 15. Semi-circular arch, two bricks high. | 
 
 I'ig. 16, 17 18, and 19. Brick piers, of various 
 thicknesses, arranged according to Flemish bond. 
 
 Fig. 17. A two and half brick pier. 
 
 J'ig. 18. A three brick pier, and 
 
 Fig. 19. Three and half brick pier. 
 
 In each of the foregoing, the arrangement of the j 
 first and second courses is shown. 
 
 Fig. 21. An elliptic arch, struck from two cen- | 
 tres A and B. 
 
 Fig. 22. A scheme arch, two bricks high. 
 
 Fig. 20. Plan of Mr. Tapper’s mode of constructing j 
 groins, which is a great improvement on the common 
 lour-sided groin. The improvement consists in rais- i 
 ing the angle of the groin from an octagonal pier, 
 instead of a square one, which gives more strength, j 
 and from the corners being removed, renders it more i 
 commodious for turning any kind of goods round it ; I 
 tliis renders it particularly advantageous in cellars, 
 <k<\ This convenience is not the only advantage 
 
 that this construction admits of, as the angles of the 
 groin are strengthened by carrying the band round 
 the diagonals of equal breadth, which affords better 
 bond to the bricks. 
 
 "Fig. 23. Earthenware pipes, made and sold at 
 the potteries round London ; they are intended to 
 carry water and answer very well in many cases, 
 size and price they are made at is as follows : — 
 
 2\ Inch calibre 9d. per foot run. 
 
 3 Ditto .... 10d. ditto. 
 
 3j Ditto .... Is. ditto. 
 
 These three sizes are made in lengths of 2 feet 9 
 inches. 
 
 Fig. 24 and 25, are drains of the common con- 
 struction, the former one-being one brick in thick- 
 ness, and the latter two. 
 
 Fig. 26. The cylindrical or improved drain, 
 which is preferable to the former, being much less 
 subject to choek, and kept clean with a much less 
 quantity of running water. They are sometimes 
 made elliptical, for admitting the cleaner with more 
 ease. 
 
 Fig. 27. Channel or gutter of bricks, much used 
 in the low er part of Kent and Sussex ; they are fre- 
 quently substituted for small brick dams, by being 
 inverted one over the other. 
 
 Fig. 2S, 29, 30, 31, 32. Plans and elevations of 
 the coal-oven, used by bakers ; the construction of 
 which being uew to many bricklayers, we shall sub- 
 join the observations of Mr. Dearn, upon it, as he 
 seems to have paid it that attention which its impor- 
 tance required. Mr. Dearn’s opinion differing from 
 that of Mr. Phillips* in! many particulars on this 
 head, we have given ihe whole dispute in his own 
 words, that our .readers may the better be able to 
 judge for themselves. 
 
 “ An oven may be described as an arched cavity, 
 constructed for the purpose of baking bread, meat, 
 &c. 
 
 Baking is a trade of Considerable importance in 
 large towns, and the profit of the baker being li- 
 mited in a great measure by the legislature, his at- 
 tention has been very naturally directed to the means 
 of increasing his gains, and as the only safe and ho- 
 nourable means by w hich this could be effected, was 
 by the practice of strict economy, he was led to en- 
 quire how the necessary degree of heat, (fuel being a 
 principal item. in his expenditure,) was to be obtained 
 at the least possible expence. The increasing price 
 of w ood not only rendered this attention to economy 
 the more necessary, but convinced those who reflected 
 at all, that if a cheaper substitute was not speedily 
 discovered, their profit, (already very much diminish- 
 ed,) would ultimately dwindle' to nothing. In this 
 dilemma, necessity, (the parent of every useful inven- 
 tion), ever fruitful in expedients, readily suggested 
 to those interested, the application of coal to the 
 purposes of their trade ; this by repeated trials was 
 found not only practicable, but subsequent experi- 
 ence. 
 
96 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 ence has so far established its superiority, on the 
 score of expence, that few are now found so bigotted 
 to old customs and insensible to their interest, as to 
 refuse its adoption. To construct an oven to be 
 heated with eoal, it is recommended that the frame 
 and door be about a foot square, like the door of a 
 copper, the bars of the furnace about 18 or 20 inches 
 long, and level with the bottom of the oven ; that the 
 flue be 18 inches square, the fire to shoot slanting in- 
 to the oven at the shoulder, so that the fire may fly 
 immediately to the crown and centre, spreading to 
 the haunch and all round ; a register is fixed within 
 a little of the flue, entering the oven, which is stopt 
 when the oven is sufficiently heated. A copper is 
 usually fixed five or six inches over the furnace, 
 Warm water being an essential requisite in a bake- 
 house. But as tiie manner of constructing these 
 ovens is rendered more intelligible by drawings, I 
 have offered for the instruction of those who do not 
 underslaud the proper construction, the figures num- 
 bered ( 28, 29, SO, SI, and 32, on Plate 1 . ) 
 
 The above passage is the substance of the instruc- 
 tions contained in Crosby's Builder's Price-Book 
 on this subject, at least ij' I understand it right; but 
 as the description given in that work is not only inde- 
 finite and unsatisfactory, but objectionable in more 
 points than one; the drawings given on Plate 1, 
 have been made out, in order not only to enable the 
 reader to form a more correct idea of an oven so con- 
 structed, than it is in the power of words alone to 
 convey; but in order at the same time to point out 
 to him more clearly the objections I have to the 
 above recommendation. In the first place, it is ab- 
 solutely necessary that advice, to be of any avail, 
 •should be clearly intelligible, leaving neither room 
 for conjecture nor doubt ; but, in the instance before 
 us, it is both imperfect and obscure: to one who had 
 never seen an oven of this kind it must be altogether 
 useless as being unintelligible, and to those who 
 have, it would be much better to have said, go and 
 build an oven to be heated with coals. In one 
 place it says, u let the flue be about 18 inches square, 
 for the fire to shoot slanting into the oven at the 
 shoulder. By the word flue is here meant (I con- 
 clude from what follows) that part of the contrivance 
 in which the fire is placed, usually called the fur- 
 nace, the fire hole, the stove, &c. but admitting that 
 this expression is even right, would it not, let me 
 ask, have been as well to have made choice of some 
 other, more generally understood. But without dis- 
 puting Mr. Phillip’s application of the word flue, I 
 shall merely state what I have been taught with respect 
 to the flue and the parts immediately connected with 
 it : ( have been led to consider the chimney as con- 
 sisting of three distinct parts, viz. the opening or 
 mouth, in which the fire is placed, the throat, and 
 the flue or funnel. The flue according to this divi- 
 sion of the subject, having the same relation to the 
 opening or fire place, as the wind pipe has to the 
 
 mouth in the animal system, intimately connected 
 no doubt, but yet distinct in its operation and situa- 
 tion ; but if from their general connection, it were 
 admissible to confound the one with the other, and 
 call the mouth the flue, and the flue the mouth, yet 
 it could hardly hold good in this instance, as the 
 connection is by no means immediate, the heat and 
 smoke traversing the whole extent of the oven, be- 
 fore it escapes by the flue, which is situated in front, 
 immediately over the oven door, this door when 
 shut, cutting off all communication between the two. 
 With respect to the size of such fire-place or flue, 
 (as Mr. P. has it) he recommends it to be about 18 
 inches square. Now the only argument I shall op- 
 pose to this, is, that I have seen a large oven (16 
 bushels) the fire place of which did not exceed 12 
 inches either way, and though so small (compared 
 with an opening of 18 inches) was certainly greater 
 than was absolutely necessary for the purpose; the 
 draft into this oven when the blower was up, was 
 amazing, and the baker said he entertained no doubt 
 of being able to produce a sufficient heat to run 
 glass ; this is all that I consider necessary to oppose 
 to Mr. P’s. recommendation.* How far a still greater 
 reduction of the furnace might be productive of 
 good, I will not pretend to decide, yet I cannot help 
 observing, that if it could be reduced to nine inches 
 in height, there would lie a saving of some time and 
 trouble, at least in its erection, as in that case, there 
 would be no cutting into the crown of the oven in 
 this place, which if possible should be avoided, not 
 only as being a work of some difficulty, but as tend- 
 ing to weaken a part, already the most exposed to 
 injury, and requiring more frequent repair than any. 
 
 Mr. P’s preference in favour of 18 inches is found- 
 ed on the following reason, u for the fire to shoot 
 slanting into the oven, ” this at least is the only rea- 
 son he assigns for his preference. If this property 
 of making the fire shoot slanting into the oven, is 
 peculiar to the dimensions suggested, then the pre- 
 ference is well grounded, but if it is proved common 
 to all, or peculiar to none, how are we to account 
 for this partiality. In short, the instance I haye 
 above related, is alone sufficient to convince me 
 that no advantage can arise from making the fire 
 hole more than 12 inches wide and the same in 
 height, on the contrary I am more inclined to be- 
 lieve that it would be better, on most occasions to 
 
 make 
 
 I 
 
 ■* Whatever be the size or parpose of the fire place, it is always 
 , roper to set the bars 8 or 10 inches in from the door, which will 
 eei> a supply of coals warming before ihey arc pushed forward into 
 he fire. The importance of this is known to those who have at- 
 ■nded to the effect of every fresh supply of coals to the boilers of 
 team engines, ;is it instantly stops the hailing, unless this precau- 
 ion is attended to. It also prevents, in a great measure, the cold 
 ir getting in between the door and frame ot the lire- place, wmen 
 requently happens from the difficulty of fitting iron doors, to non 
 rutne>. 
 
BRICKLAYING 
 
 97 
 
 faake it less. It should be observed, however, that 
 1 am speaking only of ovens, of the size usually adop- 
 ted by bakers, that is, from 8 to about 1G bushels. 
 
 The oven which I have selected as an example, 
 and of which I have given the necessary drawings 
 tor the instruction of workmen, (see Plate l.) I 
 feel no hesitation in recommending it fir adoption, as 
 it is generally admitted to be the best, and though 
 a difference of opinion may, and does prevail, with 
 regard to some of its dimensions, the principle has 
 hithertoremained unquestioned. The points ofdiffer- 
 ence between myself and Mr. Phillip-, I leave to the 
 determination of those who feel themselves interest- 
 ed in the decision. The greatest objection I have 
 to Mr. P’s account, is, not that he happens to differ 
 with me in the size of the fire hole, for 1 am even 
 willing to allow that it is possible he may be right ; 
 but because the whole of the passage in question is 
 so ambiguously worded, and so loosely put together, 
 that I am persuaded no one can make any thing of 
 it, who is not already familiar with the subject; let 
 any one previously unacquainted with the matter, 
 peruse the description alluded to, and then turn to 
 the Figs. 28, 29, 30, 31, and 3 2, on Plate I. and say 
 whether the idea he had formed from the description, 
 is in any degree realized or no. If we pretend to 
 give advice, it should be done in such terms as are 
 likely to be understood by those to whom it is direct- 
 ed, otherwise instead ofdoing good it is most proba- j 
 ble we may do harm. To return, — the kinds of 
 Coal made use of for heating of ovens, are chiefly the 
 Staffordshire, Hartleys, and Coupen-Main,* as these 
 coals differ only in name, and not in their properties, 
 the only point for consideration is, which will come 
 cheapest, yet 1 should observe, that there may be 
 some little difference in the strength, though 1 have 
 not been able to discover it ; this matter may be 
 worth enquiry. If these coals should on sufficient 
 trial be found so nearly alike in strength, that the 
 difference is not deemed worth notice, there will be 
 no difficulty in deciding which is the cheapest. The 
 weight of a chaldron of coals is about 28 cwi. the 
 Hartleys and Coupen-Main are sold by the chaldron, 
 and the Staffordshire by the ton; in general the 
 Staffordshire coal will be found most expensive. 
 
 Ovens formed after tins example will hold, accord- 
 ing to their size, as follows : — 
 
 Ft. Ft. In. 
 
 8 wide and 7 0 deep. . . „ 8 bushels of bread. 
 
 9 ditto and 7 6 ditto. ... 10 ditto ditto 
 
 10 ditto and 8 6 ditto, ... 12 ditto ditto 
 
 It required to hold less than 8 bushels, or more 
 than 12, reduce or increase the proportions accoitl- 
 ingly. 
 
 Fig. 28, Plate 1. Is the plan of an oven, (to be 
 heated with coal; which, according to tne above 
 
 * Wood is frequ^i ilv mitdi' use of instead of coals in ovens of 
 this construction particularly by biscuit bakers. 
 
 table, will contain 8 bushels of bread, it being 8 
 feet wide and 7 deep ; the fire hole enters the oven 
 in a direction diagonal with the farthest corner, the 
 sides of the oven are carried nearly straight, and 
 turned as sharp as possible at the haunch and 
 shoulder, this form being supposed better calculated 
 to retain the heat than any other; the flue is imme- 
 diately over the entrance, as described by the dotted 
 enclosure at a, on the plan. Welch lumps or fire 
 bricks are used for the stove or fire hole, and the 
 best, or at least the cheapest place to obtain the lat- 
 ter (in the neighbourhood of London) is at a manu- 
 i factory of this sort in Princes-street Vauxhall, still 
 ! carried on I believe by a person of the name of Gre- 
 j gory. In business of this nature it is usual to in- 
 troduce a considerable quantity of old iron hoops, 
 more especially round and over the oven, in order to 
 I keep the work together ; this precaution is not only 
 necessary with respect to ovens, but is advisable ou 
 ail occasions, where great heat is required ; it is ne- 
 cessary were it merely to prevent the loss of heat, by 
 a seperation of the work, but when it is considered 
 that the escape of the fire, in this way, may be pro- 
 ductive of a still greater evil, in which others may 
 be involved as well as ourselves, the neglect of this 
 precaution becomes unpardonable. A piece of cast 
 iron covers the space before the door of the oven, 
 exactly level with its floor; the opening underneath 
 I is applied to no particular use, but is generally 
 I made a receptacle for lumber ; it is commonly done 
 I more with a view to lessen the expence than with any 
 j other, yet this notion of economy is ridiculed by 
 some, from a persuasion that a great deal of heat 
 j escapes this w ay, if the place can be applied to no 
 real use, I should think it much better done away 
 with, as there is certainly some reason in the objec- 
 tion urged against rt. 
 
 Fig. 29, Elevation. The mouths of coal ovens are 
 closed with a door of wrought iron, in which is a 
 | small circular hole with a valve for the convenience 
 | of the baker, and to prevent the cooling of the oven, 
 j by a frequent opening of the door. To heat the 
 I oven, the door is thrown back, and a blower is ap- 
 plied to the mouth, so contrived, as not only to 
 I cover the month of the oven, but to enclose also the 
 i throat of the chimney, by which contrivance the 
 I draft is so much encreased, that the necessary degree 
 of heat is very soon obtained ; and if a' any time the 
 oven is too hot, (supposing that the fire is out) it 
 will only be necessary to throw open the furnace 
 ; door and put up the blower for a tew minutes, the 
 j current of cool air -which is thus made to pass 
 J through it, soon reduces the heat to tbg temperature 
 i required, in the blow er is also an opening of the 
 same kind as 't^at in the door, which is opened and 
 shut at pleasure ; the course of the flue is described- 
 by the dotted lines at b. The lead cistern is fixed 
 about five or six inches over the stove, so that the 
 water may be kept warm, but not boiling, from this 
 C c a pipo 
 
98 
 
 BRICKMAKING. 
 
 a pipe Is brought down, fas shewn) with a cock in 
 ■the front. The stove is closed with an iron door, as 
 also the ash pit hole. 
 
 Fig. 30. Is the blower, as before described. 
 
 Fig. 31. Is the transverse section from A B on 
 the plan, looking- towards the opening, the fire hole 
 entering the oven at c, the crown is turned, with the 
 bricks on end, and instead of centering, the custom is 
 to fill the whole space with sand, clay, -or rubbish, 
 which is well trod down, and fashioned to the shape 
 which it is intended the crown shall be of. When 
 the upper work is finished, the sand is dug out of 
 the mouth of the oven. 
 
 Fig. 32. Is the longitudinal section from C to D. 
 In this, the situation, &c. of the flue is clearly evi- 
 •dent, and the sectional line of the blower, when 
 
 in its is place, described by the dotted line d; tkq 
 space under the oven has been before spoken of. 
 
 I shall now close this part of the subject, under 
 the fullest conviction that no person can be at a loss, 
 after the information I have givieri', to construct an 
 oven of this kind, th ugh he may previously be un- 
 acquainted with the business. 
 
 There are several contrivances to heat ovens with 
 coal, but as that which I have offered is generally 
 admitted to be the best, I have deemed it unnecessary 
 to describe any other. This observation relates only 
 to ovens of the size used by bakers, as it is the 
 general practice to heat small ovens with coal.” 
 
 An oven, particularly well adapted to the baking 
 of meat in public bakehouses, is described at the end 
 of the article Baking. 
 
 BRICKMAKING. 
 
 Brick-making, the art of forming and manufac- 
 turing bricks. 
 
 The earliest mention of bricks is to be found in 
 the historical books of the Old Testament, where 
 we find that Noah’s three sons, together with their 
 wives and children, departed from the eastward, and 
 travelled into the land of Shinar. “ And they said 
 one to another, goto, let us make brick, and burn 
 them thoroughly ; and they had brick for stone, 
 and slime,* had they for mortar.” Whether these 
 bricks were really exposed to the action of fire, as 
 the passage before seems to imply, or merely dried 
 m the sun, is a point by no means settled; but ac- 
 cording to the testimony of Herodotus, who was 
 upon the spot, the bricks which composed the tower 
 of Babylon, were baked in furnaces. That unburnt 
 bricks were also employed in the earliest buildings, 
 appears certain, from the testimony of some of the 
 oldest historians, and from proofs still existing. 
 
 Unburnt bricks were used in Egypt ; the making 
 them was one of the tasks imposed on. the Israelites 
 during their servitude in that country ; butthe old- 
 
 * T?v slime is meant a bitumen or pitchy substance, with whirl), 
 according to the accounts of travellers, the couutry about Babylon 
 abounds. 
 
 est edifices, which at present remain there, are prin- 
 cipally of stone. Pococke, however, describes a 
 piramid built of unburnt bricks, called Cloube-el- 
 Menshieh, (the bricks of' Menshieh) which are com- 
 posed of a black sandy earth intermixed with peb- 
 i bles and shells, the sediment deposited by the over- 
 flowing of the Nile. Unburnt bricks are still in 
 I common use in Egypt, and many other parts of the 
 east; they were also used on some occasions by the 
 I Greeks and Romans. At what time burnt bricks 
 were first introduced, or in what country, cannot be 
 determined, nor indeed is it of any moment. The 
 Greeks were certainly acquainted with the art of 
 burning bricks, as appears from Vitruvius, who in- 
 stances several celebrated buildings in which this ma- 
 terial was used, both sun-dried and burnt. 
 
 This author gives us the following directions for 
 making unburnt bricks. They should not be made 
 of stoney, sandy, or gravelly loam, for such kind of 
 earth renders them heavy ; and upon being wetted 
 with rain after being laid in the wall, they swell and 
 dissolve ; and the straw which is put in them docs 
 not adhere on account of their roughness. The 
 earth of which they are formed should be light chalky 
 white', or red. They should be made in spring of 
 autumn, as being the best time for drying; for the 
 
 intense 
 
BRICKMAKING. 
 
 intense heat of summer parches the outside before i 
 the inside is dry ; which afterwards drying; in the j 
 building', causes them to shrink and break. They 
 are best when made two years before they are used, 
 as they cannot be sufficiently dry in less time. If 
 they "are used when newly made and moist, the 
 plaister work which is laid on them, remaining firm 
 and stiff, and they shrinking, and consequently not 
 preserving the same height with the incrustation, it 
 is, by such contraction, loosened and seperated. At 
 Utica, therefore, the law allows no bricks to be used 
 before they have lain to dry five years. 
 
 No bricks of the form now adopted, are fbund in 
 ancient structures ; those being either square or 
 triangular, and more resembling our paving tiles, 
 than bricks, as well in form as in substance. The 
 triangular brick must have possessed considerable 
 advantages over the present kind, their form being 
 calculated to give the most complete bond, and from 
 their thinness they were likely to be better burnt. 
 
 Bricks have several advantages over stone, from 
 their porous texture ; they unite better with the ce- 
 ment, are much lighter, and the walls built with 
 them are less subject to be damp. 
 
 The earth proper for making bricks, is a clayey 
 loam, neither abounding too much with sand, which 
 renders them brittle, nor with too large a portion of 
 argillaceous matter, which causes them to shrink and 
 crack in drying. 
 
 The manufacture of bricks has of late years be- 
 come an object of revenue, and as such, entitled to 
 some consideration ; it is, besides, of the utmost im- 
 portance to the community, inasmuch as the value 
 and comfort of our dwellings, must depend in a great 
 measure on the quality of the materials with which 
 they are constructed, and bricks form no inconsi- 
 derable part of them. The best account we have 
 seen of this art, is given in “ Malcolm’s Compen- 
 dium of Modern Husbandry,” from which we have 
 made the follow ing extract : — 
 
 “ The Moulds , used in making every sort of brick 
 for building purposes, are ten inches in length, and 
 five in breadth ; and the bricks when burned, usually 
 measure nine inches in length, and four and one half 
 in breadth, so that the clamp shrinks about one inch 
 in ten. But the degree of contraction, (as^we have 
 before seen) which clay undergoes in being burned, 
 does not absolutely depend upon the purity of the 
 clay ; for some city imbibes more moisture than 
 others ; if that which imbibes the most is not ex- 
 posed a much longer time to the frost to divide and 
 separate its particles, and to the heat of the sun to 
 exhale its moisture, than that which imbibes less | 
 and is a shorter time exposed; it follows, that while 
 the one will be reduced one inch, the other may lose 
 two or more. Again, the heat of the kiln or clamp, 
 and the situation of the bricks as to heat, w ill vary ' 
 the diminution of the subject to be burnt. It is of j 
 ^consequence therefore, in the making of sound hard ■ 
 
 m 
 
 bricks, that the clay should be dug two or three 
 years before it is used, in order that it may be pul- 
 verized ; and the oftener it is turned and incorpora- 
 ted, the better w ill be the bricks. The earth should 
 have sufficient time to mellow and ferment, which 
 will render it more apt and fit to temper ; and this 
 operation of treading and tempering ought to be 
 performed more than doubly what is usual ; because 
 the goodness of the bricks wholly depends upon the 
 well-performance of its first preparation, since the 
 the earth in itself, before it is wrought, is generally 
 brittle, full of extraneous matter, which requires to 
 be removed, and as it were without unity or sta- 
 bility ; but by adding small quantities of water by 
 degrees to it, and working and incorporating it to- 
 gether, the several parts of it are opened, and by 
 being thus exposed to the atmosphere, a tough gluey 
 substance is formed, which, without such temper- 
 ing, treading, and beating, could not have been pro- 
 duced. 
 
 Bricks thus tempered, become solid, smooth, 
 hard, and durable, and one brick, thus made, takes 
 up nearly as much earth, as a brick and a half, 
 made in the common w'ay, which are light, full of 
 cracks, and spongy, owing to the want of due work- 
 ing and management; to confirm this observation, 
 we shall give the following experiment, made by 
 M. Gallon. He took a certain quantity of the- 
 earth, prepared for the making of bricks, he let it 
 remain for seven hours, then caused it to be 
 moistened and beaten, during the space of thirty 
 minutes; the next morning the same operation was 
 repeated, and the earth was beaten for thirty 
 minutes ; in the afternoon it was again beaten for 
 fifteen minutes. Thus, this earth had only been 
 Avorked for an hour and quarter longer than usual, 
 but at three different times. The material had ac- 
 quired a greater density, by this preparation ; for a 
 brick made with this earth, weighed five pounds 
 eleven ounces, while another brick made in the 
 same mould, of the earth that had not received this 
 preparation, weighed only five pounds seven ounces. 
 Then having dried these bricks in the air, during 
 the space of thirteen days, and having burnt them 
 with others, without any particular precautions, 
 they Avere examined Avhen taken from the kiln, and 
 it Avas found that the bricks made of the earth, 
 which had been the most worked, still Aveighed four 
 ounces more than the others, each having lost five 
 ounces by the evaporation of the moisture. But 
 their strength was very different, for, on placing 
 them with the centre, on a sharp edge, and loading 
 the two ends, the bricks formed with the well tem- 
 pered earth, Avere broken w ith a weight at each end, 
 of 65 pounds, or 130 pounds in all, while the others 
 were broken with 35 pounds at each end, or 70 
 pounds in the whole. A mixture of ashes, which is 
 uoav uniformly practised about London, and light 
 sandy earth, which is usually practise din the country, 
 
 facilitates 
 
100 
 
 BRICKMAKING. 
 
 facilitates the work, and serves also to save coals or | 
 the wood in burning them. 
 
 The excellency of bricks consists chiefly in the 
 first and last operation ; for bricks made of good 
 earth, and well tempered, become solid and pon- 
 derous, and therefore, will take up a longer time 
 in drying and burning, than our common bncks 
 seem to require. It is also to be observed, tha 1 
 well drying of bricks, before they are burned, pre- 
 vents cracking and crumbling in their burning ; for 
 when the bricks are too wet, the parts are prevent- 
 ed from adhering together. The best way of or- 
 dering the fire, is, to make it gentle at first, and in- 
 crease it by degrees, as the bricks grow harder. 
 
 The common computation is, that every acre of 
 land will yield one million of bricks, in every foot in 
 depth, including ashes which are usually mixed 
 with it. In general our fields are shallow with 
 a bottom of gravel, yet we think they will aver- 
 age nearly five feet, though we believe we have 
 none that will run ten twelve or more feet, as about 
 Kingland ; at least such is Mr. Malcolm’s informati- 
 on on this subject. 
 
 Bricks are made by the thousand, as the most sa- 
 tisfactory mode between master and man, and a 
 handy man could mould in in one day, viz. lfom 
 five in the morning until eight at night, 5000. To 
 assist him in the preparation of the soil, &c. from the 
 heap (which is usually dug after the season for brick- 
 making is oyer and laid up) there is generally a 
 gang consisting of six persons ; one man tempers 
 and prepares the soil, which is done with a hoe 
 made long, in the shape of a mattock, a shovel, scoop, 
 a thick plank or board, and a cuckhold ; with the hoe 
 he pulig down the soil from the great heap, which is 
 chopped backwards with the shovel, to turn it as of- 
 ten as may be necessary, to mix and thoroughly in- 
 corporate the ashes and soil together, because it is 
 to tie understood, that at the time the soil is dug out, 
 and made into this heap, a layer of coal ashes is al- 
 ternately placed between a layer of soil, as often and 
 in such quantities in each layer as the quality of the 
 soil and other circumstances may make necessary. 
 The scoop is used to throw water over this portion 
 that is pulled down with the hoe, in order that it 
 may become, more and more, in a tempering state, 
 more soft and ductile ; and with the board he kneads 
 it together, over which a certain quantity of sand is 
 thrown, and it is then covered with pieces of sack- 
 ing or matting, to keep the sun and air from it. A 
 boy scoops or cuts otf a slice, with an instrument or 
 shovel having a short handle, and the blade of it 
 made concave, called a cuckhold ; this he brings 
 on his arms to the moulding table, which is placed 
 under a moveable shed, upon which, another boy 
 rolls out a lump somewhat bigger than will fit the 
 mould, the table have been previously strewed with 
 sand. The moulder, after dipping his mould into 
 dry sand, placed at one corner of las table, throws 
 
 the lump prepared, into the mould, and with a flat 
 smooth stick, about eight inches long, previously 
 dipped in a pan of water, strikes off the surplus 
 soil ; lie then immediately turns out the brick upon 
 a stand, or board, of the same size with the brick ; a 
 boy takes it from thence, and places it on a light bar- 
 row, with a lattice- work flame fixed over the frame 
 of tiie barrow, at about three feet high above the 
 wheel, and reduced to about eighteen inches in 
 height towards the handle, forming an inclined plane. 
 The new made bricks are placed on this lattice frame, 
 and over them, sand is thrown in sufficient quantities 
 to prevent their adhering to each other, as well as to 
 prevent in a certain degree their cracking in drying 
 while on the hacks. A boy wheels the barrow to the 
 hacks, and places them with great regularity and 
 dispatch, one above the other, a little diagonally, in 
 in order to give a free passage to the air. Each hack 
 is made wide enough for two bricks, to be placed 
 edgeways across, with a passage-between the heads 
 of each brick ; they are usually made eight bricks 
 high; the bottom bricks at the end of each hack are 
 old ones. 
 
 In showery weather, wheat or rye straw is care- 
 fully laid over the bricks that are drying on these 
 hacks, to keep them as free from wet as possible ; 
 for the brickmakers do not here, as in some places 
 more distant from the metropolis, go to the expence 
 of roofed coverings, or long sheds; which from the 
 extent of one of these fields would be impossible. 
 
 If the weather is tolerably fine, a few days is suf- 
 ficient to make them dry enough to be turned, which 
 is done by resetting them more open, and turning 
 them ; and six or eight days more are required be- 
 fore they are fit to be put into the clamp, for kiins 
 are not in use in this part of the country. When 
 sufficiently dry, the clanipniaker levels the ground, 
 generally at one end of the range of hacks, nearly 
 centrical, making the foundation of the intended 
 clamp, somewhat higher than the surrounding 
 ground ; and with place bricks, if they have any, or 
 otherwise, with the driest of those just made, makes 
 a foundation of an oblong form, beginning with the 
 flue, which is nearly a brick wide, and running 
 straight through the clamp. In this flue, dry bavins, 
 coals, and cinders (vulgarly called breese,) are laid 
 and pressed in close, in order that the interstices 
 between wood and coal may be properly filled up. 
 On the sides ofttie flue, the bricks are placed diago- 
 nally about one inch asunder, and between each 
 layer of bricks three or four inches of breese are 
 strewed, and in this manner they build tier upon 
 tier as high as the clamp is meant to be ; never omitt- 
 ing between each layer, as well as between each 
 brick, tiiat is placed diagonally, to put a due portion 
 of breese. When they have made the clamp about 
 six feet long, another flue is made similar in every 
 respect to the preceding, to the extent of the size of 
 the intended clamp, provided only that the bricks 
 
 are 
 
BRICKMAKING. 
 
 101 
 
 are meant to be burnt off quick, which they will be 
 in about 21 or SO days, according- as the weather 
 may suit. But if there is no immediate hurry for the 
 bricks, the flues are placed about nine feet asunder, 
 and the 'clamp left to burn off slowly. When fire i- 
 set to the clamp, and it burns well, the ash hole, 
 being placed at the west end generally, the mouths 
 are stopped with bricks, and clay laid against them : 
 the outsides of the clamps are plaistered with clay if 
 the weather is at all precarious, or the fire burns 
 furiously: and to the end against which addition is 
 made to the clamp, skreens made of reeds worked 
 into frames about six feet high, and sufficiently 
 wide to be moved about with ease, are placed to 
 keep off the weather, and against any particular 
 side where wet is most prevalent. On the top 
 of the clamp a thick layer ofbreese is uniformly 
 laid. ‘ 
 
 T: is is the mode of manufacturing the common 
 grey stocks for walls and common buildings; but 
 some brickmakers, in order to mix the soil and ashes 
 more regularly, perform it with a machine, called a 
 clay mill, which a horse turns round. This ma- 
 chine consists of a tub or tun fixed to the ground, in 
 which is placed perpendicularly an instrument re- 
 sembling a worm or screw ; the soil being put in at 
 top, is worked down by the rotary motion 1 of the 
 worm, and is forced out at a hole made on the side 
 near the bottom of the tub. A man supplies the tub 
 with fresh soil, properly moistened, while tie person 
 who supplies the moulder keeps removing that 
 which is thus prepared, or pressed out. 
 
 Washcd'vmhns, or more properly marls, are made 
 with still greater attention; a circular walled recess 
 is built about four feet deep, and from three to four 
 feet w ide, paved at bottom, and from 10 to 12 feet 
 diameter, having a horse- wheel placed in the cen- 
 ter; the ground is raised all round it, and a plat- 
 form made upon a level with the top of the recess. 
 On this platform the i.orse walks, a pump is fixed 
 into a well, as near to the platform as may be, to 
 supply ihe recess with water as often as occasion 
 may require. A barrow made to fit the recess, and 
 t ick set w ith long iron teeth, Avell loaded, : s chained 
 t the traces of the horse, who drags this after him; 
 a nan wheels a harrow full of soil previously pre- 
 p -red in a heap the same as for the common stocks, 
 a d shoots it regularly round the reces^, he then 
 p mips a certain quantity of water, which, by means 
 O ! troughs or shoots, runs on it. The horse is then 
 s«t i a motion, and the barrow being loaded accor- 
 dingly, forces its way into the soil, admits the water 
 i. io it, anc! by thus tearing and operating i\ mixes 
 t he ingredients a* the same time that it gives an 
 o-oortunity for stones and other ponderous substan- 
 ces to subside to the bottom. The man keeps supply- 
 ing it with fresh soil and water until there is a suffi- 
 cient body iff the recess On one side, but as near 
 to the recess us possible, the ground is made smooth, 
 
 i and dug out about IS inches or tw'o feet deep into a 
 hollow square; and the soil now becomes paste, 
 and being thereby sufficiently washed, purified, and 
 tluid, troughs are placed from the recess to this hol- 
 low ground, and it is pumped or ladled out with 
 scoops or shovels into tiie troughs, carefully leaving 
 the sediment at the bottom of the recess to be after- 
 wards thrown out on the sides of it, together with 
 stones, bones. &c Over this hollow square or pit 
 the fluid soil diffuses itself, where it settles of an 
 equal thickness, and remains until wanted for u- r> ; 
 the superfluous Avater being either evaporated or 
 drained from it, by its being exposed a certain length 
 of time in so thin a body. W ten they have got a 
 sufficient quantity of washed earth in this pit, ano- 
 ther is made alongside of it, and so they proceed un- 
 til they have got as much thus prepared, as they are 
 likely to want during tiie season. 
 
 The clamps for burning these better sorts of bricks 
 are individually the same with the other, but great- 
 er care is taken in not o\ r erheating the kiln, and in 
 causing it to burn moderately, as equably and as 
 diffusively at the same time as possible. 
 
 In the country, bricks are always burnt in kilns, 
 whereby less waste arises, less fuel is consumed, 
 and the bricks are sooner burnt. The bricks are 
 first set or placed in it, and then the kiln being- 
 covered with pieces of bricks, or tiles, the work- 
 men put in some wood, to dry them with a gentle 
 fire ; and this they continue till the bricks are pretty 
 dry, Avhicli takes up two or three days, which is 
 known by the smoke turning from a darkish colour 
 to a transparent smoke ; they then leave off putting 
 in wood, and proceed to make ready for burning, 
 which is performed by putting in brush, furze, spray, 
 heath, brakes, or fern laggots, according to the 
 scarcity or plenty of those articles in the neighbour- 
 hood. But before they put in any faggots they dam 
 up the mouth or mouths of the kiln with pieces of 
 bricks, which is called in some places shinlogs, 
 piled upon one another and close it up with wet 
 brick earth. 
 
 The shinlog they make so high that there is but 
 just room above to thrust in a faggot ; they th< n 
 proceed to put in more faggots, till the kiln and ns 
 arches look white, and the fire appears at the top of 
 the kiln ■: upon which they slacken the fire for an 
 hour, and let all cool by degrees. Tins they con- 
 tinue to do alternately, heating and slackening till 
 the bricks bn thoroughly burnt, which is usually 
 effected in 48 ’-ours. One of these kilns will burn 
 20,000 bricks, and is usually J 3 feet long, by 10 
 i teet six inches in depth, and the height about 12 ffot. 
 j The walls are carried up something out of the per- 
 i pendicular at the top, and inclining towards each 
 I other, so that the area at the top is not more than 
 114 sqn re feet; the thickness of the walls is one 
 j foot two inches. 
 
 Dd 
 
 The 
 
ios 
 
 BRICKMAKING. 
 
 The bricks are set on flat arches, having holes | 
 left them something like lattice work. 
 
 Goldham observes that bricks will have double 
 the strength if after one burning they be steeped in 
 water, and burnt a fresh. 
 
 As every man who has occasion to use bricks, j 
 whether on his own estate, or on that of his land- 
 lord, cannot but be sensible of the great value of a 
 perfectly dry house; and as it is impossible a house J 
 can be dry if bricks are used which are not suffici- 
 ently burnt, such as the place bricks before descri- 
 bed, he will do well to consider whether it will not 
 be more advantageous to him in the end, to make 
 use of no other than the best hard scurd bricks, be 
 the colour of them what they may, and be the cost 
 what it will. Such bricks are easily known by their 
 sound, and by their striking fire with steel. It will 
 be found that, besides the comfort and firmness of 
 the building, they will be cheaper than place bricks, 
 together with the expence of battening the walls. 
 
 In the interior of the county of Surrey, tiles are 
 almost uniformly used for roofs of houses, and in 
 some instances, on barns : but, between Dorking 
 and Horsham, a heavy, but i ry durable sort of 
 slate stone is qsed. Nearer London, slates, either 
 Welsh or Westmoreland, pi\ vail. As there are 
 many persons who* give the preferance to tiles, it 
 may not be amiss to give the result of a curious ex- 
 periment on -that subject, as related by the bishop 
 of LandafF. 
 
 “ That sort of slate, other circumstances being 
 the same, is esteemed the best which imbibes the 
 least water ; for the imbibed water not only increa- 
 ses the w eight of the covering, but in frosty wea- 
 ther, being converted into ice, it swells and shivers 
 the slate. This effect of frost is very sensible in 
 tiled houses, but is scarcely felt in those which are 
 slated ; for good slate imbibes but little water, and 
 w hen tiles are well glazed, they are rendered in some 
 measure, with respect to this point, similar to slate. 
 
 I took a piece of Westmoreland slate, and a piece of 
 common tile, and weighed each of them carefully; 
 the surface of each was about 30 square inches ; both 
 the pieces were immersed in water for about ten mi- 
 nutes, and then taken out and weighed as soon as 
 they had ceased to drip; the tile had imbibed above 
 a seventh part of its weight of water : and the slate 
 bad not imbibed a two-hundredth part of its weight ; 
 indeed the wetting of the slate was merely superficial. 
 
 I placed both the wet pieces before the fire; in a 
 quarter of an hour the slate was become quite dry, 
 and >ofthe same weight it had before it was put into 
 *the water; but the tile had lost only about twelve 
 grains of water it bad imbibed, which was, as near 
 as could be expected, the very same quantity that 
 had been spread over its surface; for it was the 
 quantity which had been imbibed by the slate, the 
 surface of which was equal to that of the tile; the 
 tile was left to dry in a room heated to 00 degrees, 
 
 and it did not lose all the water it had imbided in 
 less than six days. 
 
 The finest sort of blue slate is sold at Kendal for 
 3s. 6d. per load, which comes to jgl. 15s. per ton, 
 the load weighing two hundred weight. — The coar- 
 sest may be had for 2s. 4d. a load, or jgl. 3s. 4d. per 
 ton. Thirteen loads of the finest sort will cover 42 
 square yards of roof^ and 18 loads of the coarsest 
 will cover the same space ; so that there is half a 
 ton less weight upon 42 square yards of roof when 
 the finest slate is used, than if it was covered with 
 the coarsest kind, and the difference of the expense 
 of the material, is only 3s. 6d. To balance in some 
 measure the advantage arising from the lightness of 
 the finest slate, it mnst be remarked that it owes its 
 lightness, not so much to any diversity in the compo- 
 nent parts of the stone from which it is split, as to 
 the thinness to which the workmen reduce it ; and 
 it is not able to resist violent winds so well as that 
 which is heavier. 
 
 A common Cambridge tile weighed 37 ounces : 
 they use at a medium 700 tiles for covering 100 
 square feet, or about two and a half tons of tile to 
 42 square yards. Hence, without including the 
 weight of what is used in wrapping over, &c. when 
 a building is covered with copper or lead, it will be 
 seen that 42 square yards of building will be cover- 
 ed by, 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Copper 4 
 
 Fine -Slate * ...... . 26 
 
 Lead 27 
 
 Coarser Slate. ............ 36 
 
 Tiles .54 
 
 From the foregoing statement, it is evident that 
 the consequences arising from a covering with tiles 
 are two-fold; the first, that owing to the weight of 
 them, we are obliged to make our plates and rafters 
 of the roofs, so much stouter and heavier than there 
 is any occasion to do for slates, even of the coarser 
 sort ; and consequently this increased strength in the 
 timber, must add to the expence of the roof, sup- 
 posing that the same thickness of wall be sufficient. 
 Secondly, it is proved, that from the porosity of the 
 tile, it imbibes one seventh part of its weight, or 
 above file ounces ot water in ten minutes, and that 
 it requires the heat of 60 degrees, which is five ded 
 grees above temperate, and six days to make the 
 tile as dry as it was before it was saturated. How 
 much longer the tile may continue wet, during the 
 moist winter months, if it ever dries at all upon the 
 roofs of onr houses, is a question we are not pre- 
 pared to explain. But Mr. Malcolm thinks, that 
 tiles in a damp state, lodging on timber, for at least 
 six months, must injure the timber, and, together 
 with the unburnt, or place bricks in the walls, must 
 produce an almost perpetual moisture, and make a 
 house damp and unhealthy at all seasons. 
 
 Before we conclude this article, '-ye -shall lay be- 
 
 * fo*e 
 
BRICKMAKING. 
 
 fore our readers, an account of Mr. Cartwright’s 
 
 S atent bricks, as stated in the specification, dated 
 pril 14, 1795. — “ The principle of this invention 
 will readily be comprehended, by supposing the two 
 opposite sides of a common brick to have a groove 
 Or rabbet down the middle, which groove must be a 
 little more than half the width of the side of the 
 brick in which it is made; there will then be left a 
 shoulder on each side of the groove, each of which 
 shoulders will be nearly equal to one quarter of the 
 width of the side of the brick, or to one half of the 
 groove or rabbet. (See Plate!, Miscellanies.) A 
 course of these bricks being laid shoulder to shoul- 
 der, (as in Figure 5,) they will form an indented 
 line, or nearly equal divisions ; the grooves, or 
 rabbets being somewhat wider than the two adjoin- 
 ing shoulders, to allow for mortar, See. When the 
 next course comes on, the shoulders of the bricks 
 which compose it, will fall into the grooves of the 
 first course ; aud the shoulders of the first course 
 w r iil fit into the grooves or rabbets of the second; 
 and so on, as is clearly shewn in the plate. This 
 mode of shaping the bricks is to be preferred, as 
 being perfectly simple; the principle, however, w ill 
 be preserved, in whatever manner they may be 
 made to lock into, or cramp each other, by what- 
 ever form of indenture ; or whether by one groove, 
 or more. But it must be observed, in whatever 
 manner the variations from the simple form {Figure 
 1.) is made, except by straight lines, the two sides 
 of the brick, &c. must proportionally vary, so that, 
 when they come together in work, they may corres- 
 pond and fit each other; an example of which is 
 exhibited in Figure 2, where a and b slew the op- 
 posite sides of a brick. It may make some small 
 saving in the expence, though pe/haps not a prudent 
 one, if the bricks &c. were of such a width as to ad- 
 mit a common brick, or piece of plain stone, between 
 the shoulders of each of these bricks ; in that case, 
 the groove must be made proportionally wider. 
 For. the purpose of turning the angles, it may be 
 expedient to have bricks or stones, of such size and 
 shape, as to correspond with each wall respectively; 
 this, however, is not absolutely necessary, as the 
 groove' in the bricks, &c. of each wall, where they 
 cross, or meet each other, may be levelled, and the 
 bricks wrap over, as in the common mode. For the 
 purpose of breaking the joints in the depth of the 
 walls, bricks will be required of different lengths, 
 though of the same width. Buildings constructed 
 with bricks, of this principle, w ill require no bond- 
 timber, one universal bond, running through, 'and 
 connecting the whole building together; the walls 
 of which, can neither crack, nor bulge out, without 
 breaking through *the bricks themselves. When 
 these bricks, &c. that is to say, of the simple form, 
 Figure 1, are used for the construction of arches, the 
 sides of the grooves and the shoulders, should be 
 the radius of the circle, of which the intended arch 
 
 103 
 
 is to be a segment. ( See Figure 3.) Though, if 
 the circle be very large, the difference of the width 
 of the bricks, See. at top and bottom, will be so trif- 
 ling, as to make a minute attention to this particu- 
 lar, scarcely, if at all necessary. When these arches 
 are required to be particularly flat, or are applied in 
 such situations as admit not of end w'alls, as in the 
 construction of bridges, &c. it may be expedient to 
 have the shoulders dove-tailed, to prevent the arch 
 cracking across, or giving way endwise. ( See 
 Figure 4.) If the bricks are as wide at the bottom 
 as at the top, the manner of putting them together 
 by a dove-tail, is obvious ; when not so wide at the. 
 bottom, as the top, on one side of the brick, See. the 
 sides of the shoulders must be parallel, and on the 
 other, the sides of the groove or rabbets must be 
 parallel, so that the two sides of the bricks, &c 
 which fall together, may correspond. (See Figure 
 4, b c.) In forming an arch, the bricks must be 
 coursed across the centre, on which the arch is turn- 
 ed, and a groove side of the bricks must face the 
 workmen. (See figure 6.) It maybe expedient* 
 though not absolutely necessary, in laying the first 
 two or three courses at least, to begin at the crown, 
 and work downwards each way. In arch-work, the 
 bricks, £?c. may be either laid in mortar, or dry, and 
 the interstices afterwards filled, and wedged up, by 
 pouring in lime putty, plaster of Paris, grouting, or 
 any other convenient material, at the discretion of 
 the workman or builder. It is obvious, that arches 
 upon this principle, having no lateral pressure, can 
 neither expand at the foot, nor spring at the crown ; 
 consequently they will want no abutments, requiring 
 only perpendicular walls to be let into, or to rest 
 upon ; and they will want no superincumbent 
 weight upon the crown to prevent their springing 
 up — a circumstance of great importance, in many 
 instances, in the construction of bridges. Another 
 advantage attending this mode of arching, is, that 
 the centres may be struck immediately ; so that the 
 same centre, (which in no case, need be many feet 
 wide, whatever may be the-breadth of the arch), 
 may be regularly shifted, as the work proceeds. 
 But the greatest, and most striking advantage at - 
 tending this invention, is the absolute security it 
 affords, and at a very reasonable rate, against the 
 possibility of fire; for, from the peculiar properties 
 of this arch, requiring no abutments, it may be laid 
 open, or let into common W'alls, no stronger than 
 what are required for timbers, of' which it will pre- 
 clude the necessity, and save the expence. 
 
 The different kinds of bricks made in this coun- 
 try, are principally place-bricks, grey, and red 
 stocks, marie facing bricks, and cutting bricks. 
 The place bricks, and stocks, are used in common 
 walling. The niarles are made in the neighbour- 
 hood of London, and used in the outside of build- 
 ings ; these are very beautiful bricks, of a fine yel- 
 low colour, hard, and w'ell burnt, and in every 
 
 respect 
 
104 
 
 BRICKMAKING. 
 
 respect superior to the stocks. The finest kind of J 
 marie and red bricks, are called cutting bricks, they 1 
 are used in the arches over windows and doors, 
 being- rubbed to a centre, and gauged to a height. 
 There is also a fine kind of white bricks, made near j 
 Ipswich, which are used for facing, and sometimes j 
 brought to London for that purpose. The Windsor | 
 or fire-bricks, which are made at Hedge rly, a vil- 1 
 lage near Windsor, are red, and contain a large pro- 
 portion of sand; these are used for coating furnaces, i 
 and lining the ovens of glass houses, where they ! 
 stand the utmost fury of the fire. Dutch clinker j 
 are also imported, long narrow bricks, of a brim- j 
 stone colour, very hard, and well burnt; they are 
 frequently warped, and appear almost vitrified by 
 the heat. The use of them is for paving yards and 
 stables. Sir Henry Wotton, mentions the triangu- 
 lar form of brick, from Daniel Barbara, with com- 
 mendation ; eacli side of these bricks, being a foot. 
 They were used in the time of the Romans. Al- 
 though, on some particular occasions, an alteration 
 m the size of bricks, may not only be admissable, 
 but adviseable, yet, in a general sense, any material 
 deviation from the common form, and size, would 
 be improper. 
 
 In laying bricks, in the summer season, it is ad- 
 viseable to dip them into water, until they become 
 saturated ; and when the work is left for only one 
 day, the walls should be as carefully covered as in 
 the winter; for at such time the mortar sets too 
 rapidly, and the necessary cohesion is destroyed. 
 This evil is increased by the dust which hangs about 
 bricks, more especially at this time of the year ; and 
 this last circumstance should operate as an addition- 
 al motive for adopting the above expedient. While 
 the injuries to which brick-work is liable, from 
 frost, &c. is known to all ; it is singular, that a 
 point of equal, if not superior importance, should 
 be almost wholly overlooked, or at least, generally 
 deemed too inconsiderable to merit any particular 
 attention. 
 
 The legislature has often interfered to regulate 
 the manufacture of bricks. By stat. 12, Geo. 1. 
 cap. 35, earth or clay r designed for making bricks 
 for sale, shall be dug and turned at least once be- 
 tween the 1st. of November, and the 1st of Febru- 
 ary, and not be made into bricks till after trie 1st. of 
 March, and no bricks be made for saie but between 
 the 1st. of March and 29th. of September. But by 
 stat. 10, Geo. 3. cap. 49, earth may be dug for ma- 
 king bricks at any time of the year, provided such 
 earl a be turned once before it be made into bricks. 
 And by the former statute, no Spanisii is to be mix- 
 
 ed with the earth or breese used in the burning of 
 bricks ; and all bricks are to be burnt in kilns or dis- 
 tinct clamps, each set by itself . 
 
 By stat. Geo. 2, cap. 22, there may be mixed with 
 the brick-earth any quantity of sea-coal ashes, sifted 
 or skreened through a sieve or skreen half an inch 
 wide, and not exceeding 20 loads to the making 
 of 100,000 bricks, each load not exceeding 36 bush- 
 els. And breese may be mixed with coal in the bur- 
 ning of bricks in clamps for sale, &c. Stock bricks, 
 and place bricks, may be burnt in one and the same 
 clamp, so that the stock bricks be set in one distinct 
 parcel, and not mixed and surrounded with place 
 bricks. 
 
 For the more effectually securing the observation 
 of these laws, it was enacted by 12. Geo. 1. cap. 
 85. for the better discovery of offenders, that the 
 master and w ardens of the company of tylers and 
 bricklayers should have power to search brick-kilns, 
 &c. but they having permitted, and even encoura- 
 ged divers persons to make bricks contrary to the 
 directions in the said act by 2. Geo. 2. cap. 15, they 
 are divested of that power, and any two, three, or 
 more persons, appointed by the justices of peace, are 
 empowered, within 15 miles of London, to go in the 
 day time into any grounds, sheds or places where 
 any clay or earth shall be digged or digging, for 
 bricks or pan-tiles, or any bricks or pan-tiles shall 
 be making or made for sale, and there to view, search, 
 and inspect the same, &c. Offenders to forfeit 20 
 shillings for every thousand of unstatutable bricks, 
 and 10 shillings for every thousand of such tiles ; 
 one moiety to the use of the prosecutor, the other to 
 the poor of the parish where the offence shall be 
 committed. 
 
 By 17. Geo. 3. cap. 42, all bricks made for sale 
 shall when burned, be not less than 8-§ inches long, 
 2-f thick and 4 w ide. 
 
 By 43. Geo. 3. c. 69(consolidating the excise 
 duties) passed July 4th. 1803, every thousand of 
 bricks made in Great Britain, not exceeding 10 
 inches long, 3 inches thick, and 5 inches wide, is lia- 
 ble to a duty of 5s. and exceeding tie foremention- 
 ed dimensions to 10s.; and every thousand of bricks 
 made in Great Britain, and smoothed or polished 
 on one or more sides, not exceeding the superficial 
 dimensions of 10 inches long, and 5 inches wide, is 
 subject to a duty of 12s. ; and if such bricks exceed 
 those dimensions, to the duty on paving tiles. The 
 said duties are to be paid by the makers. An addi- 
 onal duty of lOd. per thousand was imposed on 
 bricks and tiiesj in the ways and means for the 
 year 1805. 
 
UTtUSHMAKING. 
 
 As there is scarcely an article of more general 
 consumption or universal application than brushes, 
 it seems wonderful, that so little lias been done to- 
 wards rendering them more perfect. We are afraid 
 this is in a great measure owing to a principle, too 
 commonly acted on, of making things cheap, rather 
 than good. Such a notion will ever operate strongly, 
 to prevent that gradual improvement of the subject 
 which can only arise from more liberal and extended 
 views. 
 
 Tbe operation of making a brush, is one of the 
 most simple that can be described, as there is scarce- 
 ly a tool made use of in the business, which is not 
 familiar to every workman. We shall begin 
 With the Stock, into which the hair is fixed ; 
 tl'is is made of any kind of wood that is dry 
 and well seasoned, and being brought to the 
 intended thickness, by planing, &c. it is next sent 
 to be bored with a quantity of holes, of a proper 
 size to receive the bunches of hair. This is done 
 by means of a small collar and mandrel, with 
 a short bit of the intended size, fixed to it by means 
 of an inside screw, cut in the w'ood into which the 
 bit is fitted, which corresponds to the screw on the 
 mandrel. Each bit being thus fitted, is easily 
 changed for a larger or smaller one. The lathe is kepi 
 an motion by a treadle. The workman then takes the 
 pattern, which is simply a piece of hard, thin, wood, 
 with holes bored through it, at proper and regular 
 distances from each other, and of a ‘fize correspond- 
 ing w ith the stock of the brush, to which he attaches 
 it by means of a vice, somewhat similar to those made 
 use of by ladies to confine their work to the table. 
 Things thus arranged, the workman stands at right 
 angles with the mandrel, and his breast against the 
 back puppet, and holding the stock in botli hands, 
 with the pattern towards him, enters the bit into 
 each hole, one after the other, perforating the stock, 
 w hich, from the velocity the bit goes with, is done 
 with astonishing dispatch. This prepares the stock 
 for the reception of the hair, which is previously 
 assorted, both as to colour and quality, in the fol- 
 lowing manner: — Russia hair is imported. in bun- 
 dles, of about 71b. each, each bundle contains a 
 variety of shades, inserted in locks, as they are 
 taken from the animal ; it is the business of the 
 assorter, to select these into heaps, generally four, 
 w hich are, black, white, and grey, and the very 
 bright, which the workmen distinguish by the name 
 of lilly white, and keep for particular purposes ; 
 sometimes, however, the hair is divided into 14 or 
 
 15 different kinds. The next operation, is the 
 drawing er combing it, to deprive it of all the shoft 
 hair, and other impurities, as well as to separate 
 and make it lay more even; for this purpose a 
 
 I 5 steel-toothed comb is fixed to the table, having 
 about JG or 18 teeth, of 3, or 3\ inches long, and 
 about half an inch asunder. These teeth are lix- 
 | ed to a stock of wood, which is attached to the 
 bench. Through this comb the hair is drawn, by 
 taking small quantities at a time, in the band, till jt 
 is deprived of all the short and small hair. The 
 hair is then knocked up even, into smaller bundles, 
 which are tied round, and the small ends of the hair, 
 which of course are of very unequal lengths, are cut 
 j aw ay, by a pair of shears.* In this state it is hand- 
 ] ed to the workman w ho is to set the hair in the 
 stock or wood. This part is performed by a man 
 who sits before a bench, on which is fastened a 
 smooth board, inclining a little towards him ; on 
 this board be opens the bundles of hair, taking 
 care not to discompose its arrangement. Having 
 taken in the left hand a stock or wood, bored with 
 holes, as before described, he bends the end of a 
 fine brass, or iron wire, wound round a reel, into a 
 loop, and passes it, in this doubled state, through the 
 first hole, from the back to the front of the stock; 
 into this loop be puts a small bunch of hair, taken 
 from the bench, he then draws strongly on the 
 double wire, with the right hand, which causes the 
 hair to double over t lie w ire, before it can follow it. 
 into tbe bole, the wire is then a little twisted, by 
 way of fastening, and the next hole proceeded to 
 in the same manner. The wire is never broken off, 
 or cut, unless by accident, through the whole pro- 
 cess, because, after its entrance into the first hole, it, 
 is simply doubled, and passed through, and in draw- 
 ing it back again, the single wire alone is drawn on. 
 In order to prevent the workmen’s hands being 
 injured by the wire, they arm them w ith leather, 
 in the same manner as shoe-makers. 
 
 After each line of holes is filled, the hair is cut to a 
 proper and equal length, by a pair of large shears, 
 held and opened by the fingers and thumb of the right 
 
 hand 
 
 j * Whale hone split very fine, so as to resemble bristles, has of 
 late been much used as a subsitute for hair, it is never used alone, 
 but mixed with hair, and answers all common purposes extremely 
 well. This article is sold of various degrees of fineness; the mode 
 s of manufacturing it vv ill be giveu in the ind part of this work, under 
 I V/httU bone. 
 
 1 ‘ Ee 
 
106 
 
 BRUSHMAKING. 
 
 hand, the lower handle resting in a notch on the 
 bench, to enable the workmen to apply more force 
 by bringing the heel of the hand to bear on the up- 
 per handle. Through the lower blade are made 
 two holes, one near the point and the other near the 
 heel ; those are to fasten a piece of hard wood, of a 
 proper and equal thickness, to the inside of the 
 blade, which, when the shears are used, is brought 
 to bear against the stock, and serves to keep the 
 blade at the intended distance from the stock, to 
 leave the hair of a proper length. When cutting 
 away the hair with the shears, the ends of the hair 
 are brought to bear against a board standing up and 
 fastened to the bench, which causes them to fall in a 
 proper position lor future use, these ends are com- 
 monly applied to the making of inferior brushes, 
 such as sweeping brashes, hearth brushes, &c. 
 
 The brush is now handed to another workman, 
 who lays a thin vineer of wood on the back, which 
 secures the wire and gives the brush a neat and 
 finished appearance. The vineer is applied to the 
 best clothes brushes with glue, but to common shoe 
 or scrubbing brushes, it is only sprigged on with 
 small brads. 
 
 When the glue is dry, the brush is brought to the 
 intended form with a stock-shave, or patten-ma- 
 kers knife, and finished with glass, paper, Sec. 
 
 In all brushes of the kind we have been descri- 
 bing, i. e. clothes brushes &c. the tufts of hair are 
 drawn into the hole by doubling them ; the process of 
 fixing the tufts of long haired brushes, such, for 
 instance, as sweeping or hearth brushes, is very diff- 
 erent ; the hair in these last is set into the wood by 
 dipping the ends of small tufts of hair into pitch, 
 (kept warm by a small charcoal fire, over which a 
 vessel containing pitch is kept, ) and splicing it 
 round the pitched end with a bit of thread, then dri- 
 ving it, whilst still warm, into the hole, to which 
 it is attached by the tenacity of the pitch. We are 
 of opinion, that a small quantity of tar would very 
 much improve the pitcli by rendering it more duc- 
 tile, particularly for brushes made in the winter, 
 when it must frequently happen that the pitch is so 
 chilled, by coming in contact with the stock, as to 
 prevent any sticking or cohesion between the hair 
 and the wood. 
 
 The other class of brushes are such as are made 
 without any holes for the reception of the hair, and 
 may be with propriety called spliced brushes. Of 
 this kind are the painters and glaziers brushes, and 
 the brushes made use of by masons for colouring 
 and washing the walls of houses. The handles of 
 the former are made round and tapering, -and the 
 workman, after having selected a sufficient quantity 
 of hair, surrounds the handle and splices it round 
 wear the small end, the small end of the stick is 
 then passed through a hole in the bench, and the ends 
 fefthe hair resting on the bench, with a hammer or 
 mallet the handle is driven on, till the large end is 
 
 buried a sufficient depth in the hair, or in other 
 words, till the hair projects far enough beyond the 
 large end of the stick. 
 
 Masons’ brushes are made bv laying the hair round 
 the flattened end of the stock or handle, and trap- 
 ping it tight with a list of leather, which is drawn 
 tight, and small flat headed nails driven through the 
 leather and hair into the wood. After this the ends 
 of the hair are scared evenly away with a little pitch 
 and a hot iron. 
 
 Tooth brushes, nail brushes, and brushes for a 
 great variety of other purposes, are manufactured in 
 the manner we have described, the only difference 
 being in the materials of which the stocks are made. 
 Tooth and nail brushes are grooved on the back, 
 for the wire to lie in, which grooves are afterwards 
 filled up with sealing wax, and then polished or 
 scraped to a finish, with files &c. 
 
 All the waste hair which is drawn out in combing, 
 is sold to the upholsterers for stuffing chairs &c. 
 
 Brushes for limners, which are sometimes called 
 tools, are made of very soft hogs hair, and as they 
 exceed the size of any single quill, they are kept 
 together by splitting or opening quills and wrapping 
 them round the hair, letting as much of the quill 
 project beyond the root of the hair, as is sufficient to 
 form a socket for the reception of the handle, which 
 is planted in its place, as soon as the splice has suffi- 
 ciently secured the quill to the hair ; the spficing is 
 then continued some way up the handle, and attach- 
 es the brush strongly to it. To bring it to a point, 
 as well as to soften the hair, it is ground on a stone 
 similar to the cutlers grinding stone ; after which 
 the splice is rubbed over with a common kind of 
 sealing wax. 
 
 Sable brushes are made with much more care than 
 any other kind, and the operation requires much 
 skill and ingenuity. These are all made in single 
 quills from the minutest size to the largest. The 
 great perfection of brushes of this kind is their com- 
 ing to a point and readily springing up to their pro- 
 per shape, after having been bent out of it. The 
 latter quality must chiefly depend on (he goodness of 
 the hair, but the former in a great measure on the 
 skill of the workman. Hair of a proper quality 
 being laid before the worknian, in much the same 
 manner as before described, but not deprived of its 
 small or taper ends, the workman commences by 
 talcing a small quantity of the longest hair, for the 
 center of the brush, which he surrounds with other 
 hair somewhat shorter, and proceeds in this way, 
 applying ten or a dozen hairs at a time, till the 
 brush is of a sufficient size for the intended quill; 
 it is then bound neatly round in two or three places, 
 and the quill being softened by soaking in water, is 
 forced into it from the large to the small end. Ca- 
 mel hair brushes are made in the same way as sable, 
 but from the natural softness and taper of the hair, 
 much less nicety is required: as any quantity/ not 
 
 exceeding 
 
BUTTONMAKING. 
 
 107 
 
 exceeding 1 the size of a quill will readily come to a 
 point. Brushes sold under this name are most com- 
 monly made of rabbits hair, which the hatters sup- 
 ply, being- unfit for their purpose as they use only 
 the down next the skin. 
 
 Bottle brushes are made by twisting hair between 
 
 a wire rope, the hair standing out at right angles to 
 the twisted wire, when a sufficient quantity of hair is 
 put in for the intended purpose, the handle is formed 
 by continuing tho twisted wire to the desired 
 length. 
 
 BUTTONMAKING. 
 
 Buttons, are articles of dress, serving to fasten 
 clothes tight about the body, and made of silk, mo- 
 hair, horsehair, thread, metal, & c. 
 
 The wrought buttons, in silk, mohrair, thread, & c. 
 are chiefly made at Macclesfield, and form the 
 staple commodity of that place. The use of them 
 may be traced back nearly two hundred years ; 
 they were formerly curiously wrought with the needle 
 and made a great figure in full trimmed suits. In 
 order to favour this button trade, an act of parli- 
 ment was passed about a century ago, inflicting a 
 penalty upon the wearer of moulds, covered with 
 cloth of the same garment; and this act, after 
 having fallen into neglect, was again attempted to 
 be enforced with rigour, in 1778, and lured infor- 
 mers were engagea tlioughout the Kingdom to put 
 it into execution, an odious, and very uncommer- 
 cial, mode of enforcing a manufacture, the result 
 of which, was ratiier to promote the use of metal and 
 horn buttons. 
 
 It may not perhaps be improper to remark that 
 persons wearing buttons consisting merely of a 
 mould, covered with cloth, are still liable to 
 penalties, from forty shillings to five pounds per 
 dozen. The importation of Buttons is prohibited 
 on pain of forfeiture, and a penalty of £ 100 on the 
 importer, and j£50 on the seller. 
 
 1. Common buttons are generally made of mohair; 
 some however are made of silk and others of thread, 
 but the last are of a very inferior sort. In order to 
 make a button of this kind, the mohair must be 
 previously wound on a bobbin, and the mould tixed 
 to a board by means of a bodkin thrust through the 
 middle of it; this being done, the workman wraps 
 the mohair round the mould in three, four, or six jj 
 columns, according to the button. 
 
 2. %{orse-huir button $. — The moulds of these are 
 
 covered with a kind of stuff, composed of silk and 
 hair, the warp being balladine silk, and the short 
 horse hair. This stuff is wove with two selvages, 
 in the same manner, and the same loom as ribbons ; 
 it is then cut into square pieces, which are sewn 
 round the moulJs. The superfluous hairs, and hubs 
 of silk, are next taken off, and the button rendered 
 glossy, which is done by putting a quantity of but- 
 tons into a kind of iron sieve, called by the work- 
 men a singing box; then a little spirit of wine 
 being poured into a kind of shallow iron dish, and 
 set on fire, the singing 1 box, containing the buttons, 
 is snaken briskly over the flame ^of the spirit, by 
 which means the superfluous hair, hubs of silk, &c. 
 are burnt off, without injuring the buttons. Great 
 care must be taken to keep the buttons in the sing- 
 ing box constantly in motion, for if they are suffer- 
 ed to rest over the flame, they will immediately 
 burn. When all the superfluous matter is burnt off, 
 the buttons are taken out of the singing box, and 
 put with crumbs of bread into a leather bag, about 
 three feet long, and of a conical shape ; the mouth, 
 (which is at the small end), being tied, the work- 
 man takes an end in each hand, and shakes it brisk- 
 ly with a particular jerk, which cleanses the buttons, 
 and renders them very glossy, and fit for sale. 
 
 3. Cold-twist buttons . — The moulds of these are 
 first covered in the same manner as the common 
 buttons ; they are next covered with a thin plate of 
 gold or silver, and then wrought over in different 
 forms, with purle and gimp; the former is a kind 
 of thread, composed of silk and gold wire, twisted 
 ■ together ; and the latter, capillary tubes, of gold 
 j or silver, about the tenth of an inch long, joined 
 j together, by means of a fine needle, filled with silk, 
 
 > and put through them,‘ in the same manner as 
 beads are strung. 
 
 4 . Metal 
 
BUTTONMAKING. 
 
 \108 
 
 4. Metal buttons. — Are chiefly manufactured in 
 Birmingham, and form a considerable article of 
 commerce. 
 
 Buttons, when first given form to, are called 
 blanks, and are either struck out of a large sheet 
 of metal, witli a punch driven by a fly-press, or cast 
 in a pair of flasks, of moderate size, containing 10 
 or 12 dozen each. In this latter case, the shanks 
 are previously fixed in the sand, exactly in the cen- 
 tre of the impression, formed by each pattern, so as 
 to have their extremities immersed in the melted 
 metal, when poured into the flask, by which means 
 ■they are firmly fixed in the buttons when cooled. 
 The former process is generally used for gilt, and 
 plated buttons, and the latter for those of white 
 and yellow metal. We shall first give an instance 
 of the former mode of procedure, as used in the 
 manufactBre of gilt buttons. The gilding metal is 
 an alloy or copper and zinc, containing a smaller pro- 
 portion of the latter than ordinary brass, and is 
 made either by fusing together the copper and zinc, 
 or by fusing brass, with liie requisite additional pro- 
 portion of copper. This metal is first rolled into 
 sheets, of the intended thickness of the button, and 
 the blanks are then punched out, as before men- 
 tioned. The blanks, when formed, if intended for 
 plain buttons, are usually planished by a single 
 stroke of a plain die, driven by the same engine, the 
 ■fly-press ; when for ornamented buttons, the figure 
 is frequently shuck in like manner, by an appropri- 
 ate die, though there are others which are orna- 
 mented by hand. The shanks, which are made 
 -with wonderful facility and expedition, by means of 
 a very curious engine, are then temporarily attach- 
 ed <to tlte bottom of each button, by a wire clamp, 
 like a pair of sugar tongs, and a small quantity of 
 solder and rosin applied to each. They are in this 
 state exposed to heat, on an iron plate, containing 
 about a gross, till the solder runs, and the shank 
 becomes fixed to the buttons, after which they are 
 put singly in a lathe, and their edges turn'ed off 
 smoothly. The surface of the metal, which has be- 
 come, in a small degree, oxydated by the action of 
 the heat in soldering, is next to be cleaned, which 
 in this, as well as in many other instances in the 
 manufacture of metallic articles, is effected by the 
 process of dipping, or pickling; that is, many dozens 
 of them are put into an earthern vessel, pierced full 
 of holes, like a culinder, the whole dipped into a 
 vessel of diluted nitric acid, suffered to drain for a 
 few seconds ; again dipped successively into four or 
 live other vessels, of pure water, and then dried. 
 
 The next operation is rough burnishing, which 
 is performed by fixing the buttons in a lathe and 
 applying to them a burnisher, made of hard black 
 stone got from Derbyshire, secured in a handle, like 
 the diamond of a glazier, bv which means, the mi- 
 nute pores, Occasioned by the successive action of the 
 heat and the acid, are closed, and the buttons ren- 
 
 dered more perfect. The first step towards the 
 gilding of all the alloy of copper, consists in cover- 
 ing the surface uniformly with a thin stratum of 
 mercury, by which means the amalgam, which is 
 afterwards applied, attaches itself to it much more 
 readily than it would otherwise do. This part of 
 the process is called quicking, and is affected by 
 putting any given quantity ot buttons, (perhaps a 
 gross,) into an earthern vessel, with a quantity of 
 mercury, which has been previously saturated with 
 nitric acid ; and thus, the buttons and mercury are 
 stirred together with a brush, till the mercury, car- 
 j ried by the affinity of the acid to the copper, ad- 
 | heres to the buttons, whose surfaces become uni- 
 ; lbrmly covered with it. The mercury which hangs 
 - 1 in loose drops on the buttons, is then shaken off, by 
 jerking the whole violently in an earthern vessel, 
 
 : full of small holes, calk’d bv the workmen, a basket; 
 
 | this operation leaves them with an even, and com- 
 ij pletc-ly covered surface, giving them the appearance 
 ! of silver; they are then ready for receiving the 
 ! amalgam. The amalgam is made by pouring any 
 j given quantity of mercury into an iron ladle, the 
 i inside of which has been previously guarded, 
 i that is, rubbed over with dry whiting, to prevent 
 j the gold from adhering to the iron : into this mer- 
 I eury, is thrown the portion of pure gold, intended 
 to cover a given, quantity of buttons; these two 
 metals are heated together, till the workman per- 
 ceives that there is a perfect union between them; 
 when he empties his ladle into a vessel, containing 
 cold water. The amalgam being cold, is put into a 
 piece of shamois leather, and squeezed till no more 
 mercury will pass through. What passes the lea- 
 ther, contains not the smallest portion of gold, 
 what remains, will be about the cons istency but- 
 ter, so completely united, that every particle of 
 mercury will contain an equal portion of gold. 
 The amalgam should then be put into an earthern 
 vessel, and a small quantity of nitric acid, added 
 thereto, allowing sufficient time for the acid to 
 unite with the mercury. But th^ buttons and 
 amalgam, are commonly introduced first, and a 
 quantity of diluted nitric acid added to them, so 
 that, for want of a complete union between the 
 mercury and acid first, if there be not a super- 
 abundant' of acid, there may not be sufficient to 
 carry all the amalgam to the surface of the buttons. 
 
 When the acid has had sufficient time to embrace 
 (as workmen call it) the mercury ; the buttons 
 j should he introduced, and stined till the amalgam 
 I completely attaches to the whole surlace of the but- 
 
 I tosis. 
 
 The quantity of gold used, is about five grains 
 to a gross of buttons, of an inch in diameter.* The 
 
 next 
 
 * The render, unacquainted with this branch of manufacture, tv i 1 1 
 be surprised to learn, how far a small quantity of gold, incorporated 
 
 with 
 
BUTTONMAKING. 
 
 next process, is the volatilization of (he mer- 
 cury, by heat, which is called by the workmen dry- 
 ing- off. This is performed bv first heating the but- 
 tons in an iron pan, somewhat like a large frying- 
 pan, till the amalgam, with which they are covered, 
 becomes fluid, and seems disposed to run into drops, 
 on which they are thrown into a large felt cap, 
 made of coarse wool, and goat’s hair, called a gild- 
 ing cap, and stirred about with a brush, to cause the 
 gold to be equally spread over them. They are 
 then again heated, again thrown into the gilding- 
 cap, and stirred, and these operations are repeated, 
 till the whole of the mercury is volatilized or dried 
 off. This part of the process, as will readily be j 
 conceived, is extremely unwholesome, and has the j 
 most terrible effects on the constitutions of the 
 workmen. Mr. Marie Saunders, an eminent but- 
 ton-maker, of Birmingham, has substituted the fol- 
 lowing apparatus, with success. 
 
 A hearth, of the usual height is to be erected ; in 
 the middle of which, a fire-place must be made, 
 with an horizontal flue, for the purpose of conduct- 
 ing the smoke backwards, to the chimney. An iron 
 plate is to cover the fire-place, over which must be 
 erected a chamber, of a pyramidal form, the back, 
 and sides of which, may be formed of cast, or sheet 
 iron, or any other suitable material, and the front 
 closed with a glass sash, leaving only sufficient 
 room between the hot plate and sash, for moving 
 the pan backwards and forwards with facility ; by 
 this means, the workman is enabled to have a full 
 >iew of his work, without being exposed to the 
 fumes of the mercury. The mercury when volati- 
 lized by the heat, will ascend into the 1 top of the 
 chamber, to which is to be fitted, a tube, bent down- 
 vvards, inserted into a tub of cask, through the cover, 
 which should be made air tight ; in this tub or cask, 
 another tube is to be fixed perpendicularly, but 
 bent down at the top, and terminating in an open 
 cask, into which the tube should descend, at least 
 18 inches. Both the casks must be partly filled 
 with water, nearly ?s high as the mouths of tlu* 
 tubes. Bv this contrivance, the mercury will be 
 condensed in the tubs, and the health of the work- 
 men preserved. The latter cask or tub, Mr. laun- 
 ders recommends being placed outside the building. 
 
 The last process is burnishing, which finishes, 
 and fits them for carding. 
 
 The Zi'hitc metal buttons , which are composed of 
 brass, alloyed with different proportions oftin, after 
 having been cast as before mentioned, are polished, 
 
 with mrrrurv, w i it spread over a smooth surface of copper, riv - 
 erains, worth one -hilling; and threepence, on the tare of . 
 gross, that 'is 144 buttons, each of one inph di.-un; ter, are sufficient 
 to excuse the manufacturer fi om the penalty infUct-d fiv an act of 
 Parliament : yet, many, upon an assav, are found to be deficient 
 oi' this small quantity, and the maker fined, and the buttons forfeited 
 accordingly. Many hundred grosses have been tolerably gilt w ith 
 half that quantity ; to such extent ran gold bespread, ( w hen incorpo- 
 rated v, ith mercury.) over the surface of a smooth. piece of copper.” 
 
 m 
 
 by turning them m a lathe, and applying succes- 
 sively, a piece of buffalo skin glued on wood, 
 charged w ith pow-dered grindstone, and oil, rotten 
 stone, and crocus martis. They are then white- 
 boiled, that is, boiled with gram tin, in a solution 
 of crude red tartar, of-argol, and lastly, finished 
 with a buff, with finely prepared crocus. 
 
 5. Glass buttons . — These articles are frequently 
 wholly composed of glass, variously coloured, in 
 imitation of the opal, lapis lazule, and other stones. 
 The glass is kept in fusion, and the button nipped 
 out of it whilst in a plastic state, by a pair of iron 
 moulds, like those used for casting pistol shot, 
 adapted to the intended form of the button; the 
 shank is previously inserted into the mould, so that 
 it may become imbedded in the glass when cold. 
 
 C. Mother of pearl buttons . — The mode of fixing 
 the shanks to mother of pearl buttons, is by drilling 
 a hole in the back of each button which is undercut, 
 that is larger at the bottom than the top; the shank 
 being driven in with a steady stroke, its extremity 
 extends on striking against the bottom of the hole, 
 and becomes firmly rivetted into the button. To 
 these, fossit-stones are frequently added, which are 
 usually attached with isinglass-glue, steel studs 
 are also often rivetted into buttons of this and vari- 
 ous other kinds. 
 
 7. Shell buttons . — Are those which consist of a 
 back, generally made of bone, without any shank, 
 but corded with catgut, and covered in front with a 
 thin plate of metal struck with a die. T lie backs 
 are cut out with a brace or stock, the bit of which is 
 a circular saw, similar to the saw made use of in tre- 
 panning, and the four holes through which tire cat- 
 gut passes, are drilled by four drills moving parallel 
 to each other, and acting at once. They are then 
 corded by children, who tie the catgut on the inside; 
 the cavity is filled with melted rosin, and the metal 
 shell applied warm. The button is then pressed be- 
 tween twor centres in a lathe, which are forced toge- 
 ther by a weight acting on a lever, and the edges of 
 the shell turned down during its revolution with a 
 small burnisher. 
 
 In the year 1700, a patent was granted to Mr. 
 Henry Clay, of Birmingham, for a new method of 
 manufacturing buttons of slale or slit stone: and in 
 1800, Mr. Joseph, Barnett, of the same place, ob- 
 tained a patent fora mode of making buttons, by 
 fixing two shanks or other fastenings on one button, 
 one at each side, on the under surface, opposite to 
 each other, instead of only one in the centre,. 
 
 By 36 Geo. 3. c. 6 (K any person putting false 
 marks on gilt buttons, erasing any marks except 
 such as express the real quality, or any other words, 
 except real gilt, or plated, incurs the penalty offor- 
 feiting such buttons, and also £5. for any quantity 
 not exceeding i 2 dozen; and if above, after the rate 
 of £1. for every 12 dozen. The penalty, however, 
 does not extend to those who mark the words dou- 
 Ff ble 
 
MO 
 
 CABINETMAKING. 
 
 ble and treble gilt, provided, in the case of double 1 
 gilt buttons, gold shall be equally spread upon their j 
 upper surface, exclusively of the edges, in the pro- j 
 portion of 10 grains to the surface of a circle 12 inches 
 in diameter, and in that of treble gilt, the gold shall 
 amount to 15 grains m the same proportion. The 
 penalty on making false bills of parcels, expressing 
 any other than the real quality of such buttons, is 
 £ L 20. and that on mixing buttons of different quali- 
 ties, forfeiture of the same, and £5. for any number 
 between one and 12 dozen, and above this number 
 £ 1 . for every 12 dozen. In order to ascertain 
 what shall be deemed gilt or plated buttons, gilt 
 buttons shall have gold equally spread upon the up- 
 per surface in the proportion of five grains to the 
 surface of a circle 12 inches in diameter, and plated 
 -buttons shall have the superficies of the upper sur- 
 
 | face made of a plate of silver fixed upon the copper 
 or a mixture of it with other metals, previously to 
 its being rolled into sheets of fillets. All pecuniary 
 penalties may be recovered by action or suit within 
 i three calendar months, in the court of Westminster, 
 
 J and one justice may, by warrant, cause metal but- 
 | tons liable to forfeiture, to be seized and kept in 
 I safe custody, to be produced as evidence upon any 
 action, or cause them to be destroyed. Pecuniary pe- 
 nalties may also be adjudged by two justices in the 
 place where the offender resides or the offence is com- 
 mitted. This act, however does not extend to buttons 
 made of gold, silver, tin, pewter, lead, or mixture 
 of tin and lead, or iron tinned, or of Bath or white 
 metal, or any of these metals inlaid with steel, or 
 buttons plated upon shells. 
 
 CABINETMAKING. 
 
 The business of a cabinet maker, and that of an 
 •upholsterer, are now so generally united together, 
 that, any observations on either of these branches, 
 may, with propriety be comprehended under one 
 general head. 
 
 As cabinet making may be considered a superior 
 kind of joinery, so much of its principles, and prac- 
 tice, will be found under that article, as to render, it 
 unnecessary to enter fully into the constructive part 
 of the art, in the present article; we shall therefore 
 confine ourselves to such particulars, as are peculiar 
 to this branch, and endeavour to point out, for the 
 direction of the student, the various qualification^ 
 necessary, to his excelling in it. 
 
 These are numerous, and diffcult to acquire, and 
 seldom, if ever, concentre in any single person. 
 The complete cabinet -maker, should add to a cor- 
 net taste, and sound judgment ; a knowledge of 
 drawing, perspective, architecture, and mechanics, 
 besides the other qualifications of a good Workman. 
 Although the principles of this art, are equally fix- 
 ed as those of joinery, ( so far as they relate to 
 framing, or putting work together,) yet, from the 
 continual change of fashion, continual modifications 
 of them, become absolutely necessary ; in order to 
 meet some new circumstances in the execution of the 
 endless variety of articles, which,' the waltts, or 
 
 rather the luxuries of the present state of society 
 require. 
 
 The art of cabinet making differs from most other 
 arts, in many particulars. In the first place, the 
 articles made by the cabinet maker, are not only 
 very numerous, but there are not, even from the 
 same shop, two articles of the same description, 
 which do not vary in their form and mode of manu- 
 facture. Jn the second place, many pieces of fur- 
 niture are daily falling into disuse, whilst others are 
 ^introduced, which, for a time, are considered as in- 
 dispensably necessary to our comfort. From these 
 circumstances, it must be obvious how impossible 
 it is to lay down precise instructions, as to the for- 
 mation of particular articles of furniture, where 
 shape and dimensions are continually varying, and 
 indeed, were it practicable, it would be necessary, 
 for the reason before stated, that cabinet, like female 
 ; fashions, should be published monthly. Still, how- 
 ever, we may offer some observations that maybe 
 useful ; for though, in some instances, the figure and 
 form of particular articles, may vary, yet the 
 general principles remain the same. 
 
 As a first step, we should recommend to the 
 student, the practice of drawing from any good 
 models, but more particularly from subjects con- 
 nected with architecture, by which means, he w ill 
 
 gradually 
 
cabinetmakixg. 
 
 gradually become more and move familiar with the 
 beautiful combinations, so eminently conspicuous in 
 the remains of ancient Greece and Rome. This 
 will not only give him a facility of drawing any 
 thing that may be required, but it will tend to en- 
 large his powers of design, and create juster notions 
 of proportions, which is the very essence of this art. 
 A know ledge of architecture is the more necessary, 
 as the stile of furniture should ever be in unison 
 with the character of the bnilding for which it is 
 designed. An acquaintance with perspective, is no 
 less necessary, than a knowledge of drawing ; and 
 without its aid, the design for any article of furni- 
 ture must be very imperfect; besides, it is some- 
 times necessary, not only to delineate the particu- 
 lar articles of furniture, but to shew the effect it is 
 likely to produce, when placed in the apartment, 
 for which it is designed. By the aid of perspective, 
 one drawing will exhibit more than one side, from 
 one point of view', and consequently, a better, and 
 more connected idea may be formed, of the general 
 effect. There will be no necessity, either for 
 making many drawings for the same piece of furni- 
 ture, in order to shew its effect at different points. 
 
 As drawing will be noticed under a distinct head, 
 it is unnecessary to enter into the subject here. The 
 same may be said of perspective geometry, and 
 mechanics, which must, of necessity, be seperately 
 considered in <v work of this kind. We can only 
 earnestly recommend to those who aspire to the 
 attainment of eminence in this art, to study those 
 rules of proportion which are presented in the w orks 
 of the ancients. 
 
 As it is the fashion of the present day, to resort 
 to a number of contrivances for making one piece of 
 furniture serve many purposes, “ a bed by night, 
 a chest of drawers by day,” it becomes neces- 
 sary, on this account, as well as on matiy 
 others, that the complete cabinet maker should 
 be acquainted w ith the principles of mechanics ; 
 w hich w ill not only enable him to calculate, w ith 
 certainty, the effect of any combinin' ion of contri- 
 vances lie may cliuse to introduce, in works of this 
 nature, but w ill save him mortification, and his cus- 
 tomers disappointment, in case of failure, arising 
 either from a want of a -due proportion of strength, 
 in places where it is required, or from a redun- 
 dance where less would have better answered the 
 purpose. In this pow'er of calculation, consists the 
 most striking difference between the man who is 
 acquainted w ith the principles of his art$ and him | 
 who is not. In the work of the former, you w ill | 
 ever find, that substance is given to such parts only i 
 as require strength, as he well knows, that where 
 any part of an article of furniture is heavier than its 
 use requires, it carries w ith it the means of its own 
 destruction. To an ignorance of this kind may be 
 ascribed, the frequent failure in the mechanical ef- 
 fect of doors and fringes, arising; we are inclined to 
 
 1-11 
 
 believe, from the use of hinges of an improper fi- 
 gure, or less strength than circumstances require. 
 
 Though we have specified hinges, ; we do not by 
 any means confine our observations to them, but 
 consider them as extending to a thousand different 
 things; perhaps there is not a single instance of any 
 piece of furniture being made w ithout some defect 
 of this kind,- which might easily be obviated, if the 
 geometrical principles of carpentry were better 
 , understood, and the know ledge of mechanics more 
 generally cultivated. 
 
 The following miscellaneous observations on va- 
 rious branches of this art, will we trust be found use- 
 ful to the generality of our readers. 
 
 All remarks on the nature and application of dif- 
 ferent kinds of w oods, w hich do not belong exclusive- 
 ly to this trade, will be found under the articles tree , 
 timber , andzvoo r/, in the second part of our work. 
 
 Veneering , Vaneering , or Fineering , is a kind of 
 marquetry, or inlaying, by which several thin slices 
 or leaves of fine wood, of different lands, are applied 
 and fastened on a ground of some common w ood. 
 
 There are two kinds of inlaying, the former of 
 which goes no farther than the making- comparti- 
 ments of different woods ; the latter which is 
 not so common, requires muck more art, and -repre--’ 
 scuts flowers, birds, and the other figures. The first 
 kind is what is properly called veneering; tlie latter'' 
 is denominated marquetry. 
 
 The wood intended for veneering is first sawed- 
 out into slices or leaves, about a line thick ; and in 
 order to saw them, the blocks or planks are placed 
 upright in a kind of vice or sawing press. These 
 slices are afterwards cut into slips, and fashioned 
 divers w ays, according to the design proposed ; after 
 the joints have been carefully adjusted and the piee’es 
 brought down to their proper thickness, w ith sever- 
 al p fanes adapted for the purpose, they are glued 
 down on a block or ground of dry wood, with good' 
 strong English glue* After the pieces have been 
 thus joined and glued, the work, if small, is put into„ 
 a press ; if large is laid on a bench covered with a- 
 board, and pressed down with poles, or pieces of: 
 wood, the upper end whereof, reaches to the ceiling 
 of the room, and the lower rests on the boards. 
 When- the glue is quite dry the veneered work 4 is 
 taken out of the press and finished ; first with little 
 planes, and then with divers scrapers, or rasps, 
 w hich take off dents, roughnesses &c. left by the; 
 planes. When sufficiently scraped, the work is'., 
 polished with the skin of a sea-dog, w ax, and a' 
 ’brush and polisher of shave-grass, which' is the last-, 
 operation. 
 
 Grounds for veneering on, should be very dry, 
 anil formed of such wood as is least liable to flv 
 '(split) or warp. The veneer should also be dry ami 
 well toothed with the tooth-plane. ■ The utmost- 
 : attention should also be paid to the bringing the 
 veneer to an equal thickness, -(-wJi-ieb is done with the 
 
 tooth-plane* 
 
m 
 
 CABIN ETMAKING. 
 
 tooth-plane) before it is laid, otherwise there will be^ 
 considerably more labour and difficulty in bringing' 
 the thick and n*>re stubborn parts, sufficiently into 
 contact with the ground on which the veneer is to 
 be laid. 
 
 The wood on which the veneer is to be laid, after 
 being toothed, is to have a coat of glue laid on thin 
 with a brush, this must be suffered to dry before the 
 veneer is applied, and kept warm before the fire. 
 The veneer should be wetted with a sponge on the 
 outside, and the glue laid with a brush on the other, 
 while the whole is kept hot with a quick fire raised 
 by a few shavings. In this state it is put on the 
 piece to be veneered, over the surfaces of which the 
 veneering hammer must be drawn in all directions, so 
 as to drive out the superfluous glue at the edges ; 
 and let it be observed as a general rule, in this as in 
 all matters where cements are used for uniting sub- 
 stances together, that the more closely the surface 
 can be brought together (and consequently the less 
 cement used) the firmer will be the work. 
 
 In large ciruiar work the same mode is .pursued, 
 except that hand screws, and pieces of heated wood 
 are employed to keep down one end whilst the 
 other is laying*. Smaller work is frequently done 
 with a hot caul. 
 
 Marquetry differs from the former in many par- 
 ticulars, and may properly be called painting in 
 wood ; as various imitations of nature are/produced 
 in this way. 
 
 Sometimes coloured glass, marble, tortoise-shell 
 and metals are made use of, either singly or united 
 with w ood ; but such pieces as are composed of 
 stone or glass, are more commonly called mosaic 
 work. 
 
 The art ofinlaying is very ancient, and is suppos- 
 ed to have passed from east to the west, among 
 other branches of knowledge, brought to the Romans 
 from Asia. At this early period the process was 
 simple, nor did it arrive at any tolerable degree of 
 perfection, till the 15th. century among the Italians ; 
 it seems however to have attained its greatest per- 
 fection in the 17th. century among the French. 
 
 The finest works of this kind w ere done in black 
 and white only, which is now called Morescos, till 
 John of Verona, a cotemporary with Raphael, w ho 
 had a genius for painting, stained his w ood with dyes 
 or boiled oils, but he went no farther than the re- 
 presentation of buildings and perspectives, which 
 require no great variety of colours. Those who 
 succeeded him, not only improved on the invention 
 of dyeing the woods, by discovering a secret mode of 
 burning them in without consuming, which served 
 exceedingly well for the shadow s ; but they enjoyed 
 the advantage of acquiring a number of fine new 
 woods, of naturally bright colours, by the discovery 
 of America. With these assistances the art is now 
 capable of imitating many things with almost as 
 much exactness and fidelity as painting. 
 
 The ground whereon the pieces are to be ranged 
 and glued, is ordinarily of oak or fir well dried, and 
 to prevent warping, is composed of several thick- 
 nesses giued together, w'ith the grain of one layer 
 intersecting the direction of the other. When the 
 w'ood required for use has been reduced into leaves 
 or planks of the intended thickness, it is either 
 stained with some colour or made black for shadow, 
 w hich some effect by putting it into sand, intensely 
 heated over the fire, others by steeping it in lime 
 water and sublimate, and others by immersing it in 
 oil of sulphur. Thus coloured, they are reduced to 
 the contour or shape designed in the following man- 
 ner; which, as the operation requires much pati- 
 ence and attention, is considered as the most diffi- 
 cult part of marquetry. 
 
 The two chief instruments used herein, are the 
 saw and the vice ; tlie latter to hold the materials to- 
 be formed, the former to take off from the extremi- 
 ties as occasion may require. The vice is of w ood, 
 and has one of its chaps fixed ; the other is move- 
 able, and is kept open by a wood spring, similar to 
 the smiths vice, but it differs from it in having no 
 screw, whose office is supplied by means of a cord 
 fastened to a treadle, and acted on by the foot, which 
 thereby draws the chaps together. 
 
 The leaves to be formed (for frequently three or 
 four of the same kind are united together) are pla- 
 ced w ithin the chaps of the vice, after the design or 
 pattern has been previously glued to the outermost 
 leaf; the workman then presses his foot on the trea- 
 dle, and thus holding the several leaves firmly toge- 
 ther, runs over or rather follows the outline of the 
 design, with very narrow and thin saws. By thus 
 forming two, three, or four pieces together, the 
 workman not only gains time, but the w ork itself is 
 better enabled to sustain the efforts of the saw; 
 which, how delicate soever it may be, and how 
 lightly soever the workman may conduct it, would 
 without such a precaution raise splinters to the 
 great injury of the work. 
 
 If the w ork i? intended to consist of a single sort 
 of wood, or of tortoise-shell on a tin or copper 
 ground, or vice versa, two leaves only are formed 
 one on another, viz, a leaf of metal, and a leaf of 
 w f ood or shell ; this is called sawing in counter 
 parts, for by filling the cavities of one of the leaves 
 with the pieces coming out of another, the metal 
 may serve as a ground to the wood, and the wood to 
 the metal. 
 
 The pieces thus formed with the saw, and marked 
 so that their correspondent parts may be readily as- 
 certained, are shadowed in the manner already men- 
 tioned ; they are then veneered or fastened on the 
 common ground, with the best English glue, press- 
 ed together as before described, and finished in 
 the same way, and w ith the sain- materials as the 
 cam rnou veneering ; with this difference, however, 
 that in marquetry, the fine branches, and several of 
 
CABINETMAKING. 
 
 the more delicate parts of the figures, are touched 
 up and finished with the graver. 
 
 A very beautiful method of producing the resem- 
 blance of painting on wood has lately been discovered, 
 which, as it has the happiest effect, (particularly in 
 representations of animals, shells See.) with less 
 trouble than by any of the proceeding methods, we 
 shall give the best account of the process we have 
 beeii able to procure. 
 
 When a design has been fixed on, procure a piece 
 of seasoned wood of a close grain and light colour, 
 (holly is to be preferred where it can be got of suffi- 
 cient size) and when the outline of your design has 
 Jieen traced upon it, (which may be done by daub- 
 ing over paper with some grease or oil mixed with 
 the snuffs of candles, and laving it on the wood with 
 the coloured side towards it,) place your design on 
 it, and trace firmly with a skewer er blunt wire, the 
 outline of the subject intended to be transferred to 
 ♦ lie wood; then remove the paper and print, and you 
 will find the outline of your subject sufficiently 
 strong on the wood; if necessary it may be gone 
 over with a black lead pencil, in order to give more 
 force to certain parts. When this is accomplished, 
 place the board on an easel w ith the original design 
 by its side. The tools used for producing the effect 
 are very simple, and are made of small bars of cop- 
 per or iron, (the former of which is prefered) of 
 about four or five inches long and forged with points 
 of different kinds, some sharp, some flat, and others 
 round, with a spill to fix them in a wooden handle, 
 in much the same way as the tinmans soldering-iron. 
 These irons, when heated to a proper degree, are to 
 be used in the same manner as limners use their 
 painting brushes, by applying them first to produce 
 the strongest shadows, and then using them as they 
 cool for the more delicate, taking care during the 
 operation to adapt the different points so as to pro- 
 duce the desired effect. In this way with a very 
 little experience, such surprising force and truth 
 of delineation may be given to designs, that they 
 may be rendered equal almost to the originals. 
 
 We have seen a representation of a tiger and 
 other animals done in this way, which might certain- 
 ly be mistaken, even by judges, for a painting in oil. ; 
 In this as in painting the rigid hand is supported on ; 
 the maul stick, w hich is held in the left hand ; and it 
 is advisable to have a fire near the work, that the | 
 tools may be frequently heated, which will obviate 1 
 the necessity of having them heavy, a circumstance 1 
 that cannot be too much avoided. We may fairly 
 expect from the specimens we have seen of this in- 
 genious mode of painting, that the pannels of cur 
 cabinets may be made to exhibit performances in this 
 way, that shall rival the most successful attempts of 
 imitative art. 
 
 “Blinds .— The cheapest kind of blind is that form- 
 ed of green canvas fixed to two sticks, either- of ma- 
 
 ils 
 
 hogany or wainscot, and iiur.g by a couple of rings, 
 and hooks screwed to the lowermost sash frames. 
 
 The frames of the sort most commonly used are 
 composed of mahogany, made so as to fold either in 
 two or in one leaf, with green stuff’ of the same kind 
 strained into a rabbet in the frame. These blinds 
 are sometimes fixed with slip hinges, so that the 
 frames may occasionally be taken off. When they 
 are made to fold, they have a bolt on the left side, 
 and a turn buckle in the centre of the right to keep 
 them in their place. 
 
 The more fashionable blinds are all of wood, pain- 
 ted green, except the frame, which is of mahogany. 
 The blind part is either composed of upright or hor~ 
 rizontal narrow laths which are an eighth part of an 
 inch thick, painted a bright green, and move by 
 means of a lever, to any position, for admitting more 
 or less light. 
 
 In cutting out laths for Venetian blinds, to pre- 
 vent their warping (which they are disposed to do 
 from their thinness and exposure to the sun) saw 
 them with the hand saw from the edges of a deal, 
 instead of from the centre, which is much more sub- 
 ject to warp. If possible it would be advisable to 
 split them out of clean grown stuff in the same man- 
 ner as common laths, and to plane them up after- 
 wards. 
 
 The blinds most approv ed of at present are with 
 upright laths, and move by turning a brass kuob at- 
 the upper side of the frame. 
 
 The latest improvement of these is by Mr. Stubbs 
 of Oxford-street, who caps the ends of the laths 
 with brass, so that they are secure from splitting 
 by the wire put in to move them by. At each end 
 of the laths are two of these wires, whieh by holes 
 communicate with two brass slips let into the top 
 and bottom of the mahogany frame. These brass 
 slips slide past each other in the manner of a paral- 
 lel ruler ; for the laths fixed to the brass, act with 
 them in the same manner as the brass joints to the 
 sides of these sort of rulers. 
 
 Rolling blinds, foe internal use, are either with 
 spring barrels made of tin, or turn on a plain oak 
 stick of 1| inch diameter. 
 
 Spring rolling blinds are charged by a worm 
 spring, made of wire, coiled up in a barrel, or cy- 
 linder, which draws the blind up close to the cylin- 
 der, by the relaxing of the spring, in the same way 
 as the chain is wound round the barrel of a watch, 
 by what is commonly called, its going down. 
 Hence, if the power of this spring be not properly 
 adjusted to the length. of the canvas, or in other 
 words, to the height of the window, it is very - 
 liable to go wrong, and get spoiled. If a spring be 
 over- charged, it has not sufficient room in tbe bar- 
 rel, consequently the wire will twist out of form, 
 and the spring will be obstructed ; but if it be not 
 enough charged, then, it is incapable of drawing up 
 the canvas to. the top. To remedy this defect, the 
 
hU CABINETMAKING. - 
 
 spring- must be taken out of the case, by which it is 
 screwed up to the window, and the charge must be 
 increased by a few more turns round the roller, or 
 barrel, before it is put up again. To obviate the 
 detects of these spring blinds, Mr. Stub’s has in- 
 vented a newly constructed spring, which, though 
 -confined to a small barrel, will draw up with ease 
 any length of canvas, to 100 feet, if required. And 
 should a window be uncommonly -narrow and high, 
 which, upon the old plan, always proved a matter 
 of embarrassment, his spring effectually answers the 
 purpose. 
 
 One peculiar advantage accompanying this new 
 invented spring blind, is its not being subject to the 
 defects of the other kind. These blinds are intend- 
 ed to keep the sun from the too in, not merely on 
 account of heat, but to prevent the discharge of co- 
 lours, and the injury done to elegant furniture, in an 
 apartment where the heat of the sun is suffered to 
 have uninterrupted access. 
 
 The plain rolling blinds, without springs, are 
 most in use, being fcoth cheaper, and answering the 
 same end. These have either a wood or a brass 
 mlley at each end, one with a channel to receive a 
 ine, and the other without any, to guard the canvas 
 as it rolls up, this is effected by a line passing round 
 in the above channel, fixed to a brass rack, contain- 
 ing a small pulley that receives the line, which, by- 
 being tight, draws down, and -enables the blind to be 
 drawn up to any height. 
 
 White Silesia is to be obtained of any width from 
 2 feet 3, to 4 feet G, or wider; a great variety of 
 widths should be kept for making blinds, as it is 
 absolutely necessary to have them exactly the width 
 •of the window, in order that the selvages may be 
 retained, as hemming would otherwise render the 
 widths too thick to roll close about the cylinder. 
 There are also Venetian blinds for the Same pur- 
 pose, that draw tip by pullies fixed on a lath, 1 inch 
 thick, in the same way as a testoon window curtain. 
 
 External sun blinds are also various. Those for 
 shop windows come down over a roller, (fixed with- 
 in a box or case of wood, which receives the can- 
 vas,) and when let fall from the inside, are stayed 
 by iron rods. 
 
 There are other blinds now' in use, for shop win- 
 dows, made in light frames strained with canvas, 
 which being hinged to an outer frame, made to re- 
 ceive these^ sometimes three or more m number, 
 move all at one time to any convenient angle, so as 
 to exclude the sun. The mode by which they move 
 all at one time, is by a small lath, screwed to each 
 frame, so that when one is moved, the other neces- 
 sarily follows in a parallel direction, being on the 
 same principle that the parlour blinds, with upright 
 laths, are set in motion : for the screw having play 
 at the head, the frames would fall down of them- 
 selves, if they were not kept in iheir appointed 
 position, by a line lived to the upper frame, and 
 
 passing through a pulley at the upper end of the 
 outer frame, which is tied to a hook. These blinds 
 are made to take off when they are not wanted. 
 
 There are other external blinds for the first floor 
 windows, which draw up under a cornice fixed to 
 the outside of the head frame of the window. But 
 these being of canvas, are not so proper for outside 
 blinds, as those of the Venetian kind, with brass 
 chains, instead of the usual way of hanging the 
 laths in green tape. Those last mentioned have been 
 introduced by Mr. Stubbs, as before noticed, and 
 bid fair to answer the intended purpose as external 
 \\ indow blinds. The Venetian part js inclosed un- 
 der a cornice, when drawn up; and in letting them 
 down they are guided by a frame so that the w ind 
 cannot blow them aside.” 
 
 “ Holts among cabinet-makers, are of various di- 
 mensions and shapes. Those in most common 
 use, are termed Hush brass bolts, from 2 to 30 inches 
 in length and used for book- cases. 
 
 There, are also bolts of iron with necks, used for 
 dining tables. Some use broad flush brass bolts 
 instead of these. They are set on the inside of the 
 linings of square frames, and shut up into the iron 
 strap hinges by which the loose flaps of such tables 
 are fixed to the bed. To receive the bolt the edge 
 of the strap hinge is filed into a notch, so that when 
 the bolt is shut into it, the strap hinge cannot draw 
 off 
 
 Bolts, amongst joiners, are of five or six different 
 sorts ; first, plate bolts and also spring bolts are for 
 fastening doors and windows, There are also round 
 bolts of various sizes for large doors and gates, some 
 with necks and others straight. Some curious brass 
 bolts for double doors, are of a late invention; these 
 have plates set on the edge of the door, extending 
 the whole length, so that by a turn of the knob han- 
 dle in the centre of the door, the bolts shut up and 
 down at the same time. By turning the contrary 
 way, the bolts are relieved, and botli the doors open 
 at once, without further trouble. These are very 
 expensive, and only used in grand apartments, most 
 commonly in doors which divide, or open into two 
 spacious rooms. 
 
 To avoid the great expence of these, there are 
 others that act on nearly the same principle, named, 
 spring latch bolts, which are about 13 inches long, 
 with a stout plate. Two of these are required to a 
 pair of doors, one at the top, the other at the bot- 
 tom ; the bolts are shut by a spring in each, which 
 on being pressed against by the right hand door, 
 become locked, by which botli doors are* secured.’’ ‘ 
 Brass icork is a material article in furniture, botli 
 for ornament and use, and comprehends a great 
 variety of articles, in locks, hinges, and handles ; 
 together with curtain and sideboard rods, mouldings 
 and fret work. In the brass articles adapted f r 
 cabinet work, the French tar exceed this country, 
 as well in their- manner of gilding, si i led ■ or moln. 
 
 The 
 
cabinetmaking. 
 
 115 
 
 The elegance of their furniture is considered to de- 
 pend chiefly on their superior brass work. 
 
 Brass beads, and small lines of brass, are now 
 much used in our English furniture, and look very 
 handsome in black rose, and other dark wood 
 grounds. The lines are made of thin sheet brass, 
 which is cut by gunges, made by the cabinetmakers, 
 for that purpose. The brass beads are fixed to the 
 work bv sharp points, soldered to the inside of the 
 bend, and driven into the wood to which the beads 
 are fixed.” 
 
 Cauls , are sometimes formed out of pieces of 
 solid wood m the shape wanted; at other times they 
 are straight pieces of the length and breadth requi- 
 red, bent to the. proper form by means of saw carls* 
 To prevent the caul from sticking to the veneer 
 with the glue, it is generally oiled before it is applied, 
 rt is afterwards heated and screwed down to the 
 veneer whilst warm, which drives out the superflu- 
 ous glue, and causes the veneer to lie close to the 
 ground. 
 
 Drawers, are always dovetailed together, but 
 are made variously, in other respects; some have a 
 rnuntan to divide the bottom into two lengths, so 
 that thinner wainscot may serve, and to prevent the 
 joints from giving wav. Slips are sometimes glued 
 on the inside of drawers, and planed to receive the 
 bottom, which is the best method for preventing 
 drawer bottoms from splitting, a circumstance that 
 often occurs when they are confined by a rabbet, and 
 the slip is glued down at the under side. 
 
 Small drawers, for secretaries and bureaus, are 
 best made by ploughing a dovetail groove in their 
 sides to receive the bottom ; there being objections 
 to the practice of rabbeting them in ; as in this way 
 the drawer bottom frequently loosens, and scrapes 
 against the partition in which it runs : 'but in the 
 dovetail groove, which is formed bv a plane, the bot- 
 tom is secured from foiling down, by being kept 
 clear of the partition about the thickness of a shil- 
 ling. 
 
 Pillar and claw Tables . — The claws should be 
 carefully dovetailed into the pillar, as upon the 
 closeness of the fit much of the strength depends. 
 An iron plate in one piece with three or four arms to 
 it, according to the number of claws, may be screwed 
 under the claws, which will give great security to 
 the whole. When these tables are intended to turn 
 up, the block orbed fixed at the head of the pillar, 
 should be as large arid thickas convenient, tor much 
 of the steadiness of the table depends upon it. 
 
 Mouldings. — Cabinetmakers have but lew mould- 
 ing planes, almost the whole of their mouldings 
 being formed with about a dozen pair of hollows 
 and rounds. Since beading has been so much in 
 fashion, planes for the purpose have been introdu- 
 ced. All planes for cabinetmakers have their irons 
 set more upright, than those intended for joiners, 
 as the wood w ith which the former have to work, is 
 
 in general very cross grained and hard, and 
 would consequently strip were not the irons set in 
 this way. 
 
 J\fahogany . — Spanish is very preferable to Hon- 
 duras, but it is much dearer. — To season it, it is 
 exposed some time to the sun and air, both in the 
 wet and dry, after which it should bo stowed in the 
 shade in racks, with slips between each plank, that 
 the air mav have freeaccess, which is of the greatest 
 consequence. See more on this subject in the 2nd. 
 part. 
 
 Hair . — The best picked hair is made of horse or 
 bullocks tails, and should not be mixed with short 
 hair. This is the case however with common hair, 
 and the quality of this article is known by the great- 
 er or less quantity of the short kind that is introdu- 
 ced. The long is frequently picked out and dyed, 
 for the purpose of being weaved into chair-seatings. 
 
 llim s for tea , sandwich and supper Trays . — These 
 should be glued iqi in three thicknesses in a caul, 
 with the outer one running parallel with the grain 
 of the wood, the middle one across, and each of the 
 three about the thickness of a veneer. When the out- 
 er veneer has been laid on the middle one, whilst 
 straight, it should bo bent as soon as dry into the 
 caul, and the cross joint should be made as close as 
 possible; the inside slip should be then fitted in the 
 same manner, and then forced into the caul about a 
 third its width, so much of it should be glued as re- 
 mains above the rim of the former thicknesses, and 
 as much of the inside of the cross grained slip should 
 be glued as is not covered by the last thickness, 
 which is instantly driven down into its place. The 
 bottoms are then grooved for the reception of the 
 rims, into which they are glued. 
 
 Handles to trays , should go through and be fas- 
 tened with a nut and screw at the bottom; for if fas- 
 tened only to the rim, they are apt to draw it out, 
 when loaded with any considerable weight. 
 
 Upper rails for circular llason Stands are frequent- 
 ly glued up in three thicknesses, all running the 
 lengthways of the grain. The two inner thicknesses 
 are of deal, and the outside one of mahogany. 
 
 Cheese-waggons , are glued up in a caul in two 
 thicknesses, the inner one of which runs the length- 
 ways of the grain, and the outside one across. 
 
 Planing . — Particular attention should be paid iq 
 planing up wood for cabinet work, to do it very 
 true, and work to the lines afterwards. 
 
 Mortises and tenons , to be made well, should fit 
 close but not overtight, which some mistake for 
 strong framing, but this never tails to strain the moTV 
 tise, which, though not visible at the time, will ulti- 
 mately prove the destruction of the work.* This 
 cannot be too much attended to in chair-making, the 
 strength of which depends entirely- on the. tenons and 
 mortises. The best way to put together framed 
 work particularly chairs, is by the cramp, as blows 
 with the hammer or mallet frequently produce the 
 
 worst 
 
116 
 
 CABINETMAKING. 
 
 worst effects, not only by bruising the timber, but 
 frequently by shivering it at parts very remote from 
 the place where the blow was given. This is often 
 the case- in Spanish wood. 
 
 Chair-making . — To this line the proceeding re- 
 marks are applicable, and it is also requisite that the 
 giieatest possible attention should be paid to the 
 hues of the tenons and mortises, and the closeness 
 of /heir fitting on both sides. They should also 
 be of as great length as possible, as nothing contri- 
 butes more to their strength and steadiness. — No 
 branch of this trade requires a complete knowledge 
 of lines more than that of the chair-maker. 
 
 Circular rails for tables, and fronts for drawers, 
 are cut ‘out of deal, from 1| inch to 3 inches 
 thick, laid one over the other by breaking or inter- 
 secting the joints as in brickwork. Care however 
 must be taken that the grain run as long as possible 
 at the -ends, for the tenons or dovetails. Some saw- 
 carl a piece of inch deal, and after bending it, glue a 
 piece of canvas on the inside; but this is a bad and 
 weak practice, and is therefore never done by the 
 good workman. 
 
 Glue .—~ Good glue is particularly necessary in 
 cabinetmaking, for as the joints of mouldings, &c. 
 cannot be fastened as in joinery, with brads, &c. the 
 whole combination of the work must depend on the 
 goodness and strength of the glue. It should there- 
 fore be procured from houses in London, which 
 make a point of selecting strong glue for the trade ; 
 but as this cannot always be depended upon, we 
 shall endeavour to point out the best mode of ascer- 
 taining the qualities of glue. 
 
 Glue of the best quality, swells most in steeping, 
 but does not dissolve till it is exposed to the fire. 
 When glue is steeped over night, for boiling the 
 next day, and the water is found to be glutinous, 
 and the cakes of course not swelled, these are indi- 
 cations of it being bad glue. Old glue is the bept, 
 and its goodness or strength increases by frequent 
 exposure to heat, if it be not burnt, which is very 
 commonly the case, by over fierce fires and hasty 
 boiling. To prevent this, the double glue pot with 
 water in the outside vessel, is now generally made 
 use of. To such as do not understand glue boiling, 
 it may be proper to observe, that the cakes should be 
 broken conveniently small, and soaked in as much 
 spring water as will barely cover the whole, other- 
 wise it is in danger of being too thin, which cannot be 
 so easily remedied as when too thick. After remain- 
 ing in this state twelve hours, it should then be 
 boiled in a copper vessel, over a gentle fire, until 
 the whole is dissolved ; and for the purpose of 
 assisting this operation, it should be constantly 
 stirred about with a wooden spatula spoon, and not 
 quitted till a perfect dissolution takes place, when it 
 should be poured through a sieve in order to sepe- 
 rate it from scum and filth. After this it should be 
 jmt again into the vessel, and boiled up ovar a 
 
 smart fire, when it may be poured into a wooden 
 tray to cool, and considered fit for nse. 
 
 Back boards , in common drawers, are made plain, 
 of half inch deal, but in good work of inch stuff, and 
 are sometimes framed in two, and sometimes in lour 
 pannels. In horse or screen dressing glasses, the 
 back board is framed in four pannels of light clean 
 mahogany, half inch thick, rabbetted for a quarter 
 inch pannel, of soft Honduras, as light as possible, 
 that the whole frame may add as little to the weight 
 of the glass as possible, and only require a small 
 lead weight to balance it. The inner edge of the 
 framing is struck with an ovolo, or quarter round. 
 
 The back boards or blind frames of large glasses 
 are made of 1| inch deal, into four or six pannels, 
 with the back lioards ploughed into the framing, in 
 order to save the silvering; and as a farther security 
 it is common to line the frames with thin flannel. 
 
 Silvering glasses, for the method of, see the Second 
 part. 
 
 “ Bevel, amongst cabinetmakers and joiners, is an 
 instrument used to take any angle with, or to mark 
 a line which is not square. Lor this purpose the 
 blade is made to move in a long groove, inserted in 
 the stock or handle, and fixed to it by a nut and 
 screw, so that it may be altered to suit any degree 
 of obliquity required. In this respect it differs 
 from a square, which is a fixed instrument at the 
 angle of 90 degrees. A mitre bevel is an instru- 
 ment fixed to an angle of 45 degrees, or which is 
 the same thing, the diagonal line of any square. 
 This instrument is sometimes termed, a mitre tern-* 
 plet, in consequence of its use iu cutting mitres. 
 
 To find the bevel of chair rails, let the learner, 
 plane a piece of thin deal, and if the front rail be 
 18 inches, and the back 15, let him take half of 3 
 inches, being the difference, and lay on a square line 
 drawn at one end of the lath ; then if the length of 
 the side rail be 16 inches, he will lay it on from the 
 1| inch, placed as before mentioned, draw in the 16 
 inches to the edge of the lath, and cut and plane it 
 to this bevel line. lie will finally, from the side 
 thus prepared place the bevel, and move the blade 
 till it agrees with the square line that was first 
 drawn, which will give the correct line for the back 
 and front joints ofthe proposed side rail. In this 
 manner, by a little practice, the young chair-maker 
 may find out any bevel he wants.” 
 
 u Butlers Tray . — These trays are generally made 
 of mahogany ; half inch Honduras will do for the 
 sides, but the bottoms ought always to be made of 
 Spanish, or other hard wood, otherwise the glasses' 
 will leave such a print, on soft wood, as cannot 
 easily be erased. Their size runs from about 27 to 
 30 inches the longest way, by 20 to 22 in width, 
 with one end made nearly open, for the. convenience 
 of easy access to the glasses. The sides are about 
 3f inches deep, rounded at the top, and scolloped 
 down to the narrow end, or front, (it may be called) 
 
CABINETMAKING. 
 
 11T 
 
 in the form of an ogee. These sides have handle 
 holes, about 4 inches long, and cut 1£ inch from the 
 upper edges. There are also dinner trays, knife 
 trays, and comb trays, the first of which is used for 
 carrying dishes and plates to the dining table, their 
 sides are 3\ inches deep, all round, with handle 
 holes in each side, which may be made of good Hon- 
 duras ; but the bottoms should be of Spanish, for 
 the reason before assigned. The length of the 
 largest dinner trays is 32 inches, and their width is 
 2 feet; full sized tea trays, are nearly' of the same 
 dimensions. Knife trays of the best kind have each 
 two partitions, with a brass handle clasping them, 
 and screwing to their sides, which are 3 or 3f in- 
 ches deep; their inside length is 14 inches, and 
 their width from 10 to 12 inches. The sides of 
 these trays are now made perpendicular. Comb 
 trays are 6 inches by 8, or 9 long, with bevelled 
 sides, and mitred corners. They are mitred upon a 
 block of wood, and keyed at the corners. 
 
 Cane z cork is now more in practice than it yvas 
 ever known to be at any former period. About SO 
 years since, it was quite out of fashion, owing prin- 
 cipally to the imperfect manner in vlhich it yvas ex- 
 ecuted. Hilton the revival of japanning furniture, 
 it gradually got again into use, and obtained an 
 able state of improvement, so that at present it is 
 introduced into several pieces of furniture, in which 
 its use yvas unknoyvn a few years ago, particularly 
 in the ends of beds which are framed in mahogany, 
 and then caned, for the purpose of keeping in the 
 bed clothes. Sometimes also the bottoms of beds 
 are caned, and small borders of it are introduced 
 round the backs of mahogany chairs, which look 
 very neat. Bed steps too, are caned : indeed canes 
 are very properly used in any thing where lightness,! 
 elasticity, cleanness, and durability, are desirable. 
 
 The manner of caning is various. The common- 
 est kind is of one skain only, called by caners, bead- 
 work, and running open. There are otl or kinds 
 of tyvo skains, and closer, and firmer. The best 
 work is termed bordering, and is of three skains, 
 some of which are done so very fine and close, that 
 they are less than a sixteenth broad, and in many 
 instances, as fine, comparatively, as some canvas. 
 
 The cane used for the best work is imported from 
 Bengal, and of a line light straw colour which forms 
 a most agreeable contrast to almost every colour it 
 is joined with. The yellower kind is generally as 
 strong and durable, but that which has lost either 
 the fight straw, or shining yellow colour, ought to 
 be rejected, as having been damaged by salt yvater, 
 or some other accident, in its importation. 
 
 Carpet . — The Persian and Turkey carpets, are 
 held in most esteem. The Parisian carpets are a 
 tolerable imitation of these; but besides the Persian, 
 Turkey, and Parisian carpets, there are the follow- 
 ing sorts, which have their names from Hie places 
 where they are manufactured ; as Brussels — Kidder- 
 
 minster — Wilton — Axminster- — Venetian, which is 
 generally striped, and Scotch, which is the most in- 
 ferior, though in most common use, the other 
 sorts, particularly the Brussels, Wilton, and Ax- 
 minster being very expensive. 
 
 To most of the best kind of carpets, there are 
 suitable borders in narrow widths. The stair car- 
 pets are, half a yard, half ell, and three quarters 
 wide. 
 
 In cutting out carpets, the upholsterer after 
 having cleared the room of all its furniture, proceeds 
 to line out the border with a chalk line, and mark 
 the mitres correctly in the angles of the room, and 
 round the fire place in particular, as in this part any 
 defects are most observable. He tlien proceeds to 
 cut the mitres of the carpet border, beginning at the 
 fire place, and endeavouring as correctly as pos- 
 sible, to match the pattern at each mitre; in order 
 to do this, he must sometimes cut more or less of the 
 border to waste. He then takes a length of the 
 body carpet, and tacking it up to the border at one 
 end, resents to the strainer, with which he draws it 
 to the other, w here he tacks it again, taking, care, as 
 lie goes on, to match the pattern, which sometimes 
 varies in the whole length, but for which there is no 
 remedy, except by changing the lengths in such a 
 manner as to bring them tolerably near in matching. 
 If the widths do not correspond in number, it then 
 becomes necessary to draw them in at that side of 
 the room where the delficiency may be least seen; 
 but this must be done in such a way that the con- 
 tracted widths may match, and that there may be 
 nothing offensive in the appearance of the whole. 
 To prevent mi placing any of the lengths, or parts 
 of the border, the upholsterer should take sealing 
 thread, and tack them together where he thinks it 
 necessary, in which state they are taken to the shop 
 and completed. 
 
 If a carpet be cut at home, a plan of the room 
 must be accurately taken on paper, with all the sizes 
 of breaks, door ways, windows, angles &c. which 
 must be transferred to some convenient room at 
 
 ti borne, by a chalk line and square, and then marking 
 oft" the border, and proceeding as before described. 
 
 In laying down a carpet it is generally customary 
 to begin with the fire place first, and after having 
 tacked and secured this, to strain it here and there, 
 so as to bring it gradually to, till the whole is strain- 
 ed dose round the room. 
 
 Every person employed in taking the plan of a 
 room for a carpet, ought to be acquainted w*ith plain 
 geometry. 
 
 Card tables . — In the manufacture of these, there is 
 frequently much trouble in making them stand true 
 in the upper top; to effect which, various methods 
 have been devised by cabinet makers. Some swell 
 the upper tops, by damping them before they are 
 veneered, supposing that the ground will shrink in 
 I due proportion with the veneer, so as to keep all 
 Uh straight. 
 
cabinetmaking 
 
 US 
 
 straight This however, often fails, if the top 
 shoiiid happen to imbibe much of the wet tor from 
 be in 2 so much thicker than the veneer, it takes Ion g- 
 er time to dry, and from the veneer being dried 
 first, and losing its power, the ground work natural- 
 ly draws the top round on the upper side. On the 
 
 ner side Particular care also should be taken tna 
 rSo?ilw°n U on ihe gro3,’ in order that Ac 
 
 T& workman must avoid using curled yeneo. , ^ 
 
 sulemay be^placed so as to exclude the operation ot 
 lte 8 tfa os >” cabinetmaking, is a 
 
 ° f hslSimes happens, that the contrast oftand 
 
 ISS 
 
 4hat the fine sattin wood veneer, would losfe a cons 
 
 SSp==Sl5S 
 
 ^“OT^^Kle expenco *«- of 
 
 B t\v,i V This is always the case when poor tulip 
 
 oven fte taS of it, is joined to mahogany, 
 
 IfTt turns by the air, nearly to a mahogany colour. 
 
 To produce in agreeable contrast m cros^bandu 
 
 it will require different shades or bands, to the cm 
 fcrent TUaltties of wood of the same species. In 
 
 light coloured mahogany, of a softqualiy, 
 to* chan°e, dark strong coloured kingswoo 
 nroduS and maintain to the end, a proper conUast. 
 
 quantity of black, with a red ground, will * p 
 
 fe53^*iS»as 
 
 be £ e,he h 7te d btd e a e SaH 
 
 should be used broader, dmug ** the 
 
 S'of Ending might to be r£uced m pro- 
 tr3 f I'nthers —Those feathers which are brought from 
 
 mmm 
 
 breed numbers of these birds, which prove a profita- 
 ble branch of trade to the poor ‘ i 1 ’''; - 
 
 also we have large quantities of feather. 
 
 ZtX Xn filled with good feathers, 
 
 £SG£3^ te «f3B 
 
 of ^cleansing them from dirt, before they are filled 
 in * Desks fur Compting-houses, are a^sqMre 
 
 rail supported on a double row of pillai s, 
 
 "nil- tS are r -J* 
 
 oknv and sometimes of deal painted, havingthc 
 upper side frequently lined with cloth, 
 
 adtl S St'S 
 
 I m"f wSTatonS, answers the purpose of ’the clothj 
 
C A BINETM AKING. 
 
 119 
 
 end supersedes the necessity of sand. The frames 
 of all large desks should be put together with bed 
 screws, for the convenience of removing them from 
 one place to another. The height in front of such 
 desks should be 3 feet 5 or 6 inches, including the 
 frame to the top of the flap, and the depth of the 
 desk without the frame, should be 4| inches, rising 
 to 9 in the centre. 
 
 Tambour , in cabinetmaking, is a kind of flexible 
 partition, which is frequently made use of in the 
 shape of covers to ink stands, or as a kind of cur- 
 tain to wash basons, and pot cupboards. It is made 
 by gluing on strong canvas, a number of slips or 
 beads of any kind of wood, which, when dry, may 
 be easily bent into a cylindrical form, and when cut 
 to the width of the aperture it is intended to close, 
 is made to slide in a groove at each end. These 
 doors, or rather screens, are opened or closed, by 
 means of a brass or ivory knob, and for purposes 
 where no great strength or security is wanted, 
 answer very well. 
 
 Pembroke Table . — The size of such tables is from 
 3 feet 8 inches, to four feet wide, when open ; and 
 from 31 inches to 3 feet long when the flaps are 
 down. The width of the bed should never be less 
 than 21 inches, but in general the size is from 22 
 to 25 inches, and the height never exceed 2 feet 4 
 inches, including castors. 
 
 Doors . — Although cabinetmakers are not bound 
 bv the rules of architectural proportions in framing 
 doors, yet no doors ought to be less than the 
 diagonal of the square of its width, unless there is 
 some absolute cause for departing from this rule. 
 Doors are variously made by cabinetmakers ; some 
 are framed together, and have pannels ploughed in : 
 and others are rabbetted in with a bead, mitred 
 -round to keep them in. Doors of a small size are 
 glued up in the solid, and sometimes clamped, 
 square, or mitred. In wardrobe doors, great care 
 should be taken to have the stuff* dry, as they have a 
 considerable draught in their shrinking, anti are apt 
 to warp the frames in a manner not easily suscepti- 
 ble of repair. In order toavoid this, it is advisable to 
 let the pannels stand a quarter of an inch within the 
 frame, and fix them dry in by a bead. Round the 
 inner edge of the door frames, a black line may be 
 permitted to cover the edge of the frame standing 
 before the pannels, which, when polished with the 
 mahogany, looks well. The doors of wardrobes 
 should be left half an eighth of an inch over, on bofh 
 sides: (as in time they will shrink, so as to require 
 to be hinged further in,) that the astragal may cover, 
 which ought always to be brass in this piece of fur- 
 niture. 
 
 Doors for cabinets and commodes, are according 
 to modern taste, framed with a rabbet left, to which 
 green, or other silk is fixed, after they have been 
 w ired by the persons who work it. 
 
 In designs for book case doors, it is proper to 
 
 avoid as much as possible all curved lines, as they 
 are difficult to be glazed. Sometimes complicated 
 figures are introduced, by making the pane of glass 
 extend from one right lined bar to another in the 
 door, and laying a kind of false bar over it, of the 
 intended figure, made of the same moulding, with- 
 out rabbet. 
 
 Hinge , a most useful article in cabinetmaking, of 
 which among many others there are the following 
 varieties. 
 
 Hinges for tea canisters are made very thin in the 
 joint, and long enough to extend the length of the 
 canister in one piece. They set on perfectly even 
 with the top, so that there is no joint in the way. 
 
 Hinges for pulpit doors, are made very wide to 
 receive the whole projection of the cornice, which 
 always crosses the door, and therefore it becomes 
 necessary to use wide-projecting but-hinges, which 
 screw on the edge of the door, and also to the fixed 
 part, whereby the deor is thrown out so as to clear 
 the cornice. These hinges are used for other pur- 
 poses where there are any mouldings in the w ay of 
 a door. 
 
 Swan neck hinges, are a kind of pin-hinge, used 
 for some camp table tops. 
 
 Ell-hinges for shaving and dressing tables, are 
 adopted for strength, for the ell-part returns on the 
 front and back edge of the swinging part and secures 
 the top. — H tumbler hinge, to set on the edges of 
 any kind of turn-over frame, as that of a sofa bed, 
 or turn-over table tops. 
 
 Pin-hihges, are to avoid the dissagreeable appear- 
 ance of the knockle of common but-hinges, on the ex- 
 ternal part of neatly finished work. These are let 
 into the ends of doors, so as to bring the center of 
 the pin even with the front, (otherwise it w ill not 
 clear in turning.) and that the projecting strap 
 which has the pin may be behind. It islet into the 
 top and bottom of the carcase, into which the door 
 shuts, and the door end slips into the other strap of 
 the hinge which has not the pin. 
 
 Butt-hinges, are so called because they butt or 
 stop against some substance of wood, at the edge of 
 any tiling to which they are screwed. There are a 
 great variety of butt-hinges, in the practice of 
 cabinetmaking and joinery. Stop but-hinges, are so 
 named because the door or stop of any piece of w ork 
 only turns a little out of the perpendicular to the 
 edge or surface on w hich they are set, if they are 
 pressed further the hinge will break. 
 
 Rising but-hinges are such, as turn upon a screw 
 in their joints, and are used in enabling doors w hen 
 they open to clear a carpet, which otherwise they 
 might rnb against. 
 
 Slip-off* but-hinges are used, in cases where the 
 door or window blind, to which they are screwed, is 
 wanted to be taken off occasionally. 
 
 Lap-over but-hinges are applied to the top of any 
 piece of w ork, that requires tq be raised about seven 
 • eighths 
 
i20 
 
 CABINETMAKING. 
 
 eighths of an inch above the edge, to which it is 
 screwed, so that another top may fall in between 
 them. 
 
 Desk but-hinges, are similar to those of the com- 
 mon sort, except only that they are made twice the 
 breadth in the strap part. 
 
 Alkanet . — A species of Anchusa, the root of which 
 is much in use amongst cabinetmakers, for making 
 red oil. The best mode of preparing this, is as 
 follows. — Take a quart of good linseed oil, to which 
 add a quarter of a pound of Alkanet root, as much 
 opened with the hand as possible, that the bark of 
 the root which tinges the oil, may fly off; with this 
 mix about an ounce of dragon’s blood, and another 
 of rose pink, finely pounded in a mortar ; set the 
 whole within a moderate heat for twelve hours at 
 least, though twenty-four would be better. Then 
 strain it through a flannel into a bottle for use. 
 This staining oil is not properly applicable to every 
 sort of mahogany. The open grained Honduras 
 ought first to be polished with wax and turpentine, 
 to fill up the grain, but in general this wood looks 
 best with wax and turpentine only. If however, 
 it should be closed grained and hard, and want 
 briskness of colour, the staining oil will improve 
 it much. All hard mahogany of a bad colour, 
 should be oiled with it, and should stand unpolished 
 for a time, proportioned to its quality and texture 
 of grain. If the oil be laid on hard wood, which is 
 to be polished off immediately, it is of little use ; 
 but if it be permitted to stand fora few days, the 
 oil penetrating the grain, hardens on the surface, 
 and consequently will bear a better polish, and look 
 brighter in colour. 
 
 Pa' king . — This is a concern in the cabinet branch 
 that requires great care, particularly when the arti- 
 cle to be packed is a large looking glass. Light 
 japanned chairs for bed rooms, are generally packed 
 in slight skeleton cases, after being papered over. 
 Those that arrange the chairs side to side in the 
 case, put a whole width bottom up each end of the 
 case, to receive the hanging bottom the whole length 
 of the case, which is screwed to the under side of 
 the rails of the chairs. When the first three chairs 
 are fixed, they are put down to their place, and the 
 other three are turned down upont hem, after their 
 place has been marked on the batten, they are 
 taken out again, and screwed to it as before describ- 
 ed, with two screws to each side rail. The first 
 three are then fastened to their places, w ith their 
 legs about an inch clear of the bottom of the case. 
 Stays are then placed crosswise under the long 
 batten, to keep it from working in the middle, and 
 the others are laid down in their place with their 
 legs up, and with the seats to each other, (care how- 
 ever being, necessary that they do not rub or touch 
 each other in any part,) and stays are screwed across 
 as before. Others put the hanging battens across 
 the efts© ; consequently every J.wo chairs require two 
 
 short battens screwed to the under side of the rail, 
 as in the other method. This last way requires a 
 broad bottom on the sides of the skeleton case, placed 
 so as to correspond with the height of the chair seat, 
 and to receive the short battens crosswise. In this 
 manner of packing, the chairs are placed the other 
 way in the case, that is, with their fronts parellel to 
 the ends of the case, and they are then screwed in, 
 two and tw o together. By this mode the case re- 
 requires to be more than half a foot longer than by 
 the other, but the latter requires to be broader. 
 When chairs are gilt, or richly finished, for drawing 
 rooms, they require a close case of full half inch deal, 
 and the packing is performed in the manner already 
 described, but with greater care. 
 
 Packing cases , for large glasses, should have their 
 sides of deal, from two to three inches thick, and 
 either half lapped or dove-tailed at the corners. 
 The tops and bottoms of such cases should be made 
 of inch deal, with three half w'idth battens of inch 
 stuff, running lengthwise, and well nailed, to keep 
 the top, &c. firm, that the case may not easily warp 
 when the glass is in, and occasion its being broken. 
 It is usual, especially if the glass be conveyed by 
 water, to groove and slip the edges of' the boards, 
 and even to pitch the joints afterwards, for the pur- 
 pose of resisting any dashes of salt water that may 
 occur in the voyage, which w r ould totally ruin the 
 silvering by the slightest access to it. When they 
 are conveyed by land, gluing brown paper over the 
 joints in the inside, will be sufficient, provided the 
 case be otherwise well made. Whether by sea or 
 by land, the case should if possible be kept inau up- 
 right position on one of its sides. In packing one of 
 these glasses, it is necessary to place crosswise on the 
 bottom, three half battens, on which the blind 
 frame of the glass may rest, with the precaution 
 however, ofleaving brass fasteners screwed to the 
 sides of the blind frame, so as to answer the place of 
 the three battens last mentioned. When the glass 
 is in its place, it is common to cover the plate with 
 some kind of paper, and to put at least a batten to 
 each end over the glass, half the width of a deal, 
 which are screwed to the sides of the case. These 
 last battens, if the depth of the case be properly ta- 
 ken at first, will be level w ith the edge of the case, 
 and will therefore prove a sure defence to the top, 
 and prevent it from being pressed down in the cent- 
 er so as to endanger the glass. The glass is then 
 inclosed, and tne top screwed down, (not nailed) 
 with tw r o inch screw nails, two to each board, the 
 joints of which are pitched and canvassed over. 
 
 Festoon wdndow curtains among upholsterers, are 
 those which draw up by pullies, and hang dow r n 
 in folds or festoons. These curtains are still- in use 
 in bed rooms, notwithstanding the general intro- 
 duction of French rod curtains in genteel houses. 
 A festoon window curtain, consists generally of 
 three pulls, but where a w indow is extensive it has 
 
CABINETMAKING. 
 
 117 
 
 in the form of an ogee. These sides have handle fj 
 holes, about 4 inches long, and cut l£ inch from the j! 
 upper edges. There are also dinner trays, knife fj 
 trays, and comb trays, the first of which is used for j 
 carrying dishes and plates to the dining table, their ^ 
 sides are 3| inches deep, all round, with handle ; 
 holes in each side, which may be made of good Hon- I 
 duras ; but the bottoms should be of Spanish, for ! 
 the reason before assigned. The length of the ! 
 largest dinner trays is 32 inches, and their width is j 
 2 feet; full sized tea trays, are nearly of the same i 
 dimensions. Knife trays of the best kind have each I 
 two partitions, with a brass handle clasping them, ( 
 and screwing to their sides, which are 3 or 3| in- j 
 ches deep ; their inside length is 14 inches, and j 
 their width from 10 to 12 inches. The sides of j 
 these trays are now made perpendicular. Comb 1 
 trays are 6 inches by 8, or 9 long, with bevelled 
 sides, and mitred corners. They are mitred upon a 
 block of wood, and keyed at the corners. 
 
 Cane zaork is now more in practice than it was 
 ever known to be at any former period. About 30 
 years since, it was quite out of fashion, owing prin- 
 cipally to the imperfect manner in which it was ex- 
 ecuted. But on the revival of japanning furniture, 
 it gradually got again into use, and obtained an 
 able state of improvement, so that at present it is 
 introduced into several pieces of furniture, in which 
 its use was unknown a few years ago, particularly 
 in the ends of beds which are framed in mahogany, 
 and then caned, for the purpose of keeping in the 
 bed clothes. Sometimes also the bottoms of beds I 
 are caned, and small borders of it are introduced j; 
 round the backs of mahogany chairs, which look 
 very neat. Bed steps too, are caned ; indeed canes 
 are very properly used in any thing where lightness,, 
 elasticity, cleanness, and durability, are desirable. 
 
 The manner of caning is various. The common- 
 est kind is of one skain only, called by caners, bead- 
 work, and running open. There are other kinds 
 of two skains, and closer, and firmer. The best 
 work is termed bordering, and is of three skains, 
 some of which are done ?o very fine and close, that 
 they are less than a sixteenth broad, and in many 
 jnstiynces, as fine, comparatively, as some canvas. 
 
 The cane used for the best work is imported from 
 Bengal, and of a line light straw colour which forms 
 a most agreeable contrast to almost every colour it 
 is joined with. The yellower kind is generally as 
 Strong and durable, but that which has lost either) 
 the light straw, or shining yellow colour, ought to 
 be rejected, as having been damaged by salt water, 
 or some other accident, in its importation. 
 
 Carpet . — The Persian and Turkey carpets, are 
 held in most esteem. The Parisian carpets are a 
 tolerable imitation of these; but besides the Per.ian, 
 Turkey, and Parisian carpets, there are the follow- 
 ing sorts, which have their names from the places 
 where they are manufactured ; as Brussels — Kidder- 
 
 minster — Wilton — Axniinster — Venetian, which is 
 generally striped, and Scotch, which is the most in- 
 ferior, though in most common use, the other 
 sorts, particularly the Brussels, Wilton, and Ax- 
 minster being very expensive. 
 
 To most of the best kind of carpets, there are 
 suitable borders in narrow widths. The stair car- 
 pets are, half a yard, half ell, and three quarters 
 wide. 
 
 In cutting out carpets, the upholsterer after 
 having cleared the room of all its furniture, proceeds 
 to line out the border with a chalk line, and mark 
 the mitres correctly in the angles of the room, and 
 round the fire place in particular, as in this part any 
 defects are most observable. He then proceeds to 
 cut the mitres of the carpet border, beginning at the 
 fire place, and endeavouring as correctly as pos- 
 sible, to match the pattern at each mitre; in order 
 to do this, he must sometimes cut more or less of the 
 border to waste. He then takes a length of the 
 body carpet, and tacking it up to the border at one 
 end, resents to the strainer, with which he draws it 
 to the other, where lie tacks it again, taking care, as 
 lie goes on, to match the pattern, which sometimes 
 varies in the whole length, hut for which there is no 
 remedy, except by changing the lengths in such a 
 manner as to bring them tolerably near in matching. 
 If the widths do not correspond in number, it then 
 becomes necessary to draw them in at that side of 
 the room where the defilciency may be least seen ; 
 but this must be done in such a way that the con? 
 tracted widths may match, and that there may be 
 nothing offensive in the appearance of the whole. 
 To prevent misplacing any of the lengths, or parts 
 of the border, the upholsterer should take sealing 
 thread, and tack them together where he thinks it 
 necessary, in which state they are taken to the shop 
 and completed. 
 
 If a carpet be cut at home, a plan of the room 
 must be accurately taken on paper, with all the sizes 
 of breaks,, door ways, windows, angles &c. which 
 must be transferred to some convenient room at 
 home, by a chalk line and square, and then marking 
 off the border, and proceeding as before described. 
 
 In laying down a carpet it is generally customary 
 to begin with the fire place first, and after having- 
 tacked and secured this, to strain it here and there, 
 so as to bring it gradually to, till the whole is strain- 
 ed close round the room. 
 
 Every person employed in taking the plan of a 
 room for a carpet, ought to be acquainted witlrplain 
 geometry. 
 
 ■Card tables . — In the manufacture of these, there is 
 frequently much trouble in making them stand true 
 in the upper top; to effect which, various methods 
 have been devised by cabinet makers. Some swell 
 the upper tops, by damping them before they are 
 veneered, supposing that the ground will shrink in 
 ,due proportion with the veneer, so as to keep all 
 Hh straight. 
 
118 
 
 CABINETMAKING. 
 
 straight. This however, often fails, if the top 
 should happen to imbibe much of the wet, for from 
 being so much thicker than the veneer, it takes long- 
 er time to dry, and from the veneer being dried 
 first, and losing its power, the ground work natural- 
 ly draws the top round on the upper side. On the 
 other hand, if the ground be quite dry, and the wood 
 of a soft nature, and care be not taken to shrink the 
 veneer between hot cauls, previous to its being 
 glued down, the top will most likely dish on the up- 
 per side. Particular care also should be taken that 
 the top be not left too long in the cauls, for this w ill 
 help to draw it hollow. It is most advisable forthe 
 workman to take out the top soon, and lay the ve- 
 neer side of it down on the ground, m order that the 
 under side, from being exposed to the air may draw 
 the veneered side round. No wood will stand so 
 W ell for these tops, as hard, straight grained mahog- 
 any well seasoned, and jointed in 3 \ inch widths 
 The workman must avoid using curled veneers, anil 
 employ those only which are well dried, that they 
 may a°ree with the groundwork; when well sized 
 with Aue, they may be laid with the hammer wit.) 
 as much safety as in a caul, and sometimes more so; 
 because as soon as they are laid in this way, the un- 
 der side may be turned upwards, and the veneered 
 side may be placed so as to exclude the operation ot 
 
 or bordering , m cabinetmaking, is a 
 term applied to pannels or compartments ot one 
 sort of wood which are edged, or bordered with that 
 
 ° f It^ometimes happens, that the contrast of band- 
 ings may be too strong for the ground veneer to 
 which the banding is joined ; m winch case the beau- 
 ty of the veneer will be partly lost, because the eye 
 will be most attracted by the banding, owing to its 
 excessive contrast of colour to the body of the work 
 Suppose the ground to be a delicate, pale^ and rich 
 lv fi Aired sat tin wood, and that there are joined to it 
 a broad black wood border, and another equally 
 broad of white holly, the experiment would prove, 
 that the fine sattin w ood veneer, w ould lose a consi- 
 derable part of its beauty by the borders, -ome de- 
 gree of this excessive contrast is admissible with 
 safety when the ground veneer is less delicate, or the 
 wood is faulty; for then, the eye will be so much 
 attracted by the banding, as to disregard the imper- 
 fections of the ground wood, and consequently he 
 work will be viewed more favourably. On the 
 other hand, the contrast produced by banding, may 
 be, and frequently is, too weak for the ground ve- 
 neer, in which case considerable expence proves of 
 no utility. This is always the case when poor tulip 
 wood, or even the best 6 ( it, is joined to mahogany, 
 for it tutus by the air, nearly to a mahogany colour. 
 To produce an agreeable contrast in cross banding, 
 it will require different shades or bands, to the dif- 
 ferent qualities of wood of the same species. Jn 
 
 lio-ht coloured mahogany, of a soft quality, and liable 
 to® change, dark strong coloured kmgswood will 
 produce and maintain to the end, a proper contrast. 
 
 If it be dark hard wood, not so subject to change, 
 the use of a fair coloured East or West India sattin 
 wood, will create a pleasing contrast. Dark red and 
 light yellow, will always harmonize, and a small 
 quantity of black, tvith a retl ground, wilUlso ap- 
 pear very agreeable, as will a little black tv. h a 
 yellow ground. With respect to agreeable con last 
 in banding, it is also necessary to adjust its width in 
 a suitable proportion, to the colour and dimensions 
 of the ground work, for if the colour ot the banding 
 be not strongly opposed to the ground veneer, 1 
 should be used broader, though it be but a small 
 o-ronnd. But if the contrast be very striking, tne 
 w idth of the banding ought to be reduced m pro- 
 I portion. In cases however, where there is an ex- 
 ! tensive ground, such as in loo tables, the cross band- 
 ' ing wilt bear a greater width and strength ot con- 
 
 U,i leathers . — Those feathers which are brought from 
 Somersetshire, are esteemed the best, and those 
 from Ireland the worst. Eider-down is imported 
 from Denmark, the ducks which supply it being 
 inhabitants of Hudson’s bay, Greenland, Iceland 
 and Norway. Our own islands west ot Scotland 
 breed numbers of these birds, which prove a Pota- 
 ble branch of trade to the poor inhabitants. Hud- 
 son's bav also furnishes us with good feathers 
 
 Swandown is brought from Dantzic, from whence 
 
 also we have large quantities of feathers. 
 
 Several very imposing arts are practised by bro- 
 kers and dealers in feathers, which the stranger and 
 
 fair trader ought to be aware of. 1 he ^ the « 
 plucked from living birds, are the best and lightest, 
 and are of an elastic nature, so that a bed . Passed 
 down with the hand, when filled with good feathers, 
 will rise up to its place again. 
 
 The method of curing leathers is to disperse then 
 over the floor of a room, exposed to the sun, and 
 when thev are thoroughly dried, to put them 
 bags, and beat them with long poles, tor the purpose 
 of cleansing them from dirt, before they are hlle 
 
 into the tick. „ , 
 
 Desks for Compting-houses , are generally marie 
 double, with a flap each side, suspended to a square 
 part at the top, where is frequently a double brass 
 rail, supported on a double row of pillais, p 
 same, to sustain such books on, as are not m imme- 
 diate use. The insides of these desks are generally 
 fitted up with holes, for papers, and drawers W 
 notes. Sometimes they are made ot beech or ma- 
 hogany, and sometimes of deal painted, having the 
 upper side frequently lined with cloth, which is a 
 ban way, as it harbours sand and dirt. The mo t 
 advisable method is to use a small quantity ot blot- 
 ting paper, made into the form of a book, to wr e 
 on, which at once, answers the purpose ot the cloth. 
 
CABINETMAKING. 
 
 119 
 
 and supersedes the necessity of sand. The frames 
 of all large desks should be put together with bed 
 screws, for the convenience of removing them from 
 one place to another. The height in front of such 
 desks should be 3 feet 5 or 6 inches, including the 
 frame to the top of the flap, and the depth of the 
 desk without the frame, should be 4£ inches, rising 
 to 9 in the centre. 
 
 Tambour , in cabinetmaking, is a kind of flexible 
 partition, which is frequently made use of in the 
 shape of covers to ink stands, or as a kind of cur- 
 tain to wash basons, and pot cupboards. It is made 
 by gluing on strong canvas, a number of slips or 
 beads of anv kind of wood, which, when dry, may 
 be easily bent into a cylindrical form, and when cut 
 to the width of the aperture it is intended to close, 
 is made to slide in a groove at each end. These 
 doors, or rather screens, are opened or closed, by 
 means of a brass or ivory knob, and for purposes 
 where no great strength or security is wanted, 
 answer very well. 
 
 Pembroke Table . — The size of such tables is from 
 3 feet 8 inches, to four feet wide, when open ; and 
 from 34 inches to 3 feet long when the flaps are 
 down. The width of the bed should never be less 
 than 21 inches, but in general the size is from 22 
 to 25 inches, and the height never exceed 2 feet 4 
 inches, including castors. 
 
 Doors . — Although cabinetmakers are not bound 
 by the rules of architectural proportions in framing 
 doors, yet no doors ought to be less than the 
 diagonal of the square of its width, unless there is 
 some absolute cause for departing from this rule. 
 Doors are variously made by cabinetmakers ; some 
 are framed together, and have pannels ploughed in : 
 and others are rabbetted in with a bead, mitred 
 round to keep them in. Doors of a small size are 
 glued up in the solid, and sometimes clamped, 
 square, or mitred. In w ardrobe doors, great care 
 should be taken to have the stuff drv, as they have a 
 considerable draught in their shrinking, and are apt 
 to warp the frames in a manner not easily suscepti 
 ble of repair. In order tofevoid this, it is advisable to 
 let the pannels stand a quarter of an inch w ithin the 
 frame, and fix them dry in by a bead. Round the 
 inner edge of the door frames, a black line may be 
 permitted to cover the edge of the frame standing- 
 before the pannels, which, when polished with the 
 mahogany, looks well. The doors of wardrobes 
 should be left half an e : ghth of an inch over, on both 
 sides; (as in time they will shrink, so as to require 
 to lie hinged further in,) that the astragal may cover, 
 which ought always to be brass in this piece of fur- 
 niture. 
 
 Doors for cabinets and commodes, are according 
 to modern taste, framed with a rabbet left, to which 
 green, or other silk is fixed, after they have been 
 wired by the persons who work it. 
 
 In designs for book case doors, it is proper to 
 
 avoid as much as possible all curved lines, as they 
 are difficult to be glazed. Sometimes complicated 
 figures are introduced, by making the pane of glass 
 extend from one right lined bar to another in the 
 door, and laying a kind of false bar over it, of the 
 intended figure, made of the same moulding, with- 
 out rabbet. 
 
 Hinge, a most useful article in cabinetm;iking, of 
 which among many others there are the following 
 varieties. 
 
 Hinges for tea canisters are made very thin in the 
 joint, and long enough to extend the length of the 
 canister in one piece. They set on perfectly eve^ 
 with the top, so that there is no joint in the way. 
 
 Hinges for pulpit doors, are made very wide t© 
 receive the whole projection of the cornice, which 
 always crosses the door, and therefore it becomes 
 necessary to use wide-projecting butrhinges, which 
 screw on the edge of the door, and also to the fixed 
 part, whereby the door is thrown out so as to clear 
 the cornice. These hinges are used for other pur- 
 poses where there are any mouldings in the way of 
 a door. 
 
 Swan neck hinges, are a kind of pin-hinge, used 
 for some camp table tops. 
 
 Ell-hinges for shaving and dressing tables, are 
 adopted for strength, for the ell-part returns on the 
 front and back edge of the swinging part and secures 
 the top. — H tumbler hinge, to set ©n the edges of 
 any kind of turn-over frame, as that of a sofa bed, 
 or turn-over table tops. 
 
 Pin-hinges, are to avoid the dissagreeable appear- 
 ance of the knockle of common but-hingps, on the ex- 
 ternal part of neatly finished work. These are let 
 into the ends of doors, so as to bring the center of 
 tiie pin even with the front, (otherwise it will not 
 clear in turning,) and that the projecting strap 
 which has the pin may be behind. It islet into the 
 top and bottom of the carcase, into which the door 
 shuts, and the door end slips into the other strap of 
 the hinge which has not the pin. 
 
 Butt-hinges, are so called because they butt or 
 stop against some substance of wood, at the edge of 
 any thing to which they are screw ed. There are a 
 great variety of butt-hinges, in the practice of 
 cabinetmaking and joinery. Stop but-liinges, are so 
 named because the door or stop of any piece of wot-k 
 only turns a little out of the perpendicular to the 
 edge or surface on which they are set, if they are 
 pressed further the hinge will break. 
 
 Rising hut-hinges are such, as turn upon a screw 
 in their joints, and are used in enabling doors when 
 they open to clear a carpet, which otherwise they 
 might rub against. 
 
 Slip-olf but-liinges are* used, in cases where the 
 door or window blind, to which they are screwed, is 
 wanted to be taken off occasionally. 
 
 Lap-over but-liinges are applied to the top of any 
 piece ol work, that requires to be raised about seven 
 
 eighths 
 
120 
 
 CABINETMAKING. 
 
 eighths of an inch above the edge, to which it is 
 screwed, so that another top may fall in between 
 them. 
 
 Desk hut-hinges, are similar to those of the com- 
 mon sort, except only that they are made twice the 
 breadth in the strap part. 
 
 Alkanet . — A species of Anchusa, the root of which 
 is much in use amongst cabinetmakers, for making 
 red oil. The best mode of preparing this, is as 
 follows. — Take a quart of good linseed oil, to which 
 add a quarter of a pound of Alkanet root, as much 
 opened with the hand as possible, that the bark of 
 the root which tinges the oil, may fly off; with this 
 mix about an ounce of dragon’s blood, and another 
 of rose pink, finely pounded in a mortar ; set the 
 whole within a moderate heat for twelve hours at 
 least, though twenty-four would be better. Then 
 strain it through a flannel into a bottle for use. 
 This staining oil is not properly applicable to every 
 sort of mahogany. The open grained Honduras 
 ought first to be polished with wax and turpentine, 
 to till up the grain, but in general this wood looks 
 best with wax and turpentine only. If however, 
 it should be closed grained and hard, and want 
 briskness of colour, the staining oil will improve 
 it much. All hard mahogany of a bad colour, 
 should be oiled with it, and should stand unpolished 
 tor a time, proportioned to its quality and texture 
 of grain. If the oil be laid on hard wood, which is 
 to be polished off immediately, it is of little use ; 
 but if it be permitted to stand for a few days, the 
 oil penetrating the grain, hardens on the surface, 
 and consequently will bear a better polish, and look 
 brighter in colour. 
 
 Parking . — This is a concern in the cabinet branch 
 that requires great care, particularly when the arti- 
 cle to be packed is a large looking glass. Light 
 japanned chairs for bed rooms, are generally packed 
 in slight skeleton cases, after being papered over. 
 Those that arrange the chairs side to side in the 
 case, put a whole width bottom up each end of the 
 case, to receive the hanging bottom the whole length 
 of the case, which is screwed to the under side of 
 the rails of the chairs. When the first three chairs 
 are fixed, they are put down to their place, and the 
 other three are turned down upont hem, after their 
 place has been marked on the batten, they are 
 taken out again, and screwed to it as before describ- 
 ed, with two screws to each side rail. The first 
 three are then fastened to their places, with their 
 legs about an inch clear of the bottom of the case. 
 Stays are then placed crosswise under the long 
 batten, to keep it from working in the middle, and 
 the others are laid down in their place with their 
 legs up, and with the seats to each other, (care how- 
 ever being, necessary that they do not rub or touch 
 each other in ajiy part,) and stays are screwed across 
 as before. Others put the hanging battens across 
 the case : consequently every two chairs require two 
 
 short battens screwed to the under side of the rail, 
 as in the other method. This last way requires a 
 broad bottom on the sides of the skeleton case, placed 
 so as to correspond with the height of the chair seat, 
 and to receive the short battens crosswise. In this 
 manner of packing, the chairs are placed the other 
 way in the case, that is, with their fronts parellel to 
 the ends of the case, and they are then screwed in, 
 two and two together. By this mode the case re- 
 requires to be more than half a foot longer than by 
 t e other, but the latter requires to be broader. 
 When chairs are gilt, or richly finished, for drawing 
 rooms, they require a close case of full half inch deal, 
 and the packing is performed in the manner already 
 described, but with greater care. 
 
 Packing cases , for large glasses, should have their 
 sides of deal, from two to three inches thick, and 
 either half lapped or dove-tailed at the corners. 
 The tops and bottoms of such cases should be made 
 of inch deal, with three half width battens of inch 
 stuff, running lengthwise, and well nailed, to keep 
 the top, &c. firm, that the case may not easily warp 
 when the glass is in, and occasion its being broken. 
 It is usual, especially if the glass be conveyed by 
 water, to groove and slip the edges of the boards, 
 and even to pitch the joints afterwards, for the pur- 
 pose of resisting any dashes of salt water that may 
 occur in the voyage, which would totally ruin the 
 silvering by the slightest access to it. \Vhen they 
 are conveyed by land, gluing brown paper over the 
 joints in the inside, will be sufficient, provided the 
 case be otherwise well made. Whether by sea or 
 by land, the case should if possible be kept in an up- 
 right position on one ofits sides. In packing-one of 
 these glasses, it is necessary to place crosswise on the 
 bottom, three half battens, on which the blind 
 frame of the glass may rest, with the precaution 
 however, of leaving brass fasteners screwed to the 
 sides of the blind frame, so as to answer the place of 
 the three battens last mentioned. When the glass 
 is in its place, it is common to cover the plate with 
 some kind of paper, and to put at least a batten to 
 each end over the glass, half the width of a deal, 
 which are screwed to the sides of the case- These 
 last battens, if the depth of the case he properly ta- 
 ken at first, will be level with the edge of the case, 
 and will therefore prove a sure defence to the top, 
 and prevent it from being pressed down in the cent- 
 er so as to endanger the glass. The glass is then 
 inclosed, and tne top screwed down, (not nailed) 
 with two inch screw nails, two to each hoard, the 
 joints of which are pitched and canvassed over. 
 
 Festoon window curtains' among upholsterers, are 
 those which draw up by pullies, and hang down 
 in folds or festoons. These curtains are still in use 
 in bed rooms, notwithstanding the general intro- 
 duction of French rod curtains in genteel houses. 
 A festoon window curtain, consists generally of 
 three pulls, but where a window is extensive it has 
 
CABINETMAKING. 
 
 or five. According to the number of pulls the win- 
 dow lath must be pullied. Such as have three, are 
 done as follows. — Take 4f inches for the distance of 
 the pullies off each end of the lath, then find the 
 centre, and put the pullies to one side, next to the 
 draw end, equal to their width, that the lines which 
 pass over them may be directed to the right divisions 
 of the curtains. At the draw end there must be 
 three pullies, placed an inch and half from the end. 
 Towards the centre from these, is a pulley 4| inches 
 from the end, (measuring from that side of the pul- 
 ley, through which the line passes,) from which it 
 appears that there will be three pulls, and that two 
 of the lines will be 4f inches off the end of the cur- 
 tain, and the other in the centre. If the lath have 
 five pulls, then it will require four pullies more, to 
 be placed in equal divisions on the length of the 
 lath, and for these two additional ones, there must 
 be two corresponding pulls at the draw end, so that 
 it will require five pullies in the width of the lath, 
 to be fixed as before. 
 
 Polishing . — Different methods of polishing are of 
 course requisite for different kinds of work, as what 
 is useful in one case, may be injurious in others. 
 In drawers, and pieces of furniture, in which the 
 .fimell of oil would be unpleasant, bees wax rubbed 
 on with a cork, is used, and to remove the clammi- 
 ness left by the wax on the surface, brick dust should 
 be shaken through a stocking, on a fine cloth, and 
 well rubbed into the surface. 
 
 At other times soft wax, formed whilst warm, by 
 the -intermixture of bees wax and turpentine, to 
 
 Ml' 
 
 which is sometimes added a little red oil if the 
 wood should require it. This' is laid on with a 
 cloth, and needs no other cleaning oft than that of' 
 brisk rubbing with a clean rag. 
 
 The most general mode of polishing, adopted by 
 cabinetmakers, is with oil and fine brick dust, the 
 oil may be either plain linseed oil, or oil stained 
 with alkanet root. In polishing hard wood, the oil 
 should remain on the surface for a week, but soft 
 wood may be cleaned off in two or three days. Care 
 however should be taken to keep the oil from skin- 
 ning over, or drying on the surface, by frequently 
 rubbing it over with the oil rag, moistened with a 
 little additional oil. The brick dust and oil must 
 be applied together, and rubbed in till it thickens, 
 and becomes a kind of putty on the cloth, with 
 which the operation must be continued till the 
 desired effect is produced ; but the use of any fresh 
 brick dust must be carefully avoided. It is then 
 cleared off by some bran of wheaten flour. 
 
 Chairs are generally polished with the following 
 composition and a brush, and afterwards well rub- 
 bed off without any brick dust or bran. Take bees 
 j wax and a small quantity of turpentine in a clean 
 earthern pan, and place it over the fire till the wax. 
 unites with the turpentine ; add to this a little red 
 lead, finely ground on a stone, and as much fine 
 Oxford, or yellow ochre as will bring it to the 
 colour of bright mahogany. When the composition 
 is taken off the fire, add a little copal varnish to it 5> 
 and turn it into a bason of cold water, and form it 
 i into balls for use. 
 
 li 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 Carpentry is the art of cutting out, framing, 
 and joining large pieces of wood, to be used in 
 building. 
 
 Joinery , is also the art of working in wood, or of 
 fitting various pieces of timber together, tor the or- 
 namenting of certain parts of edifices, and is called 
 -by the French, menuiscric, “ small work,” 
 
 Both these arts are subservient to architecture, 
 being employed in raising, roofing, flooring, and or- 
 namenting buildings of all kinds. The rules in 
 carpentry are much the same as those of joinery; 
 the only difference is, that carpentry includes the 
 larger and rougher kinds of work, and that part 
 which is most material to the construction and sta- 
 bility of an edifice; while joinery comprehends the 
 interior finishing, and ornamental w ood work, 
 
 Carpentry and joinery may very properly be con- 
 sidered separately. -tinder the former head, we 
 shall enumerate the most usefel tools made usb of 
 by carpenters, and then divide the article into three 
 distinct divisions; the first of which, will treat of the 
 most advantageous modes by which timbers in 
 general may be connected together; the second, 
 will describe and illustrate the several parts of con- 
 structive carpentry, such as centers , roofs , domes , 
 
 - niches , <^c. ; and conclude with a view of the pro- 
 gress of the art, from Godfrey Richards, to the 
 present time ; and the third, will comprise some in- 
 vestigations and observations relative to the strength 
 -and stress of timber. 
 
 ENUMERATION OF THE MOST USEFUL 
 CARPENTERS TOOLS. 
 
 References to Plate 1 of carpentry. 
 
 Figure 7 
 
 represents The 
 
 Axe. 
 
 6 
 
 The 
 
 Adze. 
 
 • 24 
 
 - The 
 
 Sato. 
 
 13 
 
 The 
 
 Socke t c hrssrl. 
 
 5 
 
 — The 
 
 Firmer chisstl. 
 
 1 
 
 The 
 
 Auger. 
 
 3 
 
 The 
 
 G imblet. 
 
 — 16 
 
 The 
 
 Guage. 
 
 — <J 
 
 The 
 
 Square. 
 
 36 
 
 The 
 
 Compasses. 
 
 24 
 
 The 
 
 Hammer. 
 
 22 
 
 « The 
 
 Mallet. 
 
 11 
 
 The 
 
 Hook pin. 
 
 12 
 
 The 
 
 ( row. 
 
 — 18 
 
 The 
 
 Plumb rule. 
 
 19 
 
 The 
 
 Level. 
 
 Besides 
 
 these, carpenter^ make use of rip 
 
 chissels , mauls, ten feet reds , S,c. <fyc. Sfc. and some- 
 times of planes. 
 
 Before we proceed to the consideration of these 
 three divisions of carpentry, it may not be irrele- 
 vent to remark, that we shall suppose the material to 
 be arrived in the carpenters yard, and in the state 
 of whole or squared timber. The operations it 
 undergoes from this period to its final employment 
 in a building, may be classed' under two general 
 heads, namely, that which relates to individual 
 pieces, and thst which relates to their connexion 
 with others. Under the first head come the, opera- 
 tions of the pit saw, by which the whole timber is 
 divided and reduced to the required scantlings, 
 a term that means the dimensions, as to breadth and 
 thickness, without reference to the length. 
 
 Planing , which is giving a smooth face or surface 
 to w ood, by means of the plane. 
 
 Mouldings, of various forms, which are performed , 
 with particular planes or chissels. 
 
 Rebatting, which is a mode of diminishing the 
 width of a square, or rectangular piece of timber, 
 for a certain depth on one edge, thus, taking off a 
 rectangle, of the whole w^dth, and less than th£ 
 depth of the original piece, a mode much used in 
 door cases, and the frames of casement windows, 
 in which the rebate forms a kind of ledge for the 
 door or casement to stop against, and grooving or 
 plowing, in which a narrow channel is excavated 
 out of the thickness of the timber; the groove is 
 either square, forming an equal section in the whole 
 depth, or wider at bottom than at top, which iscalled 
 a dove-tail groove. Timber may also be sunk where 
 the piece is formed like a w r edge, or rounded ; or 
 bevelled in various shapes, a term applied when 
 the section- forms a figure without right angles. 
 
 We now come to the second, and most important 
 head of the operations by which timbers are con- 
 nected together. These are generally speaking, by 
 mortise a. id tenon, the former of which is an exca- 
 vation, and the latter a projection suited to it, and 
 sometimes bv scarfes, wooden pins, nails, spikes, 
 bolts, straps, Sec. and by other fastenings of iron. 
 
 FIRST DIVISION. 
 
 On the most advantageous modes by which timbers in 
 general may be connected together. 
 
 The modes by which timbers are connected toge- 
 ther, are generally speaking, perpendicularly ^ 
 obliquely, sideways and endways. 
 
 When timbers are joined perpendicularly, the fi- 
 bres and joint of one piece run perpendicularly to the 
 
 fibres 
 
©A'RPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 fibres, of the other, and the joint may then be term- 
 ed a transverse ora perpendicular joint. 
 
 When timbers are connected obliquely, the fibres 
 of the one piece run in an oblique direction, towards 
 those of the other, and for this reason it is called 
 oblique joining-, and the joint termed an oblique 
 joint. 
 
 Timbers are joined sideways, when their joints 
 are parallel to the fibres of each piece, and therefore 
 it is termed lateral or longitudinal joining, and the 
 joint is called a lateral or a longitudinal joint. 
 
 When timbers are joined endways, their com- 
 mon seam or joint is perpendicular to the fibres of 
 each piece, and the joint is then said to be a butting 
 joint. 
 
 With respect to joining timbers perpendicularly, 
 Figure 1. Plate 2. of Carpentry, represents a section 
 of a trimmer and a part of the joist, framed with a 
 simple mortise and tenon in a longitudinal direction. 
 The tenon is usually made in the middle with a 
 plain shoulder. 
 
 Figure 3. represents a section of a girder through 
 its mortises, and Figure 2 and 4. delineate part of 
 the joist in a longitudinal direction. The best me- 
 thod in order to give strength to the tenons, is to 
 make a rest of a short length under it, with a slop- 
 ing shoulder above, extending in a line from the 
 extremity of the rest, to the perpendicular of the 
 square shoulder below, at the upper edge of the 
 joist. 
 
 Figure 8 Plate 6. of Carpentry , represents the 
 section of a double floor, with a girder, taken in a 
 transverse direction to the bridging joists. 
 
 A shews the section of the girder ; DE, DE, the 
 bridging joists ; a, a, a, represents also the ends of 
 bridging joists: b, b, b, the ends of ceiling joists, 
 chased, mortised into binding joists, by a method 
 which will be hereafter described. 
 
 Figure. 9, of the same plate, shews the section of a 
 double floor, takeu in a transverse direction to the 
 binding joists. A, A, exhibits sections of the bind- 
 ing- joi-ts; DE, part of a bridging joist, MN, ceiling , 
 joists; and EF, EF, parts of ceiling joists. 
 
 It may be readily seen that the tenons of the bind- 
 ing joists are made in the same manner as described 
 in tiie preceeding design for a girder and j ists. 
 
 Figure 5 Plate 2, exhibits a method whereby a 
 piece oftimber may be framed between two parallel 
 pieces, which are supposed immoveable. In order 
 to make close work, the extremity of the tenon 
 and the bottom of the mortise at one end are made 
 to assume the arc of a circle, with its centre in one 
 edge of the mortise; and the extremity of the tenon 
 and the bottom of the mortise at the other end, in 
 a concentric arc from the same centre. The mortise 
 at this end being much longer than the breadth of 
 the tenon, there will be a large part of the mortise 
 still open, which may be afterwards fillpd up. In- 
 stead of the bottom of the mortise, in thig instance 
 
 123 
 
 being formed in the arc of a circle, it may be cut 
 parallel to the edge at the deepest part, as it will 
 not impede the transverse piece going in to its place. 
 In forming the mortise and tenon, at the end where 
 the centre is placed, there is no necessity for the moi r 
 tise and tenon to form an entire quadrant; but the 
 bottom may be parallel, and the edge only which is 
 opposite the centre made circular. This useful 
 mode of framing is much used in ceiling, joisting 
 for double floors &c. and the long mortises cut in 
 this manner are called chase mortises. 
 
 If it be required to notch one piece of timber to 
 another, or to connect the two, so as they may form 
 one right angle, with an equal degree of strength m 
 each. Then each piece should be notched half 
 through, and afterwards the two should be nailed or 
 pinned together. Figure 9. represents two pieces of 
 timber framed after this manner, and Figure If) 
 shews the socket of one piece, which receives the 
 neck or substance of the other. 
 
 By makinga corresponding notch at any convenient 
 distance from the end in each piece; two pieces 
 may be connected together so as to form four right 
 angles ; Figure 1 h shews two pieces framed as 
 above, and Figure 12, exhibits the socket of one of 
 the pieces, which is cut out to receive the part re- 
 maining in the other, after its socket is also cut 
 out. By this mode of joining timbers, the pieces 
 may be so notched, as to have their surfaces in the 
 same plane, or one abovq the other, as may be found 
 convenient. 
 
 Those methods are used to connect bond tim- 
 bers at the corner of a building. Figure 7, repre- 
 sents an excellent mode of fixing beams to wall 
 plates, when the walls are effected by lateral pres- 
 sure. A small notch is cut out of the beam, and 
 the contrary parts forming a double notch, are cut 
 in the wall plate to receive it. Figure 7 represents 
 a longitudinal part of the beam upon a transverse 
 section of the wall plate; and Figure 8, shews the 
 upper part of the wall plate wherein the two notches 
 are made. 
 
 Figures 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18, represent me- 
 thods of joining one piece of timber to another, by 
 dovetailing, so that the surface of the one be parallel 
 and perpendicular to that of the other; these figures 
 also represent various forms of cutting the dove- 
 tail, and are very useful in shewing the mode of 
 fixing angle-ties to wall plates &c. &c. It is evi- 
 dent that timbers can be joined by this method 
 either perpendiculary or obliquely. 
 
 Figure 21, exhibits another method of fixing 
 beams to wall plates, in order to bind the sides of 
 the building together; and Figure 22, shews a 
 transverse section at the neck of the dovetail. This 
 method of fixing beams to wall plates is called cog- 
 ging or cocking. 
 
 A piece oftimber may be joined at right angles to 
 another in the manner of Figure I, Plate 3. which 
 
 is 
 
m 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 is a longitudinal section in the direction ofthe fibres 
 of both pieces. A mortise is made in the one piece 
 to correspond with its breadth, which is to form the 
 perpendicular, the edge of the tenon is then cut 
 with a dovetail notch, so that the piece may be at 
 right angles with the other, and a wedge or key is 
 next driven from the other edge of the tenon, which 
 forces it quite close. When the timber of which the 
 piece containing the dovetail may be formed is not 
 quite dry, the tenon will shrink in proportion to its 
 breadth, by which circumstance the perpendicular 
 piece will beome liable to be drawn out from the 
 other to a certain degree. This defect is remedied 
 in the section exhibited at Figure 19, Plate 2, where 
 instead of the edge ofthe tenon being cut in the 
 form of a dovetaij, a notch is made in it . Figure 20, 
 shews another view of the perpendicular piece with 
 the wedge. 
 
 Another mode of fixing one piece perpendicular to 
 another is by fox-tail wedging,' and is executed by 
 making in the piece forming the base, a mortise near- 
 ly equal in depth to the piece ; by enlarging its 
 edges towards the bottom, and by cutting the tenon 
 of the perpendicular piece so as to fit the upper 
 part of the mortise. Two wedges are then fixed to 
 the bottom ofthe tenon; and when the perpendicu- 
 lar piece is driven, the wedges being resisted by the 
 bottom, will split the ends of the tenon, and fill up 
 the mortise to the breadth at the widest place. In 
 order to enlarge the tenon in breadth still more to- 
 wards its extremity, two other smaller wedges may 
 be put in, the ends of which must not reach quite so 
 far as those of the other two. When the larger wed- 
 ges are partly driven, the small ones will then begin 
 to widen the end of the tenon likewise, and make it 
 fill the mortise entirely at the bottom. Ry this me- 
 thod, as long as the wedges are kept from slipping, 
 one piece can never be drawn from the other, with- 
 out breaking the tenon. 
 
 Figure 23, shews the edge of the piece on which 
 flie mortise is cut. 
 
 Figure 25, exhibits a section of it through the 
 mortise; and Figure 21, represents a section ofthe 
 perpendicular piece with the wedges. 
 
 Figure 2, Plate 3, shews a transverse section of a 
 post, with two beams longitudinally bolted to it, 
 in the same manner as cogging of beams to wall 
 plates is performed. 
 
 Figure 3, is a part of one of the beams, with 
 Botches made in it to receive the post ; and Figure 4, 
 is a part of the post exhibiting the notches made in 
 R to receive the beams. 
 
 Figure 1, Plate 4, is an elevation of the bottom 
 of a king post, fixed to a tie beam, by a bolt; and 
 Figure 2, is a vertical section cutting the beam trans- 
 versely ; two nuts are used on this occasion in order 
 to give greater security ; one of which is let in from 
 the face of the beam, and the other from the edge. 
 Another method of strapping a fie beam to a king 
 post is shewn at Figure 3. 
 
 The mortise of the strap on both sides is made ob- 
 long, and for the purpose of giving the necessary 
 draught to the wedges, the mortise through the 
 king post is made somewhat lower. 
 
 Figure 4, is a longitudinal section of the king 
 post, with a transverse section of the beam. The 
 upper part of this figure shews the manner of fixing 
 the wedges, with the form of the washers, which are 
 necessary, in order to prevent the strap on each side 
 from penetrating into the wood, the whole force of 
 the friction being taken away by these means from 
 the straps. 
 
 With respect to joining timbers obliquely, the di- 
 agram delineated at Figure 6, Plate 2, represents 
 the mode of framing a transverse joist between two 
 parallel ones, the vertical surfaces of which are ob- 
 lique to each other. The upper edge ofthe trans- 
 verse piece is placed downwards upon the top of the 
 parallel joists and marked at the interval or clear at 
 each end ; it is then turned upwards into the position 
 in which it is intended to be placed, the mark at one 
 end is brought into a right line with the side ofthe 
 joist, and a line is then drawn by the side of a 
 straight edge, placed against the side ofthe joist, 
 and the plane of the transverse piece. The line at 
 the other end is drawn in the same manner. This 
 mode of framing is called by workmen, tumbling in 
 joists. 
 
 Figures 5, 6, 7, in Plate 4, exhibit the methods 
 used for the meeting of a brace and straining piece 
 under a truss beam, of these methods the first is the 
 best. 
 
 Figure 8, exhibits a method of securing a collar 
 beam at one extremity, and preventing it from being- 
 pulled away at the joint ; by a bolt made to pass 
 through the rafter, at the angle formed by their 
 meeting. 
 
 Figure 9, represents one form of the heel of a 
 principal rafter, with the socket cut in the end of the 
 tie beam to receive it; this method however, is de- 
 fective in strength, because the small part cut across 
 the fibres ofthe beam being too near its extremity, it 
 will become liable to be forced away in consequence 
 of its having to sustain the entire force of the rafter. 
 Figure 10, is intended to remedy this defect, by 
 forming two abutments equally deep into the beam; 
 a mode, which not only produces a resistance to 
 the rafter, fully equal to that in the former method, 
 but adds to it the strength ofthe intermediate part 
 contained between the two abutments. The inter- 
 mediate part in this mode from having the fibres cut 
 across, is easily split away. 
 
 Another mode of forming a double resistance, is 
 shewn at Figure 11. In this figure it will be ob- 
 served, that the heels of the rafter and the socket, 
 are cut parallel to the fibres of the tie beam, the end 
 of the rafter forming one abutment, and the tenon 
 the other, which has the effect of removing it farther 
 from the extremity. 
 
 Figure 12 represents the best mode of forming 
 
a resistance on tlie heel of the rafter and socket at the 
 extremity of the beam. The abutment by this plan, 
 is brought nearer to the inner part of the heel, which 
 of course leaves a greater length on t he end of the 
 beam, and renders the resistance still greater, than 
 that produced by the wood. In order still further 
 to strengthen and secure it, a strap may be placed 
 round the extremity of the rafter, and the two ends 
 may be bolted together, through the beam, as is re- 
 presented in Figures 12 and 13. 
 
 Figure 14 represents the mode of forming a junc- 
 tion of the rafters, and the joggle head of the king- 
 post, together with the manner of strapping them. 
 This mode, however, will be found defective when 
 the joggle head of the king post should happen to 
 shrink', for it is evident, that in that case, the roof 
 will descend, and consequently put it out of shape. 
 
 Figure 15 shews a mode of forming a junction 
 by making the rafters meet each other, without the 
 intervention of the joggle head, which is usually 
 made to the king post, and of course it has a great 
 advantage over the preceding method. 
 
 Figure 1, Plate 5, represents another mode of 
 hanging king posts to their principal rafters, which 
 meet each, ot er, as in figure 15, Plate 4. 
 
 Instead of the forked strap, a bolt is used in this 
 case with a spreading head, so as to form a shoulder 
 perpendicular to the rafters, which are notched on 
 purpose to receive it. This has the effect, also, of 
 preventing the rafters of a roof from sinking in the' 
 middle. The whole may be made of iron, consisting 
 of two part s connected' together bv means of a screw, 
 which will draw the tie beam as high as may be 
 required. No. 1 is part of the king post with the 
 bolt; No. 2 and 3 are parts of the rafters, and No. 
 4, presents a view of the upper edge of the rafters. 
 
 Figures 2 and 3, exhibit the most approved forms 
 for the abutments of the braces, at the lower part of 
 the king post. 
 
 Figure 2 shews the form of an abutment, when 
 the part which makes the resistance in the direction 
 of the king post is perpendicular to it ; and figure 3 
 delineates the form of another abutment, where the 
 part of the shoulders, which make the resistance, is 
 perpendicular to the brace. 
 
 In figure 4 is shewn a method whereby two braces 
 are connected to an iron king post, which is a small 
 rod of iron, sufficiently strong to hear up the middle j 
 of the beam, and to resist the force of tlie braces by ] 
 the weight of the middle rafters. Tlie strap which 
 prevents the braces from being pushed downwards, 
 has an eye through each side, and the bottom ofthe j 
 king rod is formed with a cross, equal in length to j 
 the thickness of the braces : this cross is perforated 1 
 in its length to receive the bolt. 
 
 Figure 10, Plate 6, shews the manner of framing j 
 two wall plates, to enable them to receive the hip i 
 rafter, with the angle tie and dragon beam, as sup- | 
 ports to the rafter. * 
 
 m 
 
 Figure 7 represents a design for a story post, and 
 breast summers. 
 
 With respect to joining timbers sideways, there 
 are an infinite variety of ways by which beams are 
 lengthened ; and therefore it would be an endless 
 (ask to describe every mode which has been propos- 
 ed. It will suffice to notice those forms only which 
 have been most approved of. 
 
 Figure 9, Plate 3, represents a method by which 
 a beam may be continued to any length, by building 
 it in three thicknesses. 
 
 Figures 10 and II, present modes of scarfing 
 beams together, and will be found useful in 
 small pieces, which may be glued together. In or- 
 der to make the joints close, and to render them 
 less dependant on the bolts, and to prevent every 
 possibility of one being drawn away from another, it 
 is proper to indent them together, by the mode 
 called tabling, (which is represented in figures 12, 
 13, 14, 15, 16, &c.); and to leave a small space at 
 the end or meeting of each table, for a wedge. In 
 tlie operation of joining timbers in this manner, the 
 pieces are first laid so as the joints may be brought 
 as close as possible ; the wedge is then driven, while 
 another person strikes the extremity of one of the 
 pieces with a large mallet, which causes the joints to 
 adhere quite close, if they have been fitted well 
 together previous to the operation. 
 
 Of the before-mentioned modes, those in figures 
 13, 14, and 15, are the best, because the faces of the 
 tables are parallel to the fibres of the wood, and they 
 are thereby better enabled to resist any longitudinal 
 strain, and with a much greater force. It is neces- 
 sary, nevertheless, to place plates of iron across the 
 ends ofthe joints, because more than half ofthe wood 
 is cut quite through. Hut less however, is to be 
 apprehended from the tearing of the fibres, by their 
 being drawn in the direction of their length, than 
 from tlie bending of the bolts. 
 
 As the scarfe, in figure 14, has several tablings, 
 the extreme wedges are only effective ; for a wedge 
 in the middle tends to force the joints open, and 
 consequently only the other two should be fixed. 
 Long scarfings add to the strength of beams; but it 
 has been supposed, that when the numbers of tables 
 is more than two, it is disadvantageous, since the 
 fibres are shortened, and therefore tlie resistance is> 
 less. 
 
 Figures 17 and 21, are the two halves of a beam, 
 having tables made in them, in the form of obtuse 
 angles, with a ridge in the middle. These are 
 raised ar.fj sunk, alternately, and when bolted toge- 
 ther, have the ' ppearance of one beam, as is repre- 
 sented in figure 22. 
 
 Figures IS and 19, respectively shew the section 
 across the sunk and raised parts ; and figure 20 re- 
 presents a section of the beam, when the two parts 
 denoted by figures 17 and 21, are bolted together. 
 
 When it is Rccessary for the practical carpenter 
 
 K k id 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
m 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 to scarfe beams after the foregoing method ; he 
 should be particularly careful that all the butting 
 places meet closely together. And he should fur- 
 ther observe, that in scarfing beams after any of the 
 preceding methods, or by any other modes which his 
 ingenuity may suggest, it would be proper to have 
 every butting joint strapped across with iron on both 
 sides. If this material part be well executed, he 
 will find that it will increase the longitudinal 
 resistance at the weakest section, and diminish, in 
 a great degree, the possibility of the bolts being- 
 bent. 
 
 Timbers may also be joined laterally, by means 
 of keys and dovetails. This method is trnelv in- 
 genious, and deserves to be more generally know n. 
 
 Figure 5, P/ale 3 , presents a longitudinal section 
 of two pieces, joined in this manner, with the dove- 
 tail pieces and the wedge or key, by means of which 
 they are forced against the ends of the pieces requir- 
 ed to be fixed. In order to make the one press 
 harder against the other, the interior angle of the 
 dove tail ought to be made greater than the exterior 
 one, formed upon the pieces to be joined. 
 
 Figure 6, is a transverse view of the mortise and 
 ends of the dove-tails and keys, on the outside of 
 the piece, and figure 7, is also a transverse view of 
 the mortise and ends of the dove-tails and keys, but 
 on the inside part of the piece. 
 
 Figure 8, represents a perspective view of the 
 pieces when joined hy the keys and dovetails. This 
 excellent method maybe adopted in joining parallel 
 pieces together, when the pairs of pieces do not 
 touch each other. The ingenious carpenter, by at- 
 tending to these principles, will find them useful in 
 many cases, particularly in the construction of 
 wooden bridges. 
 
 With respect to joining timbers endways, butting 
 joints are fixed together with bolts, having a screw ed 
 nut at each end; one of these nuts must be square, 
 and the other round, the round one must have notch- 
 es cut close on its edge. The bolt must be let into 
 each piece, perpendicularly to thejoint, and the nuts 
 must be sunk from one side across the grain, until j 
 the ends of the bolt are enabled to pass the interior j 
 screw, winch is formed on purpose to receive the ox- ! 
 tenor one ; the square nut is first put in, after 
 which one end of the bolt is firmly driven into the 
 bore, made to receive it, and screwed to the nut. j 
 The notched nut is next put in, and the bolt abo in * 
 its place; after this one piece may be turned round 
 upon the other until the joint is quite close, and two 
 dowels should be introduced one on each side of the 
 bolt. One piece should be driven as close to the 
 other, as the nut will permit, and then with a nar- 
 row pointed turn screw, and a mallet, the nut may j 
 be forced round until the joint is entirely close. 
 
 In the Second Division we proceed to describe and 
 illustrate the several parts of constructive carpentry, 
 such, as centers, roofs &c. &c. 
 
 Centers . — The term center is used to denote a 
 frame of timber, constructed for the purpose of sup- 
 porting the bricks or stones, during the erection of a 
 vault or arch. The center serves as a foundation 
 for the arch to be built upon, until the work is com- 
 pleted, when it is taken dow n, or which is technically 
 called struck, and if the arch has been properly con- 
 structed, it will stand of itself from its curved 
 figure. 
 
 When the span is small, and upon a limited scale, 
 as in vaults and cellars under ground, the foundation 
 of the side walls is dug out, the earth is rounded off 
 1. 1 the interval between them, the arch is thrown over 
 upon it; and when the arch is completed, the earth is 
 dug out and removed, lint the defects of this me- 
 thod are obvious, and it becomes, therefore, necessary 
 to construct frames of timber for carrying the stones 
 or brick, requisite for the construction of the arch. 
 When the arch is to be constructed above ground, 
 but at no great height above the surface, a frame for 
 supporting the arcli stones is easily raised from the 
 ground, and bound together, so as to answ e r the pur- 
 pose required, though frequently there is a great 
 waste of wood on such occasions ; indeed w hen the 
 span of the arch is great, or at a great height above 
 the surface of the ground, the expence of a frame 
 formed in this manner, would not only be enormous, 
 but in many cases it would be useless. Whether the 
 arch be great or small, high or low, a proper econo- 
 my in the wood and workmanship should be observ- 
 ed ; since in proportion to the smallest of the ex- 
 pence incurred, will be the increase of advantage to 
 those concerned, and at the same time proportion- 
 ably greater credit will accrue to the engineer. But 
 it is essential to consider on the other hand, that if 
 in reducing the expense of materials or workman- 
 ship, the center should be constructed too slight, 
 and without a due attention to those principles 
 w hich alone ensure strength, the same may be crush- 
 ed through the pressure of the arch stones, and the- 
 whole fabric may be brought down ; the saving in 
 tins case will be a poor compensation for so serious 
 a loss, and therefore it may be better, perhaps on tiie 
 whole, to have too much wood than too little. 
 Under all the circumstances, it behoves the mecha- 
 nic to obtain the best information that he can on this 
 important subject, which we will endeavour to set 
 in as clear a point of view as possible. 
 
 This subject may be very properly divided into 
 three branches, in the first of which, it will be pro- 
 per to consider the weight to be supported, in the 
 second, the quantity of materials necessary for the 
 support of such a weight, and in the third, the most 
 effective method of applying these materials. 
 
 With respect to the first, the weight to be support- 
 ed on the center is the stones, or brick, of which the 
 arch is to be composed. 
 
 It has be^n determined by several, eminent 
 mathematicians, that when the arch is either asenii- 
 
 ellipsis, 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 127 
 
 ellipsis, or semi-circle, it can be raised to thirty de- 
 grees and upwards without support ; after which, it 
 begins to press on the frames composing the center. 
 
 It should be recollected particularly that this refers 
 onlv to the semi-elliptical, or semi-circular arch, 
 for "if it be a segment of either of the aforementioned 
 curves, it will not only press sooner upon the center, 
 but also more heavily in proportion to the flatness of 
 the arch. If we take for example a semi-circle whose 
 diameter is 20 feet; then, according to the foregoing 
 observation, there w ill remain 120 degrees of the 
 arch to he supported. Now 120 degrees will mea- 
 sure 20 040 feet, but in order to give the advantage 
 as much as possible to the center, we will call it 21 
 feet ; and if we suppose the arch stones to be of free- 
 stone 18 inches square, whose specific gravity is 
 2'532, we shall find by the common operations of 
 multiplication, that the pressure on one rib of the 
 center is 7477‘307 lbs. avordupoise, or about 66'75 
 Cwt. From hence may be perceived the necessity of 
 strength and firmness for the center; since each 
 frame must sustain the above weight, not only with- 
 out warping, or sinking under the pressure, but 
 without rising in the crown, from any weight on its 
 haunches. To pursue this interesting anti useful sub- 
 ject still farther, by calculating the increase of weight 
 upon a span of 50 feet ; it will be found by the 
 rules of mensuration, that the length of the arch of 
 120 degrees in a circle whose diameter is 50 teet, is 
 52'3(i feet; for example, we will suppose the arc?; 
 stone to be 2 feet by feet deep, which gives 5 
 superficial feet, anti on the supposition that the 
 stone is of the same specific gravity as that before 
 mentioned, the weight supported by one frame of the 
 center, will be found equal to 369 9 Cwt. Hence 
 the weight on the center frame is increased in the 
 proportion of 369 9 to 66'7, or more than five times, 
 besides the allowance necessary to be made for the 
 difference between the stiffness of the center 
 frames ; for, on account of the greater extent of the 
 latter center, the frame that would be sufficiently 
 firm at 20 feet, would give way at 50 feet. 
 
 In our dissertation on bridges we have made men- 
 tion of those constructed of iron; and therefore it 
 may not be improper to present to the practical 
 carpenter, an example for constructing of centers for 
 them. W e will first examine of what dimensions a cen- 
 ter should be if the arch form the segment of a circle, 
 if the span oft lie arch be 236 feet (being- the span of 
 th° bridge alluded to m. the description of stone, 
 bridges), and if the height above the spring of the 
 arch be 31 feet, the diameter in this case will be easi- 
 ly found to be about 444 feet, and the arch stones in 
 this segment would press upon the center frame, at 
 about IS feet from the spring of the arch. Suppose 
 the arch stone to be 4 feet by 5, which will give 20 
 superficial feet, and rhe whole measure of the arch to 
 he 444T5 lineal feet; the solid contents will he 
 found to amount to 4132 feet, and the weight to ! 
 
 318 7 tons, while the weight of the iron employed is 
 260 tons. Having now' taken a view of the weight 
 to be supported, we proceed in the second' place to 
 consider, what strength of wood is necessary for the 
 support of such a weight. In determining this, w e 
 shall take a view of such experiments as have been 
 made for ascertaining the strength of different ma- 
 terials, 
 
 Under the head *■' Strength of Materials in the 
 third general division of Carpentry. 
 
 We have to consider, in the third place, the most 
 effective method of applying these materials. 
 
 It is to be observed, that as an arch in its form, 
 approaches in one part towards the perpendicular, 
 and in the other, towards a horizontal line, the 
 actual weight that it will sustain, lies between that 
 force which a body will carry in the perpendicular, 
 and that which produces a fracture upon any mate- 
 rial in the horizontal direction. If the perpendicu- 
 lar be greater than the horizontal line, it will par- 
 take more of the strengtli of the bruising force, than 
 of the transverse fracture ; and this species of fores 
 mav be expressed by the ratio compounded of the 
 bruising or crushing force, and that of the transverse 
 fracture, or more properly, perhaps, it may be term- 
 ed the absolute and relative force. 
 
 It is much to be regretted, that we are not posr 
 sessed of a sufficient variety of experiments on a 
 large scale, to ascertain the absolute force. At the 
 same time however, it must be admitted that the 
 results of the experiments that have been made, with 
 the observations upon them, will furnish the ingeni- 
 ous carpenter with a tolerable correct knowledge of 
 the principles he may- act upon, and also prevent his 
 using superfluous materials, by applying those prin- 
 ciples, either to horizontal right lines, to those which 
 incline in a right lined direction, or to, curves. 
 
 Muschenbroeks asserts, that the weight which 
 crushes one inch of sound oak, is 17300 lbs. but if 
 computed from the increase, or as the squares of the 
 diameters, it is only 16000. lbs. It is well known 
 that the -power to break, or. make a transverse frac- 
 ture in the same wood, of the- same length, and of 
 different diameters, (if a considerable difference in 
 diameters be taken,) is twice that produced by the 
 square of the diameter, lly this comparison vve are 
 enabled to judge, that the proportion which exists 
 between the strength of wood and of stone, is 0048 
 to 17300, or nearly.as 1 to 2|. We are thus ena- 
 bled to form an estimate of the proportion existing 
 between the arch and the strength of a horizontal 
 line, and we are also enabled to substitute the one 
 material for. the other, in point of strength, w ith 
 sufficient accuracy. Experimentalists agree that a 
 square inch of wood may.be pulled asunder, .or 
 crushed with a weight of between 16000, and 17300 
 lbs. ; that a piece of wood 18 inches long, and one 
 inch square, may be broken by 406 lbs. ; that a 
 piece 12 inches m- length, may be crushed by 609 
 
I§8 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 lbs.; and apiece 6 inches long, bv 1218 lbs. all 
 which circumstances have been proved by the com- 
 parison of experiments to be consistent with the 
 principles of the lever. If then, the geometrical 
 mean is taken between the elevation of the arch, 
 as pressure or absolute strength, and the length of 
 the horizontal line, this mean will <>ive the strength 
 of the arch above the horizontal line ; for it is clear, 
 that in proportion as the piece of wood may be 
 elevated towards the perpendicular, it will approach 
 so much the‘ nearer to its absolute strength, that in 
 proportion as the arch is flatter, or the piece of wood 
 is les ; inclined, the nearer it will be to a straight 
 line, and that in proportion as it is the more reduced 
 to its relative strength, the position of the arch must 
 be in the ratio compounded of these two. 
 
 The preceding principles may, now be applied to 
 the construction ot centers of any span, and possess- 
 ing the strength necessary for the support of the 
 arch. 
 
 Pitot, wrote on this subject about the beginning 
 of the last century, and we shall lay his plan of 
 operation before our readers, premising however, 
 that he has been rather too profuse, in the allotment 
 of his materials. 
 
 We have already observed, that there is but little 
 or no weight on the centre, until it reaches to about 
 30 degrees of the arch ; at this height, a stretcher is 
 extended from side to side, which stretcher is sup- 
 ported by two struts from the spring of the arch. 
 Upon the upper part of the stretcher, either imme- 
 diately above, or a little within the upper end of the 
 truss, on each side are two spars connected with the 
 king post, which spring from about the middle of 
 the arch, and divide the stretcher into four parts. 
 
 Another strut springs from the rise of the arch, 
 and meets the stretcher at this fourth part, from 
 either side of the arch : these last struts are joined 
 by a tie beam, which gives additional strength to 
 the first stretcher ; upon these, on the upper side of 
 the stretcher, two spars join the king post, a little 
 below the other stretcher. The spars are connected 
 together by bridles or cross-spars, from the circular 
 arch, to the lower strut; ribs of a similar formation 
 being placed at proper distances, according to the 
 width of the bridge, and joined by bridging joints, 
 which may be of greater or lesser strength, according 
 to the span of the arch, and the weight it has to 
 support, if no rests are left at the spring of the 
 arch, as a base for the center to rest upon. 
 
 Let A B, Figure 5 Plate n.of carpentry, be the ends 
 oft wo planks, raised from the foundation, on which 
 the center is intended to rest. Let CD, be the 
 stretcher, extended about 3.5 or 40 degrees from the 
 spring of ti:e arch; or as but little weight rests on the 
 center till it attains that height, the stretcher may be 
 as high as 45 degrees; let also A E, AO, BE, BO, be 
 the two struts on each side ; from each extremity 
 of the center, let BE, AEj be fixed to the stretcher 
 
 near C and D, and AG, BG, at one fourth of CD, 
 let their stretcher or tie beam CG, be equal to one 
 half of CD, the bridles or cross spars 1,2, 3, &c. 
 from A to C, and froiti B, to I), are intended to 
 prevent the arch from yielding; from A, to C, and 
 from B, to I). The struts EF, EF, meeting the 
 king post, K, in F, and the interior struts GIT, GIT, 
 meeting the king post in 11, support the bridles 
 4, 5, 6, on each side of the king post ; their use is to 
 stiffen that part of the frame of the center, which 
 supports the upper and more weighty part of the 
 arch. 
 
 Pitot intended this center to be used in an arch 
 of GO feet span ; and the arch stones seven feet in 
 length ; the weight of a cubic foot he makes ICOlbs. 
 As was proposed, we will first consider the weight to 
 be supported by the frame. It is evident in this 
 case, from the figure, that no strain lies upon the 
 frame below C ; the arch is raised, or can be raised 
 o this height, before the frame is sot, and therefore 
 the perpendicular C c, determines the limit of the 
 absolute pressure upon the centre frame. The part 
 of the arch below C, will rest upon the abutment 
 raised upon the pier: but if there is a pressure upon 
 the lower part of the centre frame, it must be con- 
 tained between the parallels C c, f g; although it 
 will be admitted, that the arch can be raised to the 
 height C, without the support of the centre frame, 
 and that it will suffer what lies between these par; 
 allels, to press upon the frame. To determine the 
 weight of these parts of the arch, the distance be- 
 tween the perpendiculars C c, D d, is 53 feet, the 
 arch stone is 7 feet long, and 3 feet broad, then the 
 weight is 53X 3X 160 lbs.= 178080 lbs. 
 
 To determine the area between the two par- 
 allels C c, f g, the line f g, perpendicular to the 
 diameter A B, is 13£, the base is 9|, and C f, per- 
 pendicular to it, is 7 feet, the area is 33| feet ; C c, 
 the base of the triangle C fc, is 7*2; and fc is 7 ; 
 the area is 25, and the difference is 8f. If this dif- 
 ference had been the excess of the triangle C f e, 
 above the triangle C f g, it would have been a 
 pressure upon the frame ; but as it is the reverse, the 
 pressure is upon the abutment, it is necessary to 
 observe this distinction, in order that an unnecessary 
 expence ofmaterials and labour may not be" incurred 
 where it is unnecessary. 
 
 It now becomes proper to inquire, what strength 
 ofmaterials is requisite to support this weight. 
 
 It lias been laid down as a principle that the dif- 
 ferent pieces of timber composing an arch, act upon 
 each other by their absolute strength ; but that they 
 are liable to the transverse fracture, in proportion to 
 the length of the piece. In a span of GO feet, the 
 length of the piece may be 7 feet, without materially 
 diminishing its strength, in reducing it to the round; 
 and by experiment we learn that the relative 
 strength of 7 feet by 8 inches square is 476491bs. 
 We know also from experiments, that the strength 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 129 
 
 is proportioned to tlie depth, though care should be 
 taken for so proportioning the breadth or thickness, 
 that the arch may be prevented from warping, the 
 absolute strength being nearly according to the 
 principle of the before mentioned experiment, as the 
 squares of the depth. The absolute strength to the 
 relative force, has been found by some to be in the 
 proportion of 60 to 1, but by others to be only as 42 
 to 1 : the absolute strength of the plank (one inch 
 thick and 12 inches wide) is 189163lbs; if the same 
 were two inches thick, it would still be no more 
 than 189163. But, if it were 8 inches square, then 
 every 7 feet of the arch might be broken with 
 J 89 163 lbs. weight. We have found, however, be- 
 fore that the whole weight of the arch is only 
 178080 lbs. which is 110801bs. less in weight, than 
 that part of the frame is capable of hearing', and as 
 7 feet is only about one seventh part of 53 ; the 
 frame is sufficiently strong to support the entire 
 weight of the arch, when that weight is divided 
 equally along its whole length. This is not the 
 case with the center frame of an arch, as it is loaded at 
 one place, and not at another; it is therefore apt to 
 yield between the parts where the weight is heaviest, 
 the form of the arch is consequently changed; for 
 the center frame is not limited merely to supporting 
 the arch, bat to keep and preserve it in its true form, 
 and therefore some struts may be necessary to pre- 
 vent its putting the arch out of shape. To remedy 
 this, where the arch begins to press upon the frame 
 at C, draw the cord line C c, Figure 6, which acts as a 
 tie beam to the arch from C, at 35 degrees, to c, at 31 
 degrees; as beyond this, if the arch frame has alter- 
 ed its form, it will require it, at least, the force of 
 the tie will have a tendency that way. At that 
 part of the arch, where its weight begins to flatten 
 the frame, as at 2, draw the stretcher 2 2, which 
 likew ise acts as a tie beam, w hile it affords support 
 to the bridle 1, on one side, and to 3 the bridle on 
 the other side, from Dd; and thus the arch c d, is 
 prevented from sinking by the tie beams c d. This 
 w ill effectually prevent any yielding of the frame, 
 notwithstanding the immense pressure of the mate- 
 rials composing the arch. 
 
 The relative proportions oftbe strength of oak and 
 fir, have been nearly ascertained by experiments 
 made by different philosophers, though the results 
 of these experiments do not in all instances exactly 
 agree. We w ill take that of Buffon, which is 3-5ths. 
 Now to reduce a frame of oak, to one of fir of equal 
 strength, divide 8 incises, the diameter of the oak, by 
 3-5ths. the relative strength of fir, winch gives 1 1-3 id. 
 inches. If we allow If inches, then the depth of the 
 frame will be Of by 2f inches. In this way the strength 
 of the fir arch is rendered equal, and by the addition- 
 al allowance, superior to the oak in strength, at a 
 less expence in wood and workmanship. 
 
 M. Pitot allowed the rings of his arches to con- 
 sist of pieces of oak. J2 inches broad and six thick. 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 ii 
 
 The stretcher CD, is 12 inches square; the strain- 
 ing piece CG, is likewise!2 inches square; the lowei- 
 struts are 8 inches by 10; the king post is 12 inches 
 square ; the upper struts are 10 by 6 ; and the ridges 
 are 20 by 8 old French measure; which dimen- 
 sions may he very easily accomodated to English 
 measure, by observing that the old French inch in 
 equal to P0657 English inches. 
 
 Pitot allow's the square inch to carry 8650lbs, 
 that is, one half of the absolute strength, which is 
 ascertained by experiment to be about 173001bs. and 
 not the square of the diameter, which would be only 
 16000lts. But on account of knots he reduces it to 
 72001i)s. per inch. He then computes the whole 
 load upon the frame to be 7075201bs. which is the 
 weight of the whole arch stones, supposing each 
 stone to be 3 feet broad, and the whole to press upon 
 the frame, which comes very near. Pitot also sup- 
 poses the weight that rests upon the center to be 
 11-liths. of the whole weight, but assigns no rea- 
 son for his conjecture. Mr. Couplet assumes that it 
 presses by 4-9ths. Our readers, however, have it in 
 their power to examine the principles, and judge for 
 themselves. 
 
 Figure 7, represents a second form of a center 
 frame, which is described by Pitot, and is adapted 
 to an elliptical arch. Its construction differs in no 
 respect from the former, except only that the two 
 upper struts are parallel ; the strength, as in the for- 
 mer, is superabundant. 
 
 Both this and the preceding are capable of being 
 divided into three pieces, which circumstance renders 
 them more easy to be managed when erecting, par- 
 ticularly in large spans. 
 
 Figure 8, exhibits a mode of constructing a center, 
 which is neat and ingenious; but there is much 
 more wood and workmanship expended than is ne- 
 cessary. It is divided into two parts, the base or 
 stretcher L, L, of the upper part, resting upon the 
 lower part of the frame, by which the greatest part 
 is rendered quite superfluous. The lower rests, 
 IT, appear to be necessary only in preventing the 
 stretcher L, L, from yielding, and thereby allowing 
 the arch to Ipse its true curvature. 
 
 The general maxim of construction adopted by 
 Perronet, a celebrated French architect, was to 
 make the truss consist of several courses of separate 
 trusses, acting independently, as he supposed, of each 
 other, by which mode he sought to avail himself of 
 the united support of them all. Each truss spanned 
 over the whole distance of the piers, and consisted 
 of; number of struts, set end to end, so as to form a 
 polygon. By this ingenious construction, the angles 
 of the ultimate truss lie in lines pointing towards 
 the centre of the curve. 
 
 Figure 9, represents the centering of the bridge of 
 Cravant, the arches of which are elliptical. 
 
 The longer axis or span is 60 feet, and the rise 20 
 feet. The arch stones weigh about 176lbs. per foot, 
 L 1 and 
 
13© 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 and are fouv feet in length, which is the thickness of 
 the arch The truss beams were from 15 to 18 feet 
 long, and 8 inches broad, by 9 inches deep. The 
 entire frame was constructed of oak; the trusses 
 were five in number, and set 5{ feet apart ; and the 
 entire weight of the arch was about GOO tons, or 
 about 112 tons on each truss. Ninety tons of this 
 must be allowed to press the Miss; but a great 
 part of the pressure is sustained by the four beams 
 which form the feet of the truss, and are joined in 
 pairs on each side. The resultant of the parallelo- 
 gram of forces tor these beams, is to one of the sides 
 as 360 to 2 Sj. 
 
 lienee then 360:285::90:7ll tons the weight on 
 each foot, and the section of each is 144 inches: 
 three tons may therefore be laid with perfect safety 
 on every inch; and the amount of this is 432 tons, 
 which is six times more' than the absolute pressure 
 on the toot beams in their longitudinal direction. 
 The absolute strength ofeacli foot beam is equal to 
 216 ; tons but from their being more advantage- 
 ously situated, the resultant of the parallelogram of 
 forces which corresponds to its position, is to the side 
 as 438 to 285. This is equal to 58 3-5ths. tons for 
 the strain on each foot ; which is not much above 
 one fourth of the pressure it is capable of bearing. 
 It is evident therefore, that this kind of centering 
 possesses the advantage of superabundant strength. 
 The upper row of struts is sufficient, and nothing is 
 wanting but to procure stiffness for supporting 
 them 
 
 Figure 10, represents the center constructed by 
 Hupeau, for the bridge of Orleans, which is allowed 
 to be one of the boldest centers ever executed in 
 Europe. The form of the arch is elliptical, with a 
 span of 100 feet, and a rise of 30 feet ; and the arch 
 stones are six feet in length. It is but justice to re- 
 mark that the long beams AB, on each side, were in- 
 troduced by Eerronet, who was appointed architect 
 on the decease of Hupeau ; before the beams A B, 
 were introduced, the centre rose and sunk at the 
 crown. 
 
 We have now taken a view of the methods adopt- 
 ed by French architects, in the constinction of cen- 
 ters, and of their effects; let us now proceed to con- 
 sider those which have been constructed in our own 
 country. The first that presents itself is the one 
 made use of for Black friars- bridge, a delineation of 
 which appears in Figure 11. The span in this in- 
 stance is 100 feet, and the form elliptical : the arch 
 stones from the haunches aie 7 feet; but near the 
 keystones they are not quite so much, as they de- 
 crease in length from the haunch to the key stone. ! 
 
 The principles of this center will be easily seen 
 from a view of the figure : it consists of a series of 
 trusses eaoh supporting a point in the arch, the prin- 
 cipal braces having their lower extremities abutting 
 below, at each end of the centering, on the striking 
 phtes, and at the upper end, upon apron pieces, 
 
 which are bolted to thecurve that support bridgings, 
 for binding the pieces which coinpose-them together 
 at their junction. This center labours under a 
 great disadvantage, from the frequent intersection 
 of. the principal braces with one another. The in- 
 genious Mr. Mylne, made use of the following me- 
 thod of easing or disengaging the center frame from 
 the mason’s work. Each end of the truss was mor- 
 tised into an oak plank cut in the lowerpartas in the 
 figure, a similar piece of oak was placed to receive 
 the upper part of the posts. The blocks rested upon 
 these posts, but where not mortised into them, 
 pieces of wood being interposed instead. The up- 
 per part of these pieces was cut similar to the lower 
 part of the other; the wedge E intended to he driven 
 betwixt them, was notched as the figure shews, and 
 filled up with small pieces of wood, in order to pre- 
 vent the wedge from sliding back by the weight of 
 the arch; which not only appears from the figure 
 as a likely circumstance, but eventually happened. 
 
 When the time tor striking the center arrived, the 
 inserted pieces of wood Were taken out, and the 
 wedge, (prepared for driving back, by being girt 
 with a ferule round the top,) was removed by a 
 piece of iron driven in with the head, so broad as 
 to cover the whole of the wood. A plank of wood 
 after being sheathed with iron, in the same manner 
 at the one end, was suspended, so that it could act 
 freely in driving back the wedge to any distance, 
 however small, and with certainty. Thus by an 
 equal gradation, the center was eased from the arch, 
 which appeared to have been so equally supported 
 throughout the whole of the operation, and the arch 
 stones so properly laid, that it did not sink above 
 one inch. 
 
 We shall now suggest some hints which may be 
 found useful in the construction of trussed arches, 
 and tend to remedy the faults and failures that have 
 occurred in practice. 
 
 In navigable rivers, or in those winch are apt to 
 he swollen by rains or other causes, trussed arches 
 for center frames, are found expedient. In arches 
 where there is no such danger, the frame may be 
 properly secured by posts, from below, which are 
 made to abutt on those parts of the arch where the. 
 greatest strain must fall. 
 
 In the centers used by Pitot, we have already 
 complained of an unnecessary expenditure of wood 
 and woikmanship. We have also shewn the com- 
 parative strength of oak, and fir wood, for the rings 
 of his frames, which alone ought to have the strength 
 required, in order that they may be fully adequate 
 to support the weight; but as this weight must be 
 gradually applied, the frame shoub^like wise have 
 such a degree of firmness, as to form the exact 
 mould of the arch intended, and, for this purpose, 
 it must he prevented from yielding in any part. 
 Now, as we have already observed, that the frame 
 supports no part of the arch, until its rise from the 
 
 spring 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 m 
 
 spring’, t ; about 55 degrees, if a semicircle, and so 
 in proportion fora segment thereof, and, in an ellip- 
 sis, to a part corresponding with the nature of that 
 curve ; the supporting struts and ties can be more 
 particularly directed to support that part of the 
 arch, which bears with the greatest strain upon the 
 center. In Figure 6, Plate 5, where the necessary 
 strength for Pito'.’s arch, is pointed out, the frame of 
 fir, requisite to stiffen' the frame, is 9| by 2 j. The 
 tie beam C c, is joined to those parts of the arch 
 where the strain from being greatest, tends most to 
 raise it in the crown. The length of this tie beam 
 being 25 feet, a d its size 9j by 2f, would require 
 a weight of 90-495 lbs. to make the transverse frac- 
 ture ; but one third of this, at the bridle 1, 3 , is 
 sufficient to resist the strain at that part of the arch. 
 
 Figure 7, is Pitots centering tor his elliptic arch ; 
 the strength of Figure 6, may answer for this, by 
 giving the ring and tie beams half an inch more 
 depth. 
 
 Figure 9, represents the centers used by Perronet 
 in erecting the bridges at Nogent and Mayence. 
 
 The center used at Nogent, was 90 leet span, and 
 28 feet high ; the cin ei s used at Mayence, was of 
 greater dimt nsions, and we shall therefore here con- 
 sider the weight to be supported. The arch from A 
 to C, measures 42 feet, and the arch stones ; now 
 admitting the arch stones to be 3 feet broad, they 
 would amount to 567 solid feet, which, at ICO lbs. 
 per foot, is equal to 90720 lbs. This is but little 
 more than one half of the semi-circular arch ; and, 
 although it is flatter, the weight is so much the less, 
 that no additional strength is necessary to be given 
 to the frame delineated in Figure 6, for the 60 feet 
 span. The strength of the materials for the 90 feet 
 arch, is likewise sufficient; that it may be rendered 
 more stiff, on account of its greater extent, a tie 
 beam 1, 4, 3. 4, may be added on each side of* the 
 arch, as is represented by the dotted line. 
 
 In the centering used by Perronet, it appears that 
 notwithstanding the superabundance of wood em- 
 ployed, tlie frame was so much affected, and rose 
 and sunk so much, that the arch deviated considera- 
 bly from its intended forjm. 
 
 We have already observed,, that Figure 10 is the 
 center frame of the bridge of Orleans, which was j 
 commenced by Hupeau, but finislied by Perronet. ] 
 During the completion of the work by the latter, he >■ 
 found 1 1 se a.-vh and frame give way, for which 1 
 reason lie strengthened the center frame, by con- 
 tinuing the strut. By forming the base of the 
 triangle 1, 2-, 3, on each side, his frame was render- 
 ed sufficiently stiff, and the inner part below A B, 
 A B, became entirely superfluous. The weight that 
 presses on the arch is great, owing to the length of 
 the arch stone, and the flatness of the arch. That 
 part of the arc?) which presses, contains about 57 
 degrees, and measures 88 87 feet. Hence, admit- 
 ing the length of the arch stone to be 6. feet, and its 
 
 width 3, we find the solidity =1596’6, and its 
 weight, (supposing as before, the weight of a solid 
 foot =l601bs.) to be 255456 lbs. The length of 
 each plank of the truss being 7 feet, and its other 
 dimensions 12 by 2. the strength is 189163 lbs. 
 The weight for every 7 feet in length of the arch, is 
 one third of this, viz. ^=63054 l-3rd lbs. and in 
 88 feet, there are 756652 lbs. to support 255456 lbs. 
 which renders the arch more than three times strong- 
 er, without making any allowance for the strength 
 of the arch, being the mean of the splitting force 
 and transverse section ; the tie beams will be of 
 great use in stiffening the frame. 
 
 Figure 12, represents the center for Tongueland 
 bridge, the span of w hich was about 105 feet. 
 
 Figure 13, exhibits the center used for Conon 
 bridge, w'hich was about 55 feet span, and Figure 
 14 shews the mode of centering for Ballater bridge, 
 the span of which was about 50 feet. 
 
 Figure 15. is an excellent design for a center, 
 which well merits the attention of the ingenious 
 carpenter. 
 
 From the examples adduced, and the observations 
 made on them, it must appear evident, that center 
 frames may be constructed of a greater extent than 
 any hitherto used, and with sufficient strength to 
 support almost any mass of materials, necessary for 
 the construction of an arch, it may now be asked, 
 perhaps, why the use of these frames is not continu- 
 ed. It may be objected to this, by the advocates for 
 stone bridges, that stone is more durable, and ele- 
 gant, and when once constructed, is free from the 
 various trusses and tie beams, so necessary in the 
 wooden frame. The advocates for carpentry must 
 admit that w ood is not as durable as stone ; but 
 they have it in their power to prove that bridges 
 can be constructed of w ood at a much less expence 
 than those of stone, and that when they fail in any 
 part, they may easily be replaced again, at a small 
 expence, and made even to last longer than a stone 
 arch. As to neatness and elegance, the frame of 
 wood may be so constructed, as to vie with, if not 
 surpass tiie arch of stone. In order to support this 
 assertion, let Figure 1, Pi ate 6, of carpentry, repre- 
 sent a semi-circular arch, of 60 teet span, with the 
 under arch composed of pieces 5 feet long, 12 inches 
 deep, and 2 inches thick, and the upper arch of the 
 same breadth and depth, joined to the- former in- 
 close contact, so as to form breaking joints, with the 
 several pieces of which the two arches are compos- 
 ed. The absolute strength of this arch, before the 
 two trusses are joined, is upwards of 84 tons, which 
 is mord than three times the weight that can be 
 brought upon it ; mid hence, there is not the least 
 occasion far placing struts below the arch, in order 
 to stiffen it, for it can be stiffened to a much greater 
 advantage above the arch. This however, is not 
 practicable in center frames. Let C D E F, be the 
 road, way, supported by thp perpendicular pieces 
 
132 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 1, 2, 3, See. As tiie carriage acts upon these, ob- 
 liquely, transepts from the arch in a radial direction, 
 give them the advantage of equal pressure upon the 
 arch. Each of these perpendicular pieces is mor- 
 tised into short pieces, which arrange themselves 
 into an arch. These short pieces all abutt one 
 upon another, and forming a fillet over the arch, 
 project so far, that the architraves of any order may 
 be placed along the face of the arch, which will add 
 both to its strength and ornament. By these means., 
 a rib is formed, 12 inches deep, and 4 thick, with a 
 fillet 4 'inches deep, and G inches broad, extending 
 over it, to cover the face of the architrave. Admit 
 the arch to be 42 feet wide, then 7 of these ribs will 
 not be inferior in strength to stone, or any metal; 
 but it may be said, perhaps, that they cannot be 
 so durable. It is well known bow long wood has 
 lasted in roofs, and joists of flooring, and even when 
 it forms a part of the wall of a house built of brick. 
 The interstices between perpendicular bearings of 
 the wood may be built up either brick thick, or 
 brick on edge, which will not only render its preser- 
 vation equal to what it is in a house, but protect it 
 also from the bad effects of being alternately wet 
 and dry, the lower parts of the ribs may be covered 
 with a thin lining. In order to observe any failure 
 or decay in the wood, a door may be left in the side, 
 v/hereby it may be repaired without interrupting 
 the passage over the bridge. 
 
 The covering before mentioned, ought to be laid 
 in such a manner as to prevent the water from 
 penetrating through, to the injury of the bridge. 
 From the proportional strength of fir and oak, we 
 know that a fir plank of 13| inches, is equal in 
 strength to oak of 12 Indies. Therefore, an arch 
 of wood, does not much exceed the expense incurr- 
 ed in framing a center, either for a stone, or an 
 iron bridge, and certainly it will not be inferior to 
 either of them, in the points of beauty, elegance, or 
 ingenuity. 
 
 The span here proposed is only 60 feet, but an 
 arch of 500 feet may be required, which must have 
 a center calculated to support the superior weight, 
 and preserve the intended figure. Notwithstanding 
 this increased size of the span, the center frame can 
 be made of strength sufficient to support the superi- 
 or weight, since it can be rendered stiff by the 
 -same method as has been proposed for the 60 feet 
 arch. Such a bridge as this will support any 
 weight that can be laid upon it, and may be formed 
 of any figure, preferred by the architect. Or it may 
 be framed in a manner similar to bridges formed of 
 iron, but it is reasonable to suppose, that one arch 
 over the other will be equally strong, and more 
 easily preserved from the weather, when constructed 
 iii the way before described. 
 
 The joints may lie secured from opening, by 
 inserting dove-tailed pieces across the joints on the 
 inside of the rib, and the abutments will prevent 
 
 the ends of the arch from flying out. In consequence 
 of the pressure coming upon the arch obliquely, 
 it may be said to have a tendency to rise at the 
 crown, especially when of a great span ; the only 
 method of preventing this in the center frame, is by- 
 struts and tie beams applied judiciously. By these 
 the rise maybe prevented more effectually, without 
 destroying the effect of the ornamental part of the 
 arch. In the abutment which must be constructed 
 of masonry, beams should be let securely into the 
 wall, with their ends projecting one foot, (as repre- 
 sented by G and K,) and placed so as to correspond 
 with each rib of the road way formed by the beam 
 
 DE. 
 
 The tie beams GD, KE, should be joined to these, 
 in such a manner as t'.ie Carpenter may deem most 
 secure ; and from these tie beams, radial struts 
 should be mortised into the fillets at G, Iv, as we 
 have before mentioned, instead of the perpendiculars 
 joining the road way CDEF, and resting on the tie 
 beams G3), KE, supported by the radial struts 4, 5, 
 6, as represented in the figure. It must now ap- 
 pear evident, that the crown of the arch cannot 
 rise without lifting up, and removing the masses 
 which form the abutments at each end ; and that it 
 cannot sink until the weight laid upon it, absolutely 
 crushes the materials of which the arch is composed. 
 Thus a neat and elegant arch is obtained, tiiat may, 
 at a small comparative expence, be kept up during 
 the revolutions ofages. 
 
 In the article bridge we presented several very 
 excellent designs from the works of Palladio, which 
 merit the notice of all those who wish to excel in this 
 elegant art. 
 
 "In addition to these, we have added some other 
 forms ofwooden bridges as exhibited in Figures 11, 
 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16, of Plate 6. 
 
 In the whole of the preceding designs, there is 
 much room for the display of skili in the proper ad- 
 justment of the scantlings of the timber, and the ob- 
 liquity of the braces to the lengths of the different 
 bears gs. A very oblique strut, or a slender one, 
 will suffice for a small load, and may often give an 
 opportunity to increase the general strength ; while 
 the great timbers, and upright supports, are reserved 
 lor the main pressures. Nothing will improve the 
 composition so much, as reflecting, progressively, 
 and in the order of these latter examples. This 
 alone can preserve the great principle in its simpli- 
 city and full energy. 
 
 These constructions may be considered as the 
 elements of all that can be done in the art of build- 
 ing wooden bridges, and are to be found, more or 
 less obvious and distinct, in all attempts of this 
 kind. 
 
 In the same article also (Bridge) we alluded to 
 the ingenious mode of centering proposed by Mr. 
 Telford, in his ‘‘report to a committee of the House 
 of Commons, on the construction of a bridge over 
 
 the 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 135 
 
 ihe Menai.” We shall here make such extracts 
 from this report, as may be found applicable to 
 the subject. 44 Hitherto the centering' has been made 
 by placing supports and working from below, 
 but here I propose to change the mode, and work 
 entirely from above; that is to say, instead 01 ' 
 supporting, I mean to suspend the centering.” (By 
 inspecting Figure 2, Plate 6, of Carpentry , the 
 general principle of this will be readily conceived, 
 and Figure 3, shews tne center frame on a larger 
 scale.) 
 
 (i I propose, in the first place, to build the mason- 
 ry of the abutments as far back as AB, CD, and in 
 the particular manner shewn in the section.” 
 
 “ Having carried up the masonry to the level of 
 the road way, I propose, upon the top of each abut- 
 ment, to construct as many frames as there are to be 
 ribs in the centers, and of at least an equal breadth 
 with the top of each rib. These frames to be about 
 fifty feet high above the top of the masonry, and to 
 be rendered perfectly firm and secure. That this 
 can be done, is so evident, I avoid entering into de- 
 tails respecting the mode. These frames are for the 
 purpose of receiving strong blocks, or rollers and 
 chains, and to be acted upon by windlasses, or other 
 powers.” 
 
 “ 1 next proceed to construct the centering itself: 
 it is proposed to be made of deal baulk, and to con- 
 sist of four separate ribs, each rib consisting of a con 
 tinuation. of timber frames, five feet in width acros 1 - 
 the top and bottom, and varying in depth from twen 
 ty-five feet near the abutment, to seven feet si 
 inches at the middle or crown. Next to the face o 
 the abutment, one set of frames, about fifty feet i;. 
 length, can, by means of temporary scaffolding and 
 iron chain bars, be readily constructed, and fixed 
 upon the masonry offsets of the abutment, and to ho 
 rizontal iron ties laid into the masonry for this pur- 
 pose. A set of these frames, (four in number), ha- 
 ving been fixed against the face of each abutment, 
 they are to be secured together by cross and diago- 
 nal braces ; and there being spaces of only six fee: 
 eight inches left between the ribs, (of which these 
 frames are the commencement, ) they are to be cover- 
 ed with planking, and the whole converted into a 
 platform fifty feet by forty. By the nature of the 
 framing, and from its being secured by horizontal 
 and suspending bars, I presume every person accus- 
 tomed to practical operations, will admit that these 
 platforms may be rendered perfectly firm and se- 
 cure.” 
 
 “ The second portion of the centering frames ha- 
 ving been previously prepared and fitted together in 
 the carpenter’s yard, are brought in separate pieces, 
 through passages purposely left open in the masonry 
 to the before mentioned platform. They are here 
 put together, and each frame raised by the suspend- 
 ing chain bars, and other means, so that the end 
 which is to be joined to the frame already fixed, shall 
 
 rest upon a small moveable carriage. It is then to 
 be pushed forward, perhaps upon an iron rail-road, 
 until the strong iron forks which are fix d upon its 
 edge shall fall upon a round iron bar, which forms 
 the outer edge of the first, or abutment frames. 
 When this has been done, strong iron bolts are put 
 through eyes in the forks, and the aforesaid second, 
 portion of frame-work is suffered to descend to its 
 intended position, by means of thft suspending chain 
 bars, until it closes with the end of the previously 
 fixed frame like a rule-joint. Admitting the first 
 frames were firmly fixed and that the hinge part of 
 this joint is sufficiently strong-, and the joint itself 
 about twenty feet deep, I conceive that even without 
 the aid of the suspending bars that this second por- 
 tion of the centering would be supported ; but we 
 will for a moment suppose that it is to be wholly 
 suspended. It is known by experiment, that a bar 
 of good malleable iron, one inch square, will sus- 
 pend SOOOOlbs. and that the powers of suspension 
 are as the sections; consequently a bar of one 
 inch and a half square will suspend 1800001bs. j 
 but the whole weight of this portion of rib, 
 including the weight of the suspending bar, 
 is only about 30000 lbs, or one sixth of the 
 weight that might be safely suspended. And as I 
 propose two suspending chain bars, to each por- 
 tion of rib; if they had the whole to support, 
 they would only be exerting about one-twelfth of 
 their power, and considering the proportion of the 
 weight which rests upon the abutments, they are 
 equal also to support all the iron work of the bridge, 
 «>rid be still farther within their power.” 
 
 “Having 1 thus provided for the second portions 
 of the centering a degree of security, far beyond 
 vhat can be required ; similar operations are carried 
 on from each abutment, until the parts are joined 
 in the middle, and form a complete centering, and 
 being then braced together, and covered with plank- 
 ing, where necessary, they become one general plat- 
 form, or wooden bridge, on which to lay the iron 
 work.” 
 
 It is, I presume, needless to observe, that upon 
 uch a centering or platform, the iron work, which 
 ic is understood has been previously fitted, can be 
 put together with the utmost correctness and facili- 
 ty ; the communications from the shores to the 
 centering, will be through the before mentioned 
 passages left in the masonry.” 
 
 When the main ribs are fixed, covered, and con- 
 nected together, the great' feature of the bridge is 
 compleated, and “ when advanced thus far,” (pro- 
 ceeds Mr. Telford.) u I propose (though not to 
 remove), yet to ease the timber centering, by having 
 the feet of the centering ribs, (which are supported 
 by offsets in the masonry of the front of the abut- 
 ment), placed upon proper wedges ; the rest of the 
 centering to be eased at the same time, by means of 
 the chain bars. Thus the hitherto dangerous opera- 
 M m " tion 
 
m 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 tion of striking the centering, will be rendered 
 gradual, and perfectly safe ; insomuch, that this new 
 inode of suspending the centering, instead of sup- 
 porting it from below, may, perhaps, hereafter be 
 adopted as an improvement in constructing iron 
 bridges, even in places not circumstanced as are the 
 Menai Straights. Although the span of the arch is 
 unusually great, yet, by using iron as a material, the 
 weight upon the centre, when compared with large 
 stone arches, is very small, taking the mere arch 
 stones of the centre arch of Blackfriars-bridge at 
 156 X 43 X 5, equal to 33540 cubic feet of stone, 
 it amounts to 2236 tons ; whereas the whole of the 
 iron-work in the main ribs, cross plates, and ties, 
 and grated covering plates, that is to sav, all that 
 is lying on the centeringat the time it is to be eased, 
 weighs only 1791 tons. It is true, that from the 
 flatness of the iron arch, if left unguarded, a great 
 proportion of this weight would rest upon the cen- 
 tering: but this is counterbalanced bv the operation 
 of the iron ties in the abutments, and wholly com- 
 manded by the suspending chain bars.” 
 
 The ingenious Mr. J. W. Boswell, has proposed 
 six different modes of constructing centering frames 
 for arches, between abutments and piers, without 
 any support from piles or props beneath, in the 
 116th number of the Repertory of Arts. 
 
 Mr. Boswell observes, that Ci the first ideas on 
 this subjeet, occurred (to him) from perusing Mr. 
 Telfords plan for building an iron bridge over the 
 Menai, for which he proposes to form centering 
 without any scaffolding, from beneath, in a method 
 highly ingenious, and of great boldness and origin- 
 ality of design.” Mr. Boswell further observes, 
 
 that the plans proposed by him, were intended as 
 a farther extension of the idea, to situations in which 
 Mr. Telford’s plan Would not be applicable, and to 
 afford greater facility, and less risk in the execution ; 
 in doing which, (he says) I have not the smallest 
 intention to infringe on what Mr. Telford has 
 already done.” 
 
 Roofs . — The uppermost part of a building. The 
 roof, properly speaking, comprises the timber work, 
 with the covering of slate, tile, lead, tessera, &c. 
 &c. though carpent rs usually restrain the appli- 
 cation of the word to the timber work only. The 
 forms of roofs are various ; sometimes they are 
 pointed, and sometimes they are square, that is, the 
 pitch or angle of the ridge, forms a right angle, 
 whereby it is a mean ratio between the pointed and 
 ■flat roof, the latter of which, is in the same propor- 
 tion as a triangular pediment, and is chiefly used in 
 Italy, and the hot countries, where falls of snow 
 bnt rarely occur. Sometimes roofs are made in the 
 pinnacle form; sometimes they have a double ridge, 
 and sometimes they are mutilated, that is, they have 
 a false roof, which is laid over the true one ; some- 
 times again they assume the shape of a platform, 
 fa shape mostly adapted in buildings in the east, 
 
 and sometimes they are truncated, that is, instead 
 of terminating in a ridge, the ridge is cut square off 
 at a certain height, covered with a terrace, and em- 
 compassed with a balustrade. In some cases, roofs 
 are formed so as to resemble a dome. When the 
 walls have been raised to the intended height, the 
 vaults made, the joists laid &c. then the roof is to 
 be raised, which embracing every part of the build- 
 ing, and with its weight equally pressing upon the 
 walls, not only operates as a band to all the work, 
 but protects the inhabitants from rain or snow, the 
 burning heat of the sun, and the moisture of the 
 night, and is of no small advantage to the building 
 itself, in casting off the rain from the walls. It is 
 generally allowed, that the Greeks excelled all 
 nations, in taste, and gave the most perfect models 
 of architectural harmony, within a certain limit, yet 
 they never erected a building which did not exiiibit 
 the roof in the most distinct manner, and though 
 they borrowed much of their model from the 
 orientals, they introduced that form of roof, which 
 the particular nature of their climate pointed out as 
 the best adapted for sheltering them from the rains. 
 The roofs in Persia and Arabia are flat, while those 
 of Greece, are without exception, sloping ; is it not 
 therefore, a gross violation of the true principles of 
 taste in architecture, (as practised in the regions of 
 Europe,) to take away, or endeavour to hide the 
 roof of a house ? And to what can it be ascribed, but 
 to that rage for novelty which now so unfortunately 
 domineers over the minds of the rich ? Our venerable 
 ancestors seemed to be of a very different opinion, 
 and were accustomed to ornament their roofs, as 
 much as any other part of the building, it must be 
 allowed certainly, that they offended against the 
 maxims of true taste, when the gave to this part of 
 a house, (the roof,) the external marks of elegant 
 decoration, which every spectator knew, contained 
 nothing more within than a garret ; but theft suc- 
 cessors, no less offend, by so effectually hiding the 
 roof with a screen, as to render it doubtful whether 
 the house has a roof or not. 
 
 To be brief, when a house is to be built, orna- 
 ment alone will not effect the purpose; a covering 
 must be raised, and the enormous expence, and 
 other great inconveniences which attend the con- 
 cealment of this necessary protection, by parapets, 
 ballustrades, &c. have compelled architects to con- 
 sider the pent-roof as inadnussable and how its form 
 may be best modified. An unprejudiced man would 
 be determined in this, by the adaptation of a particu- 
 lar form to the meditated purpose. A high pitched 
 roof will, undoubtedly, shoot oft' the rain and snow 
 better than one of a lower pitch. The wind will 
 not so easily blow the dropping ra n, between the 
 slates, nor will it have so much power to strip them 
 oft'. A high pitched roof operates with less pressure 
 on the walls, not only from the strain being less 
 horizontal, but from its admitting of a lighter cover- 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 135 
 
 in^. It is, however, more expensive, since it re- 
 quires timbers of greater dimensions to make it 
 equally strong, a greater quantity of materials is 
 necessary to cover it, and it exposes a greater sur- 
 face to the influence of the wind. Very great chan- 
 ges have taken place in the pitch of roofs ; our an- 
 cestors made them very high, and we form them 
 very low, it may now be reasonably asked whether this 
 diversity has been altogether the result of good prin- 
 ciples ? This does not appear to have been the case, 
 and it must be confessed that from its being the pro- 
 fessed aim of our architects to make merely a 
 beautiful object, without considering its advantages, 
 or disadvantages, it is almost vain to look for princi- 
 plein the rules adopted by them. A rivalry seems to 
 have existed in former times between Carpenters 
 and Masons. Many of the baronial llalls are 
 roofed with timber: and the carpenters appeared 
 to have borrowed a great deal of knowledge i:i their 
 construction from the masons, as their wide roofs 
 are frequently found to have been put together with 
 great judgment and ingenuity. Their professed 
 aim was to throw a roof over a very wide building, 
 with as moderate a consumption of timber as pos- 
 sible. 
 
 Roofs have been constructed CO feet wide, al- 
 though there has not been in them a piece of timber 
 more then 10 feet long and 4 inches square. The 
 roof is in fact that part of a building which requires 
 the greatest degree of skill, and where the exhibi- 
 tion of science is more wanted than in any other 
 part. The task of constructing the roof devolves 
 generally upon the carpenter ; the architect seldom 
 knowing much of the matter. The framing of a 
 great roof is considered by the ingenious and scienti- 
 fic carpenter, as the very touchstone of proficiency in 
 his art; and there is nothing that tends more to 
 shew his fertility of judgment and his knowledge of 
 the principles of his profession. A clear view of 
 the principles on which the construction of roofs de- 
 pends, (so that they may gain all the strength and 
 security that can be desired, without an extrava- 
 gant expence of wood and iron,) cannot but be ac- 
 ceptable to the inquisitive artist. It must be ac- 
 knowledged, that the framing of carpentry, whether 
 for roots, floors, or any other purpose, affords one of 
 the most elegant and satisfactory applications which 
 can be made of mechanical science to the arts of 
 common life. The practical carpenter unfortunate- 
 ly, however, is generally ignorant even of the ele 
 mentary principals of mechanical science, and too 
 frequently our most experienced carpenters have no 
 other knowledge of their business, than what arises 
 from experience and natural sagacity; under such 
 circumstances , what can we expect, but that works, 
 framed by t’ ose who possess only superficial know- 
 ledge of their profession, should either tumble down, 
 ar fall into a state of premature decay. 
 
 Under this head, we shall endeavour to give an 
 
 account of the leading principles of this particular 
 branch of carpentry, in a familiar manner, faking 
 for our guide only the simple properties of the lever, 
 and the composition of motion. 
 
 A knowledge of these will enable the artist to dis- 
 pose his materials to the best possible advantage, 
 with respect to the strains to which they are expo- 
 sed, so as always to know the amount of strain 
 which each individual piece may have to bear. 
 
 To effect this desirable purpose, it depends on 
 the principles which regulate the strength of the 
 materials, on the manner in which this strength is ex- 
 erted, and the mode in which the strain is laid on 
 the materials. With respect to the first, we shgll 
 refer our readers to the article, Strength of materials 
 at the end of this treatise ; contenting ourselves 
 here with a few passing observations. 
 
 The iorce which resists the breaking, crushing or 
 the dividing asunderof the materials composing floors, 
 roofs, and framings of every kind, arises either from 
 the immediate or final cohesion of the particles 
 which form that force. We will illustrate this by a 
 simple experiment ; when a weight is suspended by 
 a rope, this weight either tends to break or disunite 
 all the fibres of the rope, or it tends to separate or 
 divide some of the fibres from the rest. It is evi- 
 dent that this union amongst the fibres is produced 
 by twisting, which causes them to adhere to each 
 other so closely, that any one fibre will break rather 
 than quit the part where it was originally placed. 
 The ultimate resistance arises therefore from the co- 
 hesion of the fibres, and the force or strength of all 
 fibrous materials,, is exerted in a similar manner; 
 since the component parts are either broken or pulled 
 out from amongst the rest. 
 
 Hence we deduce, that the proper measure for the 
 strength of a rope, or a piece of any other material, 
 is the force required in order to break it. The se- 
 paration of the fibres is the most simple strain to 
 which they can be exposed, this strain being just 
 equal to the sum of the forces which, are necessary 
 for breaking or disengaging each fibre. 
 
 On the contrary, when solid bodies are exposed to 
 great compression, they can resist only in a certain 
 degree;, for we know from experiment that a piece 
 of lead or clay when compressed will be flattened; 
 that a piece of chalk or freestone will be crushed to 
 powder ; and tliat a beam of wood will be crippled, 
 that is, it will swell out in the middle, and its fibres 
 will lose their mutual cohesion, when the piece may 
 be easily crushed by the pressure on it. 
 
 A piece of matter of any kind may also be des- 
 troyed, by wrenching or twisting it; andabeam or 
 a bar of metal, or a piece of stone, or any other sub- 
 stance may be broken transversely. We may illus- 
 trate these circumstances from a joist or rafter sup- 
 orted at the ends when it is overloaded, or from a 
 eamof any sort fastened by one of itsends in a wall, 
 with a weight or pressure laid on its projecting part. 
 
 In 
 
136 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 In this last case, however, a transverse fracture will 
 be the result by the weight of the beam itself, should 
 the projecting end be unsupported. This is the 
 species of strain to which the timbers of roofs are 
 most commonly subjected ; and, unfortunately, it is 
 that kind of strain which they are the least able to 
 bear. 
 
 This is a case which demands the full exercise of 
 the judgement of the carpenter, and against which 
 he must chiefly guard, by endeavouring to avoid the 
 strain in every possible instance, or at least by di- 
 minishing it as much as is within his power. We 
 again, however, refer the reader to the article, 
 Strength of materials , for more information on this 
 particular point. 
 
 Mr. Couplet of the Royal Academy of Paris, lias 
 given a masterly solution of the problem tor deter- 
 mining the best form, of a kirb roof but the following 
 one, taken from the Encyelopa'dia Britannica, 
 ive shall insert here on account of its elegance. 
 
 Let A E, Figure 1, Plate 11, represent the width, 
 and C F, the height ; and it is required to construct 
 a roof, A B C I) E, whose rafters A B, B C, C 1), 
 D E, are all to be equal, and which shall be in 
 equilibno. 
 
 Join CE, and bisect it in II, and draw Oil per- 
 pendicular to CE, meeting A E, in G, and with this 
 point as a centre and distance, G E, or G C, (for 
 they are equal) describe the circle EDC; draw 
 II K, parallel to F E, meeting the circumference 
 in K, draw C K, cutting G II in I) ; join C D, E D, 
 and they will represent the rafters of half the re- 
 quired roof, and the other side may be constructed 
 in the same manner. 
 
 For the satisfaction of our geometrical readers, 
 we shall explain the preceding construction. We 
 know that the proportion resulting from the equali- 
 ty of the rafters, and the extent of surface through- 
 out the uniform roofing, which they are supposed to 
 support, is, that the loads in the angles C and D, 
 are equal; hence, let E D, be produced till it meets 
 the vertical line F C, in N ; draw also, B P, paral- 
 lel to CD, meeting the same line in P, and join 
 P D, when it is evident, that BC DP, is a parallelo- 
 gram ; let its diagonal B D, be drawn so as to inter- 
 sect C P in R, then divide it into two equal parts, 
 C R, R P, because C~P, is the other diagonal of 
 the parallelogram. 
 
 Produce K II, to meet C F, in Q, Avhich will be 
 bisected in that point, since CH is equal to HE, and 
 II Q parallel to F E; join K F, which is evidently 
 parallel to D P, and make C S, perpendicular to 
 C F, and equal to F G ; and from the point S, with 
 the distance S F, describe the circle F K W. It 
 will pass through K, because S F is equal to C G, 
 and C Q — Q F, join W K, W S, and produce B 
 C, so as to cut N D, in O. 
 
 It is now apparent, that the angle W Iv F, at the 
 circumference, is one half of the angle W S F, at the 
 
 centre, and is consequently equal to W S C, or C G 
 F, and double the angle CE F, or ECS; but 
 ECS, is equal to the sum of E CD, and D C S, 
 and E C D is one half of N D C, and DCS one 
 half of D C O, or C D P, therefore the angle W K 
 F, is equal to N D P, and W K, parallel to N D, 
 and C F is to C W, what CP i« to C N, but C N 
 is equal to C P. and both are to each other, as the 
 loads upon D and these are necessarily equal, 
 and the frame A B C D E, is in equilibrio. 
 
 The intelligent artist will readily adapt this con- 
 struction to any proportion between the rafters, 
 CD, DE, which other circumstances, such as gar- 
 ret rooms, &c. may require. It must be construct- 
 ed so that NC may be to CP, as CD, to .. 9 - P . 
 
 g 
 
 lie must be careful, also, to have the inclination 
 or slope of the upper rafters CB, CD, sufficient to 
 prevent tire penetration of rain, and the effect of 
 high winds, when the roof is intended to be covered, 
 over with slates, tile &c. The only circumstance left 
 for choice in this case, is the proportion of the raf- 
 ters AB, and BC ; but nothing can be more easy 
 than to make NC, bear any required proportion to 
 C P, when the angle B C D is given. The truss for 
 a roof should always be in equilibrio ; when this is 
 the case, the whole force of the struts and braces, 
 (which are introduced in order to preserve its form), 
 will act as it ought, without being expended in any 
 one part mote than may be necessary. 
 
 We will now proceed to lay down some general 
 rules, agreeably to which all roofs should be con- 
 structed. In doing this we shall consult brevity as 
 much as possible, by exhibiting only the principal 
 and most useful form of roofs; and particularly the 
 mode of throwing a roof over a very wide building, 
 without any intermediate support. 
 
 The most simple mode of constructing the frame 
 of a roof intended to consist of two rafters AB, and 
 BC, meeting in the ridge B, is shewn at Figure 2. 
 Though this is certainly the most simple form for a 
 roof, it is frequently, however, constructed wrong. 
 We have already seen, that when the weight of any 
 portion of covering is given, a steeper roof requires 
 stronger rafters ; and that when the scantling ot the 
 timber is given, the relative strength of a rafter is 
 inversely as its length. The ingenious Mr. Muller, 
 has determined that the square pitch is the best for a 
 root; but motives of economy have induced Carpen- 
 ters to prefer a low pitch ; for, although a low pitch 
 diminishes the support given by the opposite leg 
 faster than it increases the relative strength of the 
 other, yet this is not of material consequence, since 
 the remaining strength of the opposite leg is still 
 very great; because the supporting leg has to bear 
 up only against compression, from which circum- 
 stance, it is a great deal stronger than the supporting 
 leg acting against a transverse strain. 
 
 This roof answers its purpose but seldom, owing to 
 
 its 
 
1ST 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 i*s thrust on the walls*, which is the most hazardous 
 and dangerous of all strains. The generality of 
 walls require ties to keep them on foot, and conse- 
 quently it must be injudicious to subject them to 
 any considerable strain, pressing outwards. When 
 we reflect on the height and thinness of the walls 
 of even a strong house, we may justly feel surprised 
 that they are not thrown down by every strong gust 
 of wind; and this undoubtedly would be the case, if 
 they were not stiffened and secured by the cross 
 walls, joists, and roof, all of which co-operate, 
 in keeping the different parts of the building toge- 
 ther. 
 
 The following is Mr. Mullers solution to this in- 
 teresting problem. Describe on the width AC, 
 Figure 3, the semicircle AFC, and bisect it by the 
 radius FD. Produce the rafter AB, to the circum- 
 ference in E, join EC, and draw the perpendicular 
 EG. Now* A B : A D :: A C ; A E, and therefore, 
 
 A E = — and A E, is inversely, as A B, 
 
 and may therefore represent its strength, in relation 
 to the weight actually lying on it. Also the sup- 
 port which C B, give-; to A B, is as C E, because 
 C E, is perpendicular to A B. Therefore the form 
 which renders A E XE C, a maximum seems to be 
 that which has the greatest strength. But AC:A E:: 
 
 EC: EG, and E G £ 9» and is therefore 
 
 A C 
 
 proportional to A E ><EC. Now, E G is a maxi- 
 mum when B is in F, and a square pitch is in this j 
 respect the strongest. 
 
 The consideration of horizontal thrusts, creates ] 
 the necessity of their being counteracted by other j 
 forces; under this impression, the carpenk in-.ro-] 
 duces another essential part into the construction ; ) 
 namely, the tie beam A C, ( Figure 4, J which is laid j 
 from wall to wall, has the feet of the rafters framed ] 
 into it, and binds them together. The sole office of j 
 the tie beam is tc prevent the roof from pushing oyt 
 the walls, though it is sometimes used for carrying 
 the ceiling of the apartments under it, and is even j 
 made a support to the flooring: considering it as] 
 forming a part of a roof, it operates merely as a ' 
 string, the strain which it withstands, tending to j 
 tear its parts asunder. It acts, therefore, with it- : 
 Whole integral force, and could a secure method be i 
 devised, of fastening it to the foot of the rafter, se- ] 
 ciirely, a very small scantling would be sufficient j 
 for it. It may be safely subjected, w hen construct- J 
 ed oi oak, to a strain of three tons ; for every square » 
 inch of its section, if of fir, it will safely bear a strain ' 
 of two tons for every square inch. j 
 
 But there is sometimes a necessity for gi\ ing the j 
 fie beam much larger dimensions, because, in order ] 
 that it may be connected with the foot oftbe rafter, j 
 by means of a mortise and tenon, as w’e have alrea- 
 dy observed. Iron straps arc also frequently added, j 
 By attending to this office of the tie beam, the in- j 
 
 geivious carpenter will be naturally directed to the 
 most proper form of the mortise and tenon of the 
 strap. This, however, will be considered, after we 
 have said something on the various strains at the 
 joints of a roof. 
 
 The large dimensions of the tie beam, allow it to 
 be loaded with the ceilings without any risk, and 
 even admit of floors being laid on it with modera- 
 tion and caution. But when the span is great, it is 
 very apt to bend downwards in the middle, arid 
 therefore requires a support. This support is found 
 in the king post, B J), Figure 5, the office of which, 
 is to support the tie beam. A common observer, 
 unacquainted with the principles of carpentry, would 
 suppose that the tie beam supported the king post, 
 whilst in reality, it is the contrary. The king post 
 appears to be a pillar resting on the beam, whereas 
 it really operates as a string, and an iron rod of 
 one sixteenth of the usual dimensions of king posts, 
 would do just as well. The king post is sometimes 
 mortised into the tie beam, and pins are put through 
 the joint, which circumstances give it more the ap- 
 pearance of a pillar, with the roof resting on it. 
 This may do in some cases, but the best method is 
 to connect them by an iron strap, resembling a 
 stirrup, which is fastened at its upper ends into the 
 king post, and passes round the tie beam. In this 
 wav, a space is sometimes left between the end of 
 the king post, and the upp r side cf the tie beam. 
 Here the beam plainly appears to hang in the 
 stirrup, and this method allows the beam to be re- 
 stored to an exact level, when it may have sunk by 
 the unavoidable compression, or yielding of its 
 parts. We have described an excellent mode of 
 forming a, stirrup, in the first general division of this 
 article. 
 
 The suspension of the tie beam is a very impor- 
 tant part m the construction of roofs, and consider- 
 able attention is required to render it sufficiently 
 linn. The top of the king post is cut into the form 
 ■f the arch stone of a bridge, and the heads of the 
 rafters are firmly mortised into this projecting part. 
 These projecting parts are called joggles, and are 
 formed by working the king post out of a much 
 larger piece of wood, and cutting off the unnecessa- 
 ry part from the two sides, should this be found of 
 insufficient strength, it is usual to add an iron plate, 
 or strap, of three branches, which are bolted into 
 the heads of t ie rafters and king post. 
 
 Having now found an excellent support for the 
 tie beam, the next enquiry is, how the rafter is to 
 be supported so as to be enabled to bear the cover- 
 ing. When a firm point of support has been ob- 
 tained at the foot of the king post, the braces or 
 struts ED, FD, should be introduced as represent- 
 ed at figure G; these braces or struts are put under 
 the middle of the rafters, where they are slightly 
 mortised, while their lower ends are firmly mortis- 
 ed into joggles formed on the foot of the king post. 
 
 N n The 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 *38 
 
 The braces are very powerful in resisting compres- 
 sion, while the king post is equally so in resisting ex- 
 tension, and the rafters being thus reduced to half 
 their former length, have now four times their for- 
 mer relative strength. 
 
 We shall next turn our attention to the con- 
 struction of a flat topped roof. Let A BCD, Figure 7 
 represent the proposed roof, of which the rafters 
 AB, CD, are equal, and BC, horizontal. Then it is 
 very evident that these timbers will be in perfect 
 eqiulibrio with one another, and therefore the roof 
 can have no tendency to strain on one side more 
 than the other. The tie beam AD, withstands the 
 horizontal thrusts of the whole frame, and the rafters 
 AB, CD, are each pressed or borne upon in their 
 own directions, owing to their butting with the 
 middle rafter or truss beam, BC, which lies between 
 the rafters in a manner similar to the key stone of 
 an arch; in which position they lean towards it, and 
 it rests upon them. If the rafters AB, DC, are pro- 
 duced do meet in G, ( see figure 8,) and a weight be 
 laid on them equivalent to the weight of BC, and its 
 load; this weight will be equal to the pressure of the 
 truss beam and its load, when exerted on the two 
 rafters AB, DC. Hence we perceive that though 
 the common roof AGD, may be framed with a king 
 post and braces, it will not be stronger than the roof 
 A BCD, (while it keeps its shape) provided the truss 
 beam is of a sufficient size to carry its own load, and 
 to resist the compression necessarily arising from the 
 two rafters. 
 
 We can illustrate this still more clearly, by the 
 following plain description. Let us conceive that 
 a roof AGD, has been constructed with the tie beam 
 AD, and the rafters AG, GD, when this has been ef- 
 fected, let us next imagine that a beam BC, is framed 
 firmly in between the rafters, which can be easily 
 done. From hence then we infer, that the extre- 
 mities of the beam BC, cannot descend, without 
 shortening the distance BC, that is, if it should be 
 violently compressed. It is also evident that BC, 
 can be framed into the rafters AG, DG, in such a 
 manner, as even to bend or force them out. When 
 this is the case, the mutual pressure that existed be- 
 tween the rafters at the top, G, is destroyed; the 
 points B, and C, being alone efficient, after which 
 the parts GB, and GC, may be taken away without 
 danger, and the roof may be reduced into the form 
 A BCD, and rendered altogether as effective and 
 strong as the former, though it may be furnished with 
 the powerful. auxiliaries of a kingpost and braces, be- 
 cause the truss beam gives a support at B, and C, of 
 the same kind as that furnished by braces. 
 
 But after all we shall find that braces, or ties, of 
 some kind or other, must be introduced into the flat 
 top roof, in order to resist any addition of weight 
 that may preponderate on one side more than the 
 other. It is true we have asserted before that the 
 rpof was in perfect equiiibrio, but it should be re- 
 
 collected that this assertion was ma cfe on the supposi- 
 tion, that equal pressures existed on each side of the 
 roof, which is not the case in the latter Supposition. In 
 this, an addition of weight is imagined to lie placed 
 on one side, and consequently it becomes necessary 
 to guard against the depression at one angle, and the 
 rising of the opposite one, wliich it is very evident 
 must take place. The best and most usual method is to 
 frame the heads of the rafters into the joggles of two 
 side posts BE, and CF, while the truss beam is mor- 
 tised square into the inside of the heads. The low- 
 er ends E, and F, of the side posts are secured to trie 
 tie beam, by means of mortises and tenons, or by 
 straps. 
 
 The introduction of these side posts gives firm- 
 ness to the frame; for it must now appear evident, 
 that the angle B, cannot descend in consequence of 
 any inequality of load or pressure, without forcing 
 the other angle C, to rise : but this angle cannot 
 nse, because it is held down by the side post CF. The 
 tie beam is also now suspended at the points E,and 
 F, from the points B, and C. 
 
 It may be necessary, however, to observe with 
 regard to the roof now under discussion, that the 
 compression sustained by BC, iu order to give to 
 the rafters at B, and C, that equality of support 
 which they would receive from well disposed braces 
 framed into the king post of the roof AGD, is con- 
 siderably greater then the compression of the braces ; 
 and that this compression adds also to the transverse 
 strain which BC, gets from its own load; for which 
 reasons, although this roof may be made abundant- 
 ly strong, it will not be quite so strong as the roof 
 AGD, when constructed with the same scantling. 
 
 This construction is, moreover, subject to other 
 strains, which, though trivial in their nature, are not 
 unworthy of notice. The principal of these strains is 
 that which arises from the mortising of BE, into the 
 tie beam ; for the strain in its tendency to depress the 
 angle B, presses on the tie beam at E, transversely, 
 whilst a contrary strain operates on F, which tends 
 to pull it outwards. This form of roof is particular- 
 ly useful where room is wanted for garrets, and it 
 may on the whole be framed of sufficient strength, 
 without much increasing the dimensions of the tim- 
 bers. 
 
 The form of roof exhibited at Figure 7, is free from 
 many of these objections, to which the precedingone 
 is liable; but it will not admit ofthe construction of 
 garrets. In this roof, the two posts BE, CF, are 
 connected together below. 
 
 All transverse strains now cease ; and taking 
 every circumstance into consideration, we feel in- 
 clined to recommend this, as the strongest mode of 
 constructing a roof of the same width and pitch. 
 
 Not the least transverse strain exists in any of the 
 connecting parts of this roof; and if the iron strap 
 which unites the posts BE, CF, with the tie beam, is 
 firmly fastened to it, and confined to one point iu 
 
 the 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 139 
 
 the beam by means of a large bolt going through it : 
 then there will be five points viz. A, B, C, D, G, 
 which will not admit of a change of position, and 
 therefore the roof must be of a firm construction. 
 When the dimensions of the building are so great 
 that the pieces A B, BC, CD, may be thought too 
 weak, in such case, notwithstanding the cross strains, 
 braces may be added as expressed by the dotted 
 lines in Figure 8. Before we conclude our descrip- 
 tion of these kinds of roofs, it may be proper to ob- 
 serve, that the top must not be left flat externally, 
 but must be raised a little in the middle to carry off 
 the ram, which may be effected by fixing pieces of 
 timber above the strutting beam, so as to form the 
 proper inclination. 
 
 The method of including a truss within the raf- 
 ters of a pent roof, is a very considerable addition 
 to the art of carpentry ; and' Figure 9, represents an 
 excellent mode of constructing a roof of this kind. 
 In order to insure its full effect, butting rafters are 
 framed under the principal ones, abutting on joggles 
 in the heads of the posts; for without this very ne- 
 cessary precaution, the strut beam is scarcely of any 
 service. We would recommend, therefore, the form 
 exhibited at Figure 10, for the construction of a 
 trussed roof; the king post placed in it, may easily 
 he made use of in supporting the upper part of the 
 rafters, and also for preventing the strut beam from 
 bending in their direction, in consequence of the 
 great compression upon it. This mode -will have 
 the effect, likewise, of relieving the great burdens 
 w hich the roofs of theatres are sometimes compelled 
 to bear. The machinery has np other firm points 
 to which it can lie attached; and that portion of the 
 single rafters which carries the king post being but 
 short, it may be heavily loaded with safety. 
 
 We have now submitted to the consideration of 
 our readers, some of the elementary principles of 
 this important branch of carpentry. These princi- 
 ples will enable most practical men, with a little 
 reflection, to proceed with confidence in becoming 
 better acquainted with the scientific minutiae With- 
 out a due attention to theory, practice will rest it- 
 selt vainly, on t':ose vague notions which habit may 
 have furnished, as to the strength and supports of 
 timbers, and of their modes of action. A roof, or a 
 center, framed in an intricate manner, is, no donbt, 
 viewed by a man unacquainted with the true princi- 
 ples of theart, as an effectual, and ingenious construc- 
 tion ; but his admiration Mould cease were he to 
 k; .ow, that pieces of carpentry, so constructed, often 
 knl, by reason of their being too heavily laden with 
 timber , but more frequently by the wrong action 
 of some useless piece, which produces strains, that 
 operate transversely to those of other pieces, and 
 thereby do essential injury ; or that some points 
 of the construction may be made so unnecessarily 
 firm, as to occasion their being deserted by the rest, 
 in the general subsiding or drawing together of the 
 
 whole work. There is nothing that displays the 
 skill and judgement of a carpenter, more than fore- 
 sight, in allowing and providing for those changes 
 of shape which must take place in every roof, in a 
 short time after its erection. This foresight, how- 
 ever, cannot be acquired nithout science, which iR 
 necessary to perfect the art. When it is known 
 how much a particular piece will yield to compres- 
 sion in one case, then science must step in to inform 
 him what will be the effect of compression, on the 
 same piece, in a different case. By ascertaining how 
 much each piece is calculated to bear, and in what 
 proportion each Mill yield to compression, he will 
 be enabled so to adjust the proportions of the sever- 
 al parts to each other, that when all the timbers 
 have yielded, according to tbe respective strains 
 upon them, the whole construction shall be of the 
 desired shape, and every joint in a state of firmness. 
 Were science permitted to perform its part in these 
 operations, the iron straps employed, would not be 
 frequently fixed in positions, ill suited to the actual 
 strain to which they are subject, or thrown into a 
 state of violent twist, that tends strongly to break 
 the strap, and to cripple the pieces, which they 
 surround, nor would joints or mortises be seen 
 violently straining on the tenons, or on the heels and. 
 shoulders. 
 
 When the truss is first constructed, the joints, 
 perhaps, may be shaped properly ; but when the 
 work bears together, or settles, a change is necessa- 
 rily effected in the hearing of the push ; M r e may 
 allude for an example of this, to the brace, in a very 
 low pitched roof, where it not only presses nith the 
 upper part of the shoulder, but by its acting as a 
 powerful lever, breaks it. The loner end of the 
 brace, which af first, butted squarely, and in a firm 
 manner on the joggle of the king post, now presses 
 heavily nith one corner, and seldom fails to splinter 
 off on that side. All the shoulders of butting pieces 
 should be made in the form of an arc of a circle, 
 having the other end of the piece tor its centre. 
 T .is mode was recommended by Mr. Perronet, 
 whose name lias already been noticed in this work, 
 with the respect due to his distinguished talents. 
 Thus, in Figure 6, if the joint B, be an arc of a 
 circle, haying A tor its centre, the sagging of the 
 roof will not make a partial bearing, at the joint ; 
 tor in the sagging of the roof, the piece A B, turns 
 round the centre A',, and the counter pressure of the 
 joggle is still directed to A, as it ought to be. But 
 it too frequently, happens, that the piece A B, bends 
 round the centre A, for it is always very difficult to 
 give the mortise and tenon, in this piace, a true 
 bearing; and as the ratter pushes in the direction 
 B A, and the beam resists in the dilection A, the 
 abutment should be perpendicular to neither, but in 
 a middle direction, and it ought also to be of a 
 cun ed shape. 8otne may think that it might weak- 
 en the beam too much, to give it this shape in the 
 
 shoulder ; 
 
J40 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 shoulder; but the shoulder is commonly even with 
 the surface of the beam, and when the bearing is on 
 this shoulder, it causes the foot of the rafter to slide 
 -along the beam, till the heel of the tenon bears 
 against the outer end of the mortise. This abut- 
 ment is generally pointed a littlb outwards, below, 
 to make it more secure from starting. Now when 
 the roof settles, the shoulder bears at the inner end 
 of the mortise, and rises at the outer, the conse- 
 quence of which is, that the tenon takes hold of the 
 w '1 beyond it, and either tears it out, or is itself 
 b ken. This joint, therefore, ought not to be trust- 
 ed to the strength of the mortise and tenon, but 
 should be secured by an iron strap, lying obliquely 
 to the beam, to which it is fastened, by a large bolt 
 running quite through, when it embraces the foot of 
 the rafter. There are many defects in the forms of 
 •straps; in general, they are not made sufficiently 
 dblique, and thereby they never fail to cripple the 
 rafter at the point. But this may be prevented by 
 making the strap very long, and very oblique, by 
 forming the stirrup part, square with its length, and 
 .cutting a notch in the foot of the rafter to receive it. 
 By proceeding in this manner, the rafter cannot be 
 crippled, because it w ill rise along with the strap, 
 and turn round the bolt at its inner end as a centre, i 
 As the ultimate, or aggregate strain of the whole roof 
 is exerted on this joint, and its situation will not 
 allow the necessary excavation for making a good 
 mortise and tenon ; it has been considered neces- 
 sary to be particular in describing this joint. 
 
 The construction of the straps, which embrace the 
 middle of the rafter, and connect it with the post or 
 truss below it, also demands considerable attention. 
 The change of shape, produced by the saggingof the 
 roof, must be well weighed, and care must be taken 
 to place the strap in such a manner, as to be ena- 
 bled to yield to the change, by turning round its 
 bolt, but still not so as to become loose, and far less 
 to form a fulcrum for any thing which may act as a 
 lever. 
 
 Having frequently spoken in the foregoing pages, 
 of the strains, or thrusts, to which timbers in gener- 
 al are exposed ; this part of our article would be in- 
 complete, if we did not point out some methods by 
 which the practical carpenter may arrive at the 
 necessary calculations, in this interesting part of his 
 profession. In adverting to these, we shall not 
 entangle him in a labyrinth of deep mathematical 
 disquisitions, but coniine ourselves, for the present, 
 to such operations as may be learnt by any man who 
 is commonly versed in arithmetic, and practical 
 geometry. A full enquiry into this part of the sub- 
 ject w ill be reserved for the latter department of the 
 article Carpentry. 
 
 If, in the first place, it should be required to de- 
 termine the horizontal thrust acting on the tie beam 
 A D, of Figure 8, the effect of the thrust will prove 
 to be the same us if the weight of the whole roof 
 
 were laid at G, on the rafters GA. and GD. Let 
 the vertical line GH, be drawn, and let the weight 
 of the whole roof supported by the single frame 
 ABCD, be calculated, including the weight also of 
 the pieces AB, BC, CD, BE, CF, after which take 
 such a number of tons, pounds, &c. as may be suffi- 
 cient to denote the weight from any scale of equal 
 parts, set the same from G to H, draw HK, IJL, 
 
 I parallel to GD, GA, and draw the line KL, which 
 ! will be horizontal when the two sides of the roof 
 j have the same inclination. Then if ML, be mea- 
 sured on the same scale, it will give the horizontal 
 j strength by which the strength, of tiie tie beam is to 
 be regulated. GL, will gi\e the thrust which tends 
 i to crush the strut beam BC. 
 
 j In a similar manner in finding the strain of the 
 j king post, f igure G, each brace may be considered as 
 pressed by one half of the weight of the roofing laid 
 on BA, or BC, and consequently that part of this 
 pressure which might otherwise have proved inju- 
 rious to the construction, is diminished in the pro- 
 portion (u BA, to DA ; but, as this is to be resisted 
 by the brace f E, which acts in the direction f E, fe 
 must be drawn at right angles, to E e, and must be 
 considered as the strength increased in the propor- 
 i tion of E e, to E f. 
 
 Having thus obtained in tons, pounds, or other 
 convenient measures, the strains required to be ba- 
 lanced at f, by the cohesion of the king post, the 
 measures must be taken from the scale of equal 
 parts, and laid off in the directions of the braces to 
 G, and II, and then the parallelogram G f H K, 
 being compleated, we can measure f K, on the same 
 scale of equal parts, which will represent the actual 
 strain on the king post. 
 
 We can now very readily examine the strength of 
 a truss upon this principle; viz. that very square 
 incli of oak will bear at an average ?0‘00 pounds, 
 compressing or stretching it, and may be safely load- 
 ed with 3500 for any length of time ; and that a 
 square inch of fir will in like manner bear securely 
 2500. And because straps are u.-ed to re ist some of 
 these strains, a square inch of well wrought iron 
 may be safely strained with 50,000ibs. But we 
 should always recollect that timber may be depend- 
 ed on more than iron; for the faults and defects of 
 the former are more easily perceived, because it 
 gives us warning of its failure, by yielding sensibly 
 before it breaks, whereas this is not the case with 
 iron, because much of its service depends on the 
 honesty of the smith. 
 
 By proceeding in a similar manner, the strength of 
 any roof may be examined. 
 
 We shall now proceed to lay before our readers a 
 few designs of roofs ; some intended for the simple 
 cottage, and others for grand and magnificent 
 structures. 
 
 Figure 11, is intended for a building, whose span 
 is from 20 to 30 feet. 
 
 Figure 
 
SARPENTftY AND JOINERY. 
 
 141 
 
 Figure 12, is a design of a trus- for a roof, whose 
 span is from 20 io S3 feet • the purlines are notched 
 upon the principal rafters. 
 
 Figure 13, is anojther design for a roof, whose 
 span is from 20 to 33 feet ; it may be made use of 
 to form the segment finish ofa dome. 
 
 Figure. If, is a design for a root' in which the 
 purlines are framed into. the principal rafters, so that 
 the common rafters may finish fair with the prin- 
 cipals. 
 
 Figure 13, is the form of a roof iu which are in- 
 troduced two queen posts instead ofa king post : the 
 space between the queen post is intended for a 
 passage, or any other convenience that may often 
 times be required in a roof. 
 
 Figure l(j, is a plan for a curb roof, having a door 
 in the middle of the partition. 
 
 In the rbof delineated at Figure IT, it will be 
 perceived that one third part of its height is dimin- 
 ished, while the truss is made exceedingly firm 
 with little wood, and labour. On the head of the 
 central king post, a gutter plate is let in, which bears 
 the inside rafters, and is so adapted, that it may be 
 supported at pleasure between one truss anil the 
 other. 
 
 The roof exhibited at Figure 18, is called an M 
 roof; it is suitable for a large span, or when there is 
 no wall between to support the tie beam. — When 
 this is the case, we. should recommend Figure 1ft, as 
 a very useful form. 
 
 Figures 20, and 21, are designs for church roofs; 
 these designs arc susceptible of many modifications. 
 
 The roof delineated at Figure 22, is the roof of the 
 theatre of the university of Oxford, and designed by 
 the celebrated Sir. Christopher Wren ; it is consi- 
 dered a very ingenious and singular construction. 
 The span between the walks is 73 feet; the middle 
 part is almost unchangeable i n its form, and, from 
 this circumstance, it does not distribute the hori- 
 zontal thrust with the same regularity as the usual 
 construction. The horizontal thrust on the tie 
 beam is about twice the weight of the roof, and is 
 withstood by an iron strap below the beam, which 
 stretches the whole width of the building, forming a 
 part of the ornament ofthe ceilings. 
 
 Having now spoken of several excellent kinds of 
 roofs, we shall proceed next to consider the methods 
 whereby the several parts of a roof are connected 
 together. 
 
 In the first general division of this article, we 
 have spoken of various methods of joining timber, 
 many of which may be applied to the construction of 
 roofs; we shall, therefore, pass on to consider a mode 
 lor finding the length and backing ofa hip. 
 
 The first, and most simple problem, that naturally 
 presents itself to our consideration in this case, is 
 when the building forms a perfect geometrical 
 square. Let this square be A il-C 1). as shewn in 
 Figure 1, Plate 12. 
 
 Join the diagonal points, A 15, f D; then it is 
 well know n, from the elementary principles of geo- 
 metry, that these diagonals will bisect each other at 
 right angles in E ; lay off from E, on either of the 
 diagonals, the part E K, equal to the height of the 
 roof; join A F, and it will shew the lengths of each 
 of flte hips as required. 
 
 For if the triangle A E F, be supposed to revolve 
 round the line A E, into a position perpendicular ter 
 the plane ofthe plan A II C I), and lines he drawn 
 from F, to the several points il C I). then it is 
 evident that the several lines A F, B F, C F, and 
 I) F, are all equal and therefore the preceding mode 
 of construction is correct. 
 
 Similarly for Figure 2, which is the plan of a roof 
 in the form ofa parallelogram, having a ridge in the 
 middle. 
 
 Lay oft’ on the ridge line the part C D, equal to 
 one half of the width of the building : join A I), 
 II D, and they will form the angle A 1) II, equal to 
 a right angle, this being effected, produce A D, to 
 F, so that I) F, may be of a length equal to the 
 height of the roof; join B F, and it will be the. 
 length of the hip rafter, for either side of the roof. 
 
 Figure 3, next presents itself, being the plan of a 
 rectangular roof, which is required to be framed 
 with four hips, and all to meet over E, the centre of 
 the plan. 
 
 The centre of the plan is evidently found by the. 
 intersection ofthe diagonals A (’, BJ), in the point* 
 E ; from this point, erect the perpendicular E F, 
 equal to the designed height of the roof, and join 
 A F, or C F, and either of these will express the 
 length of each of the required hips. If the plan of 
 the roof had been a triangle, and the hips required 
 to meet over its centre, the operation would lie ex- 
 actly the Same. Admit next, that the plan of a 
 building be a trapezoid, and it is required to deter- 
 mine the several lengths ofthe hip rafters of a root) 
 to cover the same. * 
 
 Let A B C D, represent the given plan, and 
 bisect A B, C D, in the points E T ; join the point 
 E F, and on A 11, C 1), describe semicircles to 
 intersect E F, in the points 6 11 : join G A, G B, 
 G C, and G D, and produce, each of these lines to 
 the points I, lv, L, M, so that G 1. G K, H L, and 
 H M, may be each equal to the height of the intend- 
 ed roof; join K A, I B, L C, and M D, which will 
 he the lengths of the several hip rafters. 
 
 Should the plan of a building be any regular po- 
 lygon, whatsoever, the length of the hip may always 
 be found by joining two of the opposite angular' 
 points, and erecting a perpendicular from their in- 
 tersection, equal to the intended height of the roof, 
 and then this point joined with the angular point of 
 the figure, opposite to the line, will give the length 
 ofthe required hip. 
 
 Here, first turning back to Figure I, draw any 
 line, II G, at right angles to either. of the lines, A B, 
 U o kll, 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 H2 
 
 C D, intersecting it in the point K ; draw K L, per- 
 pendicularly to A E : then with K, as a centre, and 
 distance K L, describe a circle to intersect A E, in 
 J, join I G, and 1 II,. then will the angle G I II, 
 be the backing of the hip. It will be very readily 
 perceived, that a mould may be formed, correspond- 
 ing to the angle G 1 II, for the more convenient 
 working of the hip ; this, however, is not the very 
 best method, for by deinitting G M, perpendicularly 
 to C D, and forming a mould to correspond with 
 the angle M G I, the hip may be backed, by apply - 
 ing toe mould to one of its parallel sides. These 
 two moulds are represented in the diagram, by the 
 shaded parts. 
 
 The backing of the hip in Figure 2, is precisely 
 the same as the preceding. 
 
 In Figure 3, the backing will be found in the 
 same manner as the others above, only this roof will 
 require two different bevels, each of the parallel 
 sides of the hips is shewn at L ; when the hips are 
 to be mitred together, M and N, will shew the 
 bevels for each half, so that when put together, they 
 may form t?ie proper backing. The bucking and 
 mitring of the hips, in Figure 4, is found by the 
 method described for Figures 1 and 2. 
 
 We will now consider the mode of finding the 
 proper bevels of the end of a purline, s as to make 
 it fit against the hip rafter. 
 
 To effect this, let us first imagine, that A B, re- 
 presents the width of a square building, with the 
 roof framed with hip rafters, the first tie beam of 
 which is placed parallel to the end wall, and at a 
 distance from it, equal to half the width of the build- 
 ing ; hence, take B C, which is equal to one half of 
 A B, and through the points A and C, draw A D, 
 C D, respectively parallel to B C, B A, so as they 
 may meet each other in D, then bisect D C, in E, 
 and join E B; draw also E F, perpendicular to 
 C I), and equal to the intended height of the roof, 
 and join F C, which will represent the length of the 
 common rafter. 
 
 Now as the purlines are square, and usually 
 placed at right angle? with the rafter, assume the 
 point G, in F C, and construct the rectangular 
 figure G m n o, equal to the section of the purline, 
 or any proportionable reduction thereof. Produce 
 G in, to meet I)C, in II, and through G draw KG L 
 parallel to E C, and make G K, (4 L, and G M. 
 each equal to G II, next let II N, G R, and M O, 
 be drawn parallel to B C, and so as to intersect 
 B E, in the points N, R, O; draw N P, and () Q, 
 parallel to E C, so as to intersect respectively, 
 K P, and L Q, drawn parallel to B C, in the points 
 P, Q : and then, join P R, R Q, w hen the angle? 
 I 1 ii G, G R Q, will represent what is usually 
 termed, the down, and side bevels of the purline. 
 A mould may now he formed from these angles, in 
 order to cut the ends of the several purlines of the 
 roof, it being evident, that when the building is 
 
 square, each end of the purline that meets the hip 
 rafter, is precisely the same. 
 
 lii order to find the bevels of a jack rafter against 
 the hip, it may be observed that the angle E F C, 
 is its down bevel, as represented by the mould in 
 the figure, and if R S, be drawn parallel to A B, 
 and the stock of the side lievel of the purline be 
 made to coincide with II S, the side bevel will he 
 shewn. 
 
 The laying out of an irregular roof in lodgement, 
 must bo next considered. 
 
 Let A B C T), represent the plan of the intended 
 roof, having the positions of the beams delineated 
 on it. At the points G, H, I, where the ridge line 
 inter -eels the beams, erect each of the perpendicu- 
 lars IK, II I., ar.d G M, equal to the intended 
 height of the roof, and join the points K N, KO, 
 LP, LQ, and M R, M S. which will he the lengths 
 of the several principal rafters; after this, join also 
 A I, Bl, C G, and I) G, when the lengths of the 
 several, hip rafters A T, B U, G V, and D W, may 
 lie found by the method before laid down for that 
 purpose. Next on A li, construct the triangle 
 A a B, in such a manner that A a, B a, may he 
 equal respectively to A T, 1> U ; after which, on 
 C D, construct another triangle, C b I), having 
 Cb = C V r , and I) b = D W, then these triangles 
 will represent the ends in ledgement. Again, on 
 the line D S, construct the triangle DC, so as that 
 D c, may be equal to D W, and S c, may be equal 
 to S M. In a similar manner, construct the triangle 
 B d O, having B d => li u, and ()d = OK, join 
 d c, and lay off d e, equal to II I ; then join Q e, 
 
 : which is equal to the principal rafter Q L, and 
 lastly, after having drawn in the purhnes at discre- 
 tion, the ledgeinent of that side of the roof w ill be 
 compleated, md the other side may be performed in 
 like manner. 
 
 Our observations will next be directed to the 
 roofs, placed on round, and polygonal building^, 
 such as domes, cupolas, and the like. The greatest 
 difficulty in the formation of these kinds of roofs, 
 arises from the mode of framing. It is true, that 
 whatever form of making a truss may be deemed 
 preferable in a square building, it must have the 
 same constituent parts as the truss used in a round 
 one; the only difficulty being in modifying the 
 shape, and connecting the parts at the top. Jtis 
 evident that some of these parts must be discon- 
 tinued before they reach a certain length, and it is 
 also equally evident, that they ought to be cut short 
 alternately, yet care must be always taken to leave 
 sufficient strength, and that the parts may stand 
 equally thick as at tlieir first springing from the 
 base of the dome, by which means the length of 
 the purlines reaching from truss to truss, will 
 never be too much. Nothing, in fact, can be more 
 easy to construct than a round building, continually 
 diminishing until it reaches an apex, such, for in- 
 stance, 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 14S 
 
 stance, as a spire steeple. Daily prc (ice amongst j 
 builders confirms this observation, for Low of f '-n j 
 do we perceive spires and steeples constructed 
 without centers, and w ithout scaffolding ? Gross 
 indeed, would be the errors in constructing them, 
 if much danger were to be apu-ehended of their 
 falling from a want of equilibrium. In like man- 
 ner, a dome of carpentry, wha may be its shape 
 or construction, can hardly f unless some ; of its 
 parts should lly ont at the bottom arid this can be 
 easily prevented by fixing an i; >u hoop around the 
 bottom, or connecting straps w the joining of 
 the trusses and purlines. Arch ‘ ral beaiov re- 
 quires that a dome should spring almost perpendicu- j 
 larly from the wall, and if we admit this, it may be J 
 readily perceived that the thrust exerted to three 
 out the walls is very small, only it is necessary to 
 guard against the operation of this thrust, and that 
 is, where the tangent inclines about 40 or 50 degrees 
 to the horizon, at which place it will be proper to 
 make a course of firm horizontal joinings. 
 
 We are of opinion that domes of carpentry may be 
 raised of great extent, as sufficient room appears to 
 offer itstdf for improving this very interesting 
 branch. Ti e Halle du Bled, (which was construct- 
 ed bv an ingenious carpenter named Molineaux), is 
 200 feet in diameter, although it be not more than a 
 loot in thickness and yet it appears to possess 
 abundant strength. Molineaux, lacing convinced by 
 his mechanical experience, that a very thin shell of 
 timber might be constructed so as to be nearly in 
 equilibrio, and that when hooped or firmly connect-* 
 ed horizontally, it would have all the requisite stiff 
 ness, presented his ingenious project to the magis- 
 trals of Paris, who, having doubts of its practica- 
 bility, submitted the plan to t’ e consideration of the 
 members of the Academy of sciences. Such of these 
 
 as were competent to thp task, investigated the prin- 
 ciples of the intended construct ion, and w ere imme- 
 diately struck with its propriety, expressing • eir 
 astonishment, that a tiling which appeared to lx? so 
 very obvious, should nave escaped the attention of 
 preceding carpenters. Ti e academy, accordingly, 
 presented a very favourable reoori of the plan, 
 which was immediately carried into execution, ant! 
 being soon ocmpleated, it nnjv stands as a monu- 
 ment, a proof of the inventive g ius of Moli- 
 neaux, and is justly considered one of the most cn 
 nous exhib tions in Paris. The construction t.f 
 tii is dome is very simple • the circular ribs of w hich 
 it is composed, consist of planks nine feet long, thir- 
 teen inches w de, and three inches thick, and each 
 rib consists of three of these planks bolted together 
 in such a manner, that two joints are contrived to 
 meet. A rib is begun, for instance, with apiaukof 
 threp feet long, standing between one of six and 
 another of nine feet; and this is continued to the 
 head of it. At van is distances these ribs are con- 
 nected, horizontally, by purlkies and iron straps, 
 
 
 ' which act as so many hoops to the wdiole construc- 
 | t on. When the work arrived at such a height, 
 j that the interval between the ribs formed two thirds 
 j ,ol' the original distance, every third rib was discon- 
 tinued, and the space between was left open and gla- 
 zed. When the work had been carried so much 
 higher, that the distance of the ribs formed one third 
 of the original distance, every second rib, (now con- 
 sisting oftworibs very near each other,) was in like 
 manner discontinued, and the open space wasglazed. 
 At a sinail distance above this, a circular ring of 
 timber was framed into the ribs, by which means a 
 wide opening was made in the middle ; over which 
 is a glazed canopy, with an opening between it 
 and the dot: ^ to allow the heated air to escape. 
 Every beholder is struck with the grandeur and the 
 simplicity of this construction, and every unpre- 
 judiced mind cannot fail to confess, even from the 
 idea we have endeavoured to give, that it must form 
 a beautiful and magnificent object. 
 
 In the construction of some domes one great 
 difficulty is to be overcome, and that is, when they 
 are unequally loaded by having to support a heavy 
 lanthorn, or cupola, in the middle. In such a case, 
 if the dome were only a mere shell, it must be crush- 
 ed in at the top, or the force of the wind operating 
 on the cupola, might remove it, and its supporter 
 out of their place. 
 
 The dome of St. Paul’s cathedral is a model of 
 propriety in this particular method of construction, 
 and much valuable information may be derived 
 from considering the principles on which it was 
 erected. These are shewn in Figure 25, of Plate 
 [J, where ABGCBA, represents the dome turned 
 over with bricks, two feet in length, which were nn be 
 on purpose. 
 
 L F G G F E exhibit a cone of bricks, one foot 
 six inches in thickness, and visible through the 
 opening C C. This cone, aided by the timber work 
 of the dome, supports a cupola constructed of Port- 
 land stone, nearly sixty-four feet in height, and 
 twenty one feet in diameter. The timber work 
 Z Z, is ingeniously tyed together w ith iron cramps, 
 run with lead into the stones M, N, O, P, and then 
 bolted through the hammer beams II II, 1 I, K K, 
 and 1/ L. Prom these principles it may be per- 
 ceived, that the timber work derives considerable 
 support from the brick cone. 
 
 The construction of this dome affords a strong 
 proof of the profundity of Sir Christopher Wren’s 
 Mathematical judgement, and his unrivalled ex- 
 cellence in constructive carpentry. 
 
 Figure 21, represents a dome raised over the 
 Register office at Edinburgh, by Messrs. James and 
 Robert Adam. In this instance the construction 
 of this dome appears agreeable to mechanical prin- 
 ciples, and consequently is deserving of attention, 
 particularly w hen it is considered that the span is 
 50 feet clear, and the thickness only 4{ feet. 
 
 The 
 
. 141 
 
 CARPENTRY AM) JOINERY. 
 
 The principle of a Norman roof is ingenious and 
 simple. The rafters all butt on joggle king posts 
 A E, lid, C 11, &c. (as in Figure 2j) ami then 
 braces or ties are disposed in the intervals. The 
 lies II If, II D, are in a state of extension, while 
 the king post C If, is compressed by them, 'to- 
 wards the walls on each side, as for instance, be- 
 ; tween II and F, F and L, they act as braces, and 
 f are themselves compressed. The ends of these 
 1 posts were generally ornamented with knots of 
 flowers and other devices, and even the whole tex- 
 ture of the truss was exhibited and dressed out. 
 
 Short timbers may be employed in these kinds of 
 constructions, and this very circumstance imparts 
 additional strength to the truss; for the reason that 
 the angle which, the brace or tie makes with the raf- 
 ter is more open. All thrust, liken ise, mav be re- 
 moved from the walls, which demands attention. 
 If the pieces A F, B F, E F, were to be. removed, 
 then *he remaining diagonal pieces, will act as ties, 
 and the pieces directed to the centre, will act as 
 struts. 
 
 The application of this principle to a flat roof, or 
 to a floor, will he productive of advantages similar 
 io those which we have before stated. For instance, 
 a floor, such as a be, having the joint in two pieces 
 a b, b c, with a strut b d, and two ties, will require 
 a much greater weight to break it, than if it bad 
 been a continued joist, like a c, ot the same dimen- 
 sions. Moreover a piece of timber operating as a 
 tie, js much stronger than the same piece if applied as 
 a strut : since in the latter situation it is exposed to 
 bending, and when bent is much less able to with- 
 • stand a very great strain. It must beackonwledged, 
 however, that this advantage is balanced by the 
 great inferiority in point of strength of the joints. 
 The joint of a tie depends wholly on the pins; for 
 which reason, ties are never used in heavy works 
 without strapping the joints with iron. In the roofs 
 we are describing, the diagonal pieces of the middle 
 part only, act entirely as ties, while those towards 
 the sides act as struts or braces. Indeed they are 
 seldom of such simple construction as we have point- 
 ed out, and are more generally constructed like the 
 sketch 1 delineated in Figure 30, where there are two 
 gets of rafters A B, ab, and the angles are filled up 
 with thin planks, which circumstances are produc- 
 tive of strength and stillness. They have likewise a 
 double set of purlines for connecting the different 
 trusses. After the roof has been tings divided into 
 squares, other purlines run between the middle point 
 E, of the rafters, the rafter at E, being supported by 
 a check placed between it and the under rafter. 
 The middle point of each Square of the roof is sup- 
 ported and stiffened by four braces, one of which 
 springs from e, having its opposite braces springing 
 from the similar part of the adjoining truss. The 
 other two braces rise from the middle points of the 
 lower puriinesj which proceed horizontally from a and 
 
 b, to the next truss, and are supported by planks in 
 the same manner as t*>e rafters. By this contrivance*, 
 the whole construction is rendered very stiff and 
 strong. 
 
 The figure delineated at Fig. 26, is intended to 
 represent a timber spire, w , >o>e plan is an octagon, 
 and whose height is equal to eight times the length 
 of one of its sides, as is exhibited in tiie drawing. 
 It will not be necessary, in all cases, to limit the 
 height of a spire to eight times the length of one side • 
 of its base, since it may be made to exceed nine or 
 even ten times that length ; and spires constructed in 
 that manner will have all the elegance of well pro* 
 portioned columns. 
 
 f ig. 27, 28, 29, and SO, represent other plans of 
 spires, which merit the attention of those who are 
 desirous of improving themselves in them profes- 
 sional knowledge. 
 
 TRUSSING GIRDERS. 
 
 Fig. 2. and 3, of Plate 7 of Carpentry, shew the 
 most approved method of trussing girders. 
 
 Fig. 4 represents an horizontal section of Fig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 5 exhibits a section of the hutment formed 
 1 y cutting across a b, in A. 
 
 Fig. (i and 7, represent the two sides of the king- 
 bolt, at C, in Fig. 2, which is made with a wedge- 
 way upon the top, so that it may force out the 
 trusses upon the hutments. 
 
 TO TIGHTEN THE GIRDERS. 
 
 The trusses should be let iu close to the sides of 
 the girder, about an inch and a half on each side, 
 .and the head of the king bolt ought to be greased, 
 so as to permit its sliding freely by the ends of the 
 trusses; after screwing the girder close, sideways, 
 the nut of the king bolt may be turned, while ano- 
 ther person strikes the head of the king, at C, with 
 a mallet, which will cause it to start every time it is 
 struck, and produce greater ease at every revolu- 
 tion of the nut, by which means the girder may be 
 brought to any degree of camber that may be neces- 
 sary. This, however, is not generally more than 
 an inch in twenty feet. 
 
 Fig. 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11, represent designs of truss- 
 ed partitions. 
 
 SOFFITS. 
 
 A soffit is defined, by theoretical carpenters, to oe 
 the covering of any surface whatever with wood ar- 
 ranged on a plane. 
 
 In a straight wall which flue*! equally all round, it 
 is requisite to describe a soffit with a circular head. 
 On A B, or CD, being the sides of the plan ABCI), 
 Fig. 1, Plate 7, describe semicircles, and produce 
 AC, and BD, to meet in E; then with E as a centre 
 and the distances EA, EC, describe the circular arcs 
 E F, and EG ; next divide the circumference of 
 either of the semicircles into any convenient number 
 of equal parts, (say ten,) and then laying off a similar 
 number of divisions either from A or C, to F or (i, 
 join F E, and the required soffit will be comp lea ted. 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 145 
 
 "Next, in a circular wall which flues equally all j[ 
 round, if is required to describe a soffit with a cir- I j 
 ailarhead. ; ; 
 
 Let A R C D, as in Figure 2, represent the given ( 
 plan, join A B, and having described on it the se- .1 
 micircle A 13 B; then lay out the soffit in the same , 
 manner as before directed. From the several points j 
 )f division 1, 2,3, 4, (made use of to effect the pre- ;j 
 ;eding) draw tlie perpendicular ordinates II, 22, 33, !j 
 14 ; join F 1, F 2, F 3, and F 4, so as to intersect 
 the curve line A B, of the plan A iFC D, in the ] 
 points a, b, c, d; through these points draw lines ! 
 narallel to A B, in order to intersect A F, in in, n, o, p ; j 
 next with centre F, ahd distances Fm, Fn, Fo, 1 
 ind Fp, describe circular arcs so as to intersect res- j 
 )ectively F J, F 2, F 3, and F 4, in the points 
 i, b, c, d; then by these points the half of one edge j 
 >f the soffit is found, from which the other half may 
 *e very readily pricked. The reverse edge is found j 
 n the same manner. 
 
 Again, let it be required to stretch out a soffit, | 
 ivhena door or window, having a semicircular head, j 
 ;uts into a straight wall, in an oblique direction. 
 
 In the figure delineated at Figure 3, let A BCD,! 
 represent the given plan ; and at the point B, erect j 
 :he perpendicular B E, so as to intersect D A, pro- 
 luced in E, and on B E, describe a semicircle ; let 
 he circumference of this be divided into any num- 
 ber of equal parts, (say ten) and let the ordinates ; 
 De drawn from the several points of division across : 
 he plan A B C D; next produce B E, indefinitely, i 
 ind on it, lay off the several divisions 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. 
 
 )f the semicircle, then, when the ordinates have been . 
 ill draw n across, and traced off’ from the plan as the 
 figures and letters direct, the required soffit, will be 
 jompleated. 
 
 For more complcat information on this subject 
 ive refer to Nicholson’s u Carpenter's new guide." 
 
 NICHES, 
 
 Are hollows sunk into a wall for the reception of 
 statues having their bottoms planned according to any 
 segment of a circle or an ellipsis,, and their tops j 
 :erminating or formed into a kind of canopy. 
 
 Niches are sometimes made square, but they are 
 4ien entirely destitute of elegance and beauty. 
 
 Let us suppose, in the first place, the plan of a 
 niche to term the segment of a circle, and its head 
 l semicircle, -to describe the ribs for its top, 
 
 Let A B C, Figure 4, Plate 7; of Carpentry , re- 
 present the sill, and a, b, c, d, e, f, the front rib; 
 hen it is evident that the head of the niche forms 
 >ne haif part of the segment of a sphere, the base of 
 which portion is the semicircle a, b, c, d, e, f. 
 
 Hence, then, any one who is conversant with the 
 tlementary principles of spherics, may easily per- 
 :eive^ that each of the required ribs of the niche will 
 )e of the 6ame length, and possess the same degree of 
 mrvatmc as A B, the one half of the sill of the 
 liche; and therefore by it, the several ribs can be 
 
 readily obtained. We deduce, therefore, from the 
 preceding, that though the sill of the niche and it^ 
 front rib also, should form a semicircle, yet the ribs, 
 could have been obtained in the same manner, by 
 merely applying one half of the sill. 
 
 Lastly, having given the plan and elevation of an 
 elliptic niche, it is required to find the sweep of the 
 ribs. 
 
 In Figure 5, describe every rib with a trammel, 
 or bv means of a string and two points, as elucidated 
 in the article geometry in the introduction of this 
 work; by taking the distance on the plan from the 
 base ofeach rib to the center for the extent of each, 
 or one of its axis, and the height of each rib to the 
 height of the top of the niche for the other, the true 
 sweep of each rib w ill be acquired. 
 
 It will not be necessary to form any moulds, in 
 order to back the ribs of the niche, since the ribs 
 themselves will perform this office; as there will be 
 two ribs of each kind, take the small distances 1 e, 
 
 2 d, from the plan at B, and apply them to the bot- 
 tom of the ribs D, and E, from d, to 2, and e, to 1 ; 
 then the backing may be draw n off by the other cor- 
 responding rib, or with a trammel as is exhibited at 
 E, by moving the centre of the trammel towards 
 upon the line e c, from the centre c, equal to th® 
 distance 1 e, letting the trammel rod remain the 
 same as when the inside of the curve was described. 
 
 Let one of the common ribs of a cove bracket be 
 given to find the angle bracket for a square or rect- 
 angular room, Figure 6. Let A, be the common 
 bracket and be, its base ; draw b a, perpendicular 
 and equal to b c, join a c, which will be the place of 
 the mitre, let any number of ordinates be taken in A, 
 and perpendicular to b c, its base ; and let them be 
 continued so as to meet the mitre line a c ; draw the 
 ordinates of B, ats right angles with it ; then, by 
 pricking the bracket at B, from A, as may be readily 
 seen by the figures, the form of the required angle 
 rib w'ill be shewn. The same rule will do for any other 
 bracket whatever. It should be observed, however, 
 that the angle rib must be backed, either externally 
 or internally, according to the ang le of the room. 
 
 grouts. . 
 
 Groins are the angular curves made by the mu- 
 tual intersections of semi-cylinders or arches, and 
 may be considered as either regular, or irregular. 
 A regular groin is properly so called when the in- 
 tersecting arc'. es, whether semicircular, or semi- - 
 elliptical, are of similar diameters and heights; an 
 irregular groin, js properly so called where one of the 
 arches is semicircular, and the other is semi-ellipti- 
 cal ; thus Figure 1, Plate 8, presents the plan of an 
 irregular brick groin, whose body arch A, forms a 
 semicircle, and whose intersecting or side arches 
 B, B, are semi-ellipsis. 
 
 Figure 2, exhibits a perspective representation of 
 a regular brick groin, the arches of which are semi- 
 circular, of the same diameter, and intersect each 
 P p other 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 U5 
 
 other at right angles; and, since any oblique 
 section of a cylinder produces a regular ellip- 
 tic curve, it is evident that the angular ribs of 
 -such groins will be semi-ellipses, having their 
 transverse axis horizontal, and their semi-conjugate 
 vertical. This also will be the case when the in- 
 tersecting or side arches, as at 13, 13, Figure 1, are 
 elliptical, for as 1 2, 3, 4, evidently form the base 
 lines of such sections, it is easy to conceive that 
 their ordinates will coincide with those of the 
 body arch A, which, from being a semicircle, conse- 
 q 11 Mttly produces an elliptic arch, (as is represent- 
 ed at Figure 3,) with its horizontal axis equal 
 t<' I, 2, or 3, 4, and its vertical to A b, ( Figure 1). 
 
 I may now be perceived that the intersecting arches 
 B B, are formed by the erection of what workmen 
 •call t ie jack ribs, a perspective view of which is exhi- 
 bited at Figure 3, where 2, 3, 4, shew the manner of > 
 ■their being fixed on the body arch A, after it has i 
 been boarded over. To keep these jack ribs true, 
 and in aright line at the top, good workmen place 
 a transverse board upon the crown of the arch, (as 
 shewn in Figure 3 , ) fixing it sufficiently low to re- 
 ceive the thickness of the covering, that the body and 
 intersecting arches may be perfectly even when the 
 whole is covered with boards, as in Figure 2, which 
 represents the state of the groin when ready for 
 turning the brick work over the arches. Le: it 
 the efore be observed that the body arch A, Figure 3, 
 must be entirely covered, before the erection of the 
 jack ribs, whose seat on the body arch, and their 
 several heights, as shewn at C, 2 3, 4, Figure 3, i 
 may be readily found by inspecting ti e figure. | 
 
 It is next required to find the mould for the jack 
 ribs. Let a b c, Figure 4, be the body arch, and 
 a d e, the intersecting elliptic arch ; draw similar 
 -ordinates to both arches, as 1, 2, 3, See. make them 
 intersect each other, and produce them each way at 
 pleasure. Make g h, equal to the circumference or 
 girt of a b, and g k, equal to the girt of a 1 23 d. 
 I) vide g h, and g k, into four equal parts, (because 
 the qu idrantalarcs of the semicircle and semi-ellipse 
 W re so divided ; then draw through each division 
 p rpendicular lines, so as to cut at right angles the 
 ordinates which were drawn out at pleasure; and if 
 .curves be drawn through the points of their inter- 
 sections 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, they will produce correct 
 moulds, by vyhich the mitering of each arch, or their 
 respective coverings may be described. Suppose 
 it were required to mark a line on the body arch at 
 Figure 3, contrived so as to touch the extremity of 
 £ach jack rib at the base; in such case the mould 
 3. 6, 7, Figure 4, must be taken, and if this be 
 made of thin pliable wood, the end h, is fixed to the 
 crown of the body arch at h, Figure 3, when after 
 securing it to that point, the other end 5, is pressed, 
 and with a pencil the required curve is traced out. 
 After a similar manner the other mould, 8, 9, 10, 
 'may be applied to the intersections of the elliptic 
 
 arch, and if we suppose it to be covered, as is shewn 
 at Figure 2, and the arch to be drawn back and se- 
 parated from the body, the mould 8, 9, 10, bent over 
 the boards, will be found to coincide with their ends, 
 provided the arches are of the same dimensions, 
 which is not the ca.-e, however, in this example, al- 
 though in theory the principles are entirely the 
 same. 
 
 In fixing the ribs of the body arch, at Figure 2, 
 Cd are strong wooden posts, and i i are the ends 
 of beams extending the w'ude length’ of the groin, 
 and supported by nests under each rib. The gir- 
 ders of each rib lie between, which are omitted, 
 however, at e, m order to gtve a clear view, of the 
 internal paris of t he arch. These long beams also 
 act on the principle ofw dges, as mav be een at e; 
 so that w on the brick-work is properly set, they are 
 eased gr-.iuuaUy, ami the wooden r,bs, beams, and 
 posts, are easily struck and cleared away. 
 
 Let us next consider the plan of an ascending or 
 descending groin, and also of t he side arches, in 
 order to find the intersection of the angles, and the 
 moulds for describing the curvature of the intersect- 
 ing arches, the general principle of which problem, 
 is the same as that of the preceding. To project 
 the present figure, let one quarter of the body rib 
 B, be divided into four equal parts, as at 1. 2, 3, 
 Figure 5, and let the lines be drawn from these 
 points, to the perpendiculars 4, 3, and continued 
 round to 4, 6; then let the lines of descent 48, 67, 
 See. be drawn, and make C, equal to one of the 
 given side arches in the descent, though the intro- 
 duction of more would make no difference. From 
 the several points I, 2, 3, &c. of the arch C, where 
 the lines of descent cut the circumference of C, draw 
 lines perpendicular to the lines of descent, and con- 
 tinue them m .pleasure. Again, from the same 
 points 1,2 3, ivc. at C, draw lines peipendicular 
 to the lines of descent, and let them also be produc- 
 ed at plea •re Again, from the same points 1,2, 
 
 3, &c. at C, draw fines perpendicular to the sides of 
 the plan A, and from the points in 13, repeat toe 
 same operation, when the intersection of these lines 
 will give the curves of the arches on the plan, as 
 will appear on inspecting the diagram. When fines 
 have been drawn from C, perpendicular to the lines 
 of descent, measure the girt of the quarter arch at 
 B, and transfer it to the center line at C, as 4, 
 a, b, c, d, through which divisions, draw lines par- 
 allel to the descent, when their intersections will 
 produce the required curve for the mould, which is 
 to be applied in the same manner as pointed out in 
 the foregoing example. 
 
 The figure delineated at Figured, represents a 
 groin, whose intersecting, or side arch B, is Gothic, 
 and under pitch, that is, it has its perpendicular 
 height less than the height of the body arch A, 
 which forms a semi-circle; From J3, the intersect- 
 ing arch, project a line from 1. round to 1, at the 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 147 
 
 body arch A, and from I, let fall a perpendicular 
 to s, the centre of the side arch, at A, draw the 
 cord line 3,4,5, and let it be divided into four 
 equal parts; draw lines also from 2, through each 
 division, and produce them until they cut the arch, 
 then from 1, draw lines through the points on the 
 arch to the perpendicular o p : take o p, and place 
 it on the side arch 13, so as to create the same divi- 
 sions as at A, then let the cords of the side arch be 
 drawn, and divided into four equal parts, and pro- 
 ceed as before at A ; finally, draw lines from 1, to 
 o p, so as to intersect the lines which issue from the 
 centre 2, and the intersecting points will give the 
 curve of the side rib I). When the plan line p sj 
 of the angular rib is drawn, let s q. be drawn per- 
 pendicular to it, then take the height of the inter- j 
 seeling arch 1,2, and place it to 9; then let the 
 cord line p q, be drawn, and proceed with the rest 
 as before, and the angular rib E, will be produced 
 as required. The same operation may be perform- 
 ed by ordinates in the common way, as is represent- 
 ed on the opposite side of the figure. 
 
 This groin is intended for plaster, and conse- 
 quently very great exactness is required in the for- 
 mation of the angular ribs, and the utmost correct- 
 ness i • cessary also on the under side, to produce 
 regu arii\ and smootnness in the ceiling. 
 
 /.'Y' r 7, represents the plan of another plaster 
 gr; ,v .ose body arch A, forms a semi-ellipsis, 
 ad vv..o>e intersecting ones H, 13, re semi-circular; 
 1), :s the angular rib, described by ordinates, as 
 appears by the corresponding: numerals, which me- 
 thod we have already described. The plan ex- 
 hibited at C, shews the jack and angular ribs, as 
 shewn in the preceding examples. 
 
 The next object of !he readers attention is the 
 plan of a curved groin, which may be applied, either 
 to brick work or plaster, though in the present 
 instance, il will be confined to tiie latter. 
 
 Let a, b, c, d, ' i-yi/re 8. be considered as the 
 plan of the body an !), and if this plan be continued 
 round until it form an entire circle, nothing more j 
 would be requisite than to repeat what is exhibited ] 
 in the figure before us. Let A, A, represent the j 
 body arches, and 13. B, the intersect mg arc! es, when ! 
 in order to find the curvature of the angular ribs, 
 adopt the following method. Let the base, of the 
 arch A, be divided into eoiai p- r‘s inn v nh 
 points, raise perpendiculars to p, q; r then produce 
 the sides of the pia; until t ; ie\ meet ai S, and 
 divide the curve a, b into 8 equal parts, from wf ich , 
 points of division, dr. w right lines to the centre s, j 
 let these be intersected by describing the several , 
 curves, by the centre s, from the several divisions of 1 
 the base ot the body arch A : through the points 
 thus found draw the several curve lines, and they j 
 will form, when they arc placed perpendicularly on 
 their base, the correct plan of the angular ribs. 
 
 The vertical curve of the ribs, is found in the j 
 
 following manner; draw d, g, and make it equal in 
 length to the curve line C d, then lay the girt of the 
 curve line C a, from A to h, and divide it into four 
 equal parts. Take the ordinates from A, and let 
 them be transferred to their corresponding places in 
 E, and D, when the curve, passing through these 
 points, will lie the vertical arch of the angular ribs. 
 It must be obs^rvdJ, that when E am! 1), are fixed 
 on the plan, they are supposed capable of being 
 bent so as to coincide with the angular curves on the 
 plan, otherwise they must be shaped to that curve, 
 out of timber of a suitable thickness ; and for this 
 reason the intersecting arches divide the curves of 
 their plan into the same number of equal parts, as 
 before, which is exemplified at efJ3, where e f, 
 is made equal to the length of a b, on the curve, and 
 i s k, is rendered equal to the curve c d, and when 
 their ordinates are drawn, all that remains, is to 
 transfer the several corresponding ones from A, by 
 yvhich the elliptic curves of the intersecting arches 
 are found, and when placed on their plan, they must 
 be made to coincide with their curved plans a b, 
 and c d, by the same means as were used for obtain- 
 ing the angular ribs. The jack ribs of the body 
 arches A, A, will be straight on their plan, as at w, 
 and must be placed in the direction of the radials, 
 from the centre s. The jack ribs of the intersecting 
 arches, must be curved on the plan, in conformity to 
 their distance from the centre s, as represented by n. 
 
 Figure 9 exhibits the plan of a cylindro-cylindric, 
 or Welsh groin, or one under pitch, the body and 
 Intersect ing arches of which are composed of semicir- 
 cles or of similar segments, whose intersections meet 
 on a curve plane, and therefore their plan will be a 
 carve, a- in the foregoing example. When the 
 intersecting arch 13, has been divided into any num- 
 ber of* equal parts, let lines be drawn at pleasure, 
 perpendicular to its base. From the points 1,2,3, 
 4, let lines be carried round to the body arch A, as 
 at 1, 2, 3, 4, from whence,- drayv lines perpendicular 
 to the base line of A, and where ti ese intersect at 
 1,-2, 3, 4, drawn curve line, which will give the 
 plan of the angular rib of the arch. The nb itself 
 at 1), may be found as usual, and to this the 
 numerals afford a direction, To find the mould 
 necessary to describe the curvature of the intersect- 
 ing arches when laid on the body arch A, take the 
 girt of the angular rib D, in the inside, at 1, 2, 3, 4, 
 and draw a right line at E ; then take the ordinates, 
 from the cord line of the plan of the angular rib, 
 and place them respectively at 1, 2, 3, 4, which will 
 produce the required mould. The angular rib in 
 this figure will be curved both ways, similar to the 
 shape of the circular groin, which lias been before 
 d scribed, the same means of describing 'the former 
 m y be made use of, as were adopted with respect 
 to the latter. 
 
 Figure 10, displays the method of describing the 
 ribs of a groin over stairs upon a circular plan ? in 
 , which 
 
148 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 which the body rib is supposed to be given. Let the 
 tread of as many steps be taken as may be thought 
 convenient, and of corresponding height, which lay 
 down at F; when draw the plan of the angles as in 
 the other groins ; then take the length round the 
 middle of the steps at E, and lay it from a to b, at 
 F ; make d e perpendicular to b c, at D equal to d e 
 at F ; draw the hypothenuse a c, with the perpendi- 
 culars, from d c up to B, and mark B from A, as the 
 figures direct; when B will be the mould to stand 
 over a b ; at the angles draw the cords a 4, and 4 in; 
 let a 9, 4 h, be perpendicular to them, and each be 
 equal to half the height d e, at B or F ; next draw 
 the hypothenuses g 4, and h m, and the perpendicular 
 ordinates, from the cords, through the intersection 
 of the other lines that meet at the angles ; after 
 which trace the moulds J), and c, from the given rib I 
 A, and the moulds wiil be formed for the angle, or 
 intersecting ribs. The angle ribs D, and C, are 
 shewn in contrary positions, with a view to avoid 
 confusion, through an intermixture of their lines. 
 
 ( Nicholson s Carpenter's New Guide , page 30.) 
 
 The several parts of constructive carpentry, hav- 
 ing now been described, in this second division we 
 shall proceed to compleat our account, by enumera- 
 ting the various authors who have written on the sub- 
 ject, and giving some extracts from their several 
 works. 
 
 Among the Italians Scrlio, and Andrew Palladio, 
 have been particularly eminent for their designs in 
 carpentry. The first book of the latter was translat- 
 ed by Godfrey Richards, an Englishman, at the end 
 of which he gave some remarks of his own, which 
 well merit attention. This translation, with the re- 
 maiks, attained a third edition in 1676. Among 
 original English works, have been Moxon’s Me- 
 chanical Exercise, a second edition of which appear- 
 ed in 1693; Halfpenny’s Art of sound building , 
 printed in 1725; Thb Carpenters Companion , by 
 Smith, published in 1733; Ancient masonry, by 
 Batty Langley, which appeared in the same year; 
 The British Carpenter, by Francis Price, printed in 
 1765, which has attained a fifth edition ; and The 
 Gent'cmcn's and Builder s Repository , by Edward 
 Hoppus, printed in 1738; The Builders Complete 
 Assistant, by Batty Langley, published in the same 
 year; The Builder's and Workman s Treasury, by 
 the same authpr, printed in 1741; and also The 
 Builder's J< reel, by the same author ; The London 
 Art of Building, by William Salmon, a third edi- 
 tion of which appeared in 1748; The British Archi- 
 tect, by Abraham Swan, a second edition of which 
 was published in 1750; Designs in Carpentry, by 
 the same author, printed in 1759; several pieces of 
 carpentry in A Complete Bodj of Architecture, 
 written by Isaac Ware, and published in 1768; The 
 Carpenter's and Joiner's Repository , by William 
 Pain, printed isi 1778; The Carpenters Pocket Di- 
 i : < torpj l>v the same author. ; printed in 1780:. The 
 
 11 
 
 Golden Rule, by the same author, printed in 1781 ; 
 The British Palladio, by the same author, printed 
 in 1788; 7 he Practical Builder, and The Practical 
 House Carpenter, by the same author, printed in 
 1791 ; The Carpenter's New Guide, by Peter Nichol- 
 son, the last edition of which appeared in 1808; 
 The Carpenter's and Joiner's Assistant, by the same 
 author, a third edition of which was printed in 1810; 
 various articles on carpentry, in Rees’s Cyclopcedia ; 
 A Treatise on Carpentry, in the Edinburgh Encyclo- 
 paedia ; and a treatise on the same subject, in the Me- 
 chanical Exercises, published in 1812, all by the 
 same author ; A long article on Carpentry, in a Sup- 
 plement to the Encyclopaedia Britannica , written by 
 Professor Robison, of Edinburgh ; and an article on 
 carpentry, in A Course of Lectures on Natural 
 j Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts, by Thomas 
 Young, M. 1). Professor of Natural Philosophy in 
 the Royal Institution of Great Britain ; and some 
 valuable articles on carpentry in the Architectural 
 Dictionary, now publishing by Mr. Peter Nicolson, 
 six parts of this Dictionary are already published; 
 and if we may be allowed to consider these as a crite- 
 rion of the work, we feel ourselves perfectly justifi- 
 ed in pronouncing it to be one of the most useful of" 
 the kind that was ever published. It may not be 
 uninteresting to the reader to take a view of these 
 different works. 
 
 The articles on carpentry by Godfrey Richards, 
 comprise u Rules and instructions for framing all 
 manner of roofs, whether square or bevel, either 
 above or under pitch, according to the best manner 
 practised in England.” 
 
 “ Also to find the length of hips and sleepers, with 
 the back or hip mould, never yet published by any ar- 
 chitect, modern and antique ; a curiosity worth the 
 regard, even of the most curious workmen ; exactly 
 demonstrated by that ingenious architect, Mr. 
 William Pope.” 
 
 “ Instructions to find the length and back of the 
 hip, so as it may answer the side and the end of the 
 perpendicular line of the gable end, the two skirts, 
 the side of the roofin piano, or lyingin legment with 
 the hip and gable end, the diagonal and perpendicu- 
 lar lines being laid down proportional to any breadth 
 or length, by which the most ingenious may serve 
 himself, and an ordinary capacity (already acquaint- 
 ed with the use of the ruler and compass) may 
 plainly demonstrate all the parts cf a roof, whether 
 square or bevel, above pitch or under pitch, by lines 
 oi‘ proportion.” 
 
 “ To find the length of the hip.” 
 
 “ To find the back of the hip, so that it may answer 
 both sides and ends of the roof, whether square or 
 bevel.” 
 
 u Of roofs bevel at one end, and square at the 
 other, the gable end square, and the bevel end 
 hipped.” 
 
 “ To find the length of each hip, distinct, one 
 I from 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 from the other, of the longest hips. To find the 
 back of the longest hip. To find the shortest hip. 
 To find the back of the hip.” 
 
 “ Of a roof bevel at both ends, and broader at one 
 end than the other.” 
 
 The subjects treated of in Moron's Mechanical 
 l Xtrciscs. are, “AC, HD, CD, NO, Ground-plates, 
 V 'all-plates, Lressumniers, Lintels , the Thickness of 
 the H a l. 
 
 A li, Also a Ground-plate , or Ground-sell. 
 
 P P, The Summer. 
 
 Q Q O. Girders. 
 
 1, The iVell-holefor the Stairs, and Stair-case. 
 
 M, Leaving a way for (he Chimnies. 
 
 b b , Trimmers for the Chimney-way and Stair- 
 vase. 
 
 a a a a, Joists. 
 
 Of Framing for the Floors. — Figure 1 Plate 9. — 
 The four Plates, A U, A N, N O, and IJ O, hy ing on 
 the foundation, are called Ground-plates. They 
 ought to be formed of good oak, and for this size of 
 building, about eight inches broad, and six inches 
 deep. They should be framed into one another 
 with a tenon and mortise. The longer ground- 
 plates, A N, and ii O, are commonly tenoned into 
 the front and rear ground-plates, A I>, and N O, 
 and into these two-side ground-plates, mortises are 
 .made for the tenons at the ends of the joists, which 
 should be fitted somewhat loosely in, at about ten 
 inches distance from one another, as in the draft. 
 These ground-plates must be bored with an inch and 
 half Auger, -ana well pinned into one another with 
 round oaken pins, made tapering towards the point, 
 and so strong, that with the hard blows of a mallet, 
 they may drive stiff into the auger-hole and keep 
 the tenon firmly in the mortise. The manner of 
 making a tenon and mortise is taught in Joinery 
 but because the stuff Carpenters work upon, is 
 generally heavy timber, and consequently not so 
 easily managed as the light stuff joiners work upon ; 
 therefore they do not at first pin their tenons into 
 -their mortises with wooden pins, lest they should be 
 out of square, or any other intended position ; but in 
 laying a block or some other piece of timber under 
 the corner of the frame-work in order to bear it 
 hollow oft' the foundation, or whatever else ft lies 
 -upon, hook-pins are driven into the four auger-holes 
 in tho corners of the ground-plates, and one by one 
 tit the plates either to a square, or any other intend- 
 ed position. And when so fitted, the hook pins are 
 driven out, and the wooden pins are driven in, (as 
 aforesaid) and when the wooden blocks have been 
 taken away one by one, from under the corners ofthe 
 frame, it is permitted to fall into its place. 
 
 “ Rut before thevpin up the frame of ground-plates, 
 they must set in the summer marked P P, and the 
 girders Q Q, and ail the joists marked a a a a, &c. 
 mid the trimmers for the stair-case, and chimney-way 
 marked b b, and the binding joists marked c e, for 
 else you cannot get their tenons into their respective 
 
 14 <^ 
 
 mortise-holes. They lit all these in, while the 
 frame of ground-plates lies loose, and may, corner 
 by corner, be opened to let the respective tenons in- 
 to their respective mortises, after which they frame 
 the raising-plates i nst as the ground-plates are fram- 
 ed, and then frame the roof into the raising-plate- 
 with beams, joists, &c. 
 
 “ 1'he summer is in this ground-plate placed at 2 a 
 feet distance front the front, and is to be of the same 
 scantling as the principal plates, for reasons which 
 shall be shewn hereafter.' And the girders are also 
 to be of the same scantling as the summers and 
 ground-plates. Though, according to the nice rules of 
 architecture, the back-girder need not be so strong 
 as the front-girder, because it bears but at 14 feet 
 length; and the front-girder bears at 24 feet length; 
 yet carpenters (for uniformity) generally make them 
 so, unless they build an house by the great, and are 
 agreed for the sum of money, &c. 
 
 “ Thejoists bearing at 8 feet, (as here they do) are 
 to be 7 inches deep, and 3 inches broad. 
 
 “ The trimmers and trimming joists are 5 inches 
 broad and 7 inches deep, and these joists, trimmers, 
 and trimming joists, are all to be pinned into their 
 respective mortices ; and then their flatness is tried 
 with the level, as was taught. 
 
 OP SETTING ri> THE CARCASS. 
 
 “ Though the ground -plates, girders, &e, be part 
 ofthe carcass, jet I thought fit in the last section 
 they should be laid, before I treated of the super- 
 structure, which I shall now handle. The four cor- 
 ner posts called the principal posts marked A A, 
 should !>e each of one piece, so long as to -reach up 
 to the beam ofthe roof, or raising-plate, and of the 
 scantling as the ground-plates, viz. 8 inches broad, 
 and 6 inches thick, and set with one of its narrow- 
 est sides towards the front. Its lower end is to be 
 tenoned, ar;d let into a mortise made near the cor- 
 ner oft e ground-plate frame; audits upper end 
 hath also a tenon on it, to fit into a mortise made in 
 the beam ofthe roof, or rasing-piece. 
 
 “ At tire height ofthe first story in this principal 
 post, must be made two mortises, one to receive the 
 tenon at the end of the bressummer that lies in the 
 front, and the other to enter la in the tenon ar the 
 end of the bressummer that lies in the return side. 
 
 “ Tw o such mortises must also be made in this 
 principal post, at the height of the second story, to 
 receive the tenon at the ends of the bressummers 
 for that story. 
 
 “ Though 1 have spoken singularly of one princi- 
 pal pot, yei as you work this, you must work all 
 four principal posts: and then set them plumb up- 
 right, w hich you must try with a plumb-line. 
 
 “ Having erected the principal posts upright, you 
 must enter the tenons of the bressummers into their 
 proper mortises, and with a nail or two, (about a 
 single ten ora double ten) tack one end of a deal 
 board, or some other like piece of stuff to the bres- 
 summer, an d the other end to the framed work of the 
 Q q floor 
 
'15 0 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 floor, to keep the principal posts upright and in 
 their places. Then set up the several posts between 
 the principal posts; but these posts must be tenon- 
 ed at each end, because they are to be no longer than 
 to reach from story to story, or from intertie to inter- 
 tie, and are to be framed into the upper andunder bres- 
 pummer. Jfthe intei ties be not long enough, they 
 set up a principal post between two or three lengths, 
 to reach from the ground-plate up to the raising- 
 plates. 
 
 u It is to he remembered, that the bressummers 
 and girders are laid flat upon one of their broadest 
 sides, with their two narrowest sides perpendicular 
 to the ground-plot ; but the joists are to he laid 
 contrary : for they are framed so as to lie with one 
 of their narrowest sides upwards, with their two 
 broadest sides perpendicular to the ground-plot. 
 The reason is, because the stuff of the bressummers 
 and girders are less weakened by cutting the mor- 
 tises in them in this position, than in the other posi- 
 tion : for as the tenons for those mortises are cut be- 
 tween the top and bottom sides, and the flat of the 
 tenons are no broader than the flat of the narrowest 
 side of the joists : so the mortises they are to fit in- 
 to, need be no broader than the breadth ofthe tenon, 
 and the tenons are not to be above an inch thick, and 
 consequently the mortises are to be made with an 
 inch mortice chissel, as is shewn in joinery, for 
 great care must be taken that the bressummers and 
 girders be not weakened more than needs, lest the 
 whole floor dance. 
 
 “ These tenons are cut through the two narrow- 
 est sides, rather than between the two broadest 
 sides, because the stuff ofthe girders retains more 
 strength when least of the grain of the stuff is cut : 
 and the tenons being made between the narrowest 
 sides of the joists, require their mortise holes no 
 longer than the breadth of that tenon ; and that 
 tenon being but an inch thick, requires its mortise 
 to be but an inch wide to receive it; so that you 
 mortise into the girder no more than three inches 
 wide with the grain of the stuff, and one inch broad 
 contrary to the grain of the stuff. But should the 
 tenon be cut between the two broad sides of the 
 joists, the mortise would be three inches long, and 
 but one inch broad, and consequently you must cut 
 into the girder three inches cross the grain of the 
 stuff, which would weaken it more than cutting six 
 inches with the grain, and one inch cross. 
 
 “ But it may be objected that the tenons of the 
 joists being so small, and bearing at an inch thick- 
 ness must needs be too weak. 
 
 “ Answer, first, though the tenons be indeed but 
 an inch thick, and three inches broad; yet the whole 
 bearing ofthe joists do not solely depend upon tbeir 
 tenons : because the girders they are framed into, 
 prove commonly somewhat wainny upon their upper 
 sides, and the joists are always scribed to project over 
 that vyaynniness, and so strengthen their bearing, 
 by so much as they project over the rcund- 
 
 ness or waynniness of the upper side of the girder. 
 
 “ Secondly, the floor is boarded w ith the length of 
 the boards athwart the joists, and these boards firm- 
 ly nailed down to the joists, w hich also adds a great 
 strength to them. 
 
 “ Thirdly, the joists are seldom made to bear at 
 above ten foot in length, and should by the rule of 
 good workmanship, not lie above ten inches asunder 
 at the most ; so that this short bearing andciose dis- 
 charging of one another, renders the w ole floor firm 
 enough for all common Occupation. But if the joists 
 do bear at above ten foot in length, it ought to be 
 the care of the master workman to provide stronger 
 stuff for them, viz. thicker and broader. If not, 
 they cut a tusk on the upper side of the tenon, 
 and let that tusk into the upper side of the gir- 
 I tiers. 
 
 “ Having erected the principal post, and other 
 posts, and fitted in the bressummers, girders, joists, 
 &c. upon the first floor, they pin up all the frame of 
 carcass- work. But though the girders and joists des- 
 cribed for this first floor, lie proper enough for it j 
 yet for the second story, and in this particular case, 
 the joists lie not proper for the second story; be- 
 cause in the second story we have described a bal- 
 cony. 
 
 “ Therefore in this case you must frame the front - 
 bressummer about seven inches lower into the prin- 
 cipal posts ; because the joists for the second floor 
 are not to be mortised into the bressummer to lie 
 even at the top with it, but must lie upon the bres— 
 summer, and project over it so far as the balcony is 
 designed to project beyond the upright of the front. 
 And thus laying the joists upon the bressummer ren- 
 ders them much stronger to bear the balcony, than if 
 the joists were tenoned into the front of the bres- 
 summer, and projected from it into the street. 
 
 “ But the truth is, though J have given you a 
 draft of the joists lying athwart the front and rear 
 for the first floor, you may as well make them range 
 with the two sides on the first floor. But then the 
 bressummer that reaches from front to rear in the 
 middle of the floor must be stronger; and girders 
 must then be tenoned into the bressummer and the 
 ground-plates, at such a distance, that the joists may 
 not bear at above ten foot in length. And the te- 
 nons of the joists must be tenoned into the girders, 
 so that they will then range with the two sides. * 
 
 “ But a word more of the bressummer; I say (as 
 before) that the bressummer to bear at so great 
 length must be made stronger, though it should he 
 discharged at the length ofthe shop, (viz. at 25 feet), 
 with a brick wall, or a foundation brought up of 
 brick. But if it should have no discharge of brick- 
 work, but bear at the whole 40 feet m length, youc 
 bressummer must be yet considerably stronger than 
 it need be were it to bear but 25 feet in length; be- 
 cause the shorter all the bearings of timbers are, the 
 firmer they bear. But then the framing work will 
 take up more labour, and-m many cases it js cheap- 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 er to put in stronger stuff for long bearings, than to 
 put a girder between to discharge the length of the 
 joists to be framed into the girders. 
 
 “ But to make short of this argument, I shall give 
 you the scheme of scantlings of timber, at several 
 bearings, for summers, girders, joists, rafters, &c. 
 as they are set down in the Act of Parliament for 
 rebuilding the city of London, alter the late dreadful 
 fire; which scantlings were well considered by able 
 workmen, before this adoption was reduced into an 
 Act. 
 
 Scantlings of 7 imber for the first sorts of Houses. 
 
 Ff. In. In. 
 
 For the Floor S w ™! ,nder 15 •••• 12 ar "| f 
 
 l Wall-plates — 7 and 5 
 
 Ft. t at foot . . 8 ? r T . 
 
 For the Roof S Principal Rafters under 15 fat top 5$ 6 Inc “ 
 f Single Rafters 4 and 3 inches. 
 
 Length Foot. Thickness. Depth. 
 
 Joists to 10 3 and .... 7; . , 
 
 Garret Floors 3 .... - .... and .... 6$ Inches. 
 
 Scantlings of Timber for the other two sorts of Houses. 
 
 Brtvidth. Depth. Thickness. Depth. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 In. 
 
 Summers or Gir- 
 ders which bear 
 in length from 
 
 rio. 
 
 •to. .15. 
 
 .11. 
 
 . and . 
 
 • 8 1 
 
 1 Ini fc 1 
 
 ii: 
 
 .to. . 18. 
 •to. .21. 
 
 .13. 
 
 .14. 
 
 .and. 
 
 .and. 
 
 
 1 
 
 III: 
 
 • to. .21. 
 .to. .26. 
 
 . 16. 
 .17. 
 
 .and. 
 
 .and 
 
 :‘?J 
 
 JO feet J 
 
 In. 
 
 Principal Discharges upon Piers in the first? 13. .and. . 1‘ 
 
 Story in the Fronts $ 15. .and. .1: 
 
 rhickness. Inches, 
 depth equal to their 
 owu floors. 
 
 In. In. 
 flO. .and. .6 
 
 Wall-Plates, or Raising Pieces and Beams < 8. .and. .6 
 C 7 . . and . . 5 
 
 In. In 
 
 3.. 6 
 
 > 3 . .7 
 
 3. . 8 
 
 3.. 8 
 In. 
 
 Binding Joists with their Trim- 
 ming Joists ? ~ > ~ 
 
 Seantlings 
 
 wide) Side- 
 
 Thickness, 
 rails. 1 brick £' 
 
 151 
 
 Bottom paved plain, 
 and then 1 brick on 
 edge circular. 
 
 Lintels of Oak in the 
 
 Ft. 
 f IB 
 
 S 1st and 2d story . . 
 
 ?3d story 
 
 Length. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 i at foot, 
 top 
 
 I Priori 
 
 = I 
 
 ■isj 
 
 I i o in Sal foot.. 10? 
 pal Rafters) 1S •• , -- 21 fat top .. 
 from ioi o. Sat foot.. 12? 
 
 In. 
 
 ... 8. .and . 
 . . . 5. .and . 
 Thickness. 
 In. In. 
 n ....7 
 
 24.. to .26 
 
 . 9S 
 
 tt foot .13? 
 it top .. 9$ 
 
 Purlins from. . 
 
 Single Rafters . . 
 
 Length 
 
 Ft. ' Ft. In. In. 
 
 S 15. .to. .18 9 8 
 
 < 18. .to. .21 12 9 
 
 Ft. In. In. 
 
 S not exceeding in length 9.. 5.. 4 
 tout exceeding in length 6. .4. .3£ 
 
 Scantlings for Sawed Timber and Laths, usually brought out 
 of the West Country, not less than 
 Breadth. Thickness. 
 
 Ft. In. In. 
 
 Single Quarters in length ... .8 
 Double Quarters in length . .8, 
 
 Sawed Joists in length 8 
 
 Laths in length . 
 
 First sort 
 of Houses 
 
 | 2d and 3d 
 sorts 
 
 ..3*. 
 .4 . 
 ..6 . 
 • U- 
 
 Corner Piers 
 
 M ddle or Single Piers 
 
 Double Piers between House 
 
 and I: ouse 
 
 Door-Jambs and Heads 
 
 quarter and J inch. 
 Inches. 
 
 Corner Piers 
 
 hi id, lie or Single P 
 Double Piers bet 
 House and House . . . 
 Door Jambs and Heads 
 
 een 
 
 ^ 14 and J 8 
 12 and 8 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 . 2 6 square 
 . - 18 square 
 24 and 18 
 14 and 10 
 
 Arch . . 1 brick on end 
 
 We next proceed to Smith’s Carpenter's Com- 
 panion , in which are many observations, very judi- 
 cious and worthy to transcription; the introduc- 
 tion of this work, is interesting, and commences in 
 (he following manner. 
 
 “ The usefulness of carpenter’s work in building, 
 and the little notice taken of it by authors who have 
 treated of architecture, and the few there be that 
 rightly understand it, prompted me to write the fol- 
 lowing treatise. 
 
 “ Carpenter’s work is one of the most valuable 
 branches of architecture; it was contemporary with 
 the first ages of the world; and with the knowledge 
 of this art, Noah closely and firmly connected those 
 timbers in the ark, which were so nicely wrought, 
 that they not only kept the water from penetrating 
 into it, but were proof against the tempest and the 
 rolling billows, when, in its womb, it carried all 
 the tenants of the earth and air. 
 
 “ Those naval preparations, through all ages of 
 the world, as well as those stupendous temples and 
 edifices, erected in all countries, demonstrate the 
 perfection of this art. t The innumerable floating 
 buildings , which roll from one country to another 
 t irough tempestuous storms, tossed from the moun- 
 tain’s height to the depths of the ocean, without in- 
 juring the vessel, evidently shew the vast use and 
 judgment of carpenter’s work. 
 
 “ But as that branch of it which relates to templar 
 or domed uses, is the subject of this work, I shall on- 
 ly heat ofits usefulness in them; and may venture 
 to affirm that carpenter’s work is the chief tie and 
 connection of a building; it is the ligament which 
 binds the walls together. 
 
 f “ The bond-timbers, which strengthen and tie the 
 j angles of a building, and prevent its separating, is 
 1 t!le work of the carpenter. Linteling over doors 
 and windows, with other dischargements of weight, 
 it is his care to perform. 
 
 “ Botyl timbers in cross walls, when settlements 
 happen, if they are well applied, prevent the cracking 
 of the walls, for they keep the whole together, and 
 every partsettleth alike, which would fill the build- 
 ings with gaps and chasms if neglected. 
 
 “ Next, the floors; the rightly framing them, by 
 trussing the girders, by placing them on joists, so 
 that they come near no funnels of chimnies ; the 
 manner of tenanting, tusking, framing of tim- 
 bers for chimneys, stairs, &c. I say, all these are 
 the business ot the carpenter to see carefully per- 
 formed. 
 
 “ Partitions of timber, their manner of trussing to 
 prevent cracking, settlements, &c. and the dis- 
 charge of weight of girders, beams, or cross walls, is 
 carpenter’s work ; as is, likewise, the framing of tim- 
 ber bridges. 
 
 “ Roots of various sorts, for common houses, large 
 
 edifices; 
 
152 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 edifices, or churches, their manner of framing, the 
 height of their pitch, their strength, usefulness, &c. 
 with the various manner of performing all the e 
 works, is the subject of this treatise, which I have 
 rendered intelligible to every capacity, by designs ol 
 several sorts, and have described them in such a 
 manner, that w*ll render the work useful to carpen- 
 ters; in particular, such who are acquainted with 
 the manner of performing these operations of fra- 
 ming. 
 
 If it should he objected, that there are feu 
 'things here treated of, but what every carpenter 
 knows, I could wish such objectors had been at the 
 pains 1 have taken to inform the world, since I reap 
 no advantage bv it, but the satisfaction of communi- 
 cating any thing which may prove serviceable to my 
 countrymen. 
 
 “ The first thing which the carpenter must consi- 
 der for the carrying on a building, is the plan, in 
 which vou are to prepare your timber in having it 
 cut into proper scantlings, which shall be hereafter 
 .noted. 
 
 “ You are to prepare for lintelings and bond-tim- 
 bers : for lintels over doors or windows, stuff of five 
 inches thick and seven broad, and it is a slight way 
 of building to put in any of less scantling; as for 
 door-cases, their manner of making, and scantlings 
 •of stuff, it is needless to speak of; it is the best way 
 •to have them put in when the foundations are brought 
 up high enoughfor them. Bond-timbers should be 
 -dovetailed at the angles of the building and cross 
 walls. And here note, that it is a durable, though 
 “expensive way, to have all fir timber, which is laid 
 in the walls of the building, to be pitched with 
 pitch and grease mixed together; the quantity of 
 •g rease, one pound to four pounds of pitch. All these 
 things are the care of the carpenter. 
 
 “ Bond-timbers should be four or five inches thick 
 for cross walls, and in the angles of a building, six 
 or seven inches, and proportionality broad; six or 
 eight feet long in each wail : and it would not be 
 amiss to place them six or eight feet distant all the 
 height of the building, in every angle- ;md cross 
 wall; these, if a building be on on infirm founda- 
 tion, cause the whole to settle together, and prevent 
 the cracks and fractures which happen if this be ne- 
 glected. 
 
 “ We eome now to the floors, in which these 
 tilings are to he observed; the magnitude of the 
 room, the manner of framing, and the scantlings of 
 the timber. For the first, you are to observe to lay 
 the girders always the shortest way, and not to 
 have a joist at any time exceeding twelve feet in 
 length. 
 
 “ The first common method of framing floors, is 
 where the joists are framed flush with the top of the 
 girder.” (The trimming-joists supposed to come 
 against chimneys and stairs, are always thicker than 
 common joists .) “ Being weakened by mortising. 
 
 !! 
 
 I 
 
 i! 
 
 I 
 
 ii 
 
 ; 
 
 i 
 
 ! 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 f 
 
 , 
 
 ■Scantling of joists, when a floor is framed in this 
 manner, ought to be as followeth : 
 
 Common Joists. 
 
 Trimmers. 
 
 ft. Ion-. 
 
 £cantiing in i 
 inches. i 
 
 ft. long. 
 
 Scantling in 1 
 inches. j 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 ! 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 7 X ; 
 
 7 X 2 } |! 
 
 7 X 2| |! 
 
 8X3 ! 
 
 8 X 31 
 
 8 X 3j j 
 (■9x4 j 
 
 5 
 
 6 | 
 
 7 
 
 8 | 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 j 
 
 7X3 I 
 
 7x4 
 
 7X5 
 
 8x4 
 
 8X5 
 
 9x6 
 
 “ These are such proportions, as will render the 
 work sufficiently capable of sustaining any common 
 weight. 
 
 s- The next manner of framing- floors, is with 
 binding joists framed flush with the under side of 
 the girder; and about three or four incites below 
 ihe ti p of the girder, to receive the bridgings, which 
 are those which lie across the binding-joists, and 
 are pinned down to them with pins of wood, or 
 spikes of iron. These binding-joists should be 
 framed about three feet, or three feet six inches 
 distant from one another, and their thickness four 
 or five inches, or in the proportion to the length of 
 their bearing, as trimming joists. 
 
 “ These floors, if they settle out of a level with 
 the building, are made level when the bridgings are 
 put in, which is generally afterthe building is cover- 
 ed in, and nearly compleatcd ; they are generally 
 double tenanted. The binding-joists are chased, 
 and the ceiling-joists tenanted into them, and put in 
 generally after the building is up. These ceiling 
 joists should lie 13 or 14 inches apart, and the scant- 
 ling 2 or 3 inches square, and in large buildings 
 3 and 4. As for the bridgings, which lie bn the top 
 of the binding-joists, they may be placed 12 or 11 
 inches distant, their scantling 3 and 4, or .51 and 5; 
 their bearing being only from binding-joist to joist, 
 which is three feet, or three feet 6 inches, and these 
 are laid even with the top of the girder to receive 
 the boarding. We come now to speak of girders; 
 and first, for their scantling, take these proportions: 
 
 ft. long | 
 
 Scantling in 
 inches. 
 
 
 B. D. 
 
 10 
 
 8 X 10 
 
 12 
 
 81 X 10 
 
 11 
 
 9 x 101 
 
 16 
 
 91 X 101 
 
 IS 
 
 10 X ii 
 
 20 
 
 11 X 12 
 
 22 
 
 111 X J3 1 
 
 24 
 
 ■12 X 14 | 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 15 * 
 
 And observe, that as every weight, added, to the 
 weight of the timber in the floor, in itself occa- 
 sions it to nettle, the girders should be cut camlier; 
 if a 10 feet bearing, half an inch camber; if 20 feet 
 bearing, an inch camber, &c. in proportion to the 
 length of the bearing. 
 
 “ And farther to strengthen the girder, and pre- 
 rent its sagging, as it is called among workmen, that 
 is, its bending downwards, I. have given you several 
 wavs of trussing girders, which have been most of 
 them practised. 
 
 u The manner of trussing these girders, is, first, 
 to saw the girder down the middle, the deepest way : 
 then take two pieces of dry oak, aoout or 5 inches 
 wide, and 4 inches thick ; let half the piece be let 
 in one side of the girder, and half into the other. 
 
 “ Another way, which is by cutting the girder 
 through, and driving a wedge against the ends of the 
 trusses. When these are thus prepared, bolt them 
 together with iron bolts and keys; or much rather, 
 a screw at the end of the bolt. 
 
 “ Some carpenters cut their girders down the 
 middle, and bolt them together, without trussing 
 July changing the ends different from what they 
 “row, whereby the grain of the wood is crossed, and 
 it becomes much stronger titan if it had continued 
 without sawing down the middle, and thus putting 
 it together. 
 
 Some in trussing girders, make use of other 
 trusses. 
 
 “ The girder being thus trussed and put together, 
 proceed in framing the joists, as in common floors. 
 The strongest way being double tenanting and 
 tusking, as is shewn in the binding- joists. Before 
 1 leave tin's part of floors, I shall observe to you 
 :Lat the best and most workmanlike manner of 
 framing floors, is to plane the upper edge of your 
 [oists straight; for the straighter and truer your 
 oists lie, the truer your boarding will lie, which is a 
 *reat ornament to a magnificent room ; but if you 
 rame without binding-joists, and lay on bridgings, 
 jlane the bridgings, and lay them very straight aud 
 evel ; this care taken, will save a great deal of 
 rouble in laving down the boarding, which you are 
 jften lorced to chip and fur up, to make them lie 
 iven, and those furrings are not only troublesome, 
 jut are apt to give wav, and occasion the creeking 
 >f the boards as you walk on them. It would be a! 
 good way. to turn arches of brick over the ends of 
 he girders of the floors, because if any alteration 
 aappens, they are easily taken out, 
 
 “ I come now to partitions of timber, with their 
 manner of framing. Timber partitions have these 
 properties attending them ; they take up less room, 
 md are cheaper than those ofbrick. 
 
 “ As to roofs, there is a plate to go round abuild- 
 ng, which may or may not be deemed a part of the 
 •oof; it may be deemed the foundation and tie of! 
 he roof and. walls, or it may be taken as only that 
 
 on which the roof lieth. These plates are to l>e 
 dovetailed at the angles and tenanted together >« 
 their length, several ways. The beams of the roo£ 
 which serve as girders to the ceiling-floors, (and in- 
 to which all the principal rafters of the roof are 
 tenanted) are dovetailed, or yvhat by workmen is 
 termed cogged down to the plate, which prev n $ 
 its flying out from the foot of the rafter, whose but- 
 ment is against it; aud in the angles of a building, 
 pieces dovetailed across the angles of the plate, 
 serve to keep it from spreading, and is the foot of 
 the hip. 
 
 “ The common pitch of roofs is to have the 
 rafter’s length, if it span the building at once, to be 
 three-fourths of the breadth of the building. 
 Some make them flatter^ as a pediment pitch ; and 
 the old Gothic way was to make them the whole 
 breadth. 
 
 “ The common pitch is not only unpleasing to 
 the eye, but is attended with this inconvenience ; if 
 there is a gutter round the building, tiie steepness of' 
 the roof occasions the rain to come with so sudden a 
 velocity into the pipes, which are to convey the 
 water from the gutters, that they till the gutter ; 
 and sometimes so fast, that the water runneth over 
 the covering of the roof, and does great injury to the 
 timber. &c. of the building; and the steeper the 
 roof is, the longer the rafters, aud the greater quan- 
 tity of timber must he used in the roof, as well as 
 the more weight from the great quantity of timber, 
 and the weakening the principal timbers, by adding 
 more to its own weight. 
 
 “ And the pedimenCpitch is inconvenient, in lying 
 too flat, for those climates so. frequently subject to 
 ram, and heavy snows, which last would press and 
 vastly incommode the building, and would lie much 
 longer on the roof, its declivity being so small ; be- 
 sides, in keen winds, attended with rain, the rain 
 would drive in under the covering of slate or tiles, 
 and create much decay in the timber. 
 
 “ Proportion of beams whose bearing varieth, 
 take the following rule i 
 
 LfDgih 
 of beam 
 in feel. 
 
 Scantling in 
 inches. 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 X 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 6k 
 
 X 
 
 8f 
 
 20 
 
 6k 
 
 X 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 7 
 
 X 
 
 91 
 
 28 
 
 7k 
 
 X 
 
 91 
 
 32 
 
 8 
 
 X 
 
 10 
 
 36 
 
 8i 
 
 X 
 
 J0| 
 
 40 
 
 81 
 
 X 
 
 11 
 
 44 
 
 9 
 
 X 
 
 12 
 
 “ The principal rafter should be nearly as thick 
 at the bottom as the beam, and diminish in its 
 R r length 
 
154 
 
 CARPENTRY and joinery. 
 
 length one-fifth or one-sixth of its breadth: the 
 king-posts should be as thick as the top of the prin- 
 cipal rafter, and the breadth according to the big- 
 ness of the struts you intend to let into them, the 
 middle part being left something broader than the 
 thickness. 
 
 <( Struts may diminish as the rafters do, one-fifth, 
 or one sixth of their length. In placing struts and 
 collar-beams, the dividing the rafter into as many 
 equal par as you propose bearings, is the rule, 
 because every part of the principal will have its 
 equal distant bearings. 
 
 “ Purlins are of the same thickness as the prin- 
 cipal rafter, and the proportion of the breadth is six 
 to eight ; that is, if the rafter be six inches thick, 
 let the purlins be six inches thick, and eight inches 
 broad if it be nine inches thick, the breadth of the 
 purlins is twelve inches broad, &c. 
 
 “ N. B. The purlins are those pieces into which 
 the small rafters are tenanted, and they are tenanted 
 into the principal rafter. Length of purlins is gen- 
 erally from six to eleven feet, not exceeding that 
 length. 
 
 “ Small rafters; their scantlings two inches and 
 a half, and four inches ; three inches, and four inches 
 and a half; and three inches aud a half, and five 
 inches : according to the magnitude of'the roof and 
 length of the rafters. Small rafters should not ex- 
 ceed seven feet in length in a purlined roof; if it 
 happen that the length of the principal be above fif- 
 teen feet, it is best to put in two tier of purlins in 
 the length of the rafter.” 
 
 In respect to the construction of roofs for coves,] 
 he has the following observations: “ The use of 
 coving a room of considerable height, is, first,, the 
 making of it much lighter than it would otherwise 
 be, if level in the ceiling ; the rays of light in a cove 
 are reflected back again into the rooms, which would 
 be otherwise lost and confused in a room with a flat 
 ceiling. 
 
 u Likewise, all rooms w ith circular roofs or ceil- 
 ings are more commodious and useful for enter-! 
 tctinment, for music, &c. The angles of incidence 
 are always equal to those of reflection ; ^o the undu- 
 lation of sounds flying on any cove, or spherical part 
 ofa building, reverberate on the audience; and ifj 
 spherical, no part of the sphere can receive the vi- 
 bration, but it will return in the same direction 
 from whence the undulation first began. The re- 
 flecting rays of light, and the reverberation of sounds, 
 proceed from the same cause, and from incidents 
 naturally affecting the eye and the ear.” 
 
 Mr. Smith’s work is illustrated by thirty-three 
 plates; twenty of which are designs of roofs, and 
 five are plans or elevations of wooden bridges. 
 
 The next work to be reviewed, is the British Car- 
 penter, by Mr. Francis Price, whose treatise has 
 obtained the recommendation, of Messrs. Hawks- 
 moor, James, and Gibbs. From this we shall also 
 
 quote the introductory part, with some descriptions 
 and observations, which, though they may not be so 
 methodically arranged, as those of the last author, 
 are, in general correct, and well founded. 
 
 “ As all buildings are composed of three princi- 
 pal parts, viz. strength, use, and beauty, therefore 
 carpentry naturally comes in among the essential 
 heads of architecture. It is an art that has been 
 taken notice of, by all the most famous architects: 
 therefore these and the like circumstances, prompt- 
 ed me to compile the most approved methods of 
 connecting timber together, for most of the various 
 uses in buildings, with the rules necessary to be 
 observed therein; but when 1 considered such a 
 treatise might not give a sufficient variety, therefore 
 it appeared necessary to add several other things 
 appertaining to the art, in order to make the whole 
 particularly useful. 
 
 “ I have used my utmost endeavours to render 
 this treatise not only intelligible to carpenters, but 
 a t the same time to be of use to the ingenious theo- 
 rist in building; and have digested it in such a man- 
 ner as to need little or no explanation, otherways 
 than carefully inspecting the Plates. 
 
 “ Nevertheless it may not be improper, in this 
 place, to mention some general observations. There 
 is a moisture in all timber; therefore all bearing- 
 timber ought to have a moderate camber, or round- 
 ness, for till that moisture is in some sort dryed out, 
 the said timber will sag with its own weight ; and 
 that chiefly is the reason girders are trussed and 
 used, as in its place will be shewn. But here ob- 
 i serve that girders are best trussed when they are 
 first sawn out, for by their drying and shrinking, 
 it tightens the trusses in them yet more. 
 
 “ Observe also, that all beams, or ties, be cut, or 
 forced in framing, to a camber, or roundness, such 
 as an inch in the length of eighteen feet ; and that 
 principal rafters be also cut, or forced up to a cam- 
 ber, or roundness, as before. The reason of this is, 
 all trusses, though eve so well framed, by the 
 shrinking of the timber, and weight of the covering, 
 will sag, and sometimes so much as to offend the 
 eye of the beholder; so that by (his preparation, 
 your truss will ever appear well. 
 
 |j c ‘ Also observe, that all case-bays, either in floors 
 u or roofs, do not exceed twelve feet it possible ; that 
 is, do not let your joists in floors, your purlins in 
 ! roofs, & c . exceed twelve feet in their if gth or bear- 
 jing; but rather let the bearing be eight, nine, or 
 ten feet ; which should be observed in forming a 
 plan. 
 
 “ Also in bridging floor, do not place your bind- 
 ing, or strong joists above three, four, or five feet 
 apart; and that your bridgings, or common joists, 
 
 I are not above ten or twelve inches apart, that is, 
 between one joist and the other. 
 
 “ Here also observe, never to make double te- 
 nants or tenons, for bearing uses, such as binding 
 
 joists, 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 155' 
 
 foists, common-joists, or purlins ; for, in the first 
 place, it weakens very much whatever you frame it 
 into ; and, in the second place, it is a rarity to have 
 a draught in both tenons, that is, to draw your joint 
 elose by the pin : for the said pin, by passing through 
 both tenons, (if there is a draught to each,) must 
 bend so much, that without the pin be as tough as 
 wire, it must needs break in driving, and conse- 
 quently do more hurt than, good.” 
 
 lie then proceeds to notice the scarfing of beams, 
 the method of trussing girders, arid the modes of 
 connecting the various joints of roofing. He next 
 describes bridging floors, and the plan of laying 
 down the sides of roofs in piano, in adverting to 
 which, he shews the backings of the hips, according 
 to Pope’s principle, and how the side joint of a pur- 
 lin may be found, so as to cut it by a templet, sup- 
 posing there be no room, or occasion to frame it 
 into the hip. 
 
 Mr. Price’s rules for finding the pitch of the raf- 
 ters for different coverings, deserve attention. 
 
 “ Take any width, to be covered with lead; divide 
 the width, first into two parts ; and one of them, 
 again into four, as 1, 2, 3, 4 ; at 2, and with two of 
 these parts, describe the quarter circle, which gives 
 a proper pitch, or slope to be covered with lead, and 
 is called a pediment pitch. 
 
 “ Again, take any width, and to be covered with 
 pantiles ; divide it, as before, into two parts, and 
 again one of them into four, as 1, 2, 3, 4; with three 
 parts, as at 3, describe the quarter circle, which 
 gives a proper pitch for the use.” 
 
 “Also take any width, arid to be covered with 
 plain tiles, divide it into two parts, with one make 
 a quarter-circle, as the pricked line shews ; which 
 gives a pitch, or slope, proper for use, 
 
 Mr. Price next presents his readers with some de- 
 signs for the fronts of buildings, required to have the 
 ground story open, and to lie supported with story 
 osts ; his observations next apply to woo len 
 ridges, and he gives the following rules for the 
 construction of one 
 
 “ I have inserted a bridge that may be more ac- 
 ceptable than the foregoing ones, because it is 
 adapted to public and private uses, by being so 
 formed of small parts, that it may be carried to any 
 assigned place, and there put together at a short 
 notice. 
 
 “ This bridge H, Figure 2, Plate 9, I suppose to 
 consist of two principal l ibs, as i, k, made thus, the 
 width of the place is spanned at once by an arch ri- 
 sing one sixth part of its extent; its curve is divided 
 into five parts, which I propose to be of good sea- 
 soned English oak plank, of three inches thick, and 
 twelve broad, their joint or meeting tends to the 
 centre of the arch ; within this rib is another, cut 
 out of plank as before, of three inches thick, and 
 nine broad ; in such sort as to break the joints of 
 the other. In each of these nbs, are made four 
 
 mortises, of four inches broad, and three high, and 
 in the middle of the said nine inch plank, (these mor- 
 tises are best set out with a templet, on which the 
 said mortises have been truly divided and adjusted;) 
 lastly, put each principal rib up in its place, driving 
 loose keys m!o some of the mortises, to hold the 
 said two thicknesses together: while other help is 
 ready to drive in the joists, which have a shoulder 
 inward, and a mortise in them outw ard ; through 
 which, keys being drove, keeps the whole together; 
 on these joists, lay your planks, gravel; &c.' so is 
 your bridge compleat, and suitable to a river, &c. 
 of thirty-six feet w ide. 
 
 “ In case the river, &c. be forty or fifty feet w ide, 
 the stuff should be larger, and more particularly 
 framed ; as is shew n in part of the plan enlarged, as 
 I : these planks ought to be four inches thick, and 
 sixteen wide; and the inner ones that break the 
 joints, four inches thick, and twelve broad ; in each 
 of these are six montises, four of which are four 
 inches wide, and two high ; through these are drove 
 keys, w hich keep the ribs the better together ; the 
 other two mortises are six inches wide, and four 
 high; into these are framed the joists, of six inches, 
 by twelve ; the tenons of these joists are mortised 
 to receive the posts, which serve as keys; as is 
 shewn in the section K, and the small keys are shewn 
 as in L ; all which inspection will explain. That 
 of M, is a method whereby to make a good hut- 
 ment in case the ground be not solid ; and is by 
 driving two piles perpendicularly, and two sloping; 
 the Ireads of both being cut off so as to be embraced 
 by the cill, or resting-plate ; which will appear by 
 the pricked lines draw n from the plan I, and the let- 
 ters ot reference. 
 
 “ All that I conceive necessary to be said farther, 
 is, that the whole being performed without iron, it is 
 therefore capable ofbeing painted on every part, by 
 which means the timber may be preserved ; for 
 though in some respects iron is indispensably ne- 
 cessary, yet, if in such cases w here things are, or 
 may be often moved, the iron will rust and scale," so 
 as that the parts will become loose in process of 
 time ; which, as I said before, if made of sound tim- 
 ber will always keep tight and firm together. It 
 may not be amiss to observe, that whereas some 
 may imagine this arch of timber is liable to give 
 way, w hen a weight conies on any particular part, 
 and rise w here there is no weight, such objectors 
 may be satisfied that no part can yield, or give way, 
 till the said six keys are broke short off at once, 
 which no weight can possibly do. 
 
 Mr. Price, speaking of the circular domes, ob- 
 serves, that “ of what lias been hitherto described, 
 nothing appears so beautiful when done, as domes, 
 or circular roofs ; and as far as I can perceive, no- 
 thing has appeared so difficult in doi t g, therefore it 
 will be proper to speak something of them.” 
 
 Figure 3, Plate 9. — ■“ Let B represent a plan, ip 
 
 which 
 
• 56 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 which let by b , b, be the plate on the supposed wall ; 
 and letc, c, c, be the kirb on which stands a lantern, 
 or cupola ; also let a, a, a , represent the principal 
 ribs. 
 
 “ From the plan B, make the section A ; in 
 which the kirb, or plate b should be in two thick- 
 nesses ; as also that of c, by which it is made strong- 
 er ; and indeed the principal ribs would lie much 
 better to be in two thicknesses. The best timber 
 for this use is English oak ; because abundance of 
 that naturally grows crooked. As to the curve or 
 sweep of this dome A, it is a semicircle; although 
 in that point, every one may use his pleasure ; and 
 in it are described the purlins rf, e , from which per- 
 pendiculars are dropped to the plan B ; so that f 
 is the mould the lower purlins are to be cut out by, 
 before they are shaped or squared for use ; and that 
 of g, is the mould for the upper purlins. I rather 
 shew it with purlins, because under this head, may 
 be shewn the manner of framing circular roofs in 
 form of a cone. 
 
 “ To shape these purlins, observe, in A, as at d 
 and e, the are so squared, that the joints of the sup- 
 posed small ribs are equal. Observe, as at c, tiie 
 corners of the purlin, from which the perpendiculars 
 are let fall to the plan B. So that your purlin being 
 first cutout to the thickness required, as appears in 
 e, and also to the sweep f ; so that k is the mould 
 for the bottom, and l the mould for the top ; by 
 w'hich, and the lines for the cornets of the said pur- 
 lin e, the same may be truly shaped and squared. 
 
 “ IV. B. This particular ought to be well di- 
 gested, it being a principal observation in a circular 
 roof. 
 
 “ And from the purlin d , in the section A, per- 
 pendiculars are dropped to the plan B : and in 
 which it appears that h is the mould for the top, 
 and i the mould for the bottom ; so may this be 
 squared, which compleats the performance. As to 
 other particulars, due inspection will explain them. 
 If any should say, a dome cannot be done so safe 
 without a cavity as usual, let them view St. Ste- 
 phen’s, Walbrook, Stock’s-market, built by that 
 great architect, Sir Christopher Wren.” 
 
 “ On perusing the foregoing dome, which has no 
 vacancy, and that of St. Paul’s dome, that has so 
 great a one, 1 thought necessary to represent one at 
 a medium, and which seems very concisely adapted 
 to a temple, of eighty feet diameter in the clear: 
 the walls I have represented one eighth part of the 
 opening. — Figure 4. 
 
 “ I suppose this a temple standing clear from 
 other buildings, so that one may have a beautiful 
 view of it ; as to its performance, it is sufficiently 
 explained in the foregoing plate; the vacancy gives 
 a great strength to it, and renders it more capable 
 of bearing the cupola: for, by framing that part of 
 the section C, as at a, a, in the manner represented 
 in D, it not only gives an opening for the lig .t to 
 
 illuminate the inside, but gives a great strength t# 
 the whole. 
 
 “ N. B. In all roofs of a great extent, the wind is 
 to be prepared against, as strictly as the weight of 
 the materials which cover it, because it has so great 
 a force in storms of wind, and rain : that is, it acts 
 with more violence than the materials do, they 
 being, (what we may call) a steady pressure. 
 
 “ The plan D, may be observed to consist of two 
 square frames of timber, crossing each other, and 
 halved together, the corners of which, and the inter* 
 sections prove a very good tie, and at the same time 
 is of a resisting nature ; so that it becomes the chief 
 connection in the dome. 
 
 “ I suppose this dome to consist of sixteen prin- 
 cipal ribs; which is a mean betwixt the foregoiug 
 one, which has but eight, and that of St. Paul’s, that 
 has thirty-two ; this also may be framed with pur- 
 lins, or may have ribs let into these principal onesy 
 horizontally ; so that the boards that cover it, may 
 stand upright as it were; although I don’t think 
 that a material point. If the plan were to be pre- 
 pared for twelve principal ribs, then two equilateral 
 triangles, crossing each other, might better suit than 
 to half two squares together.” 
 
 He next shews the method of covering polygonal 
 buildings. 
 
 1 n Figure 5, “ let A be the plan, the upper part 
 of which is half an octagon. It is observable, that a 
 circular roof, as B, should extend no farther than 
 the upright of its support, and there made so as to 
 carry oft’ the water ; whereas an ogee roof, as C, 
 may extend to the extremity of the comice, without 
 injury to its strength, or offence to the eye of the 
 most curious ; also, a hollow roof, as D, may extend 
 to the extremity of the cornice. 
 
 “ It appears to me, that many angles of a cupola 
 give it beauty ; therefore the sweep E, is a regular 
 curve, the base line l k, being taken from the angle 
 of the octagon in the plan A, as at l k. This curve 
 E, is divided into a number of equal parts, in order 
 to trace the common rib, F, from the said angular 
 rib E; observe, in A; the base of the common rib, 
 f 1, w hich is placed in F, as from l to f ; continue 
 the perpendicular, l, at pleasure ; take the base l k, 
 in E, on which are the perpendiculars dropped from 
 the curve, and observe to place that distance, lc l, in 
 
 E, from f, in F, to any part where it cuts the per- 
 pendicular l in F, as at m ; from these divisions 
 raise perpendiculars, so by continuing the base lines 
 from the divisions in E, to these perpendiculars in 
 
 F, their intersection, or meeting, is a curve or 
 sweep exactly agreeable, and which, indeed, may 
 serve as a standard rule to trace any moulding 
 whatever. 
 
 “ To back the said angle-bracket, D, observe to 
 describe the thickness of it on your plan, as in 
 A, at ky which shews how much your mould must 
 be shifted, as may appear in D. This also may 
 
 be 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 157 
 
 be observed to be a general rule for the backing of 
 anj bracket.”" 
 
 “ In G, is the angular bracket of an O G roof, 
 taken from the plan A : as at 1, c, and H, is the 
 common rib, or bracket /,/, traced from G, as above 
 is shewn. As also the manner of backing the hip G, 
 which must of course appear by inspection. 
 
 Figure 1 Plate 10, Let A be the plan of a vault 
 to be centered for groins. At a, ft, c, d, are piers, 
 generally prepared in with the foundation, which 
 bear the weight of the brickwork. First, resolve on 
 the curve you would have, as de e, being a semi- 
 circle, which is shewn by the section B. Begin in 
 A at dec ; center through, as it were a common 
 vault, and board it; which being done, to make 
 your groin set centers, as from a to c, and from b to 
 d, divide the curve dec into four equal parts, as at 
 g and f ; so are g, e,f, small centers, you will want to 
 nail on the centers first boarded, whose place, or 
 plan is at k; these small centers may be put in at 
 pleasure, according to the bearing of your boards, 
 that is, as to the distance between each center. To 
 make your groin straight on its base, at some little 
 height over the centers, strain a line from b to c, or 
 from d to o, from which drop perpendiculars on your 
 boarding, first fixed at as many places as you please: 
 there drive in nails, and bend a straight rod till it I 
 touch them all ; and then, with a pencil or chalk, 
 describe the curve so formed, to which bring the 
 boards to be nailed on these little centers, and their 
 joints will form a straight groin.” 
 
 Figure 2. “ Let C be a plan of greater extent, 
 
 and which suppose to be supported by two piers, 
 as/,/. The section D is composed of entire semi- 
 circles, th.en, consequently, your curves in the section 
 E will be elliptical, as />,«, d, and may be described 
 with a trammel. What was said in A explains this 
 at one view. 
 
 “ If these pillars should be in the way, view the 
 plan and sections again : first, form the principal 
 curve, as D at a ghb , being an ellipsis, so that the 
 centers will be a Gothic sweep against the windows, 
 as e g a: trace the curve d h b in E, agreeable to 
 e g a, in D, with which center it, as shewn in A’, and 
 make good your groins to the sides : lastly, make a 
 flat center, as at g h i h, which flatness is shewn in 
 either of the profiles or sections D and E, and fix it 
 on your centers before compleated, which, doubtless, 
 due inspection will make plain, and hereby you 
 avoid the pillars, which are equally firm. 
 
 “ N. B. The cause of these centers against the 
 windows being a Gotnic arch, proceeds from their 
 making part of the whole sweep or arch, which 
 though it does not add to its beauty, it does to its 
 strength in a particular manner. 
 
 “ He next say?, regarding variety, I have given 
 here another method for vaults, and which, indeed, 
 may give more pleasure to the reader, as being a 
 curiosity never before published* and may appear 
 more intelligible than that in the foregoing.” 
 
 FigureS— “ View the plan G and its section If, 
 which is composed of entire semicircles, as bfe : 
 see also tiie section I, which is an ellipsis traced- 
 from bf e in FI ; but for use, nothing is more true 
 than the trammel. 
 
 “ See this plan again, and also its section I, from 
 which is described the curvilinear face K, and - also 
 the face of the semicircular arches, as L, all being 
 | alike. And this is what I call a more accurate me- 
 ! thod for finding the groin, so as to be straight over 
 } its base, and at the same time gives a standard: 
 j rule whereby to account for any curvey or face of 
 j a ceiling whatever. The- curve in- 1 is divided 
 i regularly, though seemingly into unequal parts, 
 j which being drawn to the groin in the plan G, as 
 I appears by the figures F, 2* 3, 4, 5, 6* 7, 8, 9, and 
 | which are transferred into L at 1, 2, 3, &c. Also 
 the circle bfe in is divided into eiglvteen equal 
 parts ; the half- consequently into nine, which 
 appears from b to e in L. This method doubtless 
 will be plain,; and therefore needs no farther explana- 
 ! tion. 
 
 | “ That of K belongs to the section I, extended-? 
 
 as it were, and that of L belongs to one of the 
 small arches of H, also stretched out, they being alk 
 alike.” 
 
 “N. B. To find the groin by a more common- 
 method, do thus; erect a straight piece of a board, 
 or the like, on the corner of the pier the groin 
 springs from, and drive in a nail at the point of 
 the groin’s meeting, on which fasten one end of 
 a chalked line, straining it tight, slide it down 
 the side of the said straight, piece, and it will 
 form the groin so as to stand perpendicularly over 
 its base.” 
 
 Mr. Price then shews the nature of oblique or 
 rampant arches, with the manner oi tracing the base 
 or seat of the angle ribs of an annular groin, his 
 table for the scantlings of timber, with accompany^ 
 ing rerourks are too valuable to be emoted. 
 
 A TABLE 
 
 f Fur the Table see the- following Page J 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY, 
 
 a TABLE FOR THE SCANTLINGS OF TIMBER. 
 
 A Proportion for Timbers for smalt Buildings. 
 
 J Proportion for Timbers for large Bttfl dings. \ 
 
 Bearing Pb 
 Height 
 if 8 feet 
 10 
 12 
 
 sts of Fir 
 Scantling 
 
 4 inch. square 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 Bearing Posts of Oak 
 Height i Scantling 
 
 if 10 feet 6 inch sq 
 
 12 8 
 14 1 10 
 
 Bearing P< 
 Height 
 if 8 feet 
 12 
 16 
 
 ists of Fir 
 Scantling 
 5 inch sq. 
 8 
 
 i 10 
 
 Bearing Po 
 Height 
 if 8 feet 
 12 
 16 
 
 ists of Oak 
 Scantling 
 8 inch sq. 
 12 
 16 
 
 Girders of Fir 
 Bearing 1 Scantling 
 
 if 16 feet S ins. by 11 
 
 20 10 12J 
 
 24 | 12 14 
 
 Girders of Oak 
 Bearing i Scantling 
 if 16 feet 10 ins. by 15 
 
 20 12 14 
 
 24 1 14 15 
 
 Girders 
 Bearing 
 if 16 feet 
 20 
 24 
 
 of Fir 
 Scantling 
 94 ins. by 13 
 12 14 
 
 134 15 
 
 Girders of Oak 
 Bearing r Settling 
 if 16 feet 1 12 ins. by 14 
 
 20 15 15 
 
 24 1 18 16 
 
 Joists < 
 Bearing 
 if 6 feet 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 5f Fir 
 
 Scantling 
 5 ins. by 24 
 
 6j n 
 
 8 2i 
 
 Joists of Oak 
 Bearing | Scantling 
 if 6 feet 5 ins. by 3 
 
 9 74 3 
 
 12 l 10 3 
 
 Joists 
 Bearing 
 if 6 feet 
 9 
 12 
 
 of Fir 
 Scantling 
 5 ins. by 3 
 74 ' 3 
 
 10 3 
 
 Joists , 
 Bearing 
 if 6 feet 
 9 
 12 
 
 jf Oak 
 Scantling 
 6 ins. by 3 
 9 3 
 
 12 3 
 
 Bridging 
 Bearing 
 if 6 feet 
 8 
 10 
 
 rs of Fir 
 -Scantling 
 
 4 ins. by 2£ 
 
 5 n 
 
 6 3 
 
 Bridging 
 Bearing 
 if 6 feet 
 8 
 10 
 
 s of Oak 
 Scantling 
 4 inch by 3 
 54 3 
 
 7 3 
 
 Bridging 
 Bearing 
 if 6 feet 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 ;s of Fir 
 Scantling 
 4 inch by 3 
 54 3 
 
 7 3 
 
 Bridgings of Oak 
 Bearing j Scantling 
 
 if 6 feet 1 5 ins. by 34 
 
 8 64 34 
 
 10 1 8 34 
 
 Small Raf 
 Bearing 
 if 8 feet 
 10 
 12 
 
 Hers of Fir 
 Scantling , 
 34 ins. by 24 
 44 2 
 
 54 24 
 
 Small Rafters of Oak 
 Bearing 1 Scantling 
 if 8 feet 1 44 ins. by 3 
 
 10 54 3 
 
 12 1 64 3 
 
 Small Rafters of Fir 
 Bearing 1 Scantling 
 
 if 8 feet ] 44 ins. by S 
 
 10 I 54 3 
 
 12 1 64 3 
 
 Small Rafters of Oak 
 Bearing 1 Scantling 
 
 if 8 feet 1 54 ins. by 3 
 
 10 7 3 
 
 12 j 9 3 
 
 Beams of Fir, or ties 
 Length i Scantling 
 j if 30 feet 1 6 ins. by 7 
 
 45 9 8j 
 
 -60 1 12 11 
 
 Beams of 0 
 Length 
 if 30 feet 
 45 
 60 
 
 'ak, or Ties 
 Scantling 
 7 ins. by 8 
 10 114 
 
 13 15 
 
 Beams of Fir. or Ties 
 Length > Scantling 
 if SO feet 7 ins. bv 8 
 
 45 10 114 
 
 60 1 13 15 
 
 Beams of O 
 Length 
 if 30 feet 
 45 
 60 
 
 ak, or Ties 
 Scantling 
 8 ins. by 9 
 
 11 124 
 
 14 16 
 
 Principal Rafters of Fir 
 Scantling 
 
 Length 1 Top 1 Bottom 
 ■ if 24 ft. )5 in. & 6 6 in. & 1 
 36 6J 68 1C 
 
 48 18 10ll0 Vi 
 
 Principal Rafters of Oak 
 Scantling 
 
 Length 1 Top | Bottom 
 if 24 ft.l? in. &8 8 in. & 9 
 36 j8 9 9 104 
 
 48 (9 10|l0 12 
 
 Principal Rafters of Fir 
 Scantling 
 
 Length i Top Bottom 
 if 24 ft. 7 in. & fi 8 in. & 9 
 
 36 8 9 9 104 
 
 48 >9 10 10 12 
 
 Principal Rafters of Oak 
 Scantling 
 
 Length Top | Bottom 
 if 21 ft. 8 in & 9 9 in. & 10 
 
 36 9 10 10 12 
 
 48 10 12(12 H 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 159 
 
 u Although this table seems so plain as to need no 
 explanation, it may not be amiss to observe some 
 particulars, such as that all binding or strong 
 joists, ought to be half as thick again as common 
 joists; that is, if a common joist be given three 
 inches thick, a binding-joist should be four 
 inches and a half thick, although the same depth. 
 
 “ Observe also, that ifconveniency do notallow of 
 posts in partitions being square, in such cases mul- 
 tiply the square of the side of the posts, as here 
 given, by itself: for instance, if it be six inches 
 square, then as six times six is thirty-6ix, conse- 
 uently to keep this post nearly to the same strength, 
 nd some number that shall agree thereto; as sup- 
 pose the partition to be four inches thick, then let 
 your post be nine inches the other way, so that 
 nine times four is thirty-six, being the same as six 
 times six; so that the strength is nearly the same, 
 although being equal in its squares is best for the 
 strength. 
 
 “ Posts that go the height of two or three stories, 
 need not hold this proportion, because at every 
 floor it will meet with a tie; admit a post was 
 required of thirty feet high, and in this height 
 there were three stories ; two of ten feet, and one 
 of eight. Look for posts of fir of ten feet high, 
 their scantling is five inches square, i. e. twenty- 
 five square inches; which double for the two 
 stories. 
 
 “ And take also that of eight feet high, being four 
 inches square, i. e. sixteen square inches, all which 
 being added together, make sixty-four square inches; 
 so that such a post would be eight inches square. 
 Gn occasion it may be lessened in each story as it 
 rises. 
 
 “ I do not insist that the scantlings of timber 
 ought to be exactly as by this table is expressed, 
 but may be varied in some respects, as the workmen 
 shall see fit ; the reason of its being inserted is in 
 consideration of the scantlings of timber, as formally 
 settled by Act of Parliament, and which, if compar- 
 ed, will prove the necessity and use of this table. 
 
 “ As to plates on walls, or bressummers to sup- 
 port walls, 1 do not find they can come into any 
 regular proportion, as the rest do, therefore must be 
 lett to discretion.” 
 
 In Mr. Langley’s publications, many interesting 
 particulars are to be found relating to carpentry. 
 Concerning partitions, he offers the following re- 
 marks in his Builder's Complete Assistant . 
 
 “ When partitions have solid bearings through- 
 out their whole extent, they have no need to be 
 trussed ; but when they can be supported but in 
 some particular places, then they require to be 
 trussed in such a manner, that the whole weight 
 shall rest perpendicularly upon the places appoint- 
 ed for their support, and no where else. Partitions 
 are made of different heights to carry one, two, 
 or more floors, as the kinds of buddings require. 
 
 “ The first things to be considered in works of 
 this kind, are, the weight that is to be supported ; 
 the goodness and kind of timber that is to be em- 
 ployed; and proper scantlings necessary for that 
 purpose. 
 
 “ The strength of timber in general is always in 
 proportion to the quantity of solid matter it con- 
 tains. The quantity of solid matter in timber is 
 always more or less, as the timber is more or less 
 heavy ; hence it is, that all heavy woods, as oak, 
 box, mahogany, lignum-vita', &c. are stronger 
 than elder, deal, sycamore, See. which are lighter or 
 (rather) less heavy ; and, indeed, for the same rea- 
 son, iron is not so strong as steel ; which is heavier 
 than iron ; and steel is not so strong as brass or cop- 
 per, which are both heavier than steel. To prove 
 this, make two equal cubes of any two kinds of timb- 
 er, suppose the one of fir, the other of oak ; weigh 
 them singly, and note their respective weights; 
 this done, prepare two pieces of the same timbers, of 
 equal lengths, suppose each five feet in length, -and 
 let each be tried up as nearly square as can be, but 
 to stTch scantlings, that the weight of a piece of oak 
 may be to the weight of a piece of fir, as the cube of 
 oak, is to the cube of fir ; then those two pieces 
 being laid horizontally hollow, with equal bear- 
 ings, and being loaded in their middles with in- 
 creased equal weights, it will be seen that they will 
 bend or sag equally ; which is a demonstration that 
 their strengths are* to each other as the quantity of 
 solid matter contained in them.” 
 
 (Mr. Langley is here evidently wrong, for the 
 relation between weight and strength is not general. 
 In some cases the very reverse takes place to what 
 he asserts.) 
 
 “ As the whole weight on partitions is supported 
 by the principal post, their scantlings must be first 
 considered, and which should Le done in two diff- 
 erent manners, viz. first, when the quarters, com- 
 monly called studs, are to be filled with brick-work, 
 and rendered thereon ; and, lastly, when to be lath- 
 ed and plastered on both sides. 
 
 “ When the quarters are to be filled between 
 with brickwork, the thickness of the principal posts 
 should be as much less than the breadth of a brick, 
 as twice the thickness of a lath; so that when these 
 posts are lathed to hold on the rendering, the laths 
 on both sides may be flush with the surfaces of the 
 brickwork. And to give these posts a sufficient 
 strength, their breadth must be increased at discre- 
 tion ; but when the quarters are to be lathed on 
 both sides, or when wainscottingis to be placed against 
 the partitioning, then the thickness of the posts may- 
 be made greater at pleasure. The usual scantlings for 
 the principal posts of fir, of 8 feet in height, is 4 or 5 
 inches square : of 10 feet in height, 5 or 6 inches 
 square; of 12 feet in height, 6 or 7 inches sqnare; 
 of 14 feet in height, 7 or 8 inches square ; of 16 feet 
 in height, from 9 to 10 inches square. But these 
 
 last, 
 
m 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 last, in my opinion, are full large, where no very 
 great weight is to be supported. As oak is nracn 
 stronger than fir, the scantling of oak posts need not 
 be so large as those of fir ; and therefore the scant- 
 lings assigned by Mr. Price, in his Treatise of Car- 
 pentry , are absurd, as being much larger than those 
 he has assigned for fir roofs. To find the just scant- 
 ling of oaken posts, that shall have the same strength 
 of any given fir posts, this is the rule : 
 
 u As the weight of a cube of fir is to the weight 
 of a cube of oak, of the same magnitude, so is the 
 area of the square end of any fir post to the area of 
 the end of an oaken post, and whose square root is 
 equal to the side of the oaken post required.” 
 
 (This assertion is obviously incorrect, and al- 
 most refutes itself.) 
 
 « The distances of principal posts are generally 
 about tea feet, and of the quarters about fourteen 
 inches ; but when they are to be lathed on both 
 sides, the distances of the quarters should be such as 
 will be agreeable to the lengths of the laths, other- 
 wise there will be a great waste in the laths. The 
 thicknesses of ground-plates and risings, are gener- 
 ally from two inches and a half to four inches, and 
 are scarfed together. 
 
 « Forthe better disposing of the weight imposed on 
 girders, lintels should always be firmly bedded on 
 a sufficient number of short pieces of oak, laid across 
 the walls, vulgarly called templets , which are of ex- 
 cellent use. 
 
 “ Let girders be laid in piers, or in lintels over 
 windows; it will in both these cases be commenda- 
 ble to turn small arches over their ends, that in case 
 their ends are first decayed, they may be renewed 
 at pleasure, without disturbing any part of the 
 brick-work; and for their preservation, anoint their 
 ends with melted pitch and grease, viz. of pitch four 
 of grease one ; and, indeed, were lintels to be 
 covered with pitch and grease also, it would con- 
 tribute very greatly to their duration. 
 
 “ In the carrying up the several walls of build- 
 ings, it should be carefully observed, to lay m bond- 
 timbers on templets, as aforesaid, at every six or 
 seven feet in height, cogged down, and braced to- 
 gether with diagonal pieces at every angle, which 
 will bind the whole together in the most substan- 
 tial manner, and prevent fractures by unequal set- 
 tlement. 
 
 “ The distances of girders should never exceed 
 twelve feet, and their scantlings must be proportion- 
 ed according to their lengths ; as by experience it is 
 "known that a scantling of 1 1 inches by 8 inches, is 
 sufficient for a fir girder of 10 feet in length, the 
 area of whose end is 88 inches, it is very easy to 
 find the proper scantling for a girder of any greater 
 length, suppose 20 feet, by this rule ; as 10 feet, the 
 length of the first girder, is to 88 feet, the area of 
 its endLj so is 20 feet, the length of the second gir- 
 der, to 176, the area of its end. 
 
 “ Now to find its scantling, that, being multiplied 
 into each other, shall produce 176 inches, the area 
 found, one of them must be given, viz. either (he 
 depth or thickness. In this example, the given 
 depth shall be 12 inches, therefore divide 176 by 12, 
 and the quotient is 14 inches and two-thirds, which 
 is the other scantling, or breadth required.” 
 
 “ To prevent the sagging of short girders, it is 
 usual to cut them camber : that is, to cut them, with 
 an angle in the midst of their lengths, so that their 
 middles shall rise above the level of their ends, as 
 many half inches as the girder contains times ten 
 feet. And, indeed, girders of the greatest length, 
 although trussed, should be cut camber in the same 
 manner.” 
 
 It may be proper here to notice, that the camber- 
 ing of girders does not prevent them from sagging, 
 though perhaps it may obviate their becoming con- 
 cave on the upper side. With regard to trussing 
 girders, the flitches should not be cut to a camber, 
 but brought into this state in the act of trussing. 
 
 u The next order is joists, of which there are five 
 kinds, viz. common-joists, binding-joists, trimming- 
 joists, bridging-joists, and ceiling-joists. First,, 
 common-joists are used in ordinary buildings, whose 
 scantlings in fir are generally made as follows, 
 viz. — 
 
 Common joists, ns used in! 
 small buildings. 
 
 Length 
 
 Scantling in 
 
 in feet 
 
 inches 
 
 6 
 
 6£ X 21 
 
 9 
 
 6{ X 21 
 
 12 
 
 8 X" 21 
 
 (In looking at the table, it will naturally be asked 
 why should the scantling of the joist 9 feet in length, 
 be no more than of 6 feet ? This must be a mis- 
 take.) 
 
 “ But in large buildings, the scantlings are much 
 larger, where it is common to make joi»t6 of the 
 following dimensions : — 
 
 Common joists, as employed 
 in large buildings 
 
 Length 
 
 Scantling in 
 
 in feet 
 
 inches 
 
 6 
 
 5 X 3 
 
 9 
 
 71 X 3 
 
 12 
 
 10 X 3 
 
 £l As oak is ranch heavier than fir, it is customary 
 to make the scantlings of oak joists larger than 
 those of fir ; but 1 believe it to be entirely wrong, 
 
 for 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 161 
 
 for the reason before given, relating to the strength 
 of timber. 
 
 “ Secondly, binding-joists are generally made 
 half as thick again, as common joists of the same 
 lengths;” and “are framed flush with the under 
 surface of the girders, to receive the ceiling joists, 
 and about 3 or 4 inches below their upper surfaces, 
 to receive the bridging joists ; so that the upper 
 surfaces of the bridging-joists may be exactly flush, 
 ©r level, with the girder, to receive the boarding. 
 
 “ The distances that binding-joists should be laid 
 at, should not exceed 6 feet, though some lay them 
 at greater distances, which is not so well, because 
 the bridging, and ceiling-joists, must be made of 
 larger scantlings, to carry the weight of the ceiling 
 and boarding, and consequently a greater quantity 
 of timber must be employed. But, however, as thi9 
 particular is at the will of the carpenter, I shall only 
 add that the scantlings for bridgings of fir,” to their 
 several lengths, are as follow : — 
 
 Bridgings of Fir. 
 
 iit ar mg. 
 
 Scantling. 
 
 feel 
 
 inches by incho 
 
 6 
 
 4X3 
 
 8 
 
 5X3 
 
 10 
 
 7X3 
 
 “ Their distances from each other, about 12 or 14 
 inches.” 
 
 He then goes to the subject of roofs. 
 
 “ As the common method of framing the trusses 
 of principal rafters of large roofs, is to lay the whole 
 weight of the beam and covering upon the feet, they 
 therefore should be secured at the beam with iron 
 straps, to prevent their flying out, in case that the 
 tenons should fail ; but as I apprehend this method 
 was capable of improvement, I therefore considered 
 that if under the lower parts of principal rafters, 
 there be discharging struts framed into the beams 
 and pricked posts, thev will discharge the principal 
 rafters from the greatest part of the whole weight.” 
 
 “This is an improvement, but the idea seems 
 to have originated with Price and is to be found among 
 his designs of roots. It certainly gives an additional 
 security to the principal rafters, so that if the outer 
 abutment should fail, the roof will still be supported 
 by the inner one. 
 
 His scantlings of ftr timbers for roofs are as fol- 
 lows. 
 
 Beams 
 
 Lengt h 
 
 Scantling 
 
 feet 
 
 inches by inches 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 X 7 
 
 45 
 
 & 
 
 X 7 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 X 8| 
 
 75 
 
 KH 
 
 X 10 
 
 90 
 
 12 
 
 x 104 
 
 Principal Rafters 
 
 Length 
 
 Scanning at top 
 
 Scant 
 
 ting at Botm. 
 
 feet 
 
 incites 
 
 by 
 
 inches. 
 
 inches by 
 
 inches 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 X 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 X 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 X 
 
 6 ' 
 
 9 
 
 X 
 
 7 
 
 41 
 
 9 
 
 X 
 
 7 
 
 , 10 
 
 X 
 
 74 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 X 
 
 74 
 
 1 10 
 
 X 
 
 9 
 
 72 
 
 10 
 
 X 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 X 
 
 94 
 
 Small Rafters 
 
 Length 
 
 Scantling 
 
 feet 
 
 inrhrs by inches 
 
 8 
 
 4 4X3 
 
 10 
 
 5X3 
 
 12 
 
 6X3 
 
 Mr. Langley in the same work gives examples of 
 floors, made of short lengths, for the diversion of the 
 curious; plans of various scarfings, and laying out 
 J of roofs in ledgement ; with methods of tracing angle 
 | brackets, and covering niches or domes. He speaks 
 j also, of straight, circular, and elliptical arches in 
 circular walls. 
 
 The Builder's and Workman's Treasury of De- 
 signs, by the same author, contains an appendix 
 and fourteen plates, illustrative of carpentry. 
 
 In The L ondon Art of Building, written by Sal- 
 mon, t ere is nothing original. His principals of 
 roofing are similar to those of Godfrey Richards, 
 Independently of these he gives only a few designs of 
 roofs. 
 
 In The British Architect, the production of Mr. 
 
 , Abraham Swan, there is nothing eitia r very original 
 and his constructions of carpentry are but scanty, 
 j From the designs in Carpentry given by Mf. 
 
 I T t IsagiC 
 
162 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 Isaac Ware in his Complete Body of Architecture , 
 and accompanying observations, we shall select a 
 few, for the information of our readers. 
 
 “ Figures 1 and 2, Plate 13. — Siiews how plates 
 laid on walls are joined together. 
 
 “ Figure 3, The manner of putting beams to- 
 gether of three pieces, where extraordinary lengths 
 are required. These will be equally strong as if 
 they were of one piece of timber. A, shews the 
 three pieces laid down and struck out ; the scarf or 
 lap is supposed to be 10 feet, divided into 6 
 lengths of tables; the hatched ones are sunk an inch 
 or more, and when turned up, one will fit into the 
 other with great exactness, which must be bolted to- 
 gether as in letter B.” 
 
 “ Figure 4, Is the upper face of a truss beam, 
 where C, D, is 1-third of its length ; it is mortised 
 at D, four inches down; and as deep as C, as the 
 templet on which it lies ; this must be headed with 
 a right butment, that is, square with the top or bot- 
 tom of the braces. It is supposed to span 40 feet. 
 
 “ E, upright of the said beam, with the disposition 
 of its braces. 
 
 “ Figure 5, Another kind of truss of the same 
 length, 40 feet between wall .and wall. 
 
 “ F, Is a short beam 13 feet 4 inches, and placed 
 on the back of the long beam G. The side braces 
 will be about 13 feet 4 indies long, 6 inches by 4 
 inches square, with iron straps to clasp them and the 
 upper beam, which is to be bolted to the lower 
 beam G. The upper beam F, will be 12 inches by 
 10 inches square, which receive the ends of the bind- 
 ing joists in the middle ; and those on each side, ' 
 will lie upon the under beam G. 12 inches, by 12 
 inches square, the upper binding joists to be 4 inches 
 by 7 inches, the under ones 6 inches by 4 inches 
 square, the ceiling joists 3 inches by 2 inches. 
 
 C{ Note, the iron straps must be so ordered that 
 they come not foul with the binding joists.” 
 
 “ Figure 6, exhibits a large truss roof which 
 spans 60 feet between wall and wall, the principles 
 of it are taken from a bridge in Palladio’s 3rd, book 
 of architecture, chap. 7. 
 
 The beam H, 65 feet long, may be made of 3 
 lengths of timber put together, as before decri bed, 
 and the following scantlings will be sufficient, viz. 
 
 In In 
 
 II. Beam 12 by 8 square. 
 
 1. I. Principal rafters . .10 8 
 
 K. Middle kingpost 10 8 
 
 L. L. Side king post.- 10 8 
 
 M. M. The under rafters to the > „ „ 
 
 principles. ^ 8 8 
 
 N. N. Braces... 8 8 
 
 O. O. Level rafters on whic: 4 
 
 boarding is nailed to receive > 6 3f 
 
 slating \ 
 
 4i This roof is framed in an uncommon way, the 
 tenons being made in the head of the kingpost, and 
 
 the mortises in the head of the principal rafters, as is 
 shewn more at large in Figure 14. The tenons may 
 be about an inch thick, made in the middle, which 
 will admit of strong butment cheeks on each side. 
 
 “ Figure 7, is framed after the common manner, 
 except the crown piece.” 
 
 “ Figure 8, shews a truss which spans 44 feet, 
 and whose perpendicular length is equal to £ part of 
 the beam. 
 
 In In 
 
 A. the beam . .10 by 8 square. 
 
 B. Kingpost 10 8 
 
 G. Principal rafters 10 8 
 
 D. Braces 8 6 
 
 Small rafters 5 3f 
 
 u Figure 9, is a truss whose perpendicular height 
 is equal to half the length of the beam, 22 feet, and 
 which is framed with purlins for the small rafters to 
 go downward, in order to receive laths for laying 
 tiles on. 
 
 In. In. 
 
 The Beam E, 44, feet long, is ... .10 by 8 
 F and G principal rafters and king > 8 
 
 post $ 
 
 II. H. H. II. The purlins 8 6 
 
 “ The lower purlins must be framed in flush 
 with the upper side of the principal rafter, and the 
 upper one framed 3 inches below, for the upper 
 small rafters to lie upon it, which small rafters are 
 4 inches bv 3 inches square, and the under one 5 
 inches by 3 inches; and this is called the common 
 pitch of roofs. 
 
 “ Figure 10, is a truss of 54 feet span, whose 
 sides or principal rafters are made to the common 
 pitch ; and for the conveniency of gaining room 
 in the garrets, it is finished with three small roofs.” 
 “ Figure 11, is the same kind of truss, leaving 
 out the three small roofs, and making the top a flat 
 on which a ballustrade may be placed, or a breast- 
 work raised as in the figure.” 
 
 He next shews a kind of trusses peculiarly adapt- 
 ed for the roofs of churches. 
 
 “ Figure 12, is the most uncommon and best; 
 this is framed in the manner described at large, in 
 the third figure underneath it. 
 
 The scantlings sufficient for this truss are : — 
 
 In. In. 
 
 A. The upper beam 12 by 8 square. 
 
 B. B. Principal rafters 10 
 
 G. C. Lower beams 10 
 
 D. D. Truss braces from theiower ) jq 
 
 beam to the upper beam. . . $ 
 
 E. King post 10 
 
 F. Braces to the king post 8 
 
 G. Middle rib for the compass > g 
 
 ceiling, to be in four parts . $ 
 
 II. H. The side ribs, ditto 8 
 
 I. I. Puncheons on the top of the > 
 columns . . S 
 
 10 
 
 K, K, 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 163 
 
 In. In. 
 
 K K. Truss braces to the mid- ) r r 
 
 die rib ... S 
 
 L. L. Braces to the side ribs .... 6 6 
 
 SCANTLINGS TO THE 13th, FIGURE. 
 
 A. The beam .... 12 by 9 square. 
 
 B. B. Puncheons on the top of> ^ 
 
 the columns $ 
 
 C. C. Principal rafters 12 9 
 
 D. Kingpost 12 9 
 
 E. E. Braces 6 6 
 
 F. F. Under short beam. 12 9 
 
 G. G. Braces to it 8 8 
 
 “ Figure 14, explains the manner of framing 1 truss 
 roofs two different ways ; one side shews the king 
 post A, whose scantlings are 10 inches by 8 inches 
 square ; this has a 4 inch mortise at B, which, 
 receives the 4 inch tenon , letter C, the head of the 
 principal rafter, D, the beam has a like mortise at 
 E, which receives the tenon F, which is the foot of 
 the principal rafter G. The other side of the king 
 post A, has an inch and quarter tenon in the middle 
 ofits thickness, as at If, made fit to receive the 
 mortise I, in the head of the principal rafter. The 
 like tenon is made at the other end of the beam D, 
 as at K, and there is a mortise in the foot of the raft- 
 er L, to clasp the same.” 
 
 “ In this method of framing, which is quite un- 
 common, care must be taken that it be done with 
 great exactness, that the butments may be good.” 
 
 “ As there are various proportions for the pitch of 
 roofs, we have here inserted the several degrees that 
 are most useful, from the pediment pitch to that of 
 the equilateral triangle, called the pinnacle and des- 
 cribed by Figure 15, (in which,) 
 
 A. is the pediment pitch. 
 
 B. rises \ the length ofits base line. 
 
 C. rises equal to one half. 
 
 D. is the medium between that and the pediment. 
 
 E. is its height given by the length of the rafter, 
 equal to £ of its base line. 
 
 F. the equilateral triangle. 
 
 “ There is no article in the whole compass of the 
 architect’s employment, that is more important, or 
 more worthy of a distinct consideration, than the 
 roof ; and there is this satisfaction for the mind of 
 the man of genius in that profession, that there is 
 no part in which is greater room for improvement.” 
 “ In order to understand, rightly, in what manner 
 to undertake such improvement, he must first com- 
 prehend perfectly the idea and intent of this part of 
 a building, and what is generally known concerning 
 its structure.” 
 
 “ The great caution is, that the roof be neither 
 too massy nor too slight : in the one case, ii will be 
 too heavy, and in the other to light for the house. 
 Both extremes are to be avoided, for in architecture 
 every extreme is to be shunned ; but of the two, the 
 over weight of roof is more to be regarded than too 
 
 much slightness. This part is in'tended not only to 
 cover the building, but to press upon the walls, and 
 by that bearing, to unite and hold all together. 
 This, it w»ll not be massy enough to perform, if too 
 little timber be employed, so that extreme is to be 
 shunned; but, in practice, -the great and common 
 error is on the other side ; and he will do the most 
 acceptable service to his profession, who shall shew 
 how to retrench, and execute the same roof, with a. 
 smaller quantity of timber; he will by this, take off 
 an unnecessary load from the walls, and a large and 
 useless expence to the owner.” 
 
 “ The roof of a house properly expresses the 
 frame of wood-work which is raised upon the walls, 
 and the covering of slate, tile, or lead, which is laid 
 over it ; and thus, the architect is to understand it, 
 for he is to compute its weight entire, when he con- 
 siders the proportion of its pressure, to the supports ; 
 but, in the common manner of speaking, only the 
 carpentry or timber work is understood, under this 
 term.” 
 
 “ The forms of a roof may be various. The 
 three principal kinds are, the flat, the square, and 
 the pointed ; to these we are to add the pinnacle 
 roof, the double ridged, and the mutilated root. 
 This last is very beautiful, and is called the man- 
 sard roof, after the name of a French architect, its 
 inventor. Lastly, we are to name the platform, 
 and truncated roofs, and adding to all these, the 
 dome, we shall have the list of the principal kinds. 
 We might add, the ogee roof, which is a piece of 
 French architecture, neither commodious, nor grace- 
 ful ; and some others, which fancy often prefers to 
 better kinds, but of these we shall treat more large- 
 ly hereafter, the intent in this place being to give 
 a general idea of the roof, its nature, proper weight* 
 and proportion.” 
 
 “ When the roof is pointed, its best proportion is 
 to have the profile an equilateral triangle. In the 
 square roof, the angle of the ridge is a right angle ; 
 this, therefore, is a middle proportion, between the 
 pointed, and the flat roof, which is in the same pro- 
 portion as a triangular pediment, The pinnacle 
 roof has its name from its form, being carried up in 
 resemblance of a pinnacle. The mansard consists 
 of a true and a false one ; the false roof lying over 
 the true. The platform roof, is common in the 
 East, and the truncated kind approaches to the 
 nature of it. This is cut of!' at a certain height, 
 ’instead of rising to a ridge, and this part is covered 
 sometimes with a terrace, and encompassed with a 
 balustrade. Of the dome we shall speak in its 
 place, and of the other species of roofs. This ac- 
 count is sufficient for the general idea of the nature, 
 and form, of this part of an edifice.” 
 
 u Whatever be the form of the roof, the architect 
 must take care in the construction to preserve its 
 weight equally on the separate parts, that it may 
 not bear more upon one side of the building than 
 
 another 
 
101 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 another, and in the construction of the whole edi- 
 fice, he will do well to contrive, that the inner 
 walls bear their share of the load, that more than is 
 needful be not laid upon the outer ones.” 
 
 The roof surrounding every part of the build- 
 ing, and pressing equally upon every part, becomes 
 what it was intended, a band of union and firmness, 
 as well as a covering to the whole. It preserves the 
 walls also, by throwing the rain off from them. 
 Tae making the middle or inside walls assist in 
 supporting the roof, is best done by making them 
 support the girders, and this has many ways an ex- 
 eel lent effect : for a roof in this case, is not in dan- 
 ger of falling from the rotting of the end of a girder, 
 which is otherwise very often, either entirely de- 
 structive to this part, or at least an inconvenience j 
 very difficult to be supplied.” 
 
 Concerning floors lie says : u We have reserved 
 the mentioning of floors, till we had considered the 
 walls and the roof of the edifice, because they are 
 introduced in this order in the building of a house; 
 the practice being not to lay them till the house is 
 enclosed and covered in, because otherwise they 
 would be injured by the weather. We are to ad- 
 vise the young architect to get the boards ready long 
 before, because although they are not to be used for 
 a considerable time, it will be of great advantage to 
 let them -stand To .season. As soon, therefore, as the 
 plan of the building is laid, and the dimensions of 
 the several rooms allotted, let the boards for the 
 floor be cut and rough-planed; then being carefully 
 put by, in a dry airy place, they will be in a good 
 measure seasoned by the time they are put to 
 use.” 
 
 u The floors of all the rooms upon the same story, 
 and of all the passages between them, should be per- 
 fectly even : not so much as a threshold should be 
 suffered to rise above the level of the rest ; and if in 
 any part there be a room or closet whose floor is 
 lower than the general surface, it should not be left 
 
 so, but raised to the level of the rest, what is want- 
 ing being supplied by a false one.” 
 
 “ We have hitherto spoke of timber floors, by ( 
 which name is properly expressed nothing more 
 than the covering of boards on which we tread; but 
 in the usual acceptation it stands for the whole body I 
 of the work in this part : comprehending the framed ! 
 work of timber which supports the boards, as well as 
 the covering itself which is fixed upon it. But be- 
 side these, which are the most general, and as it 
 ware universal floors of common houses about Lon- 
 dmi, there are several other kinds used in country! 
 buildings, and by some in the most elegant and 
 highly finished.” 
 
 The next author is Mr. William Pain ; but his 
 works having been already enumerated, we shall 
 p iss on to the “ The Carpenter's New Guide , by Mr. 
 P 'ter Nicholson, the last edition of which was print- 
 ed in lbOik 
 
 Mr. Nicholson in his preface, observes <e that 
 whatever rules by previous authors have on exatnin- 
 ition proved to be true and well explained, these 
 nave been selected and adopted, with such altera- 
 tions as a very close attention has warranted for the 
 more easily comprehending them, for their greater 
 accuracy or facility of application : added to these, 
 are many examples which are entirely of my own in- 
 vention, and such as will, I am persuaded, conduce 
 very much to the accuracy of the work and to the ease 
 of the workman.” 
 
 He commences bis works with an introduction to 
 practical geometry, and then proceeds to the con- 
 sideration of groins “ for the construction of which 
 (he says) “ there wilL be found many methods 
 entirely new ; and besides the common figures, I 
 have shewn many which are difficult of construction, 
 ‘and not to be found in any other author. I have 
 displayed a large assortment of niches of each kind; 
 these are frequently wanted, those of the elliptic 
 form only have yet been explained : in addition to 
 these, there will be found schemes for globular ones, 
 which occur frequently in practice.” 
 
 The next object of his attention, is the finding of 
 various lines for rools, and on this subject he points 
 out an entirely new plan of finding the down and 
 side bevels of purlines, so as to make them fit exact- 
 ly against the hip rafter, by the same method the 
 jack rafter will be made to fit. 
 
 Speaking of domes and polygons, he details aa 
 original method of finding their covering, 
 within the space of the board ; with a method also 
 of finding the form of the boards near the bottom, 
 when a dome is required to be covered horizontally, 
 A true rule is likewise given for finding the proper 
 curve of dome lights over stair-cases, against the 
 wall, and the curve of the ribs. 
 
 This ingenious author, very properly observes in 
 his preface u by way of caution and guard to the ar- 
 dent theorist, that there are on some surfaces curve 
 lines, which cannot be found absolutely true to one 
 another ; such as spherical or spheroidical domes, 
 where their coverings cannot be found by any other 
 means, than by supposing them to become polygonal 
 ! in which case they may be performed upon true 
 I principles, as may be demonstrated. — Let us sup- 
 pose a polygonal dome inscribed in a spherical one ; 
 then, the greater the number of sides of the poly- 
 gonal dome, the nearer it will coincide with its cir- 
 cumscribing spherical one. — Again, let us suppose 
 that this polygon has an infinite number of sides; 
 then, its surface will exactly coincide with the sphe- 
 rical dome, and therefore in any thing which we shall 
 have occasion to practise, this method will be suffi- 
 ciently n*ar: as for example, in a dome of one hun- 
 dred sides, of a foot each, the rule for finding such a 
 covering will give the practice so very near, that 
 the variation from absolute truth could not be per- 
 ceived.” 
 
 Be 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 He next proceeds to the practical part of Car- 
 pentry, in which a great variety of designs are given 
 for floors, trusses, girders, roofs, domes, and par- 
 titions, on new and approved principles. Some of 
 his remarks on these subjects deserve attention. 
 
 “ In that nice and elegant branch of the 
 Building Art called joinery, stairs, and hand-rails 
 take the lead ; and notwithstanding the great im- 
 portance of this’ subject, I am sorry to find it has 
 been treated, by authors in general, in a very clum- 
 sy and slovenly manner. For stair-cases, in gener- 
 al, I have laid dow n right methods, on principles 
 entirely new, and which, since the publication of the 
 former edition of this work, I have the satisfaction 
 to say, have been put in practice, and found to 
 answer well.” 
 
 “ Various methods for diminishing columns are 
 shewn, together with two new ones, which I flatter 
 myself are more easily adapted to practice. Among 
 other things of inferior note, is a method for finding 
 the lines of a circular sash in a circular wall ; also, 
 a method, to the same purpose, for architraves in a 
 circular wall ; neither of which have before been 
 given or explained. For mitring raking mouldings, 
 I have, with some pains, confirmed a true method, 
 not merely in theory, hut by models, which I have 
 by me, and am w illing to show at convenient sea- 
 sons, to any inquirer." 
 
 u I must not here omit to observe, for though 
 last, not least, that my speculations and calculation 
 tm the strength of timber, w ill, i hope, be found 
 particularly useful; and not merely so, but may 
 also tend to induce others to consider this subject, 
 whose leisure and abilities may lead to more impor- 
 tant discoveries ; I beg leave to add, that, to con- 
 firm the mathematical calculations, I have tried 
 several of the questions by experiments. He who 
 is a perfect master of this branch, may err in deco- 
 ration, but never ran in strength and proportion." 
 
 Speaking ofits conclusion, he says; 
 
 “ It is intended to guard the young and incauti- 
 ous student against error ; for wrong maxims are 
 with more difficulty obliterated from the mind, than 
 originally obtained.” 
 
 The Carpenter s and Joiner's Assistant, by the 
 same author, is a work replete with useful informa- 
 tion. He begins with observations on soffits, and 
 then proceeds to notice groins, niches, and penden- 
 tives. In adverting to these subjects, he gives some 
 •examples for constructing naked floors, in the best 
 possible manner, which he illustrates by explana- 
 tions of the various parts ; to which are added, 
 examples for framing of partitions, and some new 
 plans of roofing, &c. This part of the work con- 
 tains some designs of celebrated roofs, constructed 
 agreeably to tiie several dimensions of the various 
 scantlings, and concludes with remarks on mortises, 
 tenons, king posts, &c. 
 
 He next considers that very useful subject, the 
 
 165 
 
 strength of timber, and then proceeds to joinery, 
 wherein he offers several new inventions. 
 
 The same author’s Treatise on Carpentry , in his 
 Mechanical Exercises, is entitled to considerable 
 attention. 
 
 We have now taken a view of the several publi- 
 cations on Carpentry, which will enable the observ- 
 ing student, we conceive, to judge of the progress 
 that has taken place in the art, from Godfrey 
 Richards, our earliest writer, to Mr. Peter Nichol- 
 son, the latest. The works of the latter have strong 
 claims, and may be confidently recommended to the 
 notice of all, w'ho wish to excel in this particular de- 
 partment. It is greatly to lie wished, that Mr. 
 Nicholson would continue to pursue his scientific 
 researches into this noble art, with that ardour for 
 which he is so eminently distinguished. We have 
 no doubt, much as it has been already improved, 
 that it is still susceptible of improvement, and that 
 many discoveries equally entitled to admiration, as 
 his former ingenious inventions, would reward his 
 trouble, and render him a still greater ornament to 
 his profession. It is but justice, however, to the 
 other authors to remark, that if in the several ex- 
 tracts we have selected from them, there be little 
 embellishment of language, and indeed some in- 
 accuracies of expression, yet there are evident 
 proofs in them, of sound, natural sense, and mature 
 reflection, and to them, every discerning mind will 
 readily concede their due weight and consequence. 
 
 THIRD DIVISION. 
 
 Strength of Materials. 
 
 Strength, denotes that particular force or power, 
 with which any mass or body resists a breach or 
 change in its state, endeavoured to be produced by 
 a stroke or pressure. 
 
 Stress cr>' Strain, may be defined as the force ex- 
 erted upon a body in order to break it. 
 
 Thus, every part of a piiiar is equally strained by 
 the load which it sustains ; and it is evident that no 
 structure can be considered fit for its purpose, unless 
 the strength prevailing in all its parts, be at least 
 equal to the stress laid on, or the strain excited 
 in those parts ; from hence may be perceived the 
 necessity of becoming acquainted with . the nature 
 of the resistance made by various bodies, since it 
 will teach us to proportion the materials in a ma- 
 chine or structure of any kind, so as that there shall 
 be neither a surplus nor a deficiency. 
 
 It has been justly observed by an excellent writer, 
 
 that in a nation so eminent as this for invention 
 and ingenuity in all species of manufactures, and in 
 particular, so distinguished for its improvements in 
 machinery of every kind, it is somewhat singular 
 that no writer has treated it in the detail, which its 
 importance and difficulty demands. The man of 
 science who visits our great manufactories, is delight- 
 U u ed 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 16 ff 
 
 ed with the ingenuity which he observes in every 
 pavt, the innumerable inventions which come from 
 individual artisans, and the determined purpose of 
 improvement and refinement which he sees in every 
 workshop. Every cotton mill appears an ccademy of 
 mechanical science; and mechanical invention is 
 spreading from these fountains over the whole 
 kingdom. But the philosopher is mortified to see 
 this ardent spirit so cramped by ignorance of prin- 
 ciple; and many of these original and brilliant 
 thoughts, obscured and clogged with needless and 
 even hurtful additions, and a complication of machi- 
 nery which cSiecks improvement by its appearance of 
 ingenuity. There is nothing in which this wart of 
 scientific education, this ignorance of principle, is so 
 frequently observed, as in the injudicious proportion 
 of the parts of machines and other mechanical struc- 
 tures; proportions and forms of parts in which the 
 strength of position are 'r.owise regulated by the 
 strains to which they are exposed, and where repeat- 
 ed failures have been the only lessons.” 
 
 ,4, It cannot be otherwise ’ the same author con- 
 tinues “ We have no means of instruction, except 
 two very short and abstracted treatises of the late Mr. 
 Emerson, on the strength of materials. We do not 
 recollect a performance in our language from which 
 ourarti-ts can get information. Treatises written 
 expressly on different branches of mcclmnical 
 arts, are totally silent on this which, is the basis 
 and only principle of their performances. Who 
 would imagine that Price's British Carpenter , the 
 work of the first reputation in this country, and of 
 which the sole aim is to teach the carpenter to erect 
 solid and durable structures ; does not contain one 
 proposition, or one reason, by which one form of a 
 thing can be shewn to be stronger or weaker than 
 another ? We doubt very much if one carpenter in a 
 hundred can give a reason to convince his own mind, 
 (hat a joist is stronger when laid on its edge, than 
 when laid on its broad side. We speak in this 
 strong manner, in hopes of exciting some man of 
 science to publish a system of instruction on this 
 subject.” 
 
 The strength of materials arises immediately, or 
 ultimately, from the attraction of cohesion which is 
 observable in almost every natural object, and is, in 
 reality, that which holds their component parts to- 
 gether. 
 
 Now as cohesion admits of various modifications 
 in its different appearances of perfect softness, 
 elasticity, hardness See. and has a great influence 
 on the strength of bodies, it will bv no means ad- 
 mit of the application of mathematical calculations, 
 with that precision and certain success, which are 
 desirable in a point of so much importance. 
 
 The texture of materials is a subject of no less 
 importance, and experiments in this respect, have 
 been made by Couplet, De la Hire, Pitot, and Du 
 Hamel: but the same remark is applicable to them, as 
 
 to the experiments on the cohesion of bodies^ 
 and, consequently being so limited, that infor- 
 mation is not to be obtained from them which we 
 could wish. Buffon, however, carried on some ex- 
 periments on a more extensive and proportionately 
 useful scale, and from him only are to be obtain- 
 ed those measures, which may be relied on with 
 safety and success. 
 
 Our countrymen Emerson, and Banks, have it is 
 true, made several experiments on the strength of 
 bodies, but their researches too have been so limit- 
 ed and imperfect, as to preclude the student from 
 placing any particular confidence in their results. 
 
 It may not be irrelevant to observe here, that ex- 
 periments may be considered as nothing less than a- 
 narration of certain detached facts, if some general 
 principles are not established, by which we can gen- 
 eralise their results. 
 
 Some idea, for instance, may be entertained of that 
 medium or cause, by the intervention of which, an 
 external force applied to one part of a lever, joist, 
 or pillar, occasions a strain on a distant part. 
 This can be nothing more or less than the cohesion 
 existing between the parts which are brought into 
 action, or as we more shortly express it, excited. 
 In order properly to comprehend the nature of cohe- 
 sion, it will be necessary to take a view of its laws, 
 or rather of those general facts which are observable 
 in its operations. In doing this, however, it will be 
 sufficient to notice such general laws only, as seem 
 to present the most immediate information of the 
 circumstances required to be attended to by me- 
 chanics in general, if they would wish to unite 
 strength with simplicity and economy, in their 
 several constructions. 
 
 1st. We have presumptive evidence to prove, that 
 all bodies are elastic in a certain degree, that is 
 when their form or bulk is changed by certain 
 moderate compressions, it requires the continuance 
 of the force producing the change, in order to con- 
 tinue the body in its altered state, and when the 
 compressing force is removed, the body recovers its 
 original form and tension. 
 
 2d. That whatever may be the situation of the 
 particles composing a body, with respect to each 
 other when in a state of quiescence, they are kept 
 i.i their respective places, by the balance of oppos- 
 ing forces. 
 
 3d. It is an established matter of fact, that every- 
 body has some degree of compressibility, as well as 
 of dilatability ; and when the changes produced in 
 its dimensions are so moderate, that the body com- 
 pleatly recovers its original- form on the cessation of 
 the changing force, the extensions or compressions, 
 bear a sensible proportion to the extending, or com- 
 pressing forces ; and, therefore, the connecting 
 forces are proportioned to the distance, at which the 
 particles are diverted, or separated, from their usual 
 state of quiescence.. 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 16? 
 
 4th. It is universally observable, that when the 
 dilatations have proceeded to a certain length, a 
 less addition of force is afterwards sufficient to in- 
 'crease the dilatation in the same degree. For in- 
 stance, when a pillar of wood is overloaded, it 
 swells out, and small crevices appear in the direc- 
 tion of the fibres. After this, it will not bear half 
 of the previous load. 
 
 5th, That the forces connecting the particles com- 
 posing tangible or solid bodies, are altered by a 
 variation of distance, not only in degree, but also in 
 
 kind. 
 
 Having now enumerated the principal modes, in 
 which cohesion confers strength on solid bodies, we 
 proceed to consider the strains to which this strength 
 may be opposed. 
 
 These strains are four in number, viz. — 
 
 1st. A piece of matter may be torn asunder, as is 
 the case with ropes, king posts, tie beams, stretchers, 
 &c. &c. 
 
 2d. It may be crushed, as is the case with pillars, 
 truss beams, &c. &c. 
 
 3d. It may be broken across, as happens to a joist 
 or lever of any kind, or 
 
 4th. It may be wrenched or twisted, as is the 
 case with the axle of a wheel, the nail of a press, 
 &e. &c. , 
 
 With respect to the first strain, it may be observ- 
 ed, that it is the simplest of all strains, and that the 
 others are but modifications of it ; it being directly 
 opposed to the force of cohesion, without much 
 being influenced, except in a slight degree in its 
 action, by any particular circumstances. When a 
 prismatic, or cylindrical body ofconsiderable length, 
 such as a rope, or a rod of wood, or metal, has any 
 force exerted on one of its ends, it will naturally be 
 resisted by the other, from the effect or operation of 
 cohesion. When this body is fastened at one end, 
 we may -conceive all its parts to be in a similar state 
 of tension, since all experiments on natural bodies 
 concur to prove, that the forces which connect their 
 particles, in any way whatever, are equal and oppo- 
 site. 
 
 Since all parts are thus equally stretched, it fol- 
 lows, that the strain in any transverse section, as 
 well as in every point of that section is the same. 
 
 It then, the body be of any homogeneous texture, 
 the cohesion of the parts is equable, and from every 
 part being equally stretched, the particles are di- 
 verted or separated from their usual state of qui- 
 escence, to equal distances ; of course the connecting 
 powers of cohesion thus excited, and now exerted i: 
 opposition to the straining force, are also equal. 1 i 
 is evident, therefore, that this external force mat i 
 be increased by degrees, so as gradually to separate 
 the parts composing the body, more and more from 
 each other, and that the connecting forces of cohe- 
 sion, will bear a relative proportion to the increase 
 of distance, til! finally some particles weaken : then 
 
 the rest are overcome by the pressure or tension, 
 when a fracture ensues, and the body itself is soon 
 crushed, or broken in all its parts. If the external 
 force be insufficient to produce any permanent 
 change on the body, and that body recovers its form- 
 er dimensions, when the operating force is with- 
 drawn, it is clear that this strain may be repeated, 
 whenever desired, and that the body which has 
 withstood it once, will always be equal to the task 
 of withstanding it. This circumstance should not 
 only be attended to in constructions of every kind, 
 but kept constantly in view in every investigation 
 of the subject. 
 
 Bodies of a fibrous texture, exhibit very great va- 
 rieties in their modes of cohesion. In some, the fibres 
 have no lateral connecting force, as in the case of a 
 rope. The only way in w hich all the fibres compo- 
 sing a piece of matter can be made to unite their 
 strength, is by twisting them together, which has the 
 effect of bending each to each, so fast, that any one 
 of them will rather break than be separated in a per- 
 fect state from the remainder. In timber, the fibres 
 are held together by some glutinous cement, which 
 is seldom however, as strong as the fibre, and tor this 
 reason timber is much easier pulled asunder when 
 operated on in a direction transverse to the fibres; 
 but, nevertheless, there is every possible variety in 
 this particular. 
 
 In stretching and breaking fibrous bodies, though 
 the visible extension is frequently very considerable, 
 it does not solely arise from the increasing the dis- 
 tance of the particles composing the cohering fibre, 
 but is chiefly occasioned by drawing the crooked 
 fibre straight. In this respect a great diversity pre- 
 vails, as well as in the powers required to withstand 
 a strain. In some woods, such as fir, the fibres on 
 which the strength most depends, are very straight, 
 and woods of this nature, it should be remarkeo, are 
 generally very elastic, and break abruptly when 
 overstrained; others, as oak, have their resisting 
 fibres very crooked, and stretch very sensibly wh<'i& ~ 
 subjected to a strain. These kinds of woods do i ot 
 break so suddenly, but exhibit visible signs of a 
 derangement of texture. 
 
 Tiie absolute attraction of cohesion, or strength, is 
 proportioned to the area of the section wilier* s'ands at 
 right angles with the extending force. This will be 
 readily admitted in the case of fibrous bodies, if ve 
 suppose the fibres composing litem to he equally 
 strong and dense, and to be disposed similarly t. r itj,a 
 the whole section ; there is a necessity tor admittn g 
 this, or else tiie diversity must be stated and the co=> 
 
 | hesion must be measured accordingly. 
 
 The following ooservation may be admitted as a 
 gen al proposition in this respect; the absolute 
 strength in any paat of a body, which enables* it to 
 resist being pulled asunder , or the force which must 
 be employed to tear it asunder in that pa-t,. 
 bears a proportion to the area of the section which 
 
 stands 
 
168 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 stands at right angles with the extending forte. 
 
 Hence, then, we may deduce that cylindrical and 
 prismatic rods are equally strong in every part, and 
 will break alike in any part, and that bodies formed 
 into unequal sections, will always break in the most 
 slender part. The length of the prism or cylinder 
 produces no effect on the strength ; and the vulgar 
 notion that a long rope may be broken more easily 
 than a short one, is altogether absurd. — It may be 
 further observed, that the absolute strengths of bo- 
 dies whose sections are similar to each other, bear a 
 relative proportion to the squares of their diameters, 
 or homologous sides of the section. 
 
 The weight of the body itself, may in some instan- 
 ces, be employed to strain and to break it ; as is the 
 case with a rope, which may be so long as to break 
 by its own weight. — When the rope hangs in a per- 
 pendicular direction, although its strength is equal 
 in every part, the fracture will take place towards 
 the upper end, since the strain on any part is equal 
 to the weight of all below it, cr in other words, it- 
 relative strength in any part, or power of w ithstand- 
 ing the strain to which it is subjected, is inversely as 
 the quantity below that part. 
 
 When the rope is stretched horizontally, the strain 
 arising from its weight, oftens bears a very sensible 
 proportion to its whole strength. 
 
 Let A E B, Figure I, represent any portion of 
 such a rope, in which case, the curve A E B, will 
 be the catenaria ; and if the tangents A C, B C, be 
 drawn through the points of suspension, if the par- 
 allelogram A B C D, be compleated, and if the 
 diagonal also I) C, be drawn ; D C will be to A C, 
 as the weight of the rope A E B, is to the strain 
 exerted at A, and the strain exerted at B, will be 
 found by a similar process. 
 
 When a suspended body is required to be so 
 strong throughout, as to carry its ow n weight in any 
 part, the section in that part must be proportioned 
 to the solid contents of all below it. If A a e, ( Fi- 
 gure 2. ) be supposed to represent a section of a 
 colloidal spindle, we must have A C 2 : a c 2 :: A E B 
 sol : a E b sol. The curve A a e, is known among 
 mathematicians, by the name of the logarithmic 
 curve, of which C c, is the axis. 
 
 These are the chief general rules, which can with 
 safety be deduced from our clearest, though imper- 
 fect conceptions of the nature of that cohesion, which 
 connects bodies together, and in order to make a 
 practical use of these, it is necessary that we should 
 be acquainted with those modes of ascertaining the 
 attraction of cohesion in solid bodies, which are 
 most commonly employed by practical mechanics. 
 
 As the cohesion of bodies of the same kind, are 
 known to differ in innumerable circumstances, we 
 will take for the measure of cohesion, the -weight of 
 pounds avoirdupoise, which suflice to tear asunder 
 a rod, or bundle, of one inch square. From this, 
 
 it will be easy to compute the strength, correspond- 
 ing to any other dimensions. 
 
 With regard to the tenacity, or strength of w ood : 
 
 1st. The wood which surrounds immediately the 
 pith, or heart of the tree, is supposed to be the 
 weakest, and this weakness is greater, as the tree is 
 older. We give this as the result of experiments 
 made by Muschenbroek; but Buffon says, his ex- 
 periments proved to him, that the heart of a sound 
 tree is the strongest; for winch assertion, however, 
 he assigns no authority. It is certain, from accurate 
 observations which have been made on very large 
 oaks and lirs, that the heart is much weaker than 
 the exterior parts. 
 
 2d. The fibres next the bark, commonly called, 
 the white or idea, are also weaker than the rest, and 
 the w'ood gradually increases in strength, as it re- 
 cedes from the centre to the blea. 
 
 3d. The wood is stronger in the middle of the 
 trunk, than at the springing of the branches, or at 
 the root ; and the wood forming a branch, is weaker 
 than that of the trunk. 
 
 4th. The wood on the northern side of all trees 
 which grow in Europe, is the weakest, while that 
 oti the south-eastern side is the strongest, this differ- 
 ence is most remarkable in hedge row trees, and 
 such as grow singly. The heart of a tree never lies 
 in its centre, but always towards its northern side, 
 and the annual coats of wood are thinner on that 
 side. — In conformity with this, it is a general opi- 
 nion of carpenters that timber is stronger in propor- 
 tion to the thickness of its annual plates. The 
 trachea, or air vessels, being the same in diameter 
 and number of rows, in trees of the same species, 
 occasion the visible separation between the annual 
 plates, for which reason when these are thicker, they 
 contain a greater portion of the simple ligneous 
 fibres. 
 
 3th. All woods are most tenacious while green • 
 but after the trees are felled, that tenacity is consi- 
 derably diminished by their drying. 
 
 Muschenbroek is the only author who has given 
 us an opportunity of judging minutely in this respect. 
 The woods which he selected for experiment were 
 all formed into slips, part of each of which was cut 
 away to a parallelopiped, of 1-fifth of an inch square, 
 and therefore 1-twenty-fifth of a square inch in sec- 
 tion. The absolute strengths of a square inch, were 
 as follows 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Locust tree .20100 
 
 Jnjeb ...18500 
 
 Beech and oak 17300 
 
 Orange 15300 
 
 Alder 13900 
 
 Elm 13200 
 
 Mulberry 12500 
 
 Willow ' 12500 
 
 Ash 12000 
 
 Plum 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 I6ST 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Plum J 1800 
 
 Elder 10000 
 
 Pomegranate 9750 
 
 Lemon 9250 
 
 Tamarind 8750 
 
 Fir 8330 
 
 Walnut 8130 
 
 Pitch pine 7050 
 
 Quince 6750 
 
 Cypress 6000 
 
 Poplar 5500 
 
 Cedar 4880 
 
 Muschenbroek, gives a very minute detail of his 
 experiments on the ash and walnut, in which he 
 states the weights required to tear asunder slips ta- 
 ken from the four sides of. these, trees, and on each 
 side, in a regular progression from the centre to the 
 circumference^ The numbeis in the foregoing ta- 
 ble corresponding with these two woods may be con- 
 sidered, '-therefore, as the average of more than fifty 
 trials of each. He- mentions also that all the other 
 numbers were calculated with the same care. For 
 these reasons some- confidence may be placed in the 
 results; though they carry the degrees of tenacity 
 considerably higher, than those enumerated by some 
 other writers. Phot and Parent observe; that a 
 weight of sixty pounds will just tear asunder a 
 square line of saund. oak, but that it will bear fifty 
 pounds with safety. This gives 8640 for the great- 
 est strength of a square inch, which is much inferior 
 to Muschenbroek’s calculation. To the foregoing 
 table may be added : — 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Ivory 16270, 
 
 Bone 5250 
 
 Horn . * . . . 8750 
 
 Whalebone 7500 
 
 Tooth of sea calf 4075 
 
 These numbers express something more - than the 
 utmost attraction of cohesion, the weights are such 
 as will very quickly, (that is in a minute or two,) tear 
 the rods asunder. In general it may be; observed, 
 that two-thirds of these weights will greatly impair] 
 the strength after a considerable time, and that one | 
 half is the utmost that can remain suspended at them,] 
 without incurring the risk of their demolition . and j 
 on this calculation of One half of the nominal weight, 
 the engineer should reckon in all his constructions ; 
 though, even in this respect, there are great shades 
 of difference Woods of a very straight fibre, such] 
 as fir, .will suffer less injury from- a load which is] 
 not sufficient to break'them, immediately. 
 
 Mr. Emerson mentions the following as the j 
 weights, or loads, which maybe safelysuspenued to ; 
 an inch square, of the several bodies herealter enu-j 
 S8.erut.ed, 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Iron 76400 
 
 Brass .35600 
 
 Hempen Rope 19600 
 
 Ivory 15700 
 
 Oak Box; Yew and > ^ 
 
 rlum tree. ^ 
 
 Elm-, Ash, and Beech. . . . 6070 
 
 Walnut, and Plum 5360 
 
 Red fir, Holly, Elder, > 5m 
 Plane, and Crab. . . . > 
 
 Cherry, and Hazel 4760 
 
 Alder, Asp, Birch, and ^ 4390 
 
 Willow 
 
 Lead 430 
 
 Freestone 914 
 
 This ingenious gentleman has laid down as a 
 practical rule, that a cylinder whose diameter is d' 
 inches, will carry, when loaded to one fourth of its' 
 absolute strength, as follows.- — 
 
 Iron . 
 Good 
 Oak . 
 Fir. . 
 
 rope , 
 
 135 \ 
 
 »r"' 
 
 It is necessary to remark that the ranks which the 
 different woods hold in Mr. Emerson’s list, in point 
 oftenacity, differs materially from those- assigned to- 
 some of them by Muschenbroek. 
 
 Secondly we observe that bodies may be crushed. 
 — It is an object of the first importance to ascertain 
 the weight, pressure, or strain, which may belaid on* 
 solid -bodies without the danger of crushing them. 
 Posts and pillars of - all kinds are exposed to this 
 strain in its most simple form, and there are some 
 ‘cases where the strain is enormous, as, for instance, 
 where it arises from the oblique position of the parts, 
 which is the case with “trots, brace?, and trusses, and 
 frequently occurs in our great works. 
 
 Some general knowledge of the principle which - 
 determines the strength of bodies in opposition to 
 this strain, must be allowed to be desirable. Un- 
 fortunately we are much more at a loss in this res-< 
 pect, than in the proceeding. 
 
 It is the opinion of some eminent men, that the re- 
 sistance which bodies are capable of making to air 
 attempt to crush them, bears a proportion to the ex- 
 ternal force ; for as each particle composing the bo- 
 dy is similarly and equally acted upon, the aggre- 
 gate resistance of that body, must correspond with- 
 the extent of the- section. 
 
 This principle, however, is considered as ill- 
 founded, by others no less eminent for their scientific 
 and experimental knowledge. 
 
 But as it must be acknowledged, that the relation 
 existing between the dimensions and the strength of 
 a pillar has notbeea established on solid mechanical 
 
 principle ■£. 
 
•170 
 
 carpentry and joinery. 
 
 principles, an^ • y contradicts the!! 
 
 prevalent '■ r^igth as proportional 
 
 to the aid appear that the re- i 
 
 ([”• . ; <: fi the internal structure 
 
 oi - • nn J experiment seems to be the only ! 
 
 u ,c< rtai ing the general lav/s of cohe- 1 
 
 sion, 
 
 . be of a fibrous texture, with its fibres 
 situtu- ■ i the direction of the pressure, and slightly 
 ( imected with each other by some kind of cement, 
 sue:. a body will fail only when the cement 
 cc; n ecling them gives way, and they are detached 
 from each other. Something like this may be observed 
 in wooden pillars, in which it would appear, that 
 the resi stance must be as the number of equally re- 
 sisting fibres, and as their mutual support jointly, 
 or as some function of the area of the section. Pre- 
 cisely the same thing will happen., if the fibres are 
 naturally crooked, provided some similarity in their 
 form be supposed. We must imagine always that 
 some similarity of kind exists, or otherwise it will 
 be absurd to aim at any general inferences. 
 
 In all cases, therefore, we can hardly hesitate to 
 admit, that the strength exerted in opposition to 
 compression, bears-a relative proportion to a certain 
 function of the area of the section. 
 
 It does not appear that the strength of a pillar is 
 at all affected by its length, as the whole length of 
 a cylinder or prism is equally pressed. If, indeed, 
 these bodies may be supposed to bend under the 
 pressure, the case is materially altered, because, 
 then, they are subject to the influence of a trans- 
 verse strain, which, it is well known, increases 
 with the length of the pillar. This, however, 
 will l>e considered under the next class of strains. 
 
 Parent has shown that the force required to crush 
 a body, is nearly equal to that .which will tear it 
 asunder. He observes, also, that it requires some- 
 thing more than sixty pounds on every square line, 
 to crush a piece of sound oak ; but this rule is by no 
 means general. Glass, for instance, will carry a 
 hundred times more on it than oak in this way, but 
 will not bear suspended above four or five times as 
 much. 'Oak will suspend a great deal more than 
 fir, but fir will carry twice as much as a pillar, j 
 Woods of a soft texture, although they may he com- 
 posed of very tenacious fibres, are move easily crush- 
 ed by the load upon them. This softness of texture 
 is chiefly owing to the crooked nature of their fibres, 
 and to the existance of considerable vacuities be- 
 tween each fibre, so that they are more easily bent 
 in a lateral direction and crushed. When a post is 
 overstrained by its load, it is observed to swell sen- 
 sibly in diameter. 
 
 in all cases where the fibres lye oblique to the 
 strain, the strength is considerably diminished, 
 which may be ascribed to the circumstance, that the 
 partsin such case, slide on each other, and the con- 
 necting force of the cementing matter, is for that rea- 
 son easier overcome. 
 
 Mr. Gauthey in the fourth volume of RozieFs 
 Journal de Physique s p «:h !• ished hcre eltot some 
 experiments wh 7. had made on email rectangu- 
 lar paralieiopir , cut horn n great variety of 
 
 stones. 
 
 The following ;d:le exhibits the medium results 
 of several trials, on two very similar sorts of free- 
 stone, one of which, was among the hardest, and 
 the other among the softest kinds used in building, 
 The first column expresses the lengt A B, of the 
 section, in French lines, or 12ths of an inch; the 
 second points out the breadth II C; the third shews 
 the area of the section, in square lines ; the fourth 
 exhibits the number of ounces required to crush the 
 piece ; the fifth represents the weight then borne by 
 each square line, or twelfth of an inch of the section : 
 and the sixth displays the round numbers, to which 
 Mr. Gauthey imagines that those in the fifth co- 
 lumn approximate. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 HARD STONE. 
 
 
 frji 
 
 l 
 
 AB 
 
 BC ABXBC 
 
 1 Weight 
 
 Force 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 8 1 
 
 64 1 
 
 736 
 
 J 15 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 
 12 
 
 96 I 
 
 2625 
 
 273 
 
 24 
 
 r ' 
 
 « 
 
 1 16 1 
 
 128 I 
 
 4496 
 
 35 1 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 SOFT STONE. 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 144 
 
 560 
 
 39 
 
 4 1 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 162 
 
 848 
 
 5-3 
 
 45 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 024 
 
 2928 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 1 7 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 432 
 
 5296 
 
 12 2 
 
 12 
 
 It maybe proper to observe, that the first and 
 third columns, compared with the fifth and sixth, 
 ought to furnish similar results, because the first 
 and fifth respectively form half of the third and 
 sixth, but the third, it will be remarked, is three 
 times stronger than the first, while the sixth is only 
 twice as strong as the fifth. It is-evident, however, 
 that the strength increases in a much greater ratio 
 than the area of the section, and that a square 
 twelfth part of an inch, can carry more and more 
 weight, in proportion to the increased dimensions of 
 the section, of which it forms a part. In the series 
 of experiments on the soft stone, the individual 
 strength of a square line, seems to increase nearly 
 in the proportion of the section of which it is a part. 
 Mr. Gauthey, deduces from the whole of his numer- 
 ous experiments, that a pillar, formed of hard stone 
 from Givry, whose section is a square foot, will 
 hear w ith perfect safety 604000 pounds, that its ex- 
 treme strength is 871000, and that the most inferior 
 instance of strength is 400000. The soft bed of 
 Givry stone, bad for its smallest strength, 187000, 
 for its greatest 311000, and for its safe load 249000. 
 
 Tins gentleman’s measure of the suspending 
 strength of stone, is very small in proportion to its 
 power of supporting a load laid above it. 
 
 He found that a prism, of the hard bed of Givry 
 stone, the section of which was one foot, was liable 
 
171 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 to be torn asunder, when subjected to a weight of 
 4600 pound, and when firmly fixed horizontally in 
 a wall, that it was broken by a weight of 56000 
 pounds, suspended a foot from the wall. If the 
 prism rests on two props, separated a foot from each 
 other, it will be broken by 206000 lbs. when that 
 weight operates, or is laid on its middle. These 
 experiments differ so very widely from each other, 
 in their several results, that they cannot be deemed 
 of much advantage to us. 
 
 A judicious series of .experiments on this most 
 interesting subject, would be exceedingly valuable, 
 and its uselulness cannot be too highly estimated. 
 In the construction of wooden bridges, centers, &c. 
 this species of strain, is very frequently found, and, 
 therefore it is particularly entitled to the attention 
 of the engineer. But how few engineers can find 
 sufficient leisure in the hurried operations of their 
 business, for prosecutingexperiments with that cool- 
 ness and patient investigation, which the subject 
 demands? It is singular, that in an empire like 
 this, and in a matter of such unquestionable impor- 
 tance, that some person of sufficient judgement and 
 abilities, has not been appointed to institute the 
 necessary enquiries, on an extensive and liberal 
 scale, into the various strains to which materials 
 in general are subject. 
 
 V The only way in which we can effect any good, 
 during the absence of tliese essential experiments, 
 is by paying a careful attention to the manner in 
 which fractures are produced. By attending to 
 this, there maybe some prospect of introducing a 
 degree of accuracy, bv mathematical measurement, 
 which is an object “ devoutly to be wished for,” in 
 matters of this kind. 
 
 BODIES .WAV BE BROKEX ACROSS. 
 
 The strain which most commonly acts on mate- 
 rials of any nature, is (hat which tends to break 
 them in a transverse direction. This species of 
 strain, however, is but seldom effected, or rather 
 tried in that simple manner which the subject ap- 
 parently admits of; for when a beam projects ho- 
 rizontally from a wall, and a weight is suspended 
 from its extremity, the beam is most commonly 
 broken near the wall, in which case the intermedi- 
 ate part has performed the operation of a lever. 
 It sometimes, though rarely happens, that the pin in 
 the joint of a pair of pincers or scissars, is cut 
 through by the strain ; and this is almost the only 
 instance of a simple transverse fracture. In conse- 
 quence of its being so rare, we shall content our- 
 selves with remarking, that in this case, the strength 
 of the piece bears a proportion to the area of the 
 section. Experiments have been made in the fol- 
 lowing manner, for discovering the resistances made 
 by bodies to tins species of strain. Two ir n bars 
 vveye disposed horizontally, at the distance of an 
 inch from each other; a third bar was then hung 
 perpendicularly between them, being supported by 
 
 a pin made of the substance intended to be exa- 
 mined. 
 
 This pin was made in the shape off a prism, so as to 
 acommodate itself to the holes in the three bars, which 
 were made very exact, and ofsijnikir -izeaud shape. 
 A scale was next suspended at the lower end of the 
 perpendicular bar, end loaded till it tore out that 
 part of the pin which occupied the middle hole, 
 which load was, evidently, the measure of the lateral 
 cohesions of two sections. The side bars were 
 made so as to grasp the middle bar pretty strongly 
 between them, and thai no distance might intervene 
 between the conflicting pressures. This would have 
 combined the energy of a lever, with the purely 
 transverse pressure; for which reason it was necess- 
 ary that the internal parts of the holes should not 
 be smaller than the edges. Great irregularities 
 occurred in the first experiments, in consequence ot 
 the pins being somewhat tighter within, than at the 
 edges ; but when this had been corrected, the trials 
 became extremely regular. Three sets of holes 
 were employed on this occasion ; viz. a circle, a 
 square, and an equilateral triangle, though the 
 square was occasionally converted into a rectangle, 
 the length of which was equal to twice its breadth. 
 
 | hi all the experiments the strength was found to 
 bear an exact proportion to the area of the section, 
 to act perfectly independent of its figure or position, 
 and to rise considerably abov e the direct cohesion ; 
 that is, it required the operation of considerably 
 more than twice the force to tear out this middle 
 piece, than to rend the pin asunder by a direct pull 
 A piece of fine free stone required 205 pounds to 
 rend it directly asunder, while 575 were required to 
 break it in this way. The difference was very con- 
 stant in any one substance, but it varied from four 
 thirds to six-thirds in todies of different kinds, and 
 was smallest in those of a fibrous texture. 
 
 But the more common case, where the energy of a 
 lever intervenes, demands a strict consideration. 
 
 Let ABCD, Fig. 3, be supposed to represent tl>e 
 vertical section of a prismatic solid, projecting ho- 
 rizontally from a wall in which it is firmly fixed; 
 and let a weight P, be hung on it at B, or let any 
 power P, act at B, in a direction perpendicular to 
 A B. — Let this body also be considered to possess 
 insuperable strength in every part, except in the 
 vertical section 1) A, perpendicular to its length, in 
 which section only it must break. — Let the cohesion 
 be uniform throughout the whole of this section ; 
 that is, let each of the adjoining particles of the two 
 I parts cohere with an equal force f. There 
 I are two ways in which it may then break. The 
 part A B C l), may simply slide down along the 
 surface of the fracture, provided the power acting 
 at B, be equal to the accumulated force which is ex- 
 erted by every particle, composing the section, in the 
 direction A D. But let this'be supposed as effect- 
 ually prevented by something supporting the point 
 
173 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 A. The action at P, tends to make the body turn 
 round .A for round a horizontal line passing through 
 A at right angles with A B) in the same manner as 
 round a joint. This, it cannot do without separa- 
 ting at the line D A, in which case the adjoining 
 particles at D, orat E, will be separated horizontally. 
 But freir attraction of cohesion resists this separa- 
 tion. In order, therefore, that the fracture may 
 happen at the place iptended, the energy of the 
 power P, acting by means of the lever A B, must be 
 superior to the accumulated energies of the compo- 
 nent particles. The energy of each depends not only 
 on its cohesive, or connecting force, hut also on its 
 peculiar situation ; for the supposed insuperable 
 firmness of -the rest of the body, renders it a lever 
 turning round the fulcrum A, and the individual! 
 cohesive power of each particle, such as D or E, ! 
 acts by means of the arm, DA or E A. The precise j 
 energy of each particle will consequently be ascor 
 
 each fibre being = 1, the cohesion of the whole tine’ 
 is f X d or f d. 
 
 The accumulated energy, therefore, of the cohe- 
 sion in the instant of fracture, is f d X{d. Now- 
 this must be equal, or just inferior to the energy of ; 
 the power employed to break it. Let the length 
 A B, be called 1; then P x l, is. the corresponding 
 energy ot the power. This gives us f d X y ri- 
 ll 1, for. the equation of the equilibrium correspond- 
 ing to the vertical section A B C D. 
 
 Let us suppose, however, that the fracture is not 
 permitted at D A, but at another section m n, more- 
 remote from B. From the body being prismatic, 
 all the vertical sections are equal; and, . therefore, 
 f d f d. is the same as before : but the energy of the- 
 power is nevertheless increased, it being in this in- 
 stance, =P X B n, instead of P X B A. Hence, 
 we may see, that when the prismatic body is not 
 insuperably strong in all its parts, but only moderate- 
 
 tained by multiplying the force individually exerted jl lv, though equally strong throughout, it mud break 
 by it at the moment of fracture, by the arm of the ! j close at the wall, where the strain or energy of the 
 lever which enables it to act. * j; power exerts itself with the greatest effect. We may- 
 
 Let us then suppose, that at the moment of frac- 1 see likewise, that a power which is just able to break 
 tury, every individual particle- exerts an equal force j st at the wall, is unable to break it any where 
 
 f. The energy of D, will be DA x f, that of EJ; 
 will be E A- X f, and that of the whole will be the 
 sum of all these products. Let the depth D A, of 
 
 Let the depth D A 
 d 
 
 part of it, as A E, be called x, then the space oe 
 cupied by any particle will be x. The cohesion of 
 
 i else ; and- that the absolute cohesion f d, which ; 
 withstands the power p in., the section D A, will not- 
 withstand it in the section m n, though it resists. 
 
 the section,' be called d, and let any undetermined ■ j >»ore in the section op. 
 
 . .n. " • .. .. ji This example affords a criterion for distinguish- 
 
 jling between absolute and relative strength. The. 
 relative strength of a section has a reference to the 
 strain actually exerted on that section; and this re- 
 
 this space may be represented by f x, and that of 
 the whole by f d. The energy by which each ele- 
 ment x, of the line D A, or d, resists the fracture, 
 
 will be f x x, and the whole accumulated energies 
 will be f x xx. Tliis is well known to be 
 
 f X t d 2 , or fd x | d. It is the same thing, there- 
 fore, as it the cohesion fd, of the whole section, had] 
 been concentred together at the point G, which is] 
 in the middle of DA. A similar conclusion may be! 
 deduced from other principles. Suppose the beam, ] 
 instead of projecting horizontally from a wall, to be] 
 suspended from a ceiling, in which it is firmly fixed.! 
 
 lative strength is properly measured, by the power, 
 which is just able to balance, or overcome it, when 
 applied at its proper place. Now since we hack 
 
 fd \ d = pi, we deduce p = f°r the measure .of 
 
 the strength of the section D A, as it relates to the*, 
 power applied at B. If the solid be a rectangular 
 beam, whose broadth is b, it is evident that all its 
 vertical sections will be equal, and that AG or |ri, is 
 precisely the same in all. Therefore the equation- 
 expressing the equilibrium existing between the mo- 
 mentum of the external force, and the accumulated- 
 momenta of cohesion, will be p l=fdbx id., 
 j The product d b, evidently expresses the area of tiie 
 ! section of fracture, which we may call s ; the equi- 
 
 thus : pl=fs i d, and 
 
 pvmueu iru m a cemng, m wmcn n is nrmiy 
 liet us next consider what effect the equal or accu-*! librium may be expressed 
 in ulated cohesion of -every part, has in preventingthe 2l:d:-:fs:p. 
 lower part from separating from the upper, by open- V; Now fs, properly expresses the absolute cohe- 
 rour.d-the joint A. The equal cohesion operates ■ sion of the section of- fracture, and p, is n proper* 
 ty would do , \\ measure of its strength, as it relates 
 
 just in the same maimer as equal gravity 
 
 but in a direction diametrically opposite. AYA know ] ] applied at I>. 
 
 to a power? 
 
 AVe • may, therefore, say, that twice- 
 
 that the effect of this will be the same as if the whole ! the length of a rectangular beam , is to the depth as lh<s 
 weight were to be concentrated in the centre of gra- .' absolute cohesion -h to the relative*. strengths 
 yity G, of the line D A, and that this point G will be- j Since the action of equable cohesion is similar to> 
 in the middle of D A. Now the number of fibres j that of equal gravity, it- follows, that whatever may 
 as bke length d of the line, and the cohesion of be the figure of the section,, the relative strength 
 
 ii 
 
173 
 
 Carpentry and joinery. 
 
 will be the sAme, as if the absolute cohesion of all ] 
 the fibres, were exerted at the centre of gravity of 1 
 the section. Let g represent the distance between 
 tlie centre of gravity of the section and the axis of 
 fracture, we shall have p 1 = f g s and therefore 1: 
 g::fs:p. This analogy m words is not unworthy 
 of the readers recollection, and may be thus stated. 
 The length of a prismatic beam of any shape is to 
 the height of the centre of gravity above the lower 
 side , what the absolute cohesion is, to the strength 
 that bears relation to this length .” 
 
 Since the relative strength of a rectangular beam 
 
 b d2 f, 
 21 
 
 it follows, that the relative strengths of 
 
 different beams, not only bear a proportion to the 
 absolute cohesion ofthe particles, and to the breadth, 
 but t© the square ofthe depth directly, and to the 
 length inversely ; in prisms also whose sections are 
 similar, the strengths are as the cubes of the diame- 
 ters. This investigation has been conducted on the 
 hypothesis of equal cohesion, a law not exactly con- 
 formable to the operations of nature. We know, 
 for instance, when a force is applied transversely at 
 B, that the beam bending downwards, becomes con- 
 vex on the upper side; and that that side is, con- 
 sequently, on the stretch. The particles at D are 
 further removed from each other, than those at E, 
 for which reason they exert greater cohesive forces. 
 It is impossible to ascertain with certainty in what 
 proportion each fibre is extended : but we will sup- 
 pose for example, that their remoteness from each 
 other is proportioned to the distance from A, a sup- 
 position which is by no means improbable. Now 
 recollecting the general law, that the attractive for- 
 ces exerted by dilated particles, are proportioned to 
 the extent of their being dilated ; let us suppose the 
 beam to be so much bent, that the particles at D are 
 compelled to exert their utmost energy, and that 
 this fibre is just ready to break, or even actually 
 breaks ; it is plain in this instance, that an absolute 
 fracture must ensue, since the force originally su- 
 perior to the full cohesion of the particle at D, and 
 a certain portion of the cohesion of all the rest, 
 w ill become more than superior to the full cohesion 
 ofthe particle next within D, and a smaller portion 
 of the cohesiotf" ofthe remainder. 
 
 Let F, represent as before, the full force of the 
 exterior fibre D, exerted by it in the moment of 
 breaking, when the force exerted at the same instant 
 by the fibre E, will be shewn by this analogy, viz 
 
 d : x :: f : and the force really exerted by the 
 
 fibre E, is 
 
 The force exerted by a fibre whose thickness is x. 
 f x x 
 
 is therefore — but this foree resists the strain 
 d 
 
 through its being enabled to act by means of the 
 
 • fx ^ x 
 
 lever E A, or x, its momentum therefore, is -1— 
 and the aggregate momentum of all the fibres in the 
 
 line A E, will be f /*!?• This, when x, is taken 
 J d 
 
 equal to d, will express the momentum ofthe whole 
 
 fibres in the line AD, which is f-^- or fd X 
 
 now f d expresses the absolute cohesion of the whole 
 line A D. The accumulated momentum, is conse- 
 quently the same as if the absolute cohesion of the 
 whole line were exerted at the distance of one Jhird 
 of A D, from A. 
 
 From the preceding, it follows, that the equatiou 
 expressing the equilibrium of the strain and cohe- 
 sion, is p l=f d '/(. % d, from whence the following 
 analogy may be deduced, viz. “ As thrice the 
 length is to the depth, so is the absolute cohesion to 
 the relative strength." 
 
 This equation and proportion apply equally to 
 rectangular beams, whose breadth may be b; since 
 we shall fhen have p 1 f b d X id. 
 
 We see, also, that the relative strength is not only 
 proportioned to the absolute cohesion of the par- 
 ticles, and to the breadth, but to the square of the 
 depth directly, and to the length inversely: forp is 
 the measure of the force with which it is resisted, 
 
 and p === ^ . In this respect, 
 
 therefore, the hypothesis, coincides with that of 
 Galileo, except, that it assigns to every beam a 
 smaller proportion of the absolute cohesion in the 
 section of fracture, in the proportion of three to 
 two. Galileo supposes that this section has a mo- 
 mentum equal to one half of its absolute strength, 
 while in our hypothesis, it is only one third. In 
 beams of a different form, the proportion may be 
 different. 
 
 The consideration of the intricate problem of 
 the elastic curve, which was first investigat- 
 ed by the celebrated James Bernouilli, is too deep 
 and profound to be discussed in a publication like 
 this, and we shall therefore briefly observe, in the 
 first place, that the elastic curve cannot be a circle, 
 but becomes gradually more incurvated, in propor- 
 tion as it recedes from the point where the strain- 
 ing forces are applied. At this point it has no cur- 
 vature, and if the bar were extended even beyond 
 this point, still there would be no curvature. Jn 
 conformity with this principle, when a beam is sup- 
 ported at the ends, and loaded in the middle, the 
 curvature is greatest in the middle : but at the 
 props, or beyond them, if the beam extend farther, 
 there is no curvature. Therefore, when a beam 
 Y y projecting 
 
174 : 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 projecting 20 feet from a wall, is bent to a certain | 
 curvature at the wall, by a weight suspended at the 
 end, and a beam of the same size projecting 20 feet, 
 is bent to the very same curvature at the wall, by a 
 greater weight, at 10 feet distance, the figure and the 
 mechanical state of the beam in the vicinity of the 
 wall, is different in these two cases, though the cur- 
 vature close to the wall is the same in both. In the 
 former case every part of the beam is incurvated ; 
 sn the latter, all beyond the 10 feet, is without cur- 
 vature. In the former case the curvature at the 
 distance of five feet from the wall, is three fourths 
 of the curvature at the wall ; in the latter, the cur- 
 vature at the same place, is only one half of that at 
 the wall. This circumstance must tend to weaken 
 the long beam, throughout the whole interval of five 
 ft*ef, because the greater curvature resalts from the 
 greater extension of the fibres. 
 
 In the next place, we may remark, that a certain 
 determinate curvature being suitable to every beam, 
 it cannot be exceeded without breaking it ; since 
 two adjoining particles are thereby separated, and 
 an end is put to their cohesion. A fibre, can be ex- 
 tended only to a certain degree of its length. The 
 ultimate extension of the outer fibres, must bear a 
 certain proportion to its length, and this proportion 
 is similar in the point of depth, to the radius of ul- 
 timate curvature, which is, therefore, determinate. 
 Consequently, a beam of uniform breadth and depth, 
 is most incurvated where the strain is greatest, and 
 will necessarily break in the most incurvated part. 
 But by changing its form, so as to render the 
 strength of its different sections in the ratio of the 
 strain, it is evident that the curvature will be the 
 
 sqme throughout, or that it may be made to vary 
 according to any law. 
 
 Again, since the depth of the beam is thus pro- 
 portioned to the radius of ultimate curvature, this 
 curvature is inversely as the depth, and may be ex- 
 pressed by - . 
 
 d 
 
 We may observe also, that when a weight is sus- 
 pended on the end of a prismatic beam, tbe curva- 
 ture bears a very near proportion to the weight, 
 and the length directly, and to the breadth and 
 the cube of the depth inversely; for the 
 
 strength is known to be and let us suppose 
 
 that this produces the ultimate curvature V, when, 
 
 d 
 
 if the b°am be loaded with a smaller weight w, and 
 if the consequent curvature be represented by C, 
 
 we shall have 
 
 bd2f 
 3.1 ' W 
 
 C : consequent- 
 ly, by incorporating the extreme and mean terms, 
 and reducing the resulting equation, we shall de- 
 
 duce C This ma J be said also of a beam 
 
 supported at its ends, and loaded between tbe props ; 
 by the same method, the curvature may be deter- 
 mined in its different parts, whether it arises from 
 the load, from its weight, or from the united opera- 
 tion of both. 
 
 When a weight operates either at one end, or in 
 the middle of a beam, the point where this weight 
 is applied is necessarily bent down, and the distance- 
 through wdiich it descends, has been termed the 
 deflection ; this may be considered as tiie versed 
 sine of the arch into which the beam is bent, by the 
 operation of the weight, and, therefore, is as the 
 curvature when the length of the arch is given, (ad- 
 mitting the flexure to be moderate) or as the square 
 of the length of the arch, when the curvature is 
 given. The deflection consequently is as the curva- 
 ture, and as the square of the length of the arch 
 
 jointly; that, s, as 12 x-j-^or as 
 
 The deflection from the original shape, is as the 
 bending weight and the cube of the length 
 directly, and as the breadth and the cube of 
 the depth inversely. 
 
 We may further observe, that in beams just rea- 
 dy to break, the curvature is proportioned to the in- 
 verse depth, and that the deflection bears a propor- 
 tion to the square ofthe length divided by the depth ; 
 for the ultimate curvature at the breaking part is 
 constantly the same whatever may be the length ; 
 and in this case the deflection is as the square ofthe 
 length. 
 
 From this subject may be deduced various theo- 
 rems, which afford excellent methods of enquiry, 
 into the laws of corpuscular action. James Ber- 
 noulli, however, called this law, (which was origin- 
 ally laid down by t!ie celebrated Dr. Hooke,) into 
 question. Mariotte corrected it ; but yet it does not 
 properly explain the mechanism of transverse strains, 
 as has been fully proved by various experiments. 
 
 Du Ilamel made assiduous researches into the- 
 compressibility of bodies, which tended to confirm 
 the observation of an eminent philosopher ; “ that 
 the power of resisting a transverse strain is diminish, 
 ed by compressibility, and so much the more di. . 
 minished as the stuff is more compressible.” 
 
 Du Hamel, took 16 bars of willow, 2 feet long, 
 and \ an inch square, and after supporting them by 
 props under the ends, he subjected them to the 
 operation of weights suspended at the middle. 
 Four of them were broken by weights of 40, 4 !, 47 
 and 52 pounds ; the mean of which is 45ibs. He 
 then cut through one third of four of them, on the 
 upper side, and filled up each cut, with a thin piece 
 of harder w ood stuck in tolerably tight. These se- 
 I veral 
 
CARPENTRY 
 
 veral pieces were then broken by weights of 48, 
 54, 50 and 52 pounds ; the mean of which is 511bs. 
 Four others were then cut through one half, and 
 broken by 47, 49, 50 and561bs; the mean of which 
 is 481bs. The other four were cut through two- 
 thirds, and their mean strength was 42lbs. 
 
 At another time Du Hamel took six battens of 
 willow 36 inches long, and 1£ square; after suitable 
 experiments, he found that they were broken by 
 525 pounds at a medium. 
 
 Six bars were next cut through one-third, and 
 each cut was filled with a wedge of hard wood 
 stuck in with a little force, these were broken by 
 551 pounds on the average. 
 
 Six other bars were broken by 542lbs on the me- 
 dium, w hen cut half through, and the cuts were fill- 
 ed up in a similar manner. 
 
 Six other bars were cut three-fourths through, 
 and broken by the pressure of 530 pounds on a 
 medium. 
 
 A batten was cut three-fourths through, and load- 
 ed until nearly broken, it was then unloaded, and a 
 thicker wedge was introduced tightly into the cut, 
 so as to straighten the batten, by tilling up the space 
 left by the compression of the wood, when the bat- 
 ten was broken by 577 pounds. 
 
 From these experiments we may, perceive that 
 more than two-thirds of the thickness, we may, 
 perhaps, with safety say nearly three-fourths con- 
 tributed nothing to the strength. From hence, we 
 see also, that the compressibility, of bodies has a 
 very great influence on their power of w ithstand- 
 ing a transverse strain. We may observe, likewise, 
 that in this most favourable supposition of equal 
 dilatations and compressions, the strength is reduc- 
 ed to one half of the value of what it would have 
 been, had the body been incompressible ; and, al- 
 though this may not seem obvious, at first sight, yet 
 it w ill, readily, appear when the case is considered. 
 In the instant of fracture, a smaller portion of the 
 section exerts its actual cohesive forces, while a part 
 of it serves only as a fulcrum to the lever, by whose 
 means the strain on the section is produced ; and 
 we may further perceive, that this diminution of 
 strength does not depend so much on the sensible 
 compressibility, as on the proportion it bears to the 
 power of being dilated by equal forces. The fore- 
 going experiments on battens of willow, moreover 
 shew, that its compressibility is very nearly equal to 
 its dilatability. 
 
 Experiment alone can render us efficient aid, in 
 investigating the degree of proportion that exists 
 between the compressibility, and dilatability of bo- 
 dies ; and the nature of the strain we have just 
 been considering, is peculiarly adapted to guide us 
 jn. the research. Thus, if a piece of w ood, an inch 
 square, requires 12000 pounds to tear it asunder by 
 a direct pull, while 200 pounds will break it trans- 
 versely, by acting JO inches from the centre of frac- 
 
 AND JOINERY. 175 
 
 ture, we may conclude that the attractive and repul- 
 sive forces are equal. Ry the ideas we entertain 
 concerning the particular constitution of such 
 fibrous bodies as timber, we are led to conceive that 
 the sensible compression, which arises from the 
 bending up of the compressed fibres, are much great- 
 er than the real corpuscular extensions. Tins cir- 
 cumstance, however, will be better comprehended, 
 after we have considered what must happen during 
 the fracture. An undulated fibre can be drawn 
 straight only, when the corpuscular extension 
 begins ; but it may be bent up by compression to 
 any degree, the corpuscular compression, being but 
 little affected all the time. This fact is of an im- 
 portant nature. Though the forces of corpuscular 
 repulsion, may be deemed almost insuperable by any 
 compression we can employ, a sensible compression, 
 nevertheless may be produced, by forces not enor- 
 mous, but sufficient to cripple the beam. 
 
 The proportional strengths of different pieces, fol- 
 low the same ratio ; for, although the relative 
 strength of a prismatic solid have been considered 
 as extremely different in the foregoing hypotheses, 
 yet the proportional strengths of different pieces fol- 
 low the same ratio, that is, the direct ratio of the 
 breadth, the direct ratio of the square of the depth, 
 and the inverse ratio of the length. We derive, al- 
 so, from this important tact, tiie useful information, 
 that the strength of a piece depends most on those 
 dimensions which lie in the direction of the strain ; 
 or, to use other words, it depends more on its depth 
 than on its thickness. The strength of a bar of 
 timber, two inches in depth, and one in thickness^ 
 is four times more than that of a bar of an inch 
 square, while, at the same time, it is twice as strong 
 as a bar two inches .broad, and an inch deep. The 
 manner in which cohesion opposes itself to a strain, 
 may be farther exhibited and applied, by supposing 
 a triangular beam to be fixed firmly by one end in 
 a wail, with its other end unsupported, and to be 
 acted on by a certain weight ; in which position it 
 will bear three times more weight, when one of its 
 sides is uppermost, as it would if it w ere undermost. 
 Thus, for example, the triangular beam, delineated 
 at Figure 4, is tlnee times as strong, when the side 
 A R is uppermost, and the edge D C is undermost, 
 as it wouid have been, if the edge D C were upper- 
 most, and the side A R undermost. 
 
 Hence, also, we may find, that the strongest rect- 
 angular beam, which can be cut out of a given cy- 
 lindrical tree, is not that, which contains the great- 
 est quantity of timber, but that the product of whose 
 breadth, by the square of its depth, is a maximum, or 
 the greatest possible. The following solution will 
 shew', that the squares of the breadth and depth 
 with the square of the diameter, are, respectively, as 
 the numbers 1, 2 and 3. 
 
 In Figure 5, let A R, the diameter of the cylin- 
 drical tree, be designated by D } let the depth A C, 
 
 •f 
 
176 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 of the beam, be shewn by d, and the breadth B C j 
 by x, then, when B C, is horizontal, the lateral | 
 strength w ill be truly represented by d 2 x, which, jj 
 agreeably to the conditions of the problem, must be 
 a maximum ; but we know, from the nature of the 
 figure, that A C 2 = A B 2 — B C 2 , or d 2 = D 2 — 
 x 2 , hence, then (D 2 — x 2 ) x =D 2 x— x3 expresses 
 
 the maximum : this put in fluxions, is D 2 x — 
 
 3 x 2 x =o, or D 2 x = 3 x 2 x, whence 3 x 2 == D 2 
 and therefore d 2 = D- — x 2 =3 x 2 — x 2 —2 x 2 , 
 consequently x 2 : d 2 : D 2 :: I : 2 : 3 as before ob- 
 served* 
 
 From this solution, we deduce the following very 
 easy mode of construction, which every practical 
 carpenter may apply with the greatest facility. 
 Divide the diameter A B, into three equal parts, at 
 the points E F ; erect the perpendiculars E D, F C, 
 and join the points C D, to the extremities of the 
 diameter, when A B C D, will be a section of the 
 rectangular beam required. For, in consequence 
 of A E, A D, and A B, being in continued propor- 
 tion, we have A E : AB :: A D 2 : A B 2 ; and simi- 
 larly A F : A B :: A C 2 : A B 2 . Ifence, A E : 
 A F : A B :: A D 2 : A C 2 : A B 2 :: 1 : 2 : 3. 
 
 The ratio of x to d, is very nearly that of 3 to 
 7, or still more neariy, that of 12 to 17. 
 
 The strength of A B C D, is to that of A a B b, 
 as 10000 to 9186, and the weight and expence, are 
 as 10000 to 10607 ; so that A B C D, is preferable 
 to A a B b, in the proportion of 10607, to 9186, or 
 nearly as 115 to 100. 
 
 A square beam from the same cylinder, would 
 have its side =Dy/| = f Dy'S. Its solidity would 
 be to that of the strongest beam, as \ D 2 to 4 D 2 
 y/2, or as | to | ^/2, or as 5 to '4714; while its 
 strength would be to that of the strongest beam as 
 (D|/|) 3 to Dy/| y fD 2 , or as Iy/2 to %\Z3> or as 
 3560 to 3849. 
 
 We may further remark, in conformity with the 
 observation just now made, that either of these 
 beams will be enabled to exert its greatest lateral 
 strength, when the diagonal part of one of its ends 
 is placed in a vertical position; since, from the area 
 of the section being the same in both positions, the 
 strength is known to vary in the same manner as the 
 distance of the centre of gravity varies from the 
 base of fracture ; but when one of the sides is verti- 
 cal as in Figure 6, the distance of the centre of gra- 
 vity of the end will be A I or I D, that is, equal 
 to half the side ; whereas in the case where the di- 
 agonal is vertical, as in Figure 7, that distance will 
 be C £ or E I), that is, half the diagonal. 
 
 By the application of the same principle, we may 
 discover, that a hollow tube is stronger than a 
 solid rod containing the same quantity of matter. 
 
 Let the diagram, delineateid~at Figure 10, repre- 
 
 sent the section of a cylindrical tube, of which A F 
 and B E are the exterior and interior diameters, and 
 C the centre ; draw B D perpendicular to B C, and 
 join D C ; then because B D 2 = C D 2 — C B 2 , 
 B D is the measure of the radius of a circle, which 
 1 contains the same quantity of matter as the ring. If 
 | the strength be estimated by the first hypothesis, the 
 ; strength of the tube will be to that of the solid cy- 
 linder, whose radius is B D, as A C y B D 2 to 
 B D X B D 2 , or as A C to B D by division of 
 ratio. 
 
 Otherwise, let A B E, H I K, as in Figures 9 and 
 10, represent the ends of two cylinders of equal 
 length, and containing equal quantities of matter, 
 the former of which, however, is supposed to form 
 the section ofa tube, composed of cylinders with a 
 common axis. We know that the lateral strengths 
 are conjointly, as the areas and the distances of the 
 centres of gravity of the sections, from A or from B, 
 accordingly as the fractures may terminate at the 
 one or the other point ; but the areas of the annulus, 
 in Figure 9, and of the circle in Fig. 10, are equal, 
 and the centres of gravity of both are at their centres 
 of magnitude, for which reason, since the radii vary 
 in the same manner as the diameters, the strengths, 
 in this case, also vary in a similar ratio. 
 
 When the area of a circular section is given, its 
 diameter is greater if the section form an annulus, 
 than when it is a circle without any cavity ; and 
 since the power, with which the parts of the cylinder 
 resist the operation of extraneous force, is greater 
 in the same proportion, it follows, according to the 
 theory thus stated, that the strength may be increas- 
 ed, indefinitely, without increasing the quantity of 
 matter. 
 
 The absurdity of this conclusion becomes mani- 
 fest, when we enquire, will not the tube be render- 
 ed flaccid after the diameter exceeds a certain limit, 
 and therefore bend under the smallest additional 
 weight ? The fact is simply this, the foregoing theory 
 is founded on the supposition, that the figure of the 
 section will constantly remain circular; but this 
 supposition does not apply, except under those cir- 
 cumstances, where the pressure or stroke upon the 
 tube, will not cause its section to degenerate from its 
 circular shape to an elliptical, or any other figure. 
 
 By way of illustration, let a hole be bored, 
 lengthwise, through a cylinder of half its diameter, 
 then the strength in this instance, is diminished fth. 
 while the quantity of matter is diminished *th. 
 
 Galileo, from a consideration of this subject justly 
 concludes, that nature, in a thousand operations, 
 greatly augments the strength of substances without 
 increasing thc-ir weight ; as is manifested in the 
 bones of animals, and the feathers of birds, as well 
 as in most tubes, or hollow trunks, which though light, 
 greatly resist any effort made to bend or break 
 them. “ Thus (says he) if a wheat straw, which 
 supports an ear that is heavier than the whole 
 
 stalk 
 
177 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 were made of the same quantity of matter but solid, 
 it would bend or break with far greater ease than it 
 now does And witli the same reason art has ob- 
 served, and experience confirmed, that an hollow 
 cane, or tube of w ood or metal, is much stronger 
 and more firm, than if, while it continued of the 
 same weight and length, it were solid, as it would 
 then, of consequence, be not so thick ; and therefore 
 art has contrived a method to make lances hollow' 
 within, when they are required to be both light and 
 strong.” In this instance, as in many others, imi- 
 tating the wisdom of nature. 
 
 In all such instauces, however, there is an obvious 
 distinction between the works ofnature and those of 
 art ; “ in the former” (as M. Girard remarks, when 
 treating of the same subject,) “ the cause and effect 
 essentially agree : the one cannot uudergo any mo- 
 dification, w ithout the others experiencing a corres- 
 pondent change ; or, to speak more precisely, a new 
 effect always results from a new cause. — In the pro- 
 ductions of human industry, on the contrary, there 
 is no necessary proportion between the effect and 
 cause; if, for example, a determinate weight is to 
 be raised, it is indifferent whether w e use the thread 
 which has precisely the adequate force, or the cable 
 which has a superahundent one ; while, if the same 
 weight had rested naturally suspended, it would 
 have done so by means of fibres peculiarly appropri- 
 ated, in their organization, to the object, and whose 
 disposition would have presented the most advan- 
 tageous form. Perfection resides in a single point, 
 at which nature arrives without effort ; w hile man 
 is obliged, by repeated trials, to pass over an im- 
 mense space which separates 1) im fr®m it.” 
 
 Our best engineers have w isely begun to imitate 
 nature, by making many parts of their machinery 
 hollow, such as t ; e axles of cast iron &c. 
 
 In the supposition of homogeneous texture, the 
 fracture happens as soon as the particles on the up- 
 per sides 1) A, Figure 11, are separated beyond 
 their utmost limit of cohesion ; this is a determined 
 quantity, and the piece bends until a similar degree 
 of extension is produced in the outermost fibre. It- 
 follows, as a very necessary consequence, that the 
 smaller we suppose the distance to be, between the 
 upper, part of the beam and the centre of frac- 
 ture C, the greater w ill be the curvature acquired 
 by the beam before it breaks. We may perceive, 
 therefore, that an increase of depth not only renders 
 a beam stronger, but stiffer; how ever, if the parallel 
 fibres are supposed to slide on each other, the degree 
 ofstreegth and stiffness will be diminished. In- 
 stead of one beam, let us, by way of illustration, 
 suppose A B C 1), and C D E l’, to represent two 
 equal beams, which do not-co-here, but whose ag- 
 gregate maguitude.shaU- be equal to the former bcarov 
 In tins iiHtajice it is plain that each of them w ill 
 bend, and that the extension of the fibres C 1) of the 
 under beam will not, by any means, prevent the 
 
 I compression of the adjoining fibres C D of the upper 
 beam. The two beams therefore, instead of being four 
 times as strong as a single beam, will only be of 
 twice the strength ; and they w ill moreover bend as 
 much as a single beam would be affected, by half 
 the load. This, undoubtedly, could be prevented, 
 if it were possible to unite the two beams firmly in 
 the joint C D, so as to prevent one from sliding on 
 the other. In smaller works, however, it may be 
 effected by gluing them together with a cement, 
 proportioned, in point of strength, to the natural 
 lateral cohesion of the fibres; 
 
 But as this desideratum cannot be obtained in 
 large works, the sliding may be prevented by jog- 
 | s>ling (he beams together : various methods for 
 | which have been already exhibited in our third plate 
 I of Carpentry. 
 
 j It is, nevertheless, possible to combine strength 
 I with pliability, by forming a beam of several thim 
 i planks laid on each other, tilLthey form the requjr- 
 | ed depth, and afterwards leav ing them at full liber- 
 I tv to slide on each other. Coacii springs are formed 
 ’after this mode, as is shewn in Figure 12. Neither 
 j joggles nor holts of any kind should be introduced A 
 among the planks ; but they must be kept together 
 solely by straps contrived so as to surround them, 
 or by something else of a similar nature. 
 
 From long experience, practical meuhave been ena- 
 bled to introduce into their constructions many princi- 
 ples which sound theory does not decline to sanction. 
 This,- for instance, when a mortise is required to be 
 cut out of a piece exposed to a cross strain, it should 
 betaken from that side which becomes concave by 
 the strain, as in Figure 13, but by no means as in 
 Figure IF. 
 
 Farther, when a pieceis to be strengthened by the' 
 addition of another, the piece to be added, should be 
 fixed to the side which grows convex by the strain, 
 as in Figures 15 and 16. 
 
 We shall next consider the analogy that exists be- 
 ! tw een the strain on a beam projecting from a wall, and 
 j loaded at the extremity, and a beam supported at 
 I both ends, and loaded at some intermediate part. 
 
 | Let A C H, Figure 16, represent the beam sup-' 
 
 I ported by the props A and B, and loaded at its mid-' 
 j die point C, w ith a weight W ; when it is evident 
 ! that the beam will receive the same Support, and 
 become subject to the same strain, as if, instead of 
 i the supports A and B, the' ropes A a E, B b F, 
 
 | w hich pass over the pullies a, b, were to be substi- 
 ; tuted, and have the proper weights E, F, fastened to 
 ! them. These weights are equal to the suppoVt af- 
 ■ forded by the points of support, while their sum is 
 equivalent to the weight W; and' on whatever 
 point W, may be bung, -the weights E and J’, are to 
 j the weight \V, in the proportion of D B, and 1) A, 
 
 ; to A B. from hence,: it appears, that the strain on 
 the section G 1), ''arises immediately from the upward 
 1 action of- the rones A a, and B b, er from the. pres- 
 Z z sure 
 
178 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 sure exerted upwards by tfoS points of support A and 
 
 B, and the office of the weight W, is obliging the 
 beam to oppose this strain. The beam has a ten- 
 dency to break in the section C D, because the ropes 
 pull it upwards at E and G, while the weight W, 
 confines it down at G. It inclines to open at D, and 
 
 C, becomes the centre of fracture. The strain, 
 therefore, is the same as if the half A D, were fixed 
 in the wall, and a weight equal to the one-fourth of 
 W, were applied at G. 
 
 From these circumstances we may conclude, that 
 a beam supported, but not fixed at. both ends, and 
 loaded in the middle, will bear four times as much 
 weight as it would be capable of supporting at one 
 extremity, when tlie other is last in a wall. 
 
 The strain occasioned at any point I, by a weight 
 
 in the middle part, as it would be wjien deprived of 
 the two remote eonnections. 
 
 It may be thought, perhaps, from the preceding 
 observation, that the joist of a floor, or a girder, 
 will derive an increase of strength, from being firm- 
 ly built in the wall. However plausible this idea 
 may appear, the fact is, that it derives but little ad- 
 ditional strength, for the hold thus afforded to it, is 
 too circumscribed m its effect, to render much essen- 
 tial service, and farther, it tends greatly to shatter 
 and crack the wall, when the beam is pressed by any 
 considerable load, since it forces im the Avail with 
 all the energy of a long lever. For this reason, 
 those builders who are most eminent for their prac- 
 tical knowledge, never allow the ends of their joists 
 or girders, to be bound tight in walls ; but Avhen the 
 
 W, suspended at any other point D, is W X B 1 5 1 joists of adjoining rooms lie in the same direction, 
 DA • • i j ; they justly consider it a great advantage gained, to 
 
 1 or it is known, that An J AD 1 . *» l the p have thorn in one piece, because, in that form, they 
 
 | are twice as strong as when composed of tivo 
 | lengths. 
 
 j Having taken a vieiv of the circumstances which 
 I affect the strength of any section of a solid body, 
 
 | when strained transversely, it may next be proper (o 
 | take noticeof some of the chief modifications of the 
 I strain itself, that occur most frequently in our con- 
 | structions. 
 
 This strain depends on the operation of external 
 ! force, and also on the lever on which it acts ; for, 
 j! since the strain may be produced in any section, by 
 Aihen D forms tlie;! nieans ofthe cohesion of those parts which intervene 
 '! between the section, (under consideration), and the 
 1 point of application of the external force, the body 
 I must have sufficient energy in all those intervening 
 j parts, to excite the strain in the remote section, and 
 in every part it must be able to resist the strain ex- 
 
 X A B 
 
 pressure occasioned at B. This would be balanced 
 by some weight F, acting over the pulley b, which 
 tends to break the beam at I, by acting on the lever 
 
 I B. The pressure at B, is W and there- 
 
 D A x 
 
 tore the strain at I, is W X J B 
 In a similar maim 
 
 1 B. 
 
 when tee strain occasioned 
 A D 
 
 at the point D, by the weight V/, is W X ^ p X 
 
 1) B, which is equal to -§ W. 
 middle point. 
 
 Hence then, we deduce, that the general strain on 
 a beam arising from a particular weight, bears a 
 proportion to the rectangle of the parts composing 
 
 the beam, and is greatest Avhen the load is laid on tlie j I - , , 
 
 fiddle of the beam, which latter circumstance, is c,ted in that part 1 he body, therefore, ought to be 
 anfirmed by daily experience. 1 equally strong, it is useless to have any one part 
 
 confirmed by daily experience, 
 
 Farther the strain at I, by a load at D, is equ; 
 
 . 11 stronger ; because the piece will nevertheless break 
 5 ! when it is not stronger throughout, and it is useless 
 
 to the strain at I) l.v the same load at 1 and then to make j, stronger ™ith resard to its strain, for it 
 
 ^irzilll :it I tivim n nurl II ie ir\ t ho L't»*oin Air tno i I . . " s! .. . . . 1 
 
 strain at 1, from a load at I), is to the strain by the 
 same load at I, as I) A, is to I A. If ive noAv sup- 
 pose the beam to be firmly framed at the two ends 
 L M, into the upright posts L N, M O, placed be- 
 
 ij Avill, neAertheless, equally tail in the part that is too 
 ' 1 weak. 
 
 If the strain arises from a weight suspended at one 
 extremity, Avhile the other end is supposed to lie ftx- 
 
 yond the former points of support A B, then it will ’ ed firm , - in a wall . or if eactl transverse section of 
 carry twice as much as when its ends Avere free : for tllA H«,m ho rprtanomlnr • «W» ; .ro «ovProl of 
 
 admitting the beam to be sawn through at C D, the 
 Aveight W, suspended there, Avill be but just suffici- 
 ent to break it at A and B, Avhile, by restoring the 
 
 the beam be rectangular ; there are several Avays of 
 i forming the beam so as to render it equally strong 
 
 i throughout. 
 
 r , „ 1 Let Figure 17, represent the intended beam, 
 connection of the fibres composing the section G I), which is £ xed to the Vertical Avail B E, and has a 
 it mil require anotner weight W, to break it there wei , t w suspended at A, its extremity. It is ob- 
 a le same ime. I 1 vious that the effort made by the weight W, upon 
 
 It should be observed, therefore, that lvhen any ar ,y point D, ofthe beam, will, by the common pro- 
 piece of timber is firmly connected at three fixed perties of the lever, be as the rectangle W X A D 
 points B, A, L , il will bear a greater load between., or as \ () since the weight W is constant and inva- 
 any two of thorn, than if it had no connection with j r iable. The strength also at any point D, is as the 
 the remote point ; and if it be firmly fastened at the : breadth into the square of the depth at that place, 
 lour points L, A, B, M, it will be twice as strong or as the breadth C D, the depth being constant. 
 
 ii Consequently 
 
carpentry and joinery. 
 
 17-0 
 
 OfcnsequPfitly, when the beam is equally strong 
 throughout, the strength and stress are in an invaria- 
 ble ratio, and we shall have CD, constantly as A C ; 
 and therefore A C D must be a rectilineal triangle, 
 and the form of the beam a wedge. 
 
 Again, it we suppose the beam to be of uniform 
 breadth, its length must be proportional every 
 where to the square of its depth, if it be fixed hori- 
 zontally by one end in a wall, and a weight operate 
 on the extremity of the other. 
 
 The following solution, will exhibit this most in- 
 teresting particular, in a clear point ofview. 
 
 On referring to Figure 18, we observe that the 
 stress is as the lei’S'tii A D in the same manner as in 
 the preceding, and that the strength is as the breadth 
 into the square of the depth, or because the breadth 
 is constant by the conditions of the problem, the 
 strength is as C D- . But the stress and strain must 
 remain in a constant ratio : wherefore A D must va- 
 ry as C D 2 ; this law, it may be bserved, acts inva- 
 riably throughout the figure, and is the well known 
 property of a parabola whose vertex is A. 
 
 The following circumstance, which is worthy of 
 notice, may be immediately deduced from the pre- 
 ceding solution, by way of corollary. Since the par- 
 abola is f of the parallelogram which circumscribes 
 i . ;t follows, that parabolic beams require less mat- 
 t -r i:;an prismatic ones ; this circumstance maybe be- 
 neficially attended to, in cases where iron is used. — 
 
 It is also deserving of remark. 
 
 That the beams of balances intended to support 
 very great weights, may be constructed of a parabo- 
 lic shape, which will have the effect of saving materi- 
 als w ithout any diminution of useful strength. 
 
 To pursue this subject still farther, let us suppose 
 that another beam has one end fixed to a wall, and 
 is diminished gradually towards the other end, 
 where a weight, if suspended, so that all its vertical 
 sections, such as circles, squares, similar polygons 
 &c. may lye similar ; in this case, in order to render 
 the beam equally strong throughout, the bounding] 
 curve must be in the form of a cubic parabola. j 
 
 similar, the strengths will varyas the cubes of the 
 depths. Hence, in this case, AF is as D C3 , which 
 is a well known property of the cubic parabola. 
 
 All these modes of forming beams render them 
 equally strong in all their parts, and they are all 
 supposed to have the same section at the front of : 
 the wall, or at the fulcrum. They are not, however, 
 equally stiff. The beam represented in Fig. 17, 
 will bend the least, upon the whole, while that in 
 Figure K), will bend the most, but the curvatures 
 at the fulcrum will be precisely the same in all the 
 beams. 
 
 The same principles, and the same construction, ! 
 apply to beams when supported at their ends, and 
 loaded at some intermediate part 
 
 We have hitherto confined our remarks to the 
 supposition that theexternal straining force acts only 
 in one point of the beam. But, it is proper to ob- 
 serve, that this may be uniformly distributed all 
 over the beam. To form a beam equally strong 
 under such circumstances, the shape must be contriv- 
 ed very differently from the former. 
 
 If we suppose a beam to project from a wall, and 
 to be of equal breadth tlioughout, with its 9ides form- 
 ing vertical planes parallel to each other, and to the 
 length the vertical section, in the direction of its 
 length, must be a triangle instead of a common par- 
 abola : since the weight uniformly distributed over 
 the part, from lying beyond any section, is as the 
 length beyond that section, and since also this 
 wav it may be considered as collected at its centre 
 of grav ity, which of course is the middle of that 
 length, the lever by which this load strains the sec- 
 tion of cour>e bears a proportion to the same length. 
 The strain on the section is as the square of that 
 lengthy and the section must have strength in the 
 same proportion. From its strengths being a-s the 
 breadth, and the square of the depth, and from the 
 breadths being constant, the square of the depth of 
 any section must be as the square of its distance from 
 the end, and the depth must be as that distance; and, 
 therefore, the longitudinal vertical section must form 
 a triangle. 
 
 But if all the transverse sections are supposed to 
 be squares, circles, or any other similar figures, the 
 strength of every section must be proportioned to 
 the square of the lengths beyond that section, or the 
 square of those sections, distance from the end; in 
 which case, the sides of the beum must be a semicu- 
 bical parabola. 
 
 If the upper and undersurfaces are supposed to be 
 horizontal planes, it is evident that the breadth must 
 be proportioned to the square of the distance from 
 the end; and the horizontal sections maybe formed 
 by arches of the common parabola, having the length 
 for their tangents at the vertex. 
 
 We shall next direct our attention to the proper 
 form of a beam intended to be fixed at one end, and 
 uniformly loaded throughout its whole length, so as 
 it may be rendered equally strong in all its parts. 
 The vertical sides of this beam we will suppose to 
 be parallel planes, in which case the beam will be of 
 equal thickness throughout, and, therefore, the 
 strength at any part D C, will be as C D 2 ., or a's 
 C c 2 , accordingly as A DB, or A c B, represent the 
 bottom of the beam ( Fig. 20). Now the stress at 
 the point D, is as the rectangle A D,X^ B; for 
 which reason C D 2 or C c 2 must vary as A D,xb B, 
 in order to ensure equal strength throughout. This, 
 it is well known, is the fundamental principle of the 
 ellipse, the vertices of which are A and B. 
 
 If the transverse sections be similar, we roust 
 make C D 2 , as A CxC B. 
 
 If the upper and under surfaces are parallel, the 
 1 breadth roust be as A C X C B, 
 
 If, 
 
i80 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 If, however, the beam is necessarily loaded at some 
 given point C, and we would have it equally able, 
 in all its parts, to resist the strain arising from the 
 weight at C, we must proportion the strength of 
 every transverse section between C, and either end, 
 to its distance from that end; for which reason, if 
 the sides are parallel vertical planes, we must make 
 CD-’: E F- : : A C : A E. 
 
 If the sections are similar, then C IP : E I ' 3 ;; 
 A C : A E. 
 
 Ifthe upper and under surfaces are parallel, then 
 the breadth at C : breadth at E; ; A C: A E. 
 
 The same principles lead to the conclusion, that 
 all circular plates, whether large or small, provided 
 they be of the same matter and thickness, and sup- 
 ported all round on the edges, will bear equal 
 weights. This conclusion applies also to square 
 plates, or any other ones of a similar figure. 
 
 The w-eight, moreover, which a square plate will 
 bear, is to that able to be borne by a bar of the same 
 matter and thickness, as twice the length of the bar 
 to its breadth. 
 
 There is yet another modification of the strain 
 which tends to break a body transversely, and which 
 occurs very frequently ; this is the strain arising 
 from, its own weight, and it requires some considera- 
 tion in many instances. 
 
 When a beam projects from a wall, every section 
 is strained, by the weight of all that projects beyond 
 it. This weight may be considered as operating at 
 its centre of gravity. Hence, the strain on any sec- 
 tion is*iu the joint ratio of the weight of the part 
 which projects beyond it, and the distance of its cen- 
 tre of gravity from the section. 
 
 The determination of this strain, as well as of the 
 strength required to withstand it, is more difficult of 
 attainment than the former, because the mode in 
 which the piece may be formed to meet or adjust the 
 strain, has a considerable influence or. the strain i t- 
 '•elf. It may be admitted, perhaps, as a general 
 principle, that the strength of cohesion in every sec- 
 tion, must be as the product of the weig ht beyond it 
 multiplied by the distance of its centre of gravity. 
 The result of the application of this general princi- 
 ple is, that the depth must be as the square of the 
 distance from the extremity, and the curve will then 
 form a parabola touching the horizontal axis of the 
 figure. 
 
 We may perceive, therefore, that a conoid formed 
 by the rotation of this figure round its axis, will 
 have sufficient strength m every .section, to bear its 
 o\vn weight. 
 
 A projecting beam becopres- less, able to bear its . 
 own weight, in proportion to the extent qf its far- 
 ther projection ; and whatever, may be the strength 
 of the section, the length, nevertheless, may be such 
 as to render it liable to break, bv. its own weight. 
 For instance, if we suppose two- beams to be com- j 
 posed of similar matter, with their diameters and i 
 
 lengths in equal proportion, but that the shorter 
 beam can only just bear its own weight, then the 
 longer beam will not be able to do the same ; since 
 the strengths of the sections, are as the cubes of the 
 diameter, while the strains are as the fourth powers 
 oft he same. 
 
 From these considerations, we may take it for 
 granted, that in all cases where a strain is produced 
 by the weight of the parts composing a machine, or 
 structure of any kind, the smaller bodies are more 
 capable of withstanding it than the greater. Indeed 
 a limit seems to be set by the hand of nature to the 
 size of machines, of whatever materials they may be 
 constructed; for, even when the weight of the parts, 
 composing a machine is not taken into the account, 
 i we cannot enlarge it so as to produce a similar 
 proportion in all its parts. A limit is evidently set 
 by nature to the size of animals and plants, when 
 formed of the same matter. The attraction of cohe- 
 sion in an herbcould not support it, if it were increas- 
 ed to the size of a tree, neither could ail oak support: 
 itself, if it were forty or fifty times larger than it is,, 
 nor could an animal resembling in its make, a long 
 legged spider be augmented to the size of a man. 
 
 The celebrated Dr. Gregory, has some invaluable 
 observations on this subject in his “ Treatise on* 
 Mechanics 
 
 He says “ From the preceding deductions it fol- 
 lows, that greater beams and bars must be in greater, 
 danger of breaking, than the less similar ones ; and 
 that, thougli a less beam may be firm and secure, 
 yet a greater similar one may be made so long, as. 
 necessarily to break by its own weight. Hence, 
 Galileo justly concludes that what appears very firm, 
 and succeeds well in models, may be very weak and 
 unstable, or even fall to pieces by its weight, when, 
 it conies to be executed in large dimensions, accord-, 
 ing to the model. From the same principles he 
 argues, that there are necessarily limits in the works, 
 of nature and art, which they cannot surpass in mag- 
 nitude ; that immensely great ships, palaces, tem-s 
 pics, &c. cannot be erected, their yards, beams, bolts,. 
 &c. falling asunder by reason of their weight. 
 Were trees of a very enormous magnitude, their 
 branches would, in like manner, fan off. Large 
 animals have not strength in proportion to their size;, 
 and if there w r ere any land animals much iarger than, 
 those we know, they could hardly move, and would, 
 be perpetually subjected to most dangerous accidents. 
 
 ■ As to the animals of the sea, indeed, the case is diff% 
 i event, as the gravity of the water sustains those 
 I animals in great measure, and in fact these are known. 
 
 ! to be sometimes vastly larger than the greatest land, 
 j animals ; it is, says Galileo, impossible for nature to 
 [give bones for, men, horses, .or other animals, so 
 formed, as to subsist, and proportionally to perform, 
 their offices, when such animals should be enlarged 
 to .immense .heights, unless she- uses, matter .much 
 firmer, and more resisting than she commonly does ; 
 
 !l or 
 
181 
 
 CARPENTRY A 
 
 or should make hones of a thickness out of all pro- 
 portion ; whence the figure and appearance of the 
 animal must be monstrous. This he supposes the 
 Italian poet hinted at, when he said.” 
 
 “ Whatever height we to the giant give, 
 
 He cannot without equal thickness live.” 
 
 « And this sentiment being suggested to us by per- 
 petual experience, we naturally join the idea of 
 greater strength and force with the grosser propor- 
 tions, and that of agility with the more delicate ones,- 
 The same admirable philosopher likewise remarks, 
 in connection with this subject, that a greater column 
 is in much more danger of being broken by a fall, 
 than a similar small one ; that a man is in greater 
 danger from accidents than a child; that an insect 
 can sustain a weight many times greater than itself; 
 whereas a much larger animal, as a horse, could 
 scarcely carry another horse of his own size. The 
 ingenious student may easily extend these practical 
 remarks, to any cases which may come before him.” 
 The compression of materials is another object, 
 that demands our most serious consideration. In 
 adverting to the operation of strains of this kind, it 
 is absolutely impossible to conceive how a piece of 
 timber, that is perfectly straight, can be bent, crip- 
 pled, or broken, by the application of any force what- 
 ever at the extremes, But, if a very small force 
 be supposed to act in the middle, in a direction at 
 right angles with the length, it will be sufficient to 
 give it some certain small degree of curvature ; and 
 if a powerful force be likewise supposed to act at the 
 ends, at the same time, so as both the greater and 
 the lesser force shall press on the timber in the di- 
 rection of its length, these forces will conjoin toge- 
 ther in producing the effect of a fracture. 
 
 The iirst autlu r who considered the compression 
 of columns with any degree of proper attention, was 
 the ingenions and learned Euler This eminent 
 philosopher in the Berlin Memoirs ( or 1757, publish- 
 ed his “ Theory on the strength of columns.'" The 
 general proposition endeavoured to be established 
 by this theory is, that the strength of prismatic 
 columns is in the direct quadruplicate ratio of their 
 diameters, and the inverse ratio of their lengths. lie 
 prosecuted this subject in the Petersburgh commen- 
 taries for 1778, where he confirms his former theory. 
 Muschenbroek has compared Eulers theory with the 
 results of his own experiments, but the comparison 
 has produced nothing that is satisfactory; since the 
 variation existing between the experiments and the 
 theory, is so enormous, as to offer no argument for 
 the correctness of the latter. Still, however, the ex- 
 periments do not contradict it, though they are so 
 very anomalous, as to lead to no conclusion or gen- 
 eral rule whatever. 
 
 In consequence of our intimation, that the theory 
 of Euler may be deemed erroneous, it may be asked, 
 what is the true proportion inthe strength of pillars 
 er columns ? We have not the means of giving a 
 
 ND JOINERY. 
 
 satisfactory answer, which could proceed only from 
 the result of a previous experience oftne proportion 
 existing between the extensions, and compressions, 
 produced by the operation of equal forces ; that is, 
 from knowing accurately the absolute compressions 
 produced by a given force, as well as the degree o>f 
 that derangement of par s, which is termed crippling,! 
 Unfortunately very little is known on these points, 
 and consequently a wide field of experimental enqui- 
 ry lies before us. It may be considered fortunate, 
 however, that the force required to cripple a beam is 
 prodigious, and that a very small lateral support, 
 onlv, is sufficient to prevent that bending, which pla- 
 ces the beam m imminent danger of destruction. A 
 judicious mechanic will always employ transverse 
 bridles, (as they are termed), in order to stay the 
 middle of long beams intended to perform the office 
 of pillars, truss beams, struts, &c. and exposed from 
 the nature of their peculiar position, to immense 
 pressures in the direction of their lengths, but such 
 stays should be arranged in a judicious, as w'ell as 
 economical manner. 
 
 As experiments on the transverse strength 
 of bodies are easily made, they have been ac- 
 cordingly very numerous, particularly on timber : 
 but amid this great variety of experiments, few 
 have afforded that practical information which is 
 so desirable. The generality of them have been 
 made on very small scantlings, (in which the una- 
 voidable natural inequalities, bear too great a pro- 
 portion to the strength of the whole piece,) for which 
 reason, the results of the experiments of different 
 persons have varied considerably, and even between 
 those made by the same person, great irregularities 
 have existed. 
 
 Belidor, has presented us in his “ Science des 
 Ingenieurs ,” with the most complete series of expe- 
 riments that has come under our notice. — His re- 
 sults appear in the following table; and the pieces 
 on which he made his several trials, were sound, even 
 grained oak. 
 
 The column B comprises the breadth of the pieces 
 in inches; the column D contains their depths; the 
 column L includes their lengths; P demonstrates the 
 weight (in pounds) which broke them, when hung 
 on their middles • and the column M points out the 
 mediums. 
 
 In order to obtain the respective strengths of 
 pieces of different dimensions, with more certainty, 
 three pieces of each dimension were tried, under 
 the expectation that the medium would be better 
 shewn, by repeated trials, than by a single experi- 
 ment. 
 
 A3 
 
 Experiments 
 
m 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 
 
 
 B 
 
 d| l 
 
 1 p 
 
 M 
 
 Experiments 1st, 
 ends loose 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 | 400 
 415 
 • 405 
 
 406 
 
 Experiments 2d, ends 
 (irmly fixed 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 ' GOO 
 GOO 
 624 
 810 
 795 
 812 
 
 608 
 
 Experiments 3d, ends 
 loose 
 
 2 
 
 805 
 
 Experiments 4th ends 
 loose 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 1570 
 
 1580 
 
 1590 
 
 1580 
 
 Experiments 5th, 
 ends loose 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 36 
 
 185 
 
 195 
 
 1 M 1 
 
 187 
 
 Experiments 6th, 
 ends fixed 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 285 
 
 280' 
 
 285 
 
 283 
 
 Experiments 7th, 
 ends loose 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 36 
 
 1550 
 
 1G20 
 
 1585 
 
 1585 
 
 Experiments 8th, 
 ends loose 
 
 
 2} 
 
 36 
 
 1665 
 
 1675 
 
 1640 
 
 1660 
 
 By comparing the first experiment with the third, 
 the strength appears proportional to the breadth, 
 while the length and depth of each piece are the 
 same. 
 
 By comparing the first and fourth experiments to- 
 gether, the strength appears as the square of the 
 depth nearly, while the breadth and length are all 
 the same. 
 
 By comparing the first and fifth experiments toge- 
 ther, the strength appears to be nearl y as the lengths, 
 inversely, while the breadth and depth of each piece 
 are the same. 
 
 By comparing the fifth and seventh experiments 
 together, the strengths appear to bear a near pro- 
 portion to the breadth, multiplied by the square of 
 the depth, while the length is the same in both. 
 
 By comparing the first and seventh experiments 
 together, the strengths are shewn to be as the square 
 of the depth, multiplied by the breadth, and divided 
 by the length. Experiments the first and second 
 shew the increase of strength acquired by fastening 
 the ends, to be in the proportion of 2 to 3. Experi- 
 ments the fifth and sixth demonstrate the same 
 thing. 
 
 This, irregularity in the result of experiments 
 may be ascribed to the fibrous or plated texture of 
 timber ; which, as is well known, consists of annual 
 additions, whose cohesion with each other is much 
 weaker than that of their own fibres. Let the dia- 
 
 gram denoted by Figure 21, represent an horizontal 
 section of a tree, and the parallelograms A B C D, 
 a b c d, exhibit the section of two battens cat out of 
 the tree, for the purpose ol making experiments. 
 In these parallelograms we intend A D, a d to point 
 out the measure of their depths, and D C, d o to re- 
 present that of their breadths. It is evident that the 
 fibres composing the section A B C D, may be con- 
 sidered as an assemblage of planks set edgeways, 
 while those which form the section abed, may be 
 considered as laid flatways ; but we know both from 
 theory, and experience, that the former is stronger 
 than the latter, and the reason of this may be easily 
 explained. A series of planks, set edgeways, will 
 form a stronger beam than planks laid on each other 
 like the plates of a coach spring. Bufftfn made 
 some experiments on oak, in order to ascertain the 
 ratio of strength in these parallelograms ; after- 
 many trials, he found that the strength of A B C I), 
 was to a b c d, nearly as 8 to 7. Buffon, however* 
 (like other experimentalists) did not take care to 
 have the plates of the battens disposed in a similar 
 manner with respect to the strain ; still had this 
 precaution been taken, his experiments would not 
 have furnished sure grounds of computation forcon-> 
 structing works in which large timbers are required; 
 and, it should be observed, that, as large timbers oc- 
 cupy a great deal if not the whole of the section of a 
 tree, their strength is proportionably less than that 
 of a small lath or batten. 
 
 Here, again, we feel ourselves embarassed and 
 at a loss for the want of an extensive series of 
 suitable experiments on large timbers. To unite 
 the principles of accuate theory with the results 
 of judicious and extensive experiments, would, 
 ultimately, tend to promote the arts and manu- 
 factures of this country. Besides, as an excel-* 
 lent writer most justly observes, “ a forbidding dis- 
 tance, and awkward jealousy, seem to subsist between 
 the theorists, and the practical men engaged in the 
 cultivation of mechanics in this country.” And, 
 therefore, it is amost laudable task toendeavour “ to 
 shorten this distance,, and to eradicate this jealousy.” 
 For, while vve prize the deductions of sound theory, 
 and rely firmly upon their results, we should never- 
 theless recollect, that, “ as ail general principles im? 
 ply the exercise of abstraction, it would be highly 
 injudicious not to regard them hi their practical ap- 
 plications as approximations, the defects of which 
 must be supplied, as indeed the principles them- 
 selves are deduced, from experience.” Theoretical 
 as well as practical men would not only greatly pro- 
 mote their mutual interests, by blending and uniting 
 their efforts, but render an essential service to me- 
 chanical science. There are few persons who do not 
 enjoy sufficient occasional leisure and opportunity, 
 for making some experiments on the strengths of bo- 
 dies; the results of their several efforts, would tend 
 to elucidate and advance the subject. But since 
 
 these 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 those experiments, when made on an extensive scale, 
 arc both laborious, and beyond the means of most in- 
 dividuals who may be inclined to enquire into the 
 subject, it is singular in an empire like this, which is 
 certainly the most eminent in the world for its ex- 
 tensive mechanical structures, that a judicious series 
 of suitable experiments has not been made, on a li- 
 beral and extensive scale, with a view to the know- 
 ledge of those laws which regulate the strengths of 
 different materials, accordingly as different strains 
 may operate. 
 
 Amid this deplorable want of information in our 
 own country, we must have recourse to the Conti- 
 nents and solicit the aid of those philosophers, who 
 have investigated the subject with the most atten- 
 tion. Buffon and Du Hamel were supplied by the 
 old government of France, with ample funds and 
 extensive apparatus for carrying on the necessary 
 experiments. A description of these is to be found 
 in the memoirs of the French academy for 1740, 
 1741, 1742, and 1768 ; as well as in Du Hamel’s in- 
 genious performances snr V Exploitation dcs arbres, 
 ct sur fa Conservation et le Transport de Bois,. 
 
 ( )ur readers may not be dissatisfied with an abstract 
 of M. Buffons experiments. 
 
 This ingenious philosopher-prosecuted, during two 
 years, a variety of experiments on small battens of 
 oak. He found, however, from these experiments, 
 that the variation in a single layer, or in part of a 
 layer, either more or less, or even a different dispo- 
 sition of them, had so much influence that he was 
 under the necessity ofabandoning the method, and 
 proceeding to operate on the largest beams that he 
 Gould possibly break. The annexed table shews a 
 series of experiments, on bars of sound oak, four 
 inches squaie, and free from knots. 
 
 M | 2 | 3 j 4 1 5 
 
 60 5350 3-5 I 2 9 
 
 56 5275 | 4 5 | 22 
 
 68 4600 3-75 I 15 
 
 63 I 4500 j 4 7 [ 13 
 
 ! q 
 
 S 77 1 
 
 4100 1 
 
 4-85 ! 
 
 1 14 
 
 
 * 71 | 
 
 3950 | 
 
 5'5 | 
 
 [ 12 
 
 i 10 
 
 I 
 
 1 f & 
 
 1 3625 
 
 58 3 1 
 
 1 15 
 
 1 i 82 
 
 | 3600 1 
 
 6-5 | 
 
 | 15, 
 
 ! 12 
 
 ! S mo 
 \ l 98 
 
 I 3050 I 
 2925 | 
 
 7 '1 
 
 8 I 
 
 
 The first column exhibits the length of the bar, 
 in clear feet, between the supports. 
 
 The second expresses the weight of the bar in 
 pou nds, on the second day after it was foiled, as 
 evinced by experiments performed on two bars of 
 each sort. Each of the first three pairs consisted of 
 
 183 
 
 two cuts of the same tree. The one next thq root 
 was always found to be the heaviest, and Buffon 
 uniformly observed, that the heaviest was constantly 
 the strongest, and recommends this particular as a 
 sure rule for the choice of timber. He observes, 
 also, that this always proved to be the case when 
 the timber, by growing vigorously, had formed very 
 thick annual layers ; but this circumstance takes 
 place only during the advances of the tree, to a state 
 of maturity, because the strengths of the different 
 circles, approach in a gradual manner to equality, 
 during the tree’s healthy growth, when they decrease 
 in these parts in a contrary manner. 
 
 The third column, represents the number of 
 pounds required to break the tree, in the coui'se of 
 a few minutes. 
 
 The fourth column, points out the number of' 
 inches in which a tree bends down before breaking. 
 
 The fifth column, shews the time at which it 
 broke. 
 
 The experiments made on other sizes, w r ere con- 
 ducted in a similar way. All the beams were form- 
 ed square, and their sizes in inches are signified at. 
 the head of the columns, in the following table. In 
 the first column are expressed their lengths in feet.. 
 
 1 
 
 4 | 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 I 
 
 8 1 
 
 A 
 
 7 
 
 5312 
 
 11525 
 
 18950- 
 
 32200 
 
 47649 
 
 i 1525 
 
 8 
 
 4550 
 
 9787 
 
 15525 
 
 26050 
 
 39750 
 
 10085 
 
 9 
 
 4025 
 
 8308 
 
 13J50 
 
 22350 
 
 32800 
 
 8964 
 
 10 
 
 3612 
 
 7125 
 
 11250 
 
 19475 
 
 27750 
 
 8068 
 
 12 
 
 2987 
 
 6075 
 
 9100 
 
 16175 
 
 23450 
 
 6723 
 
 14 
 
 
 5300 
 
 7475 
 
 13225 
 
 19775 
 
 5763 
 
 16 
 
 
 4350 
 
 ' 6362. 
 
 11000 
 
 16375 
 
 50 42 
 
 18 
 
 
 3700 
 
 5562 
 
 9245 
 
 13200 
 
 4482 
 
 20 
 
 
 3225 
 
 4950 
 
 8375 
 
 11487 
 
 4034 
 
 22 
 
 
 2975 
 
 
 
 
 3667 
 
 24 
 
 
 2162 
 
 
 
 
 3362 
 
 28 
 
 
 1775 
 
 
 
 
 2881 
 
 M. Buffon, in. order to effect uniformity in his 
 experiments, had all his trees felled in the same 
 season of the year, squared the day after, and operat- 
 ed on the third day, when he found also, that the 
 strength of oak timber diminished much in the course 
 of drying. — After a piece of this green timber had 
 been placed in the situation required for the experi- 
 ment, and weights nearly sufficient to break it. were 
 applied with briskness, a very sensible smoke was 
 perceived to issue from its two ends, with a sharp 
 hissing noise, which continued during the whole of 
 the time the tree was bending and cracking. This 
 result undeniably proved, that the whole length of 
 the tree was strained, (which may be inferred, indeed 
 from its bending through its whole length,) and, 
 nothing, perhaps, could evince in a stronger 
 
 manner. 
 
m 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 manner the powerful effects of compression. 
 
 The experiments made by our philosopher on the 
 five inch bars, he considered as his standard of com- 
 parison, and he accordingly prosecuted his enquiries 
 to a greater extent, on pieces of this dimension. 
 
 The deductions derivable from the theory which 
 has been adopted, would make us think that the re- 
 lative strength of bars of the same section, is inverse- 
 ly as their lengths ; but Buffon’s experiments (ex- 
 cepting those in the first column), deviated very con- 
 siderably from this rule. For instance, by referring 
 to the last table, we perceive that the strength of the 
 bar 28 feet long and 5 inches square, is 1775; and 
 that the strength of a bar 5 inches square, and 14 feet 
 long, is by the same table 5300 ; but we know that 
 the strength of the 14 feet bar ought to be double 
 that of 28 feet, in which case the strength of the 
 latter bar in this, would be 2650, whereas it is only 
 1775. Again, the bar of 7 feet ought to possess 
 double the strength of that of 14 feet, but this is not 
 the case, for the strength of the latter is 5300, where- 
 as half the strength of the former is 5762 5. In like 
 manner, the strength of the 8 feet bar ought to be 
 treble that of the 24 feet, wiiereas the strength of 
 the latter is 2162, while one-third of the strength of 
 the former is 3262 3. So also the strength of the 7 
 feet bar ought to be four times that of the 28 feet 
 bar, but the strength of the latter we perceive is on- 
 ly 1775, while one fourth of the strength of the 
 former is 2881. The column A specifies the strength 
 which by the theory, each of the five inch bars ought 
 to have exhibited. 
 
 The foregoing defect seems to prevail in all the 
 experiments from the first to the last ; it may be ob- 
 served also in the experiments of Belidor, as well as 
 in all those we have noticed, from whence we may 
 conclude that it is a law of nature, depending on the 
 true principles of cohesion, and the invariable 
 operations of mechanics. 
 
 But still the difficulty is inexplicable ; for the only 
 effect produced by the length of a beam, isan increase 
 of the strain at the section of fracture, arising from the 
 operation of the intervening beam as a lever ; though 
 we cannot see clearly how the mode of action of the 
 fibres in this section is effected, so as to change either 
 their cohesion or the situation of its centre of effort ; 
 and yet something of the kind must happen. 
 
 There are certain circumstances, however, which 
 must contribute to render a smaller weight suffi- 
 cient, (as in the experiments of Buffon,) to break a 
 long beam, than in the exact inverse proportion of 
 its length ; for the weight of the beam itselfincreases 
 the strain as much, as if half of it were added to the 
 strain, and operated on it as a farther weight. The 
 weight of every beam on which Buffon performed 
 his experiments, was very nearly 74 pounds per 
 each cubic foot ; but these beams were by far too 
 small, to account, in a satisfactory way, for the devia- 
 tion from the theory. Even the half w eights of the 
 
 5 inch beams, whose respective lengths were 28, 14, 
 and 7 feet, were only 182, 92 and 45 pounds, which 
 rendered the actual strains in the experiments 
 1 1560, 5390, and 1956; but these, it is evident, de- 
 viate considerably from the before mentioned propor- 
 tions of the beams, 4, 2 and 1. 
 
 Buffon observes, that healthy trees are universally 
 ! strongest at the root end ; of course when a long 
 i beam is made use of, its middle point, where the 
 fracture takes place in the experiment, is situated in 
 ; a weak (perhaps the weakest) part of the tree. The 
 trials nevertheless of the 4 inch beams, proved that 
 i the difference arising from this cause is almost in- 
 j sensible. 
 
 | Again, it is probable, that the relative strength of 
 beams decreases faster than the inverse ratio of their 
 lengths ; we have, already observed, that when a 
 j weight operates on the middle of a beam so as to 
 I break it, its whole length is affected, and therefore 
 [ a certain definite curvature of a beam, of a given 
 form, is always accompanied by rupture. Let us sup- 
 pose two beams, whose lengths are respectively 10 
 and 20 feet, to be bent to the same degree, at their 
 { places of fixture m a wall ; and we shall find that 
 the weight operating on the former is nearly double 
 I that which hangs on the latter. — But the lorm of any 
 j portion, of these tw'o beams, (say tor 5 feet immedi- 
 j ately adjoining to the wall,) differs considerably, 
 since the curvature of the first beam at this distance, 
 is only one half of its curvature at the wall, while 
 the curvature of the latter in the corresponding part, 
 is three-fourths of the same curvature at the wall. 
 Hence, therefore, through the whole of the interme- 
 diate space of 5 feet, the curvature of the former is 
 less than that of the latter, and consequently the 
 latter beam must be weaker throughout. It like- 
 wise occasions the fibres of the beam to slide more 
 on each other, whereby their lateral union is effect- 
 ed ; and therefore those possessed of greater degrees 
 of strength will not render assistance to those tjiat 
 have less. In addition to this, the force with which 
 the fibres of shorter beams are pressed laterally on 
 each other, is double, and must of course impede the 
 mutual sliding of the fibres. In fact this lateral 
 compression is not only calculated to change the law 
 of longitudinal cohesion, but to increase the strength 
 ofthe very surface of fracture. 
 
 It is much to be desired, that the engineer would 
 carefully remember, that a beam of quadruple 
 length, instead of possessing one fourth of the 
 strength, has only about one sixth, and the ingeni- 
 ous theorist should enquire into the nature, as well 
 as the cause of this diminution, in order that he may 
 be enabled to furnish the mechanic, with a more ac- 
 curate rule for computation. 
 
 Our want of an intimate acquaintance with the 
 law, by which the cohesion existing between parti- 
 cles is changed by ail alteration of distance ; de- 
 prives us of the means of discovering the precise 
 
 relation 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 185 
 
 relation which exists between the curvature and 
 the momentum of cohesion, and in order to obtain 
 some rules whereby the strengths of different solids 
 may be calculated, it will be necessary to multiply 
 experiments. The experiments of Buffon furnish 
 us, however, with considerable assistance in this 
 particular. If we select, for instance, any number 
 in the column of the 5 inch beams, and add to it the 
 sum ot half the weight of the beam, with the con- 
 stant number 1245, a set of numbers will he given 
 very near the reciprocals of the lengths. From this 
 we may readily deduce a convenient formula, very 
 easy to be remembered. 
 
 Let the length of the beam of 5 inches square be 
 designated by a, the number 1245 by hi, and the 
 weight known to break the beam by w« then we 
 
 shall have ^ ° — m = p. Thus, the weight 
 
 required to break the 7 foot bar, is 1 1525 and let 1 
 be 18, then we shall hnve (w-j-m)a — ni — 
 
 CH5254 - 1245)7 _ 1245 __ 3?20 __ which 
 lo 
 
 diff rs about ~ from the result furnished us 
 
 by that experiment. This formula may be applied 
 with success to all the other lengths, except those of 
 10 and 24 feet. Although this formula cannot be 
 admitted as universally true,, yet it will be found to 
 be tolerably correet in a great variety of 
 lengths. 
 
 We w ill next consider the relation that exists be- 
 tween the strength and the square of the depth of the 
 section. By comparing the numbers in any hori- 
 zontal row of the table, we shall perceive on trial, 
 that the numbers of the five inch bars are uniformly 
 greater than those of the rest. If the numbers, how- 
 ever, in this column be omitted, or uniformly di- 
 minished about one-sixteenth, as to their strength, I 
 the different sizes will be found to differ but little 
 from the ratio of the square of the depth, as deter- 1 
 mined by theory ; though we should observe that a j 
 small deficiency takes place in the larger beams. j 
 
 Our next enquiry will be directed to the absolute' 
 cohesion and the relative strength. The values de- ‘ 
 ducible from experiments on absolute strength, must Jl 
 be confined to very small pieces, in consequence of 1 ! 
 the very great force which is required*©, tear them ! 
 asunder. The whole we can furnish on- this- head 
 for the consideration of our readers, are two- passages 
 extracted from Muschenbroek’s “ I.ssais de Phi/- ' 
 sique” In one of these passages he observes tliuta j 
 
 piece of sound oak ^of an inch square, was torn- j 
 
 asunder by 1 150pounds and in the other,. that an 
 oak plank one inch in thickness, and twelve inches 
 broad, will suspend about 1 1S9I62 pounds. . We 
 nwy .conclude from these passages, that the cohesion 
 
 i 
 
 of a square inch is 15755 and 15763 pounds. Bou- 
 guer, another experimentalist, observes that a rod 
 of sound oak, one fourth of an inch square, will be 
 torn asunder by a 1000 pounds, which furnishes ther 
 round number 16000, for the cohesion of a square 
 inch. 
 
 It may not be unprofitable to the reader to com- 
 pare those circumstances with the experiments made 
 by Buffon on four inch beams. 
 
 The absolute cohesion ot the before mentioned 
 section is 16X16000=256000; were every fibre to 
 exert its entire energy, at the moment in which the 
 fracture takes place, the effect of the momentum of 
 cohesion would be the same as if it had entirely act- 
 ed at the centre :>f gravity of the section, at the dis- 
 tance of two inches from the axis of fracture, and 
 therefore it is 256000 X2r=5 12000. We shall find 
 ! by reference to the last table, that the beam 7 feet 
 j long and 4 inches square, w as broken by a weight 
 i of 5312 pounds, suspended on its middle ; but if it 
 [ had been suspended at its extremity, projecting 42 
 inches from a wall, it would have been broken by 
 j one half of the foregoing weight, viz. 2656 pounds. 
 The momentum of this strain is, 42x2656=111552; 
 being in equilibrio with the actual momentum of 
 cohesion, w hich is 11 1552 instead of 512000; con- 
 sequently the strength is diminished in the propor- 
 tion of 5 1 2000,' to i l l-352; or nearly as 4* 59: 1. 
 
 The ignorance that prevails relative to the par- 
 ticular situation of the centre of effort, renders it 
 altogether useless to consider the full cohesion that 
 employs its energies, at the centre of gravity, and 
 produces the momentum 512000 ; we may, how- 
 ever, convert the whole into a simple multiplier n 
 of the length, and say, that n times the length is t ? the. 
 depth , as the absolute cohesion of (he section is to the 
 absolute strength. 
 
 If, therefore, we represent in inches the breadth 
 by b, the depth by d, the length by /, and the abso- 
 lute cohesion of a square inch by s; the relative 
 strength, or the external force p, which balances it, 
 
 , - . b d2 s . 
 
 13 in- round numbers —— — 
 
 Wo cannot attribute this diminution of strength 
 to any inequality of those cohesive forces which may 
 be-exerted at the instant of fracture ; since we must 
 know, from the centre of effort in a rectangular 
 beam, being situated at one-third of the height, that 
 
 the relative strength would be \ j - S , and that p 
 
 would be 8127 instead of 2656. 
 
 This great diminution may be ascribed to the 
 compression of the under part of the beam ; and w'e 
 have before observed; that the forces actually exert- 
 ed by the particles of a- body, when stretched or com- 
 pressed, are very nearly proportioned to the distan- 
 ces to which the particles are drawn from- their 'na- 
 tural positions; and thougii in cases of great com- 
 B 3 pression 
 
186 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 pression trhe forces may increase a faster ratio, yet ] 
 this increase will produce no sensible change in the 
 present question, because the body is broken before 
 the compressions have proceeded so far; in fact, 
 we may conceive that the compressed parts are crip- 
 pled before the extended parts are torn asunder. 
 Muschenbroek asserts this with a considerable 
 degree of confidence, and says that although oak 
 will suspend half as much again as fir, yet it will 
 wot support, as a pillar, two-thirds of the load which 
 fir will support in that form. 
 
 The experiments of BufFon, furnish us “with 
 a useful practical rule, without our being obliged to 
 rely- on any value of the absolute cohesion of oak. 
 From knowing that the strength is nearly as the 
 breadth, and the square of the depth ; and the in- 
 verse of the length, and taking for the sake of con- 
 venience the length of tiie beam in feet, and its 
 breadth and depth in inches; and also knowing from 
 the table, that a beam four inches square, and' seven 
 feet between the supports, is broken by 5312 
 
 t iounds, we may conclude that, a batten, one foot in 
 ength between the supports, and one inch square, 
 will be broken by 581 pound*. Hence, the strength 
 of any other oak beam, or the weight barely re- 
 quired to break it, when hung on its middle, is 
 
 581 b, d and 1, respectively representing the 
 
 breadth, depth, arid length. 
 
 In some of our former inquiries, we have found 
 a considerable deviation from the inverse proportion 
 of the length, and we must necessarily accommodate 
 our rule to it. -When the number 1245 was added 
 to each of the numbers in the column of the five inch 
 bars, a set of numbers was produced, which were 
 very nearly reciprocals of the lengths; if w'e make a 
 similar addition to the other columns, but in propor- 
 tion to the cubes of their dimensions, we shall have 
 nearly the same result. Hence, to find the necessa- 
 ry number, say, as 5 3 ♦ 4 1 ;; 1245 J 647, the re- 
 quired number, this added to 5312, gives 5959, the 
 64th part whereof, we may call 93, which answers 
 to a bar '7 feet long, and an inch square. Hence, 
 93x7> Will be the reciprocal corresponding to a bar 
 of one foot; this is 651, and after taking from it the 
 
 present correction, which is- ^,--==10, 641 will re- 
 4b 
 
 main for the strength of the bar. From this result, 
 
 we obtain the general rule 
 
 651 b d 2 
 
 T 
 
 — 10bd2— p 
 
 which we may otherwise state in words, as follows 
 in order to render it clearer to those who are not 
 versed in Algebra. 
 
 Multiply the breadth of the beam , in inches, twice 
 by the depth, and this again by 651, and divide the 
 whole by the length in feet. From the quotient , take 
 ■10 times the product, (which arises by multiplying 
 the breadth of the beam , in inches, twice by the depth ), 
 
 and the remainder is the number qf pounds required 
 to break the beam. 
 
 Example . — Required the weight necessary to 
 break an oak beam 16 feet long between the props, 
 and seven inches square. 
 
 Here, p .= 65 1 X 
 
 7x7 2 
 
 16 
 
 -10 X 7X7 2 =10526, 
 
 whereas the experiment gives 11000. 
 
 Example . — Required the weight necessary to 
 break an oak beam, 12 feet long, between the props 
 and six inches square. 
 
 Here, p — 65 lx-^-— 10x6 X6- =9558, 
 
 while the experiment furnishes us only with 9100. 
 
 Example . — It is required to determine the weight 
 barely necessary to break an oak beam 20 feet long 
 between the props, and five inches square. 
 
 Here p = 651 X 
 
 5X5 - 
 
 20 
 
 10 X 5X5- =3818, 
 
 while the table exhibits only 3225. 
 
 We may compare, in a like manner, any other 
 dimension; but we shall find that the rule is most 
 deficient when applied to the five inch bars, which, 
 we have before observed, appear stronger than the 
 rest. 
 
 The sure way of applying the foregoing rule, is 
 to suppose the beam square, by increasing or di- 
 minishing its breadth, till it becomes equal to its 
 depth; then find the strength, by this rule, and in- 
 crease or dimmish it agreeably to the change which 
 has taken place in its breadth, when there can be no 
 doubt, that the strength of the beam, given as aa 
 example, will he double that of a beam of the same 
 depth, and half the breadth. 
 
 it may be necessary, perhaps, to remind the read- 
 er, that the whole of the preceding calculations and 
 observations, are founded on the supposition, that 
 the weight applied is the greatest which a beam 
 will bear for a very few minutes. Buffon observes, 
 that two-thirds of this weight, w ill sensibly impair 
 the strength of the beam, and indeed will frequent- 
 ly break it, if permitted to operate continually, for 
 two or three months. One half bent the beam when 
 applied only for a few minutes, but though, as he 
 observes, this weight may be borne by it, for any 
 length of time, still the beam will contract a certain 
 curvature, from which it will not easily get into its 
 pristine state. One third seemed to produce no 
 permanent effect on the beam, which recovered its 
 original shape, even after it had been kept loaded 
 for several months. But this depends on the pieces 
 being seasoned, for a piece just felled, will break 
 under one fourth of a given weight, while a third 
 of the same .weight may be laid on the well season- 
 ed piece, for any length of time, without giving tlie 
 beam a sett. 
 
 We are destitute of experiments on the strength 
 of other kinds of timber. M. Buffon, says, that fir 
 
 possesses 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 possesses about f ths of the strength of oak. Parent, 
 however, asserts, that it possesses jjths; while 
 Emerson, says it has fds. 
 
 Before we conclude our enquiries into this parti- 
 cular strain, we would wish to impress on the minds 
 of practical men in general, the necessity of avoiding 
 transverse strains, as much as possible, since the in- 
 jury that many structures have sustained from their 
 influence is incalculable. 
 
 BODIES MAY Bi; WRENCHED OR TW'ISTED. 
 
 The species of strain operates on all axles which 
 connect with the working, or moveable parts of 
 machines. 
 
 The resistance occasioned by this species of strain, 
 must be proportioned to the number of particles, 
 when all the particles act alike. 
 
 In proof of this, let E FCD represent a body 
 possessing insuperable strength, but cohering in a 
 weaker manner in the common surface A B which 
 separates the body into two parts, viz. A BCD, 
 ABFE; then, if one part, as ABCD is supposed to 
 be pushed laterally in the direction A B, it becomes 
 evident that it can only yield there, and that the re- 
 sistance produced will be proportioned to the sur- 
 face. 
 
 The same-result will take place, if w r e suppose a 
 thin cylindrical tube to be twisted in contrary direc- 
 tions, in which case it will undoubtedly fail first 
 in that section where the cohesion of the fibres is the 
 least. This section forms the ciruum Terence of a 
 ■circle, for which reason the particles composing the 
 two parts contiguous to this circumference, will be 
 drawn from each in a lateral direction : and the to- 
 tal or absolute resistance, will be as the number of 
 particles exhibiting an equal degrc*'' of resistance, 
 -which is in fact, the -circumference. Within the cir- 
 cumference to which we have just alluded, let .us; 
 conceive a series of tubes till they reach the centre. 
 Now if the particles composing each of these tubes, 
 exerted a similar degree of force, the resistance offer- 
 ed by each ring of the section would be as its circum- 
 ference and its breadth, (which we will suppose to 
 be indefinitely small) the entire resistance would be 
 as the surface ; and this would represent the resist- 
 ance of a solid cylinder. But the external parts of 
 a cylinder when twisted by the application of an 
 external force applied to its circumference, will ! 
 suffer a greater circular extension than the internal, 
 and it appears that this extension will bear a propor- 
 tion to the distance of the particles from the axis. 
 This proportion would seem to be very probable, 
 and if it really exist, the forces simultaneously ex- 
 erted by each particle, will be as their several dis- 
 tances from the axis. Consequently, the entire force 
 exerted by each ring will be as the square of its rar 
 dius, and the accumulated force actually exerted, j 
 will be as the cube of that radius. 
 
 By referring to Figure 23, we shall have the ac- 
 cumulated force exerted by the whole of a cylinder, 
 
 m 
 
 whose radius is A C, is to the accumulated force ex- 
 erted, at the same by the part whose radius is C E 
 as A C 3 to C E 3 . 
 
 The whole cohesion exerted in this instance, is 
 just two thirds of what it would be if all the parti- 
 cles exerted the same attractive forces, as are ex- 
 erted by the particles in the external circumference. 
 
 This will appear evident, if we first suppose the 
 rectangle A C c a to be erected in a position perpen- 
 dicular to the plane of the circle, along the line AC, 
 and then, that it is permitted to revolve round the 
 C c. This rectangle, by its motion, will generate a 
 cylinder, whose height "will be denoted by C c or 
 A a, which will have the circle K A II for its base* 
 Next if the triangle C c a be likewise permitted to 
 perform a revolution around the line 0 c, it will 
 describe the surface of a cone. Now the cylindri- 
 cal surface supposed to be generated by Aa, will re- 
 present the whole cohesion exerted by the circum- 
 ference A II K ; the cylindrical surface generated 
 bv E e, w ill shew the cohesion exerted by the cir- 
 cumference ELM; the solid generated by the trian- 
 gle CA a will display the cohesion exerted by the 
 entire circle A II K ; and the cylinder generated by 
 the rectangle A C c c will exhibit the measure of the 
 cohesion exerted by the same surface, supposing 
 each particle to suffer the extension A a. 
 
 It is evident, in the first instance, that the solid 
 produced by revolution of the triangle C E e, is to 
 that generated by A a C, as E C 3 to AC 3 . In 
 the next instance, the solid generated by A a C is 
 (wo-tlnrds of the cylinder, because the cone generat- 
 ed by C c a, forms one-third of it. 
 
 It may now be supposed, that the cylinder may be 
 twisted so powerfully, that the particles, situated in 
 the exterior circumference, must lose their cohesion, 
 when little daubt can be entertained, that it will be 
 wrenched asunder, in consequence of all the inner cir- 
 cles giving way in succession* If we admit this, then 
 abodv, the texture of which is homogeneous will re- 
 sist a simple twist with two-thirds of the force with 
 which it would resist it, if an attempt were made to 
 force one part laterally from the other, or with one- 
 third part of the force which will cut it asunder by a 
 square edged tool. 
 
 When two cylinders are wrenched asunder, we 
 ! must, of necessity., conclude, that the external parti- 
 cles of each are placed just beyond their limits of 
 cohesion, that they are extended equally, and oper- 
 ate with equal farces; from whence it follows, that 
 in the instant of fracture the entire sum of the forces 
 actually exerted, is as the squares of the diameters. 
 
 The real strength of the section, and the relation it 
 bears to its absolute lateral strength being now as- 
 certained, our next business is to enquire into its 
 j strength, as it relates to the external force which 
 ' may be employed to break it. 
 
 The straining force and the cohesion oppose 
 each other, on the .principle of levers ; and the cen- 
 tre 
 
188 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 tre of the section may be the neutral point, the 
 position of which is not disturbed. Lei r represent 
 the radius of the cylinder f, the force exerted later- 
 ally by an exterior particle, x the indeterminate 
 
 distance of any circumference, and x> tlie infinitely 
 small interval between the concentric arches. Now 
 the forces being- as the extensions, and they, being as 
 their distances from the axis, the cohesion, actually 
 
 exerted at any part of the ring, will be 
 
 fx x 
 
 the 
 
 fx- x 
 
 force exerted by the entire ring- — and the mo- 
 mentum of cohesion, (which, in any ring, is as the 
 
 force multiplied by its lever) will be 
 
 f x3 x 
 
 Con- 
 
 sequently, . the accumulated momentum will be 
 
 / 
 
 f X 3 x 
 
 fx4 
 
 — — and when x, becomes equal to r, it 
 
 vtill beilL— Jjf.= } fr3 . 
 
 4 r 4 
 
 From hence we learn, that the particular strength 
 •f an axle, by which it resists being wrench- 
 ed asunder,: by a force- acting at a given dis 
 tance from the axis, is as the cube of the diameter. 
 
 Again, the expression ^ f r 3 , may be decomposed 
 into the factors f r- X i r , the former of which, f r 2 
 expresses the full lateral cohesion of the section ; 
 while the momentum thereof, is the same as if the 
 full lateral cohesion were accumulated at a point, 
 distant from. the axis, one fourth of the radius of the 
 cylinder. 
 
 Let d denote the measure of the diameter of the 
 cylinder; in inches,, f the number of pounds which 
 measure the lateral cohesioinof a circular inch, 1 the 
 length of the lever,, by. which the straining force re- 
 presented by p, . is supposedi to act, . and we shall 
 f d 3 
 
 have — _ — p 1, front which, may be deduced, 
 
 O' 
 
 fd 3 
 P== ~8T 
 
 In general, therefore; the- particular strength 
 which enables an axle to resist its being wrenched 
 asunder by twisting, is as-the cube of it3 diameter.. 
 
 The interior parts do not act so poveerfullyras the 
 exterior, for if a hole be bored out of an axle,. equal 
 in size to one half of its diameter, the strength will 
 be diminished only one eighth, while the quantity of 
 matter will decrease one fourth; from whence it 
 follows, that hollow axles are stronger than solid 
 Ones, containing the same quantity of matter. 
 
 The propriety of Engineers- introducing this very 
 impo ant improvement into their machines, be- 
 comes now very obvious, since the parts, so con- 
 
 strue A, have not only the advantage of being mucJi 
 stiffer, but they furnish much better means for fixing 
 the flanches made use of to connect them with the 
 wheels or levers, by which they are turned and 
 strained. 
 
 We shall now introduce to the notice and’ obser- 
 vation of the student, a variety of propositions and 
 deductions, chiefly selected from Emerson’s excel- 
 lent treatise of Mechanics. 
 
 Proposition. — If a beam of timber, ( Figure 1, 
 Plate Uf,) be supported at C and B, lying upon the 
 wall, ACE, w r ith one end, and if G be the centre 
 of gravity of the whole weight sustained ; and the 
 line F G H, be drawn peniendicular to the horizon, 
 and C F, and 11H; to C B, and B F, drawn ; I 
 say, 
 
 The weight of! the whole body I" H. 
 
 Pressure at the top C, I B II, 
 
 Thrust or pressure at the base B > F B, 
 
 ... , and in these se- 
 
 are respect, vely as j yeral directions .,> 
 
 If the beam support any weight, the beam and 
 weight must be considered as one body, whose cen- 
 tre of gravity, is G. -Then the end C is supported 
 by the plane BCE; and the other end B may be 
 supposed to- be sustained by a plane perpendicular 
 to B F; therefore the weight and forces at C and B, 
 are respectively as F II, li H, and B F.” 
 
 “ Cor. I. — Produce F B towards Q, then B Q> 
 is the direction of the pressure at B ; and the press- 
 ures at B in, the directions BQ, F D,DB, are as F 
 B, F D, D B ” 
 
 “ Cor. 2. — Draw Dr perpendicular to B C, and 
 draw C D, then the weight, pressure at the top, di- 
 rect pressure at bottom, and horizontal pressure at 
 bottom, are respectively as C B, B D, D C, and 
 Dr.” 
 
 “ For since the angles B C F, B D- F, are right ; 
 a circle described upon the diameter. B F, will pass 
 through C D. Therefore Z_B C D = B F D 
 standing on the same arch BD, and because theZ-G 
 B H and Z- S at D are right, B H F = C B D ;• 
 therefore, the triangles F II B, and C B D are. sim- 
 ilar, and the figure B RDF similar to the figure I) 
 B r C, whence F II *B H;B FjB D* are as C D;B 
 D;D C;and Dr.” 
 
 “ Cor. 3. — All this holds true for any force instead, 
 of gravity, acting in direction G D.” 
 
 Proposition. — If B C, fig. 2, be any beam bearing 
 any weight, G the centre of gravity of the whole ; 
 and if it lean against the perpendicular wall C A, 
 and. be supported in that position ; draw B A, C F, 
 parallel, and F G I) perpendicular to the horizon ; 
 and.drawF B, then 
 
 The whole weight j FD 
 
 Pi-ess ur a at the top C j BD 
 
 Thrusts-or pressure at the bottom j. F B 
 
 and in the same 
 
 B ace respectively as 
 
 J directions’ 
 
 For 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 m 
 
 u For the end C is sustained by the plane A C; 
 and if the end B be supposed to be susiained by a 
 plane perpendicular to F B: then the weight, and 
 
 f ressure at top and bottom, ureas D F, 1) B, F B. 
 f you suppose the end B is not sustained by a plane 
 perpendicular to F B, the body will not be support- 
 ed at all.” 
 
 “ Cor. -f F B be produced to Q, then B Q is 
 the direction of the pressure at B: and the perpendi- 
 cular pressure at B (F D) is equal to the weight; 
 and the horizontal pressure at 13 (B D), is equal to 
 the pressure against C.” 
 
 “ /Proposition . — If a heavy beam, or one bearing 
 a weight be sustained at C, ( Figure 3,) and move- 
 able about a point C; whilst the other end II lies 
 upon the wall 13 E, and if 1 1 G F be drawn through 
 the centre ot gravity G, perpendicular to the hori- 
 zon. and B F, C II, perpendicular to B C, and C F 
 be drawn; then 
 
 The whole weight ") H F 
 
 Pressure at B I II C 
 
 Force acting at C \ C F, 
 
 . -i I and in these di- 
 
 are respectively as . „ 
 
 1 •’ J rections. 
 
 “ For the end B is sustained by the plane C B, 
 and the end C may be supposed to be sustained by a 
 plane perpendicular to F C, or by a cord in direc 
 
 tion C F. Then since Ii C is parallel to ii F, the 
 as IT, F C F, II <3: 
 
 weight, force at C, pressure at 13, are respectively 
 
 “ Cor . But if, instead of lying upon the inclined 
 plane at 15, the end B be laid upon the horizontal 
 plane A B, then the weight and the pressure at B’ 
 and C, are respectively as 13 C, G C, and B G ; 
 and in this case there is no lateral pressure.” 
 
 “ For 13 F will be perpendicular to B A, and par- 
 allel to II F, and consequently C F is also parallel 
 to If F, therefore the forces at C, (3, B, are as B G, 
 B A’, and C G.” 
 
 Proposition . — If a heavy beam B C, ( Figure 4-) 
 whose centre of gravity is G, bd supported upon 
 two posts B A, C I); and be moveable about the 
 points, A, 13, C, I), and if A B, DO, produced, 
 meet in any point II, of the line GF dyaVn perpen- 
 dicular to the horizon ; and if from any point F, in 
 the line G F, F E, be drawn parallel to A 13 H 
 I say, 
 
 The whole weight A If F 
 
 Pressure at O | HE 
 
 Thrust or pressure at B, V E F, 
 
 are respect ively as and ifl * hese di ‘ 
 
 ‘ J rections 
 
 For tire points A, 13, 0, TX being in a plane per- 
 pendicular to the horizon, the body may be suppos- 
 ed to be supported by two planes at 15, 0, perpendi- 
 cular to«A B, D C ; or by two ropes 13 H, 0 If: and 
 in either case, .the weight in direr ion II G, tlie 
 pressure at 13; C; in directions II 15, II C, are as 
 H F, E F, and H E. 
 
 C or. Hence, whether a body be sustained by two 
 ropes, B H, C II, or by two posts AB, CD, or by 
 two planes perpendicular to BA, CD; the body 
 then can only Ire at rest, when the plumb line 11 G 
 F, passes through G, the centre of gravity of the 
 whole weight sustained, or which is the same thing, 
 when A B, D C, intersect in the plumb-line II G F^ 
 passing through the centre of gravity.” 
 
 SCHOLIUM. 
 
 “ By the construction of these four last proposi 
 tions, there is formed the triangle of pressure, re- 
 presenting the several forces. In which, the line of 
 gravity (or plumb line passing through the centre of 
 gravity,) always represents the absolute weight, and 
 the other sides, the corresponding pressures.” 
 Proposition . — If several beams A 13, I3C, CD, <Sre 
 Figure 5, be joined together at B, C, D, &c. and 
 moveable about the points A, B, C, &c. be placed 
 in a vertical plane, the points A, F, being fixed, and 
 through B, C, I), drawing r i, s m, t p, perpendicu- 
 lar to the horizon, and if several weights be laid on 
 the angles B, C, D, &c. so that the weight on any 
 
 angle C, may be as.,, ?: J2___ then all the 
 
 b.niCBx biinrCD 
 
 beams will be kept in equilibrio by these weights.” 
 Produce I) C to r. Then. S. / A B CjS. A 
 
 Br. ; weight B‘ force in direction J 3 C~ il** 
 
 s S. ABC 
 
 and S.B C I) » S.D C s : : weight ♦ force in direc- 
 
 tion C B= 
 
 C x S, DCs 
 = S . 13 C D 
 
 which, to preserve 
 
 the equilibium, must be equal to the force in direc- 
 tion Ii C, that ^ '*»!-&<«• » C.; . 
 
 whence, B t C 
 
 S 
 
 ..s 
 
 ABC 
 
 A 13 C 
 
 S.I1CD 
 S . BCD 
 S . DCs 
 
 And 
 
 D '• s • BCI ) 
 "S.liCs. 
 
 Therefore, ex equo , weight B 
 
 weight D; * 
 
 S. CDE 
 S.DCs X S.EDt 
 S.CD E 
 
 b . A B r 
 
 by the same way of reasoning, 
 
 , S . C D 
 * S . E Dt ' 
 
 S . A B C 
 S . ABi-xS . BC 
 
 .. S ; A B C 
 
 " S . A B i x S • -C B i* b . C Dp x S . liDp 
 Cor. 1. — Produce G D; so that I) w, may be equal 
 to C r, and draw w x, parallel to I) p, cutting E> E, 
 in x, then the weight C, the forces in directions C B, 
 and C I), areas r B, C 13, and C r, respectively, and 
 the weight C, is to the weight D, as B r to w x.” 
 
 “ Cor. 2. — The foree, or thrust, at C, in direction 
 CB, or at 13, in direction I3C, is as the secant of the 
 elevation of the line B C, above the horizon.” 
 
 “ For, force in direction C 13 j force in direction 
 C I) ! ; C B ; C r ; ; S. C r B, or r C m, or s C I ) ♦ 
 8.r B C ; ; cos. elevation of C D ♦ cos. elevation of 
 C B :: sec. elevation of C 13 Jsec. elevation Cl); 
 because the secants are reciprocally as the cosines.’’ 
 3C “ Cor, 
 
J90 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 “ Cor. 3 . — Draw C p, D m, parallel to D E, C JB, 
 then the weights on 0 and D, to preserve the equi- 
 librium, will be as C m to D p, and therefore, it all 
 the weights are given, and the position of two lines 
 C D, D E, then the positions of all the rest C 11, 
 11 A, &c. will be successively found. For let the 
 force in direction C D, or D C, be C D, then C p is 
 the force in direction D E, and D m, in direction 
 C B. And D p, or the weight D, is the force com- 
 pounded ofD C, C p; and C m, or the weight C, 
 is the force compounded of C I), D m.” 
 
 “ Cor. 4. — If the weights, lie not on the angles B 
 C, D, See. let the places of their centres of gravity 
 be at g, h, k, 1, and let g, h, k, 1, also express their 
 weights. And take the weight Br= 
 
 A g * h C, 
 
 .ns g +irc h ’ 
 
 1 E 
 
 Bh, , kD, T x Ck, 
 
 : rc h +irD k ’ D =cT) k 
 
 + 
 
 p 1, &c. then B, C, D, &c. will be the weights 
 
 lying upon the respective angles.” 
 
 “ Cor. 5. — If the weights were to act upwards, in 
 the directions m C, p D, &c, or which is the same 
 thing, if the figure A, B, C, D, E, F, was turned 
 upside down, and the weights remain the same, and 
 the points A F, lie fkfed as before. All the angles 
 at B, C, I), &c. and consequently the whole figure 
 will remain the same as before ; and that whether 
 the lines A B, B C, C D, 8c c. be flexible or inflexi- 
 ble cords or timbers.” 
 
 “ This will easily appear, by the demonstration 
 of the prop. For the ratio of the forces at any angle 
 C, will be the same, whether they act towards the 
 point C, or from it ; that is, it will be the same 
 tiling, whether the weight at any angle C, acts in 
 direction C m, or C s, and as the forces were sup- 
 posed before to thrust against C, the same forces 
 now do pull from it.” 
 
 “ Scholiun. — If DA, B F, Figure 6, be a semi- 
 circle, whose diameter is D F, draw A G, perpen 
 dicular to D F, then the force or weight at any 
 place A, to preserve the equilibrium, w ill be re- 
 ciprocally as A G 3 , or directly as the cube of the 
 secant of the arch B A.” 
 
 “ Likewise it follows from Cor. 5, that if any 
 c >rds of equal lengths, be stretched to the same de- 
 gree of curvature, the stretching forces will be as 
 the weights of the cords.” 
 
 Proposition. — If the distance of the walls ADand 
 BC be given, Fig. 7, and AB, AC be two beams of 
 timber ofequal thickness: the one horizontal, the 
 other inclined ; and if two equal weights P, Q, be 
 suspended in the middle of them ; the stress is equal 
 in both, and the one will as soon break as the other, 
 by these equal weights.” 
 
 “ For AC: All;: weight P : A® P— pressure 
 A 0 
 
 against the plane, or part of the weight the beam 
 
 A C sustains. And the stress upon A C P>^ 
 
 A C 
 
 A Cor ABxP; and the stress < n A B isQxA B, 
 which i3 equal to A BxP, because the weights 
 P, Q are equal. Therefore, the stress being the 
 same, and the beams being of equal thickness, one 
 will bear as much as the other, and they will botk 
 break together.” 
 
 “ Cor. 1 If the beams be loaded with weights 
 in any other places in the: same perpendicular line 
 as F, G ; they will bear equal stress, and one will 
 as soon break as the other.” 
 
 “ For they are cut into parts similar to one ano- 
 ther; and therefore stress at -F: stress by P: 1 A F C :•£ 
 
 A C- A G B ; stress by B: stress by Q 
 
 or stress by P. Therefore stress at F= stress 
 at B.” 
 
 u Cor. 2. If the two beams be loaded in propor- 
 tion to their lengths; the stress by these weights, or 
 by their own weights, will be as their lengths; and 
 therefore the longer, that stands aslope, will sooner 
 break.” 
 
 “ For the stress upon A C was A BxP, and the 
 stress on A B was A BxQ ; but since P and Q are 
 to one another, as A C and A B, therefore the stress 
 on A C and A B w ill be as A Bx A C and A J>X 
 AB; that is, as A C to A B. And in regard lo 
 their own weights, these are also proportional to 
 their lengths.” 
 
 “ Proposition . — Let A B, A C, Figure 8, be two 
 beams of timber of equal length ami thickness, the 
 one horizontal, the other set sloping, if C D be per- 
 pendicular to A B, and they be loaded in the mid- 
 dle with tw’o weights, P, Q, which are to one ano- 
 ther as A C to A I), then the stress w ill be equal .in 
 both, and one will as soon break as the other.” 
 
 “ For AC: A D; 1 P:-A^ P=pressure ofP in 
 A 
 
 the middle of A C. And by supposition, AC: 
 
 AD;i P : Q ; therefore P=Qj the weight in 
 A L 
 
 the middle tff A B. Therefore the forces in the mid- 
 dle of the two beams are the same, and the lengths 
 of the beams being the same, therefore the stress is 
 equal upon both of them ; and being of equal thick- 
 ness, if one breaks, (he other will break.” 
 
 “ Cor. If the weights P, Q, be equal upon the 
 two equal beams A B, A C, the stress upon A B 
 w ill be to the stress upon A C, as A B or A C to 
 AD, the same holds in regard to their own weights.” 
 
 For the weight Q is increased in that proportion. 
 
 “ Proposition .—If several pieces of timber be ap- 
 plied to any mechanical use where strength is requir- 
 ed, not only the parts of the same piece, but the se- 
 veral pieces in regard to one another, ought to be 
 so adj usted for bigness, that the strength may be al- 
 ways 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 ways proportional to the stress they are to en- 
 dure.” 
 
 This proposition, Mr. Emerson observes, is 
 the foundation of all good mechanism, and ought to 
 be regarded in all sorts of tools and instruments we 
 work with, as well as in the several parts of any en- 
 gine; for who that is wise, will overload himself with 
 his work tools, or make them biggerand heavier then 
 the work requires? Neither ought they to be so 
 -slender as not to be able to perform their office. In 
 all engines, it must be considered what weight every 
 beam is to carry, and proportion the strength accor- 
 dingly. All levers must be made strongest at the 
 place where they are strained the most ; in levers of 
 the first kind, they must 1m? strongest at the support ; 
 in those of the second kind, at the weight; in those 
 of the third kind, at the power, and diminish propor- 
 tionally from that point. The axles of wheels and 
 pullies, the teeth of wheels, which bear greater 
 weights, or act with greater force, must be made 
 stronger, and those lighter, that have light work to 
 do. Ropes must be so much stronger cm’ weaker, as 
 they have more or less tension ; and in general, all 
 the parts of a machine must have such a degree of 
 strength, as to be able to perform its office, and mo 
 more ; for an excess of strength in any nr.rt does no 
 qjood, but adds unnecessary weight to tne machine, 
 which clogs and retards its motion, and makes it 
 languid and dead. And on the other hand, a de- 
 fect of strengh where it is wanted, will be a means to 
 make the engine fail in that part, and -go to ruin. 
 So necessary it is to adjust the strength to the stress, 
 that a good mechanic will never neglect, it; but 
 will contrive all the parts in due proportion, by 
 which means they w ill last all alike, and the whole 
 machine will be disposed to fail all at once. And 
 this will ever distinguish a good mechanic from a 
 bad one, who either makes some parts so defective, 
 imperfect, and feeble, as to fail very soon ; or makes 
 others, so strong or clumsy, as to out-last all the 
 rest-” 
 
 “ From this general rule follows, 
 
 “ Cor. ~1 . — In several pieces of timber of the same 
 sort, or in different parts of the -same piece; the 
 breadth multiplied by 'the square of the depth, must 
 be as the length, multiplied by the weight to be 
 borne, for then the strength will be as the stress. 
 
 “ Cor. 2. — The breadth multiplied by the square 
 of the depth, and divided by the product of the 
 length and weight, must be the same in all.” 
 
 “ Cor . 3. — tftince, may be computed the strength 
 of timber, proper for several uses in building. As, 
 
 “ First. — To find the dimensions of joists and 
 boards for flooring. Let b, d, 1, be the breadth, 
 depth, and length, of a joist, n, — the number of 
 them, x = their distance, g=the depth of a board, 
 w = the weight, then n b d 2 ;= the strength of all 
 the joists, and w 1 = the stress on them, also, 
 nig 2 = the strength of the boards, and w x, their 
 
 19 i 
 
 stress ; therefore, 1— = 
 
 w i 
 
 n 1 g 2 
 
 and. 
 
 - — §L — for the distance of the joists, dr the length of 
 b d 2 
 
 board between them. Or b — 
 
 V'Sl 
 
 d 2 x 
 
 , or d 2 as 
 
 — , and so on, according to -what is wanted.” 
 
 Secondly.— To find the dimensions of square tim- 
 ber for the roof of a house, — Let r, s, 1, be the 
 length Of the ribs, spars, and hits, so far as they 
 bear ; x, y, z, their breadth or depth, n, the distance 
 of the hats, w '= the weight upon a rib, c=the 
 cosine of elevation of the roof. Then by reason of 
 
 the inchned plane^-^x c = ^ ie weight upon a 
 spar. And l n w -r- the weight upon a lat, for the 
 
 ribs and lats lie liprizontally. Therefore, 
 
 Ay 
 
 \543z 
 
 — X c lx - 
 
 r r s 
 
 Whence, x 3 = r * y 3 , and x L — : 1-2 sz ' - 
 c4 s 1- n 
 
 Hence, if any one x, y, or z, be given, and all the 
 rest of the quantities ; the other two may be found. 
 Or in general, any two being unknown, they may be 
 found, from having the rest given.” 
 
 u For example. — Let r=9 feet, ft — 4 feet, 1=15 
 inches, n=l 1 inches, c=707, the cosine of 45° the 
 pitch of the roof. And assume y=2{ inches, then x 
 
 =2{ j=7 * 1 inches, and z =2{ 
 
 V 3'535 y 
 
 3=1 ’ inches.” 
 
 “ Proposition. — If any weight be laid on the beam 
 A B, as at C, (see Figure 9, and 10 , ) or any force 
 applied to it at C, the beam will be bent through a 
 space C I), proportional to the weight or force ap- 
 plied at C; and the resistance of the beam will be 
 as the space it is bent through nearly.” 
 
 “ In order to find the law of resistance of beams 
 of timber, or such like bodies, against any weights 
 laid upon them, or straining them, I took a piece -of 
 wood planed square, and supporting it at both ends 
 A, B, I laid successively on the middle of it at C, 
 1,2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, and 8 pounds; and 1 found the 
 middle point C to descend through the spaces 
 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 respectively. And repeat- 
 ing the same experiment with the weights 3, G, 91bs. 
 they all descended through spaces, either accurately 
 or very nearly as the numbers 1, 2, .3. I tried the 
 same things with springs of metal, and found the 
 space through w hich they were bent, proportional to 
 the weight suspended. I also tried several experi- 
 ments of this kind with wires, hairs, and other elas- 
 tic flexible bodies, by hanging weights at them : 
 
 and ‘ 
 
192 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOTNERY 
 
 and I found that the increase of their lengths, by j 
 stretching, was in each of them proportional to the ] 
 weights hung at them ; except when they were going 
 to break, and then the increase was something 
 greater. It may b“ observed, that none of these bo- 
 dies regained their first figure, when the weights 
 were taken olf, except well tempered, springs ; so 
 that there are no natural bodies perfectly elastic. 
 And even springs are observed by experience to 
 grow weaker by often bending ; and by remaining 
 some time unbent, will recover part oftheir strength; 
 and are something stronger in cold than in hot wea- 
 ther. Rut at any time, a spring, and all such bodies 
 observe this law, that they have the least resistance 
 when least bent, and in all cases are bent through 
 spaces nearly proportional to the weights or forces 
 applied. And. therefore, 1 think this law is suffi- 
 ciently established, that the resistance any of these j 
 bodies makes, is. proportional to the space through 
 which it is bent, or that it exerts a force propor- 
 tional to the distance it is stretched to.” 
 
 “■ Tlie knowledge of this property of springy bo- 
 dies is of great use in mechanics, for by this means 
 a spring may be contrived to pull at all times with 
 equal strength, as in the fusee of a watch: or it 
 may be made to draw in any proportion of strength 
 required.” 
 
 “ The action of a spring may be compared to the 
 lifting up a chain of weights, lying upon a plane, or 
 to the lifting a cylinder of timber out of the water 
 endways.” 
 
 This author farther observes, that “ the proposi- 
 tions before laid down concerning the strength and 
 stress of timber, &c. are also of excellent use in 
 several concerns of life, and particularly in Architec- 
 ture: and upon these principles a great many prob- 
 lems may he resolved, relating to the due proportion 
 ofstrength in several bodies, according to their parti- 
 cular positions and weights they are to bear, some 
 of Which I shall briefly enumerate.” 
 
 If a piece of timber is to be holed with a mor- 
 tice hole, the beam will be stronger when it is taken 
 out ofthe middle, than if it be taken out of either 
 side. And in a beam supported at both ends, it is 
 stronger when the hole is taken out of the tipper 
 side than the under one, provided apiece of wood is 
 driven hard into fillup the hole.” 
 
 “ I fa piece is to be spliced upon the end of a beam 
 to he supported at both ends, it will he stronger when 
 spliced mn the under side of a beam, than on the up- 
 per side. But if the beam is supported only at one 
 end, to bear a weight on the other, it is stronger 
 when spliced on the upper side.” 
 
 “ When a small lever &c. is nailed to a body to 
 remove it, or suspend it by, the strain is. greater 
 upon the nail nearest the bund, or point where the 
 power is applied.” 
 
 If a slender cylinder, is to be supported by two 
 the distance of the pins ought to be i 
 
 parts of the length of the cylinder, that is f its 
 length, the pins equidistant from its ends, and then 
 the cylinder will endure the least bending or strain 
 by its weights.” 
 
 “ By the same principles, if a wall faces the wind, 
 and if the section of it be a right angled triangle, or 
 the foreside he perpendicular to the horizon, and 
 the backside terminated by a sloping plane inter- 
 secting the other plane in the top of the wall, such a 
 wall will be equally strong in all its parts to resist 
 the wind, if the parts ofthe wall cohere strongly to- 
 gether ; but if it be built of loose materials, it is bet- 
 ter to be convex on the backside, in form of a para- 
 bola.” 
 
 I f a wall is to support a bank of earth, or any 
 lluid body, it ought to be built concave in form of a 
 semi-cubical parabola, whose vertex is at the top of 
 the wall ; this is when the parts of the wall stick 
 well together ; lmt if the parts be loOse, then a right 
 line or sloping plane ought to be its figure. Such 
 walls will be equally strong throughout.” 
 
 “ All spires of churches in the form of cones or 
 pyramids, are equally strong in all parts to resist 
 the wind ; but when the parts cohere not together, 
 parabolic conoids are equally strong throughout.” 
 
 Likewise, if there he a pillar erected in the form 
 of the logarithmic curve, the assymptote being the 
 axis, it cannot be crushed to pieces in one part 
 sooner than in another, by its own weight. And if 
 such a pillar be turned upside down, and suspend at 
 the thick end in the air, it will be no sooner pulled 
 asunder in one part than another by its own weight. 
 And the case is the same if the small end be cut otf, 
 and instead of it, a cylinder be added, whose height 
 is half the snbtangent.” 
 
 The same author states' also his having found by 
 experience, that there is a great deal of difference in 
 strength, in d iff rent pieces of the very same tree, . 
 some pieces I . have found would not bear half the 
 weight that others would do. The wood of the 
 houghs and branches is far weaker than that of the 
 body ; the wood ofthe great limbs- is stronger than . 
 that ofthe small ones, and the wood in the heart of a 
 sound tree is the strongest of all. I have also found by 
 experience, that a piece of timber, which has borne a 
 great weight for a. small time, has broke with a far 
 less weight, when left upon it for a longer time.. 
 Wood, is likewise, weaker yvlien it is green, and . 
 strongest when thoroughly dried, land should be two 
 or three years old at least. If wood happens to be 
 sappy it will be'Weaker upon that account, and will 
 likewise decay sooner. Knots in wood weaken it 
 very much, and this often causes it to break where > 
 a knot is, Also when wood is cross grained, as it 
 often happens in sawing; this will weaken it more 
 or less, according as it runs -more or less cross the 
 grain. And l have found by experience, that tough 
 wood cross the grain, such as elm or askis 7,, 8 or 10 
 times weaker than straight; aud wood that easily 
 
 splits 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 splits, 9UCh as' fir, is 16, 18, or 20 times weaker. 
 A/id tor common use it is hardly possible to find 
 wood but it must be subject to some of those things. 
 Besides when timbet* iies long in a building, it is 
 apt to decay, or to be worm eaten, which must needs 
 very much impair its strength. From all which it 
 appears, that a large allowance ought to be made 
 l«r the strength of wood, when applied to any use, 
 especially where it is designed to continue for a long 
 time.” 
 
 We come next, to some observations and examples 
 of that ingenious experimental philosopher Air. 
 John Banks, contained in his useful treatise on the 
 
 Pcicxr of Machines." which w ork we strongly re- 
 commend to the attention of mechanics in general. 
 
 This Gentleman Commences wiih“ Rules and ob- 
 servations respecting the form and strength of beams 
 of wood nnd iron for supporting weights, working 
 engines, &c. 
 
 ‘‘If the materials of which different beam# are 
 made, be equally good, the comparative strength 
 under any regular form may easily be investigated. 
 But we find by experiment that t^e same kind of 
 wood, and of the^anje form and dimensions, will 
 break with very different weights; or, one piece is 
 much stronger than another, not on(y cut out of 
 the same tree, but out of the same rod: or, a 
 piece of a gi\ en length, planed equally thick, and 
 cut ill two or three pieces, these pieces w ill be 
 broken with different weights. Iron also varies in 
 strength, and not only from different furnaces, 
 hut from the same furnace, and .the same melting; 
 but this seems to be owing to some imperfection in 
 the casting, and in general iron is much more uni- 
 form than wood. The resistance which any beam 
 or of wood or iron affords, will be as tlie sum of the 
 products of all the fibres, between the top and bot- 
 tom, multiplied by they- respective distances from 
 the top. /‘or if a=— length, b==breadth and ■/. — 1 
 
 depth, we shall have zX z ? ar) d divided by 4* 
 
 the 
 
 fluent of zz— 52 ; hence. ^ = the w hole resis- 
 
 2 '2 i 
 
 tance, which wh«i the weight is suspended from the® 
 middle of the beam, must be divided by half the j 
 
 1 hj-2 * 
 
 length. or by ' , which w ill be equal to—'-- ; which j 
 ‘ 2 1 a 
 
 expresses the strength ofthe beam. From which we! 
 liave the following 
 
 Rule . — u Multiply the breadth in inches by the 
 square of the depth in int lies , and divide that product ; 
 by the Unrjb in incurs, the quotient is a fraction, or j 
 K'hole number, ore. which expresses the comparative 
 strength of the beam. j 
 
 “ i’he dimensions may be taken in feet, or the, 
 breadth and depth in inches, and tlie length in feet,’ 
 but to compare one piece with anotlier they must all 
 be Jaken in tire same manner. From a great num- 
 
 10S 
 
 her of experiments which I have made on the 
 strength of wood, and that on pieces of various 
 lengths and breadths, &c. 1 found that the worst or 
 weakest piece of dry heart of oak, 1 inch square and 
 1 foot long, did bear 6(50 pounds, though much bend- 
 ed, and two pounds more broke it. The strongest 
 piece I have tried of the same dimensions, broke* 
 with 074 pounds. 
 
 “ The worst piece of deal 1 have tried, bore 46$ 
 pounds, but broke with 4 more. The best piece 
 Imre 600 pounds, but broke with a little more. 
 These pieces were 1 inch square, and 1 foot long. 
 
 Example 1.— K Given a piece of oak 6 incite# 
 square, and 8 feet in length, to find what weight sus- 
 pended from the middle will break it. 
 
 Solution . — “ In the worst piece of oak 1 inok 
 | square, and 12 inches long, the strength is 1 squar- 
 ed, viz. the depth squared and multiplied by the 
 breadth, and divided by the length, which is_I . 
 
 In tlie given piece we have G the depth squared equal 
 SG, which multiplied by the breadth (6) gives 216^ 
 j which divided by the length 86, give?.. , or, 
 
 ; hence as _JL is to 660 pounds, so ls_JL to 17850 
 i 12 4 
 
 ! pounds. 
 
 ‘‘ From the above, we may compute tlie following 
 weights, >vhich placed opposite to the fraction or 
 whole number, which is obtained by the rule before 
 given, and the dimensions taken in inches; ih the se- 
 cond column, in leet; in the third, the breadth and 
 i depth in inches, and the length in feet. 
 
 2 Jc 
 *5 J: j= 
 
 , r: -C 
 
 Weight in pounds which will 
 nearly break it, 1st 
 
 | 
 
 € ' 
 C 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 c 
 
 Om 
 
 g 
 
 b£ 
 
 J 
 
 c 
 
 SZ 
 
 ! 
 
 CD 
 
 Length in Feet, 3(1 
 
 — — — * 
 
 
 660 
 
 L_ 
 
 66 0 
 
 1 
 
 660 
 
 
 792 
 
 j- ' 
 
 14256 
 
 ± 
 
 880 
 
 J L 
 
 990 
 
 * 
 
 19008 
 
 4 
 
 1650 
 
 i 
 
 1320; 
 
 1 4 O' 
 
 28512 
 
 3 
 
 1980 
 
 J 
 
 1980. 
 
 _1_ 
 
 38016 
 
 4 1 
 
 264 d 
 
 1 
 
 3960 
 
 
 57024 
 
 5 1 
 
 330 0 
 
 I 
 
 7920; 
 
 , Ti_ 
 
 114048 
 
 G 
 
 396 0 
 
 2 
 
 15940, 
 
 Y 
 
 1140480 
 
 8 
 
 5280 
 
 3 
 
 2,3760, 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 6600 
 
 4 
 
 31680, 
 
 
 
 
 
 3I> 
 
 M Example 
 
194 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 u Fxamplc. — Given, the length of an oak beam 
 1C feet, breadth 15 inches, and depth 18 inches, re- 
 quired its strength; or, the weight which suspend 
 ed from the middle, will nearly break it.” 
 
 “ 1. Let the dimensions be taken in inches, and 
 we have X 15-r~ p<v^i95; then from the first 
 192 
 
 column of the table we sny, as is to G60 
 pounds so is 25 3125 to 200475 pounds the answer.” 
 “2 Lei the dimensions he talo n in feet, and we 
 have ^ 5 X 1. 5 X 1 25 | 757;^: 45 ; un j f roni 
 1C 256 
 
 the second column in the table we mav say, as 1 
 
 1728 
 
 is to *660 pounds, so is 200475. 
 
 25C 
 
 “ 3. The breadth and depth in inches, and the 
 length in feet, and we shall have the breadth multi- 
 plied by the square of the depth, equal 48C0, which 
 
 divided by 16, gives_i?^_or 303 75, and as in the 
 4 
 
 thi>d column, as 1 is to CG0 pounds, so is 303 75 to 
 200475 pounds, the answer.” 
 
 “ A beam of the above dimensions is commonly 
 used for working a steam engine, the cylinder of 
 which is from 20 to 24 inches diameter, suppose 22 
 inches, then the greatest pressure that can possibly 
 act upon the beam will not exceed 10000 pounds; 
 hence, the beam would require above 20 times the 
 force of the engine to break it, nevertheless if it was 
 much weaker, the engine might bend it, and in time 
 br-eak it. 
 
 (( Suppose we take the above beam for a standard, 
 or conclude that every beam ought to be able to 
 bear 20 times as much as it is employed to do. 
 Then what must be the dimensions of a beam 20 
 leet long, r to work a cylinder 36 inches diameter. 
 
 “ Solution . — The weight suspended from the ends 
 of the beam will be as the squares of the diameters 
 of the cylinders, viz. as 22 squared, and 36 squared, 
 or as 484 to 1296, the last divided by the first, gives 
 
 2‘6777, or 4 • so that the strength of the new 
 
 121 
 
 beam must be 2"6777 times as great as the other. 
 The strength of the first, when the breadth and 
 deptli are taken in inches, and the length in feet is 
 expressed by 1215 which multiplied by ^j-, gi ves 
 
 393660 . e q Ua i 813 34 for the strength. If no re- 
 484 . 
 
 gard is paid to the ratio of the breadth and depth, 
 the problem is simply answered by assuming the 
 breadth what we please, suppose 18 inches, and 
 
 z=the depth we shall have -^^-=813 , 34 ; and 
 
 z 2 will equal — = 903"71 ; the square 
 
 lo 
 
 root of which is =z, or the depth = 30 inches 
 nearly. 
 
 Otherwise, let the depth be taken at 27 inches 
 and let l=r:breadlh, then our theorem will become 
 
 13 34; or,b^M? 4 X 20 
 
 20 ’ 729 
 
 22 31 inches. 
 
 IN WORBS, 
 
 “ Jhtk. — Multiply the expression for the strength, 
 hi/ the length if the beam in feet, and divide that hi/ 
 the square of the depth in inches , the quotient will he 
 the breadth in inches. 
 
 N. B. Though the above two beams are equal- 
 ly strong, yet the second contains about 84 feet 
 more wood than the first. 
 
 problem 2. 
 
 “ Let it be required to make a beam equally 
 strong with the last, and of the same length, but 
 that the ratio of the breadth to the depth be as 2 to 
 3, or in fany other proportion ? Let a = length in 
 feet, b = breadth, z = depth, and s z= 813-34. 
 the expression for the strength. 
 
 “ Then will = 813^34 ; and z 2 — 
 
 a 
 
 — ‘ ^ - a -also by the problem, as 2 * 3 ; b * z; 
 
 lienee, 2 z= 3b; 
 
 and z=z 
 
 3 b 
 
 which 
 
 squared, 
 
 9 b 2 
 
 , s a 
 ; also — - 
 b 
 
 _9b3 
 : ± 
 
 from 
 
 = 7229-7 the cnbe root of which, is 19*337, the 
 breadth in inches, and as 2 * 3 ‘ *. 19*337 ; 29 005, 
 the depth in indies. 
 
 “ If m is to n as the breadth to the depth, we shall 
 have the following general theorem, viz. b 3 = 
 m 2 s a 
 
 problem 3. 
 
 “ Required to make a beam 24 feet long, to work 
 a cylinder 24 inches diameter, and that the breadth 
 be to the depth, as 3 to 7. 
 
 “ To find an expression for the strength of the 
 beam, we may say from the last problem, as 484, the 
 square of the diameter of the cylinder, is to the ex- 
 pression for the strength of its beam, so is 576, the 
 square of the diameter of the present cylinder, to a 
 number which will express its strength, viz. as 484 J 
 
 1215 . 
 4 * 
 
 576 l 36T487, the number required. 
 
 “ But when the length is taken in feet, and the 
 breadth and depth in inches, we know that an oak 
 beam, which will just break with 660 pounds, has 
 its strength expressed by 1, and if we wish to have 
 a beam which will bear 20 times as much as it is 
 intended to load it with, we may take part of 
 
 the 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY, 
 
 reii 
 
 the load, viz. of 060, or S3, and say, as S3 ♦ 1 
 i l t«'ice the area of the intended cylinder multiplied 
 bv 14, to the strength of the beam, in this case, as 
 S3 ; 1 12672 * 3 84, the strength. Rut this is 
 
 much more than the real load of a common 2 feet 
 cylinder, if it should amount to even 10 pounds per 
 inch, the whole would be only 8040 pounds, anil ns 
 33 l i ! ! 8640 J 261 8 the strength : let a beam be 
 constructed, by both expressions, viz bv 384 and 
 262. In th.e first case, by the general 'theorem, If* ss 
 
 an3 s a 
 
 — - — in the problem, m =; 3, and n tss 7 , also 
 
 a := 44, and s 1 — ; S84, therefore ^ X 384 X 24 — 
 
 49 
 
 b 3 = 3692 7, the cube root of which is the breadth 
 == I P918 inches ; and as 3 * 7 ; : II *918 * 27-808 
 inches, the depth. 1 have known a beam of deal of 
 this size, used for a 2 feet cylinder, but in a few 
 years it was much bended, though there was no 
 danger of its' breaking. 
 
 “ Secondly, when the strength is expressed by 
 ~262, we have every thing the same as before, except 
 s = 262, therefore ^ X *26- X £4 —^ ,3 — 
 
 49 ’ 
 
 and the breadth = 10-492 inches, and as 3 t 7 • * 
 10 4D2 : 24-48 inches, the depth. 
 
 “ But suppose the engineer, wishes it to support 
 any greater Weight, for instance, 25 times its com- 
 mon load, he may divide 660 by 25, and the quo- 
 tient will be 26 4 ; then as 26-4 * 1 ; ; 8610 ; 327 2 
 the expression for the strength, and 327-2 x24x9 
 
 49 
 
 __ b3 I44g 357 ; cube root is 1 1 99 - — h 
 And as 3 J 7 ; ; 11 29 J 26 34, the depth. 
 
 “ By the above process, we find the strength of a 
 Team to work a 12 inch cylinder expressed by 96, 
 /from which we have the following 
 
 “ Rule.—Se/mire the dumujer of the cylinder in 
 feet, and multiply the prodiu t by 90 >• life last pro- 
 duct zcill express the strength. 
 
 N. B. The depth and breadth are taken in inches, 
 and the length in feet, which I think is the most 
 convenient in general. The length of the beam will 
 make no difference, for the dimensions will turn 
 out so as to make it equally stroDg of any length, 
 for example. 
 
 PROBLEM 4. 
 
 “ Required a beam 16 feet long, to work a cylin- 
 der of 30 inches diameter, and that the breadth be to 
 the depth, as 3 to 5. 
 
 Solution. — “ 25 feet squared, is 6 25; which 
 by the rule, multiplied by 96, gives 600 for the 
 strength. 
 
 “ Then by the theorem, b 3 ■ — m2 63 , m 2 — q . 
 
 n^ 1 
 
 n 2 =25 ; p — 600 ; a — : 16, therefore ^X600xJ6 
 
 25 
 
 =b 3 =3156 ^ the cube root of which, is 15-139 
 
 ! inches, and as 3 is to 5, so is file breadth I5T19 
 to t e depth 25 198 inches. 
 
 ; “ Let it be required to make a beam for the same 
 
 cylinder of 24 feet, then wiH / ) X60QX2A --.h3 — 
 |j 25 
 
 the bread (h=5 184, the cube root <»f w hich, is 17*307, 
 i from which w«* find the depth 28 845 inches. This 
 | J is equally strong with the first, but contains much 
 1 1 more wood. 
 
 PROBLEM 5. 
 
 !j u Required n deal beam 16 feet Jong, to work a 
 jf cylinder of I foot diameter, the breadth to the depth, 
 
 as o to a. 
 
 | Solution. — •“ If we take the pressure at 14 pound* 
 
 |f per inch, t!ie weight upon the centre will be about 
 : 3168 pounds, also the worst piece of fir, one inch 
 ! square, and one foot long, bore 460 pounds, and 
 | broke with 7 pounds more;hence, if we take_f part 
 
 of 460, viz. 23 pounds, and say, as 23 t 1 (the ex- 
 pression for its strength,) so is 3168: 137 7 the 
 strength. Theft from the tlieorem we multiply the 
 length, the strength, and the square of the ratio of 
 the breadth togetlier, and divide by the square of the 
 
 ratio of the depth, v.x. 1 6 X 137 7x9 ; s 973- ] r )Q t h e 
 25 
 
 cube root of which, is 9 9 inches for the breadth, 
 then as 3: 5| 1 9*9 : 16 5 inches, the depth. 
 
 “ Hence, if the square of the diameter of any cy- 
 linder in feet, is multiplied by 138, for the strength 
 of a deal beam, it will, without breaking, support 
 more tlian 20 times as much weight as the engine can 
 ever exert upon it. 
 
 Experiments on the strength of oalc. 
 
 “ Tiiese experiments have been made 011 pieces of 
 one inch square, and one foot long, and from that 
 size to 2 inches square, and five feet long, to men- 
 ) tionall the trials would take uptime and room to no 
 J great purpose. It may be sufficient to observe, that 
 when the computations made on the different pieces, 
 and applied to pieces ] inch square, and 1 foot long, 
 that the worst would bear 6 60 pounds, and the best 
 not more than 974. From similar experiments on 
 deal of the same dimensions, I found the w orst which 
 I used would just break witli 460, and the strongest 
 with 690 pounds. 
 
 “ But in all the computations, I have taken the 
 Worst pieces to compute from, and at the same time 
 have made them to bear 20 times as much as the load 
 they have to support ; not taking notice of their own 
 weight, which would have made the process much 
 more troublesome. 
 
 problem 6 
 
 “ Required the length of a piece of oak one inch 
 square, so that it may just break with its own 
 Weight. 
 
 Solution. — u Let x=tbe length in feet, and one 
 
 foot 
 
^96 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 foot in length weigh -ji_ of a pound. Then a? 1 : 
 
 JO 
 
 COO :: J : 222. flte weight which will break it. but 
 x x 
 
 the bar only acts With half its own weight qt the cen- 
 tre, therefore the weight of the bar, must be 
 10 
 
 equal »to_^2 X-i viz. 1222 ; or, 13200= 
 
 x f x i 0 
 
 4.x ’ , and x= v /33 00 =5?‘44 feet. 
 
 Experiments on the strength of cast iron. 
 
 Of late cast iron has been used in various ca*ses 
 in place of sioue or wood, as in bridges, engine 
 beams, pillars, rail wavs, or roads, &o. ami is still 
 likely to be more in use. The following experi- 
 ments wyre given to me by Messrs. Reynolds, of 
 Kefley, at the same time requesting me to make 
 them as public as I could, for the advantage of 
 others. 
 
 Experiments on the strength of cast iron, tried at 
 Ketky, March, 1795. 
 
 N. B. The different bars were all cast at oho 
 lime out of the same air furnace, and the iron was 
 very soft <o as to cut or file easily. 
 
 Experunent i. — “ Two bars of cast iron, one inch 
 square, and exactly 3 feet long, were plac 'd upon an 
 horizontal liar so as to meet in a cap at the top, from 
 which was suspended asoaie; these bars made each 
 an angle of 45° with the base plate, and of conse- 
 quence at the top so as to form an angle of 90 w , 
 from this cap was suspended a weight of 7 tons, 
 which was left for 16 hours, when the bars were a 
 little bent, and but very little. 
 
 ]' xpcrj.me.nt 2. — i<: Two more liars, of the same 
 length and thickness, were placed in a similar man- 
 ner, making an angle of 22 with the base plate; 
 these bore 4 tons upon the scale; a little more 
 weight broke one of them, which was observed to be 
 a little crooked when first put up. In this case the 
 pressure would be as the sines ofjthe angles of eleva- 
 tion, viz. as 3826 to 7071; and as 3826* 4 tons;; 
 707 1 1 7 6 tons, that is if the second bars broke with 
 4 tons, the first ought to have taken 7 6 tons to 
 break them, and ns they were not broken it is likely 
 that would, iftried, have been the case. 
 
 Experiment 5 . — u Another bar was placed hori- 
 zontally upon two supporters, exactly o feet distant, 
 it bore 6 cwt. S qrs. but broke when a little more 
 w as added. 
 
 Experiment 4.—“ The same experiment repeat- 
 ed, with the same result. 
 
 Experiment 5. — w The bearings were 2 feet 6 
 inches apart, the bar bore 9 cwt, and broke. This 
 was perceptably bent with 1 cwt. but bore two safe- 
 ly. Three more experiments were tried the next 
 day with the prisms 3 feet distant; the average result 
 Was 6. cwt, 2 qrs. 74 pounds. 
 
 Jj.cpidmaiis tried at CohbrOohdute, on can- 
 
 ed bars or ribs of cast iron, April, 1795. 
 
 u Rib 29 feet 6 inches span, and 11 inches ldgh ia 
 the centre, it supported 99 cwt. 1 qr. 14 lbs. it sunk 
 in the middle 3£, and rose again | when the weight 
 was removed. The same rib was afterwards tried 
 without abutments, and broke with 55 cwt. 0 qrs. 14 
 pounds. 
 
 Experiment 6 . — u Rib 29 feet 3 inches in span; a 
 ' segment of a circle 3 feet high in the centre, it sup- 
 j ported 100 cwt. 1 qr. 14 lbs and sunk 1 _jA_in the 
 
 j middle. The same rib was afterwards tried with- 
 j out abutments, end broke with 64 cwt. 1 qr. 14 
 pounds. 
 
 N. B. The thickness ofthese ribs is not mention- 
 | ed, but the experiments shew that they are much 
 stronger with abutments; as little more than half 
 tiie weight which they support, breaks them when the 
 abutments are removed. 
 
 li The following experiments on cart iron, I made 
 at Messrs, ^ydon and Elwell’s foundry, at Wake- 
 field, the iron came from their furnace at Shelf, 
 near Bradford, and was cast from the air furnace; 
 the bars one inch square, and the props exactly 
 one yard distant, one yard in. length weighs exactly 9 
 pounds, or one was about half an ounce iess, and 
 another a very little more; they all bended about 
 one inch jhefore they broke. 
 
 1 . Tlie first bar broke with. ...... . 963 pounds. 
 
 2. Bar broke w ith. 958 pounds. 
 
 3. Bar broke with 994 pounds. 
 
 4. Bar made from the cupola, 
 
 broke with. .864 pounds. 
 
 5. Bar equally thick in the mid- 
 dle, hut the ends formed into a pa- 
 rabola and weighed 6 lbs, 3 oz*. 
 
 broke with .874 pounds. 
 
 Other experiments were made by giving the 
 same quantity of iron a different form, (see fig. 1 1) 
 The top and bottom of this beam were each 1 inch 
 broad, and half an inch thick, till they joined at a 
 and b, where they were one inch square ; the piece 
 c, d, in the middie from which the weight was sus- 
 pended, increased the weight of this to 10£ pounds. 
 The length from prism to prism, viz. from prop to 
 prop, was an exact yard: the depth in the nrnki.e 
 | from top to bottom, 41 inches The first piece bore 
 | 29 cwt. 20 lbs, and broke with a little more. A se- 
 i cond piece bore 23 cu t. 1 qr. but broke with auo- 
 i tlier half cwt. 
 
 j “ A second form is represented in fig. 12, when* 
 
 I the bar a.cb is t inch broad, and a '„ inch deep, the 
 j bar ad bis also 1 inch broad, and inch thick, so 
 I that it contains no more iron than the straight bar, 
 
 | except the piecent c, from which I fie weight was sus- 
 ! ponded ; the weight of these was 10 pounds each, 
 j the depth c, d, 44 inches, but there v. ;. no connec- 
 j t ion betwixt the two. except at thp ends were they 
 were in one piece, 
 
 “ Tm\ 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 ID? 
 
 piece at c, and the lower at the props. 
 
 “ Trial 2. 48 cwt. 2 qrs. 7 lbs. broke this in the 
 same manner as the other. A gentleman present 
 wished to have the upper and lower part connected, 
 as at the dotted lines ; one was cast in this form, 
 and broke with 51 cwt. 2 qrs. another bore above 
 40 cwt. 
 
 “ Another beam of the same length and depth at 
 the centre, but in the form of a parabola, and weigh- 
 ed 10 \ pounds, the flat part of the beam was | of an 
 inch thick, and was surrounded by a moulding I of 
 an inch thick, and on the outside 1 inch broad; first 
 trial brok» with 50 cwt. 3 qrs. 25 lbs. a second 
 piece, or beam, broke with 44 cwt, 3 qrs. but on ex- 
 amining the fracture, it was full of pores at the gate, 
 or place, where tha metal entered the mould. See 
 Jig. 13. 
 
 “ From the above experiments, it appears that cast 
 iron is from 3^ to 4} stronger than oak of the same 
 dimensions, and from 5 to 6} times stronger than 
 deal. 
 
 “ Iron is much more uniform in its strength than 
 wood, yet it appears that there is some difference 
 in different kinds of ore or iron stone; there is also 
 a dif.erence from the same furnace, perhaps owing 
 to the degree of heat which it has, when poured 
 into the mould. If we take iron upon an average 
 to be 4 times as strong as oak, and 5£ as strong 
 as deal, we may proceed to make comparison be- 
 twixt. wood and iron, in respect of magnitude, weight, 
 expence, &c. 
 
 “ It is proved by the experiments, that the worst 
 ©r rather weakest cast iron, I inch square, and 3 
 feet long, will break with about 730 pounds, and 
 as (viz. the breadth and square of the depth 
 multiplied together, and divided by the length in 
 feet) is to 730 pounds, so is i or 1 to 2190 pounds, 
 the weight which would break a bar I inch square, 
 and I foot long. But I have computed the beam, 
 of wood to fo-ar 20 times as much as the intended 
 load. Let the iron be made to support 6* times 
 the weight, which I presume, from observation, 
 will be sufficient to keep them from banding, or 
 vibrating. But if the engineer thinks differently, he 
 may make them of what strength he pleases by the 
 following 
 
 “ Ride. — Divide 2190 by the number of times you 
 wish to increase its strength above the toad, and say as 
 the quotient is to I , so is (he load of your new beam to 
 th< number which expresses its strength. 
 
 “ Forexample, the load upon a 12 inch cylinder 
 will be about 3168 pounds. One sixth part of 
 2190 will be 365, and 3168 divided by 365. 
 quotes S’6 ; w hich expresses the strength for cast 
 iron. 
 
 problem 11. 
 
 “ Let it be required to make a cast iron beam for 
 a 12 inch cylinder, so (hat the breadth may be to the 
 dopta as 1 to £, and the length 14 feet. Here we 
 
 havea=14; ni=l ; h=s= 6; £=286; then b 3 — 
 
 — 111= ^ —3 3 44, and b =14954 inches, which 
 
 n* 36 
 
 multiplied by 6, gives 8 9724, the depth. 
 
 “ On the strength of beams , or poles of wood or iron , 
 when used in the form of triangles , to support 
 weights, load waggons , raise stones upon build- 
 ings, fyc. 
 
 “ Fig. 14. — Let BSC, he the triangle, then as the 
 sine of the angle w hich B S makes with the horizon, 
 is to the radius, so is the whole weight, suspended 
 from the top S, to the pressure against S B and S C, 
 for if they stand in the same position, they will sup- 
 port equal parts of the weight. 
 
 “ Those who have not tables of natural sines by 
 them, may proportion by saying, as S D the altitude 
 of the pin, which supports the weight, is to the 
 length of a pole or fog ofthe triangle, so is the weight 
 suspended to double the pressure against one pole, 
 that is when the triangle consists of two poles. If 
 there be three poles, as for loading carriages, &c 
 we may sav, as the perpendicular altitude of the pin 
 is to the length of one pole, so is one third of the 
 weight to the pressure against one pole. According 
 to Messrs. Reynold’s experiments, we easily infer, 
 that a bar of cast iron one inch square, and one foot 
 long, w il l bear a pressure against the ends of about 
 15 tons, and it appears from other experiments, that 
 deal, alder, and other soft wood of the same di- 
 mensions, will bear about 2*3 tons ; but suppose we 
 call it only two tons. 
 
 “ From which we get the following proportions. 
 
 ‘ For iron. As 1 ♦ 15 ; ! the expression for its 
 strength, to the weight w-ich it will bear. 
 
 “ For wood. As 1 ♦ 2 the expression for its 
 strength to its load. 
 
 problem xx. 
 
 “ Fxamples. — Given, two pieces of cast iron, two 
 inches square, and 16 feet long, making an angle 
 with the horizon of60 u each, what weight will they 
 support ? 
 
 “ Solution . — The expression for the strength is the 
 cube of a side in inches, divided by the length in 
 feet, viz ^ and the natural sine of 00°, 
 
 when the radius is 1, is .8660254, for the weight 
 which the bar can b*ar against its end, say, as 1 J 
 15 ; ; £ ♦ 7£ tons. Nc.xt, as the length of the bar 
 is to its perpendicular altitude, viz. as 1 ♦8660254; ; 
 7 5j6 49519, which doubled, is 12 99 tons, for the 
 whole load? 
 
 PROBLEM XXI. 
 
 u Suppose the same bars make each an angle of 
 30° with the ho izon, what weight will they bear ? 
 i “ Solid : <,n. — The strength as before is 4 ; and the 
 
 [pressure which they can support is 7\ tons, the sine 
 | of 30° is -5, and as 1 ♦ j ; ; 7 5 * 3 75 tons for 
 1 each bar, aud the whole load is twice as much, or 7\\ 
 hence, it appears that the less tiie angle winch they 
 3 E make 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 
 
 J98- 
 
 make with the horizon, the less weight will they sup- 
 port. 
 
 “N. B. In round and square props, poles, &c. of 
 equal length and weight, the round will be stronger 
 nearly in the ratio of 31 to 29. But if the lengths 
 are equal, and the diameter of the round, equal to 
 a side of the square pole, the strength of the round 
 pole will be to that of the square one as 21 to 29, 
 nearly. 
 
 PROBLEM 22 
 
 “ Three poles 4 nc‘-e- diameter and W feet long, 
 make each an angle of GO® with the horizon, what 
 load may be suspended iron; them 7 
 
 “ Solution. f = G 4 for the strength. 
 
 10 
 
 then as I J 2 M 64 J 12 8 tons, the strength of one 
 pole. And as radius is sine of G0° so is 12 8 to ] 1 
 tons, the weigh' which will produce a pressure of' 
 12’8 against one pole, the whole three will therefore 
 support S3 tons. 
 
 problem 23. 
 
 “ Required a triangle with 2 legs 20 feet high, 
 and making an angle of 70® with the horizon, what 
 must be their diameter to support 3 tons, that is 
 each ! 3 . 
 
 “ Solution. — 4s the sine of 70° -9396926 ♦ radius 
 1 ;; I-* half the weight j 1 3963, the pressure upon 
 
 one pole. And = I '3963, or x 3 = 1-5963 X 
 
 20 — 31926 ; x =» (31'92G)^ =-3* 17 inche., the 
 diameter of a pole. 
 
 pr.obl.em 2i. 
 
 “ Required, a triangle with 3 legs, each making 
 an angle of GO® with the horizon, and 12 feet long, 
 to support scales for. weighing of 4 tons, viz. the 
 whole load will be 8 tons. 
 
 “ Solution. — First, as the sine of GO® 866 &c. 
 
 ♦ radius 1^1 2 666, one third of the weight, to 
 
 3 077 tons, the pressure on one pole. Then _ ^ — 
 
 3*077 : and x 3 = 36 924 ; hence, x =(36 924;i 
 = 3 298 inches, the diameter of a pole. 
 
 41 N. B. In the above problems, the Legs will do 
 no more than bear the weight, but if we want a 
 triangle to support eignt tons, we ought by all 
 means to make it strong enough to bear 3 times as 
 much, and then w.e should say, as -866 &c. J 1 : 1 8 
 
 ♦ 9 23 tons, and.x 3 wili equal 9 23 X 12 =1 10 76 ; 
 and x ==(] 10 a 7S)£ =4 '80 16 inches. 
 
 “ If wood, metal, &c. intended for bows, springs, 
 &c. be formed of- the above process, they will be 
 equally strong from end to end, but if one side- is to 
 be flat and equally broad through the whole length ; 
 .then the other side is formed into a parabola, by the 
 rule given for engine beams. 
 
 “ When shafts are placed *in an upright position, 
 they arc only ia danger of being broken by tlie 
 twist, between the wheel which drives them, and 
 
 the resistance they have to overcome. A cast iron 
 bar 1 inch squ#re, fixed as o.ie end, and 631 pound# 
 suspended by a wh°el of 2 leet diaineiei , fixed oa 
 the other end, will break by the twist. T ie strength 
 of square bars in resisting the twist, is as the cube 
 of a side. [ < round bars or spindles, as the cub- of 
 the diameter. II nee, if a bar of 1 inch square, 
 requires 631 pound's to break it, one of 2 inches 
 square, will requires limes as much; and one of 
 | 3 inches. 27 times , or 7037 pounds, 
 j “ 1 have mode experiments on some bars of the 
 I same size, and the power orfo y ce applied in the same 
 i manner , which have required 1008 pound v to break 
 ■ hem by twisting, but have mentioned the worst 1 
 1 have tried: that I might not deceive. 
 
 \ “ It has been observed, that t.iere is no weight or 
 
 j pressure to break these upright spindles besides the 
 , twist, yet it may be noticed, that weig at on the top, 
 t tie shaking of the machinery, &c. tonds to make 
 them vibrate, on which account it may be well to 
 make them something thicker at the middle than at 
 the ends. 
 
 problem 23. 
 
 “ If a shaft; 3 inches square, will just bear the. 
 force acting upon it, how much must a side (!f the 
 square be,, when it is strong enough to bear 3 times- 
 as much ?- 
 
 “ Solution. — The strength ie here represented by 
 the cube of 3=27, which multiplied by 5, gives 135 # . 
 the cube root of which, is 5' 13 inches for tue 
 answer. 
 
 problem 26. 
 
 u Fig. 15. — A weight w, is suspended from E 
 the arm of a crane A B C D E, what is -the pressure 
 against the end of the spur D B ? 
 
 C E v W 
 
 “ Solution. =the pressure at D, 
 
 in the direction D G ; but the pressure at D, in the 
 direction D 0, will be as 1) G to D B ; that is, as 
 
 f)G. DB .. CE X W t DB X ECxW 
 
 ‘ "“CD * BCxCD"’ 
 
 Also, t e pressure against the upright post A C at 
 B, in the direction G B, will be as B C * C IX viz. 
 
 ..HC-rn- eF v w CD X CB X W 
 
 OU DC x ^ U 
 
 jc x w 
 
 B C 
 
 EXAMPLE 1. 
 
 “ Given, E C =16 feet, B O or D G, =7 feet, 
 D C =7 feet, W =3 tons, D B =9 9: (ben fr>in 
 
 the above, we have" “ * E '' X »_9 9 X t«X* 
 D G x D C 7x7 
 
 =- — i=9 6979 tons, for the pressure against the 
 
 spur I) B. 
 
 “ For the perpendicular 
 upright axle A C, we have 
 
 pressure against the 
 E C xW _ 16 X 3 
 I1C 7 
 
 =6-8571. 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 m 
 
 8571 ton?, the force tending- to brr'drk tae said 
 piece at B, 
 
 FXAMPT.R 2. 
 
 Gi\en E C — 12 
 B C = 6 
 D c = 6 7 
 1)8 = 9 
 W = 4 
 
 u Required the pressure on the spur, and the 1 h 
 rizontal pre^su'-e agains the upright. 
 
 u , D IS x E C £W = » XJ9 Xj. = I0 74 
 
 i) c. x n c o x o.i 
 
 the pressure against the end of the spur. The pres* 
 
 , ■ E C y W 12 x 4 
 
 sure against tiie post, is ^ g ==o 
 
 In this example, let A C and C E, be oak beams, 
 each 10 inches square,, and the spur D IS. be six 
 
 • u'i i ii p r 1 r 1 • 1000 
 
 inches square. 1 he strength of hi is_^ ^ 
 
 94 1-: which, multiplied by 000, gives 3-1132 pounds, 
 which, suspended at E, would break ifie beam C E 
 at D. The length of the upright A (', is 12 feet, 
 
 and has its strength expressed by ^ , wide 
 
 multiplied by 069, produces 55000 pounds, the 
 
 31132x12 
 
 weight which would break it at B. Hu*~ ^7 — * 
 
 0 6 
 — 0 2904, the pressure at B, which is 7201 pounds 
 more than the neam A C can support. Tiie strength 
 of the spur IS D is ^ X 0 X 0 — - 24. which niulti- 
 9 
 
 plied by 2, gives 48 tons for the strength, or 107520 
 pounds. ll„ tPBX EC XW _ 9 X 12X3113^ 
 DGxUC 
 
 = 3302256, 
 40 2 
 
 0 A 6.7 
 
 =83638 pounds, which is 23882 pounds 
 
 less than the force requisite to break the spur 
 From the above, it appears that the upright A C is 
 the weakest part : but from the principles alreadv 
 explained, the ingenious mechanic will easily proper 
 tion the parts so as to be equally strong. I will add 
 one example. In the above crane the horiz nta! 
 'beam bears 31 132 pounds, the length of the spu 
 and upright being given, what must be their dimen- 
 sions, that is, how much square, to be equally 
 Strong as the above horizontal beam ? 
 
 “ fhrst for the spur. Let z=u side o r the square, 
 then z \ x 4 ISO =31132 pounds, or z 3 — 9X&1 132 
 • iJ '448 a 
 
 =12 542 : and z=( 62‘542 1 *=3:9694 inches. 
 
 S- coiid. — rhe strength ot tiie upright is expressed 
 
 b y - — which must be equal to 62264, 
 62264 X 12 _ 1132C0g; Us cube 
 
 lyet it be required to make * crane of cast iron 
 to bear 4 owl. but t at ii may be perfectly saie, ief it 
 be calculated for 10 cwt. and let A C = C L 
 3 feet, also B C = t 1) = H foot. 
 
 Solution . — Let the thickness of t e iron be half are 
 nch, and put z =■ depth ot C L. rtien as 1 J 
 
 2190 : ; r£ X i ♦ 1120, from which we find z- =• 
 
 1, ~^=3 06S5; the square root of which, is the- 
 365 
 
 depth = 1-75 inches. The pressure upon the spue 
 at I), in the direction D G = 1120 pounds; 
 the length of the spur is 2' 12 feet, and as D G (15) 
 ♦ D B (2 12) :: J 120 : 1583, for . the pressure iu 
 ■ e direction I) B. As a bar one inch squ ire, and 
 o le foot long, will bear 15 tons, or 33600 pounds, 
 z- f 
 
 hence z 3 — . 
 
 root is 10:422 
 
 660 
 
 z, the side of the square post. 
 
 1583, from which 
 
 we find z the side of the prop or spur= .46385 of 
 Next, f 
 
 560' X_3 1 120 pounds, the p rest- 
 
 ive say as 1 J 33600 \ 
 
 vve find z the side of the pr , 
 an inch square. Next, for the upright, we have 
 CExW 
 
 B C 
 
 1-5 
 
 sure against B,- then as I * 2190 '. , X — the square 
 5 3 X 2 
 
 of the breadth to 1120 pounds, the same as C L, as 
 they are of the same length, and the breadth will be 
 the same, that is 175 inches. 
 
 We shall now present to the attention of ouc 
 readers,' a few interesting problems, collected from, 
 various sources. 
 
 In the 6th number of that valuable publication, 
 the “ Gentleman's Mathematical Companion we 
 find the following question proposed by the truly 
 ingenious' Mr.. Joseph Edwards, private teacher of 
 themiatbematics, at Hoxton, and most elegantly re- 
 solved by him, iu the succeeding year. 
 
 PROBLEM. 
 
 “ Let S denote the strength of a parellolopipedic 
 beam of timber, at any given place, tbuud according 
 to the- common principles. Required the strength 
 at the same place, supposing the expansion aud 
 contraction of the fibres, when at the greatest, to 
 nave a given ratio.” 
 
 SOLUTION. 
 
 “ Lei the parallelogram A BCD, (Fig. 16.) re- 
 present tiie given beam supported at the middle of 
 B C, by the fulcrum F, and strained by two equal 
 weights suspended to its ends ; and parallel to which 
 let E F be a section. 
 
 In the investigation of the lateral strength of 
 timber, upon the common principles, the common 
 fulcrum of the bended levers, B F E, C F E, is 
 supposed to be in the surface of the beam at F, and- 
 consequently that all the longitudinal fibres resist (iix_ 
 various degn es) the tendency of the force of the 
 weights t<> overcome t ie cohesion at the section, in -■ 
 the direction of t eir lengths but when the fibres 
 are susceptible-both of contraction by pressure, and' 
 
 expansion— 
 
*00 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 expansion by tension, it is evident, that the beam 
 will, as soon as it is submitted to the action of suffi- 
 cient weights, turn (until it breaks) about that point 
 (O) in E F, which divides the expanded from the 
 contracted fibres, and of the latter, an equal number 
 in each part F A, F D, may be imagined to press 
 upon each other at O F, and form a common finite 
 base, upon which the said levers are supported when 
 they strain the fibres between O and E. Now from 
 hence, it is evident, that the magnitude of O F de- 
 pends upon the ratio e e to F F, if these lines repre- 
 sent the increment am! decrement of an expanded and 
 contracted fibre, respectively: which being given, 
 that of E O ; O F is also given by sim./\ s; and 
 E F being given, E 0,0 F, are eachgiven.” 
 
 “ Again, draw J () K [] B C, then (by prop. 57 
 Emerson’s Mech. ) the strength of the beam A I O 
 K D, of which the depth is E O, and fulcrum (), is as 
 
 — ~ when O K is given, and the breaking tension 
 
 of a fibre at O, =1 ; also Id. = sum of all the ten- 
 
 ’ 2 
 
 sionsat EO, therefore it is evident that alithe fibres in 
 the beam, AK would be broke by a force at K, which 
 
 is as if the arm OF, of the double lever K O E, 
 
 o 
 
 K O F, were not prevented from turning about the 
 fulcrum O, by t he resistance of those fibres at O F, 
 which belong to the part J F of the beam, which 
 
 resistanc ^ appears from what has 
 
 2 E o-j-2 F E 11 
 
 been quoted above, and the property of the lever. 
 Moreover, because the resistance at O F is equal to 
 
 C 2 ' 
 
 the sum of all the tensions at E O ° 
 
 E 
 
 Eo 
 
 o 
 
 ♦ E O 
 
 2 E o-f 2 F O + 
 X(E O — O F), the greatest 
 
 weight that the given beam will support, or the 
 
 least that will break it. But ■—- ? /' is as the 
 o 
 
 strength of the beam, according to Emerson’s prin- 
 ciples; therefore — t ^ , - ^ -X E F I *. E F J 
 
 E O ;; S ♦ S X the strength of the given 
 
 beam as required. Hence it follows, if the beam 
 be soft and elastic (as fir, yew, &c.) that it will ac- 
 quire additional strength by cutting a piece out of 
 the under part on each side of O F, and subtituting 
 a similar one of a firmer texture in its stead.” 
 
 lu the 14ih number of the Mathematical Com- 
 panion, we find the following interesting question, 
 proposed by Mr. John Surtees, of Houghton Le 
 Spring, in the county of Durham. 
 
 - A" beam of a given length, haying its perpen- 
 dicular section every where a plane triangle vertex 
 upwards, projects horizontally from a wall. Com- 
 
 pare its strength, when whole, to support a weight 
 at its end, with the strength of the remaining piece, 
 after of the section from the vertex is cut away 
 parallel to the horizon ; also with the strength of 
 the remaining piece, after -f, &c. is cut away, 
 
 the weight of the beam itself not being considered.” 
 
 “ Note — In Emerson's Mechanics , page 114, it is 
 asserted, that, when is cut away, the remaining 
 j piece is stronger than when whole, which is a para- 
 dox in mechanics. But 1 presume that a true solu- 
 tion to the above will prove that to be a mistake.” 
 The correctness of this assertion, the ingenious pro- 
 poser fully demonstrated (on the supposition that 
 the beam was destitute of weight), in the 15th num- 
 ber of the same publication ; to which the reader is 
 [ referred for a very excellent solution of the forego- 
 ing question. 
 
 The writer of this article has received the follow- 
 ing very elegant and masterly solution of this inter- 
 esting problem, from Mr. William Watts, of Ply- 
 mouth ; a Gentleman whose eminent scientific at- 
 tainments, are surpassed only by his ingenuous mo- 
 desty. 
 
 “ Let the triangle ABC ( Fig. 17,) represent a 
 perpendicular section ofa beam, supposed to project 
 horizontally from a wall, and let a weight W be ap- 
 plied at the other extremity to break it ; also let 
 A B C represent the section when the fracture lake* 
 place, the fulcrum being at D. 
 
 “ Put C D=a, D B=b, D E=v, and E F=»y. 
 Let L also denote the length, anu W the weight of 
 | the whole beam, and let 1 and w be considered as the 
 length and weight of any trapezoid or horizontal sec- 
 tion oft he beam. Then by sim. triangles C D (a) J 
 
 i BD (b): : CE (a— v) J EF (y)=iL (a— v), and by 
 a 
 
 substituting this value ofy in the known formula 
 
 y v it will become (a v 2 v — v 3 v) the fluxion of 
 a a 2 
 
 the strength of the beam: and by integrating each 
 
 term, we shall have .V. 1 h _Z 4 —the strength of the 
 5a 4a 2 
 
 trapezoid B D E F, which expression when v=a 
 becomes b a 2 , the direct lateral strength of the 
 entire beam. 
 
 These two strengths are to each other in the ra 
 
 tio of 
 
 b a 2 
 
 3 a 4 a 2 
 
 or of 1 ;l v5 -S'*- 
 
 a 1 
 
 yi;- . 
 
 “ This ratio expresses only the relation existing 
 b‘“tw»‘en the strengths or efforts that tend to preserve 
 the adhesion of the fibres. If, therefore, we would 
 take into consideration the efforts that tend to des- 
 troy their adhesion, these efforts being in the inverse 
 ratio of the strengths, will be found to vary both as 
 to the weights of the respective beams, and the dis- 
 tance at which those weights act; therefore by in- 
 corporating 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 201 
 
 corpornfirg the direct and inverse ratio?, we readi- 
 ly find tiiat the strengths are to each other in the 
 
 (*£) ••••<“> 
 
 or of i ♦ ^ v3 3 "V 
 
 .( 111 ) 
 
 (?) 
 
 when the lengths are the same. 
 
 “ £.r. I. If vm^ a, then by the first form, the ra- 
 tio Tor the direct strengths becomes 4 ! j — 
 
 s 729 
 
 3X4096^ or as oig7 to 2018. 
 
 6501 
 
 "** Example 2. — If vr= $ a, then the ratio of the 
 
 4 \y QjQ 
 
 direct strength (I) becomes, m 1 * — — — 
 
 -S or as 2187 to 1715.” 
 
 6o61 
 
 “ Example 3. — If v =3 then by form (1), the 
 ratio of the direct strengths becomes m 1 J ^ 
 
 or ag 2]87 tQ 12g6 „ 
 
 606 1 
 
 “ Example 4. — If vrr-gn, then by form (I) the 
 ratio of the direct strengths becomes :=rl 
 
 792 
 
 3 X 625 
 6561 
 
 or as 2187 to 875.” 
 
 “ If we continue the examples by supposing vm 
 ^a, -jj a, &c. & c. w e shall obtain a series of results 
 
 the whole of which, with the preceding, are exhibit- 
 ed in the following table, where the several ratios 
 aie arranged in their proper order. 
 
 "2018 when 1 ninth is cat away. 
 
 17)5. . . 
 
 
 
 1296. . . 
 
 
 
 875. . . 
 
 
 
 512.. . 
 
 
 
 24 3. .. 
 
 
 
 80. . , 
 
 
 
 IK, . 
 
 
 
 0.. . 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 “ Remark . — It appears by the preceding solution, 
 that the whole triangular beam is stronger than any 
 remaining trapezoid whatever, after any triangular 
 prism, similar to the given beam, is out off from the 
 top parallel to the horizon, and that Emerson was 
 mistaken (at least in theory) in asserting that when 
 4 ofthe altitude oftbe triangular prism is cut away ; 
 the remaining piece is stronger than when whole. 
 But it should not be forgotten that the entire beam, 
 being in the form of a triangular prism, and having 
 a sharp edge at tire vertex, is deemed by practical 
 men, much more liable to spring than it would be if 
 the upper edge were cut off parallel to the base of 
 
 the prism: and it is probable that this circumstance 
 may more than compensate for the loss of strength, 
 occasioned by f ofthe altitude of the beam being cut 
 off from the top: but this I presume can only be de- 
 termined by suitable experiment. 
 
 On comparing this solution with the one given by 
 the proposer in the Mathematical Companion they 
 will be seen to present the same results ; from which 
 circumstance it is evident that theory contradicts 
 the assertion of Emerson, and all that remains now, 
 is to institute a series of experiments, in order to as- 
 certain the conclusion which may <be deduced from 
 them. 
 
 The writer has already commenced some experi- 
 ments on the subject, which will most probably be 
 communicated to the public in some form or other 
 at a future day. As his sole object, however, in men- 
 tioning this, is to excite an emulation in others to 
 undertake the task, it will be no mortification to him 
 to be deprived ofthe honour of being the first, who 
 shall either confirm or invalidate the assertion of 
 Emerson, by correct experiments. 
 
 Although the preceding solution as well as that of 
 Mr’Surtees’, have been conducted on the supposition, 
 that the beam is devoid of weight, yet, even on this 
 principle, Emerson’s assertion will be found altoge- 
 ther erroneous. 
 
 In the mathematical department of the u Enquir - 
 rr,” is the following problem, an answer to which 
 has uot yet been published ; though we shall now 
 attempt it in the annexed solution. 
 
 PROBLEM. 
 
 “ Two prismatic beams of equal length, whose 
 sections are respectively a triangle and a trapezoid, 
 the latter being cut from a triangular beam similar 
 to the former, have their ends fixed in an upright 
 wall, with their bases downwards; putting S, s, for 
 the strengths ofthe beams -O, g, for the distance of 
 their centres of gravity from their bases, we shall 
 have S ♦ s; . G J g; required the investigation. 
 
 Solution.— Let A B (.’ I),E F G II K, ( f igure 18) 
 be two beams of equal lengths and of the same mate- 
 rials, fixed in horizontal positions in a vertical wall ; 
 and let the latter be a prism cut oft’ from a t. jan- 
 gular beam w hich is equal and similar to B ii C. 
 
 Put As=area of the section D B C; G — dim, 
 fcmce of its centre of gravity from the base B C; L 
 mdts length ; Wsrrits weight, and S its strength; 
 and let a, g, 1, w and s represent corresponding par- 
 ticulars in the other beam. Then it is well known 
 
 that st«: ££ : a. o. 1. « : a. g . l. w 
 
 ; ;A. G w ; a, g. W; and supposing we consider 
 for example; that the trapezoid represents A£ of 
 the triangle D B C, (as Emerson has done, vide the 
 
 80 4 
 
 foregoing question), we shall have am — — — and w 
 
 81 
 
 = “ hence S ; s; I * BOA^W 
 
 8 1 ’ * 81 81 
 
 3F 
 
 ;:so 
 
m 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 ! : 80 G *-80'g; ! G* g; as is requited to be demon- 
 strated. 
 
 This solution confirms the assertion made in the 
 preceding problem ; for as 8 and s, denote the 
 respective strengths of the triangular and trapezoid 
 al prisms, and these strengths bear an invariable ra- 
 tio to G and g, (as has been just demonstrated), and 
 knowing from the common properties of the centre 
 of gravity in the beams that G is greater than g, we 
 may be considered as correct when wg assert that 
 the strength of the former beam is greater than that 
 of the latter, and this too-, wit* out any limit or re- 
 gard to the size of the small triangular prism, sup- 
 posed to be cut off from the whole triangular prism, 
 in order to form the trapezoidal beam E FGHKHK. 
 
 To determine the position of the two posts Af) 
 and 13 E supporting the beam A B, so that the beam 
 Hiay rest ip erjuilibrio. 
 
 Solution . — Through the centre of gravity G ofthe 
 beam, (Fig- HU draw C G perpendicular to the 
 horizon; from any point C in which draw C A I), 
 € B E, through the extremities of the beam ; then 
 A D and 13 E, will Ue the positions ofthe two posts 
 or props required, so as A B may be sustained in equi- 
 ibrio; because the three forces sustaining any body 
 in such a state, must be all directed to the same 
 point. C. 
 
 Cor .— If G Fbe drawn parallel to Cl) ; than the 
 quantities ofthe three tbrces balancing the beam, 
 will be proportioned to the three sides of the trian- 
 gle C G F. viz. C G will be as the weight ot the 
 beam, C F as the thrust or pressure in B E, 
 and F G, as the thrust or pressure in A D. 
 
 The strength of a beam A B, ( Figure 20,) being- 
 given, it is required to find its strength, when a 
 hole (a c), is cut out of the middle, and another equal 
 hole (r n), in the side. 
 
 By the principles of mechanics, the strength of 
 beams, the thicknesses of which are d b, da, d c, 
 will be as d b 2 , da 2 , and. d c 2 . Now, as the 
 strength of all the particles between b and d, is de- 
 noted by d b 2 , and the strength of all the particles 
 between a and d, is expressed by a d 2 , consequently 
 the strength of all the particles between b and a. 
 (the point D being fixed), will be d b 2 — d a 2 , add 
 to the same, the strength between c and d, which is 
 c d 2 , and the strength of b a, and c d, when the 
 strength of the hollow beam will be d b 2 — d a 2 -Jr 
 c d 2 , but at the section r, the strength will be f n 2 . 
 
 Whence, if nr = ac, the strength at h, to the 
 strength at r, is as bd 2 -—da 2 -}- cd 2 to (db — ca)' 2 ; 
 that is, as d b 2 — 2 d c X c a — c a 2 to d b 2 — 2:d b 
 X c a — j— c a 2 . Therefore, if d b 2 , be the strength 
 of the whole beam (2 d c -{- c a) X c a > will be the 
 deficiency in strength of the hollow beam, when it 
 breaks at b; and (.2 d b — c a) X c a 3 will be the 
 defect of strength when it breaks at n or f, which is 
 greater than the former.. For the same reason the 
 
 deficiency in strength required to break it at d, will 
 be (2 b d-f-a c) X ac - 
 
 Let A D, (Fie itre 21 J be a beam in a horizontal 
 position, supported at the end A by the upright 
 piece A E; it is required to find the position of ano- 
 ther piece B C of a given length, so as it may. sup- 
 port A D w ith the greatest force possible. 
 
 Let B C denote the absolute strength of the beam 
 B C ; when agreably to the principles of the resolu- 
 tion of forces, ,.C F will express that part of it w hich 
 is employed m supporting A D : consequently 
 
 by the property of the lever, A CxC F is to be a. 
 maximum. 
 
 But it is well known that the rectangle of two- 
 quantities forms a maximum, when those quantities 
 are equal; therefore B C i- in the best position for 
 supporting A D, when A C=A B, or when the an- 
 gl»p A B C, is equal to the angle A C B. 
 
 From these data, we learn that tlie cross bars of 
 gates should not be placed diagonally, as they most 
 commonly are; because the bar in that position coun- 
 teracts, in a great measure, what it is intended to 
 remedy. 
 
 We have- now com plea ted what we proposed, in 
 this third and last division of Carpentry; hut wo 
 cannot permit ourselves to conclude it, without ac- 
 knowledging how deeply we are indebted to the la- 
 bours of different authors, for much important and 
 valuable assistance throughout the whole of our en- 
 quiries. To the Encyclopaedia's. Britunmca and Lon* 
 dint n sis. Rees's Cyclopaedia , Emerson's, Gregory's, 
 and Marratts Mechanics , Banks-on the pozeer of Ma- 
 chines, the different treatises on Carpentry , aha va- 
 rious other works, . v/e acknowledge our- elves in- 
 debted in a particular manner, and would refer the 
 enquiring student to the publications we have allude 
 ed to, for more particular information; and we can 
 assure him that they will be found correct guides in 
 general to a knowledge of those subjects which have 
 been treated of in this part of our article. 
 
 JOINERY 
 
 We have already defined to be the art of work- 
 ing in wood, or of fitting various pieces of timber 
 to each other, for the purpose of ornamental appen- 
 dages to certain parts of edifices, which are called 
 by the French, menuiserie, “ small work.” 
 
 ENUMERATION OF THE MOST UESFUX, 
 JOINERS TOOLS. 
 
 Figure 30 represents the Jack Plane. 
 
 31 Trying Plane. 
 
 3A . Smoothing Planer. 
 
 32 and 53 ...... Plane Irons. 
 
 26 
 ■ 27 
 - 8 
 
 Tenon Saw. 
 Compass Saw. 
 Keyhole Saw. 
 Square, 
 
 Bred. 
 
 Figure.IT 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 903 
 
 Figure 1 7 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 29 
 
 ■ 35 
 
 37 
 
 , 10 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 38 
 
 Gmged 
 
 Mortice chisseh 
 Gouge. 
 
 Turn Screw. 
 Plough. 
 
 Moulding Plane. 
 Pincers. 
 
 Brad Axel. 
 
 Stock and Bit . 
 Side Hook. 
 
 Work Bench. 
 Rule. 
 
 Besides these, Joiners make nse of a variety of 
 other tools, whose general forms are nearly similar 
 to those exhibited in the Plate ; and which consist of 
 the Tong Plane , Jointer , Compass Plane , Fork 
 staff plane, Straight Block , Sinking Rehatting 
 Planes , Skew mouthed Rebutting planes , Square 
 mouthed Rehalting planes , Side Rebutting Planes 
 Bed Planes of various sizes, Snipes bill, Hollows and 
 Rounds, Moulding Plainest of various kinds, (which 
 would be endless to enumerate), Centre Bit, Count- 
 er sink, Rimers, Taper Shell Bit, Drawing Knife, 
 Ripping Saw, Half Ripper, Hand Saw, Pannel 
 Saw, Sash Saw, Dovetail Saw, Mortice Guage . Mitre 
 Box , Shooting Block, S freight Edge, Winding 
 SHeks, Mitre Square ; and several others, which are 
 likewise in common use, both with the Carpenter, 
 and Joiner. 
 
 STAIR CASES. 
 
 Palladio, after observing that “ great care ought 
 to be taken in the placing of staircases,” so “that 
 they may not obstruct other places, nor be obstruct- 
 ed by them”, says that “ three openings are required 
 in staircases; the first is the door through which 
 one goes upto the staircase, which the less it is hid 
 to them that enter into the house, so much the more 
 it is to be commended. And it woulxl please me 
 much, if it was in a place, where before that one 
 comes to it, the most beautiful part of the house 1 
 was seen ; because it makes the house (although it 
 should i>e little) seem very large; but however, let 
 it be manifest and easily found. 
 
 “ The second opening is the windows that are ne- 
 cessary to give light to the steps ; they ought to be 
 in the middle, and high, that the light may bespread 
 equally, every where alike, 
 
 “ The third is the opening through which one en- 
 ters into the floor above ; this ought to lead us into 
 ample, beautiful, and adorned places. 
 
 Stairs cases ought to be proportioned in width,; 
 and commodiousness, to the dimensions and use of; 
 $he building m which they may be placed. The 
 height of a s(,ep ought not to exceed seven inches,! 
 norm any case should be less than four: but six ! 
 inches is a general height. The breadth of the steps 
 should not be less than twelve inches, if it can pos- 
 sibly be avoided • nor should they ever be -more than 
 
 eighteen; and to render the ascent free from the in- 
 erruption of persons descending, their length should 
 not exceed twelve, nor be less than four, except in 
 common and smalt buildings, whose area will not 
 admit ofa staircase of more than three feet. That 
 the ascent may be both safe and agreeable, it is re- 
 quisite also to introduce some convenient aperture 
 i'or light, which ought to be as nearly opposite to the 
 first entrance to the stairs, as the nature of the 
 building will permit. An equal distribution of light 
 to each flight of stairs ought to be particularly re- 
 garded ; for which reason, the apertures or window's 
 are commonly placed at the landings or half spaces: 
 though sometimes the whole is lighted from a dome. 
 Staircases are of various kinds ; some w ind round a 
 newel in the middle, while the risers of the steps are 
 straight, and sometimes curved ; others are of a cir- 
 cular plan, but forma well in the centre. The 
 same may be observed of those whose plans are el- 
 liptical ; the most common, however, are those whose 
 plan - form a square or parallelogram. 
 
 The ancients entertained a singular notion, that 
 the number of steps ought to be uneven, in- order 
 that, when the right foot was placed on the first 
 stair in ascending, the ascem might terminate w ith 
 the same foot. This was considered as a favourable 
 omen, on most occasions, and they imagined, that, 
 when they entered a temple in this way, it produced 
 greater and more sincere devotion. 
 
 Palladio, apparently actuated by this superstitious 
 motive, allows the staircase of a dwelling house, 
 eleven or thirteen steps to each flight. Wiren a 
 staircase winds round a newel or column, whether 
 its plan be circular or elliptical, the diameter is di- 
 vided into three equal parts, two of which are set 
 apart for the steps and one for the column. But in 
 circular or elliptical staircases which are open, or 
 form a well in the middle, the diameter is divided 
 into four equal parts; two of which are assigned for 
 the steps, and two for the well or void -space in the 
 centre. Modern staircases, however, have often a 
 kind of well ofa mixed form ; straight on each side, 
 and circular at the returns of each flight. The 
 openings of these wells vary in- the point of width, 
 but seldom exceed eighteen or twenty inches. 
 
 To most staircases it -is absolutely necessary, both 
 for convenience and ornament, toaffix hand-rails; 
 these generally begin from the ground by a twisted 
 scroll, which produces a very good effect. 
 
 In the following observations, as illustrated by the 
 various figures in the annexed plate, will be found 
 a satisfactory explanation of their construction. 
 
 The diagram, delineated at Figure I, shews the 
 plan of the first step, formed with a scroll to receive 
 the newel post, and ballusters, of the twisted hand 
 rail ; a, forms the projecting nosing of the step; b, 
 exhibits the thickness of the bracket, and c, points 
 out the string board. In order to describe the 
 scroll, take the distance between the points 1 and o, 
 
 in 
 
f04 
 
 Carpentry and joinery. 
 
 m Figure 3, anil lay it off from A to 3, in Figure 2, 
 when divide this distance into three equal parts, in 
 the points 1 and 2; next draw 3, 4, at right angles 
 to A 3, aiid equal to four of the parts A 1 : join 
 A 4 : then with centre 4, and distance 4 3, describe 
 a circular arc, intersecting A 4, in 5, and divide i! 
 into twelve equal parts; finally, through the point 
 4, and the several points of division, draw the rad i’ 
 till they intersect the line A 3, as in 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 
 &c. which completes the scale for drawing the 
 scroll required. 
 
 .After the several radial lines 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. in 
 Figure 3, are drawn, take from / igure 2, the 
 space 3. 2, and lay it from the centre O to 2, in 
 Figure 3, then with t e same opening, fix one foot 
 of the compasses on 2, and with the other describe 
 a small arc, as at G, when, from 1, with the same 
 opening describe another arc, intersecting it at C. 
 From the centre C, thus found, draw the arch 2, I. 
 Again from Figure 2, lay the distance 3, 3, from O, 
 on the radical 3, with this distance obtain a centre 
 as before, and describe the arch 3, 2, proceeding in 
 the same manner with the rest Ry contracting the 
 line 4, 3, in Figure. 2, it is evident, that a scroll may 
 be drawn more open, or with less convoluti n, as 
 in Figure 4 ; consequently, by increasing the 
 length 4, 3, the scroll will acquire more convolu- 
 tion : and therefore the scroll, by these means, may 
 be varied as desired. Figure 5, shews the pitch- 
 board or raking, whereby the falling mould of the 
 twist may be ascertained. The dotted lines, drawn 
 from the hand rail to the pitch-board, display its 
 width, which should be kept level, as it winds about. 
 The lines a, 3, b, 2, continued round to D, express 
 how much half the width of thp rail rises on the 
 pitch-board, from its first commencement to 3. The 
 same pitch board is also shewn at D, and the method 
 of finding the outside mould is likewise exhibited 
 for the twist of the hand rail, after its sides are so 
 squared, as to he every way in. a perpendicular 
 direction to its ground plan. This, however, can- 
 not be effected, unless the proper mould for the hand- 
 rail, be previously found, which may be done thus. 
 Let 13, in Figure 6 , be considered as that part of 
 the plan of the hand rail, comprehended between 1, 
 3, in Figure 3, and D, the pitch board, which shews 
 the rake or bevel of the hand rail ; after this has 
 been divided into any number of equal parts, let 
 ordinates be drawn to the plan B, as a, b, &c. when 
 from the rakirg line e, d, draw the corresponding 
 ordinates at right angles with it ; and with the com- 
 passes transfer the several ordinates from 3 to G, 
 as a, b, to. c, d, and 1, 2, 3, 4, respectively; then, 
 by tracing a curve line through these points, G, 
 will be an accurate mould for the upper side of the 
 hand rail. But front the twist of the hand rails 
 requiring a greater substance of wood than the 
 straight part, it may easily be determined thus : 
 delineate the square of the hand rail on the pitch- 
 
 board, as a, in Figure 7, when parallel lines drawn 
 from the opposite angles, will sltew the ihickness 
 required, as at 1, 2. In conformity with this, 1, m, 
 n, in Figure 8, points out the manner of glueing 
 up the rail, with the necessary additional thickness 
 of wood, h -fore described. 
 
 This additional thickness is composed of so many 
 pieces, and so varied in glueing, in order to assist 
 in the more easy formation of the twist. The-best 
 method of glueing these, we are acquainted with, 
 is to effect it in the straight way of the grain, when, 
 if' the wood be properly matched, the whole will ap- 
 pear to be one solid piece. 
 
 To reduce these pieces in a proper manner, and 
 to enable the whole twist to present an agreeable 
 appearance to the eye, it will be necessary to have a 
 falling mould, in order that, when each part of the 
 twist is so squared, as to answer in every part, to a 
 perpendicular line over its plane, when placed in its 
 proper position, the mould may bo applied to the out- 
 side of the rail round the twist. Ilonce, In Fig 5, 
 consider D as the pitch board and O P as the level of 
 the scroll at 3, 4. When take the stretch of a line 
 supposed to be girted from l to 3, in Fig 3, which 
 transfer to O Pat D; then divide each side of the 
 angle formed by the raking and level line, into any 
 number of equal parts, as 1, 2, each way, and the 
 points produced by the intersections of the lines 
 drawn i'rom each division, will form a curve, per- 
 fectly easy, and sufficiently accurate for the purpose 
 required. 
 
 If a scroll be required to take its spring fi om any 
 part of the second step, let the pitch board be drawn 
 as at Fig. 6, after which proceed in every particular 
 as before. Fig. 9, represents the plan of a hand- 
 rail, winch includes five steps. M, denotes the 
 quarter plan, D the pitch of five steps; and R the 
 face-mould for the hand-rail, if it is intended to be 
 cut out of the solid ; if otherwise, thin veneers 
 should be glued round a cylinder, constructed for 
 the purpose, on which each step and riser must be 
 marked, as shewn at A, in order that the thin slips 
 at btor the hand-rail, and those at a, for the string* 
 ing-board, may be laid down correctly 
 
 To illustrate this subject as much as possible, we 
 present our readers with several different kinds of 
 staircases. 
 
 Figures 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 and 17 in Plate 
 l,and Figures 1,2, 3, 4, 5,6, 7 in Plate 2, exhibit 
 the plans and sections of different kinds of stair- 
 cases; all of which may be constructed upon true 
 geometrical principles, and which will be found, 
 when executed in a workmanlike manner, to comprise 
 some of the finest, and most ingenious parts, of the 
 elegant art of Joinery. 
 
 From this variety of plans for staircases, it will be 
 no difficult task to select such, as may be adapted 
 to almost every species of building from the rural 
 cottage to the magnificent villa; but the follow- 
 ing 
 
CA RPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 205 
 
 inor general rules should be attended to before any j 
 kind of staircase is erected. It will be necessary to J 
 consider, first, the height of the floor to which the i 
 staircase may ascend, secondly the rise and number j 
 of steps necessary for the height, thirdly, the best 
 mode ofdividing the number of steps by such half- 
 spaces, (or breathing places) as may be required on 
 the way, fourthly, the height of the space above the 
 head, commonly called the head-way, and lastly, 
 whether the breadth of the ascent be proportioned to 
 the whole building, and sufficient for the purpose in- 
 tended; so as to avoid the inconvenient meeting of j 
 persons ascending and descending at the same time. : 
 A staircase should in all cases, where practica- 
 ble, be liberally supplied with light, in order to 
 avoid slips, falls, &c. this light may proceed either 
 from the sides, from a sky-light, or a cupola at the 
 ton, according as the nature of the situation will 
 allow. 
 
 Previously, however, to the commencement of the 
 work, it will be proper to delineate a plan of the in- 
 tended stairs, and to lay out the whole in ledge- 
 inent, which may be effected as follows. 
 
 Admit that the parallelogram ABC D Jig. 8, re- 
 present the plan of a rectangular staircase; when 
 respectively draw a b, b d, d c, and c a parallel to 
 A B, B 1), I) C, and C A, and at a distance from 
 them, equal to the intended length of the steps, 
 which may l»e from three feet to ten or twelve feet, 
 as may be required, and within it draw the thick- 
 ness of the hand rail. Nextlet d b, b a, and a c be 
 divided into such a number of steps that the aggra- 
 gate of their several heights may be equal to the 
 whole height to be ascended ; when, take the sum 
 formed by she heights of the several steps included 
 between d and b, and at the distance draw G F par 
 al lei to BD. 
 
 Join F F, and produce the plan of each step, to 
 meet it; then set up the heights of the first step, anil 
 draw it parallel to B E, until it meet the base line 
 of the second step, next set up the height of the se- 
 cond step, draw it parallel to B E; and proceed ii 
 like manner to set up the heights of all the remain- 
 ing steps unto F. 
 
 Next after making B I equal to B G and drawing 
 I K parallel to A B, at the point K begin to set up 
 the steps unto the poiut L, and draw L M parallel 
 to N O ; make N M equal to N O and draw O S 
 parallel to A C ; at P begin to set up the steps, as 
 before, unto Q, when Q T will be equal to the 
 height of the story, and the several figures B G F 
 E, B 1 K L M N, together with A OP QR S C, will 
 shew the several sides of the staircase laid out in 
 ledgement, as required. 
 
 If the workman examines and considers the pre- 
 ceding example in. an attentive manner, he will 
 soon learn to lay down any other staircase in 
 ledgement. 
 
 M r Price offers the following observations on the 
 forming of scrolls, &c. &c. 
 
 “ First, form a scroll with chalk, or a pencil, 
 agreeable to the bigness of the place in which it is 
 to stand ; next resolve on the bigness of your stuff to 
 be used tor your rails, and also your mouldings on 
 the side thereof as in C. Let d, -be the center of 
 your chalked scroll in D : on which describe, with 
 ihe projection of your mouldings from C, the small 
 circle d; take from C half the bigness of the stuff, as 
 e, g, ore, f, which add to the small circle, and form 
 the circle f, i, t ; which is the bigness of the eye of 
 the scroll. This done, take the distance from i, to 
 the inside ofthe rail, as t ;e supposed chalked scroll, 
 which suppose k : with it, make a diminishing scale, 
 by setting that distance up, from t, to 1; draw the 
 line k, 1 ; place one foot of your compasses in k, de- 
 scibe the part of a circle t, S ; which divide into 
 eight equal parts, because here your supposed chalk- 
 ed scroll was to come into its eye, or block, at one 
 revolution of a circle. Scrolls may be made to any 
 number of revolutions desired, by the same rule ; 
 Witness that above in Figure E. 
 
 “ Place one foot of your compasses in d, describe 
 the large circle w, 1, 1, u ; which always divide into 
 eight parts, because you strike one-eightii part of a 
 circle every time, till you come into the eye, or 
 block i, t, Ii : from the said divisions on the large 
 circle, draw lines through, for on them your sections 
 meet, which form the scroll. It is observable in 
 drawing your sections, that they dont end inthe line 
 drawn through the great circle, only the outside 
 scroll; for those of the inside scroll end on a line 
 drawn to each respective center. I suppose A, and 
 B, to be two steps : the rest I think cannot tail of 
 being understood, by observing the letters and fi- 
 gures, which shew each part distinctly. 
 
 “ In order to make the squaring of a twisted-rail 
 easy, see the plan F, which is the same as that in the 
 foregoing, find the poiut of touch b. From these 
 curves a mould must be traced out, in order to form 
 a sweep, which when applied on the rake, is agreea- 
 ble to this of a, b, c, d, as that ofK. (It is first to 
 be observed that you will want wood extraordinary, 
 both on the top ofthe rail, as in L, at e, a ; and also 
 under the same, as g, h.) To find which observe 
 w ere your sweep begins in the plan F, as at a, c: 
 also observe, that o, and n, is the end of the twisted 
 part. Therefore from a, to a, divide into a number 
 of equal parts,soasto transfer them on some line, as 
 in M, from a, to n ; also divide the inside of F, as 
 fromc, to o, into equal parts, so as to transfer them 
 on some line, as in N, from c, to o ; take the distance 
 e, a, in F ; apply it to the pitch-board, as from g, to 
 e ; take the pitch board 1, with it place e, to c, in 
 N ; draw the line d, q, and make the point s ; di- 
 vide from d, to s, into eight equal parts, also from d, 
 too, into the same number: draw the lines which 
 form a sweep, whose use shall be hereafter shewn. 
 
 Likewise take the pitch-board I, and apply e, to a, 
 in M \ draw the line e, p, and make the point r; 
 
 ■G g from 
 
m 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 
 
 frome, to r, divide into eight equal parts; also from l 
 e, to n, do likewise ; draw straight lines from each] 
 division ; that curve shews how much wood is want- 
 ing on the back of the rail, as b, t, which describe in 
 L, trom e, to a ; and there describe the bigness of 
 the rail ; which shews how mnch wood is wanting, 
 as may be observed by what was said above. The 
 other part of the twist is cut out of a parallel piece, 
 as O. Which thickness extraordinary is shewn in 
 L, at e, a. 
 
 “ To square the twisted part of the rail, having 
 so much wood extraordinary on the top and bottoiri, 
 observe in F, from a, to e, and from c, to f, must be 
 traced, as was above mentioned. Take a, e, in F, 
 apply it to the pitch-board I, it shews i>-, i, which 
 length place in K, from k, to i; also take from F, 
 the distance b, d, apply it to the pitch-board 1, it 
 8hewsg, m, which length place in K, from 1, to m. 
 Xhs» done, trace out the raking’ mould K, agreeable 
 to the plan F, which by inspection, and a little prac- 
 tice will become easy, and without which nothing is 
 known truly. 1 say the wood extraordinary being 
 accounted for in L, both oil the top and the bottom 
 of the rail, observe to place your stroke f, in its trim 
 place, that is, at the beginning of the twisted part; 
 take the raking mould K, set i, to f, in L ; there 
 strike it by ; with the angle of your pitch-board des- 
 cribe the pricked line f; by the side of the rail, then 
 apply the mould K, to i he bottom ; set l, to this 
 pricked line, and there describe by it, with your pen- 
 cil ; lasily, cut that wood away ; also cut the re- 
 maining part of the scroll out of the block, as O : 
 then glue these together, and bend both moulds, M, 
 and N, round the rail : strike them by that, aud cut 
 the wood away ; so will the back of your rail he ex- 
 actly square, and fit to work. 
 
 “ You are always to observe this general rule, via. 
 to conceive each respective paragraph as it occurs, 
 before you begin another; the neglect of which, ap- 
 pears by some who cannot conceive the particulars 
 of the foregoing plate, although I had put it in so 
 clear a light. 
 
 “ I have here described three distinct methods of 
 squaring- the twisted part of a rail, which may be 
 known, and the rail squared, with more ease than iri 
 the foregoing plate. But when done, they will not 
 have that agreeable turn, in their twisted part, as 
 they would have, if done by the foregoing unerring 
 rule, as may more clearly appear, by the following 
 explanation. 
 
 u That of P* 1 , is the raking mould, taken from K, 
 (whose use and application was therein clearly 
 shewn ;J that of Q*, is the pitch- board, taken from 
 I, which gives the rake, or declivity of the rail. 
 
 “ In R*,_is shewn how to square a rail, without 
 bending a templet round the twisted part thereof ; 
 and which is by being guided by the back; first des- 
 cribe the bigness of the stuff to be used, as a, b, h, i,; 
 which shews how much wood will bo wanted at bot- 
 
 tom; supposing S*, to be the side of the rail. And 
 because the grain of the wood should be agreeable 
 to tiie falling of the twist, therefore consider how 
 many thicknesses of stuff will make the wood reqi >r- 
 ed to cut the twist out of; a* .ere three. There- 
 fore as in S'*, continue the line a, h; place one foot 
 of your compasses m a, make fie section, or part of 
 a circle c, d; divide it into fourparN, as J,’2, 3, 4, 
 because the rail S*, must be always reckoned as one; 
 this bv inspection shews how tnegrain of the wood is 
 to be manae°d, as appears by the .shape of the sever- 
 al pieces, T *, U*, W*, w tich are better if cut so by 
 the pitch-board, before glewed together.” 
 
 “ (n X*, is shewn how to square the t wasted part, 
 making the bottom your amide ; the section shews 
 how much wood is wanted on the back. 
 
 “ Jn Y*, is shewn how to square the twisted part, 
 making a middle line on the back your guide ; the 
 section shews the wood wanting on the back, and at 
 the bottom. 
 
 That of Z*, may be cut out of a parallel piece, of 
 the thickness of the intended rail, which when it is 
 glued to the twisted part, will want little or no 
 humouring. 
 
 “ N. U. There is a nicety in working the mitre 
 thereof, as k, 1, m.” 
 
 “ You are to observe, the foregoing plates must 
 be weli understood, and then, in this Plate (3), the 
 lengths of the newel, and ballusters that stand 
 under the twist or scroll are truly described ; that 
 is, their length and bevels may be known before the 
 rail be put up m its place; and that it may prove 
 easy, observe the plan of the twist or scroll is the 
 same as before, and so are the two steps P, acd Q, 
 and the pitch board R. 
 
 First, resolve on the bigness of youy ballusters, 
 as a, h, c, d, e, f, ; and also the newel. Divide the 
 said ballusters truly on a line drawn in the middle 
 of the rail ; for then, what is wide on one side, is 
 narrower on the other It is for that reason 1 chuse 
 to divide them on a middle line. Describe the plai* 
 of the ballusters, as p, q : r,. s; t, u ; u, w ; x, y; 
 and z ; for there your twisted part ends ; from 
 thence to the eye is level, 
 
 u Observe where your scroll begins, as at 1 ; and 
 on some line, as above, in Y ; first make a point at 
 1 ; then from your plan take the dis ances p, q : r, s; 
 t, v ; u, w ; x, y ; and z ; which transfer, as above, 
 observing to have regard to place truly each dis- 
 tance from 1, both ways, as p, q ; r, s ; t, v ; u, vv ; 
 x, y ; and z. — Observe also, to take from the plan 
 the distance from 1, to.ni, which apply to the pitch 
 board R, as from h, to n. which gives the length h, 
 o; take this pitch board, and apply it on the line 
 above, which by inspection the letters will shew ; 
 this gives the slope of the rail, as h, o, &c. From 
 o, to h, and form h, to y, from the curve by equal 
 divisions, and drawing straight lines, as w r as beiore 
 shewn. 
 
 a Lastly, 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 207 
 
 u Lastly, having the le*’gths of vour fixed bal- 
 lusters, as a, b, describe the steps S, and T, with 
 the pitch board. So that by continuing perpendicu- 
 lar lines, from the points on the line fir*t terminat- 
 ed, to the said curve, and to the steps, you have 
 the accurate lengths of the ballusters, as a, b, c, d. 
 e, f, the newel g, being the same length as f, be- 
 cause gt T, or z, the twi-ted part ends. 
 
 “ The curvy of the first, or curtail step P, is 
 formed by the same rule as delivered for the plan of 
 the rail. 
 
 “ It may not be amiss to observe, particularly the 
 point of the sweep, or curves beginning, and being 
 particular also in its application, by which this, and 
 the foregoing, though represented w ith but two steps 
 the same in fact, as though I had described a 
 whole flight, to shew its use. 
 
 He tlu£b£jMfcserves, that “ zealous to promote 
 what may be useful, in this plate, I have made easy 
 the difficulty of squaring a rail that ramps on a cir- 
 cular base. 
 
 Observe, W, is the plan of a stair case ; and at 
 the landing is a quarter circle ; to make this easy ; 
 in X, is three s eps, described by a larger scale. 
 1 ikewise in Y, is the plan of the rail, as was before 
 shewn in Plate 2. A considerable thickness of 
 wood more than usual, is required on the back of 
 this rail, as in &, at p, b; which w ill appear more 
 plain by inspecting Plate 2 ; as also the method to 
 trace your moulds that shall bend round the saifl 
 rail. Let the sides be squared as was shewn in 
 Plate 2. Observe here in Figure 2, the line k, p, 
 o: take the distance k, p, and place it on some line, 
 at pleasure, as in Z, then divide the outer circle in 
 Y, into a number of equal parts, as into six, as from 
 to h, which transfer to Z, as g, ], 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, h. 
 The point of the ramp may lie observed to fall with- 
 in the fifth division, as at s, so that by the intersec- 
 tion of straight lines, and equal divisions, you de- 
 scribe the sweep for the ramp g, b, which makes Z, 
 the mould to bend round the outside of the said 
 rail. 
 
 “ Observe also in Y, from b, to f, divide it into 
 six equal parts, which transfer to &, as from e, to f, 
 (and observe again,) the ramp Sails within the fifth 
 division, as at r. So divide the distance from e, to 
 g, and from g. to b, into equal parts, and bv drawing 
 straight lines, you have the sweep b, e. From the 
 point b, to p, is (lie thickness you want to be added, 
 extraordinary to the back of the rail &, and which 
 is the inner mould: so that by bending both these 
 moulds round the rail, and by drawing .-them with a 
 pencil, and cutting away the -superfluous wood you 
 have an exact square back. There seems no diffi- 
 culty now left, uiimentioned, to square twisted rails 
 in any form whatever. 
 
 “ Because I have all along strove to give variety, 
 observe M: in which is shewn a method to have 
 your newel under a twist, the same length as the 
 
 rest ; by which means also the rail twists no farther 
 than the first quarter, and consequently the remain- 
 ing part may be cut out of a plank, of the thickness 
 of our rail, without twisting at all. There seems 
 no explanation wanting to clear this point, but in- 
 spection. and a good conception of Plate 2 In this 
 of M, 1, f, is the thickness of wood extraordinary 
 wanting on the back of the rail. 
 
 OF DOORS AND WINDOWS. 
 
 In forming the apertures of doors, whether arched 
 or quadrangular, the height should, in general, be 
 about double their breadth, or a little more. It was 
 necessity, most probably, that gave birth to this pro- 
 portion, which habit has confirmed and rendered ab- 
 solute. The disposition of doors and windows, and 
 assigning to them their proper dimensions, accord- 
 ing to the purposes for which they are intended, are 
 not the business of the Joiner, but of the Architect ; 
 for which reason we shall here advert only to the 
 common method of decorating doors and windows, 
 the former of which have an architrave, around the 
 sides and top of the aperture, with a regular frieze 
 and cornice upon it. In some cases, the cornice is 
 supported by a console, on each side of the door, and 
 sometimes, besides an architrave, the aperture is 
 adorned with columns, pilasters, &c. which support 
 a regular entablature, with a pediment, or with some 
 other termination, either in architecture or sculp - 
 ture. Front doors, intended to be ornamented with 
 any of the orders, should not be less than three feet 
 six inches wide; the height should be twice the width 
 and one sixth part more, which might also be the 
 height of the column ; the abacus may be then taken 
 out of that dimension, in order to separate 
 the door from the fen light. The windows of the 
 principal floor are generally most enriched. The 
 simplest method of adorning them is, with an archi- 
 trave surrounding the aperture, and crowned with a 
 frieze or cornice. The v/indows of the ground floor 
 are sometimes left entirely destitute of any orna- 
 ment ; at other times are surrounded with rustics, or 
 a regular architrave having a freize or cornice. The 
 w-ndows-of the second floor, have- generally an archfe 
 : rave carried entirely round tlie aperture; and the 
 line method is adopted in adorning attic nd 
 Mezzanine windows; but the two latter seldom 
 possess either frieze or cornice; while the windows 
 of the second floor are often crowned with both. 
 
 Mr Price offers the following observations on the 
 proportions necessary to be observed in ornamenting 
 doors, windows, &c. 
 
 Thie width of either being given, make-its height 
 ^qual to two diameters ; or two diameters and a 
 ixtli part; which, is esteemed as the best proportion, 
 l’iie said width being made as the use and conve- 
 iency of the place allows, divide it into six equal 
 parts, one of which is for the architrave as in II ; 
 Plate 4, which being divided inio four equal parts, 
 three give the height of the friezeS ; and five, such 
 
 parts 
 
£08 
 
 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 parts give the height of the cornice T; all which is 
 easily conceived by the scale, therefore to nn think- 
 ing can want no explanation, otherwise than due in- 
 spection. 
 
 “ Again, admit that of V, was an architrave pro- 
 portioned as before. U, being the frieze, and W, the 
 cornice, the method is as before, (the ornaments only 
 varying;) these members will be easily conceived, 
 bv duly inspecting the scales; and as to the curves 
 of each moulding, enough seems to have been shewn 
 i n the foregoing plates. 
 
 “ N. B. The first face of the architrave should 
 be as fir from the frame oPthe door, or window, as 
 t o breadth of the whole architrave; observe also 
 ■■that this proportion is taken from the width between 
 one architrave and the other, as will be shewn in its 
 ■ : du" place. 
 
 “ Admit the aichitrave X, were one sixth part of 
 tlv* opening: winch being divided into four parts, 
 as before, the frieze Y, has three such parts, and an 
 half, as appears by the scale; and the cornice Z, 
 has five parts as in the other examples. Each of 
 these cornices projects equal to their eight : and the 
 frieze in all being formed bv an equilateral triangle, 
 made with one third part thereof, gives the projec- 
 tion of the architrave; whose parts are shewn dis- 
 tinctly, by the scales. 
 
 “ The architrave A, being one sixth part of the 
 opening; is divided into four parts ; of which, the i 
 frieze B, 1ms three and one fourth : and cornice C, I 
 lias five such parts. So that here are four manners 
 offorming the ornaments of doors and windows ac- 
 cording to Palladio: 
 
 With regard to the hanging of doors, shutters, or 
 flaps with hinges, care should always be token to 
 place the centre of the hinge in the middle of the 
 joint; but, as in many cases there is a necessity for 
 throwing back a flap to some distance from the 
 joint; the distance between the joint, and the in- 
 tended point, must be divided into two equal parts, 
 which point of division will denote the situation of 
 the centre of the hinge. Sometimes doors are re- 
 quired ho be hung in such a manner, that when 
 folded back, they shall be at a certain distance from 
 each other, as is frequently desirable in Churches 
 and Chapels, this may be easily effected by binges, 
 with knees projecting to half that distance. 
 
 In all elegant rooms, it is necessary to contrive, 
 that the doors when opened, should pass clear over 
 the carpet : now, it is evident, that this cannot be 
 the case, if the iamb on which the door hangs, is 
 truly perpendicular, and the bottom of the door is 
 close to the floor, as tlm bottom of doors commonly 
 are. An inconsiderate observer might recommend 
 a part of the bottom of the door to be cut off, in 
 order to permit its free passage over the carpet, but 
 still, when the door is shut, an open space will in- 
 tervene between it and the floor, unless as in some 
 cases, the carpet is continued through the opening 
 
 I of the door to an adjoining passage or room. When 
 i this is not the case, t lie room will be rendered cold 
 ‘ and uncomfortable ; and the necessity of contriving 
 ; some method to remedy the defect, becomes imme- 
 ! diately obvious. This remedy may always be 
 lj round by hanging the door with rising hinges, con- 
 j! struct^d for the purpose, with a spiral groove, which 
 jj winding round the knuckle as the door opens, 
 ji gives it a free passage over the carpet. Hinges, 
 however, thus constructed, requires that the door 
 should be bevelled at the top next to the ledge or 
 door catch, in proportion to their rise at one quar- 
 ter of their revolution. 
 
 This is the most elegant and effectual mode of 
 enabling a door to bear the carpel ; but various 
 other modes were made use of, before ti e discovery 
 of rising hinges. Such as raising the floor under 
 the door, as much as the thickness of the carpet 
 might re uire. Making the knuckle of the bottom 
 hinge project an eighth of an inch beyond the per- 
 pendicular direction of the top hinge, — fixing the 
 jamb to which the door might lie hung, about the 
 i eighth of an inch out of the perpendicular ; and 
 i ."lacing a common bu't hinge at the top, and one 
 with a projecting knee at the bottom. 
 
 These modes may be practised on common occa- 
 sions, but where elegance and accuracy are requir- 
 ed, the former method is entitled to a decided pre- 
 j fere nee. 
 
 i We proceed now to quote from the before men- 
 tioned author “ The Proportions of Pediments and 
 their Dependants. 
 
 To raise the pitch, or slope of a pediment, with 
 grace and beauty, says Palladio, divide the width 
 given into nine equal parts, two of which will be its 
 perpendicula. height, as in D ; for, says he, if it rise 
 one fourth of its width, it will be too high; and if 
 one fifth, it will be too low. Therefore the most 
 comely proportion, will be two ninths ns before. 
 
 “ And in consideration that no pediment can be 
 performed without two kinds of cornice, (except 
 it be kneed at its botto.M or springing, which is 
 reckoned a kind of defect, ) therefore to give each of 
 the cymas such a shape or curve, as shall agree in 
 their miter, do thus. Describe the curve of the 
 level cornice F, ( Plate 4,> as a, b, c, by two such 
 portions of circles, as that the centers for forming 
 each, may be on an horizontal, or level line, drawn 
 through the middle of the said cyma; as * * c, d; 
 being the projecture thereof. Draw lines from the 
 points of the said cyma, agreeable to the slope of 
 the pediment, which gives or terminates the big- 
 ness of the raking cornice or cyma G ; so tiiat by 
 drawing a line through the middle of the said mem- 
 ber, on it are the centers * *, by which the curves 
 e, f v g are described; the projecture g, h, being as 
 before. In case a break or return be made in the 
 pediment, then another kind of cyma must be form- 
 ed, which shall agree with the two former, as 11 , the 
 
 centers 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 centers for forming each curve, being on an horizon- 
 tal line drawn through the middle of the cyma, as be- 
 fore; i, k, 1, is the curve whose projecture as be- 
 fore is 1, m; these three kinds of cornice being thus 
 formed, will agree with each other, without the 
 trouble of tracing. But if the given curve be not 
 described as before, then observe the method propos- 
 ed in I; by which the curveof any raking moulding 
 whatever, may be truly described. Admit the cor- 
 nice given wereK; n, o, p, being its curve, and p, 
 q, its projecture ; bv making points on the said 
 curve, draw lines from them, agreeable to the slope 
 of the pediment, on which place each respective 
 projecture from K, to L, so is r, s, t, its curve, the 
 projecture being t, u, as before. And if a break or | 
 return be made as M, then transfer the several pro- j 
 jectures from K, observing that the points be on the | 
 lines drawn agreeable to the rake of the pediment, so 
 will w, x, y, be the curve, and v, z, the projecture as 
 before; which no doubt but inspection explains. 
 
 LAVING OF FLOORS. 
 
 The chief excellence of a floor, consists in its 
 being perfectly level, and no higher in any one part 
 than another : but experience teaches, that this de- 
 sirable object must frequently be sacrificed to consider- 
 ations of convenience. The mode recommended for 
 hanging doors, furnishes a sufficient proof of the cor- 
 rectness of this observation, A frequent defect is ob- 
 servable in floor-, (the origin of which may 
 be attributed to the carpenter) arising from 
 their sinking in the middle, or in those parts 
 that are unsupported, which circumstance demon- 
 strates how necessary it is that every floor should 
 possess a certain degree of camber, in order that 
 when it settles or the niofiture has exhaled, it may be 
 as near to a plane as possible. — \Y hen the joists are 
 depressed in the middle, it will be proper to fur them 
 up ; on the contrary, when they project in the middle, 
 they ought to be reduced by the adze ; the former 
 however, is most generally the case. 
 
 The joints of flooring boards, are either square, 
 plowed and tongued, rebatted or dowelled ; the 
 boards being nailed on each edge, when thejoints are 
 square, or plowed and tongued; but when the dowel 
 work is executed in a proper manner; the outer 
 edge only is nailed, and this is effected by driving 
 the brad, in an oblique direction, through the edge, 
 without suffering it to pass through the upper sur- 
 face of the hoard. The headings are in some cases 
 square; in others splayed or plowed, and ton- 
 gued. 
 
 GROUNDS, 
 
 Are pieces of wood fixed to the wall around doors, 
 windows, &c. for the purpose of receiving the ar- 
 chitraves; they are also fixed in different positions 
 in rooms, in order to receive the various kinds of 
 mouldings required in ornamenting the same, such 
 as basest snrbases, chimney jpieces &c. See. Now as 
 
 2t)D 
 
 nothing has a more dissagreeahle effect to the eye. 
 than the untrue appearance of any work of this kind, 
 it is absolutely necessary if the w'orkman would 
 avoid deformity, to fix all grounds in a true vertical 
 position, both on their edge and face, and in a firm 
 and solid manner to the wall. 
 
 OF GLUING UP THU BASE, SHAFT, AND CAPITAL 
 OF COLUMNS. 
 
 To each order belongs a particular kind of base, 
 and the first operation required, is that of gluing up 
 the base. 
 
 Figure 1, Plate 5, exhibits the mode of mitring 
 the bottom course together, which must be effected 
 on a perfectly flat board, and by fitting all the joints 
 as close as possible. Whenthe course has been well 
 glued together, and secured on the inside with 
 blocks at the several angles, the top of the course 
 must be planed quite smooth and out of winding; 
 after this, the next course must be glued on, and the 
 joint must be broken in the middle of the under 
 course, (as shewn by the dotted lines in the plate) 
 by which means as many courses can be glued down 
 as may be required. When the whole is thorough- 
 ly dry, the operations of the turner may com- 
 mence. 
 
 The shaft of a column should be glued up in 
 eight or more staves, according to its intended di- 
 mensions ; but care should be alw'ays taken to have 
 the joint in the middle of a fillet, and not in a flute, 
 which would impair its strength very much. 
 
 Figures 2, and 3, shew a plan of the upper and 
 lower ends, or the horizontal section at top and bot- 
 tom. If eight pieces are sufficient to form the 
 column, let an octagon be described round the ends, 
 and let lines be draw'll from each angle of the octa- 
 gon to the centre; when the bevel of the edges of 
 the staves will be given for thejoints, which must be 
 quite straight from top to bottom, though the staves 
 be narrower at the top, as shewn in fig. 3. These 
 staves must be of sufficient thickness, because their 
 outsides have to assume a curvature proportioned to 
 the swell of the column by means of a diminishing 
 rule ; next glue the pieces together one after the 
 other as the glue dries; block them well at the cor- 
 ners in the inside, which will greatly strengthen the 
 joints ; and proceed in this manner to the last stave; 
 but all the blocks must be glued on and dried, be- 
 fore the last 6tave can be fastened. Pieces, however, 
 may be glued quite across for the last stave, and fix- 
 ed to the inside of the two adjoining staves, or they 
 may be fixed by screws to each stave : in which 
 
 case the under side of the last stave must be planed 
 so as to rub well on the cross pieces. 
 
 When the stave is put in, and glued upon the 
 cross pieces, it may be driven tig-lit home, like a 
 wedge, and the whole will be firm and substantial 
 throughout; great care, nevertheless, ought to be 
 taken, as to preparing the staves and blocks out of 
 3 H wood 
 
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 *fO 
 
 wood, thoroughly dry, because, after the lapse of 
 some time, if the wood be moist, the column will 
 be in danger of tailing to pieces at the joints. It 
 will be necessary also to make each piece according 
 to the plaji, for a trifling error in any one piece, will 
 make a verv material difference in the column after 
 gluing. When the glue used in combining the 
 column is dry, the angles must he regularly worked 
 off all round ; and the column will then have double 
 the number of sides, or cants, bearing a proportion- 
 able regularity to each other. Proceed in a similar 
 manner to work off the angles as before, so as to 
 make the sides, or cant of the column quite regular. 
 Lastly, let a plan be formed, in order to fit the 
 curve of the column at the bottom, or render it 
 rather flatter, then round oft’ all the angles, until 
 the surface of the column is perfectly smooth. One 
 thing to be observed, with respect to the moulds 
 employed in jointing the staves together, is, that 
 they cannot be considered as exactly true when ap- 
 plied in a direction perpendicular to the joint. The 
 most correct mode, is that made use of in finding 
 the backing of a hip rafter, which has been already 
 noticed ; but this exactness, nevertheless, is not 
 always attended to, in consequence of the difficulty 
 of discerning the deviation in some instances. When 
 the column is quite finished, it should be well 
 painted, . by way of protection from the effects of the 
 weather. 
 
 Sometimes columns are glued up in two halves, 
 in which cases those two halves are glued together, 
 and the blockings are introduced a considerable 
 way by hand ; but if the column be too long, a rod 
 of sufficient length may be used. Both these 
 methods have some inconveniences, which cannot 
 be avoided; by the former method, the last joints 
 cannot be rubbed together from the obstacle present- 
 ed by the tapering, of the stave; but if this be glued 
 quickly, it will be pretty sound ; by the latter me- 
 thod there will be an uncertainty of the blockings 
 being sound. In all cases, however, care should be 
 taken to place the grain of the blocking piece in the 
 same direction as the grain of the column, so as that 
 
 they may both expand and shrink alike, when affect- 
 ed by the weather. 
 
 OF GLUING UF THU IONIC CAPITAL. 
 
 Figure 4. represents tne mode practised in gluing 
 up a capital. The parts denoted by B, &c are 
 triangular blocks of wood, glued upon (he front, 
 in order to complete the anguiar square; up >u 
 them the pieces A, A, A, &c. are glued, and this is 
 considered the best method of gluiog up the capital. 
 Another method is, to glue the triangular olocks 
 C, C, at the angle of the abacus, t ew 'lie four sides 
 of the abacus as D, E, F, may be made of one entire 
 length, and mitred at the horns, or they may have a 
 joint in the middle of the abacus, where the rose is 
 placed, as the workman shall think fit : this method, 
 will do either fora column, or a pilaster. 
 
 Figures 5, and 6, are designs of simp fronts. 
 
 Figure 7, shews the method of b- nding a cornice 
 ! round the internal part of a circular bod^ on the 
 i spring. 
 
 Figure 8, exhibits the mode of bending a-cornice 
 | round the external part of a circular body. Ou the 
 I spring, draw the lines A B, to the centre of the 
 body C B ; and describe the arch line D E, G F, 
 which will be the edge of the cornice, when bent 
 straight round the body. 
 
 Figure 9, exiiibits the mode of describing angle 
 bars, for shop fronts. A. represents a common bar, 
 and B, the angle bar, which is of the same thickness 
 and placed in its intended position ; draw a, a, per- 
 pendicular to a, m, intersecting the side of the angle 
 bar in a, then take the distance a, a, on the angle 
 bar, and lay it from a, oil the common bar, so as it 
 may intersect its middle in a, also ; join the points 
 a a, and draw b b, c c, d d, See. in the same in a 
 parallel direction to a a ; next, draw from the points 
 
 b, c, d, &c. in A, the dotted lines b b, c c, d d, 
 &c. to intersect the middle ot the angular bar in b, 
 
 c, d, &c. then lay ff from these points in the angu- 
 lar bar, the several distances b b, c c, d d, &c. 
 respectively equal to b b, c c, d d, &c. in the com- 
 
 j moil bar, which, on being traced out will give the 
 proper form of the angle bar. 
 
 END OF CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 CARVING 
 
CARVING AND GILDING. 
 
 The operations of carving and gilding are usually 
 connected as one trade, though in fact the\are total- 
 ly distinct branches of manufacture, performed by 
 different persons, and generally in different houses. 
 The art of gilding depends chiefly on the materials 
 made use of, but in carving much ingenuity is re- 
 quired on the part of the workman, if lie would ex- 
 cel, and obtain the reputation of a designer as well 
 as the character of a mere workman. 
 
 Carving . — Is the art or act of cutting or fashion- 
 ing a hard body, by means of some sharp instrument, 
 especially a chisel. In this general sense of the 
 term, it may be said to include statuary and engrav- 
 ing, ; ut our business is witli carving in wood. To 
 do this the figure or design should be either modell- 
 ed in clay or drawn on the wood to be carved. 
 When the design is drawn on the block intended for 
 use, the other parts of the wood which are not cover- 
 ed bv the lines of the designs are to be cut away 
 wi ll instruments, as chisels, sharp pointed knives, 
 &c. a< apted to the purpose The wood tiiat is best 
 fitted for fine carving is that which is hard, tough} 
 and close, and to prepare it for the business, and tor 
 receiving the design, it must be washed over with a 
 mixture of w r hite lead and water, by which it will 
 take tlie ink or crayon, without the smallest difficulty. 
 Sometimes the design is drawn on paper, and .past- 
 ed on the block : in this case the whitening is omitt- 
 ed, and it is sufficient if the wood be planed smooth 
 and even. Then moistening the figured side of the 
 design with a solution of gum tragacanth in water, 
 the workman puts it very evenly on the block, and 
 when it i> quite dry, he wets it slightly, and frets off 
 tlie surface of the paper gently, till all the strokes of 
 the figure appear distinct. It is now adapted to 
 the operation of the carver, or the cutter in wood. 
 
 Carving in wood has long been in the backr 
 ground, as a branch of the arts, nor can this be won- 
 dered at, when the methods in which it is commonly 
 ta ght and practiced are considered. A boy with 
 Very little education, and no prev ious knowledge in 
 drawing, is bound apprentice to a carver, and is ex- 
 pected to go to his bench and follow the beaten track 
 of those who are acquainted only with the practical 
 part of the trade, and who can give no reasons for 
 the rules which their experience suggests. Among 
 the men who are at all capable of instructing the boy 
 in a proper manner, there are very few who wiii 
 
 ! take much concern or trouble about tlie business. They 
 i are indeed, sometimes generous enough to tell him 
 ; that it is only by gaining a competent knowledge of 
 ! drawing and modellings that he cansucceed; andad- 
 vise him to devote his leisure hours to this purpose, 
 a sacrifice which a youth is seldom inclined to make, 
 and therefore at the end of seven years he is sent in- 
 ' to the world as a carver, with as little knowledge as 
 I those whom he has been obliged servilely to irni- 
 j tate during the whole of his apprenticeship. This 
 ' ignorance might have been fully obviated, if the 
 j youth had been previously instructed in drawing and 
 j modelling, by means of which a person would at- 
 j tain much higher degrees of perfection, in carving, in 
 in the short space of two years, than those who have 
 practiced for twenty, without these advantages. 
 There are only eleven master carvers in London, 
 and about sixty Journeymen (though at one time 
 there were six hundred) many of the latter are now 
 very old. They make no shew of their work, and live 
 only in private houses. In trade they are principal- 
 ly known to the upholsterers, are a distinct class 
 from those who keep shops and w rite “ Carvers and 
 Gilders” over their doors, for it can be proved, that 
 hundreds of the latter never saw a carving tool in 
 tiieirlives. 
 
 Enough has now been said to shew that in order 
 to obtain perfection, or indeed any real knowledge 
 in carving, it is necessary to have a sufficient know- 
 ledge of drawing to make a good sketch, and to be 
 able to model what is required to be carved. Mo- 
 delling clay is prepared and sold at tiie potteries, 
 and requires only to be kept damp. Carving in 
 wood is principally confined to foliage, shells, 
 scrolls and such like ornaments. A leaf appears to 
 be one of the best subjects for a carver to model. 
 He should copy from nature, and select one, tlie 
 form, undulations and terms of which are pleasing 
 to the eye. The dock leaf^and that of the rhubarb 
 plant, are admirably adapted to the purpose. On a 
 piece of wood about halt an inch thick, and of a size 
 proportioned to the leaf to be copied, the clay must 
 be formed into a rough imitation of it ; the fingers 
 are at first the principal tools to be used, yet for 
 those parts which they cannot reach, and those 
 touches which they cannot accomplish, it will be 
 necessary to use a modelling tool. Having succeed- 
 ed in modelling the subject to be carved, it will be 
 
212 
 
 CARVING AND GILDING. 
 
 necessary to make the mould, and cast it in plaster 
 of Paris, for the clav is difficult to preserve, unless 
 baked in a kiln. The mould is made in the fol- 
 lowing manner; plaster of Paris, which easily mixes 
 with water, should be made of the consistency of 
 thick cream, and should be spread all over the mo- ' 
 del. When the plaister is set, the board should 
 then be removed, the clay picked carefully out, and 
 a 'mould will be obtained, called a wiffete mould, 
 which must be left in cold water for a quarter of an 
 hour. When vised as a cast, it should be rubbed 
 over with a mixture of hogs lard, and the droppings 
 of sweet oil. The plaster of Paris is to be mixed as 
 before, and poured into the mould, which afterwards 
 should be knocked off with a chisel and mallet, by 
 small pieces at a time, a leaf will then appear of the 
 same farm as that modelled in clay, which the carver 
 may proceed to copy in any sort of wood, but lime 
 tree is the best suited to beginners. 
 
 The tools used for carving, are of various forms 
 and sizes ; the best, and indeed almost the only ones 
 that are fit for use, are made by Mr. Addis, of Dept- 
 ford, but they are sold by different ironmongers in 
 London. In proceeding to carve, it is best to make 
 a rough sketch on the wood, which can be after- 
 wards paired to the outline; for all small work, the 
 superfluous wood may be cut away with the tool in 
 the hand, but when large, a mallet will be necessa- 
 ry ; the hand will soon, by practice, become accus- 
 tomed to the use of it. 
 
 Carving is most interesting work, and a person 
 soon gets a zest for it, and is astonished to see what 
 a few cuts will produce, if copied from a good model 
 made by his own, or some more skilful hand. 
 Many carvers can produce common figures, but to 
 carve the human figure, it is necessary to know 
 Anatomy, for without that knowledge, though the 
 figures may be called pretty by those who cannot 
 distinguish the defects, to others who are good 
 judges, they will appear poor, and sometimes highly 
 ludicrous. 
 
 The operation of carving may be greatly assisted 
 by an instrument similar to one used by sculptors, 
 and called a gallows, which any common joiner can 
 make ( see Plate Miscellanies, Figure I ). A, is 
 a slide that moves over any part of the model, B B, 
 another that can be raised or depressed, to get the 
 heights and depths, and is fitted to them by means 
 of a screw. The method of using this instrument, is 
 easily understood, and is very simple ; it is merely 
 held in the hand, and rests upon the two legs C C. 
 
 In sharpening the tools, care must be taken to 
 bevel them equally from both sides, the large ones 
 on a grinding stone, and the small ones on a rag- 
 stone ; they must be set with slips of Turkey stone ; 
 four sizes will answer all sorts of tools. To shar- 
 pen the inside of the crooked tools, a little machine 
 * much resembling a common spinning wheel, is used, 
 the wheel of it should be about fourteen inches in 
 
 diameter, a handle should be affixed to turn it, the 
 spindle should be square, with small circles of lead 
 fitted on it shaped according to the sweep or form of 
 the tool ; a. little sand and water facilitates the sharp- 
 ening. The carvers make this machine for their 
 own use, for the value of a few shillings. 
 
 G1T.DING. 
 
 The art of gilding or l iving a thin superficial 
 coating of metal on wood, and otiier substances, has 
 been lo- g practised a id highly esteemed, both for 
 its utility and the splendid effect which it produces. 
 Gold, from its great beauty, and from the length of 
 time during which it may be exposed to the action 
 of the air without tarnishing, is unquestionably the 
 most valuable of all substances for the purposes of 
 i decoration : but on account of its great price, and 
 weight, it can only be used, for general purposes, in 
 j t he shape of a fine skm, or leafjas it is usually called. 
 Gold is the most malleable and ductile of all sub- 
 j stances, and therefore a given weight of it, notwith- 
 standing its high specific gravity, may, by beating, 
 be made to cover a larger suifac<>, than an equal 
 t quantity of any other body whatever 
 i The different states in which gold is used for the 
 purposes of gilding, are the following; (1) in the 
 • shape ofleaf gold of different degrees of thickness, 
 and formed eit er of the pure metal, or of an alloy 
 t of this with silv er : (2) as an amalgam of gold ; and 
 i ( 3 ) in gold powder. 
 
 The leaf-gold is procured by the gilder from the 
 gold-beater, whose art consists in hammering a 
 | number of thin rolled plates of the metal, between 
 1 1 skins or animal membranes, 
 
 j| The amalgam ol gold is made by heating in a 
 crucible, some pure quick-silver; and when it is 
 ; nearly in the boiling state, about the sixth part of 
 [ its weight of fine gold in thin plates, heated red hot, 
 
 ! is to be immersed in it. The mixture soon becomes 
 - homogenous, and then it is allowed to cool. When 
 ‘ cold it is to be put in a piece of soft leather, and by 
 ! gradual pressure, the fluid part of the amalgam con- 
 | sisting almost wholly of mercury, may be forced 
 l through the pores of the leather, while the gold, com- 
 [ bined with about twice its weight of mercury, 
 
 ! will remain behind, forming a yellow silvery mass 
 i of the consistency of butter. This, ’"after being 
 bruised and ground in a mortar, or shaken in a 
 ; strong phial, with repeated portions of salt and 
 | ! water, till the water comes away quite clear and un- 
 j! soiled, is fit for use, and may be kept for any length 
 |j of time, without injuring, in a corked phial, 
 jj It is of the utmost importance, that the materials 
 ' of this amalgam, and especially the mercury, should 
 ^ be perfectly pure, as the least portion oflead or bis- 
 , ; muth would very materially injure the beauty of the 
 gilding, by deteriorating the colour of the gold, and 
 i\ filling it with black specks. 
 
 j Gold -in powder, is prepared by three different 
 
 ; methods :; the first and most simple is, to put into a 
 j glass or earthen mortar, some gold leaf, with a little 
 
 honey, 
 
CARVING AND GILDING. 
 
 213 
 
 honey, or thick gum wafer, and to grind the mixture 
 for a considerable time, till the gold is reduced to 
 extremely minute fragments, when this is done, the 
 honey or gum may be washed away, leaving the gold 
 behind in a fLky or pulverulent state. A more ef 
 fectual and quicker method of reducing gold to a 
 state of powder, is to dissolve it in Aqua Regia, or. 
 as it is denominated in the new chemistry, in nitro- 
 muriatic acid, and then precipiate it with a piece of 
 copoer. The precipitate, after b°ing digested in 
 distilled vinegar, and then washed with pure water 
 an 1 Iried. i« in the form of a very fine powder, and 
 is said to work better, and is fitter for burnishing 
 than the powder obtained from leaf-gold. The very 
 finest ground gold is produced by heating very gra- 
 dually the gold amalgam, already described in an 
 open earthen vessel, and containing the fire till the 
 w lole of the mercury is evaporated, taking care 
 that the amalgam s mil be constantly stirred with a 
 rod of glass, to prevent the particles of gold from ; 
 adhering as the mercury flies off. When the mercu- 
 ry is completely evaporated, the residual gold j 
 being then ground in a Wedgwood-ware mortar, 
 with a little water and afterwards dried is fit for) 
 use. j 
 
 Gilding is performed either with or without heat. 
 By the first of these methods, those substances are 
 gilt which are not liable to alteration, by exposure] 
 to a moderate heat, such as metals, glass, and por- 
 celain. Tne second method is practise^ with those] 
 substauces as wood, paper, lead &c. which- would 
 be destroyed by being raised to ^ temperature requi- 
 site for gilding the former. Our business is chieily 
 with wood.. 
 
 Gilding on wood, both in oil and burnish, is at 
 re.ent at its highest perfection, and is executed in 
 jondon, better than in any other part of the world. 
 That which is brought from France and other parts 
 of the Continent, is by no means equal ; not that it 
 is to be inferred from hence, that gliding is well ex- 
 ecuted by all who undertake it in the Metropolis 
 Many men who have worked there all their lives, 
 are unable properly to gild a common picture frame, 
 though they get employment, and give satisfaction. 
 
 It is however hoped a better judgement will be form- 
 ed from the instructions, here given, from which it 
 has been known, that a person bred a cabinetmaker, 
 who never before- saw gilding, has accomplished the 
 work in the best stvle in the course of six months. 
 
 Of about 130 persons, who call themselves carvers 
 and gilders, the greater number are gilders only ; 
 they live in private streets, and make uo shew of 
 their work. 
 
 BURNISHED GILDING ON WOOD. 
 
 To begin with picture frames or mouldings, which 
 are the simplest. In an earthen pan that will hold 
 a quart, take three half pints of strong size, make it 
 very hot, but do not let it boil ; add some of the best j 
 whiting powdered fine, mix them with a brush, j 
 
 kept for the purpose, or beat them with a piece' of 
 <ath as an egg is«beaten, till they become thorough- 
 ly incorporated, and of the consistency of thick 
 cream; put a little of this mixture, w ith an equal 
 quantity of strong size, into a smaller pan, heat it 
 till nearly boiling, and with a stiff brush, lay it over, 
 the whole work, in order to clean away any dirt, 
 grease, or hand marks; this is called thin whitening 
 f be work, and makes a ground for the other opera- 
 tions. When the wood is very dirty, it is absolutely 
 necessary, to wash it all over with a spunge and hot 
 water, before the thin white is applied, which pre- 
 caution will prevent the chipping up ofthe prepara- 
 tion. When burnished, the coat of thin white 
 should be particularly well dried ; after which the 
 work is to receive four more coats of that which 
 was made of the consistency of cream warmed, but 
 not made so hot, as for their whitening, taking care 
 that one coat is dry before another is applied.” 
 Mere it is necessary to observe that, throughout this 
 process, one coat must be dry before another is laid 
 on, whatever may be the composition used. The 
 sixth coat, which is also of thick white, must be 
 laid on by passing the brush in a smooth, even, and 
 flowing manner, over two feet ofthe work at a time, 
 in order to gain a surface and facilitate the smooth- 
 ing, hereafter to be described. Before the whiten- 
 ing is dry, the flat parts should be rubbed down 
 with a chisel, the hollows with a gouge, and the 
 rounds with the finger, or fingers, as most conven- 
 ient ; should the hollows be too large for a gouge, 
 the finger will answer- every purpose. When dry, . 
 any superfluous whitening that may have fallen over 
 the edges of -the mouldings &c. may be slightly par- 
 ed off' with a chisel or a gouge, according as the 
 parts are situated ; then give it a seventh coat, si- 
 milar to the preceding, and it will be ready for 
 smoothing, which should be performed in the fol- 
 lowing maimer-. 
 
 Take some close grained pumice stone, and with 
 a sash saw, (an old one will answer the purpose,) 
 cut it into pieces about three or four inches long; 
 (if the work be very small, an inch or inch and 
 halt will do) fit them to the different mould- 
 ings. using a rasp to form the rounds, and a/gouge the 
 hollows. The Hats are to be made by robbing a 
 piece ofthe pumice on a smooth stone, making the 
 sides at right angles, that it may smooth two sides at 
 a time. During’ these operations, the pumice must 
 be frequently dipped in water. Lay the pieces thus- 
 prepared, in a large eartiien pan full of water, not 
 less than two quarts, take a hogs hair brush and a, 
 spunge, both of convenient sizes, dip the brush i n 
 the water- a d wet about two feet of the work at a. 
 time, taking the mouldings alternately; then, with 
 the pumice already fitted, rub up and down till a 
 smooth surface is obtained, remove the water with 
 (the brush, and squeeze it into the pan, what 
 j remains, may be taken off with the sponge. 
 
 3 1 which 
 
214 
 
 CARVING AND GILDING. 
 
 which will complete the smoothing of that piece. 
 
 Proceed in the same manner, with similar por- 
 tions^for if too much be wetted at a time, the white- 
 •n ng becomes soft and unfit to bear the pumice stone; 
 t - frames must then be set aside to dry. In carv- 
 ed work, the operation of whitening and smoothing, 
 thfi'-r^ sognewhnt from the preceding. After the 
 thin whi'e is dry, the coats that follow must be ra- 
 ther weaker, and not so thick, as for frames or 
 mouldings; they are to be laid on by carrying the 
 brush over the work, in an even and smooth, but 
 n >t flowing manner. To smooth, or produce the 
 surface that is required, pieces of lime-wood, or fir, 
 soaked in water, instead of pumice, are used, shaped 
 round, flat, or angular, as may be found necessary, 
 occasionally wrapping round them strips of coarse 
 linen cloth. In smoothing, care must be taken not 
 to rub off too much of the whitening, or the gilding 
 w ill look poor, and prevent the burnishing of those 
 parts thereby brought tqo near the wood. The dry- 
 ing may be hastened in summer by the sun, in win- 
 ter by placing before the tire, not too near, or the 
 whitening will chip. Mix a little strong size, with 
 four times as much water, in a half pint earthen pan; 
 these proportions should beadaptea so as to make it 
 three parts full, add a quantity twice the size of a 
 large wall-nut, and half as much prepared yellow 
 stone ochre, mix them well together, with a brush, 
 and coat the work once over, when dry, rub it 
 slightly with glass paper, half worn out ; to im- 
 prove the surface, and proceed to mix and lay on the 
 gold size. In another half pint earthen pan, 
 half full of clear size, mix a quantity of burnished 
 gold size, twice as big as a large wall-nut, with 
 which, coat the work twice over. When dry, bur- 
 nish the parts intended to be matted with a burnish- 
 ing stone, and then give it another coat of the same 
 gold size, it must now be reduced by adding to it 
 about two tea-spoons full of water, and as much 
 gold size as you can take upon the point of a knife, 
 coat those parts only, that are intended to be burnish- 
 ed, and here it must be observed, that in laying 
 gold size on carved work after it is yellowed, those 
 parts should be missed, that are too small to to re- 
 ceive the gold even from the smallest pencil, such 
 as the small eyes of foliage &c. to which, effect must 
 afterwards be given, with high coloured or-molu. 
 And proceed to lay on the gold with a cushion, 
 knife and tip, as will be described in oil gilding; 
 but in burnish gilding, Camels-hair pencils must be 
 used for the small parts, and swanquiil pencils for 
 the large, dipped in clear water, to wet the Work as 
 fast as the gold can be laid on. The hollows and 
 flats must be gilt first, and perfectly dry before the 
 other parts can be proceeded with, when the work is 
 all gilt and dry, burnish the parts intended. And 
 should there be any faults, which ca i only arise 
 from not being carefully wetted, or from grease 
 those parts must be rubbed off to the whitening, with 
 
 n linen wrapt round the finger, when they are dry 
 they must be gold sized, gilt and burnished. 
 Then reduce a little clear size with hot water, so 
 that when cold, it will merely set, this being the 
 weakest size used in burnish gilding, much care 
 should be taken, that it is not too strong, or it will 
 shew all the joint? of the gold. When dry, lay on a 
 coat of this, and when completely dry, rub it over 
 with cotton. In double gilding, which is the best 
 style, the matted parts should be again gilt, using 
 water towel as before, after which-, coat them a fresh 
 with the weak size, use the cotton, and if faults ap- 
 pear, treat them as will be directed in oil gilding, 
 not to stand in the weather. After the faults are all 
 covered, give another coat of the weak size, use' 
 the cotton, and then give on© of clear size, to keep* 
 the gold firm, a coat of or-molu, completes the pro- 
 cess. Observe swan quills and camels hair-pencils, 
 only, are used after the gold is laid on, and care 
 must be taken in sizing the matted parts, not to 
 touch those that are burnished, which cannot be 
 [ improved after the burnishing stone. 
 
 1 If it be necessary to embellish the frames or work 
 to he gilt in burnish gold, with composition, it may 
 I be had in London, soft from the press, and can be 
 put on after the smoothing, with a little hot thick 
 whitening, or weak glue. What is squeezed out" 
 round the edges in pressing it close, may be taken 
 off with a brush and cold water, it must then have a 
 coat of thin white, to remove any grease, and be fi- 
 nished like the rest of work. The composition may 
 also be put on oil-gold work that is not to stand in 
 the weather, but does not require the thin white, and 
 must be finished in the manner of oil gilding; com- 
 position is easily moistened when dry. by wrapping 
 it in a wet linen cloth, for twenty four hours. 
 
 OIL GILDING TO STAND I\ THE WEATHER. 
 
 The object to be gilt, whether metal, stone, or 
 wood, must be coated three tunes over with a mix- 
 ture of linseed oil, white lead, and a small quantity 
 of spirits of turpentine, if it be wood, it should be 
 previously rubbed with glass-paper, or fish-skin. 
 When the last coat is dry, the work should be gold- 
 sized ; take any quantity of gold-size, and with a 
 common hog’s hair brush, kept in water for the pur- 
 pose, mix it with boiled liuseed oil till it is so thin 
 that when a little of it be laid on the work to be 
 gilt, the white paint before put on, will appear 
 through, though it must not be made so thin as to 
 lose the tinge of the yellow ochre, then proceed to 
 lay it on sparingly, with fine hogs-hair brushes, 
 proportioned to the parts of the work, when the 
 gold size is good, it will dry in twelve hours, if laid 
 on in the evening, it will be fit for gilding the next 
 morning. Sometimes in winter, and when the gold- 
 -ize is fresh made, it will take two or three days ; 
 to prevent this, an expedient may be used, unknown 
 to the generality of Gilders, to mix with it a small 
 
 quantity 
 
CARVING AND GILDING. 
 
 215 
 
 quantity of J apaners gold size, which will hasten the 
 drying, but in this instance, when it begins to have 
 ti e tack, hereafter to be explained, it dries very 
 quickly, therefore, great care should be taken to get 
 the gold on as fast as possible. In order to ascer- 
 tain its fitness for receiving the gold, the work must 
 be touched with the finger, if it feel somewhat adhe- 
 sive or clammy, but not so as to be brought off bv 
 the finger, it has the (nek, or in other words, is in a 
 fit state for gilding : but if it be so clammy as to 
 come off on being touched, or have any inclination 
 thereto, it is not sufficiently dry, if it have no suck- 
 ing quality, it is too dry, and must be sized over 
 again before it can be gilt. In laying on the gold, 
 a tip is used which must be previously rubbe.d with a 
 little tallow grease to make it hold, but it must be so 
 little as to shew no appearance. When the surface 
 to be gilt, whether round, hollow, or fiat, is suffici- 
 ently large and plain to contain whole leaves, they 
 may be taken from the book, which must he held in 
 the left hand, by the part that is sewed, the leaves 
 of it turned carefully over, and kept always so 
 steady, that the gold maybe undisturbed, and lie 
 perfectly flat, take the tip in the right hand, touch 
 the leaf of gold about half an inch deep, on the side 
 opposite the sewing of the book, both bands must 
 then be moved to the place meant to.be gilt. Hav- 
 ing laid the edge of the leaf already attached to the 
 tip, upon the work, which is always considered as 
 having the tack, it will be caught and held fast by 
 the gold size, and the tip will be left at liberty ; the 
 bock must be slowly drawn away, followed as it 
 moves by the tip which is now used gently to press 
 the gold close to the work, until the whole leaf is 
 on, whieh must be repeated until those parts large 
 enough to receive a leaf, are all gilt. This method 
 is in use with a few of the best gilders, and may be 
 acquired in an hours practice. For those parts that 
 are too small for the entire leaf, it is necessary tc 
 use a cushion, upon which about half a hook of gold 
 may be blown out, one leaf at a time, each cue 
 carefully turned until it lies nearly flat, when by 
 puffing as near as possible on the centre, it will be- 
 come smooth and even, and must be cut in strips, 
 with a knife used for the purpose, according to the 
 widths of the different members and mouldings, and 
 then laid oh with the tip. As the work advances, 
 or when it is gilt all over, it must be pressed clos< 
 with a bit of unspun cotton, then brusr.ed over with 
 a dry, soft, hogs-hair brush, one previously used a 
 littie in the whitening, will best answer "the pur- 
 pose, in order to clear away any loose particles cf 
 the gold leaf. If any defective parts appear, those 
 winch cannot be mended bv pressing upon them 
 the loose gold just brushed off, which may be done 
 with the brush in hand, or a bit of cotton must be 
 covered in the following manner. Cut a leaf of 
 gold into small square pieces, proportioned to the 
 defects, and with the camel’s hair pencil slightly 
 
 moistening the tip'of it, s l>y putting it to the lip, 
 place a piece on each faulty part, which must be 
 again pressed with the cotton. The work is then 
 finished unless the faulty parts are too dry to re- 
 ceive the gold; when they must be again gold sized 
 and gilt, as before directed. In general, boys do 
 not acquire the method of using the gold on the 
 cushion, in less than three months, though a person 
 determined to accomplish it. may do so in one week. 
 
 Picture frames, and other work in “ oil gilding, 
 that is not to be exposed to the weather,” to be well 
 done, must be prepared as tar as smoothing, in the 
 same way as Work to be gilt in burnished gold. 
 When smooth, and after being rubbed with glass 
 paper, it must be coated twice over with size, ra- 
 ther weaker than that used for whitening, that 
 which is stale answers best. The gold size must be 
 laid on as before directed in oil gilding, and when 
 the work is gilt, pressed with the cotton, and brush- 
 ed over. If faults appear, they must be treated 
 thus ; take a little weak size, as directed in burnish 
 gilding, coat the work all over when dry, wet each 
 part where a fault appears with clear water, and 
 lay on it a piece of gold, with a camel’s hair pencil, 
 as before described. This is not to be pressed with 
 the cotton, but gently rubbed with it when com- 
 pleatly dry, w hich it will be in half an hour, (as will 
 all the coat9 that are used for gilding, except oil 
 gold size,) give the work another coat of the weak 
 size, then one of clear size which completes the 
 gilding, but the effect is considerably heightened 
 with a coat of or- mol u, such as is used to finish the 
 matted part of the burnished gilding. 
 
 TO MAKE STRONG SIZE. 
 
 Take a clean saucepan of any size most conveni- 
 ent, fill it nearly with water, when heated as much 
 as the hand can bear, keep putting in cuttings of 
 parchment Which best answer the purpose, or gloveis 
 white leather shreds, pressing them down well with 
 the hand, till they are within an inch and half of the 
 surfuce of the water, boil them slowly for one hour 
 and a half, and the strong size will be made ; pass 
 it through a hair sieve into a pan, and set it aside 
 for use, the same parchment or shreds, will again 
 yield the same quantity of size, stale size stinks and 
 is unfit for use. 
 
 Clear size, differs only from the preceding, in 
 these particulars, it must be made in smaller quan- 
 tises; the parchment or shreds must be washed in 
 several waters milk warm, till no dirt appears, it 
 should boil only fiifteen minutes; be passed tlmough 
 a finer sieve ami when reduced care must be taken 
 t v at the water is perfectly clean. 
 
 TO MAKE GOLD SIZE FOR, BURNISHED 
 GILDING. 
 
 Take one pound of pipe clay, put it into an earth- 
 en pan full of water, when soaked, pour off the water 
 
 and 
 
216 
 
 CARVING AND GILDING. 
 
 and grind it on a stone, .with a muller, such as is 
 used by house painters : now and then sprinkling it 
 with water as it becomes dry; care must be take., 
 that no dirt or grease be on the stone or muller, and 
 as it is ground, put it into another pan : then tak*' 
 half announce of’ the best black lead, the eighth oi 
 an ounce of mutton suet, poifnd them together wit!> 
 the muller, and then proceed to grind them particu- 
 larly well, using water as before directed for the 
 pipe clay, when ground, put them into a smaller 
 pan; grind >alfau ounce of the best red chalk, and 
 mix the black lead, suet and chalk well together, on 
 the stone, with a pallet knife, and add to them the 
 clay, until these ingredients are thoroughly mixed , J 
 put them into a covered earthen pan to prevent dust 
 or dirt, to be used as wanted. Ten or twenty pounds! 
 may be made at a time. The gold size must be 
 moistpned once a month or oftener with clean water 
 to prevent it from getbng dry, in « i; ich case it 
 would be necessary to °rind it again. Care should J 
 be taken in selecting these ingredients; the best 
 black lead dust from the saw of the penciimakers, is 
 most fit for the purpose, it may be had for Id. the 
 pound at any respectable shop in that line, while the 
 best black lead in the lump s‘>ils at from two to four 
 guineas per pound. In choosing the clay take that 
 which has the least grit, it may be discovered by 
 putting a little into the mouth, the darkest is gene- 
 rally the best, of which the greatest choice is to be 
 had at the pipemakers, The softest red chalk, sucli 
 as is used for drawing must be chosen, though the 
 gold size may be very well made without any, as its 
 principal use is to hmghten the colour of the gold 
 when burnished. 
 
 PREPARED PIPE CLAY AND YELLOW STONE 
 OCHRE. 
 
 The pipe clay must be chosen and ground, as di- 
 rected in making gold size, then laid by for use in a 
 covered earthen pan, and occasionally moistened as 
 the gold size. The stone ochre must be of the best 
 quality, and prepared in the same manner. 
 
 TO MAKE OR-MOLU. 
 
 In half a pint of clear water, gently boil two 
 ounces of the best gamboge powdered fine, for five 
 minutes, strain it through a linen cloth, put it into 
 a corked bottle. 
 
 Take one ounce of saffron, half an ounce of tur- 
 meric, and one quarter of an ounce of dragons blood, 
 boil them in one pint of clear water, for fifteen j 
 minutes, now and then stirring them from the bottom, 
 strain them also through a linen cloth, and put them | 
 into a corked bottle. 
 
 skin that will arise from the boiling, and put it im- 
 mediately into another pan, add four drops of the 
 gamboge liquor, two drops of the repass, stir them 
 round, and the or-molu is made and fit for use. 
 The eves of foliage &c. in carved work, must be 
 - niched with a little of the gamboge liquor, called 
 igh coloured or-molu, unmixed wftn any thing 
 else. 
 
 The or-mulu in general use though it is by no 
 means the best, is made by dissolving the gamboge 
 in spirits of wine, instead of water, which will give 
 t the appearance of clear varnish; but when dropp- 
 ed into clear size to be substituted in this ease for 
 starch, it will be yellow ; the quantities of the in- 
 gredients are alike in both cases. 
 
 Piaster figures, vases, busts, & c. are gilt both in 
 burnished gold and oil gilding, by coating them, first, 
 with very hot weak size, and afterwards four times 
 over with hot clear s'ze, if any holes appear, they 
 must be evenly filled up with putty, made of strong 
 size and whiting; the rest of the process is the 
 same as after smoothing in both cases. 
 
 To gild paper in burnished gold, it must be tack- 
 ed to a board by each corner, gold sized and gilt, it 
 must be burnished on a piece of plate glass, bedded 
 in putty, or on a clean marble flag. 
 
 TO MAKE OIL GOLD SIZE. 
 
 Put as much linseed oil into a broad earthen vessel 
 as will cover the bottom an inch deep, and add to it 
 as much water, four or live inches, let the vessel 
 containing this, be exposed to the weather for three 
 or four weeks, occasionally stirring it till the oil ap- 
 pears of the consistency of treacle, it must then be 
 separated from the water, put into a long bottle, or 
 separating funnel used by the chemists, and placed 
 in such a degree of heat as will render it perfectly 
 fluid, the clear part should then be poured off, and 
 it will be fit for use; take any quantity of the best 
 yellow stone ochre, and a fourth part of white lead, 
 mix them with the oil on a flag, using a muller and 
 j pallet knife, this mixture is oil gold size, it must be 
 put into an earthen vessel, and covered with water, 
 to prevent it from skinning. 
 
 This gold size is very troublesome to make, and 
 may be bought in its highest perfection, which is 
 six or seven years old, at JNorgroves or his success- 
 ors in Oxford-street, corner of Swallows-street, from 
 whence it can be sent to any part of the King- 
 dom . 
 
 BRONZING ON WOOD. 
 
 The preparation for it is entirely the same as for 
 gilding, until the work is smoothed, when it must be 
 coated with a mixture of clear size and lampblack. — 
 
 Put about five or six nobs of starch into a clean j| Grind separately with water on a stone wit . a mul- 
 half pint earthen pan, make them into a paste, with j ler, the following ingredients; Prussian blue, patent 
 a teaspoon-full of clean water, using the finger, then M yellow, raw umber, lamp-black and pipe clay. Take 
 add water till the pan is three parts full, boil it for! a small pan three parts full of size, not quite as 
 one minute, and it will beclearlikeclear size, blow off, strong as that which is denominated, clear size m 
 
CARVING AND GILDING. 
 
 217 
 
 gilding, add such quantities of the ingredients as 
 will make a good colour, (half as much more of the 
 pipe clay as of the rest is generally found to suc- 
 ceed,) this, however, must be directed by fancy, as 
 the appearance of real bronze is of various colours, 
 give the work a coat with this mixture, when dry, 
 another, and proceed to lay on the bronze, which is 
 sold at most of the colour shops ; w ith a fine bogs 
 hair brush, the tip as slightly as possible, moistened 
 i« water, take up a small quantity of the bronze 
 powder, which lay upon the colour, when drv, the 
 w ork must be burnished all over, taking care iiot to 
 
 chip it up, or the whole of the operation must be 
 repeated for the chipped parts. After burnishing, 
 take a little castile soap, make a lather rather thin, 
 and with it coat the work all over, to take off the 
 glare of the burnish, finish by rubbing it carefully 
 over with a piece of woollen cloth ; the appearance 
 of gangreen which belongs to the cavities, is made 
 by slightly wetting them with a small camels hair 
 pencil, dipped in the lather, over which a little dust 
 of verditer gum must be shaken: w hen dry, what 
 is superfluous, may be brushed off with a hogs hair 
 tool. 
 
 ■END OF CARVING AND GILDING 
 
 5 K COACH-MAKING 
 
COACH-MAKING. 
 
 The coach maker manufactures coaches and 'I 
 chaises of all kind', which are, of course, as various I 
 in their constructions as they are in name. The li- 
 mits of our work will notallow us to enter very ex- 1 
 tensively into this subject; we shall, however, say | 
 enough to give the mechanic and the gentleman an j 
 adequate idea of the structure of the more common j 
 kinds of carriages: referring our readers to Mr. 
 Felton’s Treatise on Carriages &c. in three Volumes 
 octavo, for more particular and minute details. To 
 this work we readily acknowledge our obligations 
 for much valuable information, in the practical part 
 of the business of coach making. 
 
 A -coach has been defined, “ a convenient carriage 
 suspended on springs, and moving on four wheel'” 
 ir- ended originally for the conveyance of persons i 
 t j upper circles of society, but now become very 
 common among the middling classes, in almost all 
 c viiized countries. In London, there are 1,100 | 
 hackney coaches constantly employed for the co - 
 wyance of its inhabitants from one place to ano- 
 ther. In Bristol, in Liverpool, and in Berming- 
 ham, and perhaps in other large towns; coaches of 
 the same kind are used for the same purposes., The 
 fashions with regard to the form and ornament of 
 coaches and other carriages for pleasure, are perpe- 
 tually changing; the chief kinds now in use, are the 
 close coach and chariot, the landau, which can lower 
 its roof^ and part of its sides, like the head of a phoe- 
 ton ; the barouche, or open summer carriage, made 
 on the lightest construction, the chariot which is 
 intended only for two or three persons; the laudau- 
 let, or chariot whose head unfolds back; the phoeton 
 and caravan, which have only a head and no win- 
 dows, with a leathern apron, arising from the foot- 
 board to the waist. These all run upon four wheels. 
 Of the two-w eeled vehicles, there is the curricle 
 drawn by two horses, each bearing on a narrow 
 saddle, the end of a sliding-bar or yoke that upholds 
 a cent al pole ; the gig, chaise, or wiskey that have 
 each only one horse, which moves between a pair of j 
 shafts, borne nearly horizontally, by means of a 
 leathern sling passing over the saddle tree. When 
 a gig &c. has t wo horses, one preceding the other 
 in harness, the machine and its horses are taken to- 
 gether, denominated a Tandem , a kitin word signi- 
 fying at length. 
 
 The art of coaph making, has, within the last fifty 
 #r sixty years, been carded to a very high degree of 
 
 perfection, wth respect to the strength and elegance 
 of the several sorts of mac dues included in that 
 branch of manufacture. Coach, and coach harness 
 makers, though professions of a different nature, are 
 oriveleged by each ott er, to follow either’ or both 
 trades. T te coach maker is generally understood 
 to be the principal in the business, being the person 
 who makes the wood-work. There are however, 
 Put very few professions, in which a greater number, 
 ofartisans are necessarily employed, sue.; as wheel- 
 wright.-, smiths, painters, carvers and gilders, cur- 
 riers, iacemakers, woolien cloth manufacturers, and 
 many others. 
 
 It is an invariable rule, that carriages of every 
 kind should be adapted, not only to their different 
 uses, but also to the different places for which they 
 are intended. A coach that is the best possible for 
 the paved streets of London and other large towns, 
 :s not the most proper for country use, and one that 
 is adapted to the excellent roads of England, would 
 not be fit for many parts of the Continent. The 
 construction of every carriage should be as light as 
 the nature of the place it is destined for, and its 
 necessary work will admit : superior strength, can 
 only be effected by addition in the weight of mate- 
 rials, which a regard to the horses, will make a 
 person very careful not unnecessarily to increase. 
 The great art then consists in building as iignt as 
 possible, yet So as sufficiently to secure the carriage 
 fiom danger; what a light carriage may lose, by 
 wearing a shorter time, than one muc heavier, is 
 more than compensated by the preservation of the 
 cattle. 
 
 The form of the structure of a carriage depends 
 much on fancy ; the size is proportioned to tiie in- 
 tention of its use, and regulated by the width of the 
 seat and the height of the roof; the timbers of a car- 
 riage body should be of dry ash, and lormed with 
 great exactness; the pannels are made of soft 
 -(might grained mahogany, smoothed to a fine sur- 
 face, and litted or fixed in prepared grooves, or 
 bradded on the surfaces of the framing, the insides 
 are to be well secured by gluing, blocking and canvas, 
 to the pannels, the roof arid lining or inner parts are 
 made of deal boards. 
 
 As no parts of the training of the body, if well ex- 
 ecuted are likely to fail by u-e, a reparation in con- 
 sequence of accidents is all tiial is to be expected. 
 
 Tbe pannels generally suffer most injury, cituer 
 
 frqm 
 
COACH-MAKING. 
 
 from excessive heat, or from (Tie bad quality of tlie 
 timber; of course, gr at attention is required in se- 
 lecting 1 good board* for this article, w 1 i'ich if not very 
 drv and well seasoned, are sure to fail by drawing 
 from the grooves, bulging or cracking. Even though 
 the timbers are good, if the carriage is exposed to 
 any ex’-ss of hor weather, it is a great chance but 
 they wiil flv : but no discredit ought to attach to the 
 builder from that circumstance. 
 
 The first summer a carriage is used w ll prove 
 the sufficiency of the pannels. So soon as they be- 
 gin to start from the grooves, as they mostly will, in 
 some degree, the builder should examine, and relieve 
 them where confined, to prevent cracking. A little 
 drawing from the grooves is to be expected, and is 
 of no material consequence; but if they crack, it 
 w.ll be a disagreeable object to the eve. 
 
 As sufficient room in the carriage makes the seats 
 comforta.de, its capacity should be the first object, 
 and the width of the body ought to be in proportion 
 to the number it is meant to accommodate. Open 
 bodies have this advantage, that three can sit with 
 tolerable ease on the same length of seat, as would 
 accommodate two iaa confined one. A full sized 
 Beat for a close body to contain three persons, is 
 about four feet one or two inches- that of an open 
 body, three feet five or six inches. This latter size 
 is sufficient for two persons in a close carriage, but a 
 seat of from two tbet seven inches, to two feet eigh* 
 or ten inches, is sufficient in the open bodies. 
 
 T : e width across the seats is never regular, but 
 is adapted to the shape of the body. The usual 
 width is from 14 to 18 indies. The height of, the 
 seat from the bottom, is in general 14 inches, and 
 from the seat upward to the roof, from 3 feet 6 
 inches to 3 feet 9 inches without the cushion. 
 
 It frequently becomes convenient to make the 
 seat moveable, which is sometimes necessary to 
 give freedom to extraordinary head dresses. Few 
 people rise above 3 feet from the seat, so that al- 
 lowing two inches for the cushions, there is left in 
 the clear, without the head dress, from lour to seven 
 inches. 
 
 The bodies of a post chaise and chariot do not 
 differ from each other, but the purposes tor which 
 they are intended, alter their name. The chariot is 
 distinguished from the post ‘chaise, by the addition 
 of a coach box to the carriage part. The post 
 chaise being intended for road work, and the chariot 
 generally for town use. The materials of carriages 
 meant Kir post w ork only, are some whiff lighter 
 than those of a town carriage; but when alternately 
 used the strength mu*t be sufficient for either. T ie 
 fr linings are not required to be so strong for one or 
 two, as for three persons. Ifa carriage is generally 
 u.-e'd for three, the length of the seat should be from 
 four feet, to four feet one or two indies, but if only 
 for a third person, occasionally, three feet eight 
 inches will he sufficient, with a scat to draw out 
 
 ! 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 219 
 
 from the centre. A greater widA.li :s usually allow - 
 ed at the front, than ai the back of the seat, to ren- 
 der it more commodious for t‘ e elbows. The door 
 lights or windows, are frequently contracted on \he 
 seat side, that the passengers may be more secure 
 from outward observation, while at the same time, 
 there is a sufficient view from within. The follow- 
 ing is a description of a body, complete in all its 
 part , as given by Mr. Feitoi). The upper parts, 
 except the roofs, are generally called upper quarters, 
 that is, side and back quarters. The usual inode of 
 finishing these, is by filling the vacancy wi h deal 
 boardings, firmly battened on the inside, and cover- 
 ing the surface with leather, tightly strained on, and 
 nailed at the inside edges; over which a moulding 
 goes, and is sewed at the outside edges, making a 
 welt, or is nailed in a prepared rabbet, and covered 
 also with mouldings. Other quarters have, the va- 
 cancy, the pillars, and rails, covered with a parrnel or 
 mahogany board, finely smoothed on the outside. 
 The leathered surface is the most secure; the panriel 
 surface looks the best; but the brads, with which 
 they are confined, and the other nullings of the h< ad- 
 plafes, mouldings, &c. occasion them. frequently to 
 split. 
 
 “ The sword-case is prepared in the same man- 
 ner as the quarters, either with a leather or mahogany 
 surface. 
 
 41 As the present is an improved mofhod of putting 
 in the lower side pannels in a rounded form, they are. 
 thus. represented It adds considerably to the full- 
 ness of the side, and exhibits the painting thereon to 
 a much greater advantage ; this is done by the door 
 and standing pillars being left full on the oijtsides, 
 and reduced by rounding thorn towards the bot- 
 tom. 
 
 “ The inside woyk, w here the glasses are contaiu- 
 ed in the front and doors, is only lined or cased w ith 
 the boardings, and nailed in rabbets on those pillars 
 which form the lights or windows ; the other inside 
 work is battening, blocking, and gluing of canvas, 
 along the edges, and across the grain of the pannels, 
 which gluing very much preserves and strengthens 
 them. The blocking is also a material assistance to 
 the strength, which is done by a half-square, cut 
 across, or angle-ways, cutting it also in short lengths, 
 and gluing the square sides against the pannel and 
 its framing - . 
 
 “ The battens are lobg, thin pieces of board, plac- 
 ed across the grainjof the wood, bradded. or secured 
 by blocks, or canvass, - in order to strengthen or 
 support those parts to which they are applied. 
 
 The inside work, idler being thus finished, should 
 be immediately painted all over, except the seats, 
 and in particular the door and front pannels, before 
 the lining-boards are fixed in, so as to expose no 
 timber to the air uncovered with paint, as the air 
 materially effects it, particularly the wide boards, or 
 pannels, as they swell in wet, and shrink in dry 
 
 seasons : 
 
COACH-MAKING. 
 
 seasons: a proper attention, in this particular, is i 
 indispensably necessary.” 
 
 The accommodation of a coach body makas it con- ; 
 vement for large families, being- for the most par! j 
 capable of holding six persons accasionally ; but as i 
 the size of the body affects the weight of the whole i 
 machine, the builder has only to proportion it to the ) 
 number it is intended' to contain. The difference of j 
 this from the chariot already described, i- only in the’ 
 length, for I he addition of a seat side, and every 
 part of the framing bears the same name in bir th car- 
 riages, but it may be observed that the coach has no 
 fore pillar like the chariot, because it has no win- 
 dows in front. 
 
 The bodies of the landau and laudaulet, differ no- 
 thing in shape from those already mentioned. The j 
 landau is of the coach, the landaidet of the chariot 
 form. The .weight ofthese is so much greater than 
 that c.f the carriages m their simple structure, that’ 
 they are now but seldom used. The difference, 
 however, excepting additional strength ol timber, is 
 only from the middle rails upward, to which height 
 the doors open. It is usual to add a spring-bolt on 
 that side of the door, which shuts to prevent its 
 being opened when either the glass or shutter 
 is up. 
 
 In open carriages, as phaetons, curricles &c. there 
 is a great variety of forms, therefore no general 
 rule can be observed in building them, but they are 
 mostly fastened according to the fancy of their 
 owner. Those intended for single horses, are for 
 ti e most part light, the length of the seat is general- 
 ly adapted for two persons only, those for two horses, 
 are made of stronger timbers and are more roomy. 
 
 The method of hanging the bodies depends also 
 on fancy, or a conception of ea-e ; and some bodies 
 are not hung at all, but fixed on the shaft of the 
 carriage, depending entirely for their ease on the 
 spring- which are fixed underneath, and which sup- 
 port the shafts on the axletree. 
 
 The heads to some open bodies are permanently 
 fixed, and otiiers are made to take off, but the addi- 
 tion of their weight and their great expence, fre 
 quenfiy render their use objectionable. 
 
 The gig body is principally used in a curricle, 
 or handsome chaise carriage. The hind loops 
 which suspend the we.ght, are fixed through the 
 corner pillars. The method of hanging at the fort- 
 part varies according to the taste and judgment of 
 the builder, or the situation of the body. The side 
 pannels may fill the space between the two pillars, 
 but in conformity to the present mode of building, 
 the side is divided at the standing pillar, by a door, 
 or an imitation thereof, preserving the same shape. 
 In either case, whether a sham, or real door, it pro- 
 jects above tiie surface of the pannels. The size of 
 the body varies according to the purposes for which 
 it is intended, but in general, the measure is from 
 ~ feet 10 inches, to 3 feet 2 inches on the seat. 
 
 Though the word four wheeled carriage usually 
 implies a carriage complete, yet it is distinguished 
 among builders, as the under part only, or frame 
 with the wheels, on which the body is placed. It 
 i - the carriage which bears the stress of the whole 
 machine, and of course, every thing depends on its 
 strength. It should be well proportioned, accord- 
 ing to the weight ii ;s meant to support, always 
 allowing rather an over than under proportion, to 
 avoid the risk of accidents. A proper application 
 of tiie iron work to support the pressure, is a thing' 
 materially to be attended to, and great care should 
 be taken that there are no flaws in it. The timbers 
 which are of ash, should lie of young trees, of the 
 -i congest kind, free from knots, and perfectly sea- 
 soned before they are used, and as many parts of 
 the framing are obliged to 'be curved, it is best to 
 -elect such timbers as are grown as nearly as pos- 
 sible to the shape. The workmanship must be 
 strong and firm, and not partially strained in any of 
 ds parts, as it is liable to much racking in its use. 
 The timbers throng. .out, are lessened or reduced 
 for the sake of external appearance, which appear- 
 ance is assisted also with moulding edges and Carv- 
 ing- 
 
 All four wheel carriages are divided into two 
 parts ; the upper and under carriage. The upper 
 is the main one on which the body is hung, the un- 
 der carriage is the conductor, and turns by means of 
 a lever, called the pole, acting on a centre pin, 
 called the perch bolt. The hind wheels belong to 
 the upper part, the fore wheels to the under. 
 
 Of lour wheel carriages there are two sorts, the 
 perch and crane neck, in which there is a material 
 difference in the building and properties, but this 
 does not effect the bodies, as they will hang equally 
 well on either. The perch carriage is of the most 
 simple construction, and lighter than the crane 
 neck, and as tiie width of the streets in London, 
 gives every advantage to their use in turning, they 
 are the most general. The crane neck carriage has 
 by much the superiority for convenience and ele- 
 gance, and every grand or state equipage, is of this 
 construction ; but the weight of the cranes, and the 
 additional strength of materials necessary for the 
 support, make carriages of this sort considerably 
 heavier than the other. 
 
 The track in which the wheels of every carriage 
 are to run, is generally the same, except when in- 
 tended for particular roads, in which waggons and 
 other heavy carriages are principally used; these 
 leave deep ruts, in which light carriages must like- 
 wise go, or be liable to accident. All four wheel 
 carriages should have the hind and fore wheels to 
 roll in the same track, the ordinary width of the 
 wheels is four feet eight or ten inches, that of wag- 
 gons or carts, generally measure more then five feet, 
 to which chaise wheels, (being principally intended 
 for the country,) are adapted. It is ’’immaterial to 
 
 what 
 
COACH-MAKING. 
 
 22 i 
 
 what width wheels are set, if used for running upon 
 •tones, but upon soft and marshy roads if exactnes, 
 is not attended to, the draught is considerably in- 
 creased. The different heights of the hind and fore 
 wheels, make also a difference m the length of their 
 axletrees, agreeably to the proportion they bear to 
 each other, the fore wheel has the longest axletree by 
 one or two inches between the shoulders. 
 
 The length of the carriage is regulated by the size 
 or length of the body which it is intended to carry ; 
 but it always takes its measure from the centres of 
 the hind and fore axletrees. In general, a perch 
 formed carriage, measures nine feet two inches for a 
 chariot, and nine feet eight inches for a coach, but 
 in a crane-neck carriage, on account of the bow for 
 the wheels to pass under the measure, in a chariot, 
 is nine feet six inches, in a coach ten feet. 
 
 We shall now give a more particular account of 
 the perch as described by Mr. Felton ; and after- 
 wards explain the nature of Mr. Edward Stracey’s 
 invention for an improved method of hanging the 
 bodies, and of constructing the perches of four 
 wheeled carriages, by which he says, such carriages 
 are less liable to be overturned, and for which in- 
 vention he obtained some years since his majesty’s 
 letters patent. 
 
 “ The perch is the main timber of the carriage, 
 which extends through the hind and fore spring tran- 
 som ( r bars. By it the principal part of the upper 
 carriage is supported. The hind part is supported, 
 and united to it, by means of hooping two extending 
 timbers, called wings, on the side. The fore end is 
 fixed or united to the perch by means of a strong 
 piece, hooped at the top, and framed through the 
 fore transom, called a hooping piece ; but some car- 
 riages have a horizontal whefel in the front, the same 
 as the crane-neck carriages ; and these have no 
 hooping piece to the perch, but are secured by 
 means of side-plates. Those on the general princi- 
 ple have, at the bottom in front, a flat piece, left ex- 
 tended, called a tongue, which goes through a large 
 mortice in the fore axletree bed, and through which 
 the perch-bolt passes ; its use is to keep the fore 
 axletree bed steady in its place. 
 
 “ Sometimes the perch is made of a bent form, 
 called a compass perch, for the purpose of admitting 
 the body to iiang low, or to form a more agreeable 
 line to the shape thereof; those perches are of a very 
 ancient form, but are now revived with considera- 
 ble improvement from their original shape, and are 
 become the prevailing fashion When the carriage 
 is intended for a whole or horizontal wheel, the 
 perch has no booping-piece, but is bolted by the 
 plates at each end to tCe inside ofthe transoms. 
 
 “ Plating with iron the sides of perches is a great 
 improvement, and is now most generally dhne, and 
 always must be, to those compass perches, if re- 
 quired to be light in their appearance, as the size of 
 the timber is so much reduced by cutting them to 
 this shape. 
 
 “ To the straight or compass perch, iron plating on 
 the sides is a great addition, as it will admit the tim- 
 bers to be so much reduced, that a sufficient strength 
 is preserved, though but half the usual size; the 
 plates, as fixed edge- ways to the sides of the perch, 
 will support ten times more weight than if flat : wavs 
 on the bottom, which is the method of plating a 
 perch in the plain or common way; and many of 
 those carriages which are made up for sale, have 
 even the bottom plate omitted; but the certain con- 
 sequence of this superficial method is, the sinking or 
 settling of the perch, whereby the carriage is con- 
 tracted quite out of its form, to the great injury of 
 it, both for use and appearance, and there is no re- 
 medy but by a new one.” 
 
 Mr. Stracey’s invention embraces four objects 1. 
 The constructing of the perch of a four-wheeled 
 carriage, in such a manner, that either of the axle- 
 trees may have a vertical motion independent of the 
 other; so that the axletrees may be in different 
 lanes at the same time. 2. The hanging of the 
 ody on the springs of such a . carriage, in such a 
 manner as will tend not only to diminish the liabili- 
 ty of its being overturned, but add also to the ease of 
 its motion. 3* The forming a collar-brace, which 
 shall almost immediately bring the body to ail equili- 
 brium, should the centre of gravity be moved. 4»; 
 The forming a perch-bolt, by. the use of which the 
 carriage may be more easily turned to the right or 
 left, and the friction that now takes place, by the use 
 of the common pereh-bolts between the wheel plates, 
 the transom bed, and the fore axletree bed reduced 
 almost to nothing. 
 
 Carriages constructed on this principle differ but 
 little in appearance from other four-wheel carriages ; 
 the chief distinction lying in the construction of the 
 perch, and its having a revolving motion, and in the 
 hanging of the body on the springs. The perch - 
 being allowed to turn on its axis, the fore axletree 
 bed may have any degree of obliquity required, pro- 
 vided the body is not hung on the carriage, without 
 affecting the horizontally of the hind axletree bed, 
 and vice versa ; and it is by the instrumentality of 
 this motion, co-operating with the mode of hanging 
 the body on the springs, and by the aid of coilar- 
 braces, that the body of the carriage may be kept 
 nearly on the true level, or at least sufficiently so to 
 prevent its being overturned, .although either the 
 fore or the hind axletree may have a great degree of 
 fibliquity from the plane ofthe horizon. A-s similar 
 effect and security may be obtained by inverting tne 
 construction of the perch, and by having Ahe fixed; 
 part of the perch m the hind axletree bed, and the 
 revolving part in the transom bed in front; or. by 
 making the perch revolve on an axis at each end, or 
 by any other mode which will allow the hind and 
 fore axletree beds, when connected by means of a 
 perch, to be in different planes at one and the same 
 time, as by permitting- one axletree bed, provided 
 that the body is not hung on the carriage, to re- 
 3 h main 
 
S22 
 
 fcOACH-MAKING. 
 
 main parallel to the plane of the horizon, and by 
 making' the other stand perpendicular to it. 
 
 The principal variation of this invention, from the 
 common method of hanging the body on its springs, 
 consists in the body-loops, which must be so extend- 
 ed, that the ends of them may come nearly under the 
 shackles of their respective springs, and each of them 
 so formed, as to end in a cylindrical axis of one to 
 two inches or more in length, and of sufficient 
 strength to support the body ; and on each of these 
 body- loop axes, a shackle, for the reception of one 
 of the inainbraces, should befitted, ending in a cy- 
 lindrical box or rocket, made so as to work and 
 turn on the axis of the body-loop, and secured to it 
 by a nut and pin ; and the connection between these 
 shackles and their respective boxes should be by 
 means of a strong joint, working towards the front 
 and hind part of the carriage in the direction of the 
 perch. The body is to be hung by the main braces, 
 attached to these shackles on the springs, in the 
 same manner as other carriage-bodies are usually 
 hung. When the body is this hung, the action is as 
 follows; should either of the hind or fore wheel: 
 descend into a low spot in the road, Gr ascend a rais 
 ed surface, the boxes or sockets on the body loops 
 will turn on their axes, and keep the w hole on a 
 proper equilibrium, so as not to be overturned. 
 
 Another part of the invention is the application of 
 a cylinder to the collar-braces of carriages, by means 
 of which, should the centre of gravity of the body 
 of the carriage be moved by any inequalities in the 
 road or otherwise, either to the right or left, the 
 equilibrium will be almost immediately restored by 
 the motion of the cylinder, or roller on its axis, and 
 the consequent lapping and unlapping of the straps; 
 for to whichever side the body is impelled, on that 
 side will the collar brace be lengthened, and of 
 course the opposite collar brace proportionally 
 shortened; one side is made to operate as a check 
 upon the other, in order to bring the body to its true 
 centre. 
 
 The last part of the invention is the perch-bolt, 
 which being properly placed, the fore axletree bed 
 may be turned either to the right or the left, with 
 much greater ease than if the common perch-bolt 
 were made use of, the usual friction between the 
 beds and wheel-plates, being almost w holly remov- 
 ed from their being gradually separated by the lift- 
 ing of the screw, in the act of turning . — See Reperto- 
 ry, New Scries Vol. xiv. 
 
 The timbers of the crane neck carriage, are of the 
 same description as those of the last, excepting the 
 perch and hooping-timbers, which are not used. 
 The hind and fore ends are fixed to the cranes, which 
 makes the bearings more steady than those of a 
 perch carriage. The whole will be better under- 
 stood by the following description. 
 
 Figure 1, 6f plate is an elevation of a crane- 
 necked coach complete, Figure 2, is a front view of 
 
 it, shewing the fore wheels and under carriage ; and 
 Figure 3, is the horizontal plan of the same, many 
 parts of this are too evident and universally known 
 to require any reference, as the wheels, the body, 
 the coach box, the boot, the springs &c. A a, are 
 the two cranes which are made of iron, and answer 
 in their use, to the wooden perch of the common 
 carriage, which is the main timber of the carriage, 
 extending and connecting the hind and fore spring 
 transom I) D, and E E, or cross-bars which support 
 the springs F F and G G, and thus forming one 
 frame called the upper carriage, in which the body 
 is suspended. 
 
 The two iron cranes a a, form the same connec- 
 tion, but in a more complete manner, and they have 
 a bend or neck at b, which admits the fore wheels 
 to pass under them when the carriage is turned sliort- 
 about; the cranes are united to the fore carriage, by 
 being screwed fast into the fore spring transom D, 
 and they are farther screwed by clipping them dow n 
 to a cross timber near A, in Figure l,and marked 11 
 in Figure 3, it is called the budget bar, from the 
 circumstance of its bearing the boot or budget, and 
 it has two pieces A A, called nunters framed into it, 
 which connect it with the fore transom I>, these 
 pieces make a platform or frame, on w hich the bud- 
 get immediately rests; the springs F, are bolted to 
 the transom, at the lower end, and hate ail iron 
 brace F Figure J, called the spring stay. 
 
 The fore transom, or foie spring b ?r D, is the 
 most essential part of the cross framing, it is a 
 strong timber to which the cranes are fixed, by pas- 
 sing through it as before mentioned, therefore, an 
 under carriage is attached thereto, by means of a 
 large, round, iron pin d, Figure 3, which passes 
 through its centre, on the bottom is a thick, flat plate, 
 made flush to the edges, called the transom plate, 
 on the ends the springs are fixed, and on the top 
 the boot or the blocks that support it, are rested. — • 
 E, is the hind transom, or hind spring bar, some- 
 thing similar in its use to the fore transom, but not 
 required to be of such strength, to this the ends of 
 the cranes are fastened, and the timbers called Hun- 
 ters, which run parallel with them, are framed into 
 and unite it with the hind axle bed II, on the 
 
 ends the springs G G, are fixed ; the blocks or pump 
 handles I I, are placed on the top to support the 
 foot board K, or platform, and the footman’s step 
 piece bolted on the outside. 
 
 II, is the hind axle-tree bed, it is a strong timber 
 which receives the axle tree, the cranes a a, as be- 
 fore mentioned, are securely fastened to it, and it is 
 connected by two pieces called nunters, as before 
 mentioned, with the bend transmit E, the bottom is 
 grooved to receive the axle tree, which groove is 
 called the bedding for the axle tree, but is usually 
 bedded at the ends only. At the two ends of this 
 timbers are left projections called cuttoos, which 
 cover the top or back ends of the wheels, to sheltfr 
 
 the 
 
COACH-MAKING. 
 
 flhe axle free arms from the dirt, which would other- 
 wise get in behind the wheels, and clog them. 
 
 I I, are the hind blocks, which are called pump 
 handles ; when further extended than what is here 
 represented, they are frequently called raisers, as 
 their use is only to heighten the platform from the 
 hind framings, that the appearance may be light, 
 and that the footman may be sufficiently raised, 
 according to the height of the body ; they are bolted i 
 on to the axletree bed and spring bar E, and to 
 prevent the too heavy appearance, there are often 
 neatly ornamented with carving. 
 
 The footboard or platform K, on which the cushion 
 for the servant stands, is a flat thick elm board, 
 bolted on with blocks to which it is also screwed. — 
 L, the boot, a large box made of strong elm board, 
 nailed and screwed together, having a door in the 
 front, which door should be made framed, and 
 boarded, and confined by a bolt and thumb nut ; the 
 surface of this boot should always be covered with 
 a rugset, or japanning leather; it is bolted across 
 the transom D, the boot or budget bar B, and fore 
 blocks as shewn in Figure 1, and is sometimes rais- 
 ed on side blocks, to lighten the appearance of the 
 fore end of the carriage. — The parts marked M N O 
 P, including the fore wheels, are called the fore or 
 under carriage, united to the upper carriage by the 
 perch bolt. 
 
 M, The fore axletree bed, which is required to be 
 a strong piece of timber, in which the fore axletree 
 is bedded; on this the upper carriage rests. In this 
 timber the futchels N N,are fixed, it is also cultoved 
 on the end, the same as the hind bed. 
 
 N N, The futchels, are two light timbers, fixed 
 through the fore axletree bed, contracted in the front, 
 to receive the pole O, which part of the futchels is 
 called the chaps : but they widen towards the hind 
 end, on the top of which the horizontal circle P C, 
 is placed with proper blocks to raise it. 
 
 Across the fore ends of the chips of N N, the 
 splinter board P, is fixed; the futchels are framed 
 in a slant direction, to give a proper height to the 
 pole ; they have iron braces beneath, but sometimes 
 the futchels are framed in a horizontal direction, and 
 are made to rise in a cant from the front of the hori- 
 zontal wheel, otherwise the pole must be compassed 
 to raise it to a proper height. 
 
 P, the splinter bar, is a long timber to which the 
 horses traces are attached ; on the ends are sockets, 
 with eyes, in which the wheel irons g, are placed, 
 and extend from thence to the ends of the axletree 
 arms, holding the splinter bar tightly back to op- 
 pose the strain of die draught, which is taken from 
 the axletrees at the ends by the wheel irons, and at 
 the mid lie from the futchels, proper roller bolts h h, 
 being fixed at <hese situations to receive the traces: 
 by which ,e horses draw, 
 
 c c, - r horizontal circle called a whole wheel 
 front, it consists of tw o equal circles, one of which is 
 
 223 
 
 attached to the under carriage, by bedding it on the 
 fore axle bed M, and the other is fixed beneath the 
 fore transom D, the flat surfaces of these circles ap- 
 ply to each other, and the perch bolt d, is in the cen- 
 tre of both, their use is to preserve a steady bearing 
 for the upper carnage to work upon while turning 
 round, so that in whatever direction the fore car- 
 riage may be, the steadiness is always preserved. 
 
 O, the pole is a long timber, which occasionally 
 is placed in the futchel chaps N N, being nicely fil- 
 ed therein, and is confined by two plates, the one 
 bolted to them at the bottom in front, and the other 
 at the top at the back end of the chaps; the security' 
 is also assisted by a wooden pin k, called a gib, 
 which is placed across the futchels, and in a staple 
 which is in the pole ; and an iron pin also goes 
 through the futchels and the poles at the' free end; 
 on each side of the pole the horses are stationed, and 
 strapped to a loop at the fore end, called a pole 
 ring, its use is to conduct the fore carriage, and may 
 probably be called a carriage lever. 
 
 k, The pole gib, made flat at the bottom, and 
 rounding at the top, to fit the staple in the pole, 
 which it keeps from using up at the fore end, it is 
 nailed on by a loose strap to the futchels, and kept 
 in its place by another strap nailed on the opposite 
 side, which is hitched on a brass or plated button. 
 
 Two- wheeled carriages have the advantage of all 
 others for simplicity and lightness ; but in this sort 
 of carriage there is more risk than in those that are 
 four-wheeled. That which makes the variety of 
 this sort of carriage, is the method of placing the 
 bodies, whether hung from springs, or fixed on the 
 carriage, which isdecided principally by the wishes 
 of the owner; the generality as we have seen fall 
 under the descriptiqn of curricles, gigs, wiskies, or 
 chairs; but that in which the principal difference 
 lies, is the curricle, being as has been already notic- 
 ed, formed for two horses abreast, which at present 
 is one of the most fashionable carriages in use. The 
 gig differs also from the whiskey materially, the 
 whiskey being constructed on the most simple plan, 
 with the body united to the carriage, while the gig- 
 exhibits a greater portion of taste, having the body 
 hung in various directions; it is by the form of the 
 carriage, and the method of placing the body, that 
 they are named. 
 
 The strength of the carriage is to be regulated by 
 the size of the body which it is meant to support, 
 as also by the places in which it is to be used ; as in 
 rough roads an additional strength is required. The 
 timbers are usually of ash ; but a preferable method 
 of building, is to make the shafts of a foreign timber, 
 of the West India growth, called lance- wood, w :ch 
 is of sufficient strength, even when reduced to haif 
 the size of ash, and is so elastic as u» give g. eat ease 
 to the rider, and at die same time always preseive 
 the shape. The draught should m all cases be 
 taken from the splinter bar, which yields to the mo- 
 tion 
 
COACH-MAKING. 
 
 m 
 
 tion of the horse ; and the nearer to the axle the 
 fixtures used to draw by are placed, so as not to be 
 very low from the purchase, the lighter is the 
 draught. The carriage should be so formed, in such 
 a manner, that the axle tree may be placed nearly 
 on an equilibrium ; so that when the passengers are 
 in the body, the weight may not exceed 25 or SO 
 lb. on the back of the horse. 
 
 Coach and chariot carriages are built exactly 
 similar to each other; the only difference is the 
 superior strength of the materials. 
 
 Phaetons have a great similarity to them ; but the 
 situation of the springs, which are placed in various 
 directions, makes the appearance the only ma- 
 terial difference from other carriages; so that ex- 
 cepting the blocks and budgets, they will be re- 
 duced to the same principle as the others. 
 
 The workmanship is nearly the same in value to 
 all carriages on the plain system. The materials 
 are reduced in their value for the lesser carriage. 
 The value, when thus far executed, is what is reck- 
 oned the first charge or rule to follow; the wheels, 
 the boots, the coach boxes, the raised hind or fore 
 ends, the blocks for the springs, and also the paint- 
 ing, are added afterwards; so that, in whatever 
 manner they are compleated, their value may be 
 ascertained. 
 
 The art of carving contributes more effectually 
 than any other part of the work, to the beauty and 
 elegance of a carriage. In common carriages, all 
 that is meant by carving, is the finishing the ends of 
 the timbers with scrolls, and the edges with mould- 
 ings. If any carving is bestowed on plain car- 
 riages, it is on the blocks or raisers, front views of 
 which are more conspicuous than any other tim- 
 bers. 
 
 On carriages for common use, the more simple 
 and plain the ornaments are, the better, provided a 
 good design is preserved, leaving the painters pen- 
 cil to effect what is omitted in the carving, which is 
 a tolerable substitute in a common carriage. 
 
 Figure 4, is a representation of a gig, to which 
 Mr. Williams’s patent preserver are applied. The 
 invention consists of an axle tree having a strong 
 iron spindle of about 9 inches high, firmly fixed, or 
 welded upon it, immediately within each wheel, this 
 spindle carries a preserver, marked A B C D, which 
 consists of two arms or branches of steel A B, spread 
 out somewhat similar to an open pair of compasses, 
 with points turned C and D, round it has a socket 
 at tbe top, that goes on the spindle, and fixes with 
 a bolt, it is capable of being raised or lowered, ac- 
 cording as the road requires it, but having the end 
 C and 1), about three inches from the ground, has 
 been found sufficiently high for any road that will 
 admit of a carriage to travel on it. 
 
 Another part, of this invention consists in fitting 
 the shafts that they can be detached, but when put 
 to, they are connected to the axle tree by the centre, 
 
 terminating in a hemispherical ball, the flat side 
 resting upon the middle of the axle tree, which ball 
 is strongly pressed down by a hollow cap that fits it, 
 and it is fastened within the body of the gig with 
 an iron rod, so that by pulling this the shafts are re- 
 leased. 
 
 These simple contrivances produce the following 
 effects, viz. — Security when the horse falls, because 
 the arm C, of the preserver, supports the weight of 
 the carriage, and prevents it falling on the horse, 
 so that he has an opportunity of recovering himself. 
 If the horse rears up the arm B, the preserver 
 touches the ground, and prevents overthrowing the 
 carriage backwards. If either, or both the wheels 
 break, or come oflf, the preserver catches the weight 
 of the carriage, and prevents it breaking down, ae 
 they also do if the shafts break. 
 
 If the horse kicks or runs away, the shafts can be 
 disengaged in an instant, as shewn in Figure 4, by 
 pulling the handle of the iron rod, which releases 
 the ball from the axle tree, while the parties sit 
 perfectly safe receiving only a gentle tilt, or recoil 
 of about three inches, until the preserver reaches the 
 ground, and gradually loses its impetus, at a dis- 
 tance of a few feet upon its turned up, or sledge 
 formed end. 
 
 From this explanation, it appears, that no springs 
 are required for accomplishing these objects, that 
 repairs will seldom be necessary, and that the cost 
 cannot be much more than that of the ordinary two 
 wheel carriages. 
 
 At the first view of this invention, the novelty of 
 the preservers may not reconcile them to the eye; 
 but upon investigate g the principles on which the 
 whole is constructed ; what appears unsightly 
 gradually becomes ornamental, from a conviction of 
 their indispensible necessity, aim the important re- 
 sults. They may however, be made invisible by 
 joints or hinges to fold up, but this mode will be 
 more expensive, and less secure. 
 
 This invention also applies with great safety to 
 all four wheel carriages, in the following manner, 
 viz. — By firmly uniting a spindle to the axle, as 
 herein before shewn, but with the arm of the said 
 spindle downwards, and forming the preserver with 
 the brace of the two arms curved at the bottom, 
 which when called into action, opetates as a sledge, 
 upon which the carriage can move, and be support, 
 ed, the same being fixed on the spindle, through the 
 socket, in the reverse way. 
 
 We now come to the iron work, of which the 
 articles are extremely numerous, and are manufac- 
 tured by many different mechanics, such as spring 
 and tyre-smiths, &c. The whole of the iron-work 
 requires to be made of particularly tough metal, 
 and to be fitted with extreme exactness, taking care 
 that each gives its proper support without straining 
 or twisting, and that its substance be adequate to 
 the weight it is meant to carry. The iron-work 
 
 foyms 
 
COACH-MAKING. 
 
 forms the principal part of the carriage both fo. 
 value and use; of course its properties cannot be too 
 much attended to, we shall begin with the springs. 
 
 The springs of a carriage by which riding is made 
 comfortable, require the greatest attention to their 
 properties, otherwise their effect is materially injur- 
 ed. They should be all manufactured of a Well 
 prepared and properly tempered steel. The great- 
 er the number of plates there are confined w ithin 
 the hoop the better ; and the longer the spring, the 
 more easy and elastic its motion will prove. Those 
 that are the least erect and of course that incline 
 most to the weight which they carry, and that are 
 also the longest, from the bearing, or stays, have 
 superior advantages. Their forms are various ac- 
 cording to the purpose for which they are designed : 
 and they take their names according to their shape, 
 such as the S, the C, the French horn, the scroll, the 
 worm, the single and double elbow or grasshopper 
 spring. 
 
 The springs support the weight at their extremi- 
 ties, by means of hoops and shackles, and their elas- 
 ticity is from the hoops at which parts the plates are 
 all made thickest, gradually tapering thinner toward 
 the extremities, and shortening about 4 inches in 
 each plate, from the hoop where the bearing for the 
 spring is fixed. Those that are placed in an erect 
 form are supported with iron stays, which clip the 
 spring at the hoop. Those that are placed hori- 
 zontally are supported from the middle and play the 
 whole length ; and those that are circular, have fre- 
 quently no stays, but are well secured to the bear- 
 ing's, short light springs that contain few plates, have 
 frequently no hoops, but the plates are confined 
 with a small rivet, and the bolts with which the 
 spring is confined to its bearings. 
 
 Figures G, 7, and 8, represent some of the va- 
 rieties of springs in use for carriages, Fig. 6 , called 
 a double spring, is used for a coach or chariot, and 
 has united to it at the back plate an additional 
 spring, which turns the reverse way, to carry sepa- 
 rate things, such as the budget, or hind platform ; 
 it has a double shackle at g, one link of which car- 
 ries the body, and the other the boot, or platform. 
 
 The reverse spring has only to carry the hind 
 part of the same boot, or platform. The stays and 
 loops marked a, b, c, d, e, f, are for the following 
 purpose, the stay a, is rivetted within the hoop b, 
 and clips at bottom, the fore or hind transom, and 
 is there fixed by this bolt c, and is supported at the 
 hoop by a stay d, which rests on the hind axle tree 
 bed, or budget bar ; a stay e, also clips or bolts 
 through the spring at bottom, and clips or unites in 
 a cap with the other; to oppose the pressure, it has 
 a shackle f, bolted loosely on the top, for the weight 
 ’•■> hang by, and g, is the shackle for the other 
 
 Figure 7, is the scroll spring ; this is a peculiar 
 formed spring for ease, and is used to various kinds I 
 
 225 
 
 of carriages, it restp, and is fixed on a long block 
 for phaetons, or on the two bars only for coaches, 
 &c. at the bearings m m ; the bottom is sometimes 
 turned up in a scroll form, for ornament only, in 
 imitation of the upper part ; the brace is hung by a 
 shackle, or placed round the spring, and passing- 
 through a loop n, is fixed in a jack P, at the bottom, 
 which is a little roller, to take up the length of the 
 brace at pleasure, by which the body hangs. 
 
 Figure 8, is a spring used to light whiskeys or 
 chairs, it is fixed on the axletree, byajevv’s harp 
 staple at o, which staple is united with the spring 
 hoop and bolts through the axletree ; it supports 
 the weight at eacii end, by one or two loops p p, 
 which are fixed at the bottom of the shafts; it is 
 mostly fixed at one end, but has room to play at the 
 other. These springs most generally have only one 
 loop at the hind end, in which it is fixed, and the 
 other end bears on a thin plate, fixed to the bottom 
 of the shafts, sometimes two such springs are com- 
 bined together for a gig, in a manner as shewn in 
 Figure 4. 
 
 The axletrees of the carriage on which the wheel 
 revolves, are of tw o sorts, the one is made flat, and 
 called a bedded axletree, it being sunk in the tim- 
 bers ; the other is of an octagon form, flat only at 
 the ends, which are bedded. The arms that pass 
 through the wheels should be made perfectly round, 
 and stronger at the shoulder than at the end, which 
 is screwed to receive a nut; through this and the 
 axletree the linch-pin passes to keep all tight The 
 nuts are made with a collar at the face, and a tem- 
 porary collar or washer is driven on to the back of 
 the arms, which forms two shoulders for the wheel 
 to wear against, and helps to preserve the grease 
 from running out. The axletrees being the princi- 
 pal, or only support of the carriage, the greatest 
 attention and care should be given in the selection 
 of good iron, and in the manufacture of the material ; 
 taking care that it is well wrought, and of sufficient 
 strength, making it rather stronger than necessary,, 
 to avoid risking the life of the passenger, by the 
 oversetting- of the carriage, which mostly happens 
 when an axletree breaks. By the bend of the axle- 
 trees the wheels are regulated to any width at bot- 
 tom, to suit the bracks of the roads in which they 
 are to run, and are confined in the carriage by means 
 of clips, hoops and bolts. 
 
 Tiie shape of the axletree between the shoulders, 
 varies according to its situation, or the form of the 
 timber w ith which it is united ; those axle trees are 
 the most firm that are flat bedded in the timber. 
 
 The axletree- boxes frequently called wheel boxes, 
 are long caseings fitted close to the arms of the axle- 
 tree, and securely fixed in the wheel stocks or naves, 
 they are usually made of w rought sheet iron, of a 
 substance proportioned to the weight of the carriage. 
 Tlieir use is to contain a supply of grease, and to 
 prevent the effects of friction, whereby the wheels 
 3 M ar e 
 
226 
 
 COACH-MAKING. 
 
 are much assisted in their motion. There are many 
 sorts of axletrees and boxes, either for the purpose 
 of containing a longer supply of grease or oil; or 
 to be more durable, or to secure the wheels, and 
 lessen the draught. These are all great advantages, 
 and though the expence is great, their utility must 
 be more than adequate to it. The common axle- 
 tree and box, are of a conical figure, being strongest 
 at the back or shoulder, and regularly tapering to 
 the end, through which the linch pin is fitted, a nut 
 is screwed on the end of the axle, to keep the wheel 
 on, the linch pin passes through this nut to prevent 
 it from turning round, and coming off. This axle 
 and box is most generally used, being simple and 
 cheap, in comparison with the others; the box is the 
 only part which wears, and is frequently obliged to 
 be refitted to the arms, otherwise they give the 
 wheel an unsteady motion, and soon exhaust the 
 supply of grease. 
 
 Mr. Collinge of Westminster-road, has for many 
 years past manufactured a patent cylindrial axle- 
 tree and box, which has very great advantages over 
 the common sort. They have been a considerable 
 time in use, and their advantages have also been 
 fully proved, which principally lie, 1st. in the length 
 bf time they wear, — 2d. in the silent and steady mo- 
 tion they preserve to the wheels, — 3d. the retaining 
 the oil to prosecute a journey of two thousand miles 
 without being once replenished ; and 4th. they are 
 very durable, and but little subject to be out of 
 order. 
 
 Those axletrees and boxes have also gone through 
 some sonsiderable improvements since their origin, 
 and have met with such encouragement that it has 
 induced other persons to copy them so closely, as 
 -scarcely to admit of a decision in favour of either. 
 
 Figure 5, is a section of the axletree and box, in 
 which I, is the axle tree arm made as perfectly cy- 
 lindrical as possible, and of a peculiarly hard sur- 
 face, the middle reduced to contain the oil necessary 
 to feed the axletrees at the two bearings b b, having 
 a shoulder e, against Which the wheel box K K, 
 takes its bearings, the adjoining collar is grooved 
 for a washer to preserve the oil, and prevent noise 
 in its use, with a rim e e, on the collar of the axle- 
 tree, to answer the use of the cuttoo. The end f, 
 is double screwedto receive two nuts for securing 
 the wheel ; the one screw turns the way of the 
 wheel, the other the reverse, and is meant as an 
 additional security. 
 
 K K, is the wheel box cut through the middle, 
 -whrcli is made of a very hard metal, nicely polished, 
 and fitted to the arms, having a recess at the back 
 part for containing a supply of oil. It has two 
 shoulders c, the back one tits close to the rim of the 
 collar, which it covers, the fore one projects without 
 the surface of the wheel stock, and is screwed ©n the 
 inside to receive the screw of the cap L, which 
 covers the nut and receives the waste -of oil, is most- 
 
 ly made of brass and screwed on, or in the box 
 against the front of the wheel stock. This form of 
 the cap is used to all but the common axletree. 
 
 The wheels to four wheel carriages, should be 
 formed as nearly of a height as the appearance and 
 construction will permit, and if not required for 
 heavy work, or bad roads, the lighter they are the 
 better. The fixtures from whence the draught is 
 taken, should be placed rather above the centre of 
 the largest wheel, for advantage of draoght. 
 
 The members of a wheel are of three descriptions, 
 viz. — the nave, the spokes, and the fellies ; the nave 
 is the stock, made of elm, in which all the spckeS 
 are fixed, and in which the axletree or wheel-box 
 is confined to receive the axle arms. The spokes 
 are straight, made of oak, firmly tenoned in the 
 nave; these are the support of the fellies or wheel 
 rim. 
 
 The fellies made of ash or beech, form the rim of 
 the wheel, and are divided into short lengths, in the 
 proportion of one to every two spokes; those are 
 fixed on the spokes, and on them iron strakes are 
 nailed. 
 
 The height ol the wheels regulates the number of 
 spokes and fellies that they are to contain, the larger 
 the circumference of the wheel is, the greater num- 
 ber of spokes is required ; they should not be more 
 to any wheel than fifteen inches distance on the 
 fellies. 
 
 The usual height of wheels extends to five feet 8 
 inches, and are divided in four proportions, to con- 
 tain from 8 to 14 spokes, and half that number of 
 fellies ; these are denominated eights, tens, twelves, 
 or fourteens, which are the numbers of spokes in a 
 wheel, or fellies in a pair. The height which re- 
 gulates the number for an eight-spoked wheel, 
 should not exceed three feet 2 inches, for a ten, 4 
 feet 6 inches, for a twelve, 5 feet 4 inches, for a 
 fourteen, 5 feet 8 inches ; these are the greatest 
 heights for the different numbers of spokes to each 
 wheel. As the fore wheels of a four wheel carriage 
 receives more stress than the hind ones, the rule is 
 when the hind wheels are of that height to require 
 14 spokes; the fore ones, if under the necessary 
 height before stated, should have twelve, never al- 
 lowing the fore wheels to have more than two 
 spokes less than what is needful for the hind ones. 
 
 The patent or bent timber wheel, has the rim of 
 one piece, bent to the circle, instead of being put 
 together in short lengths, or fellies, which are hewn 
 to the shape; the strength of the bent timber is pre- 
 served while the other is destroyed ; besides, it is 
 hooped with one piece of iron, instead of being shod 
 with strakes, and will often last twice the time in 
 wear that the others will and has a much lighter and 
 neater appearance, on which account it is often 
 prefered. 
 
 The mock patent, or hooped wheel, comes very 
 near the others in appearance and use, particularly if 
 
 made 
 
COACH-MAKING. 
 
 227 
 
 made with ash fellies ; as the preservation of both 
 lies chiefly in the hoops that the wheels are rimmed 
 with. It is composed partly, on the patent plan, 
 and partly on common method, having the timber the 
 same as the strake, and the iron as the patent 
 wheel. 
 
 The common sort of wheels are preferred by 
 many, on account of their being more easily repair- 
 ed, than the hooped or patent wheel-, but, though 
 the repairing of them is more difficult, yet they are 
 much less subject to need it. 
 
 Boots and budgets are mostly understood as one 
 article, though so differently called; they are intend- 
 ed for one purpose, which is that of carrying lug- 
 gage, and are usually fixed on the fore part of the 
 carriage, between the spring*; the principal differ- 
 ence lies in this ; one is made with a loose cover, 
 and is properly the budget, being made convenient 
 for trunks ; these sort of budgets, for travelling car- 
 riages, or common post-chaises, are, by far, the most 
 useful, the others are boots, of a trunk form, made 
 more square, and adapted to town carriages, but 
 can be of no other advantage than that of carrying 
 loose hay, horse-cloths, &c. From one or other of 
 these boots, conveniencies are sometimes made for 
 the substitute of a coach-box, to save labour to the 
 horse when the carriage is used for post-wcrk, or to 
 preserve an uninterrupted view from within. 
 
 Boots are frequently used at the fore end of 
 phaetons, and then mostly have the fore springs fix- 
 ed thereto, by means of carved blocks, which are 
 bolted to their sides ; these usually have the step 
 for the entrance to the body, fixed or hung. Boots 
 and budgets are sometimes used to the hind part of 
 travelling carriages, but more frequently to the hind 
 parts of phaetons, gigs, or curricles, and are of two 
 sizes less than what are used to coaches or chariots. 
 
 Platforms, raisers, or blocks, are added to a car- 
 riage, either as matter of necessity or appearance, 
 their use is to elevate and support the budget, boot, 
 hind foot-board, and springs ; they are generally 
 placed on the side of the carriage, and relieve the 
 inside framings from being obscured by the plat- 
 forms, as they are lightened and moulded, and give 
 the carriage a more airy appearance. 
 
 A handsome coach-box, is a great ornament to a 
 Carriage. Of these there are various sorts now in- 
 troduced, to save unnecessary burden to the horse, 
 and fatigue to the driver, which are two very mate- 
 rial objects. The objection by many persons to a 
 coach- box, is the obstruction it gives to the view; 
 but they may be so adapted as not materially to af- 
 fect the sight; and any convenience, however simple, 
 is better than fatiguing both man and horse; but, 
 to carriages used in town, a substantial coach- box is 
 indispensably necessary, as it affords so material an 
 advantage to the driver. 
 
 The standard coach-box is the most general and 
 •simple in use, as it is light, and convenient to re- 
 
 move; it is prefered for those carriages that are al- 
 ternately used for town and country ; these kind of 
 boxes are simply fixed by means of plates, which 
 clip the transom, and are stayed on the hind or boot 
 bar, and fixed with collar-bolts. 
 
 The Salisbury boot, though bulky and of a heavy 
 appearance, is by far the most convenient and fash- 
 ionable coach-box in use; it is boot and coach-box 
 together: and although it be apparently heavy, it is 
 not more so than the common box and boot, toge- 
 ther, as the inside is all a cavity, which is peculiarly 
 convenient for luggage, having a large, flat bottom, 
 which resting on the framings or blocks, makes it 
 more steady than coach-boxes, on the common prin- 
 ciples. This sort, however, is not so convenient to 
 remove, and when taken off, the vacant space must 
 be filled by another kind of budget, such as is usual- 
 ly put on to post-chaises. 
 
 We shall now proceed to some practical direc- 
 tions, with regard to the structure of a carriage. 
 
 Previously to making the body of a carriage, a 
 drawing is made on a square canvas, by this the 
 workman makes his patterns, marks out his timber, 
 and saws it according to those patterns. The bot- 
 tom which is the essential or main timber of the 
 whole, (as all the rest principally depend upon it), 
 is of a circular form, four feet long, compassed six 
 inches from the centre, two inches deep, five inches 
 and half wide in the centre, reduced at the ends to 
 two inches. From the front of the bottom side, at 
 the distance of two feet nine inches, close to the 
 outer circle are framed the standing pillars, the 
 length two feet six inches, one inch and three quar- 
 ters thick, and two inches and three quarters deep, 
 sweeping outward at the bottom, three inches to 
 make the side of the body of a circular form, The 
 front pillars are two feet six inches long, and nine 
 inches wide at the bottom, reduced by an easy 
 sweep to two inches and three quarters at the top, 
 and the whole is two inches and three quarters 
 thick, framed into the front of the bottom side two 
 inches from the point on the outer circle. The cor- 
 ner pillar (two feet six inches long, two inches 
 square, compassed at the bottom five inches, to make 
 a continuation of the sweep of the bottom side, and 
 form a circular quarter), is let into the extreme hind 
 point of the bottom side on the outer circle. To 
 the inside of the bottom side, is framed the front 
 bar three feet long, two inches and an half square, 
 at the distance of two inches from the point, th« 
 hind bar three feet four inches long, two inches 
 and an half square, framed in the same manner three 
 inches from the point. On the bottom of the bot- 
 tom side, is fitted a wooden rocker, which continues 
 from end to end, three inches wide, and four deep, 
 in the centre, reduced to a point at the ends, fixed 
 on with iron bolts, level with the inside of the bot- 
 tom side. To the rocker the bottom, (consisting of 
 deal boards grooved in each other), is nailed and 
 
 strengthened 
 
228 
 
 COACff-MA KlN G. 
 
 strengthened with iron plates, extending from back | 
 to front; the outside elbow is then framed, the 
 length two feet one incli and a quarter thick, and i 
 three inches wide, in the middle reduced to one 
 inch and an half at the ends, and turns up at the 
 back part two inches, in an easy sweep is fixed on 
 the standing pillar nineteen inches from the bottom 
 side, and the turn up part on the corner pillar four- 
 teen inches from the bottom side. In the hind pil- 
 lar is framed the rail, three feet five inches long, one 
 inch thick, four inches deep, 12 inches from the bot- 
 tom side, over which at the distance of five inches, i 
 is framed the sword case rail of the same length, j 
 H inches square, compassed 1 inch, between the I 
 standing pillars is framed the seat rail, 4 feet long, I 
 2 inches square, at the distance of 6 inches from the j 
 bottom side, square with that to the inside of the i 
 corner pillars, is screwed the back seat rail. The j 
 front lattesi rail, 3 feet seven inches long, £ inch j 
 thick, and l£ inches deep, is framed in the front 
 pillars, distant from the bottom point one foot four 
 inches. The fence rail of the same dimensions 10 
 inches higher. The doors are made with two up- 
 rig'ht pillars, both of the same dimensions and sweep 
 as the standing pillars, one of w hich is called the 
 hinge pillar, the other the shutting pillar, in which 
 is framed a batten and fence rail, of the same dimen- 
 sions and distance as the front 2 feet long, each 
 compassed 1 inch on the outside, making a regular 
 sweep with the elbow. In the bottom is framed the 
 door bottom, 2 feet long, 2| inches thick, and 3f 
 inches deep in the centre, compassed to the top of 
 the bottom side. 
 
 The whole body being now framed, is grooved 
 out to receive the pannels and rounded off for carving; 
 when carved, the pannelling commences, which is of! 
 dry mahogany, planed thin to the grooves, the hind 
 pannel is then cut to the size between the corner 
 pillars; the lower back rail and bottom bar being 
 then compassed by heat to the sweep of the pillar, 
 and fixed to the bottom sides with the pillars, 
 through which 2 iron bolts are driven and' screwed 
 on the inside. — The same process is observed with 
 the front quarters, and doors, previous to which, 
 battens are fixed to force the pannelson the sides to 
 a circular form ; the pannels are then strengthened 
 on the inside by small pieces of wood If inches 
 square and-£ inch thick, fixed all over them with 
 glue, which is called blocking— The swordcase is 
 then fixed in the hind part, by screwing two solid 
 pieces of ash to the corner pillar projecting in the 
 centre s inches, round which is turned by means of 
 heat, a thin deal board strengthened inside with 
 glue and canvas ; the doors are then hung with 
 brass hinges, fixed in the fore pillars, and fastened 
 when shut with a spring lock and dovetail catch to 
 the standing pillars, round the bottom and upright 
 edges, are screwed brass rabbit plates, to give a good 
 finish and hide the joints. The pillarsare then pre- 
 
 pared for the head. In the standing pillar is fixed 
 a strong iron joint, to which is fitted the top pillar 
 j of tvvo teet long, and three inches square, in the top 
 ■ of it is fixed the top door case with a joint and 
 I hinge, three inches from the standing pillar full 
 length, three feet six inches by three inches in the 
 centre, reduced at both ends to 2£ inches ; the front 
 pillar of one foot ten inches in length, and 2£ inches 
 square, fastened with a double hinge joint, the front 
 of the door case fitted at bottom, on the top of the 
 front pillar, and fixed to that with a strong dove- 
 tail lock ; the front top rail 3 feet 7 inches long, and 
 2£ inches square, compassed 1 inch, and the top and 
 bottom is fixed to the front part of the doer cases. 
 In the centre of the fore end is fixed the middle 
 front pillar, length four feet, 2£ inches wide, and 
 j I£ inches thick, in the centre of which pillar, is a 
 i hock joint, the upper part fastening with a do ve- 
 i tail plate and bolt. The whole of the pillarsare 
 j then grooved out for the glasses and blinds; the 
 \ doors and front outside, being now finished, the in- 
 side is boarded up with thin deal to receive the 
 lining and preserve the glasses. The seat is then 
 | finished, by fixing boards on the seat rails, from the 
 back pannel one foot eight inches. The hind upper 
 quarter is formed by two cotnpass slats (fixed to a 
 | neck plate in the standing pillar joint), 2 feet eight 
 j inches long, 2 inches at top, reduced to 1 inch at 
 bottom and 1 inch thick ; on the top of the hind slat, 
 is fixed the back rail 3 feet 5 inches long, bv 2 
 inches square, sweeped to correspond with the front 
 rail, on the top of the other slat is fixed a hoopstick 
 of the same, sweep 3 feet 10 inches, by 1 inch thick 
 and 2 inches wide. On the top of the door case at e 
 fixed three more hoop sticks of the same dimensions, 
 at the distance of 2 inches from each other. On the 
 back of the elbow' and to the corner pillar, is fixed a 
 strong iron prop, which projects six inches from the 
 body; secured inside by an iron stay, as also one on 
 the top of the standing pillar projecting 1£ inches, 
 in the ends of which props the main joint is fixed; 
 the low'erslat and top rail is then fixed up IS inches 
 from the back rail; and the upper slat and hoopstick 
 fixed 10 inches from it, on the elbows made to the 
 sweep are fixed two strong iron plates 5 inches deep. 
 The steps are then fixed in the centre of the door 
 way in the bottom sides with bolts, width 11 inches 
 depth, if treble, 11 inches, if single, 1G inches, cased 
 round with deal to conceal them, (when the body is 
 tummed) ; the body loops are fixed on the bottom of 
 the rockers, with bolts and nut headed screws, the 
 hind body loops 13 inches compressed to fancy; the 
 front body loop to the head 18 inches from which pro- 
 ceeds a horn 6 inches long, jointed at top, to a split 
 stay, which takes the foot board at 18 inches distant* ; 
 the other part extending upwards to the bottom of the 
 barouch seat 18 inches; there is also an iron stay 
 fixed in a socket at the top part in front of the fore 
 pillar, which fastens to the bottom of the seat at the 
 
 distance 
 
COACH-MAKING. 
 
 distance of 16 inches from the body; the width of 
 the seat 15 inches, and length 31 inches, rounded at 
 the hind corners, made of a solid board, on the top 
 of which an iron is fixed 12 inches high, level with the 
 outside; the foot board 31 inches long, 17 inches 
 deep, and from the seat to the centre 18 inches, which 
 finishes the body from the coacli maker’s bench. 
 
 1 lie body being compleated from the coach 
 maker’s, it is usual next to cover the sword 
 
 each side with lact?, through which the hand holders 
 pass, and are nailed firm to the standing pillars, fix 
 in the front, finishing the sides with the line of lace, 
 which forms part of the front light, fix on the door 
 lining, finishing the edges with a row of parting lace 
 all round. The steps are mostly now very hand- 
 somely finished, one side being morocco, and lined 
 with cloth or velvet, welted all round, and the front 
 bound w ith broad lace. The treads are usually car- 
 
 i i : j... a. i'.. i • J 
 
 
 case w ith a piece of fine neats leather prepared for j pet, and besides a carpet fitted in the bottom : most 
 that purpose, and put on wet with paste or white j j carriages Itave spring curtains made of silk, on bar- 
 lead to keep it from rising in the hollow part. A j| rels with silvered ends, the cutting out and fix' 
 very great improvement has lately taken place in co- 
 vering the top parts of coaches, and chariots, by put- 
 ting the leather on whole, so as to prevent the possi- 
 bility of wet penetrating, as was frequently the case 
 when put on in separate pieces, and joined on each 
 other by nails &c. The pannels of the body are 
 painted three or four times with o 1 colour, and se- 
 veral times after with a composition of ground 
 white lead, spruce or brown ochre, turpentine and 
 varnish, and when hard, rubbed to a smooth sur- 
 face with pumice stones and water, the colour what- 
 ever jt may be, is laid a sufficient number of times 
 to be solid, and varnished twice, previous to arms, if 
 any being put on, afterwards varnished as often as 
 required being various according to colour &c. &c. 
 
 The process of painting the carriage, is by giving it a 
 sufficient number of coats to fill up the grain of the 
 wood, rubbing it between each coat with fine sand 
 paper, till it becomes smooth, then ornament it by 
 picking out, and varnish it as often as the nature of 
 :he colour requires, which never exceeds four times, 
 rhe inside of the body is then trimmed, the art of 
 vhich consists, in fitting a lining in it composed of 
 doth, leather lace <$-c. j n the most ornamental and 
 iomfortt'ble manner. The roof, the doors, front, 
 
 >otton: quarters, seatfall, and the bottom part of the 
 fushioes are usually cloth, the upper quarters, top 
 aid bottom back, elbows, and top of the cushions 
 norocco. The process is this; first cut out the roof and 
 .11 the larger parts of the lining; fit the pockets 
 md falls on the front and doors, the pockets and falls 
 re usvialJy bound with broad lace. The morocco 
 art of the lining with the exception of the cushions 
 nil elbows, are made with canvas backs, and bound 
 pith narrow lace, stuffed full with curled hair, and 
 ufted with silk or worsted. When the lining is cut 
 ut and made up, proceed to line the inside of the 
 word case with serge, or shalloon of the colour of 
 ie lining, paste up slips of cloth round the lights, 
 nd paste cloth on the recess of the door left to con- 
 do^ he step; nail lace all round the lights, and 
 inish round the 6ame with narrow lace, called part- 
 ig, fix in the elbows, the bottom, back, bottom 
 uarters, top back, and top quarters, fixing up the 
 )of which is fastened to the hoop sticks by narrow 
 ips ol list nailed to them, and screwed to the roof, 
 he pillars are lined with slips of cloth, bound on 
 
 up of which, forms a part of the inside trimming. 
 ’ The outside upper part is covered with oiled linen, 
 previous to being covered with very strong grained 
 neats leather, which is closed and welted together to 
 fit the roof quarters and back, and when fixed on, 
 completes the trimmings of the body, the seat, the 
 top iron, is usually platted with neats leather, and 
 japaned, round it a squab or cushion is fitted, the 
 back part of strong leather, the front or inside cloth 
 puckered in full, and welted all round, stuffed and 
 tufted, and fixed in the top iron with straps made 
 up with buckles. Inside the iron the cushion for 
 the seat is fitted, and a fall is fixed along the front 
 part, a deep valance all round the seat of very strong 
 leather, and a leather from the foot board to the front 
 of the seat, which is called a heel leather, bodies are 
 a greater or less degree, ornamented with beading, 
 of which there are three sorts, plated, brass, and 
 queens metal; by the quality of which, buckles, han- 
 dles, crests, and other ornaments are guided, on 
 the front upper pillars are fixed the lamps, which 
 have been much improved of late years, and are 
 usually made to burn candles; the body and carriage 
 thus prepared, are fixed together, by suspending the 
 body loops to the springs of the carriages, by leather 
 braces made of several strips, strongly sewed, toge- 
 ther with buckles fixed in them; there are also 
 cheek and collar braces, fixed to the upper and lower 
 part of the body, to prevent any violent motion whieli 
 it would otherwise have. 
 
 Mr. Birch, of Great Queen-street, London, ob- 
 tained, in the year 1807, a patent for an improve- 
 ment in the construction ot the roofs and upper 
 quarters of Landaus, Barouches, and other carriages, 
 the upper parts of which are made to fall down, 
 which improvement is thus described. 
 
 Frame and fix in the top quarter rails to the tops 
 of the standing pillars and slats, and fix the slats to 
 the neck plates ; rabbi the under parts of the stand- 
 ing pillars, the top quarter rails and the slats, and 
 board them with thin deals, or any other proper ma- 
 terial. Let -the crown-pieces or cornice rails be long 
 enough to bevel or mitre into the comers of the top 
 of the standing pillars; and let in the hinges and 
 thimble catches on the top of the crown-pieces and 
 top of the quarter rails. Fix on the hoop sticks and 
 back and front rails, and board them all up, except 
 3 N Vi & 
 
230 
 
 COACH-MAKING. 
 
 the two hoop sticks which are nearest to the hinges, 
 which may be placed as close as possible, to admit 
 of the head sticking conveniently low. Conceal oi 
 let in one or more boxed locks to the centre hoop 
 sticks, or at least the hoop sticks which unite the 
 thimble catches, and fix them so as that they may be 
 opened by a key on the inside of the carriage. 
 Stretch strong canvas, or other fit material, and nail 
 it or otherwise fasten it, both on the inside and t 
 outside of the slats and elbows, and stuff it between 
 with flocks or tow, or other fit material. Likewise 
 stretch and nail on or fasten canvas, or any other 
 proper material, to the top hoop-sticks, on the root 
 
 which are nearest the hinges before you put on the 
 leather covering. 
 
 The patentee says, that in travelling, a carriage 
 built upon this construction, will carry one or more 
 imperials on its roof, without interfering with the 
 regular process of opening it, and when in that situ- 
 ation, will remain without doing the least injury to 
 its upper parts. Another advantage is mentioned, 
 viz. that the spring curtains to the landaus remain 
 without being removed, whereas those on the old 
 plan were obliged to be taken down before there, 
 was a possibility of opening it. 
 
 END OF COACH-MAKING. 
 
 COMB-MAKING 
 
COMB-MAKING, 
 
 The Comb is a well known instrument, made of 
 horn, ivory, tortoise-shell, box, or holly- wood; and 
 is used for separating’, adjusting, cleansing, and or- 
 namenting the hair. The commoner sorts of combs, 
 are generally made of the horns of bullocks, or of 
 elephants and sea horses teeth ; some are made of 
 tortoise-shell, and others of box, holly, and other 
 hard woods. 
 
 Bullocks horns are thus prepared to be manufac- 
 tured into combs ; the tip.? are to be sawn off, after 
 which they are to be held in the flame of a wood 
 fire, till they become nearly as soft as leather. In 
 this state they are split open on one side and pressed 
 in a machine between two iron plates, then plunged 
 into a trough of water, from which they come out 
 hard and flat. When the horn is cut to the size in- 
 tended for the required combs, several pieces are 
 laid upon a pair of tongs, adapted to the business, 
 over a fire, made chiefly of joiners shavings, to 
 soften them. They are frequently turned, and when 
 sufficiently soft, are put into a vice and screwed 
 tight to complete the flattening. When this process 
 is finished, the horns are perfectly flat arid hard ; 
 they are then given to a man who shaves, planes, 
 or scrapes off the rough parts with a knife, similar in 
 shape to one used by coopers, having two handles, 
 which the comb-maker works from him, across the 
 grain of the horn, from one end of the intended 
 comb to the other. When both sides are perfectly 
 smooth, it is delivered to the person who cuts the 
 teeth. This workman fastens it with wedges, by 
 that part meant for the back, into an instrument 
 ealled a clam. The clam has a long handle, which 
 the workman places under him as he sits, by which 
 means he renders the object of his work firm and 
 steady, and he has, at the same time, both hands at 
 liberty to be. employed in the operation. The cut- 
 ting of the teeth is commenced by a double saw, of 
 which each blade is something like the small one 
 with which joiners and cabinet-makers cut their fine 
 work, with this he forms the teeth. As this instru- 
 ment leaves the work square, and rather in a rough 
 state, particularly in the inside edge of each tooth, 
 it is followed by another about the size and shape 
 of a case knife, having teeth like a file, on each flat 
 side. After this, two others of the same shape, but 
 each finer cut, than the other follow. One stroke on 
 each side of the comb is then given by a rasping 
 tool, which is used to take of any roughness that 
 
 i may remain on the sides of the teeth; it is now de- 
 1 livered to another operator, who polishes it with rot- 
 ; ten stone and oil, applying them with a piece of buff 
 leather. 
 
 The process used for making ivory-combs, is near- 
 ly the same as that just described, excepting that the 
 ivory is first sawn into thin slices. The ivory from 
 Ceylon, is reckoned the best, as being less liable to 
 turn yellow, by exposure to the atmosphere. The 
 I whiteness which ivory acquires, depends chiefly on 
 | the degree of dryness which it has acquired. When 
 yellow, its gelatinous matter is altered by the air, 
 and appears combined with the oxygon of the atmos- 
 phere. Heat cannot be made use of for making ivory 
 pliant, though it is rendered softer by being expos- 
 ed to that agent. It is, as we have observed, divid- 
 ed by the saw, and for very delicate work, the oper- 
 | ation is sometimes performed underwater, to pre- 
 i vent its being heated or rent by the action of the 
 tool. It is polished with pumice stone and tripoli. 
 Ivory has been said to become soft by being placed 
 in mustard, but both ivory and bone are softened by 
 leing immersed in an alkaline-ley made of soda 
 and quick-lime. 
 
 We shall now give some account of the method of 
 cutting combs adopted by Mr. William Biinday, of 
 Camden town, and who obtained his Majety’s let- 
 ters patent for the invention. The term of his exclu- 
 sive privilege being we apprehend compleated, it is 
 open to any manufacturer to make what use he pleas- 
 es of the discovery. 
 
 It appears, says the writer in the monthly maga- 
 zine, at first sight to be a singular circumstance, 
 that in a country famous for its attention to mecha- 
 nical processes, the teeth of ivory combs, should he 
 cut one stroke after the other, by the human hand, 
 assisted by no other tool than a pair of saw s rudely 
 fastened in a wooden back, and kept asunder, by 
 means ofa small slip of wood. With these rough 
 implements, however it is, that the very delicate su- 
 perfine ivory combs, containing from 50 to 00 teeth 
 in an inch, are manufactured. It may readily be 
 conceived, that the imaginations of mechanical men, 
 mu9t have been employed in an attempt to solve the 
 practical problem of constructing a machine, which 
 without skill in the agent or first mover, might per- 
 form all that men converted by practice, into a kind 
 of living machines, are capable of doing, but w ith 
 less cost, or greater product, in proportion, as it is 
 1 easier 
 
232 
 
 CO MB- MAKING. 
 
 easier to maintain the one than the other. Accord- 
 ingly it is not difficult to find traces of attempts of 
 this kind during 1 the last 40 years, in the traditions 
 of our manufacturing towns and counties. From 
 what causes their failure may have arisen, since 
 none of them have been established to supersede the 
 old practice, is not easy to discover, but it is certain, 
 that Mr. Bundy’s machine, is the first and only one 
 which has yet appeared at the patent office. Its con- 
 struction is as follows : 
 
 An iron fly wheel of three feet in diameter, is 
 moved by a crank and treadle, or by any other pow- 
 er or means of application. On the same axis, is a 
 wheel or pulley of 15 inches diameter, which by a 
 gut, drives another pulley of nine inches attached to 
 a puppet head above, sheers resembling those of a 
 common foot lathe. An arbor is driven by this up- 
 per wheel, in the same manner as work is thrown 
 round between centres before the mandrell in the 
 common lathe. On the arbor are fixed a number of 
 circular cutters, about two inches diameter, corres- 
 ponding 1o the notches intended to be cut in the 
 combs. These cutters are all of a thickness, and 
 have brass washers between them, and also from ano- 
 ther arbor in a frame there are steel pieces, called 
 guiders, which stand between the cutters, and keep 
 them regularly asunder, just above the place where 
 the comb enters. 
 
 The comb is held b ,- a plate and two screws, upon 
 the top of a block or carriage, which runs off and on 
 by means of a platform, and dovetail upon the lathe 
 bed. The comb moves in its own plane, right on- 
 ward, to the centre or axis of the cutters, and the 
 carriage is driven by a screw of ten threads in the 
 inch, into which a knife edge from the carriage falls, 
 instead of a nut. On the extremity or tail of thf ! 
 screw is fixed a spur wheel of thirty teeth driven by 
 an endless screw, the arbor of which last is of Bourse 
 parallel to the arbor of the cutters. It is driven by 
 a pulley of six inches concetric with the cutting ar- 
 bor, and itself has a pulley of three. 
 
 Hence if the great wheel be moved once round, 
 per second, the arbor will revolve y times and 
 the endless screw arbor %° times but from the 
 dimensions of the screw, 30 revolutions of the end- 
 less screw make j^inch of the tooth, or 150 revolu- 
 tions make | inch. With this length of tooth, the great 
 wheel will revolve 45 times, and the cutting arbor 
 75 times. One side of the comb will therefore be 
 cut in three quarters of a minute. 
 
 The combs are pointed by applying them to an 
 arbor, clothed with cutters, with chamfered edges 
 and teeth -j-i inch deep, they are applied by the 
 hand. This arbor is driven by a wheel on the 
 .crank axis. » 
 
 The cutters are made of tempered steel, as are 
 also the guides, the teeth of the cutters are set so as 
 to clear the back or following part from the friction 
 isi the cut 
 
 The cutters, the cutter washers, the guides, and 
 the guide washers, are all ground fiat and thin, upon 
 a brass plate, in the same manner as optical work is 
 ground ; during which operation, the piece is re- 
 tained again on an upper movable plate, of its own 
 size, by means ofa circular rim or edge which is ad- 
 justable by screws, so as to form a deeper or shallow- 
 er cell, as may be required, 
 
 The guides are one twentieth part thinner than 
 the washers of the cutters, and the guide washers are 
 somewhat thicker than the cutters, and there are 
 grooves in the sides of the guides that the teeth of 
 tiie cutters may pass clear, notwitlistanding their 
 side sets. 
 
 The writer had an opportunity of examining one 
 of the cutters of this artist, which had been given- 
 by him to a friend. It was beautifully wrought, 
 very uniform in its thickness, which was about 
 the of an inch, and the sets of the teeth which 
 seemed to have been affected by the blow of a 
 punch on every other tooth was extremely accurate, 
 it was not perfectly flat, but had that kind of flex- 
 ure which workman call a buckle. He also saw an 
 ivory comb of 40 teeth in the inch, which was very 
 uniform, and equal to the best work done by hand, 
 except that the cut seemed too wide. 
 
 It appears to be placed beyond a doubt, that 
 combs may really be cut in this way ; but whether 
 to advantage, must depend on the cast and durabili- 
 ty of the cutter?, which it is to be feared, may be 
 bended and spoiled in a course of work, by their in- 
 cessant friction between the guides. It may also be 
 remarked, that they cannot be taken off the arbor 
 to sharpen or repair, and be put on again without 
 changing the degree of fineness in the comb they 
 will cut. For if we suppose an error of one thou- 
 santh of an inch in grinding or callipering the cutters 
 and washers, or in the different force of screwing 
 them together on the arbor ; this will make a dif- 
 ference of one third of an inch, or the breadth of se- 
 venteen teeth in a superfine comb. No,. 6, which 
 if coarser would bring it more than half way to the 
 sort called dandriff, or if finer, would equal the bbx- 
 comb. Besides, which a much less difference would 
 iotally destroy the agreement or fitting between 
 cutting and pointing. A more particular account of 
 the patent invention, with engravings, may be found 
 in the repertory of arts for the year 1796. 
 
 Tortoiseshell combs, as they are called, are very 
 much used. It has, however, been properly observ- 
 ed by authors, that the hard strong covering which 
 encloses tortoises, and which is used on these occa- 
 sions, is improperly denominated a shell; being of a 
 bony contexture, but covered on the outside with 
 scales, or rather plates of a horny substance. There 
 are two general kinds of tortoises, viz. the land and 
 the sea tortoise; the latter is divided into many dis- 
 tinct species, but if the testudo-imbricuta of Lin- 
 nceus, which alone furnishes that beautiful shell so 
 
 much 
 
COMB-MAKING. 
 
 233 
 
 much admired in European countries. The spoils i 
 of the tortoise consist in thirteen leaves or scales, 
 eight of them are flat, and five bent. The best tor- 
 toise shell is thick, clear, transparent, of the colour 
 of antimony, sprinkled with brown and white. 
 
 Tortoise shell, like horn, becomes soft in a mo- 
 derate heat, as that of boiling water, so as to be j 
 pressed in a mould, into any form, the shell being i 
 previously cut into plates of a proper size. Two j 
 plates may likewise be united into one by heat and 
 pressure, the edges being thoroughly cieaned^and 
 made to fit close to one another. The tortoise 
 shell is conveniently heated for this purpose by ap- 
 plying a hot iron above and beneath the juncture, I 
 with the interposition ofa wet cloth, to prevent the I 
 shell from being scorched by the irons ; these irons ! 
 should be pretty thick that they may not loose their 
 heat before the union is effected. 
 
 Tortoise shell being in so much request, many j 
 methods have been invented for the purpose of j 
 staining horn so as to imitate tortoise shell; of which 
 the following is one. 
 
 The horn to be dyed, being first pressed into a 
 flat form, is to be spread over w ith a kind of paste 
 made of two parts of quick lime and one of litharge, 
 brought into a proper degree of consistency with 
 soap-ley. This paste must be put overall the parts 
 of the horn except such as are intended to be left 
 transparent, to give it a nearer resemblance to tor- 
 toise shell ; the horn must remain in this state till 
 the paste lie quite dry, when it is to be rubbed off*. 
 It requires a considerable share of taste, and judge- 
 ment to dispose the paste in such a manner as to 
 form a variety, of transparent parts, of different mag- 
 nitudes and figures, to look like nature. Some 
 parts are, bv a neat process rendered semi-transpa- 
 rent, which is effected by mixing whitening with a 
 part of the paste, to weaken its operatiou in parti- 
 cular places; by this means spots ofa reddish brown 
 will be produced, so as greatly to increase the beau- 
 ty of the work. Horn thus dyed is manufactured 
 into combs, which are frequently sokl for real tor- 
 toise shell, we shall now add two or three other di- 
 rections on subjects connected with this business, 
 
 To make horn soft. — Take w od-aslies and quick 
 lime : of these make a strong ley, and filter it clear, 
 boil the shavings or chips of horn therein, and they 
 will soon be reduced to a paste, this may be colour- 
 ed, and cast into any form required. 
 
 To prepare horn leaves in imitation of tortoise-shell. 
 — Take of quick lime one pound, and litharge of 
 silver eight ounces,- mix them into a paste with 
 urine, and make spots with it, m w hat form or shape 
 
 you please, on both sides of the horn ; when dry, 
 rub off the powder, and repeat this- as- many times 
 as necessary. Then take Vermillion, prepared with 
 size, lay it all over one side of the horn, as also on 
 the wood, to which you intend ^to fasten it. For 
 raised work, form the horn in a mould of any shape, 
 and when dry give it colour with the aforesaid 
 paste and vermillion, then lay clear glue, both on 
 the horn and the wood on which it is to be fixed, 
 and close it together. This work is to be done in 
 rather a warm place, it is then to stand all (night ; 
 the roughnesses are to be cut or filed off, and the 
 horn polished with tripoli and linseed oil. Work 
 finished in this manner is well adapted for ladies 
 combs. 
 
 Another method of imitating tortoise-shell with 
 horns. — Take of Nitrous acid two ounces, and of fine 
 silver one drachm ; let the silver be dissolved, and 
 having spotted or marbled your horn with wax, 
 strike the solution over it,. let it dry of itself, and 
 the horn will be in tliose places which are free from 
 wax, ofa brown or black colour. 
 
 To d/ye Ivor// greeny to be used as combs. — A green 
 dye may be given to ivory, by steeping it in nitrous 
 acid, tinged with copper or verdigris, or in two 
 parts of verdigris, and one of sal ammoniac, ground 
 well together, with strong white wine vinegar pour- 
 ed on them ; and by converting the nitrous acid 
 into aqua regia, by dissolving a fourth part of its 
 weight of sal ammoniac in it, ivory may be stained 
 of a fine purple colour. 
 
 To di/e Ivor iy, S>e. zvith other colours. — Ivory, 
 bone, horn, and other substances adapted to the 
 manufacture of combs may be stained yellow, by- 
 boiling them first in a solution of one pound of 
 allum in two quarts of water, and then boiling them 
 in a solution of turmeric root. Ivory, See. may be 
 stained blue, by first staining it green, and then 
 dipping it in a solution of pearl ashes, made strong, 
 and boiling hot. It may be accomplished also by 
 boiling in the tincture of indigo, prepared by the 
 dyers, and afterwards in a solution of tartar, made 
 by dissolving three ounces of white tartar, or cream 
 of tartar in a quart of water. 
 
 Combs are sometimes set with brilliant stones, 
 pearls, and even diamonds ; some are studded wit'll 
 cut steel, these are of different shapes, and are used 
 . to fasten up the hair when ladies dress without caps. 
 Of course combs may be had of all prices from a 
 few pence to almost any sum. Journeymen comb 
 makers will earn from 25s. to two guineas per 
 week. 
 
 END OF COMB-MAKING. 
 
 30 
 
 COOPERING. 
 
COOPERING. 
 
 Coopering consists in manufacturing casks and I 
 ^vessels used for containing and transporting all 
 kinds of liquids, &c. It must have been a trade 
 almost coeval with our existence, it being of the 
 very first necessity. The art of coopering has ena- 
 bled man to possess and retain the richest viands 
 of foreign climes. It promotes and facilitates the 
 export and import of the produce of distant coun- 
 tries, which have enriched the merchant, supplied 
 the wants and luxuries of the people, enriched the 
 revenues, and given spirit to navigation. It is im- 
 possible in reflecting on the utility of this trade, not 
 to feel that it occupies a much greater -space in our 
 existence than it at first appears to do. 
 
 It supplies in the first place, all the necessary fa- ’ 
 cilitates of our very extensive breweries and distil- 
 leries. It enables our colonies to exist, by offering 1 
 a ready transit to their produce, and in fine, it is a j 
 trade which has developed to unreflecting man, the 
 bounties of divine providence in a most especial 
 manner. The trade in London is divided into 
 several ramifications, and the persons carrying it on 
 ns well as-the journeymen, confine themselves res 
 pectively. They are designated by first “ Butt 
 Cooper,” whose employ consists in manufacturing 
 all kinds of casks for breweries, &c. also the Pun- 
 cheons and Hogsheads for distilleries. Their working 
 tools are but few in number, the first, an “ adze,” 
 similar to the same tool made use of by Carpenters, 
 except the handle only being about ten inches long, 
 he has also an axe, with this and the adze he re- 
 duces the staves to the form he wishes, he has also 
 a bench, consisting of a piece of simple plank, and 
 generally 4 or 5 feet long, and one foot wide, stand- 
 ing on four feet, raised to about 2 feet high at one 
 end, and 18 inches at the other, forming an inclined 
 lane on its top ; there is a stop and two upright 
 eeps at each end of the top of the ber. h, 
 which serve the purpose of keeping the stave firm- 
 ly on it, in the operation of jointing. Their planes 
 consist of two or three only, called “jointers,” , 
 similar to the same kind of tool used by Joiners. 
 It is used by the butt cooper from 3 to 4 feel long, 
 and with which he makes all his joints, it requires 
 to be kept in good order, and to be exactly true on 
 its face, and the mouth of the plane 6mall, with the 
 iron thin and sharp. 
 
 The shave is a machine similar to a tool called a 
 u spoke-shave,” of rather larger dimensions than the 
 common ones used by Carpenters; but coopers 
 
 use them of various sizes, it is a sharpened piece of 
 hardened metal, with two legs let into a small block 
 of beech- wood, rounded on the face, and shaped af 
 the ends so as to be held in the hand by the work- 
 men, the iron is sharpened as planes are, and it is 
 fixed in the stock by two small wedges. With this 
 tool the cooper smooths and finishes the inside and 
 outside of all Iris casks, rounds and shapes their 
 edges, and in fine finishes his work for use. The 
 tool called a tooth, commonly “ the old woman’s 
 tooth,” is made not unlike the “ shave,” except the 
 iron which is in fact the tooth, it is very narrow 
 approaching an arris, and it is kept sharp, and used 
 for making grooves round the top and bottom of the 
 staves, to receive the ends of the cask. They use 
 also a series of Bilts, called centre and doweling 
 Bitts, the former are used for making perforations 
 to insert cocks and other conveniences for filling or 
 emptying the casks, the latter tor bori.ig the edges 
 of two opposite joints, in the tops and bottoms of 
 vessels required to be doweled together. • 
 
 Doweling is no more than fixing in oaken pins in 
 the joints; and made use of, only to large vessels to 
 prevent the joints from swagging from tfieir pieces ; 
 it is of the greatest utility, and a good cooper 
 never neglects to do it ; it is confined to the tops 
 and bottoms only. A hoop “ technically” is to the 
 cooper a model, into which befits all his staves; 
 this model or hoop is of ascertained dimensions, and 
 is as various as the numerous different vessels made 
 use of, for instance, they have a hoop for butts, 
 hogsheads, puncheons, barrels and all other casks 
 required for the different quantities of liquids to be 
 vended at a butt coopery, on a large scale. These 
 hoops are laid down, and the work is divided among 
 the most expert in their several ways. Some men 
 are employed in hewing the staves and reducing 
 them to their lengths, others in jointing and fitting 
 them into the hoop, and some in preparing the tops 
 and bottoms, while others are cleaning and smooth- 
 ing the staves to receive the ends and final hooping. 
 The staves made use of by the but cooper, are invari- 
 ably ofoak, and until very lately, wholly imported 
 from the Baltic, and sold in the market by a mer- 
 chant, called the stave merchant. The staves are 
 imported in the several lengths required, and sold by 
 the thousand, under the following designations, viz. 
 Pipe staves about five feet b inches long, two inches 
 thick and six inches wide ; hogshead staves four 
 feet long ; barrel staves three feet 6 inches long. 
 
 There 
 
COOPERING. 
 
 235 
 
 There are also to be met with, long and short head- 
 ings. the former run about 30 inches in length, and 
 the latter from 20 to 24 inches ; these various staves 
 are found to meet most of the required purposes of 
 coopery. The retail merchant sorts and divides 
 them for the consumer into the best pipe staves, se- 
 conds &c and the same to the hogshead, and barrell 
 staves. The headings are sold generally as import- 
 ed, the Dantzick and Ilamboro staves are consider- 
 ed the best. Although great quantites are imported 
 from Riga, Memel and Koningsberg; the pipe 'staves ! 
 from Dantzick or Ilamboro, will letch from £ 200 
 to £250 per thousand, of six score to the hundred, 
 and they rose lately when all communication with 
 the Baltic was stopped, as high as £500 per thou- 
 sand, and the smaller staves in a proportion. This 
 event gave rise to the introduction of staves from 
 Canada, which soon superseded the necessity of the 
 importation from the Baltic, and there is now in the 
 market from our own possessions, m America abun- 
 dance of staves of all descriptions; sold by the de- 
 signation of Quebec and Canada staves, and at 
 two thirds the price of those from the Baltic, they are 
 however, not found to be so durable, lmt they work 
 better, and make a neater utensil. The Dantzick 
 6taves still continue to be purchased for the Brew- 
 eries, in preference to the American, from the expe- 
 rience of its superioritv in strength and durability. 
 All the American wood, possesses more beauty than 
 strength. In the article of fir, of which there is an 
 immense consumption in these Kingdoms, and which 
 have latterly received almost their whole supply 
 from Canada, and in order to encourage the impor- 
 tation from these settlements, the import duties have 
 been made considerably less, than from the Baltic, 
 but in building as in coopery, the cleanness and 
 straightness of the grain ofthe timber, is a poor set 
 off for its want of strength and durability; which 
 qualities the timbers from America, certainly want 
 in comparison of those from northern Europe. Iron 
 the cooper is not in need off, because its place can 
 be supplied with other materials ; except for his 
 working tools. But England abounding in iron, it 
 is found economical to make our hooping of that 
 metal. Iron hoops are obviously the best for the butt 
 cooper, whose staves are usually of good substance; 
 but in cases in which the staves are thin, iron hoops 
 should be avoided, or at least but partially employ- 
 ed. The oxide of iron of w hich these hoops supply 
 abundance (commonly known as rust) eats away and 
 destroys the wood with which it comes in contact, as 
 well as the hooping itself ; Foreign casks are seldom 
 bound by iron; not always from the want of the me- 
 tal, but from fancying that it may have chalybeate 
 qualities upon their contents; it is particularly 
 avoided in France, and indeed, in all wine countries, 
 and in France the best coopeiy is practised. The 
 hooping is sold as most iron work usually is, by 
 the hundred, in various lengths, previously wrought 
 
 in a mill at the furnaces, of great variety of thick- 
 ness, (he hooping is cut by the cooper, to the length 
 he requires to hoop his butts, or other vessel, punch- 
 ed at the lap, and cold rivetted. Previously to put- 
 ting on the hooping, the staves are dryed either by 
 being exposed to an open fire, or in kilns, the latter 
 is now the most approved in large manufactures. 
 
 Kundlet-cooper is a second branch of this trade, 
 he makes use of all the tools, used by the butt 
 cooper, except, perhaps bis collection maybe on a 
 smaller scale. This manufacturer makes the bottles 
 j of various small contents for the use ofthe distiller, 
 who sends out his spirits in them, consisting of, from 
 l gallon bottles and upwards to 20 gallons ; he usee 
 the long and short headings, which he rends into two 
 or more in thickness, according to the substance re- 
 quired in his bottles. This is an extensive branch 
 of business, if it be considered how r numerous our 
 wants are made by the ingenuity ot the distiller, 
 whose chief concern is in giving a zest to the palate; 
 and his success is too apparent in the multiplied nos- 
 trums offered, to the w eary public, under the appel- 
 lation of cordials. As these are increased, the rund- 
 iet cooper finds his account important. 
 
 Dry cooper finds his employment in manufactur- 
 ing hogsheads, and casks for the containing of every 
 kind of dry produce, the leading feature of the 
 consumption in his line, is in making hogsheads 
 for sugar. Ilis tools are of the same description as 
 before named, but he works the staves out of all 
 kinds of w ood, and is not obliged to be so neat in 
 his fittings as the butt or rundlet cooper. It is an 
 extensive line of business at all sea-ports, in whieh 
 great exports are constantly making, he supplies 
 casks to pack the supplies in, of all dry natures, for 
 both army and navy, as the cloathing and hats ; be- 
 sides military stores, are, for convenience usually 
 packed in casks. His business is also extensive in 
 supply ing convenient security in packages for the 
 Apothecary general to the army, whose medicines 
 are forwarded in a dry state securely enclosed in 
 casks, prepared by the drv cooper. 
 
 Whi*e cooper, bis employ comes home to every 
 housekeeper, because in every establishment, is to 
 be recognised some machine or other supplied to it 
 by his industry. He manufactures all domestic 
 utensils, such as are used in private brewing, in 
 washing, dairies, in making churns, pails, and every 
 convenience required in all the multiplied purposes 
 of our domestic economy. At the white coopers, is 
 to lie found the most extensive employment of the 
 staves called long and short headings ; he is the 
 greatest consumer of this article ; he proceeds in a 
 similar way in the manufactory of his goods, as is 
 described under the head of butt cooper ; but lie 
 rends his staves into several thicknesses, in order to 
 make his utensils lighter and better adapted to their 
 required purposes, he makes use of many different 
 kinds of hoops, the iron hoops lie procures by weight 
 j ready 
 
m 
 
 COOPERING. 
 
 ready milled and fit for use, which he adopts and 
 cold rivets on all his goods bound by iron hooping : 
 many of the articles manufactured by this trades- 
 man, are secured by wooden hoops, for instance : 
 all tubs used in laundries and dairies ; these hoops 
 known to the trade by “ white hoops” are rended 
 out of ash wood, and are of various substance for 
 use. When this hoop is neatly cleaned up, it gives 
 a cleanliness to the appearance of the vessels, and 
 so finished is always pretered for the laundry and 
 dairy. This kind of hoop is sold at the white hoop 
 merchants, and the average price is from 40 to 50s. 
 per hundred off) score. There are at the same de- 
 pot, hoops of all descriptions, for the numerous in- 
 ferior vessels, and of prices varying from 12 s. per 
 hundred to 30s. The white cooper finding his ac- 
 count with the housekeeper, usually keeps a shop, at 
 which place commonly may be found exposed for 
 sale, almost every article required in the domestic 
 concerns of an establishment. In London to this 
 branch of coopery, is sometimes added turnery, 
 which in a retail shop, supplies all kinds of brushes 
 and baskets, with many other little tilings, required 
 for comfort and convenience, at the white coopers, 
 all jobs are done in repairs, and alteration to casks 
 and coopery ofevery description. 
 
 The manufacture of backs and vats for brewers and 
 distillers, does not necessarily belong to coopery, it 
 is a distinct branch of trade, and performed by per- 
 sons called back and vat makers ; they work in En- 
 glish oak commonly, and they take care to select 
 that which is soundest and freest from knots, and 
 saw it out into two inch, Sj and 3 inch planks, 
 which are laid by for seasoning. Carpenters work 
 at this business, as the machines are of all shapes; 
 for instance, the coolers for breweries, are commonly 
 oblong squares, and are made by this tradesman. 
 The only particulars required in making good cool- 
 ers, is that the sides be adequately strong, the joints 
 well fitted, and the whole not too deep, the sides of 
 a cooler of ordinary dimensions, should beat least 
 2| inches thick, the joints should be well plowed and 
 toiigned, the bottoms should be jointed in a similar 
 way, and these will require dowelling; the end- 
 are grooved into the sides, and the whole is spilled to- 
 gether with iron pins ; these vessels are sometimes 
 scorched or charred in their insides, for the double 
 purpose of preventing their decay, and also the too 
 rapid acidity of the liquor exposed to cool in them. 
 
 Mash-tuns, the under and jack backs, w orking- 
 tuns, and store vats, for the still and brewhouse, get 
 best manufactured at the back makers, as every thing 
 he does is on a large scale. He keeps materials bet- 
 ter adapted to its well performance than can be found 
 at the butt coopers. All the above vessels are 
 usually made round, they are prepared in a similar 
 manner to the work ofthe butt maker, except, gener- 
 ally from staves of English oak ; some of these vats 
 are immense, particularly those called store vats, 
 
 containing from 20 to 30 butts and upwards ; the 
 hoops are necessarily of iron, very strong and fre- 
 quently joined by a nut and screw rivet, which al- 
 lows of removal in case of repair or accident. 
 
 Wine cooper is a person employed in drawing otf, 
 bottling and packing wine, spirits, or malt liquor; 
 in London, many persons follow this business only, 
 and keep in their employ several assistants, it is 
 common for persons ofthe first consequence to em- 
 ploy the wine cooper to take charge of their wines. 
 He has stipulated prices for all he does, charging 
 his hottli ng off by the pipe, half pipe, or as it may 
 happen ; lie keeps a working butt cooper in his em- 
 ploy to repair and job in the upholding, and sup- 
 porting the several casks in which wine and spirits 
 are contained. 
 
 I nder the trade of the cooper, may be introduced 
 the manufacture of canteens, these are small vessels 
 made of wood, in which soldiers when on their 
 march, or in the field, carry their liquor. These 
 vessels were formerly made of tin, b,ut the use of 
 wooden canteens has for some time been general in 
 the british armies. They are made, in shape, very 
 like barrels, cylindrical, seven inches and a half in 
 diameter, and four inches long on the outside, hold- 
 ing three pints. These vessels have for some years 
 since been manufactured oil a larger scale by Mr. 
 George Smart of Ordnance Wharf, Westminster 
 Bridge, who has contrived a very complete set of 
 machines for abridging of labour in the business. 
 
 The wood made use of is the best foreign oak, 
 which is first sawn out into boards a quarter of an 
 inch thick; these, after they are planed, are cut in 
 the direction ofthe grain, in slips of an inch and a 
 quarter broad, by means of a circular saw called a 
 ripping saw. This saw is made of steel plate with 
 very fine teeth, and on the end of its axis is a pul- 
 ley, turned by a band going round it, and likewise 
 round a large drum driven by a horse-wheel ; the 
 plane of the saw in the ripping machine is not fixed 
 exactlvat right angles to the bench, but at a proper 
 angle for the staves of the canteen, which are cut 
 from these slips, when put together to form a cylin- 
 der of the true size. The accuracy with which 
 th ise saws cut, is so great that the edges do not re- 
 quire to be planed. There is a guide for the edge 
 ofthe board as it is cut, which, for cutting slips of 
 different widths, can be moved nearer to, or farther 
 from the saw. by loosening the thumb-nut, the screw 
 from which moves in an opening, in the bench, and 
 is always kept parallel to the plane of the saw by 
 two levers. 
 
 A workman takes one of the boards, and puts its 
 edge against the guide : when he pushes it forward, 
 the saw cuts it along into slips very quick: these 
 slips are delivered to another workman, who uses a 
 cross-cutting saw. There is a groove cut in the 
 bench to receive a slider, across one end of which 
 another piece is fixed, having a notch in the under- 
 
COOPERING. 
 
 237 
 
 side for the saw to pass through when it is slid for- 
 wards. The end of the slip which is to be cross-cut, 
 is pushed up close to the guide) and the piece ar< ! 
 slide are driven towards the saw which cuts it off 
 instantly; the slide is then drawn back, and the slip 
 pushed up to the guide for another length as be- 
 fore. These pieces which are 4| inches long and J| 
 broad, are for the staves of the canteen. The staves 
 which have a hole in them for the cork or bung, 
 are first cut out by the same means as the common 
 staves, but they are of twice the thickness. The 
 hole is bored in the following manner; there is a 
 spindle with a pulley on it, turned by a band, going 
 quite- round it, and a drum, with a velocity of 1800 
 revolutions in a minute; at the end of this is a male 
 screw to fasten on a common borer or centre bit ; 
 there are two smooth wooden rails, for a slider to 
 move upon, in the middle of which is fastened a 
 small piece of wood having a hole through it, and a 
 shoulder. The workman takes a stave out of the 
 box, and putting one of its ends against the shoulder 
 of the slider, and one of its edges against the bot- 
 tom board, holds it fast, while he pushes it forward 
 against the borer. 
 
 When the common and bung staves are thus pre- 
 pared, they are given to another workman, who lias 
 a thick block of wood, in which is turned a circular 
 groove about half an inch deep, and a quarter of an 
 inch wide,* which is for setting the staves up in : 
 when the groove rs filled with staves, the man takes 
 a screw-hoop, which is a thin plate of steel, with a 
 square lump at one end, and another near the other 
 end, to receive a screw, to lighten it; the workman 
 puts this tool over the staves, and turns the screw, 
 till the staves are brought close enough, to drive on 
 the iron truss hoop. These cylinders are taken to 
 another person who turns them in a lathe, which is 
 set to work, and the ends of the staves are turned 
 smooth by a tool laid in a notch of the rest; another 
 tool like a hook is then used, for cutting the groove 
 on the inside of the staves for receiving the head. 
 The boards for the heads are first sawn out, into 
 squares, which are then cut circular by a lathe. 
 
 The next operation is heading and hooping the 
 canteens, which is done by knocking off one of the 
 truss hoops, and putting one of the heads into the 
 groove; the staves are then tightened by the screw- 
 hoop, so that the hoop of the canteen may be driven 
 on ; the other head is then put in, and the hoop on, 
 in the same manner. After this the wires are fixed, 
 which are for receiving the belt by which the can- 
 teen Is carried by the soldier. They are next to be 
 proved, by pouring a small quantity of hot water 
 into them, and stopping the cork-hole with a wooden 
 stopper, they are shaken briskly, and the hot water 
 rarefying the air within, the same will rush out vio- 
 lently and discover any small leak that may be 
 left. 
 
 The slips of iron plate for the hoops are cut from ^ 
 
 larg e plates of sheet-iron by shears, worked with a 
 powerful lever ;• the plate is pushed forwards from 
 behind bv one man, while another is lifting up the 
 lever till it reaches the stops; the man at the handle 
 then pushes it down, and cuts the length of a hoop 
 at once off the plate, when the lever is down the 
 underside of it pushes down the stop, so that the 
 hoop may fall off, and the lever is lifted up to cut 
 another hoop as before. 
 
 The holes for the rivets of the hoops are next 
 punched by a machine formed by a lever, having a 
 punch fixed in it ; under this is fixed a dove-tailed 
 groove to hold a piece of steel, whiph has several 
 holes of different sizes in it, to suit different punches, 
 any one of which can be brought under the punch, 
 and fixed by screws, in each side of the groove ; 
 across the top bf the groove an iron plate is fixed, 
 with a hole in it, for the punch to go through; its 
 use is to prevent the hoop, which is put under it, af- 
 ter it is punched, from rising with tlife punch. The 
 boy who works this machine lifts up the lever, puts 
 one end of the hoop under the plate, and then 
 pushes it down, which makes the hole; he then 
 lifts it up again, and puts the other end under to 
 make the hole in it, first hooking the hole before 
 made over a pin whiqh determines its length. 
 
 After the hole is punched, a machine is used to 
 cut the ends of the hoops round, they are then bent 
 round a block, and rive,tted in the common way. 
 By these ingenious contrivances, the operations are 
 rendered so simple, that a good workman will head 
 and hoop 200 canteens in about 14 hours ; and two 
 active men will cut with the shears 60 hoops in a 
 minute. Great attention, we are told, must be 
 paid to keeping the truss hoops always of the proper 
 size, as they are apt to expand with continual use, 
 and if they are too large, the heads of the canteens 
 will not fit. 
 
 We must not finish this article without noticing 
 an invention of Mr. Smart, for which he, obtained 
 in the month of May last, his Majesty’s letters pa- 
 tent, which is for an improved method of preparing 
 timber so as to prevent its shrinking. The great 
 inconvenience in the article of coopering is that the 
 vessels being kept a considerable time in dry places 
 are apt to fall to pieces, and thereby require addi- 
 tional and heavy expence in repairs or refitting. 
 This has been the case with canteens, so that govern- 
 ment have, from time to time, been put to vast ex- 
 pences in remaking, or at least in rejoining vessels 
 that, perhaps, they have never used. It is difficult 
 to manufacture such small vessels as we are speak- 
 ing of perfectly free from leakage, and upon the old 
 plan, perhaps ten per cent, in the number made, 
 were returned on the hands of the manufacturer, 
 being found to leak, when examined in the way al- 
 ready described ; but since the method has been 
 adopted, of which we are now going to give an ac- 
 connt, we are credibly informed that not a single can- 
 3 P teea 
 
 / 
 
.238 
 
 COOPERING. 
 
 teen out of 30,000 has been returned as unfit on ac- 
 count ofleakage. The nature of the invention we 
 shall give chiefly in the words of the patentee; in 
 many cases, in which the shrinkage occasioned in 
 timber, by exposure to hot or dry air, or to any cir- 
 cumstance which abstracts moisture from the pores of 
 wood is productive of injurious consequences; this 
 is prevented by a previous compression of the wood, 
 with a proper application of certain mechanical 
 powers, into a less volume, than can ever be induc- 
 ed by the common causes which occasion shrinkage. 
 This invention will be particularly useful to coopers, 
 vat-makers, and likewise to builders and other per- 
 sons who work in wood, and to whom it is of impor- 
 tance, that their work should not fail by heat and 
 dryness. Thus in preparing staves for vats or 
 casks, the staves are cut square on the edges, and 
 then passed between a pair of rollers made with be- 
 velled grooves in them, so as to press the wood on 
 the edges into the bevel that is necessary to give the 
 required votundity according to the width of the 
 staves, that are to form the casks and vats. The 
 beading boards are passed through parallel rollers, 
 loaded in proportion as the wood is hard and thick. 
 For canteens or the smaller kinds of work, I press, 
 says Mr. Smart, ray staves with a screw-press, or 
 
 j lever which not only bevels them, but its action on 
 the inner edges gives them a degree of curvature 
 which facilitates the subsequent cooperage. Vessels 
 . made of staves previously submitted to such a pro- 
 I cess as I have described by any means fitted to pro- 
 : duce the effect required will be always tight, whether 
 full or empty. The wood being pressed into a clos- 
 er state than it could ever attain by shrinking, 
 nor do the stave require the insertion of rushes be- 
 tween the joints, as is often done, in the common 
 | wavs of forming casks, and other vessels destined to 
 5 contain liquors. — Again, in carpentering ; the best 
 ! performed trussing commonly gives way, owing to 
 the subsequent shrinkage of the timber ; this evil is 
 prevented by my invention ; all that is necessary, 
 being to press, by means of a screw-press, what is 
 commonly called the crown of the king-post, and al- 
 so the base of the truss into a less volume than dry- 
 ing could ever occasion, before inserting the trusses. 
 The boards to be employed for flooring, should be 
 passed edge ways between rollers to close the fibres 
 of the wood, before laying down the floor. From 
 the above description, no competent workman will 
 be at a loss to adapt his wood to the purpose to 
 which it is to be applied. 
 
 END OF COOPERING. 
 
 COTTON-MANUFACTURE. 
 
COTTON-MAN GFACTUR E. 
 
 This, which is flow the most important of our 
 national manufacture, is of modern date. The spin- 
 ning of cotton into thread, which is the most labo- 
 rious and important part of the whole manufacture, 
 was before the year 1767, performed only by hand, 
 one person spinning a single thread at a time, by a 
 simple machine. Since this period, machinery has 
 been introduced to perform every part of the spin- 
 ning process, in the most perfect and expeditious 
 manner that can be conceived, and it is these ma- 
 chines which have enabled the English manufac- 
 turers to supersede all others in this branch ; and in 
 the course of half a century, to raise the cotton trade 
 from the humblest of the domestic arts, which was 
 formerly confined to the fire side of the labour- 
 ing poor, and produced few articles except for our 
 home consumption, to one of the staple trades of the 
 country, affording at tSie same time the greatest 
 variety of fabrics for our internal consumption, suit- 
 ed as well for the ordinary wants and comforts, as 
 for the elegancies of life, and giving us a decided 
 superiority in every market in the world, except in 
 the delicate fine muslins from India. The patient 
 natives of the east still maintain their ancient pre- 
 eminence in the fineT kinds of muslin, some of 
 which of most exquisite beauty and fineness are sold 
 in this country, as high as ten or twelve guineas per 
 yard. In productions like these, no rivalship can 
 exist; In India, they are looked upon as master i 
 pieces of art, and the time employed by an Indian I 
 weaver in their production, would ruin an Eu- j 
 ropean manufacturer. 
 
 The common kinds of Indian muslins, or such as I 
 are adapted to general use, are also preferred by 
 our English ladies, to those of our home manufac- 
 ture, as enduring greater hardships, iind as better 
 retaining their white colour. This excellence which 
 exists to a certain degree, is the result of no superi- 
 ority in the manufacturing processes, but in the raw 
 material, of which that of India is the finest and best 
 in the world. 
 
 The manner: of manufacturing cotton in India, 
 forms a remarkable contrast to the European me- 
 thod, In Europe a vast apparatus of machinery is 
 used in every part of the process, while in India, 
 the simplest instruments are made to produce 
 fabricks of that exquisite fineness, which it is the 
 boast of our manufacturers to imitate, and which, 
 as yet, they can scarcely equal. The cotton-wool 
 
 in India, is prepared for the spinner without cards, 
 is spun for the weaver without wheels, and is woven 
 in looms, which the weaver can move from one 
 place to another, with as much facility as the web 
 itself The operation which our manufacturers 
 perform by carding engines, is executed by the 
 Indians with nothing more than a bow, the string 
 of which by repeated vibrations, raises the cotton- 
 wool to a downy fleece, in the same way that ouv 
 hatters prepare their furs for felting, an operation 
 which may be seen in most towns . — (See Hat-mak- 
 ing) 
 
 The fine thread or yarn, from which the choicest 
 Indian muslins are made, are spun from cotton, 
 thus prepared by the distaff and spindle, which it is 
 evident, was practised by the Romans, Greeks, and 
 Egyptians, from their fables and their sculptures. 
 No ill mg can be more simple than tins implement, 
 but it requires much dexterity to work it ; this yarn 
 is then woven in the loom, winch is the most simple 
 that can be imagined, consisting merely of two 
 bamboo rollers, one for the warp, and the other for 
 the web, and a pair of' geer. The shuttle performs 
 the double office, of shuttle and batten, and for this 
 purpose is made like a large netting needle, and of 
 a length somewhat exceeding the breadth of the 
 piece. 
 
 This apparatus tlie weaver carries to whatever 
 tree affords a shade most grateful to him, under 
 which he digs a hole, large enough to contain his 
 legs, and the lower part of the geer ; he then 
 stretches his warp, by fastening his bamboo rollers 
 at a due distance from each other, on the turf, by 
 wooden pins ; the balances of the geer he fastens to 
 some convenient branch of the tree over his head, 
 two loops underneath the geer in which he inserts, 
 his great toes serve instead of treadles, and bis long 
 shuttle which also performs the office of batten, 
 draws the weft, throws the warp, and afterwards 
 strikes it up close to the web. In such looms as this 
 are made those admirable muslins whose delicate 
 ietcture the European could never equal, with all 
 his complicated machinery. The processes of which 
 we shall now explain. 
 
 The raw cotton-wool, is the produce of a plant 
 about the size of a current bush, a native of the 
 torrid zone, though it is produced in parts of Tur- 
 key, as tar as 45? north latitude, the cotton is sepa- 
 rated from the seeds of the plant by a mill, and after 
 
 this 
 
240 
 
 COTTON-MANUKA CTUJIE. 
 
 this preparation it is packed up in hags for the ir fleece , th? - i 
 European market, wiierethe great consumption lies. J through a fui 
 The finest sort comes from Bengal and the coast of 1 1 '~ iL : 1 
 Coromandel, where cotton makes a very considera- 
 ble article in commerce. 
 
 But the g’reatest part of the cotton manufactured 
 in this country, is the produce of the AVest India 
 islands, and Smyrna, the most esteemed is white, 
 long, and soft. Those who buv it in bales should 
 see that it has not been wet, moisture being very 
 prejudicial to it. The generality of cotton is white, 
 but some i9 of a nankeen colour, and is invaluable in 
 the manufacture of that article, as it fades ve.y 
 little, even with long use, and frequent washing. 
 
 The elasticity of cotton is inconceiveable ; it may 
 be pressed into a 50th part of the space into which 
 the strongest packers can reduce it by personal ex- 
 ertion: large screws are erected at many sea-ports 
 where cotton is shipped, for the purpose of bringing 
 the bales into the sinallett compass, so as to save 
 freight. Cotton can only be imported as a raw ma- 
 terial, in which form it comes to us, from the Le- 
 vant, the West Indies, South America, and the East 
 Indies. It comes to us without any further prepara- 
 tion than being pretty carefully picked out ot the 
 pod, on which it grows, and the seeds separated. 
 
 Still much dirt, husk, and other impurites remain 
 in it, these are separated by women,' at the cotton 
 mills, who pick it over and beat it, with rods to dis- 
 entangle the knotted parts ; this beating is some- 
 times performed by the machine called a batting 
 machine, or else the cotton is subjected to the open- 
 ing machine ; these processes remove all dirt, dust, 
 and cotton, seeds, of which the cotton in its raw 
 state contains a great number, and would be very 
 pre judicial to the operations of the more delicate ma- 
 chines, the cotton when first packed up in the bags 
 is as before stated, compressed very closely for the 
 convenience of stowage, and this condenses it into a 
 hard matted mass, but the batting striking it violent- 
 ly with small sticks, causes the fibres by their natu- 
 ral elasticity, and the motion occasioned among 
 them, gradually to loosen and disengages themselves, 
 and the cotton by repeated strokes recovers all its 
 original volume and is prepared for carding. In 
 the machine which performs this operation, the cot- 
 ton is exposed to the action of an immense number 
 of loose teeth stuck in leather, in the manner of a 
 brush, these teeth are fixed upon cylinders acting 
 against each other, and the cotton being introduced 
 between them, is combed or carded by the teeth, 
 until almost every individual fibre of the cotton is 
 separated and drawn straight, and every little knot- 
 ty and entangled part disengaged ; by passing gra- 
 dually through the machine. Being carried from 
 one cylinder to another, the cotton is dispersed 
 lightly and evenly, among the teeth of the whole 
 surface of the last or finishing cylinder, from winch 
 it is detached by a curious mechanism in a continued 
 
 is drawn off and contracted, by passing 
 ntie', in which the fleece being hemmed 
 m on both sides, is gradually contracted to a thick 
 roll. Tins may be continued to any length, as long 
 as tfie machine is supplied with cotton ; the roll or 
 band of cotton is drawn off between two rollers, 
 which Compress it into a pretty firm flat ribband, 
 called a carding or sliver about two iuches broad, 
 which the rollers deliver into a tin can, placed to 
 receive it, and in this it is removed to the drawing 
 frame, which consists of a system of rollers, revolv- 
 ing with different velocities, either from the variation 
 of size in the pairs of rollers, or by their performing 
 a different number of revolutions, in the same space 
 of time, or from botli these causes united. Three or 
 more cardings from the carding machine, coiled up 
 in deep tin cans, are applied at once to these roll- 
 ers, in their passage through which, they not only 
 coalesce so as to form one single drawing, but are also 
 draw n out or extended in length. This process 
 is repeated several times, three four or more draw- 
 ings as they are now called being united and passed 
 again between the rollers, the number introduced 
 being so varied, that the last drawing - may be of a 
 size proportioned to the fineness of the thread, into 
 which it is intended to be spun. By this operation, 
 the -fibres of the cotton are drawn out longitudinal- 
 ly, and disposed in an uniform and parallel direc- 
 tion, and all inequalities of thickness are done away, 
 by the frequent doubling or joining of so many dif- 
 ferent lengths. 
 
 The operation of carding effects this in a certain 
 degree, yet the fibres though parallel are not 
 straight, but many of them are doubled, as may 
 easily be supposed, from the teeth of the cards, 
 catching the fibres sometimes in the middle, which 
 become hooked or fastened upon them ; but when 
 the carding has been passed 4 or 5 times through the 
 drawing frame, every fibre is stretched out at full 
 length, and disposed in the most even and regular 
 direction, so that each fibre, will when twisted into 
 thread, "take its proper share of any strain the 
 thread may be subjected to. If any crooked fibres 
 are twisted into a thread, they will communicate no 
 strength to such thread, until it is so much stretched, 
 that the crooked fibres become straightened x but be- 
 fore this happens, those fibres which are already ex- 
 tended to their full lengths must be broken. 
 
 The fibres of cotton are by these processes, pre- 
 pared for spinning, but the slivers must first be re- 
 duced to a small size, this is done by the roving 
 frame, which like the drawing frame, extends or 
 draws out the sliver, reducing it from a large band 
 to a coarse and loose thread. The roving iraine 
 immediately after having drawn and reduced it to 
 the intended size, gives it a very slight twist form- 
 ing a loose thread winch is called the roving, this is 
 the first rudiment of a thread. Although in this 
 state. 
 
 , it is extremely tender, and will not carry a 
 
 wejght 
 
COTTON-MANUFACTURE. 
 
 241 
 
 Weight of two ounces, it is much more cohesive for 
 its size than before roving, because the twist given it, 
 makes all the longitudinal fibres bind each other to- 
 gether, and compress those which lie athwart. In 
 drawing a single fibre, others are drawn out along with 
 it, and” if we take hold of the whole assemblage, in 
 two places, about an inch or two asunder, we shall find 
 that we may draw it to nearly twice its length, without 
 any risk of its separating in any intermediate part, or 
 becoming much smaller in one part than another. 
 The rovings are now spun into a strong thread, by the 
 spinning frame, which is little more than a repetition 
 of the operation of the roving frame. The roving 
 being drawing out and extended to reduce it to any de- 
 gree of fineness, and then the proper twist being given, 
 forms it into a firm and strong thread. The strength of 
 this thread depends much upon the perfection of the 
 preparatory processes of picking, carding, drawing, and 
 roving, for as every inch of the roving will meet, with 
 the same degree of drawing, and receives the same twist 
 in the spinning frame, every inequality and fault in the 
 roving, either as to the regularity of its size, or the pro- 
 per extension of its fibres, will continue in the thread in 
 nearly the same degree. 
 
 Such are the processes through which the cotton 
 passes, from the raw cotton, or cotton wool, as im- 
 ported, to the finished thread. We shall now proceed 
 to enlarge upon each subject, and describe the machi- 
 nery by which these operations are effected, in the most 
 expeditious and perfect manner ; for the explanation of 
 these, we have appropriated two plates, but it cannot 
 be expected that we should, in so limited a work, give 
 a complete account of all the machines used in the 
 cotton manufacture, we can only give an outline of the 
 whole, by detailing the most important of the machines, 
 and content ourselves with verbal descriptions of the 
 others ; 
 
 First, as the invention of these machines has been 
 the grand source of our commercial greatness, within the 
 last thirty years, it is but right that we should enter into 
 a brief history of the rise and progress of the cotton 
 manufacture, and give due credit to those ingenious 
 men, to whom we as a nation are so greatly indebted, 
 for the original discoveries, and successive improve- 
 ments upon them. 
 
 The spinning of cotton was before the year 1769* 
 performed by hand, a person working at a machine, 
 called a one thread wheel, consisting of a single spin- 
 dle, put in motion by a wheel and band, turned by the 
 right hand, whilst the thread was managed by the left. 
 This composed the whole of the spinning apparatus, 
 on which one person could with difficulty produce a 
 pound of thread, by close and diligent application in 
 the whole day. 
 
 The goods then manufactured were strong and coarse, 
 compared with those of the present day, and little or no 
 thread, finer than from sixteen to twenty hanks in the 
 pound, each hank measuring 840 yards, was then spun, 
 it was subject, as may readily be conceived, to great 
 
 inequalities, its evenness depending greatly on the de- 
 licacy of touch, which the spinner by long habit had 
 acquired, and varied with every little difference, in the 
 extension of the thread during twisting, and the revo- 
 lution of the spindle in portions of ttie same length. 
 As the demand for cotton goods increased, various con- 
 trivances were thought of, for expediting this part of 
 the manufacture, but though many were very ingenious, 
 none were so successful as to come into general use, 
 until 1767, when the spinning jenny was invented by 
 James Hargreaves, a plain, industrious, but illiterate 
 man, a weaver in the neighbourhood of Blackburn, in 
 Lancashire. The first jenny consisted of eight spindles, 
 all worked together, by a band from one wheel ; and 
 the machine was provided with an apparatus, which held 
 all the eight threads at once, in the same manner as the 
 spinner held the cotton, between the finger and thumb. 
 The cotton was at this period prepared for spinning by 
 hand-cards, these were small square boards, upon which 
 a sheet of leather, furnished with wire teeth, was 
 stretched ; the carder held one of these in each hand, 
 and putting the cotton between them, they were scraped 
 with one edge over the surface of the other card, in the 
 direction of its teeth ; the cotton was then, by a parti- 
 cular manoeuvre, removed, and coiled up into short soft 
 rolls, which were called cardings. These were of the 
 thickness of a candle, and from eight to twelve inches 
 long, possessing little strength or tenacity, the slightest 
 force being sufficient to break or pull them asunder. 
 One end of this roll being held between the finger and 
 thumb of the spinner, and the other twisted round 
 the point of the spindle, was rapidly drawn out dur- 
 ing its revolution, and formed a coarse soft thread, 
 called a roving. This operation of twisting and draw- 
 ing was afterwards repeated, and the roving was con- 
 verted into a smaller, firmer and longer thread. To this 
 operation the term spinning was more particularly ap- 
 plied, the first being considered as preparatory, and 
 w'as called roving. 
 
 For some time after the introduction of the jenny, 
 this mode of roving on the single spindle continued ia 
 use, the joining of the carding rendering manual dex- 
 terity absolutely necessary. The jenny was soon after 
 its invention enlarged, in the number of spindles to 
 twelve aftd sixteen, and made such rapid progress, as to 
 alarm the minds of the ignorant and misguided mul- 
 titude, with the idea, that all manual labour would soon 
 be annihilated by the use of these machines ; and they 
 broke into Hargreaves’ house and destroyed his machine ; 
 this outrage induced him to remove to Nottingham, 
 where he was invited by the stocking weavers, and as- 
 sisted in the erection and management of a mill, not- 
 withstanding a serious opposition from the lower orders 
 of the people at first. Here the machine was gradually 
 enlarged to thirty, fifty, and eighty spindles, and became 
 very general ; but the jealousy of the lower classes of 
 people still continued, and though no scarcity of work 
 had been experienced, they assembled in Lancashire in 
 1779, and destroyed all the jennies, which worked mor e 
 8 Q than 
 
COTTON-MANUFACTURE. 
 
 242 
 
 than twenty spindles ; but in three or four years after 
 Hargreaves’ first invention, its further extension was 
 stopped by the appearance of a superior mechanic, this 
 was the celebrated Sir Richard, at that time Mr. Ark- 
 wright, whose invention and perseverance raised him 
 from the most humble occupation in society, to great 
 affluence and honour ; this ingenious gentleman turned 
 his attention to the whole of the manufacture, and in- 
 deed his chief improvements were in the preparatory 
 processes. Hargreaves had made a great improvement 
 in carding, by applying two or three cards upon the 
 same stock or handle, and suspending the upper cards, 
 which from their weight and size, would otherwise have 
 been unmanageable, from the ceiling of the room, by 
 a cord passed over a pulley, to the other end of which 
 was affixed a weight or counterpoise. With these, one 
 woman could perform twice as much work, and with 
 greater ease, than she could do before in the common 
 way. The stock cards were soon after succeeded by 
 cylindric cards, the invention of which is claimed by so 
 many different persons, that it is impossible now to de- 
 termine to whom the merit is due. Among the first 
 who employed them, was the late Mr. Peele, who con- 
 structed a carding engine with cylinders, as early as the 
 year 1762, in which he was assisted by Hargreaves. Mr. 
 Peele’s engine consisted of two or more cylinders, covered 
 with cards, but it had no contrivance for stripping or 
 taking off the carded cotton. This was performed by 
 two women with hand cards, who alternately applied 
 them to the last or finishing cylinder. 
 
 Mr. Arkwright very materially improved this carding 
 machine, by several minor contrivances, but chiefly by 
 the crank and comb. He employed, like his predeces- 
 sors, two or more large cylinders, covered with cards, 
 revolving in opposite directions, and nearly in contact 
 Avith each other ; they were surmounted with other 
 smaller cylinders covered in like manner, by whose re- 
 volutions, in various directions, and with different ve- 
 locities, the cotton was carded and delivered to the last 
 or finishing cylinder, from which it was stripped off by 
 various contrivances. The cards of the first invented 
 machines were nailed on the stripes or sheets, of six or 
 eight inches broad, and the margin of each sheet in 
 which the nails were driven, being destitute of teeth, 
 formed so many intervals or furrows across the surface 
 of the cylinder. The cotton was stripped off at first 
 by hand, as in Mr. Peele’s machine, and afterwards 
 by a fluted cylinder, or by a roller, armed with stripes 
 of tin plate or iron, standing erect like the floats of an 
 undershot wheel, and which revolving quicker than the 
 card, and in close contact with it, scraped off the cotton 
 in distinct portions from each stripe or sheet, which fell 
 into a receptacle below. This was a harsh and rude 
 operation, and injured not only the carding, but the cards 
 themselves. 
 
 Mr. Arkwright substituted for the fluted cylinder, a 
 plate of metal, called the comb, finely toothed at the 
 edge, and moved rapidly up and dowm in a perpendicu- 
 lar direction, by a crank. The slight, but reiterated 
 
 strokes of this comb, acting on the teeth of the cards, 
 detached the cotton in a fine uniform fleece. On the 
 finishing cylinders also, narrow fillet cards, as they are 
 termed, wound round in a spiral form, were substituted 
 by Mr. Arkwright for the ordinary cards, nailed across. 
 The continuity of the fleece was thus preserved, which 
 was destroyed before, by the intervals or furrows, to 
 which we have alluded, and being gradually contracted 
 in its size, by passing through a kind of funnel, and flat- 
 tened or compressed between two rollers, Avas delivered 
 into a tin can, in one continued, uniform, perpetual, 
 carding, so long as the machine was kept in motion, 
 and Avas supplied with the raAV material. 
 
 But Mr. Arkwright’s grand improvement was the in- 
 vention of preparing the cotton by rollers ; it is essen- 
 tial to good spinning that the fibres shall be disposed 
 exactly parallel to each other, which is effected by draw- 
 ing out or extending the mass of cotton, by certain 
 parts, resembling the fingers and thumb of the spinner ; 
 the contrivance for this purpose consisted of a certain 
 number of pairs of cylinders, each pair revolving in con- 
 tact with its fellow. Suppose then that a loose thread, 
 or lightly twisted roving of cotton, was made to pass 
 betAveen one pair of cylinders, properly adapted w'ith a 
 facing for holding it, and that it proceeded from thence 
 to another pair, whose surfaces revolved Avith a much 
 greater velocity; it is evident, that this quicker revolu- 
 tion would draw out the cotton, and render it thinner 
 and longer when it came to be delivered on the other 
 side. This is the operation which the spinner performs 
 Avith his finger and thumb ; and if the cotton be deli- 
 vered in this state to a spinning apparatus, it will be 
 converted into thread. 
 
 The immediate spinning apparatus, or that part Avhich 
 gives tw'ist to the thread, w'as made by Mr. Arkwright, 
 on a totally different principle from the jenny. He em- 
 ployed the spindle of the old flax Avheel, which was 
 used for those substances, whose fibres, from their na- 
 ture, but more particularly from their length, w'ould 
 not admit of the preparatory process of carding. Their 
 fibres were dressed and disposed in an even and parallel 
 direction, by an operation resembling combing, and 
 were then coiled round the head of the distaff, affixed 
 to a wheel, furnished with a spindle, bobbin, and fly. 
 The fly and spindle moved together, and Avere kept in 
 rapid motion by a wheel and band, vvorked by the foot 
 of the spinner. The bobbin which received the thread, 
 ran loose upon the spindle, and moved only by the 
 friction of its ends, in proportion as the fibres of the 
 flax Avere disengaged from the distaff, by the finger and 
 thumb of the spinner, and were twisted by the fly. If 
 we suppose the machine itself to be left at liberty, and 
 turned without the assistance of the spinner, the twisted 
 thread being draw'n inwards by the bobbin, would natu- 
 rally gather more of the material, and form an irregular 
 thread, thicker and thicker, till at length the difficulty 
 of drawing out so large a portion of the material, as 
 had acquired the twist, would become greater than that 
 of snapping the thread, which would accordingly break. 
 
COTTON-MANUFACTURE. 
 
 243 
 
 It is the business of the spinner to prevent this, by hold- 
 ing the material between the finger and thumb, and by 
 separating the hand during the act of pinching, that the 
 intermediate part may be drawn out to the degree of 
 fineness previous to the twist. 
 
 To accomplish these purposes by machinery, the ob- 
 ject of Mr. Arkwright’s invention, two conditions be- 
 came indispensably necessary, 
 
 1st, that the raw material, should be so prepared, as 
 to require none of that intellectual skill, which is alone 
 capable of separating the knotty or entangled parts, as 
 they offer themselves. And, 2dly, that it should be 
 drawn out, by certain parts, resembling the finger and 
 thumb of the spinner. The first of these was com- 
 pletely fulfilled by the various machines and contrivances 
 for the preparation of cotton for spinning, which Sir 
 Richard afterwards invented; and obtained a patent for; 
 the second was accomplished in his first and capital ma- 
 chine, since called the twist or Water Frame. He 
 contrived to make the rotary carding and spinning en- 
 gines, to move by horse, by water, and by steam ; and 
 thus by saving of labour, and with the advantage of a 
 patent monopoly, he was in a few years rendered one of 
 the most opulent of our manufacturers. 
 
 Mr. Arkwright also applied his invention of the rol- 
 lers, to other parts of the process, viz. the preparation 
 of the cotton immediately after carding, to obtain the 
 greatest equality of thickness and parallelism of the 
 fibres, by the drawing frame which we have before de- 
 scribed. He had many difficulties to struggle with, in 
 bringing these inventions, and improvements to perfec- 
 tion ; he first attempted to put his ideas in practice at 
 Liverpool, but not receiving proper encouragement, he 
 entered into partnership w ith Mr. Smalley, of Preston, in 
 Lancashire, but their property failing, they went to 
 Nottingham, and there by the assistance of wealthy in- 
 dividuals, erected a considerable cotton mill, turned by 
 horses ; but this mode of proceedure w'as found too ex- 
 pensive, and another mill on a larger scale was erected 
 at Cromford, in Derbyshire, in the year 1771, the ma- 
 chinery of which w'as put in motion by water. This 
 mill is still at work, and deserves notice as being the 
 first of those numerous establishments, which were very 
 quickly erected in various parts of the country ; and the 
 manufacture being thus firmly established, Mr. Ark- 
 wright’s claims to the inventions were disputed, and his 
 patent right contested in the Court of King’s Bench, 
 and after much litigation between him and a host of 
 opulent manufacturers, who had now entered into the 
 business, the letters patent were cancelled on the ground, 
 of his not being the original inventor. The. court en- 
 tered into the examination of the origin of every idea, 
 and the assistance he derived, from every one of his 
 workmen ; but upon the whole, w ithout minutely de- 
 tailing further particulars, it appears that cotton spinning 
 was no new attempt wheti Mr. Arkwright embarked in 
 it ; but many difficulties occurred in bringing it to per- 
 fection, and in his hands the carding and spinning of 
 cotton, became a national manufacture. According to 
 
 his statement, it appeared that the advancement of it, 
 during a period of five years, cost him, and those that 
 were concerned with him, 12,000/. before they derived 
 from it any profit, and it must be allowed that he alone 
 had sufficient perseverance, activity, and skill, to per- 
 fect a scheme, in the prosecution of which many others 
 had failed, and to render it valuable to himself and the 
 public. It appeared on the trial, that Mr. Arkwright 
 certainly received many ideas from Mr. Kay, a clock- 
 maker of Warrington, who was in some way concerned 
 with him in making the first machines; but injustice to 
 the memory of Arkwright, it must be stated, that the 
 higher praise of completing the invention, of bringing it 
 to its present state of perfection, and making it a grand 
 instrument of national prosperity, was exclusively his own. 
 He who suggests a new' and important principle, has 
 only advanced one step into the field of discovery, and 
 has a claim upon the liberality of his country, and the 
 grateful recollections of posterity ; but he who pursues 
 it through all its ramifications, exhausts all its resources, 
 and extends it to all the purposes, to which it is appli- 
 cable, has certainly performed a task far beyond the 
 powers of the original inventor. Such are the relative 
 merits of Mr. Kay and Mr. Arkwright. This truly 
 eminent man, at the same time that he was inventing 
 and improving machinery, was also engaged in other 
 undertakings, which any person, judging from general 
 appearance, must have pronounced incompatible with 
 such pursuits. While he was taking measures to secure 
 to himself a fair proportion of the fruits of his industry 
 and ingenuity, he was extending the business on a large 
 scale ; he was introducing into every department of the 
 manufacture, a system of industry, order, and cleanli- 
 ness, till then unknown in any manufactory where great 
 numbers of people w'ere employed together, but which 
 he so effectually accomplished, that his example might 
 be regarded as the origin of all similar improvements. 
 The merits of Sir R. Arkwright may be summed up 
 with observing, that the object in which he was engaged 
 was of the highest public value ; that though his family 
 were enriched by it, the benefits which have accrued to 
 the nation have been incalculably greater; and that upon 
 the whole he is entitled to the respect and admiration of 
 the W'orld. He was knighted by His Majesty in 1786, 
 and died in August 1792 at his princely mansion near 
 his mills at Crumford ; report says, he left a property of 
 more than half a million of money in value, though he 
 began the world as only a country hair-dresser. 
 
 The system of spinning introduced by Sir Richard, 
 was found most particularly applicable to the production 
 of thread for warp, or stocking yarn, w hilst the Jenny 
 of Hargreaves, was chiefly employed in spinning the 
 w'oof or weft, for the coarse kinds of which it is better 
 adapted than the perfect machine which Sir Richard 
 invented. The jenny for some years after its introduction 
 spun all the twist and weft in the kingdom, the use of this 
 machine has lipwever since been almost superseded by a 
 third machine called a mule, for the invention of which we 
 are indebted to the ingenuity of Mr. Samuel Crompton 
 
<244 
 
 COTTON-MANUFACTURE. 
 
 of Bolton, who lately (1812) received a reward of 
 5,000 l. from parliament, it appearing that he had de- 
 rived but little benefit from the invention. The mule was 
 invented about the year 1776, during the term of Sir 
 Richard’s patent right, and did not on that account 
 come into general use till after its expiration ; it is a 
 compound of the two machines of Arkwright and Har- 
 greaves, and is considered as its name imports, the off- 
 spring of the twist frame and jenny. It consists of a sys- 
 tem of rollers like those of the twist frame, through 
 which the roving is drawn and received upon spin- 
 dles, revolving like those of the jenny, and from which 
 it acquires the twist. The carriage on which the spin- 
 dles are disposed is moveable, and receding from the 
 rollers somewhat quicker than the thread is delivered, 
 draws or extends it in the same manner as is done by the 
 jenny. 
 
 This completes the series of machines now in use, 
 and is the only very important discovery in spinning 
 since the inventions of Sir R. Arkwright, on which in- 
 deed its chief merit is founded. Of its excellence, 
 and also of those other machines employed in the dif- 
 ferent preparatory processes, some idea may perhaps be 
 formed, when it is stated that a pound of fine cotton 
 has been spun on the mule into 350 hanks, each hank 
 measuring 840 yards, and forming together a thread 
 167 miles in length. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE MACHINES. 
 
 The picking of cotton is necessarily performed by 
 hand, as it requires a discretionary power, which a 
 machine cannot possess. This department is therefore 
 conducted without the aid of mechanism. The batting 
 is the first machine the cotton passes through ; here 
 the cotton is spread by women upon a platform, which 
 is in constant motion, from one end of the machine to 
 the other, and therefore carries the cotton along upon 
 it, and in its passage it receives the strokes of several | 
 small sticks, or rods, which alternately beat upon it 
 with a very sharp stroke. This platform is formed of a 
 long cord, which is repeatedly passed over tw'o rollers, 
 one of which is supported at one end of the frame, 
 the other is at the opposite end ; the cord passing 
 round from one of these to the other 20 or 30 times, 
 and having all the turns made parallel to each other at 
 about an inch asunder, forms an horizontal platform 
 for the support of the cotton. Whilst it is under the 
 operation of the batting, one of the rollers is kept in 
 constant motion by the train of wheel-work which re- 
 ceives its motion from the main spindle of the machine ; 
 by these means the endless rope, which extends from 
 one roller to the other, and forms the platform for the 
 cotton, is in constant motion, and the cotton which is 
 laid upon it at one end traverses slowly to the other, 
 receiving in its passage the blows of the batting rods, 
 which strike upon it alternately. Their action is pro- 
 duced in a very curious manner, being attached by 
 joints to the upper ends of the vertical lever, which, by 
 means of cranks upon the main spindle, have an alter- 
 
 nating motion to and from the platform. The rods are 
 attached to their levers by a short spindle, upon which 
 they move as on an axis, and have pulleys fixed at the side 
 of them, which, by straps fixed to the framing at one 
 end of each, and to the circumference of these pulleys 
 at the other ends, turn the pulleys and -rods over at the 
 same time that they advance to and recede from the 
 platform by the motion of the levers to which they are 
 attached ; thus the motion of the rods exactly imitates 
 the action of the arm of a person beating the cotton with 
 a small cane, for the vertical levers just mentioned may 
 be considered as the motion of the arm on the joint of 
 the shoulder, drawing the cane backwards when it is 
 lifted up on the elbow joint as a centre to fetch a stroke, 
 and advancing while it is falling to make the stroke ; let 
 the joint of the levers with the rods represent the el- 
 bow joint, and the operation of the movement is the 
 same. The machine has four rods on each side, which 
 act alternately with great rapidity, and the whole move- 
 ment is regulated by a fly w heel. The batting machine, 
 though not a leading one in the cotton manufacture, is 
 of important use in saving labour and beating the cotton 
 in a very regular manner, for no part can escape its 
 action. 
 
 The machine called a devil, or more properly the 
 opening machine, is used for similar purposes as the 
 batting machine, though it is not to be considered as 
 one of the same series, being used for the coarser sorts 
 of cotton in the same stage as the batting engine is used 
 for the finer sorts. 
 
 It consists of a large cylinder, put in rapid motion 
 by an endless band passing round a pulley upon its axis. 
 This cylinder has a great number of teeth fixed into its 
 periphery, and the hood or casing which encloses it 
 contain a set of similar teeth, or spikes, fixed within 
 side of it, and situated very near the spikes of the cylin- 
 der as they revolve. The cotton enters into the machine 
 between a pair of fluted rollers, which are placed imme- 
 diately above each other just before the cylinder, a heavy 
 weight being suspended from the pivots of the upper 
 roller causes them to press together with a sufficient 
 force to draw the cotton in between them, and the flutes 
 or indentions of the two rollers mutually locking into 
 each other, they take the cotton the more certainly. The 
 lower roller is turned round by means of wheel-work from 
 the main spindle ; the cotton is spread out upon an end- 
 less feeding cloth, strained between two rollers, one of 
 which works very close to the fluted feeding roller, and is 
 turned round thereby, so that the cloth, and the cotton 
 spread out upon it by children are kept in constant motion 
 towards the cylinder, and delivers the cotton between the 
 feeding roller. These give it regularly to the cylinder, 
 which is rapidly revolving, and its teeth take the cotton 
 and carry it round between the cylinder and the hood, 
 working it between their teeth to open and unravel 
 every knot or tuft of cotton. After passing through the 
 machine, the cotton is thrown out finished, having been 
 opened in every part so as to completely disentangle it ; 
 and the dust, cotton seeds, or any other extraneous 
 
 matter 
 
COTTON-MANUFACTURE. 
 
 245 
 
 matter drop out through a wire grating, which encloses 
 the lower half of the cylinder and prevents the escape of 
 the cotton until it has passed quite round it. Some of 
 the most improved mills use opening machines, which 
 are provided with two cylinders revolving against each 
 other, so that they resemble two of these machines put 
 together, by which means the cotton is more completely 
 worked in passing through them. 
 
 Gar ding-machine . — This we have before described, 
 in general terms, to consist of a number of cylinders 
 covered with wire teeth ; but for its more particular ex- 
 planation we must refer to Plate I. Fig. 1, which is 
 a section : here B B is a large cylinder turned rapidly 
 round by an endless strap on the pulley A ; the surface 
 of the cylinder is covered with cards, the sheets of 
 leather for which are glued or nailed on in stripes or 
 sheets parallel with its axis, and disposed in such a di- 
 rection that when it revolves in the direction of the ar- 
 row the teeth upon it go with their points forward, so 
 that if a lock of cotton was held against them, it would 
 be drawn inwards upon the teeth. The cylinder re- 
 volves under an arch c c, lined with the same kinds of 
 cards which are shewn in Fig. 2.; the teeth are dispos- 
 ed to meet those of the cylinder. D is a second 
 cylinder of cards, the teeth meeting the first, its mo- 
 tion being taken by a large bevelled wheel f, on the 
 end of its spindle from a small pinion on the end of an 
 inclined axis r, which at the other end receives its mo- 
 tion by a pair of equal bevel wheels from the spindle 
 of the great cylinder B B. Before the cylinder at b, 
 are a pair of fluted feeding rollers, between which the 
 cotton passes, and is delivered to the cylinder, the 
 cotton is spread out upon a feeding cloth e which tra- 
 verses constantly round two rollers g h, one of which is 
 turned by means of a pinion from the feeding rollers ; 
 these receive their motion from a wheel on the end of 
 the cylinder D by means of bevil wheels, and an in- 
 clined spindle not seen in the figure, but its direction is 
 shewn by the dotted line a a. The cotton is taken off 
 the cylinder D in a continued fleece by the mechanism 
 described in Figs. 1 and 3, w'hich is called the comb, 
 or taker off. This is a rod or iron bar i i, situated pa- 
 rallel to the axis of the cylinder, and cut on the lower 
 edge with fine teeth like a comb ; it rises and falls pa- 
 rallel to itself by being united to two rods k, which are 
 guided by two levers l l ; the lower ends of the rods 
 k k are, as shewn in Fig. 1. jointed to two small cranks 
 m formed on a spindle which is turned by a pulley n 
 with an endless strap from a pulley fixed on the main 
 axis close behind the great pulley A. Now by the 
 motion of these cranks the rod i i rises and falls, and at 
 the same time moves a little to and from the surface of 
 the cylinder D. By this motion it scrapes downwards be- 
 tween the teeth thereof, and in consequence removes the 
 cotton from them the whole length of the cylinder at 
 once, and the motion of the crank is so quick, that by 
 the time this piece of cotton so detached from the great 
 cylinder D, has moved with the cylinder as much as its 
 own breadth, the crank makes another stroke, and in 
 
 consequence the second piece detached from the teeth, 
 adheres to the first, the third adheres tp the second, 
 and so on. The cotton is thus stripped, or skinned off 
 the cylinder, in a continued and connected fleece. 
 This fleece, as is shewn in Fig. 1, is received upon a 
 plain cylinder E, which is turned slowly round, by 
 means of pulleys and a band from the pulley dotted 
 round the centre of the cylinder D. F is a small roller 
 gently pressing upon the fleece, to make it lap evenly 
 upon the surface of the cylinder E, as the same turns 
 round, and takes it up when stripped off the surface of 
 the cylinder D. 
 
 G is the main drum, or wheel, which turns the ma- 
 chine ; it is fixed on a spindle extending the whole 
 length of the mill, being suspended by brackets like o from 
 the ceiling, and turning forty or fifty machines in a row. 
 
 I K, Fig. 1, are two small cylinders called urchins, 
 they are covered with cards and revolve, so that their 
 teeth act with the teeth of the great cylinder, through 
 proper openings left between the top bars or rails, com- 
 posing the arch CC ; the urchins are turned slowly 
 round in the direction of the arrows, by means of a 
 band xx from a wheel on the spindle of the cylinder D. 
 
 To explain the action of this machine, we must give 
 some idea of the nature of the operation of carding ; 
 the card may be compared to a brush, made with wires 
 instead of hairs, stuck through a sheet of leather, the 
 wires not being perpendicular to the plane, but all in- 
 clined one way, in a certain angle, see fig. 2, where 
 R and S are these sheets of leather for a pair of cards, 
 and TT, or VV, represent the teeth or card wires re- 
 spectively belonging to each. Beneath is a view of one 
 wire insulated, shewing the two teeth, with their bend 
 in the shank, called the knee bend, by which they are 
 inclined to the leather, in the manner before mentioned. 
 Now we may conceive, that cotton being stuck upon 
 the teeth of one of these cards, another may be applied 
 to it, and combed or scraped in such a direction, as to 
 strike the cotton inwards upon the teeth, rather than 
 tend to draw it out. Of the consequences of a repe- 
 tition of the strokes of the empty card in this direction, 
 upon the fall, one is a more equable distribution of 
 the cotton, upon the surface of the teeth, and in doing 
 this the fibres are combed and laid straight. Then, il 
 one card be drawn in an opposite direction over the 
 other, it will, in consequence of the inclination of its 
 wires, take the whole of the cotton out of the card, 
 whose inclination is the contrary way. 
 
 The cotton being spread out evenly upon the feed- 
 ing cloth e, and advancing with the cloth, it is thrown in 
 between the fluted feeding rollers b, which deliver it gra- 
 dually and equally to the cylinder, by this it is carried round 
 until it meet the urchin I, which is turning round very 
 slowly, and its teeth meeting the teeth of the great cy- 
 linder, take off part of the cotton therefrom, and carry 
 it round till it meets K, which moves so as to take the 
 cotton off from I, and return it again to the great cy- 
 linder. The object of thus transferring it, is to obtain 
 a more regular and equable distribution, than the feed- 
 3 R ing 
 
246 
 
 COTTON-MANUFACTURE. 
 
 ing or spreading the cotton upon the cloth e, will make 
 upon the cylinder. The great cylinder thus receiving 
 the cotton, carries it round and cards it against the teeth 
 lining the arch CC ; in this process it becomes more 
 equably distributed over the teeth in the cylinder, and 
 gets carded ; in so doing the cotton continues in this 
 manner, hanging sometimes in the teeth of the cylinder, 
 and sometimes in those of the arch, but slowly advanc- 
 ing till it comes to the cylinder D, whose teeth meeting 
 those of the cylinder, and turning round very slowly 
 take the cotton from it in a very regular and even film 
 spread over its whole surface. This film it carries round 
 to the comb i, by which it is detached, as before de- 
 scribed, and lapped round the cylinder E, which conti- 
 nues to lap up the fleece upon it, until it has made fif- 
 teen or twenty turns, and of course as many revolutions 
 of the fleece round its circumference. The attendant 
 then breaks it off ; by dividing it at one part and spread- 
 ing it out straight, it will form a fleece called a lap, 
 which is the length of the circumference of the cylinder, 
 and consisting of fifteen or twenty thicknesses. By this 
 admirable contrivance great regularity is obtained in the 
 thickness of the lap, because, if at any one part, the 
 fleece produced by the machine is thinner or thicker, 
 than it ought to be, in consequence of any irregularity 
 in the spreading of the cotton wool upon the cloth, 
 previous to carding, such irregularity will have no sen- 
 sible effect upon the ultimate thickness of the lap, be- 
 cause it is composed of thirty or forty strata, and there 
 is no probability that the inequalities of these several 
 strata will fall beneath each other, but every chance 
 that they will be equally dispersed through the whole, and 
 thus correct each other. The lap when taken off, is 
 laid flat on a cloth, with which it is rolled up and con- 
 veyed to a second carding machine, and spread out 
 upon its feeding cloth ; in this machine it undergoes 
 exactly the same operation as in the first, and the fleece 
 is detached from the cylinder D in the same manner, but 
 instead of going to the lapping cylinder E, as we have 
 described, it is gathered up as shewn at X in fig. 3, 
 into a tin funnel marked p*; it then passes between a pair 
 of rollers q r, which compress and flatten the fleece 
 in its contracted state, into a pretty firm, and connected 
 sliver or band Y, and deliver it into a tin can. The low est 
 of these rollers r is situated upon a spindle s, extending 
 across the frame, and turned by a pulley t upon the end 
 of it, which is connected by an endless band, with the 
 pulley z upon the spindle of the cylinder D. 
 
 By these means, the fibres of cotton are disentangled 
 from all knots, and the whole is reduced from the en- 
 tangled and matted wool, to a regular and equable sliver 
 or band, which is conveyed away in the tin can, to the 
 drawing frame, which we shall next describe by the 
 help of fig. 5, which is a section of the operative part 
 of the machine, taken through its middle ; EEEE re- 
 present four of the perpetual slivers or endless cardings 
 we have just described, entering into it; let A repre- 
 sent the section of a roller, whose pivot does not turn, 
 in a pivot hole, but in the bottom of a long narrow 
 
 notch B, cut in an iron standard ; a is the section of 
 another iron roller, whose pivot is retained in the same 
 notches at each end, while the roller itself lies or rests 
 on the roller A, below it. The surfaces of these rollers 
 are fluted lengthwise like a column, only the fluting are 
 very small and sharp, like deep strokes of engraving 
 very close together ; it is plain, that if the roller A be 
 made to turn slowly round its axis, by machinery, in the 
 direction as expressed by the dart ; the roughness of the 
 flutings will take hold of the similar roughness of the 
 upper roller, and carry it round also in the direction of 
 the dart, while its pivots are engaged in the notches B, 
 which they cannot quit. If, therefore, we introduce the 
 end F of the cotton sliver, or band EF, formed by the 
 carding machine, it will be pulled in by this motion, 
 and will be delivered out on the other side, considera- 
 bly compressed by the weight of the upper roller a , 
 which is of iron, and is also pressed down by a piece 
 of brass, which rests on its pivots, or other proper 
 places, and is loaded with a weight C. There is nothing 
 to hinder this motion of the riband thus compressed 
 between the rollers, and it will therefore be drawn 
 through from the cans. The compressed part, after 
 passing through, would hang down and be piled up on 
 the floor as it is drawn through ; but it is not per- 
 mitted to hang down in this manner, it is brought to 
 another pair of sharp fluted iron rollers, K and L. 
 Supposing this pair of rollers to be of the same diame- 
 ter, and to turn round in the same time and in the same 
 direction with the rollers A, a, it is plain that K and 
 L would drag in the compressed riband and would de- 
 liver it on the other side, still more compressed. But 
 the roller K is made, by the wheel work, to turn round 
 more swiftly than A. The difference of velocity at the 
 surface of the rollers, is, however, very small, not ex- 
 ceeding one part in twelve or fifteen. But the conse- 
 quence of this difference is, that the skein of cotton 
 will be lengthened in the same proportion ; for the 
 upper roller pressing on the under ones with considera- 
 ble force, their sharp flutings take good hold of the 
 cotton between them. Since K and L take up the cot- 
 ton faster than A and a deliver it out, it must either be 
 forcibly pulled through between the first roller, or 
 it must be stretched a little by the fibres slipping among 
 each other, or it must break. 
 
 When the extension is so very moderate as we have 
 just now said, the only effect of it is merely to begin to 
 draw the fibres, (which at present are lying in every pos- 
 sible direction) into a more favourable position, for 
 the subsequent extensions. 
 
 The fibres being thus drawn together, the cotton is 
 introduced between a third pair of rollers O P, con- 
 structed in the same way, but so moved by the wheel- 
 work, that the surface of O moves nearly, or full three 
 times as fast as the surface of K, the roller P being also 
 well loaded, they take a firm hold of the cotton, and 
 the part between K and O is nearly or wholly trebled in 
 its length, or the sliver is extended to almost four times 
 the length in which it enters between A a. After the 
 
 sliver 
 
COTTON-MANUFACTURE. 
 
 247 
 
 sliver has passed through the three pairs of rollers it is 
 conducted through a tin funnel H, being drawn for- 
 ward, by a pair of rollers R S, this contracts it into a 
 regular sliver, and it is delivered at G into a can. The 
 upper roller S, is merely pressed down upon the 
 under one by its own weight, and therefore compresses 
 it but little, though sufficiently together with the con- 
 traction, produced by the funnel H, to unite the four 
 slivers EEEE, which enter together into one which 
 passes out at G, between the rollers RS. These rollers 
 do not draw or extend the cotton ; their velocities be- 
 ing accurately adapted to take up the four slivers as fast 
 as they come through the other pairs, and by drawing 
 them all together through the funnel H, to unite the 
 four into one, and the slight pressure of the rollers 
 compresses them into a firm and connected sliver, which 
 though compounded of four, is only the same size as 
 any one of the four put in, because it is drawn out to 
 four times the length. The effect of the machine has 
 only been to straighten and lay the fibres parallel to 
 each other ; for the motion which the drawing produces 
 among them always tends to extend each individual 
 fibre to its full length, and it is necessary to unite seve- 
 ral slivers together, or the drawing would reduce the 
 sliver to such a small size, that it would not bear 
 sufficient extension without separating and breaking 
 across. 
 
 Figs. 4 and 6 explain the wheelwork, which commu- 
 nicates the motion from one roller to the others, Fig. 4 
 being a view of the wheel-work at one end of the rollers, 
 and Fig. 5 the wheels at the opposite end. The mo- 
 tion is given to the whole machine by a strap and pulley 
 D, Fig. 5. on the end of the pivot of the roller O. 
 On the opposite end of this roller, the small wheel g, 
 Fig. 6, is fixed and turns h, which is mounted only on 
 a stud, and carries with it a pinion i, this turns a wheel 
 k, on the end of the pivot of the roller K ; now as the 
 wheel g is larger than h, the latter will move much 
 slower, and as i is smaller than k, this will move slower 
 than either ; the proportions are so adapted, that K and 
 k will only turn once for three times of O g, but the 
 proportions vary in different mills. On the other end 
 of the roller K, a pinion f, Fig. 4, is fixed, this turns 
 an intermediate or connecting wheel e, and thus gives 
 motion to the wheel d, fixed on the end of the roller 
 A, which has the roller a over it ; now the wheel f be- 
 ing, in its diameter and number of teeth, to d as twelve 
 to fifteen, of course the relative velocities of the rollers 
 A and K will bear that proportion as before stated. 
 
 The rollers R S are turned by means of a strap, 
 from a pulley on the pivot of the front roller O. 
 
 The reader will by this perfectly comprehend Sir R. 
 Arkwright’s great principle of cotton spinning, by, viz. 
 the drawing by rollers, which extends the fibres in so 
 perfect a manner. 
 
 As the drawing frame takes in four slivers E E E, 
 and draws them into one at G, this is repeated four times 
 over, by passing the sliver as many times- through the 
 machine; therefore, by this process the sliver is drawn 
 
 out (4x4=16x4=64x4=256) to 256 times the 
 original length, as produced by the carding machine. 
 
 In this state the sliver presents a most beautiful ap- 
 pearance, being so extremely regular in its size, and all 
 the fibres being drawn so straight, that it bears a beau- 
 tiful glossy or silky appearance. After this preparation 
 of the sliver it must be reduced in size to a small thread, 
 this is done at two operations, the first called roving, 
 and the next spinning. The general effect of the spin- 
 ning process is, to draw out this massive sliver, and to 
 twist it as it is drawn out ; but this is not to be done by 
 the fingers pulling out as many fibres of the cotton at 
 once, as are necessary for composing a thread of the 
 intended fineness, and continuing this manipulation, re- 
 gularly across the whole end of the riband, and thus 
 as it were nibbling the whole of it away. The fingers 
 must be directed, for this purpose by an attentive eye ; 
 but in performing this by machinery, the whole riband 
 must be drawn out together and twisted as it is drawn ; 
 this requires great art and very delicate management, it 
 cannot be done at once, that is, the cotton sliver cannot 
 be first stretched or drawn out to the length that is produc- 
 ed ; from the tenth of an inch of the sliver, and then 
 twisted. There is not cohesion enough, for this pur- 
 pose it would only break off, a bit of the sliver and 
 could make no further use of it, for the fibres of cotton 
 are very little implicated among each other in the sliver, 
 because the operation of carding and drawing has laid 
 them almost parallel, in the sliver ; and though com- 
 pressed a little by its contraction in the card, from a 
 fleece of twenty inches to a riband of two, and after- 
 wards compressed between the rollers of the drawing 
 frame, yet they were so slightly that a few fibres may 
 be drawn out without bringing many others along with 
 them. For these reasons, the whole thickness and 
 breadth of two or three inches, is stretched to a very 
 minute quantity, and then a very slight degree of twist 
 is given it, viz. about two or three turns in the inch, so 
 that it shall now compose an extremely soft and spungy 
 cylinder, which cannot be called a thread or cord, be- 
 cause it has scarcely any firmness and is merely rounder 
 or slenderer than before being stretched to about thrice 
 the former length. This is called a roving, and the 
 operation is performed in the roving frame which is 
 shewn in Figs. 7, 8, and 9, the first being a front ele- 
 vation, and the other a cross section, the reduction of 
 the sliver is affected by rollers in the same manner as 
 the drawing frame, but only two ends being put through 
 together, instead of four, the size is of course reduced : 
 but this reduction renders it so delicate, that it is neces- 
 sary to give it a slight twist to render it sufficiently co- 
 hesive to bear handling. 
 
 The machine contains three heads or frames A A of 
 rollers, each of which receives four ends or slivers from 
 the can, BB Fig. 8, which are those brought from the 
 drawing frame, and enter between the back rollers a, 
 and are drawn out from the cans between them, and 
 the other rollers b to the proper degree of fineness, but 
 which varies with the quality of the yarn which is to be 
 
 spun. 
 
'248 
 
 COTTON-MANUFACTURE. 
 
 spun. Each of the slivers after passing through the 
 rollers, is received into a tin can D, through a small 
 funnel E, at the mouth of which the can is set up in 
 a frame dd ef, called the skeleton. It is supported on 
 a pivot at bottom, and is kept in rapid motion by a 
 band, working on a pulley fixed at the bottom of the 
 skeleton ; the neck of the funnel E, is guided by a collar 
 to keep the whole steadily upright, as it revolves. The 
 rollers of this machine act in the same manner as those 
 of the drawing frame, but have only two pairs of rollers 
 instead of three ; they are turned round by means of 
 contrate wheels g ; on the end of each, which are work- 
 ed by pinions on the tops of as many vertical spindles 
 k, which at their lower ends have pulleys turning the 
 skeletons, by means of bands ; the spindles k are turned 
 round by a strap l which passes round and is common 
 to all when the machine is ever so long, the strap re- 
 ceives its motion, by passing round the drum F, the 
 spindle G of which is turned by the mill, the drum also 
 receives other straps as at m, to turn other frames in 
 different directions ; I is the sliding coupling box, by 
 which the drum can at any time be detached from its 
 spindle, raising it by the lever K, and then its points 
 do not touch. The arms of the drum, which being 
 fitted on a round part of the spindle does not turn with 
 it, but on letting down the box I, which is fitted on a 
 square, it is put in motion, and also the other machi- 
 nery. By a similar contrivance any one of the spindles 
 k can be detached, and the two skeletons which it turns 
 will then stand still while the cans D are removed. 
 
 The manner of action in this machine is easily gather- 
 ed from the description, the slivers pass two together, 
 through the rollers, and are reduced or drawn out there- 
 in to the proper degree of fineness; then falling into the 
 funnels E, of the revolving cans, they are by the rapid mo- 
 tion thereof twisted round ; because the centrifugal force 
 disposes the cotton to lay round the inside of the can in a 
 regular coil, forming as it were a lining of cotton, to the 
 whole of the interior surface ; and by this means the 
 end of the roving becomes in a manner attached to the 
 can, and is twisted round by its motion so as to form a 
 coarse loose thread with a very slight twist, and a very 
 soft and open substance. Such is the state of the rov- 
 ing as prepared by the roving frame. All the preced- 
 ing processes are to be considered as the preparation ; 
 and the operation of spinning is not yet begun. These 
 preparations are the most tedious, and require more at- 
 tendance and hard labour than any subsequent part of 
 the business. For the slivers from which the rovings are 
 made, are so light and bulky, that a few yards only can 
 be piled up in the cans set to receive them from the 
 carding and drawing. A person must therefore attend 
 and watch each roller of the drawing and roving frames 
 to join fresh slivers as they are expended. It is also 
 the most important department in the manufacture; for 
 as every inch will meet with precisely the same drawing 
 and same twisting in the subsequent parts of the process, 
 therefore, every inequality and fault of the sliver, indeed 
 of the fleece as it quits the finishing card, will continue 
 
 through the whole manufacture, in a greater or less 
 degree, being only diminished not corrected by the 
 drawing, doubling, &c. It is evident that the roving 
 produced by these operations must be exceedingly uni- 
 form ; the uniformity really produced exceeds all ex- 
 pectation ; for even although there be some small ine- 
 qualities in the carded fleece, yet these are not matted 
 clots, which the card could not equalize, and only con- 
 sist of a little more thickness of cotton in some places 
 than in others. This inequality will first be diminished 
 by the lapping of the fleece in the breaking card ; and 
 when such a part of the sliver comes to the first roller of 
 the drawing frame, it will be rather more stretched by 
 the second. That this may be done with greater cer- 
 tainty the weights of the first rollers are made very 
 small, so that the middle part of the sliver can be drawn 
 through while the outer parts remain fast hold. 
 
 As a preparation for spinning, the rovings must be 
 wound upon bobbins from the cans D of the roving 
 frame, which are taken away from the skeletons as soon 
 as they are filled, and carried to the winding machine, 
 Fig. 10. which however only shews the operative parts 
 of the machine, the frame being omitted. The chief 
 part of it is a cylinder A, which is turned rouud by a 
 winch handle B ; the bobbins a a on which the rovings 
 b b are to be wound rest with their weight upon the 
 surface of this cylinder, and are carried round by it 
 with great rapidity, and wind up the rovings, which are 
 guided by pins projecting fro nr a rail d d, which has by 
 the machine a slow traversing motion from one end of the 
 bobbing to the other, and thus lays the cotton regularly 
 on the whole length. The bobbins are merely put 
 loosely on a wire e, and can quickly be changed for 
 others when they are filled, they are then carried to 
 the spining frame (see Fig. 1 1 and 12 of Plate II.) the 
 former beiug a front view and the other a side section. 
 In both of them, A represents the bobbins filled with 
 rovings which is to be spun into thread ; they are set up 
 in a rack or frame over head, and are conducted down 
 at a a through rollers bed, which are the same as the 
 drawing frame, and extend it in length 10, 12, or 1(5 
 times, accordingly as the yarn which is to be spun re- 
 quires to be finer or coarser. This is delivered out to 
 the spinning apparatus or spindles : these are straight 
 steel arbors, on the low r er end of which the pulleys, or 
 hafts as they are called, receive the bands f for turning 
 them. These spindles are mounted in a frame common 
 to them all, which consists of two rails B C, the lower 
 one supporting the points or toes of the spindles, and 
 the other having bearings for the cylindrical parts of 
 each spindle, and a wire staple is fixed over each to 
 keep them up to their bearings. Above this bearing the 
 spindle is only a straight cylindrical wire, and on the 
 upper end of it the fork or flyer h is fastened either by 
 : screwing it on, or it is stuck fast on by friction, which 
 is sufficient to carry it about. The two arms or branches 
 of the flyer are sufficiently distant for them to revolve 
 round clear about the bobbin k, which is fitted loosely 
 upon the cylindrical spindle, and with liberty to slide 
 
 freely 
 
COTTON-MANUFACTURE. 
 
 «49 
 
 freely up and down upon it. The weight of the bobbin 
 is supported by resting on a piece of wood attached to 
 a rail M, which has a slow rising and falling motion, 
 equal in extent to the length of the bobbin between its 
 shoulders, by which means the thread as it comes 
 through the eye, is formed at the ends of either of the 
 branches h of the flyer, and is wound by the motion 
 thereof upon the bobbin. It becomes equally distribut- 
 ed throughout its length, giving it a cylindrical figure 
 instead of keeping all the thread at one part like a 
 barrel, as would happen if the bobbin did not rise and 
 fall. The spindles are constantly kept in rapid motion 
 by the machine, and twist the fibres round each other 
 the instant their ends come out, before the rollers 
 leave the other ends, or they would fall to pieces ; 
 being drawn out so fine, that the cohesion of the 
 fibres is insufficient to bear any thing, and the twist 
 given to the roving is entirely lost ; for it was at first only 
 one turn in one or one and a half inches in length, and 
 this one and a half inch being by the draught of the rollers 
 drawn out 10 or 12 times the length, the twist of one 
 turn in this length is imperceptible, and adds no strength 
 whatever to the roving, so that it is necessary the spin- 
 dle should by the connexion of the thread passing down 
 from the rollers to its flyer, give a tw'ist to the fibres the 
 instant they come through the rollers, which they do by 
 the thread being conducted down from the rollers 
 through the eye formed at the end of either of the 
 branches of the flyer, which revolves with the greatest 
 rapidity along with the spindle, and then gives the twist 
 to the thread ; the bobbin does not partake of the mo- 
 tion of the spindle, but is retained by the friction of its 
 lower end resting on the piece of wood l, and this is 
 increased by a washer of leather put under it. This 
 friction gives such a resistance to the motion of the 
 bobbin, that the motion of the flyer running round it 
 will lay the thread evenly upon it as fast as the rollers 
 suffer it to come forwards. 
 
 The motion of the whole machine is communicated 
 in the same manner as the roving frame by a vertical 
 spindle D to a drum E which receives a strap n for one 
 frame, and a similar one o for another. The former of 
 these straps extends the whole length of the machine, 
 turning all the vertical spindles p on both sides of the 
 frame by means of pulleys on the lower ends of them. 
 Each of these vertical spindles puts in motion four 
 spindles and the rollers belonging to them ; the former 
 by the bands f, which go round the wheel r upon the 
 spindles p, and the rollers it turns by a pinion at the top 
 of each, turning a contrate or face wheel t on the end 
 of each roller. 
 
 It is to be observed that the frame, Fig. 11, is in 
 practice extended to contain 40 or 60 spindles on each 
 side instead of four, and one of the vertical spindles p, is 
 provided for every four spindles, but the strap n is | 
 common to them all. The wheelwork for turning the 
 rollers is shewn in Fig. 13, and needs no explanation, 
 being the same with those already described. The rise 
 and fall of the rail m, and all the bobbins upon it, is 
 
 thus produced ; they are both suspended from the oppo- 
 site ends of a horizontal lever L L M, which has a 
 third arm M proceeding from it, which bears against 
 the surface of a part N, which is a wheel of that figure 
 turning slowly round, and thus moving the lower LLM 
 and producing an alternate rise and fall of all the bob- 
 bins in the frame. The heart is turned round by a 
 wheel R, Fig. ] 1, on the end of its spindle worked by 
 | a pinion upon a spindle S, which also carries a wheel 
 T, and this is turned round by means of a worm cut 
 upon the main spindle of the frame. 
 
 The drum can at any time be detached from its spin- 
 dle, and then the whole frame will stand still ; for this 
 purpose the spindle D passes through the drum E, a 
 circular fitting, so that it slips freely round within it 
 w'ithout giving motion to the drum, except when it is 
 cast into gear ; this is done by two locking bolts w, 
 shewn by dotted lines passing through the drum, and 
 both fixed into a collar or socket x, fitted to slide up 
 and down the spindle. It has a groove formed round 
 it, in which a fork at the end of a lever is received, so 
 that the forked lever embraces the piece w in the groove, 
 and when lifted up raises the two locking bolts with it, 
 and unlocks the drum from the spindle D by withdraw- 
 ing the locking bolts from their contact W'ith an arm j\ 
 which is fixed fast on the spindle beneath the drum, and 
 therefore turns with it ; but the locking bolts being let 
 down that their ends may project through the drum and 
 intercept the cross arm f of the spindles, the drum and 
 all the machinery is put in motion. In like manner each 
 of the pulleys of the vertical spindles p which receive 
 the great strap n are fitted to slip round on their spin- 
 dles p, but can at any time be united thereto to give 
 them motion by a locking box bayonet z, which is cast 
 in or out of action at pleasure by a small lever in ex- 
 actly the same manner as the locking of the principal 
 drum ; therefore by this lever any four spindles can be 
 detached from the machine at pleasure, and their mo- 
 tion stopped to change the bobbins when they are filled 
 with thread, which is then finished, and requires only to 
 be reeled off the bobbins for the weaver or other 
 purpose. 
 
 From this account it appears that the process of spin- 
 ning differs but very little from the roving, except that 
 the twist given after its last stretching in length is so 
 much greater than the roving, being intended to give 
 the yarn hardness and firmness, so that it will after- 
 wards break rather than stretch any more. The per- 
 fection of the ultimate thread or yarn depends in a 
 great measure on the extreme softness of the roving, 
 for it is this only which makes it susceptible of an 
 equable stretching ; all the fibres yielding and separat- 
 ing alike, and this property w'ill be greatly influenced 
 by the quantity of twist given by the roving frame ; for 
 these points no very distinct rule can be given. It is 
 various in different mills and with different species of 
 cotton wool, as may be easily imagined. T*he imme- 
 diate mechanism or manipulation must be skilfully ac- 
 commodated to the nature of that friction which the 
 3 S fibres 
 
250 
 
 COTTON MANUFACTURE. 
 
 fibres of cotton exert on each other, enabling one of 
 them to pull others along with it. This is greatly 
 aided by the contorted curled form of a cotton fibre, 
 and a considerable degree of elasticity which it pos- 
 sesses. In this respect it greatly resembles woollen 
 fibres, and differs exceedingly from those of flax ; and it 
 is for this reason that it is so extremely difficult to spin ; 
 flax in this way ; its fibres become lank, and take any 
 shape by the slightest compression, especially when 
 damp. But beside this, the surface of a cotton fibre 
 has a harshness or roughness which greatly augments 
 their mutual friction. This probably is the reason why 
 it is so unfit for lint and other dressing for wounds, and 
 is refused by the surgeons even in the meanest hospitals. 
 But its harshness and elasticity fit it admirably for the 
 manufacture of yam. Even the shortness of the fibre 
 is favourable; and the manufacture would be very diffi- 
 cult if the fibre were thrice as long as it generally is. 
 If it be just so long that in the finished thread a fibre 
 will rather break than come out from among the rest, 
 it is plain that no additional length can make the yarn 
 any stronger, with the same degree of compression by 
 twining. A long fibre will indeed give the same firmness 
 of adherence with a smaller. 
 
 This would be an advantage in any other yarn ; but 
 in cotton were it less it would become woolly and 
 rough by the smallest use, and it is already too much 
 disposed to teazle out. Now, suppose the fibres much 
 longer, some of them may chance to be stretched along 
 the sliver through their whole length. If the sliver is 
 pulled in opposite directions, by pinching it at each end 
 of such long fibres, it is plain that it will not stretch 
 till this fibre be broken up, or drawn out ; and that 
 while it is in its extended state, it is acting on the other 
 fibres in a very unequable manner, according to their 
 positions, and renders the whole apt to separate and 
 draw more irregularly. This is one great obstacle to 
 the spinning of flax by similar machinery. 
 
 We have now described the whole process of cotton 
 spinning, and have only to explain how the thread is 
 converted into cloth. The machine called a reel takes 
 off the thread from the bobbins of the spinning frame 
 and winds it into hanks, each of which is 840 yards in 
 length, which are tw'isted up for package. The size of 
 the thread is denominated by the number of these 
 hanks which will weigh a pound ; and in this state it is 
 sent to market, where the weavers buy it. But va- 
 rious kinds of yarn are made for sale ; some is dyed, 
 others bleached; some twisted two threads together 
 after spinning, and one of these threads is often dyed 
 whilst the other remains white to produce speckled 
 colours. Sometimes the thread is wound on quills for 
 the weavers shuttle, at other times the yarn is formed 
 into hanks previously to their being dyed, in order that 
 the parts so tied may be prevented from taking the co- 
 lour. This is done that the thread may be disposed to 
 warp in the weaving loom, so as to produce the clouds 
 which are seen in various species of cotton goods, 
 especially gingams. 
 
 A large cotton mill is generally a vast building of 
 five or six stories high ; the two low'est are usually for 
 the spinning frames, if they are for water twist, because 
 of the great weight and vibration caused by these ma- 
 chines. The third and fourth floors contain the card- 
 ing, drawing, and roving machines. The fifth story is 
 appropriated to the reeling, doubling, twisting, and 
 other operations performed on the finished thread. 
 The sixth, which is usually in the roof, is for the bat- 
 ting machine or opening machine, and for the cotton 
 pickers, who for a large mill are very numerous. 
 
 The general machinery of the cotton mill, by which 
 the various engines described are set in motion, is as 
 follows : the moving power, whether a fall of water or 
 a steam engine, is, by intervening wheels adapted to its 
 nature, made to turn round a vertical shaft, which 
 passes through all the stories or floors of which the mill 
 consists ; in each of which it is furnished with a hori- 
 zontal toothed wheel which gives motion to a vertical 
 wheel, to which is attached a horizontal shaft going 
 across one end of the floor, which gives motion to two 
 I or more other horizontal shafts, according to the 
 | breadth of the building, which run the whole length of 
 the story. These again give motion to small vertical 
 shafts which sustain the large drums that set the spin- 
 ning frames in motion. The horizontal shafts have also 
 drums on them, from whence bands proceed by which 
 the carding engines and drawing machines are turned. 
 What is said of the general arrangement of the mill- 
 work can only be understood in a general sense, for the 
 number and position of the horizontal shafts set in mo- 
 tion by the vertical shaft must vary according to the 
 nature of the buildings, and the disposition of the 
 frames in each floor of them. Where it can be done, 
 it is best to have the vertical shaft placed in the middle 
 of the building, with the horizontal shafts proceed- 
 ing from both sides of it at every floor, for then 
 the horizontal shafts sustain less of that twisting mo- 
 tion which is very injurious to them, and to which 
 they would be more liable if of the whole length of the 
 building. 
 
 The spinning frames are attended by children to piece 
 the threads when they break, and the whole attendance 
 of the various engines is for the most part performed 
 by children also. The numbers of persons of the 
 tender age employed in large mills amount to several 
 hundreds. 
 
 Some of the great cotton mills w'ere worked inces- 
 santly night and day, and different sets of children 
 I relieved each other in succession in attending them. 
 This system was found to be very injurious to their 
 health. An act of parliament w'as passed enforcing salu- 
 tary regulations on these points, which have been 
 warmly seconded by the hnmane proprietors of some 
 of the most eminent mills, who have their buildings 
 now W'ell ventilated and warmed. They have also paid 
 proper attention to the food, clothing, and personal 
 cleanliness of the children, and they have them taught 
 to read and write, and take care that they receive in- 
 structions 
 
COTTON-M A NUFA CTURE . 
 
 251 
 
 structions as to their morals and religion both of which 
 were shamefully neglected in former times. 
 
 We must now turn our attention to the weaving of 
 the yarn, or twist so spun ; the machine used in this 
 process is the loom, there are a great variety of different 
 looms, but the most simple and common is that used for 
 weaving plain cloth of any materials, as cptton, thread, 
 silk, wool, &c. &c. On examining any piece of plain 
 cloth, it will be found to be composed of two distinct 
 sets of threads or yarns, running in two directions per- 
 pendicular to each other, those threads in the direction 
 of the length, are called the warp, and extend entire 
 from one end of the piece of cloth to the other, those 
 threads running across the cloth perpendicular to the 
 w arp, are called the woof or weft, it is in fact one con- 
 tinued thread through the whole piece of cloth, being 
 woven alternately over and under each thread of the 
 warp, until it arrives at the outside thread ; it then passes 
 round the thread and returns back over and under each 
 thread as before, but in such a manner that it now goes 
 over each thread which it passes under before, thus 
 firmly knitting or weaving the whole together. 
 
 The outside thread of the warp round which the woof 
 is doubled is called the salvage, and caunot be unravelled 
 without breaking the woof. 
 
 The breadth of the cloth determines the number 
 of threads the w'arp shall contain, and its quality or 
 fineness limits the thickness of the threads and their 
 distance asunder ; these things being settled the weaver 
 takes the proper number of threads of the right length 
 and stretches them out parallel to each other in a field 
 or long building, and rolls them all together upon a cy- 
 lindrical roller A Fig. 1 , called the yarn beam. 
 
 This at least was the practice formerly but the same 
 operation is now performed much more conveniently 
 and expeditiously by a machine called the warping mill ; 
 this is a very large reel on which the requisite number 
 of threads are wound all together, and then transferred 
 to the cloth beam. 
 
 After the cotton is spun it is frequently made into 
 warps fit for the weavers before it leaves the mills. 
 This operation is performed on the machine, called a 
 warping mill, which consists of a light frame work 
 forming the outline of an octagonal prism, or one of 
 more numerous sides about six feet diameter, and seven 
 feet high, that is turned round on a vertical axis by a 
 band that passes from a grooved wheel on the axis, to 
 another grooved wheel turned by a winch, and is placed 
 under the seat on w hich the warper sits. The bobbins 
 which sustain the twist, are placed on a vertical rack 
 suspended from the ceiling and the threads from them 
 pass between two small upright rollers, on a piece of 
 wood which slides perpendicularly along an upright bar, 
 fixed at one side of the revolving frame. A small cord 
 passes from a part of the axis, that rises above the frame 
 over a pulley at the top of the fixed bar down to the 
 sliding guide, which it slowly draws up by coiling round 
 the axis as the frame turns round, by which means the 
 yarn is wound spirally about the frame, to the length of 
 
 which the warp is required ; to this extent when the 
 yarn arrives it is crossed on pins projecting from the 
 frame, and the mill is turned the reverse way, by which 
 the slide descends, and the yarn is laid along the same 
 spiral downwards along which it before ascended. 
 
 Whtm the w arp is completed to the number of threads 
 required for the web, for which it is intended, it is 
 taken off the mills and wound up into a ball, the cross- 
 ing being first properly secured for the use of the 
 weaver, and in this state it is sold to the weaving ma- 
 nufacturer when the mill owner is not concerned in this 
 branch of business himself. 
 
 The weaver opens and unwinds this ball and rolls it 
 up upon his cloth beam with very little trouble com- 
 pared with the old method of extending all the yarns at 
 once. 
 
 The beam thus filled with yarn, is placed in the 
 Loom at B Fig. 14 and 15 Plate II, which are an end 
 view and section of a loom, the other ends of the yarn 
 are made fast to a similar beam A, called the cloth 
 beam, and upon which they are rolled up after being 
 made into cloth ; dd, are two sticks connected together 
 by several threads, the number of which is equal to half 
 the number of yarns upon the warp, this system of 
 threads is called a heddle, ee is another similar heddle. 
 Behind the former, and in the middle of each thread, 
 composing the heddle is a loop through which the yarns 
 of the warp are passed, one half of them going through 
 the loops of the heddle ee, and the other half passing 
 between the threads of the heddle ee, and afterwards 
 through the eyes of the other heddle dd. The two 
 heddles dd and ee are connected together by two small 
 cords going over pulleys r , suspended from the top of 
 the loom, so that when one heddle is drawn down the 
 other will be raised up, as shewn in the figure 14 ; the 
 heddles receive their motion from levers or treadles DF 
 moved by the weaver’s feet, the yams of the warp being 
 passed alternately through the loops of the heddles, so 
 that by pressing down one treadle as D, all the yarns y 
 belonging to the heddle d are drawn down, and by 
 means of the cords and pulleys r, the other heddle e 
 with all the yarns z belonging to it are raised up, leav- 
 ing a space of about two inches between the two sets of 
 yarn. 
 
 FGGHI is a frame called the batten, suspended by 
 its upper bar F from the upper rail of the loom, so that 
 it can swing backwards or forwards. The bottom bar 
 H shewn separate in Fig. 16, is much broader than 
 the rails GG, and projects before their plane about an 
 inch and a half, forming a sheff, called the shuttle race. 
 The end of the bar H has boards nailed on each side of 
 it, and at the ends to form two short troughs II, in 
 which pieces of wood kk, called pickers or drivers are 
 guided, by two small wires fixed at one end to the up- 
 rights GG, and at the other ends to the end pieces of 
 the troughs II. Each pecker has a string fastened to it 
 which is tied to a handle p, which the weaver holds in 
 his right hand when at work, to pull the pecker back- 
 wards and forwards. The shuttle Fig. 17, is a small 
 
252 
 
 COTTON-MANUFACTURE. 
 
 piece of wood, pointed at each end, about six inches 
 long, having an oblong mortice in it, containing a 
 small bobbin K, on winch is wound the thread for the 
 woof, and the end of it comes through a small hole m 
 in the shuttle called the eye. 
 
 The shuttle has two little wheels n n, on the under- 
 side, by which it runs upon the shuttle race H. The 
 weaver sits on the seat M, which hangs by pivots at its 
 ends, that it may adapt itself to the most easy posture, 
 when the weaver sits upon it ; it is lifted out when the 
 workman gets into the loom, and he puts it in after 
 him ; he leans his breast against the cloth roll A, and 
 places his feet upon the treadles DE ; in his right hand 
 he holds the handle p of the peckers, and in his left he 
 holds one of the uprights G of the batton ; he com- 
 mences the operation of weaving, by pressing down one 
 of the treadles by his foot, this depresses one half of 
 the yarns of the warp, and raises the others as before 
 described, the shuttle is placed in one of the troughs I, 
 against one of the peckers, then by drawing the handle 
 of the pecker with a sudden jerk, drives the pecker 
 against the shuttle, and thrQws it across the warp upon 
 the shuttle race into the other trough I, leaving the 
 thread of the weft which was wound on the bobbin K 
 after it. With his left hand he then pulls the batten 
 towards him by the frame of canes R, the thread of 
 the warp before lying loose between the warp, is driven 
 up towards the cloth roll, leaving it straight, the weaver 
 now presses down his other foot, this reverses the ope- 
 ration, pulling down the heddle which was up before, 
 and raising the other, the same of the yarn of the warp. 
 By the other pecker, he now throws the shuttle back 
 again, leaving the woof after it between the yarns of 
 the warp, and by drawing up the batten, beats it close 
 up to the thread thrown before; in this manner the 
 operation is continued until a few inches of the cloth 
 are w'oven ; it is then wound round the cloth roll, by 
 putting a short lever into a hole made in the roll, and 
 turning it round. A click acting in the teeth of a sc 
 rated wheel w, Fig. 15, prevents the return of the 
 roll ; the yarn roll B has a cord lapped round it, one 
 of the cords is tied to the frame of the loom, the other 
 has a weight R hung to it ; this rope causes a friction, 
 which prevents the roll turning, unless the yarn is 
 drawn by the cloth beam, this always preserves a pro- 
 per tension in the yarn. TT are two smooth sticks 
 put between the yarns, to keep their position and pre- 
 serve the threads or yarns from entangling ; these sticks 
 or rods, are kept at a uniform distance from the hed- 
 dles, either by tying them together, or by a small 
 cord with a hook at one end, which lays hold of the 
 front rod, and a weight at the other, which hangs over 
 the yarn beam B. The cloth is kept extended during 
 the operation of weaving, by means of two pieces of 
 hard wood, with small sharp points in their ends, which 
 lay hold of the edges or selvages of the cloth. 
 
 These pieces called the temples, are connected by 
 a cord, passing obliquely through holes, or notches in 
 each piece. By this cord they can be lengthened or 
 
 shortened according to the breadth of the web. They 
 are kept fast after the cloth is stretched, by a small bar, 
 turning on a centre fixed in one of the pieces, with 
 its longer end projecting closely over the edge of the 
 other piece. 
 
 If the pattern, or course of changes, in the order of 
 raising and depressing the threads of the warp be vari- 
 ous, so that the weaver could not manage the requisite 
 number of treadles, it is done by a great number of 
 strings, which pass over pulleys above the loom, and 
 are drawn one after another by a little boy, above whose 
 head they are disposed in two rows by the sides, and 
 between two looms. These looms are therefore called 
 draw boys. The boys will shortly be set aside, for ma- 
 chinery which is rapidly introducing as a substitute. For 
 the formation of springs, &c. of various colours, there 
 are often as many shuttles as colours, or a number of 
 little swivel looms, such as they use for the weaving of 
 tapes, introduced occasionally, as many as there are 
 sprigs in the breadth of a piece. Quiltings appear to 
 be two distinct cloths, tied, as it were, together by 
 stitches, which go through both cloths, and in some 
 cases, as in bed quilts, there is a shuttle which throws 
 in a quantity of coarsely spun cotton, to serve as a kind 
 of wadding. 
 
 The counterpanes are woven with two shuttles, one 
 containing a much coarser weft than the other; the 
 coarser of the threads is picked up at intervals with an 
 iron pin, rather hooked at the point, so as to form knobs 
 disposed in a sort of pattern. 
 
 The webs, as the piece of cloth are called, when 
 taken from the loom, are covered with an irregular 
 knap or down, from the projection of the short fibres 
 of the cotton wool, which is removed by passing the 
 webs over a red hot iron plate that burns it off. 
 
 The apparatus for this operation, consists of an iron 
 semi-cylinder, set horizontally in brick work, having a 
 fire placed under it with an iron door, through which 
 fuel may be introduced ; at each side of this is placed 
 a light wooden roller of rail work, turning freely on an 
 iron axis by a winch ; from the same uprights which 
 support these rollers, are suspended light frames on 
 each side, which turn on pivots in their centres, by de- 
 pressing the further ends of which the ends next the 
 stove raise up a rail, which runs across near the iron 
 semi-cylinder, and which mostly consists of a light iron 
 rod. 
 
 i After the fire placed beneath the iron burner has 
 made it red hot, the web, whose surface is to be burned 
 is rolled up on one of these cylinders, or reels, and the 
 end of it is passed over the lifters, and red hot iron to 
 the other cylinder ; a man stands at each reel, and the 
 instant the one at the empty reel begins to turn, the 
 lifters are lowered, so as to let the web come in con- 
 tact with the red hot iron, by which means its whole 
 surface is drawn over the iron, with that degree of ve- 
 locity which is just sufficient to burn off those loose 
 filaments without injuring its fabric. The very finest 
 muslins undergo this operation, and though they are so 
 
CURRYING. 
 
 253 
 
 thin, that the least deviation from the proper velocity 
 in passing them over the iron, causes them to be burned 
 through, yet there very seldom happens any accident, 
 which shews that the process is more hazardous in 
 appearance than reality. 
 
 After burning, the webs are all washed in a wheel, 
 and then bleached in the oxigenated muriatic acid, di- 
 luted to its proper strength. These preparations are 
 repeated alternately, till the goods have attained the 
 requisite whiteness ; and between each dipping they 
 are laid out upon the ground, and exposed to the action 
 of the sun and air. When completely bleached, they are 
 either smoothed upon long tables, with smoothing irons, 
 or calendered, that is, stretched and pressed between a 
 course of rollers, by which they acquire a fine gloss. 
 Calicoes are printed exactly in the same way as the 
 kerseymeres in Yorkshire, but the works are usually upon 
 a much larger scale. 
 
 Thicksets, corduroys, velveteens, &c. are cut upon 
 long tables, with a knife, of a construction somewhat 
 
 like the sting of a wasp, terminating in a very sharp 
 point, defended on each side by a sort of sheath. 
 
 This point is introduced under the upper course of 
 threads, which are intended to be cut, and with great 
 ease carried forward the whole length of the table. 
 
 The rapid increase of the cotton trade appears to 
 have been owing in a great measure to the more liberal 
 introduction of machinery into every part of it, than 
 into any other of our staple manufactures. The utility 
 and policy of employing machines to shorten labour, has 
 been a subject which has exercised the pens of many 
 ingenious writers, while their introduction into almost 
 every branch of manufacture, has been attended in the 
 outset with much riot and disorder. They are undoubt- 
 edly wonderful productions of human genius, the pro- 
 gressive exertions of which neither can, nor ought to be 
 stopped; they enable a manufacture to produce a better 
 article than can be made by the hand, in consequence 
 of the uniformity, and certainty of their operations. 
 
 CURRYING. 
 
 CURRYING is the art of dressing or preparing lea- 
 ther for shoes, and a variety of other purposes, after it 
 has undergone the process of tanning. 
 
 The currying trade has, like some others, been hi- 
 therto much neglected, in works of this nature, which 
 may, perhaps, be attributed in a great measure to the 
 difficulty of obtaining assistance from those who have it 
 in their power to communicate the requisite informa- 
 tion. Many valuable treatises have, no doubt, been 
 furnished by men of practical knowledge in various 
 branches of the arts and manufactures, but in general, 
 principals in a manufacturing trade, however they may 
 be inclined to disclose their secrets for the gratification 
 of the public, are too much absorbed in their daily oc- 
 cupations to engage in undertakings foreign to their 
 accustomed pursuits. This may be more particularly 
 said of the currying trade, where personal attendance is 
 indispensable, and it is scarcely necessary to add, that 
 the persons usually employed in laborious occupations 
 are not, in general, the description of men from whom 
 an accurate and intelligent account of any art or ma- 
 nufacture can be reasonably expected. When, how- 
 ever, the manufacture of leather is compared with the 
 other productions of this country, and its importance, 
 as an article of commerce, and general consumption, 
 
 is considered, it will appear desirable that the public, 
 and those more immediately concerned, should be in 
 possession of a circumstantial knowledge of the several 
 branches of the leather trade. Our more general 
 observations will be reserved as properly belonging 
 to the article Tanning. We shall, at present, confine 
 ourselves to that part of the trade which is compre- 
 hended in the article before us, introducing, by the 
 way, such occasional remarks as are connected with 
 the subject, in addition to the manual operations of the 
 journeyman. Curriers exercise their trade under a li- 
 cense from the Board of Excise, which they take out an- 
 nually, and they are obliged to specify in the entry, every 
 room in which leather is deposited, as well as the vats 
 and tubs in which it is soaked. Their premises are, of 
 course, subject to the inspection of Excise Officers : 
 and any hide or skin not having the tanners duty-mark, 
 is liable to seizure. This is occasionally productive of 
 trouble and vexation, as it frequently happens, that in 
 rounding the skin, the duty-mark is cut off, unless the 
 skin be stamped so far towards the middle and more 
 useful parts, as to be an injury. By a late amendment 
 of an Act of Parliament, the tanners in Scotland are 
 said to enjoy the liberty of currying their own goods, 
 but the implication is ambiguous, and in England the 
 3 T union 
 
254 
 
 CURRYING. 
 
 union of the two trades is still prohibited under severe 
 penalties. The only reason for this prohibition is pro- 
 bably to prevent the evasion of the tanners’ duty, which 
 might otherwise be facilitated, by transferring the tanned 
 goods immediately into the hands of the currier ; but 
 if there should appear to be an advantage in uniting the 
 trades of currying and tanning, of which under certain 
 local circumstances we cannot entertain a doubt, this 
 objection might be easily and readily obviated, by le- 
 vying the Excise duty, not on the weight of the tanned 
 leather, but on the measure of the tanners’ pits, which 
 has always been the practice in Ireland. 
 
 The premises of a currier usually consist of a shav- 
 ing shop, scouring house, and rough leather warehouse, 
 pn the ground floor, aud above these are erected the 
 drying sheds, which are weather-boarded, and calcu- 
 lated to admit a free draught of air, where the wet 
 leather is hung on hooks fixed in rails, which are 
 placed horizontally in rows. The stuffing tables, which 
 are of mahogany, are also fixed here ; the lower floors 
 are differently arranged by different persons, according 
 to the extent of the premises, and the business to be 
 carried on. Where a choice of situation offers, that 
 will be preferred in which the air has free access to the 
 sheds, and at a proper distance from foundries and 
 steam engines, the smoke and smuts issuing from these 
 buildings being a great annoyance to the currier, and in- 
 jurious to saddle and boot-top leather in particular, the 
 value of which depends much on the brightness and 
 regularity of colour. An open yard is a useful appen- 
 dage, and in extensive concerns cannot well be dis- 
 pensed with. The coach and saddle currying is in 
 many instances a distinct trade in London, but it is 
 sometimes connected with the shoe trade, and in the 
 country they are generally united and carried on by the 
 same person. 
 
 The skin or shoe trade will come first under consi- 
 deration, in which is comprehended the dressing of calf, 
 seal, horse, and dog skins, with the lightest ox and cow 
 hides, for shoe upper leathers ; and to this is usually at- 
 tached the business of a leather-cutter, which implies the 
 cutting up of heavy tanned hides, called crop leather, for 
 soles, and curried goods for shoe upper leathers, welts, &c. 
 for the retailer and consumer. It is a general practice to 
 weigh the skins and mark them singly before they are put 
 into work, which enables the master to ascertain his 
 profit on every lot of goods, or on every skin if he 
 w ishes to be so particular, and also assists his judgment 
 in buying and assorting the different kinds of goods, 
 and in applying them to the particular purposes for 
 which they are calculated. This requires as much ex- 
 perience as any part of the trade, and a moderate profit 
 is often wasted for want of proper attention in the per- 
 son, usually the foreman in large concerns, who fills 
 this department. In laying in rough goods the buyer 
 should be well informed in the varieties of tannage, as 
 well as the growth peculiar to different parts of the 
 country, which are as readily distinguishable as the cattle 
 themselves to an experienced dealer. Tanned goods 
 
 are sold chiefly by weight, and the buyer must have in 
 view the quality of the leather, pattern, and substance ; 
 the latter is unequal and varies in the same lot of goods 
 and in different parts of the same skin. The proportion 
 of thin loose leather to the middle or prime parts of the 
 skin, is a principal consideration w'ith the buyer, and 
 he always finds the skin of the cow, or any other female 
 animal more level, of a finer texture, and consequently 
 more valuable than that of the male ; the firmness and 
 fineness of leather depends much on the treatment it has 
 had in the tanner’s pits. It is part of his duty to con- 
 tract and fill the looser parts of the skin, which will be 
 seen in its proper place - y the gashing of the skin by the 
 butcher, is also a matter of much consequence to the 
 buyer and requires all his caution, as the extent of the 
 mischief does not always appeal - , until the fibrous mat- 
 ter adhering to the flesh side, and which connects the 
 skin to the carcase be removed by the currier’s knife. 
 
 An act was passed in the year 1800, inflicting certain 
 penalties on the butcher in proportion to the damage 
 done to the skin, and persons have been appointed to 
 the markets throughout the kingdom, to inspect the 
 skins and levy the fines by information before a magis- 
 trate, in proportion to the damage, but it has been 
 found inefficient from the total negligence of the inspec 
 tors in some places, and more so from the good under- 
 standing the Tanner finds it his interest to keep up with 
 the butcher. Unfortunately the currier and not the 
 tanner, who is the only check on the butcher, is the 
 principal sufferer by his negligence. It may be matter 
 of doubt how far enactments of this nature have a bene- 
 ficial effect. We believe trade seldom does so well as 
 when left to itself, at the same time it must be admitted 
 that the law which we now speak of, if properly en- 
 forced, would go to prevent the destruction of much 
 valuable property, and may be salutary so long as the 
 tanning and currying trades remain separate. 
 
 The recent repeal of statute 1st, James I. has 
 relieved the trade from a vexatious tax by abolishing 
 the useless offices of Searchers and Sealers of Leather. 
 Until the year 1808, Leadenhall Market was subject 
 to the troublesome interference of these officers, who 
 were obliged to compromise a duty it was impossible 
 to execute ; and we believe the most strenuous among 
 those who at that time assisted in supporting such a re- 
 gulation, now consider their own judgment well substi- 
 tuted for the obnoxious statute. The country leather 
 dealers had long before wisely relieved themselves of its 
 restrictions. Experience soon teaches the buyer to dis- 
 criminate between well tanned and well dried leather, 
 and the contrary, and according as a deficiency in either 
 deteriorates the value so is the price given ; this act also 
 extended to currying and shoemaking, and persons an- 
 nually appointed from among the master curriers paid a 
 yearly visit to every house in the trade professedly to 
 examine and correct any deviation from the established 
 method of manufacturing their goods. They however 
 very commendably satisfied themselves with exacting a 
 small contribution from each house to defray the ex- 
 penses 
 
CURRYING. 
 
 235 
 
 penses of a dinner for the collectors. To confine ma- 
 nufacturers to the use of certain materials and restrict 
 curriers to the ancient mode of dressing leather would 
 have been an effectual bar to improvement, and was too 
 absurd to be acted upon at the present day; but to 
 come to practical currying ; the dressing of a calf skin 
 for shoe upper-leathers will give a good general idea of 
 the process ; we will, therefore, take one as it is receiv- 
 ed from the tanner and pursue the operation through 
 the hauds of the workman to its finished state. The 
 offal parts, such are the face, tail and shanks, being first 
 taken off, which is called rounding the skin, it is deli- 
 vered into the journeyman’s hands, who throws it into a 
 vat or tub of water to soak preparatory to the operation 
 of shaving, which is performed by a knife of a peculiar 
 make, and it will be necessary to give a description of 
 this tool as well as the beam on which the leather is 
 shaved. The beam, so called by the curriers, is a post 
 about three feet high, fixed in a slightly inclined posi- 
 tion on a firm stage or platform, which is raised eight 
 or ten inches from the floor for the man to stand upon ; 
 this post is about four inches thick and eight inches 
 wide, and is faced with a board of lignum vitae of the 
 same breadth. The knife has two edges, the blade is 
 rectangular about twelve inches long and from four to 
 six inches wide, and varying in size and weight according 
 to the work to be performed ; one end has a straight 
 and the other a cross handle in the plane of the knife. 
 It is brought to a wire edge by rubbing on a stone of a 
 coarse grit, which is afterwards taken off, and a finer 
 edge produced by a finer and softer stone. The cross 
 handle of the knife is then firmly fixed between the 
 workman’s knees, and while in a kneeling posture, he 
 turns the edges to an angle with their former position 
 by means of a polished steel, similar in shape to a 
 butcher’s steel. They are kept in order, chiefly by a 
 smaller steel, which the man holds constantly between 
 his fingers, and passes along the knifes, the point 
 within and the side without the groove formed by the 
 turned edge, as occasion requires ; and as often as the 
 edges are worn with use they are renewed in the same 
 way. The name of Cox of Gloucester, is known 
 throughout Europe as the principal maker of curriers’ 
 knives. Lane of Cirencester is also an approved maker, 
 and a patent has lately been obtained by Mr. Bingley 
 of Birmingham, for an improvement in the manufacture 
 of curriers’ knives. These have not yet been sufficiently 
 tried to decide on the merits of the improvement, but 
 from what we have seen of them they are certainly well 
 worth the master’s attention. We say the master, be- 
 cause there is always a prejudice to encounter in the 
 introduction of any new tool, or indeed any alteration 
 whatever in the mode of manufacture. Having thus 
 prepared the knife, the wet skin is thrown over the 
 beam with the flesh side outwards, and the man 
 keeps it in its position by the pressure of his 
 knees as he leans over the beam. The knife is then 
 applied horizontally to the leather, and by repeated 
 strokes downwards it is reduced to the substance re- 
 
 quired. The angular edge does not merely scrape the 
 skin, but in the hands of a skilful man takes off a 
 shaving the full breadth of the beam at every stroke of 
 the knife. The man’s whole strength is exerted' in 
 shaving, and great care as well as ingenuity is necessary 
 to avoid galling, or reducing the skin more in some 
 parts than others. Long practice has not always been 
 sufficient to make a man expert at this operation ; many 
 journeymen of long standing find a difficulty even in 
 making the knife cut, and some have never attained the 
 art. Here will be seen the importance of a well ma- 
 nufactured tool ; a flaw or a crack in the metal renders 
 it useless, and a regular temper throughout the knife is 
 a desirable object, in which Mr.Bingley’s are said to excel. 
 He rivets a plate of steel properly tempered between 
 two iron plates, instead of welding the whole together, 
 which is the case with other makers ; and thereby, as he 
 properly observes, making the thicker and thinner parts 
 unequal in temper according to the unequal influence of 
 the same degree of heat on the thicker and thinner parts 
 of the knife. In order to keep the substance of the 
 skin equal, the man frequently examines it in the course 
 of shaving in every part, by passing it double through 
 his fingers, and when sufficiently reduced he throws it 
 a second time into a tub of fresh water to be scoured 
 and exteuded : for this purpose it is laid on a stone 
 table, to which the flesh side adheres, and worked with 
 the edge of a small square stone fixed in a stock or 
 handle. Pumice stone is used, but not so much as 
 formerly. With a brush the skin is cleansed from a 
 whitish substance called the bloom, which all leather 
 tanned with bark is fouud to contain. The natural folds 
 of the grain disappear in the extension of the skin, and 
 to effect this completely it is sometimes scoured a 
 second time, for which the workman makes an extra 
 charge. Changing the water has of itself a good ef- 
 fect in recovering dead or stale leather, and the trifling 
 additional expense is well laid out. The skin is then 
 removed to the drying shed, to be stuffed with a mix- 
 ture of cod oil and tallow called dubbing, which is 
 applied to both sides of the leather, but in larger quan- 
 tities on the flesh than the grain side. 
 
 The dubbing is composed of about two parts oil and 
 one part of tallow melted and well stirred together in 
 cooling, so as to be perfectly incorporated in a smooth 
 butter-like consistence. In conjunction with this mix- 
 ture, sod oil, which is a mixture of the cod oil with 
 the grease expressed from sheep skins, &c. by the 
 skinners and feltmongers is sometimes used, but is 
 never applied to bright coloured leather, and is much 
 less used than in times past. Leather lightly stuffed 
 will not wear so well as when it is rendered soft and 
 flexible with the oil and tallow ; and on the other hand, 
 if over stuffed, the colour of the grain is darkened, and 
 the oil itself, which moderately used is so great a pre- 
 servative, becomes a cause of decay. The only motive 
 for using more oil than adds to the quality of the 
 leather is to increase the weight ; but to admit of a 
 good polish, less is usually applied than is really bene- 
 ficial 
 
256 
 
 CURRYING. 
 
 ficial to the leather. The firmer and stronger parts of 
 the skin require more than the looser parts to make 
 them soft, which must be attended to in laying it on. 
 In this state it is hung on the hooks to dry. In the 
 course of drying most of the oily matter will be ab- 
 sorbed, and what remains on the surface still feeds the 
 leather, and is suffered to continue until the skin is 
 wanted for finishing. Severe frosty weather will of 
 course suspend the scouring, drying, and stuffing, and 
 is apt to injure the texture of the leather when frozen 
 in the sheds, at the same time it brightens the colour ; 
 and the kinds of leather which are valuable on account 
 of colour are consequently improved. The shed drying 
 not being sufficient in winter, the leather is afterwards 
 dried off in a stove, and then follows the boarding or 
 bruising. The board used for this purpose is toothed 
 or grooved, similar to the crimping board used by the 
 ladies, and is slung on the hand by a leather strap. The 
 skin is doubled and worked with a coarse board of this 
 description until well softened, and is then whitened or 
 lightly shaved over again with a half-worn pair of edges, 
 which leaves the flesh side clean, and in a proper state 
 to receive the colour used in waxing. Before it is 
 waxed, however, it is boarded a second time, and the 
 impression of the board often remains, particularly if 
 the leather be uot perfectly dry. The skin is now said 
 to be finished russet, in which state it keeps best ; and 
 when wanted for sale it is again given out to be waxed. 
 In London, this work is chiefly done by apprentices, 
 being the most simple but the dirtiest part of the whole 
 process. The blacking, usually termed colour, is a 
 composition of oil, lamp-black and tallow, which is well 
 rubbed into the flesh side with a hard brush, great care 
 being taken to keep the grain side clean. A coat of 
 strong size and tallow is then laid on with a soft brush, 
 and is afterwards rubbed with a smoothing glass, and, 
 lastly, it receives the finishing gloss from a little thin size 
 laid on with a sponge. After the first coat of size the 
 skin is hung up a few hours to allow the size and colour 
 to dry and incorporate, and a lump of hard tallow is 
 rubbed lightly over the surface. The skin is thus com- 
 pletely finished for the consumer, and leather so dressed 
 is found superior in point of appearance and durability 
 to any other method. Indeed, the blacking of the prime 
 parts of calf leather on the grain has almost entirely 
 given way to waxing ; an additional reason for which 
 may be that it is much better adapted for the polish it 
 is afterwards to receive from the destructive shining 
 blackiug now in general use. The middle and firmer 
 part of the skin only is fit for the better purposes, the 
 outer and thinner portion being thrown by and sold at 
 inferior prices. These offal parts are frequently cut 
 off before the skin is put into work, and dressed sepa- 
 rately from the butt or middle, and when that is the 
 case it is usually blackened on the grain side. Horse, 
 seal, and dog skins are also blackened on the grain, which 
 varies the latter part of the process materially. After 
 shaving, the leather is well washed with urine as a 
 mordant on the scouring stone, to prepare it for the 
 
 first application of a solution of copperas, which is 
 given it in the course of scouring, and communicates 
 the black dye. It is then stuffed in the manner before 
 described, but more plentifully than waxed leather, and 
 hung in the shed to dry ; when taken down, the remains 
 of the oily matter adhering to the surface of the leather 
 is scraped off with a thin iron, formed and storked like 
 the stone before mentioned, and which is afterwards 
 made use of to stone or set the leather smooth on the 
 table. Here it receives a second application of cop- 
 peras and bullocks gall, which produces a complete 
 [ black, and this part of the process is called seasoning. 
 The copperas is applied with caution, lest by a too 
 plentiful use of it the leather be injured. It should 
 scarcely penetrate the cuticle or grain of the skin, and 
 if used too strong the grain is burnt up and destroyed. 
 The use of copperas is at all times injurious as may be 
 | daily observed in the use of black harness leather for 
 instance, which cracks and decays sooner than brown 
 « leather. While the leather is damp with this liquid, 
 i and in the course of seasoning, the graining board is 
 | applied as before ; only as the grain is now to be worn 
 J outwards, the workman is more particular in giving that 
 side a neat appearance by raising . the grain neatly and 
 regularly. The coarser kinds of grain leather are also 
 at this time hardened with a tooth slicker called a dicing 
 iron, which leaves a lasting impression, or an artificial 
 grain is imprinted by means of an engraved roller to 
 imitate seal skin, which is found to answer better than 
 the board covered w'ith fish skin formerly in use. This 
 is not done so much with a view to increase its value by 
 imitating a better description of leather, as to harden 
 and compress the looser parts of offal leather. It is 
 now finished off with a little clear cod oil, and is termed 
 grained offal. The thin parts of the horse hide are 
 dressed in this manner, and are called cordovan, being 
 probably an imitation of the manufacture of leather at 
 Cordova in Spain. The Act of James, already referred 
 to, prohibited the use of horse leather, clearly from 
 ; ignorance in the legislators of that day, and the infant 
 1 state of the manufactures of the country ; horse leather 
 having been found quite as useful as some other de- 
 | scriptions of leather, and little inferior to calf skin, and 
 i is now in very general use. The middle and stouter 
 parts are cut out for boot legs ; and as leg dressing is as 
 j curious (whether of calf or cordovan) as any part of the 
 currying business, we shall be particular in describing 
 [ the process. The piece intended for a leg being cut 
 j of a proper length, and tapering a little towards 
 the small, is first soaked and scoured, having been al- 
 | ready shaved in the hide, it is then marked and num- 
 j bered to match its fellow, of a corresponding size and 
 I substance. The breadth of the small is measured, and 
 the number of inches marked with a piece of copperas 
 i (which w'rites legibly on wet leather) as a guide for the 
 bootmaker in fitting it to the leg. It is then blackened, 
 if cordovan, but instead of again extending it on the 
 scouring stone, it is worked inwards with the slicker, 
 
 I and the width partially reduced in that part which is 
 
CURRYING. 
 
 257 
 
 to form the small. The wet leather is then placed on 
 a plain mahogany board between two curved irons ap- 
 proaching to a semicircle, the convex sides of which 
 are made to approach and recede from each other, and 
 are screwed down at a distance according to the size re- 
 quired for the small of the leg. The slicker is then 
 employed to work the leather and contract it within 
 the limits of the frame by which the breadth is reduced 
 from two to four inches, and the leather thickened in 
 proportion, or so much of the surface transferred to the 
 substance ; the leg thus treated will be elastic when dry, 
 and after giving out sufficiently to admit the foot, closes 
 to the shape of the w r earer. This, however, is not so 
 much a matter of attention since the introduction of 
 Hessian boots, which are cut out of the finished skin, 
 and stand hollow without regard to shape ; but though 
 the other description of legs called draft legs are not so 
 much taken in, they continue to be dressed in the same 
 way. The advantage of this method is nothing more 
 than as it regards the fitting of a new pair of boots ; fre- 
 quent exposure to wet will soon destroy the effects of 
 the currier’s ingenuity. Leg dressing is the lightest and 
 most profitable work to the journeyman in the shoe curry- 
 ing ; it requires superior workmanship, and generally is 
 given to the man most distinguished as a complete and 
 able currier, or to the man who has been longest in the 
 shop. The leg is stuffed, dried, and finished in the 
 usual manner. Some few years since cordovan legs 
 were exported in large quantities to North America, 
 but from recent improvements in the art of currying in 
 that part of the world, the demand has entirely failed ; 
 and cordovan having given way to calf legs for home 
 consumption, the horse hide is now used chiefly for 
 ladies’ shoes. The Spanish American horse hides have 
 lately been dressed thin and smooth on the grain to imi- 
 tate kid leather, for which, as far as respects durability, 
 it is a good substitute. 
 
 Perhaps it is not generally known that the butt, or 
 that part of the horse hide which extends from the hip 
 joints to the tail and is divided by the crupper, is much 
 thicker than any other part of the skin, and the texture 
 totally different. It consists of a callous substance 
 called shell by the curriers, and has been used chiefly 
 for thin soles and soldiers’ stocks. It had always been 
 considered difficult to shave from its brittleness con- 
 stantly breaking away under the knife ; but latterly, by 
 using the precaution of stuffing it previously, it has been 
 shaved and used for the backs of hessian boots, for 
 which it is well adapted as it bears an admirable polish. 
 The boar’s skin has. this peculiarity in a still greater 
 degree as to substance, in that part which covers the 
 breast and shoulders ; it is called the boar’s shield, from 
 the means of defence it affords him. In the horse it is in- 
 tended by nature for the same purpose, that animal being 
 known when at liberty to receive the heels of his adver- 
 sary on the part above mentioned. In the seal skin 
 there is this remarkable property, that the skin is 
 equally stout and firm in every part. Seal leather has a 
 neat appearance, but being very soft and porous it admits 
 
 wet, and is not so durable as most other kinds of 
 leather, dog skins are tough, and good wear, and from 
 their neatness are generally used for dress shoes ; they 
 are curried in the same manner as all other grain shoe 
 leather ; dressed leather cannot be kept long without 
 injury, it always retains a degree of moisture, or if ever 
 so well dried, imbibes it from the atmosphere, and 
 consequently after laying together will become spotted 
 with mildew ; and if dressed with bad oil, it sticks 
 together so firmly by means of a gummy substance, 
 thrown out more or less by all stale leather, that the 
 grain is often destroyed in tearing it asunder. When 
 this is the case, the leather is in a perishing state, and 
 of little comparative value ; but wax leather is far less 
 liable to this injury from keeping, than when blackened 
 on the grain, the copperas adding to the effect, by its 
 corroding properties. The fashionably white boot-top 
 leather has been, and still is an object of competition ; 
 the finest calf skins are selected for this purpose, and it 
 has exercised the ingenuity of most of the London cur- 
 riers, to discover the means of extracting the colour of 
 the tan, and to substitute a clear white, or cream co- 
 lour, in its stead. An ingenious currier in the West of 
 England, was in possession of a superior method of 
 doing this, and reaped the benefit of his chemical know- 
 ledge exclusively for some years, and though the means 
 he used have long since been no secret, in the method of 
 applying them many are still deficient ; and we believe 
 few have equalled, and none have excelled his manu- 
 facture. Sumack is a principal ingredient in the com- 
 position, and that alone in the best tannages is effectual, 
 but as suitable skins cannot be procured in sufficient 
 quantities, it is found necessary to resort to a prepara- 
 tion of tin, which is also used in the bleaching of linen. 
 Muriatic and vitriolic acid are applied to extract acci- 
 dental stains, and are sometimes added to the boot-top 
 composition, but have been found extremely pernicious 
 to the leather. Immersion in a warm decoction of su- 
 mack, and the solution of tin, answers fully under pro- 
 per management. The skirts and flaps and hog skins, 
 for the seats of saddles, are now generally done in this 
 way, and are brought to a perfection, in point of co- 
 lour, never before known. The top-skin trade has, 
 however, suffered materially since the introduction of 
 painted boot-tops, which have an imposing appearance 
 when new, and may be cleaned by simple washing with 
 soap and water; but the great disadvantage is, that 
 friction soon destroys the varnish, and totally precludes 
 their use for riding. There are several other articles in 
 shoe currying, such as binding, welt leather, &c. &f.\ 
 which it would be trespassing too much on the reader’s 
 patience to describe minutely, and having already en- 
 larged on the principal, we shall now pass on to the hide 
 trade, which includes the dressing of ox and cow hides, 
 for coach, harness, saddle, and military purposes ; this, 
 as was before observed, forms a distinct branch of the 
 currying trade. Harness leather is dressed from the 
 strongest and heaviest dressing hides, and the substance 
 is not reduced in shaving, but merely the rough flesh 
 3 U taken 
 
258 
 
 CURRIERS. 
 
 taken off; for reins, the butt is reduced to a level with 
 the thinner parts, and for both these uses the hide is 
 first divided, or slit down the back, from head to tail, 
 for the convenience of the workman ; and after being 
 shaved and scoured, is blackened in the same manner as 
 grain shoe leather. But before it is stuffed it is hung 
 on the poles and semi-dried, and then stoned or set, in 
 order to make the surface smooth, preparatory to re- 
 ceiving the dubbing, which is now laid on in quantities, 
 proportioned to the substance of the hide, which is then 
 replaced on the poles until nearly dry. The grain be- 
 ing cleansed with the urine and ox galls, it receives the 
 last application of copperas. A roll of hard tallow is 
 then rubbed over the grain, which the man works into 
 the leather with a stone, and after a second coat of tal- 
 low it hangs up till completely dry ; it now only remains I 
 to be finished with a smoother stone, or a glass of the 
 same form. Brown harness differs only in the omission I 
 of the copperas and the tallow in finishing, and, per- j 
 haps, is not quite so much stuffed in the first place. 
 
 Japan hides, for the roofs and bodies of coaches, are j 
 shaved down to a thin substance, and carefully levelled, 1 
 then stoned and set, and they are fit for the coach- i 
 maker’s use ; the japanning is the coachmaker’s pro- 
 vince after the hide is fitted to the coach body. Hides ! 
 for the heads of open carriages are selected from light, 
 roomy, and the least defective hides, and require the 
 best of workmanship ; they are blackened on the grain I 
 side, and the leather is softened, and the grain is raised 
 in the same manner as black grain shoe leather. These 
 hides, for the thinner purposes, being so very much re- 
 duced from their original substance, and the shavings of 
 no other use than for fuel, an engine was invented, and 
 has been many years in use, for splitting the hide into 
 two parts, so as to divide the substance, and thereby 
 obtain a useful piece of leather, which w'ould otherwise 
 be wasted in shavings, which it does in a very expedi- 
 tious manner ; the engine is in the hands of a person in 
 London, who allows a small sum to the currier on each 
 hide sent him to split, and reserves the flesh piece as his 
 owm remuneration. An ingenious attempt was made 
 some years since to reduce the shavings to a pulp, and 
 to reunite them so as to resemble pasteboard, by the same 
 means as rags are converted into paper ; we believe the 
 intention was to use it for the covering of coaches, in- 
 stead of the hide itself, but after repeated trials it was 
 given up as a fruitless experiment. 
 
 The thinnest of all the hide leather is that which is 
 used for the lining of carriages, it is dressed bright rus- 
 set, but the coloured goat skins, called Morocco leather, 
 are more generally applied. The seats of army saddles 
 are cut out of thin hide leather, of this description, as 
 being less expensive and quite as durable as hog skins, 
 but the hunting saddles in general use are universally 
 made of hog skins ; the skirts and flaps are cut out to 
 pattern, usually from the rough tanned hide, and go 
 through the top skin process to improve the colour. 
 Bridle leather is cut into pairs of butts and middlings, I 
 which signify the middle and butt of the hide ; the neck j 
 
 and belly parts being used for inferior purposes. The 
 army consumes vast quantities of leather for harness, 
 saddles, caps, and accoutrements, which all go through 
 the curriers’ hands ; and the Government Contracts for 
 accoutrements &c. are great objects of contention in 
 that line of business. The belts and straps are cut out 
 of light cow hides, which are curried much after 
 the manner the same kind of hides are done for strong 
 shoe leather. Curried leather being strong in propor- 
 tion to the substance, and more capable of resisting wet, 
 is now preferred to losh or buff, for belts and straps, 
 and the manufacture of buff is considerably diminished 
 in consequence ; it would be useless, and almost end- 
 less, to enumerate all the different purposes to which 
 curried leather is applied; enough we trust has been 
 j said to make this branch of our manufactures intelli- 
 gible, and we shall now advert to other matters con- 
 ' nected with the trade ; in the first place, the relations 
 j between master and man claim some attention. The 
 frequent disagreements, and the inconveniences arising 
 ( from them, have of late given importance to the sub- 
 I ject, and as every person connected with the leather 
 I trade, (particularly curriers) are more or less interested 
 in it, the few observations we shall make will not be 
 deemed irrelevant. 
 
 The w'ages of a journeyman in the shoe or skin trade, 
 are from thirty to forty-five shillings per week, accord- 
 ing to his strength and ability, and in the hide trade it 
 is not uncommon for a good workman to earn three 
 pounds, this being heavier work. The men are paid 
 by the job or piece, according to a printed list of prices 
 agreed on between the masters and men in a committee, 
 appointed by each of the parties, and the London list 
 is a general guide for the country ; this list is subject to 
 occasional variations, but when a general advance is re- 
 quired by the men, it frequently if not always leads to 
 disputes and sometimes to a general turn out, or refusal 
 on the part of the men to work at the former prices. 
 They usually take an opportunity of demanding an in- 
 crease of wages, at a time when their employers have 
 the greatest occasion for their services, and their de- 
 mands are not always confined to the limits of equity. 
 On the other hand the masters are sometimes backward 
 in attending to their reasonable claims or in offering such 
 an advance as may be proper in the circumstances of 
 the case, until the pertinacity and independent spirit of 
 the journeymen, compel them to take their demands 
 into consideration from a regard to their own interest; 
 the men have long since organized themselves into a 
 friendly society, and raised a fund for the relief of their 
 sick, and to support their travelling members while in 
 search of work ; this fund we believe is occasionally 
 perverted, and enables them to contend with effect 
 against their powerful opponents. Unanimity is how'-- 
 ever seldom to be depended on in either party, and 
 their disagreements are generally brought to a crisis by 
 secessions from both sides. Unreasonable as the men 
 sometimes are we cannot applaud the conduct of the 
 masters, when they resort to prosecutions for combina- 
 
CURRIERS. 
 
 259 
 
 tions, it is ungenerous to take an advantage which the 
 law undoubtedly gives them of crushing and stifling the 
 complaints of the men on whom they depend, and who 
 are an acknowledged valuable and industrious part of 
 the community. Every man has a natural and just right 
 to set a price on the labour of his hands, “ his labour 
 (says an able and celebrated writer) is his property 
 and a meeting of working mechanics, for the purpose 
 of ascertaining and fixing its relative value is fully as 
 justifiable in a moral view, as a meeting of merchants 
 and tradesmen, to regulate and resolve on the prices 
 they choose to compel the public to pay for their wares, 
 which are the produce of labour, and is perhaps less a 
 matter of real concern to the public or the legislature. 
 It may be difficult to point out a distinction between the 
 two cases of conspiracy, and we are in short of opinion 
 that the market for labour as well as the produce of 
 labour should be free, and doubt whether the policy 
 which would go to deprive tKe working classes of this 
 privilege, can be defended on any fair and equitable 
 principle. From recent observation, and the consider- 
 ation we have given to the subject, we are convinced 
 that a]j the contentions between the men and their em- 
 ployers may be traced to the existing apprentice laws, 
 which are the grand source of the evil. All those who have 
 not served seven years are excluded thereby from getting 
 th'eir bread in the way and at the trade, that may 
 be most congenial to their more mature inclinations, 
 and also prevent the master from employing such per- 
 sons, as may in his judgment best suit his purpose, and 
 providing substitutes in case he should be deserted by i 
 his men. These laws consign young persons to a seven 
 -years’ bondage indiscriminately, whether the particular 
 trade to be learned may really require seven years or a 
 seventh part of that time, and without regard to the 
 age, abilities, or conduct of the lad; and this, as it 
 
 should seem, for the purpose of giving the master the 
 profits of his laborious industry. At the same time 
 they place in the hands of the journeyman a monopoly, 
 to which they have no just pretensions, to the invidious 
 exclusion of a considerable portion of the industrious 
 classes, from the more profitable application of their 
 labour and talents. The laws against combinations and 
 conspiracies are intended as a check, but are totally in- 
 adequate to counteract the result of so improvident an 
 enactment, as recent circumstances have evinced, and 
 it may be reasonably hoped, that the subject will not 
 long escape the notice of the public. 
 
 Since writing the foregoing an additional duty has 
 been laid on leather, of three halfpence per pound. On 
 the policy of this tax we shall not now offer any re- 
 marks, having already trespassed on our limits, and shall 
 only observe generally, that scarcely any town, however 
 small, but has its currier, and leather curried in the 
 country is mostly vended in the neighbourhood in small 
 quantities to the consumers ; but a sufficient proportion 
 is sent for sale to London, to engage the attention of 
 several respectable factors, and one house in particular 
 makes the sale of dressed goods its chief concern. The 
 currier derives his name from the word Coriarius, a 
 worker in leather, and for the antiquity of the trade (al- 
 though not the modern art of currying), the reader may 
 be referred to the 17th book of the Iliad, line 450. 
 
 “ As when a slaughter’d Bull’s yet reeking hide 
 “ Strain’d with full force and tugg’d from side to side, 
 
 “ The brawny' Curriers stretch, and labour o’er 
 “ The extended surface, drunk with fat and gore, 
 
 “ So tugging, &c. 
 
 The curriers have been an incorporated body ever 
 since the reign of James I. 
 
CUTLERY. 
 
 The manufacture of edged tools is one of the first 
 arts among men in every state of society. Workmen in 
 general are aware of ;he necessity that the instruments 
 of their respective trades should be made to possess the 
 qualities adapted to the operations by which they gain 
 their subsistence : and, among the various subdivisions 
 of labour, there is no material upon which the skill of 
 mechanics is more exercised than steel. The makers 
 of files, of chisels, of planes, and saws, and the infinite 
 variety of knives, all occupy departments separate from 
 each other, and possess their respective degrees of cele- 
 brity, which are grounded on their knowledge of the 
 peculiar kinds of steel, as well as the methods of work- 
 ing them, which are best adapted to the intended ope- 
 rations. Many of these methods are kept secret ; but 
 there are some manufacturers who have no reserve with 
 regard to the manipulations of their art, and have the 
 spirit to assert their claims to public encouragement 
 upon the fair ground of the address and integrity with 
 which they conduct their labours. This article will be 
 much indebted to the communications of Mr. Stodart, 
 inserted in some of our periodical publications, and to 
 a very able article on the subject in the New Cyclo- 
 pedia. 
 
 Though cutlery, in the general sense, comprises all 
 those articles denominated edge-tools, it is more parti- 
 cularly confined to the manufacture of knives, forks, 
 scissars, pen-knives, razors, and swords. Damascus 
 was anciently famed for its razors and swords. The 
 latter are said to possess the advantages of flexibility, 
 elasticity and hardness. Those articles of cutlery which 
 do not require a fine polish, and are of low price, are 
 made from *steel (which see). Those articles 
 
 which require the edge to possess great tenacity, and 
 at the same time superior hardness is not required, are 
 made from sheer steel. The finer kinds of cutlery are 
 made from steel which has been in a state of fusion, 
 and which is termed cast-steel, no other kinds being 
 susceptible of a fine polish. Table knives are mostly 
 made of sheer-steel, the tang and shoulder being of 
 iron, the blade being attached by giving them a welding 
 heat. The knives after forging are hardened by heating 
 them red hot, and plunging them into water ; they are 
 afterwards heated over the fire till they become blue and 
 then ground. The handles of table-knives are made of 
 ivory, horn, bone, stag-horn, and wood, into which the 
 blades are cemented with resin and pulverized brick. 
 Forks are made almost altogether, by the aid of the 
 stamp and appropriate dies. The prongs only are har- 
 
 dened and tempered. Razors are made of cast-steel, 
 the edge of a razor requiring the combined advantages 
 of great hardness and tenacity. After the razor blade 
 is forged, it is hardened by gradually heating it to a 
 bright red heat and plunging it into cold water. It is 
 tempered by heating it afterwards till a brightened part 
 appears of a straw colour. It would be more equally 
 effected by sand, or what is still better in hot oil, or 
 fusible mixture, consisting of eight parts of bismuth, 
 five of lead, and three of tin ; a thermometer being 
 placed in the liquid at the time the razors are immersed, 
 for the purpose of indicating the proper temperature, 
 which is about 500 of Fahrenheit. After the razor has 
 been ground into its proper shape, it is finished by 
 polishing. The glazor is formed of wood, faced with 
 an alloy of lead and tin ; after its face is turned to the 
 proper form and size it is filled with notches which are 
 filled up with emery and tallow. This instrument gives 
 the razor a smooth and uniform surface and a fine edge. 
 The polisher consists of a piece of circular wood run- 
 ning upon an axis, like that of the stone or the glazor. 
 It is coated with leather, having its surface covered with 
 crocus martis. The handles of high priced razors are 
 made of ivory and tortoise shell, but in general they are 
 of polished horn, which are preferred as well on ac- 
 count of their cheapness as their durability. The horn 
 is cut into pieces and placed between two dies, having 
 a recess of the shape of the handle. By this process 
 the horn admits of a considerable extension ; if the horn 
 is not previously black, the handles are dyed black by 
 means of logwood and green vitriol. The clear horn 
 handles are sometimes stained so as to imitate the tor- 
 toise-shell : this is effected by laying upon the handle a 
 composition of three parts of potash, one of minium, 
 ten of quick-lime, and as much water as will make the 
 whole into a pulpy mass. Those parts of the handle 
 requiring darker shades, are covered thicker than the 
 other. After this substance is laid upon the handles, 
 they are placed before the fire the time requisite for 
 giving the proper effect. The manufacture of pen- 
 knives is divided into three departments ; the first is the 
 forging of the blades, the spring, and the iron scales ; 
 the second, the grinding and polishing of the blades ; 
 and the third, the handling, which consists in fitting up 
 all the parts, and finishing the knife. The blades are 
 made of the best cast steel, and hardened and tempered 
 to about the same degree with that of razors. In grind- 
 ing they are made a little more concave on one sidfe than 
 the other, in other respects they are treated in a similar 
 
 way 
 
CUTLERY. 
 
 261 
 
 way to razors. The handles are covered with horn, 
 ivory, and sometimes Ayood ; but the most durable are 
 those of stag-horn. The general fault in pen-knives is 
 that of being too soft. The temper ought to be not 
 higher than a straw colour, as it seldom happens that 
 a pen-knife is so hard as to snap on the edge. The 
 beauty and elegance of polished steel is not displayed to 
 more advantage than in the manufacture of the finer 
 kinds of scissars. The steel employed for the more 
 valuable scissars should be cast steel of the choicest 
 qualities; it must possess hardness and uniformity of 
 texture for the sake of assuming a fine polish, great te- 
 nacity when hot for the purpose of forming the bow or 
 ring of the scissar, which requires to be extended from 
 a solid piece having a hole previously punched through 
 it. It ought also to be very tenacious when cold, to al- 
 low that delicacy of form observed in those scissars 
 termed ladies’ scissars. After the scissars are forged 
 as near to the same size as the eye of the workman can 
 ascertain, they are paired. The bows and some other 
 parts are filed to their intended form : the blades are 
 also roughly ground, and the two sides properly ad- 
 justed to each other, after being bound together with 
 wire and hardened up to the bows. They are after- 
 wards heated till they become of a purple colour, 
 which indicates their proper temper. Almost all the 
 remaining part of the work is performed at the grinding 
 mill, with the stone, the lap, the polisher, and the 
 brush ; the latter is used to polish those parts which have 
 been filed, and which the lap and the polisher cannot 
 touch. Previously to screwing the scissars together for 
 the last time, they are rubbed over with the powder of 
 quick lime, and afterwards wiped clean with a skin of 
 soft sheep leather. The quick-lime absorbs the mois- 
 ture from the surface, to which the rusting of steel is 
 justly attributed. Scissars are sometimes beautifully 
 ornamented by blueing and gilding, and also with studs 
 of gold or polished steel. The very large scissars are 
 partly of iron and partly of steel, the shanks and bows 
 being of the former. These, as well as those all of 
 steel, which are not hardened all over, cannot be po- 
 lished : an inferior sort of lustre, however, is given to 
 them by means of a burnish of hardened polished steel, 
 which is very easily distinguished from the real polish by 
 the irregularity of the surface. Having entered into 
 these particulars relating to the manufacture of the 
 usual articles found in cutlers’ shops, we shall speak of 
 some of the more general principles that are applicable 
 to the finer articles of cutlery. 
 
 Cutlers do not use any coating to their work at the 
 hardening heat as the file cutters do ; and indeed it 
 seems evidently unnecessary when the article is intended 
 to be tempered and ground. The best rule is toharden as 
 little as possible above the state intended to be produced 
 by tempering. Work which has been overheated has a 
 crumbly edge, and will not afford the wire hereafter to 
 be described. The proper heat is a cherry red visible 
 by day-light. No advantage is obtained from the use 
 of salt in the water, or cooling that fluid, or from using 
 
 mercury instead of water, but it may be remarked, that 
 questions respecting the fluid are, properly speaking, 
 applicable only to files, gravers, and such tools as are 
 intended to be left at the extreme of hardness. Yet 
 though Mr. Stodart does not seem to attach much va- 
 lue to peculiarities in the process of hardening, he men- 
 tions it as the observation and practice of one of his 
 workmen, that the charcoal fire should be made up 
 with shavings of leather: and upon being asked what 
 good he supposed the leather could do, this workman 
 replied, that he could take upon him to say, that 
 he never had a razor crack in the hardening since 
 he had used this method, though it was a very common 
 accident before. It appears from the consideration of 
 other facts, that this process is likely to prove advan- 
 tageous. When brittle substances crack in cooling, it 
 always happens from the outside contracting and be- 
 coming too small to contain the interior parts. But it 
 is known, that hard steel occupies more space than when 
 soft, and it may easily be inferred, that the nearer the 
 steel approaches to the state of iron the less will be this 
 increase of dimensions. If, then, we suppose a razor, 
 or any other piece of steel, to be heated in an open 
 fire with a current of air passing through it, the exter- 
 nal part will, by the loss of carbon become less steely 
 than before ; and when the whole piece comes to be 
 hardened, the inside will be too large for the external 
 part, which will probably crack. But if the piece of 
 steel be wrapped up in the cementing mixture, or if the 
 fire itself contain animal coal, and is put together so as 
 to operate in the manner of that mixture, the external 
 part, instead of being degraded by this heat, will be 
 more carbonated than the internal part, in consequence 
 of which it will be so far from splitting or buwting 
 during its cooling, that it will be acted upon in a con- 
 trary direction, tending to render it more dense and 
 solid. One of the greatest difficulties in hardening steel 
 works of any considerable extent, more especially such 
 articles as are formed of thin plates, or have a variety of 
 parts of different sizes, consists in the apparent imprac- 
 ticability of heating the thicker parts before the slighter 
 are burned away ; besides which, even for a piece of 
 uniform figure, it is no easy matter to make up a fire 
 which shall give a speedy heat and be nearly of the 
 same intensity throughout. “ This difficulty,” says Mr. 
 Nicholson, “ formed a very considerable impediment to 
 my success in a course of delicate steel work, in which 
 I was engaged about seven years ago ; but after various 
 unsuccessful experiments, I succeeded in removing it by 
 the use of a bath of melted lead, which for very justi- 
 fiable reasons has been kept a secret till now. Pure 
 lead, that is to say, lead containing little or no tin, is 
 ignited to a moderate redness and then well stirred. 
 Into this the piece is plunged for a few seconds ; that 
 is to say, until when brought near the surface that part 
 does not appear less luminous than the rest. The piece 
 is then speedily stirred about in the bath, suddenly 
 drawn out and plunged into a large mass of water. In 
 this manner a plate of steel may be hardened so as to 
 3 X be 
 
262 
 
 CUTLERY. 
 
 be perfectly brittle, and yet continue so sound as to 
 ling like a bell ; an effect which I never could produce . 
 in any other way. Mr. Stodart has lately made trial of 
 this method, and considers it to be a great acquisition ! 
 to the art, as in fact I found it.” The letting dowm, or j 
 tempering of hard steel, is considered as absolutely ne- 
 cessary for the production of a fine and durable edge. 
 It has been usual to do this by heating the hardened 
 steel till its bright surface exhibits some known colour | 
 by oxidation. The first is a very faint straw colour, | 
 becoming deeper and deeper by increase of heat to a ^ 
 fine deep golden yellow, which changes irregularly to a 
 purple, then to an uniform blue, succeeded by white j 
 and several successive faint repetitions of these series. j 
 It is well known, that the hardest state of tempered i 
 instruments, such as razors and surgeons’ instruments, , 
 is indicated by this straw colour ; that a deeper colour 
 is required for leather-cutters’ knives and other tools 
 that require the edge to be turned on one side ; that 
 the blue which indicates a good temper for springs is 
 almost too soft for any cutting instrument, except saws 
 and such tools as are sharpened with a file, and that the 
 lower states of hardness are not at all adapted to this 
 use. But it is of considerable importance that the let- 
 ting down or tempering, as well as the hardening, 
 should be effected by heat equally applied, and that the 
 temperatures, especially at the lower heats, where 
 greater hardness is to be left, should be more precisely 
 ascertained than can be done by the different shades of 
 oxidation. Mr. Hartley first practised the method of 
 immersing hard steel in heated oil, or the fusible com- 
 pound of lead five parts, tin three, and bismuth eight. 
 The temperature of either of these fluids may be as- I 
 certained in the usual manner, when it does not exceed j 
 the point at which mercury boils : and by this contri- 
 vance the same advantages are obtained in lowering the 
 temperature of an whole instrument, or any number of 
 them at once, as have already been stated in favour of 
 my method of hardening. Oil is preferable to the 
 fusible mixture for several reasons. It is cheaper; 
 it admits of the work being seen during the immer- 
 sion by reason of its transparency ; and there is no 
 occasion for any contrivance to prevent the work from 
 floating. 
 
 Mr. Nicholson requested Mr. Stodart to favour him 
 with an account of the temperatures at which the seve- 
 ral colours make their appearance upon hardened steel ; 
 in compliance with which he made a series of experi- 
 ments upon surgeons’ needles hardened, highly polished, 
 and exposed to a gradual heat while floating at the sur- 
 face of the fusible mixture. The appearances are as 
 follow : “ No. 1. taken out at 430* of Fahrenheit. This 
 temperature leaves the steel in the most excellent state 
 for razors and scalpels. The tarnish, or faint yellowish 
 tinge it produces is too evanescent to be observed with- 
 out comparison with another piece of polished steel. 
 Instruments in this state retain their edge much longer 
 than those upon which the actual straw colour has been 
 brought, as is the common practice. Mr. S. informs 
 
 me (says Mr. Nicholson) that 430* is the lowest tem- 
 perature for letting down, and that the lower degrees 
 will not afford a firm edge. No. 2, at 440°, and 3 at 
 450'’. These needles differ so little ill their appearance 
 from No. 1, that it is not easy to arrange them with 
 certainty when misplaced. No. 4 has the evident tinge 
 which workmen call pale straw colour. It was taken 
 out at 460°, and has the usual temper of pen-knives, 
 razors, and other fine edge tools. It is much softer 
 than No. 1 , as Mr. Stodart assures me, and this differ- 
 ence exhibits a valuable proof of the advantages of this 
 method of tempering. Nos. 2, 6, 7 and 8, exhibit 
 successive deeper shades of colour, having been respec- 
 tively taken out at the temperatures 470°, 480°, 490°, 
 and 500°. The last is of a bright brownish metallic 
 yellow, very slightly inclining to purple. No. 9 ob- 
 tained an uniform deep blue at the temperature of ,080°. 
 The intermediate shades produced on steel by heats 
 between 500° and 580° are yellow', brown, red, and 
 purple, which are exhibited irregularly on different parts 
 of the surface. As I had before seen this irregularity , 
 particularly on the surface of a razor of Wootz, and 
 had found in my own experience, that the colours on 
 different kinds of steel do not correspond with like degrees 
 of temper, and probably of temperature fin their pro- 
 duction, I was desirous that some experiments might be 
 made upon it by the same skilful artist. Four beauti- 
 fully polished blades were therefdre exposed to heat on 
 the fusible metal. The first was taken up when it had 
 acquired the fine yellow, or uniform deep straw colour. 
 The second remained on the mixture till the part 
 nearest the stem had become purplish, at which period 
 a number of small round spots of a purplish colour 
 appeared in the clear yellow of the blade. The third 
 was left till the thicker parts of the blade were of a 
 deep ruddy purple, but the concave face still continued 
 yellow. This also acquired spots like the other, and a 
 slight cloudiness. These three blades were of cast 
 steel ; the fourth, which was made out of a piece 
 called styrian steel, was left upon the mixture till the 
 red tinge had pervaded almost the whole of its concave 
 face. Two or three spots appeared upon this blade* 
 but the greater part of its surface was variegated with 
 blue clouds, disposed in «uch a manner as to produce 
 those waving lines which in Damascus steel are called 
 the water. Two results are more immediately sug- 
 gested by these facts ; first, that the irregular produc- 
 tion of a deep colour upon the surface of bright- 
 ened steel, may serve to indicate the want of uniformity 
 in its composition ; and secondly, that the deep colour 
 being observed to come on first at the thickest parts, 
 Mr. Stodart was disposed to think, that its more speedy 
 appearance was owing to those parts not having been 
 hardened. Suppose our cutting instrument to be 
 forged, hardened, and let down or tempered. It re- 
 mains to be ground, polished, and set. The grinding 
 of fine cutlery is performed upon a grind-stone of a 
 fine close grit, called a Bilson grind- stone, and sold at 
 the tool shops in London at a moderate price. The 
 
 cutlers 
 
CUTLERY. 
 
 263 
 
 cutlers use water, and do not seem to know any thing 
 of the method by tallow. The face of the work is 
 rendered finer by subsequent grinding upon mahogany 
 cylinder^, with emery of different fineness, or upon 
 cylinders faced with hard pewter, called laps, which are 
 preferable to those with a wooden face. The last po- 
 lish is given upon a cylinder faced with buff leather, to 
 which crocus, or the red oxide of iron is applied with 
 water. This last operation is attended with consider- 
 able danger of heating the work, and almost instantly 
 reducing its temper along the thin edge, which at the 
 same time acquires the colours of oxidation. The set- 
 ting now r remains to be performed, which is a work of 
 much delicacy and skill : so much so, indeed, that Mr. 
 Stodart says, he cannot produce the most exquisite and 
 perfect edge if interrupted by conversation, or even by 
 noises in the street. The tool is first whetted upon a 
 hone with oil, by rubbing it backwards and forwards. 
 In all the processes of grinding or wearing down the 
 edge, but more especially in the setting, the artist ap- 
 pears to prefer that stroke w'hich leads the edge accord- 
 ing to the action of cutting, instead of making the back 
 run first along the stone. This proceeding is very 
 judicious ; for if there be any lump or particle of stone 
 or other substance lying upon the face of the grinder, 
 and the back of the tool be first run over it, it will 
 proceed beneath the edge and lift it up, at the same 
 time producing a notch. But on the other hand, if 
 the edge be made to move foremost and meet such 
 particle, it will slide beneath it and suffer no injury. 
 Another condition in whetting is, that the hand should 
 not bear heavy ; because it is evident, that the same 
 stone must produce a more uniform edge if the steel be 
 wore away by many, than by few strokes. It is also 
 of essential importance that the hone itself should be of 
 a fine texture, or that its silicious particles should be 
 very minute. 
 
 The grind-stone leaves a ragged edge, which it is 
 the first effect of whetting to reduce so thin that it may 
 be bended backwards and forwards. This flexible part 
 is called the wire, and if the whetting were to be conti- 
 nued too long it would break off in pieces without 
 regularity, leaving a finer though still very imperfect 
 edge, and tending to produce accident while lying on 
 the face of the stone. The wire is taken off by raising 
 the face of the knife to an angle of about 50 degrees 
 with the surface of the stone, and giving a light stroke 
 edge foremost alternately towards each end of the 
 stone. These strokes produce an edge, the faces of 
 which are inclined to each other in an angle of about 
 100 degrees, and to which the wire is so slightly ad- 
 herent that it may often be taken away entire, and is 
 easily removed by lightly drawing the edge along the 
 finger nail. The edge thus cleared, is generally very 
 even : but it is too thick, and must again be reduced by 
 whetting. A finer wire is by this means produced, 
 which will require to be again taken off, if for 
 want of judgment or delicacy of hand, the artist should 
 have carried it too far. But we will suppose the ob- 
 
 tuse edge to be very even, and the second wire to be 
 scarcely perceptible. In this case the last edge will be 
 very acute, but neither so even nor so strong as to be 
 durably useful. The finish is given by two or more 
 alternate light strokes w ith the edge slanting foremost, 
 and the blade of the knife raised, so that its plane forms 
 an angle of about 28 degrees with the face of the stone. 
 This is the angle w'hich by careful observation and 
 measurement, I find Mr. Stodart habitually uses for 
 the finest surgeons’ instruments, and which he consi- 
 ders as the best for razors, and other keen cutting tools. 
 The angle of edge is therefore about 56 degrees. The 
 excellence and uniformity of a fine edge may be ascer- 
 tained, by its mode of operation when lightly drawm 
 along the surface of the skin, or leather, or any orga- 
 nized soft substance. Lancets are tried by suffering the 
 point to drop gently through a piece of thin soft leather. 
 If the edge be exquisite, it will not only pass with fa- 
 cility, but there will not be the least noise produced, 
 any more than if it had dropped into water. This kind 
 of edge cannot be produced, but by performing the last 
 two or more strokes on the green hone. The opera- 
 tion of strapping is similar to that of grinding or whet- 
 ting, and is performed by means of the angular particle 
 of fine crocus, or other material bedded in the face of 
 the strap. It requires, less skill than the operation of 
 setting, and is very apt, from the elasticity of the strap, 
 to enlarge the angle of the edge or round it too much.” 
 We shall now, as a conclusion to the article, give 
 an account of a patent granted to Mr. Arnold Wilde of 
 Sheffield, for making all kinds of plane-irons, scythes, 
 sickles, drawing-knives, and other edge-tools from a 
 preparation of cast steel and iron united and incorpo- 
 rated by means of fire. This invention is thus de- 
 scribed, “ Take a mould of cast iron, or other fit ma- 
 terial, of a dimension that will best suit the size of the 
 article intended to be manufactured ; then take a piece 
 of wrought iron and prepare it by heating in the fire 
 and hammering it, or in any other manner, to the size 
 you want ; then fix the iron in the mould, leaving a suf- 
 ficient vacancy to receive the cast steel in a fluid stale. 
 In such a direction as that, when the cast steel is 
 poured into the mould, the iron may be either in the 
 middle or the centre of the cast steel, or on one or both 
 sides of the cast steel, or in such other direction as may 
 best suit the purpose for w'hich the iron and cast steel 
 when incorporated shall be wanted. Then put the 
 crucible or pot into the furnace or fire till the steel 
 becomes liquid. When you suppose the steel to be 
 nearly in a fluid state, take your piece of iron which you 
 intend to incorporate with the cast steel, put it into the 
 fire and heat it to what is usually called a welding heat ; 
 then take the iron out of the fire, clear it from any scale 
 of dirt, and fix it in the mould in the like direction 
 you had before fitted it ; take care that your steel be 
 | now in a fluid state, and immediately on your taking 
 I the iron out of the fire, take the crucible or pot cour 
 taining the melted steel from the furnace or fire, and 
 immediately after the iron thus heated shall be fitted in 
 
 the 
 
264 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 the mould pour or turn the fluid steel into the space or 
 vacancy left in the mould to receive the same, which 
 will incorporate with the iron, and become one solid 
 mass or body of cast steel and iron united. To make 
 all sorts of plane irons, scythes, sickles, drawing knives, 
 hay knives, and all other kinds of edge tools of cast iron 
 and steel, united as herein before mentioned, forge, 
 roll, slit, or tilt in such a way as is proper for any or 
 either of the articles intended to be manufactured; then 
 the article may be made in the usual manner, or by 
 such other mode as a workman may judge most con- 
 venient. 
 
 To harden Sword-blades. — Sword-blades are to be 
 made tough, so as not to snap or break in pushing 
 against any thing capable of resistance ; they must also 
 be of a keen edge, for which purpose they must all 
 along the middle be hardened with oil and butter, to 
 make them tough, and the edges with such things as 
 shall be prescribed hereafter for hardening edged in- 
 struments. This work requires not a little care in the 
 practice. 
 
 How to imitate the Damascan Blades . — This may 
 be done to such perfection that they cannot be dis- 
 tinguished from the real Damascan blades. First po- 
 lish your blade in the best manner, and finish it by rub- 
 bing with flour of chalk ; then take chalk mixed with 
 water, and rub it with your finger well together on 
 your hand; with this touch the polished blade, and 
 make spots at pleasure, and set them to dry before the 
 sun, or a fire ; then take water in which tartar has been 
 dissolved, and wet your blade all over therewith, and 
 those places that are left clear from chalk will change 
 to a black colour ; a little after, wash all off with clear 
 water, and the places where the chalk has been will be 
 bright. 
 
 How the Damascan Blades are hardened . — The 
 Turks take fresh goat’s blood, and after they have made 
 their blades red hot, they quench them therein ; this 
 they repeat nine times running, which, it is said, 
 makes their blades so hard as to cut iron. 
 
 DISTILLATION. See Rectification, in which article the processes of both operations will be 
 given. 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 The origin of the art of dyeing is involved in the 
 same kind of obscurity which pervades the history of all 
 those arts connected with the common wants and ne- 
 cessities of life. “ They have,” says a good writer, 
 originated in times beyond the reach of history, or 
 tradition, and are the offspring of the natural faculties 
 of man directed by the great primeval wants of food, 
 shelter and raiment. The art of dyeing is of course 
 posterior to many of these, and is founded less on the 
 necessities than on the passions of mankind.” A love 
 of distinction is common to man in every stage of civi- 
 lization, but that passion for admiration which is dis- 
 played in a love of ornament is peculiar to him in his 
 most uncultivated state. Hence savage nations delight 
 in brilliant and gaudy colours, and many paint their 
 skins of various hues. Accident probably furnished a 
 
 multitude of instances of observation which enabled the 
 rudest people to imitate the colours of birds and beasts. 
 The bruising of a fruit, a flower, or leaf, is one of the 
 most natural and obvious occurrences to which we should 
 look for the first notion of applying vegetable juices to 
 dyeing, and the knowledge of tingent properties of va- 
 rious herbs was thus early acquired. Nevertheless the 
 art must have waited the progress of industry and luxury 
 before it became extended and improved. It probably 
 made considerable progress, antecedent to the period in 
 which regular history begins. Moses speaks of stuffs 
 dyed blue, and purple, and scarlet, and of sheep-skins 
 dyed red. 
 
 These colours, if they answered the names now made 
 use of, in any tolerable degree, required much skill in 
 the preparation, and the knowledge of them implies a 
 
 very 
 
DYEING. 
 
 26 o 
 
 very advanced state of the art at that period. We shall 
 mention but a single fact, to shew in what way the know- 
 ledge of colours was first discovered. The colour which 
 appears to have been earliest brought to perfection, arid 
 which was held in the highest estimation, was purple. 
 It was to chance alone, according to the tradition of an- 
 tiquity, that this was discovered. A dog, instigated by 
 hunger, having broken a shell on the sea-shore, his 
 mouth became stained with such a colour as excited the 
 admiration of all who saw it. They applied it to stuffs, 
 and succeeded. The testimony of Homer confirms the 
 antiquity of this discovery and this poet ascribes to the 
 heroes of that age, in which it became known, orna- 
 ments and clothes of purple. The Tyrians succeeded 
 best in dyeing stuffs of purple. They, it should seem, 
 used nothing to make their colour but purple shells taken 
 out of the sea. They made a bath of the liquor which 
 they extracted from these fishes, in this they steeped 
 their wool a certain time, and afterwards took it out, 
 and steeped it in another boiler, in which was the buc- 
 cina or trumpet fish. This is all that the ancients tell 
 us of the practice of the Tyrians, and we learn that wool, 
 which had received this double Tyrian dye, was so cost- 
 ly, that in the reign of Augustus, each pound sold for 
 1,000 Roman denarii, or about 36£. sterling. It is 
 further added, that this excessive great price ought not 
 to surprise us, when the tedious nature of the process is 
 considered, and the small quantity of dye afforded by 
 the shell-fish, from each of which not more than a sin- 
 gle drop was obtained. For 50lbs. of wool they used 
 no less than 200lbs. of the liquor of the buccinum, and 
 lOOlbs. of that of the purpura. The art of dyeing 
 among the Greeks appears to have made no great pro- 
 gress ; the dress of the people was of cloth that had re- 
 ceived no dye, and which might be washed. The rich 
 preferred coloured clothes : they esteemed such as were 
 dyed scarlet with the kerrnes, but they valued still more 
 highly those of purple. Among the Greeks, indeed, the 
 useful arts were degraded, even in the estimation of phi- 
 losophers, and this contempt descended to the Romans. 
 The use of vegetable dyes appears to have been in a 
 great measure unknown to these people, though the in- 
 habitants of Gaul, according to Pliny, imitated all co- 
 lours, even the Tyrian purple, and the scarlet, with the 
 juice of herbs. According to this historian, they stained 
 white cloths with certain drugs, which have the proper- 
 ty of absorbing them, but which exhibited no appear- 
 ance of any dye till they have been boiled in a cauldron, 
 from which they are withdrawn painted or stained with 
 various colours. What is most extraordinary, says Pli- 
 ny, is, that the cauldron containing only colour of one 
 hue, should impart to the cloth shades of various kinds, 
 according to the nature of the drugs which were laid on, 
 and the colours are so fixed that they can never be 
 washed out. 
 
 These observations will give the reader some idea of 
 the ancient methods of dyeing ; it would not comport 
 with the limits of our work to trace the history to the 
 present period ; much less to enter into the various the- 
 
 ories advanced on the subject. The first explanation 
 offered of the theory of dyeing was purely mechanical. 
 According to Hellot, the saline substances employed in 
 dyeing serve to open and enlarge the pores of the fibres 
 to be dyed ; the colouring matter is then deposited in 
 these pores, after which the natural elasticity of the fibre 
 returning, shuts in the particles of colouring matter, and 
 the salts solidifying over them, serve as a kind of cement 
 to keep them in their place. Many insuperable objec- 
 tions have been brought against this and similar theories 
 of dyeing : it is particularly incompetent to explain the 
 great difference between animal and vegetable matter in 
 absorbing and retaining colour, and the use of mordants 
 as a bond of union between the colour and the fibre to 
 be dyed. Chemical affinity, which will be explained in 
 its place, is probably the great agent in the operations 
 of dyeing ; almost every fact and experiment go to prove 
 the truth of this opinion, which was first adopted by 
 Bergman. A detailed account of all the processes, 
 would fill a larger volume than that which we now offer 
 to the public; all, therefore, that we can do, is to give 
 a brief view of the leading facts and operations, and re- 
 fer the reader to a few of the most satisfactory documents 
 in our own and the French language, particularly to 
 Bertholet’s Elements of Dyeing. 
 
 Dyeing is the art of communicating a permanent co- 
 lour to any substance, but is generally employed in a 
 more limited sense, and is applied to the art of giving 
 colours to wool, silk, cotton, or flax, or to thread or 
 cloth fabricated of these substances. 
 
 The Colouring Principle is the property which 
 substances possess of uniformly reflecting one or more 
 rays of light from coloured bodies. These coloured bo- 
 dies transferred to a white body, to which they impart 
 their proper colour, form, in this w r ay, colouring prin- 
 ciples. Colouring bodies transferred to bodies al- 
 ready coloured, confound or mingle their colours with 
 that of these same bodies, and hence is produced a mixt 
 colour. The aptitude, or faculty of reflecting particular 
 rays, is of little consequence. There are some bodies 
 which display different colours according to the angle 
 under which they are seen ; while there are others, the 
 mere pulverization of which changes the colour, without 
 altering their nature. 
 
 Nothing more is necessary to enable us to form a 
 judgment as to the facility with which the dispositions of 
 bodies become changed in their property, of reflecting 
 different colours, than to cast a cursory glance on the 
 phenomena attendant on the oxydation of metals. Thus 
 we behold successively appearing in them, blue, yellow, 
 red, and black, from almost imperceptible differences in 
 the proportion of the oxygen with the metal. The same 
 phenomena are still more observable in vegetable and 
 animal bodies, the colours of which appear or disappear 
 according as the light acts upon them. 
 
 The colouring principle must not, therefore, be re- 
 garded as a particular colour, existing separately and 
 distinctly from the coloured body. It is merely a facul- 
 ty which the constituent parts of bodies possess, of re- 
 3 Y fleeting 
 
266 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 fleeting particular rays of light decomposed at their sur- 
 faces. This faculty may be variously modified by 
 changes produced in the arrangement of the molecules, 
 by the proportions between the constituent principles, 
 &c. We cannot foretel what may be the colour of a 
 compound body, from the nature of the principles which 
 compose it, when not previously ascertained by experi- 
 ment. Frequently two colourless bodies form a coloured 
 compound, as may be observed in metallic oxyds, of 
 which the metal and oxygen are without colour. Hence 
 it appears, that we can only ascertain, by a series of 
 well-conducted experiments, what colours may be pro- 
 duced by the combinations of different bodies. 
 
 The colouring principles being as numerous as the 
 coloured bodies, we may readily perceive how limited 
 must be the conception of those chemists who see no- 
 thing but extracts or resins in colouring substances. The 
 colouring principles are, every where, either simple or 
 compound. They are regarded as simple, when the co- 
 lour cannot be decomposed ; such as blue, yellow, red, 
 to which we may add the green and black furnished by 
 vegetables. They are regarded as compound, when the 
 colour results from the combination of several simple or 
 primitive colours ; such as violet, common green, &c. 
 
 It seldom happens that the simple colours, which by 
 their combination form a compound colour, possess the 
 same fixity, and are acted on in a similar manner by re- 
 agents ; hence we are able to decompose a compound 
 colour, and extract from it the elements separately. 
 Hence may be explained, why a green colour becomes, 
 in time, blue or yellow, according as these two prin- 
 ciples possess more or less fixity. By changing the pro- 
 portions of the elementary colours, a variety of different 
 shades may be obtained, and in this way, by varying the 
 mixture of green and blue, all the different shades from 
 the lilac, to a very deep violet green, and nearly black, 
 are produced. The colours of bodies often proceed 
 merely from very slight modifications, produced by the 
 action of light on their surfaces, as may be seen in the 
 colours of fruits, flowers, and insects. 
 
 Sometimes the colour of bodies appears to be more 
 deeply seated, as in substances, which are always of an 
 uniform colour, when sheltered from the influence of 
 air and light. Roots furnish us with examples of this 
 kind. In general, the colour of bodies, when produced 
 by the effects of light, is fugaceous, while that of sub- 
 stances protected from its influence is fixed and suscep- 
 tible of forming good colours. It may be considered 
 as an established principle that colour is so much more 
 durable as the recipient resists more powerfully the in- 
 fluence of air, heat, and water. Hence it is, that re- 
 sins, fecula, and metallic oxyds retain their colours 
 better than mucous and extractive matters, &c. It 
 must not however be inferred from this principle, that 
 a good and permanent colour may not be obtained by 
 employing certain mucous, or extractive matters ; but 
 then it is necessary to furnish it with a new base, so as 
 to change the nature of the body, and consequently its 
 affinities. Hence we are led to conclude, that the 
 
 fixity of a colouring principle does not depend on its 
 unalterability, but on the nature of the mordant with 
 which it is combined, and on the affinities of this last 
 combination with the stuff to which it is transferred ; 
 whilst the changeable nature of the colouring principle 
 rests on the character of the recipient in which it is na- 
 turally held. 
 
 In regard to the nature of the coloured principles, 
 the solvents ought to be greatly varied water, acids, 
 and alkalies are those most generally employed. Alco- 
 hol is seldom used, except when we wish to act on the 
 colour of very small bodies. Of all these vehicles, 
 water is the most common, because "few of the colour- 
 ing principles are insoluble in it. 
 
 Alkalies are employed to dissolve the colouring mat- 
 ter contained in indigo, in the flowers of bastard saffron, 
 8tc. The acids are used, in some cases, to dissolve 
 certain colours, and particularly to precipitate the co- 
 louring principles from their solutions in alkalies. 
 
 Much has been written on the effects produced by 
 waters in dyeing. And nothing is more common than 
 to refer the brilliancy of some colours, and the poverty 
 of others to this cause. Without adopting implicitly 
 what has been published on this subject, it must be 
 allowed that waters contribute essentially to the quality 
 of dyes ; and we may even add, that different colours, 
 as well as the same colours in different states, require 
 that waters of very different natures should be employ- 
 ed. To establish this second proposition, it is sufficient 
 to take a cursory view of the principal operations of 
 dyeing. If the object is to scour, or cleanse any stuff 
 by soap, or alkali, the water must be pure; since other- 
 wise the soap is decomposed by earthy salts, and there 
 is formed a combination of oil and earth, insoluble in 
 water, and incapable of producing the effect expected. 
 The alkali likewise decomposes the earthy saline matter, 
 becomes saturated with the acid, and produces no fur- 
 ther effect, while the earth being set free, combines 
 with the stuff, and changes its colour. Still and stand- 
 ing waters are, in general, the most saturated with 
 earthy saline matters. Rapid and running waters are 
 much more pure. 
 
 There are nevertheless some foul and almost stagnant 
 waters which are greatly celebrated in dyeing, because 
 the putrid animal and vegetable matters suspended in 
 them operate to form ammonia and sulphureted hydro- 
 gen, which precipitate the earthy and metallic principles. 
 Stagnant waters possess moreover the advantage over 
 running waters in washing cotton stuffs, in order to free 
 them from the alum or oil not fixed in their texture ; 
 for, in this case, it is necessary to moisten all the parts 
 of the stuff, equally, to extract from it all the uncom- 
 bined mordant ; and it is difficult to accomplish this 
 end by the employment of running water, without the 
 colour being meagre, and blended with different shades. 
 Clear and running water ought to be preferred for the 
 cleansing of stuffs when taken out of the dyeing bath ; 
 they effectually remove every portion of matter not fixed 
 in the stuff, and develope the colour in full perfection. 
 
 Waters 
 
DYEING. 
 
 Waters impregnated with calcareous salts are parti- 
 cularly prejudicial to the dyeing cotton of a red colour. 
 The lime which is precipitated by the galls, alum, and 
 washing, tarnish and obscure the colour to such a 
 degree that it is almost impossible to revive it. But in 
 as far as calcareous earth tends to augment the solidity 
 of the red colour and its modifications, selenitic waters 
 do not prove injurious, where the object is to obtain 
 a dark colour. 
 
 As calcareous salts change scarlet into crimson, it is 
 obvious when this colour is the object, the use of sele- 
 nitic waters must prove more advantageous than hurtful. 
 Calcareous salts dissolved in water, exclusively of coun- 
 teracting a change in colours, possess the inconvenience 
 of weakening the solvent action of the liquid holding 
 them in solution ; whence it results, that the colouring 
 principle is dissolved in a less quantity than in selenitic 
 water. It appears to be an unquestionable fact, that 
 the waters which keep the earths suspended, are less 
 prejudicial than those which hold them in solution. In 
 the first case they do not adhere to the stuff, while in 
 the second they are precipitated by means of a double 
 affinity, and enter into combination with a mordant which 
 transfers and fixes them on the stuff. Of all the earthy 
 principles which are found in water, lime is the most 
 common, and that alone which can prove injurious. 
 Alumine and magnesia never produce any bad effect. 
 
 The sulphate of iron is almost the only metallic salt 
 found existing in waters ; and in however small a pro- 
 portion it be contained, it produces very sensible effects 
 upon colours, particularly upon silk and cotton stuffs ; 
 those of wool are much less affected by it. The sul- 
 phate of iron acts, especially upon stuffs that have been 
 subjected to the operation of galling, and produces 
 brownish tints which modify all the colours imparted to 
 them. The nature of the colouring principles not only 
 regulates the choice of the solvents to be employed, but 
 also enables us to assign to each its proper use. Thus 
 coloured resins are dissolved in alcohol and form the 
 colouring principle of varnishes. 
 
 Metallic oxyds when fused with alkalies, earths, &c. 
 are employed to stain glass, enamels, and pottery-ware. 
 Oils and fecula are dissolved in alkalies or lime ; and 
 the extractive principle is transferred to the stuff by the 
 means of water. As we are yet very little acquainted 
 with the cause of colour in bodies, we shall confine 
 ourselves to relate some facts relative to the mode in 
 which the colouring principle is developed. 
 
 In proportion as oxygen enters into combination with i 
 a metal, its colour becomes changed, and a difference 
 in the proportions suffices to produce blue, yellow, 
 red, black. The effect produced by the oxygen is more 
 or less durable according to its affinities with the metal. 
 Sometimes the colour disappears with the oxygen dis- 
 engaged by a gentle heat; more frequently, however, the 
 combination is so intimate, that it supports, without 
 suffering any change, a heat approaching that of vitrifi- 
 cation. Excepting some resinous bodies, and some 
 extracts, the colours of vegetables are obtained by 
 
 267 
 
 subjecting them to fermentation. Indigo, woad, turnsol, 
 &c. furnish examples of this kind. 
 
 In all cases wherein a blue colour is produced by 
 fermentation, it appears that carbon acts a chief 
 part. Indigo contains twenty-three parts of carbon to 
 forty-seven of colouring matter; vegetables yield by 
 solution a carbon of a very fine blue ; and it seems pro- 
 bable that when the blue colour is obtained by fermen- 
 tation, the carbonaceous matter is nearly set free, and 
 remains combined with an oil, which gives additional 
 fixity to the colour, and indicates the most suitable 
 solvent. 
 
 Of Mordants . — Few colouring principles possess 
 such decided affinities as to form a permanent union 
 with a stuff on contact or application alone. There are 
 cases where the same vehicle which deposits the colour 
 can also erase it; but this kind of daubing does not 
 deserve the appellation of dyeing. Some metallic oxyds, 
 especially those of iron, as well as several astringent and 
 resinous substances, are susceptible of contracting a kind 
 of adhesion to stuffs without any other intermedia. 
 But in general the adhesion of the colouring prin- 
 ciple with a stuff is facilitated by the intermedium of a 
 third body which is termed a mordant. 
 
 Most chemists who have written on the subject of 
 dyeing before chemical science had attained its present 
 degree of perfection, have applied the most absurd 
 theories to the action of mordants. Hellot, as we have 
 seen, conceived, that the preparation given to stuffs in 
 order to dispose them to receive the dye, acted by 
 cleansing and opening the pores ; and he adds, that it is 
 i probable the colouring particles are incased in these 
 pores in the same manner as a diamond is set in the 
 collet of a ring. Macquer has adopted the same theory ; 
 and we owe to Bergmann and Berthollet the improve- 
 ment of conducting all the operations of dyeing on the 
 general laws of affinities. 
 
 According to the principles adopted by these ce- 
 lebrated chemists, mordants must be regarded as the 
 intermedia of the union or affinity between the colouring 
 principle and the stuff. In combining separately the 
 colouring principle with the mordant, or disposing this 
 last on the stuff, we produce compounds endowed with 
 affinities, in consequence of which they contract an 
 union with bodies, which by themselves would have 
 had no affinity with any of their constituent prin- 
 ciples. The affinity of the mordant with the stuff, and 
 with the colouring principle, may be rendered evident 
 by direct experiments. M. Berthollet has shewn that 
 wool boiled with alum decomposes a portion of this 
 salt, and combines with the alumine ; he has shewn 
 further, that the undecomposed portion of the alum 
 dissolved a little of . the animal substance. The same 
 chemist has demonstrated that cream of tartar and alum 
 are not decomposed by boiling, though the cream of 
 tartar is rendered more soluble by this mixture. He 
 adds, that when a mixture of these two salts are 
 boiled with wool, a decomposition takes place, 
 which prove that the wool acts as an intermedium. 
 
 Wool 
 
268 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 Wool boiled with alum alone is hard to the touch, 
 but treated with cream of tartar and alum it feels soft, 
 and receives a fuller and more vivid colour. The de- 
 composition of alum by animal substances dissolved in 
 alkali, proves that alumine combines with them. Thus, 
 if a solution of alum be mingled with isinglass, and 
 precipitated by an alkali, the alumine unites with the 
 gelatine, forming a semi-transparent body which dries 
 with difficulty. The decomposition of alum is not so 
 readily produced by vegetable substances ; though the 
 astringent principle certainly decomposes it ; and when 
 this principle is deposited on a stuff, which after being 
 dried is put into a solution of alum, a combination 
 takes place between the alumine and tannin. In this 
 case the concurrence of animal and vegetable substances 
 produces a more perfect decomposition of the alum, as 
 is evident in the preparation to which cotton cloth is 
 subjected, in order to render it fit to receive a madder 
 red. 
 
 To demonstrate the great affinity between alum and 
 the colouring principles, it is sufficient to observe, that 
 it forms the excipient of all the colours known in the 
 arts under the name of lacs. When any coloured body 
 is boiled in a solution of alum, and precipitated by an 
 alkali, the alumine combines with the coloured preci- 
 pitate and forms a lac. Alumine, according to the 
 method of M. Thenard, may even be very intimately 
 mixed with metallic colours, such as prussiate of iron, 
 oxyd of cobalt, &c. In order that any body be fit to 
 act as a mordant, it is not sufficient that it possess an 
 affinity with the colouring principle, or with the stuff ; 
 it must also be perfectly white, otherwise its colour, 
 mixing with that of the colouring principle, would pro- 
 duce a mixed colour. There are cases, however, in 
 which certain bodies can serve at the same time as a 
 mordant and a colouring principle ; thus the oxyd of 
 iron is employed along with a madder red, in order to 
 dye cotton violet, and which, if employed alone, would 
 produce a very deep nankeen colour. 
 
 Mordants ought to be little subjected to change by 
 the action of the air and water ; as otherwise they 
 render the colours cloudy. We must not judge of a 
 mordant, disposed on a stuff, and combined with the 
 colouring principle from its original properties, as the 
 new combination imports to it new qualities ; and it is 
 according to them that an opinion must be formed re- 
 specting it. Thus, for example, alumine which is very 
 soluble in fixed alkalies, when uncombined with any 
 other substance, becomes insoluble when, in the cotton 
 prepared for Adrianople red, it is united with tannin 
 and oil. 
 
 At present the two mordants most generally employ- 
 ed are, alum and muriate of tin. By decomposing 
 alum by the acetate of lead, an acetate of alumine is 
 obtained, which is preferable to alum, because the 
 alumine is more easily disengaged from it, and the acid 
 thus liberated is less corrosive. 
 
 The oxyd of tin possesses very marked affinities with 
 the colouring principles, of which it heightens the co- 
 
 lour, especially those of scarlet and madder red. The 
 oxyd of iron displays more decided affinities with the 
 stuffs, with which it combines in an almost indelible 
 manner. 
 
 But as it is naturally coloured, it can only be em- 
 ployed in dyeing compound or mixed colours ; in this 
 last case the colour is harsh, unless it be softened by 
 dipping such red stuffs in a solution of alum saturated 
 with potash. The oxyd of copper is also employed as a 
 mordant, but most generally in conjunction with iron in 
 dyeing black; sometimes it is used alone in dyeing cotton 
 of a yellow colour. 
 
 Lime, and all the calcareous salts may be considered 
 as mordants; it is true they darken or obscure reds, but 
 they give a brilliancy to the astringent principle, heighten 
 blues, particularly metallic blues, and impart fixity to all 
 colours. 
 
 The most complicated mordant employed in dyeing is 
 that used for the Adrianople red ; it is composed of 
 alumine, oil, and the astringent principle. This com- 
 bination of three bodies, which is successively formed 
 by the numerous operations to which the cotton is sub- 
 jected, possesses none of the properties of the three 
 constituent bodies. And though the madder red may 
 be fixed by any one of these three substances sepa- 
 rately taken, yet the same degree of fixity is not 
 imparted to it as when this triple combination is pro- 
 duced. 
 
 The best mordants are those which have not only a 
 decided affinity with the colouring principle, but also 
 with the stuff ; and it is this property which renders 
 alum preferable to all the other salts ; but, as in general 
 they have a greater affinity with the colouring principle 
 than with the stuff, we first apply them to the stuff, 
 and afterwards expose it thus prepared to the action of 
 the colouring principle. If we pursue a contrary course, 
 a lac will be formed, or the affinities between the alum 
 and the colouring principle will be saturated, and 
 exert no further action on the stuff. The mordant then 
 applied to a stuff’, first exerts its action on the stuff and 
 combines w'ith it ; after which it attracts and retains the 
 colouring principle. 
 
 The stuff can only imbibe a certain portion of alum, 
 so that when it is completely saturated with this salt, it 
 ought to be rinced through water, in order to free it 
 from that portion of the alum which is not fixed ; since, 
 without this precaution, the superabundant alum will 
 remain in the bath, and absorb the colouring principle, 
 to the prejudice of the stuff. When the stuff is not 
 washed after the process of aluming, it is boiled in the 
 solution, or preserved wet for some time, in order to 
 produce a more intimate union between it and the 
 alum. 
 
 These processes are only proper for the preparation 
 of woollen stuffs, which have more affinity with alum 
 than those made of cotton or flax. The affinity of 
 mordants with the stuff, is sometimes so great, that 
 nothing more is necessary but placing it in their solu- 
 tion, in order fully to impregnate it with them. 
 
 Cotton 
 
DYEING. 
 
 269 
 
 Cotton dipped in a solution of sulphate of iron, for 
 example, almost instantaneously assumes a nankeen 
 colour ; and when the oxyd is suspended in the solu- 
 tion, it is sufficient to put the cotton into the bath for a 
 short time, to fix it on the stuff, and to render the 
 bath perfectly transparent. Although it is the general 
 practice to impregnate the stuff with the mordant be- 
 fore the application of the colour, there is nevertheless 
 exceptions to this rule ; for example, in the manufac- 
 tures of printed linens, when the object is to impress 
 on the same stuff several different shades of blue, they 
 first apply the colours with glue, and afterwards dip 
 this species of painting successively into lime water, the 
 solution of the sulphate of lime, and the lixivium of 
 potash. When the colours are fixed by this means, the 
 stuff is transferred into a bath, slightly acidulated by 
 sulphuric acid, which purifies and whitens those por- 
 tions of the stuff which have not been printed. 
 
 The mordant generally unites two properties, that of 
 fixing the colour, and imparting to it brilliancy. If 
 cotton, impregnated with the acetate of alumine, be 
 dipped into a bath of quercitron, of a muddy dull colour, 
 we see it immediately assume a brilliant yellow cloud, 
 at the same time that the cotton becomes coloured. 
 
 When this composition is poured into a bath of co- 
 chineal, the colour instantaneously changes, and acquires 
 the beautiful tint natural to scarlet. In this case, the 
 oxyd of tin combines with the colour, and forms a 
 compound, having such a strong affinity with the wool, 
 that it is sufficient to plunge it into the bath, that it may 
 extract all the colour. In the dyeing of some colours, it 
 is necessary to employ separately one mordant for the 
 stuff, and another for the colouring principle. For ex- 
 ample, when we wish to impart a crimson colour to 
 wool, the stuff is prepared with 5 oz. of alum to the 
 pound of stuff ; and the colouring bath is composed of 
 5oz. of cochineal, and two ounces and a half of tartar; 
 to this mixture, is added, after it has reached the boil- 
 ing point, ten ounces of the solution of tin. 
 
 Of the substances to which colours are communicated 
 in the art of dyeing . — In the limited sense to which we 
 have here restricted the art of dyeing, the substances to 
 which colours are usually communicated by means of this 
 art, are wool, silk, cotton, flax, and hemp. Of these, the 
 two first are animal substances, and the three latter are 
 derived from the vegetable kingdom. Animal sub- 
 stances are distinguished from those which have a vege- 
 table origin, by the nature of their constituent parts. 
 The former contain a large proportion of azote, which 
 exists sparingly in the latter. Hydrogen is found in 
 greater abundance in animal matters, than in vegetable 
 productions. In the distillation of animal and vegetable 
 substances, the difference of their constituent parts is 
 not less remarkable. The former afford a large pro- 
 portion of ammonia, the latter yield very little, and 
 sometimes give out an acid. Animal matters afford 
 much oil, while vegetable substances rarely afford it in 
 any perceptible quantity. From the nature of their 
 component parts, animal substances produce a bright 
 
 flame in burning ; and their combustion is accompanied 
 with a penetrating odour, owing no doubt to the form- 
 ation and emission of ammonia and oil. Animal mat- 
 ters run rapidly into the putrefactive process, while ve- 
 getable substances more slowly undergo the changes 
 which are induced by fermentation. 
 
 The constituent principles of animal substances have 
 a stronger tendency than those which enter into the 
 composition of vegetable matters, to assume the elastic 
 form, therefore the cohesive force existing between the 
 particles of the former is inferior to that of the particles 
 of the latter. Hence animal matters are more disposed 
 to combine with other substances, more liable to be 
 destroyed by different agents, and more readily enter 
 into combination with colouring particles. Thus, ani- 
 mal substances are destroyed by the caustic fixed alka- 
 lies, and they are decomposed by the mineral acids. 
 The action of acids and alkalies on silk is less powerful 
 than upon wool, and it is less disposed to combine with 
 the particles of colouring matter. In this respect it 
 bears a resemblance to vegetable substances; but on 
 these the action of alkalies and acids is less powerful 
 than on animal substances ; and the action of acids is 
 more feeble on cotton than on flax or hemp. 
 
 We shall now treat of these substances: Wool, which 
 is well known as the covering of sheep, derives its value 
 from the length and fineness of its filaments. The fila- 
 ments of wool are considerably elastic, for they may be 
 drawn out beyond their usual length, and when the force 
 is removed, they recover it again. They resemble the 
 arrangement of the scales of a fish, which cover each 
 other from the head of the animal to its tail. This pe- 
 culiarity of structure of the filaments of hair and wool is 
 proved by a simple experiment. If a hair be laid hold 
 of by the root in one hand, and drawn between the 
 fingers of the other hand, from the root to the point, 
 scarcely any friction or resistance is perceived ; but if it 
 be grasped by the point, and passed in the same manner 
 between the fingers from the point towards the root, a 
 resistance is felt, and a tremulous motion is perceptible 
 to the touch. Thus the texture of the surface of hair 
 or wool is not the same from the root towards the 
 point, as it is from the point towards the root. Wool 
 is naturally covered with a kind of grease or oil, which is 
 found to preserve it from insects or moths, and on this 
 account the greasy matter is not removed, or the wool 
 is not scoured till it is to be dyed or spun. The pro- 
 cess for scouring wool is this : it is put for about a 
 quarter of an hour into a kettle, with a sufficient quan- 
 tity of water, to which a fourth part of putrid urine has 
 been added. It is then heated, occasionally stirred, and 
 being taken out, is allowed to drain. It is next put 
 into a basket, and exposed to a stream of running water, 
 and moved about till the grease is so completely sepa- 
 rated, that it no longer renders the water turbid. The 
 more carefully and completely this process is performed, 
 the better the wool is fitted to receive the colouring 
 matter. Our chemical readers will perceive the nature 
 of the changes which are affected in this process of 
 3 Z scouring. 
 
270 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 scouring. The ammonia, which exists in the urine, I 
 combines with the oil of the wool, and forms a soap, | 
 which being soluble in water, is dissolved, and carried ] 
 off. Wool is either dyed in the fleece, or after it is | 
 spun into threads, or when it is manufactured into cloth. 1 
 For the purpose of forming cloths of mixed colours, it 
 is dyed before it is spun ; for the purposes of tapestry, I 
 it is dyed in the state of thread ; but more frequently j 
 it is subjected to this process after it has been manufac- 
 tured into cloth. In these different states, the quantity 
 of colouring matter taken up is very different. The | 
 proportion is largest when it is dyed in the fleece, be- 
 cause then the filaments being more separated, a greater 
 surface is exposed to the action of the colouring par- 
 ticles. For a similar reason the quantity of colour 
 taken up is greater when in the state of thread or yarn, 
 than when it is formed into cloth. But cloths them- 
 selves must vary in this respect, according to their dif- 
 ferent qualities. Their different degrees of fineness, or 
 closeness of texture, will produce considerable variations; 
 the difference also in the quantity and dimensions of the 
 substances to be dyed, the different qualities of the 
 ingredients employed and the different circumstances in 
 which the process is performed, should be a caution 
 against trusting to precise quantities, regulated by weight 
 or measure, which are recommended according to ge- 
 neral rules. According to the texture of the wool, and 
 the nature of the colouring matter employed, it is found 
 to be more or less penetrated with this matter. The 
 wool from the thighs and tails of some sheep, receives 
 colours with difficulty, and the finest cloth is never 
 completely penetrated with the scarlet dye. The inte- 
 rior of the cloth appears always when cut, of a lighter 
 shade, and sometimes even white. 
 
 Silk, which forms the basis of one of the richest and j 
 most splendid parts of dress, among the wealthy in I 
 civilized society, is the production of different insects. | 
 The phalasna bombyx, or silk worm, which is a native 
 of China, attracted the attention of mankind in that 
 country, from the earliest ages. The honour of having j 
 first collected and prepared silk from the cocoons in : 
 which it is wound up by the insect, during its meta- 
 morphoses, is ascribed to the wife of an emperor. The 
 phalama atlas, which is also a native of China, is said 
 to form larger cocoons, and to yield a stronger silk. 
 The silk-worm was first carried from China to Hin- 
 dostan, and afterwards to Persia. About the middle 
 of the sixth century, two monks returned from India 
 to Constantinople, and brought with them a number 
 of silk-worms, with instructions for managing and 
 breeding them, as well as for collecting, preparing, 
 and manufacturing the silk. Establishments were 
 thus formed at Corinth, Athens, and other parts of 
 Greece. The crusades, which though very injuri- 
 ous, in some respects to the world, greatly contri- 
 buted to the diffusion of different kinds of know- 
 ledge, by the intercourse which took place between 
 different countries, proved useful in disseminating 
 the knowledge of rearing the silk-worm, and manu- 
 
 facturing its valuable productions. Roger, king of 
 Sicily, about the year 1130, returning from one of 
 these expeditions, brought with him from Greece, se- 
 veral prisoners, who were acquainted with the manage- 
 ment of silk-worms, and the manufacturing of silk. 
 Under their superintendence, manufactories were esta- 
 blished at Palermo and Calabria. This example was 
 soon adopted, and followed in different parts of Italy, 
 and Spain. In the time of James I. an attempt was 
 made to establish the silk-worm in England. For this 
 purpose the culture of the mulberry-tree on which the 
 insects feed, was recommended by that prince to his 
 subjects ; but the attempts have been hitherto unsuc- 
 cessful. 
 
 The fibres of silk are covered with a coating or na- 
 tural varnish of a gummy nature. To this are ascribed 
 its stiffness and elasticity. Besides this varnish, the 
 silk usually met with in Europe, is impregnated with a 
 substance of a yellow colour, and for most of the pur- 
 poses to which silk is applied, it is necessary that it 
 should be deprived, both of the varnish and of the co- 
 louring matter. On this account it must be subjected 
 to the operation of scouring. A hundred pounds of 
 silk boiled in a solution of 20 lbs. of soap for three 
 or four hours, adding new portions of water during the 
 evaporation, are sufficiently prepared for receiving com- 
 mon colours. For blue, the proportion of soap must 
 be increased; and scarlet, cherry-colour, &c. require 
 still a greater proportion, for the ground must be whiter 
 for these colours. Silk, which is to be employed white, 
 must undergo three operations. In the first the hanks 
 are immersed in a hot solution of 30 lbs. of soap to 
 100 of silk. When the immersed part is freed from its 
 gum, which is known by its whiteness, the hanks are 
 shaken over, so that the part which was not previously 
 immersed may undergo the same operation. They are 
 then wrung out and the process is completed. In the 
 second operation the silk is put into bags of coarse 
 cloth, each bag containing 20 or 30 lbs. These bags 
 are boiled for an hour and a half, in a solution of soap 
 prepared as before, but with less soap ; and that they 
 may not receive too much heat, by touching the 
 bottom of the kettle, they must be kept constantly 
 stirred during the operation. The object of the 
 third operation is to communicate to the silk different 
 shades, to render the white more agreeable. These 
 are known by different names, as China-white, silver- 
 white, &c. For this purpose a solution of soap is also 
 I prepared, of which the proper degree of strength is as- 
 certained by its manner of frothing by agitation. For 
 the China-white, which is required to have a tinge of 
 red, a small quantity of anatto is added, and the silk is 
 shaken over till it has acquired the shade which is want- 
 ed. In other whites, a blue tinge is given by adding u 
 little blue to the solution v of soap. The azure-white is 
 communicated by means of indigo. It has long been 
 an object of considerable importance, to deprive silk of 
 it colouring matter, without destroying the g.um, on 
 which its stiffness and elasticity depend. A process for 
 
DYEING. 
 
 271 
 
 this purpose was discovered by Beaume, but as it was 
 not made public, others have been led to it by experi- 
 ment. The following account, given by Berthollet, is 
 all that has transpired concerning this process. A mix- 
 ture is made with a small quantity of muriatic acid and 
 alcohol. The muriatic acid should be in a state of 
 purity, and should be entirely free from nitric acid, 
 which would give the silk a yellow colour. In the 
 mixture thus prepared, the silk is to be immersed. 
 One of the most difficult parts of the process, is to 
 produce a uniform whiteness. In dyeing the whitened 
 silk, there is also considerable difficulty, to prevent its 
 curling, so that it is recommended to keep it constantly 
 stretched during the drying. The muriatic acid is use- 
 ful in this process, by softening the gum, and assist- 
 ing the alcohol to dissolve the colouring particles 
 which are combined with it. The alcohol which has 
 been impregnated with the colouring matter may be 
 separated from it and purified, that it may serve for 
 future operations, and thus render the process more 
 economical. This may be done by distillation with a 
 moderate heat, in glass or stone-ware vessels. 
 
 The preparation with alum is a very important pre- 
 liminary operation in the dyeing of silk. Without this 
 process, few colours would have either beauty or dura- 
 bility. Forty or fifty pounds of alum, dissolved in 
 warm water are mixed in a vat, with as many pailfuls 
 of water ; and to prevent the crystallization of the salt, 
 the solution must be carefully stirred during the mixture. 
 The silk being previously washed and beetled, is im- 
 mersed in this alum liquor, and at the end of eight or 
 nine hours it is wrung out, and w ashed in a stream of 
 water. A hundred and fifty pounds of silk may be pre- 
 pared in the above quantity of liquor ; but when it 
 grows w'eak, which may be known by the taste, 20 or 
 2 5 lbs. of dissolved alum are to be added, and the ad- 
 dition repeated till the liquor acquires a disagreeable 
 smell. It may even then be employed in the prepara- 
 tion of silk intended for darker colours, till its whole 
 strength is dissipated. The preparation of silk with 
 alum must be made in the cold ; for if the liquor is 
 employed hot the lustre is apt to be impaired. 
 
 Cotton is the down or wool contained in the pods of 
 a shrubby plant, which is a native of warm climates. 
 Of this genus of plants there are four species, one of 
 which only is perennial, the other three are annual 
 plants ; but of these there are many varieties. The 
 principal differences among cottons consist in the length 
 and fineness of the-filaments, and in their strength and 
 colour. The peculiar structure of the fibres of cotton 
 is not w'ell known. According to the microscopic ob- 
 servations of Leuwenhoeck they have two sharp sides, 
 to which are ascribed the irritation and inflammation of 
 wounds and ulcers when they are dressed with cotton 
 instead of lint. This peculiarity of structure may oc- 
 casion some difference in the conformation and number 
 of the pores, on w'hich the disposition of cotton to 
 admit and retain colours better than linen seems to 
 depend. In this respect it is inferior to wool and silk, 
 
 I because orr account of its vegetable nature, its affinity for 
 colouring matter is less powerful. It is well known 
 I that silk, cotton, and linen have a weaker affinity for 
 colouring matter than wool, w hich has been explained ; 
 that the pores of these substances are smaller . than those 
 of wool, and that the colouring particles enter them 
 less freely. But according to Dr. Bancroft, the reverse 
 of this seems to be the fact; for there is little difficulty 
 in making silk, cotton, and linen imbibe colouring 
 matter, even when it is applied cold without any artifi- 
 j cial dilatation of the pores, which is always necessary in 
 ! the dyeing of wool. The only difficulty is to make them 
 | retain the colours after the matter has been imbibed ; 
 because being admitted into their undulated pores, the 
 particles cannot be afterwards compressed and retained 
 by the contraction of these pores, as is the case with 
 wool. It requires double the quantity of cochineal 
 which is necessary for wool to communicate a crimson 
 colour to silk ; a proof that it can take up a greater 
 quantity, and consequently that the pores are suffi- 
 ciently large and accessible. Unbleached cotton is 
 always preferred for dyeing Turkey red, because in this 
 state the colour is found to be most permanent ; 
 which is ascribed to the pores or interstices being less 
 open than after it has undergone the process of bleach- 
 ing. The same thing is observed of raw silk. It is 
 found to combine more easily with the colouring matter, 
 and to receive a more permanent colour in this state 
 j than after it has been scoured and whitened. “ The 
 openness of cotton and linen, (says Dr. Bancroft) and 
 i their consequent readiness to imbibe both colouring 
 I particles, and the earthy or metallic bases employed to 
 fix most of them, are circumstances upon which the art 
 of dyeing and calico printing is in a great degree 
 founded.” To prepare cotton stuff for receiving the 
 dye several operations are necessary. It must first un- 
 dergo the process of scouring. By some it is boiled in 
 alkaline lye : it should be kept boiling for two hours, 
 then wrung out and rinsed in a stream of water till the 
 water comes off clear. The stuffs to be prepared 
 should be soaked in water mixed with not more than 
 one-fiftieth part of sulphuric acid, and then carefully 
 washed in a stream of water and dried. In this opera- 
 tion the acid combines with a portion of earth and iron, 
 which would have interrupted the full effect of the co- 
 louring matter in the process of dyeing. Aluming is 
 another preliminary process in the dyeing of cotton. 
 The alum is to be dissolved, and each pound of cotton 
 stuff requires four ounces of alum. By some a solution 
 of soda, about one-sixteenth part of the alum, and by 
 others a small quantity of tartar and arsenic are added. 
 The thread is impregnated by working it in small quan- 
 tities with this solution. The whole is then put into a 
 vessel, and the remaining part of the liquor is poured 
 upon it. It is now left for 24 hours, after which it is 
 [ removed to a stream of w'ater, and allowed to remain 
 j for an hour and a half or two hours, to extract part of 
 ; the alum. It is then to be w'ashed. By this operation 
 [ cotton gains about one-fortieth part of its weight. 
 
 The 
 
272 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 The operation of galling is another preparatory pro- 
 cess in the dyeing of cotton stuffs. The quantity of 
 astringent matter employed must be proportioned to its 
 quality. Powdered galls are boiled for two hours in a 
 proportion of water, regulated by the quantity of thread 
 to be galled. This solution being reduced to such a 
 temperature as the hand can bear, is divided into a num- 
 ber of equal parts, that the thread may be wrought in 
 separate parcels. The whole stuff is then put into a 
 vessel, and the remaining liquor poured upon it, as in 
 the former process. It is then left for 24 hours, if it is 
 to be dyed black, but for other colours 12 or 15 hours 
 are found sufficient. It is then wrung out and dried. 
 Berthollet informs us, that cotton which has been 
 alumed acquired more weight in the galling than that 
 which had not undergone the process; for although 
 alum adheres but in small quantities to cotton, it com- 
 municates to it a greater power of combining, both 
 with the astringent principle and with the colouring 
 particles. 
 
 Flax and hemp nearly resemble each other in their 
 general properties ; and so far as relates to the pro- 
 cesses of dyeing, what is said of the one may be ap- 
 plied to the other. Flax or lint is obtained from the 
 back of linum usitatissimum, and hemp from that of 
 cannabis sativa. Before flax is properly prepared to 
 receive the dye, it must be subjected to several pro- 
 cesses. The most important is that of watering, by 
 which the fibrous parts of the plant are separated, and 
 brought to that state in which they can be spun into 
 threads. As the quantity and quality of the product 
 depend much on this operation, it becomes of the 
 greatest consequence that it be properly conducted. 
 During this process, carbonic acid and hydrogen gas 
 are given out. The extrication of these is owing to a 
 glutinous juice which holds the green colouring part 
 of the plant in solution, and which is the medium of 
 union between the cortical and ligneous parts, under- 
 going a certain degree of putrefaction. This substance 
 seems to resemble the glutinous parts which dissolved 
 in the juice obtained from plants by pressure, is sepa- 
 rated from the colouring particles by heat, readily be- 
 come putrid, and by distillation affords ammonia. But 
 although it is held in solution w ith the expressed juice, 
 it cannot be separated from the cortical parts com- 
 pletely by means of water ; and hence it happens, that 
 hemp or flax watered in two strong a current, has not 
 the requisite softness and flexibility. But if the water 
 employed in this operation be stagnant and in a putrid 
 state, the hemp or flax becomes of a brown colour, and 
 loses its fineness. In the one case the putrefactive pro- 
 cess is interrupted; in the other it is continued too 
 long and carried too far. The process, therefore, is 
 performed with the greatest advantage near the banks 
 of rivers, where the water may be changed so fre- 
 quently as to prevent such a degree of putrefaction as 
 would be injurious to the flax, as well as prejudicial to 
 the workmen from noxious exhalations ; and yet not 
 so frequently as to retard *or interrupt those changes 
 
 which are necessary for rendering the glutinous sub- 
 stance soluble in water. By watering flax, and by 
 drying before and after that process, the green co- 
 loured particles undergo a similar change to that which 
 is observed in the green substance of the plants ex- 
 posed to the action of air and light. The next part of 
 the process is to spread it out upon the grass, and thus 
 expose it for some time to the air and sun. By this 
 means the colour of the lint is improved, and the 
 ligneous part becomes so brittle that it is easily sepa- 
 rated from the fibrous part. This operation is usually 
 performed by machinery. Flax which is intended for 
 dyeing must be subjected to a similar series of opera- 
 tions with cotton in the different processes of scowering, 
 aluming, and galling. 
 
 Of the operations of dyeing . — Before we proceed to 
 the detail of the processes of dyeing, we shall throw out 
 a few hints on the operations in general. The works, 
 which are carried on in extensive manufactories, are 
 followed with advantages which are unknowm to those 
 that are conducted on a limited scale or in a detached 
 manner. By the subdivision of labour, each workman 
 directing his attention to one or a few objects, ac- 
 quires a great facility and perfection of execution, by 
 w'hich the saving of time and labour becomes consider- 
 able. This principle is particularly applicable to the 
 art of dyeing, because the preparation which remains 
 after one operation may be frequently employed in 
 another. A bath from which the colouring matter has 
 been in a great measure extracted in the first operation 
 may be useful for other stuffs, or with the addition of a 
 fresh portion of ingredients may form a new bath. The 
 galls which have been applied to the galling of silk may 
 answ'er a similar purpose for cotton or wool. A dye- 
 house, which should be set down as near as possible to 
 a stream of water, should be spacious and well lighted. 
 It should be floored with plaster; and proper means 
 should be adopted to carry off water or spent baths by 
 channels or gutters, so that every operation may be 
 conducted with the utmost attention to cleanliness. The 
 size and position of the chaldrons are to be regulated by 
 the nature and extent of the operations for which they 
 are designed. Excepting for scarlet and other delicate 
 colours in which tin is used as a mordant, the caldrons 
 should be of brass or copper. Brass, being less apt 
 than copper to be acted on by means of chemical 
 agents, and to communicate spots to the stuffs, is fitter 
 for the purpose of a dyeing vessel. It is of the greatest 
 consequence that the coppers or caldrons be well 
 cleaned for every operation ; and that vessels of a large 
 size should be furnished at the bottom with a pipe and 
 [ stop-cock for the greater convenience of emptying them. 
 
 I There must be a hole in the wall or chimney above each 
 copper, to admit poles for the purpose of draining the 
 ! stuffs which are immersed, so that the liquor may fall 
 back into the vessel, and no part may be lost. Dyes 
 for silk where a boiling heat is not necessary are pre- 
 pared in troughs or backs, which are long copper or 
 t wooden vessels. The colours which are used for silk 
 
 are 
 
DYEING. 
 
 are extremely delicate. They must therefore be dried 
 quickly, and not be long exposed to the action of the 
 air, that there may be no risk of change. For this 
 purpose, it is necessary to have a drying room heated 
 with a stove. For pieces of stuffs, a winch or reel must 
 be constructed, the ends of which are supported by two 
 iron forks, which may be put up at pleasure in holes 
 made in the curb on which the edges of the copper rest. 
 The manipulations in dyeing are neither difficult nor 
 complicated. Their object is to impregnate the stuff 
 with the colouring particles, which are dissolved in the 
 bath. For this purpose the action of the air is neces- 
 sary, not only in fixing the colouring particles, but in 
 rendering them more vivid ; while those which have 
 not been fixed in. the stuff are to be carefully re- 
 moved. In dyeing whole pieces of stuff, or a number 
 of pieces at once, the winch or reel must be employed. 
 One end of the stuff is first laid across it, and by turn- 
 ing it quickly round the whole passes over it. By 
 turning it afterwards the contrary way, that part of the 
 stuff which was first immersed will be the last in the 
 second immersion, and thus the colouring matter will 
 be communicated as equally as possible. In dyeing 
 w'ool in the fleece, a kind of broad ladder with very 
 close rounds, called by dyers a scraw or scray, is used. 
 This is placed over the copper, and the wool is put 
 upon it for the purpose of draining and exposure to 
 the air. If wool is dyed in the state of thread, or in 
 skeins, rods are to be passed through them, and the 
 hanks turned upon the skein sticks in the liquor. To 
 separate the superabundant colouring particles, or those 
 which have not been fixed in the stuff, after being dyed, 
 it must be wrung out. This operation is performed 
 with a cylindrical piece of w ood, one end of which is 
 fixed in the wall, or in a post. This operation is re- 
 peated a number of times successively, for the purpose 
 of drying the stuffs more rapidly, and communicating a 
 brighter lustre. In dyeing, one colour is frequently 
 communicated to stuffs with the intention of applying 
 another upon it, and thus a compound colour is pro- 
 duced. The first of these operations is called giving a > 
 ground. When it is found necessary to pass stuffs 
 several times through the same liquor, each particular 
 operation is called a dip. A colour is said to be rosed, 
 when a red colour having a yellow tinge is changed to a 
 shade inclining to a crimson or ruby colour ; and the 
 conversion of a yellow red to a more complete red is 
 called heightening the colour. We shall now make a 
 few observations on the qualities and effects of dif- 
 ferent kinds of water, which may be considered as one 
 of the most essential agents in the art of dyeing. It is 
 almost unnecessary to say, that water which is muddy 
 or contains putrid substances should not be employed ; 
 and indeed no kind of water which possesses qualities 
 distinguished by the taste, ought to be used. .Water 
 which holds in solution earthy salts, has a very consi- 
 derable action on colouring matters, which action is 
 chiefly produced by means of these salts. Such, for 
 instance, are the nitrates of lime and magnesia, muriate 
 
 ns 
 
 of lime and magnesia, sulphate of lime, and carbonate 
 of lime and of magnesia. These salts, which have 
 earthy bases, oppose the solution of the colouring par- 
 ticles, and by entering into combination with many of 
 them, cause a precipitation, by which means the co- 
 lour is at one time deeper and at other times duller and 
 more faint than would otherwise be the case. Water 
 impregnated with the carbonates of lime and magnesia, 
 yield a precipitate when they are boiled, for the excess 
 of carbonic acid which held them in solution is driven 
 off by the heat ; the earths are thus precipitated, and ad- 
 hering to the stuffs to be dyed, render them dirty, and 
 prevent the colouring matter from combining with 
 them. It is of much consequence to be able to dis- 
 tinguish the different kinds of water which come under 
 the denomination of hard water, that they may be 
 avoided in the essential operations of - dyeing ; but to 
 detect different principles contained in such waters, and 
 to ascertain their quantity with precision, require great 
 skill and very delicate management of chemical opera- 
 tions, w hich the experienced chemist only can be sup- 
 posed to possess. 
 
 As it is not always in the power of the dyer to choose 
 pure water, means of correcting the w ater which would 
 be injurious to his processes, and particularly for the 
 dyeing of delicate colours have been proposed. Water 
 in which bran has been allowed to become sour, is 
 most commonly employed for this purpose. This is 
 known by the name of sours, or sour water. The 
 method of preparing sour water is the following : twen- 
 ty-four bushels of bran are put into a vessel that wdll 
 contain about ten hogsheads. A large boiler is filled 
 with water, and when it is just ready to boil it is 
 poured into the vessel. Soon after, the acid fermenta- 
 tion commences, and in about twenty-four hours the 
 liquor is fit to be applied to use. Water which is im- 
 pregnated with earthy salts, after being treated in this 
 way, forms no precipitate by boiling. It is probable 
 ! that the sour water decomposes the carbonate of lime 
 and magnesia, because the vegetable acid w'hich is 
 i formed during the fermentation, combines with the 
 earthy basis and sets the carbonic acid at liberty. Some 
 of the substances with which waters are impregnated, 
 or those w hich are merely diffused in them in a state of 
 very minute division, may be separated by means of 
 mucilaginous matters. The mucilage coagulates by 
 means of heat, and carrying with it the earths separated 
 by boiling as well as those substances which are simply 
 mixed with the water and render it turbid, rises to the 
 surface, and forming a scum may be easily removed. 
 
 (JJ the practice of Dyeing . — We have already endea- 
 voured to give a general view of the principles on which 
 the art of dyeing depends. We have considered the 
 physical and chemical properties of colours and colour- 
 ing matters; the nature of the substances to which 
 j colours are communicated, and the agents or means by 
 which this is effected; and from the experiments and 
 observations of philosophers, whose investigations have 
 been directed to this subject, it appears that these 
 4 A changes 
 
274 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 changes are entirely owing to chemical affinities, by 
 which decompositions are effected, and new combina- 
 tions formed among the constituent parts of the sub- 
 stances employed. 
 
 It is only by the application of the principles of che- 
 mistry that this art can be improved and perfected. But 
 the application of these principles must be made by the 
 practical dyer himself, not by the chemist in his labo- 
 ratory, or during an occasional visit to the manufactory. 
 For in the complicated processes of dyeing, conducted on 
 an extensive scale, a thousand circumstances will be 
 overlooked by the most acute and discerning chemist, 
 which will not escape the habitual observation of the 
 philosophical artist. 
 
 Colours have been usually distributed by dyers into 
 two classes. These have been denominated simple and 
 compound colours. Simple colours, which are com- 
 monly reckoned four in number, are such as cannot be 
 produced by the mixing together different colours. Co- 
 lours denominated compound may be produced by the 
 mixture of any two of the simple colours in different 
 proportions. Thus red, yellow', and blue, are inca- 
 pable of being produced by any combination of others, 
 and are therefore considered as simple colours. Blue 
 and red, which compose a purple, blue and yellow a 
 green, and red and yellow an orange, are compound 
 colours ; but none of these, by any composition what- 
 ever, will afford a red, yellow, or blue. 
 
 Dr. Bancroft, in his elaborate treatise on tKe philoso- 
 phy of permanent colours, divides colouring matters into 
 two classes. The first includes those colouring sub- 
 stances which, being in a state of solution may be per- 
 manently fixed on any stuff w ithout any mordant, or the 
 intermediate action of earthy or metallic bases. In the 
 second class are comprehended those matters which 
 cannot be fixed without the action of mordants. The 
 first he has denominated substantive colours ; because 
 the colour is fixed without the aid of any other body : 
 and the second adjective, because they become perma- 
 nent only with the addition of a mordant. The ce- 
 lebrated purple produced by the liquor obtained 
 from the shell-fish and indigo, are examples of sub- 
 stantive colours. Prussian blue and cochineal are ad- 
 jective colours. The usual division of colours is into 
 simple and compound, which seems to form an ar- 
 rangement equally convenient and perspicuous. 
 
 OF SIMPLE COLOURS. 
 
 Simple colours are such as cannot be produced by 
 the mixture of other colours. They are the foundation 
 of all other colours, and therefore come naturally to be 
 first treated of. The simple colours are four, viz. 1. 
 Red. 2. Yellow. 3. Blue. 4. Black. To these a fifth 
 is added by some ; namely, brow n, or faw n colour ; 
 although it may be produced by the combination of 
 other colours. The nature of the colouring substances 
 which are employed to produce these colours, and the 
 processes by which they are fixed on the several stuffs, 
 will form the subjects of the following article. 
 
 Red colours, from different degrees of intensity have 
 received different names, as crimson, scarlet, besides a 
 great variety of shades which are less striking, aud come 
 under no particular denomination. We shall treat of 
 the nature and properties of the substances which are 
 employed in dyeing red, yellow, blue and black, and 
 then give an account of the different processes which 
 are followed in fixing these colouring matters on animal 
 and vegetable productions. 1. Of the substances em- 
 ployed in dying red. The colouring matters which are 
 principally employed in dyeing red, are madder, co- 
 chineal, kermes, lac, archil, carthamus, brasil wood, 
 and logwood. 
 
 Madder is very extensively employed in dyeing. It 
 is the root of a plant (rubia tinctorura, Lin.) of which 
 there are two varieties. It is cultivated in different 
 parts of Europe, and the best, it is said, is brought from 
 Zealand. Madder, as it is prepared for dyeing, is dis- 
 tinguished into different kinds. What is called grape 
 madder is obtained from the principal roots ; the none 
 grape is produced from the stalks, which by being 
 buried in the earth are converted into roots, and are 
 called layers. 
 
 The roots being dried, and the earthy matters which 
 adhere to them being separated by shaking them in a 
 bag, or beating them lightly on a wooden hurdle, they 
 are reduced to powder by means of manual labour or 
 with machinery. All the parts of madder do not yield 
 the same colouring matter. The outer bark and the 
 ligneous part within give a yellowish dye, which injures 
 the red. These parts may be separated in consequence 
 of the different degrees of facility with which they are 
 reduced to pow'der. 
 
 The result of the experiments of a French chemist 
 shew, that the fresh root of madder may be used with 
 as much advantage in dyeing, as when it is dried and 
 powdered. Four pounds of fresh madder, he ob- 
 served are equal to one of the dry, although in drying it 
 loses seven-eights of its weight. When the fresh roots 
 are to be used, they are to be well washed in a current 
 of water immediately after they are taken out of the 
 ground, and afterwards cut into pieces and bruised. 
 In dyeing with the fresh roots, allowance should be 
 made for the quantity of water which they contain, 
 so that a smaller proportion should be put into the 
 bath. 
 
 The colouring matter of madder is soluble in al- 
 cohol, and by evaporation a deep red residuum is 
 formed. In this solution sulphuric acid produces a 
 fawn-coloured precipitate ; fixed alkali, one of a violet 
 colour, and the sulphate of potash a precipitate of a fine 
 red. Alum, nitre, chalk, acetate of lead, and muriate 
 of tin, afford precipitates in the solution of madder in 
 alcohol of various shades. The colouring matter of 
 madder is also soluble in water. By maceration in 
 several portions of cold water successively, the last 
 receives only a fawn colour, which appears entirely 
 different from the peculiar colouring particles of this 
 substance. It resembles what is extracted from woods 
 
 aud 
 
DYEING. 
 
 275 
 
 and other roots, and perhaps exists only in the ligneous I 
 and cortical parts. The colouring matter may be ex- i 
 tracted either by hot or cold water ; in the latter the ! 
 colour is most beautiful. The decoction is of a brown- 
 ish colour. The colouring matter of madder cannot be 
 extracted without a great deal of water. Two ounces 
 of madder require three quarts of water. Alum forms 
 in the infusion of madder a deep brownish red precipi- 
 tate ; the supernatant liquor is yellowish, inclining to 
 brown. Alkaline carbonates precipitate from this last 
 liquor a lake of a blood-red colour; with the addition of 
 more alkali, the precipitate is re-dissolved, and the 
 liquor becomes red. Calcareous earth precipitates a 
 darker and browner coloured lake than alkalies. 
 
 Cochineal, which furnishes a valuable dye stuff, and 
 about the nature of which there was at first a good deal 
 of uncertainty, is an insect. It is produced on dif- 
 ferent species of the cactus or Indian fig. When the 
 Spaniards first arrived in Mexico, they saw the cochi- 
 neal employed by the native inhabitants in communicat- 
 ing colours to some part of their habitations, their orna- 
 ments, and also in dyeing cotton. Struck with its beau- 
 tiful colour, they transmitted accounts of it to the 
 Spanish ministry, who about the year 1523, ordered 
 Cortes to direct his attention to the propagation of this 
 substance. The inhabitants of Europe were long mis- 
 taken concerning the nature and origin of cochineal, by 
 supposing it to be the grain or seed of a plant. This 
 opinion was first contradicted in a paper published in 
 the third volume of the Philosophical Transactions, in 
 1668, and four years afterwards Dr. Lister, in the 
 seventh volume of the same work, throws out a con- 
 jecture, that cochineal may be a sort of kermes. Dif- 
 ferent opinions concerning the origin of this substance 
 were entertained till about the beginning of the year 
 1757, when Mr. Ellis obtained some of the joints of the 
 plant on which the insects breed from South Carolina, 
 and presented them the same year to the Royal So- 
 ciety. These specimens, Mr. Ellis observes, were full 
 of the nests of this insect, in which it appeared in its 
 various states, in the most minute when it walks about, 
 to the state when it becomes fixed and wrapt up in a 
 fine web which it spius about itself. With the assist- 
 ance of the microscope, Mr. Ellis discovered the true 
 male insect in the parcels w hich had been sent to him 
 from America. It is supposed there may be 150 or 
 200 females for one male. These discoveries proved 
 indisputably that the cochineal is an animal production. 
 The female cochineal insect adheres to the same spot of 
 the tree on which it is produced during her whole life. 
 As soon as the female is delivered of its numerous pro- 
 geny, it becomes a mere husk and dies. In Mexico it 
 is therefore an object of great importance to prevent 
 this, and to collect them in the fecundated state. For 
 this purpose they are picked from the plants, put into 
 a linen bag, which is immersed in hot water to destroy 
 the life of the young insects, and then carefully dried. 
 In this state they are imported into Europe. 
 
 Fine cochineal, if it has been properly prepared and 
 
 kept, ought to be of a gray colour with a shade of 
 purple. The gray colour is owing to a powder with 
 which it is naturally covered, and part of which it still 
 retains. The colouring matter extracted by the water 
 in which the insect has been killed produces the purple 
 shade. In a dry place, cochineal may be kept for a 
 long time without losing any of its properties. Hellot 
 made experiments on cochineal 130 years old, and 
 found that it produced' the same effect as if it had been 
 quite new. Cochineal yields its colouring matter to 
 water ; and the decoction, which is of a crimson colour 
 inclining to violet, may be kept for a long time without 
 losing its transparency or becoming putrid. If this 
 decoction be evaporated, and the residue or extract be 
 digested in alcohol, the colouring part dissolves and 
 leaves a residuum of the colour of wine lees, of which 
 fresh alcohol cannot deprive it. The alcohol of cochi- 
 neal affords, by evaporation, a transparent residuum of 
 a deep red, which being dried has the appearance of a 
 resin. A small quantity of sulphuric acid added to the 
 decoction of cochineal, produces a red colour inclining 
 to yellow, and a small quantity of a beautiful red preei- 
 pitate. 
 
 The experiments of Berthollet and Bancroft shew 
 that the colouring matter of cochineal is not entirely 
 extracted by means of water. Dr. Bancroft found, that 
 after the whole of it which could be extracted by water 
 was obtained, by adding a little potash to the seemingly 
 exhausted sediment, and pouring on it fresh boiling 
 water it yielded a new quantity of colouring matter, 
 equal to one-eighth of what had been given out to the 
 water ; and Berthollet found the same effect produced 
 with the addition of tartar, from which he concludes 
 that tartar favours the solution of the colouring part of 
 the cochineal. 
 
 Kermes, another animal substance which is exten- 
 sively employed in dyeing, is an insect that breeds on 
 a species of oak which grow s in most of the southern 
 parts of Europe, and in many parts of Asia. Kermes 
 is chiefly obtained from Languedoc, Spain, and Portu- 
 gal. The insects ^re collected in the month of May or 
 l June, when the female, which alone is useful, is dis- 
 tended with eggs. To destroy the young insects, the 
 kermes is exposed to the steam of vinegar for about half 
 an hour, or steeped in vinegar for 10 or 12 hours. 
 They are afterwards dried on linen cloths, and brought 
 to market. 
 
 When the living insect is bruised it gives out a red 
 colour. The smell is somewhat pleasant ; the taste is 
 bitter and pungent. It gives out its colouring matter 
 both to water and alcohol, to which it also imparts 
 smell and taste. The colour is also retained in the 
 extract, which is obtained both from the tincture and 
 from the infusion. Kermes is one of the most ancient 
 dyeing drugs; and although the colours which it com- 
 municates to cloth are less bright and vivid than those 
 of cochineal, and on that account it has been less ex- 
 tensively employed in dyeing since the latter was known, 
 yet they have been found to be exceedingly permanent. 
 
276 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 The fine blood-red colour which is to be seen on old 
 tapestries in different parts of Europe was produced 
 from kermes, with an aluminous mordant, and seems 
 to have suffered no change though some of them are 
 200 or 300 years old. The colour obtained from 
 kermes was formerly called scarlet in grain, because' 
 it was supposed that the insect was a grain; and from 
 the chief manufactory having been at one time in Ve- 
 nice, it was called Venetian scarlet. 
 
 Lac is an animal production which has been long 
 known in India, and used for dyeing silk and other pur- 
 poses. It is the nidus of the coccus lacca, and is gene- 
 rally produced on the small branches of the croton 
 lacciferum. Three kinds of lac are well known in 
 commerce : 1 . Stick lac is the substance or comb in 
 its natural state, forming a crust on the small branches 
 or twigs. 2. Seed lac is said to be only the above sepa- 
 rated from the twigs, and reduced into small fragments. 
 Mr. Hatchett, who has examined this substance, found 
 the best specimens considerably deprived of their co- 
 louring matter. According to the information which he 
 received from Mr. Wilkins, the silk dyers in Bengal 
 produce the seed lac by pounding crude lac into small 
 fragments, and extracting part of the colouring matter 
 by boiling. 8. Shell lac is prepared from the cells 
 liquefied, strained, and formed into thin transparent la- 
 mina. The best lac is of a deep red colour; when it is 
 pale and pierced at the top, the value is greatly diminished, 
 for then the insects have left their cells, and it can no 
 longer be of use as a dye stuff. 
 
 The decoction of powdered stick lac in water gives a 
 deep crimson colour. With one-fifth of borax, lac 
 becomes more soluble in water. Pure soda and car- 
 bonate of soda completely dissolve the different kinds of 
 lac, and produce a deeper colour than that which is 
 obtained by means of borax. Pure potash speedily | 
 dissolves all the varieties of lac; the colour approaches ! 
 to purple. Pure ammonia and carbonate of ammonia 
 readily act on the colouring matter of lac. Alcohol : 
 dissolves a considerable portion of the lac, and yields a 
 fine red colour. 
 
 i^rchil is a vegetable substance of great use in dye- | 
 ing. It is employed in the form of a paste, which is j 
 of a red violet colour. It is chiefly obtained from two 
 species of lichen. The first, which is called Canary- 
 Archil, because the lichen from which it is prepared 
 grows abundantly in the Canary islands, is most valued. 
 It is prepared by reducing the plant to a fine powder, 
 which is afterwards passed through a sieve and slightly 
 moistened with stale urine. The mixture is daily stirred, 
 each time adding a certain proportion of soda in pow- 
 der, till it acquire a clove colour. It is then put into 
 a wooden cask, and urine, lime-water, or a solution of 
 sulphate of lime, (gypsum), is added in sufficient quan- 
 tity to cover the mixture. In this state it is kept; but 
 to preserve it any length of time, it is necessary to 
 moisten it occasionally with urine. By a similar prepa- 
 ration, other species of lichen may be used in dyeing. 
 In this country the “ lichen omphalodes” and “ tartareus” 
 
 are frequently employed for dyeing coarse cloths. 
 Archil gives out its colouring matter to water, am- 
 monia, and alcohol. The infusion of archil is of a 
 crimson colour, with a shade of violet. The addition 
 of an acid converts it to a red colour. Fixed alkalies 
 only render it of a deeper shade ; because its natural 
 colour has been already modified by the ammonia with 
 which it is combined in the preparation. To cold 
 marble the aqueous infusion of archil communicates a 
 fine violet colour, or blue inclining to purple. The 
 affinity between the stone and the colouring matter is 
 so strong that it resists the action of the air longer than 
 colours which it gives to other substances. The colour 
 thus communicated to marble has remained for two 
 years unchanged. 
 
 Archil is also soluble in alcohol. This tincture is 
 employed for making spirit of wine thermometers. A 
 singular phenomenon was observed by the Abbe Nollet 
 w'heu the tincture was excluded from the air. In a 
 few years it was entirely deprived of its colour. The 
 contact of air restored the colour; but it was again de- 
 stroyed when deprived of it. 
 
 Cprthamus, or bastard saffron, a vegetable substance 
 used in dyeing, is the flower of an annual plant which 
 is cultivated in Spain, Egypt, and the Levant. There 
 are two varieties of this plant, the one with larger, the 
 other with smaller leaves. The variety with larger 
 leaves is cultivated in Egypt. 
 
 The method of preparing the flowers of carthamus in 
 Egypt, as it is described by Hasselquist, is the follow- 
 ing. After being pressed between two stones to squeeze 
 out the juice, they are washed several times with salt 
 water, pressed between the hands, and spread out on 
 mats in the open air to dry. 
 
 Carthamus contains two colouring substances ; a yel- 
 low substance which is soluble in water, and as it is 
 of no use is extracted by the process mentioned above 
 by squeezing the flowers between the stones till no more 
 colour can be pressed out. The flowers become red- 
 dish in this operation, and lose nearly one half of theifc 
 weight. The other colouring matter, which is red, is 
 soluble in alkaline carbonates, and it is precipitated by 
 means of an acid. A vegetable acid, as lemon juice, 
 has been found to produce the finest colour. Next to 
 this sulphuric acid produces the best effect, provided 
 too great a quantity, which would alter and destroy the 
 colour, be not employed. 
 
 From the colouring matter extracted by means of an 
 alkali, and precipitated with an acid, is procured the 
 substance called rouge, which is employed as a paint for 
 the skin. The solution of carthamus is prepared with 
 crystals of soda, and precipitated with lemon juice which 
 has stood some days to settle. 
 
 Brazil wood is of very extensive use in dyeing. It is 
 the wood of the caesalpinia crista, Linn, and is a na- 
 tive of America and the West Indies. 
 
 The colouring matter of Brazil wood is soluble in 
 water, and the whole of it may be extracted by conti- 
 nuing the boiling for a sufficient length of time. The 
 
 decoction 
 
DYEING. 
 
 277 
 
 decoction is of a fine red colour. The residuum, which 
 as black, yields a considerable portion of colouring mat- 
 ter to alkalies. This colouring matter is also soluble in 
 alcohol, and in ammonia, and the colour is deeper than 
 that of the aqueous solution. The tincture of Brazil 
 wood in alcohol gives to hot marble a red colour, which 
 afterwards changes to violet. The fresh decoction yields, 
 with sulphuric acid, a small portion of a red precipitate 
 inclining to fawn colour. Nitric acid first produces a yel- 
 low colour, but by adding more, a deep orange. Oxalic 
 acid produces a precipitate of an orange red. Tartar 
 furnishes a small precipitate : with the addition of fixed 
 alkali, the decoction becomes of a deep crimson or vio- 
 let colour. Ammonia gives ‘a brighter purple; alum 
 produces a copious red precipitate, inclining to crimson. 
 The decoction of Brazil wood, which is called juice of 
 Brazil, is found to answer better for the processes of 
 dyeing, when it has been kept some time, and has even 
 undergone some degree of fermentation, than when it 
 has been fresh prepared. The colour, by keeping, be- 
 comes of a yellowish red. 
 
 Logwood, sometimes called India or Campeachy 
 wood, is a tree which grows to a considerable size in 
 Jamaica, and the eastern shore of the bay of Campeachy. 
 Its specific gravity is greater than that of water ; it has a 
 fine grain, aud is susceptible of a fine polish. Logwood 
 yields its colouring matter, which is a fine red, readily 
 and copiously to alcohol. It is more sparingly soluble 
 in water, and the decoction inclines a little to violet or 
 purple. When it is left some time to itself, it becomes 
 yellowish, and at length black. It becomes yellow also 
 by the action of acids ; alkalies produce a deeper colour, 
 and convert it to a purple or violet. 
 
 Of Yellow. 
 
 In dyeing yellow, it is necessary to employ mordants, 
 because the affinity of yellow colouring matters for either 
 animal or vegetable stuffs, is not sufficiently strong to 
 produce durable colours. Yellow colours, therefore, 
 belong to that class which Dr. Bancroft has denominat- 
 ed adjective colours. 
 
 The substances capable of giving a yellow colour to 
 different stuffs are very numerous; they do not all pro- 
 duce similar quantities of colouring matter ; their dye is 
 not equally free ; the colours they impart incline more 
 or less to orange or green ; they possess various degrees 
 of brightness and permanency, and differ considerably 
 in price ; circumstances by which the choice of the dyer 
 ought always to be regulated. But those commonly 
 employed in dyeing yellow, are weld, fustic , anotta, 
 and quercitron bark. 
 
 Of the substances employed in dyeing yellow. — Weld 
 is a plant which grows wild in Britain, and in different 
 European countries. Its leaves are long, narrow, and 
 of a bright green, but the whole plant is made use of in 
 dyeing of yellow. There are two kinds of weld, culti- 
 vated and wild, the former of which is deemed more 
 valuable than the latter, as it yields a much greater pro- 
 portion of colouring matter. When this plant is fully 
 
 ripe, it is pulled, dried, and bound up In bundles for 
 the use of the dyer. The wild species grows higher and 
 has a stronger stalk than that which is cultivated, by 
 which the one may be readily distinguished from the 
 other. 
 
 A strong decoction of weld is of a brownish yellow 
 colour, and if very much diluted with water, the colour 
 inclines to a green. An alkali gives to this decoction a 
 deeper colour, aud the precipitate it occasions is not 
 soluble in alkalies. Most of the acids give it a paler 
 tinge, occasioning a little precipitate which is soluble in 
 alkalies. Alumina has so strong an affinity for the co- 
 louring matter of weld, that it can even abstract it from 
 sulphuric acid, and the oxide of tin produces a similar 
 effect. 
 
 Fustic is procured from a tree of considerable magni- 
 tude, which grows in the West Indies. The wood is 
 yellow, as its name imports, with orange veins. Ever 
 since the discovery of America it has been used in dye- 
 ing, as appears from a paper in the Transactions of the 
 Royal Society, of which Sir William Petty was the au- 
 thor. Its price is moderate, the colour it imparts is. 
 permanent, and it readily combines with indigo, which 
 properties give it a claim to attention as a valuable ingre- 
 dient in dyeing. Before it can be employed as a dye- 
 stuff, it must be cut into chips and put in a bag, that it 
 may not fix in and tear the stuff, to which it is to im- 
 part its colouring matter. 
 
 When a decoction of yellow wood or fustic is made 
 very strong, the colour is of a reddish yellow, and w'hen 
 diluted it is of an orange yellow, which it readily yields 
 to water. It becomes turbid by means of acids, its co- 
 lour is of a pale yellow, and the greenish precipitate 
 may be re-dissolved by alkalies. The sulphates of zinc, 
 iron, and copper, as well as alum, throw down precipi- 
 tates composed of the colouring matter and the different 
 bases of the salts employed. 
 
 Anotta is a species of paste of a red colour, obtained 
 from the berries of the bixa orellana, Linn., which is a 
 native of America. The anotta of commerce is import- 
 ed from America to Europe in cakes of two or three 
 pounds weight, where it is prepared from the seeds of 
 the tree mentioned above ; but the Americans are said 
 to be in possession of a species of anotta superior to that 
 which they export, both for the brilliancy and perma- 
 nency of the colour it imparts. They bruise the seeds 
 with their hands moistened with oil, separating with a 
 knife the paste as it is formed, and drying it in the sun; 
 but the seeds are pounded with water when designed 
 for sale, and allowed to undergo the process of ferment- 
 ation. 
 
 Auotta yields its colouring matter more readily to al- 
 cohol than to water, on which account it is used in yel- 
 low varnishes, to which an orange tinge is intended to 
 be given. Acids form a precipitate with a decoction of 
 anotta of an orange colour, which is soluble in alka- 
 lies, but solutions of common salt produce no sensible 
 change. 
 
 Quercitron, as it is denominated by Dr. Bancroft, is- 
 
 4 B the 
 
278 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 the quercus nigra of Linnaeus, and is a large tree which 
 grows spontaneously in North America. The bark of it 
 yields a considerable quantity of colouring matter, which 
 was first discovered by Dr. Bancroft in the year 1784, 
 in whom the use and application of it in dyeing were 
 exclusively vested for a certain term of years by virtue of 
 an act of parliament. 
 
 Quercitron bark readily imparts its colouring matter 
 to water at 100° of Fahrenheit, which is of a yellowish 
 brown, capable of being darkened by alkalies, and 
 brightened by acids. 
 
 Besides the substances already mentioned as employed 
 in the dyeing of yellow, we may add saw-wort to the 
 number, a plant which yields a colouring matter nearly 
 similar to that of weld, and may of consequence be used 
 as a proper substitute. Dyer’s broom produces a yel- 
 low of a very indifferent nature, and is therefore only em- 
 ployed in dyeing stuffs of the coarsest kind. Turmeric 
 is a native production both of the East and West Indies, 
 and yields a more copious quantity of colouring matter 
 than any other yellow dye-stuff; but it will probably 
 never be of any essential service in dyeing yellow, as no 
 mordant has yet been discovered, capable of giving per- 
 manency to its colour. 
 
 Chamomile yields a faint yellow colour, the hue of 
 which is not unpleasant, but it is far from being durable, 
 and even mordants are not capable of fixing it. 
 
 Fenugreek yields seeds which, when ground, commu- 
 nicate to stuffs a pale yellow of tolerable durability ; and 
 the best mordants are found to be alum and muriate of 
 soda, or common salt. 
 
 In Switzerland and in England, the seeds of purple 
 trefoil are sometimes employed in the art of dyeing, on 
 which Vogler made a number of experiments, in order 
 to ascertain what colours they would produce : and he 
 found that a fine deep yellow was afforded by a bath 
 made of a solution of these seeds with potash ; that sul- 
 phuric acid yielded a light yellow, and sulphate of cop- 
 per or blue vitriol, a yellow inclining to green. M. 
 Dize informs us, that the seeds of trefoil impart to wool 
 a beautiful orange-colour, and to silk a greenish yel- 
 low ; and that while aluming is necessary in the process 
 of dyeing with the seeds of trefoil, a solution of tin can- 
 not be employed. 
 
 Of Blue. 
 
 The next of the simple colours is blue. The only 
 substances which are used in dyeing blue, are indigo and 
 woad. 
 
 Indigo was not used for the purpose of dyeing in Eu- 
 rope, till near the middle of the 16th century. A sub- 
 stance is mentioned by Pliny, which was brought from 
 India, and termed indicum y which seems to have been 
 the same as the indigo of the moderns ; but it does not 
 appear that either the Greeks or the Romans knew how 
 to dissolve indigo, or its use in dyeing, although it was 
 applied as a paint. It was, however, known long before 
 as a dye in India. The first indigo which was employ- 
 ed for the purpose of dyeing by Europeans, was brought 
 
 by the Dutch from India. One of the species of the 
 plant from which it is obtained, was discovered by the 
 Portuguese in Brazil, where it grows spontaneously, as 
 well as in other parts of America. Being afterwards 
 successfully cultivated in Mexico, and some islands of 
 the West Indies, the whole of the indigo employed in 
 Europe was supplied from these countries. The indigo 
 from the East Indies has, however, of late recovered 
 its character, and is imported into Britain in consider- 
 able quantities. 
 
 There are three species of the indigo plant, which are 
 usually cultivated in America. The first is the indigo- 
 fera tinctoria, which besides being a smaller and less 
 hardy plant, is inferior to the others on account of its 
 pulp, but as it yields a greater proportion, it is general- 
 ly preferred. The second is the indigofera disperma, 
 or Guatimala indigo plant. This is a taller and hardier 
 plant, and affords a pulp of a superior quality to the 
 former. The third is the indigofera argentea, which 
 is the hardiest of the three species, and yields a pulp of 
 the finest quality, though in smallest proportion. 
 
 When the indigo plant has arrived at maturity, it is 
 cut a few inches above the ground, disposed in strata in 
 a large vessel or steeper, and being kept down with 
 boards, is covered with water; and in this state it is left 
 to ferment till the pulp is extracted. The process com- 
 mences by the evolution of heat, and the emission of a 
 great quantity of carbonic acid gas. When the ferment- 
 ation has continued for a sufficient length of time, which 
 is known by the tops becoming tender and pale, the li- 
 quor, which is now of a green colour, is drawn off' into 
 large flat vessels, called beaters, where it is agitated 
 with buckets or other convenient apparatus, till blue 
 flocculae begin to appear. To promote this granulation 
 or separation of the flocculae, it is usual to add clear lime 
 water till the liquor in which they are suspended becomes 
 quite colourless. The liquor, being sufficiently impreg- 
 nated with the lime water, is left at rest to allow the 
 particles of the colouring matter to precipitate ; after 
 which the supernatant liquor is drawn off, and the sedi- 
 ment collected into linen bags, which are suspended for 
 some time, to let the water drain off. It is then put 
 into square boxes, or formed into lumps and dried in the 
 shade. The indigo thus prepared is in a state fit for the 
 market. Indigo exhibits various shades of colour, 
 which is also owing to the mixture of foreign substances. 
 The most common shades are blue, violet, and copper 
 colour. 
 
 The object of the processes that are followed in the 
 manufacture of indigo, is to extract from the plants 
 which yield it, a green substance, W'hich is soluble in 
 water. This substance, which has a strong affinity for 
 oxygen, gradually attracts it from the air, becomes of a 
 blue colour, and is then insoluble in w'ater. This ab- 
 sorption is greatly promoted by agitation, for then a 
 greater surface is exposed to the action of the air ; and 
 the lime-water, by combining with carbonic acid, w hich 
 exists in the green matter, also promotes the separation 
 of the indigo. 
 
 Indigo 
 
DYEING. 
 
 279 
 
 Indigo is employed in dyeing, both in the state of liquid 
 blue, or as a sulphate of indigo, from which is obtaiued 
 the beautiful colour called Saxon blue, and also in the 
 state of simple indigo, or the indigo of commerce. In 
 dyeing with indigo, it must be reduced to the state of 
 the green matter as it exists in the plants, or when it is 
 first extracted from them. It must be deprived of the 
 oxygen, to the combination of which the blue colour is 
 owing. In this state it becomes soluble in water by 
 means of the alkalies. To effect this separation of the 
 oxygen, the indigo must be mixed with a solution of 
 some substance which has a stronger affinity for oxygen 
 than the green matter of indigo. Such substances are 
 green oxide of iron, and metallic sulphurets. Lime, 
 green sulphate of iron, and indigo, are mixed together 
 in water, and during this mixture the indigo is deprived 
 of its blue colour, becomes green, and is dissolved, 
 while the green oxide of iron is converted into the red 
 oxide. In this process, part of the lime decomposes 
 die sulphate of iron, and as the green oxide is set at li- 
 berty, it attracts oxygen from the indigo, and reduces it 
 to the state of green matter, which is immediately dis- 
 solved by the action of the rest of the lime. Indigo is 
 also deprived of its oxygen, and prepared for dyeing by 
 another process. Some vegetable matter is added to 
 the indigo mixed with w'ater, with the view of exciting 
 fermentation, and quick lime or an alkali is added to the 
 solution, that the indigo, as it is converted into the green 
 matter, may be dissolved. 
 
 Another plant, known under the name of pastel, or 
 woad, is employed for dyeing blue, which is cultivated 
 in France and in England. When the plant has reached 
 maturity, it is cut down, washed in a river, and speedily 
 dried in the sun. It is then ground in a mill, and re- 
 duced to a paste, which is formed into heaps, covered 
 up to protect them from the rain, and at the end of a 
 fortnight the heap is opened, to mix the whole well to- 
 gether. It is afterwards formed into round balls, which 
 are exposed to the wind and sun, that the moisture may 
 be evaporated. The balls are heaped upon one ano- 
 ther, become gradually hot, and exhale the smell of 
 ammonia. To promote the fermentation, which is 
 stronger in proportion to the quantity heaped up, and 
 the temperature of the season, the heap is to be sprin- 
 kled with water till it falls down in the state of coarse 
 powder, in which state it appears in commerce. The 
 blue colour obtained from woad is very permanent, but 
 has little lustre. 
 
 Of Black. 
 
 * The next of the simple colours is black. Of the sub- 
 stances employed in dyeing black. — There are few sub- 
 stances which have the property of producing a perma- 
 nent black colour, without any addition. The juice of 
 some plants produces this effect on cotton and linen. A 
 black colour is obtained from the juice of the cashew 
 nut, which will not wash out, and even resists the pro- 
 cess of boiling with soap or alkalies. The cashew nut 
 of India is employed for marking linen. That of the 
 
 I West Indies also yields a permanent dye, but the colour 
 has a brownish shade. The juice of some other plants, 
 as that of the toxicodendron, or sloes, affords a durable 
 blueish black colour; but these substances cannot be 
 obtained in sufficient quantity, even if they afforded co- 
 lours equal to those produced by the common pro- 
 cesses. 
 
 The principal substances which are employed to give 
 a black colour are gall nuts, which contain the astringent 
 principle, or tan, and the red oxide of iron. The black 
 colour is produced by the combination of the astringent 
 principle with the oxide of iron, held in solution by an 
 acid, and fixed on the stuff. When the particles are 
 precipitated from the mixture of tan and a solution of 
 iron, they have only a blue colour ; but after they are 
 exposed for some time to the air, and moistened with 
 water, the colour becomes deeper, although the blue 
 shade is still perceptible. After the particles are fixed 
 on the stuff, the shade becomes much deeper. 
 
 Logwood is not to be considered as affording a black 
 dye, blit it is much employed to give a lustre to black 
 colours. We have already described its nature and pro- 
 perties, among the substances from which red colouring 
 matters are obtained. 
 
 Black colours are rarely produced by a simple com- 
 bination between the colouring matter and the stuff; but 
 are usually fixed by means of mordants, as in the case of 
 the black particles which are the result of a combination 
 of the astringent principle and the oxide of iron, held in 
 solution by an acid. But when the particles are preci- 
 pitated from the mixture of an astringent and a solution 
 of iron, they have only a blue colour. By being expos- 
 ed to the air, and moistened with water, the colour 
 becomes deeper, although the blue shade is still percep- 
 tible. No fine black colour is ever obtaiued, unless the 
 stuffs are freely exposed to the air. In dyeiug black, 
 therefore, the operations must be conducted at different 
 intervals. Berthollet has observed that black stuffs, 
 when brought in contact with oxygen gas, diminish its 
 volume, so that some portion of it is absorbed. 
 
 Of Brown. 
 
 The last of the simple colours is brown. This is also 
 known under the name of fawn colour. It is that brown 
 colour which has a shade of yellow, and might perhaps 
 be considered as a compound colour, although it is 
 communicated to stuffs by one process. 
 
 Of the substances employed in dyeing brown. — The 
 vegetable substances which are capable of inducing a 
 fawn or brown colour on different stuffs, are very nu- 
 merous, but those chiefly employed for this purpose are 
 walnut peels and sumach. The peels constitute the 
 green covering of the nut ; they are internally of a white 
 colour, which is converted into brown or black by expo- 
 sure to the air. The skin, when impregnated with the 
 juice of walnut peels, becomes of a brown or almost 
 black colour. When the inner part of the peel, taken 
 fresh, is put into weak oxymuriatic acid, is assumes a 
 brown colour. If the decoction of walnut peels be fil- 
 tered 
 
280 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 tered and exposed to the air, its colour becomes of a 
 deep brown ; the pellicles, on evaporation, are almost 
 black ; the liquor detached from these yields a brown 
 extract completely soluble in water. The colouring 
 particles are precipitated from a decoction of walnut 
 peels, by means of alcohol, and they are soluble in wa- 
 ter. No apparent change is at first produced by a so- 
 lution of potash, but it gradually becomes turbid, and 
 the colour is deepened. A copious precipitate of a fawn 
 colour, approaching to an ash colour, is produced in a 
 decoction of walnut peels, by means of a solution of 
 tin, and the remaining liquor has a slightly yellow tinge. 
 
 A decoction of walnut peels yields a small quantity of 
 fawn-coloured precipitate by means of a solution of alum, 
 and the liquor remains of the same colour. The same 
 properties are exhibited by a decoction of the walnut- 
 tree wood, but the colouring matter is not obtained from 
 it in such abundance as from the peels ; and the bark 
 may also be used with advantage in dyeing. 
 
 The affinity of the colouring matter of walnut peels 
 for wool is very strong ; and it readily imparts to it a 
 durable colour, which even mordants do not seem ca- 
 pable of increasing, but they are generally understood to 
 give it additional brightness. A lively and very rich co- 
 lour is obtained with the assistance of alum. Walnut 
 peels afford a great variety of pleasing shades, and as 
 they require not the intervention of mordants, the soft- 
 ness of the wool is preserved, and the process of dyeing 
 becomes both cheap and simple. 
 
 Walnut peels are not gathered till the nuts are com- 
 pletely ripe, when they are put into large casks, along 
 with as much water as is sufficient to cover them. When 
 used in dyeing at the Gobelins in Paris, Berthollet in- 
 forms us, they are kept for upwards of a year, and very 
 extensively used ; but if not made use of till the end of 
 two years, they yield a greater quantity of colouring 
 matter, at w'hich time their odour has become peculiarly 
 disagreeable and fetid. The peels, separated from the 
 nuts before they arrive at maturity, may likewise be used 
 in dyeing, but in this state they do not keep so long. 
 
 Sumach is a shrub produced naturally in Palestine, 
 Syria, Portugal, and Spain, being carefully cultivated 
 in the two last of these countries. Its shoots are annu- 
 ally cut down, dried, and reduced to powder in a mill, 
 by which process they are prepared for the purposes of 
 dyeing. 
 
 The infusion of sumach, which is of a fawn colour 
 with a greenish tinge, is changed into a brown by expo- 
 sure to the air. A solution of potash has little action on 
 the recent infusion of sumach ; its colour is changed to 
 yellow by the action of acids ; the liquor becomes turbid 
 by means of alum, a small quantity of precipitate being 
 at the same time formed, and the supernatant liquor re- 
 maining yellow. 
 
 The bark of the birch-tree ( betula alba , Linn.) yields 
 a decoction of a clear fawn colour, but it soon becomes 
 turbid and brown. The addition of a solution of alum 
 m the open air, produces a copious yellow precipitate ; 
 a solution of tin gives also a copious precipitate of a 
 
 clear yellow colour. With solutions of iron, the decoc- 
 tion of the birch-tree strikes a black colour, and it dis- 
 solves in considerable quantity the oxide of iron, but in 
 smaller proportion than the decoction of walnut peels. 
 On account of this property it is employed in the pre- 
 paration of black vats for dyeing thread. 
 
 Saunders, or sandal wood, is also employed for the 
 purpose of giving a fawn colour. There are three kinds 
 of sandal wood, the white, the yellow, and the red. 
 The last only, which is a compact heavy wood, brought 
 from the Coromandel coast, is used in dyeing. By ex- 
 posure to the air it becomes of a brown colour ; when 
 employed in dyeing, it is reduced to fine powder, and 
 it yields a fawn colour with a brownish shade, inclining 
 to red. But the colouring matter which it yields of it- 
 self is in small quantity, and it is said that it gives 
 harshness to woollen stuffs. When it is mixed with 
 other substances, as sumach, walnut peels, or galls, the 
 quantity of colouring matter is increased ; it gives a more 
 durable colour, and produces considerable modifications 
 in the colouring matter with which it is mixed. Sandal 
 wood yields its colouring matter to brandy, or diluted 
 alcohol, more readily than to water. 
 
 Having given some account of the general principles 
 of dyeing, and of the substances made use of, we 
 shall now confine ourselves chiefly to those facts that 
 may be useful to private persons and families in the 
 common concerns of life. 
 
 Two distinct manufactures belong to the subject of 
 dyeing, the one is the art of giving an uniform colour to 
 an entire piece of stuff ; the other is the art of fixing 
 various coloured patterns on an uniform ground, which 
 being chiefly employed on cotton and calico, is called 
 calico-printing. The fundamental principles of each art, 
 as far as relates to the chemical action of the fibres of 
 the stuff upon the different dyes and their mordants, is 
 the same, but the particular modes of application wide- 
 ly differ. We shall now mention some of the processes 
 in the business of dyeing, many of which will be appli- 
 cable to private persons and families ; after this we shall 
 give an account of the art of calico-printing. The pro- 
 cess of dyeing in the piece consists of a few simple ope- 
 rations, repeated two, three, or more times, according 
 to circumstances, with many minute variations in the 
 temperature, time of immersion, &c., according to the 
 nature of the stuff, and the colour to be given, by rules, 
 which, after all, experience and practice alone can 
 teach. Our authorities will be the best that we 
 can select from, viz. Berthollet, Bancroft, Hellot, 
 Chaptal : the Encyclopedia Britannica ; the British En- 
 cyclopedia, Aikin’s Dictionary of Chemistry, and other 
 works of established merit. It must, however, not be 
 forgotten, that the variety in the processes actually used 
 is almost endless : every dyer, whether on the small or 
 large scale, having his particular receipt, in which slight 
 variations in the quantity or quality of ingredients, the 
 time or order of application, and other minute circum- 
 stances, are found to render the colour somewhat more 
 or less full, durable, glossy, &c. 
 
DYEING. 
 
 281 
 
 The mode of dyeing Silk or Worsted of a fine 
 Carnation Colour. — First take, to each pound of 
 silk, four handfuls of wheaten bran ; put it into two 
 pails of water ; boil it ; pour it into a tub, and let it J 
 stand all night ; then take half the quantity of that water, 
 and put into it half a pound of alum, a quarter of a 
 pound of red tartar, beaten to a fine powder, and half 
 an ounce of finely powdered turmeric ; boil them toge- 
 ther, and stir them w'ell about with a stick ; after they 
 have boiled for a quarter of an hour, take the kettle off 
 the fire ; put in the silk, and cover the kettle close, to 
 prevent the steam from flying out : leave it thus for three 
 hours ; then rinse your silk in cold water, beat and 
 wring it on a wooden pin, and hang it up to dry. Then 
 take a quarter of a pound of powdered gall-nuts, and 
 put the powder into a pail of river water; boil it for one 
 hour ; then take off the kettle, and when you can bear 
 your hand in it, put in your silk, and let it lay an hour, 
 then take it out, and hang it up to dry. When the silk 
 is dry, and you would dye it of a crimson colour, weigh 
 to each pound of silk, three quarters of an ounce of 
 finely powdered cochineal ; then put it in the pail with 
 the remaining lye, and having well mixed it, pour it 
 into a kettle ; when it boils, cover it well, to prevent 
 any dust falling into it. After you have put in three 
 quarters of a pound of alum, and two ounces and a half 
 of tartar, both finely powdered, let it boil for a quarter 
 of an hour ; then take it off the fire ; let it cool a little, 
 and put in the silk ; stir it well with a stick, to prevent 
 its being clouded ; and when cool, wring it out. If the 
 colour is qpt deep enough, hang the kettle again over 
 the fire; and when it has boiled, and is grown lukewarm 
 again, repeat the stirring in of the silk ; then hang it 
 upon a wooden pin fastened in a post, and wring and 
 beat it w ith a stick ; after this, rinse the dyed silk in hot 
 lye, wherein, to one pound of silk, dissolve half an 
 ounce of Newcastle soap ; afterwards rinse it in cold 
 water. Hang the skeins of silk on a wooden pin, put- 
 ting a little handstick to the bottom part, and thus hav- 
 ing worked it, wring it and beat it round, and hang it 
 to dry. 
 
 Another method of dyeing Silk a Crimson Red . — 
 Take of good Roman alum, powdered, half an ounce ; 
 tartar, powdered, one ounce ; sulphuric acid a quarter 
 of an ounce ; put them into a pewter kettle, and pour 
 as much w ater on them as is sufficient for half an ounce 
 of the silk you purpose dyeing ; when it is ready to boil, 
 put in the silk, which before you must boil in bran ; 
 boil it for an hour, or more ; then wring it out, and put 
 to the liquor half an ounce of cochineal, finely powder- 
 ed, and sixty drops of sulphuric acid ; when ready to 
 boil, put in the silk again, and let it soak for four hours ; 
 then take clean water, drop into it a little of this acid ; 
 rinse therein the silk ; take it out again, and dry it on 
 sticks in the shade. This will be a high colour : but if 
 you would have it of a deep crimson, take, instead of 
 sulphuric acid, pure water of ammonia, to rinse your 
 silk in. 
 
 General Observations in dyeing Crimson, Scarlet, 
 
 or Purple.— 1st. Your boiler or kettle must be of good 
 pewter, quite clean, and free from any soil or grease. 
 2d. The prepared tartar must be put in when the water 
 is lukewarm. 3d. If you intend to dye woollen or worst- 
 ed yarn, you may put it in the first boiling, and let it 
 boil for two hours. 4th. When boiled, take it out, 
 rinse it, clean the kettle, and put in the water for the 
 second boiling. 3th. This second boiling is performed 
 in the same manner as the first ; then put in cochineal, 
 finely powdered ; when it boils, stir it well about.. 6th. 
 Now the silk, which before has been w ashed and cleans- 
 ed in the first lye, is to be put in, on a winch, which is 
 continually turned about, in order to prevent the colours 
 from fixing in clouds. 7th. When the colour is to your 
 mind, take it out ; rinse it clean, and hang it up in a 
 room, or a shady place, where it may be free from dust. 
 8th. When the acid is put into the second boiling, it 
 causes a coarse froth to swim at top, which you must 
 carefully take off. 
 
 Of Scarlet Dyeing. 
 
 Scarlet dyeing, in general, is a distinct and separate 
 branch of trade, the materials being of that delicate kind 
 as easily to be injured by any accidental admixture of 
 other colours, and part of the apparatus being some- 
 what different from common dyeing. The boiler, in 
 which the cochineal bath is made, is generally of tin or 
 strongly tinned copper ; because a solution of tin is the 
 mordant employed in the process, and therefore no mis- 
 chief can arise from its being in contact with the same 
 metal. The w'ater made use of must be soft and pure, 
 hard water having a tendency to produce a rose-colour, 
 which, however, is corrected by boiling bran or starch 
 in it. The infusion of cochineal is naturally of a fine 
 crimson, and with a mordant it fixes on woollen and 
 silk with great firmness, but weakly and with consider- 
 able difficulty on linen and cotton. Alum was the first 
 employed to fix the colour of cochineal on wool. It 
 does sensibly alter the natural tint, and it gives a deep 
 and durable crimson. It will even restore the crimson 
 to cloth dyed scarlet by the compound tin mordant. 
 The effect of tin in heightening the colour of cochineal 
 w'as discovered by a German chemist, named Kuster, 
 who was settled at Bow ; in the vicinity of London, about 
 the year 1 543, and on this account scarlet is called the 
 Bow-dye in this country. 
 
 Woollen cloth is usually dyed scarlet in two opera- 
 tions, though a single one will suffice, but in general it 
 is less convenient. 
 
 To dye 100 lbs. of zeool or woollen cloth Scarlet. 
 — Take 8 or 10 pounds of tartar, put tffem into the 
 boiler with a sufficient quantity of soft w^ter, and six or 
 eight ounces of cochineal. Afterwards 10 or 12 pounds 
 of the nitro-muriate of tin are to be added, and when 
 the mixture is ready to boil, the cloth, previously wet- 
 ted, is put into the dyeing liquor, turned through it by 
 a w inch for an hour and a half, the liquor being kept 
 boiling the whole time. The cloth is then taken out 
 and rinsed, and is found by this first process to have ac- 
 4 C quired 
 
282 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 quired a flesh colour. The boiler is now emptied, and 
 again filled with fresh water, and when nearly boiling, 
 from five to six pounds of cochineal are thrown in, and 
 well stirred ; after which ten pounds more of the solu- 
 tion of tin are added, and the cloth is then put in, and 
 turned through the boiling liquor, at first briskly, and 
 then slowly for. half an hour. It is then washed and 
 dried in the usual manner. The proportion of cochineal 
 to dye a full scarlet, is an ounce to a pound of cloth ; 
 hence, from the high price of this article, the cochineal 
 dye is one of the most expensive of all the processes in 
 the whole art of dyeing. 
 
 When a bright flame-coloured scarlet is wanted, a 
 little yellow fustic is added to the first bath, or else 
 some turmeric is added to the cochineal in the second. 
 
 The ease with which alkaline and earthy salts coun- 
 teract the yellow part of these colours, causes the scar- 
 let cloth to be changed more or less to a rose or crim- 
 son by fulling. If the scarlet, when finished, has too 
 much of an orange tint, this may be corrected by after- 
 wards boiling the cloth in a hard water, or one that 
 contains an earthy salt. After the full scarlet has been 
 given to the cloth, the liquor still retains part of the co- 
 chineal, with a large portion of the mordant, and this is 
 used for the lighter dyes ; or, with the addition of fustic, 
 madder, and other ingredients, it is employed for a vast 
 variety of mixed, or, as they are called, degraded reds, 
 orange, &c. 
 
 To dye a pound of wool Scarlet . — Boil it in a tin 
 vessel, with something less than a quart of water : three 
 drams of tartar, and an ounce and a half of cochineal : 
 when the ebullition begins, add an ounce and a half of 
 tin, and the whole to be boiled a quarter of an hour ; 
 the vessel is then taken from the fire, and the solution 
 poured into a large caldron of boiling water, at the 
 instant the cloth is immersed in it. 
 
 Dr. Bancroft recommends a method of dyeing scarlet 
 in which a much smaller portion of cochineal produces 
 an equal effect. He imagined scarlet, from his experi- 
 ments, to be a compound colour, caused by about 
 three-fourths of crimson or rose colour, and one-fourth 
 of pure bright yellow. Hence he infers, that when the 
 natural crimson of the cochineal is made scarlet by the 
 usual process, a fourth of the colouring matter of the 
 cochineal must be changed from its natural crimson to a 
 yellow colour, by the action of the solution of tin. On 
 this account, he introduced a bright yellow dye into the 
 bath with the cochineal, and reduced the quantity of this 
 more expensive ingredient. He found that a mixture of 
 two pounds of sulphuric acid with three pounds of mu- 
 riatic acid poured on fourteen ounces of granulated tin, 
 with exposure to heat, produced a solution of tin, that 
 had twice the effect of the common nitro-muriatic solu- 
 tion, at less than one-third of the expense, and which 
 raised the colours more, without producing a yellow 
 shade. For the yellow dye this excellent chemist used 
 quercitron bark. 
 
 The Dutch manner of dyeing Scarlet . — Boil the 
 cloth in water, with alum, tartar, rock salt, nitric acid, 
 
 and pea flowers, in a pew ter kettle ; then put into the 
 same kettle, starch, tartar, and cochineal, finely pow- 
 dered, stirring or turning the cloth well about ; thus you 
 may, by adding more or less cochineal, raise the colour 
 to what height you please. 
 
 General Observations for dyeing Cloth of a Red or 
 Scarlet colour . — 1st. The cloth must be well soaked in 
 a lye made of alum and tartar ; this is commonly done 
 with tw'o parts of alum and one part of tartar. 2d. For 
 strengthening the red colour, prepare a w ater of bran or 
 starch : bran water is thus prepared ; take five or six 
 quarts of wheaten bran; boil it over a slow fire in rain- 
 water for a quarter of an hour, and then put it, with 
 some cold water, into a small vessel, mixing it up with 
 a handful of leaven (the sourer it is made the better) ; 
 this causes the water to be soft, and the cloth to become 
 mellow : it is commonly used in the firSt boiling, and 
 mixed with the alum water. 3d. Agaric, is an ingre- 
 dient used in dyeing of reds, but few dyers can give any 
 reason for its virtue : as it is of a dry and spongy nature, 
 it may reasonably be supposed, that it contracts the 
 greasiness which may happen to be in the dye. 4th. 
 Arsenic is a very dangerous ingredient ; nitric or muria- 
 tic acid may supply its place as well. 5th. Scarlet is a 
 variety of crimson colour : the nitric acid is the chief 
 ingredient in the change ; this may be tried in a wine 
 glass, wherein a deep crimson colour is put : by adding 
 drops of nitric acid to it, it w ill change into a scarlet. 
 6th. Observe that you always take one part of tartar to 
 two parts of alum ; most dyers prefer the white to the 
 red tartar ; but, however, in crimson colours, and others 
 that turn upon the brown, the red tartar is chosen by 
 many as preferable to the white. 
 
 To prepare the Cloth for dyeing of Scarlet. — First, 
 take, to one pound of cloth, one part of bran water and 
 two parts of river water ; put into it two ounces of alum 
 and one ounce of tartar ; when it boils and froths, skim 
 it, and put in the cloth ; turn it therein for an hour; 
 then take it out and rinse it. 
 
 To dye Cloth of a common Red. — Take, to tw'enty 
 yards of cloth, three pounds of alum, one pound and a 
 half of tartar, and one-third of a pound of chalk ; puf 
 them into a kettle with water, and boil them ; take six 
 pounds of good madder, and a wine-glassful of vinegar; 
 let them be warmed together ; put in the cloth, and 
 turn it round upon the winch till you observe it red 
 enough ; then rinse it out, and it will be of a fine reds 
 
 Another method. — Take four pounds of alum, two 
 pounds of tartar, four ounces of white lead, and half a 
 bushel of wheaten bran ; put these ingredients, together 
 with the cloth, into a kettle ; let it boil for an hour and 
 a half, and leave it to soak all night ; then rinse it, and 
 take, for the dye, one pound of good madder, tw r o 
 ounces of Orleans yellow, one ounce and a half of tur- 
 meric, and two ounces of nitric acid : boil them : turn 
 the cloth with a winch for three quarters of an hour, and 
 it will be a good red. 
 
 To dye a Crimson with Archil. — Put clean water 
 into the kettle, and to each pound of silk take twelve 
 
 ounces 
 
DYEING. 
 
 ounces of archil; in this turn your silk, and wring it 
 out ; then dissolve, to each pound of silk, a quarter of 
 a pound of alum, and as much white arsenic ; in this 
 liquor put the silk all night to soak, then wring it out; 
 this done, take to each pound of silk two ounces of 
 cochineal, two ounces of galls, two ounces of gum, 
 with a little turmeric : in this boil the silk for two 
 hours ; let it soak all night, and in the morning rinse it out. 
 
 To dye Worsted, Stuff, or Yarn of a Crimson Co- 
 lour.— Take, to each pound of worsted, two ounces of 
 alum, two ounces of white tarter, two ounces of nitrous 
 acid, half an ounce of pew ter, quarter of a pound of 
 madder, and a quarter of a pound of logwood ; put 
 them together in fair water, boiling the worsted therein 
 for a considerable time : then take it out, and w hen cool 
 rinse it in clean water ; then boil it again, and put to j 
 each pound of worsted a quarter of a pound of log- 
 wood. 
 
 Another Method. — Take, to eight pounds of worst- | 
 ed, six gallons of water, and eight handfuls of wheaten | 
 bran, let them stand all night to settle ; in the morning 
 pour it clear off and filter it ; take thereof half the 
 quantity, adding as much clear water to it ; boil it up, 
 and put into it one pound of alum, and half a pound of 
 tartar ; then put in the worsted, and let it boil for 
 two hours, stirring it up and down all the while it is ' 
 boiling with a stick. Then boil the other half part of 
 your bran water, mixing it with the same quantity of 
 fair water as before ; when it boils, put into it four 
 ounces of cochineal, two ounces of finely powdered 
 tartar; stir it well about, and when it has boiled for a 
 little while, put in your stuffs : keep stirring it from one 
 end of the kettle to the other with a stick, or turn it on 
 a winch till you see the colour is to your mind ; then 
 take it out of the kettle, let it cool, and rinse it in fair 
 water. 
 
 Another for Silk. — Take, to each pound of silk, a ' 
 quarter of a pound of powdered Brasil wood; boil it ' 
 up, and strain it through a sieve into a tub, and pour I 
 water to it till it is just warm : in this, turn your silk, [ 
 which before has been prepared as has been directed ; 
 and when all the strength is drawrn out, rinse, wring, | 
 and dry it. 
 
 Crimson may be produced either by dyeing the 
 wool this colour at once, or by first dyeing scarlet and i 
 then changing the shade to that required. To dye j 
 crimson by a single process, somewhat different from 
 that which has been described : a solution of two 
 ounces and a half of alum, and an ounce and a half of 
 tartar are employed for every pound of stuff, for each 
 of which an ounce of cochineal is afterwards used in 
 dyeing. A solution of tin may be employed, but in 
 smaller proportions than for the dyeing of scarlet. To 
 render the crimson deeper, and give it more bloom, 
 archil, as we have seen, and potash are frequently used, 
 but this bloom is extremely fugacious. Scarlet gives a 
 crimson by means of alkalies, alum, and earthy salts. 
 Crimson is the natural colour of the cochineal, and to 
 produce it from a stuff dyed scarlet the stuff is boiled an 
 
 2&3 
 
 hour in the solution of alum, the strength of which is 
 to be regulated by the depth of the shade required. 
 
 To dye a fine Carnation. — Take, to each pound 
 of silk, after it is rinsed and dried, four pounds of saf- 
 flower : put the safflower in a bag, and wash it in 
 clean water till the water comes clear from it; then 
 take the safflower out of the bag, press it between your 
 hands, and rub it asunder in a clean tub; take to each 
 pound of silk four ounces of potash ; work it well to- 
 gether with the safflower; divide it into two parts; 
 pour one part thereof into a close sack, that will 
 keep the pot-ash from coming out, otherwise it will 
 make the silk speckled; pour clear water over to draw 
 the strength out of the safflower ; then take, to each 
 pound of silk, a quarter of a pint of lemon juice, di- 
 vide that also into two parts, and put each to the two 
 quantities of safflower ; hang your silk well dried on 
 clean sticks, and dip it in the first part of the liquor 
 continually for an hour; then wring it well out and 
 hang it again on sticks : having prepared the other part 
 of the safflower as you did the first, dip it therein as 
 before for the space of an hour ; then wring it well and 
 hang it up to dry in the shade, and you will have a fine 
 colour. 
 
 A Carnation for Woollen. — Take four ounces of 
 ceruss, three ounces and a half of arsenic, one pound of 
 burnt tartar, one pound of alum; boil your stuffs with 
 these ingredients for two hours; then take them out 
 and hang them up ; the next morning make a dye of 
 tw'o pounds of good madder, two ounces of turmeric, 
 and three ounces of aqua-fortis. 
 
 To dye a Carnation on Silk or Cotton. — Take 
 three pounds of alum, three ounces of arsenic, and 
 four ounces of ceruss ; boil your silk or cotton therein 
 for an hour; then take it out and rinse it in fair water; 
 after which make a lye of eight pounds of madder, and 
 two ounces of muriate of ammonia ; soak the silk or 
 cotton therein all night; boil it a little in fair water, 
 and put into it one ounce of pot-ash ; then pour in 
 some of the lye, and every time you pour the colour 
 will grow the deeper, so that you may bring it to what 
 degree you please. 
 
 Another Method. — Take, to one pound of silk, cotton, 
 or yarn, one ounce of tartar, and half an ounce of white 
 starch, boil them together in fair water ; then put in one 
 quarter of an ounce of cochineal, a quarter of an ounce 
 oi starch, and a quarter of an ounce of pewter dissolved in 
 half an ounce of aqua-fortis, and mixed with fair water ; 
 when the water with the starch and tartar has boiled 
 for some time, supply it with the cochineal and the 
 above aqua-fortis; put in your silk or whatever you have 
 a mind to dye, and you will have it of a fine colour. 
 
 Another Method. — Take one ounce of tartar ; starch 
 and lemon juice, of each half an ounce ; cream of tar- 
 tar a quarter of an ounce ; boil them together in fair 
 water, adding a quarter of an ounce of turmeric : put 
 in half an ounce of cochineal, and, a little while after, 
 one ounce of aqua-fortis, in which you have dissolved a 
 quarter of an ounce of pewter, then put in your silk. 
 
 Method 
 
284 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 Method of dyeing Broad Cloth of a Carnation 
 colour. — Take liquor of wheaten bran, three pounds of 
 alum, tartar two or three ounces ; boil them, and then 
 immerse in it twenty yards of broad cloth : after it has 
 boiled three hours, cool and wash it ; take fresh clear 
 bran liquor in sufficient quantity, and five pounds of 
 madder, boil as usual. 
 
 Of dyeing blue. — Blue may be dyed by woad 
 alone, which would give a permanent, but not a deep 
 blue ; but if indigo be mixed with it a very rich colour 
 will be obtained. The following is a method : 
 
 Of preparing a blue Vat. — Into a vat about seven 
 feet and a half deep, and five and a half broad are to be 
 thrown about 400 lbs. of woad broken in pieces. Thirty 
 pounds of weld are boiled in a copper about three 
 hours, in a sufficient quantity to fill the vat ; when this 
 decoction is made, twenty pounds of madder and some 
 bran are to be added, and it is then to be boiled half 
 an hour longer. This bath is to be cooled with twenty 
 buckets of water ; and after it is settled, the weld is to 
 be taken out, and it is to be poured into the vat: all the 
 time it is running into the vat, and for a quarter of an 
 hour longer, it is to be stirred with a rake. The vat 
 is then covered up very hot and left to stand six hours, 
 when it is raked again for half an hour, and this opera- 
 tion is repeated every three hours. When blue veins 
 appear on the surface of the vat, eight or nine pounds 
 of quick-lime are thrown in : at the same time, or im- 
 mediately after, the indigo is put into the vat, being first 
 ground fine in a mill with the least possible quantity of 
 water. When diluted to the consistence of thick pap, 
 it is drawn off at the lower part of the mill, and thrown 
 into the vat. The quantity of indigo depends on the 
 shade of colour required. A vat which contains no 
 woad is called an indigo vat. The vessel used for this 
 preparation is of copper, into which is poured w'ater, 
 in the proportion of 120 gallons of this, six pounds of 
 potash, twelve ounces of madder and six pounds of bran 
 have been boiled : six pounds of indigo ground in water 
 are then put in, and after carefully raking it the vat is 
 covered, and a slow fire kept round it. Twelve hours 
 after it is filled, it is to be raked a second time, which 
 is to be repeated at similar intervals of time, till it 
 comes to a blue, which will generally happen in forty- 
 eight hours: if the bath be well managed it will be of 
 a fine green covered with coppery scales, and a fine 
 blue scum. In this vat the indigo is rendered soluble 
 in the water by the alkali instead of the lime. 
 
 A second method for preparing a blue Vat.— Heat 
 soft water in a kettle ; put into it four or five handfuls 
 of wheaten bran, together with four pounds of potash ; 
 when that is dissolved, boil it for an hour and add four 
 pounds of madder ; with this boil it for an hour longer, 
 then pour the water into the vat ; do not fill it by the 
 height of a foot, and cover your vat ; then set it with 
 indigo and woad, of each six pounds, and two pounds 
 of potash ; put this into a small kettle in warm water, 
 set it on a slow fire and let it boil gently for half an 
 hour, stirring it all the while ; then pour that to the 
 
 other liquors already in the vat. To set a vat with 
 indigo only, you must boil the first lye with potash, 
 four or five handfuls of bran, and half or three quarters 
 of a pound of madder ; this boil a quarter of an hour, 
 and when settled it will be fit for use. Then grind your 
 | indigo in a bowl with an iron smooth ball very fine, 
 i pouring on some of the lye and mixing it together : 
 when settled, pour the clear into the blue vat ; and, on 
 the sediment of the indigo, pour again some of the lye; 
 this you should repeat till you see the blue tincture is 
 extracted clearly from it. It is to be observed, that 
 the madder must be but sparingly used, for it only alters 
 the colour and makes it of a violet blue, which, if you 
 design to have, cochineal is the fitter for. The mixed 
 colours in blue are the following: dark blue, deep 
 blue, high blue, sky blue, pale blue, dead blue, and 
 whitish blue. By mixing of blue and crimson, purple, co- 
 lumbine, amaranth, and violet colours are produced ; and 
 from those mixtures may also be drawn the pearl, silver, 
 gridlin, &c. colours. From a middling blue and crim- 
 son are produced the following colours, viz. the pansy, 
 brown grey, and deep brown. Care must be taken 
 that in setting the blue vat you do not overboil the lye, 
 by which the colour becomes muddy and changeable; 
 be also sparing of the potash, for too much gives the 
 blue a greenish and false hue. 
 
 Directions for setting another Blue Vat; with ob- 
 servations upon the management, both for Silk and 
 W orsted. — Take half a bushel of clean beech ashes, well 
 sifted ; of this make a lye with three pails of river or 
 rain water ; pour it into a tub, and put in two handfuls 
 of wheaten bran, two ounces of madder, two ounces of 
 white tartar finely powdered, one pound of potash, 
 half a pound of indigo, pounded ; stir it all w'ell toge- 
 ther once every twelve hours, for fourteen days suc- 
 cessively ; when the liquid appears green on the fingers 
 it is fit for dyeing ; stir it every morning, and when 
 done cover it. When you are going to dye silk, first 
 wash the silk in a fresh warm lye; wring it out, and dip 
 it into the vat. You may dye it of what shade you 
 please, by holding it longer or shorter in the dye. When 
 the colour is to your mind, wring the silk ; and having 
 another tub ready at hand with a clear lye, rinse your 
 silk ; . then wash and beat it in fair water, and hang it 
 up to dry. When the vat is wasted, fill it with the lye ; 
 but if it grows too weak, supply it with half a pound of 
 potash, half a pound of madder, one handful of wheaten 
 bran, and half a handful of white tartar ; let it stand 
 for eight days, stirring it every tw'elve hours, and it 
 w'ill be again fit for use. 
 
 Another Method for Woollen. — Fill a kettle with 
 w’ater, boil it up, and put potash into it ; after it has 
 boiled with that a little, put in two or three handfuls of 
 bran; let it boil for a quarter of an hour and then 
 cover it ; take it off the fire, and let it settle. Pound 
 indigo as fine as flour ; then pour the above lye to it, 
 stir and let it settle, and pour the clear lye into the vat ; 
 then pour more lye to the sediment, stir it, and when 
 settled, pour that into the vat also ; repeat this till the 
 
 indigo 
 
DYEING. 
 
 285 
 
 indigo is wasted. Or, take to a quarter of a pound of 
 indigo half a pound of potash, a quarter of a pound of 
 madder, three handfuls of borax ; let them boil for half 
 an hour, and then settle ; with this lye grind your indigo 
 in a copper bowl ; put this in an old vat of indigo, or 
 on a new one of woad, and it will make it fit for use 
 in twenty-four hours. 
 
 Hellot describes two vats, in which the indigo is 
 dissolved by means of urine. Madder is added to 
 them ; in the one vinegar is put, in the other alum and 
 tartar, of each an equal weight to the indigo. It is 
 probable the indigo is dissolved in them by the ammo- 
 nia formed in the urine. 
 
 To dye Saxon blue. — Take four parts of sulphuric 
 acid and pour them on one part of indigo, in fine pow- 
 der : let the mixture be stirred some time, and having 
 stood twenty-four hours, one part of dry potash in fine 
 powder is added : the whole is to be again well stirred, 
 and having stood a day and night, more or less water is 
 added gradually. This colour derives its name from 
 having been discovered at Grossenhayn, in Saxony, by 
 the chemist Barth. To dye cloth with it, it must be 
 prepared with alum and tartar : a greater or less pro- 
 portion of indigo is put into the bath, according as the 
 shade required is deep or light : for deep shades the 
 stuff must be passed several times through the bath : 
 lighter shades may be dyed after the deep ones, but they 
 have more lustre when dyed in a fresh bath. 
 
 According to Chaptal, when wool is to be dyed in a 
 blue vat, the operator fixes to the sides of the vat 
 iron or copper hoops, which are fastened with cords 
 to the hooks on the sides of the vat ; the inner sides of 
 these hoops are furnished with a net, and when wool is 
 to be dyed, he puts above it another net thicker than the 
 former. These preparations are necessary to prevent 
 the cloth coming into contact with, or disturbing the 
 deposition at the bottom of the vat. When the cal- 
 dron is thus furnished, the stuff previously wrung out 
 of tepid w'ater is put into it, and kept a longer or 
 shorter time according to the degree of strength that is 
 to be imparted to the colour. When taken out it is 
 wrung above the copper and exposed to the air. The 
 green colour which it has imbibed in the bath is 
 instantly changed by the action of the atmosphere. In 
 dyeing Saxon blue according to this chemist, a mordant 
 is used of three ounces and three quarters of alum and 
 two ounces and a quarter of cream of tartar to one 
 pound and a quarter of cloth. After being boiled in 
 this composition an hour, the stuff is left in it about 
 twenty-four hours longer. The colour bath is pre- 
 pared by pouring into boiling water an ounce, or rather 
 less, of the solution of indigo in sulphuric acid to one 
 pound and a quarter of cloth, which is boiled in it 
 twenty or thirty minutes, and after being taken out it 
 is carefully washed. 
 
 Dark blues cannot be produced in the indigo vat : 
 to obtain the Tuvkish blue, which is the deepest of all, 
 it is necessary to immerse the silks in a very strong warm 
 bath of savory before putting it into the vat. Royal 
 
 Blue is also very deep and permanent, and to obtain 
 this, cochineal is employed instead of savory. This last 
 blue may be imitated by immersing the silk in a solu- 
 tion of one ounce and a half of verdigris to one pound 
 and a quarter of silk ; the silk is afterwards disposed in a 
 bath of Indian wood, in which it assumes a blue co- 
 lour, which is fixed by passing it through the vat. Silks 
 to be dyed blue are usually boiled in a bath composed 
 of 44 lbs. of soap to about 110 lbs. of silk; it is care- 
 fully washed, after which it is made into skeins and 
 plunged into the vat till it has acquired the desired 
 shade. 
 
 Yellow is usually imparted to woollen substances 
 by a decoction of woad, but as this plant yields its 
 colouring principle with difficulty, alkalies are employed 
 to assist in its extraction. Alkalies are chiefly used for 
 this purpose in the dyeing of linen or cotton, and their 
 place must be supplied by salt, sal-ammoniac, and 
 alum, when wood is to be applied to animal substances 
 which are dissolved in alkalies. Lime is sometimes 
 used to heighten yellow colours. A good yellow of 
 different tints may be procured by boiling woad with 
 marine salt, lime, or alum : the salt produces the 
 deepest shade : alum renders the colour brighter, am- 
 monia imparts a greenish hue to the bath, tartar gives a 
 very pale shade, and copperas changes it to a brown. 
 
 To dye Silk yellow. — Silks intended for a yellow 
 colour are boiled in the proportion of about one pound 
 of soap to five pounds of silk; they are afterwards 
 washed, alumed, and exposed on rods. The yellow 
 bath is prepared by boiling two pounds and a quarter 
 of woad to the pound of silk about a quarter of an 
 hour. This bath is strained through a sieve, and 
 cooled till the hand can be kept in it, before the silk is 
 immersed in the vat. A golden hue may be imparted 
 to yellow by means of annotta. 
 
 To dye Silk of a poppy colour. — The most beau- 
 tiful red imparted to silk is that termed poppy: this 
 colour is procured by precipitating on stuff, bastard saf- 
 fron held in a solution of potash. With this view, when 
 the silk is washed and put on rods, citric juice is 
 poured into the bath till it acquires a cherry colour. It 
 is then well stirred, and the silk repeatedly let down 
 into it till it has acquired a sufficient colour. To pro- 
 duce a full poppy colour the silk is wrung on coming 
 out of the first bath, which it exhausts, and is then put 
 into the second. Five or six baths are requisite to 
 impart to it a flame colour. The poppy colour is 
 heightened by putting the silk through tepid water aci- 
 dulated with lemon-juice. Annotta, three or four 
 shades paler than aurora is requisite for silks, before 
 exposing them to the colouring principle of bastard 
 saffron. The poppy colour communicated by this last 
 dye may be imitated by Brazil wood. 
 
 To dye Silk of a straw yellow. — Take alum 
 and rinse your silk well as before directed, then boil to 
 each pound of silk one pound of fustic, and let them 
 stand for a quarter of an hour : put into a tub large 
 enough for the quantity of the silk, a sufficient quantity 
 4 W of 
 
286 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 of that lye and fair water ; in this rinse the silk ; fill 
 the kettle again with water and let it boil for an hour, 
 and having wrung the silk out of the first liquor, and 
 hung it on sticks, prepare a stronger lye than the first ; 
 in this dip your silk till the colour wished for is ob- 
 tained. 
 
 Another Method. — Put into a clean kettle, to each 
 pound of silk, two pounds of fustic, let it boil for an 
 hour, then put in six ounces of gall ; let them boil to- 
 gether half an hour longer. The silk, being alumed 
 and rinsed, is turned about in this colour ; then take it 
 out of the kettle and wring it; dip it in potash lye and 
 wring it out again ; theu put it into the kettle, let it 
 soak a whole night, and in the morning rinse, beat it 
 out, and hang it up to dry. 
 
 To dye Yarn of a Yellow Colour. — In a kettle of 
 strong lye put a bundle of woad and let it boil, then 
 pour off the lye, and take, to one pound and a half of 
 yarn, half an ounce of verdigris, and half an ounce of 
 alum; put it into a quart of brown Brasil wood liquor 
 boiled with lye, stir it well together, and pour it in 
 and mix it with the woad lye ; in this soak your yarn 
 over night, and it will be of a good yellow. 
 
 To dye Silk an Orange Colour. — After you have 
 cleaned your kettle well, fill it with clean rain water, 
 and take to each pound of silk four ounces of potash, 
 and four ounces of Orleans yellow, sift it through a 
 sieve into the kettle ; when it is well melted, and you 
 have taken care not to let any of the ingredients stick 
 about the kettle, put in your silk, which before you 
 have prepared and alumed as has been directed, turn it 
 round on the winch and let it boil up ; then take and 
 wring it out, beat it, and rinse it ; next prepare an- 
 other kettle, and take to each pound of silk twelve 
 ounces of gall-nuts ; let the gall-nuts boil for two hours, 
 then cool it for the same space of time, after which put 
 in the silk for three or four hours, wring it out, rinse, 
 beat, and dry it. 
 
 Another Orange Colour. — Soak the white silk in 
 alum water as you do in dyeing of yellow : take two 
 ounces of Orleans yellow, put it over night in water, 
 together with one ounce of potash : boil it up, add to 
 it, after it has boiled half an hour, one ounce of pow- 
 dered turmeric ; stir it with a stick, and after a little 
 while put your alumed silk into it for two or three 
 hours, according to what height you would have your 
 colour, rinse it out in soap-suds till it looks clear, after- 
 wards clear it in fair water, and dress it according to 
 art. 
 
 A fine Brimstone Yellow for Worsted. — Take three 
 pounds of alum, one pound of tartar, and three ounces 
 of salt; boil the doth with these materials for one hour ; 
 pour off that water, and pour fresh into the kettle; 
 make a strong bath of weld ; let it boil, then turn the 
 cloth twice or thrice quickly upon the winch, and it will 
 have a fine brimstone colour. 
 
 A Lemon Colour. — Take three pounds of alum, 
 three ounces of ceruss, and three ounces of arsenic ; 
 with these ingredients boil the cloth for an hour and a 
 
 half ; pour off that water, and make a lye of sixteen 
 pounds of yellow flowers, and three ounces of turmeric ; 
 then draw or winch your cloth through quickly, and you 
 will have it of a fine lemon colour. 
 
 To dye an Olive Colour. — To dye this colour, ob- 
 serve the first directions for dyeing a brimstone colour ; 
 then make a lye of gall-nuts and vitriol, but not too 
 strong ; draw your stuff quickly through, three or four 
 times, according as you would have it, either deeper or 
 lighter. 
 
 To dye a Gold Colour. — Having first dyed your silk, 
 worsted, cotton, or linen, of a yellow colour, take, to 
 each pound of the commodity, one ounce of yellow 
 chips, and of potash a drachm ; boil for half an hour ; 
 then put in your silk, and turn it till the colour required 
 is produced. 
 
 Weld is considered by most dyers as the yellow 
 which unites beauty with durability in the highest de- 
 gree. 
 
 To dye wool or woollen cloth Yellow. — The wool 
 is first cleansed, and then passed through a bath of 
 about 4 parts alum, and 1 of tartar, to every 16 parts 
 of wool. It is then dyed in the weld bath, for which 
 from 3 to 4 parts of weld are used to one part of wool. 
 A golden yellow, with more or less orange, is given *by 
 a weak madder after the welding. Silk is dyed of a 
 golden yellow generally with weld alone. The stuff is 
 first boiled in soap water, alumed and washed, then 
 passed twice through a weld bath in which, the second 
 time, some alkali is dissolved, which gives a rich golden 
 hue to the natural yellow of the plant. A small quan- 
 tity of annotta still further deepens the colour. The so- 
 lutions of tin apply well to silk, and with weld give it a 
 bright clear yellow. 
 
 To dye cotton Yellow. — It is first cleansed with 
 wood-ashes and water, rinsed, alumed, and dried, and 
 then passed through a yellow bath, in which the weld 
 at least equals the cotton in weight. When the colour 
 is sufficiently taken, the cotton is thrown into a bath of 
 sulphate of copper and water, and kept there for an 
 hour, after which it is boiled in a solution of white soap, 
 and finally washed and dried. 
 
 If a deeper jonquil yellow be required, the aluming 
 is omitted, and instead, a little verdegris is added to the 
 weld bath, and the cotton finished with soda. In giving 
 the lively greenish lemon yellow, weld is preferred to all 
 other materials. 
 
 Wool may be dyed a fast yellow colour with querci- 
 tron, by being first cleansed, and then boiled for an 
 hour with one-sixth of its weight of alum in water ; then 
 without rincing, transferred into the vessel containing a 
 decoction of as much quercitron bark as there was used 
 of alum, and turned through the boiling liquor over the 
 winch till the colour appears to have taken. 
 
 Chalk or alkali is of great service in yellow-dyeing, 
 whether with weld, quercitron, or any other colour, 
 when the mordant is alum, as this addition helps to bring 
 out and heighten the dye. 
 
 The salts of tin, being powerful mordants for almost 
 
 every 
 
DYEING. 
 
 287 
 
 every colouring matter, may be employed with advan- 
 tage in dyeing yellow of the finest colours. Dr. Ban- 
 croft recommends the murio-sulphate of tin, of which 
 lOlbs. with as much quercitron bark, are sufficient to 
 give the highest orange yellow to lOOlbs. of cloth. The 
 process is as follows : 
 
 First, tie up the bark in a bag and put it into the boil- 
 er, and when boiled in water a few minutes, let the tin 
 solution be added, and the mixture well stirred ; the 
 cloth, previously scoured and wetted, is passed briskly 
 through the liquor over a winch for about a quarter of 
 an hour. 
 
 Of Blacks. — The black commonly given to all 
 kinds of stuff, is that which is produced by some vege- 
 table astringent, particularly galls, with the salts of iron, 
 but many circumstances must be attended to, in order 
 to produce a full and good colour. Wool takes this 
 kind of black with much more ease than linen or cotton. 
 Hellot’s process is as follows : 
 
 For every 50lbs. of cloth take 8lbs. of logwood, and as 
 much galls, both bruised or powdered, tie them loosely 
 in a bag, and boil in a moderate sized copper for about 
 twelve hours with sufficient water. Put one-third of 
 this decoction, with a pound of verdigris, into another 
 copper, and soak the cloth in it for two hours, keeping 
 the liquor scalding hot, but not boiling. Take out the 
 cloth, add to the same copper another third of the first 
 decoction, with 4lbs. of vitriol or sulphate of iron, and 
 bring it again to a scalding heat, and soak the cloth in it 
 for an hour, stirring it well all the time. Then take 
 out the cloth, and add the remaining third of the decoc- 
 tion with 8 or lOlbs. of sumach, boil the whole, lower 
 the heat with a little cold water, add a pound more of 
 vitriol, and return the cloth for an hour longer. The 
 cloth'is then washed and aired, and returned to the bath 
 again for an hour, after which it is well washed in run- 
 ning water and fulled. It is, lastly, passed through a 
 yellow bath of weld for a short time, to give a higher 
 gloss and softness to the black. 
 
 The common blacks, however, are given in a much 
 simpler manner, the stuff, previously dyed blue, being 
 first soaked in a bath of galls and boiled for two hours, 
 and then passed through another bath of logwood and 
 vitriol at a scalding heat, after which it is washed and 
 fulled. 
 
 To dye Woollen Stuffs of a Black colour . — Fine 
 cloths, and such stuffs as will bear the price, must be 
 first dyed of a deep blue, in a fresh vat of pure indigo ; 
 after which, boil the stuffs in alum and tartar ; then dye 
 in madder ; and, lastly, with galls of Aleppo, sulphate 
 of iron, and sumach, dye it black. To prevent the 
 colour soiling when the cloths are made up, they must, 
 before they are sent to the dye-house, be well scoured 
 in a scouring mill. Middling stuffs, after they have 
 been prepared by scouring, and drawn through a blue 
 vat, are dyed black with gall-nuts and vitriol. For or- 
 dinary wool, or woollen stuffs, take of walnut-tree 
 branches and shells, a sufficient quantity ; with this boil 
 your stuff to a brown colour, then draw it through the 
 
 black dye, made with the bark of elder, iron or copper 
 filings, and Indian wood. 
 
 To dye Linen of a Black colour. — Take filings of 
 iron, wash them, and add to them the bark of elder- 
 tree : boil them up together, and dip your linen therein. 
 
 To dye Woollen of a good Black. — 1st. Take two 
 pounds of gall-nuts, two pounds of the bark of elder- 
 tree, one pound and a half of yellow chips, boil them 
 for three hours ; then put in youi stuff, turn it well with 
 the winch, and when you perceive it black enough, take 
 it out and cool it. 2. Take one ounce and a half of 
 muriate of ammonia, with this boil your stuff gently for 
 an hour long, turning it all the while with the winch ; 
 then take it out again and let it cool. 3. Take two 
 pounds and a half of vitriol, a quarter of a pound of su- 
 mach ; boil your stuff therein for an hour ; then cool 
 and rinse it, and it will be of a good black. 
 
 Another Black colour for Woollen. — For the first 
 boiling, take two pounds of gall-nuts, half a pound of 
 Brazil wood, two pounds and a half of madder ; boil 
 your cloth with these ingredients for three hours, then 
 take it out to cool ; for the second boiling, take one 
 ouuce and a half of sal ammoniac ; and for the third, 
 two ounces and a half of vitriol, three quarters of a 
 pound of Brazil, and a quarter of a pound of tallow. 
 
 Another Black colour for Plush. — Put the follow- 
 ing ingredients into a large vessel ; viz. eight pounds of 
 elder bark, eight pounds of sumach, twelve pounds of 
 oaken chips, nine pounds of sulphate of iron, two 
 pounds of wild marjoram, six pounds of tile-dust, some 
 waste of a grindstone, six pounds of walnut leaves, half 
 a pound of burnt tartar, two pounds of salt, four pounds 
 of woad ; on these pour boiling water till your vessel is 
 full : your plush, after it is well boiled and cleansed, 
 must be well galled, by boiling it in one pound and a 
 half of sumach, eight ounces of madder, two ounces and 
 a half of burnt nitre, half an ounce of muriate of am- 
 monia, one ounce and a half of sulphate of iron, half an 
 ounce of burnt tartar ; then take it out, and let it dry, 
 without rinsing it. Then fill the kettle with the above 
 liquor, and boil and dye your plush in the manner as you 
 do other stuffs, turning it round with the winch. When 
 the colour is to your mind, take out the plush, let it 
 cool, and rinse and hang it up to dry. 
 
 To dye Silk of a good Black. — In a kettle contain- 
 ing six pails of water, put two pounds of beaten gall- 
 nuts, four pounds of sumach, a quarter of a pound of 
 madder, half a pound of antimony finely powdered, four 
 ox galls, four ounces of gum tragacanth dissolved in fair 
 water, fine beaten elder bark two ounces, and one ounce 
 and a half of iron file-dust ; put these ingredients into 
 the water, and let them boil for two hours ; then fill it 
 up with a pailful of barley-water, and let it boil for an 
 hour longer ; put in your silk, and boil it for half an 
 hour slowly : then take it out and rinse it in a tub, with 
 clean water, and pour that again into the kettle ; the 
 silk you rinse quite clean in a running water, then hang 
 it up, and when it is dry, put it in the copper again ; 
 boil it slowly for half an hour, as before j then rinse it 
 
288 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 in a tub, and again in rain water ; when dry, take good 
 lye, put into it two ounces of potash, and when they are 
 dissolved, rinse the silk therein quickly, then in running 
 water ; this done, hang it to dry, and order it as you do 
 other coloured silks. This colour will also dye all sorts 
 of manufactured woollen stuffs. To give the black silk 
 a fine gloss, you must, before the last dipping, put in, 
 for each pound, one ounce of isinglass dissolved in 
 water. 
 
 Of Green. Having given an account of some pro- 
 cesses for dyeing the simple colours, red, blue, yellow, 
 and black, we may touch on those that are compound, 
 so called as being produced in dyeing by mixtures of the 
 simple colours, though in certain cases substances are 
 found which produce compound colours w ithout any ad- 
 dition. 
 
 To dye woollen green, either a blue or a yellow dye 
 may be first given to it, but the first is generally used, 
 because the yellow dye of the stuff would injure the blue 
 bath. The intensity of the blue must ever be propor- 
 tioned to the shade of green required. When the blue 
 dye is given, the yellow is communicated by some of the 
 processes already described. The cloth having the pro- 
 per ground, is washed at the fulling mill, and boiled as 
 for the common process of welding, but when the shade 
 is to be light, the proportion of salts should be less. In 
 this case, the quantity of weld used should also be less, 
 but for all other shades it should be greater than for 
 dyeing simple yellow. 
 
 Saxon greens are obtained from sulphate of indigo. 
 From six to eight pounds of quercitron bark, enclosed 
 in a bag, should be put into the bath for every hundred 
 pounds of cloth, with only a small proportion of water, 
 just as it begins to grow warm. When the water boils, 
 six pounds of murio-sulphate of tin should be put in, 
 and in a few minutes after, about four pounds of alum ; 
 these having boiled five or six minutes, cold water 
 should be added, and the fire diminished, so as to bring 
 down the heat of the liquor nearly to what the hand is 
 just able to bear : after this, as much sulphate of indigo 
 is to be added as will suffice to produce the shade of 
 green required, taking care to mix it thoroughly with 
 the bath. The cloth having been previously scoured 
 and moistened, should then be expeditiously put into the 
 liquor, and turned very briskly through it for a quarter 
 of an hour, that the colour may apply itself evenly in 
 every part. By this method beautiful greens may be 
 dyed in half an hour. 
 
 A fine Green for dyeing Silk. — Take, to one pound 
 of silk, a quarter of a pound of alum and two ounces of 
 white tartar ; put them together in hot water to dissolve, 
 then put in your silk, and let it soak all night ; take it 
 out the next morning, and hang it up to dry ; then take 
 one pound of fustic, and boil it in four gallons of water 
 for an hour ; take out the fustic, fling it away, and put 
 into the kettle half an ounce of fine beaten verdigris ; 
 stir it about for a quarter of an hour, draw it off into a 
 tub, and let it cool; then put into that colour an ounce 
 of potash ; stir it together with a stick ; dip into it your 
 
 silk, till you think it yellow enough ; rinse it in fair wa- 
 ter, and hang it up to dry, then dip it in the blue vat, 
 till you think it enough; rinse it again, and beat it over 
 the pin, and hang it up to dry : thus you may change 
 the shades of your green, by dipping either more or less 
 in the blue or yellow. For the green, take, to one 
 pound of silk, three ounces of verdigris beaten to a fine 
 powder, infuse it in a pint of wine vinegar for a night, 
 then put it on the fire ; when hot, stir it with a stick] 
 and keep it from boiling ; in this put your silk two or 
 three hours, or if you would have it of a light colour, 
 let it soak but for half an hour ; then take scalding hot 
 water, and in a trough, with soap, beat and work up a 
 clear lather; in this rinse your silk, then hang it up to 
 dry ; rinse it again in river water, beat it well, and when 
 it is well cleaned and dried, dress it. 
 
 To dye Linen of a Green colour. — Soak your linen 
 overnight in strong alum water, then take it out and dry 
 it : take woad, boil it for an hour ; take out the woad, 
 and put in one ounce of powdered verdigris, according 
 to the quantity you have to dye ; stir it together briskly, 
 with the linen ; then put in a piece of potash the size of 
 an hen’s egg, and you will have your linen of a yellow 
 colour, which, when dried a little, and put into a blue 
 vat, will turn green. 
 
 Cotton and linen are, in another process, scoured in 
 the usual way, and then first dyed blue : after being 
 cleaned, they are dipped in the weld bath to produce a 
 green colour. As it is difficult to give cotton velvet an 
 uniform colour in the blue vat, it is first dyed yellow 
 with turmeric, and the process completed by giving it a 
 green by sulphate of indigo. 
 
 The different shades of olive, &c. are given to cotton 
 thread, after it has received a blue ground by galling it, 
 dipping it in a weaker or stronger bath of iron liquor, 
 then in the weld bath, and afterwards in the bath with 
 sulphate of copper ; the colour is, lastly, brightened with 
 soap. Yellow colours are rendered more intense by 
 means of alkalies, sulphate of lime, and ammoniacal 
 salts, but they become fainter by means of acids, and 
 solutions of tin and alum. 
 
 To dye a Grey colour. — Grey is a middle colour, 
 between black and white, which, beginning with a white 
 grey, approaches by degrees to a black grey : it may be 
 observed, that if the black colour was to be prepared 
 only of gall-nuts and sulphate of iron, it w'ould procure 
 but an indifferent grey, but if to these ordinary ingre- 
 dients for dyeing of stuffs, you add some Indian wood, 
 you may procure white grey, pearl colour, lead colour, 
 whitish grey, iron grey, black grey, brown grey, &c. 
 Some of these colours require a little tincture of woad. 
 
 To dye a Brozm-red colour either on Silk or Worst- 
 ed. — First, after you have prepared your silk or worst- 
 ed, in the manner directed for dyeing of red colours, 
 boil it in madder ; then slacken the fire, and add to the 
 madder liquor some black colour prepared as has been 
 shewn : then stir the fire, and when'the dye is hot, work 
 the commodities you have to dye therein, till you see 
 them dark enough. But the best w'ay to dye this colour 
 
DYEING. 
 
 289 
 
 is in a blue vat ; therefore choose one either lighter or 
 darker, according as you would have your colour, then 
 alum and rinse your silk in fair water ; this done, work 
 it in the kettle with madder, till you find it answer your 
 purpose. 
 
 Another. — Put into a kettle of hot water a handful 
 of madder, stir it together, and let it stand a little : then 
 take the woollen stuff, w r et it first, then let it run over 
 the winch into the kettle, turning it constantly ; if you 
 see it does not make the colour high enough, add a 
 handful more of madder, rinsing the stuff or silk some- 
 times, to see whether it is to your liking. Then put 
 some black colour into the kettle, mix it well together, 
 and when hot, turn your silks or stuffs with the winch, 
 and dye them either of a blacker hue by adding more 
 -black, or a redder by putting in less. 
 
 To dye a Brown colour. — Brown colours are pro- 
 duced by the root, bark, and leaves of walnut trees, and 
 also by walnut shells ; china-root might also be used for 
 brow'n colours, but it being of a disagreeable scent, it 
 should only be used for hair colours in stuffs, for which, 
 and the olive colours, it is of more use : the best browns 
 are dyed with woad and walnut tree root. 
 
 A Nutmeg colour, on Stuffs. — Take three pounds of 
 alum, and half a pound of tartar ; put this into a kettle 
 of water, and boil your stuff for an hour and a half, then 
 take it out to cool. Take one pound and a half of yel- 
 low flowers, three pounds of madder, one pound of 
 gall-nuts ; put them, together with the stuff, into a ket- 
 tle ; boil and turn it with a winch till it is red enough, 
 and take it out to cool ; then take two pounds of sul- 
 phate of iron, which before is dissolved in warm water, 
 put it into the kettle, and turn the stuff till the colour is 
 to your mind, then rinse it out. — Or, take half a bushel 
 of green walnut shells, or walnut tree root, to a kettle 
 of w'ater, and when it begins to boil, put in the stuff, 
 over a winch ; turn it about three or four times, then 
 take it out and let it cool ; after it is cold, boil the li- 
 quor again, and put the stuff in ; turn it for half an hour, 
 and take it out and let it cool ; then put one pound of 
 gall-nuts, three pounds of madder, together with the 
 stuffs, into the kettle ; let it boil for an hour ; take it 
 out and let it cool again ; take one pound of sulphate of 
 iron, put it in, stir it well about, then put in again the 
 stuffs over the winch ; turn and boil it till you perceive 
 your colour deep enough, then take it out and rinse it. 
 
 Of dyeing with Madder. — It has been a common 
 rule to take, to eight pounds of madder, one pound of 
 tartar. Alum and tartar are used for preparing the 
 commodities; for attracting and preserving the colour. 
 Potash heightens the colour very much, as does bran 
 water ; brandy is of peculiar use ; it attracts the colour, 
 makes it look clear and fine, and frees the subtillest 
 particles from its dregs and impurities. Some dyers, 
 and indeed' most, ascribe the same virtue to urine ; but 
 although it may be of much use when fresh, it is highly 
 prejudicial to light colours when stale, for it causes the 
 colour tabe of a heavy and unpleasant hue : this ought, 
 -therefore, to be a caution to such as would dye light 
 
 and tender colours. The experiment may be tried in a 
 glass of clean water, in which litmus, being first dis- 
 solved and filtered, is poured in: if to this liquid, which 
 is blue, you pour some muriatic acid, it will turn red ; 
 and mixing it with a little dissolved alkali, it will re- 
 sume its former colour : if you put too much of the 
 latter, the liquid will turn green: and thus you may 
 change the colour, by adding more or less of either the 
 one or the other ingredient to it. 
 
 To dye Silk of a Madder Colour . — Prepare it as 
 has been directed under the article of dyeing silk “ a 
 crimson colour.” This done, put a pailful of river 
 water into a kettle, together with half a pound of mad- 
 der ; boil it for an hour, and take care it boils not oyer, 
 then let it run off clear into another vessel, stirring into 
 it one ounce of turmeric ; then put in your silk, let it 
 lay therein till cold, then wring it out and beat it ; this 
 done, take half a pound of good Brazil wood, boil it in 
 bran water for an hour, clear it off in another vessel, 
 and put in your silk ; rinse it out in soap-lye, and then 
 in running water ; after which dry and dress it. 
 
 Another method. — After you have prepared your silk 
 for dyeing, hang it on sticks, and to each pound of silk 
 take eleven ounces of madder, and four ounces of nut- 
 galls ; put these into a kettle with clean rain-water ; 
 hang in your silk, and augment the heat till it is ready 
 to boil ; then turn your silk in it for half an hour, and 
 prevent its boiling, by lessening the fire : after this, 
 rinse and beat it out ; hang it again on sticks, in a tub 
 with cold water, in which you have put some potash; 
 this gives it beauty : then rinse and dry it. How this 
 madder is made use of for dyeing of worsted or stuffs, 
 has been shewn already. 
 
 Of the Mixture of Colours. — Although we have 
 touched on this subject already, yet we shall say some- 
 thing more about it. Pure or unmixed colours are 
 rarely found in nature, lied is uniformly found inter- 
 mingled with yellow ; scarlet and madder colours are 
 composed of these two principles. Indigo, which ap- 
 pears to furnish the most perfect blue, is always de- 
 based by a yellowish matter, which is removed by 
 ebullition. Exclusively of these natural mixtures, the 
 artificial shades formed out of them are extremely 
 numerous : we shall only refer to a few of the leading 
 ones, which may be comprehended in the following 
 classes. 1. A mixture of blue and yellow, which pro- 
 duces all the intermediate shades between the yellowish 
 green and the dark green verging to black. 2. A 
 mixture of red and blue, which comprehends all the 
 shades from a deep violet colour to a lilac. 3. A 
 mixture of red and yellow, which embraces all the 
 shades from a scarlet colour to that of musk and 
 tobacco. 
 
 1 . To form on wool the mixture of blue and yellow, 
 we first impart to the stuff the blue ground : and the 
 green so produced becomes deeper as the blue is more 
 intense. When the cloths are taken out of the blue 
 vat, they are boiled in the same manner as those in- 
 tended to be dyed by woad, and for this purpose a 
 4 E 
 
DYEING. 
 
 decoction of that substance is prepared in which the 
 stuffs are immersed. Green is rendered brown by log- 
 wood and a small portion of iron. Green is transferred 
 to cotton by a nearly similar process, but instead of the 
 mordant composed of alum and tartar, the acetate of 
 alumine is used. 
 
 To impart. a Green toSilk . — After boiling it with soap, 
 it is strongly alumed ; then slightly washed in running 
 water, and stretched in a woad bath. To render the 
 colour darker and to vary its shade, a decoction of 
 Indian wood of fustic, annotta, & c. is introduced into 
 the woad bath, Savory is preferred to woad, when the 
 blue vat is employed, because the colour which it 
 imparts inclines naturally to green. The green obtain- 
 ed by the solution of indigo in the sulphuric acid, is, 
 as we have seen, called Saxon green ; it is more bril- 
 liant but less durable than that which has just been 
 described. This cloth is prepared as in dyeing with 
 woad ; after it has been washed, it is boiled in the 
 same bath an hour and a half, with yellow chips. 
 When the heat of the bath is moderated so that the 
 hand can bear it, we introduce one pound and a quarter 
 of the solution of indigo for every eighteen yards of 
 cloth ; the cloth is then to be immersed iu it, turned at 
 first rapidly, but afterwards more slowly. The cloth 
 must be taken out before the bath begins to boil. 
 Woad may be substituted instead of the yellow wood, 
 and the shades varied at pleasure, by varying the pro- 
 portions of the ingredients. When the blue has been 
 dyed in the vat, it is more permanent than the yellow ; 
 whence it happens, that the green colour changes to 
 blue in the course of time ; while ou the contrary, 
 when the blue is given by the solution of indigo in 
 sulphuric acid, the yellow is most durable. 
 
 2. The combination of red and blue forms the violet 
 colour, and the shades dependent upon it. This com- 
 bination exists naturally in logwood : it is likewise de- 
 veloped in most of the lichens by fermentation, but it 
 is not fixed in either of these two states. 
 
 To give a good violet tint to woollen cloth, it is 
 slightly dyed in a blue vat; after which it is boiled, 
 during an hour and a half, in a bath composed of three 
 ounces and three quarters of alum and about half an 
 ounce of alum to one pound and a quarter of cloth. A 
 bath is then prepared of one ounce and a half of cochi- 
 neal and half an ounce of tartar, in which the cloth is 
 boiled an hour or more, when it assumes a blue colour. 
 By the addition of alum and tartar to the violet bath, 
 we may obtain all the inferior shades of lilac, dove, 
 mallows, &c. 
 
 The violet colours imparted to silk are divided into 
 two kinds, the true and false ; to produce the first, the 
 silk is dyed in the same manner as crimson, except 
 that neither tartar nor the solution of tin are mingled 
 with the bath. To produce a very beautiful violet three 
 ounces of cochineal is employed to one pound and a 
 quarter of silk. The stuff is then passed through a 
 weaker vat, and to impart still greater beauty to the 
 colour, it is afterwards immersed in a savory bath. 
 
 | The most beautiful false violets are prepared with 
 j savory, they are readily known by the property which 
 I they possess of becoming red by the action of acids. 
 A good violet may be given to cotton, by dyeing it 
 with madder, and afterwards passing it through a blue 
 vat. The beauty of this colour depends on the mea- 
 greness of the red. 
 
 The true violet is only imparted to cotton by com- 
 bining oxide of iron with madder red. The iron must 
 be applied to the cotton previously to its being im- 
 mersed in the madder bath. It is not easy to obtain 
 this colour uniform, because the iron deposited on the 
 cotton is apt to become unequally oxydated in drying. 
 To obviate this, the cottons should be washed after 
 receiving the mordant, and be plunged into the madder 
 bath while wet. All the different shades may be ob- 
 tained by combining alum with the sulphate of iron, 
 calcined to redness, in different proportions, in forming 
 the mordant for violets. 
 
 When a very beautiful violet is the object, it is ne- 
 cessary, on taking the cotton out of the oil, to pass it 
 into the mordant already described ; then to wash it 
 with care, and plunge it into a cold madder vat ; after 
 which it must be again washed, immersed into a new 
 bath of madder and boiled for an hour, and, lastly, 
 brightened by washing with soap. 
 
 3. Yellow, intimately combined with red, may be 
 variously modified. By boiling fustic in a scarlet bath, 
 heightened by a small portion of cre*m of tartar, and 
 the composition of tin, we may produce successively a 
 pomegranate, orange, and jonquil colour. The fustic 
 is added to the cochineal, in proportion to the shade 
 required. The addition of a little madder will produce 
 a gold colour. 
 
 Madder red unites with yellow, and gradually changes 
 it from an orange to the other different shades. If 
 instead of the bright yellow's we use plants giving out a 
 brownish colour, such as many astringent vegetables, 
 we obtain more solid, but less brilliant colours. Thus, 
 hazel roots, sumach, See. produces tobacco and musk 
 colours. 
 
 Maroon and wine colours may be imparted to silk by 
 logwood, fustic, &c. : a decoction of fustic forms the 
 foundation of the bath, to which is ajided about a 
 fourth part of the juice of fernambucca, and an eighth 
 of logwood. The silks are to be alumed before they 
 are immersed in this bath. If brown shades are re- 
 quired, the Indian wood is employed in a greater pro- 
 portion than the Brazil wood. 
 
 Of the jirt of Transposing , or Changing Colours. 
 
 * — Most colours, when transferred to stuffs, undergo os 
 suffer some change. This art is termed, by dyers, 
 changing or turning the bath. This is one of the most 
 delicate and interesting operations connected with dye- 
 ing. In it resides nearly all the mystery of the art. 
 We can here only briefly sketch the principal changes, 
 or alterations, that may be produced on a colour, by 
 the action of colourless bodies. For more particular 
 information on the processes of dyeing, we must refer 
 
DYEING. 
 
 291 
 
 the reader to those works which treat professedly on 
 the subject. 
 
 The acid solution of tin reddens cochineal, and 
 brightens the colour of its decoction. Cream of tartar 
 renders of a blighter yellow the same colouring prin- 
 ciple. The solution of alum changes a scarlet into a 
 crimson. Hence it is that cloth, to which alum has 
 been applied as a mordant, assumes a crimson colour 
 in the scarlet bath. The scarlet is converted by the 
 alkalies into violet. The red of cochineal is changed 
 by sea salt into lilac shades, which approach to a blue. 
 Sal ammonia deepens it, without depriving it of the red. 
 Gypsum changes the red into blue. The red of cochi- 
 neal is converted by copperas into violet. Hot water 
 renders it blue, by impairing the vivacity of the red. 
 The madder red is susceptible of the same modifications, 
 though less perceptibly. The acids render it yellow, 
 and change it to orange. Lime, and other calcareous 
 salts, impart to it a vinous colour. The alkalies are 
 employed to give a rose tint to the red of Brasil wood, 
 and to form a false crimson upon silk. The alkalies 
 give a yellow shade to the red of carthamus, or bastard 
 saffron. Its colour may be restored by citron or lemon 
 juice. The alkalies develop the colour in all vegetables 
 employed to furnish a yellow' dye. A solution of potash 
 is even used to transfer to cotton the colouring prin- 
 ciple of w'oad. The alkalies disguise the red colour 
 which is combined in the annotta with the yellow ; the 
 acids destroy or counteract their effect, so that by the 
 aid of these two salts, may be communicated to the 
 annotta all the intermediate shades of colour, from the 
 lightest yellow to an orange. The alkalies convert into 
 a permanent orange the yellow procured from wool and 
 silk by the nitric acid. For this purpose it is sufficient 
 to pass these two stuffs, coloured by the acid, into a' 
 caustic alkali. By employing the acid at 25, or 28 
 degrees, a very beautiful colour is obtained. The al- 
 kalies are also employed to change the violet procured 
 from Brazil and Indian wood ; they improve the colour 
 of the Brazil, and render brighter the violet of the 
 logwood. 
 
 Silk prepared as for the true violet, may be changed 
 into purple, by means of a little arsenic introduced into 
 the cochineal bath. What relates to the art of chang- 
 ing, or transposing colours, may, in general, be re- 
 duced to very simple principles. 1st. When the reds 
 are pure, the acids render them pale, or of an orange 
 tinge, by assimilating them to a yellow colour. Alum, 
 cream of tartar, the solution of tin, and acids, produce 
 the same effect. 2. When the reds are mixed with a 
 portion of blue, not possessing much fixity, the acids 
 exalt the colour, by destroying or reddening the blue. 
 Examples of this are furnished by fernambucca, and by 
 nearly all the false vegetable reds. 3. The alkalies 
 destroy the resinous reds, and develop the yellow which 
 is united with them. The red tint of the annotta, as 
 well as that of the carthamus, is effaced by them ; 
 acids restore it. 4. Alkalies restore the violet colours, 
 reddened by acids, with greater intensity than they for- 
 
 merly possessed. 5. Sea salt, and all the calcareous 
 salts, change the reds into a bluish crimson, f). Iron, 
 and all its combinations, impart a brown tint to red and 
 yellow colours. Thus are produced all the different 
 browns, which are at present so much in vogue. 
 
 Of the Exaltation of Colours . — The beauty of co- 
 lours depends unquestionably on making a proper choice 
 of materials; but in the mode of combining and height- 
 ening them, consists the art of dyeing. Washing im- 
 proves the colour, by depriving the stuff of the colour- 
 ing matter uncombined with it. It ought to be per- 
 formed in clear and running water. The alkalies are 
 employed to heighten certain colours. Thus, for ex- 
 ample, in order to impart greater brilliancy to the 
 Adrianople red, the cotton after maddering, is boiled 
 on a lye of soda for twenty-four or thirty-six hours; after 
 which it is washed and again boiled in a solution of 
 soap. The violet colours transferred to cotton by the 
 oxyd of iron and madder are heightened and improved 
 in a similar manner. The colour, which appears a 
 black on taking the cotton out of the bath, becomes 
 bright, and forms a beautiful violet. It may be re- 
 marked, that the violet is changed into red by the ac- 
 tion of alkalies, and into blue by that of soap. The 
 acids likewise prove useful, by putting the poppy- 
 coloured silks through tepid water acidulated by citron 
 juice, the colour is rendered more brilliant and pleas- 
 ing to the eye. The orauge extracted from annotta is 
 heightened and improved by the citric acid. All the 
 acids destroy the violet colour which the cochineal 
 sometimes assumes on wool, and exalt it to the shade 
 of scarlet. They render the madder red slightly yellowt 
 M. Hausmann proposes to pass the cottons on being 
 out of the blue vat, into a water acidulated by the sul- 
 phuric acid, having ascertained that the colour was by 
 this means rendered more intense. Blacks, transferred 
 into a saponaceous solution, or into water agitated for 
 a considerable time with a little oil, assume a deep red 
 colour. The drying of. stuffs in the sun, or in a clear 
 day, spoils or destroys their delicate and lively colours. 
 Drying in the shade preserves them. 
 
 We shall now conclude the article with an account of 
 Calico-printing, for which we shall be indebted chiefly 
 to Aiken’s valuable Dictionary of Chemistry and the 
 Arts. 
 
 Calico-Printing. — “ To apply a coloured pattern 
 on a white or coloured ground two general methods ap- 
 pear practicable ; the one, to weave the pattern into the 
 cloth with threads dyed of the requisite colours, the 
 other to devise some method of topical dyeing, which 
 shall, like a picture, confine the desired colours to those 
 parts only that are figured by the intended patterns. 
 The former is the delicate business of the embroiderer 
 or the tapestry weaver ; the latter is the ingenious art of 
 the calico-printer. The history of this art and the de- 
 tail of the vast variety of processes employed in produc- 
 ing the various coloured patterns, it would be- super- 
 fluous to enter into, especially as most of w'hat has been 
 described of general dyeing applies (as far as the che- 
 mical 
 
292 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 mical principles of the art are concerned) to topical 
 dyeing. A few examples, therefore, of the peculiar 
 manipulations of calico-printing will suffice. It is par- 
 ticularly, though not entirely, with the adjective colours, 
 or those that require a mordant, that calico-printing is 
 concerned, as this very circumstance affords a ready 
 method of giving a permanent colour only to the pat- 
 tern part; for if this latter only is impregnated with the 
 mordant, and the whole cloth is then uniformly dyed, 
 the natural effect of exposure to sun and air will be to 
 discharge all the colour from every part of the cloth 
 except where it had previously received the mordant, 
 and thus a coloured pattern will be produced on a 
 white ground. This partial application of mordants 
 therefore, followed by general dyeing, constitutes the 
 greater part of calico-printing, besides which, however, 
 a further variety of application often occurs as some- 
 times colours themselves are painted or pencilled in to 
 assist the general effect, which therefore require no 
 subsequent operation ; and occasionally other contri- 
 vances are used to fix, or alter, or discharge colours, 
 according as the proposed pattern may require it. Two 
 mordants are more particularly used by calico-printers, 
 though equally serviceable in general dyeing ; the one is 
 acetite of alumine with a portion of alum, the other is 
 a solution of iron in some vegetable acid. The acetite 
 of alumine is always made by double decomposition 
 of alum and sugar of lead, but the proportions of each 
 vary much according to circumstances, and probably to 
 the fancy of the colour mixer. In general, three 
 pounds of alum (or in that proportion) are thrown into 
 a barrel, and when dissolved, a pound, to a pound and a 
 half of sugar of lead are added, and the whole frequently 
 stirred during two days. On settling, a dear liquor is 
 found at top, which consists of acetite of alumine, but 
 still containing much undecomposed alum, and a dense 
 white sediment remains at bottom, which is sulphate of 
 lead. The clear liquor is the part used for the mordant, 
 but previously two ounces of pearl-ash and as much 
 chalk are added, more entirely to neutralize any excess 
 of acid, and partly to decompose the solution; for 
 though the mordant must be in a saline state entirely to 
 fix itself to the fibres of the cotton, it should seem that 
 the true intermedium between the cotton and the dye is 
 the alumine, and not the acids that hold it in solution, 
 and hence the weaker the adhesion of these is to the 
 alumine, the stronger will be the triple union be- 
 tween the colour, the earth, and the cotton fibre. The 
 other mordant constantly in use with the printers'* is a 
 solution of iron in vinegar, sour beer, pyroligenous 
 acid, or other vegetable acids, and which therefore is 
 chiefly an acetite of iron mixed with a portion of tar- 
 trite, perhaps gallate, and other salts of this metal. 
 To make these mordants fit for printing, and give them 
 such a consistence as will enable them to dry in a 
 figured pattern without running into the adjoining parts, 
 they are thickened with paste to the consistence of jelly ; 
 
 and when to be used, this jelly is squeezed through a 
 very fine sieve by a particular and simple contrivance, 
 on the surface of which it lies as a thin coating conve- 
 nient to be transferred to the printing blocks. The 
 mordant, when naturally colourless, is a little tinged 
 with Brazil wood (which being a very fugitive dye does 
 not impair the general effect) that the workmen may 
 see the impression on the cloth and fix the pattern with 
 accuracy. The instrument by which the impression is 
 given (or what answers to the types in the printing of 
 books) is a piece of hard wood, generally holly, about 
 a foot long, on which the pattern is carved, nearly as 
 in wood engraving, and is strengthened at the back 
 with a thicker piece of oak glued on. The parts of the 
 pattern that are to receive a large body of colour, and 
 consequently require a corresponding quantity of mor- 
 dant are given by pieces of old hat inlaid into the block 
 which are found to take up the mordant in a more 
 uniform way than any other material. Of late years 
 also some of the finer patterns are given by sheet copper 
 fixed on a block-like filigree work, which gives a finer 
 and sharper line to the figured pattern. Fine work is 
 sometimes given still more expeditiously by engraved 
 copper-plate and the rolling press, as in common pic- 
 ture engraving. The general process of the simple 
 kind of calico-printing therefore, is the following : the 
 cotton cloth, previously bleached with alkali and much 
 washing, and calendered to smooth the surface, is 
 stretched on a long table covered with woollen cloth 
 when the printer first lays the block on the sieve that 
 contains the mordant, then applies it steadily on the 
 cloth, and strikes it a smart blow on the back with a 
 wooden mallet to give a strong impression. This he 
 repeats successively, each time carefully laying the 
 block in the proper direction so as not to overlap the 
 last impression, till the whole is finished. In this way 
 the patterns are impressed with one or more kinds of 
 mordant as may be required ; after which the cloth is 
 strongly dryed in a stoved room, that both fixes the 
 mordant more firmly to the cotton, and volatilizes 
 much of the acetous acid in fumes very sensible to 
 the smell. When dry, the cloth is taken to a cistern 
 containing very warm water, in which cow-dung is dif- 
 fused, and there it is worked about to dissolve out the 
 paste and other superfluous part of the mordant, suffi- 
 cient being yet left firmly united to the fibres of the 
 cloth to fix the dye in the subsequent process. The 
 cloth is then rinced and thoroughly cleaned, after which 
 it is dyed in the usual way. The cloth comes out of 
 the dyeing cistern entirely coloured (yellow, for example, 
 when the dye has been weld) ; it is then again washed 
 with water, boiled with bran and water, alternating 
 with exposure to air on the bleach field, and other 
 bleaching processes ; till, at last, ail the colour of the 
 ground has disappeared, and that only remains which has 
 been fixed to the pattern by the mordant.” 
 
ENGINEERING. 
 
 Engineer civil, in contradistinction to the same 
 profession attendant on military works, is a person of 
 considerable importance in society : his employ embra- 
 ces pre-eminently canals and their attendants, reservoirs, 
 locks, basons, aqueducts, tunnels, bridges, docks and 
 buildings in water, erecting beacons and light-houses, 
 the cutting and forming roads, making iron rail roads, 
 &c. &c. To make the expert engineer requires consi- 
 derable talent in the individual, joined to great personal 
 firmness, with a cautious enterprise. He should be a 
 mathematician of the first order, with a ready aptitude 
 of extending its powers to practical purposes, expe- 
 rienced in local nature, with science and command 
 competent to assist and improve her, so as to effect all 
 the multiplied wants of a great commanding and pow- 
 erful people. — The cutting of canals is the first in order, 
 and is of a very early date ; for we find the Cnidians, a 
 people of Asia Minor, projecting an undertaking of 
 this nature : they wished the isthmus, which joined 
 their territory, to connect itself with the continent. The 
 oracle was consulted, and it was interdicted. (Herodotus, 
 1. i. c. 174.) Basons and canals were formed in Boeotia, 
 says Strabo, supplied by the lake Copais. The great 
 river Euphrates was connected with the Tigris by means 
 of a canal. A branch was also formed by Trajan near 
 Coche, to join the same river. The Greeks, as well 
 as the Romans, formed the design of making a canal 
 across the Isthmus of Corinth, which joins Achaia, for 
 the purpose of obtaining a passage by the Ionian sea. 
 A similar plan was projected between the Euxine and 
 Caspian seas. The Roman generals were fully im- 
 pressed w ith the utility of canals, of which they execut- 
 ed many, as the ruins now existing demonstrate. They 
 connected the Rhine with the Iosel, and also the former 
 river with the Moselle. Savary says, the canals in 
 Egypt amounted in number to eighty, but they were 
 more for the purpose of irrigation than communication. 
 The Nile was joined to the Red Sea by an artificial 
 channel; the work was commenced by Necos, who 
 was followed by Sesostris and Darius ; the latter relin- 
 quished the undertaking on the information reaching 
 him that the Red Sea being so much above the level 
 of the land in Egypt, it would be difficult if not impos- 
 sible to prevent the overflowing of the banks, and con- 
 sequent inundation of the country. The alarm was just ; 
 but the engineer w ould have been but little acquainted 
 with his subject not to have shewn the practicability of 
 avoiding such a calamity. Under Ptolomy the Second 
 the undertaking was completed. Its width was upwards 
 
 of 100 cubits, reckoning 22 inches to each cubit; and 
 in its depth sufficient to allow of the navigation of the 
 largest vessels. By this canal India was enriched w'ith 
 the commerce of Egypt, Persia, and the coast of 
 Africa. China, in her institutions hostile to art, has 
 nevertheless encouraged the making of canals ; and their 
 convenience having aided in supplying a ready transit of 
 her commodities she has, more perhaps from cunning 
 than a wish to develope the powers of the human mind, 
 intersected her country with them. The canal which 
 runs from Canton to Pekin is in length upwards of 800 
 miles, and was executed about 700 years since : it has 
 no locks, tunnels, or aqueducts, and when stopped by 
 mountains or other impediments, they have recourse 
 to a rolling bridge, and sometimes to inclined planes. 
 These rolling bridges consist of a number of cylindrical 
 rollers which turn easily on pivots, and are sometimes 
 put in motion by a windmill, so that the same ma- 
 chinery serves a double purpose, that of working the mill 
 and drawing up vessels. In this manner they draw' their 
 vessels from the canal on one side of a mountain to the 
 other. In Europe, the nurse of science and the arts, 
 to which in a great measure must be referred the suc- 
 cessful completion of all great works, artificial rivers 
 has presented an everlasting monument. In the year 
 1666, Louis the Fourteenth gave directions for con- 
 structing a plan to connect the ocean with the Medi- 
 terranean by the canal of Languedoc. This was a bold 
 undertaking if it be considered that all the details con- 
 nected with it were to be created, every thing was new ; 
 Francis Riquet was the engineer, and he lived to com- 
 plete it. This canal is upwards of 64 leagues in length, 
 and is furnished with 104 locks. It runs through rocks 
 in some places of 1,000 paces in extent, in others it 
 passes valleys and bridges by means of aqueducts of 
 vast height. It joins the river Garonne near Thoulouse 
 and terminates in the lake Tau, which extends it to 
 the Port of Cette. It was began by forming a large 
 reservoir 4,000 paces in circumference and 24 deep, 
 which was supplied by water issuing from the mountain 
 Noire. In Germany and the Low Countries, canals 
 form the principal means of communication between 
 one place and another. The canal of Bruges runs to 
 the sea at Ostend, and is extended to Ghent, Brussels, 
 Antwerp, and many other places : it is in depth suffi- 
 cient to allow of merchantmen coming to the warehouse 
 of its owner. These canals pass into the very streets of 
 the above-named towns ; indeed, in all Flanders and 
 Holland, in towns of any importance, the streets are 
 4F intersected 
 
294 
 
 ENGINEERING. 
 
 intersected by the canals. In the line of the canal the 
 street is sufficiently wide to admit of two commodious 
 roads on its sides, which are not unfrequently planted 
 with double row's of trees. Canal navigation in Eng- 
 land may almost be said to have been began by the late 
 Duke of Bridgewater in the year 1759; since which 
 time the internal commerce having increased with the 
 developement of the industry of the people, canals 
 have been cut, which has given it a ready transit to 
 every populous part of the island. The engineer in- 
 trusted with the making of a canal, should be fully 
 informed by the projectors of all they wish to accom- 
 plish ; and if he be a person of integrity and skill, in 
 him their confidence should be placed. The prelimi- 
 naries to an undertaking of this nature, consists in 
 forming a minute survey of every part of the country 
 through which the line of the canal is proposed to pass ; 
 and this should be done in the first instance by the prin- 
 cipal engineer : all the principal heights should be ac- 
 curately noted and ascertained ; memorandums should 
 be taken of all objects within the districts through 
 which it is intended to pass, rivulets and mill streams 
 marked so as easily to be referred to ; the breadths of 
 the various summits or ranges of high and low’ land 
 that are to be passed should be ascertained. When a 
 survey is so far accomplished, a rough sketch or map 
 should be prepared, laying down to a scale every prin- 
 cipal object within the proposed line. This map will 
 enable the projectors to see the various obstacles to be 
 encountered in the w ork ; and also the engineer to dis- 
 play his talent in surmounting them. When so much 
 is accomplished, the adviseable height of the summit- j 
 level of the canal must be ascertained in order to find 
 the number and fall required in the several locks neces- j 
 sary to be constructed on its line, the proposed sum- 
 mit level should be traced along the hills and ranges of 
 high-land, to see how far it is practicable to reduce it 
 to the required height by filling up the low land by the 
 excavated earth, or by deep cutting or tunnelling. When 
 the summit-level is finally determined on, and also the 
 line of the proposed canal, all springs and rivulets which 
 rise above or cross this line should be traced, and the 
 quantity of water they discharge accurately gauged : this 
 part of the work is of the very greatest importance, as 
 it may be turned to considerable account in affording 
 a supply of water to the line in its neighbourhood. Mr. 
 Eytelwein, engineer to the King of Prussia, has shewn 
 many important facts connected with this part of the 
 subject, deduced from experience and mathematical 
 investigation. Dr. Young has compiled them, and 
 they have been given to the public through the medium 
 of the Journals of the Royal Institution, or see Ni- 
 cholson’s Journal, vol. 3. p. 25. In setting out the 
 canal a good spirit level with telescopic sights is required 
 for tracing the levels, and when traced they are marked 
 particularly by what is termed a Bench-mark, which is 
 ho more than stakes driven into the ground at usually of 
 the distance of every two or three chains, with their tops 
 exactly projecting above the earth so much as to ascer- 
 
 tain the top-water level. After this line shall have been 
 thus traced and the bench-marks fixed, it should be 
 accurately revised, and all sudden bends in its course 
 rectified, so as to produce an easy undulating curve ; it 
 would be desirable to get the line as straight as possible, 
 but ranges of high-land, property of particular descrip- 
 tions sometimes intervene which prevents it. In such 
 cases, as in the former for instance, it is often found 
 more desirable to bend the line than to have recourse 
 to deep cutting or tunnelling : in the latter description 
 may be included gentlemen’s parks, gardens, &c., and 
 as few canal acts protect the proprietors in violating 
 such property, the line must vary its course so as to 
 pass round them. The widths and depths of canals 
 vary in reference to the boats intended to work 
 in them ; 30 feet is a good width at the summit level ; 
 and it is sometimes varied with us to as low as 18 feet. 
 In Holland they make theirs from 50 to 70 feet, and 
 sometimes more. The Bruges Canal is 80 feet wide 
 and 16 feet deep. The slopes to the sides of canals is 
 of considerable importance, and this consideration has 
 given rise to many speculations, which have added very 
 little to the stock of information already collected. 
 Mr. Eytelwien has recommended that the breadth at 
 the bottom should be two-thirds of- the depth, and at 
 the surface ten-thirds ; the banks will then be in 
 general capable of retaining their form. The area of 
 such a section is twice the square of the depth, and 
 the hydraulic mean depth two-thirds of the actual 
 depth. See Nicholson’s Journal, vol. 3, p. 33. The 
 practice in our canals is to so apportion the side slopes 
 that one foot in depth will give a horizontal base of 
 one foot and a half. The depth of the w'ater must be in 
 some measure deduced from the nature of the soil to be 
 cut through, and the draught of the boats to be employed 
 on it. The average depth of our canals lays between 
 4 and 8 feet, and the banks are made one foot higher 
 than the water is intended to stand in them. The fall 
 given to a canal, in order to produce a stream or velo- 
 city in the water, varies with the local difficulties to 
 be overcome ; and since inland navigation is determined 
 to a precise point or place, the navigator calculates 
 little upon the velocity of the stream downwards, know- 
 ing if it were made great what he might save in going 
 down it would be lost in returning. Four inches in a 
 mile is conceived to be a good fall for a canal 18 feet 
 upon the summit level, and 7 feet at bottom, and 4 
 feet deep : the velocity of the stream in such a canal is, 
 according to Professor Robinson, 17 inches in a second 
 at the surface, 14 in the middle, and 10 at the bottom : 
 from such a deduction it will not be difficult to extend 
 the calculation to canals of greater or less dimensions. 
 This conclusion is, however, only true of a straight 
 river flowing through an equable channel ; and as our 
 canals are seldom straight for a mile together, but vary 
 their course as frequently as change of place presents 
 new difficulties, it follows, that the banks of the 
 canals will be more often in a curved direction than a 
 straight one ; and Mr. Eytelwein anticipating such a 
 
 circumstance, 
 
ENGINEERING. 
 
 295 
 
 circumstance, remarks, <l that the velocity is greater 
 near the concave than the convex side ; a circumstance 
 probably occasioned by the centrifugal force accumu- 
 lating the water on that side.” 
 
 When a canal is accurately marked out, and the 
 bench-marks firmly fixed, a circumstance which can- 
 not be too much attended to, as cattle often knock them 
 down while grazing in the fields in which they are 
 placed, and idle people as often from mere wantonness ; 
 if it be found difficult to keep the bench-marks in their 
 places, holes must be dug to supply their places, and 
 the bench-marks put up as the excavating proceeds. 
 When the works have arrived at this state, calculations 
 should be made of stuff wanted, or to be spared, upon 
 the line, in order to its being removed with as little la- 
 bour as possible. The top-soil and turf removed, al- 
 lows of the canal line being easily worked upon. 
 
 The ground-men, excavators, or navigators, as they 
 are called, are in some districts also called hag-masters ; 
 to these people the digging is let, at per cubic yard, 
 according to the nature of the soil to be excavated, and 
 the distance it is to be removed. Their tools consist of 
 (if in a clayey or loamy soil) a grafting tool, the handle 
 of which is rather longer than usual, with a narrow blade 
 of iron, forming the segment of a circle, with its con- 
 cave side turned inwards, firmly riveted to the handle 
 and very thin at the lower end ; the size varies to the 
 caprice of the workman : they are usually about 10 or 
 1 1 inches long, and 6 or 7 inches wide. In some soils, 
 gravel for instance, the same kind of tool is called a 
 shovel ; its blade is ground away till its lower end ap- 
 proaches an apex, the diverging sides from which form 
 the slant ones, and make nearly an equilateral triangle. 
 They have also a scoop to throw water, pickaxes, and 
 wheel-barrows. The latter differ materially from the 
 common machine of that name : it is framed of oak, the 
 two sides form the handles, and also diverge away and 
 admit the wheel between their opposite ends. Into the 
 sides, two stout feet are framed and cross braced : the 
 whole is fixed together by stout bearers mortised into 
 the sides. The bottom is lined commonly with inch elm 
 boarding, and the sides slant all round, and are about 6 
 inches deep. The wheel is usually of cast iron, very 
 light, and its edge not more than an inch in thickness. 
 The beauty of the barrow consists in its lightness, and 
 should not exceed 40lbs. in weight, including the wheel. 
 The labourer wheels the soil away in his barrow by a 
 kind of tram-road made of planks, these being easily ad- 
 justed to all required positions. 
 
 Among the first works to be excavated should be the 
 foundations for all locks, basons, and bridges, also the 
 culverts and drains which are to pass under the canal. 
 The work should be commenced as early in the spring 
 of the year as possible, in which case many parts may 
 be accomplished in sufficient time to allow of its settling 
 and getting firm and dry before the winter season ar- 
 rives, which, if severe, may delay its progress, and de- 
 stroy such as may have been too recently set about. 
 
 The soils, through which the different lines of the 
 
 canal is intended to pass, should be pierced and proved 
 to ascertain their nature, and if good water-tight stuff, 
 its extent traced, for on this must be determined where, 
 and in what quantity, puddling may be required for 
 the banks ; for to prevent leakage in a canal, is that in 
 which the engineer will display his greatest sagacity. 
 Porous soils, or soils requiring puddle lining, consist of 
 gravel, sand, loose or open rock, or other earths that 
 will let water easily through ; or earths in which rats or 
 moles take up their habitation, or such as is much per- 
 forated by worms. 
 
 Some engineers have made use of strong clay for 
 puddling, but it has been seldom found to answer the 
 purpose, particularly to side liniugs ; in lining the bot- 
 toms of canals it has a better chance of succeeding. It 
 holds so much- water, that exposure to the air evaporates 
 it, and consequently it cracks, which renders it unfit for 
 a safe and water-proof coating, which in some canals are 
 particularly required. The best puddle is made of a 
 light loam, and sharp siliceous particles or sand, in the 
 proportion of two of the former to one of the latter : it 
 is manufactured commonly contiguous to the slope 
 which it is intended to line, but if the bottom of the ca- 
 nal should require lining also, it will be necessary to so 
 dig the puddle-ditch, or gutter, as it is called, that it 
 may be at least three feet below the bottom of the in- 
 tended canal. When the ditch is ready to receive the 
 compost of which the puddle is to be made, the loam 
 and sand, in the proportions above stated, should be 
 brought and thrown into the ditch, till its bottom is co- 
 vered to about 12 or 13 inches in depth; it is then to 
 be well covered with water, and it may stand so covered 
 a day or two, if no particular hurry be required in faci- 
 litating the work. If expedition be required, the pud- 
 dle-maker may commence his work immediately. The 
 workmen are generally provided with a good and strong 
 pair of water-proof boots ; so equipped, they stand in the 
 puddle- ditch. They are also supplied with a wooden 
 chopper, or beater : the chopper is usually made of 
 oak, with a rounded handle, and at its opposite end is 
 the chopper, which is nothing more than a shaft worked 
 away to an arris, and flat on its upper edge ; with such 
 an instrument they keep cutting and breaking the com- 
 post, at the same time treading it with their feet, till 
 they get the whole completely incorporated and reduced 
 to a tough and firm mass, and almost to a semi-fluid 
 state all through the ditch, and when so reduced, it is 
 left to precipitate itself, which is effected in 3 or 4 days: 
 and if, after having stood so long, it is found to have 
 become settled and firm, not to give way by treading on 
 it, it is deemed in a state to receive a second coat. 
 When this is put into the trench, and the water let in to 
 it, the workmen should endeavour, in breaking it up, 
 to strike their beaters quite through it, till they enter a 
 small way into the coat previously prepared ; in the 
 same Vvay a third coat is to be added, till the trench be- 
 comes full, and sufficiently high to reach the top-water 
 or summit-level of the canal, or even a few inches more. 
 When the puddling is so far advanced, the banks of the 
 
 canal 
 
296 
 
 ENGINEERING. 
 
 canal should be firmly made up, and the towing-path 
 formed to the proposed width intended, the puddle 
 should be covered by sods, and left for use ; after which 
 the banks of the puddle-ditch may be cleared away, and 
 the lining of the sides commenced. Their slope having 
 been previously determined on, three feet is generally 
 left to be supplied by the puddle lining. In cutting 
 down the slope, all extraneous matter should be care- 
 fully taken away, such as roots of trees and plants ; all 
 vermin holes should be well stopped and secured, and 
 indeed every thing which is thought at all likely to dis- 
 turb the coatiug about to be added ; and when ready, it 
 should be worked down quite straight by the excavator’s 
 spade, and rendered tight and sound. After so much is 
 done, the lining may be proceeded in, which consists in 
 spreading on a coat of the puddle, varying from 7 to 12 
 inches in thickuess, all through the canal line, which is 
 ready to receive it ; and when this coat is properly laid, 
 and to the satisfaction of the resident overseer, it should 
 be sprinkled with water, and remain till the following 
 day, when a second coat should be added, and so on, 
 till the coating has assumed the necessary and required 
 thickness; and when done, it should be neatly smoothed 
 down, and the water may be let into the canal. 
 
 It cannot be too much impressed upon all those who 
 may be concerned in canal works, the necessity of par- 
 ticularly attending to the puddle-lining. Leakage in a 
 canal is attended with so many embarrassing conse- 
 quences ; among them, loss of water is not the least, 
 dilapidations of the embankments, and perhaps their be- 
 ing wholly carried away; for when percolation takes 
 place, and that through made or artificial ground, its 
 solidity is of very short duration. Nevertheless, it is 
 but too often carelessly done ; and this circumstance has 
 led to an enormously extra expense, besides disgust in 
 the contiguous land-owners, who have found their 
 grounds constantly inundated by the leakage in the canal 
 passing contiguously to them. 
 
 A canal is said to be performed by level cutting when 
 the natural state of lands through which it has to pass 
 are tolerably level, and approaching to a good summit- 
 level to the next locks, both above and below it ; when 
 a line is to be cut through such grounds, nature is said 
 to favour the undertaking, and it is, perhaps, truly said, 
 for in Flanders and Holland the canals require no other 
 consideration than in performing them in this way, and 
 in them few locks are required, as a good summit-level 
 may be accomplished by embankments, which are there 
 called dikes. These, in countries like Holland, are of 
 great consequence, and are commonly made wide and 
 handsome, planted with rows of trees on their sides, and 
 sometimes even paved ; they are, in fact, the high roads 
 of communication between one part of the country and 
 another, and afford to the public the greatest accommo- 
 dation, in giving them a dry and commodious road 
 throughout the year, which could not otherwise be easi- 
 ly obtained in such swampy lands, which are more than 
 half the year overflown by the swelling of the Rhine, 
 and the consequent increase of water in the canals. 
 
 The Dutch have the credit of having invented the 
 compost, or puddling: it is true, their canals are all so 
 ! done, and indeed without it, in canals such as theirs, it 
 would be totally impracticable to prevent their leaking. 
 Their embankments, or dikes, are sometimes raised 12 
 feet, or higher, above the neighbouring land, and the 
 top-water level reaches w ithin two feet of the top of the 
 dike. The difficulty of keeping in the water, in such 
 high embankments, must be great, where nothing but 
 earth is applied for the purpose ; but the Dutch pud- 
 dle appears to make a complete barrier. The writer 
 of this article has examined the principal dikes in Hol- 
 land and the Low Countries, and he invariably found 
 they were coated with puddle, and in a similar manner 
 to the way described above for weak or infirm embank- 
 ments, except, perhaps, that they are more neatly done 
 than with us, and they use a kind of marly clay in the 
 compost, which is often rejected by our engineers. In- 
 deed, canal making, in Holland, is a system interwoven 
 with the nature of the country. It would be a com- 
 plete swamp if it were not for the canals : they perform 
 the double purpose of facilitating inland navigation, and 
 draining the country. 
 
 Plate I. Fig. 1, is the section of a canal, shewing it 
 under circumstances of level cutting. A A the line of 
 the contiguous ground, BB the artificial embankments, 
 CC the width of the cut at top, and DD at bottom. 
 The external slopes can be so formed as to be used for 
 the towing paths. With respect to the slopes CD, 
 they are determined upon the principles already stated 
 as prevailing among our best engineers for that purpose, 
 viz. for every foot in depth, giving an horizontal base of 
 one and a half foot ; and it follows from such received 
 data, that a canal 6 feet deep will require its sides to be 
 sloped 3 feet, and if it should be 18 feet wide at the 
 top water level, it would be 15 feet at the bottom: 
 hence may be deduced very useful proportions for ca- 
 nals of greater dimensions, in which may be combined 
 the practice found of utility in the smaller ones. 
 
 Canals are cut through so many variations in the 
 ground’s surface, that it would be impossible to antici- 
 pate them all : it is intended here, however, to notice 
 two other cuttings, which will, in some measure, allow 
 of great extension of application. When the ground 
 slopes down to the projected canal line, it is called side- 
 lying, and if a canal be forming through such ground, 
 the work is said to be doing in side-lying ground. 
 Plate I. Fig. 2, shews the section of a canal for 
 such cutting. AA the sloping line of the ground ; 
 BB the embankments to be raised ; CC the width of 
 the cut at top, and DD the width at bottom. It is of 
 some importance to so arrange the cutting, that the 
 ground excavated from the canal be equal to make up 
 the embankments on its sides : it is impossible that it 
 should be so in all cases, but a great expense may be 
 saved, if a calculation be made of it previously to set- 
 ting out the summit-level of the work, as then the re- 
 moval of the soil may be wheeled to the parts where it 
 is most required, which will prevent heaps collecting 
 
 about 
 
ENGINEERING. 
 
 297 
 
 about the works, which generates slovenliness, and 
 sometimes the greatest inconvenience. Deep cutting i 
 arises when the canal approaches a hill, or the side of ! 
 one which it is intended to pass by deep or open cutting, 
 rather than by tunnelling. Plate I. Fig. 3, represents j 
 the section of a canal by deep cutting ; AA, the in- j 
 dined ground to be passed, CC, width of canal at top, 
 and DD the width at bottom : the sets-off II, are ge- 
 nerally appropriated in such cuttings for the towing 
 paths, and are called by the navigators berms. They 
 are also found to be exceedingly useful as a provision to 
 prevent the loose ground which rolls down from the up- 
 per banks B and C from falling into the canal. It is in 
 cutting in such situations that the ability of the engineer 
 displays itself ; he has often to contend with all the dif- 
 ficulties ,of a bad stratification, in which, frequently, the 
 percolating waters become so great as to stop the pro- 
 ceedings. In such cases, pumps are had recourse to ; 
 but it sometimes happens, nevertheless, that he has no 
 place in which he can convey the superfluous water, or 
 if he has, he is not sure that it will not increase his dif- 
 ficulties, rather than remove them. To offer expedients 
 for such circumstances is impossible ; they must be met 
 by the experience and resources of mind of him to whom 
 the work is confided, and it will be well or ill per- 
 formed, in proportion as his experience and talent pre- 
 dominate. 
 
 Canals of great traffic must be furnished occasionally 
 in their course with passing places. They consist in 
 giving an increase of breadth to the water way of the 
 canal, so as to admit of boats resting by the way, with- 
 out incommoding the navigation ; every canal has them, 
 and the only precautions are, that they be made in as 
 convenient places as can be, to promote the convenience 
 of the traffic ; hollow and low places are generally se- 
 lected as the most eligible, and near to the locks and 
 basons if possible. By such places being formed, the 
 public derive accommodation, as it admits of a ready 
 transit of produce and industry to the inhabitants in its 
 neighbourhood. 
 
 Reservoirs to canals, in most cases, are indispensable, 
 in order to the keeping up a supply of water in its line ; 
 they are artificial collections, getting their water from 
 every source in their neighbourhood ; their size must be 
 regulated by the quantity of water they are intended to 
 contain, and that by the line of work w'hich it may be 
 intended' to supply. They should be placed in situa- 
 tions so as to contain an equable quantity throughout the 
 year, and so contiguous to the canal, as to admit of an 
 easy communication with it at all times. Wherever the 
 reservoir is to be constructed, all the variations of the 
 ground’s surface should be exactly noted down ; the na- 
 ture of the soil proved, in order to ascertain, if bad and 
 porous, where, and in what quantity, lining or puddling 
 may be required for it. The water flowing through all 
 springs, brooks, and rivulets, which it is determined to 
 divert, to supply the reservoir, should be exactly gauged, 
 and also the depth of the rains which usually fall. All 
 such particulars being ascertained, the excavation may be 
 
 commenced ; the same process is to be followed as has 
 been recommended for the same kind of work in canals. 
 The sloping of the banks is made rather more oblique 
 than is practised for canals, commonly to every foot in 
 depth an horizontal base of two feet, and if the excava- 
 tion be in a strong clay, the horizontal base is made as 
 much as three feet. The lining is performed in a simi- 
 lar manner to the way pointed out for such work in 
 canals. Every reservoir should be furnished with a 
 gauge, indicating exactly the quantity of water that it 
 can supply, &c.; if the gauge be a wooden post fixed in 
 the reservoir, it might be accurately divided, so as to 
 shew, by its divisions, the water lost by evaporation, or 
 taken for the canal ; and this gauge would exhibit at 
 once how the supply kept pace with the consumption. 
 In the event of an excess of water flowing into the re- 
 servoir, which circumstance should always be anticipated 
 in its construction, many plans have been suggested for 
 disposing of it ; the most usual way, however, of pro- 
 viding for a ready exit to such excess, is to form a weir 
 or weirs, sometimes called tumbling bays, frequently at 
 the corners, if the form of the reservoir be square ; if 
 round, or a compound figure, at such places as is best 
 adapted to its ready discharge. It will appear quite ob- 
 vious, that the size and number of the tumbling bays 
 must be regulated by the estimated quantity of water 
 they may be called upon to discharge, or the greatest 
 inconvenience may follow ; as in the event of their being 
 too small or too few in number, in great swells of the 
 springs arising from unusual rains, &c., the sides of the 
 reservoirs may be overflown, to the destruction of its 
 banks, and perhaps to the effect of blowing up and car- 
 rying away the canal works in its neighbourhood. The 
 construction of a tumbling bay consists in forming a ver- 
 tical syphon in the embankment of the reservoir, com- 
 posed of well-wrought masonry or brick, properly ce- 
 mented, to which an horizontal communication is 
 opened by the side of the embankment of the reservoir. 
 The whole workmanship should be done in the most 
 complete and perfect manner ; the bottom of the syphon 
 should enter a culvert constructed in a similar way, 
 which culvert or drain should be arched above and be- 
 low, and be built upon an easy descent, so as to pro- 
 mote an easy discharge of its contents. The culverts 
 are frequently carried under the bottom of the reservoir, 
 in which case it will be essential to keep them sufficient- 
 ly low to admit of the lining being thick enough to 
 secure its water-tight qualities. In cases in which ri- 
 vulets or other streams are diverted to the supply of the 
 reservoir, a somewhat different construction will be re- 
 quired, than when it is fed by springs ; this difference 
 principally consists in an alteration of the approach by 
 which the water is to enter ; such water is previously 
 collected into a branch, or, as it is termed, a feeder, 
 which is in fact a canal of smaller dimensions than the 
 principal one. This feeder is constructed so as to pro- 
 mote a current in its waters to the head of the reservoir, 
 which it enters by a weir or gates, the sides or piers of 
 which should be formed of masonry, built on a piled 
 4 G foundation, 
 
298 
 
 ENGINEERING. 
 
 foundation, in carrying up the work, which should be 
 of large stones well joined, and the walls battering back 
 from the line of their base, and somewhat curved in 
 their whole height. The tops should be coped with 
 broad slabs of granite or free-stone, dovetailed together, 
 or well cramped. The bottom of the weir should be : 
 formed by an inverted arch of masonry, well bedded in j 
 strong clay or puddle compost. The gates should be 
 made of strong oak, with lower and upper cills, framed 
 with rails and cross braces, fixed in the stone sides by 
 bars of iron. An iron upper rail should traverse the 
 top side of the whole. The gate or weir should be in 
 height a few inches above the summit-level of the reser- 
 voir, that the water from the feeder may flow over the 
 bar of iron attached to the upper cill. The reservoir 
 supplies the canal by means of a pipe of cast iron, or 
 other metal, or stone. This pipe is furnished with a 
 cock which works on an endless screw, and is so ad- 
 justed as to be easily turned by the overseer of the 
 reservoir. 
 
 Mr. Longbottom obtained a patent for the construc- 
 tion of reservoirs (see Repertory, vol. 4, p. 145), the 
 only novelty in which was, he depended for a supply 
 of water to the rains falling upon the earth’s surface, 
 which he proposes to collect together into one or more 
 reservoirs ; the words of the patent run thus : “ My 
 intention is calculated to supply cauals, ponds, sluices, 
 towns, or any other place wanting water, by making 
 reservoirs upon high and moorish ground, or any other 
 suitable place which are to be supplied in manner fol- 
 lowing.” He adds farther, that “ he found that in 
 twelve months there falls upon a superficial foot of 
 land 3. 33 cubical feet of rain-water, exclusive of ex- 
 halation, so that upon a statute acre there falls to the 
 amount of 145,054. 80, or thereabouts again, he 
 says, “ I can convey water falling upon 3,500 acres 
 into reservoirs for instance, “ I make a reservoir of 
 100 statute acres in the most eligible situation, from 
 which open drains, or sluices, are made in the most 
 proper places for receiving water running from the 
 surface of the grounds in rainy weather, which, ac- 
 cording to calculation, will be nearly equal to 5,076 
 cubit feet per acre, or 91,800 cubic feet per annum, 
 brought into the reservoir, except in loss by soakage ; 
 this may be done without any prejudice to rivers or 
 mills. The area of a reservoir of 100 statute acres is 
 4,356,000 superficial feet, and the average depth 9- 75 ; 
 the parts are not included, so that 4,356,000, the area 
 by 9, gives 39,204,000, as contained in the reservoir of 
 reserved water.” For conducting such water into the 
 canal or sluice, he says, “ I make two aqueducts of 
 stone or brick for conveying the water out of the re- 
 servoir, from the bottom when the water falls per- 
 pendicular from its surface into the space of a large 
 circle of stone work, with which the openings of the 
 aqueducts communicate ; in each of these I fix a paddle 
 or dough equal to an opening of 15 inches by 12 
 inches, which is raised by a screw fixed to it, and 
 moving upright in a piece of iron fixed across at the 
 
 upper part of it : upon it is a square box including a 
 female screw, in which the other moves, which is 
 turned round by four small hand levers fixed to the 
 square box, and which rests upon a small iron bar, 
 which raises the screw and also the paddle, to the fol- 
 ! lowing heights, viz. : with an opening of 3 inches by 
 j 12 inches may be delivered 3 17,952 cubic feet of water 
 ! in 24 hours ; with one of 6 inches by 12 inches, 630,730 
 ! feet ; with one 9 inches by 12 inches, 927,936 feet ; 
 with one 12 inches by 12 inches, 1,222,560 feet; and 
 one 12 inches by 15 inches, 1,512,000 feet, or a less, 
 or a greater quantity, in proportion to the opening and 
 velocity. The quantity of water required to be let out 
 of the reservoir may be regularly ascertained, by fixing 
 at the head of the screw a pointer, and an index above 
 it accurately divided into inches and parts ; and as the 
 paddle is raised by the screw fixed to it, the pointer at 
 the end sliding upon the index will shew the quantity of 
 water discharged upon every division of it as set forth ; 
 as at 3 inches in height, 317,952 ; at 6 inches, 630,730; 
 at 9 inches, 927,936 ; and so in proportion to all the 
 several proposed elevations.” This specification con- 
 cludes with directions for forming smaller reservoirs, 
 in which many ingenious suggestions are developed. 
 The reservoirs here treated of have been considered as 
 formed by embankments, which, in porous soils, have 
 been recommended to be lined with puddling : in some, 
 however, such embankments will not answer the pur- 
 pose, in such cases the whole must be walled with 
 brick or masonry ; and if of the former, the greatest 
 care should be taken that they be well laid, and of great 
 substance, with puddle linings behind them ; the ce- 
 ment should be of fresh stone lime (and if ground in- 
 stead of slaked with water the better,) mixed with sharp 
 sand, and the mortar prepared for use only as wanted. 
 The walls should batter back in their height with a 
 small curvature outside, diminishing in thickness as they 
 ascend, and finish finally at the top to two bricks and a 
 half. — The whole should be coped with granite, with 
 the meetings fastened by dovetails. If it be determined 
 to form the walls in masonry, which, in some situations, 
 may be eligible from the abundance of stone at hand, 
 the same plan in the form of the wall should be had 
 recourse to ; and also, in previously lining the embank- 
 ments, the ashlerings should be in as large pieces as 
 may be conveniently obtained, and all venty or bad 
 stones rejected. — The joinings should be as close as 
 possible, with very little cement between them : the 
 whole should be coped, as is directed before, for walls 
 of bricks. Most of our canals are supplied by re- 
 servoirs somewhere in their course, so that an en- 
 gineer can scarcely anticipate a work of canal making 
 without feeling that he may be called upon to exert his 
 talents to the forming of a reservoir. The principal 
 reservoirs that have been already formed to canals are, 
 
 ! one at Ripley for the Cromford Canal ; another at 
 \ Milstone for the Grand Junction ; also, at Ainsworth 
 I for the Nottingham; at Marsden for the Huddersfield; 
 i at Littleborough on the Leicestershire Canal. The 
 
 Rudyerd 
 
ENGINEERING. 
 
 299 
 
 Rudyerd Vale supplies the branch of the Caldon and 
 Mersey, and occupies upwards of ISO acres, and is 
 more than 30 feet high. The St. Ferriol reservoir to 
 the canal of Languedoc occupies a space of 590 acres : 
 the walls of which are covered by ashlerings of freestone. 
 
 Locks, or pound locks, in the consideration of which 
 many important circumstances^ develope themselves in 
 the work of a canal, are the barriers by which the 
 water is kept to its summit- level ; in the several reaches 
 on its line, they also operate as toll bars for collecting 
 the tolls payable on navigating it : they are placed as 
 frequently on the line of the canal as the several levels 
 require them, and make a kind of step in the line 
 throughout its course. They have been the great desi- 
 deratum in canal-making among the moderns, as by the 
 making of which, waters have been pent up in the 
 reaches between them, supplying the means of na- 
 vigation through high and low lands, from one part of 
 the kingdom to another. In setting out a lock, care 
 ought to be taken to get their falls as equal as possible, 
 and this can only be done by the previous care taken 
 in adjusting the summit-level of the canal. The lock 
 comprises of itself a chamber and two pair of gates ; 
 the former is made of length and width adequate to 
 admit one or more boats at a time either in ascending 
 or descending the canal ; this is effected by letting the 
 water out of the chamber ; if it be ascending, by open- 
 ing the lower gates : but it is not usual to keep the 
 lower gates of a lock shut, so that a boat or boats 
 coming up the canal can be immediately towed into the 
 lock, which, when in this state, is said to be empty, 
 although it contains as much water at least as is in the 
 lower reach of the canal ; when boats have thus entered 
 the lock, the lower gates are loosened, and the paddles 
 of the upper gates are gradually raised, which admit 
 the water to rush into the chamber of the lock : the 
 velocity of the stream soon closes completely the lower 
 doors ; and when they are shut, the upper gates are 
 regularly opened till the water has completely filled the 
 lock, which it does in a very short time, and becomes 
 at rest between the lower gates and the upper reach of 
 the canal. The tolls being paid to the overseer of the 
 locks, the boats are towed out, and if no others are 
 waiting to descend the canal, the low'er gates are open- 
 ed and the upper ones are again closed, when the lock 
 empties itself and regains its former state. It will be 
 perceived, that the upper line of the canal will lose its 
 waters in proportion to the working of the locks, hence 
 it becomes desirable to make them as small as possible; 
 and it is also of importance that they should be of the 
 same size throughout the line of the canal, that the loss 
 at each lock may be equal, in which case the supply to 
 be anticipated may be correctly ascertained. In the 
 approaches to all locks, both above and below them, 
 there should be made resting places, provided with 
 oaken piles driven down close to the embankments, 
 which they may be made to support, with their upper 
 ends crossed by strong whaling boards of oak, bolted 
 with iron bolts to the heads of the piles. If the whaling 
 
 i boards have large iron rings fixed in them, the barge- 
 men will have the advantage of fastening their barge to 
 them during the time they may have to wait for passing 
 the lock. Twenty-five-ton boats, according to Mr. 
 Fulton, consume in ascending a lock of 8 feet rise, 
 163 tons of water, and in descending the same, 103 
 tons ; now, if such a data be correct, it would enable 
 an engineer to make very accurate calculations of the 
 loss in water in all his several locks upon the proposed 
 line of the canal : that more water Should be lost by 
 ascending a lock than in descending, appears probable, 
 although the same space requires filling in both cases ; 
 but it does not appear so obvious, how so great a dif- 
 ference as 60 tons can take place ; but this could be 
 settled by a reference to the draft of the boat employed, 
 knowing that it displaces as much water as its cubical 
 contents, if it be laden adequately : these are all inves- 
 tigations pressing on the consideration of the engineer. 
 Plate 1, Fig. 4, is the ground plan of a lock, 
 A, A, A, A ; strong piers of masonry or brickwork 
 bonded into the wing walls, F, F, F, F ; B the cham- 
 ber of the lock ; C C the gates ; D D the side walls 
 of the chamber ; E E the vertical syphons to take off 
 the superfluous water from the head of the lock. The 
 building of a lock requires the utmost attention in all 
 its constructive parts ; when the form is traced out, 
 and the top soil removed, the grounds should be proved 
 io ascertain its nature, and if soft ana porous the foun- 
 dations should be piled all through, the tops of the 
 piling should be regularly sawn down and planked with 
 oak of not less than 3 inches in thickness, which plank- 
 ing will form the platform on which the walls are to 
 stand : in forming the foundation wall, some attention 
 must be had to the inverted arch, which composes the 
 flooring of the chamber of the lock. See Section, 
 Plate 1, Fig. 5. The inverted arch, K, should be 
 formed of hewn stone of small curvature ; its thickness 
 in the centre about two-thirds of that of its spring ; the 
 joints of the voissoirs are also all traced from the centre 
 of curvature of the arch, and also the springing line ; 
 the bottom of the arch should lay upon a good lining of 
 | puddle, and the joints of the stones should be well 
 cemented so as to be water-tight ; the abutments, or 
 bottom of the side-walls of the chamber, should be of 
 twice the thickness to what they are above, and should 
 rack-back in ascending; linings of puddle will be ju- 
 diciously employed in covering the earth of the em- 
 bankment behind the chamber walls. Lock walls are 
 usually parallel to each other, and the lock varying in 
 width from 14 to 18 feet, and in length from 70 to 90 
 feet. The plan, ( Plate 1, Fig. 4,) is conformable to 
 this proportion : the side walls of the chamber batter- 
 back as they approach the coping at their tops, about 
 6 inches from their perpendicular ; and if they were 
 made to have a slight curvature in their height, they 
 would be much stronger for it. In building the piers, 
 as shewn in the plan at A, it is necessary to observe, 
 that they should be out of large blocks neatly worked and 
 hollowed out to admit of the gates working in them. The 
 
300 
 
 ENGINEERING. 
 
 wing walls should be raised in a similar way to the 
 walls of the lock, except that no provision is required 
 in them to receive an inverted arch, as the approach or 
 breast of the lock requires no such protection. Aper- 
 tures should be made through the side walls of the 
 wings to admit of the superfluous water entering the 
 culvert through the syphon, as seen in the plan at E, 
 and in the section by the dotted lines ; and if the culvert 
 be bent 'in its course, this water, if it be required, may 
 be made to enter the chamber of the lock, a circum- 
 stance of some importance when there is a scarcity of 
 water. When the lock is so far formed, and its sy- 
 phons and culverts made, the lock cills should be put 
 down ; they consist in forcing into the ground at the 
 two ends of the bottom of the chamber of the lock, a 
 row of narrow piles extending from one side to the 
 other : they should be driven as close together as pos- 
 sible, and when so driven, they will form a chain across 
 the two ends of the lock : in this state their tops should 
 be sawn off" quite level and smooth, and a sheeting, as 
 it is called, of good oak or cast iron should be bolted 
 on them with iron bolts, to form the lock cill for the 
 gates to move upon, and also to protect the approaches 
 to the lock. In the wing walls there should be in- 
 serted in their progress some large blocks of stone, 
 projecting somewhat from the face of the ashlering of 
 the wall, and called bumping stones for the boats to 
 strike against as they enter the approaches to the lock. 
 The lock walls and those of 'the wings should be coped 
 with granite, firmly fixed and cramped. The gates 
 C C are made in two parts, and form at their meeting 
 an obtuse angle ; they move in the hollow quoin stones, 
 and by means of iron joggles fitted into sockets, 
 which should be let into the hollow quoin stones of the 
 piers A. Plate 1 , Fig. 5, is the section of the lock ; 
 G G the granite coping ; H H the top of the sloping 
 side walls ; I I the base of the sloping wall ; K the in- 
 verted arch at the bottom of the lock ; L L the syphons 
 of masonry or cast-iron, worked up in the wing walls at 
 the head of the lock to carry off the overflowing water; 
 M M the culvert or drain ; N a cesspool to receive any 
 matter carried by the water through the culvert, to pre- 
 vent its overflowing or stopping up ; O O the horizon- 
 tal apertures in the wing walls communicating with the 
 syphons L L. These apertures should be made a few 
 inches below the top-water level, and if formed in 
 stone composed of a large block perforated quite 
 through, and the size of the opening regulated by the 
 quantity of water to be discharged, but they might be 
 formed of ca^-t iron with the best success. It will be 
 unnecessary to add, that all the work of a lock requires 
 the materials and workmanship of the very best quality, 
 and the engineer will more develope his constructive 
 talent in adjusting its form and the mode of putting the 
 materials of which it is to be formed together, than he 
 can in any other of the arrangements arising out of the 
 works connected with canal construction. Plate I, 
 Fig. 6, is a pair of lock gates : they are shewn to a 
 larger scale than the plan or section of the lock which 
 
 accompanies them, in order to exhibit the mode of 
 their framing more obviously. They should be made 
 of good seasoned oak, free from vents or sap, and are 
 composed of several pieces known by the following de- 
 signations: P P the balance beams, Q Q Q Q the 
 rails, R R R R the vertical styles, S S S S the braces, 
 T T the paddle holes, and they are finally covered by 
 oak planking grooved into the "bottom rail and the ba- 
 lance beam at top, the joints of which are also rebated, 
 or grooved and tongued In some lock gates the board- 
 ing is fitted in diagonally, in which case the braces ' 
 may be dispensed with ; but greater strength can be 
 accomplished by framing them as shewn in Fig. 6, and 
 there will be also a saving of wood. The scantling of 
 the timber in the lock gates may be varied to meet the 
 pressure they may have to sustain, but it will be indis- 
 creet to attempt making them too light. The rails 
 Q Q Q Q should not be less for ordinary purposes than 
 10 inches in depth and six and a half inches in thickness, 
 and this would be a very good scantling for the stiles 
 R R R R ; and supposing the planking to be two 
 inches and a half, the cross braces S S S S would be 
 properly proportioned to be left seven inches on the 
 face by four inches in thickness. The balance beam, 
 which also forms the top rail of the gates may be made 
 somewhat larger in scantling than the lower framing, 
 and the stiles might be framed into it. If this beam 
 was made at its smallest end eight inches square, and at 
 its opposite end ten inches and a half, it would act as a 
 good balance to the gates, and give to them great 
 strength. The boarding should be flush on the upper 
 side, and well spiked to the middle rail and also the 
 braces. The projecting edges on the inside of the gates 
 of the rails and braces should be splayed downwards in 
 order to the water running quickly off them, and the 
 balance beam should be weathered on its top edge. 
 The iron work to the gates consists merely of its hinges, 
 the socket of which are previously inserted in the stone 
 quoins of the wing walls. In fixing the iron work it 
 should be made to lap quite over the outside stiles and 
 be bolted with iron bolts, with nuts, and screws. 
 Sometimes the bottom of the gates are shod by plates 
 of cast iron, and these plates are also continued up the 
 centre stiles, and it must add great additional strength 
 to the framing. Some have recommended the giving 
 to the external form of lock gates a small degree of cur- 
 vature, supposing, no doubt, that by such curvature 
 they would give additional strength to the gates ; but 
 the momentum of form would be more than surpassed 
 by the loss of strength in the materials, as by cutting 
 wood purposely circular so crosses its grain as to leave 
 it with very little strength at its joining, besides a dou- 
 ble expense in the actual cost of the gates themselves. 
 It has been deemed proper to notice this circumstance 
 to prevent theoretical engineers from disappointing 
 themselves in the application of curvatures to wooden 
 framings in which strength is sought ; for it will lose 
 strength by such curvature in 'a ratio of greater propor- 
 tion than it can possibly gain it, which will be easily 
 
 discovered 
 
ENGINEERING. 
 
 301 
 
 discovered by an inspection of the state of the fibre in 
 circular wood framing. 
 
 The paddle holes T T are small openings left in each 
 gate, generally about twenty inches square, and to 
 which a small door is fitted ; they are found of the 
 greatest utility in preventing a too sudden swell in filling 
 the chamber of the lock, aud also in removing a portion 
 of the pressure of the water from the gates when they 
 are required to be opened in letting a boat descend the 
 canal. They are so adjusted to the boarding of the 
 gates that they can be easily raised or lowered by the 
 overseer of the locks. This is done by supplying a 
 guard bar to the top of the gate, which is operated 
 upon by a rack and pinion, that has the effect of 
 lowering or raising the paddle doors at pleasure. 
 Amidst the considerations arising out of the detail of a 
 lock, it will be eligible to notice that in long lines, and 
 on which there is great traffic, sometimes there arises 
 too great a scarcity of water to supply the upper 
 reaches, in consequence of which many expedients have 
 been recommended, and some have been had recourse 
 to, to avoid the inconvenience. On the Grand Junction 
 Canal, reservoirs have been made to collect the waste 
 water of the lockage, to which a steam engine has been 
 erected, which pumps the water after having emptied 
 itself into the reservoir, back again into that part of the 
 canal from which it has been lost. And there has been 
 also another expedient recommended to remove the same 
 inconvenience, under the designation of side ponds. A side 
 pond or ponds consist in forming on the right and left 
 of the chamber of the lock a number of projecting cis- 
 terns, varied gradually in their elevation, beginning a 
 small distance from the bottom. at the lower end of the 
 lock, and stepping up to the upper end or head of the 
 lock, provided with paddle doors. These cisterns, in 
 capacity, are made so as to contain all the water, or 
 nearly so, that passes the upper gates on a boat or boats 
 ascending or descending the lock. When the chamber 
 of the lock is full the highest paddle doors are opened, 
 and the water empties itself into the cisterns right and 
 left, and so on till all the cisterns are full, observing to 
 shut the doors of the cisterns as the w ater retires in the 
 lock ; and this is done till the chamber of the lock is 
 so emptied as to allow of its lower gates being opened. 
 When the boat ascends or descends the canal, it w'ill be 
 seen by this plan that very little waste or consumption of 
 water by lockage can accrue, except that which must ne- 
 cessarily be so by allowing a sufficient quantity in the bot- 
 tom of the lock to keep the boat afloat and level with the 
 lower level of the w'ater of the canal. Mr. Play fair, an 
 architect who gave rise to this invention, obtained a pa- 
 tent for it in July 1791 ; the specification of w hich may 
 be seen in the Repertory, vol. 3. p. 303. In the pa- 
 tent the application is supposed to be employed under 
 the following circumstances, for example : “ a lock is 
 supposed to be constructed twelve feet deep, sixty feet 
 long, and six feet wide,” and it is calculated that the 
 quantity of water required to fill such a lock to enable 
 it to pass a boat is 4,320 cubic feet, and in ascertaining 
 what water may be necessary for supplying the canal, 
 
 J allowing for waste by evaporation and soakage, it is 
 | found (according to the number of boats that may be 
 expected to pass) that there will not be above 800 cubic 
 ! feet for each ; and hence, it is added, it will be neces- 
 sary to save five-sixths of the whole ; to do which ten 
 cisterns are directed to be made, each of which must 
 ! be one foot deep, and each have a surface of 360 feet 
 superficial. The aperture or entrance to the low'est 
 cistern must be one foot above the level of the w ater in 
 the lower part of the canal, and eleven feet under the 
 level of the high water ; the second cistern two feet 
 above the level of low water, and the third three 
 feet, and so on. 
 
 It has been deemed desirable to quote so much 
 { of Mr. Playfair’s specification to illustrate the applica- 
 tion of side ponds, and it cannot fail of producing a 
 conviction of their great utility to canal locks, when- 
 ever there is reason to anticipate a want of water, as 
 generally the greatest source of its loss is by the lock- 
 age. By the application of side ponds, this inconve- 
 nience may be in a great measure superceded, and at 
 no great additional expense to the w'orks. 
 
 Basons . — These are formed in all towns to which the 
 canal has a communication, in order to make a com- 
 modious place for the boats to unload their cargoes and 
 to take in fresh ones. Their size varies according to 
 the importance of the town, or to the trade carried 
 on at it. Surrounding the basons, a spacious area of 
 ground should be gotten to admit of warehouses, cranes, 
 toll-houses, and other stowage for goods, being built, 
 with adequate space for all the vehicles employed 
 in the trade to receive a ready transit and exit in 
 their business about the bason. Convenient approaches 
 should be formed to the wharfs for carts, and also 
 roads with the shortest and readiest way of their de- 
 parting when laden or unladen. The toll-house should 
 be placed near the principal entrance to the bason, 
 and should consist of two or more rooms for the 
 keeper, with an office and weighing bridge. In the 
 office should be written in legible characters the dif- 
 ferent tonnage and other charges to be collected, by the 
 keeper, of the persons who trade on or about the bason 
 of the canal. The construction of a bason consists in 
 forming a chamber or head, sufficiently capacious to 
 admit of boats resting in it, with room to unload and 
 retire. The size, as before observed, must be com- 
 mensurate to the number of boats expected at the bason. 
 The embankments should be quite level with the w'harfs, 
 on contiguous ground, and about one foot higher than 
 top w-ater level. The termination of the bason is gene- 
 rally made to form a bow or semi-circle on the plan. 
 All the embankments are faced by walls of masonry or 
 brick, and the tops should be coped with large blocks 
 of granite. In raising the facings to a bason, the same 
 precautions should be had recourse to which have been 
 previously recommended in the construction of the 
 chamber of a lock ; for instance, if a soft and porous 
 soil, piling must be employed in the foundations, with 
 a covering of oaken plank, and the earth embankment 
 must be covered with a puddle lining previously to 
 4 H raising 
 
302 
 
 ENGINEERING. 
 
 raising the walls of the facing. The walls should be of j 
 great thickness at the bottom, racking back on their 
 outsides and battering over on their insides ; and their 
 slope will require to be in proportion and parallel to 
 the canal embankment, in order to the general surface 
 of the lines approximating together. In carrying up 
 the facing walls, nevertheless, a few niches of curvature 
 to produce a swell internally in their height would add 
 greatly to their strength in resisting pressure. A bason 
 must also be provided with a weir, syphon, or waste gate, 
 in order to discharge the water constantly flowing into 
 it from the tipper reaches of the canal by waste of 
 lockage, &c. If it be determined to discharge this 
 water by a weir or syphon, (perhaps more than one 
 may be necessary), culverts should be made to receive 
 the water and discharge it at the most convenient places ; 
 these culverts require executing in the most substantial 
 manner to prevent their blowing up by the weight of 
 water they may be called on to discharge. They should 
 have also some cess-pools in their course to receive any 
 solid or other matter floated into them through the 
 weir or syphon. Some basons are released from over- 
 flowing by a waste gate ; this is the case with the 
 bason to the Oxford canal at Oxford. This bason is 
 so near the river Isis as to admit of an easy commu- 
 nication with it ; and availing itself of this circumstance, 
 the bank between them has been pierced through, and 
 the embankment at the piercing right and left has been 
 faced by masonry, ( See Plate 1 . Fig. 7.) From the waste 
 gate V V, the walls right and left are splayed off at the 
 embankments of the canal approaching the bason, and 
 turned circular at their opposite ends, a rebate is left 
 in the masonry for the gates to hang in at W W. The 
 tops of the walls are coped with strong freestone, and 
 the gates X are of oak, but without paddles. Return- 
 ing again to the bason, it will be necessary to ob- 
 serve that guard rails are found necessary to be fixed 
 against their walls to prevent the boats from striking 
 against them. The guard rails consist of a series of 
 strong oaken piles driven down into the bed or bottom 
 of the bason, slanting to the side of it at intervals of 
 about ten feet ; and on their facing near their tops are 
 broad planks or rails of oak strongly bolted to them 
 with iron bolts. These generally form a continued 
 chain, traversing the whole facing or embankment of 
 the bason. Iron rings are fixed into the rails or piles 
 at convenient intervals, for the purpose of allowing the 
 bargemen to lash their boats to, while taking out their 
 cargoes. In some cases large stones are worked in the 
 walls for this purpose, and called bumping stones, to 
 which rings may be fixed for the lashing to of the boats. 
 
 It will be necessary in this place to notice the several 
 contrivances had recourse to for supporting the water 
 in a canal, against accidents to its embankments, and 
 other unforeseen events arising out of the imperfection 
 of the means employed for such purpose. Safety gates 
 are among the expedients made use of in such a di- 
 lemma ; they are a contrivance for stopping the water 
 in a long line of a canal when there is danger of the 
 
 embankments giving way. Plate 1. Fig. 8, sheweth 
 the plan of a safety gate or gates, P P the walls of ma- 
 sonry or brickwork built in each opposite bank of the 
 canal, R R R R piers of masonry to strengthen their 
 extreme ends, E E small projections worked up to stop 
 and hinge the gate to ; K, sinkings in the wall to admit 
 of the gate laying in flush with the wall ; D, the safety- 
 gate. The plan is shewm with two gates, one for the 
 purpose of supporting the w'ater in the upper, and one 
 also for the lower reach of the canal; and these can be 
 shut as required by the repairs to be done, whether up or 
 down the canal. These gates move upon the same 
 principles as lock-gates, and require a similar contriv- 
 ance, excepting that they are commonly in a single gate 
 only. The walls of the safety-gate should be b.uilt on 
 piled foundations of adequate substance at bottom, 
 racking back outside, and battering inside, with a slight 
 curvature ; they should also be coped at their tops. 
 The gates should be of good sound oaken w ood, and 
 prepared in a similar manner to lock-gates. (See Plate 
 I. Fig. 6.) Advantage is sometimes taken, for the 
 purpose of economy, of forming the safety-gates in the 
 pier walls about the bridges, if bridges of masonry hap- 
 pen in eligible places for the purpose. They are of the 
 greatest utility on a canal, and claim particular attention 
 in arranging the most eligible site for their erection ; 
 and their mode of building should be of the most sub- 
 stantial kind. They are indispensable in long levels, to 
 protract dilapidation, where the cuttings are much em- 
 banked. 
 
 There is also a contrivance of a similar nature called 
 stop-gates, the construction of which does not differ 
 materially from the safety-gate, except in its being made 
 to lie flat at the bottom of the canal, instead of being 
 balanced above, as is the case with safety-gates. 
 The mode .of raising the stop-gate is by a chain, which 
 is fixed to the gate under water, and when it is required 
 to be raised, the chain is used for that purpose. Stop- 
 planks are also often employed on canals for stopping 
 water ; they are a very simple contrivance, and consist 
 in previously working up walls in the tw’O. opposite 
 banks, formed with a groove or chase, into which the 
 stop-planks are forced, and pressed down to the bottom 
 of the canal. These answer the purpose effectually on 
 narrow canals. Stop-bars are another contrivance, si- 
 milar in manner to stop-planks, the w alls for which are 
 grooved to receive the bar. These are used as toll- 
 bars, at the toll-offices on the canal line, and are to be 
 so contrived, as to be opened and shut by the overseers 
 attending at the toll-houses. They may be esteemed the 
 turnpike-gates of a canal. 
 
 Aqueducts are frequently employed on a canal, for 
 the purpose of extending it over rivers, and between tw'o 
 opposite ridges of high land. For this latter purpose, 
 they were often erected by the Romans, to convey wa- 
 ter for their baths and fountains, as the ruins of many of 
 which still in existence fully demonstrate; but' the Ro- 
 man aqueducts were never intended for any other pur- 
 pose than to convey water for the people’s use ; hence 
 
ENGINEERING. 
 
 303 
 
 they were confined in their dimensions, and were little 
 more than long narrow walls, with a void through them 
 as a passage for the water. The aqueduct at Chapanost 
 near Lyons, is raised upon arches of masonry, on the 
 fops of which is a narrow channel for the water, arched 
 over at top, the size of which is 6 feet high and 3 feet 
 w ide, lined in the inside with a lining of strong cement 
 about 6 inches in thickness, which is quite perfect even 
 at this time. There is another at Montpelier, which 
 passes the river De Baunon, and across the valley, of 
 a similar construction. Louis le Grand ordered an 
 aqueduct, which is built after the same manner, and 
 which conveys the water to Versailles. They are also 
 numerous in every part of Italy, and wherever else the 
 Romans extended their power ; but since the discovery 
 of Galileo, w hich demonstrated the important: effects of 
 the weight and pressure of the atmosphere, aqueducts 
 in the Roman manner have become useless ; as his dis- 
 coveries shewed that water would not. only elevate itself 
 to the syphon line, but might be raised to about 34 feet 
 above that line, by the means only of the atmospheric 
 pressure. Plate II. Fig. 1 , is the plan of a design of 
 an aqueduct bridge to cross a navigable river, supposed 
 of 300 feet w’ide. A A the piers, BB the w'ing piers 
 and walls, CCC the water way ; the longitudinal dotted 
 lines shew' the course of the aqueduct in the superstruc- 
 ture. Fig. 2, is the elevation : 1 1 has been deemed eli- 
 gible to shew a bridge of this description, with some 
 reference to architectural design, which is too often neg- 
 lected, when the expense would not be increased by 
 attending to it, as whether a stone or brick is placed in 
 one way or another, there can be no difference in its 
 expense by such placing, but in this placing arises all 
 the difference between the artist and the artisan. Fig. 3 
 is the cross section of the bridge ; C the spring of the 
 centre arch, shewing the splaying sides and its intrados : 
 H the solid masonry above the springing line ; DD the 
 embankments and towing path to the aqueduct ; EE the 
 width of the water way at top, FF the wudth of the wa- 
 ter way at bottom. The rounded parapets II are pro- 
 posed to be raised above the towing path right and left, 
 as a protection to the passengers moving on the sides of 
 the aqueduct. The construction of an aqueduct bridge 
 requires all the talents necessary to be displayed in the 
 erecting of other bridges, w ith the additional skill of 
 giving to the road way W'ater-tight qualities. The piers 
 of a bridge of this description should stand on piled 
 foundations, in order to give them the greatest firmness, 
 and the usual process of erecting pieces of masonry in 
 water should be follow'ed. Caissons, or water-tight 
 boxes, should be made to raise the piers in, until they 
 are built above the top water level ; the abutment piers 
 should be formed behind a coffer-dam, and the whole 
 of these parts of the substructure should be raised to a 
 similar height previously to raising the centering on 
 which the arch is to be built. (For a particular de- 
 scription of the caisson, coffer-dam, and other details 
 connected with bridge building, see the article Masonry.) 
 
 Stone is the eligible material for building aqueducts, 
 
 inasmuch as a greater firmness will result to the parts, 
 and without a firmness and equilibration in it, the aque- 
 duct will be subject to leakage and dilapidation. The 
 embankments at the two opposite ends or wings should 
 turn somewhat outwards, to allow of more easy ap- 
 proach, as is common in most bridges. The sides or 
 banks of the aqueduct,, crossing the bridge, should be 
 formed of solid masonry or brick- work, and of good sub- 
 stance, battered over as they approach their tops, and 
 somewhat curved, which will add to their strength and 
 solidity. The edges of the wall should be coped, and 
 the banks or towing paths paved. The lining of the 
 aqueduct should be conducted in a similar manner to 
 puddling, excepting only it should not be common lining 
 of that nature. Parker’s cement makes an excellent 
 lining, and is perfectly water-tight : this might be laid 
 on the masonry to a consistence of about an inch in 
 thickness, smoothly spread, to the face of which a coat- 
 ing of common puddling might be applied, which toge- 
 ther would be a secure protection against leakage. 
 
 The multiplication of canals in every part of the 
 country, with the experience arising out of it, has pro- 
 duced a new application to buildings for this purpose; 
 for there has now been erected, to the Shrewsbury ca- 
 nal, an aqueduct composed almost wholly of cast-iron, and 
 which may be considered as the first of the kind ever 
 formed. In the Rev. Mr. Plymley’s report of the agri- 
 culture of Shropshire, is the following account of it, in 
 which he says : “ The canal passes the valley of Tern 
 at Long, for a distance of 62 yards, upon an aqueduct 
 made of cast iron, excepting only the nuts and screws, 
 which are of wrought iron ; and I believe this to be the 
 first aqueduct for the purposes of a navigable canal 
 which has ever been composed of this metal. It has 
 completely answered the intention, although it was fore- 
 told that the different degrees of heat and cold would be 
 such as to cause expansion and contraction,” from which 
 it was concluded to be improper for this purpose. It 
 is necessary only to observe, that the objections to iron 
 were founded in fact, as all metals are more or less in- 
 fluenced in their form by different degrees of tempera- 
 ture ; and it was extremely probable, in the situation of 
 an aqueduct, which is exposed so much to the vicissi- 
 tudes of heat, cold, and oxidation, that it might turn 
 out to be improper for that purpose. Time can only 
 be the test of the propriety of establishing aqueducts of 
 cast iron. Nevertheless, there are several at this time 
 erecting, but in some of these there is a greater com- 
 bination of stone, and also of wood, than has been em- 
 ployed in the one at the valfey of Tern. Mr. Fulton, 
 in his treatise on canal navigation, proposes that the 
 “ buttments and piers should be raised of stone, after 
 which it will be necessary to extend pieces of timber 
 across the span, and each to be traced back and covered 
 with planks, to form a stage or scaffolding : on this is 
 fixed the iron-work of the aqueduct, which maybe all cast 
 in open sand, and of the following dimensions ; for in- 
 stance, the span 100 feet, and the versed sign of the 
 arch l-6th of the span ; then three segments of a circle, 
 
 each 
 
304 
 
 ENGINEERING. 
 
 each in three pieces, about 36 feet long, 8 inches by 4 | 
 inches diameter, and to be united ; then three straight 
 bars to extend from one pier to another, to be of the i 
 above diameter, may also be cast in three pieces, and 
 which bars are to extend along the tops of the segments | 
 to' the piers, and form a line parallel to the horizon, j 
 The bars and segments to be united by perpendicular 
 stirrups, 10 or 15 feet distant from each other. The 1 
 mortise in the lower end of the stirrup being 13 inches 
 long, will be sufficient to secure the segment, and leave 
 room for a hole two inches square, through which a 
 cross brace is to pass and fasten the segment at proper 
 distances. The brace to have a mortise cast on each 
 side of the stirrup, in order to allow of tightening the 
 work by wedges. The trough plates should be at least 
 one inch thick ; the side plates 6 feet wide, and as long 
 as can conveniently be cast, which may be 12 feet, and j 
 perhaps more, the flange to be made outside of these 
 plates. The bottom plates may be 6 feet wide and 13 
 feet long, and in order to support the horse path, two 
 of these plates laid across the stage and screwed toge- 
 ther, with a flange under them, will compose a length 
 equal to one of the side plates. The whole may in this 
 manner be screwed together on packings of wool and 
 tar, and the seams pitched. On the plates composing 
 one side of the trough, brackets about 3 feet from the 
 top must be cast and fixed, in order to support the 
 horse-path : perpendicular rails, 8 feet long, being raised 
 from the arms of the bottom plates will support the out- 
 side of the horse-path. It is added, that by pursuing 
 this method of forming an aqueduct of cast iron, very 
 few patterns will be required ; two will be sufficient for 
 the trough-plates, and but few will be required for the 
 springs, rails, and spurs.” 
 
 Mr. Jessop is performing a most stupendous work of 
 this kind on the Ellesmere canal, for crossing the Dee 
 river, in which are employed 19 ponderous pillars of 
 stone, at 52 feet distance from each other, the centre 
 one of which is 126 feet high. On the tops of these 
 pillars are supported a number of elliptical cast-iron ribs, 
 which by means of uprights and horizontal bars, support 
 an aqueduct of cast iron 329 yards long, 20 feet wide, 
 and 6 feet deep, formed of massy sheets of cast iron ce- 
 mented and rivetted together, having on its southern 
 side an iron platform for the horse or towing path. (See 
 article Canal, Rees’s Cyclopedia.) 
 
 To conclude, it will be necessary to observe, that 
 every aqueduct ought to be provided with stop-gates at 
 the most convenient parts of its length, as well as sy- 
 phons or other means to drain off the water if required, 
 lor repairs or accidents. The stop-gates will be neces- 
 sary to effect this purpose, and provision should be 
 made for their erection in the first beginning of the work. 
 They are most usually placed at the approaches or 
 wings of the aqueduct. 
 
 Tunnels, or subterraneous passages, are now become 
 familiar, as a means of conveying canals through ridges 
 of high ground and mountains ; they are also formed as 
 ffoads through hills and under the beds of great rivers, 
 
 to keep up easy communications between parts other- 
 wise inaccessible, except by routes circuitous, and of 
 course tedious. Perforations for this purpose w ere not 
 unknown to the ancients, for we find the Romans fre- 
 quently making them in order to carry forward their 
 aqueducts. For this purpose they were not required on 
 a large scale, but although small, they gave rise to the 
 practicability which to the ingenious was a sufficient sti- 
 mulus to create the means of performing greater under- 
 takings ; and which has now been acquired and effected 
 through the multiplied local impediments which have 
 presented themselves to inland navigation. The first 
 subterraneous canal or tunnel ever made for the naviga- 
 tion of boats, w'as at Beziers, on the Languedoc canal in 
 France ; and it is believed the first in England was at 
 Worsley, by the late Duke of Bridgew’ater, but this was 
 to establish a communication to his coal mines only. 
 However, there are now almost as many tunnels as there 
 are canals, and the business of making them is so well 
 understood, that they are set about with as few prelimi- 
 naries as the deep cutting of a canal. 
 
 Previously to beginning a tunnel, the hill through 
 which it is to be formed should be bored in several 
 parts, to ascertain the nature of the soil to be excavated. 
 This being well ascertained, the needful tools and ma- 
 chinery can be collected, that the w'ork may proceed 
 without delays. In setting out a tunnel, it is neces- 
 sary to observe, that it must be quite straight from one 
 end to the other. In tracing the line of the tunnel over 
 the surface of the high ground, a number of small 
 round poles are made use of, their tops painted white, 
 to give them a more obvious direction to the sight : 
 these are set up firmly with braces, at about 150 yards 
 apart, and called by the navigators, excavators, or mi- 
 ners’ bench-marks. When the line of the tunnel is ac- 
 curately traced out, another row of bench-marks should 
 be fixed parallel and opposite to the first, at a small 
 distance vertically from the greatest diameter of the tun- 
 nel. These bench-marks w ill be the places where the 
 shafts or pits are to be sunk, for the purpose of assisting 
 the excavators or miners, and also of allowing the soil 
 to be raised through. In sinking the shafts, which 
 should be at least 7 feet in diameter, and as deep per- 
 pendicularly as the lowermost line of the bottom of the 
 tunnel, a kirb should be made of wood, consisting of 
 two circular ribs, and placed 4 or 5 feet from each 
 other, and boarded over. With this kirb the shafts can 
 be sunk to any proposed depth, without danger of the 
 ground giving way ; and the steining of the sides of the 
 shafts with brick-work may or may not be had recourse 
 to, in proportion to the strength of the soil, which, if 
 good, may be supported by braces and planks only. If 
 the places of the shafts are all marked out at the time of 
 the tracing of the tunnel line, and sunk a small distance 
 into the surface of the hill, they will, in the event of the 
 bench-marks being broken down, remain as guides to 
 the excavator. 
 
 After the work has arrived so far, and every other 
 needful arrangement made, in collecting machinery for 
 
 removing 
 
ENGINEERING. 
 
 305 
 
 removing the soil, the work should be begun by cutting 
 down the headings on each side of the hill intended to 
 be perforated, which should be excavated, and the soil 
 removed, to allow of getting quite up to the approaches 
 of the tunnel. When the approaches are made, the 
 form of the tunnel should be traced on the section of the 
 hill, either by a mould or otherwise. The work hav- 
 ing so far proceeded, the perforating is to commence ; 
 and this is done by opening a communication from the 
 first or second shaft into the ground in the line of the 
 tunnel, and working opposite to it right and left. Pre- 
 paration should now be made at the top of the shaft for 
 raising up the soil, and this is done in several wavs, the 
 most common of which is to station at the top four or 
 more men, standing on a platform raised 3 or 4 feet from 
 the ground ; these men turn the handle which is at both 
 ends of a roller, and to which a rope is fastened, with a 
 square bucket or buckets appended to each end of it ; 
 they are so regulated in size, as that two can move in 
 the shaft or pit at once : the men in working the roller, 
 that is by turning it round, raise one bucket while ano- 
 ther descends, and in this manner they keep raising the 
 soil as fast as it is excavated. In some cases, a horse-gin 
 or turn-beam is employed, similar to those used at coal 
 miues. As the tunnelling proceeds, the upper ground 
 should be well propped with planks, and every part se- 
 cured ; as the miners advance in the line, abundance of 
 ribs also should be prepared to turn the arch of the 
 tunnel upon, and moulds and trammels made for the 
 inverted arch forming the bottom. 
 
 The section of a tunnel consists in forming an invert- 
 ed arch at its bottom, composed of masonry or brick- 
 work : this arch is generally the segment of a circle, 
 and is laid on a good bed of puddling. On the two 
 ends of this arch rise the soffit arch of the tunnel, which 
 in figure is commonly a simple catenaria, a parabola, 
 or ellipse, of sufficient elevation to admit of boats riding 
 easily through it. Plate I I. Fig. 4, is the section of a 
 tunnel : A the inverted arch at bottom, BB the foun- 
 dations of the soffit arch, DD. E the shaft or pit for 
 taking up the soil excavated from the tunnel, FF, the 
 guard-rails and chock-blocks fixed to the sides of the 
 tunnel to keep off the boats. The dotted lines at C is the 
 drain or sough to convey away the percolating waters. G 
 the soil to be rammed in upon the soffit arch. Plate II. 
 Fig. 5, is the plan of the inverted arch to a larger scale. 
 This arch is commonly wrought with a trammel rod, 
 which consists (if executed in brickwork) in setting up a 
 vertical piece of wood, to which another piece is adjusted 
 by a centre which allows of an easy motion right and left, 
 and describes the figure of the segment by its motion. A 
 is the trammel rod, B the vertical shaft to which it is 
 fixed. The trammel can be shifted at pleasure, and is an 
 easy contrivance for forming inverted arches. Plate II. 
 Fig. 6, is the section of the soffit arch of a tunnel to a 
 larger scale, shewing it with its centering. The beam A 
 may be fixed upon the chock-blocks previously worked 
 into the inverted arch, at F, Fig. 4. The queens DD 
 may be notched into the back of the beam A, or mortised 
 
 through it and wedged with sliding wedges. The strutts 
 BB may be of one and half or two inch deal, bolted 
 with nuts and screws to the ribs GG, and to the queens, 
 DD. The same bolt which fastens the strutts to the ribs, 
 may be made also to fasten the lap-joints in the ribs also ; 
 the straining beam O may be in two thicknesses put on 
 to each side of the ribs and heads of the queens, with a 
 shoulder to the latter, and one bolt in each will suffice 
 to fasten the whole. The meeting of the centre or rib, 
 at the apex E, should be lapped and bolted with a nut 
 and screw. This may be braced if required. The void 
 F will be found useful to the workmen, in allowing 
 them an easy access into the tunnel to notice the state 
 of the work, and also to see if any settlement is taking 
 place in the centering, &c.: which if found weak, cross- 
 braces may easily be fixed in it. 
 
 It is not common to make a horse-path in a tunnel, 
 and this is one of the greatest inconveniences attending on 
 boats passing through them, as the bargemen are obliged 
 to scramble through as they can, by placing their hands 
 against the walls, and pushing on their boat in any way. 
 It would be perfectly easy to remove this inconvenience, 
 by making the diameter of the tunnel somewhat larger, 
 and working into the walls, one foot above the top wa 
 ter line, or if it were below that line it would not much 
 signify, a number of iron brackets, projecting from the 
 brick-work about three feet ; on these brackets could be 
 laid cast iron plates sufficiently strong to admit of horses 
 passing over them. On the edge of this platform 
 should be a small cast iron rail ; or there could be up- 
 rights at all the brackets, with a perforation in their 
 tops, to admit of a rope or chain passing through them, 
 which would act as a guard-chain or rope to the horse- 
 path. The tops of the iron plates might be covered 
 with a strong soil and gravel for the horses to walk upon, 
 and thus would be removed one of the greatest defects 
 in the navigation of a tunnel. 
 
 The centering ribs should be made in three or more 
 parts, and they should be so adjusted together, that on 
 the parts approaching one another they should produce 
 the required arch, when they may be fixed with nuts 
 and screws, taking care that the meetings be tight and 
 close. The lower or inverted arch being turned a small 
 way, the ribs for the soffit arch may be placed, 3 or 4 
 of which will be enough at a time ; and these are fixed 
 on a piece of timber called a sleeper, which is fastened at 
 the base of the pit, and upon the chock-blocks ; as the 
 ribs are raised and adjusted to their places, their upper 
 edges must be covered with laths to support the bricks 
 of the tunnel arch. When the first yard of the arch is 
 turned, the ground above the brick-work of the part 
 formed must be well rammed and filled up, till it is as 
 sound and firm as possible, and this must afterwards be 
 repeated all through the work. After this is done and 
 finished, more ribs must be placed and lathed, and the 
 arching again began. The workmen now look at their 
 work with more firmness, as they see and compre- 
 hend it more completely : they begin now at each 
 end of the already erected arch, one set of workmen 
 4 I working 
 
506 
 
 ENGINEERING. 
 
 working one way, and one set another, which they con- I 
 tinue till another yard be done, which is filled up and 
 rammed as before. It will- be sometimes necessary to 
 avoid the effects of the percolating waters, to make at | 
 intervals, or wherever it becomes troublesome, cross- 
 drains or soughs running quite under the tunnel, into 
 which an opening can be made for the water to empty 
 itself, and which may be carried off, or turned into the 
 lower reach of the canal. 
 
 After three or more yards of the tunnel be completed, 
 the work should be left to settle and get firm ; this will 
 be effected in a week or two, according to the state of 
 the weather and the nature of the soil in which the tun- 
 nel has been made. If the above circumstances be at 
 all favourable, a week will be sufficient ; the nuts and 
 screws may then be taken out of the ribs, and the first 
 part of the tunnel centering taken down to be fixed in 
 another part, and this may be continued all through the 
 work, which will produce a great saving in ribs, &c. 
 Stiff clays are the best for forming tunnels through, as 
 they require less shoring and other supports than looser 
 soils in some siliceous and argillaceous soils; the 
 expenses of shoring and supporting the ground above, 
 with the danger attending the work afterwards, is of 
 more expense and difficulty, than at once beginning the 
 work by open cutting, which in an instance or two has 
 been obliged to be had recourse to, after many 
 attempts at perforating such soils. The expense of 
 canal tunnelling, as well as others, must vary as the 
 earth varies through which it is intended to be made ; 
 in favourable circumstances, pretty accurate estimates 
 might be formed ; and as a reference, the following ac- 
 count, which is taken from Dr. Rees’s Cyclopedia, 
 article, Canal of the Tunnel at Blisworth, on the Grand 
 Junction Canal, will suffice, as being the latest which 
 lias been finished, (Feb. 1805). “The internal width 
 is 16 feet and a half, the depth below the water-line to 
 the inverted arch which forms the bottom is seven feet, 
 and the soffit, or crown of the arch, is 1 1 feet above 
 the same line. The side walls are the segments of cir- 
 cles of 20 feet radius, the top arch one of eight feet 
 radius. The side, or top walls, are 1 7 inches in thick- 
 ness, or two bricks, and the bottom, or inverted arch, 
 13 inches in thickness, or one and a half brick, every fifth 
 course of the top arch, and every eleventh of the side-walls 
 is composed of two heading bricks, or wedge-like, one 
 inch thick on the inside, and three at the back ; also 
 every fifth and eleventh course as above, (but between 
 the courses of heading bricks), composed of bricks laid 
 obliquely across the others, the front and back corners 
 being cut off for that purpose in the making, for more 
 effectually breaking the joints of the work obliged to be 
 done in such short lengths. The mortar that was used, was 
 composed of one bushel of Southain lime, (blue lias), and 
 three of good sand. Six inches under the water-line, on 
 each side of the tunnel, slide-rails, of five inches square, 
 were placed to keep the barges off the walls, and fixed by 
 pieces of oak let into the wall below them, which rails 
 project nine inches from the wall, and have at every 
 
 nine feet a chock of wood upon the rails for the barge- 
 men to set their pole against for shoving their barges 
 along.” It is added, that “ this tunnel was contracted 
 for at 151. 13s. per yard run. The soil principally 
 through which it was made was a hard blue clay, with 
 two or three thin rocks in it, sufficient headings had 
 been executed several years before at the company’s 
 expense. The .same contractors were paid 10 'd. per 
 cubic yard for excavating the deep cutting at one end of 
 the tunnel, and 1 1 d. a yard for the other. The ex- 
 penses of driving the headings, were from 36s. to 
 42s. 6d. per yard run ; nineteen shafts, or tunnel pits, 
 some of them 60 feet deep, were sunk for the use of 
 the above tunnel, which cost about 30s. per yard in 
 depth, including the steining.” From such data, very 
 probable estimates may be calculated, taking into ac- 
 count the different prices of labour and materials where 
 such a work is proposed to be effected. The success 
 attending tunnelling having been generally complete for 
 canals, undertakings of the same nature have been pro- 
 posed for various other improvements in our inland 
 communications. Highgate was fixed upon as one for 
 this purpose, wdiich certainly presented a spot in every 
 way eligible for the undertaking, and from which the 
 public might have derived considerable accommodation. 
 The heading of this tunnel was began on the Holloway 
 side of Highgate, and extended about 350 yards with 
 about 30 yards of vertical cutting. The whole was 
 marl and strong blue clay, with a compactness that re- 
 quired very little propping, every thing in nature was fa- 
 vourable to the success of this tunnel, and the work went 
 on with adequate effect, till the arching commenced. 
 It is too well known, that this arch has now given way, 
 and it is for the engineers concerned in it to say, why. — 
 It could not have failed by reason of the soils in which 
 it was formed, — as their compactness rendered their 
 bearing on the arch of little or no importance. The 
 shape of the arch made it capable of supporting ten 
 times what was ever upon it, if the bricks had received 
 adequate attention in their bonding. If it failed for 
 want of sufficient foundation, it is to be regretted : the 
 inverted arch was not adequate for that purpose, as a 
 very slight inspection will demonstrate. And if it fell down 
 for want of support in this quarter, it must have been from 
 the engineers’ ignorance of the nature of the pressure in 
 such arches : — Arches formed of common bricks, when 
 they are to assume a large diameter, require the utmost 
 attention in their construction. The brick of the com- 
 mon size is too small to make any figure as a voissoir in 
 such arches, as it will not allow of falling into the radii 
 of their curvature ; if such arches exist, it is by virtue 
 of the cement more than by reason of the shape of the 
 materials of which they are formed. In the tunnel now 
 making across Hyde-park, for conveying the superfluous 
 water from the neighbourhood of Paddington, the 
 bricks which are to form the arch, are moulded into 
 the shape of wedges, and are called joggle-bricks, the 
 j form of the joggle-brick is previously determined by 
 j drawing its shape from the centre of curvature of the 
 
 arch, 
 
ENGINEERING. 
 
 307 
 
 arch, of which it is to form a voissoir, and they may be I 
 varied, as the figure of the arch is composed of more 
 than one centre of curvature ; hence the parabolic arch 
 will require joggle-bricks of one pattern for the top, and 
 of another for the sides, such an arch being composed* 
 of different segments. 
 
 Bridges have continued to be erected through every 
 succession of time, and are a leading point in develop- 
 ing the progress of science and the arts, as they appear 
 generally well or ill contrived in proportion as they have 
 advanced. Arcuation, within these last fifty years, has 
 received deductions, arising from out of mathematical in- 
 vestigations, which has ranked it very high among the late 
 discoveries made in science by the industry of the moderns. 
 It has now been shewn that the voissoirs of an arch can 
 be given that form, in relation to the whole matter sur- 
 rounding them, as to produce an equilibrated figure ; 
 and this discovery has so far extended itself as to supply 
 the principle by a table which sets forth its quantities to 
 every species or degree of curvature. This table was 
 formed by Dr. Hutton, and may be consulted by turn- 
 ing to Bridge, .under the head of the article Archi- 
 tecture, part i. page 34. The Bridges, to which the 
 attention of engineers are commonly called, confine 
 themselves to simple buildings, applied to the purposes 
 of a canal ; they consist, most frequently, with us of 
 wood, and their beauty consists in making them light, 
 but adequately strong. 
 
 Of the different species of bridges the draw-bridge 
 is the most common ; it consists of the following particu- 
 lars : Plate 1, Fig. 9, is the plan of a drawing-bridge ; 
 D, the canal to be passed. The foundations, right and 
 left of the canal, are supplied either by brick-walls, 
 built battering, or by a row of four or more piles of 
 oak, forced down into the embankment, with a broad 
 oak-rail on their tops, splayed away to receive the two 
 end-rails of the platform of the bridge. B B the em- 
 bankments to the bridge. G the platform of the bridge. 
 E the vertical posts, fixed on the bank of the canal, a 
 little behind the hinges of the bridge ; on the top of 
 these posts are two long tapering pieces F, called the 
 balance beams, which turn up by means of hinges near 
 their middle, the small ends being connected with the 
 platform of the bridge by means of chains at their further 
 end, and which the heavy ends of the balance beams are 
 made to counterpoise. When such a bridge is required 
 to be raised for a boat to pass it, it is necessary to take 
 hold of the chains appended to the large ends of the 
 balance beams, which, being only just counterpoised, are 
 easily pulled up, and when raised, the chains are hooked 
 to the upright posts, to prevent accidents, and the bridge 
 remains suspended. 
 
 Bridges, called swivel-bridges, are sometimes made 
 use of on canals; they are much more expensive, and may 
 be easily put out of order by the want of attention in using 
 them ; they consist of a platform of wood covered with 
 planks ; which is made about half as long again as is re- 
 quired for the bridge : one end of the platform is made 
 light and the other heavy, for the purpose of counterpoise, 
 
 and the additional weight to the heavy end is produced 
 by means of stowing large stones or pigs of iron at it, 
 so that the bridge, when in its place, or at rest, may at- 
 tain an equilibrium. At a point of about one-fifth of its 
 length from the heavy end, a round plate is fixed, with 
 an iron axis or pin standing up to enter a hole in the 
 platform, which is prepared to receive it ; and on this 
 pin the bridge is suspended, and which is also its centre 
 of motion ; and in order to prevent impediments in 
 turning the bridge round, a number of iron balls, two 
 inches and a half, or three inches in diameter are let 
 into the round plate, both above and below, to act as 
 rollers to lessen the friction on the plates. The banks 
 are formed with a kind of recess to receive the bridge 
 when moved from across the canal. The two ends of 
 the platform, in order to allow' of this horizontal mo- 
 tion, are struck into two arcs, the centres of which are 
 ; the axis or pin in the centre of the friction- plates. At 
 ! Brussels, and in other parts of Flanders, they have a 
 kind of drawing-bridges composed wholly of iron : they 
 are made somewhat similar to our drawing-bridges, 
 except that they are raised by a cast iron wheel with 
 cogs ; this w heel is about three feet in diameter, and is 
 firmly fixed in the bank, and by being turned by a 
 handle, raises the platform. It takes up much less room* 
 than our drawing or swivel-bridges, and answers every 
 purpose. There are nine or ten to be seen at Brussels, 
 constantly in motion, as ships or craft are passing up the 
 canal. Some of these iron bridges are cut in two in 
 the centre, with wheels in each bank, so that by work- 
 ing the wheels a few degrees a ship may pass the canal, 
 by its masts entering through the space left by raising the 
 two platforms. These kind of bridges are made neces- 
 sary from the great width of the canals in comparison 
 of ours. The occupation bridge, at Rotterdam, is of 
 this last description, and consists of two separate seg- 
 ments, each supported independently ; and when up for 
 the craft to pass, a void is made between the meetings 
 of the Segments by which the masts enter. The conve- 
 nience of such bridges is obvious, as the tow ing can go 
 on without removing the line ; foot passengers also can 
 pass by the bridge while in motion, as the opening be- 
 tween the meetings is never so wide but a person may 
 step over it. The canals in Flanders, Holland, and 
 every part of France abqund in ingenious light bridges : 
 
 ! their drawing-bridges are on a scale the engineers of this 
 country have not an idea : there are some over streams 
 120 feet wide, moved by wheels with more ease than 
 our little ones of 20 feet are by balance beams. 
 
 The bridges of masonry on canals consist of one arch 
 generally, with the difference only, of making its span as 
 i much more than the canal as to admit a towing path 
 under it. The towing paths are made commonly on the 
 lower side of the canal. The bridges over the canal at 
 Paddington have towing paths on both sides, and this, 
 when there is room to do it, is a great convenience; 
 besides adding additional strength to the abutments of 
 the bridge. — Guard rails should be fixed to the wings and 
 i approaches of the bridge, and also to the embankments 
 ! under 
 
308 
 
 ENGINEERING. 
 
 under the bridge, to keep the boats from damaging the 
 works. 
 
 Docks, from at first being only a simple contrivance 
 at arsenals for the purpose of building or repairing a 
 single ship, have extended themselves to a magnitude in 
 capacity competent to contain whole fleets. The splen- 
 dour of the docks created in London, and at many 
 of the out ports, are a monument which excel the 
 famous port Pireus in Greece, or Alexandria, in 
 Egypt, as much, or more than we have excelled the 
 Greeks and Romans in all the facilities to navigation, 
 and the grandeur of our naval architecture. The Greeks 
 and Romans no doubt have far surpassed us in all the 
 elegancies of taste and invention in the fine arts: in 
 these arts they have combined and given form to matter, 
 which could have resulted only from a higher degree of i 
 feeling, united to juster notions of nature, than the | 
 coldness of our climate and habits cau perceive, or 
 hardly give power to copy. But if we are behind in 
 the fine Arts, which, as mere copyists, we must be 
 contented to be : in supplying all manner of facilities to 
 commerce (in which we excel all nations, ancient and 
 modern), in erecting the immense docks and ware- 
 houses inland, which we have done to receive and house 
 safely the produce of the world, and to an extent ade- 
 quate for that purpose : we have formed a monument at 
 once of our genius, wealth, and skill, which will be as : 
 famous in the page of science as the monuments of j 
 Athens and Rome are now in the volume of the Arts. — 
 A Dock consists in the first place of a bason commen- 
 surate to its intended purpose. A canal communicates 
 therewith, supplied with an entrance lock aud gates. 
 The building of a dock embraces all the skill applied to 
 buildings in water. The embankments are to be traced 
 out in the same manner as is done for canal lines, by 
 setting up bench-marks to indicate the plan upon the 
 ground. The whole of the embankments of a dock are 
 supported by walls of masonry or brick-work ; and as | 
 the docks for ships require a great draught of water, 
 they must be made in depth adequate to allow of ships 
 of burden riding in them in safety : in consequence of 
 which the depth of the docks must be great in compa- 
 rison of canals. The London Docks are upwards of 20 
 feet deep. In raising the walls on the sides of such 
 reservoirs (as they may be called), it will be obvious that 
 the greatest care must be taken. The foundations of walls 
 for works of this nature should be formed of double or 
 even treble rows of piles ; and the inside row, which runs 
 parallel to the embankment, should be grooved on their 
 opposite sides, and be forced into the ground as close 
 together as possible ; and after being so driven, stiles of 
 yellow fir wrought should be driven down into the 
 groove made in each pile, so that the whole inside pil- 
 ing may form a continued chain throughout its whole 
 extent. — The planking to form the platform for the 
 wall, should be all scorched previously to being laid 
 upon the heads of the piling, and the joints or meetings 
 of the planking should be crossed or dove-tailed together. 
 If the walls be to be built of bricks, care should be 
 
 taken to have them of the best quality, and as square 
 and even as can be ; and in order to strengthen their 
 bond in the wall, tiers of Dundee granite should occa- 
 sionally be incorporated. The walls themselves should 
 be for a height of 20 feet, of 15 bricks in thickness at 
 the bottom, on planking racking-back on the side next 
 the earth embankment, and battering on the inside of the 
 dock, with tiers of bond of Dundee granite at every 
 20th course throughout the height. The slope of the 
 wall should be in proportion to a scale before recited 
 for lock walls of canals ; and a curvature or swell should 
 be formed in the inside section of the wall in the pro- 
 portion of two inches to every six feet : the walls should, 
 finally, finish at their tops to four bricks in thickness, 
 and the whole be crowned by blocks of Dundee or other 
 granite, as a coping. — The mortar used for these kinds 
 of works ought to be particularly looked after, in order 
 to its being of good quality, or very little solidity will 
 result to the work. The ground stone lime with w ashed 
 siliceous earth, the former as fresh as possible, is the 
 most likely to prove a good cement. The Roman ce- 
 ment, or Parker’s, is of great utility in some parts of 
 dock-w’orks. The docks, as Helveotsluys, are formed 
 with clinkers cemented by Dutch-tarras : it has tiers of 
 bond traversing at every 4 feet, vertically, composed of 
 black marble neatly wrought, which in every other stone 
 goes quite through the w all, and the top of the wall is 
 coped with large slabs of the same marble. The work 
 of these docks from the smallness of the bricks (about 
 G inches long, 3 in width, and one and a half inch in 
 thickness ;) and the joint having very little cement in it, 
 makes the wdiole appear uncommonly neat, and which is 
 not less solid. These docks are about 18 feet perpendicu- 
 lar in depth, the side slopes from their base 5 feet 8 
 inches. — The opposite end to the canal of communica- 
 tion is formed into a bow or crescent. The walls all 
 round this dock have a slight swell or curvature in their 
 height. — The canal leading to a dock generally branches 
 out of its side, and is walled in a similar manner to the 
 dock itself, and at its upper end or head is contracted 
 by the walls being bent into a circular shape till they 
 meet or intersect the wing walls of the low'er end of the 
 chamber of the lock. The lock is the pound or cham- 
 ber through which the ship or ships enter from the sea 
 or river to which the dock is contiguous : to docks of 
 consequence the locks are made from 30 to 40 feet 
 wide, and about 18 feet deep and 150 feet long. They 
 have gates at both ends, which require the utmost skill 
 in contriving them for tidal-rivers. The bottom of the 
 lock is formed by an inverted arch of masonry in a simi- 
 lar manner to that of canal-locks, except on a larger 
 scale, and of course of a more ponderous nature. The 
 walls are raised battering similar to those of the docks, 
 and, finally, coped at their tops, weirs, syphons, waste- 
 gates, and culverts, are all of use to dock-work, and 
 must be called in as the nature of the situation requires 
 them. Wherever it is intended to form docks a large 
 site of ground should be selected, in order to admit of 
 abundance of room for all kind of stowage and ware- 
 houses 
 
ENGINEERING. 
 
 309 
 
 houses being built thereon ; for without abundance of 
 room very little accommodation can be expected by 
 creating docks on such sites. The necessity of room 
 in such concerns will more obviously appear by consi- 
 dering the space occupied by the docks themselves in 
 die three great concerns now effected in London. 
 
 The London docks, which were built under the di- 
 rection of Mr. Rennie, consist of two docks, with ba- 
 sons, canals and locks. One lock is 1,260 feet long, 
 and 690 feet broad, containing 20 acres, and the bason 
 equal to three acres, the whole capable of containing 
 230 ships : the other dock, for outward bound ships, is 
 of a similar dimension, and they communicate with each 
 other by means of locks, and also with the Thames, at 
 Limehouse. The warehouses and offices for the clerks 
 and keepers surrounding these docks are of a magnificent 
 description, and afford abundance of protection and 
 comfort to all the various stowage and persons connected 
 therewith, — the architect is Mr. Alexander, and the es- 
 timated expense of the whole-is one million and a half 
 sterling, and they are now nearly completed. 
 
 The West India docks, to which Mr. Jessop was en- 
 gineer, were begun in 1800, and are divided as before 
 into two docks, basons, and locks. The homeward- 
 bound dock is 2,600 feet long, and 500 feet broad, and 
 will contain 300 sail. The outward-bound dock is the 
 same length as the homeward-bound, but only 400 feet 
 broad ; they join each other by means of locks, and at 
 the end next Blackwall, with a bason 6 acres in extent, 
 with sloping embankments, and which has a connexion 
 with the Thames by a lock. At the other end of the 
 docks, near Limehouse, there is another bason of about 
 2 acres, at which vessels go out : this bason, as well as 
 the docks, are w'holly surrounded by walls of brick. 
 
 The East India Company’s docks are also of great 
 importance, being, with the warehouses, formed in a 
 grand style : the late Mr. Holland was the architect. 
 The dock for unloading inwards is 1,410 feet long, and 
 560 feet broad. - The one for loading outwards is 780 
 feet long, and 520 feet broad. The entrance bason 
 occupies a space of 2f acres. The lock of communi- 
 cation is 210 feet long, 48 feet wide, and the clear 
 depth of water 24 feet. The whole of these docks are 
 also surrounded by w r alls of great substance, and finally 
 coped with masses of granite stone. 
 
 These several works are appendages to our national 
 importance, and are well calculated to inspire the liv- 
 ing, who may view them with astonishment, and future 
 ages, with veneration. 
 
 After docks there is another appendage equally flow- 
 ing from our great maritime power, and which con- 
 sists in creating artificial piers, or break-waters, pro- 
 jecting into the sea for the purpose of giving security 
 to vessels at anchor against the violence of w'inds 
 and currents, at such places where it has been 
 deemed eligible to form ports or places for ships to an- 
 chor at. The late Mr. Smeaton was the first engineer 
 amongst us who embraced, in the boldness of his ge- 
 nius, the requisite science for such undertakings, which 
 
 has had the effect of establishing his reputation beyond 
 the chance of a failure. Every part of the country ex- 
 hibits something of this man’s contrivance, either in ca- 
 nals, bridges, harbours, or machinery ; and of course, 
 every thing from such authority is of importance, inas- 
 much as it may teach those who have now to follow 
 him how true fame may be acquired and become im- 
 perishable. His papers have at last been collected and 
 are now in train for publication, comprising all his re- 
 ports, together with their estimates of all the several 
 public works that he conducted, accompanied by en- 
 gravings, &c.* 
 
 j It is extremely difficult to give precise ideas for build- 
 j ings connected with sea-ports and their harbours ; for 
 I in such places the natural vicissitudes are what offer the 
 impediments, and they must be met in the various ways 
 in which they present themselves by the skill and enter- 
 prise of him to whom such buildings may be confided. 
 There have been piers or break-waters erected at many 
 of our ports extending an immense distance out into 
 the sea; for instance, at Sheerness, Ramsgate, &c. : 
 and there have been also several on the opposite 
 coast ; the one at Cherbourg is pre-eminent for bold- 
 ness and genius. Some account of Mr. Bentham’s plan 
 which he adopted at Sheerness Pier w ill be seen under 
 the head of Buildings in Water, in our article Masonry. 
 The great national work now undertaken in Plymouth 
 Sound is perhaps on a scale far beyond any thing of 
 ' the kind ever set about in the world before. Messrs. 
 
 I Rennie and Whitby are the engineers, and in such 
 : hands very little doubt can be entertained of its com- 
 ! plete success. A time of peace, if ever it arrive, might 
 have been the most eligible for an undertaking of so 
 extensive a kind, as allowing the means wfith better 
 | grace than at present ; but it is begun, and if it be per- 
 severed in, the means must and will be furnished. In 
 the reports laid before Parliament of this break-w'ater 
 is the following opinions and estimates, given in by 
 Messrs. Rennie and Whitby, and on which the work 
 was ordered to be commenced. Speaking of the Port 
 of Plymouth and the proposed break-water, they say, 
 “ There are, properly speaking, three entrances for 
 men of war into Plymouth Sound : viz. one on the w'est 
 side of the bay, bounded by a long cluster of small 
 rocks called Scot’s Ground, and on which there is only 
 from three to four fathoms at low water ; and on the 
 East by the Knap and Panther, on which there is about 
 the same depth of water. This channel is about 500 
 fathoms wide, and the general depth is from five and a 
 half to six fathoms at low water. The middle channel 
 is bounded by the Knap and Panther on the West, and 
 by the Tinker and Shovel on the East ; it is about 300 
 fathoms wide, and the general depth of w'ater is from 
 six and a half to eight at low water. From the above 
 description, it appears that a large part of the middle 
 of Plymouth Sound may be said to be shut up by the 
 Shovel and St. Carlos Rocks, we mean as a channel for 
 
 * This work is now publishing by Longman and Co. with en- 
 gravings by Lowry, in 3 vols. price 71. 7s. 
 
 4 K large 
 
ENGINEERING. 
 
 310 
 
 large ships. Of course, any works that may be con- 
 structed on these rocks will be no obstruction to large 
 ships going in or coining out of the Sound. A question 
 however will arise, whether if any works were to be 
 extended beyond these rocks they might not prove inju- 
 rious ? On this subject the engineers add the following 
 opinion, which they trust will prove satisfactory ; and 
 that no injury whatever will arise from the extension of 
 these works beyond these rocks. u It is,” say they, 
 
 “ a well known fact, that whenever a given quantity 
 of water flows through a channel, the depth generally 
 increases (unless the bottom be rock) in proportion as 
 the width be diminished. Now if a work were to be 
 formed in any part of Plymouth Sound, so much of the 
 water-way or entrance as would be intercepted by that 
 work would /obstruct the current of the tide, and oblige 
 it to pass through a narrower space : this would increase 
 the velocity and occasion a greater scour, so as to 
 deepen the bottom. If, therefore, a pier or break-water 
 were to be constructed on the Shovel Rocks and ex- 
 tended to the westward, so as to shut up in part the 
 channel between them and the Panther, and also tp 
 shut up or narrow the spaces between St. Carlos Rocks 
 and Andurn point ; the tide being then confined to a 
 narrower space, the velocity of the current would be 
 increased and their channels deepened. We are there- 
 fore decidedly of opinion, that if a pier or break-water 
 were to be constructed in Plymouth Sound, having its 
 Eastern end about sixty fathoms East of St. Carlos 
 Rocks, audits Western end about 300 fathoms West of 
 the Shovel, forming in the whole a length of 850 fathoms, 
 it would improve instead of injuring the entrauce to Ply- 
 mouth Sound ; and would with another pier, which we 
 shall afterwards mention, completely shelter it from all 
 storms, without there being any danger of its lessening 
 the depth of water in the Sound, or any doubt of the 
 practicability of executing the work. We propose that 
 500 fathoms in length of the middle part of the pier 
 or break-water shall be straight, and that 175 fathoms 
 at each end should be inclined to the straight part in an 
 angle of about 120°; these inclined ends will not only shel- 
 ter a greater extent of the Sound, but will to a certain 
 degree prevent the increase of the sea from agitating the 
 water. The eastern end, or that which points to Bon- 
 visand Bay, leaves the Eastern point of the Sound 
 apparently too much exposed to south-easterly winds ; 
 and although we are inclined to think that even with 
 such an exposure nothing need be feared, yet as there 
 is a ready method of preventing any such danger we are 
 unwilling to leave the matter in doubt, and therefore 
 propose that a pier shall be extended from Andurn 
 point towards the great break-water of about 400 fa- 
 thoms in length, and having an inclined kant similar to 
 the head of the great break-water, and forming an angle 
 of about 120 degrees with it. These two inclined kants 
 or heads will reflect the waves in such a manner as to 
 prevent them from passing in any material degree 
 through the opening between them, and will thus shelter 
 the Sound. These break-waters will, it is remarked, 
 
 enable fifty sail of the liuelo ride in safety in Plymouth 
 Sound in all winds and in any weather, and with ample 
 room to work out at one or other channel as- the wind 
 may suit. The mode of executing this great work fol- 
 lows next in order : 
 
 “ The best manner of constructing the work will be by 
 large blocks of stone throwm promiscuously into the sea, 
 in the line of the intended break-water, leaving them 
 to find their own base. These stones must be large ; 
 otherwise, with such a swell as in the Sound in stormy 
 weather they would not remain in the place where they 
 were deposited. From observations which we have 
 made, stones of from about one and a half to two tona 
 each will .answ er the purpose. Where th“e water is five 
 fathoms deep the base of the break-water should not be 
 less than seventy yards broad, and at the top ten yards, 
 at the level of ten feet above the low water of the ordi- 
 nary spring tides. It may, however, on trial be found 
 necessary to carry it higher; but this will be ascertained 
 during the execution of the work, when the effects of 
 the sea on it will be seen, and it may then be carried 
 higher if found necessary. It may be a question whe- 
 ther this additional height shall be executed with cut or 
 rubble stone, which it will be also time enough to de- 
 cide when the break-water is raised above low water. 
 We have in our estimates supposed this part of the 
 work to be done witli cut stone. It is not an easy mat- 
 ter to calculate correctly what quantity of stone w ill be 
 wanted for this great work, not only because the sea 
 may form a more extensive base than we have supposed, 
 but because the bottom being very uneven, and no cor- 
 rect section of it having been obtained, we have there- 
 fore made considerable allowance. Thus, suppose the 
 great break-w'ater to be 850 fathoms in length, ten yards 
 broad at the top, and ten feet above low water of spring 
 tides, and having a slope on the South or sea-side of 
 three horizontals to one perpendicular, and on the 
 Sound or land side one and a half horizontal to one 
 perpendicular, there will be required about two mil- 
 lions of tons of stone. If the pier from Andrun Point 
 is built from the shelving rocks without the Point and 
 not carried close to it, there will be required for this 
 work 360,000 tons of stone.” 
 
 To this Report is added the following estimate of the 
 probable expense of executing the break-water, with the 
 addition of erecting tw-o light-houses on each extreme 
 point of the straight, or centre part of its superstructure. 
 
 Estimate of the probable Expense of a Brealc-zeater 
 and Pier for the sheltering of Plymouth Sound and 
 Bouvisand Bay. 
 
 To 2,000,000 tons of lime-stone, in blocks 
 of from 1 to 2 tons each in weight in 
 
 the breakwater,- 7s. 6d 
 
 To 360,000 tons in the pier proposed to 
 be built from Andurn Point, 7s. . . . 
 
 Contingencies 20 per cent, 
 
 £ 
 
 750.000 
 
 126.000 
 175,200 
 
 1,051,200 
 
 Estimate 
 
ENGINEERING. 
 
 311 
 
 Estimate of the 'probable Expense of a Cut Stone Pier 
 and two Light-Houses, to be built on the top of the 
 Great Break-water. 
 
 To 42,000 cubic yards of masonry, in the £ 
 
 out and inside walls of the pier, 27s. . *44,700 
 
 To 62,000 cubic yards of rubble, filling 
 between in the in and outside walls of 
 
 the pier, 6s 18,600 
 
 To paving the top of the pier with large 
 
 blocks of stone, 8,500 square yards . . 22,950 
 
 To two I light-houses, with reflectors and 
 
 argand lamps 5,006 
 
 Contingencies 20 per cent. ..... 28,650 
 
 119,900 
 
 To this report has been subjoined the opinion of Mr. 
 Jessop, an engineer of great eminence and experience, 
 entirely concurring in the plan of Messrs. Rennie and 
 Whitby. Nevertheless Mr. Benlham, who has been 
 employed in some wofts at Sheerness harbour, and who 
 has invented a new mode of erecting masonry in and 
 under water, has endeavoured to recommend his ideas 
 to the notice of Government for this break-water. Mr. 
 Bentham’s invention consists in preparing masses of 
 stone, intended as piers, to be sunk under water w'ith 
 sufficient vacuities in them, to render them specifically 
 lighter than an equal bulk of water ; a mass so pre- 
 pared is sunk, by letting the water into its vacuities. 
 The bed of the river, or harbour, being previously pre- 
 pared to receive it by machinery of the description of 
 ballast heavers, that it may ground level. Should the 
 mass not so ground, it is raised by pumping the water out 
 of its vacuities, by which means it is again raised, and 
 by letting in the water again it is lowered, and it may 
 be so raised and lowered till it ground to the satisfaction 
 of the engineer. This is ingenious, inasmuch as it per- 
 forms by means of the mass itself, the whole operation 
 of caissons, or water-tight boxes, the assistance ge- 
 nerally had recourse to for erecting piers in w ater ; but 
 a caisson would be of no use in Plymouth Sound. ] f 
 Mr. Bentham’s hollow stones are, however, as he 
 has more than one plan for this break-water, and as the 
 ideas of intelligent men are always of utility, we shall 
 subjoin the following extracts from his report on that 
 subject. Speaking of the plan of Messrs. Rennje and 
 Whitby, he says, “ That such a work, even supposing 
 sufficient precaution to have "been taken to prevent any 
 injury to the harbour during the execution of it, and 
 that the work were completed in its greatest perfection, 
 would nevertheless by opposing throughout its extent 
 a complete interruption to the existing w'ater, occa- 
 sion such eddies in the wake of the work, and such an 
 increased action on the bottom and sides of the parts 
 
 * There appears an error in this item amounting to 12,0001. ; how 
 it could have arisen cannot be explained in this place ; but it is to 
 be hoped the estimate was not drawn up generally with so great a 
 want of accuracy. 
 
 left open, as could not fail of forming shoals more or 
 less injurious according to the , nature of the soil and 
 other local circumstances. By one of my plans, a 
 double row of cylindrical masses of stone-work, built in 
 my new mode, are designed to be deposited in the di- 
 rection most suitable to a break-water, (which probably 
 would be different from that fixed on by Messrs. 
 Rennie and Whitby), in such a manner as to leave an 
 interval between each two masses above, equal to their 
 diameter, and that the masses of one row should be 
 placed opposite the intervals in the other, so that while 
 these two rows together form a complete obstacle to 
 direct the course of the waves, the tide, or current, 
 would be allowed to pass freely between them through- 
 out the whole extent of the break-water, as also boats, 
 or even small vessels in moderate weather. According 
 to another variety of this mode, a single row of masses, 
 more in the form of the piers of a bridge, might be de- 
 posited at a greater distance from one another, and 
 other masses of stone might be deposited upon them, 
 so as to form a kind of bridge, but differing from or- 
 dinary bridges, inasmuch as that instead of the arch 
 between the piers rising above the w'ater, the bottom of 
 the parts intermediate between the piers, would be kept 
 sufficiently under low-\yater, as to afford a complete ob- 
 stacle to the waves to the required depth, but leaving 
 nevertheless very ample space underneath for the con- 
 stant passage of the tide, or current. The upper part 
 of such a break-w'ater would be sloped on the side 
 towards the sea, so as to afford an irfclined plane for the 
 w'aves to expend themselves upon in mounting : the in- 
 terior sides of the masses, according to either of these 
 modes, would be perpendicular, and by being hollow, 
 might be converted to various useful purposes, whereby 
 a compensation might be obtained to a considerable 
 part of the expense.” He adds, “ in considering fur- 
 ther, that a diminution of w ater-way is objectionable, 
 and that raising works in masonry, is creating artificial 
 rocks, against which ships are as likely to be carried to 
 their destruction as against natural rocks ; I should pro- 
 pose in preference to make floating break-waters in se- 
 parate parts or floats of wood, because that material is 
 sufficiently buoyant, without the need for depending on 
 any cavities which might be liable to be filled with 
 water, to make the floats of a triangular, or rather a 
 prismatic shape, and to hold them in their places, by 
 means of iron chains, &c.” In several other observa- 
 tions of a general nature, is appended the estimate for 
 executing the works by the several plans he has suggest- 
 ed. The total of each is, viz. by the plan in masonry, 
 as before described, 284,6481. — by that of wooden-floats 
 201,8261. If there be no other merit to recommend 
 Mr. Bentham’s plan, than its comparative cheapness, that 
 even ought to entitle it to consideration. The difficulty 
 in employing his hollow masses, it is imagined would 
 be much greater than he conceives. Six or seven fa- 
 thoms low water, with a rocky bottom, would present 
 such obstacles to getting them into their places firmly, 
 (even if at all,) as in some measure makes the idea ap- 
 pear 
 
312 
 
 ENGINEERING. 
 
 pear impracticable. To prepare the bed of Plymouth 
 Sound with ballast-heavers, or any other machinery to 
 receive the base of these cylindrical masses, is barely 
 possible, and without a base being previously prepared, 
 and that tolerably even too, such cylinders would not 
 stand. If there did not appear an impracticability in 
 doing any thing at the bottom of the Sound, the engi- 
 neers employed would not deem it eligible to throw in 
 stones promiscuously into the line of the work to find 
 their own base, as they would certainly rather prepare 
 a base for them than waste materials and labour, with a 
 chance of much less solidity, than producing the found- 
 ation by regular and ascertained principles. The plan 
 by floating rafts might be useful ; but it is more hap- 
 pily adapted as a temporary expedient, than as a great 
 national undertaking. To make Plymouth Sound a place 
 of greater safety than it is admitted to be at present 
 for our numerous fleets, and which is supposed to be 
 the best adapted port for their security this island has to 
 boast, renders such an undertaking of the first import- 
 ance. If the proposed break-water has the effect of 
 improving it, and at the same time giving to it the ad- 
 vantages expected from it, the cost will be but a se- 
 condary consideration. 
 
 The erection of beacons and light-houses is a branch 
 of the royal prerogative. The king has the exclusive 
 power, by commission under his great seal. He can 
 order them to be erected, not only upon the royal de- 
 mesnes, but upon the lands of the subject ; which 
 power of the crown is usually vested, by letters patent, 
 in the office of the lord high admiral. And if the own- 
 ers of the land, or any other person, shall destroy them 
 or take them down, he shall forfeit and pay lOOcf ., and 
 in case of inability to pay it, be ipso facto outlawed. 
 By statute, 8 Elizabeth, c. 13, the corporation of the 
 Trinity House were empow'ered to set up any beacons 
 or sea-marks w'herever they might think them necessary, 
 and in them now almost the whole business, respecting 
 the management of beacons, light-houses, &o. is vested. 
 The Beacon is a simple contrivance of very early origin, 
 as we find frequent mention made of such objects, not 
 only in the scriptures, but in ancient history, and also 
 in the early part of our own history. Beacons consisted 
 chiefly in erecting on high places marks whereon were 
 fixed barrels containing pitch or other combustible mat- 
 ter, w'hich, by night, operated as a w arning by being 
 lighted, and by day they gave notice of the approach 
 of an enemy, by the volumes of smoke emitted. By 
 the discovery of gunpowder, such expedients have been 
 discontinued; as rockets and other contrivances are 
 found to answer the purpose infinitely better. A light- 
 house is a different kind of building to a beacon, inas- 
 much as it requires greater constructive excellence in the 
 erection. Its use is chiefly to warn mariners, when na- 
 vigating in the night, from approaching too near certain 
 parts of the coast knowm as dangerous, either by rocks, 
 shoals, or currents ; and it is also a land-mark by day. 
 Such structures are of great national importance, and as 
 such, cannot receive too much attention, either in form- 
 
 ing them in the most substantial manner, or supplying 
 them with the best lights. A light-house, as now 
 erected, consists of an upright shaft of masonry or 
 brick-w'ork, built hollow in the inside, in which are 
 winding stairs leading to its summit. The top is gene- 
 rally surmounted by a cornice of stone, with a space 
 left sufficiently large to admit a single person safely 
 to walk round upon it. On the top of the whole fabric 
 is erected a lantern, often from 12 to 14 feet high, and 
 6 or 7 feet in diameter, in the inside of w hich is a frame, 
 to which are suspended, in various angles, and in as 
 many elevations, a number of lamps and reflectors ; the 
 lamps vary from 10 to as many as 15 in some light- 
 houses. Such a body of light, and that reflected with 
 the greatest pow'er on an immense height, as they most 
 frequently are, creates a surprising effect, which is dis- 
 covered at sea by mariners when many leagues off, and 
 which enables them to shape their course accordingly. 
 
 The Eddystone light-house was erected by the 
 late Mr. Smeaton, and in this is employed, per- 
 haps, more ability than in any similar structure in exist- 
 ence, arising out of the difficulty of erecting any thing 
 in such a perilous situation. 4( Mr. Winstanley began a 
 light-house on the Eddystone rock in 1696, which he 
 was four years in finishing, which was formed wholly of 
 wood. The following notices respecting his operations 
 may not be unacceptable. The first summer w'as spent 
 by Mr. Winstanley and his people in making 12 large 
 holes in the rock, and fastening as many irons, to hold 
 the future work. In the course of the next summer, a 
 solid body or round pillar, 12 feet high, and 14 feet in 
 diameter, was completed. In the third year it was in- 
 creased to 1 6 feet in diameter from the foundation, and 
 the whole building was raised, w hich w'as 80 feet to the 
 vane. In the fourth year, the diameter of the pillar 
 was encompassed in a new w’ork, 4 feet in thickness, 
 and the building raised 40 feet higher, when the light 
 was exhibited.” This building was formed almost 
 wholly of timber, and it did not meet with any accident 
 till 1703, “ when standing in need of repair, Mr. Win- 
 stanley came to see it; and having been among his 
 friends previously to going off with his workmen, to 
 view the repairs, the danger was intimated to him, and 
 that one day or other the light-house would certainly be 
 overset : he replied, “ He was so w'ell assured of the 
 strength of his building, he should only wish to be there 
 in the greatest storm that ever blew under the face of 
 the heavens, that he might see what effect it would have 
 on the structure.” Mr. Winstanley was but too amply 
 gratified in his wish ; for while he was there with his 
 workmen, that dreadful storm began, which raged the 
 most violently upon the 26th of November 1703, in the 
 night ; and of all the accounts of the kind which history 
 furnishes us with, we have none that exceeded this in 
 Great Britain, or was more injurious or extensive in its 
 devastation. The next morning, Nov. 27, when the 
 violence of the storm had in some measure subsided, 
 that it could be seen whether the light-house had suffer- 
 1 ed by it, nothing appeared standing, but, upon a nearer 
 
 inspection, 
 
ENGINEERING. 
 
 3 13 
 
 inspection, some of the large irons whereby the works 
 were fixed upon the rock; nor were any of the 
 people, or any of the materials, ever heard of after- 
 wards.” 
 
 The next light-house built on the Eddystone, was by 
 Mr. Rudyerd : it was finished in 1709, and destroyed 
 by fire in 1755. It was now deemed eligible to erect a 
 building, if found possible, not so likely to meet its de- 
 struction, either by the violence of the sea, or the effect 
 of fire, as both the former had been destroyed by one 
 or the other. Mr. Smeaton was now employed, and, 
 contrary to the received and popular opinion, that no 
 building could be made to stand except one formed of 
 wood, he shewed a contrary design, and boldly projected 
 alight-house of stone ; and, as he himself says, “ he shall 
 endeavour to form it and put it together, so that while, 
 by a similarity of construction, no man shall be able to 
 tell him at what joint it should overset ; for if at any given 
 height the uppermost course was then completed safe, 
 |it became more safe by another course being laid upon 
 it; and though that upper course were somewhat less in 
 weight, and in the total cohesion of its parts, than the 
 former, yet every course, from the first foundation, was 
 less and less subject to the heavy stroke of the sea.” 
 This building was formed to resist the effect of both 
 wind and water, and these acting on it occasionally in a 
 most tremendous way. The light-house is wholly of cut- 
 mason^, about 10 feet in diameter at bottom, and dimi- 
 nishing upwards conically ; it is 7 3 feet 6 inches in height, 
 measuring from the rock on which it stands to the top 
 of the cornice. Mr. Smeaton chose a curve for this 
 structure with its concavity turned outwards, and the 
 judiciousness of such a choice is now fully established. 
 From the top of the cornice to the base of the lantern 
 is 7 feet 6 inches, and from thence to the summit of the 
 ball 17 feet 6 inches, which together make a total 
 height for this structure of 97 feet 6 inches. 
 
 The form of such buildings has involved considera- 
 ble intricacy of mathematical investigation. M. La 
 Grange has calculated that a cylinder is the strongest 
 form for resisting flexure, which is contrary to the known 
 fact, and could be only deduced from the intricacy of 
 the investigation. If it were calculated what would be 
 the best form for a wooden column, which to a certain 
 depth was always to remain exposed to the water, it 
 would be found that a cone or pyramid would possess 
 the greatest possible strength for supporting the velocity 
 of the water. And for resisting the wind also, the fi- 
 gure must be made more acute than it would otherwise 
 be necessary for resisting the water only. For with- 
 standing a force which tends to overset the building, the 
 form in which the weight gives the greatest portion of 
 resistance is that of a conoid, or a solid of which the 
 outline is a parabola concave towards the axis. And 
 for procuring, by means of the weight, the greatest 
 quantity of adhesion of the parts, the form should be 
 cylindrical. To effect with success any works exposed 
 to all the multiplied events arising out of the effects of 
 nature, will require a tedious investigation, which will 
 
 involve all the skill and foresight of the engineer to whom 
 such works may be confided. 
 
 The forming of roads is of considerable importance 
 to every well-regulated country ; and although it has 
 been, perhaps, too much neglected in our own, it is now 
 receiving that attention which its importance requires. 
 
 Roads are divided into military-roads, double-roads, 
 and subterraneous-roads. 
 
 The leading feature in marking out a road consists in 
 selecting such parts of the country as will enable it to 
 reach the point to which it is intended to terminate by 
 the shortest routes, with as little deep-cutting of hills 
 as possible ; and if that cannot be avoided, to so ar- 
 range it, that the soil removed be easily conveyed to 
 those places which most require filling up. The 
 Romans took great pains in forming their military- 
 roads, as numerous vestiges still remaining attest : the 
 Via Appia is the most remarkable ; it was, according 
 to Procopius, five days’ journey in length, which Leip- 
 sius computes at 330 miles ; it was paved with hewn 
 free-stone, which has remained almost entire for 1,800 
 years. All the roads on the continent are, in some 
 measure, formed after the manner of the Roman mili- 
 tary roads. The roads leading to Paris, in almost every 
 direction, are divided into three divisions or parts, and 
 planted with as many rows of trees. The centre division 
 is raised considerably above the two roads on its sides, 
 or lateral roads, and is finished by a pave. This road 
 is intended for public carriages, and on which they 
 are obliged to move, under a heavy penalty. The late- 
 ral roads are made up of limestone, and covered with 
 screened gravel, similar to our own manner. These 
 roads, right and left of the centre road, are used for the 
 noblesse, and persons riding in their own carriages. 
 The centre road is adequately wide to admit of three or 
 more carriages abreast, which allows of crossing with- 
 out inconvenience ; and the other two roads are wide 
 enough for one or two carriages to move easily, but are 
 so regulated, that no carriage is found on the wrong 
 road : hence no interruption arises, as the travellers are 
 always found on their own road. There is also a walk 
 on each side of the two lateral roads, for foot passen- 
 gers. In Normandy, the apple tree is the one selected 
 for planting the road sides ; and in the season the great 
 abundance of the fruit is astonishing to travellers. The 
 roads in France are a considerable ornament to the 
 country, and at all the approaches to the capital, they are 
 ornamented by elegant barriers, with spacious buildings 
 for collecting the duties. Some of these buildings are 
 in the shape of antique-temples, others round, and 
 being wholly formed of free-stone, add greatly to the 
 splendour of the approaches to Paris. The French 
 consider a straight line as the most eligible for a road ; 
 hence all their roads appear a complete vista, tedious, 
 no doubt, to a traveller, but it enables him to reach his 
 journey’s end by the shortest means ; a thing of some 
 importance in a great country. In England the roads 
 are as they were left from time immemorial, and par- 
 take greatly of the general feature of the landscape of the 
 4 L country, 
 
314 
 
 ENGINEERING. 
 
 country, which they, in no small way, enliven and sup- 
 port. Our roads, such as they are, seem to partake 
 not in the least of art, which is the opposite to 
 those on the continent; and whether we ought to 
 uphold our own fashion in road making, if no great public 
 inconvenience arises out of it, remains with ourselves. 
 
 A road should always have a good bottom ; and as 
 most parts of the country abound in limestone, the most 
 eligible material for making one, it certainly would 
 be easy to accomplish that object. On the top of the 
 limestone, screenings of gravel would be the most de- 
 sirable covering. The great Bath road is so formed. 
 Every road ought to be well drained of the waters fall- 
 ing on it ; and also, those waters which may occasion- 
 ally overflow it, all should find a ready exit, through 
 culverts formed on its sides, or under it; for water lying 
 on roads, particularly such as ours are, more dilapidates 
 them than the traffic. There has been, at different times, 
 many experiments made to uphold the roads, for the 
 wear and tear has been found so great, as to prevent their 
 being kept in tolerable repair : out of these experiments, 
 which have been more directed to the carriages going on 
 them perhaps than the form of the roads themselves, 
 has arisen several ideas, such as the making of the wheels 
 of greater width, and ( f alteriug the line of draught of the 
 animals working in the carriages, putting cylindrical 
 wheels to our heavy waggons instead of those of the pre- 
 sent fashion which are conical ; and one projector pro- 
 posed, in order to make the line of draught easier, to put 
 the highest wheels of his carriages foremost. Mr. Cum- 
 mings, to whom the committee of the House of Com- 
 mons particularly referred on this subject, did not, 
 after deliberation, deem it eligible to give their support to 
 any of the numerous plans suggested ; and, of course, 
 the alterations projected were not attended to, and 
 our roads and carriages remain precisely as they were, 
 but partaking of the natural improvement arising from 
 out of the ingenuity of the people. 
 
 Iron or rail roads follow last in order. The origin 
 of which may be traced back to the year 1680. About 
 that period coal came to be substituted for wood as 
 fuel in London and other places : the consequence 
 was, that at the mines the greatest inconvenience ac- 
 crued in conveying the coal from them to the ships, as 
 well as immense expense in horses and machinery for 
 the purpose ; to remove which, waggon roads were made, 
 consisting of wooden rails or ledges, which the waggons 
 were formed to move upon, and from out of which im- 
 provement it was found that a single horse could easily 
 draw a waggon on these rails, which previously required 
 three or more horses to be employed to effect by the 
 common roads ; and it was also drawn more quickly, 
 arising from laying down the frames upon an easy descent, 
 which was always done. 
 
 In 1738, this improvement was farther improved by- 
 substituting cast-iron rails instead of the old wooden 
 ones; but owing to the old fashion waggons continuing 
 to be employed which were of too much weight for the 
 cast-iron, they did not completely succeed in this first 
 
 attempt. However, about the year 1768, a simple 
 contrivance was attempted, which was to make a num- 
 ber of smaller waggons and link them together ; and by 
 thus diffusing the weight of one large waggon into many, 
 the principal cause of the failure in the first instance 
 was removed, because the weight was more divided 
 upon the iron. In 1797, these roads having stricken the 
 minds of intelligent men as of great importance, nume- 
 rous essays appeared * * setting forth their utility, and as 
 many plans for rendering them of permanent construc- 
 tion. Hence cast-iron rail-roads became a second desi- 
 deratum to canals, excepting only that the invention is 
 due to Englishmen. After this time the cast-iron rail- 
 ways began to be constructed as branches to canals, and 
 in some places as roads of traffic from one place to an- 
 other, established upon permanent principles, so as to 
 produce a permanent revenue to the undertakers. In 
 surveying a line to set out a rail-w'ay upon, it will be 
 necessary, as a preliminary step, to ascertain as accu- 
 rately as the nature of the thing admits, the quantity of 
 lading expected to traverse each way upon its line ; be- 
 cause in forming the slope or descent, this will be the 
 data on which to ground a medium for effecting the 
 required purpose most easily. If it should turn out that 
 as much lading is expected one way as the other, with a 
 preponderance at periods only, the railing must in such 
 a case be set out in levels or in lines nearly level, and the 
 ascent and descents made by planes inclined accordingly. 
 Previously to beginning any part of the work, that is of lay- 
 ing the sleepers, &c. for the iron-rails, a rough sketch or 
 section of all the different routes intended to be passed by 
 the rail-way should be made, from which, and a view of 
 the ground the engineer will be enabled to determine the 
 place, and also the extent of the inclined planes which wilt 
 be required itj passing the steeper parts or the rising ground 
 to which these planes are to be employed : it will always 
 be desirable to get them as short as the site of the place 
 will admit. In tracing out the line of a rail-road, the fol- 
 lowing method is pursued by our best engineers : they be- 
 gin at the highest point, using a chain (of 100 links), and 
 also berms, or bench-marks, and targets as they are called. 
 The chain is stretched out upon the ground with one end 
 being held at the point of the deepest turn, and the 
 other turned round upon the face of the descent, until 
 a point marked by this end is found, which is oue link 
 lower than the upper end, or nearly so. The chain is 
 still carried forwards till its hinder end reaches the point 
 last determined. The other end is then moved, and an- 
 other point is ascertained one link lower than the last,, 
 and the operation is so continued, by which a line hav- 
 ing the regular descent of one link to each chain will 
 be traced out on the site of the intended rail-road.”" 
 The bench marks are to be put in at each successive 
 observation to mark the place found, and if it turn out 
 irregular and crooked, the operation must be again 
 repeated till the line appear more regular and without any 
 sudden bends or crooks which must be always removed 
 
 * See Dr. Anderson’s Recreations, Nicholson’s Journal, Reper- 
 tory, &c. &c. 
 
 • and. 
 
engineering. 
 
 315 
 
 and made undulating and easy, which will prevent un- 
 necessary friction in the wheels of the carriages against 
 the ribs of the rails. The rail-road when first marked 
 out has a stake or mark set up at every chain in length ; 
 and these marks are the guides by which the workmen 
 begin the operation of putting down the roads. When 
 sudden valleys present themselves approaching to higher 
 ground, it will be necessary so to conduct the line as 
 to cut into the hill at each side, and the cutting from the 
 latter will be useful in raising the road-way of the former. 
 On approaching rivers or brooks which it is determined 
 to pass, it will be necessary to keep up the rail-road to a 
 higher-level by embankments, and on passing the water to 
 raise a platform on purpose for it, composed of piers 
 of masonry or columns of iron, with a covering of iron 
 also to receive the rails ; or a bridge altogether similar 
 to an aqueduct bridge will answer the purpose. Rail- 
 ways may be divided into single and double : by the 
 former are understood when a single road only is formed ; 
 by the latter, when two or more are made for the ready 
 passage of waggons up and down the road. Single 
 roads are generally made, including horse and attendant 
 paths, four yards wide ; and double ones vary from six 
 to eight yards wide, exclusive of all the common ap- 
 pendages to such roads of drains, fences, &c. &c. In 
 forming permanent rail-ways stone sleepers are neces- 
 sary. These consist of pieces of good sound free-stone 
 with their upper faces wrought fair, and should weigh 
 from 150 to 200lb. each, with their ends which 
 come together wrought smooth, so that the joints may 
 be firm and close. The work of setting the sleepers 
 must commence as soon as the road has received a to- 
 lerable surface in point of regularity. In cases in which 
 there has been much making up or embanking the 
 ground, short piles ( as shewn Plate 2, Fig. 7, B B) 
 should be driven down to receive the stone-sleepers, 
 taking care to let the head of the pile come exactly 
 under each meeting or joint of the stone-sleeper. 
 
 In commencing the work of laying down the stones, 
 great exactness will be necessary in order to the iron-rails 
 laying firmly on them ; w hen one of the stone sleepers is 
 laid in the proper place for one side of the rail-way, 
 and nicely bedded and rammed down, another is to be laid 
 at four feet distance from it, and bedded in a similar way. 
 When these two stones are laid, they will operate as 
 guides for proceeding in laying more stones, right and 
 left, which should be carried forward together. A A, 
 Plate 2, Fig. 7, represents the stone sleepers ; B B 
 the piles or blocks for supporting the sleepers in infirm j 
 ground ; C C the sections for the cast-iron rails. ! 
 Every tram or rail-road must be provided with passing 
 places ; a passing place consists in forming large 
 plates of cast-iron, in such a manner as to admit of 
 common rails being joined to them, and which will 
 allow the w’aggons traversing the road to pass off into 
 another or adjoining track. Plate 2, Fig. 8, shews a 
 passing place for a double rail-road drawn to a quick 
 sweep : but the turning or passing place need not be»of 
 such acuteness in general, but may follow a more obtuse 
 
 shape, as best suits the nature of the place to be passed. 
 Plate 2, Fig. 8, represents the plan of the two meet- 
 ing cast-iron plates, D D ; these plates should be 
 accurately modelled in wood for the founder ; and they 
 should be so adjusted as that one model may serve for 
 as many passing places as possible on the line of the 
 proposed road ; F F shews the joints where the com- 
 mon rails meet the passing ones ; E E are moveable 
 iron tongues placed in the centre of the passing plate ; 
 D D, which allow, by turning them round on a centre, 
 of being removed to either side of the plate to keep 
 the wheels of the waggons in the track required ; so 
 that a waggon may go on either side of the road by 
 putting the tongue in the opposite direction. The side 
 rails are shewn at G G ; these consist of common side 
 rails, except only that they must be modelled and 
 founded to the intended shape of the passing place. HH 
 shews the horse-path of the rail-road at the passing 
 place. Plate 2, Fig. 9, exhibits a single length of a 
 common rail for a road with its projecting margin ; K 
 to keep the waggon wheels in the track ; as also the 
 grooves, I I, through the ends or meetings to allow of 
 their being fastened to the stone sleepers. The com- 
 mon method of fastening the cast-iron rails to the stone 
 sleepers, consists in previously making in the stone an 
 octangular perforation opposite to every joint intended 
 in the cast-iron rails, into which a trunnion of good 
 sound oak is fitted, with the grain of the wood pre- 
 senting its section uppermost. The perforations to 
 receive the oaken trunnions should be made quite 
 through the stone, in order to prevent the effects of the 
 frost, which, if not through, the water laying in the 
 hole, w'ill become frozen, expand, and shiver the stone into 
 pieces. When the iron rails are nicely arranged upon the 
 bearers or sleepers, they are to be fixed down by driving 
 an iron key pointed at its lower end, so as to allow of its 
 being driven into the oaken trunnion ; the iron key has 
 a head projecting similar to the letter T ; and its lower 
 shaft is made exactly in size to fill the void or groove 
 left in the ends of the iron rails, as shewn at I I, Fig. 9. 
 The common cast-iron rails for roads are formed in 
 lengths of about three feet each ; they are made about 
 four inches wide upon the fiat, or that part intended 
 for the wheel of the waggon to move upon, and which 
 is about one inch in thickness, sloped off a little to the 
 horse-track : the projecting rim rises two inches and a 
 half from the flat or bottom of the rail ; in its centre 
 forming the segment of a circle projecting upwards 
 about an inch only at its meetings. ( See Fig. 9.) 
 The cast-iron plates at the passing places should be 
 made somewhat stronger than the common rails, as at 
 the passing places there is the greatest wear and tear 
 upon the whole line. The iron moveable tongues, 
 
 E E, Fig. 8, should be of wrought iron, and made 
 about two feet six inches or three feet long, standing 
 up upon the plate equal in projection to the highest 
 part of the rim, K, of the common rails. It should 
 be on a good strong axis or pin, that it may be strong 
 and yet allow of being easily turned round, which it 
 
 will, 
 
316 
 
 ENGINEERING. 
 
 will require to be every time the waggons are passing 
 by the different tracks up and down the rail-way. In 
 passing deep descents, pieces of cast or wrought iron 
 must be provided, called sledges or slippers ; these are 
 provided to be placed under the wheels of the waggons 
 to prevent their too rapid descent, and are similar in 
 principle to the same kind of instrument made use of 
 and appended to our road-waggons, for putting under 
 the wheels on their going down a hill. When the 
 whole iron rail-way is fixed, and levelled to the satis- 
 faction of the engineer, it will be necessary to begin to 
 prepare the horse and attendant paths ; the foundation 
 of the former should be, if possible, composed of good 
 lime-stone broken into small fragments, and strewed to 
 the consistence of at least from 10 inches to 14 inches in 
 thickness, rather convex towards the centre of the path, 
 upon this large screenings of gravel should be laid : the 
 attendant path should be firm and regular, with a 
 gravelly surface. The horse-track and rails ought to be 
 always kept clear and free from soil, which is con- 
 stantly collecting on rail-roads of great traffic ; and they 
 ought also to be properly drained and kept dry at all 
 seasons of the year ; as on this, in a great measure, 
 will depend their substantiality, and of course, their 
 utility. 
 
 With respect to the waggons employed on iron rail- 
 roads, those in most general use are so constructed, 
 that their weight, including their lading, does not ex- 
 ceed three tons and a quarter. This is found by expe- 
 rience to be the most eligible size : as the rail-roads re- 
 tain their shape without much dilapidation, by the use 
 of waggons equal to such weight. The wheels of the 
 waggons are made of cast iron, two feet five inches 
 high, having twelve spokes, which increase in width as 
 they approach the hub, or centre of the wheel. The 
 hub is eight inches long, and receives an axle of wrought 
 iron, the rims of the wheels are two inches broad. The 
 axles of the wheels are fixed at two feet seven inches 
 distance from each other ; the bodies of these waggons 
 are seven feet nine inches long, four feet five inches 
 wide, and two feet four inches deep ; and this sized wag- 
 gon is calculated to contain the quantity of coal, or other 
 matter, equivalent, with the waggon added to it, to make 
 a w eight altogether amounting to three tons and a quarter, 
 as before stated, as the most eligible weight to move 
 upon a cast-iron rail-road. In the Philosophical Ma- 
 gazine, July, J811, are the following remarks concern- 
 ing waggons, and also rail-roads, from which some idea 
 may be formed of the utility of such roads. “The 
 waggons on our cast-iron rail-roads, have not received 
 the improvements of which they are capable ; but with 
 their present disadvantages, the following facts will evince 
 the great saving of animal force to which rail-ways have 
 given rise: “ First, with a declivity of one and a quarter 
 inch per yard, one horse takes downwards three wag- 
 
 gons, each containing two tons : Second, in another 
 place, with a rise of l-^th of an inch per yard, one 
 horse takes two tons upwards. Third, with eight feet 
 rise in 66 yards, which is nearly one-fourth of an 
 inch per yard, one horse takes two tons upwards. 
 Fourth, on the Penrhyn* railway, (same slope as above), 
 tw r o horses draw downwards four waggons, con- 
 taining one ton of slate each. Fifth, with a slope of 
 55 feet per milef, one horse takes from 12 to 15 tons 
 dowmwards, and four tons upwards, and all the empty 
 waggons. Sixth, at Ayr, one horse draws on a level 
 five waggons, each containing one ton of coal . Seventh, 
 on the Surrey rail-way one horse, on a declivity of one 
 inch in 10 feet, is said to draw thirty quarters of wheat. 
 From these cases, and the known laws of mechanics, 
 we may perhaps safely infer, that where the apparatus is 
 tolerably good, and well constructed, and the slope 1-0 
 feet per mile, two horses may draw five tons upwards, 
 and seven tons dowmvards. 
 
 In cases in which inclined planes are to be had re- 
 course to, to carry the rail-road over high ground, (and 
 as there are several now passing such ridges,) the mode 
 pursued in raising the waggons may not be unacceptable. 
 The common plan is by a perpetual chain suspended at 
 each end : it is so contrived, that the waggons disen- 
 gage themselves the moment they arrive at the upper or 
 lower extremity of the inclined plane. In some cases, 
 the laden waggons descending, serve as a power to bring 
 up the empty ones ; but where there is an ascending as 
 well as a descending traffic on the rail-way, steam-en- 
 gines, water-wheels, or other machinery, to answer the 
 same purpose, are used. “ At Chapel le Frith there is 
 an inclined plane of 550 yards. On the proposed rail 
 from Glasgow to Berwick several inclined planes will be 
 required, the summit of that rail-way being 753 feet 
 above the level end of Berwick quay.” As to the ex- 
 pense of rail-ways, they are inconsiderable, in compari- 
 son of canals. According to Mr. Fulton, “ the cost of 
 a single rail-road, with sufficient crossing places for a 
 descending trade, was estimated at 1 ,600i . per mile.” 
 In Dr. Anderson’s recreations, ljOOOof. is mentioned as 
 the estimate for a double one. However, Mr. Fulton’s 
 is most likely to be the nearest to accuracy, as his cal- 
 culations were made from observation, and embraced 
 the whole minutiae of such a work. 
 
 The principal rail-ways in England and Wales, are, 
 the Cardiff and Merthyn, 26 * miles long, and runs 
 near the Glamorganshire canal. The Caermarthen. 
 The Sexhowry, 28 miles, in the counties of Monmouth 
 and Brecknock. The Surrey, 26 miles. The Swansea, 
 7 1 miles. One between Gloucester and Cheltenham. 
 Besides several in the north of England. 
 
 * Plymley’s Agricultural Report of Shropshire, 
 t Repertory, vol. iii. 
 
 | Malcolm’s Agricultural Report of Surrey, 
 
ENAMELLING. 
 
 Enamelling is the art of laying enamel on metals, 
 as gold, silver, copper, &c., and of melting it at the 
 fire, or of making divers carious works in it at a lamp. 
 This art is of so great antiquity, as to render it difficult 
 or impossible to trace ittoits origin, ltwas evidently prac- 
 tised by the Egyptians, from the remains that have been 
 observed on the ornamented envelopes of mummies. 
 From Egypt it passed into Greece, and afterwards into 
 Rome and its provinces, whence it was probably intro- 
 duced into this country ; as various Roman antiquities 
 have been dug up in different parts of Britain, particu- 
 larly in the Barrows, in which enamels have formed 
 portions of the ornaments. The following are instances 
 in proof of the antiquity of the art in this country : a 
 jewel found at Athelney in Somersetshire, and now 
 preserved at Oxford, bears witness to it, and by 
 an inscription upon it, there is no doubt it was made by 
 order of the great king Alfred. The gold cup, given by 
 king John to the corporation of Lynn in Norfolk, proves 
 that the art was known among the Normans, as the 
 sides of the cup are embellished with various figures 
 whose garments are partly composed of coloured ena- 
 mels. The tomb of Edward the Confessor, in West- 
 minster Abbey, built in the reign of Henry III., was 
 ornamented with enamels ; and a crosier of William of 
 Wykeham, in the time of Edward III., exhibits cu- 
 rious specimens of the application of the art of ena- 
 melling. 
 
 Enamels are vitrifiable substances, and are usually 
 arrauged into three classes, viz. the transparent, the 
 semi-transparent, and opaque. The basis of all kinds of 
 enamel is a perfectly transparent and fusible glass, which 
 is rendered either semi-transparent or opaque, by the ad- ' 
 mixture of metallic oxydes. M. Klaproth, some years ago, 
 read to the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin, a very 
 elaborate paper, the result of much research, “ On the 
 pastes, coloured glasses, and enamels of the ancients.” ! 
 From this we learn, that the art of colouring glass | 
 seems to be of nearly the same antiquity as the invention 
 of making it ; which is proved, not only from written I 
 documents, but likewise by the variously coloured glass J 
 corals with which several of the Egyptian mummies are 
 decorated. This art supposes the possession of some 
 chemical knowledge of the metallic oxydes, because 
 these are the only substances capable, as far as we now 
 know, of producing such an effect. Still a difficulty 
 occurs : what were the means and processes employed 
 by the ancients for this purpose ? as they had no ac- 
 
 quaintance with the mineral acids, which at present are 
 usually employed in the preparation of metallic oxydes. 
 It is, however, certain, that the art of giving many 
 various colours to glass, must have obtained a consider- 
 able degree of perfection, as Pliny mentions the arti- 
 ficial imitation of the “ Carbuncle,” which was, at that, 
 time, a gem m the highest estimation. During the 
 reign of Augustus, the Roman architects began to make 
 use of coloured glass in their Mosaic decorations : thus 
 it is known that an application of glass-pastes was re- 
 sorted to, in a villa built by the emperor Tiberius on 
 the island of Capri. Several specimens of this coming 
 into the possession of Klaproth, were subjected, by 
 that able chemist, to a chemical analysis ; and he has 
 detailed a very particular account of the several pro- 
 cesses which he performed to ascertain the component 
 parts of the different coloured glasses found in the ruins 
 of the above-mentioned villa. His first attempt w'as 
 upon the antique red glass, of which the colour is de- 
 scribed as of a lively copper red. The mass was 
 opaque, and very bright at the place of fracture ; and of 
 tjwo hundred grains finely triturated, he found the con- 
 
 stituent parts to be, 
 
 Silex 142 grains 
 
 Oxyde of Lead .... 28 
 
 • of Copper ... 15 
 
 of Iron .... 2 
 
 Alumine 5 
 
 Lime 3 
 
 195 
 
 Loss .... 5 
 
 200 
 
 On comparing the external characters of this red 
 glass-paste with the cupreous scoriae of a lively brown- 
 red, such as is sometimes obtained on melting copper 
 ores, M. Klaproth imagines that the ancients did not 
 compound the above-mentioned paste directly from its 
 constituent parts, but instead of them, employed, per- 
 haps, copper scoriae. And he adds, on this supposi- 
 tion, they had nothing more to do, than to select the 
 best coloured pieces to fuse and cast them into plates. 
 
 In green glass, he found the constituent parts the 
 same as in the red, but in different proportions. Both 
 receive their colour from copper; and the reason 
 why this metal produces in the on je a red, and in the 
 4 M other 
 
318 
 
 ENAMELLING. 
 
 other a green colour depends on the different degrees of 
 its oxygenation : it being an ascertained fact that copper 
 in the state of a sub-oxyde, that is, only half saturated 
 with oxygen, produces a reddish enamel, but when 
 fully saturated with oxygen the enamel yielded is 
 green. 
 
 M. Klaproth next analyzed the blue glass paste in 
 which he found, next to the silex, that the oxyde of 
 iron is the most predominating article. He expected 
 to find that the colour had been given by cobalt, but 
 could not discover the smallest trace of it, and therefore 
 he infers that its blue colour entirely depends on the 
 iron. This excited in him no surprise, knowing that 
 iron, under certain circumstances, is capable of produ- 
 cing a blue enamel, as is clearly exhibited by the beau- 
 tifully blue coloured scoriae of iron, which are frequently 
 met with in the highly heated furnaces on smelting iron 
 stones. Our object in referring to these experiments is 
 the fact that the coloured glass pastes of the ancients 
 agree, in many respects, w-ith modern enamels. 
 
 According to the writer in Dr. Rees’s New Cyclope- 
 dia, white enamels are composed by melting the oxyde 
 of tin with glass, and adding a small quantity of manga- 
 nese to increase the brilliancy of the colour. The addi- 
 tion of oxyde of lead or antimony produces a yellow 
 enamel : but a more beautiful yellow may be obtained 
 from the oxyde of silver. Reds are formed by an inter- 
 mixture of the oxydes of gold and iron, that composed 
 by the former being the most beautiful and permanent. 
 Greens, violets, and blues are formed from the oxydes 
 of copper, cobalt and iron ; and these, when intermixed 
 in different proportions, afford a great variety of inter- 
 mediate colours. Sometimes the oxydes are mixed be- 
 fore they are united to the vitreous bases. Such are, 
 according to this author, the principal ingredients em- 
 ployed in the production of various enamels ; but the 
 proportions in which they are used, as well as the de- 
 gree and continuance of the heat necessary to their per- 
 fection constitute the secrets of the art. Besides these, 
 there are probably other substances occasionally 
 used in the composition of enamels, and it has been 
 asserted that the peculiar quality of the best kinds of 
 Venetian enamel, is owing to the admixture of a parti- 
 cular substance found on Mount Vesuvius, and ascer- 
 tained to be thrown up by that volcano. 
 
 Enamels, as we have seen, are commonly laid upon a 
 metal ground; they are, however, sometimes used in 
 substance for dishes, flower-pots, and ornamented ves- 
 sels of different kinds. In these cases the enamel is run 
 into moulds, immediately from the pots in which it has j 
 been melted. The metals employed in this business are 
 gold, silver, and copper ; of the others some are too 
 jusible to endure the action of the fire, and others, as I 
 platina, &c. are too strong for the enamel ; that is, the 
 adhesion between the two substances is not sufficiently 
 powerful to keep them together, the enamel cracking 
 as it grows cold, and flying off in flakes. Hence it is 
 inferred that a cei tain, though perhaps very slight de- 
 gree of oxydatiou is necessary to make the enamel and j 
 
 the metal unite with firmness. Gold is the best sub- 
 stance for enamelling upon because its richness’of colour 
 exhibits a beautiful tinge through the enamel, but on 
 account of its price copper is most used. 
 
 Enamelling in this country is by custom divided into 
 two branches, viz. dial-plate enamelling, and transpa- 
 rent enamelling. The former includes the manufacture 
 of clock and watch plates : the latter comprehends 
 the enamelling of watch cases, and other articles of 
 jewellery. 
 
 Dial-plate enamelling is divided into two parts or 
 branches, viz. the hard and the soft : in the first branch 
 the Venetian enamels only are employed, which if 
 genuine are made at Venice, but from the operations 
 of w*ar are now very difficult to be obtained, and what 
 used to fetch only two or three shillings per lb. are not 
 to be had for twice as many pounds. In soft enamel- 
 ling the English or glass enamels are used. 
 
 In preparing the metal to be enamelled on, the pro- 
 cess is the same whether it be gold, silver or copper. 
 To take copper, as an example, in the manufacture of 
 watch-dials. The copper being evenly flatted in long 
 slips and brought to a proper degree of thickness, pieces 
 are cut off for use, according to the size w anted. They 
 are then annealed, to give them the pliability requisite 
 for receiving the dies. The dies are intended to bring 
 the plates into the proper form ; and to punch the eye 
 or eyes out, according as the watch is intended only to 
 exhibit the minutes; or minutes and seconds, &c. When 
 these are made, the plates are ready to have the feet 
 soldered on, by which it is to be pinned down to the 
 brass edge or frame of the watch. The feet are always 
 of wire of the same kind of metal as that to be ena- 
 melled upon, and they are fastened to the copper by 
 means of speltre, or of silver solder. When the legs 
 are soldered on, the plates should be thrown into the 
 pickling pan, as it is called, to free them from the 
 scale or oxydable covering acquired by the heat commu- 
 nicated during the operation of soldering. The pickle 
 is a solution of sulphuric or nitric acid. When the 
 scales of oxyde are removed the plates are fit for ena- 
 melling. 
 
 The enamel as it comes from the makers is generally 
 in small cakes from four to five inches in diameter. This 
 is finely triturated, but the exact point at which tritura- 
 tion should be discontinued can only be ascertained by 
 experience, as the different kinds of enamels, and the 
 several modes of application, require the ground enamel 
 to be either more or less fine. In this process many coppers 
 are usually prepared to go on with at once, in order to 
 save time, materials and labour. When the enamel is 
 ground, the coppers having been first cleansed by the 
 pickle, and carefully brushed out with water, are spread 
 with their faces downwards on a smooth napkin, aud a 
 thin layer of hard enamel, called, in its ground state, 
 the backing, is spread over the under sides with the end 
 of a quill or with a small bone spoon. The coppers are 
 then slightly pressed on by another soft cloth or napkin, 
 which by imbibing some portion of the water, renders 
 
ENAMELLING. 
 
 319 
 
 the enamel dry enough to be smoothly and evenly spread 
 with the rounded side of a steel spatula. This opera- 
 tion is to be repeated till the back becomes completely 
 smooth, and the enamel is of an equal thickness all 
 over. When it is properly spread and the loose parti- 
 cles are cleared away from the edge and eyes of the cop- 
 pers, the process of “ laying the bottoms” is finished 
 The next operation is to lay the first coats ; that is, to 
 spread a layer of glass enamel over the upper sides of 
 the coppers. In doing this, great care must be taken 
 to remove any dirt or extraneous particles of enamel, as 
 the mixture of any hard euamel with the glass would in- 
 fallibly spoil the work. The glass is then spread upon 
 the copper in a layer, and when the water is taken up, 
 the first coats are placed upon rings for firing. The 
 rings used in enamelling are made of a mixture of pipe- 
 makers and Stourbridge clay rolled up in the form of 
 cylinders, aud turned in a lathe by means of a cylindri- 
 cal piece of wood forced through the centre of the mass 
 while it is wet. Each ring is made on the upper side 
 slightly concave, and the under side is nearly flat. 
 Through the concavity thus given to the rings, the edge 
 of the copper or dial plate only is suffered to touch, by 
 means of which the enamel on the back remains undis- 
 turbed, and the edges are prevented from sticking by 
 rubbing over the surfaces of the rings with soft chalk or 
 whiting. The first coats having been carefully placed 
 on, the rings are next put into a shallow tin vessel, and 
 the moisture slowly evaporated from the enamel by a 
 moderate heat ; for if the evaporation be too quick, the 
 work will be in danger of being spoilt by blisters; these 
 are small air bubbles, which by rising to the surface of 
 the dial plates, destroy their smoothness and beauty. 
 The “ firing” is executed beneath a muffle, placed in a 
 small furnace ignited with coke and charcoal. The pro- 
 per degree of heat being given the enamel melts, and 
 becoming in a short time properly consolidated, the first 
 coat is complete. The enamel must not be over-fired, 
 as in that case the glass w'ould lose some portion of 
 its opacity, independently of other defects that might be 
 detrimental to the work. As all solids when reduced to 
 a granulated state occupy a greater space than before, it 
 will be found that a very considerable depression has 
 been produced in the enamel of the first coats by the act 
 of fusion, and that the edges and eyes of the plates are 
 now much above the surface. This deficiency in sub- 
 stance it is the business of the “ second coats” to sup- 
 ply, which are given in the same manner as that already 
 described. The second firing requires an equally cau- 
 tious management as the former. The plates must not j 
 be over fired, nor must the enamel be suffered to melt ! 
 too rapidly, but a kind of rotatory motion called cod- j 
 dling must be given to the w ork till the fusi( n be com- ’ 
 plete; a pn per knowledge of which can only be gained 
 by practice. The work is now fit for polishing , which 
 term not only means to render bright according to the 
 usual acceptation of the word, but also to make even 
 without any reference to glossiness. The enamel has 
 a natural brightness of surface acquired from the fire ; 
 
 and when this is removed, it is only necessary.again to 
 expose it to a due heat to cause it to re-assume its for- 
 mer character. Yet as this brightness exists independ- 
 ently of evenness, and as evenness is essential to the per- 
 fection of enamelling, it is requisite in most cases to 
 produce that quality by polishing. 
 
 The materials used in polishing glass plates are grey- 
 stones, rag-stones, sometimes called burrs, fine-ground 
 silver-sand and water. In this operation, great care must 
 be taken that the pressure be not too powerful, as the 
 plates will in that case crack in the fire, and can never be 
 properly mended. When the enamel is sufficiently po- 
 lished, which is known by the criterion of all the 
 gloss being removed, the plates must be clean washed, 
 and the specks of dirt picked out with a sharp graver; 
 and being wiped dry are again placed upon the rings 
 for firing. When the surface is properly run and be- 
 come smooth, even and bright, the plate is completed, 
 and when cold it is fit for painting on. 
 
 For more common work there are two other modes 
 practised ; these are called “ run-down plates” and 
 “ run-down second coats.” The former are those 
 which are made by laying the enamel upon the coppers 
 in sufficient quantity to form plates of the required thick- 
 ness, without putting on a second coat. Both labour 
 and fire are thus saved, but that neatness and regularity 
 which are acquired by the first method are rarely at- 
 tainable in this. Of course only the most common 
 work can be thus manufactured. There is a superior 
 method to this made use of, viz. “ the run-dow n one- 
 coats,” which are polished off with rag-stone and un- 
 dergo a second firing. The “ run-down second coats” 
 are those w'hich are reduced to a surface comparatively 
 even by a second fire. 
 
 “ In enamelling hard plates" says the writer already 
 referred to, “ for w atches, the coppers and the first coats 
 are prepared in the manner already described, excepting 
 that the layer of glass is rather thinner than in glass- 
 w'ork only. The hard enamel is broken down and 
 ground in the same way as the glass, if a small quantity 
 alone be wanted ; but if otherwise, it is first broken 
 from the cake with a hammer, and then pounded in a 
 steel mortar till reduced to coarse grains. These grains 
 are then exposed to the action of a magnet, in order 
 that all the particles of steel that have been broken off 
 the mortar in the act of pounding may be taken away, 
 as they would infallibly spoil the w'ork by rising in black 
 specks to the surface of the enamel when in the fire. 
 As an additional precaution, it is also necessary to put 
 the granulated enamel into a small bason, and pouring 
 upon it a strong solution of sulphuric or nitrous acid, to 
 suffer it to stand some hours that the steel particles may 
 be wholly dissolved, after which the enamel is to be 
 carefully washed till the water comes off pure aud 
 tasteless. The enamel is then ground to the necessary 
 fineness in an agate mortar, and afterwards spread over 
 the first coat with a quill in small quantities, and as 
 evenly as it can be laid. The water is then partly ab- 
 sorbed by a fine clean napkin, and the euamel smoothly 
 
 spread 
 
320 
 
 ENAMELLING. 
 
 spread and closely compressed with the spatula, after 
 which more water is absorbed, and the spreading is 
 continued till the surface lies even. The plate is then 
 put upon a ring, and properly tired ; and it is afterwards 
 polished by placing it upon a cork, the top edge being 
 taken off with a fine grey-stone, and wearing away the 
 surface, first, by a very fine-grained Lancashire file, or 
 smooth piece of steel, and silver-sand, ground to an 
 almost impalpable powder ; secondly, by a fine blue- 
 stone and sand ; and, thirdly, by the blue-stone alone. 
 With the latter, a sort of half polish should be given 
 the enamel, and the nigher that polish approaches to 
 complete glossiness the better, as the plate will then be 
 finished by a third fire with a less degree of heat than 
 would be otherwise wanted. In this process, much 
 caution is required to prevent scratches which cannot 
 be run up by the fire, without giving the enamel a 
 greater degree of heat than it will bear. When the po- 
 lishing is completed, the plate is carefully cleaned with 
 ground enamel ; and if there should be any specks, they 
 must be picked out with a small and sharp diamond, 
 and the hollows very dexterously filled up with enamel, 
 that they may neither rise above nor sink below the 
 common surface, when the plate is again fired. Hard 
 enamel dials are always considerably more costly than 
 glass ones, owing to the greater labour and attention 
 that are requisite in making them ; and the best 
 watches are almost always made up with dials of this 
 kind.” 
 
 The operations of “ transparent enamelling” are 
 nearly similar to those that have been already described 
 in the manufacture of watch dials. But as the work is 
 generally of a more minute kind, greater delicacy of 
 handling is required. Watch cases are usually enamelled 
 on gold, as well as the superior articles of the fancy 
 kind ; and thfe surface of the gold is frequently engraved 
 into different figures and compartments, before the 
 enamel is laid on ; hence the work has a beautiful 
 variegated appearance through the enamelled coating. 
 
 In ornamental transparent work, a good effect is pro- 
 duced by applying small and very thin pieces of gold or 
 silver, cut or stamped into different figures, as acorns, 
 oak-leaves, vine-leaves, bunches of grapes, fruits, &c., 
 upon the surface of the first coating of enamel, where 
 they are fixed by fire, and are afterwards covered over 
 by the second, through which they make a beautiful 
 appearance. 
 
 Such are the mechanical operations : we shall now 
 proceed to consider the nature and composition of ena- 
 mels. The exact composition of the opaque white 
 enamel is a matter of considerable importance in this 
 trade : it should be of a very clear fine white, so nearly 
 opaque as only to be translucent at the edges, and at a 
 moderate red heat it should run into a kind of paste or 
 imperfect fusion, which allows it to extend itself freely 
 and uniformly, and to acquire a glossy even surface, 
 without fully running into a thin glass. The opaque 
 white of this enamel is given by the oxyde of tin, which 
 possesses, even in a very small proportion, the property 
 
 I of rendering vitrescent mixtures white and opaque, or 
 j milky, and when otherwise coloured, opalascent. The 
 oxyde of tin is always mixed with three or four times its 
 quantity of oxyde of lead, and it appears necessary that 
 the metals should be previously mixed by melting, and 
 the alloy then calcined ; but on this subject, and on 
 others of a similar nature, we shall give the directions 
 of M. Clouet, taken from the 34th vol. of the Annales 
 de Chemie. 
 
 White enamel, either for earthen-ware, or the pur- 
 pose of being applied on metals, is composed in the 
 following manner: You first calcine a mixture of lead 
 and tin, which may be varied in the following propor- 
 tions, viz. for 100 parts of lead, 15, 20, 30, and 
 even 40 of tin. A mixture of lead and tin calcines 
 very easily in contact with the air. As soon as this 
 mixture is brought to a red heat, nearly a cherry colour, 
 it burns like charcoal, and is calcined speedily. The 
 composition which calcines best, is that which in 100 
 pounds of lead contains from 20 to 25 of tin. The tin, 
 here meant, is pure tin. In proportion as the calcina- 
 tion is effected, you must take out the calcined part, 
 and continue to oxydate the rest, until the whole has 
 become pulverulent. As some small particles always 
 escape calcination, you must expose to the fire a second 
 time the oxyde obtained, in order to calcine it com- 
 pletely ; which may be easily known by its ceasing to 
 sparkle ; that is to say, when you no longer see any 
 parts bum like coal, and when the whole appears of 
 an uniform colour. When the proportion of tin exceeds 
 25 or 30, a stronger fire is necessary to produce calci- 
 nation. In a word, by varying the degrees of heat, you 
 will be able to discover that best suited to the mixture 
 on which you operate. A hundred parts of the calx 
 above-mentioned, which in the French potteries is 
 called calcine, is generally taken with 100 parts of sand. 
 From 25 to 36 pounds of sea-salt, or muriate of soda, 
 are added : the whole is well mixed together, and it is 
 fused in the bottom of a furnace in which potter’s ware 
 is baked. This matter is generally placed on sand, on 
 lime quenched in the open air, or on ashes. The bot- 
 tom of the mass is in general badly fused. This, how- 
 ever, does not prevent the matter, after it has been 
 pounded, and applied on the articles, from becoming 
 exceedingly white and hard in the furnace. When taken 
 from the furnace, it is not white ; it is even often very 
 black : in general it is marbled with black, grey, and 
 white. This process is that generally used in potteries. 
 In the composition destined for earthen-ware, the pro- 
 portion of 25 parts of tin to 100 of lead is never ex- 
 ceeded : for common earthen-ware, the manufacturers 
 are even satisfied with 15 of tin to 100 of lead. It may 
 be easily seen, that if you wish to obtain an enamel 
 whiter and more fusible, you must diminish the quantity 
 of sand ; but there is no necessity for augmenting that 
 of the sea-salt, or muriate of soda ; as the whiteness 
 and opacity depend on the quantity of tin, calcine may 
 be used, which contains 25 or 30 per cent. For exam- 
 ple, 100 of such calcine, 60 of sand, and 25 of marine 
 
ENAMELLING. 
 
 321 
 
 salt, give a composition exceedingly fusible. But it is 
 to be observed, that it is necessary to employ some fur- 
 ther manipulations when you wish to have enamel pro- 
 per for being applied on metal, and are desirous to give 
 it all the perfection of which it is susceptible. In that 
 case, you do not employ crude sand, but calcine it in a 
 strong heat, with a quarter of its weight of marine salt, 
 either in a small quantity in a crucible, or on a large 
 scale in a potter’s furnace. If you wish to have a very 
 fusible enamel, you may even add minium, or lead 
 calcined by the former operation, and nearly as much 
 sea-salt, that is to say, a fourth. You then obtain a 
 white mass, half fused and porous, which you pul- 
 verise, and employ in the composition of enamel instead 
 of sand, and in the same proportions as sand : you may 
 diminish the quantity of this matter to 50 per cent., if 
 you are desirous to obtain an enamel very fusible. This 
 will depend also on the calcine employed ; for that 
 which is most charged with tin is the least fusible. 
 When you wish to have fluxes for the colours, you em- 
 ploy the same compositions before mentioned, except 
 that you put little or no tin into the lead. In the latter 
 case you must generally employ minium. This flux is 
 good for certain colours, but not for all. There are 
 some which become tarnished by fluxes, that contain 
 the oxydes of lead. In that case, you must make 
 fluxes without oxyde of lead. Nitre and borax are 
 generally used for making this glass, but without oxyde 
 of tin. 
 
 The following are those which M. Clouet has tried : 
 Three parts of siliceous sand, one of chalk, and three 
 of calcined borax, give a matter proper to be used as a 
 flux for purples, blues, and other delicate colours. 
 Three parts of white or flint glass, one of calcined bo- 
 rax, a quarter of a part of nitre, one of the white oxyde 
 of antimony made with nitre well washed, give an 
 exceedingly white enamel, which may serve also as a 
 flux for purple, and particularly for blue. Sixty parts 
 of enamel sand or less, thirty of alum, thirty-five of sea- 
 salt, and a hundred of minium, or any other oxyde of 
 lead, give a white enamel when the fluxes do not pre- 
 dominate too much, and a gelatinous glass w hen a great 
 deal of flux has been added. This glass is good for 
 red, and the enamel may be applied to all kinds of clay 
 capable of sustaining a strong heat. It is of great im- 
 portance to remark, and to know, that the sand em- 
 ployed for enamel must not be sand which contains 
 only silex ; sand of that kind alone is of no use. The 
 sand proper for this purpose is that which contains talc 
 with silex. To make a sand proper for enamel, and 
 the fluxes of colours, &c., there must be nearly one 
 part of talc, and three of siliceous sand. What appears 
 most essential in regard to the success of enamel, is the 
 choice of sand. It is very possible to compose this 
 sand by art ; and though (says M. Clouet) I have not 
 decomposed it, I have found by synthesis, that three 
 parts of siliceous sand and one of talc, form an excel- 
 lent sand for enamel. From this it may be readily seen, 
 that to compose with facility sand for enamel, nothing 
 
 is necessary but to determine, by a good analysis, the 
 quantity of talc. This sand may be procured in places 
 w here earthen-w'are is made. It -may be easily known ; 
 for, besides the siliceous sand, which forms the great- 
 est part of it, you may observe in it talcy particles in 
 great abundance ; and to be good, it must contain 
 nearly a quarter. When it does not contain a sufficient 
 quantity, the enamel it produces fuses with more diffi- 
 culty, and does not become smooth ; it remains granu- 
 lated and pitted. There are certainly some combina- 
 tions of earth which may produce very good fluxes, 
 either for enamel or for transparent colours. It might 
 be attended with advantage to try some of these combi- 
 nations. Ponderous earth (barytes) and lime fuse very 
 well together : by adding a little silex, or a little mag- 
 nesia, it is probable that an excellent matter might be 
 produced. If this glass, composed of lime and barytes 
 only, had sufficient solidity to resist the air and weak 
 acids, there would be no necessity, perhaps, to add 
 silex ; but if the marine salt ought to enter into the 
 composition of this kind of glass, it should seem, that 
 silex ought likewise to form a part of it. The experi- 
 ments on this head, for the sake of trial, may be varied 
 different ways. When the glass destined to serve as 
 flux for colours is employed, it is customary, in order 
 that they may be tendered more fusible, to add a little 
 nitre and borax. The common borax of the shops 
 contains an excess of soda, which it would probably be 
 of benefit to saturate with the nitric acid, or the flux 
 might be re-baked with the dose of nitre and borax, or 
 of nitric borax, which might be added before being 
 employed. It is only to colours, such as purple and the 
 oxyde of cobalt, that nitre and borax are added. 
 
 Our chemist tried to find a substitute for marine salt, 
 in the composition of W’hite enamel. Potash produced 
 only an ugly and ill fused grey mass, which acquired no 
 lustre in the furnace ; nitre produced a green mass, but 
 exceedingly friable ; sulphate of potash produced very 
 nearly the same effect, only the mass w'as a little whiter ; 
 but neither of these enamels was worth any thing. Pure 
 soda was not tried, but common soda has been extolled; 
 as, however, it contains a great deal of marine salt, it 
 must undoubtedly be on account of this salt that it pro- 
 duces a good effect. Pure soda may nevertheless be 
 tried, either alone or with marine salt ; it perhaps might 
 produce no bad effect with potash. A mixture of equal 
 parts of lime and argil has been tried, to which was 
 added one part of silex, and likewise without silex ; but 
 this mixture did not supply the place of talchy sand. 
 This sand is not in general found in grains ; it exhibits 
 itself most commonly under the form of a stone, such 
 as free-stone ; but some of it is found also in grains. 
 We should be much deceived in making white enamel, 
 W’ere we to employ the oxydes of tin and lead separate- 
 ly. None of the authors who have treated on pottery 
 say what they ought respecting enamel, nor even re- 
 specting the composition or nature of the earth proper 
 for bearing an enamel. It is essential that the lead and 
 tin for making the oxyde destined to produce white 
 4 N enamel. 
 
322 
 
 ENAMELLING. 
 
 enamel, should be fused and mixed together before they 
 are calcined ; and if it be wished that the enamel should 
 immediately acquire its full whiteness, it will be requi- 
 site that the calcination should be complete. Bismuth 
 might perhaps be employed as a substitute for the lead, 
 and it is not improbable that it would give a good pro- 
 duct. Bismuth also might be mixed with the lead in 
 the following manner, viz. one part of lead, one of bis- 
 muth, and one of tin : or other proportions might be 
 employed. As the oxyde of bismuth, however, is ex- 
 ceedingly fusible, it might probably be admitted, with 
 great advantage, into certain fluxes. A mixture of lead 
 and tin, detonated with nitre, would be useful. Though 
 the white calx of regulus of antimony made by nitre and 
 well washed, produces a very beautiful white enamel 
 when fused with three parts of white glass, which con- 
 tains neither lead nor other metallic oxydes, and one of 
 glass of borax, with a half or fourth part of nitre ; yet 
 this calx, so white when mixed with the composition of 
 enamel, made with enamel sand, and the combined 
 oxyde of lead and tin, instead of increasing, tarnishes 
 the whiteness, and only gives a bluish enamel of a livid 
 colour. Perhaps enamels, completely made and mixed 
 together in the first instance, would not produce the 
 same effect. I have, however, (says M. Clouet,) em- 
 ployed this composition as a flux for colours, which, 
 applied afterwards on the enamel of earthen-ware, pre- 
 served its beauty. I put some of this pure enamel also 
 over that of earthen-ware, and I think it preserved its 
 whiteness. 
 
 The principal quality of good enamel, and that which 
 renders it fit for being applied on baked earthen-ware, 
 or on metals, is the facility with which it acquires lustre 
 by a moderate heat, a cherry-red heat, more or less, 
 according to the nature of the enamel, without entering 
 into complete fusion. Enamels applied to earthen- 
 ware and metals possess this quality. They do not 
 enter into complete fusion ; they assume only the state 
 of paste, but of a paste exceedingly firm ; and yet when 
 baked, one might say that they had been completely 
 fused. There are two methods of painting on enamel : 
 on raw or on baked enamel. Both these methods are 
 employed, or may be employed, for the same object. 
 Solid colours, capable of sustaining the fire necessary 
 for baking the enamel ground, may be applied in the 
 form of fused enamel on that which is raw, and the 
 artist may afterwards finish with the tender colours. 
 The colours applied on the raw material do not require 
 any flux ; there is one, even, to which silex must be 
 added, that is, the calx of copper, which gives a very 
 beautiful green : but when you wish to employ it on the 
 raw material, you must mix with it about two parts of 
 its weight of silex, and bring the mixture into combi- 
 nation by means of heat. You afterwards pulverise the 
 mass you have thus obtained, in order to employ it. 
 To obtain good white enamel, it is of great importance 
 that the lead and tin should be very pure. If these 
 metals contain copper or antimony, as is often the case, 
 the ename will not be beautiful. Iron is ^he least 
 hurtful. 
 
 Of Coloured Enamels .' — All the colours may be 
 produced by the metallic oxydes. These colours are 
 more or less fused in the fire, according as they adhere 
 with more or less strength to their oxygen. All metals 
 which readily lose their oxygen cannot endure a great 
 degree of heat, and are unfit for being employed on the 
 raw material. 
 
 Purple. — This colour is the oxyde of gold, which 
 may be prepared different ways, as by precipitating, by 
 means of a muriatic solution of tin, a nitro-muriatic so- 
 lution of gold much diluted in water. The least quan- 
 tity possible of the solution of tin will be sufficient to 
 form this precipitate. The solution of tin must be 
 added gradually until you observe the purple colour 
 begin to appear : you then stop, and having suffered 
 the colour to be deposited, you put it into an earthen 
 vessel to dry slowly. The different solutions of gold, 
 in whatever manner precipitated, provided the gold is 
 precipitated in the state of an oxyde, give always a pur- 
 ple colour, which will be more beautiful in proportion 
 to the purity of the oxyde, but neither the copper nor 
 silver with which gold is generally found alloyed, injure 
 this colour in a sensible manner : it is changed, how- 
 ever, by iron. The gold precipitate which gives the 
 most beautiful purple, is certainly fulminating gold, 
 which loses that property when mixed with fluxes. 
 Purple is an abundant colour ; it is capable of bearing 
 a great deal of flux, and in a small quantity communi- 
 cates its colour to a great deal of matter. It appears 
 that saline fluxes are better suited to it than those 
 in which there are metallic calces. Those, therefore, 
 which have been made with silex, chalk, and borax, or 
 white glass, borax, and a little white oxyde of antimo- 
 ny, with a little nitre, as 1 have already mentioned, 
 ought to be employed with it. Purple will bear from 
 four to tw enty parts of flux, and even more, according to 
 the shade required. Painters in enajnel employ generally 
 for purple a flux w hich they call brilliant w hite. This flux 
 appears to be a semi-opaque enamel, which has been 
 drawn into tubes, and afterwards blown into a ball at 
 an enameller’s lamp. These bulbs are afterwards broken 
 in such a manner, that the flux is found in small scales, 
 which appear like the fragments of small hollow' spheres. 
 Enamel painters mix this flux with a little nitre and bo- 
 rax. This matter, which produces a very good effect, 
 I employed, without attempting to decompose it. It 
 may be a vej 7 fusible common white enamel which has 
 been blown into that form. It is to be remarked, that 
 purple will not bear a strong heat ; and the colour is 
 always more beautiful if the precipitate is ground with 
 the flux before it has become dry. 
 
 Red. — We have no metallic oxyde capable of giving 
 directly a fused red ; that is to say, we have no metallic 
 calces which, entering into fusion, and combining, un- 
 der the form of transparent glass, with fluxes or glass, 
 give directly a red colour. To obtain this colour, it 
 must be compounded different ways, as follows : — Take 
 two parts, or two parts and a half (you may, however, 
 take only one part,) of sulphate of iron and of sulphate 
 I of alumine, fuse them together in their water of crystal- 
 lization, 
 
ENAMELLING. 
 
 323 
 
 liaatioii, and take care to mix them well together. 
 Continue to heat them, to complete dryness ; then in- 
 crease the fire so as to bring the mixture to a red heat. 
 The last operation must be performed in a reverberating 
 furnace. Keep the mixture red until it has every where 
 assumed a beautiful red colour, which you may ascer- 
 tain by taking out a little of it from time to time, and 
 suffering it to cool in the air. You may then see whe- 
 ther the matter is sufficiently red : to judge of this, it 
 must be left to cool, because while hot it appears 
 black. The red oxydes of iron give a red colour ; but 
 this colour is exceedingly fugitive ; for, as soon as the 
 oxyde of iron enters into fusion, the portion of oxygen 
 which gives it its red colour leaves it, and it becomes 
 black, yellow, or greenish. To preserve, therefore, 
 the red colour of this oxyde in the fire, it must be pre- 
 vented from vitrifying, and abandoning its oxygen. I 
 have tried ( says M. Clouet,) a variety of different sub- 
 stances to give it this fixity, but none of them succeeded 
 except alum. The doses of alum and sulphate of iron 
 may be varied. The more alum you add, the paler 
 will be the colour. Three parts of alum to one of sul- 
 phate of iron give a colour which approaches a flesh 
 colour. It is alum also which gives this colour the 
 property of becoming fixed at a very strong heat. This 
 colour may be employed on raw enamel ; it has much 
 more fixity than the purple, but not so much as the 
 blue of cobalt. It may )>e washed to carry off the su- 
 perfluous saline matter, but it may be employed also 
 without edulcoration ; in that state it is even more fixed, 
 and more beautiful. It does not require much flux.; 
 the flux which appeared to me to be best suited to it, 
 is composed of alum, minium, marine salt, and enamel 
 sand. This flux must be compounded in such a man- 
 ner as to render it sufficiently fusible for its object : 
 from two to three parts of it are mixed with the colour. 
 In general, three parts of flux are used for one of co- 
 lour ; but this dose may and ought to be varied accord- 
 ing to the nature of the colour and the shade of it 
 required. Red calx of iron alone, when it enters into 
 fusion with glass, gives a colour which seems to be 
 black ; but if the colour be diluted with a sufficient 
 quantity of glass, it at last becomes of a transparent 
 yellow. Thus, the colour really produced by calx of 
 iron combined with glass is a yellow colour, but which 
 being accumulated, becomes so dark, that it appears 
 black. In the process above given for making the red 
 colour, the oxyde of iron does not fuse ; and this is the 
 essential point ; for if this colour is carried in the fire to 
 vitrification, it becomes black, or yellowish, .and disap- 
 pears if the coat be thin, and the oxyde of iron present 
 be only in a small quantity. 
 
 Yellow. — Though yellow may be obtained in a 
 direct manner, compound yellow's are preferred, be- 
 cause they are more certain in their effect, and more 
 easily applied, than the yellow which may be directly 
 obtained from silver. The compound yellows are ob- 
 tained in consequence of the same principles as the red 
 colour of iron. For this purpose we employ metallic 
 
 oxydes, the vitrification of which must be prevented by 
 mixing with them other substances, such as refractory 
 earths, or metallic oxydes difficult to be fused. The 
 metallic calces which form the bases of the yellow co- 
 lours are generally those of lead ; as minium, the white 
 calx of lead, or litharge, the white calx of antimony, 
 called diaphoretic antimony ; that called “ crocus me- 
 tallorum” is also employed. This regulus, pulverised, 
 and mixed with w'hite oxyde, gives likewise a yellow. 
 The following are the different compositions used : 
 one part of the white oxyde of antimony, one 
 of the white oxyde of lead (or two or three) ; these 
 doses are exceedingly variable ; one part of alum, and 
 one of sal-ammoniac. When these matters have been 
 all pulverised, and mixed well together, they are put in 
 a vessel over a fire sufficient to sublimate and decompose 
 the sal-ammoniac ; and when the matter has assumed a 
 yellow colour, the operation is finished. The calces of 
 lead mixed in a small quantity either with silex or 
 alumine, also with the pure calx of tin, exceedingly 
 white, give likewise yellows. One part of the oxyde 
 of lead is added to tw o, three, or four of the other sub- 
 stances above-mentioned. In these different composi- 
 tions for yellow, you may use also oxyde of iron, either 
 pure, or that kind which has been prepared with alum 
 and vitriol of iron : you will then obtain different shades 
 of yellow. From what has been said, you may vary 
 these compositions of yellow as much as you please. 
 Yellows require so little flux, that one or two parts, in 
 general, to one of the colour, are sufficient. Saline 
 fluxes are improper for them, and especially those which 
 contain nitre. They must be used with fluxes composed 
 of enamel sand, oxyde of lead, and borax, without ma- 
 rine salt. A yellow may be obtained also directly from 
 silver. All these mixtures may be varied, and you may 
 try others. For this purpose you may use sulphate of 
 silver, or any oxyde of that metal mixed with alumine 
 or silex, or even with both, in equal quantities. The 
 whole must be gently heated until the yellow colour ap- 
 pears, and the matter is to be employed with the fluxes 
 pointed out for yellows. Yellow of silver, like purple, 
 cannot endure a strong heat : a nitric solution of silver 
 may be precipitated by the ammoniacal phosphate of 
 soda, and you will obtain a yellow precipitate, which 
 may be used to paint in that colour with fluxes, which 
 ought then to be a little harder. Besides the methods 
 above-mentioned, the best manner of employing the 
 oxyde of silver is, in my opinion, to employ it pure : 
 in that case, you do not paint, but stain. It will be 
 sufficient, then, to lay a light coating on the place which 
 you wish to stain yellow, and to heat the article gently 
 to give it the colour. You must not employ too strong 
 a heat : the degree will easily be found by practice. 
 When the article has been sufficiently heated, you take 
 it from the fire and separate the coating of oxyde, which 
 will be found reduced to a regulus. You will then ob- 
 serve the place which it occupied tinged of a beautiful 
 yellow colour, without thickness. It is chiefly on 
 transparent glass that this process succeeds best. Very 
 
 fine 
 
324 
 
 ENAMELLING. 
 
 fine silver filings produce the same effect : but what 
 seemed to succeed best m this case was sulphate of 
 silver well ground up with a little w'ater, that it may be 
 extended very smooth. From what has been said, it may 
 readily be seen that this yellow must not be employed 
 like other colours; that it must not be applied till the 
 rest have been fused ; for, as it is exceedingly fusible, 
 and ready to change, it would be injured by the other 
 colours; and as the coating of silver which is reduced 
 must be removed the fluxes would fix it, and prevent 
 the possibility of its being afterwards separated. Work- 
 ing on glass is not attended with this inconvenience, be- 
 cause the silver-yellow*" is applied on the opposite side 
 to that on which the other colours are laid. 
 
 Green. — Green is obtained directly from the oxyde 
 of copper. All the oxydes of copper are good; they 
 require little flux, which even must not be too fusible : 
 one part or two of flux will be sufficient for one oxyde. 
 This colour agrees with all the fluxes, the saline as well 
 as the metallic, which tends to vary a little the shades. 
 A mixture of yellow and blue is also used to produce 
 green. Those who paint figures or portraits employ 
 glass composed in this manner; but those who paint 
 glazed vessels, either earthen-ware or porcelain, employ 
 in general copper green. Independently of the beauti- 
 ful green colour produced by oxydated copper, it pro- 
 duces also a very beautiful red colour. This beautiful 
 red colour, produced by copper, is exceedingly fugitive. 
 The oxyde of copper gives red only when it contains 
 very little oxygen, and approaches near to the state of a 
 regulus. Notwithstanding the difficulty of employing 
 this oxyde for a red colour, a method has been found to 
 stain transparent glass with different shades of a very 
 beautiful red colour by means of calx of copper. The 
 process is as follows : you do not employ the calx of 
 copper pure, but add to it calx of iron, which for that 
 purpose must not be too much calcined; you add also 
 a very small quantity of calx of copper to the mass of 
 glass which you are desirous of tinging. The glass at 
 first must have only a very slight tinge of green, inclin- 
 ing to yellow. When the glass has that colour you 
 make it pass to red, and even a very dark red, by 
 mixing with it red tartar in powder, or even tallow. 
 You must mix this matter w'ell in the glass,/ and it will 
 assume a very dark red colour. The glass swells up 
 very much by this addition. Before it is worked it 
 must be suffered to settle, and become compact ; but 
 as soon as it has fully assumed the colour it must be 
 immediately worked, for the colour does not remain 
 long, and even often disappears while working ; but it 
 may be restored by heating the glass at the flame of a 
 lamp. It is difficult to make this colour well ; but when 
 it succeeds it is very beautiful, and has a great deal of 
 splendour. By employing the calx of copper alone for 
 the processes above mentioned, you will obtain, when 
 you succeed well, a red similar to the most beautiful 
 carmine. The calx of iron changes the red into ver- 
 milion, according to the quantity added. If we had 
 certain processes for the making this colour, we should 
 
 obtain all the shades of red from pure red to orange, by 
 using, in different proportions, the oxyde of copper and 
 that of iron. The calx of copper fuses argil more 
 easily than silex : the case is the same with calx of iron. 
 If you fuse two or three parts of argil with one of the 
 oxyde of copper, and if the heat be sufficient, you will 
 obtain a very opake enamel, and of a vermilion red 
 colour : the oxyde of copper passes from red to green 
 through yellow, so that the enamel of copper, which 
 becomes red at a strong heat, may be yellow with a 
 weaker heat. The same effect may be produced by 
 de-oxydating copper in different degrees: this will be ef- 
 fected according as the heat is more or less violent. The 
 above composition might, I think, be employed to give 
 a vermilion red colour to porcelain. The heat of the 
 porcelain furnace ought to be of sufficient strength to 
 produce the proper effect. The calx of iron fused also 
 with argil, in the same proportions as the calx of copper, 
 gives a very beautiful black. These proportions may, 
 however, he varied. 
 
 Blue. — Blue is obtained from the oxyde of cobalt. 
 It is the most fixed of all colours, and becomes equally 
 beautiful with a weak as with a strong heat. The blue 
 produced by cobalt is more beautiful the purer it is, and 
 the more it is oxydated. Arsenic does not hurt it. 
 The saline fluxes which contain nitre are those best 
 suited to it : you add a little also when you employ 
 that flux which contains a little calcined borax or glass 
 of borax, though you may employ it also with that flux 
 alone. But the flux which, according to my experi- 
 ments, gives to cobalt-blue the greatest splendour and 
 beauty is that composed of white glass (which contains 
 no metallic calx) of borax, nitre, and diaphoretic anti- 
 mony well washed. When this glass is made for the 
 purpose of being employed as a flux for blue, you may 
 add less of the w hite oxyde of antimony : a sixth of the 
 whole will be sufficient. 
 
 Violet. — Black calx of manganese, employed with 
 saline fluxes, gives a very beautiful violet. By varying 
 the fluxes, the shade of the colour may also be varied : 
 it is very fixed as long as it retains its oxygen. The 
 oxyde of manganese may produce different colours ; but 
 for that purpose it will be necessary that w e should be 
 able to fix its oxygen in it in different proportions. 
 How to effect this has perhaps never yet been disco- 
 vered. These are all the colours obtained from metals. 
 From this it is evident that something still remains to be 
 discovered. We do not know what might be produced 
 by the oxydes of platina, tungsten, molybdena, and 
 nickel : all these oxydes are still to be tried ; each of 
 them must produce a colour, and perhaps red, which 
 is obtained neither directly nor with facility from any 
 of the metallic substances formerly known and hitherto 
 employed. 
 
 Having laid before the English artist the result of 
 M. Clouet’s Researches, as they were presented ta the 
 French National Institute, of which he was an associ- 
 ate ; we shall add a few general observations taken from 
 those of our own countrymen who have made the sub- 
 ject 
 
ENAMELLING. 
 
 325 
 
 ject of enamelling their study and employment. 
 The most beautiful and expensive colour known in 
 this branch of the art is an exquisitely fine rich and pur- 
 plish tinge, given by the salts and oxydes of gold, espe- 
 cially the purple precipitate formed by tin in one form 
 or other, and the nitro-muriate of gold, and also by 
 fulminating gold. This fine colour, however, requires 
 much skill in the artist to be fully brought out. Other 
 and commoner reds are given by the oxyde of iron, but 
 this requires the mixture of alumine, 'or some other sub- 
 stance refractory in the fire, otherwise what would 
 under proper circumstances be a full red will degene- 
 rate into a black. 
 
 Yellow is either given by the oxyde of silver alone, 
 or by the oxydes of lead and antimony, with simi- 
 lar mixtures to those required for iron. The silver 
 is as tender a colour as gold, and .as readily injured or 
 lost in a high heat. Green is given by the oxyde of 
 copper, or it may also be produced by a mixture of 
 yellow colours. Blue is given by cobalt, and this seems 
 the most certain of all enamel colours, and as easy to 
 be managed. Black is produced by a mixture of co- 
 balt and manganese. “ The reader,” says Mr. Aikin, 
 in his Chemical Dictionary, “ may conceive how much 
 the difficulties of this nice art are increased, when the 
 object is not merely to lay an uniform coloured glazing 
 on a metallic surface, but also to paint that surface with 
 figures and other designs that require extreme delicacy 
 of outline, accuracy of shading, and selection of co- 
 louring. The enamel painter has to work not with 
 actual colours, but with mixtures which he knows from 
 experience will produce certain colours after the opera- 
 tion of the fire, and to the common skill of the painter 
 in the arrangement of his pallet and the choice of his 
 colours ; the enameller has to add an infinite quantity of 
 practical knowledge of the chemical operation of one 
 metallic oxyde on another, the fusibility of his materials, 
 and the utmost degree of heat at which they will retain 
 not only the accuracy of the figures which he has given, 
 but the precise shade of colour which he intends to lay 
 on. Painting in enamel requires a succession of firings; 
 first, of the ground which is to receive the design, and 
 which itself requires two firings, and then of the differ- 
 ent parts of the design itself. The ground is laid on 
 in the same general way as the common watch face 
 enamelling already described. The colours are the dif- 
 ferent metallic oxydes melted with some or other vi- 
 trescent mixture, and ground to extreme fineness. 
 These are worked up with an essential oil, that of spike 
 is preferred, and next to it the oil of lavender, to the 
 proper consistence of oil colours, and are laid on with 
 a very fine hair brush. The essential oil should be very 
 pure, and the use of this rather than any fixed oil, is 
 probably that the whole may evaporate completely in a 
 moderate heat, and leave no carbonaceous matter in 
 contact with the colour when red-hot, which might af- 
 fect its degree of oxydation, and thence the shade of 
 colour which it is intended to produce. As the colour 
 of some of the vitrified metallic oxydes, such as that of 
 gold, will stand only at a moderate heat, while others 
 
 will bear and even require a higher temperature to be 
 properly fixed, it forms a great part of the technical 
 skilT of the artist to apply different colours in their pro- 
 per order ; fixing first those shades which are produced 
 by the colours that will endure the highest degree of 
 heat, and finishing with those that demand the least 
 heat. The outline of the design is first traced on the 
 enamel, ground and burnt in ; after which the parts are 
 filled up gradually with repeated burnings to the last and 
 finest touches of the tenderest enamel.” 
 
 Those who paint on enamel, on earthen-ware, porce- 
 lain, &c., must regulate the fusibility of the colours by 
 the most tender of those employed, as, for example, 
 the purple. When the degree which is best suited to 
 purple has been found, the other less fusible colours 
 may be so regulated (by additions of flux), when it is 
 necessary to fuse all the colours at the same time, and 
 at the same degree of heat. You may paint also in 
 enamel without flux ; but all the colours do not equally 
 stand the heat w hich must be employed. If the enamel, 
 however, on which you paint be very fusible, they may 
 all penetrate it. This manner of. painting gives no 
 thickness of colour ; on the contrary, the colours sink 
 into the enamel at the places where the tints are strong- 
 est. To make them penetrate and give them lustre, a 
 pretty strong fire will be necessary to soften the enamel 
 and bring it to a state of fusion. This method cannot 
 be practised but on enamel composed with sand, which 
 I call enamel-sand, as already mentioned. It may be 
 readily seen, also, that the colours and enamel, capable 
 of enduring the greatest heat, will be the most solid, 
 and the least liable to be changed by the air. On this 
 subject we shall have occasion to enlarge under the ar- 
 ticles Glass and Porcelain Manufactures. 
 
 The following method of filling up engraving on sil- 
 ver with a durable black enamel is practised in Persia 
 and India. 
 
 They take half an ounce of silver, two ounces and a 
 half of copper, three ounces and a half of lead, twelve 
 ounces of sulphur, tw'o ounces and a half of sal-ammo- 
 niac. The metals are melted together and poured into a 
 crucible, which has been before filled with pulverised 
 sulphur made into a paste by means of water ; the cru- 
 cible is then immediately covered that the sulphur may 
 not take fire, and thisregulus is calcined over a smelting 
 fire until the superfluous sulphur be burned away. This 
 regulus is then coarsely pounded, and with a solution of 
 sal ammoniac formed into a paste, which is rubbed into 
 the engraving on silver plate. The silver is then w'iped 
 clean, and suffered to become so hot under the muffle, 
 that the substance rubbed into the strokes of the en- 
 graving melts and adheres to the metal. The silver is 
 afterwards wetted with the solution of sal-ammoniac, and 
 again placed under the muffle till it becomes red hot. 
 The engraved surface may then be smoothed and po- 
 lished without any danger of the black substance, which 
 is an artificial kind of silver ore, either dropping out or 
 decaying. In this manner is all the silver plate brought 
 from Russia ornamented with black engraved figures, 
 
 4 O 
 
ENGRAVING 
 
 The art of engraving, in England, has gradually 
 arisen to its present advanced state from the rude me- 
 chanical practice by our British ancestors. That it was 
 practised in this island from a very early period, may be 
 seen by the remains of the instruments of war, and other 
 antiquities, which have been found in the Celtic and 
 Saxon tumuli : these frequently bear the marks of the 
 graver, or of some tool very similar to it ; and the nu- 
 merous coins of antiquity must satisfy every inquirer of 
 the early British existence of this species of engraving, 
 an art which is thought to have been introduced from 
 Rome. 
 
 Engraving has been performed in different countries, 
 and at different periods of time, on various substances, 
 chiefly on metals, wood, and the oriental precious 
 stones, which are called gems, but with instruments 
 that have varied but little since they were first invented. 
 The metals upon which engraving is chiefly employed, 
 are copper and steel, the former for producing impres- 
 sions on paper in various ways, the latter for striking 
 coins, medals, &c. Engraving on copper, for the 
 purpose of producing impressions on paper, may almost 
 be said to be an art of modern invention ; for though 
 the ancients ornamented their armour, metal vases, &c., 
 by this means, they appear never to have thought of 
 printing from the incisions, or lines, cut with the graver, 
 nor was it thought of till about the middle of the 15 th 
 century. This art is chiefly employed in representing 
 historical subjects, landscapes, portraits, &c., after pic- 
 tures, or other designs made for the purpose. 
 
 Engraving on copper, for the purpose of producing 
 impressions on paper, may be divided into several spe- 
 cies ; as engraving in aquatinta ; in the chalk manner ; 
 with aquafortis ; engraving on mezzotinto, and the ori- 
 ginal art of engraving in lines. We shall begin with the 
 latter. 
 
 Engraving is the cutting lines upon a copper-plate, 
 by means of a steel instrument called a graver, without 
 the use of aquafortis. This, as we have observed, was 
 the first way of producing copper-plate prints that was 
 practised, and is still much used in historical subjects, 
 portraits, and in finishing landscapes. The tools neces- 
 sary for this art are, gravers, a scraper, a burnisher, an 
 oil-stone, a sand bag, an oil rubber, and some good 
 charcoal. The gravers are made of tempered steel, 
 fitted into short wooden handles. They are square and lo- 
 zenge-shaped. The first are used in cutting broad strokes, 
 the other for fainter and more delicate lines. The scraper 
 
 is a three-edged tool, for rubbing off the burr raised by 
 the graver. Burnishers are for reducing lines that are 
 too deep, or burnishing out any scratches or holes in 
 the copper: they are of hard steel, rounded and po- 
 lished. The oil-stone is for whetting the gravers, 
 etching points, &c. The sand-bag, or cushion, is for 
 laying the plate upon, for the conveniency of turning it 
 in any direction. The oil rubber and charcoal are for 
 polishing the plate. As great attention is required to 
 whet the graver, particularly the belly of it, care must 
 be taken to lay the two angles of the graver which are 
 to be held next the plate, flat upon the stone, and rub 
 them steadily, till the belly rises gradually above the 
 plate ; otherwise it will dig into the copper, and then it 
 will be impossible to keep a point, or execute the work 
 with freedom. For this purpose, keep your right arm 
 close to your side, and place the fore-finger of your left 
 hand upon that part of the graver which lies uppermost 
 on the stone. In order to whet the face, place the 
 flat part of the handle in the hollow of the hand, with 
 the belly of the graver upwards, upon a moderate slope, 
 and rub the extremity upon the stone, till it has an 
 exceedingly sharp point. When the graver is too hard, 
 as may be known by the frequent breaking of the point, 
 the method of tempering it is as follows : Heat a poker 
 red-hot, and hold the graver upon it, within half an inch 
 of the point, till the steel changes to a light straw co- 
 lour ; then put the point into oil to cool ; or, hold the 
 graver close to the flame of a candle, till it be of the 
 same colour, and cool it in the tallow. Be not hasty 
 in tempering ; for sometimes a little whetting will bring 
 it to a good condition, when it is but a little too hard. 
 To hold the graver, cut off that part of the handle 
 which is upon the same line with the belly, or sharp 
 edge of the graver, making that side flat, that it may be 
 no obstruction. Hold the handle in the hollow of the 
 hand, and extending your fore-finger towards the point, 
 let it rest on the back of the graver, that you may guide 
 it flat and parallel with the plate. 
 
 To lay the design upon the plate, after you have po- 
 lished it fine and smooth, heat it so that it will melt 
 virgin-wax, with which rub it thinly and equally over, 
 and let it cool. Then the design ..which you are about 
 to lay on, must be drawn on paper, with a black-lead 
 pencil, and laid upon the plate, w'ith its pencilled side 
 upon the w ax ; then press it, and with a burnisher go 
 over every part of the design, and when you take off the 
 paper, you will find all the lines which you drew with 
 
ENGRAVING. 
 
 the black-lead pencil upon the waxed plate, as if it had 
 been drawn on it ; then with a sharp pointed tool trace 
 the design through the wax upon the plate, and you 
 may then take off the wax, and proceed to work. Let 
 the table or board you work at, be firm and steady ; 
 upon which place your sand-bag with the plate upon it, 
 and, holding the graver as above directed, proceed in 
 the following manner : For straight strokes, move the 
 right hand forwards ; leaning lighter where the stroke 
 should be fine, and harder where you would have it 
 broader. For circular or crooked strokes, hold the 
 graver firmly, moving your hand or the plate, as you 
 see convenient. Learn to carry the hand with such 
 dexterity, that you may end your stroke as finely as you 
 began it ; and if you have occasion to make one part 
 deeper or blacker than another, do it by degrees : and 
 take care that your strokes be not too close, nor too 
 wide. In the course of your work, scrape off the 
 roughness which arises, with your scraper ; but be care- 
 ful not to scratch the plate, and that you may see your 
 W'ork properly as you go on, rub it with the oil-rubber, 
 and wipe the plate clean, which will take off the glare 
 of the copper, and shew what you have done to advan- 
 tage. Any mistakes or scratches in the plate may be 
 rubbed out with the burnisher, and the part levelled 
 with the scraper, polishing it again lightly with the bur- 
 nisher, or charcoal. Having thus attained the use of 
 the graver, according to the foregoing rules, you will 
 be able to finish the piece, by graving up the several 
 parts to the colour required ; beginning with the fainter 
 parts, and advancing gradually with the stronger, till the 
 whole is completed. The dry point or needle (so called 
 because not used till the ground is taken off the plate) is 
 principally employed in the extremely light parts of wa- 
 ter, sky, drapery, architecture, &c. 
 
 After all, in the conduct of the graver and dry point, 
 it is difficult to lay down rules which shall lead to emi- 
 nence in the art. Every thing seems to depend on the 
 habit, disposition, and genius of the artist. A person 
 cannot expect to excel very much in engraving, who is 
 not a good master of design, and he ought to be well 
 acquainted with perspective, the principles of architec- 
 ture, and anatomy. He will, by these means, be able, 
 by proper degradations of strong and faint tints, to throw 
 backward and bring forward the figures, and other ob- 
 jects of a picture or design, which he proposes to imi- 
 tate. To preserve equality and union in his w-orks, the 
 engraver should always sketch out the principal objects 
 of his piece before he undertakes to finish them. In 
 addition to the rules already given, we may observe, 
 that the strokes of the graver should never be crossed 
 too much in the lozenge manner, particularly in the re- 
 presentations of muscle or flesh, because sharp angles 
 produce the unpleasing effect of lattice-work, and take 
 from the eye the repose which is agreeable to it, in all 
 kinds of picturesque designs : there are exceptions to this 
 rule, as in the case of clouds, the representation of 
 tempests, waves of the sea, the skins of hairy animals, 
 
 327 
 
 or the leaves of trees, in which this method of crossing 
 may be admitted. 
 
 In managing the strokes, the actions oF'the figures, 
 and of all their parts, should be considered, and, as in 
 painting, it should be bbserved how they advance to- 
 wards or recede from the eye, and the graver must, of 
 course, be guided according to the risings or the cavities 
 of the muscles or folds, making the strokes wider and 
 fainter in the light, and closer and firmer in the shades ; 
 thus the figures will not appear jagged, and the outlines 
 may be formed and terminated without being -cut too 
 hard. However, though the strokes break off where 
 the muscle begins, yet they ought always to have a cer- 
 tain connexion with each other, so that the first stroke 
 may often serve by its return to make the second, which 
 will shew the freedom and taste of the artist. In en- 
 graving the muscles of the human figure, the effect may 
 be produced in the lighter parts, by what are called 
 long pecks of the gravers, or by round dots, or by dots 
 a little lengthened, or what will be better, by a judi- 
 cious mixture of these together. With regard to the 
 hair, the engraver should begin his work by laying the 
 principal grounds, and sketching the chief shades with a 
 few strokes, which may be finished with finer and thin- 
 ner strokes to the extremities. In the representation of 
 architecture, the work ought not to be made too black, 
 because as the edifices are usually constructed with 
 stone, marble, &c., the colour, being reflected on all 
 sides, does not produce dark shades, as is the case of 
 other substances. Where sculpture is to be represented, 
 white points must not be put in the pupils of the eyes 
 of the figures, and in engravings after paintings ; nor 
 must the hair or beard be represented as in nature, which 
 makes the locks appear flowing in the air, because, as 
 is evident, in sculpture there can be no such appear- 
 ances. 
 
 It is impossible to lay down rules that shall apply to 
 all the subjects concerned in this art, since it is required 
 that they must be varied with almost every substance: 
 thus, to instance the engraving cloths of different kinds, 
 linen should be done with finer and closer lines than 
 other sorts of stuff, and should be executed with single 
 strokes. Woollen cloth should be engraved wide : 
 shining stuffs, as silk or sattin, which are known to 
 produce flat and broken folds, should be engraved 
 harder and straighter than the others. Velvet and plush 
 should be always interlined. Metals are also repre- 
 sented by interlining, or by clear single strokes. Calm 
 waters are best represented by strokes that are straight 
 and parallel to the horizon, interlined with those that 
 are finer, omitting such places as, in consequence of 
 gleams of light, exhibit the shining appearance of wa- 
 ter ; and the forms of objects reflected from the water, 
 are expressed by the same strokes, retouched more 
 strongly, or faintly, as occasion may require. For 
 agitated waters, as the waves of the sea, the first strokes 
 should follow the w'aves, and may be interlined. In 
 cascades, the strokes should follow the fall. In land- 
 scapes. 
 
328 
 
 ENGRAVING. 
 
 scapes, the trees, rocks, earth, and herbage, should be 
 etched as much as possible : nothing is to be left to the 
 graver, but perfecting, softening, and strengthening. 
 The dry point produces an effect more delicate than the 
 graver can, and may be used to great advantage in 
 linen, skies, distances,, ice, and often water. In al- 
 most every thing it is proper to etch the shadows, 
 only leaving the lighter tints for the dry point, graver, 
 &c. 
 
 To prevent any obstruction from too great a degree 
 of light, the use of a sash made of transparent or fan 
 paper, pasted on a frame, and placed sloping at a con- 
 venient distance between your work and the light, will 
 preserve the sight ; and when the sun shines, it cannot 
 possibly be dispensed with. 
 
 Of Mezzotinto Scraping . — This art, which is of 
 late date, is recommended by the ease with which it is 
 executed, especially by those who understand drawing. 
 Mezzotinto prints are those which have no strokes of the 
 graver, but whose lights and shades are blended toge- 
 ther, and appear like a drawing in Indian-ink. They 
 are different from aquatinta; but as both resemble In- 
 dian-ink, the difference is not easily described. Mez- 
 zotiuto is applied to portraits and historical subjects ; 
 and aquatinta is chiefly used for landscape and archi- 
 tecture. The tools necessary for mezzotinto scraping, 
 are, the grounding-tool, burnishers, and scrapers. To 
 lay the mezzotinto ground, lay your plate, with a piece 
 of flannel under it, upon the table, hold the tool in 
 your hand perpendicularly; lean upon it moderately 
 hard, continually rocking your hand in a right line from 
 end to end, till you have wholly covered the plate in 
 one direction ; next cross the strokes from’side to side, 
 afterwards from corner to corner, working the tool each 
 time all over the plate, in every direction, almost like 
 the points of a compass ; taking care not to let the tool 
 cut (in one direction) twice in a place. This done, the 
 plate will be full, and would, if it were printed, appear 
 completely black. Having laid the ground, take the 
 scrapings of black chalk, and with a piece of rag rub 
 them over the plate ; or the plate may be smoked with 
 candles. Now take the drawing, and having rubbed 
 the back with red chalk-dust, mixed with flake-white, 
 proceed to trace it on the plate. To form the lights 
 and shadows, take a blunt needle, and mark the out- 
 lines only, then scrape off the lights in every part of the 
 plate, as clean and smooth as possible, in proportion 
 to the strength of the lights in your drawing, taking care 
 not to hurt the outlines. The use of the burnisher is to 
 soften the extreme light parts after the scraper is done 
 with ; such as the tip of the nose, forehead, linen, 8tc., 
 which might otherwise, when proved, appear rather 
 misty than clear. 
 
 Another method used by mezzotinto scrapers, is, to 
 etch the outlines of the original, and the folds in dra- 
 pery, making the breadth of the shadows by dots, which 
 having bit to a proper depth with aquafortis, they take 
 off the ground used in etching, and having laid the mez- 
 zotinto ground, proceed to scrape as above described. 
 
 When the plate is ready, send it to the copper-plate 
 printer, and get it proved. When the proof is dry, 
 touch it with white chalk where it should be lighter, 
 and with black chalk where it should be darker ; and 
 when the print is re-touched, proceed as before, for 
 the lights ; and for the shades, use a small grounding 
 tool ; prove it again ; and so proceed to prove and 
 touch, till it is entirely to your mind. 
 
 Mr. Robert Lawrie, in the year J 776, proposed to 
 the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufac- 
 tures, &c., a new method of printing mezzotinto prints 
 in colours, for which he received a premium of thirty 
 guineas. He says he was induced to attempt this me- 
 thod, owing to the great expense attending the exe- 
 cution of good engravings, which had more than 
 answered his most sanguine expectations. In this man- 
 ner, animals, plants, &c., for illustrating Natural His- 
 tory, may be finished in their proper colours, very much 
 like drawings, and greatly resembling nature. The 
 plates will also admit of being repaired, so as to furnish 
 a large impression. The following is an explanation of 
 his method : 
 
 A copper-plate with an etched or engraved outline, 
 dotted next the lights, and filled in with mezzotinto 
 ground, is printed in colours after nature, or from a 
 picture, by the following process. The plate being 
 warmed in the usual manner, the colours are applied 
 by means of stump camel-hair pencils to the different 
 parts, as the subject suggests ; it is then wiped with a 
 coarse gauze canvass, any other being improper; after 
 this, it is wiped clean with the hand, and being again 
 warmed, is passed through the press. The colours are 
 mixed with burnt linseed oil, and those generally used 
 by painters are proper. 
 
 Of Engraving in Aquatinta . — Aquatinta is a me- 
 thod of producing prints very much resembling drawings 
 in Indian-ink. The principle of the process consists in 
 corroding the copper with aquafortis, in such a manner, 
 that an impression from it has the appearance of a tint 
 laid on the paper. This is effected by covering the 
 copper with a powder, or some substance which takes 
 a granulated form, so as to prevent the aquafortis from 
 actiug where the particles adhere, and by this means 
 cause it to corrode the copper partially, and in the in- 
 terstices only. When these particles are extremely 
 minute and near to each other, the impression from the 
 plate appears to the naked eye exactly like a wash of 
 Indian-ink ; but when they are larger, the granulation is 
 more distinct, and as this may be varied at pleasure, it 
 is capable of being adapted with great success, to a 
 variety of purposes and subjects. 
 
 This powder, or granulation, is called the aquatinta 
 grain, and there are two general modes of producing it. 
 We shall first describe what is called the powder-grain, 
 because it was the first that was used. Having etched 
 the outline on a copper-plate, prepared in the usual way 
 by the coppersmith, some of the substance must be finely 
 • powdered and sifted, which will melt with heat, and 
 when cold will adhere to the plate, and resist the action 
 
ENGRAVING. 
 
 of aquafortis. The substances which have been used 
 for this purpose, either separately or mixed, are as- 
 phaltum, Burgundy pitch, rosin, gum copal, gum- 
 mastich ; and in a greater or less degree, all the resins j 
 and gum-resins will answer the purpose. Common ! 
 rosin has been most generally used, and answers tole- 
 rably well ; though gum copal makes a grain that resists 
 the aquafortis better. The substance intended to be 
 used for the grain, must now be distributed over the 
 plate as equally as possible ; and different methods of 
 performing this essential part of the operation have 
 been used by different engravers, and at different times. 
 The most usual way, is to tie up some of the powder 
 in a piece of muslin, and strike it against a piece of 
 stick, held at a considerable height above the plate ; 
 by this, the pow’der that issues Jails gently, and settles 
 equally over the plate. Every one must have observed 
 how uniformly hair-powder settles upon the furniture 
 after the operations of the hair-dresser, which may 
 afford a hint towards the best mode of performing this 
 part of the process. The powder must fall upon it 
 from a considerable height, and there must be a suffi- 
 ciently large cloud of the dust formed. The plate 
 being covered equally over with the dust, or powder, 
 the operator is next to proceed to fix it upon the plate, 
 by heating it gently, so as to melt the particles. This 
 may be effected by holding under the plate lighted 
 pieces of brown paper rolled up, and moving them 
 about till every part of the powder is melted ; this will 
 be known by its change of colour, which will turn 
 brownish. It must now be suffered to cool, when it 
 may be examined with a magnifier, and if the grains or 
 particles appear to be uniformly distributed, it is ready 
 for the next part of the process. The design or draw- 
 ing to be engraved must now be examined, and such 
 parts of it as are perfectly white are to be remarked. 
 Those corresponding parts of the plate must be covered 
 or stopped out, as it is called, with turpentine-varnish, 
 diluted with turpentine to a proper consistence, to work 
 freely with the pencil, and mixed with lamp-black to 
 give it colour ; for if transparent, the touches of the 
 pencil would not be so distinctly seen. The margin of 
 the plate must also be covered with varnish. When the 
 stopping-out is sufficiently dry, a border of wax must 
 be raised round the plale, in the same manner as in 
 etching, and the aquafortis, properly diluted with w ater, 
 poured on. This is called biting in, and is the part of 
 the process which is most uncertain, and which re- 
 quires the greatest degree of experience. When the 
 aquafortis has lain on so long that the plate, when 
 printed, would produce the lightest tint in the drawing, 
 it is poured off, and the plate washed with w'ater and 
 dried. When it is quite dry, the Tightest tints in the 
 drawing are stopped out, and the aqupfortis poured on 
 as before ; and the same process is repeated as often as j 
 there are tints to be produced on the plate. Although 
 many plates are etched entirely by this method of stop- i 
 ping out and biting in alternately, yet it may easily be 
 conceived, that in general, it would be very difficult to ! 
 
 3*2i) 
 
 stop round, and leave out all the finishing touches, as 
 also the leaves of trees, and many other objects, which 
 it would be impossible to execute with the necessary- 
 degree of freedom in this manner. To overcome this 
 difficulty, another very ingenious process has been in- 
 vented, by which these touches are laid on the plate 
 with the same ease and expedition as they are in a 
 drawing in lndian-ink. Fine washed whiting is mixed 
 with a little treacle or sugar, and diluted with water in 
 the pencil, so as to work freely, and this is laid on the 
 plate covered with the aquatint ground, in the same 
 manner and on the same parts as ink on the drawing. 
 When this is dry, the whole plate is varnished over 
 w ith a weak and thin varnish of turpentine, asphaltum, 
 or mastich, and then suffered to dry, when the aqua- 
 fortis is poured on. The varnish will immediately 
 break up in the parts w'here the treacle mixture was 
 laid, and expose all those places to the action of the 
 acid, while the rest of the plate remains secure. The 
 effect of this will be, that all the touches or places 
 where the treacle w'as used will be bit in deeper than 
 the rest, and will have all the precision and firmness of 
 touches in lndian-ink. After the plate is completely 
 bit-in, the bordering-w'ax is taken off, by heating the 
 plate a little with a lighted piece of paper ; and it is 
 then cleared from the ground and varnish by oil of tur- 
 pentine, and wiped clean with a rag and a little fine 
 whiting, when it is ready for the printer. The principal 
 disadvantages of this method of aquatinting are, that 
 it is extremely difficult to produce the required degree 
 of coarseness or fineness in the grain, and that plates so 
 engraved do not print many impressions before they are 
 worn out. It is therefore now very seldom used, though 
 it is occasionally of service. 
 
 We next proceed to describe the second method of 
 producing the aquatint ground, which is generally prac- 
 tised. Some resinous substance is dissolved in spirits of 
 wine, as common rosin, Burgundy pitch, or mastich, 
 and this solution is poured all over the pla.e, which is 
 then held in a slanting direction till the superfluous fluid 
 drains off ; and it is laid down to dry, which it does in a 
 few minutes. If the plate be then examined with the 
 magnifier, it will be found that the spirit in evaporating 
 has left the resin in a granulated state, or rather that the 
 latter has cracked in every direction, still adhering firmly 
 to the copper. A grain is thus produced with the 
 greatest ease, which is extremely regular and beautiful, 
 and much superior for most purposes to that produced 
 byMhe former method. After the grain is formed, every 
 part of the process is conducted in the same manner 
 as has been described. 
 
 Having thus given a general idea of the art, we shall 
 mention some particulars necessary to be attended to, 
 in order to ensure success in the operation. The spirits 
 of wine used for the solution must be highly rectified and 
 of the best quality. What is sold in the shops generally 
 contains camphire, which would entirely spoil the grain. 
 Rosin, Burgundy pitch, and gum-mastic, when dis- 
 solved in spirits of wine, produce grains of a differen': 
 4 P appearance 
 
330 
 
 ENGRAVING. 
 
 appearance and figure, and are sometimes used sepa- 
 rately and sometimes mixed in different proportions, 
 according to the taste of the artist, some using one sub- 
 stance and some another. In order to produce a 
 coarser or finer grain, it is necessary to use a greater or 
 smaller quantity of resin; and to ascertain the proper 
 proportions several spare pieces of copper must be pro- 
 vided, on which the liquid may be poured and the grain 
 examined before it is applied to the plate to be engraved. 
 After the solution is made it must stand still and undis- 
 turbed for a day or two, till all the impurities of the 
 resin have settled to the bottom and the fluid is quite 
 pellucid. No other method of freeing it from those 
 impurities has been found to answer ; straining it 
 through linen or muslin only fills it with hairs, which 
 are ruinous to the grain. The room in which the liquid 
 is poured on the plate must be perfectly still and free j 
 from dust, which, whenever it falls on the plate while 
 wet, causes a white spot, that it is impossible to re- l 
 move without laying the grain afresh. The plate must 
 also be previously cleaned with the greatest possible 
 care with a rag and whiting, as the smallest stain or 
 particle of grease produces a streak or blemish in the 
 grain. All these attentions are absolutely necessary to i 
 produce a tolerably regular grain ; and, after every I 
 thing that can be done by the most experienced artists, j 
 still there is much uncertainty in the process. They are 1 
 sometimes obliged to lay on the grains several times, J 
 before they procure one sufficiently regular. The same | 
 proportions of materials do not always produce the | 
 same effect, as it depends in some degree on their qua- j 
 lities : and it is even materially altered by the weather. 
 These difficulties are not to be surmounted but by a 
 great deal of experience ; and those who are daily in 
 the habit of practising the art are frequently liable to 
 the most unaccountable accidents. Indeed, it is much to 
 be lamented that so elegant and useful a process should 
 be so extremely delicate and uncertain. It being neces- 
 sary to hold the plate in a slanting direction in order to 
 drain off the superfluous fluid, there will naturally be a 
 greater body of the liquid at the bottom than at the top 
 of the plate. On this account, a grain laid in this way 
 is always coarser at the side of the plate that was held 
 lowermost. The most usual way is to keep the coarsest 
 side for the fore ground, that being generally the part 
 which has the deepest shadows. In large landscapes 
 sometimes various parts are laid with different grains, 
 according to the nature of the subject. The finer the 
 grain is the more nearly does the impression resemble 
 Indian-ink, and the fitter it is for imitating drawings : 
 but very fine grains have several disadvantages ; for they 
 are apt to come off before the aquafortis has lain on 
 long enough to produce the desired depth ; and as the 
 plate is not corroded so deep, it sooner wears out in 
 printing, whereas coarser grains are firmer, the acid 
 goes deeper, and the plate will throw off a great many 
 more impressions. The reason of all this is evident, 
 when it is considered that in the fine grains the particles 
 are small and near each other, and consequently the 
 
 aquafortis, which acts laterally as well as downwards, 
 soon undermines the particles and causes them to come 
 off. If left too long on the plate, the acid \ftould eat 
 away the grain entirely. On these accounts, therefore, 
 the moderately coarse grains are more sought after, and 
 answer better the purpose of the publisher than the 
 fine grains which were formerly in use. Although 
 there are considerable difficulties in laying properly the 
 aquatint grain, yet the corroding the copper, or biting- 
 in, so as to produce exactly the tint required, is still 
 more precarious and uncertain. All engravers allow 
 that no positive rules can be laid down, bv which the 
 success of this process can be secured ; nothing but a 
 great deal of experience and attentive observation can 
 enable the artist to do it with any degree of certainty. 
 There are some hint3, however, which may be of con- 
 siderable importance to the person who wishes to attain 
 the practice of this art. It is evident that the longer 
 the acid remains on the copper the deeper it bites, and 
 consequently the darker will be the shade in the im- 
 pression. It may be of some use, therefore, to have 
 several bits of copper laid with aquatint grounds of the 
 same, kind to be used in the plate, and to let the aqua- 
 fortis remain for different lengths of time on each ; and 
 then to examine the tints produced in one, two, three,, 
 four minutes, or longer. Observations of this kind 
 frequently repeated, and with different degrees of 
 strength of the acid, will at length assist the judgment 
 in guessing at the tint which is produced in the plate. 
 A magnifier is also useful to examine the grain, and to 
 observe the depth to which it is bit. It must be ob- 
 served, that no proof of the plate can be obtained till 
 the whole process is finished. If any part appears to 
 have been bit too dark it must be burnished down with 
 a steel burnisher ; but this requires great delicacy and 
 good management not to make the shade streaky ; and 
 as the beauty and durability of the grain are always 
 somewhat injured by it, it should be avoided as much 
 as possible. Those parts which are not dark enough 
 must have a fresh grain laid over them, and be stopped 
 round with varnish, and subjected again to the aqua- 
 fortis. This is called re-biting, and requires peculiar 
 care and attention. The plate must be very well 
 cleaned out with turpentine before the grain is laid on, 
 which should be pretty coarse, otherwise it will not lay 
 upon the heights only, as is necessary in order to pro- 
 duce the same grain. If the new grain is different from 
 the former it will not be so clear nor so firm, but rot- 
 ten. We have now given a general account of the 
 process of engraving in aquatint, and we believe that 
 no material circumstance has been omitted that can be 
 communicated without seeing the operation ; but after 
 all, it must be confessed that no primed directions what- 
 ever can enable a person to practise it perfectly. Its 
 success depends upon so many niceties and attention to 
 circumstances apparently trifling, that the person who 
 attempts it must not be surprised if he does not suc- 
 ceed at first, it is a species of engraving simple and 
 expeditious, if every thing goes on well ; but it is very 
 
 precarious, 
 
ENGRAVING. 
 
 331 
 
 precarious, and the errors whidh are made are rectified 
 with great difficulty. 
 
 It seems to be adapfed chiefly for imitation of 
 sketches, washed drawings, and slight subjects ; but 
 does not appear to be at all calculated to produce prints 
 from finished pictures, as it is not susceptible of that 
 accuracy in the balance of tints necessary for this pur- 
 pose. Nor does it appear to be suitable for book- 
 plates, as it does not print a sufficient number of im- 
 pressions. It is therefore not to be put in competition 
 with the other modes of engraving. If confined to those 
 subjects for which it is calculated, it must be allowed 
 to be extremely useful, as it is expeditious, and may be 
 attained w ith much less trouble than any other mode of 
 engraving. But even this circumstance is a source of 
 mischief, as it occasions the production of a multitude 
 of prints that have no other effect. than that of vitiating 
 the public taste. Engraving in aquatint w'as invented 
 by Le Prince, a French artist, who kept his process a 
 long time secret, and it is said he sold his prints at first 
 as drawings; but he appears to have been acquainted 
 only with the powder-grain and the common method of 
 stopping-out. The prints which he produced are still 
 some of the finest specimens of the art. Mr. Paul 
 Sandby was the first who practised it in this country, 
 and it was by him communicated to Mr. Jukes. It is 
 now practised very generally all over Europe, but no 
 where more successfully than in this kingdom. 
 
 We now' come to Etching ; an important branch of 
 the art of engraving, in which the lines or strokes, in- 
 stead of being cut with a tool or graver, are corroded 
 or bit in with nitrous acid. In almost all engravings on 
 copper that are executed in the stroke manner, etching 
 and graving are combined, the plate being generally 
 begun by etching and finished by the hand of the en- 
 graver. Subjects that receive the most assistance from 
 the art of etching are landscapes, architecture, and 
 machinery. It is not applicable, or only in a small 
 degree, to portraits and historical designs. In de- 
 scribing the instruments and materials used in this art, 
 we may observe that copper-plates on which the de- 
 signs are made may be obtained ready prepared at the 
 coppersmiths. 
 
 Etching-points or needles are pointed instruments of 
 steel about an inch long, fixed in handles of hard wood 
 about six inches in length, and of the size of a large 1 
 goose-quill. They should be made of well tempered j 
 metal, and fixed very firmly in the centre of the handle. 
 They must be brought to an accurately conical point by 
 rubbing upon an oil stone. A parallel ruler is neces- 
 sary for drawing parallel straight lines, though Mr. 
 Low'ry, Mr. Porter and others substitute for this a 
 machine to be described that greatly facilitates the 
 labour, and performs the work with more accuracy and j 
 regularity. 
 
 Nitrous acid is used for corroding or biting-in the j 
 rough sketch of the engraving. The bordering wax for ; 
 surrounding the margin of the copper-plate when the j 
 acid is to be poured on, is composed of one part of j 
 
 bees-wax and two parts of pitch. These are to be 
 melted together in an ' iron ladle, and when melted to 
 be thrown into warm water, after which they are to be 
 j moulded into rolls of a convenient size. 
 
 Turpentine varnish is used for covering the copper- 
 plate in those parts which are not to be corroded with 
 the acid. This varnish is to be mixed with lamp-black, 
 that it may be seen better when laid upon the plate. 
 The etching-ground is used for covering the plate, pre- 
 viously to drawing the lines upon it with the needles. 
 The composition of this is thus described : take of vir- 
 gin-wax and asphaltum, each a pound and a quarter, of 
 black pitch and Burgundy pitch each half an ounce ; 
 melt the wax and pitch together in an earthen pipkin, 
 and add to them by degrees the asphaltum finely pow r - 
 dered. The whole is now to be boiled together, and 
 when sufficiently boiled it is to be poured into warm 
 water and formed into balls for use. 
 
 To lay the ground for etching, proceed in the fol- 
 lowing manner: having cleaned the copper-plate with 
 some tine whiting and a linen rag, to free it from all 
 grease, fix a hand-vice to some part of it where no 
 j w ork is intended to be, to serve as a handle for managing 
 it by when warm. Roll up some coarse brown paper, 
 
 I and light one end ; then hold the back of the plate over 
 | the burning paper, moving it about until every part 
 of it is equally heated, so as to melt the etching-ground, 
 which should be wrapped up in a bit of taffeta, to pre- 
 vent any dirt that may happen to be among it, from 
 with what is melted upon the plate. If the 
 large, it will be best to heat it over a chafing- 
 I dish with some clear coals. It must be heated just 
 sufficient to melt the ground, but not so much as to 
 I burn it. When a sufficient quantity of the etching- 
 ground has been rubbed upon the plate, it must be 
 dabbed, or beat gently, w'hile the plate is hot, with a 
 small dabber made of cotton wrapped up in a piece of 
 taffeta, by which operation the ground is distributed 
 more equally over the plate than it could be by any other 
 means. 
 
 When the plate is thus uniformly and thinly covered 
 wdth the varnish, it must be blackened by smoking 
 it with a wax-taper. For this purpose twist together 
 three or four pieces of w ax-taper, to make a larger 
 flame, and while the plate is still w'arm, hold it with 
 the varnished side downwards, and move the smoky 
 j part of the lighted taper over its surface, till it is made 
 almost quite black ; taking care not to let the w’ick 
 touch the varnish, and that the latter get no smear or 
 stain. In laying the etching-ground, great care must 
 be taken that no particles of dust or dirt of any kind 
 settle upon it, as that w'ould be found very troublesome 
 in etching ; the room therefore in which it is laid should 
 be as still as possible and free from dust. 
 
 The ground being now laid, and suffered to cool, 
 the next operation is to transfer the design to the plate. 
 
 For this purpose a tracing on oiled paper must now 
 be made, from the design to be etched, w'ith pen and 
 ink, having a very small quantity of ox’s gall mixed 
 
 with 
 
 mixing 
 plate be 
 
332 
 
 ENGRAVING. 
 
 ■with it, to make the oiled paper take it; also a piece of 
 thin paper of the same size, musv be rubbed over with 
 red chalk, powdered, by means of some cotton. Then 
 laying the red chalked paper, with its chalked side next 
 the ground, on the plate, put the tracing over it, and 
 fasten them both together, and to the plate, by a little 
 bit of the bordering- wax. 
 
 When all this is prepared, take a blunt etching 
 needle, and go gently all over the lines in the tracing ; 
 by which means the chalked paper will be pressed 
 against the ground, and the lines of the tracing will be 
 transferred to the ground: on taking off the papers, 
 they will be seen distinctly. 
 
 The plate is now prepared for drawing through the 
 lines which have been marked upon the ground. For 
 this, the etching-points or needles are employed, lean- 
 ing hard or lightly, according to the degree of strength 
 required in the lines. Points of different sizes and 
 forms are also used, for making lines of different thick- 
 ness, though commonly this is effected by the biting-in 
 with the aquafortis. 
 
 A margin or border of wax must now be formed all 
 round the plate, to hold the aquafortis when it is 
 poured on. To do this, the bordering-wax already 
 described must be put into lukewarm water to soften it, 
 and render it easily worked by the hand. When suffi- 
 ciently pliable, it must be drawn out into long rolls, 
 and put round the edges of the plate, pressing it down 
 firm, and forming it with the fingers into a neat wall or 
 margin. A spout must be formed in one corner, to 
 pour off the aquafortis by afterwards. 
 
 The nitrous acid is now to be diluted with four or 
 five times as much water, or more, according as the 
 plate is to be bit quick or slow, and poured upon the 
 plate. In a few minutes you will see minute bubbles 
 of air filling all the lines that have been drawn on the . 
 copper, which are to be removed by a feather ; and the 
 plate must be now and then swept , as it is called, or 
 kept free from air-bubbles. By the more or less rapid 
 production of these bubbles, you judge of the rapidity 
 with which the acid acts upon the copper. The biting- 
 in of the plate is the most uncertain part of the process, 
 and nothing but very great experience can enable any 
 one to tell when the plate is bit enough, as you cannot 
 easily see the thickness and depth of the line till the 
 ground is taken off. 
 
 When you judge, from the time the acid has been on, 
 ;>nd the rapidity of the biting, that those lines which you 
 wish to be the faintest are as deep as you wish, you pour 
 off the aquafortis by the spout, wash the plate with 
 water, and dry it by blowing with bellows, or by the 
 fire, taking care not to melt the ground. Those lines 
 that are not intended to be bit any deeper, must now 
 be stopped up with turpentine-varnish mixed with a 
 little lamp-black, and laid on with a camel’s-hair pencil ; 
 and when this is thoroughly dry, the aquafortis may 
 be poured on again, to bite the other lines that are 
 required to be deeper. This process of stopping-out 
 and biting-in, is to be repeated as often as there are to 
 
 be lines of different degrees of thickness, taking care 
 not to make any mistake in stopping-out wrong lines. 
 
 It is also necessary to be particularly careful to stop- 
 out with the varnish, those parts from which the ground 
 may happen to have come off by the action of the acid, 
 otherwise you will have parts bit that were not intended, 
 which is called foul-biting. When the biting-iu is quite 
 finished, the next operation is to remove the bordering- 
 wax and the ground, in order that you may see what 
 success you have had ; for till then, this cannot be 
 known exactly. To take off the bordering-wax, the 
 plate must be heated by a piece of lighted paper, 
 which softens the wax in contact with the plate, and oc- 
 casions it to come off quite clean. Oil of turpentine is 
 now poured upon the ground, and the plate is rubbed 
 with a bit of linen rag, which removes all the ground. 
 Lastly, it is cleaned off with whitening. 
 
 The success of the etching may now be known, but 
 it is necessary to get an impression taken upon paper by 
 a copper-plate printer. This impression is called a 
 proof. 
 
 If any parts are not bit so deep as w r ere intended, the 
 process may be repeated, provided the lines are not 
 too faintly bit to admit of it. This second biting-in 
 the same lines, is called re-biting , and is done as fol- 
 lows : melt a little of the etching-ground- on a spare 
 piece of copper, and dab it a little, to get some on the 
 dabber; then, having cleaned out, with whiting, the 
 lines that are to be re-bit, heat the plate gently, and 
 dab it very lightly with the dabber. By this, the parts 
 between the lines will be covered with the ground, but 
 the lines themselves will not be filled up, and conse- 
 quently will be exposed to the action of the aquafortis. 
 This is a very delicate process, and must be performed 
 with great care. The rest of the plate must now be 
 varnished over, the bordering wax put on again, and 
 the biting repeated in the same manner as at first. 
 
 If any part should be bit too deep, it is more difficult 
 to recover it, or make it fainter: this i« generally done 
 by burnishing the part down, or rubbing it with a piece 
 of charcoal. This will make the lines shallower, and 
 cause them not to print so black. 
 
 Should any small parts of the lines have missed al- 
 together in the biting, they may be cut with the graver : 
 which is also sometimes employed to cross the lines of 
 the etching, and thus to work up a more finished 
 effect. 
 
 Dry-pointing, as it is technically called, is a method 
 employed for softening the harsh effects usually appa- 
 rent in an etching. This is done by cutting with the 
 etching-point upon the copper without any ground or 
 varnish. This does not make a very deep line, and is 
 used for covering the light, where delicate tints and soft 
 shadows are wanting. By varying these processes of 
 etching, graving, and dry-pointing, the plate may be 
 W’orked -up to the full effect intended. 
 
 Engraving in dots, which has been very much prac- 
 tised within the last twenty years, is an old invention, 
 and was the only mode discovered by the Italians. 
 
 Augustine 
 
engraving. 
 
 S3 3 
 
 Augustine of Venice, who flourished from 1509 to 
 1536 , used it in several of his earliest works, but con- 
 fined it to the representation of flesh, as in an undat- 
 ed print of an old man seated on a bank, with a cottage 
 in the back-ground. It is seen, likewise, in a print of 
 a single figure standing, holding a cup and looking up- 
 wards, by Giulio Campagnola. The back-ground is 
 executed with round dots made apparently with a dry 
 point. The figure is outlined with a stroke deeply en- 
 graved and finished with dots, in a manner greatly 
 resembling prints engraved by Demarteau, at Paris, in 
 imitation of red chalk. The hair and beard are ex- 
 pressed by strokes. 
 
 Having gone through the mechanical preparations, | 
 which require care and experience, the engraver’s task j 
 as an artist or man of taste properly begins. He may 
 now call forth his inventive powers. The forms of his 
 objects must now be severally drawn, and his shadows, 
 tints, and lights, excepting such as he may prefer to 
 leave to be executed by the graver, or dry point, be 
 etched by employing lines more close or more open, 
 and pressing on his needles more lightly or strongly, in 
 order that he may vary his lines with the nature of the 
 object. The characteristic advantage of etching, for 
 certain purposes, over lines cut with the graver, consists 
 in the unlimited freedom of which this mode of art is 
 susceptible. The etching-needle, meeting little resistance 
 from the varnish, glides along the surface of the plate, 
 and easily takes any turn that the taste of the“ artist may 
 direct, or his hand accomplish ; and hence it is well 
 adapted to the expression of that class of objects which 
 are denominated by the term picturesque, such as trees, 
 rocks, ruins, cottages, the hair of animals, broken ground, 
 or other rough and irregular surfaces. 
 
 With the view of etching subjects of these kinds, Mr. 
 Lowry several years since invented and constructed 
 divers instruments and machines which he has suc- 
 cessfully employed in the fine engravings executed by 
 his hand or under his direction. One of these was for 
 etching successive lines either equi-distant, or in just 
 graduation from being wide apart to almost the nearest 
 approximation ; the compass of the instrument being 
 commensurate with every possible demand of art. 
 Another machine is for striking elliptical, parabolical, 
 and hyperbolical curves, and, in general, all those lines 
 which are known by geometricians under the denomi- 
 nation of geometrical curves, from the dimensions of 
 the point of a needle to an extent of four or five feet. 
 He has also constructed other machinery for facilitating I 
 particular operations of etching, and ensuring precision in 
 describing arcs of circles of every radius, lines converging 
 to points at all distances, various kinds of spiral lines and 
 the cogs and smaller teeth of wheel-work. These in- 
 ventions combine elegance and utility, and are of high 
 value if only considered as auxiliaries of the imitative 
 part of this branch of engraving, but as connected with 
 the other departments of science, they are of incalcu- i 
 lable advantage. The accuracy of their operations ap- 
 pears to be perfect, as far as can be ascertained by the j 
 
 | human senses aided with powerful magnifying glasses, 
 j Mr. Lowry has never published an account of his 
 J; machines: he, Mr. Porter, and others who make use 
 i of them endeavour to keep their construction a secret. 
 To this Mr. William Nicholson alludes in his Journal 
 for January 1799, and says, that upon his first hearing 
 of the fact, he thought and asserted that it would be 
 ,'i easy to make such a tool. He accordingly, at the in- 
 j tervals of his leisure, did accomplish the object. He 
 disclaimed the merit of originality of thought in substi- 
 ; tuting mechanical operations instead of hand-work, and 
 he adds “ those who have seen the screw gear of 
 Ramsden’s great dividing engine will perceive that I 
 P have done little more than distribute the parts of this 
 I tool in what appeared to me to be the most simple and 
 j convenient manner.” It is difficult to give an intel- 
 ligible description of this machine without the aid of 
 figures, and as the machine has not been deemed suf- 
 ficiently perfect to get into general use, it does not 
 seem to claim that degree of importance which engrav- 
 ings would bestow upon it. It consists of a frame 
 fixed to a drawing-board, and resembles a sliding-rule 
 and serves to guide a sliding-piece. There is a screw 
 having forty threads to an inch ; and there are two 
 cocks, of which one is fixed to the frame, and bears a 
 clip or pair of nuts, which open and shut with a joint 
 like compasses, and either embrace the screw by a 
 regularly tapped part when shut, or leave it at liberty 
 when open. The other cock is fixed to the sliding 
 piece : it carries a steel ruler, which though sufficiently 
 strong, is thin enough to adapt itself to slight variations 
 of thickness of the plate beneath it. “ In my instru- 
 ment,” says Mr. Nicholson, “ I have made it adjusta- 
 ble to much greater variations of thickness, by means 
 of an horizontal axis; but as this contrivance adds to the 
 expense, and diminishes the simplicity of the instru- 
 ment, 1 would rather recommend that great variations 
 should be allowed for by putting paper or thin slips of 
 metal underneath the plate as may be required.” The 
 end of the screw is turned down, and fixed in the cock 
 by means of a nut and washer : the upper part of the 
 cock is filed round, and cut into teeth, of which fifty 
 would complete the whole circle. The centre of this 
 external circular part corresponds with the axis of the 
 screw, and there are shewn in the figure two short cy- 
 lindrical pieces which are hollow', and apply to each 
 other so as to form a kind of box. Within, and fixed 
 to one of these cylindrical pieces, which is fixed to the 
 screws itself, there is a ratchet wheel divided into 50 teeth ; 
 and within the cylindrical piece there is a ratchet wheel, 
 which holds When the said piece is moved by its handle 
 from right to left, but which escapes when that handle 
 is moved in a contrary direction. The lever or arm is 
 likew ise supported by the stem of the screw*', and occu- 
 pies the remaining space between the handle and the 
 cock. At the outer extremity of this lever there is a small 
 steel blade, which, by means of a back spring exactly 
 resembling that of a pocket knife, may be made to 
 form a continuation of the lever itself, or by being 
 4 Q placed 
 
ENGRAVING. 
 
 334 
 
 placed at right angles to the level', may be made to rest 
 in any of the divisions between the teeth of the circum- 
 ference of the cock, and consequently will by that 
 means confine the lever to the position in which it is 
 placed. The handle cannot pass the lever because this 
 last is too thick, and there is a stud or pin upon the 
 face of the cock, which prevents the handle from being 
 moved beyond a certain determinate station to the left 
 hand. And, lastly, the ruler may be of any required 
 length, and serves, by means of a thumb-screw at one 
 end, and another at the opposite end, to secure the 
 copper-plate against the drawing-board in the usual 
 manner. 
 
 Such is the construction of the machine : its use is 
 thus set forth : — By drawing back a claw, the screw is 
 set at liberty, and the ruler may be brought to any 
 required distance by hand. The plate may then be 
 duly placed and secured to. the board, and the clip 
 drawn gently together by the claw. In this situation, if 
 the lever be placed at a considerable distance from the 
 handle, ‘that handle may be moved to the right, during 
 which the click will gather upon the ratchet-wheel ; and 
 then being returned to the left, it will carry the screw 
 round. The gentle pressure, exerted by means of the 
 claw, will tend to close the clip upon the screw, as 
 soon as it comes into a fair position by its rotation ; at 
 which instant the claw will suddenly fall into its place, 
 and the machine is ready for work, excepting that the 
 adjustment for the fineness or coarseness of the stroke 
 must be first made. This is done by the lever. If the 
 steel blade be dropped into the first notch beginning on 
 the left hand, the handle will be confined ; if at the se- 
 cond notch, the handle, upon being moved backwards 
 and forwards between the pin and lever, will move the 
 screw through one tooth, or the one-fiftieth of a turn 
 each time, and consequently will carry the ruler through 
 the Ya'ao th part of an inch. If the blade of the lever 
 be placed in any other of the notches, the quantity 
 passed over, at each return of the handle, will be 
 greater or less according to the number. As there are 
 but twenty-six notches, the greatest single shift of this 
 instrument will be the ^th part of an inch ; but as .this 
 shift is so readily made, it is easy, even with this fine 
 screw, to reach greater intervals, by moving the handle , 
 once, twice, or even three times, between stroke and 
 stroke. Thus, for the -Vth of an inch, or t gg a ths, the j 
 number of intervals cannot be passed over at one stroke; 
 but if the blade be set at the twentieth notch, the ruler 
 will be shifted exactly that quantity, by two movements 
 of the handle. 
 
 Soon after Mr. Nicholson had given this account to 
 the public, Mr. 'Lowry permitted him to take a view of 
 his machine for ruling, which he found to be entirely 
 different from the one just described. “ As he, (Mr. 
 Lowry,) has no actual division in the part which pro- 
 duces the shift, he can regulate his distances to incom- 
 mensurate, as well as commensurate measures. The 
 parallax of the ruling point, against which I had made 
 no provision, is, by a very simple and happy contriv- 
 
 ance, taken away in common ruling, or rendered varia- 
 ble at pleasure, for the purpose of thickening the stroke 
 in shading.” 
 
 Engravers have frequently complained of the inconve- 
 nience which they experience from the fumes which 
 proceed from the action of the nitrous acid upon the 
 copper, when the plate is large. To remedy this, Mr. 
 Cornelius Varley reeommends that the artist should get 
 a frame made of deal, three or four inches deep, co- 
 vered with a plate of glass, and open at one side ; the 
 side opposite to this is to have a round opening commu- 
 nicating, by means of a common iron pipe, with the 
 ash-pit of any little stove or other fire-place, shut up 
 from all other access of air but what must pass through 
 the pipe. Any fumes rising from a copper-plate laid 
 under such a frame will be carried backward into the 
 iron-pipe by the current of air required to maintain 
 combustion in the stove, and will by this means be car- 
 ried up the chimney, in place of being allowed to fly 
 about in the apartment. The pipe may be used by 
 carrying it down through the table to the floor, and so 
 i along to the place wherever the chimney is ; and when 
 the flame is not wanted, the pipe, at one of the join- 
 ings, may be made to answer the purpose of a' hinge, 
 by which to turn up the frame against the wall, where 
 it may be secured, while out of use, by a button, &c. 
 
 Before we conclude this article, we may give an 
 account of another subject or two closely connected 
 with it. Of these, the first is Mr. Samuel Toplis’s (of 
 Gainsborough) method of writing and engraving in oil, 
 and multiplying copies on paper, parchment, linen, 
 and other materials of flexible texture, which is as 
 follows : Have in readiness a well-polished, silver, 
 
 copper, or other metal plate, or earthen-ware, or horn, 
 and have ready a cushion, or as a substitute for a cushion, 
 a fresh bladder filled with air. On the cushion, or its 
 substitute, with a painter’s brush, a knife, a folding- 
 stick, or other convenient instrument, spread a fine coat 
 of strong printing ink, or in the absence of this, paint, 
 or other substance of a viscous nature may be used, 
 provided it be of such a consistence as will admit of 
 separation without running. Take the plate, holding it 
 by the corners alternately, and suffer it to touch the 
 ink, paint, &c., by gentle puttings or fallings of the 
 plate, till the whole become coated. With a piece of 
 hard wood reduced to a point fit for making strokes, 
 engrave or delineate the subject required. The plate 
 thus coated, engraved, or delineated, must be then 
 taken to a rolling-press, and on it lay a dry or a moist 
 sheet of paper, skin of parchment, or leather, &c. ; on 
 any of these lay a woollen cloth, or other such body, 
 and giving the requisite pressure, there will be found a 
 fair copy of all matters engraved or otherwise delineated 
 on the coated plate, in white characters. If more than 
 one copy is required, the force meant to be applied 
 must be divided by the number of copies wanted. This 
 invention, says the author of it, is intended to convey 
 useful knowledge, or the delineations of fancy, to the 
 various parts of the habitable globe, in a different and 
 
 more 
 
ENGRAVING. 
 
 335 
 
 more curious manner than by any other means that have 
 hitherto been practised or attempted. The art may be 
 extended through the mediums of painting, japanning, 
 calico-printing, to all bodies possessing plain surfaces, 
 of whatever shape or use, amidst our various arts and 
 manufactures ; for it is able to figure that essential part 
 of dress, linen, in a cheaper and readier way than by 
 any yet adopted. 
 
 The following is a description of a moveable table 
 for the use of engravers, invented by the Abbe Joseph 
 Longhi, a very ingenious Italian artist. He was led to 
 this by observing how common it is for engravers to die 
 at an early period of their lives : “ It too often hap- 
 pens,” he says, that those artists who apply themselves 
 the most assiduously to their art, fall early victims to 
 their diligence, so that their first essays become their 
 last works.” Reflecting on the causes that led to this, 
 he found it to proceed from the very hurtful attitude 
 in which the engraver is placed at his work ; for in 
 engraving a plate, even of a middling size, if the plate 
 be placed horizontally upon a cushion, it is not only 
 impossible to perform the work without a very injurious 
 curvature of the body ; but it lays the foundation of those 
 complaints which so often prove fatal to artists. The 
 intention of the Abbe, in the invention of the table now 
 to be described, was, that those artists should be able 
 to work either standing or sitting, without any injurious 
 bending of the body ; for this purpose he began by 
 placing the copper -plate upon a desk, revolving on a 
 centre, but he soon found that one centre was insuffi- 
 cient ; it became necessary, therefore, that the board 
 upon which the plate was to be fixed, should have a 
 great number of square holes underneath, by which it 
 might be put upon the axis or pivot in any part, as oc- 
 casion might require. He says this table is much more 
 commodious for engraving than any other method ; for, 
 when it is necessary to engrave in the corner of a plate, 
 it is difficult to do it on a cushion in the usual way, that 
 is, by supporting it w ith the left hand, and keeping it 
 quite motionless ; and the smallest motion in the plate 
 renders it impossible to perform the work properly ; but 
 upon this table, where the plate is fixed upon a pivot or 
 axis, and supported by a projecting part under it, the 
 left hand has less to do, and the plate always turns 
 round parallel to what it rests upon. 
 
 The upper or moveable part of the table consists of a 
 thin plank, to the bottom of which is united an iron 
 plate, w ith a number of square holes made to fit exact- 
 ly that part of the axis which protrudes. The under- 
 board is made to rise and fall at pleasure, in the man- 
 ner of a desk, by meaus of a pair of hinges, in the 
 
 middle of which is the thick protruding axis just men- 
 tioned, that comes through a circle of iron. There is 
 also a still larger circle of iron, of the same height as 
 the smaller one, that serves for the moveable board to 
 rest upon, as it is turned round. There is a foot 
 by which the desk part is supported at any required 
 height. 
 
 Engraving on Wood . — Engraving on wood is a pro- 
 cess exactly the reverse to engraving on copper. In 
 the latter, the strokes to be printed are sunk, or cut 
 into the copper, and a rolling-press is used for printing 
 it ; but in engraving on wood, all the w ood is cut away, 
 except the lines to be printed, which are left standing 
 up like types, and the mode of printing is the same as 
 that used in letter-press. The wood used for this pur- 
 pose is box-wood, which is planed quite smooth. The 
 design is then drawn upon the w'ood itself w : ith black- 
 lead, and all the w'ood is cut away with gravers and 
 other proper tools, except the lines that are drawn. 
 Or sometimes the design is drawn upon paper, and 
 pasted upon the wood, which is cut ds before. This 
 art is of considerable difficulty, and there are compara- 
 tively very few who practise it. But of late years, the 
 art of cutting designs upon wood has arrived at a vast 
 degree of perfection, especially under the celebrated 
 Bewicks, of Newcastle, who have carried their execu- 
 tion in this respect to a pitch of elegance rivalling, and 
 in some instances, almost surpassing copper-plate en- 
 graving, which before their time was believed to be 
 utterly unattainable. 
 
 On this subject Mr. P. Wilson, of Glasgow, ob- 
 serves, “ Having often regretted that such rare speci- 
 mens of art as they have produced w'ere so perishable, 
 from the frailness of the materials upon which so much 
 genius and labour were expended, I was induced to 
 send to Mr. Tassie, among other models, some designs 
 in box-wood, executed by Mr. Bewick, with direc- 
 tions to mould from them, in the view of obtaining 
 casts or copies in glass. The returns which I received 
 to all those patterns completely answered my expecta- 
 tions, as being at once as perfect as the originals.” 
 From the success of this experiment, and from what 
 has been established in the way of making glass safely 
 resist any degree of pressure, it will readily occur, that 
 an improvement of considerable magnitude may depend 
 upon a proper co-operation of the two arts of engraving 
 upon box-w’ood or upon brass, and of moulding, with 
 a view of obtaining such cuts or engravings in so dura- 
 ble a substance as glass. 
 
 We shall resume this subject, under the head Gj.ass- 
 Making. 
 
FILE-MAKING, 
 
 W E shall Introduce this article with some admirable 
 observations on the progress of mechanical discovery, 
 exemplified in an account of machines for cutting files, 
 by Mr. Wm. Nicholson. 
 
 “ The folly and consequent distress of pursuing ex- 
 periments in chemistry, for the sole purpose of com- 
 mercial advantage, has been repeatedly observed, both 
 by public writers, and in private life. The obscurity 
 which attends the processes of this art, the imperfec- 
 tions of theory, and the seductions of hope, have united 
 to lead men in pursuit of medicines of uncommon 
 powers, and agents which should convert the cheaper 
 metals into gold and silver. It is a subject of no won- 
 der, to those who have not suffered their mental habits 
 to be vitiated by these seductive analogies, that difficul- 
 ties and disappointment should attend the life of a man 
 thus employed. But mechanics have, in general, been 
 more favourably regarded. A number of simple and 
 admirably useful effects are produced by the operation 
 of machines. We daily see improvements produced by 
 means easily understood. The mechanic, who endea- 
 vours to strike into a new path, finds he can reason 
 from what has been done-before him, and usually begins 
 his work with a conviction that the results he is desirous 
 of obtaining will infallibly happen. Hence it is, that a 
 prodigious number of new schemes find their way into 
 books, on which both the author and the reader set a 
 high value, and of which the futility is discerned only 
 by a few practical men. Some of my readers have 
 supposed this source of information to be much more 
 productive than it really is. A very slight inquiry con- 
 cerning new machines and inventions, whether they 
 have been carried into effect, and whether they have 
 superseded the old methods of operation, will immedi- 
 ately strike out of the list of valuable articles not less 
 than nine-tenths of the objects to which the public at- 
 tention is solicited. And if it be asserted, that the 
 description of such abortive projects might be of use to 
 afford hints to speculators, I must take the liberty to 
 observe, that it is a most serious thing to engage in a 
 new invention, an<l a no less serious duty in the editor 
 of a public work, to be well assured of the value of 
 what he recommends or suffers to recommend itself to 
 his readers. From views of this kind, it has appeared 
 to me, that I should do some service to an active set of 
 men, some of whom have effectually served this coun- 
 try, if I were concisely to point out the course of 
 
 i mechanical invention, in order that those individuals 
 [ only may be induced to engage in it who possess the 
 i acquisitions and means to do it with some effect. 
 
 “We will therefore suppose a very acute theorist, who 
 | is not himself a workman, nor in the habit of superin- 
 ! tending the practical execution of machinery, to have 
 | conceived the notion of some new combination of the 
 j mechanical powers to produce a determinate effect; 
 and for the sake of perspicuity, let us take the example 
 of a machine to cut files. His first conception will be 
 i very simple or abstracted. He knows that the notches 
 I in a file are cut with a chisel, driven by the blow of a 
 i hammer, by a man whose hands are employed in ap- 
 plying these instruments, while his foot is exerted in 
 holding the file on an anvil by means of a strap. Hence 
 I he concludes, that it must be a very easy operation to 
 fix the chisel in a machine, and cause it to rise and 
 fall by a lever, while a tilting hammer of the proper 
 size and figure gives the blow. But, as his attention be- 
 comes fixed, other demands arise, and the subject ex- 
 pands before him. The file must be supported upon a 
 bed or mass of iron, of wood, of lead, or other mate- 
 rial : it must be fixed either by screws, or wedges, or 
 weights, or some other effectual and ready contrivance : 
 and the file itself, or else the ^hisel, with its apparatus 
 for striking, must be moved through equal determinate 
 spaces during the interval between stroke and stroke, 
 which may be done either by a ratchet-wheel or other 
 escapement, or by a screw. He must examine all 
 these objects, and his stock of means in detail ; fix upon 
 such methods as he conceives to be most deserving of 
 preference ; combine, organize, and arrange the whole 
 in his mind ; for which purpose, solitude, darkness, 
 and no small degree of mental effort, will be required. 
 And when this process is considerably advanced, he 
 must have recourse to his drawing-board. Measured 
 plans and sections will then shew him many things which 
 his imagination before disregarded. New arrangements to 
 be made, and unforeseen difficulties to be overcome, 
 will infallibly present themselves. The first conception, 
 or what the world calls the invention, required an infi- 
 nitely small portion of the ability he must now exert. 
 We will suppose, however, that he has completed his 
 drawings. Still he possesses the form of a machine 
 only ; but whether it shall answer his purpose, depends 
 on his knowledge of his materials. Stone, wood, brass, 
 lead, iron forged or cast, and steel in all its various mo- 
 difications, 
 
FILE-MAKING. 
 
 337 
 
 difications, are before him ; the general processes of 
 the workshop, by which firmness, truth, and accuracy, 
 are alone to be obtained ; and those methods of treat- 
 ment, chemical as well as mechanical, which the seve- 
 ral articles demand : — these and numberless other prac- 
 tical objects call for that skill and attention, which may 
 either lead to success, or, by their deficiency, expose 
 him to the ignorance or obstinacy of his workmen. If 
 he should find his powers deficient under a prospect so 
 arduous — if he cannot submit to the severe discipline of 
 seeing his plans reversed, and his hopes repeatedly de- 
 ferred — if unsuccessful experiment should produce an- 
 guish without affording instruction, what will then 
 remain for him to do ? Will he embitter his life by 
 directing his incessant efforts, his powers and resources, 
 to a fascinating object, in which his difficulties daily 
 increase ; or will he make that strong exertion of can- 
 dour and fortitude, which will lead him to abandon it at 
 once ? 
 
 “ These are the inevitable stages of operation through 
 which every inventor in mechanics must pass.. To the 
 mere habit of viewing objects in new lights, the habit 
 which leads to the outline of invention, he must add the 
 power of disposing his notions in the form of an indivi I 
 dual engine or instrument ; and he must himself become j 
 a workman, capable of discerning the means by which 
 his ideas may become realized in the proper materials. 
 It may perhaps seem as if I had selected an instance of 
 difficulty, and indulged my imagination in a sketch of | 
 obstacles seldom likely to be met with. This, however, 
 is far from being the case. Nothing seems more sim- 
 ple and easy at first sight, than to make an engine to cut 
 notches in a piece of steel ; and a very ingenious person, 
 in the American Phil. Trans., has accordingly given an 
 accurate design of an engine for that purpose, which no 
 doubt he thinks must succeed. But manufacturers well 
 know the value of such an engine, and have long ago I 
 attempted to make it by that and various other methods 
 without success. That engine in particular, promising 
 as it appears, is utterly incapable of working, for seve- | 
 ral reasons, scarcely to be discovered but by practical [ 
 men, but which cannot with sufficient brevity be here 
 detailed. And with regard to general obstacles in the 
 detail of inventions, I am so far from magnifying them, j 
 that I am warranted by much experience, as well on j 
 my own behalf, as that of others whose plans and ope- 
 rations have come before me, to affirm, that no mecha- 
 nical invention really new w-as ever brought to its com- 
 plete or perfect state, at so small a charge as three 
 times the cost of the finished engine, exclusive of the 
 incalculable labour of the contriver.” Phil. Journ. 4to. 
 
 Many useful tools have been invented for performing 
 mechanical operations, which consist of a number of 
 wedges or teeth, which may be conceived to stand upon, 
 or rise out of a flat or curved metallic surface. YVhen 
 these teeth are formed on the edge of a plate, the in- 
 strument is called a saw, (see Sawing); but when 
 they are formed upon a broad surface, it constitutes 
 what is denominated a file. The comb-makers use a 
 
 tool of this description, called a quonet, having coarse 
 single teeth, to the number of about seven or eight to 
 an inch. Fine tools of this description are called floats. 
 When teeth are crossed they are called files ; and when, 
 instead of the notches standing in a right line, a number 
 of single teeth are raised all over the surface, it is called 
 a rasp. Files are cut upon the surface with a sharp- 
 edged chisel. In rasps, the tooth is raised with a tri- 
 angular punch. The file is adapted for working metals, 
 but the rasp is more fitted for wood, bone, and horn. 
 Files are distinguished by being single or double cut. 
 The single cut file is simply cut once over, and is em- 
 ployed for filing brass, and the softer metals. A second 
 course of teeth is cut to form the double cut file, cross- 
 ing the first diagonally. This kiud is best suited to iron 
 and steel. 
 
 The steel employed for files requires to be very hard, 
 and in consequence undergoes a longer process in the 
 conversion (see Steel). It is said to be double con- 
 verted. The very heavy files, such as smith’s rubbers, 
 are made of the inferior marks of blistered steel : the 
 more delicate kind, such as w 7 atch-makers’ files, being 
 made of cast steel. The steel is previously drawn at 
 the tilt, into rods of suitable size. The flat and the 
 square files are made wholly with the hammer, and the 
 plain anvil. Two workmen, one called the maker and 
 the other striker, are required in the forging of heavy 
 files ; the smaller being forged by one person only. The 
 anvil is provided with a groove, for the reception of 
 bosses or dies, which are used for the purpose of forg- 
 ing the half-round and three-angled files. The half- 
 round boss contains a hollow which is the segment of a 
 sphere, less than half a circle. That used for the tri- 
 angular files has a hollow consisting of two sides, termi- 
 nating in an angle at the bottom. In forging the half- 
 round file, the steel is drawn out, as if intended to make 
 a flat file. It is then laid in the die, and hammered, 
 till the under side becomes round. The steel for the 
 triangular file is tilted into square rods. The part to 
 form the file is first drawn out with the hammer, as if 
 intended to form a square file. It is then placed in the 
 die w'ith one of the angles downwards, and by striking 
 upon the opposite angle, two sides of the square are 
 formed into one, and consequently a three-sided figure 
 produced. By successively presenting the different 
 sides to the action of the hammer, the figure is rendered 
 still more complete. In forming the tangs of most files, 
 it is necessary to make the shoulders perfectly square and 
 sharp. This is performed by cutting into the file a lit- 
 tle on each side w ith a sharp instrument, and after- 
 wards drawing out the part so marked off, to form the 
 tang. After forging, and previous to being ground and 
 cut, the files require to be annealed. This process is 
 generally performed by piling up a great quantity toge- 
 ther in a furnace for the purpose, and heating them red 
 hot; suffering them afterwards to cool slowly. This 
 method of annealing files, or indeed any other articles, 
 in which great hardness is requisite, is very objection- 
 able, since the surface of steel, when heated red-hot in 
 4 R ' the 
 
338 
 
 FILE-MAKING. 
 
 the open air, is so liable to oxydation. A superior me- 
 thod of anneal ins is practised by some file-makeis, and 
 tetrEin'a & is so e-u.iai a proper^ e 
 
 SI, and filling up .fie torsfices wnh^- 
 The fire is made to play on every side of the ves 
 sel, as gradually and « 2£ 
 
 £S Tnd Sell .^oo before .fie cover 
 Removed from the trough. Another evil may how- 
 ever arise from keeping steel red-hot even m a close 
 vessel for too great a length of time. It assumes a 
 kind of crystallization, under which its tenacity u much 
 impaired. J Steel annealed in this way, is perfectly fiee 
 from that scaly surface acquired m .fie open air , and it 
 each corticle L perfectly surrounded with .he sand and 
 the cover not removed before the steel is cold the sur 
 face will appear of a silvery white colour. If the steel 
 be suspected to be too kind, from containing too little 
 carbon powdered charcoal may be employed instead of 
 sand or sand mixed with charcoal. In this case the 
 files ’should be stratified alternately with the chaicoa, 
 in order that the extra-conversion may beunifon. 
 
 The next thing is to prepare the files for cutting, y 
 making the surface to contain the teeth as level as pos- 
 sible § This was formerly effected by means of hies, 
 and the process is called striping. The same Js sti 
 practised by the Lancashire file-makers, and l by ^ 
 not having convenience for grinding. Ihe g'eatest 
 quantity of files, however, are ground to prepare them 
 for cutting. The stones employed for the purpose are of 
 the sand-stone kind, the texture of which is compac 
 and sharp, but rather rough. They are of - great dia- 
 meter as can be used with convenience ;andabouteigl 
 inches broad over the face. When used, the surface is 
 S immersed in water. The grinder sits m such a 
 position as to lean over the stone, while its mot.on is 
 directly from him. Its surface moves at about the same 
 speed with those used in grinding cutlery. Since the 
 object in grinding files is to make the surface as even and 
 flat as possible, and as this cannot be done so cor "P ' 
 ly upon a small stone, the stones of the file-grindei ai 
 laid aside when they are reduced to a certain s ^ e > 
 are employed for grinding other glides. Tho»g 
 srindin- is by far the most expeditious method, it does 
 § „ot gwe tha/truth to the surface which can be effected 
 by filing. If the price of the articles would admit, 
 however, it would be well to render the surface more 
 even by the file after grinding. If the surface be not 
 fiat, it is obviohs, that when the file is used foi fibng ® 
 lar^e surface, those teeth in the hollow parts o ie 
 will not be brought into action. It is from attention to 
 this circumstance, and to the care m annealing and har- 
 dening, that the Lancashire file-makers have genera y 
 
 excelled. They are, however, confined chiefly to the 
 small articles, since the larger files would not pay for 
 the process of striping. The tools of the 
 consist of an anvil placed upon a block of such a hei e ht 
 
 that the man sits to his work. He has also a piece of 
 lead alloyed with tin, on which he lays the files when • 
 one side is cut. The chisel and hammer are of such 
 size as the size and cut of the file require. He is also 
 provided with a leathern strap, which goes over each end 
 S the file and passes round his feet winch are intro- 
 duced into the strap on each side in the same manner as 
 stirrups are used. The file-cutter, therefore, sits as if 
 he were on horseback, holding his chisel with one 
 hand! his hammer in the other, at the same time he 
 secures the file in its place by the pressure of his feet 
 
 1U Greatpams ought to be taken in preparing the edge 
 of the chfsel. It is, in the first place, hardened and 
 
 wiih oil It is not required to be very shaip, the bot- 
 tom o“tbe tooth requiring to be rather open to prevent 
 
 The^dg^S a Is? ‘required to be" very smooth in order 
 
 -a. *c. 
 
 * i /’nil im-ruttin or are, previous to cutting 
 
 SSSFgsSSi 
 
 SefKood "ce much smoother , 
 
 Th, ,meration of simple file-cutting seems to be of 
 
 to machinery, it is said, ma a fidelle Ouverture 
 thurin Jousse, m a work entitled , p. he \ n An- 
 ri r Art- dp Serruner, published at La ■ > 
 
 de 1 Ait de Serru " er » V 1 627. gives a drawing and 
 jou, so long ago. h file is drawn along by 
 
 A^icau Philosophical Socle.,, of 
 
FILE-MAKING. 
 
 339 
 
 which we shall give some account, as we shall of an- 
 other for which Mr. William Nicholson obtained a pa- 
 tent in the year !802; premising that the principal re- 
 quisites in a machine for file-cutting, are that the metal 
 from which it is manufactured should be steadily sup- 
 ported, and the chisel adapted to the face without any 
 unequal bearing. 
 
 The American machine consists of a bench of well 
 seasoned oak, and the face of it planed very smooth ; 
 and a carriage on which the files are laid, which moves 
 along the face of the bench parallel to its sides, and 
 carries the files gradually under the edge of the cutter or 
 chisel while the teeth are cut. The carriage is made 
 to move by a contrivance somewhat similar to that 
 which carries the log against the saw of a saw-mill. The 
 lever or arm, which carries the cutter, works on the 
 centres of two screws which are fixed into two pillars 
 in a direction right across the bench. By tightening or 
 loosening these screws, the arm which carries the chisel 
 may be made to work more or less steady. There is 
 likewise a regulating-screw, by means of which the files 
 may be made coarser or finer : also a bed of lead, 
 which is let into a cavity formed in the body of the car- 
 riage, somewhat broader and longer than the largest- 
 sized files ; the upper face of this bed of lead is formed 
 variously, so as to fit the different kinds of files which 
 may be required. 
 
 When the file or files are laid in their place, the ma- 
 chine must be regulated by the screw to cut them of a 
 due degree of fineness. This machine is described as 
 being so simple, that when properly adjusted a blind per- 
 son may cut a file with more exactness than can be done in | 
 the usual method with the keenest sight ; for by striking I 
 with a hammer on the head of the cutter or chisel all 
 the movements are set at work ; and by repeating the 
 stroke with the hammer, the files on one side will at 
 length be cut ; then they must be turned, and the ope- 
 ration repeated for cutting the other side. This ma- 
 chine may be made to work by water as readily as by 
 hand, to cut coarse or fine, large or small files, or any 
 number at a time : but it may be more particularly use- 
 ful for cutting the very fine small files for watchmakers. 
 
 We shall now give an account of the machine, for 
 which Mr. Nicholson obtained His Majesty’s letters 
 patent. 
 
 “ My machinery,” says the patentee, “ consists in 
 four essential parts, suitably constructed and combined 
 together ; namely, First, a carriage or apparatus, in or 
 by which the file is fixed or held and moved along, for 
 the purpose of receiving the successive strokes of a cut- 
 ter or chisel. Secondly, the anvil, by which the file is 
 supported beneath the part which receives the stroke. 
 Thirdly, the regulating gear, by which the distance 
 between stroke and stroke is determined and governed. 
 And, fourthly, the apparatus for giving the stroke or 
 cut. The four several parts are supported by, or at- 
 tached to a frame or platform of solid and secure work- j 
 manship, either of wood or metal, or both, according j j 
 to the nature of the work intended to be performed, and j I 
 
 the judgment and choice of the engineer. The car- 
 riage is a long block of wood, or metal, of the figure of 
 a parallelipidon, or nearly so, having a portion cut out 
 between its upper and lower surfaces to admit the anvil 
 to stand therein, without coming into contact with the 
 carriage itself. The said carriage is made of such a 
 length that the excavation here described shall be consi- 
 derably longer than the longest files intended to be cut; 
 and it is supported upon straight bearers from the plat- 
 form, upon which by projecting pieces, or slides, or 
 wheels, or friction-rollers, it can be moved endwise in 
 a straight lined direction, without shake or deviation. 
 At one end of the said excavation is fixed a clip re- 
 sembling an hand-vice for holding the file by its tail or 
 tang ; and in the opposite end of the said excavation 
 there is a sliding block or piece, which being brought up 
 to the other end of the file does, by means of a notch 
 or other obvious contrivance, prevent it from being 
 moved sideways. The said clip is so fixed at its head 
 or shank by means of an horizontal axis on gudgeons 
 and sockets, that the file is at liberty to move up and 
 dow n, but not sidew ays or a-twist. In this manner it is 
 that the file being fixed in the carriage is pressed down 
 upon the anvil by a lever and weight proceeding from 
 the platform, and bearing upon the face of the file by 
 a small roller of wood, ivory, bone, or soft metal. The 
 anvil is solidly fixed on the platform, and may be of any 
 suitable figure which shall be sufficiently massy to re- 
 ceive and resist the blow ; but its upper part must be so 
 contracted as to stand up in the excavation of the car- 
 riage and support the file; and the upper part of all must 
 be constructed in such a manner that it shall fairly ap- 
 ply itself to the under surface of the file, and support it 
 without leaving any hollow space, notwithstanding any 
 casual irregularities of the said surface. I produce this 
 effect by making a cavity in the anvil of the figure of a 
 portion of a sphere, not much less than an hemisphere, 
 and in this cavity I place (with grease between) a piece 
 of iron or steel made exactly to fit, but of which the 
 lower surface is a greater portion of the sphere, and 
 the upper surface flat and plain. The file rests upon 
 this last flat or plain surface, which is either faced with 
 lead, or (in preference) a slip of lead is put under the 
 tile and turned round the tang thereof, so as to move 
 along with it. It is evident that the upper or moveable 
 piece of the said anvil will, by sliding in its socket, ac- 
 commodate and apply itself constantly to the surface 
 of the file, which is pressed and struck against it. Or, 
 otherwise, I make the concavity in the upper moveable 
 piece, and make the fixed part convex : or, otherwise, 
 
 I support the upper part, or in some cases the whole of 
 my anvil upon opposite gudgeons, in the manner of the 
 gimbals of sea compasses : or, otherwise, I form the 
 upper part of my anvil cylindrical, of a large diameter, 
 supported on thick gudgeons, the axis of the said cylin- 
 der being short, and at right angles to the motion of 
 the carriage : or, otherwise, I form only a small por- 
 tion, namely, the upper extremity of my anvil of a cy- 
 ; iiudrical form as aforesaid, and cause the same to con- 
 tinue 
 
340 
 
 FILE-MAKING. 
 
 tinue motionless by fashioning the same out of the same 
 mass as the rest of the anvil, or fixing the same thereto. 
 And in both the last-mentioned cases of the cylindrical 
 structure I fix the head or shank of the clip (by which 
 the tang is held), not by a single axis or pair of gud- 
 geons, but by an universal joint or ball and socket, so 
 that the file becomes at liberty to adapt itself not only 
 upwards and downwards, but also in the way of rotation 
 or a-twist, and supplies the want of motion in the anvil 
 by the facility with which itself can be moved in the last- 
 mentioned manner. 
 
 “ The regulating-gear is that part of the machinery by 
 which the carriage, and consequently the file is drawn 
 along. It consists of a screw revolving between centres 
 fixed to the platform, and acting upon a nut attached to 
 the carriage with usual and well known precautions for 
 working of measuring screws ; and the nut being mac^e 
 to open by a joint when the carriage is required to be 
 disengaged and slided back. And the said screw is 
 moved either constantly by a slow motion from the first 
 mover, or (which is better) by interrupted equal motions, 
 so as to draw the carriage during the interval between 
 stroke and stroke. And the quantities of those respec- 
 tive equal motions may be produced and governed at 
 pleasure by wheel-work applied to the head of the 
 screw, or by the well known apparatus used in the ma- 
 thematical dividing engine for circles; or by various 
 other contrivances well known to workmen of competent 
 skill, and therefore unnecessary to be described at large : 
 or, otherwise, the motion of the carriage may be pro- 
 duced by a toothed rack from the carriage drawn by a 
 pinion ; and this pinion moved by a ratchet-wheel on the 
 same arbor moved by a click-lever, which shall -gather 
 up and drive a greater or less number of teeth, accord- 
 ing to the coarseness or fineness of the file; and the click- 
 lever itself maybe moved by a tripping piece from the first 
 mover, or by various other evident means of connexion : 
 or, otherwise, the said carriage may be moved by a 
 small cylinder, and rope or chain constantly acting : or, 
 otherwise, the said motion may be effected by a train of 
 two or more wheels, suffered to move by any of the 
 escapements used in time-pieces, and the fineness of 
 stroke may be regulated either by changing the wheels 
 as in the common fuzee engine, or by the greater or 
 less frequency of escape during each turn of the first 
 mover. And in every case I prefer a counter-weight to 
 the carriage, acting either constantly against, or con- 
 stantly in the direction of its motion ; though this is not 
 absolutely necessary when the work is well executed. I 
 may also observe, that it is possible to construct my 
 said machinery by fixing and rendering motionless that 
 part which I hove called the carriage, provided the 
 other three principal parts be made to move instead of 
 the carriage itself; but I consider this disposition as less 
 eligible than that which requires the carriage to be 
 moved. The apparatus for giving the stroke or cut, 
 consists of a chisel, which is held between the jaws of 
 a mouth-piece or claws resembling a strong hand-vice 
 without teeth. One of the jaws is made very stout, 
 
 and the chisel is formed narrow from edge to back, and 
 wide from side to side, and has a semi-circular protu- 
 berance on its back, which rests in a circular notch in 
 the strong jaw aforesaid; and there are two or three 
 bended flat rings or washers of iron or metal under the 
 thumb-screw of the said mouth-piece or claws, which 
 prevent the chisel from becoming loose by the stroke : 
 or, otherwise, the said chisel may have a notch, or a 
 hole, instead of a protuberance, to meet a correspond- 
 ent part in the mouth-piece or claws ; but I prefer the 
 first-mentioned construction. By the construction of 
 the chisel as here mentioned and fixed, the edge of the 
 said instrument is at liberty to apply itself fairly from side 
 to side of the file notwithstanding any winding or irregu- 
 larity, whatever may be the fineness of the cut upon a 
 broad surface. The mouth-piece, with its chisel, is 
 firmly fixed in another piece, which by its motion gives 
 the stroke. This last-mentioned piece may either be a 
 lever or a moveable carriage between upright sliders ; 
 but I greatly prefer the lever. The chisel must be so 
 fixed that the moving piece shall carry it fairly edge- 
 onwards to the file without scraping or slapping in the 
 least ; and the obliquity of the stroke may be adjusted 
 by fixing the centres of the level either higher or lower 
 at pleasure, or by inclining the last-mentioned sliders. 
 The lever may be raised and let fall (or the other chi- 
 sel apparatus moved) by a tripping-piece or snail-work, 
 or other usual connexion with the first mover ; and its 
 power of stroke may be increased by the addition of a 
 weight, or by the action of a spring; which last method 
 is of excellent use, and may (if required from the vary- 
 ing breadth of the file) be made to increase or diminish 
 its power during the run by several easy and commonly 
 used methods or contrivances for pressing more or less 
 against the spring. Or, otherwise, the lever, or hold- 
 ing-piece, may be kept immediately above the file by 
 the re-action of a slight spring, of weight, and be 
 struck by an hammer moved and acted upon by the 
 first mover, as aforesaid : and to this method I give the 
 preference, because the lever will then have less strain 
 upon its pivots ; or, the said lever may even be sup- 
 ported by spring-joints without any pivots or centres at 
 all. Or, instead of a hammer, the blow may be given 
 by a ram, or a fly and screw, but I give the preference 
 to the hammer. The lever may move in a vertical 
 circle immediately over the file, or in an oblique circle 
 at right angles to it, or at any intermediate angle consist- 
 ent with the foregoing instructions : and the chisel may 
 be set with its edge at any angle whatever, with the line 
 of the length of the lever ; but, in general, I have set 
 the lever in the first-mentioned position, and have va- 
 ried the angle between the chisel-edge and the lever, 
 according to the intended slope of the cut upon the face 
 of the file. The edge of the chisel must be sharpened 
 to such an angle as the intended cut and strength of 
 burr may require. Lastly, I describe the general action 
 of the said machinery as follows: 1. The file being pre- 
 pared as usual for cutting, must be fixed in the clip of 
 the carriage, and the sliding-block brought up andjixed, 
 
 to 
 
FILE-MAKING. 
 
 
 to steady its other extremity. 2. The nut of the screw 
 being then opened (or the other regulating gear disen- 
 gaged,) the carriage is slided to its place, so that the 
 chisel may be situated over that part of the file which 
 is to receive the first stroke. 3. The nut is then closed 
 (or the other regulating gear connected) and the small 
 roller of the pressing lever is made to bear upon the 
 face of the file. 4. The first mover being then put 
 into action, raises and lets fall the apparatus for giving 
 the stroke by which the file receives a cut. And, 5, 
 immediately afterwards, or during the same action, as 
 the case may be, (according to the construction as 
 before described,) the regulating gear moves the car- 
 riage, and consequently the file, through a determinate 
 space. 6. The cut is then again given ; and in this 
 manner (the strength of cut being duly proportioned to 
 the space between cut and cut,) the file becomes cut 
 throughout. 7. The file is then taken out and cut on 
 the other side. 8. The burr is then taken off, or not, 
 as the artist may think best ; and the cross-strokes are 
 given over the surfaces as before. And the said ma- 
 chinery, by certain slight, necessary, and obvious 
 changes in the structure and disposition of the chisels, 
 and some other of the parts thereof, is adapted to ma- 
 nufacture all other forms and descriptions of files, whe- 
 ther floats, rasps, half-round, three-square, or any 
 other figure or denomination. 
 
 Three things are strictly to be observed in har- 
 dening files ; first, to prepare the file on the surface, so 
 as to prevent it from being oxydated by the atmosphere, 
 when the file is red hot, which effect would not only take 
 off the sharpness of the tooth, but render the whole 
 surface so rough, that the file would, in a little time, 
 become clogged with the substance it had to work. Se- 
 condly, the heat ought to be very uniformly red through- 
 out, and the water in which it is quenched fresh and 
 cold, for the purpose of giving it the proper degree of 
 hardness. Lastly, the manner of immersion is of great 
 importance, to prevent the files from warping, which in 
 long thin files is very difficult. The first object is ac- 
 complished by laying a substance upon the surface, 
 which, when it fuses, forms as it were a varnish upon 
 it, defending the metal from the action of the oxy- 
 gen of the air. Formerly the process consisted in 
 first coating the surface of the file with ale-grounds, and 
 then covering it over with pulverised common salt. Af- 
 ter this coating becomes dry, the files are heated red- 
 hot, and hardened; afterwards, the surface is lightly 
 brushed over with the dust of cokes, wheu it appears 
 white and metallic, as if it had not been heated. This 
 process has lately been improved, at least so far as re- 
 lates to the economy of the salt, which, from the quantity 
 used, and the increase of duty, had become a serious 
 object. Those who use the improved method are now 
 consuming about one-fourth the quantity of salt used in 
 the old method. The process consists in dissolving the 
 salt in w'ater to saturation, which is about three pounds 
 to the gallon, and stiffening it with ale-grounds, or with 
 the cheapest kind of flour, such as that of beans, to 
 
 about the consistence of thick cream. The files only 
 require to be dipped into this substance, and immedi- 
 ately heated and hardened. The grounds or the flour 
 are of no other use than to give the mass consistence, 
 and by that means, allowing a larger quantity of salt to 
 be laid upon the surface. In this method, the salt 
 forms immediately a firm coating. As soon as the water 
 is evaporated, the whole of it becomes fused upon the 
 file. In the old method, the dry salt was so loosely 
 attached to the file, that the greatest part of it was 
 rubbed off into the fire, and was sublimed up the chim- 
 ney, without producing any effect. Some file-makers 
 are in the.habit of using the coal of burnt leather, which 
 doubtless produces some effect ; but the carbon is ge- 
 nerally so ill prepared for the purpose, and the time of 
 its operation so short, as to render the effect very little. 
 Animal carbon, when properly prepared and mixed with 
 the above hardening composition, is capable of giving 
 hardness to the surface even of an iron file. The car- 
 bonaceous matter may be readily obtained from any of 
 the soft parts of animals, or from blood. For this pur- 
 pose, however, the refuse of shoe-makers and curriers 
 is the most convenient. After the volatile parts have 
 been distilled over, from an iron still, a bright shining 
 coal is left behind, which, w'hen reduced to powder, is 
 fit to mix with the salt. Let about equal parts, by 
 bulk, of this powder, and muriate of soda, be mixed 
 together, and brought to the consistence of cream, by 
 the addition of water. Or mix the powdered carbon 
 with a saturated solution of the salt, till it become of 
 the above consistence. Files which are intended to be 
 very hard, should be covered with this composition^ 
 previously to hardening. By this method, files maae of 
 iron, which in itself is insusceptible of hardening, ac- 
 quires a superficial hardness sufficient to answer the 
 purposes of any file whatever. Files of this kind may 
 be bent into any form, and in consequence are rendered 
 useful for sculptors and die-sinkers. 
 
 The mode of heating the file for hardening, is by 
 means of a fire similar to that employed by common 
 smiths. The file is to be held in a pair of tongs by the 
 tang or tail, and introduced into the fire, consisting of 
 very small cokes, pushing it more or less into the fire, 
 for the sake of heating it regularly. When it is uni- 
 formly heated of a cherry colour, it is fit to quench in 
 the water. An oven is commonly used for the larger 
 kind of files, into which the blast of the bellows is di- 
 rected, being open at one end for the purpose of intro- 
 ducing the files and the fuel. After the file is properly 
 heated, for the purpose of hardening, it should be 
 cooled as quickly as possible ; this is usually done by 
 quenching it in the coldest water. Clear spring water, 
 free from animal and vegetable matter, is best calcula- 
 ted for the hardening files. 
 
 When files are properly hardened, they are brushed 
 over with water and powdered coke, when the surface 
 becomes clean and metallic. They may likewise be 
 dipped into lime-water, and dried befQre the fire as ra- 
 pidly as possible, after which they should be rubbed 
 4 S over 
 
342 
 
 FOUNDING. 
 
 over with olive oil, in which is mixed a little oil of 
 turpentine while warm, and then they are finished. 
 
 In the operations of filing, the coarser cut files are 
 always to be succeeded by the finer ; and the general 
 rule is, to lean heavy on the file in thrusting it forward, 
 because the teeth of the file are made to cut forwards. 
 But in drawing the file back again for a second stroke, 
 it is to be lifted just above the work, to prevent its cut- 
 
 ting as it comes back. The rough or coarse-toothed 
 file, called a rubber, serves to take off the unevenness of 
 the work, left by the hammer in forging. The bastard- 
 toothed file, as it is technically called, is to take out 
 too deep cuts and file-strokes made by the rough file. 
 The fine-toothed files take out the cuts or file-strokes 
 which the bastard file made, and the smooth file those 
 left by the fine file. 
 
 FOUNDING. 
 
 The art of founding in metal, or casting it, now 
 occupies a space in our wants which entitles it to con- 
 siderable attention. If the Greeks, and after them the 
 Romans, perfected it in as far as refers to casting in 
 brass and bronze, w'e have extended it more than they 
 did, inasmuch as w r e have turned it to all the great fea- 
 tures of general utility. Iron constitutes the grand 
 staple in modern founding. The great abundance 
 of this metal, with its consequent cheapness, together 
 with the developements of chemistry, has, amongst us, 
 opened to it a field, and created for it a demand, by 
 which its operations may go on ad infinitum, and it is 
 hoped with a success commensurate. 
 
 Founding is as multiplied as there are metals suscep- 
 tible of fusion by elevation of temperature; and as all 
 those that are at present known are in some way or 
 other so, it follows that all may be founded. In addi- 
 tion to w'hich, it has now been shewm, that the earths 
 (always considered as elements by the ancients) are 
 metals, deprived only of their distinguishing character- I 
 istics by their excessive affinity to oxygen. Sir H. j 
 Davy, to whom these discoveries were left to be 
 achieved, has demonstrated the fact, and numerous me- 
 tals, or, as he has termed them, metaloids, have been 
 added to the nomenclature of those previously known. 
 How far his discoveries may be extended, it is impossi- : 
 ble to conjecture : he has shewn that the calcareous 
 earths, as weU as potash and soda, are susceptible, by 
 being exposed to high degrees of temperature, of 
 changing their form, and flowing like melted silver, 
 possessing all the distinguishing characteristics by which 
 we determine a metallic substance. The French che- 
 mists have repeated his experiments, and confirmed his 
 discoveries, from which a new epoch in science has 
 arisen.* 
 
 * See Sir H, Davy's Papers, Philosophical Transactions, 1809, 
 10, It. 
 
 Founding will be divided into its various and distinct 
 branches, and will include founding in brass and 
 bronze, iron in all its multiplied ways, also bell and 
 type founding, with some observations on casting in 
 the precious metals. 
 
 Brass is a compound of copper and zinc, but from 
 the excessive volatility of the latter, it is difficult to as- 
 certain the precise proportion it contains of each ; but 
 they become, by being fused together, a homogeneous 
 malleable yellow metal, of great utility in supplying the 
 medium to a beautiful and extensive manufacture of 
 works in brass, required in our domestic economy, as 
 well as a very important part in the arts, in which it is 
 also employed in the founding of statues, 8tc. &c. 
 
 Founders in brass require an exact model, in wood 
 or otherwise, of the article to be founded ; and this is 
 most frequently required to be in two parts, exactly 
 joined together, and fitted by small pins, and the cast- 
 ing, in such a case, is performed by two operations, that 
 is, one half at one time and one half at another, and in 
 manner following, viz. The founder provides himself 
 with a yellowish sharp sand, which is required to be well 
 washed, to free it of all earthy and other particles. 
 This sand is prepared for use by a process called tewing, 
 which consists in working up the sand in a moist state, 
 over a board about one foot square, which is placed 
 over a box to receive what may fall over in the tewing. A 
 roller about 2 feet long and 2 inches in diameter is em- 
 ployed in rolling the sand about until it is brought into 
 that state which is deemed proper for its business : a 
 long-bladed knife is also required to cut it in pieces. 
 With the roller and the knife the tewing is finished for 
 use, by being alternately rolled and cu(. When the 
 sand is so far prepared, the moulder provides himself 
 with a table or board, which in size must be regulated 
 by the castings about to be performed on it. The 
 edges of the table or board are surrounded by a ledge, 
 in order to support the tewed stuff ; the table so pre- 
 viously 
 
FOUNDING. 
 
 343 
 
 viously prepared is filled up with the sand as high as the 
 top of the ledge, which is in a moderately moistened 
 state, and which must be pressed closely down upon the 
 table in every part. When the operation has so far ad- 
 vanced, the models must be all examined, to see that 
 they are in a state to come nicely out of the mould, and 
 if not found so, they must be cleaned or altered till the 
 founder is satisfied with them. All models require the 
 greatest accuracy in their making, or it will be vain to 
 suppose any thing good can be performed by the founder. 
 When the models are found to be in a state to be 
 founded, one half, generally longitudinally, is taken 
 first, and this is applied on the mould, and pressed 
 down into the tewed stuff or sand, so as to leave its 
 form completely indented in it, and which must be very 
 carefully looked to and examined minutely, to see that 
 there are no small holes, as every part in the indented 
 sand must be a perfect cameo of the models submitted 
 and pressed into it. If it should not be found perfect, 
 new sand must be added, and the model re-indented and 
 pressed into it, till it leaves its impression in a state pro- 
 per to receive the metal. In the same manner, other 
 models intended to be founded on the same table, must 
 be prepared and indented into the sand. When the ta- 
 blets completely ready for the metal, it is carried away 
 to the melter, who himself examines its state, and also 
 the cameos, and who lays along the middle of the 
 mould the half of a small wire of brass, which he 
 presses into the sand, so as to form a small channel for 
 the melted brass to flow in, and which he terms the 
 master-jet or canal. It is so disposed as to meet the 
 ledge on one side, and far euough to reach the last pat- 
 tern on the other ; from this is made several lesser jets 
 or branches, extending themselves to each pattern on 
 the table, and by which means the fluid metal is con- 
 veyed to all the different indented impressions required 
 to be cast on the table. When the work is so far for- 
 warded, it is deemed ready for the foundry ; but pre- 
 viously to which, the whole is sprinkled over with mill- 
 dust, and when it is so sprinkled, the table is placed in 
 an oven of moderate temperature till it gets dry, or in a 
 state which is deemed proper to receive the melted 
 brass. The first table being thus far completed, it is 
 either turned upside down and the moulds or patterns 
 taken out, or the moulder begins to prepare another 
 table exactly similar to the one he has just completed, 
 in which he indents and presses the other half of the 
 mould, or he turns the table already finished and con- 
 taining the first half of the patterns upside down ; pre- 
 viously, however, to doing which, it will be necessary 
 for him to loosen the pattern which is fixed in the sand 
 a little all round, with any small instrument that will 
 just open away the sand from its edges, in order to its 
 coming from out of the table more easily. This eco- 
 nomy in founding, of making one half of each pattern 
 to be cast answer the purpose of the whole pattern, is 
 a very common practice in brass founding, and enables 
 the manufacturer to sell his goods at a much cheaper 
 rate than he would otherwise be enabled to do, if he | 
 
 was obliged to have a full pattern of all goods to be 
 founded. When he has loosened the sand from about 
 the pattern, and taken it out of the first table, the work 
 is proceeded in, of preparing the counterpart or other 
 half of the mould with the same pattern, or otherwise, 
 and in a frame exactly corresponding with the former, 
 excepting only that it is prepared with small pins, to 
 enter holes which are made in the first half of the mo- 
 del, and into which the pins enter, and secure the two 
 halves together. It is obvious, that the accuracy in 
 the joining will depend wholly upon the neatness and 
 truth of fixing and boring for the pins. When the table 
 containing the counterpart is finished, the patterns are 
 all properly indented in the sand, which is done as has 
 been before described for the first table, and when 
 completed, it is carried away to the melter, who, after 
 enlarging the principal jet of the counterpart, and 
 making the cross jets to the various patterns, and sprink- 
 ling them as before with mill-dust : it is then set in the 
 oven till it has received a sufficient drying to be ready 
 for the melted metal ; after which, and when both parts 
 of the model are deemed sufficiently dry, they are joined 
 together by means of the pins and holes, previously pre- 
 pared in the upper and under model : and to prevent 
 their rising up or slipping aside by the force of the 
 melted brass, which is to come in, flaming with heat, and 
 through a small hole contrived in the principal or master 
 jet, the precaution is taken of locking the two tables 
 down in a kind of press made with screws ; or, if the 
 mould be too large to admit of being screwed easily, 
 wedges are had recourse to, to fix the tables together, 
 to prevent accidents. The moulds thus fixed in the 
 press, or wedged, are placed near the furnace, and 
 every arrangement is made for it to receive the melted 
 brass as it comes out of the crucible. 
 
 All being so far arranged, and the moulds ready, the 
 metal is prepared, by being heated to a complete fusion 
 in an earthen crucible, commonly about 10 inches high 
 and 4 inches in diameter. The furnace for promoting 
 the fusion of the brass is similar to a smith’s forge, 
 having bellows of large dimensions operated upon by a 
 lever, as well as a chimney over the furnace for the 
 smoke to escape through. The hearth of the furnace is 
 of masonry or brick-work, secured by an outer rim of 
 iron, in the centre of which is the fire-place, and which 
 consists in making a void or cavity, from 12 to 18 
 inches square, and reaching quite down to the bottom or 
 floor of the foundry. The void or cavity is divided into 
 two parts by an iron grating, on the upper side of which is 
 placed the fuel, and in the midst of it the crucible con- 
 taining the metal ; the lower part of the cavity is ap- 
 propriated to admit the air to the fire, and also to 
 receive the waste or cinders falling from the fire. The 
 fuel consists of dry beechen wood cut into small billets, 
 and previously baked, to make then) more readily com- 
 bustible, and which are, when a fire is required, put 
 into the cavity in the hearth, and w'ell lighted. The 
 crucible, when full of brass, should be placed dowui in 
 the centre of the fire, so that it may play all round it. 
 
544 
 
 FOUNDING. 
 
 and it should be covered with an earthen cover, or tile, 
 to promote the heat of the fire upon the metal. All 
 the time the metal is preparing, the attendant keeps 
 blowing up the fire ; and in order to keep the heat from 
 escaping through the chimney, or in flame, a piece of 
 tile is placed over the fire and aperture of the furnace. 
 As the heat operates in melting the metal, it sinks nearer 
 to the bottom of the crucible, when fresh metal is added 
 till the crucible is quite full. The brass is previously 
 prepared for melting, by being broken into small frag- 
 ments in a mortar, and when sufficiently beaten and 
 broken for use, it is put into the crucible by an iron 
 ladle, which has a long hollow arm or shank of small 
 diameter, but sufficiently large to admit the fragments 
 of metal rolling through it into the crucible, into which 
 the fresh brass is dropped from out of the cylindrical 
 arm of the iron ladle. As the crucible is filled with 
 metal, preparation must be made, when it is deemed 
 ready to be removed, for the purpose of running it into 
 the moulds, to remove it easily from out of the fire, 
 which is done by a pair of iron tongs with their feet 
 bent inwards. The crucible is taken hold of by these 
 tongs, and carried away to the mould, into which the 
 melted brass is poured, through the aperture communi- 
 cating to the master-jet of each mould ; the metal is 
 carried round to each jet, and the metal poured in till 
 the crucible is emptied, or the moulds filled. It is 
 usual to fuse rather more brass than is required for the 
 casting ; as by having too little, the work could not be 
 at that time finished, which would occasion delays in 
 opening the tables. 
 
 As soon as the moulds are run, water is spriukled 
 over the tables, to cool and fix the metal ; after which 
 the presses or wedges are removed from the frames, 
 and the works just founded are removed out of the sand, 
 to be cleaned and finished for sale. The tewing-stuff or 
 sand is afterwards taken out of the frames to be worked 
 up again for another casting. The sand, by a repetition 
 of use, becomes quite black, by reason of the charcoal 
 that it collects from the foundry ; but its blackness does 
 not render it unfit to be employed in other tables for 
 moulding or casting. 
 
 In foundings of brass in which the models are large, 
 au expedient is had recourse to, of rendering them 
 lighter and more economical, by performing the casting 
 hollow'. This is done by making a core or heart, 
 roughly resembling the pattern, and composed of clay 
 and white crucible dust well kneaded and mixed toge- 
 ther with water, and which is covered with wax, ex- 
 actly representing the article to be cast ; or the core 
 may be suspended in the centre of the indents made in 
 the sand. When the article is required to have but one 
 perfect side, as is common in most cabinet articles, the 
 melted metal, in such a case, is prevented from filling 
 the indent by the space occupied by the core, and it 
 will, be in thickness corresponding to the size which the 
 h( art or core takes up, in proportion to the size of the 
 work to be founded. In the former case, when the 
 article is to have both or all round of a full pattern, 
 
 wax is employed, and is so adjusted to the core, that 
 the metal may, in passing the jet, displace it, and leave 
 its resemblance, and also its thickness, of brass, in the 
 indent in the table. If it be a pattern of a complicated 
 form, there would arise a difficulty in getting the core 
 out after it was founded. The pattern must then be 
 performed or moulded in two separate ones, and also 
 the foundings ; the part left out of the first pattern must 
 be performed in a second ; and afterwards fitted and 
 soldered to the first. This mode is common at Bir- 
 mingham, in making handles for locks, and shutter 
 fastenings, which are commonly round. The plain 
 knobs, for locks, &c., are made in halves and soldered 
 together: the wrought ones, as they are called, ('from 
 being ornamented ) are cast with a solid shank and 
 spindle, and the bell or handle part of the knob is hol- 
 low, and open at its opposite end, which is afterwards 
 supplied by a separate piece or cap. The cores of many 
 of these Birmingham brass-works are made to occupy 
 so much of the pattern, that the brass is not thicker 
 than a shilling. 
 
 Many of the brass-manufacturers who work on a 
 large scale, employ a steam-engine to punch many of 
 the articles from sheet metal, from dies previously 
 formed. By this operation almost all the common 
 brass goods, (such as hand-plates to doors, roses to 
 door and cabinet furniture, and many light goods) are 
 made. The punched goods are very cheap, but of 
 very little strength or durability, as may be noticed in 
 many of the brass articles employed in our domestic 
 economy. Brass mouldings, plain or wrought, are 
 generally cast solid, and in moderate lengths ; a pattern 
 in wood, clay, or wax, is required, and the only pre- 
 cautions previously to founding them are, that they be 
 carefully indented in the saud-table. If the mouldings 
 be large and much carved, a core may be used for these 
 also, taking care to leave the metal sufficiently thick to 
 allow of finishing up afterwards, without injuring the 
 effect of the pattern. 
 
 All brass, as well as other foundings, require, when 
 taken out of the sand, to be cleaned up and made com- 
 plete ; as they seldom come out exactly perfect. This 
 is done in brass-founding, by filing off the cores, and 
 filling up the small holes with melted metal or solder. 
 These imperfections frequently occur by air-bubbles, 
 which are generated by the heat of the metal. Some 
 brass-works are cast to a rough pattern, for instance, 
 all those which are cylindrical in shape; and such kind 
 of goods are put into a lathe and turned, and smoothed 
 up afterwards (See our article Turning). Articles in 
 brass which are sculptured, are generally left in a mat- 
 state ou their grounds, and the raised parts burnished 
 up by hand ; the mat-state refers to such parts only 
 which are left without polish, or in a state in which the 
 brass is found when it first comes out of the sand, with 
 the addition of cleaning and perfecting only. 
 
 The burnishing consists in making the raised parts 
 quite complete, and afterwards laying them down tight 
 upon a bench, or in a vice, whichever is most conve- 
 nient ; 
 
FOUNDING. 
 
 34o 
 
 nient; and working up the face of the brass with a bent 
 tool composed of a shaft of steel, about half an inch 
 wide and eight or nine inches in length, fixed firmly in 
 an handle of wood. The end of the tool is turned up 
 about a quarter of an inch, and ground away on its 
 inner edge. With this tool the workmen rub the part 
 to be heightened, as it is termed. They have these 
 heightening tools of various widths, some one-eighth of 
 an inch wide only, and others as much as three-quarters 
 of an inch. With such tools they operate upon all the 
 various sized parts to be heightened ; and as the part is 
 thus rubbed, the workman dips his tool in a lacquer, 
 which is standing near him in an earthen-ware dish. 
 This lacquer is commonly prepared from turmeric dis- 
 solved in spirits of wine, and which will be afterwards 
 explained under the head of lacquering. 
 
 Chasing, or enchasing as it is called, is also em- 
 ployed to brass works. It is a similar operation to height- 
 ening, except that it is employed in the more delicate 
 works of sculpture to give them greater sharpness and 
 effect. The French excel in chasing, as their nume- 
 rous small ornaments used as decorations to chimney- 
 pieces, time-pieces, vases, &c. &c., fully demonstrate; 
 many of which are in brass as well as in d’ormolu. 
 
 Brass castings which are plain are cleaned up for sale 
 by being filed smooth or turned so by the turner, and 
 afterwards polished by being rubbed with emery till the 
 surface becomes regular and tolerably even, after which 
 they are finished with tripoli. To keep brass works 
 from tarnishing and getting black by exposure to the 
 air, the brass-workers have recourse to lacquering. Lac- 
 queriug consists in covering the brass, moderately heated 
 over a stove containing an open charcoal fire, with a 
 liquid, also moderately warm, composed of saffron and 
 Spanish annotta, each two drams put into a bottle with a 
 pint of highly rectified spirits of wine, which when to- 
 gether should be placed in a moderate heat and often 
 shaken, from this a very strong tincture will be obtained, 
 which must be afterwards strained through a coarse 
 linen cloth to take out the dregs of the annotta and saf- 
 fron ; it is then to be returned to the bottle, and three 
 ounces of seed-lac powdered must be added to it, and 
 the whole again heated till the seed-lac be completely 
 dissolved ; after which it is fit for use, and will form a 
 good and pale-coloured lacquer, which will prevent the 
 brass from changing colour by exposure to the air. It 
 is laid on the brass by a camel’s-hair pencil as thin as it 
 can be spread, and requires nothing to be done to it 
 after it is so spread but a moderate rubbing. If the 
 brass be required to be of a redder colour, increase 
 the proportion of annotta in the lacquer, and it will 
 be accomplished. All the best kind of brass-works are 
 gilt to prevent their changing colour, and this consti- 
 tutes the desideratum in the works in d’or molu. 
 
 The more important part of casting in brass consists 
 in founding statues, busts, basso-relievos, vases, &c. 
 The Greeks and Romans practised it to an immense 
 extent, as may be seen from the vast number of statues 
 and other works which have come down to us of 
 
 both these people. The Greeks also formed most of 
 their instruments of brass, which we make of iron and 
 steel. Homer describes most of the arms in his poems, 
 offensive and defensive, as brazen. He calls the Greeks 
 by the general epithet of brass-coated, and seldom men- 
 tions steel. In Herculaneum, Pompeia, Stabea, &c. 
 were found many arms and instruments formed of brass 
 or bronze, while very few of iron were discovered. 
 Those of brass were adapted to the purposes of agri- 
 culture, mechanics, mathematics, architecture, &c. 
 In Pompeia was found a complete set of surgeons’ in- 
 struments formed of bronze, which shew r s that a prefer- 
 ence was given to that metal. 
 
 In the founding of statues, busts, &c., three things 
 in particular require attention : namely, the mould, 
 the wax, and shell or coat, the inner mould or core, 
 so called from being in the middle or heart of the 
 statue. In preparing the core the moulder is required 
 to give it the attitude and contour of the figure intended 
 to be founded. The use of the core is to support the 
 wax and shell, to lessen the w'eight and save the metal. 
 The core is made and raised on an iron grate sufficiently 
 strong to sustain it, and it is farther strengthened by 
 bars or ribs of iron. The core is made of strong 
 potter’s-clay tempered with water, and mixed up with 
 horse-dung and hair, all kneaded and incorporated to- 
 gether ; with this it is modelled and fashioned previously 
 to the sculptors laying over it the wax ; some moulders 
 use plaster of Paris and sifted brick-dust mixed toge- 
 ther with water for their cores. The iron bars which 
 support the core are so adjusted that they can be taken 
 from out of the figure after it is founded, and the holes 
 are restored by solder, &c. ; but it is necessary in full 
 sized figures to leave some of the iron bars affixed to the 
 core to steady its projecting parts. After the core is 
 finished and got tolerably firm and dry, the operation 
 of laying on the waxen covering to represent the figure is 
 performed, which muS be all done, wrought and fashioned 
 by the sculptor himself, and by him adjusted to the core. 
 Some sculptors work the wax separately, and after- 
 wards dispose and arrange it on the ribs of iron, filling 
 up the void spaces in the middle afterwards w ith liquid 
 plaster and brick-dust, by which plan the core is 
 made as, or in proportion to, the sculptor’s progress 
 in working the w ax-model. Care must be taken, how- 
 ever, in modelling the wax in both cases to make it of 
 an uniform substance, in order to the metal being so 
 in the work, of which the wax is its previous representa- 
 tive. When the waxen model is finished to the core, or 
 adapted and filled afterwards, small tubes of wax are 
 fixed perpendicularly to it from top to bottom, to serve 
 not only as jets to convey the melted metal to all parts 
 of the work, but as vent-holes to allow a passage to the 
 air generated by the heated brass in flowing into 
 the mould, and which if not admitted readily to 
 escape would occasion so much disorder in it as 
 would much injure the beauty of the work. Sculptors 
 adjust the weight of the metal required in this kind of 
 founding by the wax taken up in the model. One 
 4 T pound 
 
346 
 
 FOUNDING. 
 
 pound of wax so employed will require ten pounds of 
 metal to occupy its space in the casting. The work 
 having advanced in progress so far will now require 
 covering with a shell. This consists of a kind of 
 coat or crust laid over the wax, which being of a soft 
 nature easily takes and preserves the impression which 
 it afterwards communicates to the metal upon its occu- 
 pying the place of the wax, which is between the shell 
 and core. The shell is composed of clay and white 
 crucible dust well ground, screened, and mixed up with 
 water to the consistence of paint, like which it is used. 
 The moulder applies it by laying it over the wax with a 
 camel’s-hair or other soft pencil, which will require 
 eight or nine times going over, allowing it time to dry 
 between each successive coat. After this coating is 
 firm upon the wax, and which is used only to protect 
 it from those which are to follow, the second part or 
 coating is made up of common earth mixed w ith horse- 
 dung : this is spread all over the model, and in such 
 thickness as to withstand in some measure the weight of 
 the intended metal. To this coating or impression is 
 added a third, composed almost wholly of dung, with a 
 proportion of earth sufficient only to render it a little 
 more tough and firm when used. When this is tolera- 
 bly dry, the shell is finished by laying on several more 
 coats or impressions of the same composition, made 
 strong and stiff by successive workings with the hand. 
 When this is finished and is deemed adequate to support 
 the heated metal, it is farther secured and strengthened 
 by several bands or hoops of iron, bound round it at 
 about six inches from each other, and fastened at bot- 
 tom to the grate on which the statue stands. Above the 
 head of the statue is made an iron circle for the purpose 
 also of confining the shell and statue, to this circle the 
 hoops are fastened at top. It may be considered when 
 the moulding is arrived at this state to be in a condition to 
 receive the melted metal ; but it is not so exactly as will 
 soon appear. The mould, as has bfeen before observed, 
 is made upon an iron grate : under this grate is a furnace 
 and flue, in w'hich at this period of the work a mode- 
 rate fire is to be made, and the aperture of communication 
 therew ith stopped up so as to keep in the heat. As the 
 heat increases and begins to operate upon the mould, 
 preparation must be made to allow of the wax running 
 freely from out of the shell : for this purpose pipes are 
 contrived at the base of the mould, so that it may run 
 gently 6ff and through these pipes. As soon as it is all 
 run off, the pipes are nicely stopped up with earth to 
 prevent the air entering them, &c. When this is done, 
 the shell is surrounded by any matter that has non- 
 conducting properties, for instance, pieces of brick put 
 round and piled up of good thickness, secured by earth, 
 will answer the end ; and the whole should be finally 
 coated outside with loam as a farther protection to keep 
 in the heat. 
 
 After the shell is adequately surrounded with mate- 
 rials to keep off the effect of the air, the fire in the 
 furnace is augmented till such time as both the matter 
 surrounding.the shell and it also become red-hot, and 
 
 which in ordinary circumstances will . take place in 
 twenty-four hours time ; the fire is then extinguished 
 and the whole allowed to cool : after which the matter 
 which has been packed round the shell is taken away, 
 and its place occupied with earth moistened and closely 
 pressed to the mould in order to make it more firm and 
 steady. It will, when having advanced so far, be in a 
 state to receive the melted metal ; to prepare which for 
 the casting, a furnace is made a few feet above the one 
 employed to heat the mould : it is formed like an oven 
 having three apertures, one of which is for a vent, the 
 other to admit the fuel, and the last to let the melted 
 metal flow through and out of the furnace. This last 
 aperture should be kept very close whilst the metal is 
 fusing, when it has arrived at that state which is 
 deemed proper for runniug it into the shell, and 
 which is known by the quick separation and escape of 
 the zinc of the brass. A little tube is laid to convey it 
 into an earthen-ware bason, which is fixed up over the 
 top of the mould. Into this bason all the large branches 
 from the jets enter, and from which is conveyed the 
 metal into all the parts of the mould. The jets are all 
 stopped up with a kind of plugs, which are kept close till 
 the bason which is to supply the metal be full. When 
 the furnace is first opened for this purpose, the melted 
 brass gushes forward like a torrent of fire, and is pre- 
 vented from entering any of the jets by the plugs, till 
 the bason is sufficiently full to be ready to begin with 
 the mould, and w'hich is esteemed so when the brass it 
 contains is adequate to the supply of all the jets at once, 
 upon which occasion the plugs from all of them are 
 withdrawn. The plug3 consist of a long iron rod, with a 
 head at one end capable of filling the whole diameter 
 of each tube. The hole in the furnace in w'hich 
 the melted metal is contained is opened with a long piece 
 of iron fitted on the end of a pole to allow of the fur- 
 nace-man ke eping at a distance from it, as many acci- 
 dents occur by the red-hot metal coming in contact with 
 the air, particularly if it be damp, in which case the 
 most violent explosions take place. The bason is filled 
 almost in an instant after the furnace-plug is withdrawn, 
 and the metal is then let into the several jets communicating 
 with the model, which when they have emptied them- 
 selves into the shell or mould the founding is finished, 
 in as far as the casting is concerned. The rest of the 
 work is completed by the sculptor, who takes the new 
 brass figure from out of the mould and earth in w'hich 
 it was encompassed, saws off the jets, and repairs and 
 restores the parts where required. His tools for this 
 j purpose consist of chisels of various sizes, gravers, 
 puncheons, files, &c. 
 
 In casting colossal statues a somewhat different mode 
 is pursued than the one already described, and this 
 arises wholly from the size, it being found difficult 
 to remove the moulds of such colossal works; to obvi- 
 ate this difficulty, it is worked and prepared upon the 
 spot where it is to be cast. There are two ways of 
 performing this, and some founders prefer the one and 
 some the other. By the first plan a square hole is 
 
FOUNDING. 
 
 547 
 
 dug into the earth somewhat larger than would be 
 required for the mould, and its sides are hemmed up 
 with brick-work : at its bottom is formed a hole below' 
 the bottom of the one already prepared, as a furnace, 
 and which must be built up with brick-w ork, having 
 an aperture made outwards into another pit prepared 
 near it, from which the fuel is put into the furnace. 
 The top of the furnace in the first hole is covered by 
 a grating of iron, and on this is moulded and placed 
 the case of the statue to be cast, and also its w'axen 
 coating; in doing which the same process is ob- 
 served by the sculptor as that already described. Near 
 the edge of the large pit in which the model is 
 placed is erected the furnace to melt the metal, and 
 which is similar to the oue already described for com- 
 mon figure-casting, except being of larger dimensions ; 
 it has like that three apertures, one for putting in the 
 wood, another for vent, and a third to run the metal 
 out at. By the second plan of founding colossal 
 figures, it is thought sufficient to work the mould above 
 ground, adopting the same mode with respect to a fur- 
 nace and grate underneath it. For, whether under 
 ground or above it, to keep in the heat when drying the 
 core and melting the wax, is that which is more parti- 
 cularly sought for ; to do which in the most effectual 
 way four walls of brick-work are built up round the 
 model, in the middle of which is fixed the grate and 
 furnace ; and on one side above is formed the mass of 
 building intended for the furnace, which is to be 
 appropriated to the melting of the metal. When the 
 whole is finished and ready, a fire is made in the fire- 
 place under the core of the model, and kept up so as 
 to produce a moderate heat to dry the core, and also 
 to melt away the wax from off it, which runs down by 
 tubes as has been before remarked upon, and indeed no 
 difference whatever takes place in such founding, ex- 
 cept every thing being on a larger scale. When the 
 wax is run off and the fire extinguished in the furnace, 
 bricks are filled in at random, either into the hole, if 
 founding under ground, or into the area between the 
 wails if above ground ; after this is done the fire in 
 the furnace is again lighted, and blown up and aug- 
 mented till such time as both the core and bricks are 
 of a red-heat, when the fire is again extinguished and 
 the whole is left to cool ; and when cooled the bricks 
 are removed and all is cleared aw'ay, and the space 
 again occupied by moistened earth to secure and steady 
 the model. Nothing now remains but running in the 
 metal, which is performed as has been before described 
 for smaller foundings of statues. 
 
 Thecasting figures in brass is not much practised 
 among the modems at this time, although it was a good 
 deal followed at the restoration of the arts in the loth 
 century. At that time brass-works were had recourse 
 to in the decoration of most buildings of any consider- 
 ation, and in order to supply the metal at little cost, 
 several of the ancient edifices then existing were muti- 
 lated for the purpose. In Rome many of the vaultings 
 to the temples were ornamented by having their lacuna- 
 
 j ria relieved by pateras and other decorations of brass ®r 
 I silver ; these the popes of the times removed to compose 
 | the childish ornaments for their then erecting or newly 
 ! consecrated Catholic churches. France, Germany, 
 
 ; and England, at that time subject to the same caprice 
 i in religion as well as in the arts, adopted a similar style 
 of decoration in their religious edifices, as numerous 
 I reliques still existing in tombs, shrines, screens, and 
 I other parts of their cathedrals and religious houses 
 fully demonstrate. Amongst us certainly, and particu- 
 larly after Henry the Eighth’s separation from the 
 church of Rome, such works were discontinued as ca- 
 tholic and idolatrous. Elizabeth, proceeding in the 
 reformation already commenced by her predecessor, 
 not only destroyed the images but the pictures also, and 
 at the same time strictly forbad any thing of the 
 kind to be admitted in future under the severest penal- 
 ties. The rebellion in 1648 completed what the reform- 
 ation had begun. The fanatics of this time defaced 
 whatever they could get at, that the former inquisition 
 had spared ; they tore down the brass from the monu- 
 ments and screens, carried away the plate from the 
 altars, broke the painted windows, and dilapidated the 
 tombs of the saints, crying out in their work of spolia- 
 tion “ cursed be he that doth the w ork of the Lord 
 deceitfully.” After this it would be vain to look in 
 I England for works in brass of any consideration, as lit— 
 I tie was spared but what w as too remote for the Vandals 
 | of these reigns to get at. From this time among us a 
 void or chaos existed and continued to exist in works of 
 art, till a more enlightened policy began to unbend 
 : itself, which happened about the middle of the se- 
 venteenth century. But the effects of the persecution 
 had been felt so much that the liberal arts had lost their 
 ! practisers from the terror of the times, hence the in- 
 i troduction of foreigners to do that w'hich w'e had been 
 j forbidden to practise, and the consequent notion 
 about our inability in works of taste, which is much 
 too insipid and ridiculous at this time to need refuta- 
 ’ tion. 
 
 All the principal cities of ancient Greece and Rome 
 i boasted of their w'ealth by enumerating their statues of 
 brass. Athens, Delphos, and Rhodes are each re- 
 ported to have had in and about their temples 3,000 
 brass statues. And Marcus Scaurus, though an edile 
 ; only, adorned the Circus tit Rome w ith upw ards of that 
 1 number of statues of brass, during the time of the 
 j celebrating of the Circension Shows. It afterwards, 
 in consequence of this taste continuing to prevail at 
 Rome, of forming and collecting works in brass, used to 
 I be a proverb among the visitors of that celebrated city, 
 i “ that in Rome the people of brass were not less nu- 
 I; merous than the Roman people.” 
 
 It now remains to treat of a much more recent ap- 
 plication of brass than has hitherto fell under our notice, 
 
 ! and which, if considered in its effects, is calculated to 
 i be equally striking, if not of displaying equal intelligence 
 with those parts of the founding of brass already de- 
 i scribed. The founding of pieces of brass-artillery, in- 
 cluding 
 
348 
 
 FOUNDING. 
 
 eluding cannon, mortars, &c. See., was the common 
 practice after the invention of gunpowder first took 
 place. It is true the art of founding iron was then 
 known, but not so well understood as it was soon after- 
 wards, and is at present. In consequence of the igno- 
 rance of the chemical properties incident to iron, all 
 the first cannon cast of it were not found capable, 
 when adequately charged, of projecting balls without 
 being shivered in pieces ; by reason of which brass was 
 employed in artillery, and is partially continued to 
 be used to the present period. As to the metal it 
 is somewhat different to that which is made use of 
 for statues and other works of brass, inasmuch as it 
 contains a proportion of tin, which is not found in 
 them. A cannon is always cast in its shape somewhat 
 conical, or more properly of the frustum of a cone; it has 
 the thickest metal at the breech, in consequence of the 
 greatest effort of the gunpowder being there ; it di- 
 minishes from thence to the muzzle, and is so propor- 
 tioned the one to the other, that if the mouth be deter- 
 mined to be two inches, the breech is made six inches : 
 with respect to the length it is measured among artil- 
 lerymen by calibers taken at the muzzle of the gun. 
 They say, according to a proportion previously deter- 
 mined, that one caliber in diameter of six inches at the 
 muzzle requires a length of twenty calibers to be given 
 to the gun ; or if the diameter of the bore be six inches, 
 the shaft or depth of it will be ten feet. In apportion- 
 ing the ball to the caliber, about one-sixth of play is 
 allowed it. 
 
 The composition of the brass of which cannon 
 is formed is somewhat different in different countries ; 
 the proportion with us is, to 10 lbs. of tin we add 100 lbs. 
 of copper; whereas in the brass of statues zinc is em- 
 ployed instead of tin. However, the respective 
 quantities of different metals that should enter into the 
 composition of brass ordnance is not so decided as to 
 be given with mathematical accuracy. The usual pro- 
 portions are to 240 lbs. of metal deemed fit for casting, 
 or which has been previously cast, are put GSlbs.of cop- 
 per, 25 lbs. of common brass, and 12 lbs. of tin. The 
 Germans, who are fond of brass ordnance, prepared as 
 follows; viz. to 4,200 lbs. of metal fit to cast again, they 
 add 3,68744 lbs. of copper, 204|4lbs. of brass, and 
 307|f-lbs. of tin. The French are reported to use in 
 their brass for guns the proportions of lOOlbs. of cop- 
 per to 61bs. of common brass and 9 lbs. of tin, and this 
 proportion is sometimes varied by others to 100 lbs. of 
 copper, lOlbs. of common brass, and 15 lbs. of tin. All 
 cannon, &c. are cast solid, and. their insides bored out 
 afterwards ; and this is effected by means of a machine 
 invented at Strasburgh, and continued to be used till 
 very lately at all the depots for founding ordnance. The 
 gun to be bored by this machine was placed in a verti- 
 cal position, which was turned or put in motion by a 
 windmill, horse, &c. This mode is now laid aside in 
 a great measure, and instead of the gun being raised 
 vertically it is laid down horizontally, and the boring 
 goes on by means of steam or some other power. The 
 
 instrument employed in both ways is nearly similar, ex- 
 cepting the change of its position. It is so contrived 
 that while the boring is advancing the outside is 
 cleaning and polishing ; hence the gun is finished all to 
 its carriage at the same time. 
 
 The casting of guns is performed as has been already 
 described for statues, &,c., excepting only no core is re- 
 quired, it being cast solid ; the shell-wax, furnace, &c., 
 are alike in both processes, and enlarged in proportion to 
 the size and quantity of the casting required to be made. 
 
 Bronze, or by the Italians Bronzo, was well known 
 to the ancients. Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans 
 all made use of it, and that in most cases to their 
 important works as connected with sculpture and the 
 ornamental parts of architecture. Bronze was selected 
 by these people as bearing a finer edge, and not so 
 likely as either of its component parts to oxydate by 
 exposure to the air : hence they made statues of it to 
 adorn the approaches to their cities and public edifices, 
 affixed it in beautiful and highly relieved ornaments to 
 the friezes of their temples, cast it in basso-relievos to 
 represent the paraphernalia of their games and festivals, 
 which were retained in compartments about their works 
 dedicated to their gods ; and, finally, wrought it into 
 baths, tripods, vases, lamps, and other purposes of 
 utility and ornament ; specimens of many of which have 
 by its iustructibility come down to us, as may be seen 
 exhibited in the numerous public galleries on the Con- 
 tinent, at Rome, Naples, Florence, and Paris, with 
 some in our own Museum. 
 
 The Egyptian bronze consisted, according to Basari, 
 of two-thirds brass and one-third copper. Pliny says, 
 “ the Grecian bronze was formed by adding one- 
 tenth lead, and one-twentieth silver, to the two-thirds 
 brass and the one-third copper of the Egyptian bronze,” 
 and this was the proportion afterwards made useof by the 
 Roman statuaries. The G reek bronzes very obviously ap- 
 pear to possess a difference of composition to any that 
 have been founded amongthe moderns. The famous horses 
 (four in number), said to have been the vvoik of Lysip- 
 pus, which now adorn the approaches of the palace of 
 the Thuilleries at Paris, having been brought there, as a 
 trophy of the victories of its present emperor Napoleon, 
 from Venice, exhibit at once, to bronzists, that the an- 
 cient metal of that name was, in its composition, very 
 different from that which is now made and called after 
 that designation : — the modern bronze is commonly 
 made of two-thirds copper, fused with one-third of 
 brass ; and very lately, from the great demand for all 
 kinds of ornaments in this metal, in forming the deco- 
 rative parts to our apartments, and supports to our 
 articles of furniture, lead, with zinc in small propor- 
 tions, have been added to the copper and brass. These 
 variations have been one cause of the greater brilliancy 
 and compactness to be observed in modern castings of 
 this metal, in comparison of those founded a few years 
 since. So common is bronze-work become at this 
 time, that every petty brass-worker pretends to be an 
 adept in founding of this metal ; however, nothing is to 
 
FOUNDING. 
 
 349 
 
 be feared in the attempt, as the efforts of such bronzists 
 will not carry them beyond the work of the furnace. 
 
 The alloying of the several metals to form bronze is 
 found to promote in it a readier fusibility than is pos- 
 sessed by either of its component parts in their pure 
 metallic state ; and this is a property very much to its 
 advantage in the castings of large works. Modern 
 works in bronze become numerous in proportion to the 
 advancement in the arts. Bronze-casting is employed in 
 forming equestrian statues, colossal and other iigures in 
 alto-relievo, to set-off and adorn public places. It is com- 
 petent, when in the hand of an artist, of giving a zest to 
 architecture ; inasmuch as by its tint, as w ell as by the 
 great variety of the forms it is susceptible of being 
 made into, it is able to add richness by its opposi- j 
 tion, and at the same time it finishes the forms of those 
 parts of architecture requiring it. 
 
 Bronze casting is performed in the following manner, 
 viz. 1. The figure or pattern to be cast must have a 
 mould, and this is prepared aud laid on a plaster cast, 
 previously wrought and finished by the sculptor. The 
 mould is made of plaster of Paris, rendered moist by 
 beiug mixed up with water ; to this preparation is added 
 brick-dust, in the proportion of one-third of the former 
 to two-thirds of the latter. This is carefully laid on the 
 mould, with strength in proportion to the weight of 
 metal intended to be used in the founding. In its joints 
 small channels should be cut tending upwards, and from 
 different parts of the internal hollow, to allow of vent 
 for the air to escape through, as the heated metal runs 
 in upon the mould. A thin layer of clay should be 
 spread over the inside of it, and of the thickness which 
 it is intended the bronze should be. Within-side of the 
 clay, a filling up of plaster and brick-dust, in the pro- 
 portions as before described, will be required to com- 
 pose the core : but if the work to be cast be large, 
 before the plaster and brick-dust are poured into the 
 mould to form the core, a skeleton composed of iron 
 bars, as a support for the figure, should be prepared 
 and fixed ; after which, the filling up of the core may 
 be proceeded in. When this is done, the mould must be 
 opened again, and the layer of clay taken out of it, and 
 the core thoroughly dried, and even burned with a char- 
 coal fire, or with straw ; for if the least damp remain, 
 the cast will be blown to pieces when the hot-metal 
 comes in contact with it, in running it into the mould, 
 and the workmen employed about the work be maimed 
 or killed by the dispersion of the heated bronze. After 
 the core, &c., has been properly dried, and is deemed 
 ready for the work, it should be laid in the mould, and 
 supported in its place by short rods of bronze, which 
 should run through the mould into the core. All being 
 so far advanced, the mould should be clad and bound 
 round with iron, of strength proportionate to the size of 
 the w ork to be cast ; after which, the mould should be ! 
 laid in a situation for running in the metal, and must be I 
 supported for the purpose, by bricks, 8tc. Great care ' 
 should be taken that every part be perfectly dried, be- 1 
 fore any metal be run into the mould ; or, as has been ! 
 
 before observed, the most fatal consequences will arise 
 to those w ho may be about the work. A channel must 
 be made from the furnace in which the melted metal is, 
 in order to its running to the principal jet of the mould, 
 
 | and with a descent, to promote its flowing rapidly. 
 The jets, furnace, &c. &c., are all contrived as has 
 been before described for casting figures in brass. 
 
 In yesaris’s Lives, is a chapter on brass-founding; 
 and there is also some very useful observations in the 
 Life of Bevenuto Cellini, vide Pliny’s Natural His- 
 tory. 
 
 The smaller works in bronze are founded by pre- 
 viously being modelled in wax, to which a coating of 
 I clay is adapted and dried (See Brass Casting). 
 
 Bronze works are cleaned up and repaired after being 
 founded, in a similar manner to which figures in brass 
 are, and with the same kind of tools ; but this last 
 touch of perfecting what may have been left imperfect 
 by the mould, should invariably be done by the statuary 
 or modeller himself ; as no one is so competent to 
 keep up the spirit of the original work, as he who 
 invented it, and gave effect to his invention, by making 
 the model. 
 
 The principal works executed in London in bronze, 
 claiming particular notice, are, the equestrian statue at 
 Charing Cross, of Charles the First ; the colossal statue 
 of his present Majesty, together with the basso-relievos, 
 and other insignia, in the square of Somerset Place, 
 executed by the late Mr.Bacon. The statue of Francis, 
 duke of Bedford, with the attributes of agriculture on 
 the pedestal, to the promoting of which he had devoted 
 his time and fortune : this work has been very recently 
 placed, on the south-side of Russell Square, and was 
 executed by Mr. R. Westmacolt. The last public 
 work of bronze is the equestrian statue of William III., 
 erected in the centre of St. James’s Square, and is the 
 work of Mr. J. Bacon, Jun. There are also many 
 bronzes of great merit in the provinces ; and there are 
 many more at this time under execution at our sculp- 
 tors. Mr. Flaxman, who is called “ the Phidias of 
 the moderns,” is now executing a statue of the late Sir 
 John Moore, K. B., who w'as unfortunately killed at 
 the ever-memorable battle of Corunna. This work is 
 calculated, from its superiority in design and chasteness 
 of style and execution, to establish the sculptor’s genius 
 on principles as imperishable as the metal is from which 
 the work has been wrought. It is intended to be raised 
 at Edinburgh when complete, and it will be so in a 
 few months. 
 
 The founding of iron, if it be considered in how' mul- 
 tiplied away it is now employed, makes it occupy a space 
 in the public economy of very great importance, and that 
 of an infinitely superior description to any of the other 
 discoveries which have already been made as appertain- 
 ing to the arts. 
 
 Cast-iron is now' employed (in addition to what it has 
 been hitherto, and which is too well known to be re- 
 cited) in the formation of bridges of great extent ; in 
 roofs, and the girders and joists in buildings, as well as 
 4 U the 
 
350 
 
 FOUNDING. 
 
 the sash-frames and sashes. It has aiso been used with 
 success in wheels and other machinery to our steam- 
 engines, and aiso for their cylinders. It is founded 
 hollow, in the form of columns, partaking of the three 
 known designations in architecture ; and has been lately 
 used to compose the immense mains, and branches 
 from them, to our public water-works. The facility of 
 casting it, with its consequent cheapness, has been a 
 means of creating a trade for it to our trans-atlantic 
 friends, which, until the interruption of that amity 
 which has now so long subsisted, was excessively pro- 
 fitable. Birmingham and its neighbourhood is the great 
 entrepot for works of all kinds in iron. Here are the 
 furnaces which supply the world w'ith the goods wrought 
 to every device required for the people’s comfort, accom- 
 modation, ease, or luxury. Tram.or rail-roads have founded 
 their success in the application and facility of casting 
 their rails of iron. Canal works are largely concerned 
 in promoting iron founding, as by these the labour at- 
 tending making them has been much abridged, and its 
 details rendered more secure and permanent. It sup- 
 plies the modern means of w ar, by facilitating the form- 
 ation of artillery of every description, and that in a 
 better and more improved manner, than had hitherto I 
 been done by the other means had recourse to for that | 
 purpose. And it is daily arriving at so improved a ! 
 state, that it will not be too much to say, “ that in a 
 few years cast-iron will be the desideratum in architec- 
 ture, engineering, and the arts.” 
 
 A foundry of iron is, when calculated to do business 
 on a large scale, situated near, and connected with, the 
 ore and the blast furnaces, as here it is that the ore- 
 smelting is done ; and where that is performed, castings 
 can be executed better, and much more cheap, than 
 when it is done at separate establishments ; it is also 
 better done, because, as more metal is heated at a 
 time at such furnaces, there is a better chance of getting 
 the castings perfect. It is cheaper, from this very ob- 
 vious circumstance, that as the new metal is smelted, it 
 is at once cast into the work required, instead of being 
 run into pigs, as they are termed, to be re-heated in 
 another furnace, and then to be founded. This addi- 
 tional heating, with the cost of removal and labour, is 
 saved by founding it into what is required at its first 
 being smelted. 
 
 The foundry, or place in which the furnaces are 
 placed, is a building of oblong shape, surrounded by 
 walls of masonry or brick-work, of a single story in 
 height, and its size is determined by the extent of the 
 business proposed to be done in it. At the Carron or 
 Charron Iron Works, in Scotland, there are many such 
 buildings all connected to one grand establishment. 
 There are also several in Derbyshire : but those of the 
 most considerable importance are in Staffordshire, at 
 Colebrooke-dale, Wilienhall, &c. In London there are 
 many extensive works of this description, and where 
 they do many things on a large scale : and these are 
 mostly situated at Lambeth. Wherever a foundry is to 
 be formed, a dry situation should be selected for it ; as 
 
 dampness would totally prevent any thing being cast 
 with tolerable accuracy, besides rendering the founding, 
 in such places, dangerous to the workmen employed. 
 The floor of a building for this business should be 
 j about 10 feet deep, and composed of a kind of loamy- 
 sand ; and if the place selected does not afford this con- 
 venience naturally, the ground must be excavated, and 
 such sand brought to All up the excavation. This 
 ioamy sand is for the purpose of burying large moulds 
 j beneath its surface, so that the metal may be conveyed 
 to them by channels or soughs hollowed out of the 
 sand, and through which it runs from the furnace to the 
 mould to be cast. A foundry, or casting-house, is 
 provided with as many air or reverberating furnaces, in 
 addition to the blast furnaces, as is required for the ex- 
 tent of the works to be founded at it. An air or rever- 
 berating furnace is only used occasionally, either when 
 the metal contained in the blast furnace is not sufficient, 
 or when the quality made in it is not proper for the 
 work about to be cast. The difference in the qualities 
 of the metals arise from their containing too much or 
 too little carbon ; and this is corrected by the founder, 
 by mixing them with better or worse metal, till they 
 are rendered fit for the purpose required. Cupolas are 
 also wanted in a foundry, as they are called, and are 
 similar to the blast furnace, except being of somewhat 
 smaller capacity : they are used to melt small quantities 
 of metal, when it is wanted in haste ; as the reverberatory 
 or blast furnaces will take more time in filling the charge 
 of metal than the cupola does, by reason of their being 
 of larger capacity ; but the founding by cupolas re- 
 quires more machinery, from which circumstance it is not 
 so well adapted to answer the purpose of the founder, 
 as founding with a reverberatory or blast furnace is. 
 A much greater stock of flasks and other implements 
 are wanted to make the moulds with, than are required 
 by the caster who performs his work by means of either of 
 the other furnaces. These kind of furnaces are always 
 in use at large foundrys, as at these places can be em- 
 ployed the whole charge of metal they are capable of 
 containing. 
 
 In the foundry, by a blast furnace, a pit is sunk at a 
 convenient distance from the furnace, and the moulds 
 for all large articles, such as pipes, &c., are placed 
 vertically in it, withiu reach of the crane, that they may 
 be raised or lowered in the pit. The metal is conveyed 
 from the furnace by a gutter or sough, made in the floor 
 of the foundry, and a small iron trough filled with sand 
 conducts the fluid metal into the moulds. This method 
 of performing foundings to large works, is an improve- 
 ment on the old one, (which consisted in burying the 
 pattern in sand,) and which has caused a great sav- 
 ing in labour and time. The flasks for this method 
 of casting are founded of iron. It is now a practice, at 
 most of our large foundrys, to substitute sand for loam 
 castings, in cases in which there are a great number of 
 articles of the same kind to be cast ; so that the expense 
 of the flasks becomes an object of no great importance. 
 When it happens that the articles are intricate, the sand 
 
founding. 
 
 351 
 
 is wetted so much as to vender it sufficiently adhesive to 
 make it mould, and receive the form of the pattern 
 completely ; after this is done, it is necessary to dry 
 the mould, to prevent accidents by the explosion of the 
 hot-metal, when running the cast. For this purpose, 
 stoves are used, in which an equal and moderate de- 
 gree of temperature is’produced, and of a capacity ade- 
 quate to contain a good number of the patterns. The 
 moulds, when ready to be dried, are placed upon a 
 carriage adapted to the purpose, and on which they are 
 arranged and conveyed to the oven ; and when dry, 
 which generally happens in about half an hour, they are 
 withdrawn, and a new set placed upon the carriage. 
 Every foundry should be provided with one or more 
 cranes, so placed as to be easily got at when it is re- 
 quired to raise or lower any large piece of casting ; 
 they should also have a boring-mill, for clearing out and 
 forming the internal surface of all hollow casting, such 
 as pipes, cylinders for steam-engines, &c. &c.; and the 
 same machinery which turns the large lathes for this 
 purpose, is also employed in the turnings of heavy mill- 
 axes, pistons ; the rollers in sugar mills, and the lamel- 
 lating of iron, called “ laminating rollers it gives 
 motion to all these at the same time, and also blows the 
 cupolas. At the foundrys in which the blast furnace is 
 employed, this operation is supplied by a small pipe 
 from the great blowing engine of the furnace. 
 
 The moulding of large pieces of casting which are 
 required to be hollow, is made in loam, and consists in 
 laying down an iron ring upon the ground, of the dia- 
 meter of the proposed caliber of the wwk to be cast, 
 and which has a rod of iron in its centre ; after this 
 is done, bricks, clay, and wet-loam, are mixed toge- 
 ther, and built up within the ring, and round the iron 
 rod, of somewhat less diameter than the cylinder about 
 to be cast, and for which this is to form the core. The 
 whole, when built, is bound round with iron hoops to 
 protect it, and a fire is made in it to dry it, and when 
 properly dried, a coating of loam is spread over it, and 
 smoothed ; this coat fills up, and makes it the pro- 
 per size for the inside of the cylinder, and is called the 
 core of the mould. Another cylinder is built and 
 plastered in the same manner, but without hoops, 
 whose diameter is the same as the outside of the cylin- 
 der to be founded. When this is finished, it is covered 
 over with charcoal-dust, or charcoal ground, which is' 
 mixed up with water, like paint, and laid on with a 
 brush ; and a thin coating of loam mixed up with hair 
 is then laid over the charcoal previously spread upon the 
 inner cylinder. When all these are quite dry, a man 
 gets into the cylinder, and w'ith a picker pulls away from 
 the core the bricks, and then with a trowel cuts away 
 also the loam, leaving the inside of the external cylinder, 
 which is called the mould, quite smooth. This part of 
 the work is effected by the coat of charcoal, which 
 prevents the two coats of loam from adhering together. 
 While this is doing, a deep pit is dug, and into this 
 the core is let down by a crane, and when down, the 
 mould is lowered down over it, and when adjusted in 
 
 its place, sand is thrown in and rammed round about it, 
 to about the half of its height ; after which a flat cover 
 of dried loam is put on the top of the mould and core, 
 and pieces of rounded wood are put into the holes 
 which had been before made for pouring in the metal. 
 The plugs which keep open these holes are carefully 
 taken out, and small channels prepared for the metal to 
 run through from the furnace. Before the metal is run 
 into the mould, it may be necessary to observe, that it 
 must be perfectly well dried, and every part of the 
 mould examined, to see that it be in a proper state to 
 receive the metal. Sand or open casting is used for 
 such articles as will allow of cutting into two pieces, 
 or even more, the models of which are indented in the 
 sand, and the metal is run in between flasks. 
 
 As to the prices charged for castings in iron, they are 
 regulated by the nature of the article required to be 
 founded. At the smelting furnace, work of a large size 
 is cast at little more than the price of the pigs, and this 
 addition is created only by the moulding. Iron roofing 
 to buildings, composed of all the detail of principal and 
 other rafters, modelled, fitted, and put up complete, 
 has been agreed to be done for the writer of this article 
 after the rate of 11s. per cwt., founded at Birmingham 
 and erected in the centre of London, and this price 
 is to embrace the whole expense of the carriage and 
 labour to raise it up and fix it completely on the build- 
 ing for which it is intended. The water pipes for the 
 Grand Junction Company were founded at Colebrooke- 
 Dale, and at a much less price than those above recited 
 for the roofing. In London, cast iron work is more than 
 | treble the price which is charged for it at Birmingham. 
 The founders in London will have from 17s. to 23s. 
 per hundred for the larger piping, and as to the roof- 
 ing it is doubtful if they could do it all, at any rate they 
 would not do it for double the price. Gallery, or bal- 
 cony railing, is founded generally in pannels of about 
 five feet in length, and charged by the hundred as other 
 foundings are ; such goods are always cast in open sand ; 
 they are charged in London at from 28s. to 33s. per 
 hundred weight, if the pattern be troublesome or diffi- 
 cult a greater price would be required for it ; and this 
 last estimate for cast iron founding, will be a very 
 good ratio on which calculations may be made for cast- 
 ings in London. But the great foundrys in the country 
 are the places at which things on a large scale should be 
 had from, if economy be at all to be considered. 
 
 The manufacture of artillery, when of iron, was not, 
 at first, conducted by casting it. Bars were so adjusted 
 together, and bound by hoops, as to render them capable 
 of withstanding the charge of pow'der and the projection of 
 ball ; but to do this, they were obliged to be excessively 
 large, and consequently became so ponderous, as in 
 some measure to be unmanageable. The casting of 
 them was then had recourse to, and it was usual to do 
 that hollow ; from which circumstance, and from fonnd- 
 ing being in its infancy, mauy accidents occurred by the 
 metal not being always adequate to withstand a power- 
 ful charge, or a repetition of it. Hence, fouuding 
 
 artillery 
 
352 
 
 FOUNDING. 
 
 artillery solid, and boring its inside out afterwards, was 
 adopted, as the most likely method to avoid these inconve- 
 niencies, and which having been more successful than 
 hollow casting, cannon have continued to be so cast ever 
 since, with such other improvements as have gradually 
 developed themselves. 
 
 It is generally believed that cannon have been made 
 use of in Europe ever since the year 1338, and that 
 they were employed for naval purposes, in the Baltic 
 Sea, in 1350 ; at any rate, it is certain they were used 
 by the Venetians in 1366, at the siege of Claudia 
 Jessa. Larrey ascribes the invention of brass cannon to 
 J. Owen; he asserts, there were none such known in 
 England till the year 1535, and that iron cannon were, 
 for the first time, cast in it in 1547- Specimens of 
 great guns, as they were first used, and before the cast- 
 ing of them in foundrys came into use, are still to be 
 seen in many parts of Europe, and some also in the 
 Tower of London, and at Woolwich. They were, at 
 first, called bombardes, and afterwards cannon. It was 
 usual, formerly, to designate those which had been 
 made uncommonly large, or had been supposed to have 
 performed any uncommon service, by a particular name; 
 accordingly, Louis the Twelfth, in 1503, had 12 brass 
 cannon cast of extraordinary size, called after the 12 
 peers of France ; the Spaniards and Portuguese named 
 theirs after their saints. The emperor Charles the Vth, 
 when he went against Tunis, had 12 cannon founded, 
 which he called “ the twelve Apostles.” At Milan 
 there is a 70 pounder called “ the Pimontelli and 
 there is one at Bois-le-Duc called the Devil.” At 
 Dover Castle there is a 60 pounder called “ Queen Eli- 
 zabeth’s Pocket-Pistol ;” there is an 80 pounder at Ber- 
 lin, called “ the Thunderer ;” two 60 pounders at 
 Bremen, called “ the Messengers of Bad News ;” and 
 there is one at Rome, made of the nails which fastened 
 the copper and bronze ornaments about the portico of 
 the Pantheon, with this inscription on it, “ Ex clavis 
 trabalibus porticus Agrippae.” At present, cannon take 
 their names from the weight of the balls which they are 
 intended to discharge : thus, a piece that discharges a 
 ball of 24lbs. is called a 24 pounder, and that which 
 takes a ball of 12lbs. a 12 pounder, and so on. Guns 
 for ships consist of the following weights, viz. of 42, 
 36, 24, 18, 12, 9 , 6, and 3 pounders. Garrison 
 guns are of 42, 32, 24, IS, 12, 9 , and 6 pounders. 
 Battering guns are of 24, 18, and 12 pounders. Field 
 pieces consist of 12, 9, 6, 3, 2, 1, and ± pounders. 
 
 In addition to the artillery already named, there are 
 mortars, howitzers, &c. &c. A mortar is a sort of 
 cannon, with a short shaft, a large bore, and chamber. 
 Mortars are thought to be the first pieces of artillery that 
 were used, as they were employed for the purpose of 
 throwing red-hot balls and stones. Mortars are also 
 made use of for throwing hollow balls and shells filled 
 with powder, in sufficient quantity to burst them. The 
 ingenious D saguliers contrived a method of throwing 
 bags from them, filled each with from four to six hun- 
 dred shot of different dimensions, and with adequate 
 
 success. The effect of such au application must be 
 awful and tremendous. Mortars are distinguished by 
 artillery-men, by the diameter of their bores ; hence a 
 mortar with a bore of thirteen inches is called a 13 inch 
 mortar, and one of eight inches, an 8 inch mortar, and 
 so on. The sizes, lengths, and every detail and parti- 
 cular connected with the proportions of artillery, are 
 settled and arranged by tables issued from the Board of 
 Ordnance ; and no piece of artillery can be made use of, 
 unless conformable to the table published by its sanction. 
 For a full description of all the various guns, their calibers 
 and size of the metal, 8tc., allowed to be made for the 
 use of the state, and also those w'hich are used by the 
 French, since the year 1793, when the table of their 
 guns received many alterations, consult article Cannon, 
 Dr. Rees’s Cyclopedia. 
 
 The founding of artillery is conducted in a similar 
 manner to other foundings in iron. The gun intended 
 to be cast is moulded in the sand, from a model previ- 
 ously formed either in wood or clay. When the mould 
 is complete and ready for the metal, it is suffered to 
 run through a channel or gutter into the mould. The 
 smaller guns are moulded on tables, and one half of the 
 mould is formed in one table, and its counterpart or 
 other half in another table. The counterpart is fitted 
 to the first half by means of small pins which keep 
 the two firmly together, and when so adjusted they 
 are put under a heavy weight or into screws, to keep 
 them from separating while the hot metal is running 
 in to fill the model. 
 
 Till about forty years ago a cannon was cast with a 
 cylindrical cavity, having nearly the same diameter with 
 the intended caliber of the piece, and was afterwards 
 enlarged and cleaned out by a machine adapted to the 
 purpose. It consisted of tw o vertical bars of cast-iron 
 from eight to ten feet in height, or in proportion to the 
 gun to be bored, and confined by being screwed with 
 nuts and screws to four cross-beams of the same metal, 
 between which an iron frame w r as adjusted, composed of 
 twm upright pieces fitted parallel to the vertical bars and 
 framed to three cross rails, into which is fitted the drill 
 for boring out the gun. On their edges are eight 
 small pieces of iron, projecting so much as to clasp the 
 vertical-bars and to form a groove to keep the frame 
 steady in sliding down while drilling out the inside of 
 the cannon. In the centre of the upright frame is 
 placed the gun to be bored out, with its small end 
 dowmwards, and held to the frame by three bands of 
 iron which are screwed to trunnions or fixed round it, 
 one of which is placed at the breech, another in the 
 middle, and the last at its muzzle: these bands are 
 placed to prevent the gun from turning round by the 
 action of the drill bar. At the bottom under the gun 
 and drill, is placed a copper or iron pan of a circular 
 shape, about twelve inches in diameter, with a project- 
 ing rim of about two inches in height for receiving the 
 chips of metal separated from the piece while its inside 
 is cleaning out. At the top of the sliding-frame are 
 fixed large hooks, to which are looped, by iron loops, 
 
 two 
 
FOUNDING. 
 
 353 
 
 two three-w heeled block pulleys with lines, for the pur- 
 pose of raising and lowering the cannon upon the drill. 
 The drill bar is turned or moved round by a horse or 
 horses, and the gun is kept to the work by its own 
 weight pressing upon the head of the drill. 
 
 The drill bar is provided with a piece of iron rather 
 larger than the diameter of the bore of the gun, and 
 fixed upon the shaft of the drill to prevent it entering 
 too far into the piece. This machine is now nearly out 
 of use for boring and cleaning out artillery, as they are 
 now invariably founded solid, and the drilling is per- 
 formed in a different manner. The reason of disconti- 
 nuing to cast guns hollow arose from the uncertainty of 
 getting them sound by that way of founding. Cannon 
 cast hollow were always more or less spongy, and nu- 
 merous cavities were formed round the cores, which 
 could not be removed by the drilling. Guns, or in- 
 deed any other founding required to be left hollow in 
 their insides, must be moulded on a core or heart, and 
 which is previously explained in the casting of brass and 
 bronze. Some of the cavities left in the cores of guns 
 by the hollow founding, were often found to be so deep 
 that the boring would not take them out; and from i 
 this reason, and the uncertainty of the work being ! 
 fitted to its intended purpose, solid casting was had j 
 recourse to and adopted at every foundry ; since which j 
 time a new kind of machine for the purpose of boring 
 out their insides has been invented and used, and 
 which consists chiefly in the difference of placing the 
 gun. By the first method the cannon to be drilled was 
 suspended in a vertical frame as has just been described, 
 whereas the gun is now laid down horizontally. The j 
 machine is somewhat different in its details in every 
 establishment for gun-work, and experience can only 
 determine which is the best. The one at the Garrat 
 iron-works is found well adapted to answer the pur- 
 pose ; and there is also a very elaborate one at Wool- 
 wich, as well as at the Carron or Charon works in the 
 North. The machine at Garrat consists of a long frame 
 composed of ledgers of iron laid down on the ground, j 
 of length adequate to receive guns of any dimension ; 
 it is raised upon cross ledgers of wood to about two feet j 
 from the ground, having four upright shafts to support 
 the gun, and also the drill for boring it. The drill bar i 
 rests on a block which is fitted near the muzzle of 
 the gun, the other end of it is supported by a small 
 carriage, which has wheels by which it is moved on the 
 ledgers of the frame. To the bottom of the carriage is 
 fixed an iron rack which works into a pinion, the rack 
 is employed to move forward or backward the gun 
 while under the operation of boring. It is kept steady j 
 to the pinion by a roller, and on the end of its axis a J 
 •capstan head is fixed with holes in it to receive one end 
 of an iron bar fixed to the side of the frame, while the 
 other end is loaded with a weight for the purpose of 
 advancing the borer into the gun, and is shifted as the 
 boring proceeds, and this is known by the weight sus- 
 pended at its end falling to the ground. After the guns 
 are bored and their inside cleaned out, and their out- 
 
 sides turned to the shape desired, their touch-holes 
 are to be drilled, which is done by an instrument 
 mounted in a frame of wood ; and which has at one end 
 for the convenience of removing easily when it is to be 
 used, wheels, and on this the frame is moved close 
 to the gun requiring its touch-hole to be made. The 
 cannon is laid on two blocks of wood of sufficient 
 height to raise the wheels off the ground, which will 
 prevent its running back while the hole is making. The 
 drill, with its bow for turning it round, is then to be 
 fixed between the touch-hole of the gun and the block. 
 The block is advanced forward by using the arm of a 
 bent lever, wffiich is assisted by the means of a weight 
 suspended on its opposite arm. On a beam over the 
 machine is fixed a screw, the lower end of which is 
 hollow' for a few inches to receive one end of the drill, 
 and on its other end is fixed a wheel or head to act as a 
 fly to the upper part of the bore. To the shaft of the 
 drill, two strings of catgut are fastened and twisted with 
 their opposite ends tied to a handle, which operates by 
 being twisted backwards and forwards, and with the 
 motion of the bore in forming the touch-hole to the 
 gun. 
 
 Cannon are always cast with a large cap at their 
 muzzle, this originally was cut off with a saw, but now 
 a machine is used for the purpose which a man works 
 by a turning lathe; and as the turning goes on, the 
 turner uses a chisel, w'ith which he cuts into the gun 
 to about one and a half inch deep. The cap so cut is 
 broken off by being hammered. 
 
 Bells follow next in order. The aera of their inven- 
 tion is somewhat obscure, as we find no traces by 
 which we can discover whether they were known to the 
 ancients or not. It is not improbable but that they 
 came into use at the spreading of the Christian religion, 
 as some notices respecting them may be traced as early 
 as the seventh century ;* but they w r ere at this time 
 very small, and, it is probable, used only on particular 
 occasions, and erected in cupolas. However, in the 
 tenth century large ones became common, about the 
 middle of which we find several of the churches were 
 furnished with them by the munificence of our kings ; and 
 the account we have of St. Dunstan’s gifts to Malrns- 
 bury abbey, plainly shew's they were not very common 
 among us in that age, for he says, “ the liberality of 
 that prelate consisted chiefly in doing such things as 
 were then wonderful and strange in England, among 
 which he reckous the large bells and organs which he 
 gave them, and from this time they became more fre- 
 quent, and afterwards the common furniture to churches. 
 Bells no doubt at first suggested the necessity of 
 tower:. Towers promised to the imagination something 
 noble and extraordinary in the uncommon effects they 
 were capable of producing by their requisite loftiness 
 and variety of forms. The Chinese have long been 
 distinguished by their partiality for bells, and some of 
 theirs are of large dimensions. There are also very 
 
 * Bede. Hist. lib. 4. cap. 22. 
 
 4 X large 
 
S54 
 
 FOUNDING. 
 
 large bells in almost every cathedral on the Continent, 
 besides many in England. f 
 
 The manner of casting bells is similar to that ot .ta- 
 tues, except that the metal is different, there being m 
 bell-metal about one-fifth of tin, whereas there is no 
 tin in the brass of statues. The dimensions of the core 
 and wax in modelling a bell, if it be to be one of a ring 
 of several, must be formed on a kind °f scale 01 dia- 
 pason, which will give the height, aperture, and thick- 
 ness of the shell necessary to the several tones required 
 The exterior of the bell is formed into rings fashioned 
 into mouldings, and sometimes inscriptions, mottos, and 
 figures are also added to adorn and set off its outside ; 
 
 all these are previously modelled and afterwards moulded 
 
 in wax upon the core. The clapper or tongue is not 
 properly a part of the bell, and is furnished by other 
 hands: with us it is usually of iron, and is suspended in 
 the middle of the bell. The Chinese make it 6 f wood, 
 leavin" a hole under the cannon of the bell to mciease 
 its sound. Our proportions of bells consist in making 
 the diameter fifteen times as thick as the brim, and its 
 length twelve times. The bell itself consists of its 
 sounding bow, which is terminated by an inferior circle, 
 which diminishes thinner and thinner as it approaches to 
 the brim or that part on which the clapper strikes, and 
 which is required to be left rather thicker than the rest 
 both above and below ; also the outward sinking or pro- 
 perly the waist of the bell, or the point under which it 
 grows wider to the brim and the upper vase, or top or 
 dome of the bell, or that part which is above the waist. 
 The pallet is the inside of the vase or dome to which 
 the clapper is suspended. The vent and hollowed 
 branches of metal which unite with the cannon to re- 
 ceive the iron-keys by which the bell is hung to its 
 beam of support, where it must be exactly counter- 
 poised. The height of a bell is in proportion to its 
 diameter as twelve is to fifteen, or m the proportion ot 
 the fundamental sound to its third major, from which it 
 follows that the sound of a bell is principally composed 
 of the sound of its extremity or brim as a fundamental 
 of the sound of the crown, and which is an octave to it, 
 and that of the height, which is a third. 
 
 To mould a bell for casting, the following prepara- 
 tions must be made. Earth must be collected, and that 
 which is most cohesive is the best, and it must be well 
 ground and sifted. Brick or stone must be gotten for 
 the mine, with which it must be steined. Horse- 
 dung, hair, and hemp, must be mixed with the eaith 
 to render the composition for moulding more firm and 
 binding. The wax to mould the inscriptions, coats ot 
 arms, and other insignia about the outer suiface o 
 the bell: also tallow must be mixed with the wax m 
 equal proportions, to make it mould more freely; 
 which when mixed, a slight layer of it is put upon the 
 model or outer mould, previously to any of the orna- 
 ments being applied to it. A scaffold is raised upon 
 tressels round the mine, upon which is placed the earth 
 «rossly diluted with water, to make it mix better with 
 the dung ; and, last of all, shelves are to be placed, on 
 
 which the models, &c., of the different ornaments or 
 inscriptions to be cast upon the bell are put. A hole 
 is now to be dug of an adequate depth to contain the 
 mould of the bell, together with the case of it, or can- 
 non, under ground, and about six inches below the 
 level of the ground of the foundry. It must be wide 
 enough to allow of a free passage between the mould 
 and walls, or between one mould and another when 
 several bells are to be cast. At the centre of the hole a 
 stake is erected, which is fixed firmly m the ground, 
 this supports an iron peg, on which the pivot of the 
 second branch of the compasses of construction turns, 
 (these compasses are the chief instruments for making the 
 mould, and consist of two legs joined to a thud at its 
 apex). The stake is surrounded by solid brickwork, of 
 about six inches in height and of the diameter of the 
 bell ; this is called the mill-stone. The parts of the 
 mould consist of the core, the model of the bell, and 
 the shell. When the outer surface of the core is formed, 
 it is raised up with bricks, which are laid m courses of 
 equal height upon a layer of earth; as each brick is lai* 
 the work is brought near to the branch of the compasses 
 on which the curve of the core is shaped, so as that 
 there may remain between it and the curve the distance 
 of a line, to be afterwards filled up with layers of ce- 
 ment. The building of the core is continued to the 
 top, leaving only an opening for the coals to be put in 
 to bake the core. This work is covered with a layer of 
 cement made of earth and horse-dung, and on which is 
 moved the compass of construction, to make it of an 
 even smoothness every where. Having finished the fiist 
 layer in this way, the fire is put into the core b) fillin it 
 half with coals through an opening kept ; s J ut du " n f 
 | baking, and with a cake of earth which has been sepa 
 1 rately baked. The first fire consumes the stake and it 
 is left in the core a half and sometimes a whole day .the 
 first layer having become thoroughly dry, it is covered 
 with a second, also a third and fourth, each bem sur- 
 rounded with a board and also the compasses, and also 
 thoroughly dried before another is proceeded on. lhe 
 core being thus finished, the compasses are taken to 
 pieces with the intention of cutting away the thickness 
 of the model, which when done they are again put m 
 their places to begin another piece of the mould. I h u 
 piece consists of a mixture of earth and hair applied 
 with the hand upon the core m several cakes, these a L 
 close together if properly applied Fins par of the 
 work is finished afterwards in several additional layers of 
 cement of the same matter smoothed by tfe compasses 
 and thoroughly dried before another is laid on. lhe 
 first layer of the model is a mixture of wax and tallow, 
 which } is spread over the whole. When the work has 
 so far proceeded, the inscriptions or other ms jia n-. 
 tended to be cast upon the bell are app ied, forcing 
 which a pencil is used dipped m a vesse of wax melted 
 in a chafing dish; this is done for every letter, o fig re 
 intended to be upon the bell. Before the s e 
 enm the compasses are taken to pieces, m older to cut 
 (away all the wood that fills the place of the fhicknesa 
 
FOUNDING. 
 
 355 
 
 which is intended to be given to the shell. When this 
 is done and all is clear, the shell is begun, the first layer of 
 which is the same earth sifted very fine. While it is tem- 
 pering with water, it is mixed up with cow-hair to make 
 it cohere ; the whole, being a third cullis, is gently 
 poured on the model, and fills exactly all the sinuosities 
 of the figures, and this is repeated till the whole is two 
 lines in thickness upon the model ; when these layers 
 are properly dried they cover it with a second of the 
 same matter, but somewhat thicker than those previ- 
 ously laid on ; the compasses are now tried, and a fire 
 is lighted in the core, so as to melt off the wax of the 
 inscription, &c. ; after which the layers of the shell are 
 proceeded in by means of the compasses. There is now 
 to be added to the composition a quantity of hemp, 
 which is spread upon the layers and afterwards 
 smoothed upon the board of the compasses. The shell 
 varies from four to five inches lower than the mill-stone 
 before observed, but surrounds it quite close, and pre- 
 vents the extravasation of the metal. The wax should 
 be taken out before melting the metal. The case of the 
 bell requires a separate work, which is done during 
 the drying of the several incrustations of the cements. 
 It has seven rings ; the last is called the bridge, and 
 united to the others, it being a perpendicular support to 
 strengthen the curves. It has an aperture at its top to 
 admit an iron peg and bent at its bottom, and this is 
 introduced into tw'o holes in the beam fastened with 
 tw'o strong iron keys. The rings are modelled w'ith 
 masses of beaten earth, that are dried in the fire 
 in order to have them hollow. The rings are gently 
 pressed upon a layer of earth, and cow-hair to about 
 one-half of their depth and then taken out, and care 
 should be taken not to break the mould. This operation 
 is repeated twelve times for twelve half moulds, that is, 
 two and two united make the hollow of the six rings ; 
 the same is done for the hollow of the bridge They 
 are all united together upon the open place left for the 
 coals to be put into the oven. The rings which are to 
 form the ears are put first into this open place, with the 
 iron ring to support the clapper of the bell. After 
 which a round cake of clay is made to fill up the dia- 
 meter of the thickness of the core. This cake after 
 having been baked is placed upon the opening, and 
 fastened by a thin mortar spread over it, which 
 binds the cover close to the core. The hollow of the 
 mould is filled with an earth sufficiently moist to fix 
 itself on the place which is strewed at several times 
 upon the cover of the core; it is then beaten gently with 
 a pestle, and afterwards smoothed by a workman at 
 top with a wooden trowel dipped in water. Upon this 
 cover, which is afterwards to be taken off, is assembled 
 the hollow of the rings ; and when every thing is in its 
 proper place, the outside of the hollows are strength- 
 ened with mortar, in order to bind them to the bridge 
 and keep them steady, and at the bottom by means of 
 a cake of the same mortar, and which fills up the whole 
 aperture of the shell. This is left to dry, that it may 
 afterwards be removed without breaking. To make 
 
 room for the heated metal, the rings are taken out of the 
 hollows in the mould, as it is in these hollows that the 
 metal is to pass as it enters into the voids in the mould. 
 The shell being thus unloaded of its rings, the mill-stone 
 j is arranged by having placed under it five or six pieces of 
 wood of about two feet long, and thick enough to reach 
 almost to the lower part of the shell ; between these and 
 the mould wooden wedges are driven, in order to shake 
 the shell from off the model, so as to be pulled away and 
 removed up out of the pit. When this and the wax 
 are removed, the model and layer of earth are arranged 
 for the founding, as it is through tiiese the melted metal 
 must pass into the hollows made by the rings, and which 
 are between the shell and core. The inside of the shell 
 is last of all dried by burning straw under it, this helps 
 to smooth the surface of the bell. The shell is put in 
 the place so as to leave the same interval between it and 
 the core as w'as before ; and before the hollows of the 
 rings on the cap are put on again two vents are made, 
 which are united to the rings, and also to each other, 
 by a mass of baked cement ; after which this mass of 
 the cap is put on, the rings and thevent over the bell 
 are soldered to the cap by cement ; which is dried 
 by gradual heat by covering it with burning coals. So 
 much having been done, the pit surrounding the whole 
 is filled up with earth, being pressed strongly all the 
 time of putting in close round the mould. 
 
 The furnace has a place for the fire and another to 
 contain the metal ; the fire-place has a large chimney 
 with a spacious ash-hole. The furnace which contains 
 the metal is vaulted, and its bottom is made of earth 
 rammed down, the rest is built of brick-work. It has 
 four apertures, the first of which admits the flame pro- 
 jected by the fire to reverberate, the second is closed 
 by a stopple, which is opened for the metal to run 
 through ; the other two are to separate the dross and 
 scoriee by allowing the attendant of the furnace to in- 
 troduce a wooden rake through it for the purpose. 
 These apertures also pass the thick smoke. The ground 
 or floor of the furnace is built sloping for the metal to 
 run down. When the metal is fused and ready to fill 
 the shell, which should be examined minutely in every 
 part to see if it be dry and ready to receive it ; when all 
 is deemed ready, the metal is suffered to run into the 
 shell by the apertures prepared to admit it, after which 
 it is allowed to fix and cool. It is then taken out, ex- 
 amined, and cleaned, in a similar manner to what has 
 been before explained for brass and bronze castings. 
 The sound of a bell is said to arise from the vibrations 
 of its parts much like that of a musical chord. The 
 stroke of the clapper, it is evident, must change its 
 figure, which if round make it oval ; but the metal 
 having a degree of elasticity, that part which the stroke 
 drives farthest from the centre will fly back again, and 
 this even for a time somewhat nearer the centre than it 
 was before, so that the two points which before were 
 the extremes of the longer diameter now become those 
 of the shorter ; thus the circumference of the bell un- 
 dergoes alternate changes of figure, and bj that means 
 
356 
 
 FOUNDING. 
 
 gives that tremulous motion to the air of which sound 
 consists. M. Perault remarks, “ that the sound of the 
 same bell or chord is a compound of the sound of the 
 several parts, so that were the parts homogeneous and 
 the dimensions of the figure uniform, there would be 
 such a perfect mixture of all their sounds as constitutes 
 one uniform, smooth and even sound, and the contrary 
 circumstances produce harshness. This he proves from 
 the bell differing in time according to the part which is 
 striken, and yet strike it any where there is a motion of 
 all the parts. He therefore considers bells as compos- 
 ed of an infinite number of rings, which according to 
 the different dimensions have different tones, as chords 
 of different lengths have, and when struck the vibrating 
 parts immediately stricken determine the tone ; being 
 supported by a sufficient number of consonant tones in 
 the other part. M. Hawksbee has found that the sound 
 of a bell stricken under water is one-fourth deeper than 
 when in the air, though Mersunnus says, “ it is the 
 same pitch in both states.” Bells are observed to be 
 heard farther when suspended in plains than on hills, and 
 still farther in valleys than on plains — the reason of 
 which it will not be difficult to assign, if it be considered 
 that the higher the sonorous body is the rarer is its 
 medium, consequently the less impulse it receives, and 
 the less proper vehicle it has to convey it to adistance. 
 
 Bells have been cast of enormous dimensions, and 
 nations seem in some measure to have vied w ith one 
 another on this subject. The Continent abounds with 
 large bells. In China also there are many of uncom- 
 mon proportions, and w r e have among ourselves several, 
 but the largest in the world is at Moscow, buried in a 
 swamp from its weight, having overset the tower in 
 which it was suspended. Clark, in his travels, says, 
 the numberless bells of Moscow' continue to ring 
 during the whole Easter week tinkling and tolling with- 
 out any harmony or order. The large bell near the 
 cathedral is only used on important occasions, and yields 
 the finest and most solemn tone I ever heard. When 
 it sounds, a deep and hollow murmur vibrates all over 
 Moscow', like the fullest and low'est tones of a vast 
 organ, or the rolling of distant thunder. This bell is 
 suspended in a tower called the Belfry of St. Isan, 
 beneath others which though of less size are enormous. 
 It is forty feet nine inches in circumference, sixteen inches 
 and a half thick, and it weighs more than fifty-seven 
 tons. The great bell of Moscow, known to be the 
 largest ever founded, is in a deep pit in the midst of 
 the Kremlin. The history of its fall is a fable, and as 
 writers continue to copy each other the story continues 
 to be propagated., The fact is the bell remains in the 
 place where it was originally cast ; it never was sus- 
 pended. The Russians might as well attempt to sus- 
 pend a first-rate line of battle ship with all its guns 
 and stores. A fire took place in the Kremlin, the flames 
 of which caught the building erected over the pit in 
 which the bell yet remained ; in consequence of this the 
 metal became hot, and w ater thrown to extinguish the fire 
 fell upon the bell, causing the fracture which has taken 
 
 place. It reaches from the bottom of the cave where 
 it lays to the roof. The entrance to the cave is by a 
 trap-door placed even with the surface of the earth. 
 We (Messrs. Clark and Cripps) found the steps very 
 dangerous, some of them were wanting and others 
 broken, which occasioned me a severe fall down to the 
 extent of the whole first flight, and a narrow escape for 
 my life in not being dashed upon the bell. In conse- 
 quence of this accident a sentinel was stationed after- 
 wards at the trap-door, to prevent people becoming 
 victims to their curiosity. He might have been as 
 w'ell employed in mending the steps, as in waiting 
 all day to say they were broken. The bell is truly a 
 mountain of metal ; they relate that it contains a very 
 large proportion of gold and silver ; for that while it was 
 in fusion, the nobles and the people cast in as votive offer- 
 ings their plate and money. It is permitted to doubt 
 the truth of traditionary tales, particularly in Russia, 
 w'here people are much disposed to relate what they 
 have heard without once reflecting on its probability. I 
 endeavoured in vain to assay a small part. The natives 
 regard it with superstitious veneration, and they would 
 not allow even a grain to be filed off ; at the same time 
 it may be said the compound has a white shining ap- 
 pearance unlike bell-metal in general. And perhaps its 
 silvery appearance has strengthened, if not given rise to a 
 conjecture respecting the richness of its materials. On 
 festival days the peasants visit the bell as they would a 
 church, considering it an act of devotion ; and they 
 cross themselves as they descend and ascend the steps 
 leading to the bell. The bottom of the pit is covered 
 by water, mud, and large pieces of timber, which, 
 added to the darkness, render it always an unpleasant 
 and unwholesome place, in addition to the danger aris- 
 ing from the steps which lead to the bottom. I went 
 frequently there in order to ascertain the dimensions of 
 the bell with exactness. To my great surprise, during 
 one of those visits half a dozen Russian officers w hom 1 
 found in the pit, agreed to assist me in the admeasure- 
 ment: it so nearly agreed with the account published 
 by Jonas Hanway that the difference is not worth 
 notice : this is somewhat remarkable, considering the 
 difficulty of exactly measuring w'hat is partly buried in 
 the earth, and the circumference of which is not en- 
 tire. No one, I believe, has yet ascertained the size 
 of the lower rim of the bell, which would afford still 
 greater dimensions than those we obtained, but it is 
 entirely buried in the earth; about ten persons w'ere pre- 
 sent when I admeasured the part which remains ex- 
 posed to observation ; we applied a strong cord close 
 to the metal in all parts of its periphery, and round the 
 lower part where it touched the ground, taking care at 
 the same time not to stretch the cord. From the piece 
 of the bell broken off, it was ascertained that we had 
 thus measured within two feet of its lower extremity. 
 The circumference obtained was sixty-seven feet five 
 inches, which allow's a diameter of twenty-two feet five 
 inches and one-third. We then took the perpendicular 
 height from the top of the bell, and found it correspond 
 
 exactly 
 
FOUNDING. 
 
 357 
 
 exactly with the statement made by J. Harnvay, viz. 
 twenty-one feet four inches and a half. In the stoutest 
 part, that in which it should have received the blow of 
 the clapper its thickness equalled twenty-three inches : 
 we were enabled to ascertain this by placing our hands 
 under water where the fracture had taken place, w hich 
 is about seven feet high from the top of the bell. The 
 weight of this enormous mass of metal has been com- 
 puted to be 443,772lbs., which if valued at 3s. per 
 pound, amounts to 66, 56ol. 16s. lying unemployed and 
 of no use to any one *. It is reported to have been cast 
 during the reign of the Empress Anne. 
 
 The founding of Types is so nearly allied to printing 
 that it is almost impossible to trace the former through 
 its progress without saying something of the latter : 
 they are together the noblest invention that was ever 
 achieved by man, whether if considered as adapted to 
 meliorate our condition, or elevate us to that rank as 
 intellectual beings for which we were intended by our 
 Creator. — Printing has pre-eminently contributed to 
 promote this. — It has also humanized our nature by 
 turning the mind to higher enjoyments than those to be 
 derived by mere animal exertion. — By printing, as con- 
 nected with rational governments, public liberty has 
 been secured, and its maxims taught through its facili- 
 ties. What the ancient orators did by frequently ad- 
 dressing the people, we do by a much more compen- 
 dious mode, viz. through the Liberty of the Press. 
 Through printing many have been found to be oracles, 
 which but for it would never have been known, and 
 consequently society would have lost the talents of 
 some of its most brilliant members. Printing 
 cannot be thought too much of ; its importance is so 
 obvious and necessary, that if one thing is more likely 
 than another to keep off an age of darkness from ever 
 again surrounding us it will be printing. — If the ancient 
 nations had been enabled to print, the multitude would 
 have been more enlightened. Hence there would have 
 been more equality, and the power of dazzling by words, 
 allowed to the few, must have stood the test of being 
 examined as things, a privilege belonging to the mo- 
 derns derived alone from printing. The progress of 
 philosophy is entirely owing to the facilities in this art, 
 in as much as it has registered its advances in a medium 
 always to be consulted, and of course always open to be 
 improved. The arts, religion, and law are dependent 
 upon it ; a large library is an epitome at once exhibiting 
 the joint labours of genius ; — here the reflecting mind 
 may estimate, and that truly, the importance of type- 
 making and also printing, because in it are to be found 
 registered by their joint aid the powers of man, how- 
 ever directed. 
 
 The invention of types is supposed to have taken 
 place at Mentz, about the beginning of the fourteenth 
 century. They were first formed of beechen-wood, 
 which not being calculated for much wear were soon 
 
 * It is not improbable but this may be corrected by the present 
 inhabitants of the Kremlin and of Moscow. The French are too 
 expert at removals, and too eager for plunder, to ncclect the great 
 bell at Moscow, if it be good for any thing. 
 
 laid aside, and improved by being cut in metal. Lau- 
 nentius had the honour of this latter invention : however 
 the cut-metal types were tedious in making, hence they 
 were soon succeeded by founding. Theodosius Martin 
 brought some of these latter kind of types into Holland 
 from Strasbourg in 1472, and many books were there 
 printed with them. From this time, and from Holland 
 being a country oF great resort for foreigners, they 
 were exported from thence to most of the principal 
 towns in Europe. In 1490 they were sent to Con- 
 stantinople, by the middle of the next century to 
 Africa and America, and to Russia in 1560; but from 
 motives either of policy or superstition they were there 
 destroyed as soon as their powers were made known. 
 The first types used in England were at Oxford about 
 the middle of the fourteenth century. Thomas Bou- 
 cheir petitioned Henry VI. for this purpose, who 
 granted his petition, and a press was put up at Oxford, 
 worked by types brought from Holland. Caxton, who 
 had been much in the Low Countries and Holland, 
 had studied and made himself fully master of the busi- 
 ness of using types, and when he came back to Eng- 
 land established printing-presses: and as Caxton’s books 
 were more numerous than Bouchier’s, to him generally 
 has been given the honour of introducing printing in 
 England. Caxton’s press began to work in 1471, at 
 least nothing was done by him before that date is 
 known ; whereas there is a book still at Cambridge 
 with the date of its impression from Bouchier’s press 
 at Oxford, anno 1468. The existence of this book has 
 robbed Caxton of the glory he had long possessed of 
 being the author of printing in this kingdom. 
 
 From this time may be dated the power of England : 
 those who thought it no distinction to be able to read 
 before, now became ashamed at seeing a book con- 
 taining that which formed the motive to conversation 
 among a few priests beyond their ability to understand : 
 hence the introduction of schools and seminaries, some 
 of which were established by the royal authority. — To 
 be able to read was the first effort, for very few were so 
 at this time. As the rudiments of education became 
 improved, books were multiplied and printing en- 
 couraged ; and this progress has been gradually de- 
 veloping itself up to the present period. But a few 
 centuries ago, so great was the distinction given to 
 those who were enabled to read, that an education was 
 supposed to be finished by having accomplished it ; to 
 write also w'as by no means thought necessary, and was 
 left to be done by a very few. The education of the 
 women was much neglected until w ithin the last century ; 
 as knowledge w as thought to be necessary only to the men. 
 
 But for the cutting of types and printing, Europe 
 might have remained to be governed by popes and car- 
 dinals : by their means alone the politics of such go- 
 vernors were exhibited, known, and execrated. Types- 
 continued to be cast with very few improvements, ex- 
 cepting those which have arisen from out of the change 
 in the shape of the letters, till the beginning of the se- 
 venteenth century. Wm. Casion set up a foundry for 
 4 Y types 
 
358 
 
 FOUNDING. 
 
 types in 1720, where more ingenuity was employed 
 than had been done previously. But nevertheless there 
 was but little effected in the bolder parts of this art ; if 
 we except some attempts made by Baskerville of Bir- 
 mingham. Messrs. Fry and Son, about the year 1764, 
 established their foundry, adopting Baskerville’s me- 
 thod; but after some fruitless attempts to carry it into 
 effect, found it necessary to re-cut the whole of the 
 letters so founded on the Caslon plan. Mr. Jackson 
 who had served his apprenticeship with Caslon, began 
 business by the direction of Mr. Bowyer, about 1770, 
 and cut some very extraordinary and beautiful types. He 
 also cut a new Arabic type for Richardson’s Dictionary 
 of that language, as well as a copy of the Alexandrian 
 Testament for Dr. Woide, which is now in the Museum. 
 He invented a method of founding the large types by a 
 mould and matrix which had previously been cast in 
 sand. In 1784 there was an attempt made to establish 
 a foundry, by an ingenious gentleman of the name of 
 Stephenson, at which much talent was displayed in all 
 the detail of the art; but it not answering his purpose 
 he gave it up, and the moulds and matrixes were dis- 
 posed of. About this time (1792) Mr. V. Figgins, 
 who had been long known as possessing considerable 
 taste in all the higher departments of this art, was en- 
 couraged by Mr. Nichols to employ it on his own 
 account. His first production was that type from 
 which Bowyer got up that splendid edition of Hume’s 
 England, said to have been twelve years in printing. 
 He also, under the direction of Sir William Ousely, 
 produced a Persian type, never before attempted in Eng- 
 land ; from which, and many oilier works, such as good 
 Greek, Hebrew, &c., he has established his fame as a 
 founder in this art much to his credit and reputation. — 
 About 1793 Mr. Thorn began his foundry, and pro- 
 duced some fine specimens ; — but the great change in 
 letter founding, which has given rise to all the elegant 
 types with which our books are now printed, took place 
 about 1800, by the enterprise of Messrs. Caslon and 
 Catherwood ; they set about re-cutting and improving 
 the whole business.. Their first attempt embraced the 
 Italic character, to which they gave a more elegant 
 shape by making the fine strokes of such characters 
 more clear and chaste than had hitherto been done. 
 This improvement they extended to the other types by 
 making their down strokes very thick and their up ones 
 clear and fine. This change at first fascinated the 
 booksellers, but it has been found since very much to 
 hurt the sight, and for which it is now rejected : 
 these kind of types were called technically fat-faced. 
 This alteration in the shape of the type gave life to 
 type-founding, inasmuch as the other principal founders 
 saw' themselves about to be left behind and superseded, 
 unless they produced their work equally adapted to the 
 fashion then brought into vogue for using fine types. 
 Hence the rivalship of Fry, Figgins, and Thorn, who 
 were soon upon equal terms with their opponents Cas- 
 lon and Catherwood, in consequence of which the art 
 
 has improved in a very great degree, and particularly 
 in the larger sized letters. 
 
 The business of a letter founder or cutter, as it is 
 now followed, consists of the following particulars, viz. 
 he should be provided with a vice, hand-vice, ham- 
 mers, and files of all sorts, similar to those made use 
 of by watch-makers, and suitable to the several letters 
 to be cut ; in addition to which he will require a flat- 
 gauge made of box to hold a rod of steel on the body 
 of the mould, and fitted exactly perpendicular to the 
 flat of a file. A sliding gauge, the use of which is to 
 measure and set off the distances between the shoulder 
 and the tooth, and to mark it off from the end or edge 
 of the work. A face gauge, w'hich is a square notch 
 cut wdth a file into the edge of a thin plate of steel, 
 iron, or brass of the thickness of a sixpence only, and 
 which is used for proportioning the face of each sort 
 I of letter ; viz. long letters, ascending letters, and short 
 letters : there must be three gauges, one of which, for 
 the long letters, is the length of the whole body, and 
 supposed to be divided into forty-two equal parts; the 
 gauge for the ascending letters, either Roman or Italic, 
 are five-sevenths or thirty parts of forty-two, and 
 thirty-three parts for the English face. The gauge for 
 ; the short letters is three-sevenths, or eighteen parts of 
 forty-two of the whole body, and for the Roman and 
 I Italic twenty-two parts of the English face. The 
 Italic or other standing gauges are to measure the scope 
 of the Italic stems, by applying the top and bottom of 
 the gauge to the top and bottom lines of the letters, and 
 the other side of the gauge to the stem of the letter, for 
 when the letter complies with these three sides of the 
 gauge that letter has its true shape. The next care of 
 the letter cutter is to prepare himself with good steel 
 punches, well tempered, and quite free from vents or 
 veins, on the face of which he draws the exact shape of 
 the letter with pen and ink, if the letter be large, or 
 with a smooth blunted point of a needle if it be small ; 
 and then with sizeable and properly shaped and 
 pointed gravers, with which he digs or sculptures out 
 the steel betw een the strokes or marks he has previously 
 made on the face of the punch, and which he leaves 
 standing. Having w'ell shaped the inside strokes of his 
 letter, he deepens the hollows with the same tools : for 
 if a letter be not deep in proportion to its width, it will 
 w hen used at press print black and be good for nothing. 
 This work is generally regulated by the depth of the 
 counter part; these are worked on the outside with pro- 
 per tools and files till it be fit for the matrix. But be- 
 fore w 7 e proceed to the sinking and justifying of the 
 matrixes, as they are called, a mould must be provided 
 for the purpose. Every mould is composed of an 
 upper and under part. The upper part is in all re- 
 spects made like the under part, excepting the addition 
 of a stool behind the latter connected with a bow and 
 spring. It has a small round wire between the body 
 and carriage near tlie break, where the under part hath 
 a small rounding or groove made in its body. This w ire, 
 
 or 
 
FOUNDING. 
 
 or rather half wire, in the upper part makes the sinking 
 in the shank of the letter, when part of it is received 
 into the groove in the under part; their tw’o parts are 
 exactly fitted, by being gauged into one another, viz. 
 the male gauge into the female gauge, that when the 
 upper part of the mould is properly placed on, and in j 
 the under part of the mould, both together make the | 
 entire mould, and it may be slidden backwards for 
 use, so far that the edges of either of the bodies on the 
 middle of either carriage comes just to the edge of the 
 female gauge as it is in each carriage ; and they may be 
 slidden forwards so far that the bodies of either carriage 
 may touch each other, and the sliding of these two 
 parts of the mould backwards makes the shank of the 
 letter thicker, because the bodies in each part stand 
 wider asunder, and the sliding them forwards makes the 
 shank of the letter thinner by the bodies on each part of 
 the mould coming closer together. The parts deno- 
 minated the mould consist of die carriage body, male- 
 gauge, mouth-piece, register, female-gauge, hag and 
 bottom-plates, and a piece of wood on which lies the 
 bottom-plate, also the mouth, throat, pallet, nick, 
 stool, spring, bow, &c. Having proceeded so far, 
 the mould must be justified as it is called, and which is 
 done by first justifying the body, which consists in cast- 
 ing about twenty proofs or samples of the letters, 
 which are all set in a composing stick with their nicks 
 towards the right hand ; after which, by comparing 
 these with the pattern letters set up in the same ma- 
 chine, the exact measure of the body to be cast is seen. 
 The caster now tries if the two sides of the body are 
 parallel, or that the body be no bigger at the head than 
 at the foot ; and this he does by taking the number of 
 his proofs, and turning them with their heads to the 
 feet of the other half, and if then the heads and feet be 
 found exactly even upon each other, and neither to 
 drive out or to get in, the two sides are deemed to be 
 parallel. He farther tries whether the two sides of the 
 thickness of the letters be parallel by setting the proofs 
 in the composing stick with their nicks upwards, and 
 then turning one half with their heads to their feet of the 
 other half ; and if the heads and feet be exactly on each 
 other, and neither drive out nor get in, the two sides 
 of the thickness are considered as parallel. The mould 
 thus justified, the next business is to prepare the ma- 
 trixes. A matrix is a piece of brass or copper of 
 about one and a half inch long, and of a thickness in 
 proportion to die size of the letter it is intended to con- 
 tain. In this metal matrix is sunk the face of the 
 letter intended to be cast, and which is done by striking 
 in the letter punch a small way; after which the sides 
 and face of the matrix must be justified or proved, and 
 cleaned with files to get rid of all bunching made by the 
 sinking of the punch. Every thing being thus prepared, 
 it is brought to the furnace, which is built of bricks up- 
 right and with four square sides. The stove for the fuel 
 and metal being at the top, a round hole is made for 
 the pan to contain the metal, and which is put into a 
 stone hollowed out to receive it. Foundrys of conse- 
 
 359 
 
 quence have several of these kinds of furnaces attached 
 to them. 
 
 The metal of which the types are to be cast is gene- 
 neraily prepared in large quantities by being fused and 
 run into bars of about 20lb. each; these are cut and 
 delivered to the workmen in such quantities as are re- 
 quired for the castings he is about to perform. 
 
 There are in use among the type founders of the 
 present day about twenty different sizes of types, all 
 of which are cast in moulds and matrixes ; besides 
 | about ten more which are usually cast from patterns in 
 sand; however, the preference being given by the 
 founders to moulds and matrixes, they are now be- 
 ginning to cast these latter letters in that way also. To 
 give a tolerably correct idea of the various sized types 
 now made use of, we shall add the number and size of 
 the lines each will make in a foot, and accompany them 
 by their present prices at per pound. The types are 
 known by the following designations, viz. 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 No. of Lines. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Diamond of - 
 
 204 to each foot, 
 
 per lb. 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 Pearl - - - 
 
 178 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 Nonpareil - - 
 
 143 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 Minion - - 
 
 128 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 Brevier - - 
 
 112^ 
 
 _ 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 Bourgeois - - 
 
 102 
 
 — 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 Long Primer 
 
 89 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Small Pica 
 
 83 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 Pica - - - 
 
 711 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 English - - 
 
 64 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 Great Primer 
 
 51 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Paragon - - 
 
 441 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Double Pica - 
 
 411 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Two-line Pica 
 
 351 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 Two-line English 
 
 32 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2-line Gt. Primer 
 
 251 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2-line Double Pica 20] : 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 Cannons - - 
 
 18 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Four-line Pica 
 
 171 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Five-line Pica 
 
 141 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 The Hebrew, Greek, and all oriental characters 
 are charged for at double prices. The large sized let- 
 ters are those which are usually cast in sand, called 
 “ sand-letters;” they are divided and charged as follows, 
 viz. 6, 7,' 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18 lines Pica at 2s. 
 per lb. The method adopted in casting the smaller 
 types from Diamond to Five-line Pica is by the punch, 
 which is formed of steel, with some letter of brass, with its 
 outside edge boarded for the purpose of holding it more 
 conveniently by the circular-spring, which is so fixed 
 as to keep the matrix in its right place ; and which is 
 of a size so as to be easily Held in the hand ; this forms 
 the mould of the body or shank of the type, and is 
 adapted to cast every letter, figure and point, with the 
 alteration of changing of what is termed the matrix. 
 There is a very great accuracy required in the mould 
 
360 
 
 FOUNDING. 
 
 and matrix of the type founder, and this will appear 
 very obvious, if it be considered how many thousands of 
 little types are placed together even in a common 
 newspaper. To make a matrix, the letter must be cut 
 first on steel, which is brought to so soft a state as to be 
 easily cut with a graver. Some founders prefer striking 
 the inside openings of the letter with another punch, 
 and which they call the counter-punch : the outside 
 parts are then filed up with files suited to the purpose. 
 This operation is a very delicate part of the work, and 
 will require the greatest care and expertness, keeping 
 in view at the same time the following particulars, viz. 
 that the letter about to be cut should be as clear as it 
 is possible to make it, and no uneven parts left by the 
 graver or the file, but so finished, that however hard 
 the impression may be, nothing but the face of the 
 type should be allowed to print. The letters should 
 also be of the same gauge or size, so as to range even 
 both at the top and bottom ; for without it, the beauty 
 of the printing would be spoiled ; and farther, if some 
 of the letters should appear larger or smaller than 
 others, it would be liable to a similar objection. The 
 m is generally the first cut, and with the assistance of a 
 gauge ; all the other letters are cut sq as to correspond 
 to it. The letter cutter must also take care that his new 
 letters have all the same proportions, and that the 
 down or fat strokes be quite uniform. When the 
 punch is ready, and it is esteemed so by being first 
 hardened and tempered : it is struck a given depth into 
 a piece of oblong square copper, which is previously 
 prepared on one side by being burnished, this is the 
 matrix; after which it is put into the hands of the jus- 
 tifier, to be so adjusted that all the types that are to be 
 cast in it may range or line with the other letters of the 
 same fount. If it happen that they be Roman letters 
 they must so stand as to be perfectly upright, and if 
 Italics all preserve the same inclination, standing at the 
 same time compact and at proper and equal distances 
 from each other. The justifier has it not in his 
 power to alter or amend the face of the letter, it will 
 remain as it was originally cut; his business being 
 only to put the matrix into such a state as that it may 
 cast fac-similes of the letters punched. Sometimes 
 when the letter is first struck, it may turn out to be 
 too thick, and would stand so, m mam; in which 
 case he files it away from the sides of the matrix, and 
 again tries it, and continues to file it till it be brought 
 s.o as to stand, mmam. Nothing is more unpleasant 
 than to see the types in printing stand as though some- 
 thing was to go between them, and perhaps others 
 crowded together so close as almost to touch. In a 
 well executed fount every word, though it may be 
 made up of separate types should present one whole and 
 uniform piece. Great care, patience, and skill are 
 necessary in this part of letter-founding. It is possible 
 that a very indifferent cut fount may by good justifica- 
 tion make a respectable appearance in print, whereas the 
 best if badly justified would not be tolerable. The 
 mould and the set of matrixes being quite ready they 
 
 are consigned to the hand of the caster, who is 
 previously provided with a platform to stand upon, and 
 which is raised up about three feet from the floor, and 
 also with a furnace as before described ; he has a bench 
 too on which he puts his work, and a board standing up 
 before him to keep off the melted metal from scalding 
 him while casting. After all is so far ready, his first 
 business is to try the matrix of the letter he is going to 
 cast, m, for instance, comes first in the mould ; he be- 
 gins by taking up the mould in his left hand, and with 
 his right puts up the circular spring to keep the matrix 
 close up to the face of the mould, and then with a 
 small ladle adapted to the size of the work, he takes 
 from out of the pan on the furnace as much metal as 
 will fill the mould, and at the same instant that he turns 
 the metal from out of the ladle into the mouth of it, he 
 throws up his hand in which is held the mould with a 
 sudden jerk or shake, thus he forces the melted metal 
 down into the face of the matrix. The expertness with 
 which this shake is performed, constitutes a good or 
 bad caster ; for if it be not performed so that the ma- 
 trix and mould by the jerk are forced down against the 
 metal, it is likely to turn out a bad letter. After the 
 letter is cast, he releases the spring and takes the face 
 of the type from the matrix, and which is done by 
 pressing the thumb of his right hand against the top of 
 the matrix ; and then he picks out the type and goes ou 
 | again with the casting. 
 
 In the casting of every type there are five distinct ope- 
 : rations to be performed ; for instance, 1st. to put up 
 the spring ; 2d. to run in the metal and make the jerk ; 
 3d. to release the spring ; 4th. to deliver the face; 5th. 
 to open the mould and pick out the type : these are all 
 distinctly performed at the manufacture of every letter, 
 and so conveniently is the apparatus for doing them 
 formed, that an expert caster can on an average make 
 from six to seven thousand letters per day. When a 
 caster has cast as many letters as are wanted of the same 
 mould, he exchanges the matrix for another, and clears 
 away the other letters from his bench or table ; a boy, 
 called a breaking-off boy, is then employed to take off the 
 break or rim of the letter ; this he does with such expe- 
 dition that some boys will break off five or six thousand 
 in an hour ; when he has taken off all the breaks he re- 
 turns them to the caster to be remelted and recast into 
 other types. From the breaking-off boy the new types 
 are put into the hands of the rubber, to have their rag 
 I or beer as it is called removed, and which is done so 
 | as to allow' the letters to be afterwards placed even and 
 | regular. The rubber does this by rubbing the two flat 
 ! sides of the type only, taking it up by his right hand 
 and placing its face uppermost between his two fore 
 fingers ; he afterwards rubs it backwards and forwards, 
 he then turns it at the edge of the thumb of his right 
 hand and rubs its other side also on the same stone, 
 dropping the types as fast as so rubbed into his apron, 
 which being tied round him, and put under the stone 
 forms a cup to receive the rubbed types. The rubbing 
 is performed w'ith great rapidity by an experienced 
 
 rubber, 
 
FOUNDING. 
 
 361 
 
 rubber, as lie can do from twenty to twenty-five thousand 
 a day. 
 
 There are some kinds of letters that never come into 
 the hands of the rubber, and these consist of the Italic/’, 
 
 fit fit {fit and/// with some of the Roman also; these 
 are f, j, ff. The letters called kerned of the Italic cha- 
 racter are nevertheless an exception, as they will be re- 
 quired to be rubbed on one side only ; these letters are 
 d, g, j, p, &c. The kerned letters are afterwards put 
 into the hand of the kerner to kern, which he per- 
 forms by fixing a file into the edge of his bench by its 
 shank, after which he lays with his right-hand the 
 type obliquely on the file, so that the kern shall hang 
 over it ; then with his thumb on the type and his fore- 
 finger under the file he forces it up, and then drawing 
 it down again drops it into his lap as the rubber does. 
 When he has so kerned all the types requiring to be 
 done he lays them all singly on a stick called the 
 kerning stick ; after which a knife is used to cut away 
 that part of the swell of the type which would otherwise 
 prevent its laying close to the one which is to follow it. 
 This part of the work is tedious, and the most expert 
 hand at it cannot do more than from five to six thousand 
 a day. The types thus rubbed and kerned are to be 
 taken by a boy who is called a setting-up boy. His bu- 
 siness is to arrange them with the nicks and faces, 
 which he does on sticks about two feet six inches in 
 length. This is performed very rapidly, as a boy will 
 place from twenty-five to thirty thousand a day. They 
 are now to be consigned to the hand of the dresser or 
 finisher, whose business is to smooth the two sides 
 (or as it is techically termed the back and nick of the 
 types) which the rubbing had not done, and also to 
 make even the foot of the type where the run was broken 
 off after casting, and to takeout all the bad types that had 
 failed in the casting, or had been spoiled in some of the 
 subsequent finishings. It will be difficult to convey a 
 complete idea of the mode of dressing types, but we 
 will attempt it. The types are, as before stated, ar- 
 ranged on sticks. The dresser is provided with what is 
 called a bed, which is fastened down on his bench. 
 It consists of a square piece of mahogany or oak of 
 about two feet four inches long, one foot wide, and four 
 inches and a half in thickness ; this is hollowed out to 
 the depth of one inch and three quarters, and tapering 
 in its width from seven inches at one end to six inches 
 at the other. In this hollow are placed the blocks, 
 in which the types are put with their feet upwards, 
 for the purpose of planing off the roughness which 
 had been left by the break and run. 
 
 The blocks on which the letters are dressed are made 
 of good seasoned beechen wood, and in two parts, each 
 of which is about one foot ten inches in length and one 
 inch and three quarters square. One of them is provid- 
 ed with a tongue, and the other with a groove to 
 receive it. The types are placed with their faces 
 downwards on the tongue in the block, after which the 
 two blocks are w edged together, the part of the tongue 
 not occupied by the types entering the groove in the 
 
 other block, which completely secures them to the 
 blocks and bed. By this means five or six hundred 
 types are firmly fixed, and ready to be planed ; which is 
 done by using a plane with a tongue of iron that 
 moves in a groove cut in the upper square of the 
 block, and parallel with the type in it, and so w r orked 
 as just to plane out the breaks of the letters ; after 
 which the types are loosened from the blocks and taken 
 out and laid upon a stick, and then with a knife having 
 two edges rather concave inwards, made by grinding it 
 so, first one side of the letter is scraped and then the 
 other. The dresser afterwards tries them, to detect the 
 errors, if any have been made by the justifiers or casters, 
 and then with a glass picks out all the imperfect types. 
 When so much is done, they are given into the hands of 
 a telling and passing boy. He counts out for the multi- 
 plied purpose of paying the several distinct hands which 
 have been employed on the types, such as the caster, 
 breaking off boy, rubbers, kerners, and setting-up boy, 
 and who are all paid by the piece at so much a thou- 
 sand. An expert caster cannot get more than 30s. per 
 week, and the other persons employed in and about 
 the letter foundry in the same proportion. 
 
 The letter caster has also a duty to perform not yet 
 mentioned, which consists in his seeing that the fount be 
 cast regular, and that the letters keep their due propor- 
 tions ; and the necessity of due attention being paid 
 to this must be more or less obvious to every English 
 reader, inasmuch as the number of letters used are 
 so very different from each other ; as, for instance, in 
 the proportion which e is to 12,000 so it is to 16,000 
 of b. The types may now be considered as finished, 
 and are to be counted out by a boy in pieces making 
 the size of an octavo page, and if not for exportation 
 or the country, they are put into a wrapper and rolled 
 up and put by in what is technically called a “ coffin.” 
 
 Besides the making of the types already described, 
 there are also required in printing, spaces ; these are 
 used to separate the words. Quadrats are also wanted 
 to fill up the ends of short lines, &c. Of these kind of 
 types there are generally cast four sizes, designated by 
 the thick, middle, thin, and hair; of the quadrats, n, 
 m, 2 m, 3 m, and 4 m. The thick spaces are in their 
 thickness equal to three of the body of the type, the 
 middle four, the thin five, and the hair is made as thin as 
 it can possibly be cast. Of the quadrats, the n is equal 
 to one-half of its body ; the m an exact square of its 
 body, and the 2 m equal to two of its body, &c. &c. 
 These kind of types are all cast without a matrix, and 
 in manner follow ing, viz. by the fixing of a piece of 
 copper only on the face of the mould, and not re- 
 moving the spring while casting them, which the caster 
 is obliged to do in casting the other types. By this 
 means he w ill be enabled to perform in a day almost as 
 many more castings of these kinds of type-spaces as he 
 can of the letters. 
 
 The metal of the type-founder consists of lead and 
 regulus of autimony fused together. It is made of many 
 different degrees of hardness by putting different quantities 
 4 Z of 
 
362 
 
 FOUNDING. 
 
 of each together, and this is regulated by the size of 
 the types about to be founded with it. For the smallest 
 sized types the hardest metal is required, which is 
 made of the following proportions, viz. 25 regulus to 75 of 
 lead, and for the other sizes sometimes as low as 15 regulus 
 to 85 of lead. The method of casting the large sized types 
 consists in punching the letter through a piece of brass, 
 and afterwards rivetting it on a back to form a matrix. 
 These kind of moulds are too large to be held in the 
 caster’s hand for the purpose of founding. The weight 
 of the metal being adequate of itself to completely fill 
 the mould without the shake or jerk had recourse to in 
 common casting. These kind of moulds are hung up, 
 and the heated metal is poured into them. The largest 
 types of all are cast in open sand similar to brass casting, 
 already explained under that head. 
 
 The moulds and matrixes of the letter-founder are so 
 valuable, that, if lost, nothing could restore them, 
 it being a work in collecting them of more time than 
 the ordinary life of a man. Hence founders keep their 
 matrixes in strong rooms of iron or stone, into which 
 they are placed by the superintendent of the foundry as 
 soon as done with and every night. 
 
 The mould of the type-founder is composed of two 
 sides framed together, and called the upper and under 
 sides, and formed by preparing two pieces of flat steel 
 three inches in length, three-eighths of an inch in thick- 
 ness, and seven-eighths of an inch in width, and this 
 last dimension constitutes the length of the body of 
 the type ; these together are called the carriages, on 
 each of which is fastened down, on their right-hand 
 side, another piece of steel, in length equal to one-half 
 of that of the carriage, and is of the same width as the 
 carriage, and of a similar thickness to the body of the 
 type intended to be founded in the mould. Such pieces 
 of steel are called the bodies of the moulds, and are 
 fastened down to form it by a screw which is made to 
 pass from the under part of the carriage and through its 
 body, and also by the block, which is afterwards driven 
 downwards through apertures made in both the body 
 and carriage, and having above a head in length equal 
 to one and a half of that of the body of the car- 
 riage. An opening of the same length and width is 
 made on the left-hand side of the carriage, w'hich is 
 termed the block-notch. The whole is received on 
 plates, which are regulated so that their lengths are 
 equal to that of the carriage, and their width is two 
 inches and three quarters. The carriage and body are 
 so fixed as to be almost three-eighths of an inch above 
 the bottom of the plate, and are fastened by a short 
 screw going quite through the plate, and into the body 
 at a place just behind the block-notch. The other 
 opposite end of the carriage is received by the shank of 
 the block, and passes through the plate as well as the 
 body and carriage, which is secured by a screw 
 fastened by a nut. Before the body is finally 
 fixed down on the carriage, the nicks are placed in it, 
 which consist of small pieces of steel ; regulated 
 both in their size and number by the nicks designed to 
 
 be made in the type: . These are all neatly let iri 
 between the body and the carriage on the upper side 
 of the mould. In the body part of the under side there 
 are also openings made just to receive the nicks. Above 
 the body and carriage is screwed to each plate a piece 
 of steel one inch in its length, and turned up a little on 
 its inner or right side, and projecting so as to come 
 exactly even with the front. This is termed the jace of 
 the mould, through which the metal descends to the 
 type ; the opening to which is sometimes increased by 
 affixing on each side a piece of brass called its mouth- 
 piece. On the opposite edges of the carriages and 
 bodies are screwed the registers, which consist of 
 pins of steel of nearly the length of the body, and stand- 
 ing up as high as the blocks : on the underside of which 
 is passed a plate to fix a letter above it, which will 
 make it come even with the face of the carriage and its 
 body. A piece of steel called the stool is also fixed for 
 the matrix to stand on, which is to regulate it to 
 the mould and register. Opposite to the stool there is 
 a hole made, through which the matrix is to pass. 
 After the whole is so far arranged and prepared it is fixed 
 on boards to be cast; to the lowermost of which a 
 circular wire spring is fixed, which is so adapted as 
 easily to^turn over the stool for the purpose of keeping 
 the matrix firmly on it, and also close up against the 
 face of the mould. On the top of each of the boards, 
 and just opposite the opening where the metal is to be 
 poured in, is placed a small piece of wire three inches 
 long, rather bent at its upper end, and called “ the 
 hag,” the purpose of which is to allow the caster more 
 easily to take the type out of the mould after it is 
 founded. 
 
 There has been no improvement of any great ira- 
 i portance in the manufacture of types for the last sixty 
 years. The letter-founder’s talent having been more 
 directed to improve the face of his letters than the me- 
 thod of casting them. There was nevertheless a scheme 
 set on foot about five years since by a Mr. White who 
 had come from America, which had for its object the 
 enabling the founder to cast a great number of letter^ 
 at one time, we believe thirty or more ; this was 
 explained to most of the principal founders, and with 
 much plausibility too ; although it was by them finally 
 rejected, but not without a trial having been previously 
 ! made. About the same time a Mens. Didot proposed 
 a plan for a similar object, assisted by Mr. Donkin an 
 Engineer. Their machine was intended to abridge the 
 labour by performing the whole operation of the work 
 by the assistance of a boy only. They erected their 
 machine, and invited the founders to see it work, to 
 whom, they offered the invention. The contrivance is 
 generally admitted to be in the highest degree ingenious 
 and novel, and very likely eventually to turn out of great 
 utility. This invention has now been secured by a pa- 
 tent, but it is not yet got into work. Messrs. Caslon 
 and Catherwood about three years since obtained a 
 patent for an invention of theirs, which had for its 
 object to lessen the number of motions required by the 
 
 common 
 
FOUNDING. 
 
 363 
 
 common method of casting. Their machine was set in 
 motion by a small lever placed on the under side of the 
 mould, the pressing of which with the thumb released 
 the matrix, and delivered the face ; after which, when 
 the mould was again closed, and the thumb relieved, 
 the wire was re-fixed to the matrix. This invention 
 was calculated to save labour, and would enable a work- 
 man who could cast by the common method 6,000 let- 
 ters a day to perform 7,500 by the using of this ma- 
 chine. There was some practical objections to it, but 
 the chief was the alarm of die men, w ho, feared that the 
 other foundrys might be induced to adopt it, in 
 case of which their wages might be reduced. From 
 the temper manifested by the men on the occasion it has 
 now beeu laid aside. It is rather surprising, amidst the 
 numerous improvements that are daily developing them- 
 selves, that none of the founders have produced either a 
 script or musical type, at least one worthy of public 
 notice : the first attempt at which was made by Mr. H. 
 Fought in 1768, but it was never brought into general 
 use. In 1784 one was cut under the direction of Dr. 
 Arnold ; it turned out, however, of too complex a na- 
 ture, and was consequently but little used. A good 
 type of this description might be considered a desidera- 
 tum in typography, and were such an one to be executed 
 in a manner becoming the genius of the times in which 
 we live, it would tend very much to improve the taste 
 as well as reduce the price of all musical compositions ; 
 a circumstance of no small importance, if it be consi- 
 dered how generally a taste for music is now cultivated. 
 
 Precious Metals. 
 
 Gold and silver, in as far as they are connected with 
 founding, are, in comparison w'ith the other metals, 
 very little employed : excepting it be in the first in- 
 stance, when they are run into bars or ingots. They 
 are each perfectly homogeneous, from whatever mines 
 they may have been taken ; these metals are likewise 
 malleable and divisible into the most minute propor- 
 tions, and from their scarcity, and consequent high 
 price, they become not too bulky for the common pur- 
 poses of commerce : hence they have been employed 
 from the earliest date as the medium of exchange be- 
 tween one nation and another, and they continue to be 
 so employed up to the present time. The chemists say 
 of gold that in colour it is an orange red, or a reddish 
 yellow, and that it has no perceptible taste or smell, 
 and bears a most brilliant lustre ; it is in hardness equal 
 only to 6i, and of a specific gravity 19:3.* No other 
 substance is equal to it in ductility or malleability ; it 
 may be beaten out into leaves so thin, that one grain will 
 cover 5&| square inches. An ounce of gold upon a silver 
 wire is capable of being extended to more than 1 ,300 
 miles in length, and a wire wholly of gold of 0,078 
 of an inch in diameter is capable of supporting a weight 
 of 150,07 pounds avoirdupoise without breaking. It 
 
 * Distilled water being reckoned its unity. 
 
 melts, according to Mortimer, at 1,301 of Fahrenheit’s 
 thermometer, and in melting assumes a bright bluish 
 green colour. It expands in the act of fusion, and 
 consequently contracts while becoming solid more 
 than most other metals, which renders it less proper 
 for castings in moulds. It is, indeed, so soft in its 
 natural, or as it is termed, virgin state, that it is found 
 almost incapable of being so used : it is however found, 
 by fusing it with small proportions of copper and sil- 
 ver, to become more hard, without losing its colour 
 or brilliancy. 
 
 The Romans, according to Pancton, were the first 
 who taught the art of alloying or mixing baser metals 
 with their gold, which he stigmatizes as criminal. — 
 Pliny says (lib. xxxiii. ch. 3.) that they mixed in the 
 proportion of one-eighth alloy with their silver. “ Li- 
 vius Drusus in tribunata plebis Octavam partem aeris 
 argento miscuit.” Goldsmiths usually announce the 
 purity of the gold which they sell as follows,* viz. 
 pure or virgin gold they suppose divided into 24 parts, 
 called carats, and gold which is said to be that of 
 
 23 carats fine, means that it is mixed with an alloy of 
 1 part of some other metal and 23 of gold. Gold of 22 
 carats means an alloy of 22 parts gold and 2 of some 
 other metal. The number of carats expressed always 
 specifies the pure gold, and what that number wants of 
 
 24 indicates the quantity of alloy. Thus gold of 12 
 carats would be an alloy containing 12 parts gold and 
 12 of some other metal. With us the carat is divided 
 into four grains; among the Germans into 12, and by 
 the French into 32. The quality of the alloy has been 
 always considered of importance ; it is commonly of 
 copper, and with some composed of a mixture of silver 
 and copper. On this subject, a series of experiments 
 were instituted in 1793, by Messrs. Cavendish and 
 Hatchet, which may be seen in the Philosophical 
 Transactions for 1803. 
 
 Silver approaches very nearly to gold in all its cha- 
 racteristic properties, with the exception of its colour, 
 which is a fine white : like gold, it has neither taste or 
 smell ; its hardness is equal to 7. When melted, its 
 specific gravity is 10,474, and when hammered 10,510. 
 Its malleability is also excessive, as it may be beaten 
 out into leaves of only -rdstrw of an inch in thickness. 
 Its ductility is equally remarkable, as it may be drawn 
 out into a w ire much finer than a human hair, so fine 
 indeed, that a single grain of silver may be extended 
 400 feet in length. Its tenacity is such, that a wire of 
 silver 0,078 inch in diameter is capable of supporting a 
 weight equal to 187,13 lbs. avoirdupoise without break- 
 ing. According to the calculations of Mortimer, its 
 fusing point is 1,000 of Fahrenheit’s thermometer. 
 
 The business of founding or casting these metals is 
 Consigned to the artists known as the gold and silver- 
 smith. In the city of London they are formed into a 
 company, and enjoy many particular privileges. Their 
 
 * The fullest treatise on gold hitherto published is that of Dr. 
 Lewis’s. See the Philosophical Commerce of the Arts. 
 
 business 
 
364 
 
 FOUNDING. 
 
 business consists in manufacturing gold and silver into ' 
 numerous vessels and utensils both for utility and orna- 
 ment, which they do either in the mould, or beat it out \ 
 with a hammer or other engine. All works requiiingto \ 
 have raised or embossed figures are cast in moulds, the 
 subjects for which are previously designed by an artist, 
 and modelled afterwards in wax. Messrs. Rundell and 
 Bridge, who are the most extensively employed of any 
 house in London as goldsmiths, keep constantly in their 
 employ, for this purpose, several very ingenious artists, j 
 whose whole time is taken up in designing and model- 
 ling different articles to be cast in gold and silver, some 
 of which embrace combinations the most chaste and 
 classical, and are calculated to go very far in creating a I 
 laste and relish among our nobility for sculpture in I 
 basso-relievo wrought in the precious metals. W. Theed, 
 Esq. A. R. A. is their principal designer. 
 
 Plates or dishes of silver and gold are beaten out from 
 bars of either metal, as well as spoons and all the lesser 
 description of goods commonly made of them. Vases, 
 cups, and such like articles, are formed also from 
 plates, as well as their ears or handles, which are beaten 
 or hammered into pieces of the shape required, and af- 
 terwards soldered together ; the shafts of vases and cups 
 are in two pieces or halves only, and their ears into 
 three or more, according to the composition of their 
 shape. The mouldings also of such kind of utensils are 
 performed by the hammer, and fastened to the shafts of 
 such vessels for which they are intended by soldering. — 
 The business of the goldsmith formerly required a much 
 more divided labour than it does at present, for they 
 were then obliged to prepare the metals by hammering 
 them into plates, for the purposes required, from the 
 ingot ; but there are now in use mills called flatting mills, 
 which reduce the ingot cr bar to the thinness wanted, 
 and at a very small expense. 
 
 Every goldsmith ought to be capable of designing 
 and drawing, with a knowledge of modelling sufficient 
 to understand its effect when it comes to be founded in 
 metal. He also should be somewhat expert in che- 
 mistry and metallurgy, to enable him to assay the mixed 
 metals, and to alloy the pure ones with address. He 
 will also require a knowledge in mathematics to defend | 
 himself from fraud in his purchases of the virgin-metal, I 
 and also to divide it out accurately to his manufactu- 
 rers, for them to work it into the various purposes for 
 which it may be intended. 
 
 When gold or silver is melted it is poured into moulds 
 previously formed to receive it, or sometimes into 
 frames for founding it into bars ; the methods practised 
 for doing which is the same as that previously described 
 for castings of brass in sand, both with regard to the 
 frame, the manner of working the earth, and that of 
 ranging the models or patterns. There is, however, a 
 difference, inasmuch as the heated metal in the brass 
 castings is taken out of the crucible with ladles, and 
 poured into the aperture in the mould, from whence it 
 runs into jets and patterns; while for gold and silver 
 the crucible containing the fluid metal is taken off the 
 
 fire with a pair of tongs made for the purpose, and the 
 metal is poured from it into the moulds. 
 
 The Brazils furnish most of the gold now seen in 
 commerce ; there are, however, no gold mines worked 
 there. ITie metal is disseminated in sand and other 
 alluvial depositions. 
 
 Gold, silver, and copper, among the moderns, are 
 employed as the medium of exchange, as these metals 
 are found by long experience the fittest materials for 
 money, being less subject to decay than most other 
 articles of value. Whether coining be of equal anti- 
 quity with money may admit of doubt, especially as 
 most of the ancient writers are so frequent in their men- 
 tion of leathern-money, paper-money, wooden-money, 
 &c. That such articles may have been used as money 
 is not improbable ; but it is extremely unlikely that in 
 using such money, either could have been adapted 
 to any portable shape to answer that purpose. In ef- 
 fect they were the commodities, and became current 
 for one another by the way of exchange. Herodotus 
 ascribes the invention of coins to the Lydians, and 
 Pliny attributes it to Bacchus. Lycurgus ordered that 
 iron money only should be used at Sparta. Silver is 
 reported by Pliny not to have been coined at Rome 
 until about the year 480 of the city, nor gold uutil 
 about the year 640. The same author thus mentions 
 its illegal debasement (lib. 33. c. 9) “ Miscuit denario 
 triumvir Antonius ferrum miscuit aeri falsas monetae.” 
 In England the standard for gold is 44> that is eleven parts 
 of pure metal and one part of alloy. The standard for 
 silver is -II, that is, eleven ounces two dwts. of pure 
 silver and eighteen dwts. of alloy, making together one 
 pound. This proportion of silver is said to have been 
 fixed by Richard 1. by the assistance of certain persons 
 from the Eastern parts of Germany, from which cir- 
 cumstance it was called Easterling; and hence the word 
 sterling, which w'as afterwards the name given for 
 the silver penny, and which is now applied to all lawful 
 money in Great Britain. The coining of money was 
 originally performed with the hammer, and afterwards 
 with the mill, and then again with the hammer ; by 
 either of which methods the pieces of metal are stamped 
 or struck with punches, or dies, on which are engraven 
 the sovereign, effigies, arms, legend, &c. The puncheon 
 consists of a highly tempered piece of steel, upon which 
 the coin is sunk in relievo, and again upon the matrix, 
 which is another piece of steel of about four or five 
 inches long, formed square at the bottom, and rounded 
 at its top. The moulding of the border and letters are 
 added on the matrix with small and sharp steel pun- 
 cheons, and when it is thus finished it is called the die. 
 In coining by the mill the bars of gold or silver, after 
 having been moulded, are taken out of the moulds, 
 scraped, and brushed. They are then flatted in the 
 mill, and reduced to the proper thickness to suit the 
 species of money about to be coined ; which, if it be 
 gold- coin, the plates are previously to being sent to be 
 milled, put in a furnace, heated, and then cooled in 
 water ; but if of silver the metal is passed through the 
 
FOUNDING. 
 
 mill without this additional heating and cooling. The 
 plates, whether of gold, silver or copper, when reduced 
 to their proper thickness are cut out into round pieces 
 called blanks, or planchets. This cutting is performed 
 by an instrument which is fastened to the lower extre- 
 mity of an arbor, the upper end of which is formed into 
 a screw, which being turned by an iron-handle moves 
 the arbor, and lets a punch of well-sharpened steel fall 
 on the plates to be cut, by means of which a piece is 
 punched out ; afterwards the pieces which are so cut 
 out are brought to the standard w’eight by tiling or rasp- 
 ing, and the corners and pieces of the plates left by the 
 circles are returned to the melter by the denomination 
 of sizals. The pieces are now weighed in a very accu- 
 rate and well adjusted balance, and afterwards carried 
 to the blanching room. Here it is that the gold blanks 
 are brought to their proper colour, and the silver ones 
 are whitened. For the former of which the operation 
 is performed by heating them in a furnace, and when 
 cooled, boiling them successively in two copper vessels 
 containing water, common salt, and tartar ; and after 
 being well boiled in this menstruum they are scoured 
 with sand and cleanly washed in pure water, and dried 
 over a wood-tire in a sieve composed of copper wire. 
 Formerly the planchets as soon as blanched were car- 
 ried to the press to be struck, and receive their impres- 
 sion ; but they are now always first milled. The ma- 
 chine for this purpose consists of two plates of steel in 
 form of rulers, on which the edging of the coin is 
 engraven, a half on the one, and a half on the other. 
 One of these plates is immoveable, the other moveable 
 and slides on a plate of copper by means of a handle 
 and a wheel, or pinion of iron, the teeth of which 
 catch in other teeth w'hich are on the surface of the 
 sliding plate. The planehet being placed horizontally 
 between these two plates, is carried along by the motion 
 of the moveable one, so as by the time that it has made 
 a half turn it is found marked all round. For the 
 coining of medals the process is nearly the same as for 
 that of money. The principal difference consisting in this; 
 viz. money having but a small relievo, receives its impres- 
 sion at a single stroke of the engine ; whereas for medals 
 their high relievo makes several strokes necessary, for 
 which purpose the piece is taken out from between the 
 dies, heated, and returned again ; which process for 
 medallions is sometimes repeated as many as a dozen or 
 more times before the full impression is given them. 
 Some medallious, in a very high relievo, are obliged to 
 
 365 
 
 be cast in sand, and afterwards perfected by being sent 
 to the press. 
 
 In coining with the hammer, the bars, of metal on 
 being taken out of the moulds are heated and stretched 
 on an anvil, after which they are cut in pieces, farther 
 stretched, and then clipped with shears to their required 
 shape, and until they become reduced to the standard- 
 weight and to the size of the specie to be coined. The 
 blanks, or planchets, thus formed are carried as before 
 to the blanching-room, where they undergo the same 
 operation as the milled money, and are then sent to the 
 minter to be stamped with the hammer. For this ope- 
 ration two puncheons, or matrixes are used, the one 
 called the pile, the other the truss, or quiver; each of 
 which is engraven dent-ways, the pile bearing the 
 arms, and the truss the image, legend, date, &c. The 
 pile is about eight inches high and has a kind of talon, 
 or heel, in its middle and ends. This kind of figure 
 was given by reason of its being more easily sunk, and 
 at the same time more firmly fastened to the block on 
 which the money is struck. The minter for striking 
 the coin lays the planehet horizontally on the pile and 
 covers it with the truss, which he holds steadily in his 
 left hand, giving to it several small blows, more or less, 
 as the relievo of the die is more or less deep. About 
 twenty years ago, Messrs. Boulton and Watt, of Bir- 
 mingham, began to apply the power of steam to the 
 operations of coining, and have since coined a large 
 quantity of money, such as farthings, halfpence, penny 
 and two-penny pieces of copper for the Government, 
 which have been seen in circulation. They have 
 also re-coined an immense number of Spanish dollars 
 for the Bank, known in circulation as Bank Tokens, 
 without their having been first melted, or any thing 
 done to them except their being restamped. The ma- 
 chinery for this purpose is calculated to save labour 
 prodigiously, as it is reported to be capable, by the as- 
 sistance of three or four boys only, of striking or re- 
 stamping 30,000 pieces of money in an hour, besides at 
 the same time keeping an unerring account of the num- 
 ber of pieces stricken. 
 
 The coinage of England was originally performed 
 wholly in the Tower of London, where there was a 
 corporation for it under the title of the Mint. But 
 lately there has been erected a gigantic building on the 
 void ground north of the Tower for that purpose, in which 
 has been placed an engine by Messrs. Boulton and Watt, 
 and by this in future the national coins are to be stamped. 
 
 5 A 
 
 GLASS- 
 
GLASS-MAKING. 
 
 Glass, in a chemical sense, denotes any substance 
 or mixture, earthy, saline, or metallic, which is reduced 
 by igneous fusion to the shape of a hard, brittle, uni- 
 form mass, which breaks with a conchoidal fracture 
 passing into splinters, and with a high degree of lustre. 
 Most glasses of this kind are also transparent. But as 
 the term glass is commonly used in the arts and manu- 
 factures, it signifies that transparent, solid, brittle, fac- 
 titious substance, produced by the vitrification of sili- 
 ceous earths with various salts and metallic oxydes, 
 which is applicable to innumerable purposes of orna- 
 ment and comfort, as well as of scientific investigation 
 and research. Such are the definitions or descriptions 
 of this substance ; but Merret, in his notes on Neri’s 
 Treatise on Glass-Making, mentions certain characters 
 or properties of glass, by which it is distinguished from 
 all other bodies : of these we shall enumerate the fol- 
 lowing. — It is an artificial concrete of salt and sand or 
 stones ; — it is fusible by a strong heat, and when fused 
 is tenacious and coherent ; — it does not waste nor con- 
 sume in the fire ; — it is ductile when red-hot, and may 
 be fashioned into any form, but is not malleable ; and 
 is capable of being blown into a hollow ; it is frangible, 
 always diaphanous, whether hot or cold ; flexible and 
 elastic : — it may be graven, or cut with a diamond, or 
 other hard stones and emery ; — it receives any colour or 
 dye, and admits of being polished : — it is the most pli- 
 able thing in the world, and that which best retains the 
 fashion given it. 
 
 It would not be consistent with the plan and object 
 of this work, to enter very deeply into the history of 
 Glass and Glass-making, but we may observe, that so 
 far from its being a modern invention, it was known in 
 the days of Aristotle, who flourished three centuries and 
 a half before the Christian era, and who gives two pro- 
 blems upon glass, of which the first is, why we see 
 through it ? the second, why it is not malleable ? 
 Theophrastus, who flourished about 300 years before 
 Christ, describes glass as having been made of the sand 
 of the river Belus : and the sphere of Archimedes is a 
 remarkable instance of the perfection to which the art 
 of glass-making had been brought at that early period, 
 namely, B. C. 209. For the sake of our younger 
 readers, we may remind them that Virgil, in his Vth 
 Eneid, compares the clearness of the water of the Fa- 
 cine lake to glass ; and Horace, in his third book of 
 the Odes, mentions glass in such terms, as shew that 
 
 its transparency was brought to great perfection. In 
 the time of Strabo, who lived in the first century of the 
 Christian era, the manufacture of glass was undoubtedly 
 well understood, and had become a considerable article 
 of trade. Seneca, who lived in the same century, seems 
 not only to have been well acquainted with glass as a 
 transparent substance, but also understood its magnify- 
 ing powers, when formed into a convex shape. Pliny 
 relates the manner of the discovery of glass. It was, 
 he says, first made of sand found in the river Belus, a 
 small stream of Galilee, running from the foot of 
 Mount Carmel. The report of the discovery was, that 
 a Phoenician merchant ship, laden with nitre or mine- 
 ral alkali, being driven on the coast, and the crew 
 going ashore for provisions, and dressing their victuals 
 upon the sands, made use of some lumps of alkali to 
 support their kettles. Hence a vitrification of the sand 
 beneath the fire was produced, which afforded a hint 
 for the manufacture. 
 
 To come to more modern times : according to the 
 venerable Bede, artificers skilled in making glass were 
 brought over into England in the year 674 ; others, 
 however, suppose this to have happened more than 
 fifty years later, or about the year 726. Till this time 
 the art of making glass, or at least of applying it to 
 the purposes of ornamenting churches, was not known 
 in Britain. Glass windows did not begin to be used 
 before the year 1180, and fora considerable time they 
 were very scarce in private houses, and considered as a 
 kind of luxury, and as marks of great magnificence. Italy 
 had them first, next France, and from France they 
 came into England. Venice for many years excelled all 
 Europe in the fineness of its glasses, and in the thir- 
 teenth century the Venetians were the only people who 
 had the secret of making crystal looking-glasses, which 
 they performed by blowing nearly in the same manner 
 as a considerable quantity of the common mirror-glass 
 is now manufactured. The regular glass manufacture 
 was begun in England 1557; the finer sort was made 
 in Crutched Friars, London; and the very fine flint 
 glass, little inferior to that of Venice, was first manu- 
 factured in the Savoy. The first glass plates for look- 
 ing-glasses and coach-windows, were made in 1673 at 
 Lambeth under the protection and auspices of the 
 Duke of Buckingham, who, in 1670, introduced the 
 manufacture of fine glass into England by means of Ve- 
 netian artists with great success ; so that within a cen- 
 tury 
 
GLASS-MAKING. 
 
 367 
 
 tury and a half, the French and English have even ri- 
 valled and surpassed the Venetians, and we are no 
 longer supplied from abroad. The French made a 
 considerable improvement in the art of glass-making, 
 by the invention of a method to cast very large plates, 
 till then unknown, and scarcely even yet practised by 
 any but themselves and the English. That court ap- 
 plied itself with great industry and ardour to cultivate 
 and improve the glass manufacture. A company was 
 established by letters patent, and it was provided by 
 an arret not only that the working in glass should not 
 derogate any thing from nobility, but even that none of 
 lower degree than nobles should be allowed to work 
 therein. In 1665, under the celebrated Colbert, a 
 company for “ blown mirror-glass” was established at 
 Cherbourg, on the plan of the Venetian manufacture; 
 but the art of casting glass was invented in France about 
 the year 1688. A company was soon established for 
 this branch of manufacture, which was first carried on 
 at Paris and soon after removed to St. Goblin, where 
 it probably still exists. An extensive manufactory of 
 this kind was established in this country, near Pres- 
 cot in Lancashire in the year 1773, and they have suc- 
 ceeded in producing plates, rivalling, if not surpassing 
 in size, quality, and brilliancy the most celebrated con- 
 tinental manufactures. This company, now in Lon- 
 don, furnishes plates from 12 inches to 12 feet in 
 length, and full half these dimensions in breadth. 
 
 Of Mineral Combinations with regard to Vitrifi- 
 cation. — Glass presents a great variety of qualities; but 
 as this essentially belongs to the proportions of the sub- 
 stances employed, and particularly to their different 
 degrees of purity, we shall confine ourselves to de- 
 tailing the general principles upon which vitrification is 
 founded, and the principal operations by which it is 
 executed. Pure substances vitrify w'ith difficulty, and 
 the glass which proceeds from them is in general dry 
 and very brittle. But the same substances mixed, enter 
 more easily into fusion. Alumine and lime, although 
 unvitrifiable separately, are easily reduced into glass 
 when mixed together. The alkalis facilitate the fusion 
 and vitrification of all the earthy principles. On ac- 
 count of this property, these salts are employed for 
 forming the base of the composition of glass manufac- 
 tured for our use. Besides the degree of fusibility 
 which the alkalis communicate to the earthy substances, 
 they give to the glass which proceeds from their mixture 
 with the earths, a pliability which admits of its being 
 wrought, blown, extended, and even hammered while 
 it is warm and soft. The manufactories where glass is 
 made are called glass-works. The compositions, the 
 working, and the furnaces, vary in the different manu- 
 factories, according to the nature of the glass made in 
 them: hence the various denominations of bottle-glass, 
 flint-glass, plate-glass, crystal-glass, &c. But what- 
 ever may be the nature of the' glass to be made, there 
 are certain principles essentially dependent upon science 
 which are applicable to all glass-works, and according 
 to which all the operations are directed. These general 
 
 principles have for their object every thing relating to 
 the manufacture of the pots or crucibles, to the compo- 
 sition of the substances, to the construction of the fur- 
 nace, to the management of the fire, and to the manner 
 of working the glass. We shall glance at each of these 
 subjects in succession. 
 
 Of the Manufacture of Crucibles, or Glass-Pots . — 
 Good crucibles ensure the success of a glass-work. This 
 truth can only be felt by those who have appreciated the 
 loss occasioned by pots which break or melt, the loss 
 of time, and the difficulty of replacing them. Clay 
 forms the basis of glass-house pots. But as the quali- 
 ties of clays are very variable, because they are naturally 
 and constantly mixed in various proportions, with lime, 
 i silex, iron, and magnesia, which renders them more or 
 less fusible, the clay must be picked before employing 
 it. The qualities of a good clay are as follow: 1st. It 
 must not vitrify upon an exposure of several days in the 
 hottest place of the furnace. 2nd. It must preserve its 
 form without sinking down, or becoming soft. 3rd. It 
 must be wrought and moulded easily. 4th. It must un- 
 dergo the action of the fire without contracting, or 
 | cracking. 5th. Good clay assumes, upon being fired, 
 a very great hardness and compactness. 
 
 When we have ascertained all these qualities in the 
 clay, it must be still picked, in order to separate from 
 j it every thing foreign or prejudicial. To this effect it 
 must be carefully picked, in order to take out the py- 
 rites and all the small coloured veins, which render it 
 fusible : w'e may content ourselves with raking together 
 the pieces tinged with ochre, and separating all the co- 
 louring principle from them. After having taken away 
 every visible impurity, the clay must be diluted and 
 soaked in w'ater ; it is afterwards passed through sieves, 
 in order to separate the coarse, weighty, and insoluble 
 bodies from it. Sand, quartz, or mica, do not sensibly 
 injure the qualities of clay, particularly if they are in 
 small quantity : but mixtures of calcareous earths, 
 plaster, pyrites, and metallic oxydes, render clay im- 
 proper for glass-house pots, as it is material to give 
 | to the sides of a crucible such a thickness only as to 
 i render it capable of resisting the effects of the substance 
 ; it contains, and the shocks it receives in the work. 
 
 | M. Loysel has suggested, that we should calculate 
 the tenacity of the clay, by forming small sticks of it in 
 the form of parallelipipedons, w'hich he dries at a tem- 
 perature of 25 degrees of Reaumur, and one of the 
 extremities of which he reduces to a diameter of six 
 lines. He fastens this extremity in a cubical cavity ; 
 and at the distance of f 8 lines he suspends, from one of 
 these sticks, the saucer of a pair of scales, in which he 
 places weights until they produce a fracture in the stick. 
 He observed, that good clay employed for crucibles of 
 three feet diameter by three feet six lines thick, did not 
 break, except with a weight of 56 ounces ; and that of 
 J a furnace of fusion of eight feet diameter, by a weight 
 of 24 ounces. But clay, employed by itself contracts 
 too much, and it is mixed for forming the composition 
 of pots, with the broken pieces of crucibles, ground, 
 
 and 
 
56S 
 
 GLASS-MAKING. 
 
 and well cleared of all vitrified matter, or with clay 
 strongly fired. Great care must be taken not to em- 
 ploy sand in forming pots, because the alkali employed 
 in making the glass would act upon the sand, dissolve 
 it, and speedily destroy the crucibles. After having 
 prepared the clay well, it is mixed with the cement 
 formed of ground fragments of crucibles, and a paste is 
 made with it which has such a consistence that a leaden 
 bullet of four ounces weight may sink into it complete- 
 ly upon falling from a height taken between 66 and 83 
 inches. This paste must be dressed with the greatest 
 care in a proper place, and out of the way of all dust, 
 and the mixture of every foreign substance. When the 
 paste is thus prepared, either the one or the other of the 
 two following processes may be employed for making 
 the crucible. 1st. In some glass-houses they have a 
 wooden mould, furnished in the inside with a strong 
 and well-stretched cloth. Rolls of -paste are applied to 
 the interior surface of this cloth, and the frame of the 
 crucible is successively raised, by gradually diminishing 
 its thickness from the bottom to the upper edge. 2d. 
 In other glass-houses, the workman has a round piece 
 of wood, a little broader than the crucible is to be, and 
 he raises with his hand, and without a mould, his cruci- 
 ble upon this kind of foundation. This last method is 
 preferable to the former, because the workman can 
 work his paste at all places, and he leaves no cracks nor 
 crevices in the body of the crucible, and he can join 
 perfectly and uniformly all the parts. This process is 
 particularly necessary in the bottle glass-houses, because 
 this composition corrodes the crucibles more than any 
 other. When the pots are manufactured, they are al- 
 lowed to dry in the shade, at a temperature of 10 or 13 
 degrees of Reaumur’s thermometer. We should equally 
 dread a too strong heat, which might crack the pot ; or 
 a too sharp cold, which might freeze it ; dampness and 
 currents of air should be also carefully avoided : the 
 apartment which serves as the drying-place should be 
 6hut, and very little frequented. When the pots begin 
 to be dry, they are enclosed in a close place, w'here the 
 heat is constantly kept up to 25 or 30 degrees of Reau- 
 mur. From this they are brought out to be put in use. 
 For this purpose, they are exposed by degrees to a heat 
 which produces redness, and in this state they may be 
 placed upon their seat in the furnace. Prudence re- 
 quires, that they should not be charged w ith any compo- 
 sition after they are placed upon the furnace, until they 
 have undergone the strongest possible heat for 24 
 hours. 
 
 Of the Construction of Glass-House Furnaces . — 
 The paste intended for making the bricks of a glass- 
 house furnace is prepared by mixing crude with fired 
 clay, or rather, with broken pieces of crucibles : white 
 infusible quartz, or a very refractory sand, are also em- 
 ployed instead of fired clay. In order to pound the 
 pieces of quartz more completely, they are made red- 
 hot, and then thrown into w ater. This operation, as is 
 well known, renders them pulverulent, without hurting 
 their refractory quality. Bricks are sometimes used 
 
 which have not been fired ; these are merely dried in the 
 air to such a degree, that a leaden bullet, falling from a 
 height of from 25 to 45 feet, only sinks half its bulk 
 into the brick. The furnace of a glass-house is always 
 erected in the middle of very spacious premises, in 
 order that the working and the surface of it may be easy. 
 The draught of the furnace is effected by means of four 
 currents of air, which enter the hall at separate aper- 
 tures, and unite at right angles at the grate of the fire. 
 The interior form of the furnace is almost always that 
 of a square, or of a rectangular parallelogram, the 
 broadest sides of which are occupied by the pots, which 
 are supported and fixed on trevets or shelves. The in- 
 terval between these shelves or trevets, forms the grate 
 upon which the combustibles are placed. The fire is 
 fed by apertures made in the sides : the pots are charged 
 and emptied by means of openings immediately above 
 them, and which exactly correspond with them, in or- 
 der that the business may be more easily conducted. 
 The furnace- is surmounted or terminated by an arch, 
 w'hich rests upon the two longest sides, and w'hich is 
 full of holes, in order to establish a proper draught, and 
 to give a passage to the flame, which also heats other 
 arches placed before these angles, or above the vault. 
 
 Of the Substances employed in the Composition of 
 Glass.-— Silex and the alkalis form the base of glass in 
 all countries : the other ingredients are, properly speak- 
 ing, only accessary for facilitating the flux and purifying 
 the glass, or for giving it any peculiar quality. The 
 purest silices and alkalis form the clearest glass, and it 
 is this composition which forms the basis of ail the ope- 
 rations of glass-houses. But silex and alkali exist no 
 where pure ; it is only by troublesome, difficult, and 
 expensive processes that w'e can bring them to this 
 degree of purity. These substances are therefore very 
 generally employed in the state in which nature and 
 commerce afford them. Attention must be paid, how- 
 ever, among the varieties which these two substances 
 present, to choose such as experience has shewn to give 
 constantly the production we are desirous of obtaining. 
 In some delicate works, such as the making of fine 
 crystal or plate glass, the alkali of commerce is puri- 
 fied, in order to clear it of all foreign bodies. In ge- 
 neral, white sand is the purest, but it is also the most 
 refractory ; the coloured sands fuse much more easily. 
 Alicant soda holds the first place among the alkalis of 
 commerce. It is therefore most employed in the deli- 
 cate operations of the glass-works. Sicilian ashes, the 
 salicornia and sea-w'rack are employed in the manufac 
 ture of all the common clear glass. Potash and salt 
 are also well adapted for vitrification : the latter is em- 
 ployed in most of the manufactories of drinking-glasses 
 and crystal-glass, as it is called. In France, the ashes 
 of our fires melted with sand is the most general com- 
 position of bottle-glass. When the sand is very fusible, 
 lixiviated ashes may be employed. I have seen, says 
 M. Chaptal, most excellent bottle-glass formed with 
 lixiviated ashes and river sand, mixed with equal parts 
 of quartz and rubbish of lava. The salts contained in 
 
GLASS-MAKING. 
 
 369 
 
 the alkalis enter into fusion, and swim upon the surface 
 of the metal (as the workmen call it), in the state of a 
 very fluid liquid, which must be carefully taken off with 
 a ladle or skimmer before beginning to work the glass. 
 This precaution is only necessary when sodas are em- 
 ployed highly charged with marine salt. The glass- 
 works where these kinds of soda were used, made a con- 
 siderable trade of this salt, which was sold by the name 
 of glass-house salt, when the gabelle, or salt-tax, rose 
 to such an enormous height in France. Glass-house salt 
 is also known by the name of gall of glass, or sandiver; 
 and when the matter is not well melted, or when all the 
 marine salt is not evaporated, it is found dispersed 
 through the glass in small grains, which injure much 
 the beauty and solidity of the article. When we wish 
 to purify soda for delicate operations, it is dissolved in 
 water, in order to separate by a previous operation, 
 every thing that may be insoluble ; it is afterwards eva- 
 porated, and concentrated to forty degrees of Baume’s 
 areometer, in order to precipitate the foreign salts, 
 which crystallize; the remaining liquor is afterwards 
 concentrated to dryness, and by this means W'e obtain a 
 very pure salt of soda. We may even obtain it in crys- 
 tals, by stopping the evaporation at the degree of a 
 sirupy consistence. The proportions of the substances 
 which form the composition of glass, vary according to 
 the nature of the sand, the purity of the alkalis, the 
 quality of the glass, and the degree of heat in the 
 furnace. Experience alone must prescribe and deter- 
 mine the most proper composition: the more fusible 
 the sand is, the less alkali it requires ; the purer the 
 alkali, the greater is the quantity of sand which is ne- 
 cessary in the composition. In order to facilitate the 
 fusion of the compounds, and to give the glass more 
 ductility, more weight, and less hardness ; oxyde of 
 lead is added to the composition, in variable propor- 
 tions, according to the object in view. Minium, or 
 red-lead, is always preferred for this purpose in the 
 manufactories of crystal-glass. 
 
 The oxyde of manganese is also used, by the name 
 of glass-maker’s soap, in order to clear the glass of all 
 colouring matter. Its effect must probably be chiefly 
 ascribed to the facility with which it gives up its 
 oxygen, which combines with the colouring principles, 
 and destroys them. Too much red-lead makes the glass 
 yellow ; this defect may be corrected by applying a lit- 
 tle oxyde of cobalt, which, in its turn, will produce a 
 blue colour, if in excess. Too much manganese gives 
 it a violet colour, and forms streaks, or violet-coloured 
 ribbons, in the thick parts of the glass. This fault may 
 be corrected, by throwing a combustible body into the 
 melted mass. There are circumstances where a tried 
 composition attains a proper degree of fusion with great 
 difficulty ; this may proceed from the draught of the 
 furnace being interrupted, or when the fire is ill ma- 
 naged; in this case, borax, or arsenic, must be re- 
 sorted to for restoring the fusion. The latter substance 
 is held in the bottom of the pots, until it has evapora- 
 ted in fumes; it spreads through the whole mass, agi- 
 
 tates it, and hastens the flux of it. Arsenic serves in 
 particular for destroying the green colour of glass, be- 
 sides the advantage it has of facilitating the flux. The 
 glass is coloured with the metallic oxydes ; cobalt makes 
 blue; manganese, violet; glass of antimony, yellow; 
 precipitate of Cassius, purple; chrome, green, &c. 
 Various colours may be obtained by the mixture of 
 these oxydes ; and we may obtain all ihe shades we 
 desire. 
 
 OJ'theFlux of the Substances forming the Composition 
 of Glass . — The flux of the substances embraces two 
 principal operations; first, the fritte; secoud, the fusion. 
 If we throw into the crucible, the substance which 
 forms the composition, without having prepared it by a 
 previous strong calcination, the crucibles would be 
 destroyed in a short time, in consequence of the water 
 which would be disengaged on the first impression of 
 the fire; the flux would be almost impossible, in con- 
 sequence of the greater fusibility of the alkali, which 
 would come to the surface; the glass would be co- 
 loured, and the paste itself would experience a swell- 
 ing which would drive it over the crucible. In order 
 to obviate all these inconveniences, the substances un- 
 dergo the fritte, in all the glass-works, before put into 
 the pots to be melted. The fritte is conducted on the 
 substances either separately or in their state of mixture 
 and composition. The second method is preferable, 
 for the reasons I have above given. The fritte is exe- 
 cuted in furnaces made in the glass-house ; and which 
 very often communicate with the melting furnace, from 
 which they receive the heat by apertures made at the base 
 of the great arch, and at the angles. These places are 
 then called fritte arches. The substances are fritted 
 some time, keeping them red-hot, and by this means they 
 often receive a commencement of a pasty fusion, which 
 unites the parts of the composition so asr to form one mass. 
 The manufacturers of bottle glass, already mentioned, 
 give the form of bowls to their composition, in order to 
 roast it more completely. Others throw the composi- 
 tion, when well mixed, upon the bottom of the arch, 
 taking care to strew it very thinly, in order that the 
 calcination may act equally upon all the parts. Pre- 
 vious to putting the composition into the melting-pots, 
 a new activity is given to the fire, and it is stirred 
 three or four hours before charging them. The pots 
 are charged at two, and even three times : a fresh 
 quantity of composition is not added until the first 
 quantity is melted. As soon as the pot is filled the 
 fire is carefully kept up, for a longer or shorter time, 
 according to the fusibility of the composition and the 
 draught of the furnace. Ten or twelve hours is suffi- 
 cient to melt the whole composition ; but although it is 
 w'ell melted, it is not yet fit for working. It must be 
 allowed to settle, to clear itself of the numberless 
 bubbles which are dispersed through the paste ; and 
 this effect can only be produced by keeping the compo- 
 sition at a very liquid fusion for some hours. This 
 operation is called fining. When the glass is thus fined 
 down, or rendered fit for working with, the heat of the 
 5 B fire 
 
370 
 
 GLASS-MAKING. 
 
 fire is allowed gradually to diminksh by adding no more 
 coals to it. The vitreous mass then assumes a little 
 more consistency, which facilitates the work. ' 
 
 Of zoorkingthe Glass in Glass-houses . — The working 
 of glass is very simple ; but notwithstanding this, it 
 requires a great deal of practice, and no one can expect 
 to become a good artist in this branch of the business, 
 if he has not acquired the art early in life. Every thing 
 respecting the working of the glass may be reduced to 
 the act of blowing or running it. In blowing the glass, 
 an iron tube about five feet long is used ; with this the 
 workman takes out of the pot the quantity of glass ne- 
 cessary for his operation : the air, which he exhales from I 
 his lungs through the hollow of the tube into the mass of 
 glass he has taken up, distends it; he afterwards gives 
 this mass, while it is distending, the form and dimen- 
 sions he wishes. Compasses, scissars, and other iron 
 tools are employed to shape, pare, or dilate the glass. 
 Care is taken to present it to the furnace as soon as it 
 begins to cool ; when again heated, and it begins to j 
 melt, it is withdrawn, in order to bestow additional i 
 labour upon it. The softness of glass, when it is 
 made red-hot, forms such a contrast to its fragility 
 when it is cold, that it would be difficult to conceive 
 how easily it may be kneaded, soldered, and distended, 
 if we did, not see it actually done before our eyes. 
 Much has been said of the malleability of glass; re- 
 searches have been made in order to recover this im- 
 portant art, which it was thought the ancients possessed; 
 and people have been unwilling to allow that there is 
 no metal more ductile or more malleable than glass 
 when red hot; or that this art, supposed to exist among 
 the ancients, is practised among the moderns every day 
 in our glass-houses. Plate-glass is formed by pouring 
 melted glass upon a copper table, the surface of which 
 is very flat, and by passing a level above the melted | 
 matter, in order to give the plate an uniform thickness. I 
 This operation is very similar to that by which metallic 
 tablets are formed, by throwing melted metal upon 
 sand. In order that the glass may be less brittle, it is 
 necessary that it should be cooled very slowly : this last 
 operation is called annealing. In the large manufacto- 
 ries of bottle-glass, the glass is annealed in furnaces 
 made in the angles of the room where the melting fur- 
 nace is: these furnaces are red-hot when the glass is 
 deposited in them, and as soon as they are filled with 
 the glass articles, the apertures are closed, and the heat j 
 allowed to subside of itself. In small glass-houses, the 
 annealing furnace is generally placed upon the melting- 
 furnace, or at one side of it, so as to be heated by the j 
 current of flame which escapes from the furnace; this 1 
 ig merely, properly speaking, the commencement of a 
 very wide flue, and which insensibly diminishes in 
 width the further it is removed from the fire; so that 
 the glass deposited at its base gradually cools as it is 
 drawn towards the extremity. The glass is annealed 
 very imperfectly in this manner, because it cools too 
 quickly. 
 
 Of the Combustibles employed in Glass-works . — Two 
 
 kinds of combustibles are used in glass-works ; wood 
 and coals. The employment of the latter is very ad- 
 vantageous, but it colours the glass by producing a 
 fuliginous matter which is deposited upon the melted 
 mass, and tinges it of a yellow hue. When we w ish to 
 make a clear or crystal glass, therefore, we must take 
 the precaution of covering the pots, to which only one 
 aperture must be left, corresponding with the working- 
 hole ; this is called working with covered pots. When 
 wood is employed, it must be carefully dried ; the flux, 
 in this case, is easier, and the work expedited. Elm, 
 beech, and oak, are the three best woods for a melting- 
 furnace. The resinous woods give out too much 
 smoke. It requires an active and intelligent person to 
 manage the fire of a glass-house ; care must be taken 
 neither to choke it with too much fuel or to let the heat 
 fall off. It must be fed by renewing the fuel in small 
 quantities at a time, and at short intervals. The weight 
 of clear glass to that of water, is : : 23 : 10. That of 
 argil and alkali : : 25 : 10. That of lime and alkali 
 : : 27 : 10. The metallic oxydes add to its gravity. 
 
 Such is very much the practice in France : we shall 
 now detail the processes adopted in our owm country, 
 and describe the materials made use of in the several 
 manufactures. It will have been observed that glass 
 contains invariably two essential ingredients, silex and- 
 an alkali ; these are the only things necessary ; these, as 
 we have seen, were the only substances from which 
 glass was made accidentally on the shores of the river 
 JBelus; the sand existed on the spot, and the saline 
 substance was the substance in contact with the sand, 
 and made use of as supports to the kettles in which the 
 provisions were to be dressed. The fire, rendered fierce 
 by being exposed to the open air, soon united the sand 
 and the saline substances in fusion, and produced that 
 glass which was the object of so fortunate and important 
 a discovery. 
 
 Though sand and a saline substance are all that are 
 absolutely necessary in the manufacture of glass, yet 
 several other substances are likewise made use of for 
 particular purposes, among which may be particularly 
 noticed, lime, in the form of chalk, that is a combina- 
 tion of lime and carbonic acid, or what is chemically 
 denominated a carbonate of lime, borax, the oxydes of 
 lead, manganese, arsenic and nitre. Perhaps a brief 
 account of these will be agreeable to the reader in this 
 place, though we shall have occasion to renew the sub- 
 jects in an alphabetical form in the second part of our 
 work. 
 
 Silex may be found in almost all parts of the known 
 world ; but of different kinds, and of various degrees of 
 purity, and such will be selected in the manufacture as 
 is adapted to the nature and fineness of the glass re- 
 quired ; the siliceous material generally used in this 
 ! country is sea-sand, which it is well known consists of 
 minute rounded grains of quartz, which are sufficiently 
 small to be used w ithout any other preparation than that 
 of washing. Sand well adapted for the manufacture 
 of glass is found on the coast of Norfolk near Lynn, 
 
 and 
 
GLASS-MAKING. 
 
 371 
 
 and likewise on the Western shores of the Isle of 
 Wight. Common black gun-flints afford a very pure 
 kind of silex, which before they are used must be 
 heated red-hot, and instantly quenched in cold water. 
 The heat w hitens the flints and the water splits them in 
 every possible direction, after which they may be ground 
 without difficulty in mills constructed for this kind of 
 work. This ground flint is chiefly confined to the 
 manufactures of the potteries, and is but seldom re- 
 sorted to in glass-works. The alkali used in the manu- 
 facture of glass is either soda or potash. It is used 
 in the state of a carbonate, though it is evident that the 
 carbouic-acid-gas is diiven off in the process, and the 
 glass is a compound of silex and pure alkali, and not 
 an alkaline carbonate. The finest flint-glass requires 
 the best pearl-ashes, purified by solution and evapora- 
 tion, but intei ior glass is made w ith coarser substances, 
 as barilla, where it is abundant ; w'ith common wood- 
 ashes, and with kelp. These alkalis, it is true, are 
 impure; but this does not prevent their dissolving the 
 silex iuto a very good and perfect glass, for the very 
 impurities, consisting of neutral salts, lime, and other 
 earths, assist in vinification. Glass made from these 
 alkalis has always a greenish tinge, owing to the iron 
 contained in them. Lime, in the form of chalk, is 
 used only in small proportions, because if much is used 
 the glass becomes opaque, and milky on cooling, though 
 it w as perfectly transparent w hen hot : hence the reason 
 of what is called smoky glass among the glaziers. The 
 proper proportions are, to 100 parts of silex and alkali, 
 only 6 or 7 of quick-lime can be added. Lime, though 
 mischievous, if used too liberally, has its particular 
 uses when properly proportioned, for besides affording 
 a cheap flux, it renders the glass easier to work and 
 much less liable to crack by sudden and violent changes 
 of temperature. Borax is the best flux that is known; 
 its high price is the only objection to its more general 
 use; this prevents it from being used in common glasses, 
 but it is never omitted in the finer kinds of plate glass, 
 and those other articles of manufacture that are required 
 to be clear and free from specks and bubbles. Borax 
 renders all vitrescent compounds into w hich it enters 
 remarkably thin+b lowing, as the phrase is, and there- 
 fore peculiarly adapted for being cast in a mould, w hich 
 is the way plate-glass is manufactured. A very small 
 quantity of bor.ax will correct any deficient strength in 
 the alkali. The oxydes of lead, of which litharge and 
 minium are the only ones employed in the large 
 way, are of great importance in glass-making. Li- 
 tharge, of itself, melts into a very dense, clear, yellow, 
 transparent glass, fusible at a low degree of heat ; and 
 when melted, it acts so powerfully on all kinds of 
 earthen vessels as to run through the common porous 
 crucibles in a very short time, like liquor through a 
 filter, but vitrifying and corroding the bottom of the 
 crucible - in its passage. Litharge, therefore, is not only 
 a most powerful flux to all earthly mixtures, but im- 
 parts to glass the valuable qualities of greater density, 
 aud greater power of refracting the rays of light ; of 
 
 bearing any sudden changes of temperature ; of greater 
 tenacity when red-hot, and therefore easier to be 
 worked. Most of the finer glasses contain a considera- 
 ble quantity of this oxyde, particularly the London flint- 
 glass, or that species which is used for most of the pur- 
 poses of the table, for lustres, and other ornamental 
 works, which when cut into various forms display such 
 beauty and brilliance, as to present a most dazzling ap- 
 pearance, for artificial gems and for most optical pur- 
 j poses. Glass, however, in which there is much lead, 
 
 I has the defect of being extremely soft so as to be readily 
 scratched and injured by almost every hard body it rubs 
 against. It is likewise so fusible, that thin tubes made 
 of it will bend with ease in the flame of a candle, and 
 will sink down into a shapeless mass, at a moderate 
 red-heat. This quality is often very useful for chemical 
 purposes, but in other cases it is a great defect. If 
 lead is in excess, there is great danger that the glass will 
 be corroded by the contact of acrid liquors. 
 
 The black oxyde of manganese has been long used in 
 this manufacture : its ancient name was “ glass soap,” 
 which proves that it was used for the purpose of clear- 
 ing the glass from any accidental foulness of colour, 
 which it might otherwise contract from the impurity of 
 the alkali or other materials employed. The oxyde of 
 manganese is a very powerful flux for earthy matters,, 
 which is seen in the result of all attempts to reduce it 
 to a reguline state in the usual way of combining with 
 a saline carbonaceous flux, and heating in a naked cru- 
 cible. Not a particle of the oxyde is reduced in this 
 way, but the crucible constantly runs down, in a heat 
 sufficiently intense for the reduction of the manganese, 
 together with all its contents into a green flag. The 
 only way known at present of reducing this oxyde, is 
 to enclose it without any saline or earthy addition in a 
 crucible lined w'ith charcoal, and apply, to it a very 
 intense heat. Manganese like lead gives a density to 
 glass, and has like that metal a tendency to settle to 
 the bottom of the pots where it accumulates, and being 
 here out of the way of most of the discolouring addi- 
 tions, it yields a purple tinge immediately adhering to, 
 the bottom, and- partly corrodes the pots, so that when 
 they are worn out and broken up they are thickly in- 
 crusted with a purple vitrescent flag easily separable by 
 the hammer, * 
 
 The white oxyde of arsenic is another flux used in 
 this manufacture : this is volatile in the fire in pro- 
 portion as it approaches the metallic state, and hence 
 it is of great advantage to employ nitre to oxygenate 
 it more highly, and to render it more fixed. Arsenic 
 is a powerful and a cheap flux, but it must be used 
 only in great moderation, as taking a longer time to 
 mix ultimately with glass, and allowing it to be per- 
 fectly clear, than almost any other additions that can be 
 employed. Glass in which arsenic is not most inti- 
 mately combined has a milky hue, which increases by 
 age ; and when this oxyde is in excess the glass tends 
 to deliquesce, and gradually to become soft, and at 
 length a decomposition will take place. Drinking 
 
 glasses, 
 
GLASS-MAKING. 
 
 372 
 
 glasses, and others used for purposes connected with 
 our food, should not be made with this flux, as being 
 one of the most dangerous poisons. As arsenic is en- 
 tirely volatilized, when in contact with any carbona- 
 ceous matter, another use has been made of it, which 
 is to disperse the carbon that may remain in the glass- 
 pot, owing to any defect in the calcination of the 
 alkali, or any other more latent cause. When this 
 happens small lumps of white arsenic are thrust to the 
 bottom of the glass-pots, and stirred in with the con- 
 tents, and the fumes of the arsenic meeting with the 
 existing carbon diffused through the glass unites with 
 it, is speedily volatilized, and the glass is left entirely 
 free both from the carbon and arsenic that was added. 
 
 Nitre is used, in glass-making, only in small quan- 
 tities, and is an accessary ingredient for particular pur- 
 poses. Nitre is readily decomposed, giving out a 
 large quantity of oxygen, some nitrous gas, and azote, 
 leaving behind its pure potash. It is of great service 
 in destroying any carbonaceous matter in the ingredients 
 of glass : it is also useful in fixing arsenic, and in keep- 
 ing up the tinging power communicated by manganese. 
 The same circumstance of keeping metallic oxydes up 
 to their highest state of oxygenation, also renders this 
 salt often useful, sometimes indeed essentially necessary 
 in the preparation of certain coloured glasses. 
 
 While glass is in fusion the substances which enter 
 into its compositiou may be considered as combined 
 with each other, so as to form a homogeneous mass 
 similar to water, holding in solution a variety of salts. 
 If it be cooled down very gradually, the different ten- 
 dency of the constituents to assume solid forms at 
 peculiar temperatures, wdll cause them to separate 
 successively in crystals, in the same manner as salts 
 held in solution in water assume the form of crys- 
 tals, when the liquid is slowly evaporated. But if 
 the glass be rapidly cooled down to the point of con- 
 gelation, the constituents have not time to separate in 
 succession, and the glass remains the same homogeneous 
 compound, as while in a state of fusion ; just as would 
 happen to a saline solution if suddenly exposed to a 
 degree of cold sufficient to congeal it completely. 
 Hence it should seem that the vitreous quality depends 
 entirely upon the fusibility of the mixture, and the 
 suddenness with which it is cooled down to the point 
 of congelation. The solid substance is precisely the 
 same as to its chemical composition, as if it were still 
 in a state of fusion ; the sudden abstraction of heat hav- 
 ing been the means of fixing the constituents before 
 they had time to assume a new' arrangement. All fusi- 
 ble mixtures, as we have seen, of the earths with fixed 
 alkalis, &c., may be made at pleasure to assume the 
 form of glass, or the appearance which characterizes 
 stone or porcelain, according to the rate of cooling ; 
 and glass may be deprived of its vitreous form merely 
 by fusing it, and cooling it down with sufficient slowness 
 to enable the constituents to separate in succession. 
 Experiments have been made on this subject by Reau- 
 mur and Lewis, who have both pointed out the method 
 of converting different kinds of glass into an opaque, 
 
 white, hard, refractory substance like porcelain. Lewis, 
 however, demonstrated, by a variety of experiments, that 
 it is not every kind of glass that can be converted into 
 porcelain. He succeeded only with those that were 
 composed of a variety of constituents, because such 
 glasses alone contain ingredients that become solid in 
 succession. Green-glass, which is apt to acquire a 
 crystallized form, succeeded the best w'ith him, and he 
 found that the temperature w'hich was peculiarly adapted 
 to the change, is that in which the glass is softened with- 
 out being melted. It was the curious experiment of 
 Sir James Hail on basalt and green-stone, that first led 
 to an explanation upon what the vitreous state of sub* 
 stances depends. He found that glass, consisting of 
 various earthy bodies, loses its vitreous state, and as- 
 sumes that of a stone, if more than a minute or tw r o 
 elapses while it is cooling down from the complete 
 fusion to the point at which it congeals. 
 
 There are, it is w'ell known, different kinds of glass 
 in common use in this country, adapted to various pur- 
 poses. The finest is plate-glass, of which looking- 
 glasses are manufactured : flint-glass, or, as it is fre- 
 quently denominated, crystal, is not much behind the 
 | plate-glass in the excellence of its qualities. These are 
 both perfectly transparent and colourless, heavy and 
 very brilliant. They are composed of fixed alkali, pure 
 silex, calcined flints, and litharge. The proportions, 
 as far as can be obtained, will be given hereafter. 
 Flint-glass contains also much oxyde of lead ; though it 
 is solid, it does not appear to be absolutely impervious 
 to gaseous bodies, at least when heated nearly to the 
 melting point. Dr. Lew’is surrounded a piece of it 
 with charcoal pow'der, and kept it some time in a heat 
 not quite sufficient to melt it. The lead was revived in 
 drops through the whole substance of the glass. Dr. 
 Priestley ascertained, that glass tubes, filled w'ith 
 hydrogen gas, and heated, became quite black, from 
 the revival of the lead. When alkaline hydrosulphurets 
 are kept in glass phials, the inside is coated with a black 
 rust, which is, in fact, the lead separated by the sulphur 
 from the glass. 
 
 Crown-glass is made without lead ; it is, therefore, 
 much lighter than flint-glass. It consists chiefly of fixed 
 alkali, fused with siliceous sand. Bottle-glass is the 
 coarsest and cheapest kind, and in this but little fixed 
 alkali enters into the composition. It consists of 
 an alkaline earth, combined with alumine and silica. 
 In this country it is composed of sand and the refuse of 
 the soap-boiler, which is the lime employed in ren- 
 dering his alkali caustic, and of the earthy matters with 
 which that alkali was contaminated. Some of this kind 
 of glass was analized by M. Vanquelin, and was found 
 
 to be composed of 
 
 Silex - -- -- -- -- - 57 
 
 Lime '----------31 
 
 Alumine - -- -- -- -- 4 
 
 Oxydes of manganese and iron - - 4^ 
 
 96 
 
 Loss 4 
 
 100 
 
 A small 
 
GLASS-MAKING. 
 
 373 
 
 A small portion of potash was also discerned, but it 
 -was too small to admit of being appreciated. 
 
 Of the different species of glass, the most fusible is 
 flint-glass, and the least fusible bottle-glass. Flint-glass 
 melts at the temperature of 19° Wedgwood; crown- 
 glass at 30°, and bottle-glass at 47°. The properties 
 that distinguish good glass are as follows. It is perfectly 
 transparent, and its hardness very considerable : its spe- 
 cific gravity varies from 2.3, to 4, according to the 
 materials of which it is composed. When cold it is 
 brittle ; but when at red-heat it is one of the most 
 ductile bodies known, and may be drawn into threads 
 nearly invisible to the naked eye. It is almost perfectly 
 elastic, and of course is one of the most sonorous of 
 bodies. Few chemical agents have any action upon it ; 
 but fluaeic acid dissolves it with great rapidity. 
 
 Although glass is chiefly made of sand, flints, fixed 
 alkalies and metallic oxydes, yet there are various other 
 substances which frequently enter into the composition, 
 and which should therefore not be wholly omitted in 
 the description. “ Polverine” or “ Rochetta” is one 
 that is procured from the Levant, and is prepared from 
 a plant.called kali, which is cut down in the summer, 
 dried in the sun, and burnt in heaps either on the 
 open ground or on iron grates; the ashes falling into a 
 pit grow into a hard mass, and are fit for use when pu- 
 rified. “ Kelp’' which grows upon our coasts, and the 
 ashes of the “ fucus vesiculosus” furnish a similar salt : 
 to these we may add the “ barilla” of Spain. 
 
 To prepare Ashes for making Glass. — Take what 
 quantity and what sort of wood-ashes you will, except 
 those of oak ; have a tub ready with a spigot and 
 faucet towards the bottom, and in this tub put a layer 
 of straw, and fliug your ashes on it ; then pour water 
 upon them and let the ashes soak thoroughly until the 
 water stands above them : let it thus continue over night, 
 then draw out the faucet and receive the lye in another 
 tub, put under the first for this purpose : if the lye 
 looks troubled, pour it again on the ashes, and let it 
 settle until it is clear and is of an amber colour. This 
 clarified lye put by, and pour fresh water on the ashes ; 
 let this also stand over night ; then draw it off, and you 
 will have a weak lye, which, instead of water, pour 
 upon fresh ashes ; the remaining ashes are of use in the 
 manuring of land. After you have made a sufficient 
 quantity of lye, pour it into an iron cauldron, bricked 
 up like a brewing or washing copper, but let it not be 
 filled above three parts full. On the top of the brick- 
 work place a little barrel with lye ; towards the bot- 
 tom of which bore a hole, and put a small faucet in, to 
 let the lye run gently into the caldron, in a stream 
 about the roundness of a straw ; but this you must ma- 
 nage according to the quantity of lye, for you ought to 
 mind how much the lye evaporates, and make the lye 
 in the barrel run proportionally to supply that diminu- 
 tion. Care must be taken that the lye do not run over 
 in the first boiling ; but if you find it will, put some cold 
 lye to it, and slacken the fire, and let all the lye boil 
 geDtly to a dry salt: when this salt is cold, break it and 
 
 put it into the calcar, and raise your fire by de- 
 grees until the salt is red hot, yet so as not to melt 
 it. If you think it calcined enough, take out a piece 
 and let it cool, then break it in tw'o, and if it is tho- 
 roughly white, it is done enough ; but if there remains a 
 blackness in the middle it must be put in the calcar 
 again, until it comes out completely white. If you 
 will have it still finer, you must dissolve it again, 
 filtrate it, boil it, and calcine it as before : the oftener 
 this is repeated the more will the salt be cleared from 
 the earthy particles, and it may be made as clear as 
 crystal and as white as snow. Of this may be made the 
 finest glass possible. According to Dr. Merret, the 
 best ashes in England are burnt from thistles and hop- 
 stalks, after the hops are gathered : and among trees 
 the mulberry is reckoned to afford the best salt. The 
 most thorny and prickly plants are observed to yield 
 better and more salt than others; also herbs that are 
 bitter, as hops, wormwood, &c. Tobacco stalks, 
 when burnt, produce likewise plenty of salt : and it is 
 observed that fern ashes yield more salt than any other 
 ashes. Dr. Thomson, to whose admirable work on 
 chemistry we have been indebted for part of this article, 
 says the fullest account of glass-making is to be found 
 in a treatise by Neri, an Italian. Dr. Merret, an Eng- 
 ! fish man, translated it into Latin, and enriched it with 
 i notes. Kunkel translated this Latin edition into Ger- 
 man, with additions, which were the result of his own 
 i numerous experiments on glass-making. Kunkel’s work 
 was translated into French in 1732. An elaborate ac- 
 count of glass-making has been published in the “ Arts 
 et Metiers ;” and since that a small volume on glass- 
 making has been written in French by Loysell. 
 
 To make the Glass Frit . — Take w'hite silver sand ; 
 wash it, and separate all the impurities from it, and let 
 it dry, or rather calcine it. Of this take sixty pounds, 
 and of prepared ashes thirty pounds, mix them well to- 
 gether, then set them in the melting furnace ; the lon- 
 ger it is melting the clearer will the glass be made. If 
 it stands for two days and two nights, it will be fit to 
 work with, or to tinge with what colour you please. 
 Before you work it, add forty pounds of lead and half a 
 pound of manganese to it. Or, take ashes, prepared 
 as above, sixty pounds, of prepared silver sand one 
 hundred and sixty pounds, arsenic four pounds, white 
 lead two pounds, clear dry nitre ten pounds, borax two 
 pounds ; mix all well together, and proceed as has been 
 directed, and you will have a beautiful crystal. 
 
 Glass-blozeing. — Glass-blowing is the art of forming 
 vessels of glass. The term, however, is exclusively 
 applied to those vessels which are blown by the mouth. 
 The operation is exceedingly simple : the workman has 
 a tube of iron, the end of which he dips into a pot of 
 melted glass, and thus gathers a small quantity of glass 
 on the end of it ; he then applies the other end of the 
 tube to his mouth and blows air through it, this air en- 
 ters into the body of the fluid glass, and expands it out 
 into a hollow globe, similar to the soap bladders blown 
 from a tobacco-pipe. Various methods are used to 
 
S74 
 
 GLASS-MAKING. 
 
 bring these hollow globes into forms of the different 
 utensils in common domestic use. The first and 
 greatest of the glass-blower’s implements is the furnace, 
 which consists of two large domes set one over the 
 other ; the lower one stands over a long grating (on a 
 level with the ground,) on which the fuel is placed ; be- 
 neath the grate is the ash-pit, and a large arch leading 
 to it conveys air to the furnace. In the sides of the 
 lower dome, as many holes or mouths are made as 
 there are workmen to make use of the furnace, and 
 before each mouth a pot of melted glass is placed. 
 The pots are very large, like crucibles, and will 
 hold from three to four hundred weight of liquid glass : 
 they are supported upon three small piers of brick- 
 work, resting on the floor of the furnace. The form 
 reverberates the flame from the roof down upon the 
 pots, and they are placed at some distance within the 
 furnace, that the flame may get between the wall and 
 the pots. The upper dome is built upon the other, 
 and its floor made flat by filling up, round the roof of 
 the lower dome, with brick-work ; there is a small 
 chimney that opens from the top of the lower dome into 
 the middle of the floor of the upper one, which conveys 
 the smoke away from it, and a flue from the upper 
 dome leads it completely from the furnace. The upper 
 dome is used for annealing the glass, and is exactly si- 
 milar to a large oven ; it has three mouths, and in dif- 
 ferent parts a small flight of steps leads up to each. A 
 green-glass furnace is square ; and at each angle it has 
 an arch for annealing or cooling glasses or bottles. The 
 metal is wrought on two opposite sides, and on the 
 other two they have their colours, into which are made 
 linnet holes for the fire to come from the furnace to 
 bake the frit, and to discharge the smoke. Fires are 
 made in the arches to anneal the work, so that the 
 whole process is done in one furnace. These furnaces 
 must not be of brick, but hard sandy stones. In j 
 France they build the outside of brick ; and the inner 
 part, to bear the fire, is made of a sort of fuller’s earth 
 or tobacco-pipe clay, of which they also make their 
 melting pots. In Britain the pots are usually made of 
 Stourbridge clay. It is observed, that the roughest 
 work in this art is the changing the pot3 when they are 
 worn out or cracked. In this case the great working 
 hole must be uncovered ; the faulty pot must be taken 
 out with iron hooks and forks, and a new one must 
 be speedily put in its place through the flames (for 
 glass-furnaces are always kept burning) by the hands 
 only. In doing this the man guards himself with a 
 garment made of skins, in the shape of a pantaloon, 
 that covers him all but his eyes, and is thoroughly wet- 
 ted all over : his eyes are defended by proper shaped 
 glass of a green colour. 
 
 We now come to describe the smaller implements, 
 which are as follows: 1. A bench, or stool, with two 
 arms at its ends, which are a little inclined to the hori- 
 zon. 2. A pair of shears, or rather pliers, formed of 
 one piece of steel : they have no sharp edges and spring 
 open of themselves if permitted. 3. A pair of com- 
 
 | passes to measure the work, and ascertain when it is 
 brought to the proper size. 4. A pair of common 
 shears for cutting soft glass. 6. A blowing-pipe, which 
 is a wrought iron tube, three or four feet long, covered 
 with twine at the end by which it is held. We may 
 now explain the use of these tools in the manufacture 
 of some vessel, as a lamp, & c. The operation is con- 
 ducted by three workmen. The first takes the blowing- 
 pipe, and after heating it to a red-heat at the mouth 
 of the furnace, dips it into the pot of melted glass, at 
 the same time turning it round that it may take up the 
 glass, which has then much the consistence of turpen- 
 tine ; in the quantity of metal he is guided by expe- 
 I l ienee, and must proportion it to the size of the vessel 
 to be blown ; he then brings it from the furnace to the 
 stool, and rolls the lump of glass upon it to bring it to a 
 round form, after which he blows through the pipe, 
 resting the glass upon an iron plate behind the stool 
 and rolling it backwards and forwards. The blowing 
 makes the glass hollow, and he has several methods of 
 bringing it to a proper shape to be worked ; by simply 
 blowing, it would assume a figure nearly globular ; if he 
 wants it any bigger, in the equatorial diameter, he lays 
 the pipe on a hook driven into the side of the stool and 
 turns it round very quickly, the centrifugal force soon 
 enlarges it in the equator. If, on the other hand, he 
 wishes to lengthen its polar diameter he holds the pipe 
 perpendicular, the glass hanging downwards, its weight 
 lengthening it, and to shorten the polar diameter he 
 holds the pipe upright, the glass at the top ; by blowing 
 through the pipe the capacity is increased, and the 
 thickness of the glass of the vessel diminished^ We now 
 suppose, that by a very dexterous application of the 
 above methods the workman has brought it to a proper 
 shape; he now carries it to the mouth of the furnace, 
 and holds it in to get a fresh heat, (for by this time it is 
 become too stiff to work easily), taking care to turn it 
 round slowly, that it may not alter its figure. The ves- 
 sel in this stage is delivered to the second, or principal 
 workman, the other two being only assistants ; he is 
 seated upon the stool, and lays the blowing-pipe with 
 the glass at its end across its arm, and with his left hand 
 rolls the pipe along the arms, turning the glass and pipe 
 round at the same time; in his right hand he holds the 
 pliers, whose blades are rubbed oyer with a small piece 
 of bees-wax, and as the glass turns round he presses the 
 blade of the shears against it, following it with the 
 shears as it rolls, at the end or side as occasion requires, 
 until he has brought it to the proper size, which he 
 determines by the compasses, though not materially al- 
 tering its figure, the first workman kneeling on the 
 ground, and blowing with his mouth at the end of the 
 pipe when directed by his principal. The third work- 
 man now produces a small rod, which is dipped into 
 the melting-pot to take up a small piece of metal to 
 serve as cement ; the end of this rod he applies to the 
 centre of the glass just opposite the blowing-pipe, the 
 principal workman directing it by holding its end be- 
 tween his pliers ; the rod by the small p.ece of glass on 
 
 its 
 
GLASS-MAKING. 
 
 375 
 
 its end immediately slicks to the glass vessel, and the 
 third workman draws it away, both workmen turning 
 their rods round, but in contrary directions ; this ope- 
 ration forms a short tube on the end. The principal 
 workman then takes the short tube between the blades 
 of a pair of pliers exactly like the others, but which 
 are not covered with bees-wax ; the cold of these pliers 
 instantly cracks the glass all round, and a very slight 
 jerk struck upon the rod breaks it off. A hole is now 
 made in the end of the glass, which is enlarged by the 
 pliers while the glass is turned, until the neck is brought 
 to the proper size and length to fit the brass cup as be- 
 fore described, and the inferior half of the lamp is 
 brought to its shape and size in the same manner. In 
 order to form the upper half, the third workman has in 
 the mean time been preparing a round lump of glass on 
 the end of one of the rods, which he applies hot to the 
 end of the neck, it being guided by the principal work- 
 man, and it immediately holds tight ; he then breaks 
 off the other neck by the cold pliers, and thus separates 
 it from the blowing-pipe. The glass is now heated a 
 third time, and brought from the furnace to the princi- 
 pal workman, who enlarges the small orifice at the end 
 by turning it round, and holding the pliers against it 
 until he enlarges it to the right shape : it is now' 
 finished, and the third workman takes it to a stool 
 strewed over with small coals ; he rests the rod upon the 
 edge of the stool, and with a file files the joint at the 
 bottom neck, it soon breaks off and the lamp falta upon 
 the coals, the distance being so very small as to 
 be in no danger of breaking ; a boy now puts the end of 
 a long stick into the open mouth of the glass, and thus 
 carries it to the annealing oven where it remains some 
 hours ; when taken out it must be cooled gradually, 
 and is fit for sale. 
 
 Method of making Plate-Glass . — The materials of 
 the finest plate-glass are white sand, soda, and lime, to 
 which are added manganese and zaffre, or any other 
 oxyde of cobalt for particular colouring purposes. The 
 sand is of the finest and whitest kind, and is previously 
 passed through a wire sieve of moderate closeness into 
 water, where it is well stirred and washed till all dirt 
 and impurity are got rid of. The sharpest grained sand 
 is preferred, and indeed it is found that the grains of 
 moderate size melt with the alkali sooner than either 
 the very fine dust or the larger fragments. The alkali 
 used is always soda, and there seems good reason to 
 prefer this to potash, as glasses made with soda are 
 found to be softer and to flow thinner when hot, and 
 yet to be equally durable when cold. Besides, the neu- 
 tral salts with the basis of soda, which constitute the 
 glass-gall in this instance, such as the muriate and sul- 
 phate of soda, appear to be dissipated more readily by 
 the fire than the corresponding salts of potash. Lime 
 is of considerable use, and adds much to the fusibility 
 of the other materials, supplying in this respect the 
 use of litharge in the flint glass. Too much lime, 
 however, impairs the colour and solidity of the glass. 
 The colouring, or rather discolouring substances used 
 
 are azure, or cobalt blue, and manganese. The latter 
 is here in the state in which its effects is that of giving a 
 slight red tinge, which mixes with the blue of the 
 cobalt, and the natural yellow of the other materials ; 
 and if properly proportioned they neutralize each other 
 so that scarcely any tint remains. Besides these ingre- 
 dients there is always a great quantity of fragments of 
 glass arising from what is spilt in the casting and the 
 ends cut off in shaping the plates, which are made 
 friable by quenching in water when hot, and used in 
 this state with the fresh materials. Of the above ma- 
 terials the sand, soda, lime, and manganese are first 
 mixed together with great care, and are fritted in small 
 furnaces built for this purpose, the heat being gradu- 
 ally raised to a full red-white, and kept at this point 
 with frequent stirring till the materials undergo no 
 further change, nor give any kind of vapour. The 
 azure and the glass fragments being already perfectly 
 vitrified, are not added till towards the end of the pro- 
 cess, which lasts about six hours. The glass-house for 
 this manufacture differs in several particulars from the 
 common houses for blowing glass, being about eighteen 
 feet long and fifteen wide, made of good bricks. They 
 are particularly distinguished from the common fur- 
 naces by containing two kinds of crucibles ; the larger 
 ones, called “ pots,” are in the form of an inverted and 
 truncated cone, and in these the glass is melted. The others 
 are smaller, called “ cuvettes. Another essential part 
 of this furnace is the flat table (of which there is one 
 corresponding with each pot) on which the glass is cast. 
 These tables are of copper-plate, about ten feet by six, 
 supported by masonry ; and contiguous to each, on the 
 same level, are flat ovens heated from underneath, upon 
 which the glass when cast and sufficiently cooled may be 
 slid without difficulty from off the table, and then an- 
 nealed^ The tops of the flat oven and the table are on a 
 level with the corresponding opening of the furnace, 
 whence the cuvettes are withdrawn. When the glass is 
 thoroughly melted and fine, the cuvette is filled in the fol- 
 lowing way : the workman takes a copper ladle about ten 
 inches in diameter, and fixed to an iron handle seven 
 feet long, plunges it into the glass-pot, brings it up full 
 of melted glass and empties it into the cuvette, the 
 ladle being supported at the bottom by a strong iron 
 rest held by two other workmen, lest the red-hot cop- 
 per should bend and give way with the weight of the 
 glass within. The cuvette being filled is suffered to 
 remain in the furnace for some hours, that the bubbles 
 formed by this disturbance of the glass may have entirely 
 disappeared, and the samples taken out from time to 
 time become quite clear and limpid. The door of the 
 furnace is now opened, the cuvette is slid out and pulled 
 upon a low iron cradle, and immediately drawn on to 
 the side of the copper table, where it is hoisted by 
 a tackle and iron chains, and overset upon a table, 
 on which a thick flood of melted glass flows and 
 spreads in every direction to an equal thickness. It is 
 then made quite smooth and uniform at the surface, 
 by passing over it a heavy hollow roller or cylinder of 
 
 copper 
 
376 
 
 GLASS-MAKING. 
 
 copper made true and smooth by turning, after it is cast, 
 and weighing about 5 00 pounds. At the same time, 
 the empty cuvette is returned by the iron cradle to its 
 proper place within the furnace. The number of 
 workmen required for the whole process of casting is at 
 least twenty, each of which has his separate employ- 
 ment. The plate being cast, the inspector examines 
 whether there are any bubbles on any part of the sur- 
 face, and if found, the plate is immediately cut up 
 through them. The plate being now cool is slid by an 
 iron instrument from the casting table to the contiguous 
 annealing oven, previously well heated, and is carefully 
 taken up and ranged within it. Each oven will contain 
 six entire plates, and when full, all the openings are 
 stopped with clay, and the plates allowed to remain 
 there for ten days or a fortnight, to be thoroughly an- 
 nealed. When fit to be taken out of the annealing oven 
 they are sent away to receive all the subsequent opera- 
 tions of polishing, silvering, &c.; but first the edges are 
 cut smooth and squared. This is done by a diamond, 
 which is passed along the surface' of the glass upon a 
 square ruler in the manner of glaziers, and made to cut 
 into the substance of the glass to a certain depth. The 
 cut is opened by gently knocking with a small hammer 
 on the under side of the glass just beneath, and the 
 piece comes off, and the roughnesses are removed by 
 pincers. The plate is then finished as far as the glass- 
 house business is concerned. The glass is now to be 
 polished, which is done w r ith sand and water ; the glass 
 being first fastened down to a wooden frame, with 
 plaster of Paris, the operation is performed by means 
 of another glass, fastened in a frame, which is made to 
 rub upon the other, wet sand being interspersed between 
 the two. As the surfaces of the plates wear down, the 
 sand is used finer and finer. Emery is next used of two 
 or three degrees of fineness, which brings the glass to 
 an even surface, but it is still perfectly opaque. To 
 render it transparent, colcothar, which is the residue 
 left in the retorts of the aquafortis makers, is applied. 
 The polishing instrument is a block of wood, covered 
 with several folds of cloth and carded wool, so as to 
 make a firm elastic cushion. This block is worked by 
 the hand ; but to increase the pressure of the polisher, 
 the handle is lengthened by a wooden spring, bent to a 
 bow three or four feet long, which, at the other extre- 
 mit}', rests against a fixed point to a beam placed above. 
 The plate is now fastened to a table with plaster, co- 
 vered with colcothar, and the polisher begins his ope- 
 ration by working it backwards and forwards over the 
 surface of the plate till one side is done ; then the other 
 is to be polished in the same manner. 
 
 Crown-glass is the name given to the best window 
 glass, the composition of which varies very consider- 
 ably : but a good glass of this kiud may be made with 
 200 parts of soda, 300 of fine sand, 33 of lime, and 
 from 250 to 300 of the ground fragments of glass that 
 has already been worked. A small quantity of arsenic 
 is sometimes added to facilitate the fusion. Zafre, or 
 lire oxyde of cobalt, with ground flint is often used to 
 
 correct the dingy yellow which the inferior kind of 
 crown-glass naturally acquires. The manufacture of 
 1 the common window glass, though made by blowing, is 
 carried on* very differently from that of the common 
 flint glass articles, as the object is to produce a lar^e 
 flat and very thin plate, which is afterwards to be cut by 
 the glazier’s diamond into the required shapes and sizes. 
 It is difficult to convey to the reader a proper and pre- 
 cise idea of the process by mere description, but it may 
 be mentioned, that the workman takes a large mass of 
 glass on the hollow iron rod, and by rolling it on an 
 iron plate, and swinging it backwards and forwards, 
 causes it to lengthen by its own weight into a cylinder, 
 which is then rendered hollow by blowing with a force 
 of breath till it is brought out to the requisite thickness. 
 The hollow cylinder is then opened by holding it to the 
 fire, which, by expanding the air confined within it (the 
 hole of the iron rod being stopped) bursts it at its weakest 
 part ; and when still soft it is ripped up through its 
 whole length by iron shears, opened out into a flat sur- 
 face, and then it is finished by annealing as usual. 
 
 Common green bottle glass is another kind, which is 
 made almost entirely of sand, lime, and sometimes 
 clay, alkaline ashes of any kind, according as cheapness 
 or convenience direct, and more especially of kelp in 
 this country ; of barilla varec and the other varieties of 
 soda, in France ; and of w ood ashes in many parts of 
 Germany, and in North America. The following com- 
 position has been given as a good and cheap material 
 for bottle-glass, 100 parts of common sand, 30 of 
 varec (a coarse kind of kelp made on the western coasts 
 of France) ■ 1 60 of the lixiviated earth of ashes, 30 of 
 fresh wood ash, 80 of brick clay, and about 100 of 
 broken glass. Bottle-glass is a very hard, well vitrified 
 glass, not very heavy relatively to its bulk, and being 
 fused at a very high degree of heat, and from other- 
 circumstances, it resists the corrosive action of all liquids 
 much better than flint-glass. Besides being used for 
 w'ine and beer bottles, it is much employed for very 
 large retorts, subliming vessels, and other processes 
 of chemistry, for which it is admirably adapted, being 
 able to bear as much as a pretty full red-heat, without 
 melting or sinking down into a shapeless lump. 
 
 Compositions for White and Crystal-Glass . — To 
 make crystal-glass, take of the whitest terso, pounded 
 small, and sifted as fine as flour, two hundred pounds ; 
 of the salt of polverine one hundred and thirty pounds ; 
 mix them together, and put them into the furnace called 
 the calcar, first heating it. For an hour keep a mo- 
 derate fire, and keep stirring the materials with a proper 
 rake, that they may incorporate and calcine together; 
 increasing the fire for five hours ; after which the matter 
 is taken out, being sufficiently calcined, and is called 
 frit. After this, remove it immediately from the calcar 
 to a dry place, and cover it up from dust, for three or 
 four months. Now, to make the crystal glass, take of 
 the above crystal flit, called also bollito, and set it in 
 the melting pots in the furnace, adding to it a due 
 quantity of manganese ; when the two are fused, cast the 
 
 flour 
 
GLASS-MAKING. 
 
 377 
 
 flour into fair water, to clear it of the salt called sandi- 
 ver, which would otherwise make the crystal obscure 
 and cloudy. This washing must be repeated again and 
 again, till the crystal be fully purged ; or this scum may 
 be taken off by proper ladles. Now set it to boil for 
 four, five, or six days ; which being finished, see whe- 
 ther it have manganese enough, and if it be yet greenish, 
 add more manganese at discretion, by little and little at a 
 time, taking care not to over dose it, because it will in- 
 cline it to a blackish hue. Let it clarify, and become 
 of a shining hue ; which done, it is fit to be used, and 
 blown into vessels of any kind. Or, 120 parts of fine 
 sand, 40 of purified pearl-ash, 35 of litharge, 13 of 
 nitre, and a small quantity of black oxyde of manga- 
 nese, make a good glass. 
 
 Compositions for Flint-Glass. — Flint-glass, as it is 
 usually called by us, is of the same general kind with 
 that, which, in other places, is called crystal-glass. It 
 lias this name from its having been originally made with 
 calcined flints, before the use of white sand w’as under- 
 stood ; and it has retained this name, though there are 
 now no flints used in its composition. This glass differs 
 from the crystal-glass in having lead in its composition, 
 to flux it, and white sand for its body, whereas the 
 fluxes used in the other are salts, or arsenic, and the 
 body consists of tarso, white river pebbles, and such kind 
 of stones. To the lead and white sand a due proportion 
 of nitre is added, and a small quantity of magnesia. 
 The most perfect kind of flint-glass is made by fusing, 
 in a very strong fire, one hundred and tw enty pounds of 
 white sand, fifty pounds of red-lead, forty pounds of 
 the purest pearl-ash, twenty pounds of nitre, and five 
 ounces of magnesia. Another composition of flint- 
 glass is said to be the following : one hundred and 
 twenty pounds of white sand, fifty-four pounds of the 
 purest pearl-ash, thirty-six pounds of red-lead, twelve 
 pounds of nitre, and six ounces of magnesia. To 
 either of the above compositions a pound or two of 
 arsenic may be added, to increase the flux of the com- 
 position. A still cheaper flint-glass may be made with 
 one hundred and twenty pounds of white sand, thirty- 
 five pounds of the best pearl-ash, forty pounds of red- 
 lead, thirteen pounds of nitre, six pounds of arsenic, 
 and four ounces of magnesia ; or, instead of the arsenic, 
 may be substituted fifteen pounds of common salt ; but 
 this will make it more brittle than the other. But the 
 cheapest of all the compositions hitherto employed, 
 consists of one hundred and twenty pounds of white 
 sand, thirty pounds of red-lead, twenty pounds of the 
 best pearl-ash, ten pounds of nitre, fifteen pounds of 
 common salt, and six pounds of arsenic. Or, 100 
 parts of sand, 80 to 85 of red-lead, 35 to 40 of pearl- 
 ash, two or three of nitre, and one ounce of man- 
 ganese. The oxyde of lead may be reduced in this 
 glass. 
 
 Of silvering Glass . — Glass when smoothed and po- 
 lished does not acquire the property of reflecting ob- 
 jects till it has been silvered, as it is called, an opera- 
 tion effected by means of an amalgam of tin and quick- 
 
 silver. The tin-leaf employed must be of the size of 
 the glass, because, when pieces of that metal are united 
 by means of mercury, they exhibit the appearance of 
 lines. Tin is one of those metallic substances which 
 become soonest oxidated by the means of mercury. If 
 there remains a portion of that oxyde or calx, of a 
 blackish gray colour, on the leaf of tin, it produces a 
 spot or stain in the mirror, and that part cannot reflect 
 objects presented to it : great care, therefore, is taken 
 in silvering glass to remove the calx of tin from the sur- 
 face of the amalgam. The process is as follows : — 
 The leaf of tin is laid on a very smooth stone table, 
 and mercury being poured over the metal, it is ex- 
 tended over the surface of it by means of a rubber 
 made of bits of cloth. At the same moment the sur- 
 face of the leaf of tin becomes covered with blackish 
 oxyde, which is removed with the rubber. More mer- 
 cury is then poured over the tin, where it remains at a 
 level to the thickness of more than a line, without run- 
 ning off. The glass is applied in a horizontal direction 
 to the table at one of its extremities, and being pushed 
 forwards it drives before it the oxyde of tin which is at 
 the surface of the amalgam. A number of leaden 
 weights, covered with cloth, are then placed on the 
 glass which floats on the amalgam, in order to press it 
 down. Without this precaution the glass would exhibit 
 the interstices of the crystals resulting from the amal- 
 gam. These crystals have the form of large square 
 laminae irregularly disposed. 
 
 To obtain leaves of tin, which are sometimes six or 
 seven feet in length, with a proportionate breadth, they 
 are not rolled but hammered after the manner of gold- 
 beaters. The prepared tin is first cast between two plates 
 of polished iron, or between two smooth stones not of a 
 porous nature, such as thunder-stone. Twelve of these 
 plates are placed over each other; and they are then beat 
 on a stone mass with heavy hammers, one side of which 
 is plain and the other rounded. The plates joined toge- 
 ther are first beaten w ith the latter : when they become 
 extended the number of the plates is doubled, so that 
 they amount sometimes to eighty or more. They are 
 then smoothed with the flat side of the hammer, and 
 are beat till they acquire the length of six or seven feet, 
 and the breadth of four or five. The small block of 
 tin from which they are formed is at first ten inches 
 long, six in breadth, and a line and a quarter in thick- 
 ness. When the leaves are of less extent, and thin, from 
 eighty to a hundred of them are smoothed together. 
 
 Tin, extracted from the amalgam which has been 
 employed for silvering glass, exhibits a remarkable pe- 
 culiarity. When fused in an iron pan, its whole sur- 
 face becomes covered with a multitude of tetraedral 
 prismatic crystals, two or three lines in length and a 
 quarter of a line in thickness. The interior of these 
 pieces of tin, w'hen cut with a chisel, have a grayer tint 
 than pure tin, which is as white as silver. The latter 
 crystallizes also by cooling ; but it requires care. When 
 it begins to be fixed, decant the part which is still in 
 fusion, and there will remain at the bottom of the cru- 
 5 D cible 
 
37S 
 
 GLASS-MAKING. 
 
 cible beautiful crystals of a dull while colour, which 
 appeared to me to be cubes or parallelopipedons. 
 
 Painting on Glass . — The primitive manner of paint- 
 ing on glass was very simple, and, of consequence, 
 very easy ; it consisted in the mere arrangement of 
 pieces of glass of different colours, in some sort of 
 symmetry ; and constituted a kind of what we call Mo- 
 saic work. Afterwards, when they came to attempt 
 more regular designs, and even to represent figures 
 raised with all their shades, their whole address went 
 no farther than to the drawing the contours of the 
 figures in black, with water colours, and hatching the 
 draperies after the same manner, on glasses of the co- 
 lour of the object intended to be painted. For the 
 carnations they chose glass of a bright red ; upon which 
 they designed the principal lineaments of the face, &c. 
 with black. At last, the taste for this sort of painting 
 being considerably improved, and the art being found 
 applicable to the adorning of the churches, basilicas, 
 &c., they found means of incorporating the colours 
 with the glass itself, by exposing them to a proper de- 
 gree of fire, after the colours had been laid on. 
 
 Those beautiful works, among the painters in glass, 
 which were made in the glass-house, were of two^ 
 kinds : in some, the colour was diffused through the 
 whole body of glass ; in others, w'hicli were the more 
 common, the colour was only on one side, scarcely pe- 
 netrating within the substance above one-third of a line ; 
 though this was, more or less, according to the nature 
 of the colour, the yellow being always found to enter 
 the deepest. These last, though not so strong and 
 beautiful as the former, were of more advantage to the 
 workmen ; because, on the same glass, though already 
 coloured, they could shew other kinds of colours, where 
 there was occasion to embroider draperies, enrich them 
 with foliages, or represent other ornaments of gold, 
 silver, &c. In order to this, they made use of emery ; 
 grinding, or wearing dow’n the surface of the glass, till 
 such time as they were got through the colour to the 
 clear glass : this done, they applied the proper colours 
 on the other side of the glass. By this means the new 
 colours were prevented from running and mixing among 
 the former, when the glasses came to be exposed to the 
 fire, as will hereafter be shewn. 
 
 When the intended ornaments were to appear white, 
 or silvered, they contented themselves to bare the gloss 
 of its colour w ith emery, without applying any new co- 
 lour at all ; and it was in this manner that they wrought 
 the lights and heightening* on all kinds of colours. The 
 painting with vitreous colours on glass depends entirely 
 on the same principles as painting in enamel, and the 
 manner of executing it is likewise the same, except that 
 in this the transparency of the colours being indispensa- 
 bly requisite, no substances can be used to form them 
 but such as vitrify perfectly : and, therefore, the great 
 object is to find a set of colours which are composed of 
 such substances, as, by the admixture of other bodies, 
 may promote their vitrification and fusion ; are capable 
 of being converted into glass : and melting, in that 
 
 state, with less heat than is sufficient to melt such other 
 kinds of glass as may be chosen for the ground or body 
 to be painted, to temper these colours, so as to make 
 them proper to be worked with a pencil,, and to burn 
 or reduce them by heat, to a due state of fusion, with- 
 out injuring or melting the glass which constitutes the 
 body painted. The first thing to be done, in order to 
 paint on glass, in the modern way, is to design, and 
 even colour, the whole subject on paper. Then they 
 make choice of pieces of glass proper to receive the 
 several parts, and proceed to di\ide or distribute the 
 design itself, or the paper it is drawn on, into pieces 
 suitable to those of glass ; having always a view that the 
 glasses may join in the contours of the figures, and the 
 folds of the draperies ; that the carnations and other 
 finer parts may not be damaged by the lead wherewith 
 the pieces are to be joined together. The distribution 
 being made, they mark all the glasses, as well as papers, 
 with letters or numbers, that they may be known again ; 
 which done, applying each part of the design on the 
 glass intended for it, they copy or transfer the design 
 upon this glass, with the black colour, diluted in gum 
 w’ater, by tracing and following all the lines and 
 strokes, as they appear through the glass, with the point 
 of a pencil. 
 
 When these first strokes are well dried, which hap- 
 pens in about two days, the work being only in black 
 and white, they give it a slight wash over, w.th urine, 
 gum arabic, and a little black ; and this several times 
 repeated, according as the shades are desired to be 
 heightened ; with this precaution, never to apply a new 
 wash, till the former is sufficiently dried. This done, 
 the lights and risings are given, by rubbing off the co- 
 lour in the respective places, with a wooden point or 
 the handle of the pencil. 
 
 As to the other colours above-mentioned, they are 
 used with gum water, much as in painting in miniature, 
 taking care to apply them lightly, for fear of effacing 
 the outlines of the design ; or even, for the greater 
 security, to apply them on the other side, especially 
 yellow, which is very pernicious to other colours by 
 blending therewith. 
 
 And here too, as in pieces of black and white, par- 
 ticular regard must be alw'ays had not to lay colour on 
 colour, or lay on a new lay till such time as the former 
 are well dried. It may be added, that the yellow is 
 the only colour that penetrates through the glass, and 
 incorporates therewith by the fire ; the rest, and parti- 
 cularly the blue, which is very difficult to use, remain- 
 ing on the surface, or at least entering very little. 
 When the painting of all the pieces is finished, they are 
 carried to the furnace or oven, to anneal or bake the 
 colours. The furnace here used is small, built of 
 brick, from eighteen to thirty inches square. At six 
 inches from the bottom is an aperture to put in the 
 fuel and maintain the fire. Over this aperture is a 
 grate, made of three square bars of iron, which traverse 
 the furnace and divide it into two parts. Two inches 
 above this partition is another little aperture, through 
 
 which 
 
GLASS-MAKING. 
 
 379 
 
 which they take out pieces to examine how the opera- 
 tion goes forward. On the grate is placed a square 
 earthen pan, six or seven inches deep, and five or six 
 inches less every way than the perimeter of the fur- 
 nace. On one side hereof is a little aperture, through 
 which to make the trials, placed directly opposite to 
 that of the furnaces destined for the same end. In this 
 pan are the pieces of glass to be placed in the following 
 manner ; first, the bottom of the pan is covered with 
 three strata or layers of quicklime pulverized ; those 
 strata being separated by two others of old broken glass ; 
 the design whereof is to secure the painted glass 
 from the too iutense heat of the fire. This done, the 
 glasses are laid horizontally on the last, or uppermost 
 layer of lime. The first row of glass they cover over 
 with a layer of the same powder an inch deep ; over 
 this they lay another range of glasses ; and thus alter- 
 nately till the pan is quite full, taking care that the 
 whole heap always ends with a layer of the lime- 
 powder. 
 
 The pan thus prepared, they cover up the furnace 
 with tiles on a square table of earthenware, closely 
 luted all round, only having five little apertures, one at 
 each corner and another iu the middle to serve as chim- 
 neys. 
 
 Things thus disposed, there remains nothing but to 
 give the fire to the work. The fire for the two first 
 hours must be very moderate, and must be increased 
 in proportion as the coction advances for the space of 
 ten or twelve hours, in which time it is usually com- 
 pleted. At last the fire, which at first was only of 
 charcoal is to be of dry wood ; so that the flame covers 
 the whole pan, and even issues out at the chimneys. 
 During the last hours they make assays from time to 
 time by taking out pieces laid for that purpose, through 
 the little aperture of the furnace and pan, to see whe- 
 ther the yellow be perfect, and the other colours in 
 good order. When the annealing is thought sufficient, 
 they proceed with great haste to extinguish the fire, 
 which otherwise would soon burn the colours and break 
 the glasses. 
 
 We have been favoured with some practical in- 
 formation on this subject by Mr. Collins, glass-manu- 
 facturer of the Strand, near Temple Bar, and to him 
 we are indebted for some valuable receipts, w'hich we 
 shall present to our readers. This ingenious gentle- 
 man has always specimens of his art by him, and he is 
 exceedingly ready to give every information on the sub- 
 ject to inquiring and scientific persons. He is now 'en- 
 gaged upon a grand window for the cathedral at Exeter, 
 and another for his Grace the Duke of Norfolk, w hich 
 will probably at least rival any of our modern manufac- 
 tures in this way. 
 
 “ Enamel colours and painting on glass,” says Mr. 
 Collins, “ differ totally from all others, it being requisite 
 on glass that the colours used should appear transparent, 
 and bear, (without blistering in the kiln) to be laid on 
 very thick. In every other style of enamel painting, 
 the fluxes must be so compounded as to bring the 
 
 j beauty of the colour on the surface, and they do not 
 require to be any thing like the substance compared to 
 those used on glass. 
 
 “ Crown window glass is the best for the purpose of 
 enamelling upon, its principal composition or base 
 being silex, which is not only the best substance for 
 receiving colours, but also by far the best as the base 
 for the fluxes. 
 
 “ The best fluxes are obtained from finely calcined 
 flints, lead and salts forming the fusing matter; these 
 latter must be carefully used in various proportions, as 
 the colours or oxydes require. 
 
 “ Receipts fok the Colours. — From gold 
 only is prepared any pink or rose colours, although 
 it has often been asserted that the French have pre- 
 pared it from iron, which may sometimes answer for 
 an orange-red, but will never produce a pink ; and is 
 very far (even as a red) from being so fixed a colour as 
 those made from gold, although it has been stated to 
 be more so. In fact, a colour being w r ell fixed (oil 
 the contrary) depends as much upon the properties of 
 the flux being rightly prepared to receive it as on the 
 oxyde or colouring matter itself, which experiment only 
 can firmly elucidate. 
 
 “ All metals should be as far removed from their 
 metallic sta e as possible, and when in that state from 
 which it w'ould be the most difficult to restore it, it is 
 best calculated for the purpose, therefore gold precipi- 
 tated by tin is better than that by an alkali, being a 
 much more perfect oxyde. Besides that, tin is the 
 firmest and best base for receiving and holding the co- 
 lour struck from gold. 
 
 “ In combining the fluxes so that they shall bear 
 the greatest possible affinity for the oxydes intended, 
 rests the principal art of colour-making. 
 
 “ In the solutions of gold and tin, it is best to use 
 more of the nitric and as Tittle of the muriatic acid as 
 possible, and the larger the proportion of metal that 
 can be dissolved in a certain portion of acids the 
 better. 
 
 “ In the solution of gold the beauty of the colour 
 rests principally in the precipitate ; to obtain the best, 
 use the w ater as hot as possible ; into about a pint of 
 which drop a little gold (about 15 or 20 drops), then 
 the tin most carefully bv a drop at a time until it be- 
 comes as nearly as possible the colour of port-wine at 
 the edge of the bason ; it will then instantly precipi- 
 tate itself. Wash it several times with very hot w'ater ; 
 it must now be mixed with its flux before it is suffered 
 to dry. 
 
 “ Rose colour should always be made from an oxyde 
 that inclines to the pink (as it occasionally differs) ; the 
 flux should contain scarcely any lead, a small portion 
 of silver is then added and the whole finely ground be- 
 fore dry. 
 
 “ I have entered at greater length into the pink and 
 rose colours produced from gold than on any others, 
 they being by far the most difficult to produce, and 
 should never be made but on a bright and clear sun- 
 shiny 
 
380 
 
 GLAZING. 
 
 shiny day, which I am persuaded has great influence 
 on the preparation, as you never can produce this co- 
 lour good with a damp atmosphere or a cloudy sky. 
 
 “ Blue is made from cobalt ; the best is that pre- 
 pared by fire, as in Staffordshire, being more con- 
 densed than that which is prepared by the acids. It is 
 then fused with borax ground fine and washed several 
 times; when dry, mixed with the flux and melted 
 together. 
 
 “ Purple is made from an oxyde that inclines to the j 
 blue, and the flux may contain a much larger portion 
 of lead, &c. as the rose colour, only omitting the 
 silver. 
 
 “ Yellows are made from varied proportions of the 
 oxydes of antimony and lead. Tin is best omitted and 
 silex used in its place ; the whole to be well melted. 
 
 “ Orange. Prepared as the yellow, only introducing 
 a small quantity of the purple oxyde of gold, and melted 
 as yellow. 
 
 “ Brown is made from manganese and antimony 
 ground with the flux, and well melted together. 
 
 “ Black is best when made from good iron scales 
 and oxyde of cobalt, with a little of the darkest possi- 
 ble purple oxydes of gold, mixed with the flux and 
 melted together. 
 
 “ Green is made from copper oxydated by fire, 
 united with the flux, and well melted. It is then 
 mixed with yellow to produce a grass green, and with 
 white enamel ( made by arsenic) to produce a blue- 
 green. 
 
 “ White, which is seldom used on glass, is made from 
 arsenic mixed with the flux, and when in a state of fusion 
 kept well covered. Tin is also considered, for some pur- 
 poses, the only thing from which a good fixed white can be 
 
 made, but all that I have yet seen made in this country 
 is very bad. The Venetian white enamel can only be 
 depended on, which latter more particularly applies to 
 enamelling on copper.* 
 
 “ Ruby. That produced by the ancients is what has 
 made the greatest noise, the art of making which being 
 considered lost, and for this reason principally admired. 
 But this is an error, as that beautiful colour is now 
 made in as great perfection as ever, and equally well 
 understood. Ruby may be made either from gold 
 or copper. When made from the ' latter the colour 
 is liable to change by various degrees of heat, any thing 
 above a red-heat totally dissipating it. That made 
 from gold is perfectly fixed, though not quite so deep a 
 tint ; with this latter, antimony, iron, and silver are 
 used. With the copper red tartar. 
 
 “ Paintings on glass require infinitely more care in 
 burning than enamel, both on account of the superior 
 size and brittleness of the substance ; it therefore requires 
 many hours annealing. 
 
 “ In the preparing of glass and enamel colours there 
 is great difference ; but the oxydes or colouring matters 
 are alike in all, excepting the yellow, which on glass is 
 produced from silver, on enamel from antimony. 
 
 “ A fine red is produced on glass by the union of 
 silver and antimony.” 
 
 * The hard white enamel is but very little understood in this 
 country. By some its base (as I before observed) is stated to be 
 the oxyde of tin, but it is very doubtful. This is that substance 
 used as the first ground or coating of the copper-plates for ena- 
 mel painting, over which a somewhat more transparent and softer 
 enamel (termed flux) is laid, which melting sooner than the first 
 is better adapted for receiving the colours. In this style of paint- 
 ing so little can be done before it is necessary to fire the picture, 
 that it frequently requires a dozen fires to complete a painting. 
 
 GLAZING. 
 
 Glazing .is by no means unimportant; it is one 
 among the numerous dispensations of Providence to pro- 
 mote the comfort and convenience of his people, in 
 climates subject, by their position, more or less to the 
 vicissitudes of an irregular atmosphere. The ancient 
 nations were more favoured in these respects than the 
 moderns : hence they did not so much require the pro- 
 tection to be derived from filling the apertures of their 
 dwellings with glass, as is the case with us. And it is 
 perhaps from this circumstance, that we find so very few 
 notions among them of such an application. The win- 
 dows discovered at Herculaneum and Pompeia were 
 
 filled with squares of Amber, although glass was not 
 unknown at the time ; but it might have been considered 
 of too much importance to be appropriated to such a 
 purpose. That the Greeks had windows in their build- 
 ings, is ascertained from the ruins of their buildings 
 still extant. The vestibule of the Temple of Minerva 
 Polias, leading to that of the Pandrosium at Athens, 
 has windows, or at least apertures for their reception ; 
 and from the nature of their construction, the marble 
 jaum being adapted to receive in them a frame, it is 
 probable these apertures were enclosed with some sub- 
 stance of a diaphanous nature ; as there can be no doubt 
 
 but 
 
GLAZING. 
 
 381 
 
 but that they were left for the purpose of admitting 
 light as well as perhaps air. Neither is it imagined 
 that glass windows were very common even at Rome, 
 although most of their celebrated authors frequently make 
 mention of glass, but it was so rare as to be attainable 
 only by the superior people. If it had been common, 
 or at least in the way in which we are in the habit of 
 considering it, Nero might have gotten his drinking 
 glasses somewhat cheaper than he is reported to have 
 done. Another circumstance also shews that glass 
 was by no means brought to perfection, for instead of 
 the Roman ladies' using '•polished plates of it at their 
 toilet, silver highly wrought and polished was adopted. 
 It may be said, “ that although glass was not employed 
 for mirrors it might have been for windows.” To 
 which it may be answered, “ if it had been common for 
 the latter, it could not have long remained uncommon 
 for the former, as the silvering we employ to make 
 it answer that purpose could have been supplied by 
 numerous other devices.” 
 
 The first notice we have of the application of glass 
 to the purpose of glazing windows occurs in Bede’s 
 History de Locis Sanctis, c. 6, who, speaking of the 
 church on Mount Olivet near Jerusalem, says, “ in 
 the West front of it were eight windows, which on some 
 occasions used to be illuminated w-ith lamps, which 
 shone so bright through the glass that the mount seemed 
 in a blaze.” And the same author affirms, that the 
 Abbot Benedict was the first who introduced the art of 
 nfanufacturing of glass into this kingdom by bringing 
 over artists from the Continent for that purpose. This 
 happeued about 660 , at which time architecture had made 
 considerable progress, and many religious houses were then 
 building and had been already erected. And if it be consi- 
 dered to what perfection this business of glass had been 
 brought even in a century or two after, particularly in the 
 work of staining and painting it, &c. it will not be too 
 much to infer that its improvement advanced with 
 the architecture of the time ; to which it was so well 
 adapted both to give it splendour as well as improve 
 and add a variety by its contrast. 
 
 Glazing, as it is now practised, embraces the cut- 
 ting of all the varieties of glass manufactured for win- 
 dows, together with fixing it in sashes by means of 
 tacks and a stopping of putty ; also the forming of 
 casement# and securing the glass by bands of lead 
 fastened to outside frames of iron. The glazier is in- 
 trusted likewise with the windows for public buildings 
 as well as private, composed of an infinite variety of 
 coloured and painted glass, embracing all the diversified 
 tints in nature, so combined by opposing them in con- 
 trary shades and figures as to produce a pleasing whole, 
 or coup d’ceif. These departments constitute the pre- 
 eminent employ of the glazier of the present time, and 
 is that in which he values himself most upon in per- 
 forming. We have now in London several tradesmen 
 who have pursued this part of their business with a I 
 laudable zeal, and have produced specimens of colour- ! 
 ing as well as painting on glass much superior in point j 
 
 of drawing and arrangement to any that was done 
 .during the period of our ancestors. We have already 
 referred to Mr. Collins in the Strand, and we may 
 add Mr. Backler of Newman-street, and Mr. Mil- 
 ler of Swallow-street. This latter artist has been 
 employed in the restoration of the windows to Henry 
 the Seventh’s Chapel at Westminster, in which he 
 has shewn an antiquarian knowledge highly credita- 
 ble to his talents. He has also been engaged in the 
 restoring of several windows in the cathedrals in the 
 provinces, and has executed some superb windows 
 for a villa at Sunbury, in Middlesex, each window 
 having figures in groups after the paintings of Domeni- 
 chino. They are painted in all the brilliancy of co- 
 lours for which the original pictures were distinguished. 
 The mode of charging for this kind of business is re- 
 gulated by the design proposed to be executed. Plain 
 colours in glass are not much more expensive than good 
 common glass, and may be introduced to produce a 
 very pleasing effect of itself, observing to vary the tints 
 and shapes of the glass. Plain coloured glass is charged 
 by the pound, while all other glass is charged by the 
 foot superficial, and the former varies only as the 
 difficulty and expense of the colouring. All. the com- 
 mon tints, for instance, orange, greens, and reds, & c. 
 are on an average charged from six to seven shillings 
 a pound, and blues, &c. somewhat more. The manufac- 
 ture of the real ruby, for which the ancient windows in our 
 churches are so much distinguished is now lost; and no 
 modern artist has yet been enabled successfully to imi- 
 tate it ; of course all that is at present made use of is 
 of the antient glass of that colour, and consequently be- 
 comes very dear, and difficult from its scarcity to be 
 obtained at any price. 
 
 The most -ancient species of glazing was in head- 
 work, as our many cathedrals and religious houses, still 
 extant, demonstrate ; and fixing glass in leaden frames 
 is still continued for the same description of buildings. 
 The business of a glazier, if considered in its most sim- 
 ple operations, consists in fitting all the various kinds 
 of glass manufactured and sold, into sashes previously 
 prepared to receive them. The sashes as they are now 
 made have a groove or rebate formed on the back of 
 their cross and vertical bars adapted to admit the glass ; 
 into these rebates the glazier minutely fits the squares, 
 which he beds in a composition called putty. 
 
 The putty consists of pounded whiting beaten up 
 with linseed oil, and so kneeded and worked together as 
 to make a tough end tenacious cement, and is of great 
 durability ; this the glazier colours to suit the sashes he 
 may have in hand. If they are common deal sashes, 
 the putty is left and used as first manufactured ; but if 
 they are mahogany, it is coloured with ochre till it 
 approaches more nearly that of the sashes. 
 
 In glazing window's the colour of the glass is that on 
 which the greatest beauty is given to the work ; and to 
 effect this successfully many different manufactories 
 have been established. The most usual kind of window- 
 glass now found at the glazier’s is called crown-glass ; 
 
382 
 
 GLAZING. 
 
 it is picked and divided at the manufactory into the se- 
 veral different kinds which are known as first, seconds, 
 and thirds, and which particularly denote the qualities 
 of the several kinds of glass, the first being known as 
 best crown, the next in quality second crown, and the 
 last thirds, or third crown, the price of each varying 
 according to the quality. The glass is in pieces called 
 tables of about three feet in diameter each, and when 
 selected and picked as above they are packed in crates, 
 twelve of such tables being put in each crate of best 
 glass, fifteen in the seconds, and eighteen in the thirds. 
 The crates consist of an open framing of unhewn wood, 
 and the glass is packed in them in straw for security. 
 The glaziers purchase such glass by the crate, although 
 the duty on it is collected by the pound. The price of 
 a crate of glass varies as its quality, the best crown 
 being now (since the late additional duty) worth per 
 crate about four guineas, the seconds three, and the 
 thirds two guineas. There are several manufactories 
 for what is called crown-glass, but the most esteemed 
 in the market is that which is made at Newcastle and 
 in its neighbourhood. 
 
 Green glass is another of these species, and which is 
 greatly in demand for all the purposes in which colour 
 is not so particularly sought for. This sort of glass is 
 used in the glazing of the windows of cottages, also for 
 green and hot-houses, to which it is found to answer 
 every purpose. It is not more than one-half the cost 
 of the crown-glass. The green-glass appears to have 
 been the most ancient kind made use of, as most of the 
 vestiges remaining in the old windows approach very 
 nearly in their quality to what is now sold under that 
 designation* The glaziers also prepare the crown-glass 
 so as to produce an opaque effect : it is adapted to pre- 
 vent the inconvenience of being overlooked. It is 
 technically called ground-glass, w'hich is not improper, 
 inasmuch as it is rendered opaque by rubbing away the 
 polish from off its surface, to do which the glazier takes 
 care to have the sheets or panes of glass brought to their 
 proper size, then they are laid down smoothly as well as 
 firm, either on sand, or any other substance which is 
 adapted to admit of its lying securely. He then rubs it 
 with sand and water or emery till the polish be completely 
 removed ; it is then washed, dried, and stopped into the 
 window for which it was prepared. There was a species of 
 glass made at Venice originally, which was manufac- 
 tured wholly for this purpose, and is now to be seen in 
 many counting-houses and old buildings. Its general 
 appearance presented an uneven surface, appearing as 
 though indented all over with wires, leaving the inter- 
 vening shapes in the form of lozenges. This glass was 
 very thick and strong, and is of the description known 
 as plate-glass. None of it has been imported into 
 England for many years past ; in consequence of which 
 grinding the crown-glass, as above described, has been 
 made use of to answer the same purpose. How- 
 ever, at this time it is manufactured and sold in tables 
 at the depth for plate glass lately established in East- 
 
 Smithfield, where it is known and sold under the de- 
 nomination of Venice plate-glass. 
 
 The crown-glass not admitting of being cut to very 
 large sized squares, and as the fashion of making fold- 
 ing sashes has become general, recourse has been had 
 to obtain tables of sizes adequate to admit of pieces 
 being taken out of them adapted to glaze such windows. 
 This was first attempted at a glass-house at Ratcliff, 
 near London ; it failed however, from there not being 
 a demand capable of supporting such a manufactory. 
 However, at this time the Newcastle people are suc- 
 ceeding in producing their tables in size commensurate 
 to answer almost every purpose. 
 
 j The most beautiful glass made use of is that sold 
 i by the British Plate-Glass Company in Albion Place, 
 which is manufactured by them at Ravenscroft, in Lan- 
 cashire. This glass is nearly colourless, and of a suf- 
 ficient thickness to admit of its being polished to the 
 greatest delicacy. From this dep6t looking-glasses may 
 be obtained of surprising dimensions in point of size ; 
 and from hence it is that most of the plate-glass, so 
 much the fashion in our window's at this time, is ob- 
 v tained. This company sell their glass in proportion to 
 its size, the value increasing as it increases. At their 
 warehouse are to be seen thousands of different sized 
 plates, every one of which labelled of its size in inches 
 only, as it is by inches that such glass is bought and 
 | sold. 
 
 The glaziers, in glazing windows of plate-glass, strike 
 it out to the size required by a fine diamond, after 
 w hich they break off the pieces by pincers ; such glass 
 ! varies in its thickness from one-eighth to as much as a 
 quarter of an inch. Purchasers of glass of this Com- 
 pany may almost always get suited in the sizes they 
 may want at the depot in Albion Place, but if the 
 pieces are larger than the size required, the loss occa- 
 sioned by reducing it falls ou the buyer, as he must pay 
 for the whole of its admeasurement. But if an order 
 be left to be executed, and time allowed to send to the 
 manufactory at Ravenscroft, the glass is sent in sizes 
 exactly corresponding to the order given, and will be 
 j charged as such only : this circumstance is of some im- 
 portance when large quantities are required, as is not 
 unfrequently the case at this time, when plate-glass is 
 so much in fashion. The company often require three 
 or four months to execute an order of any magnitude. 
 The value of such kind of glass is very considerable in 
 comparison of the other sorts, common sized squares 
 for windows amounting from two to three pounds each, 
 and sometimes, in French window's, as high as five 
 pounds. It is, nevertheless, so much preferred at this 
 time, that even our shop windows in the leading streets 
 are daily becoming glazed with it. 
 
 There are also many other sorts of plate-glass in use, 
 among these, that which is called German-sheet is the 
 most esteemed ; its colour is beautiful, being the most 
 colourless of any made, but its outside appearance is 
 disagreeable, arising from its appearing so uneven or 
 
 wavy. 
 
GLAZING. 
 
 383 
 
 #iw. Indeed it resembles, on its outside, a substance 
 which hus been subjected to the hammer. The plate- 
 glass seen in windows, of a red tint, was much in use 
 about twenty years since, and is of German manufac- 
 ture, and known among the glaziers as Bohemian plate- 
 glass ; its colour at first was calculated to strike, but co- 
 lour is no recommendation to glass, and hence it is 
 now almost quite laid aside. 
 
 Glaziers value their work by feet, inches, and parts, 
 and the value of the glass increases as that of the size 
 of its squares. Their charges are regulated by the 
 Master and Wardens and Court-assistants of the Com- 
 pany of Glaziers, who are generally not very unmindful 
 of themselves. The table of their present charges runs 
 
 us : — . . s d 
 
 Best crown, m squares, not exceeding 3 ft. j ^ 1Q ‘ 
 
 in each square .3 
 
 Ditto, ditto, 2 ft. 6 in. in each square . . 3 4 
 
 Ditto, ditto, 2 ft. ditto 3 2 
 
 Ditto, ditto, under 2 ft. ditto .... 30 
 
 Second crown, of similar proportions, is about 10 
 per cent, cheaper than the best crown. 
 
 And thirds, in a proportion of 10 per cent, still 
 cheaper than the seconds. 
 
 Green-glass is the cheapest window glass made, and 
 is put into new sashes at a price not exceeding eighteen 
 pence per foot. 
 
 All kinds of bent-glass, for circular or other win- 
 dows, varies in its price in proportion to its size and to 
 the trouble in obtaining and fitting it in. 
 
 Cottage, and some kind of church-windows are 
 glazed in squares, or other figures, in leaden rebates, 
 such kind of glass, when so fitted in windows of the 
 shape of a rhombus, are technically called “ quarries.” 
 The lead for such windows is cast and drawn for the 
 purpose, and purchased by the glaziers in packages by 
 the cwt. ; it is cut to the sizes and lengths required, 
 and soldered together at their intersections : the leaden 
 work is of various sizes in proportion to the strength of 
 the work for which it is wanted. This metal, which is 1 
 used instead of the cross-bars of sashes, is so soft as to 
 be easily bent where the groove is left in it for the 
 glass ; one side or cheek of which is pressed down all 
 round, the shape left in it for the glass by a small tool 
 called a stopping-knife, and the quarry is put into, the 
 place so made for it, and, with the same tool, the side 
 of the groove which had been thus bent down to admit 
 it, is raised up to the quarry, and is afterwards smooth- 
 ed close to it. These kind of windows are farther 
 strengthened by vertical and cross bars of iron, to which 
 the leaden ones are secured by bands soldered to the 
 latter, and bent and twisted round the former ; in cot- 
 tage windows these bars are often of wood to which 
 the bands are fastened in a similar manner. 
 
 Glaziers now cut all their glass out with the diamond, 
 whereas formerly an iron was made use of for that pur- 
 pose, called a grozing-iron : there is reason to believe 
 that this process was tedious, and even difficult ; and, 
 perhaps, inapplicable to the separating of the plate- 
 
 glass. The grozing-iron was an instrument made, in i(s 
 shape, not unlike a key such as is used for the purpose 
 of opening and shutting locks ; it had wards in its sides 
 w'hich were applied to scratch the surface and snap off 
 the part required to be separated. The diamond now 
 in general use is as complete for this purpose as can 
 possibly be wished, as, by drawing it merely over the 
 glass to be cut, its surface becomes so regularly frac- 
 - tured as to allow, by a small pressure downwards, the 
 piece operated upon to be easily removed, and that 
 without much chance of accident. For this purpose, 
 the diamond spark must be left in its natural state as 
 found in the mines, as its principal virtue lies in its 
 outw'ard-coat. It is ascertained that when it is cut or 
 polished it loses all its power in promoting the fracture 
 on the glass. To make the diamond useful to the gla- 
 zier, it is fixed in lead secured by a ferrule of brass, 
 which is fastened to a handle of ebony or other hard 
 wood, the whole together not assuming a size larger 
 than a moderate sized drawing-pencil. The diamond, 
 thus described, constitutes the principal working-tool of 
 the glazier, and its scarcity renders its value to a jour- 
 neyman of some little importance ; some masters in 
 this business supply their men with this tool, while 
 others require them to find their own. The other tools 
 which they use consist of a rule commonly of three 
 feet in length, divided into thirty-six parts or inches, 
 and each part or inch again divided into fractions. 
 With this rule the squares and tables of glass are di- 
 vided, and cut to the several sizes wanted. A glazier 
 also wants several small straight-edges for the diamond 
 to work against. A straight-edge consists merely of a 
 thin piece of mahogany, or other hard w'ood, about 
 two inches wide, and one-eighth of an inch in thick- 
 ness, wrought quite parallel, having its faces right and 
 left splayed off a little to allow of the diamond being 
 drawn more correctly against its edge. They have also 
 stopping-knives for bedding the glass in the wooden re- 
 bates of the sashes ; a stopping-knife is no more than 
 an instrument similar to a common dinner-knife reduced 
 in the length of the blade to about three inches, and 
 ground away on each of its edges till they approach to an 
 apex. With this knife he smooths and spreads the 
 putty to secure the glass in the sashes. In repairs of 
 w'indows for broken squares, which the glazier calls 
 “ stopping in,” or “ squares stopped in,” he makes use 
 of another knife for the purpose of hacking out the old 
 putty, and which is termed the “ hacking-out tool,” and 
 consists literally of no more than an old broken knife 
 ground sharp on its edge, and also at the end where it 
 has been broken off from the rest of the blade. The 
 old putty is cut out of the rebates by applying the 
 hacking-out tool all round them, by striking it at its 
 thickest or upper edge with a common small hammer until 
 the whole of the old putty is removed, which, when 
 done, the rebate of the sash is scraped and smoothed 
 all round by the stopping-knife, and the new square of 
 glass is cut into the sash, bedded in putty, and finished. 
 The glazier also requires a pair of compasses made, in one 
 
 of 
 
384 
 
 GLAZING. 
 
 of their legs, with a socket adapted to receive the handle I 
 of the diamond ; with the compasses so prepared he 
 draws and cuts out all the shapes of glass required for 
 the glazing of fan-lights, or other circular portions of 
 glass wanted in sashes. 
 
 The business of a glazier also includes cleaning the 
 glass in windows in inhabited houses ; this forms no in- 
 considerable portion of his trade in London, and many 
 of the masters, when in a large way, keep one or 
 more men constantly employed in it, the charge for 
 which is regulated by the number of windows cleaned, 
 or the number of squares in each sash. When the 
 windows exceed twelve squares in each they are num- 
 bered and charged at per dozen, the price varying from 
 6d. to 8d. each dozen. When the sashes are folding, 
 or what is better known as French-windows, the squares 
 of glass in such sashes running much larger, a third 
 more is charged for the cleaning of them than for the 
 common windows. The master glazier takes the risk of 
 breaking of glass by his men, when employed in this 
 business. 
 
 There are in London several tradesmen known only 
 as glass-cutters ; their business embraces the cutting out 
 of the glass only, which they retail in pieces or squares 
 exactly to the size applied for, the parties purchasing un- 
 dertaking of themselves the business of stopping them in. 
 
 The prices of the glaziers are very irregular when 
 left to themselves to make their own charges. They 
 adopt those of the Glaziers’ Company usually, and it is 
 from these charges which the surveyors regulate theirs 
 from (or, as it is generally called, the measure and 
 value) ; but glazing may be done (with a good profit to 
 the glazier) at 15 per cent, less than either, and with 
 glass as good, and as neatly and well cut in as it is 
 generally by the master who adopts his charges from 
 the Company’s list of prices. Good glazing requires 
 that all the glass be cut full into the rebates, that is, 
 that the glass fill the void left for it in the sash com- 
 pletely. When the glass is cut too small, or even too 
 large, it is easily broken by the pressure of the air from 
 within, or by the wind from without ; careless glaziers 
 not unfrequently, when they have cut their glass too 
 small, leave the putty projecting from the wood very 
 full all round to hide this defect in their glazing, but no 
 glazier who has any respect for his reputation would 
 suffer glass so cut to be sent from out of his premises. 
 The putty in no case should project beyond the line of 
 the wood in the inside, or, more properly, the mould- 
 ing side of the window ; but should be exactly fair and 
 level with it in every part. Large squares of glass 
 should be firmly bedded in the rebate of the sash in 
 putty of a moderate consistence in point of tempering, 
 and when so bedded all round, small sprigs or tacks 
 should be driven into the rebates to further secure it in the 
 sash, and the whole should afterwards be further covered 
 with another lining of putty spread quite smooth all 
 round the rebate on the outside. Sashes, of whatever 
 description they may be, should be once painted over, 
 or, as it is called, primed, before they are put into the 
 
 hand of the glazier, as the putty will be more firm and 
 durable by adopting such a previous priming. 
 
 Lately there has been a considerable additional duty 
 on glass, amounting in the way in which the public are 
 charged for it to at least 20 per cent. ; the prices be- 
 fore recited embrace this additional rate. Every con- 
 sumer of glass when in want Df a large quantity, 
 should, previously to giving his order to the glazier, 
 specially agree for its price and also quality ; for the 
 latter purpose, to name particularly of what kind of 
 glass the windows are to be glazed, referring to the 
 sashes themselves for their sizes ; by sending to several 
 of the trade for an estimate of the price in this manner, 
 he will get his work performed at a value far below the 
 usual or Company’s price. It should, however, be ob- 
 served that what is said of the glazier, in this respect, is 
 applicable to every other branch of the building business. 
 
 In the decoration of the windows of our churches, 
 for w hich the zeal and piety of our ancestors were so 
 remarkable, and in which they arrived at so great a 
 degree of perfection in having produced colours on 
 glass at once of superior beauty and brilliancy to any 
 thing since accomplished, the superior excellence in 
 their colours w'as retained in all its splendour through 
 the several reigns antecedent to that of Elizabeth ; after 
 which, and in consequence of the interdiction of art 
 from the then cherished opinions of their works being 
 idolatrous, and in no way conformable to the spirit 
 of the religious notions then taking effect by the re- 
 formation, it began to fail. The ruby-coloured glass, 
 so much esteemed at this time, began to disappear at 
 that period, and did completely so during the reign of 
 her successor James I. Many attempts have been 
 since made to recover it, but the trials and expenses at- 
 tending them having been tedious and enormous, has 
 deterred the artists from yet having successfully followed 
 up its pursuit, in consequence of which no glass of the 
 ruby kind is now manufactured. 
 
 The value of painted windows, as has been before 
 observed, will entirely depend on their design, and the 
 variety of colours to be introduced in them. Some 
 curious estimates of the expense of such windows, as 
 they were executed for the sumptuous chapel in King’s 
 College, at Cambridge, may be seen in the Appendix 
 to Britton’s Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, 
 which is made for eighteen windows of the upper story 
 of the chapel, and runs thus, viz. that the work is agreed 
 to be executed “ with good, clene, sure and perfytite 
 glasse, and oryent colours, and imagery.” These to 
 be equal to the windows of the King’s New Chapel, 
 at Westminster : Six of the windows to be finished with- 
 in twelve months, and the other twelve windows within 
 four years. To bind all the windows “ with double 
 bands of leade for defence of great wyndes and outra- 
 gious vvethering, after the rate of two-pence evry ffootte,” 
 the glass to be 16 pence per foot. The glaziers (“ Willi- 
 amson and Symondes”) to the work were bound to 
 perform the conditions of the indenture under a pe- 
 nalty of 500 “ markes sterlinges.” 
 
 GOLD- 
 
GOLD-BEATING AND GILTAVlRE DRAWING, 
 
 The business of the gold-beater is to reduce solid 
 gold and silver into what is denominated leaf-gold and 
 silver, though the metals in this state are many degrees 
 thinner and finer than any leaf whatever. Gold and 
 silver leaf is absolutely necessary in many other trades, 
 and it will be our business in this article to explain the 
 method by which the solid and dense substance is re- 
 duced to this state of almost inconceivable thinness, in 
 which, notwithstanding its specific gravity, it will float 
 in the air like a feather. 
 
 Gold in itself, and when very pure, is soft, easily cut 
 or graved, and so tough, that when at length made to 
 break by repeated bendings, backwards or forwards, the 
 fracture on each of the pieces, appears drawn out like 
 a wedge. 
 
 The colour of pure gold, by reflected light, is a full 
 bright yellow, tending on one hand towards orange, 
 and, on the other, towards a brass yellow. Gold fused 
 with borax becomes paler than usual, but when fused 
 with nitre it becomes more highly coloured ; hence, as 
 this metal is reckoned beautiful in proportion to the 
 fulness and brilliancy of its colour, the borax flux used 
 by goldsmiths is generally mixed with a sufficient quan- 
 tity of nitre to counterbalance its discolouring pro- 
 perty. The colour of gold, when in high fusion, is of 
 a bluish green, of a similar tint with that of gold by 
 transmitted light : this latter may be observed by laying 
 a leaf of gold between two thin plates of colourless 
 glass, and holding it between the eye and a strong 
 light. 
 
 The great value which has at all times been fixed on 
 gold, its beautiful colour, incorruptibility, and great 
 compactness, render its ductility an object of vast im- 
 portance. On this depend sundry arts and manufac- 
 tures, in which the solid mass is extended to an asto- 
 nishing tenuity, and variously applied on the surface of 
 other bodies, as well for ornament as preservation. 
 
 The gold, in preparation for the leaf, is melted in a 
 black-lead crucible, with some borax, in a wind fur- 
 nace : as soon as it is in perfect fusion, it is poured 
 into an iron ingot-mould, six or eight inches long, and 
 three-quarters of an inch wide, previously greased and 
 heated, so as to make the tallow run and smoke, but 
 not to take flame. When the gold is fixed and solid it 
 is made red-hot to burn off" the unctuous matter, and 
 then forged on an anvil into a long plate, which is still 
 further extended by being passed frequently between 
 
 I polished steel rollers, till it becomes no thicker than a 
 ribbon or a sheet of paper. Formerly, the whole of 
 | this process was done by means of the hammer; but 
 the use of the flatting-mill abridges the operation, and 
 I renders the plate of a more uniform thickness. The 
 ! plate, or, as it is sometimes called, the ribbon, is di- 
 vided by compasses, and cut with shears into equal 
 ! pieces, which, consequently, are of equal weights : 
 j these are now forged on the anvil till they are an inch 
 square, and afterwards well annealed to correct the ri- 
 ; gidity which the metal has contracted in the hammering 
 and flatting. Two ounces of gold, or 960 grains, make 
 j an hundred and fifty of these squares, whence each 
 j plate w eighs little more than six grains, they are found 
 to be about the T ^th part of an inch thick, that is, 
 about 760 such leaves placed upon each other, and 
 [ pressed close together, would take up in thickness only 
 I an inch. To proceed in the extension of these small 
 | plates it is necessary to interpose some smooth body 
 i between them and the hammer, for the purpose of 
 softening the blow, and defending the gold from its im- 
 mediate action, as also to place between every two of 
 the plates some intermediate substance, which, while it 
 prevents their uniting together, or injuring one another, 
 
 ! may suffer them freely to extend. These objects are 
 attained by means of certain animal membranes. 
 
 Gold-beaters make use of three kinds of membranes, 
 viz. for the outside cover, common parchment made of 
 sheep-skin is used ; for interlaying with the gold, first, 
 the smoothest and closest vellum, made of calves-skin ; 
 and, afterwards, the much finer skins of ox-gut, stript 
 off from the large straight gut slit open, curiously prepared 
 for the express purpose, and hence called gold-beaters’ 
 .skin. According to Dr. Lewis, the preparation of 
 these last is a distinct business, practised only by two 
 or three persons in the kingdom. The general process 
 is supposed to consist in applying them one upon an- 
 other, by the smooth sides, in a moist state, in which 
 they readily cohere and unite inseparably, stretching 
 them very carefully on a frame, scraping off the fat and 
 rough matter, so as to leave only the fine exterior 
 membrane of the intestine, at the same time beating 
 them between double leaves of paper, to force out what 
 grease may remain in them, and then drying and press- 
 ing them. Notwithstanding the vast extent to which 
 gold is beaten between these skins, and the great tenuity 
 of the skins themselves, they yet sustain continual re- 
 5 F petitions 
 
386 
 
 GOLD-BEATING AND GILT-WIRE DRAWING. 
 
 petitions of the process for several months, without ap- 
 pearing to extend or grow thinner. 
 
 The beating of gold is performed on a smooth block 
 of black marble, of a weight from two to four or five 
 hundred weight ; the heavier it is the better it is adapted 
 to the purpose for which it is employed. It is about 
 nine inches square on. the upper surface, and sometimes 
 less, fitted into the middle of a wooden frame about 
 two feet square, so as that the surface of the marble 
 and the frame form one continuous plane. Three of 
 the sides are furnished with a high ledge, and the front, 
 which is open, has a leathern flap fastened to it, which 
 the gold-beater makes use of as an apron, for preserv- 
 ing the fragments of gold that fall off". Three hammers 
 are employed, each of which is furnished with two 
 round and somewhat convex faces, but the workman 
 in general uses only one of these faces. The first is 
 called the catch-hammer, is about four inches in di- 
 ameter, and weighs from fifteen to twenty pounds ; the 
 second, called the shodering-hammer, and weighs 
 about twelve pounds : the third, called the gold or 
 finishing hammer, weighs ten pounds. The French 
 make use of four hammers, differing in size and shape 
 from those of our workmen. They have only one 
 face, being, in figure, truncated cones ; the first has 
 very little convexity, is five inches in diameter, and 
 weighs fourteen pounds; the second is more convex 
 than the first, and only about half its weight ; the third 
 is still more convex, weighs about four pounds, and is 
 only two inches wide. The fourth, or finishing-ham- 
 mer, is nearly as heavy as the first, but narrower by an 
 inch, and is the most convex of all. 
 
 A hundred and fifty of the pieces of gold are inter- 
 laid with leaves of vellum, three or four inches square, 
 one leaf being placed between every two of the pieces ; 
 and there are about tweuty other of the vellum on the 
 outsides, over these is drawn a parchment case, open 
 at both ends, and over this another in a contrary direc- 
 tion, so that the gold and vellum are kept tight and 
 close on all sides. The whole is beaten with the 
 heaviest hammer, and occasionally turned upside down 
 till the gold is stretched to the extent of the vellum ; 
 the case being from time to time opened to ascertain 
 how the extension goes on, and the packet is, some- 
 times, bent and rolled, as it were, between the hands, 
 for procuring sufficient freedom to the gold, or, to use 
 the workmen's phrase, “ to make the gold work.” The 
 pieces, when extended to the size of the vellum, are 
 taken out from between the vellum-leaves, and cut into 
 four with a steel knife, and the 600 divisions are inter- 
 laid in the same manner with pieces of the ox-gut skins 
 five inches square. The beating is again repeated with 
 a lighter hammer, till the , golden plates have again ac- 
 quired the extent of the skins : they are now a second 
 time divided into four, but the instrument used for this 
 purpose is a piece of cane cut to a very thin edge, the 
 leaves, in this stage of the business being so light, that 
 the moisture of the air or breath, condensing on a 
 metal knife, would occasion them to stick to it. These 
 
 last divisions are now too numerous to admit of thei 
 being beaten at once, they are parted into three parcels 
 which are beaten separately, with the smallest hammer, 
 till they are stretched for the third time to the size of 
 the skins ; they are now reduced to the greatest thinness 
 they will admit of, though it is said that the French 
 carry the business one step farther. In the beating, the 
 process, however simple, appears to require a good 
 deal of address, in order to apply the hammers so as to 
 extend the metal uniformly from the middle to the 
 sides ; a single improper blow is apt, not only to break 
 the gold leaves, but to cut the skins. After the last 
 beating, the leaves are taken up by the end of a cane 
 instrument, and being blown fiat on a leather cushion, 
 are cut to a size, oue by one, w ith a square frame of 
 cane made of a proper sharpness ; they are then fitted 
 into books of tw r enty-five leaves each, the paper of 
 which is well smoothed, and rubbed with red-bole to 
 prevent their sticking to it. 
 
 The process of gold-beating is considerably influ- 
 enced by the weather. In wet weather, the skins grow 
 damp, which renders the operation more tedious. A 
 frosty season is still more injurious to it, the cold affect- 
 ing the metallic leaves themselves so that they cannot 
 be easily blown flat, but break, wrinkle, or run toge- 
 ther.* 
 
 Gold-leaf ought to be prepared from the finest 
 gold, as any alloy, however small, would injure the co- 
 lour and make it too hard for working. But though 
 the gold-beater cannot advantageously diminish the 
 | quantity of gold in the leaf by the mixture of any other 
 substance w'ith the gold, yet methods have been devised 
 for saving the precious metal, by producing a kind of 
 leaf called party-gold, whose basis is silver, and which 
 has only a superficial coat of gold on one side : this is 
 done by placing upon one another a thick leaf of silver 
 and a much thinner one of gold, and being heated and 
 pressed together, they unite and cohere ; and being 
 then beaten into fine leaves, as in the process already 
 described, the gold, though it is in quantity only about 
 one-fourth of that of the silver, continue^ every where 
 to cover it, the extension of the former keeping pace 
 with that of the latter. 
 
 We shall now proceed to speak of the preparation 
 for gilt-wire. What is called gold-wire, or gilt-w'ire, 
 has only an exterior covering of gold, the internal part 
 being silver. A rod of silver, above an inch thick, two 
 feet in length, and weighing about 20 lbs., is coated 
 | with gold, and then reduced into wire, by drawing it 
 successively through a number of holes, made in steel 
 j plates, diminishing almost insensibly in regular degrees. 
 The purity of gold employed for this use is a point of 
 great importance, for on this depends the beauty and 
 the durability of colour when w’rought into laces, bro- 
 cades, and other articles of consumption. With re- 
 spect to the silver, which makes up the internal body 
 of the wire, its fineness is of less importance; it is said 
 to be eveu better when it is alloyed, because very fine 
 silver, when annealed in the fire, becomes so soft as to 
 
 suffer 
 
GOLD-BEATING AND GILT-WIRE DRAWING. 
 
 387 
 
 suffer die golden coat, in some measure, to sink in it, 
 and hence the admixture of a little copper communi- 
 cates to it a sufficient degree of hardness for preventing 
 this inconvenience. The gold is employed in thick 
 leaves, prepared for the purpose, which are applied all 
 over the silver rod, and pressed down smooth with a steel 
 burnisher. Several of the gold leaves are laid over 
 one another, according as the gilding is required more 
 or less thick. The smallest proportion allowed is 100 
 grains of gold to a pound of silver, or 3,760 grains. 
 The largest proportion for the best double gilt wire, 
 was, formerly, 120 grains to a pound; but it is pro- 
 bably a good deal increased. 
 
 The beginning of the process, as well as the prepa- 
 ration and gilding of the silver rod, is performed by 
 the refiner, who uses plates of hardened steel with a 
 piece of tough iron welded on the back to prevent the 
 steel from breaking. In this back part the holes are 
 much wider than the corresponding ones in steel, and 
 of a conical shape ; partly, that the rod may not be 
 scratched against the outer edge, and partly for receiv- 
 ing some bees-wax, which makes the rod pass more 
 easily, and preserves the gold from being rubbed off. 
 The plate being properly secured, one end of the rod, 
 made somewhat smaller than the rest, is pushed through 
 such a hole as will admit of it ; and being taken hold of 
 by pincers, adapted to the purpose, whose chaps are 
 toothed somewhat like a file, to keep the rod from slip- 
 ping out by the violence necessary for drawing it out, 
 the handles or branches of the clamps are bent upwards, 
 and an iron loop put over the curvature, so that the 
 force, which pulls them horizontally by the loop, serves 
 at the same time to press them together. To the loop 
 is fastened a rope, the farther end of which goes round 
 a capstan, or upright cylinder with cross-bars, which 
 requires the strength of several men to turn it. The 
 rod, thus drawn through, is well annealed, then passed 
 in the same manner through the next hole, and the an- 
 nealing and drawing repeated, less and less force suffic- 
 ing as it diminishes in thickness. When reduced to 
 the size of a quill, it is delivered in coils to the wire- 
 drawer. The remainder of the process requires plates 
 of a different quality, those made of steel being apt to 
 fret the wire, and strip off the gold. There are two 
 sorts of these plates, one of considerable thickness, for 
 the wire in its larger state, the other only about half as 
 thick, for the finer wire, where less force is sufficient 
 in drawing. These plates, though, in a measure, ra- 
 ther brittle, have sufficient toughness to admit of the 
 holes being beaten up, or contracted, by a few blows 
 of a hammer ; so that when any of them have been 
 widened by a length of wire being drawn through, they 
 are thus reduced again to the proper dimensions for 
 preserving the gradation. The holes, after each beat- 
 ing U P> are opened by a long slender instrument, called 
 a point, made of refined steel ; one end of which, to 
 the length of about five inches, is round, and serves as 
 a handle ; the rest, about twice as long, is square, and 
 tapered to a fine point. The first holes being so far 
 
 worn, as to be unfit for bearing further reductions, the 
 next to them, grown likewise wider, supply their places, 
 and are themselves successively supplied by those which 
 follow ; of course, as each ptate is furnished with seve- 
 ral more of the same holes than are wanted at first, it 
 continues to afford a complete series, after a consider- 
 [ able number of the larger has become unserviceable. 
 Great part of the dexterity of the workman consists in 
 adapting the hole to the wire ; that the wire may not 
 pass so easily, as not to receive sufficient extension, or 
 so difficultly as to be broken in the drawing. For deter- 
 mining this point with greater certainty than could be 
 done from the mere resistance of the wire, he uses a 
 brass plate called a size, on which is measured, by 
 means of notches, like stops, cut at one end, the in- 
 crease which a certain length of wire should gain in 
 passing through a fresh hole : if the wire is found to 
 stretch too much or too little, the hole is widened or 
 contracted. As the extension is adjusted by this instru- 
 I merit, there are others for measuring the degree of 
 I fineness of the wire itself. Slits of different widths, 
 made in thick polished iron rings, serve as gauges for 
 this use. 
 
 The wire-drawer’s process begins with annealing the 
 large wire received from the refiner ; this is performed 
 by placing it coiled up on some lighted charcoal in a 
 cylindrical cavity called the pit, made for this purpose, 
 under a chimney, about six inches deep, and throwing 
 more burniug charcoal over it ; the pit having no aper- 
 ture at bottom to admit air, the fuel burns languidly, 
 affording only sufficient heat to make the metal red-hot, 
 without endangering its melting. 
 
 Being then quenched in water for the sake of expe- 
 dition in cooling it, though the metaj would doubtless 
 be softened more effectually if suffered to cool leisurely, 
 one end of it is passed through the first hole in the 
 thick plate, and fastened to an upright wooden cy- 
 linder, six or eight inches in diameter : in the top of 
 the cylinder are fixed two staples, and through these is 
 passed the long arm of a handle, by which the cylinder 
 is turned on its axis by several men. In the continua- 
 tion of this part of the process, the wire is frequently 
 annealed and quenched, after passing through every 
 hole or every other hole, till it is brought to about 
 the size of the small end of a tobacco-pipe; and 
 in this state it is cut into portions for the fine wire- 
 drawer. 
 
 In this last part of the wire-drawing proeess, an- 
 nealing is not needful ; but it is still as necessary as 
 before to wax the wire at every hole. Much less 
 force being now sufficient for drawing it through the 
 plate, a different instrument is used. A kind of wheel 
 or circular piece of wood, much wider than the fore- 
 going cylinder, is placed horizontally in its upper sur- 
 face and some small holes at different distances from 
 the axis, and into one or another of these, according to 
 the force required, is occasionally inserted the point of 
 an upright handle, whose upper end is received in a 
 hole made in a cross bar above. From this the wire 
 
 is 
 
388 
 
 GOLD-BEATING AND GILT-WIRE DRAWING. 
 
 is wound off upon a smaller cylinder called a rocket, 
 placed on the spindle of a spinning-wheel ; and this 
 last cylinder being fixed on its axis behind the plate, 
 the wire is again drawn through upon the first ; and 
 being at length brought to the proper fineness, it is 
 annealed to fit it for the flatting-mill. This annealing 
 is performed in a different manner from the foregoing 
 ones, and with much less heat ; for if the wire was 
 now made red-hot it would wholly lose its golden 
 colour, and become black, bluish, or white, as is often 
 experienced in different parcels of gilt wire. Being 
 wound upon a large hollow copper bobbin, the bobbin 
 is set upright, some lighted charcoal or small-coal 
 placed round it and brought gradually nearer and 
 nearer, and some small-coal put in the cavity of the 
 bobbin, the wire being carefully watched, that as 
 soon as it appears of a proper colour it may be 
 immediately removed from the heat. This is an ope- 
 ration of great nicety, and is generally performed by 
 the master himself. The wire, though it in good mea- 
 sure retains the springiness which it had acquired in 
 the drawing, and does not prove near so soft as it 1 
 might be made by a greater heat, is nevertheless found 
 to be sufficiently so for yielding with ease to the 
 flatting mill. 
 
 The flatting-mill consists of two rolls, turned in a 
 lathe to a perfect rounduess, exquisitely polished, placed 
 with their axis parallel one over another, set by screws 
 till their circumferences come almost into contact, and 
 both made to go round by one handle ; the lowermost 
 is about ten inches in diameter, the upper commonly 
 little more than two, though some make it considerably 
 larger ; and indeed it would be more convenient if ) 
 made as large, or nearly so, as the lower ; their width 
 or thickness is about an inch and a quarter. The wire 
 unwinding from a bobbin, and passing first between the 
 leaves of an old book pressed by a small weight, which 
 kept it somewhat tight, and then through a narrow slit 
 in an upright piece of wood called a ketch, which gives 
 notice of any knot or doubling, is directed by means of 
 a small conical hole in a piece of iron called a guide, 
 to any particular part of the width of the rolls, that if 
 there should be any imperfection or inequality of the 
 surface the wire may be kept from those parts ; and 
 that when one part is soiled by the passage of a 
 length of wire, the w'ire may be shifted till the w hole 
 width of the rolls is soiled, so as to require being 
 cleaned and polished anew with the fine powder called 
 putty, prepared by calcining a mixture of lead and tin : 
 the workmen value the rolls from the number of 
 threads they will receive, that is, from the number of 
 places which the wire can thus be shifted to ; good 
 rolls will receive forty threads. The wire flatted be- 
 tween the rolls is wound again as it comes through, on 
 a bobbin, which is turned by a wheel fixed on the 
 axis of one of the rolls, and so proportioned that the 
 motion of the bobbin just keeps pace with that of the 
 rolls. 
 
 The vast extent to which gold is apparently stretched 
 
 in the foregoing operations, has induced several persons 
 to make experiments for determining its exact degree 
 by mensuration and weight. In an experiment of 
 Reaumur’s, forty-two square inches and three tenths of 
 gold leaf weighed one grain troy ; and Mr. Boyle 
 found that fifty and seven-tenths w-eighed but a grain. 
 The thickness of the gold leaf examined by the one was the 
 207,355th, and of that by the other only the 248,532nd 
 j part of an inch. 
 
 1 Dr. Halley found, that of superfine gilt-wire six feet 
 j weighed a grain: M. de Reaumur makes about four 
 j inches more go to the same weight ; and Mr. Boyle is 
 | said, if there be no error in the numbers, to have had 
 I gilt-wire much finer than any of these. Allowing six 
 feet to make a grain, and the proportion of gold to be 
 that commonly used by our wire-draw'ers ; the length 
 to which a grain of gold is extended on the wire, comes 
 to be nearly 352 feet. 
 
 In flatting, the w’ire is extended, according to M. de 
 Reaumur, one-seventh part of its length, and to the 
 width of one ninety-sixth of an inch ; in some trials that 
 have been made by the workmen, the extension in 
 length appeared less, but that in breadth so much 
 greater that the square extension was at least equal to 
 that assigned by Reaumur. Hence one grain of gold 
 is stretched on the flatted wire to the length of above 401 
 feet, to a surface of above 100 square inches, and to 
 the thinness of the 492,090th part of an inch. 
 
 M. de Reaumur carries the extension of gold to a 
 much greater degree. He says the wire continues 
 gilded when only one part of gold is used to 360 of 
 silver, and that it may be stretched in flatting one- 
 fourth of its length, and to the width of one forty- 
 eighth of an inch. In this case, a grain of gold 
 must be extended upwards of a mile, and cover 
 an area of 1,400 square inches. He computes the 
 thickness of the golden coat in the thinnest parts of 
 some gilt wire to be no more than the 14000,000th 
 part of an inch, so that it is only about a hundredth 
 part of the thickness of gold leaf. 
 
 Yet notwithstanding this amazing tenuity, if a piece 
 of the gilt wire be immersed in warm aquafortis, 
 which will gradually dissolve and eat out the silver, 
 the remaining golden coat will still hang together, and 
 form, while the fluid prevents it from collapsing, a 
 continuous opaque tube. To succeed in this experi- 
 ment, the aquafortis must not be very strong, nor the 
 heat great ; for then the acid, acting hastily and impe- 
 tuously upon the silver, would disunite the particles of 
 the gold. 
 
 Whether any other metal can be extended to an 
 equal degree is not yet clear, for as it is the great 
 value of gold which engages the workmen to endeavour 
 as much as possible to stretch it to the largest surface, 
 the same efforts have not been made in regard to the 
 less valuable metals : to make a fair comparison, trial 
 should be made of extending silver upon the surface of 
 gold in the same manner as gold is extended upon 
 silver. It may be observed also, that as gold is nearly as 
 
GUN-MAKING. 
 
 389 
 
 heavy again as silver, or contains nearly double the quan- 
 tity of matter under an equal volume, so, if equal 
 weights of the two metals be stretched lo equal ex- 
 tents, the silver will be little more than half the 
 thinness of the gold ; and conversely, if silver could be 
 brought to equal tenuity with gold in regard to bulk, 
 it would, in regard to quantity of matter, be nearly of 
 double extensibility. 
 
 There are various methods of applying the gold 
 thus extended, to cover the surface of other bodies. 
 For laces and brocades, the flatted gilt-wire is spun on 
 threads of yellow silk, approaching as near as may be 
 to the colour of gold itself. The wire, winding oflf 
 from a bobbin, twists about the thread as it spins 
 round, and by means of curious machinery, too com- 
 plex to be described here, a number of threads is thus 
 twisted at once by the turning of one wheel. The 
 principal art consists in so regulating the motion, that 
 the several circumvolutions of the flatted wire on each 
 thread may just touch one another, and form as it were, 
 one continued covering. 
 
 It is said that at Milan there is made a sort of 
 flatted wire gilt only on one side, which is wound upon 
 the thread, so that only the gilt side appears; and that the 
 preparation of this w'ire is kept a secret, and has been 
 attempted in other places with little success. There is 
 also a gilt copper w'ire, made in the same manner as 
 the gilt silver. Savary observes, that this kind of wire, 
 
 called false geld, is prepared chiefly at Nuremburg ; 
 and that the ordinances of France require it to be 
 spun, for its distinction of the gilt silver, on flaxen or 
 | hempen threads. One of our writers takes notice, 
 that the Chinese, instead of flatted gilt-wire, use slips 
 of gilt paper, which they intemeave in their stuffs 
 and twist upon silk threads ; this practice he in- 
 considerately proposes as a hint to the British weaver. 
 Whatever be the pretended beauty of the stuffs of this 
 kind of manufacture, it is obvious that they must want 
 durability. The Chinese themselves, according to 
 Du Halde’s account, sensible of this imperfection, 
 scarcely use them any otherwise than in tapestries, and 
 such other ornaments as are not intended to be much 
 worn or exposed to moisture. 
 
 Paper, wood, and other like subjects are gilded by 
 spreading upon them some adhesive substances, and 
 when almost dry, so as but just to make the gold stick, 
 applying gold or gilt leaf, and pressing it down with a 
 bunch of cotton or the bottom of a hare’s foot : when 
 growm thoroughly dry the superfluous or loose gold 
 is wiped off, and the fixed golden coat burnished with 
 a dog’s tooth or with a smooth piece of agate or peb- 
 ble. Different kinds of adhesive matters are employed 
 for this use : where resistance to rain or moisture is 
 required, oil paints ; in most other cases a size, made 
 from the cuttings of parchment or white leather by 
 boiling them in water. 
 
 GUN-MAKING. 
 
 The business of the gun-smith is the manufacturing 
 of fire arms of the smaller sort, as muskets, fowling- 
 pieces, pistols, &c. The principal part of all these 
 instruments is the barrel, which, however, is not made 
 by those who call themselves gun-smiths, but by per- 
 sons who forge them in a large way, and who have 
 forges and premises adapted to the business ; the 
 forges used by gun-smiths being on a much smaller 
 scale than those required for the manufacture of the 
 barrels. Besides among gun-smiths we find great 
 attention paid to the division of labour : one man or set 
 of men, for instance, is employed in what is termed 
 .the boring, though, in truth, the barrels are formed at 
 first with a bore throughout, but not with that accuracy 
 which is required for these kind of instruments : other 
 persons are employed to file and polish the outside of 
 the barrel ; to some is allotted the business of making 
 
 and fixing the breech, the touch-hole, &c.: others 
 forge the gun-locks in a rough w'ay, and others are 
 employed to file, polish, and put together the several 
 parts of which the locks are composed, &.c. By the 
 attention and civility of Mr. W. H. Mortimer, of Fleet- 
 street, we have had an opportunity of examining the 
 several departments of this manufacture, and shall en- 
 deavour to describe them iu a familiar manner to our 
 readers, noticing, in the course of the article, certain 
 inventions for which His Majesty’s letters patent have 
 been obtained. 
 
 The barrel, which we are first to describe, ought 
 to possess the following properties : lightness, that it 
 may incommode the person who carries it as little as 
 possible, and strength, to enable it to bear a full charge 
 without any risk of bursting : it ought to be constructed 
 so as not to recoil with violence, and it ought to be of 
 5 G sufficient 
 
390 
 
 GUN-MAKING. 
 
 sufficient length to carry the shot or bullet to as great 
 a distance as the force of the powder employed is capa- 
 ble of doing. 
 
 The imperfections to which a gun-barrel is liable 
 in forging are of three sorts, viz. the chink, the crack, 
 and th q flaw : the chink is a solution of continuity, 
 running lengthwise of the barrel : the crack is more 
 irregular in its form than the chink, and running in a 
 transverse direction or across the barrel : the flaw dif- 
 fers from both ; it is a small plate or scale which ad- 
 heres to the barrel by a narrow base, from which it 
 spreads out as the head of a nail does from its shank ; 
 and when separated, leaves a pit or hollow in the metal. 
 The chink and the flaw are of much greater conse- 
 , quence than the crack, as the effort of the powder is 
 exerted upon the circumference, and not upon the 
 length of the barrel. The flaw is more frequent than 
 the chink : when external and superficial, they are all 
 three defects in point of neatness only ; but when situ- 
 ated within the barrel, they are of material disadvantage 
 by affording a lodgment to moisture and foulness that 
 corrode the iron, and thus continually enlarge the exca- 
 vation until the barrel bursts or at least becomes ex- 
 ceedingly dangerous to use. The crack is of but little 
 consequence if near the muzzle of the barrel; but if at 
 the breech end it should never be attempted to be 
 mended, and indeed by respectable manufacturers, 
 such as the gentleman alluded to, never is. W e shall 
 now proceed to describe the several parts of the gun, 
 beginning with the barrels. 
 
 To form a gun-barrel in the manner generally prac- 
 tised for those denominated common, the workmen 
 begin by heating and hammering out a bar of iron into 
 the form of a flat ruler, thinner at the end intended for 
 the muzzle, and thicker at that for the breech ; the 
 length, breadth, and thickness of the whole plate being 
 regulated by the intended length, diameter, and weight 
 of the barrel. This oblong plate of metal is then, 
 by repeated heating and hammering, turned round a 
 cylindrical rod of tempered iron, called a mandril, 
 whose diameter is considerably less than the intended 
 bore of the barrel. The edges of the plate are made 
 to overlap each other about half an inch, and are 
 welded together by heating the tube in lengths of two 
 or three inches at a time, and hammering it with very 
 brisk but moderate strokes, upon an anvil which has a 
 number of semicircular furrows in it, adapted to the 
 various sizes of barrels. The heat required for welding 
 is the bright white heat, which immediately precedes 
 fusion, and at which the particles of the metal unite 
 and blend so intimately with each other, that, when 
 properly managed, not a trace is left of their former 
 separation : this degree of heat is generally known by 
 a number of brilliant sparks flying off from the iron 
 whilst in the fire ; although it requires much practice 
 and experience to ascertain the degree of heat required 
 for welding iron, which possesses various qualities, aud 
 is seldom alike. Every time the barrel is withdrawn 
 from the forge, the workman strikes the end of it 
 
 once or twice gently against the anvil in a horizontal 
 direction: this operation serves to consolidate the 
 particles of the metal more perfectly, and to obliterate 
 any appearance of a seam in the barrel. The mandril 
 is then introduced into the bore or cavity ; and the 
 barrel, being placed in one of the furrows or moulds of 
 the anvil, is hammered very briskly by two persons 
 besides the forger, who all the time keeps turning the 
 barrel round in the mould, so that every point of the 
 heated portion may come equally under the action of 
 the hammers. These heatings and hammerings are 
 repeated until the whole of the barrel has undergone 
 the same operation, and all its parts are rendered as 
 perfectly continuous as if it had been bored out of a 
 solid piece. For better w r ork the barrel is forged in 
 separate pieces of eight or nine inches in length, and 
 then welded together lengthwise as well as in the lap- 
 ping over. The other mode being the easiest done, 
 and the quickest, is the most usual. 
 
 The barrel, when forged, is either finished in the 
 common manner, or made to .undergo the operation of 
 twisting, which is a process employed on those barrels 
 that are intended to be of a superior quality and price 
 to others. This operation consists in heating the bar- 
 rel in portions of a few inches at a time, to a high 
 degree of red-heat ; when one end of it is screwed into 
 a vice, and into the other is introduced a square piece 
 of iron with a handle like an augur, and by means of 
 these the fibres of the heated portion are twisted in a 
 spiral direction, that is thought to resist the effort of the 
 powder much better than a longitudinal one. Pistol 
 barrels that are to go in pairs, such as duelling pistols, 
 are forged in one piece, and are cut asunder at the 
 muzzles after they have been bored ; by which there is 
 not only a saving of iron and of labour, but a certainty 
 of the caliber being perfectly the same in both. The 
 next operation consists in giving to the barrel its proper 
 caliber; this is termed boring, which is done in the 
 following manner. Two beams of very strong wood, 
 as oak, each about six inches in diameter, and six or 
 seven feet long, are placed horizontally and parallel 
 to one another, having their extremities mortised upon 
 a strong upright piece about three feet high, and 
 firmly fixed. A space of from two to four intffies is 
 left between the horizontal pieces, in which a piece of 
 wood is made to slide, by having at either end a tenon 
 let into a groove which runs on the inside of each beam 
 throughout its whole length. Through this sliding 
 piece a strong pin or bolt of iron is driven or screwed 
 in a perpendicular direction, having at its upper end 
 a round hole large enough to admit the breech of the 
 barrel, which is secured in it by means of a piece of 
 iron that serves as a wedge, and a vertical screw pass- 
 ing through the upper part of the hole, A chain is 
 fastened to a staple on one side of the sliding piece 
 which runs between the two horizontal beams, and 
 passing over a pulley at one end of the machine, has a 
 weight hooked to it. An upright piece of timber is 
 fixed above this pulley and between the end of the 
 
 beams, 
 
GUN-MAKING. 
 
 391 
 
 beams, having its upper end perforated by the axis of 
 an iron crank furnished with a square socket 5 the other 
 axis being supported by the wail or by a strong post, 
 and loaded with a heavy wheel of cast iron to give it 
 force. The axes of the crank are in a line with the 
 hole in the bolt already described. The borer being 
 then fixed into the socket of the crank, has its other 
 end previously well oiled, introduced into the barrel, 
 whose breech part is made fast in the hole of the bolt : 
 the chain is then carried over the pulley, and the 
 weight hooked on : the crank being then turned with 
 the hand, the barrel advances as the borer cuts its way 
 till it has passed through the whole length. 
 
 The boring-bit is a rod of iron somewhat longer 
 than the barrel ; one end being made to fit the socket 
 of the crank, and the other being furnished with a 
 cylindrical plug of tempered steel, about an inch and 
 a half in length, and having its surface cut in the man- 
 ner of a perpetual screw, the threads being flat, about 
 a quarter of an inch in breadth, and running with very 
 little obliquity. This form gives the bit a very strong 
 hold of the metal ; and the threads being sharp at the 
 edges, scoop out and remove every roughness and 
 inequality from the inside of the barrel, and render the 
 cavity smooth and equal throughout. Only two of the 
 threads are brought into action, the others being pre- 
 vented from touching the barrel by tying on one side 
 a piece of wood, of almost any kind, which is called a 
 spill. 
 
 A number of bits, each a little larger than the 
 preceding one, are afterwards successively passed 
 through the barrel in the same way until it has acquired 
 the intended caliber. The equality of the bore is so 
 essential to the excellence of a piece, that the greatest 
 accuracy in every other particular will not compensate 
 for the want of it. With regard to this, every thing 
 almost depends on the eye of the workman: he chooses 
 a good light for his business, and discovers in an in- 
 stant if there be the smallest defect. To a stranger 
 looking through a finely bored barrel, with a proper 
 light, an optical illusion presents itself, the farther end 
 does not appear to be open throughout as it really is, 
 but to have a small, but perfectly circular hole, in the 
 centre of a finely polished mirror. Another observa- 
 tion worth noticing is, that though the bore of the 
 barrel is perfectly even and straight, yet that during the 
 process of boring it has a continual motion, which to a 
 by-stander seems quite sufficient to throw it out of the 
 straight line. The barrel may be now considered as 
 quite finished with regard to its inside : at least it has 
 nothing more to be done to it by the maker, after 
 which it is in a condition to receive its proper form 
 and proportions externally by means of the file. To do 
 this with accuracy, four flat sides or faces are first 
 formed ; then eight, then sixteen, and so on, until it 
 is made quite round, except the reinforced part, which 
 in most of the modem work is left with eight sides. 
 This octagonal form is certainly more elegant than the 
 
 round one formerly in use : but it adds to the weight 
 of the barrel without increasing its strength ; for the 
 effort of the powder will always be sustained by the 
 thinnest part of the circumference without any regard to 
 those places that are thicker than the rest. 
 
 It is absolutely necessary to the soundness of a 
 barrel, that it should be of an equal thickness on every 
 side; or, in the language of the workmen, a barrel 
 ought to be perfectly upright. In order to arrive as 
 nearly as possible to this perfect equality, the gun- 
 smiths employ an instrument which they call a com- 
 pass. It consists of an iron rod, bent so as to form 
 two parallel branches about an inch distant from each 
 other. One of these branches is introduced into the 
 barrel, and kept closely applied to the side by means 
 of one or more springs with w-hich it is furnished : the 
 other branch descends parallel to this, on the outside, 
 and has several screws passing through it with their 
 points directed to the barrel. By screwing these until 
 their points touch the surface of the barrel, and then 
 turning the instrument round wdtliin the bore, it is seen 
 where the metal is too thick, and how much it must be 
 reduced in order to render every part of the barrel per- 
 fectly equal throughout its circumference. 
 
 Before we proceed in the work of the gun, we may 
 notice a patent invention for the manufacture of gun- 
 barrels by Mr. Bradley. 
 
 This invention consists in the manufacturing of iron 
 skelps for making barrels for fire-arms, wholly and 
 entirely by rollers instead of by forge-hammers, which is 
 the present mode of making them. For this purpose 
 Mr. Bradley takes a pair of rollers about fifteen inches 
 in diameter, which have been previously drilled and 
 turned with four grooves requisite for manufacturing 
 the sort of skelps required, and fixes them in such a 
 frame as is generally used in working rollers. He then 
 takes a bar of iron cut to the proper weight, as wide 
 as the breech-end of the skelp required, which is 
 heated in an air-furnace to what is called a welding 
 heat, and puts it in the first instance through a groove 
 in the roller. By this process the groove is cut or 
 hollowed out iu such a manner as to give out or 
 produce the bar or piece of iron four inches wide at 
 one end, and, by a gradual diminution, tw'o inches 
 and a half at the other. The bar must then be passed 
 successively through three grooves formed similar to 
 each other in principle, but cut in such a manner as 
 after being passed through each of them gradually to 
 bring the skelp to its proper form and size. These 
 grooves are turned and chipped in such a manner as to 
 make the bar or piece of iron after it has passed 
 through them and is become a skelp, four inches and 
 one-eighth wide at the breech and three-eighths of an 
 inch thick, and three inches and one-eighth wide and 
 barely three-sixteenths of an inch thick at the other 
 end. The edges are made thinner than the middle, 
 which is left, as the welders term it, thick on the back ; 
 and being in every respect of the proper dimensions for 
 
 finished 
 
392 
 
 GUN MAKING. 
 
 finished skelps, they are thus produced by the rollers 
 only without the aid of hammers, shears, or cutters, or 
 any other machinery or implement whatever. 
 
 The advantages stated by the patentee of this inven- 
 tion over the common mode, is, that the barrels made 
 from them turn very sound and clear, and are free from 
 flaws : when welded they grind and bore much clearer than 
 hammered ones. The pure metallic particles being 
 compressed by the rollers both edge-ways and flat-ways 
 at the same time, cohere more closely together; nor 
 are the skelps liable to reins or flaws as those are which 
 are edged up in a less hot state under a forge hammer. 
 Barrels from these skelps will stand a much stronger 
 proof than those from forged ones. 
 
 We shall also notice an improvement in the manu- 
 facture of barrels of all descriptions of fire-arms, made 
 by Messrs. James and Jones of Birmingham, and for 
 which they have obtained His Majesty’s letters patent. 
 This improvement may be thus described : the paten- 
 tees take a skelp or piece of iron adapted for the pur- 
 pose of making barrels for fire-arms which is to be 
 brought into a form proper for welding, and then 
 heated in a furnace so constructed as to give a regular 
 welding heat to one half of the barrel at a time ; and 
 when heated sufficiently, the mandril or stamp is to be 
 put expeditiously into it, and the barrel placed or held 
 on a grooved anvil, upon which several hammers 
 worked by steam are caused to fall or strike with great 
 velocity upon such portions of the barrel desired to be 
 welded, and when sufficiently welded the stamp is to 
 be withdrawn. The number, weight, and velocity of 
 the hammers may be varied according to the descrip- 
 tion of the barrel desired. They should be ranged in 
 a straight line side by side, as true and as close together 
 as they will work free, and cover a space in length of 
 about twenty inches and in width four or five : they 
 should work very true, and to do so they may be 
 fixed, connected and worked by machinery. Or, in- 
 stead of welding the barrels by hammers the same 
 thing may be done between a pair of rollers grooved to 
 fit the form of the barrel, the rollers having either an 
 alternate or rotary motion and worked by steam, water, 
 or other mechanical powers, but the hammer seems to 
 be best as making the soundest and most perfect 
 barrels. The great advantage of this method above 
 others is, that the barrels are made sounder and more 
 expeditiously than they can be by the common method. 
 The invention extends also to the turning of barrels in 
 an improved turning machine or lathe, with cutters or 
 sharp steel instruments or tools, worked by machinery 
 
 and an assistant may attend three or four turning ma- 
 chines or lathes, and finish a great number of barrels 
 ready for filing much more perfect and true than they can 
 be done by grinding, or by any other method now in use 
 w ith the same pow er and manual labour. Ground bar- 
 rels are very frequently unequal sided, one side having 
 twice the substance of metal as the other ; but by this 
 new' method they are more equal, and consequently 
 much stronger with the same weight of metal than if 
 the barrel were unequal ; and when the barrel is set 
 right a more certain and much better aim may be 
 taken. “ These,” say the patentees, u we consider 
 1 great advantages in the use and value of a musket or 
 other barrel. We also do away with the use of ex- 
 pensive grindstones, from which dangerous accidents 
 very frequently happen, and the necessity of grinding 
 the barrels which is at all times a laborious, dangerous, 
 and unhealthy business, whereas our method of turning 
 barrels is comparatively a safe, easy, and healthful 
 occupation.” 
 
 To form the screw' in the breech-end of the barrel, 
 the first tool employed is a plug of tempered steel, 
 somewhat conical, and having upon its surface the 
 threads of a male screw. This tool, which is termed a 
 screw'-tap, being introduced into the barrel, it is 
 turned from left to right and back again, until it has 
 marked out the three or four first threads of the screw : 
 another less conical tap is then introduced, and when 
 this has carried on the impression of the screw as far 
 as it is intended to go, a third tap is employed, which 
 is nearly cylindrical, and scarcely differs from the plug 
 of the breech w'hich is intended to fill the screw thus 
 formed in the barrel. The breech-plug has its screw 
 formed by means of a screw-plate made of tempered 
 steel, and has several female screws corresponding with 
 the taps employed to form that in the barrel. A plug 
 of seven or eight threads is sufficiently long, and the 
 threads ought to be neat and sharp, so as to fill com- 
 pletely the turns made in the barrel by the tap. The 
 breech-plug is afterwards case-hardened, or has its 
 surface converted into steel by being covered over with 
 shavings of horn or pairings of horse-hoof, and kept 
 red hot in the fire for some time, after which it is 
 plunged into water. 
 
 It should be observed that the breeching of a gun is 
 of considerable importance in its shooting well. Al- 
 most every maker has a breech of his own contrivance : 
 it consists of a male screw to fit the female one made 
 in the barrel ; a centre-hole or chamber, and an anti- 
 chamber. The outside circumference may be made of 
 
 With steam, water, &c. The patentees give in their any shape or form. The advantages arising from this 
 specification a full description of this new invented; kind of breeching over that formeily used are, that the 
 lathe, which they say may be made of cast iron, or of shot are thrown in a more perfect direction and with 
 
 any other metal or substance adapted for the purpose. 
 
 The principal and advantages of this invention of 
 turning barrels, &c. by the lathe worked by steam, &c. 
 are, that when the barrel is fixed in its place it is 
 turned without any farther aid or assistance from the 
 workmen, by which means one more skilful foreman 
 
 greater velocity ; that the barrel is much less subject to 
 j grow partially foul : that it is safer and goes off more 
 j instantaneously, and also that it causes the whole 
 powder to inflame. It was customary with the gun-smiths 
 ! in France to solder on the loops and the aim before 
 they breeched the barrel. The English never restrict 
 
 themselves > 
 
GUN-MAKING. 
 
 393 
 
 themselves to this, making use of soft solder only for 
 this purpose. While the French use hard solder that 
 requires great heat, which is apt to injure the inside so 
 much as to require a repetition of tine-boring. 
 
 The last operation is that of colouring the barrel, 
 previously to which it is polished with fine emery and 
 oil, until it presents to the eye, throughout its whole 
 length, and in whatever direction we observe it, a per- 
 fectly smooth, equal, and splendid surface. Formerly, 
 barrels were coloured by exposing them to a degree of 
 heat which produced an elegant blue tinge; but, as this 
 effect arises from a degree of oxydation taking place 
 upon the surface of the metal, the inside of the barrel 
 always suffered by undergoing the same change. This, 
 therefore, added to the painful sensation excited in the 
 eye, by looking along a barrel so coloured, has caused 
 the practice of bluing to be disused for some time 
 past. Instead of it, barrels are now browned, as it is 
 termed. To do this, the barrel is rubbed over with 
 nitrous or sulphuric acid, diluted with water, and laid 
 by until a coat of rust is formed upon it, more or less, 
 according to the colour wanted ; a little oil is then ap- 
 plied ; and the surface being rubbed dry, is polished by 
 means of a hard brush and bees-w'ax. When the bar- 
 rels intended for a double-barrelled piece are dressed to 
 their proper thickness, which is generally less than for 
 single barrels, each of them is filed flat on the side 
 where it is to join the other, so that they may fit close 
 together. Two corresponding notches are then made 
 at the muzzle and breach of each barrel ; and into these 
 are fitted two small pieces of iron, to hold them more 
 strongly together. The barrels being united by tinning 
 the parts where they touch, the ribs are fitted in, and 
 made fast by the same means. These ribs are the tri- 
 angular pieces of iron which are placed between the 
 barrels, running on the upper and under sides their 
 whole length, and serving to hold them more firmly 
 together. The under rib is a late improvement, 
 and is found more effectually to prevent the barrels 
 from w arping. When the barrels are thus joined, they 
 are polished and coloured in the manner already de- 
 scribed. 
 
 The twisted barrels are deservedly celebrated for 
 their superior elegance and strength, but not justly so 
 for the accuracy with which they throw either ball or 
 shot. The iron employed in them is formed of stubs, 
 which are old horse-shoe nails procured from country 
 farriers, and from poor people who gain a subsistence 
 by picking them up on the great roads leading to the 
 metropolis. These are originally formed from the 
 softest and toughest iron that can be had ; and this is 
 still further purified by the numerous heatings and ham- 
 merings it has undergone in being reduced from a bar 
 into the size and form of nails. They cost about ten 
 shillings the hundred weight, and twenty-eight pounds 
 are required to make a single barrel of the ordinary 
 size. A hoop of iron, about an inch broad, and six or 
 seven inches in diameter, is placed perpendicularly ; 
 and the stubs, previously freed from dirt by washing, 
 
 are neatly piled in it, with their heads outermost on 
 each side, until the hoop is quite filled and wedged 
 tight with them ; the whole resembling a rough circular 
 cake of iron. This is put into the fire until it has 
 attained a white heat, when it is hammered, either by 
 the strength of the arm, or by the force of machinery, 
 until it coalesces, and becomes one solid mass of iron : 
 the hoop is thten removed, and the heatings and ham- 
 merings repeated, until the iron, being thus wrought 
 and kneaded, is freed from every impurity, and rendered 
 very tough and close in the grain : the workman jhen 
 proceeds to draw it out into pieces of about twenty-four 
 inches in length, half an inch or more in breadth, and 
 half an inch in thickness. These pieces, however, are 
 not all of the same thickness, some being more and 
 others less than what we have mentioned, according to 
 the proposed thickness of the barrel, and that part of it 
 which the piece is intended to form. One of these 
 pieces, being heated red-hot for five or six inches, is 
 turned like a screw cork-screw, without any other tools 
 than the anvil and hammer. The remaining portions 
 are successively treated in the same manner, until the 
 whole piece is turned into a spiral, forming a tube 
 whose diameter corresponds with that of the intended 
 barrel. Four of these are generally sufficient to form a 
 barrel of the ordinary length, which is from thirty-two 
 to thirty-eight inches ; and the two which form the 
 breech, or reinforced part, are considerably r thicker 
 than those which constitute the fore-part or muzzle of 
 the barrel. The workman first welds one of these tubes 
 to a part of an old barrel, which serves as a handle. 
 He then proceeds to unite the turns of the spiral to 
 each other, by heating the tube two or three inches at 
 a time, to a bright white heat, and striking the end of 
 it several times against the anvil in a horizontal direc- 
 tion, and with considerable force : this is termed jump- 
 ing by the barrel ; and the heats given for this purpose 
 are called jumping heats. A mandril is then intro- 
 duced into the cavity ; and the heated portion is ham- 
 mered lightly, to flatten the ridges, or burs, raised by 
 the jumping at the place where the spirals are joined. 
 As soon as one piece' is jumped its whole length, 
 another is welded to it, and treated in the same manner, 
 until the four pieces are united ; when the part of the 
 old barrel, being no longer necessary, is cut off. The 
 welding the turns of the spiral is performed exactly in 
 the same manner as before described, and is repeated 
 three times. * The barrel is afterwards finished in the 
 same way as a common one. Stub-iron is also wrought 
 into plain barrels ; which, as they require a great deal 
 less labour, are only half the price of the twisted 
 ones. 
 
 The proving of barrels differ in different countries. 
 The Spanish proof is a very severe one ; but, as it is 
 made before the barrel is filed, it is not satisfactory. 
 At the royal manufactories of St. Etienne and Charle- 
 ville, in France, there were inspectors appointed to see 
 that no barrels were sent out of these places, whether 
 for the king’s use or for public sale, without being 
 5 H proved. 
 
394 
 
 GUN-MAKING. 
 
 proved. The first proof was made with a ball exactly 
 fitting the caliber, and an ounce of powder. The se- 
 cond was made with the same sized ball and half an 
 ounce of powder. The reason given for the second 
 proof, is, that the first may have strained the barrel so 
 much, though the injury be not visible, that it will not 
 bear a second trial with a smaller charge ; and it is said 
 there really are some of these barrels which stand the 
 first proof, and yet give w 7 ay in the second. The usual 
 proof of the Paris barrels is a double charge of pow- 
 der and shot ; that is, two or two and a half ounces of 
 shot. The English Tower-proof, and that of the 
 Whitechapel Company, incorporated by charter for 
 proving of arms, are made with a ball of the proper 
 caliber, and a charge of powder equal in weight to this 
 ball : the proof is the same for every size and species of 
 barrel, and not repeated. 
 
 It may be safely asserted, that a good barrel very 
 seldom bursts, unless it be charged too highly, or in an 
 improper manner. Whenever, for example, from the 
 ball not being rammed home, a space is left between it 
 and the powder, there is a great risk of the barrel 
 bursting on being discharged. We say, a great risk, 
 because, even under these circumstances, it frequently 
 happens that the barrel does not burst. If the ball j 
 stops near to the powder, a very small w indage is suf- j 
 ficient to prevent this accident ; and it is very rare that j 
 the ball touches the barrel in every part of its circum 
 
 mouth of the piece being in this case much greater than 
 that afforded by the sides of the barrel. Except in 
 the circumstances mentioned, or in case of an over- 
 charge, it is very rare that a barrel bursts. Whenever 
 it happens independently of these, it is from a defect in 
 the work, and that either the barrel has been imper- 
 fectly welded, or that a deep flaw has taken place in 
 some part of it : or, lastly, that through want of care 
 in the boring or filing, it is left of unequal thickness in 
 its sides. The last defect is the most common, espe- 
 cially in low-priced barrels ; and, as pieces more fre- 
 quently burst from it than from the other defects, it 
 ought to be particularly guarded against. The elastic 
 fluid which is set loose by the inflammation of the 
 powder, and which endeavours to expand itself equally 
 in every direction, being repelled by the stronger parts, 
 acts with additional force against the weaker ones, and 
 frequently bursts its way through them ; which would 
 not have been the case had the sides been of the same 
 thickness and strength, and not afforded an unequal re- 
 percussion. The weakness of any part of the barrel, 
 occasioned by the inequality of the caliber, will still 
 more certainly be the cause of bursting than that pro- 
 duced by the filing ; because the inflamed fluid being 
 suddenly expanded at the wider part, must suffer a com- 
 pression before it can pass onward, and the whole force 
 is then excited against the weak place ; for gunpowder 
 acts in the radii of a circle, and exerts the same force 
 
 ference, unless it has been driven in by force with an I on every part of the circumference of the circle. The 
 
 iron ram-rod, in which case it moulds itself to the ca- 
 vity, and blocks it up completely. Should this happen, 
 the barrel, however strong it is, will burst, even when 
 the space between the ball and the powder is but very 
 inconsiderable ; and the greater the space that inter- 
 venes, the more certainly will this event take place. 
 Mr. Robins, when speaking of this matter, says, “ A 
 moderate charge of powder, wlien it has expanded 
 itself through the vacant space, and reaches the ball, 
 will, by the velocity each part has acquired, accumulate j 
 itself behind the ball, and will thereby be condensed j 
 prodigiously ; whence, if the barrel be not of an extra- 
 ordinary strength in that part, it must infallibly burst. ; 
 The truth of his I have experienced in a very good | 
 Tower musquet, forged of very tough iron ; for, charg- 
 ing it with twelve pennyweights of powder, and placing 
 the ball (loosely) sixteen inches from the breech : on 
 the firing of it, the part of the barrel just behind the 
 bullet was swelled out to double its diameter, like a 
 blown bladder, and two large pieces of two inches long 
 were blown out of it.” The same accident will often 
 take place from the mouth of the piece being filled with 
 earth or snow, as sometimes happens when we are 
 leaping a ditch, with the muzzle of the piece pointed 
 forwards ; and, if in such cases the barrel do not burst, 
 it is because these foreign bodies stop it up but very 
 loosely. For the same reason, a barrel will certainly 
 burst, if fired when the muzzle is thrust into w'ater but 
 a very little way below the surface ; the resistance given 
 to the passage of the inflamed powder through the 
 
 conclusion to be drawn from all this is, that a thin and 
 | light barrel, which is perfectly upright, that is, of equal 
 j thickness in every part of its circumference, is much 
 j less liable to burst than one which is considerably 
 thicker and heavier, but which, from being badly filed 
 and bored - , is left of unequal strength in its sides. 
 
 It has been found that the flight of balls, both from 
 cannon and small arms, is liable to very considerable 
 variations; and that the piece, notwithstanding it w'as 
 firmly fixed, and fired with the same weight of powder, 
 sometimes throws the ball to the right, sometimes to 
 the left, sometimes above, and at other times below 
 the mark. It has also been observed, that the degree 
 of deflection increases in a much greater proportion 
 than the distance of the object fired at : thus, at double 
 the distance the deflection of the ball from the line 
 on which the piece is pointed is considerably more than 
 double, and at treble the distance more than treble 
 what it was in the first. Mr. Robins secured a musket- 
 ball upon a block of w'ood, and firing it with a ball, at 
 a board of a foot square, sixty yards distant, found that 
 it missed the board only once in sixteen successive 
 discharges ; yet when fired with a srpaller charge, at 
 the distance of seven hundred and sixty yards, it some- 
 times threw the ball one hundred yards to the right, 
 and, at other times, one hundred to the left of the line 
 it was pointed in. The direction upwards and down- 
 wards also w'as found equally uncertain, the ball some- 
 times bending so much downwards as to fall two hun- 
 dred yaids short of its range at other times. Yet the 
 
 nicest 
 
GUN-MAKING. 
 
 S95 
 
 nicest examination could not discover that the barrel 
 had started in the least from the position in which it 
 ^cvas first fixed. It is impossible to fit a ball so accu- 
 rately to any plain piece, but that it will rub more 
 against one side of the barrel than another, in its pas- 
 . sage through it. Whatever side, therefore, it rubs 
 against on its quitting the muzzle, it will acquire a 
 whirling motion towards that side, and will be found to 
 bend die line of its flight in the same direction, whether 
 it be to the right or the left, upwards, downwards, or 
 obliquely. 
 
 This deflection from a straight line arises from the 
 resistance which the air gives to the flight of the bullet, 
 it being greatest on that side where the whirling motion 
 conspires with the progressive one, and least on that | 
 side where it is opposed to it : thus, if the ball, in its ' 
 passage out, rubs against the left side of the barrel, it I 
 will whirl towards that side ; and, as the right side of j 
 the ball will therefore turn up against the air during its j 
 flight, the resistance of the air will become greatest on 
 the right side, and the ball be forced away to the left, 
 which w'as the direction it whirled in. If the axis round 
 which the ball whirls preserved its position during the I 
 whole of the flight, the deflection would be in the same 
 direction from the one end of the track to the other. 
 But, from accidents that are unavoidable, the axis of 
 the whirl frequently changes its position several times 
 during the flight ; so that the ball, instead of bending 
 its course uniformly in the same direction, often de- 
 scribes a track that is variously contorted. So great, 
 liow'ever, is the tendency of the ball to deflect itself to- j 
 wards the side it rubs against, that although, when fired 
 out of a barrel that is bent towards the left hand, it 
 will be thrown from the piece in the direction of the 
 bend, yet as the ball in this case will be forced to rub 
 against the right side of the muzzle, and thus turn its left side 
 up against the air, so it will be found to alter its course 
 during the flight, and bend away towards the right-hand, 
 so as to fall a considerable way to the right of the line 
 in which the piece was pointed. 
 
 From what has been said, it will readily appear, that ; 
 these variations will be more frequent and considerable 
 when the ball runs very loose in the piece ; or when, j 
 from any roughness on its surface, or on the inside of 
 the barrel, a considerable degree of friction takes place 
 between them. With a view to prevent friction, it has ' 
 been proposed to grease the ball ; but this will be of 
 little service. All that can be done in a plain barrel, i 
 is; to have the balls cast very solid and true, and after- 
 wards milled in the same manner as is now practised 
 upon shot : the barrel also should be very smooth on 
 the inside, and the ball fit it very accurately, so as 
 to leave scarcely any windage. And yet, with the help 
 of all these, it will still be very difficult to prevent it 
 altogether ; for gravity will constantly act, and friction 
 on the under side will naturally be occasioned by the 
 weight of the ball. 
 
 From considering the causes of this aberration in the 
 flight of the bullets, it will be pretty evident, that the 
 
 only means of correcting it is by preventing the ball 
 from rubbing more against one side of the barrel than 
 another in passing through it ; and by giving to the 
 bullet a motion, which will counteract every accidental 
 one, and preserve its direction by making the resistance 
 of the air upon its fore part continue the same in every 
 part of the flight. The contrivance for this purpose is 
 termed rifling, and consists in forming upon the inside 
 of barrels a number of furrows, either in a straight or 
 spiral direction ; into these the ball is moulded, and 
 any rolling motion along the sides of the barrel, in its 
 passage out, thereby prevented. Barrels of this con- 
 struction have been in use upon the Continent since the 
 middle of the sixteenth century, but were little known, 
 and still less employed in England, until within these 
 fifty years. 
 
 The spiral rifled barrels, however, have entirely su- 
 perceded the straight rifled ones, because, although the 
 latter prevented the rolling motion of the ball that takes 
 place in a plain barrel, yet they do not communicate 
 any other motion, that could serve ,to correct the varia- 
 tions that may occur during the flight. The furrows, 
 or channels, which are termed the rifles, vary in num- 
 ber according to the fancy of the workman, or that of 
 the purchaser, but are neve* less than six, or more thau 
 twelve, in a common-sized piece. Their depth is 
 equally subject to variation ; but the breadth of the fur- 
 rows and of the threads is generally the same. In some 
 of the pieces, the spirals make a half-turn, in others, 
 three-fourths, and in others, again, an entire revolution 
 in the length of the barrel : an entire revolution, how- 
 ever, is the most common, though, from the great 
 difference in the length of rifle-barrels, there should be 
 some standard assigned for the obliquity of the spirals 
 which would communicate a rotary motion to the ball, 
 sufficient to correct any aberration in its flight ; and this 
 might be determined by comparing the effects of a 
 number of pieces ; that differed only in the obliquity of 
 the rifles. 
 
 Barrels intended to be rifled are previously bored and 
 smoothed within, in the manner already described : 
 they are, however, forged as much thicker than plain 
 barrels as the depth of the rifles ; for, although the 
 threads of the spiral add to the w'eight of the barrel, 
 they do not increase its strength in the least, with re- 
 gard to the force exerted upon it by the powder. 
 These pieces are charged in various ways. In general, 
 the ball, w'hich is sometimes larger than the caliber be- 
 fore it was rifled, is driven down to the powder, by 
 means of an iron rammer, struck with a mallet, where- 
 by that zone of the ball which is in contact with the 
 sides of the barrel becomes indented all round, and is 
 moulded to the form of the rifles. When the piece is 
 fired, the projections of the ball which fill the rifles, 
 being obliged to follow the sw'eep of the spiral, the ball 
 thereby acquires a rotary motion upon an axis that cor- 
 responds with the line of its direction ; so that the side 
 of the bullet w'hich lay foremost in the barrel continues 
 foremost during the whole of the flight. By this 
 
 means 
 
396 
 
 GUN-MAKING. 
 
 means the resistance’of the air is opposed directly to the 
 bullet’s progress, and not exerted more against one part 
 than another of that side which moves foremost ; and 
 accordingly the bullet preserves the line of its direction 
 with very great steadiness. 
 
 It now remains to speak of the sights, which, although 
 they do not constitute the essential part of a rifle, as 
 they may be used with a plain bored barrel, yet as that 
 is seldom done, and as they are always used with a rifle 
 it will not be proper to omit mentioning them. 
 
 It may be strictly said, that no part of the path of 
 the bullet when fired from a rifle or musket, is in a 
 right line, as gravity acts upon the bullet the instant it 
 quits the mouth of the piece, and, although at a small 
 distance it is not very perceptible, yet it is considerably 
 so at one hundred yards, and at two hundred yards the 
 ball would probably strike the ground before it could 
 reach the object aimed at. To remedy this inconveni- 
 ence, it is found necessary to aim at exactly such a 
 height above the object as the ball would have been de- 
 pressed to by the power of gravity had it been aimed at it 
 point blank, &c. ; that if we suppose this depression to 
 be a foot in a hundred yards, we must aim a foot above 
 the object. But here another inconvenience arises, for 
 if we aim above the object, by raising the muzzle of 
 our piece, the object is excluded from our view, by the 
 intervention of the barrel, so that we are prevented 
 from measuring the distance with our eye, and, instead 
 of one, are liable to aim two or three above it. 
 
 The second difficulty is removed by depressing the 
 breach of the gun instead of elevating the muzzle, and 
 the quantity of the depression is measured with great 
 uicety by what are called the sights. 
 
 On the upper surface of the barrel, at right angles 
 •with its axis, is fixed a piece of flat thin iron, about 
 six inches from the breech, and on the centre of its top 
 a small square notch is filed. This is called the back 
 sight. The front sight is nothing more than the small 
 knob of iron, or brass, which is fixed on all fowling- 
 pieces, about half an inch from the muzzle. When 
 aim is taken, the eye is raised over the back sight till 
 the front sight appears through the notch which is then 
 brought upon the object. 
 
 With respect to the gun-lock, great care is taken iu 
 the manufacture of this article, and in the finishing it. 
 This consists of divers parts, such as the cock, which 
 is the part containing the flint: the priming-pan, to 
 hold a small quantity of powder, which is connected 
 with that in the barrel : the hammer, that which covers 
 the priming, and against the upper part of which the 
 flint strikes : the trigger, used to bring the flint and 
 hammer in contact ; and certain springs, as the main- 
 spring* tire rear-spring, &c., which are concealed in the 
 stock, and which are adapted either to hold the cock 
 on the half-cock, whole cock, or to extricate it at the 
 xnoment of firing the piece. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to improve this part 
 of the instrument, and to render it more safe in the 
 hands either of inexperienced or careless persons, be- 
 
 cause, in common locks, it sometimes happens that the 
 piece will go off when it is only on the half-cock, and 
 when it ought to be perfectly secure from accident. 
 
 The “ Society” in the Adelphi, for the encourage- 
 ment of Arts, Manufactures, &c., have rewarded many 
 persons for their ingenuity in this respect. We shall 
 notice the improvements of Mr. Webb, and of Mr. 
 Dodd ; to the former they presented twenty guineas, 
 as a mark of their approbation : to the latter, their ho- 
 norary medal and ten guineas. 
 
 Mr. Webb’s improvement may be thus described : — 
 The lock is so contrived that when it is on full-cock, 
 and the trigger pulled in the common manner, it re- 
 turns to the half-cock only, unless at the same time that 
 the trigger is pulled, the pressure of the thumb is ap- 
 plied on a spring placed upon the but or stock of the 
 gun ; in which case it gives fire in the usual way. The 
 object of the invention is to guard against accidents 
 which arise when fire-arms are left loaded, or the mis- 
 fortunes which frequently happen from twigs of trees 
 or bushes catching the trigger when sportsmen are 
 passing through hedges, &c. 
 
 Mr. Dodd says his improved lock is so perfectly se- 
 cure as to preclude the possibility of its firing when on 
 the half-cock, either by accident, violence, or design. 
 It possesses all the advantages of stop or bolt-cocks, 
 without the inconveniences to which they are liable. 
 Our readers shall hear his own account as taken from 
 the twenty-second volume of the “ Transactions” of the 
 Society of Arts : — 
 
 “ Though these improved locks are perfectly secure 
 at half-cock, they will fire from whole-cock, with much 
 more certainty than a lock having a hair-trigger, be- 
 cause less complex, and with equal fleetness. 
 
 “ A most valuable improvement in this lock is, that 
 pulling the trigger, when the piece is at half-cock, ren- 
 ders it more and more secure, the reverse of this being 
 the case with common locks ; for the more powerfully 
 the trigger is pulled when they are at half-cock, the 
 more insecure they become. 
 
 “ Another truly essential improvement is, that this 
 lock cannot possibly catch and stop, at the position of 
 half-cock, when passing from the whole-cock, and miss 
 fire ; a serious misfortune, to which locks made on the 
 common principle are so liable, that to prevent it, all 
 the best of these use a peculiar piece of machinery 
 called a fly, or detachant. 
 
 “ The improved locks will be much less liable to be 
 out of repair, as the bents are much deeper, and run 
 through the solid metal direct towards the centre of the 
 tumbler : unlike the usual bents, they are small, point- 
 ed, and the line of their depth near the circumference 
 of the tumbler. Hence they are apt to be snapped off, 
 or easily w T orn away, and fire from half-cock, as too 
 frequently and fatally occurs. 
 
 “ When these improved locks require cleaning, they 
 are of so plain and simple a construction, as easily to 
 be taken to pieces, and put together by any soldier or 
 sportsman. 
 
 “To 
 
GUN-MAKING. 
 
 397 
 
 “ To put one of these improved locks to an old j 
 stock, it is merely necessary to make some trivial alter- 
 ations in the excavation of the wood. 
 
 “ The sportsman who has one of these improved 
 locks to a fowling-piece, if the trigger should become 
 entangled with a twig, may forcibly pull his piece 
 away, assured, that in so doing, he increases his safety : 
 but, if it be a common lock, he must turn back, and 
 cautiously unloose, lest the piece explode. 
 
 “ The improved locks possess four times the strength 
 of common locks where the latter are weakest, and are 
 of equal strength in all other parts. 
 
 “ Among the many contrivances and complicated 
 means to prevent pieces going off at half-cock, bolts 
 have principally been used ; but they are ill adapted to 
 the purpose, exclusive of the additional expense ; for 
 few people, when alarmed, have the presence of mind 
 first to unbolt the piece to render it fit for service, but 
 they instantly attempt to cock. Disappointment adds to 
 their agitation, and increases the confusion ; and, ere they 
 recollect their mistake, the lost moments, at such a junc- 
 ture, may occasion the loss of their lives ; especially from 
 free-booters and rifle-men, who are always prepared be- 
 fore they attack, and seldom shew mercy to them from 
 whom it appeared they had none to expect. But this 
 lock is admirably devised for safety and service, as it 
 merely need be cocked for use, and half-cocked for se- 
 curity ; both which can be performed with expedition 
 equal to that of any other lock that ever was made public. 
 
 “ Common locks are subject to the most momentous 
 failing of a false or delusive half-cock ; for the nose of 
 the sear rests on the point of the half-cock bent, which, 
 as it causes no alteration in the external appearance, 
 cannot be discovered, and its sad effects prevented. 
 This very serious accident frequently occurs among re- 
 cruits and unskilful gunners, from inattention to a very 
 fine punctilio of military exercise ; but it is utterly im- 
 possible that this should ever occur w'ith the improved 
 lock, by accident or even by design. The improved 
 lock is constructed on more mechanical principles, 
 and is much simpler, and more easy to manufacture, 
 than any other lock. Hence, there will be no increase 
 of expense in execution, but a considerable decrease to 
 the locks of rifles, fowling-pieces, pistols, &c. 
 
 “ Simplicity alone, is deemed a valuable improve- 
 ment ; but, to this excellency, the improved lock unites 
 a pleasing variety of new and useful superiorities, with- 
 out sacrificing any advantage which the best of common 
 locks at present possess. 
 
 “ These improvements are equally applicable to all 
 descriptions of fire-arms, civil as well as military.” 
 
 We shall now give a description of a gun-lock, for 
 which His Majesty’s letters patent have been obtained by 
 Mr. Manton, of Dorset-street. — In this the hammer acts 
 downwards, and opens that side of the pan nearest the 
 cock to admit the sparks of the prime. The hammer 
 returning to its jointing, fills up the opening in the pan, 
 and it is furnished with a strong steel pan, fastened by 
 a stud in the back, and a small screw' through the ham- | 
 
 mer. At the end of the hammer face, nearest the pan, 
 is a small groove or notch, sunk in the hammer to carry off 
 any wet that may come down upon it. The hammer is 
 fixed to the plate by the same screw that fastens the 
 hammer-spring on the inside. The hole in the shank of 
 the hammer being screwed, it turns on the hammer- 
 springs which comes through the plate about three- 
 eighths of an inch. On the inside of the hammer- 
 spring there is a projection one-fourth of an inch 
 long, which comes through a square hole in the plate, 
 into a hole in the shank of the hammer, and forces it 
 to return to its jointing with the pan, when the lock is 
 brought to half-cock. The cock is flat on the inside, 
 and is barely one-eighth of an inch thick. It passes 
 between the plate and the hammer when it comes 
 down. The jaws project outwards, to answ er the ham- 
 mer. A bulge is left on the breast of the cock to 
 render the fitting of the squares of the tumbler more 
 strong and perfect. When the lock is struck down, the 
 flint comes in contact with the hammer-face, near the 
 end, and forces it down sufficiently to admit the sparks 
 into the pan. The inside of the pan is round, and the 
 same size from end to end. About one-third is cut out 
 to receive part of the hammer. The main-spring has a 
 stud like others. The end of the stud size is bevelled 
 to fit under the end of the nib, by which it is prevented 
 from rising. The crane of the tumbler has a roller in 
 the end, on which the main-spring acts. The bridle 
 has a strong leg on the inside, with a round stud, which 
 fits into the plate near the sear-nose, to prevent it from 
 twisting when the tumbler comes in contact with the 
 eye to stop the cock. The sear acts on the tumbler in 
 the usual way, but the shank is nearly vertical instead 
 of horizontal. The sear-spring acts on a shoulder, left 
 on the outside of the sear for that purpose, and forces 
 the sear-nose to the tumbler. The pan of this lock is 
 primed from the touch-hole by the compression of the 
 air in loading. 
 
 The following are described as the principal advan- 
 tages derived from this lock : — 1. The pan being solid 
 with the plate at the top, protects the prime from wet. 
 2. The hammer opening downwards, and the flint act- 
 ing in a direct line with the pan, the sparks communi- 
 cate quicker to the prime. 3. The hammer returns to 
 its jointing with the pan when the lock is brought to 
 half-cock, without any additional trouble to the user. 
 4. The lowness and compactness of the lock altoge- 
 ther, render it much less difficult to protect from wet, 
 and much less liable to accidents by catching, in cover- 
 shooting, than locks of the present construction. 
 
 The lock, as we have already observed, is let into 
 the gun-stock, which is uniformly manufactured from 
 the wood of the w'alnut-tree, of which the gun-smith 
 always keeps a large stock, and well seasoned. The 
 gun-stocks are usually made by workmen at their own 
 homes, because one man will fashion gun-stocks suffi- 
 cient for the wants of several gun-smiths. 
 
 Before any of the pieces described are appropriated 
 for service, it is necessary, as we have already observed, 
 5 I to 
 
398 
 
 GUN-MAKING. 
 
 to have each undergo a particular trial of its soundness, 
 which is called a proof, to be made by or before one 
 authorized for the purpose, called the proof-master. 
 
 To make a proof of the piece a proper place is 
 chosen, which is to be terminated by a mount of earth, 
 very thick, to receive the bullets fired agaiust it, that 
 none of them may run through it. The piece is laid on 
 the ground supported only in the middle by a block of 
 wood. It is fired at three times ; the first with pow- 
 der of the weight of the bullet, and the two others 
 with three quarters of the weight ; after which a little 
 more powder is put in to singe the piece ; and, after 
 this, water, which is impressed with a spunge, putting 
 the finger on the touch-hole, to discover if there be any 
 cracks ; which done, they are examined with the cat, 
 which is a piece of iron with three grasps, disposed in 
 the form of a triangle, and of the caliber of the piece. 
 
 Having gone through the principal parts of the bu- 
 siness to be treated on, we shall conclude the article 
 with an account of the gun-flint, which is of great im- 
 portance in the practice of gunnery, and the proper 
 forming of which is a distinct trade in France, and is 
 thus described : — 
 
 In France, the best flints are found in the neighbour- 
 hood of St. Aignan, in the department of the Loire et 
 Cher, and in that of the Indre, and the departments 
 that occupy the valleys of Siene et Marne ; they occur 
 as horizontal banks in fletz-limestone, particularly chalk, 
 and also in marl. Among twenty of such beds or 
 layers, situate one above the other, at the distance of 
 about twenty feet, there is generally only one, very 
 seldom two, that furnish good gun-flints. All those of 
 a good quality are coated with a white earthy rind. On 
 the banks of the Cher, the flints are excavated by 
 means of shafts of from forty to fifty feet in depth, 
 from whence levels or horizontal galleries are carried 
 into the only good stratum which is known in that 
 district ; but on the banks of the Seine, in the hillocks j 
 of Rocheguyon, where the cliffs of chalk present ! 
 broken precipices, one of these beds, which contain 
 the best sort, is at about six fathoms’ distance from the 
 upper surface of the great mass of chalk. 
 
 The characters by which the good flints are distin- 
 guished from those less fit for being manufactured, are 
 the following : — Their surface is rather convex, ap- 
 proaching to globular ; those that are amorphous, or of 
 a very irregular form, such as knobbed, branched, & c., 
 are generally full of imperfections. Good flint nodules 
 seldom exceed the weight of twenty pounds ; nor are 
 those that weigh less than one or two pounds considered 
 as being of a good quality. Internally, they should ap- j 
 pear unctuous and rather shining, with a grain too fine 
 to be perceptible to the eye. The colour may vary j 
 from honey yellow to blackish brown, but the tint 
 should be uniform in the same nodule. Their transpa- 
 rency should be sufficient to admit letters to be distin- 
 guished through a piece of stone of a quarter of a line 
 thick, laid close upon the paper. Their fracture should be 
 perfectly smooth and equal throughout, and the frag- 
 
 ment slightly conchoidal. The last of these properties 
 is most essential, since on it depends the facility with 
 which the nodule is divided into gun-flints. All flints 
 that prove deficient in any one of the above characters, 
 either naturally or by a long exposure to the air, are 
 called intractable, and rejected by the workmen. 
 
 The tools made use of by the makers of gun-flints 
 are four in number. — 1. A hammer, or mace of iron, 
 with a square head, the weight of which does not ex- 
 ceed two pounds, with a handle of seven or eight 
 inches long. This tool is not made of steel, for an ex- 
 cess of hardness would render the strokes too hard or 
 dry, and would shatter the nodules irregularly, instead 
 of breaking them by a clear fracture. 
 
 2. A hammer with two points. This is made of 
 good steel, well hardened ; its weight does not exceed 
 sixteen ounces, it need not weigh more than ten ounces. 
 Its handle is jseven inches long, passing through it in 
 such a manner that the points of the hammer are nearer 
 the hand of the workman than the centre of gravity of 
 the mass. The form and size of the hammers of dif- 
 ferent workmen vary a little ; but this disposition of the 
 points is common to them all, and is of consequence to 
 the force and certainty of the blow. 
 
 3. The disk hammer, or roulette, a small tool which 
 represents a solid wheel, or segment of a cylinder, two 
 inches and four lines in diameter ; its weight does not 
 exceed four ounces. It is made of steel not hardened, 
 and is fixed on a handle six inches in length, which 
 passes through a square hole in the centre. 
 
 4. A chisel tapering and levelled at both extremities, 
 seven or eight inches long, made of steel not hardened ; 
 this is set on a block of wood, which, at the same time 
 serves as a bench for the workmen. 
 
 To these four tools we may add a file, for the pur- 
 pose of restoring the chisel from time to time. 
 
 After having selected a good mass of flint the follow- 
 ing operations are performed by the workmen : — 
 
 1. To break the Block. — The workman being seated 
 on the ground, places the nodule of flint on his left 
 thigh, and applies slight strokes with the square ham- 
 mer, to divide it into smaller pieces of about a pound 
 and a half each, with broad surfaces, and almost even 
 fracture, the strokes should be moderate, lest the mass 
 crack and split in the wrong direction. 
 
 2. To cleave and chip the Flint. — The principal 
 operation is to split the flint well, or to chip off the 
 scales of the length, thickness, and shape adapted to be 
 afterwards fashioned into gun-flints. In this part the 
 greatest degree of address and certainty of manipula- 
 tion are required. The fracture of the flint is not con- 
 fined to any particular direction, it may be clipped in 
 all parts with equal facility. 
 
 The workman holds the piece of flint in his left hand 
 not supported, and strikes with the pointed hammer on 
 the edges of the great planes produced by the first 
 breaking, by which means the white coating of the 
 flint is removed in the form of small scales, and the 
 mass of the flint itself laid bare ; after which he con- 
 tinues 
 
GUN-MAKING. 
 
 399 
 
 tinues to chip off similar scaly portions from the 
 pure mass of the flint. These scaly portions are nearly 
 one inch and a half wide, two inches and a half long, 
 and their thickness in the middle is of about two lines. 
 They are slightly convex below, and consequently 
 leave in the part of the flint from which they were i 
 separated a space slightly concave, longitudinally bor- 
 dered by two rather projecting straight lines or ridges. 
 These ridges produced by the separation of the flrst 
 scales, must naturally constitute nearly the middle of 
 the subsequent pieces, and such scales alone as have 
 their ridges thus placed in the middle are fit to be 
 made into gun-flints. In this manner the workman 
 continues to split or chip the mass of flint in various 
 directions, until the defects usually found in the inte- 
 rior render it impossible to make the fractures re- 
 quired, or until the piece is reduced too much to ! 
 receive the small blows by which the flint is divided. 
 
 3. To fashion the Gun-flint . — Five different parts may j 
 be distinguished in a gun-flint. 1. The sloping facet, | 
 or bevel part, which is impelled against the hammer of j 
 the lock of the gun. Its width should be from two to ! 
 three-twelfths of an inch : if it were broader it would I 
 be too liable to break ; and if more obtuse, the scin- j 
 filiation would be less brisk. 2dly. The sides, or late- 
 ral edges, which are always rather irregular. 3dly. The 
 back, or the part opposite the tapering edge : this is 
 the thickest part of the flint. 4thly. The under sur- 
 face, which is uninterrupted and rather convex. And, 
 5thly. The upper facet between the tapering edge and 
 the back, which receives the upper claw of the cock ; 
 it is slightly concave. 
 
 In order to fashion the flint, those scales are selected 
 that have at least one of the above-mentioned longitu- 
 dinal ridges: the workman fixes on one of the two 
 tapering borders to form the striking edge ; after which 
 tlie two sides of the stone that are to form the lateral 
 edges, as well as the part which is to form the back, 
 are successively placed on the edge of the chisel in 
 such a manner that the convex surface of the flint, 
 which rests on the fore-finger of his left hand, is turned 
 towards that tool. He then, with the roulette, applies 
 some slight strokes to the flint just opposite the edge of 
 the chisel underneath ; by which means the flint 
 breaks exactly along the edge of the chisel. 
 
 4. The finishing operation is the trimming, or the 
 | process of giving the flint a smooth and equal edge 
 this is done by turning the stone and placing the 
 edge of its tapering end on the chisel, in which situa- 
 tion it is completed by five or six slight strokes with the 
 solid wheel. 
 
 The whole operation of making a gun-flint is per- 
 formed in less than one minute. A good workman is 
 able to manufacture a thousand good chips or scales a 
 day, if the flint nodules be of a good quality ; and in 
 the same manner he can fashion 500 gun-flints in a day ; 
 so that in the space of three days he is able to cleave 
 and finish a thousand gun-flints w'ithout further assist- 
 ance. This work leaves a great quantity of refuse, for 
 scarcely more than half of the scales are good, and 
 nearly half the mass in the best flints is incapable of 
 being chipped out, so that it seldom happens that the 
 largest nodules will furnish more than fifty gun-flints. 
 Such scales as have a crust, or are too thick to be made 
 into gun-flints, are used for the more common purpose 
 of striking a light. The gun-flints are sorted out ac- 
 cording to their perfection, and the use to which they 
 are to be applied. They are classed into extra and 
 common flints : flints for pistols, muskets, and fowling- 
 pieces. This account of gun-flints is taken from a 
 paper published by Citizen Dolomieu in the third vo- 
 lume of the “ Memoires de l’lnstitute Nationale,” 
 which was translated and partly abridged in the second 
 number of Nicholson’s Journal, octavo edition. It is 
 said, that a single workman, named Stephen Buffet, 
 who emigrated from the commune of Meunes to the 
 banks of the Seine, where he has carried on this art 
 for about thirty years by himself, was the person from 
 whom Dolomieu obtained the present instruction^. 
 There are a few other places in France where this 
 art is practised, but in none to the extent of the places 
 before-mentioned. The author has not met with this 
 manufactory in any other countries, except in the terri- 
 tory, of Nicenza, and one of the cantons of Sicily. He 
 remarks that it may be carried on elsewhere, though 
 probably overlooked by travellers, on account of its 
 apparent insignificance. I believe it is practised at 
 Purfleet, in the county of Kent, and in various other 
 parts of England. 
 
HAT-MAKING. 
 
 Some kind of covering for the head, either for 
 defence or ornament, appears to have been generally 
 worn in all ages and countries where the inhabitants 
 have made any progress in the arts of civilized life. 
 It has, indeed, been stated on the authority of Herodo- 
 tus, that the Egyptians w 7 ere accustomed to appear | 
 bare-headed ; but this assertion must be considered as | 
 subject to limitation, probably comprising only some 
 of the poorer classes of the community, as from other 
 documents it appears they were no strangers to this 
 article of dress, and it is well known that a crown was 
 the signature of royal authority. The form, substance, 
 and colour of head-dresses have been exceedingly va- 
 rious, according to the different circumstances or hu- 
 mour of the w'earers. The Persians wore turbans, and 
 other nations inhabiting the Indian Peninsula, wore a 
 kind of covering for the head which, like the thick-laid 
 thatch of a lowly cottage, seemed calculated to divest 
 the whole building of all proportion. The imperial 
 turban is said to have been composed of almost a whole | 
 bale of muslin, twisted and formed nearly in an oval 
 shape, surmounted w ith a woollen cap, encircled with a 
 radiated crow n : the ministerial turban was smaller in 
 its dimensions, but of superior altitude. The turban 
 of the chief magi, on account of his superior eminence, 
 was higher than those of the monarch and minister 
 united; and, by a regular gradation preserved among 
 those of the inferior magi, the most ignorant could 
 ascertain their situation and dignity. The Jews wore 
 a variety similar to those of the nations with whom they 
 were connected. From the Persians they borrowed 
 those large turbans which adorned their elders, doctors, 
 and scribes. The mitre of the priests was their own. 
 Several of their tribes adopted the caps which the Ro- 
 mans were accustomed to give their slaves on their ma- 
 numission ;* and which is said to have borne a great re- 
 semblance to some worn by the polished Jews to this 
 day. The ancient helmets were a substitute for hats, 
 made.of steel, brass, and sometimes more costly metals. 
 In our own country, Stowe informs us, that “ The 
 English used to ride and go winter and summer in knit 
 caps, cloth hoods, and the best sort in silk thrummed 
 hats.” 
 
 Head dresses, from their variety, simplicity, and mu- 
 tability, had hitherto been an object of little regard in 
 a manufacturing or commercial point of view. The in- 
 
 * The ancient Koiqans gave a pileus or cap to their slaves in the 
 ceremony of making jthem free : whence the proverb vocure 
 servos ad pileum. llenCty also on medals the cap is the symbol of 
 Liberty, who is represehtt^t' either as bearing it on the top of a 
 spear or holding it by the’jToint in her right hand. 
 
 troduction of felt hats has occasioned a uniformity and 
 extent to this article of dress unknown in former ages ; 
 and has proved of considerable importance to the manu- 
 facturer and the tradesman. Curiosity is naturally 
 excited to become acquainted with the particulars 
 respecting their invention, and the subsequent stages of 
 improvement in the manufacture ; but the operation of 
 individual interest, so generally connected with the 
 useful arts, seems to have concealed the whole in ob- 
 scurity, and little information on the subject can now 
 be obtained. 
 
 The hatters have a tradition among them, that w'hile 
 St. Clement, the fourth bishop of Rome, was fleeing 
 from his persecutors, his feet became blistered, and, to 
 afford him relief, he w r as induced to put w ool between 
 his sandals and the soles of his feet. On continuing his 
 journey, the wool, by the perspiration, motion, and 
 pressure of the feet, assumed a uniformly compact sub- 
 stance, which has since been denominated felt. When 
 he afterwards settled at Rome, it is said he improved 
 the discovery; and from this circumstance has been 
 dated the origin of felting. It affords a confirmation 
 to the truth of the account that the hatters in Ireland, 
 and in several other catholic countries, still hold a festi- 
 val on St. Clement’s day. It does not appear, however, 
 that St. Clement so far improved the occurrence, as to 
 ’ have hats formed of this substance : these are said to 
 have been invented at Paris, by a Swiss, about the 
 j commencement of the 15th century. They w r ere not 
 generally known till Charles the Seventh made his tri- 
 umphant entry into Rouen in the year 1449, when, 
 from F. Daniel’s account of that entry, it appears he 
 astonished the whole city by appearing in a hat lined 
 with red silk, and surmounted by a plume of feathers ; 
 
 ! from this entry their general use is dated, 
 j When the clergy first adopted this part of dress, it 
 was considered as an unwarrantable indulgence : councils 
 were held, and regulations published, forbidding any 
 priest or religious person to appear abroad so covered ; 
 and enjoining them to keep to the use of chaperons or 
 hoods, made of black cloth, with decent cornets : if 
 they were poor, they were, at least, to have cornets 
 fastened to their hats, upon penalty of suspension and 
 I excommunication. And, by the statute of 13 Eliza- 
 ; beth, every person above the age of seven years, and 
 under a certain degree, was obliged on Sundays and 
 holidays to wear a woollen cap, made in England, and 
 finished by some of the fraternity of cappers, under the 
 penalty of three shillings and four-pence for every day’s 
 neglect. This statute was repealed the 39th Eliz. 
 
 How 
 
HAT-MAKING. 
 
 401 
 
 How far the manufacture of hats was practised on 
 the Continent before they were made in England, we 
 are not able to say ; from Stow’s Chronicle we learn, 
 that about the beginning of Henry the Eighth, began 
 the making of Spanish felts in England, by Spaniards 
 and Dutchmen : from hence it appears, that before this 
 time, in Spain and Holland they were no strangers to 
 the art. In the second year of James the First, the 
 felt-makers of London obtained a corporation, and hired 
 a hall near Christ-church, the king granting them va- 
 rious privileges and liberties for their support. Hats 
 are at present made in different countries on the Conti- 
 nent, and in America ; but they have not been made in 
 any considerable quantities, or attended to as an article 
 of commerce, except in France and our own country. 
 From France they were exported, in large quantities, 
 to England, Spain, Italy, and Germany : the quantity 
 now made there is inconsiderable : England has, in its 
 turn, become the grand mart for the manufacture ; and 
 from hence the article is exported to different parts of 
 the Continent, America, and various other parts of the 
 globe. To encourage the manufacture of hats our own 
 laws prohibit their importation. 
 
 Felt hat-making consists in a method of working up 
 wool or hair into a species of cloth, independently of 
 either spinning or weaving ; and giving it a convenient 
 form, with a degree of stiffening sufficient to preserve j 
 its figure, and to answer the purposes of wearing. The 
 mechanism of felting is curious and interesting : it de- 
 pends on the conformation of all animal hairs and 
 wool, which disposes them to unite with each other in 
 such a manner as to produce a firm and compact sub- 
 stance. 
 
 On examining hairs, or filaments of wool, with the 
 naked eye, or even by a low magnifying power of the j 
 microscope, they appear perfectly smooth and even. 
 Their surface, notwithstanding, is by no means smooth; 
 but composed of lamellae, covering each other from 
 the root to the point, in a manner resembling that by 
 which the scales of a fish cover the animal from the 
 head downwards. This disposition of the lamellae on 
 the surface of hairs is discoverable by holding a hair 
 with one hand, and drawing it between two fingers of the 
 other, in the different directions from the root to the 
 point, and from the point to the root. In the former 
 case no sensible friction takes place, nor is any rough- 
 ness discoverable : in the latter we discover a very sen- 
 sible resistance, which is most readily discerned by 
 moistening the fingers. The following experiment is 
 still more decisive. By holding a hair between the 
 fore-finger and thumb, and rubbing it in the longitudinal 
 direction, a progressive motion takes place, and this 
 motion is invariably towards the root, or with the root 
 of the hair foremost. For example : if the hair be held 
 in a perpendicular direction with the root upwards, by 
 rubbing the finger and thumb together, it will be found 
 to assume a motion by which the extremity of the hair, 
 pointing upwards, will rise still higher ; but if the hair 
 is turned, so that the extremity farthest from the root 
 
 be placed upwards, its rising motion is discontinued, 
 and it immediately recedes downwards. This is analo- 
 gous to w'hat happens when children, by way of sport, 
 introduce an ear of rye or barley between the wrist and 
 the shirt, the points of the beards of which are directed 
 outwards. By the various motions of the arm, this 
 ear, sometimes catching against the shirt, sometimes 
 against the skin, takes a progressive motion backwards, 
 and soon gets up to the arm-pit. It is very clear, that 
 this effect is produced by the beards of the ear, and, 
 indeed, chiefly by the asperities upon those beards, 
 which being all directed towards the point do not per- 
 mit the ear to move in any other direction than towards 
 that part to which it w'as united to the stalk. 
 
 This conformation of the surface of hairs and wool, 
 which appear to be composed of hard lamellae or aspe- 
 rites, placed over each other likes tiles from the root to 
 the point, lays the foundation of felting. In a layer of 
 the material, by the operation it undergoes, the hairs 
 are brought into close contact by their progressive and 
 uniform motion towards the root ; and meeting in va- 
 rious directions they become twisted together, the 
 lamillae of the different hairs fixing themselves to others 
 directed in a contrary way, at the same time, preserving 
 the whole in a close and compact substance. 
 
 The materials in general use are, lambs’ wool, rab- 
 bits and hares’ fur, beaver, seal wool, monkey stuff, or 
 neuter wool, camels’ hair, goats’ hair or estridge, silk, 
 and cotton. Moles’ fur, and otter wool, are likewise 
 sometimes made use of. The foreign lambs’ wool ge- 
 nerally used is the Italian, Spanish, and Peruvian, or 
 vicuna wool, commonly known among hatters by the 
 name of red wool. Our native wools are of various 
 qualities : those in most esteem are the Herefordshire, 
 or Ross wool, Southdown, Wye-side, Wiltshire, So- 
 merset, and Hampshire. There is likewise wool 
 sheared from Spanish lambs bred in England, known 
 by the name of merino. Cod-wool is the wool plucked 
 from lambs who die in the birth ; long cod-wool is that 
 plucked from lambs that die in early life. The best 
 fur is from the backs of the different animals, and it 
 decreases in value as it approaches the belly. Rabbits’ 
 fur, including the backs, and the best part of the sides 
 mixed together, is known in the market by the name of 
 best stuff; the fur from the bellies and worst part of the 
 sides, seconds ; that from odd bits of skins, 8tc., clippings ; 
 and the fur taken from rabbit-skins, when they are out 
 of season, is denominated quarter-wool. The fur from 
 unseasoned hare-skins is called stage hare-wool : with 
 this is mixed also the inferior fur from seasoned skins. 
 The best fur from the beaver is ruffing ; the next in 
 value, cheek-napping ; and the inferior sorts are black- 
 wooms, brown-wooms, white-wooms, brown-stage, and 
 white-stage. Old-coat is taken from the beaver-skins 
 that have been worn by the savages ; but little of this 
 article is now imported. 
 
 The wools are washed and carded, and when very 
 long, cut to a moderate length with a chopping-knife, 
 or hatchet, on a wooden block. White Russia best-* 
 5 K stuff 
 
402 
 
 HAT-MAKING. 
 
 stuff and hares’ wool, and the most inferior stuffs, as 
 clippings, tail-wool, & c., are improved by the opera- 
 tion of carrotting. For this purpose, a layer of the 
 stuff is placed in a box, or any suitable vessel, not of 
 metal, and sprinkled over with a mixture of about one 
 part nitrous, or nitrous and sulphuric acid, and six 
 parts water, by means of a brush. A second layer is 
 then placed in the vessel, which is again sprinkled with 
 the acid mixture ; this is repeated till it is full. To 
 prevent the liquor running down into the bottom of the 
 vessel, without equally wetting all the stuff, its posi- 
 tion is frequently changed in the course of the day : it is 
 then kept in the digesting heat of a stove all night. By 
 this treatment the stuffs acquire a ruddy or reddish yel- 
 low colour, like the inner part of a carrot, from which 
 it derives its name. 
 
 In felting any of these materials together, the first 
 object of the workman is to obtain the most complete 
 separation of the fibres, and to dispose a layer of them 
 in every possible direction w ith regard to each other ; 
 this is effected by means of bowing. For this purpose, 
 a platform of w'ood, about four feet wide, is erected 
 against the wall of a convenient shop, and divided by 
 side partitions about the same width from each other, 
 into distinct portions, for the convenience of different 
 workmen, called hurdles, each of which is enlightened 
 by a small window'. To each hurdle is suspended a 
 bow, by means of a small cord fixed to the ceiling, or 
 any other convenient place, consisting of a pole about 
 seven feet long, generally made of deal-wood, to which 
 are fixed two bridges of hard wood, the upper one 
 nearest the window, called the cock, and, the lower 
 one, the breech. To the upper part of the pole, above 
 the cock, is fastened a cat-gut line, or bow-string, of 
 considerable length, and twisted round the pole, leaving 
 only sufficient to bring over the cock and breech, and 
 to fasten to the lower part of the pole : thus, when the 
 string breaks, it is partly untwisted from the upper end 
 of the bow, and the necessity of a new one is pre- 
 vented. To preserve the wood from wearing by the 
 action of the bow-string, a strip of horse-skin, or vel- 
 lum, is fastened to the edge of each bridge ; and near 
 the cord, by which the bow is suspended, is fastened a 
 small strap to place the hand in, which enables the 
 workman to hold it with firmness. The bow'-pin is a 
 small stick with a knob at each end for plucking the 
 bow-string. 
 
 As the process of making is a little different iu dif- 
 ferent kinds of hats, we shall first describe the manu- 
 facture of wool hats, or cordies. A quantity of carded 
 wool, of one or more sorts, sufficient for one hat, ge- 
 nerally about seven or eight ounces, is laid on the 
 hurdle, towards the left. The workman then holding 
 the bow horizontally in his left hand, under the strap, 
 and the bow-pin in his right, placing the bow-string near 
 the right-hand edge of the material, gives it a pluck 
 with the pin. The string immediately flies back nearer 
 to the pole than its situation was when at rest, strikes 
 into the wool, and, instantaneously returning to its ori- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ginal position, scatters a part before it to a distance 
 proportioned to the force with which it was pulled. 
 By repeated strokes the whole is thus worked, ob- 
 serving, after each stroke to raise the string, by giving 
 the bow a turn with the left hand. This breaking over, 
 as it is termed, is repeated several times, more or less, 
 in proportion to the difficulty w'ith which the hairs are 
 disunited : when all the fibres are completely separated, 
 the material is again placed towards the left-hand side 
 of the hurdle, and the workman proceeds, with more 
 order than before, to scatter the wool to the right-hand, 
 so as to form a thin regular layer ; which he effects by 
 duly proportioning the force of his strokes, and the 
 position of the bow. When about one-third part 
 is thus bowed, it is formed by the hands into an 
 oval figure, ending in acute angles at the extremities. 
 This portion of the material, thus formed, is called a 
 batt. 
 
 The batt is hardened by a slight pressure with the 
 hands for a short time, so as to connect it together suf- 
 ficiently to bear careful handling. Another batt is then 
 formed of the same dimensions ; and with the remain- 
 ing third part, two smaller batts are formed, which are 
 separately united to the primary ones by a little pressure. 
 This gives each of them a more uniform consistence 
 than w'ould be obtained by forming single batts only. 
 It was formerly common to form six batts for each hat, 
 but few are now willing to devote sufficient for the 
 purpose. It is necessary to remark, that the batts are 
 bowed thicker in that part which is designed to form 
 the band of the intended hat ; and to give them a finish, 
 the edges are torn round even by the right-hand, w hile 
 the pressure of the left prevents their being torn in too 
 far. 
 
 It now remains to connect the parts together in some 
 convenient form, and to proceed in the operation of 
 felting. For this purpose, a w r et cloth is folded so as 
 to form a triangle, and laid on one of the batts. The 
 extremities of the batts, with a small portion of the upper 
 part is then folded over the cloth, and the edges meet- 
 ing over each other form a conical cap. This cap is 
 laid on the second batt with the joining downwards, 
 which being also folded up in the same manner, their 
 places of junction will be diametrically opposite each 
 other. This is laid on a second wet cloth, which is 
 closely folded over the whole, so as to preserve the tri- 
 angular figure ; it is then ready for basoning. The 
 bason is a circular piece of iron, exactly the same as 
 those commonly used in Wales for baking over the fire, 
 called backstones. This is laid over a hole in a 
 plank, underneath which is a small grating fitted to 
 the plank for this purpose. The prepared cap is then 
 laid on the warm iron, and the process of felting carried 
 on by folding, pressing, and sprinkling it continually 
 with water. The corners beiug folded over a little, the 
 base is first turned up towards the tip ; and in this 
 state it is worked a short time by pressing with the 
 hands, moving them backwards and forw'ards, and 
 shifting them .about in various directions. Each side is 
 
 then 
 
HAT-MAKING. 
 
 403 
 
 then folded over towards the other alternately, the tip 
 part towards the base ; and, in general, it may be folded 
 in any or every direction, repeating the pressure and 
 working of the wool, and sprinkling it successively after 
 every fold. By this pressure and working the wool in 
 various directions, the points of contact is multiplied ; 
 and the agitation given to each hair causing a pro- 
 gressive motion towards the root, and a coalition with 
 each other, it soon acquires some degree of firmness 
 and contracts in its dimensions. 
 
 On taking off the cloth, and opening the hood or 
 cap, it will be found that the edges, or original folds, 
 will not have that even and uniform appearance with 
 the rest of the surface, but small ridges will be formed 
 by a small part of the sides felting together at the 
 outward edges, which will be considerable if care has 
 not been taken in the first place to fold the batt closely 
 over the in-layer. It is found necessary, therefore, to 
 alter the position of the original edges, by turning 
 round the cap, to extend them a little with the finger 
 so as to produce a uniform surface, and with the hood 
 in this position to continue the basoning as before. It 
 is afterwards turned inside outw'ards, and the same ope- 
 ration continued. The workman afterwards opens the 
 hood, holds it up to the light and looks through it from 
 the inside to discover any parts that may be unusually j 
 thin ; and, on any of these parts, which are deficient, | 
 a little wool is added from that which was torn off the j 
 edges of the batt ; and by working that particular part | 
 on the bason it is made to unite. When this is done, 
 the process of basoning is completed, which generally 
 takes from about twenty minutes to half an hour. 
 
 The hood now consists of a soft spungy kind of stuff, 
 and its texture is loose and imperfect. To produce a 
 more intimate cohesion of the hairs with each other, 
 and obtain the requisite degree of consistence, it must 
 undergo a kind of fulling, and a more effectual me- 
 chanical operation. For this purpose, the hats are first 
 boiled in an iron boiler, in a mixture of about one 
 part urine to six parts soft water, from six to eight 
 hours. To prevent their touching the boiler, they are 
 enclosed in a cloth ; a basket, or, more generally, a 
 lining of straw' is placed round the sides, and at the 
 bottom of the boiler. The felting is completed by 
 working or planking at a water bath. For the conveni- 
 ence of any particular number of workmen, an appa- 
 ratus, called a battery, is generally made use of for this 
 part of the process, consisting of a proportionate 
 number of wooden planks, joined together in the form 
 of the frustrum of a pyramid, supported by stone 
 or brick work, and meeting at the bottom in a 
 kettle, under which is a fire-place. The number 
 of planks is most commonly from five to seven ; 
 and according to the number made use of, it is 
 called a five, six, or seven-room battery, &c. Each 
 plank is from two to three feet broad at the upper edge, 
 and about two feet deep. The kettle is generally of I 
 cast iron or lead, and kept full of soft water, as nearly | 
 boiling as the nature of the operation will admit. To 
 
 facilitate the felting, it is found necessary to add some 
 softening material to the bath : for this purpose, some 
 spermaceti, a marrow-bone, or shreds of wash-leather, 
 have been thrown in ; but oatmeal is at present almost 
 universally used : about a table-spoonful is thrown into 
 the kettle, and occasionally repeated as fresh water is 
 added, or as it may be found necessary. The more 
 greasy substances will answer for the purpose of plank- 
 ing, but it prevents the hats from taking a good dye : 
 leather-shreds answer very well, but are not always so 
 easy of access as oatmeal. 
 
 The operation commences by dipping the article in 
 the bath, and gently rolling it in various directions, ob- 
 serving a degree of regularity, as in basoning, or its 
 receiving more w'ork in some parts than others, will 
 soon give it an irregular and shapeless appearance. It 
 is necessary to be careful at first to turn the hood inside 
 outwards, and to shift the position of its sides fre- 
 quently to prevent their felting together, of which, in 
 the subsequent stages of the process there will be no 
 danger. By working a short time in this way, the arti- 
 cle will be found to have acquired a considerably firmer 
 texture, and to have contracted very rapidly in its di- 
 mensions. The workman then applies leathern gloves, 
 or flat pieces of stout leather, to the palms of his 
 hands, to secure them in some degree from the heat of 
 the water, and continues to dip it much oftener, and to 
 roll it much harder than before, as it requires more 
 labour in this degree of felting, to obtain the requisite 
 firmness and consistence. In the first gentle rolling, an 
 impulse, nearly equal, was given to the hairs in every 
 direction, and hence it so readily contracted in its di- 
 mensions at the same time that it acquired a degree of 
 firmness in substance. In rolling it harder, the pressure 
 is more particularly on the flat surface of the felt, and 
 this acquires a more compact texture, without an equal 
 contraction in the size. It is how r ever necessary to pre- 
 vent any contraction in size w hen it is sufficiently shrunk, 
 and yet w'orked to any degree of consistency. For this 
 purpose, a small roller of wood, called a w’alking-pin, 
 is made use of : over this the edges of the felt are 
 turned, and the whole is rolled in various directions 
 with the walking-pin enclosed by the surrounding felt ; 
 at the same time, continuing to dip it often in the 
 bath. This completes the working at plank ; and on 
 the labour thus given its service in wearing will princi- 
 pally depend. 
 
 The intended hat, after the preceding operation, still 
 possesses the conical figure first given it, consisting of a 
 soft flexible felt, capable, with a moderate degree of 
 force of being extended in every direction. The next 
 thing to be done is to give it the required form. For 
 this purpose, the edge of the hood is turned up about 
 one and a half or tw o inches : the point is then indented 
 with the fingers, and the hood turned over, so as to 
 produce a second inner fold about the same depth. 
 From three to five folds are thus formed, and the whole 
 has the appearance af a flat piece, consisting of a num- 
 ber of concentric circles, or wave-like undulations. 
 
 This 
 
404 
 
 HAT-MAKING. 
 
 This is laid upon the plank, and the workman, keeping 
 it wet with clean warm water, extends the central 
 point with the fingers of his right hand, at the same 
 time pressing it down with his left, and turning it 
 round on the plank, till a flat portion is formed equal 
 to the intended crown of the hat. The flat part is then 
 placed in a block, and the remainder pulled down with 
 the hands round its sides and a string tied tight round ; 
 it is forced down to the bottom of the block with a 
 wooden or copper stamper, which forms the band. 
 The brim will now have a curling inclination towards 
 the crown, but is soon flattened ,by wetting and ex- 
 tending the edges. The water is afterwards pressed out 
 of the hat with the blunt edge of the stamper, and the 
 nap is raised by carding it in any direction with a small 
 wired instrument called a raising card. The hat is then 
 taken oft' the block and placed in a stove to dry, when it 
 is ready for the subsequent operations of dyeing, stif- 
 fening, and finishing. These instructions for blocking 
 refer particularly to the common round hat now r gene- 
 rally w'orn ; but from the nature of the felt it will 
 be seen that any form may easily be given it by the 
 skill of the workman, with a corresponding block. 
 
 This account we have given comprises the general 
 principles of hat-making, and is the foundation of every 
 variety in the art. These common wool hats, or plain 
 cordies are of one uniform contexture throughout ; but 
 ingenuity has contrived a method of making the most 
 of the materials employed, by placing the best side out- 
 wards. This is done by laying on the body of the hat 
 when partly felted a finer and more valuable material, 
 in the same direction it has when on the back of the 
 animal. For the purpose of covering wool hats, the 
 articles made use of are cod-wool and camel’s hair : the 
 former of which, after washing and carding, is boiled 
 about an hour and a half in one part urine to about 
 twelve or fourteen parts of water. The hats covered 
 in this manner are bowed, basoned, and boiled in the 
 usual manner, the common materials being used only 
 in less quantity, proportioned to the addition intended 
 to be made. A thin layer of the prepared cod-wool, 
 with or without the addition of hair, is then bow'ed for 
 each side of the triangular hood, so as just to meet at 
 the edges ; and another piece to go all round on the 
 inside to the depth of the intended brim. The pieces 
 are laid on the principal stuff or body of the hat, and 
 worked on by basoning in the manner already de- 
 scribed: the hairs assuming a motion towards the root, 
 uniformly fix themselves in that direction, leaving the 
 extremities outward which constitute the required nap. 
 After this addition of the nap, the planking takes place 
 as before. 
 
 For obtaining a variety of cordies of different value, 
 they are partially as well as wholly covered with dif- 
 ferent proportions of napping, and on bodies of wool 
 more or less valuable. Next to the plain hats succeed 
 the tips : these have only a nap sufficient to cover the 
 crown and reach a short way down the sides. To save 
 the trouble of basoning the nap on these kind of hats, 
 
 it is only laid on w'ith the hands, the hood turned so 
 that the nap may be inside, and a layer of some proper 
 flexible substance, commonly long horse-hair, placed 
 between the sides to prevent its uniting : in this manner 
 it is taken immediately to the plank. The second class 
 is tips and naps ; these, as w'ell as a cod-wool tip, have 
 a nap of the same on the underside of the brim. And, 
 lastly, succeeds the covers.' A good cover takes about 
 tw'o ounces of cod-wool, and a hair cover about half an 
 ounce of hair in addition to the cod-wool ; these are 
 commonly bowed together ; and the former is scarcely 
 ever used for a nap without the addition of the latter. 
 
 Stuff hats appear to have been originally made 
 throughout of beaver ; the instructions given in the old 
 accounts of hat-making is, to mix three parts of old coat 
 with two parts of castor; but hats made in this way 
 would be much higher in price than any now in general 
 use. The beaver at present is scarce ever used except in 
 the outward nap, and the body of the hat is composed of 
 various inferior stuffs in any proportion ; commonly 
 with the addition of a little Spanish or of vicuna wool, 
 and sometimes a small quantity of silk is added. A 
 patent was granted Mr. James Burn, of Alnwick, 
 Northumberland, for making superfine hats, which, 
 contrary to general modern practice, appear to have 
 been of one uniform consistence. The composition 
 consists of three ounces and a half of moles’ fur, two 
 ounces and a half of beaver, and a quarter of an ounce 
 of Aleppo wool ; “ and in order to subdue the obsti- 
 nate nature of the mole fur,” says Mr. Bnrn, “ so 
 that it may incorporate with other furs usually made 
 into hats, I use a little aqua regia ; but as that process 
 destroys the elastic quality of the fur, I correct it by a 
 little sweet or Florence oil, which sheathes the pungent 
 points of the^aqua regia.” 
 
 M. Monge says, “ that the hairs of the beaver, the 
 rabbit, the hare, &c., being naturally straight, cannot 
 alone be employed in felting till they have undergone a 
 preliminary operation, which consists in rubbing or 
 combining them before they are taken off the skin, 
 with a brush dipped in a solution of mercury in aqua- 
 fortis (nitrous acid). This liquor, acting only on one side 
 of the substance of the hairs, changes their direction 
 from a right line, and gives them that disposition to 
 felting which wool naturally possesses.” However 
 plausible this may appear in theory, experience teaches 
 it is unnecessary in practice, as no difficulty is found in 
 felting stuffs without any mixture of wool ; and though 
 the solution might have been made use of in France, 
 we cannot learn that it has been employed in any ma- 
 nufactory in England. 
 
 Stuffs possess, in general, a greater tendency to felt- 
 ing than wool, and in consequence some sqpall dif- 
 ference is observed in the manufacture. As the fibres 
 are more easily separable, a slighter bow w'ith a finer 
 bow-string is used than that made use of in wool. 
 When the stuffs are bowed in the usual way, the batts 
 are formed and gently pressed down with a piece of 
 osier work, called a gathering basket, consisting of 
 
 open 
 
HAT-MAKING. 
 
 405 
 
 open straight bars only interwove sufficiently to connect 
 it together, and preserve it in form ; it is from eighteen 
 to twenty inches square. This is constantly kept on the 
 hurdle, for the purpose of shifting the stuff as well as 
 for forming the batts. Sometimes one or two of these 
 baskets are placed under the stuff to separate any im- 
 purities that may pass through. To obtain this end 
 more effectually, in the metropolis and several places 
 in the North of England, a fine moveable wire frame 
 is placed on the hurdle on which the stuff is broken 
 over, which is again removed, and the impurities swept 
 off the hurdle for forming the batts. 
 
 These have their first degree of compactness given 
 them by laying on a hardening skin of smooth leather, 
 or sailcloth ; and gently pressing with the hands which 
 are at the same time slightly moved backwards and for- 
 wards to cause the entangling of the fibres. The cap 
 is formed in the same manner as wool hats, only the 
 in-layer for stuff is a piece of wetted paper instead of 
 cloth. When folded up in a wet cloth it is worked on 
 the hurdle in the same manner that other hats are on 
 the bason, but without any heat except what is im- 
 parted by the hands or any subsequent sprinkling. After 
 being thus basoned without any boiling, th^y are im- 
 mediately taken to the battery to undergo the operation 
 of planking. In consequence of the superior smooth- 
 ness of furs over wool, any softening material in the 
 kettle is unnecessary : but it is indispensable that some 
 substitute be made use of which will have an effect 
 equivalent to boiling in the former case. For this pur- 
 pose, wine lees was formerly iu general use, but this 
 has given place to sulphuric acid, which from the small- 
 ness of the quantity made use of is cheaper, and 
 more easily obtained. About a wine-glassful of the 
 acid is added to the kettle of water ; in pouring in 
 which great care is necessary to prevent its sprinkling- 
 over the operator : it is afterwards added in small quan- 
 tities as it is found necessary. Into this bath the hat is 
 first dipped, and then suffered to lie on the plank till 
 cold again. This is called soaking, which is unne- 
 cessary in hats that are previously boiled. 
 
 In America, we understand, it is the practice to boil 
 stuff hats as well as cordies. It appears that the acid 
 in carrotting, boiling, and working at the plank must 
 act as a chemical agent on the substance of the hairs, 
 but iu what way it does not appear that experiments 
 have been made with a view to ascertain : practical 
 hatters seldom give themselves the trouble to think on 
 the subject. M. Chaussier conjectures that it may 
 produce, either by softening or swelling the hairs, a 
 certain alteration which is necessary to bring about the 
 cohesion of the different fibres. It is said, “ that acid 
 of any kind, by taking out the greasy substances on each 
 pile of hair allows the roughness on the surface of each 
 to operate with their full effect, and thus facilitates the 
 mechanical action of felting.” The action of felting 
 being promoted, however, by greasy substances, renders 
 this last solution a little doubtful. Perhaps some kind 
 of mucilaginous substance may be on the surface of the 
 
 hairs, as conjectured by Mr. Nicholson, which is dis. 
 engaged by the action of the acid. 
 
 In the course of planking, imperfections are disco- 
 vered ; knots and other hard substances which occa- 
 sionally remain in the stuff when imperfectly bowed, 
 are picked out with a bodkin, and the stuff which was 
 torn off the edges of the batts is added to such parts as 
 are found deficient. This is laid on the imperfect parts, 
 sprinkled over with a brush called a stopping-brush, and 
 patted down with it while wet : by this means it incor- 
 porates w'ith the rest. In the same manner the nap is 
 laid on, which is generally added towards the conclu- 
 sion ; and it is gently rolled in a horse-hair cloth till 
 the nap is slightly attached. The nap will be longer or 
 shorter, as it receives more or less work after it is 
 added, which causes it to enter a proportionable depth 
 into the body of the hat. 
 
 Plated hats are an article of more modern date : they 
 are said to have been invented in the north of England 
 ' sometime within the last fifty years ; and Lancashire and 
 Cheshire is at present the principal seat of their manu- 
 facture. These are a middle class between cordies and 
 stuffs, designed as a substitute for the latter at a more 
 reasonable expense : to effect this purpose the different 
 kinds of stuff are plated on wool bodies. But in con- 
 sequence of the looser texture and thicker substance of 
 this kind of felt, a nap of much finer materials could 
 i not be laid on in the usual manner so as to appear to 
 I advantage : it is found requisite therefore to have re- 
 ! course to another expedient. The wool body, after it 
 I is boiled in about one part urine to three parts water, 
 
 ! and has been worked sufficiently to complete the felting, 
 
 ! is laid over a hair-cloth on the plank : the nap is then 
 laid on the surface, sprinkled with a brush, and patted 
 down. A layer of old stuff, or stuff which has its pro- 
 perties of felting destroyed, and carded cotton, or 
 either of these separately, is bowed and laid on in the 
 same manner, commonly mixed with a small portion 
 of napping ; and sometimes another layer is added. It 
 is then slightly rolled a short time in the hair-cloth ; but 
 as the nap, by the process of rolling, would soon be 
 lost by penetrating too deeply into the felt, it is disconti- 
 nued, and the nap is fixed on by the operation of 
 shaking and patting with the stopping-brush. The 
 workman dips the article in the bath, and holding it by 
 one of its edges between the forefinger and thumb of 
 each hand, strikes it down on the hair-cloth, at the 
 same time depressing his hands in such a manner that 
 the most distant edge may have an inclination given it 
 to turn upwards, and thus after striking upon the cloth 
 it is immediately raised off. This shaking is continued 
 by repeated strokes in quick succession, frequently 
 changing its position, and continuing the dipping, and 
 patting it frequently with the brush. By this process 
 the hairs are just fixed in by the roots, without sinking 
 too deeply, and a long flowing nap is obtained. The 
 cotton and old stuff during the operation, sticking on 
 the body of the hat by means of the hot liquor, preserve 
 the nap from flying off ; at the same time, by enabling 
 
 5 L it 
 
406 
 
 HAT-MAKING. 
 
 it to hold a greater body of the fluid, the work is faci- 
 litated, and the nap is also preserved from the conti- 
 nued action of the brush. 
 
 When the nap is completely fastened, which will be 
 in about half an hour, the cotton and old stuff is 
 loosened by striking with a flat stick, and continuing the 
 shaking. In a short time it will appear in a loose 
 flake over the surface, which is taken off with the fin- 
 gers whilst the nap remains fixed by the roots in the 
 substance of the felt : the cotton and old stuff is dried 
 and, preserved for future use. In plating, as the bodies 
 are first boiled, and as the nap laid on is of a soft, 
 smooth nature, nothing is made use of in the kettle but > 
 clean water. Best stuff, hares’ wool, neuter wool, 
 seal wooi, or a mixture of any of the stuffs, are made 
 use of according to the intended quality. Neuter wool 
 has a short, neat appearance as a nap ; seal wool naps 
 are much esteemed, and wear remarkably well : for 
 the best plates, some beaver is added to the other stuffs 
 made use of. 
 
 It has lately become a practice to unite the common 
 method of napping with that of plating in stuff hats, 
 which have the name of shake-offs given them. After a 
 slight nap is first rolled on, a second, and principal nap, 
 
 Is shaken on in the same manner as in plated hats. A 
 shorter fur may in this manner be applied to advantage, 
 or one of the usual length will produce a more showy 
 nap. 
 
 Hats have been worn of various colours, but those 
 most in use at present are black, drab, and white. The 
 white hats, which are only intended for ladies and 
 children, have a nap of rabbits’ fur, selected from the 
 white skins. Drab hats are also made of stuffs of the 
 natural colour, assorted for that purpose. In dyeing 
 black, the articles now in general use are logwood, of 
 which Campeachy wa3 the best, copperas, and verdi- 
 grease. French verdigrease is far superior to the Eng- 
 lish. For dyeing common cordy hats, the general pro- 
 portions for twelve dozen are about tw'enty-four pounds 
 of logwood, seven of copperas, and a quarter of a 
 pound of verdigrease. The logwood is chipped, and 
 left in the boiler to soak the preceding night ; part of 
 the copperas and verdigrease is then added and boiled 
 with the logwood. The hats are each, fastened on a 
 block with a string tied round the band and boiled in 
 the liquor, sometimes turning those nearest the surface, 
 and placing a weight upon them to keep them under 
 the liquor. 
 
 After boiling about an hour they are taken out and 
 exposed to the air, while a fresh quantity is boiled in 
 the kettle the same time as before. This boiling and 
 airing is repeated several times according to the strength 
 of the dye, the perfection required, or the nature of 
 the materials to be dyed, as experience has shewn that 
 the action of the atmospheric air, or the oxygen it con- 
 tains, very much contributes to improve the dye; the 
 remainder of the copperas and verdigrease is added in a 
 decreased proportion to each suit. Common hats that 
 
 | are easily dyed have now' generally two suits only ; best 
 ! hats from three to four. 
 
 On account of the high price of verdigrease, sulphate 
 of copper or blue vitriol is frequently made use of in 
 dyeing common hats in a larger proportion, or a mix- 
 ture of about equal parts of each. But those dyed with 
 verdigrease only have the brightest appearance after 
 finishing. After dyeing, the hats are well washed in 
 clean water. 
 
 The following is the method of dyeing practised in 
 France : one hundred pounds of logwood, twelve 
 pounds of gum, and six pounds of galls are boiled in a 
 i proper quantity of water for some hours ; after which 
 about six pounds of verdigrease and ten pounds of green 
 vitriol are added, and the liquor kept just simmering, 
 at a heat a little below boiling. Ten or twelve dozen 
 hats are immediately put in, each on its block, aud 
 kept down by cross bars for about an hour and a half ; 
 they are then taken out and aired, and the same number 
 of others putin their room. The two sets of hats are 
 thus dipped and aired alternately dight times each, the 
 liquor being refreshed each time with more of the 
 ingredients, but in less quantity than at first. This 
 account of dyeing must of course refer only to the bet- 
 ter sort of hats. 
 
 We are not aware that gum has ever been used in 
 this country ; galls, on account of their price, are seldom 
 used in England at present. A cheap substitute may be 
 found in oak-bark, which we believe is not generally 
 known among the hatters ; and we should apprehend it 
 might be employed to considerable advantage. It re- 
 i quires no other preparation than to be cut or coarsely 
 broken, and it is said to furnish a dye much fuller, more 
 beautiful and more durable. 
 
 The following is extracted from the report of the 
 Lyceum of Arts : ^Experiments were made by order 
 of the College of Pharmacy at the Manufactory of 
 Beaugolin and Morel. Two boilers of about 220 
 hats each were made ready ; one for the gall-nuts, and 
 the other for the bark. Twelve hats in each were 
 I marked : they w'ere of the same stuff and the same size, 
 had been prepared with all the precautions w hich each 
 I of the two methods required ; and the whole process 
 i was carefully observed by a commissioner who attended 
 i for the purpose. After all these hats had been properly 
 , dried, cleaned, and brushed, they were placed indiscri- 
 minately on a table. Several of the most expert dyers 
 in Paris were invited to select from the twenty-four hats 
 the twelve which should appear to them to be best 
 dyed. These dyers arrived separately at two different 
 times, so that there w r ere two selections ; and in both 
 cases, one hat excepted, these dyers pointed out as the 
 best dyed those hats which had been treated with the 
 oak bark.” 
 
 In January 1782, Mr. Golding, of London, ob- 
 tained a patent for dyeing hats green on the underside, a 
 specification of which is published in the fifth volume 
 of the Repertory. The principal difficulty in this 
 
 process, 
 
HAT-MAKING. 
 
 407 
 
 process, is to preserve the upper part of the brim, and 
 the crown of the hat from the action of the dye. His 
 method consisted in spreading over the upper surface, 
 with a painter’s brush, a thin paste made of flour or 
 clay, and enclosing it in a funnel either of metal or 
 wood to prevent the dye from penetrating. The hats 
 are first boiled in alum and argil ; and afterwards, 
 Mr. Golding says, “ in a dye prepared of fustic, tur- 
 meric, ebony, weld, safflower, saffron, indigo, and 
 vitriol, with chamber-lye, or pea^l-ash, at the option 
 of the dyer; sometimes all used together, sometimes 
 otherwise, according to the intention of the dyer, and 
 to the colour required.” If any portion of the dye has 
 penetrated the hat, so as to occasion spots on the other 
 side, they may be removed by washing with a strong 
 warm alkaline liquor ; but as yellow spots will after- 
 wards remain, they are removed by means of a small 
 quantity of either of the mineral acids. The green 
 under-side hats are now generally stained without boil- 
 ing, with a strong dye, which has for its basis a solu- 
 tion of indigo in the sulphuric acid. Sometimes the 
 brim of the hat is composed of two separate pieces of 
 felt, the under piece of which is first dyed green, and 
 afterwards glued to the upper part. 
 
 It is necessary to observe, that soft water should 
 always be made use of in dyeing ; and as it is not readily 
 obtained in some situations, the following method of 
 communicating its properties to common hard water, 
 may not be unacceptable. Twenty-four bushels of bran 
 is put into a vessel capable of containing ten hogsheads. 
 A large boiler is filled with water, and w hen just ready 
 to boil is poured into the vessel. Soon after the acid 
 fermentation begins, and in about twenty-four hours, the 
 water is ready for use. 
 
 After the hats are dried, the next operation they un- 
 dergo is that of stiffening. For the common purposes 
 of stiffening, glue and vinegar dregs, beer grounds, or 
 dregs from the distilleries, are the articles made use of. 
 The hat, for this purpose, is put into the crown of an- 
 other large one, called a stiffening- hat, which is only 
 felted and blocked, and has its crown slit open to admit 
 the hat to be stiffened, of any depth the more readily. 
 These are placed in the hole of a plank, on which the 
 brims are supported. The dregs are then first applied 
 warm, with a brush similar to a large painting-brush, 
 on the inside of the crown only ; this is done by hold- 
 ing the brush in the right-hand, while the left-hand, 
 holding the brim of the stiffening-hat, continually turns 
 it round, that the enclosed may be uniformly covered 
 with the dregs. The dregs are made use of as they are 
 the cheapest mucilage, and give a degree of firmness 
 to the hat, at the same time, preventing the glue from 
 penetrating through to the surface. After this is dry, 
 the glue is applied to the crown in the same manner, 
 which is made in the proportion of about one pound of 
 glue to three pints of w'ater. After it is laid on with 
 the brush, it is well rubbed round with the hand ; for 
 which purpose it is found expedient to employ a second 
 person in the business, who receives the hat of the first 
 
 person as fast as the glue is laid on with the brush. It 
 was remarked that, in the first formation of the hat, 
 the part designed for the band was laid thicker than any 
 other ; as this part has the most wear — as the wet is 
 most likely to penetrate here — and as the general firm- 
 ness of the hat depends on the strength of the band, it 
 is likewise necessary to attend particularly to this part in 
 the stiffening. 
 
 In stiffening a quantity of hats, the crowns only are 
 thus attended to in the first place. In common hats, 
 the grounds are frequently mixed with the glue, and laid 
 on at the same time. The brims are next stiffened 
 with a common soft brush, and glue only, which is ap- 
 plied to the underside. This is well w'orked into the 
 body of the felt with the hand, and the hats are placed 
 in a stove to dry. When dry, the nap on the underside 
 of the brim will be glued down to the felt ; this is re- 
 moved from the surface by scouring it with a brush 
 and a quantity of warm soap-suds ; which is pressed out 
 of the nap by the blunt edge of a wooden or copper 
 stamper. Ladies’ light hats, and some of the children’s 
 fancies, are stiffened with the application of starch, or 
 common flour paste only. 
 
 In France, the composition of gum arabic, common 
 gum of that country, and Flanders’ glue, are employed 
 for the purpose of stiffening. The brittleness of gum 
 arabic has been found an inconvenience, and a substi- 
 tute has been sought for in some simple preparation 
 from their indigenous plants. M. Chaussier observes, 
 that “ mucilage is found in great quantity in many 
 plants ; it may easily be extracted by boiling ; and a 
 factitious gum, which is both supple and tenacious, may 
 be formed by evaporation. These considerations led 
 me to recommend, for the purpose of stiffening, a so- 
 lution of glue in a strong and mucilaginous decoction 
 of linseed. This preparation has been long used in the 
 manufactory (of the Cote d’or) ; and is both more eco- 
 nomical, and more conducive to the beauty of the w'ork. 
 Since that time, M. Margeron having communicated, 
 to me some observations respecting the mucilage which 
 may be extracted from the leaves of the horse-chesnut 
 tree, and having ascertained how great a quantity of 
 mucilaginous and glutinous matter these leaves furnish, 
 especially when the foliation is in full vigour, a solu- 
 tion of glue, in a strong decoction of them, has been 
 used with great success.” Perhaps this mucilage from 
 the leaves of the horse-chesnut might be worthy the at- 
 tention of the English hat-maker. 
 
 As glue is subject to the action of moisture, hats, 
 stiffened of that material alone, are not perfectly water- 
 proof. Several expedients have been devised to obviate 
 this inconvenience : one of the methods, perhaps, most 
 generally known, is that of balling. A ball is formed 
 by melting about three parts rosin, four parts bees-wax, 
 and two parts mutton suet. This is frequently rubbed 
 over the inside part of the hat while planking, particu- 
 larly over that part which is to form the band. After 
 balling, the hats are stiffened with glue in the usual 
 manner. 
 
 In 
 
408 
 
 HAT-MAKING. 
 
 In 1802, Messrs. Ovej and Jepsin, of London, ' 
 obtained a patent for a method of water-proof s 
 stiffening. This was done by preparing a double hat ; s 
 the under one was made of coarse materials, stiffened, ' 
 and covered with a cement made of one pound and three- : 
 quarters of flour, three quarts of water, one ounce of alum, ] 
 and two ounces of rosin ; the latter was finely pulverized, ’ 
 and added while the rest was boiling ; stirring it toge- ' 
 ther until dissolved. The under part of the finer out- 
 side casing was also covered with the same, and then ! 
 placed over the other, and united together by pressing I 
 with a cool iron. Water-proof stiffening, particularly : 
 for best hats, has lately been much attended to, and ; 
 various are the methods employed by different manufac- > 
 turers ; but nothing appears to have so completely an- 
 swered the purpose, and, at the same time to have 
 been so advantageous in wearing, as that of stiffening 
 with a solution of caoutchouc, or gum-elastic. The 
 exact method of the process is, at present, confined to 
 a few hands, and industriously concealed from publicity. 
 
 The dry hat, after stiffening, is very rigid, and of an 
 irregular figure ; preparatory to finishing, therefore, it i 
 is fresh blocked. For this purpose, it is necessary to ! 
 soften the glue, which is done by the operation of 
 steam. A hot iron is placed within a circular wooden 
 frame, on which a wet cloth is thrown ; the crown of 
 the hat is then laid over the rising steam, whilst the 
 brim rests on the frame ; and thus it is soon rendered 
 sufficiently soft to receive the impression of a block of 
 the intended size and shape. By the use of a hot iron, 
 generally from twenty to twenty-five pounds in weight, 
 a small card, brushes, &c., with the addition of 
 water, the nap has the requisite direction given it, and 
 receives its smoothness, and polish. Minute directions 
 here, are unnecessary ; the judgment of the workman 
 must be his principal director. It may not be useless 
 to remark, that in watering the hats, which is done 
 with a soft wetting-brush for that purpose, the giving 
 them plenty of water, and quickly passing a pretty hot 
 iron over them, gives the glue a firmness and smartness, 
 in which it will be deficient by more cautious wetting, 
 and more dilatory operations. If a little glue is acci- 
 dentally drawn through the hat, by the heat of the iron, 
 a wetted brush is laid on the iron a little to heat it suf- 
 ficiently; and by the application of the warm, moist 
 brush, and carding, it is soon extracted. Instead 
 of water, oil was formerly used in finishing all descrip- 
 tions of hats, and, for the coarsest sort of wool hats, 
 the practice has prevailed till very lately. 
 
 The instrument generally made use of for cutting the 
 brims of round hats, is merely a small worn-out card. 
 At the outer edge a number of notches is cut for the 
 purpose of inserting the point of a knife. The inner 
 edge of the card, and the handle, is placed close to the 
 crown of the hat, while on the block ; and by placing 
 the point of a knife in the proper notch, and drawing 
 it round with the card, still keeping it close to the 
 crown, the brim is evenly cut to any required dimen- 
 sions. The hat is put in shape by curling the edges 
 
 with the iron over a small rope for that purpose, 
 stretching the hat out in an oval form by placing a 
 screw or common stick across, and forming the brim 
 with the hands while it is w'arm. The coarse hairs 
 are picked out of the fine hats with a pair of steel 
 pickers, and then given to be lined and bound; after 
 which, it receives the last finish, and is ready for the 
 wearer. 
 
 Some years ago, Mr. Hance, of Tooley-street, 
 Southwark, obtained a patent for a method of rendering 
 beaver and other hats water-proof, which is thus de- 
 scribed : — He takes a thin shell made of wool, hair, 
 and fine beaver, to form the crown of the hat, and an- 
 other shell, or plate, of the same materials, for the 
 brim. These parts are to be dyed black, and finished 
 without glue or other stiffening, in order that they may 
 not be injured by the rain, which, in other beaver 
 hats, after being exposed to a heavy shower, draws out 
 the glue and sticks down the nap, and makes it ap- 
 pear old and greasy. The shell may be made in one 
 piece only, in the shape of the hat, blocked deep 
 enough to admit of the brim being cut from the crown : 
 
 ! the under side of the shell and the inside of the crown, 
 must then be made water-proof, by first laying on a 
 coat of size or thin paste, strong enough to bear a coat 
 of copal-varnish, and, when thoroughly dry, another 
 coat of boiled linseed oil. When dry, the crown must 
 be put on a block, and a willow or cotton body or 
 shape, wove on purpose, put into the inside of the 
 crown and cemented in it. When dry, it must be 
 finished with a hot iron, and the crown is done. The 
 brim must, in like manner, be cemented to a substance 
 or body made with willow, or other fit material suffi- 
 ciently thick to make the inside of the brim. The 
 brim and body are now to be pressed together, after 
 which, the under side of the brim may be covered 
 with another shell of beaver or silk shag. The crown 
 and brim are now to be sewed together : the edge of 
 the brim must be oiled and varnished with copal-var- 
 nish and boiled linseed-oil, to prevent any rain getting 
 in. The cement used, for sticking the parts together, 
 may be made with one pound of gum Senegal, one 
 pound of starch, one pound of glue, and one ounce of 
 bees-wax, to be boiled in a quart of water. Hats 
 made in this way, require only to be wiped dry after 
 they have been-exposed to the heaviest rain. 
 
 Hats are likewise made, for women’s wear, of chips, 
 straw, or cane, by platting, and sewing the plats toge- 
 ther, beginning with the centre of the crown, and 
 working round till the whole is finished. Hats, for the 
 same purpose, are also woven, and made of horse- 
 hair, silk, and other substances. There are few manu- 
 factures in the kingdom in which se little capital is re- 
 quired, or the knowledge of the art so soon obtained, 
 as in that of straw-platting. One guinea is quite suffi- 
 cient for the purchase of the machines and materials 
 for employing a hundred persons for some months. 
 The straw is cut at the joints, and the outer skin or co- 
 vering being removed, it is sorted into bundles of equal 
 
 sizes, 
 
JAPANNING. 
 
 409 
 
 Sizes, of eight or ten inches in length, and a foot in 
 circumference. The straws, thus prepared, are to be 
 dipped in water, and when the moisture is shaken out, 
 the bundles are set on their edges, in a box, which is 
 sufficiently close to prevent the evaporation of smoke. 
 In the middle of the box is an earthen dish, containing 
 brimstone, broken in small pieces or rougIH pounded, 
 which is set on' lire, and the box covered over and kept in 
 the open air a few hours. The next thing to be perform- 
 ed, is, the splitting of the straws, and one person, 
 with the help of a small machine, will split as many as j 
 fifty braiders can work up. The straws wbpn split, 
 are termed splints of which each worker has certain 
 quantity : on one end is wrapped a linen cloth, which is 
 held under the arm, and the straws drawn out as 
 wanted. Platters should acquire the habit of using 
 their second fingers aud thumbs, instead of the fore- i 
 fingers, which are often required to assist in turning the 
 splints, and very much facilitate the platting. Each 
 platier should have a small linen work-bag, and a piece 
 of paste-board to roll the plat round. After five yards 
 have been w orked up, it should be wound about a piece 
 of board half a yard wide, fastened at the top with 
 yarn, and kept there several days to form it into a proper 
 shape. Four of these parcels, or a score, is the mea- 
 surement by w'hich the plat is sold. 
 
 We shall now give the specification of Mr. Peter 
 Boileau’s patent for a new and improved manufacture 
 of straw iuto hats, bonnets, 8cc. which is as follow's : — 
 
 Prepare the straw by separating it at each joint, and 
 taking off all the outside skin or covering. One end 
 must be cut pointed, that is, in the form of a pen, that 
 it may be inserted into the hollow of another, as it is 
 worked. It must then be immersed in w’ater, so that 
 the water may pass through its tube, which takes off its 
 brittleness, and makes it work uniform, take the shape 
 of the block, and preserve its natural shape. The straw, 
 being thus prepared, take a mould of wood, or other 
 material, exactly of the form or shape of the crown of 
 the hat, bonnet, or other article you propose to make ; 
 
 and, at the top of it, from the centre, draw' or describe 
 a small circle ; from that circle, draw or describe per- 
 pendicular, serpentine, diagonal, or other lines or 
 curves, as fancy may dictate. As those lines or curves 
 form the ribs or separations of the work when com- 
 plete, at the top of each of these lines or curves, where 
 they touch the circle, fix a small nail, or pin ; to 
 which tie or fasten a double wire, covered or unco- 
 vered, which wire must be twice the length of the line 
 or curve, and tied or fastened to the nail or pin, just 
 in the middle of the wire, that there may be two equal 
 ends of wire to work. Begin working, by intro- 
 ducing the pipe or quill straw betwixt the two wires ; 
 which wire must be drawn tight, and even with the line 
 or curve. Repeat the same at every line or curve 
 round the block ; that is to say, let one wire go over, 
 and the other under, the straw', at every line or curve. 
 To the end of it join the straw, by introducing the 
 sharp end of another straw into the former, just at the 
 line or curve, and continue jims to the bottom of the 
 block. To make the brim of the hat, or bonnet, or to 
 perform any flat work, take a sheet of thick paste- 
 board, and, Rafter drawing the circle, for a hat or bon- 
 net, formed Dy the bottom of the crown, and for other 
 flat work at will, draw lines or curves according to 
 fancy, as before ; and, instead of nails or pins, as de- 
 scribed, to be fixed into the , block, make two small 
 holes at the top of the lines or curves on the circle, 
 through which pass the wire, and tie it in the same 
 manner as to the nails or pins. When finished, the 
 brim is to be sewed, or otherwise fixed, to the crown, 
 or it may be continued to be worked on the paste-bohrd to 
 the crown, so that the hat or bonnet shall be all in one 
 piece, without separation. Fix or place, in the space left 
 by the circle at the top of the crown, a device of straw, 
 or any other ornament, and likewise round the edge of 
 the brim, when the work will be complete. It may be 
 observed, that, being worked with wire, a variety of 
 form or shape may be obtained, without injury to the 
 work. 
 
 JAPANNING. 
 
 Japanning is the art of varnishing and drawing 
 figures on wood, in the same manner as is done by the 
 iiiftives of Japan, in the East Indies. The substances 
 which admit of being japanned are almost every kind 
 that are dry and rigid, or not too flexible ; as wood, 
 metals, leather, and paper prepared. 
 
 The varnish said to be used in China and Japan is 
 
 I composed of turpentine and a curious sort of oil, which 
 they boil up to a proper consistence. Persons who 
 work in this business are liable to swellings and inflam- 
 mations in tiie hands and face, but these are produced 
 I from the lack and not from the varnish. The lack is 
 j the sap or juice of a tree, which flows on cutting the 
 lower part of the trunk of the tree, and is received in 
 5 M vessels 
 
410 
 
 JAPANNING. 
 
 vessels set on purpose under the incisions. This juice I 
 is of the colour and consistence of cream, when it runs 
 from the tree, but as it comes in contact with the air, 
 it becomes black. It is only used in this state ; the 
 method of preparing it is to set it out in the open air, 
 in large flat bowls, and that the whole may be of the 
 same uniform colour, it is kept continually stirring for 
 many hours, almost without intermission. By this me- 
 thod it becomes of a fine deep black ; burnt wood is 
 now mixed with it, and then spreading it thin over any 
 board or substance which they mean to japan, they dry 
 it in the sun, and it is soon harder than the board on 
 which it is laid. When this is quite dry it is polished 
 with a smooth stone and water, till it is as even as 
 glass, and then, wiping it dry, ''they lay on the varnish, 
 made of oil and turpentine. If the work is to be of 
 any other colour than black, that colour is to be mixed 
 with the varnish, and then the whole spread on evenly 
 and thin, because on this depends the principal art of 
 varnishing. When there*are to be figures in gold and 
 silver, these must be traced out with a pencil in the 
 varnish, over the rest of the work ; and when this var- 
 nish is almost dry, the leaf-gold, or silver, is to be laid 
 on, and polished afterwards with some smooth sub- 
 stance. 
 
 Wood and metals do not require any other prepara- 
 tion, but to have their surface perfectly even and 
 clean : but leather should be securely strained either on 
 frames or on boards : as its bending or forming folds 
 would otherwise crack and force off the coats of var- 
 nish : and paper should be treated in the same manner, 
 and have a previous strong coat of some kind of size ; 
 but it is rarely made the subject of japanning till it is 
 converted into papier mach&, or wrought by other 
 means into such form that its original state, particularly 
 with respect to flexibility, is lost. 
 
 One principal variation from the method formerly 
 used in japanning is, the using or omitting any priming 
 or undercoat on the work to be japanned. In the older 
 practice, such priming was always used ; and is at 
 present retained in the French manner of japanning 
 coaches and snuff-boxes of the papier mache ; but, in 
 the Birmingham manufacture here, it has been always 
 rejected. The advantage of using such priming or un- 
 der-coat is, that it makes a saving in the quantity of 
 varnish used ; because the matter of which the priming 
 is composed fills up the inequalities of the body to be 
 varnished ; and makes it easy, by means of rubbing 
 and water-polishing, to gain an even surface for the var- 
 nish ; and this was, therefore, such a convenience in 
 the case of wood, as the giving a hardness and firmness 
 to the ground w'as also in the case of leather, that it 
 became an established method ; and is, therefore, re- 
 tained even in the instance of the papier mach£ by the 
 French, who applied the received method of japanning 
 to that kind of work on its introduction. There is, ne- 
 vertheless, this inconvenience always attending the use 
 of an under-coat of size, that the japan coats of varnish 
 and colour will be constantly liable to be cracked and 
 
 peeled off by any violence, and will not endure near so 
 long as the bodies japanned in the same manner, but 
 without any such priming ; as may be easily observed in 
 comparing the wear of the Paris and Birmingham 
 snuff-boxes ; which latter, w'hen good of their kind, 
 never peel or crack, or suffer any damage, unless by 
 great violence, and such a continued rubbing as wastes 
 aw ay the substance of the varnish ; while the japan 
 coats of the Parisians crack and fly off in flakes, when- 
 ever any knock or fall, particularly near the edges, ex- 
 pose them to be injured. But the Birmingham manu- 
 facture^ who originally practised the japanning only 
 on metal, to which the reason above given for the use 
 of priming did not extend, and who took up this art of 
 themselves as an invention, of course omitted at first 
 the use of any such under-coat; and not finding it 
 more necessary in the instance of papier mach& than on 
 metals, continue still to reject it. On which account, 
 the boxes of their manufacture are, with regard to the 
 wear, greatly better than the French. 
 
 The laying on the colours in gum-w'ater, instead of 
 varnish, is also another variation from the method of 
 japanning formerly practised ; but the much greater 
 strength of the w'ork, where they are laid on in varnish 
 or oil, has occasioned this way to be exploded with the 
 greatest reason in all regular manufactures : however, 
 they who may practise japanning on cabinets, or other 
 such pieces as are not exposed to much wear and 
 violence, for their amusement only, and, consequently, 
 may not find it worth their while to encumber them- 
 selves with the preparations necessary for the other me- 
 thods, may paint with water-colours on an under-coat 
 laid on the w'ood, or other substance, of which the 
 piece to be japanned is formed ; and then finish with 
 the proper coats of varnish, according to the methods 
 below taught; and if the colours are tempered with 
 the strongest isinglass, size, and honey, instead of 
 gum-water, and laid on very flat and even, the work 
 will not be much inferior in appearance to that done 
 by the other method, and will last as long as the old 
 japan. 
 
 Priming . — The priming is of the same nature with 
 that called clear-coating, by the house-painters; and con- 
 sists only in laying on and drying in the most even manner, 
 a composition of size and whiting, or, sometimes, lime 
 instead of the latter. The common size has been ge- 
 nerally used for this purpose : but w'here the work is of 
 a nicer kind, it is better to employ the glovers’, or the 
 parchment size ; and if a third of isinglass be added, it 
 will be still better, and, if not laid on too thick, is much 
 less liable to peel and crack. The work should be 
 prepared by this priming, by being well smoothed with 
 the fish-skin or glass-shaver, and, being made tho- 
 roughly clean, should be brushed over once or twice 
 with hot size, and diluted with two-thirds of water, if it be 
 of the common strength. The priming should then be 
 laid on with a brush as evenly as possible ; and should be 
 formed of a size whose consistence is betwixt the com- 
 mon kind and glue, mixed with as much whiting as will 
 I give 
 
JAPANNING. 
 
 411 
 
 give it a sufficient body of colour to hide the surface of 
 whatever it is laid upon, but not more. 
 
 If the surface be very clean on which the priming is 
 used, two coats of it laid on in this manner will be suf- 
 ficient ; but if, on trial with a fine wet rag, it will not 
 receive a proper water-polish on account of any inequa- 
 lities not sufficiently filled up and covered, one or more 
 coats must be given it ; and whether a greater or less 
 number be used, the work should be smoothed, after 
 the last coat but one is dry, by rubbing it with the 
 Dutch rushes. When the last coat is dry, the water- 
 polish should be given, by passing over every part of 
 it with a fine rag gently moistened, till the whole 
 appear perfectly plain and even. The priming will 
 then be completed, and the work ready to receive the 
 painting, or coloured varnish : the rest of the proceed- 
 ings being the same in this case as where no priming is 
 used. 
 
 When wood or leather is to be japanned, and no 
 priming is used, the best preparation is to lay two or 
 three coats of coarse varnish, composed in the follow- 
 ing manner: — Take of rectified spirits of wine one 
 pint, and of coarse seed-lac and resin, each, two 
 ounces. Dissolve the seed-lac and resin in the spirit ; 
 and then strain off the varnish. This varnish, as well 
 as all others formed of spirits of wine, must be laid on 
 in a warm place ; and, if it can be conveniently ma- 
 naged, the piece of work to be varnished should be 
 made warm likewise ; and, for the same reason, all 
 dampness should be avoided ; for either cold or moisture 
 chills this kind of varnish, and prevents it taking proper 
 hold of the substance on which it is laid. 
 
 Japan-Grounds . — When the work is so prepared, or 
 by the priming with the composition of size and 
 whiting above described, the proper japan-ground must 
 be laid on, which is much the best formed of shell-lac 
 varnish, and the colour desired, if white be not in 
 question, which demands a peculiar treatment, or 
 great brightness be not required, when also other means 
 must be pursued. The colours used with the shell-lac 
 varnish may be any pigments whatever, which give the 
 tint of the ground desired ; and they may be mixed toge- 
 ther to form browns or any compound colours. 
 
 As metals never require to be under-coated with 
 whiting, they may be treated in the same manner as 
 wood or leather, when the under-coat is omitted, ex- 
 cept in the instances referred to below. 
 
 White Japan-Grounds . — The forming a ground per- 
 fectly white, and of the first degree of hardness, re- 
 mains hitherto a desideratum, or matter sought for, in 
 the art of japanning, as there are no substances which 
 form a very hard varnish but what have too much colour 
 not to injure the whiteness, when laid on of a due thick- 
 ness over the w'ork. The nearest approach, however, 
 to a perfect white varnish, already known, is made by 
 the following composition : — Take flake-white, or 
 white-lead, washed over and ground up with a sixth 
 of its weight of starch, and then dried ; and temper 
 it properly for spreading with the mastich- varnish. 
 
 Lay these on the body to be japanned, prepared 
 either with or without the under-coat of whiting, in 
 the manner as above ordered ; and then varnish it over 
 with five or six coats of the following varnish; — 
 Provide any quantity of the best seed-lac, and pick out 
 of it all the clearest and whitest grains, reserving the 
 more coloured and fouler parts for the coarse var- 
 nishes, such as that used for priming or preparing 
 wood or leather. Take of this picked seed-lac two 
 ounces, and, of gum animi, three ounces, and dissolve 
 them, being previously reduced to a gross powder, in 
 about a quart of spirit of wine, and strain off the clear 
 varnish. 
 
 The seed-lac will yet give a slight tinge to this com- 
 position, but cannot be omitted where the varnish is 
 wanted to be hard ; though, when a softer will answer 
 the end, the proportion may be diminished, and a little 
 crude turpentine added to the gum-animi to take off the 
 brittleness. 
 
 A very good varnish, free entirely from all brittle- 
 ness, may be formed by dissolving as much gum-animi 
 as the oil will take, in old nut or poppy oil, which 
 must be made to boil gently when the gum is put into 
 it. The ground of white colour itself may be laid on 
 in this varnish, and then a coat or two of it may be 
 put over the ground ; but it must be well diluted with 
 oil of turpentine when it is used. This, though free 
 from brittleness, is nevertheless liable to suffer by being 
 indented or bruised by any slight strokes ; and it will 
 not well bear any polish, but may be brought to a very 
 smooth surface without, if it be judiciously managed 
 in the laying it on. It is likewise somewhat tedious in 
 drying, and will require some time where several coats 
 are laid on ; as the last ought not to contain much oil 
 of turpentine. 
 
 Blue Japan Grounds . — Grounds may be formed of 
 bright Prussian blue, or verditer glazed over by Prus- 
 sian blue, or of smalt. The colour may be best mixed 
 with shell-lac varnish, and brought to a polishing state 
 by five or six coats of varnish of seed-lac : but the var- 
 nish, nevertheless, will somewhat injure the colour by 
 giving to a true blue a cast of green, and fouling, in 
 some degree, a warm blue by the yellow it contains ; 
 where, therefore, a bright blue is required, and a less 
 degree of hardness can be dispensed with, the method 
 before directed in the case of white grounds must be 
 pursued. 
 
 For a scarlet japan ground, vermilion may be used : 
 but the vermilion has a glaring effect that renders it 
 much less beautiful than the crimson produced by 
 glazing it over with carmine or fine lake ; or even with 
 rose-pink, which has a very good effect used for this 
 purpose. For a very bright crimson, nevertheless, in- 
 stead of glazing with carmine the Indian lake should be 
 used, dissolved in the spirit of which the varnish is 
 compounded, which it readily admits of when good ; 
 and in this case, instead of glazing with the shell-lac 
 varnish, the upper or polishing coats need only be used, 
 as they will equally receive and convey the tinge of the 
 
 Indian 
 
412 
 
 JAPANNING. 
 
 Indian lake, which may be actually dissolved by spirit 
 of wine ; and this will be found a much cheaper me- 
 thod than the using carmine. If, nevertheless, the 
 highest degree of brightness be required, the white var- 
 nishes must be used. 
 
 For bright yellow grounds, the king’s yellow, or the 
 turpeth mineral should be employed, either alone or 
 mixed with fine Dutch pink ; and the effect may be 
 still more heightened by dissolving powdered turmeric 
 root in the spirit of wine, of which the upper or polish- 
 ing coat is made ; which spirit of wine must be strained j 
 from off the dregs before the seed-lac be added to it to 
 form the varnish. 
 
 Green grounds may be produced by mixing the king’s 
 yellow and bright Prussian blue, or rather the turpeth 1 
 mineral and Prussian blue ; and a cheap but less ! 
 perfect kind by verdigris with a little of the above- I 
 mentioned yellows or Dutch pink. But where a very 
 bright green is wanted, the crystals of verdigris, called 
 distilled verdigris, should be employed ; and to heighten 
 the effect, they should be laid on a ground of leaf- 
 gold, which renders the colour extremely brilliant and 
 pleasing. 
 
 Orange-coloured japan grounds may be formed by- 
 mixing vermilion or red lead with king’s yellow or 
 Dutch pink, or the orange-lac, which will make a 
 brighter orange ground than can be produced by any 
 mixture. 
 
 Purple japan grounds may be produced by the 
 mixture of lake and Prussian blue ; another kind may 
 be made by vermilion and Prussian blue. They may 
 be treated as the rest with respect to the varnish. 
 
 Black grounds may be formed by either ivory-black 
 or lamp-black : but the former is preferable where it 
 is perfectly good. These may be always laid on with 
 shell-lac varnish, and have their upper or polishing- 
 coats of common seed-lac varnish, as the tinge or ful- 
 ness of the varnish can be here no injury. 
 
 For forming the common black japan grounds by- 
 means of heat on metal, the piece of work to be 
 japanned must be painted over with drying oil; and 
 when it is of moderate dryness, must be put into a 
 stove of such a degree of heat as will change the oil to 
 black, w'ithout burning it so as to destroy or weaken its 
 tenacity. The stove should not be too hoi when the 
 work is put into it, nor the heat increased too fast, 
 either of which errors would make it blister; but the 
 slower the heat is augmented, and the longer it is con- 
 tinued, provided it be restrained within the due degree, 
 the harder will be the coat of japan. This kind of 
 varnish requires no polish, having received when pro- 
 perly managed, a sufficient one from the heat. 
 
 The best kind of tortoise-shell ground produced by- 
 heat is not less valuable for its great hardness, and en- 
 during to be made hotter than boiling water without 
 damage, than for its beautiful appearance. It is to be 
 made by means of a varnish prepared in the following 
 manner: take of good linseed-oil one gallon, and of 
 umber half a pound ; boil them together till the oil 
 
 become very brown and thick ; strain it then through a 
 coarse cloth, and set it again to boil, in which state it 
 must be continued till it acquire a pitchy consistence, 
 when it will be fit for use. 
 
 Having prepared thus the varnish, clean well the 
 metal plate which is to be japanned ; and then lay ver- 
 milion tempered with shell-lac varnish, or with drying 
 oil diluted with oil of turpentine, very thinly, on the 
 places intended to imitate the more transparent parts of 
 the tortoise-shell. When the vermilion is dry, brush 
 over the whole with the black varnish, tempered to a 
 due consistence with oil of turpentine ; and when it is 
 set and firm, put the work into a stove, where it may 
 undergo a very strong heat, and be continued a consi- 
 derable time ; if even three weeks or a month, it will 
 be the better. 
 
 This was given amongst other receipts by Kunckel ; 
 but appears to have been neglected till it was revived with 
 great success in the Birmingham manufactures, where 
 it was not only the ground of snuff-boxes, dressing- 
 boxes, and other such lesser pieces, but of those beau- 
 tiful tea-w'aiters which have been so justly esteemed and 
 admired in several parts of Europe where they have 
 been sent. This ground may be decorated w'ith paint- 
 ing and gilding in the same manner as any other var- 
 nished surface, which had best be done after the ground 
 has been duly hardened by the hot stove ; but it is well 
 to give a second annealing with a more gentle heat after 
 it is finished. 
 
 Method of painting Japan Work . — Japan work 
 ought properly to be painted with colours in varnish, 
 though, in order for the greater dispatch, and in some 
 very nice works in small, for the freer use of the 
 pencil, the colours are frequently tempered in oil ; 
 which should previously have a fourth part of its weight 
 of gum animi dissolved in it ; or, in default of that, of 
 the gums sandarac or mastic. When the oil is thus 
 used it should be well diluted with spirit of turpentine, 
 that the colours may be laid more evenly and thin ; by 
 which means fewer of the polishing or upper coats of 
 varnish become necessary. 
 
 Jn some instances water colours are laid on grounds 
 -of gold, in the manner of other paintings; and are best 
 when so used in their proper appearance, without any 
 varnish over them; and they are also sometimes so 
 managed as to have the effect of embossed work. The 
 colours employed in this way for painting, are both pre- 
 pared by means of isinglass size corrected with honey or 
 sugar-candy. The body of which the embossed work is 
 raised, need not, however, be tinged with the exterior 
 colour, but may be best formed of very strong gum- 
 water, thickened to a proper consistence by bole- 
 armenian and whiting in equal parts ; which being laid 
 on the proper figure and repaired when dry, may be 
 then painted with the proper colours tempered in the 
 isinglass size, or in the general manner with shell-lac 
 varnish. 
 
 Method of varnishing Japan Work . — The last and 
 finishing part of japanning lies in the layirfg on and 
 
 polishing 
 
JAPANNING. 
 
 41S 
 
 polishing the outer coats of varnish ; which are neces- 
 sary, as well in the pieces that have only one simple 
 ground of colour, as with those that are painted. This 
 is in general best done with common seed-lac varnish, 
 except in the instances and on those occasions where 
 we have already shewn other methods to be more expe- 
 dient : and the same reasons which decide as to the 
 fitness or impropriety of the varnishes, with respect to 
 the colours of the ground, hold equally with regard to 
 those of the painting : for where brightness is the most 
 material point, and a tinge of yellow will injure it, 
 seed-lac must give way to the whiter gums ; but where 
 hardness and a greater tenacity are most essential, it 
 must be adhered to : and where both are so necessary, 
 that it is proper one should give w’ay to the other in a 
 certain degree reciprocally, a mixed varnish must be 
 adopted. 
 
 This mixed varnish, as w'e have already observed, 
 should be made of the picked seed-lac. The common 
 seed-lac varnish, which is the most useful preparation 
 of the kind hitherto invented, may be thus made : 
 take of seed-lac three ounces, and put it into water to 
 free it from the sticks and filth that are frequently in- 
 termixed w ith it ; and w hich must be done by stirring 
 it about, and then pouring off the water and adding- 
 fresh quantities in order to repeat the operation till it 
 be freed from all impurities, as it very effectually may 
 be by this means. Dry it then and powder it grossly 
 aud put it with a pint of rectified spirit of wine into a 
 bottle, of which it will not fill above two-thirds. 
 Shake the mixture well together, and place the bottle 
 in a gentle heat till the seed appear to be dissolved, 
 the shaking being in the mean time repeated as often as 
 may be convenient ; and then pour off all that can be 
 obtained clear by this method, and strain the remainder 
 through a coarse cloth. The varnish thus prepared 
 must be kept for use in a bottle well stopt. 
 
 When the spirit of w'ine is very strong, it will dissolve 
 a greater proportion of the seed-lac : but this will satu- 
 rate the common, which is seldom of a strength suffi- 
 cient for making varnishes in perfection. As the chill- 
 ing, which is the most inconvenient accident attending 
 those of this kind, is prevented, or produced more fre- 
 quently, according to the strength of the spirit ; we 
 shall therefore take this opportunity of showing a 
 method by which weaker rectified spirits, may with great 
 ease at any time be freed from the phlegm, and ren- 
 dered of the first degree of strength. 
 
 Take a pint of the common rectified spirit of wine, 
 and put it into a bottle of which it will not fill above 
 three parts. Add to it half an ounce of pearl-ashes, 
 salt of tartar, or any other alkaline salt, heated red-hot 
 and powdered as well as it can be without much loss 
 of its heat : shake the mixture frequently for the space 
 of half an hour, before which time a great part of the 
 phlegm will be separated from the spirit, and will ap- 
 pear together with the undissolved part of the salts in 
 the bottom of the bottle. Let the spirit then be 
 
 poured off or freed from the phlegm aud salts by means 
 of a tritorium or separating funnel ; and let half an 
 ounce of the pearl-ashes, heated and powdered as be- 
 fore, be added to it, and the same treatment repeated. 
 This may be done a third time if the quantity of phlegm 
 separated by the addition of the pearl-ashes appear consi- 
 derable. An ounce of alum, reduced to powder and 
 made hot but not burnt, must then be put into the 
 spirit, and suffered to remain some hours, the bottle 
 being frequently shaken : after which, the spirit, being 
 poured off from it, will be fit for use. 
 
 The manner of using the seed-lac or white varnishes 
 is the same, except with regard to the substance, used 
 in polishing ; which, where a pure white or great clear- 
 ness of other colours is in question, should be itself white : 
 whereas the browner sorts of polishing dust, as being 
 cheaper and doing their business with greater dispatch, 
 may be used in other cases. The pieces of work to be 
 varnished should be placed near a fire, or in a room 
 where there is a stove and made perfectly dry ; and then 
 the varnish may be rubbed over them by the proper 
 brushes made for that purpose, beginning in the middle 
 aud passing the brush to one end ; and then with an- 
 other stroke from the middle passing it to the other. 
 But no part should be crossed or twice passed over in 
 forming one coat, where it can possibly be avoided. 
 When one coat is dry another must be laid over it ; and 
 this must be continued at least five or six times or more, 
 if on trial there be not sufficient thickness of varnish to 
 bear the polish without laying bare the painting or the 
 ground colour underneath. 
 
 When a sufficient number of coats is thus laid on, 
 the work is fit to be polished ; which must be done, in 
 common cases, by rubbing it with a rag dipped in 
 Tripoli or pumice-stone, commonly called rotten stone, 
 finely powdered ; but towards the end of the rubbing a 
 little oil of any kind should be used along with the 
 powder ; and when the work appears sufficiently bright 
 and glossy, it should be well rubbed with the oil alone 
 to clean it from the powder, and give it a still brighter 
 lustre. In the case of white grounds, instead of the 
 Tripoli or pumice-stone, fine putty or whiting must 
 be used, both which should be washed over to prevent 
 the danger of damaging the work from any sand or 
 other gritty matter that may happen to be commixed 
 with them. 
 
 It is a great improvement of all kinds of japan work 
 to harden the varnish by means of heat, which in every 
 degree that it can be applied short of what would burn 
 or calcine the matter tends to give it a more firm and 
 strong texture. Where metals form the body, there- 
 fore, a very hot stove may be used, and the pieces of 
 work may be continued in it a considerable time ; espe- 
 cially if the heat be gradually increased; but where 
 wood is in question, heat mtist be sparingly used, as it 
 would otherwise warp or shrink the body so a >' to in- 
 jure the general figure. 
 
 5 N 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 Masonry, includes, in practical architecture, the 
 hewing of stones into the various shapes required in the 
 multiplied purposes of building, the assembling them 
 together by joints, level, perpendicular or otherwise, by 
 the aid of cement, iron, lead, &c., the well doing 
 of which requires much practical dexterity, with some 
 skill in geometry and mechanics. It will be ne- 
 cessary to divide it into several ramifications, arising 
 partly from local necessity, which has been in some 
 measure its parent through all its vicissitudes, and 
 which may be said to have followed the rise and fall of 
 empires. 
 
 Masonry, in Egypt, Greece and Italy, consisted chiefly 
 in performing works almost incredible in their extent 
 and in the use of materials, equally so if considered in de- 
 tail. These countries seem to have been favoured in every 
 way to be eternalized ; they abounded in porphyries 
 and marbles, which the people found the means of 
 extracting in pieces better adapted to promote magnifi- 
 cence in their works than contrivance in their arrange- 
 ment. Modern masonry has consisted more in piling 
 stone on stone to a vast height than in covering extent 
 of plan, in which has been developed adequate skill if j 
 not magnificence. Considering it as an handicraft art, I 
 the institutions of Egypt tended most towards pro- 
 moting its exquisiteness. Trades and even professions 
 having been there hereditary, the way of life of each 
 individual became predestined, his ambition conse- 
 quently circumscribed, and his exertions hence limit- 
 ed to the working only according to a scale given 
 him, and without any other consideration. In Greece, 
 where a more liberal policy prevailed, we see the artist 
 and the artisan united, the one in conceiving and the 
 other in giving substance and effect to his conceptions ; 
 here masonry preserved all the beauty of the rigid 
 Egyptian school, improved and expanded so as to have 
 given life and health as it were to Art itself. It is im- 
 possible in the study of architecture (as it was in Greece 
 during its perfection) not to admire the skill of her 
 artisans ; for although the mechanical contrivance must 
 have been previously arranged by the architect ; yet to 
 effect this, much must have remained to the care of the 
 mason. 
 
 It is abundantly proved that the ancient Egyptians 
 were intimately acquainted with the process of harden- 
 ing metal, without which little could have been done in 
 working marble ; the mason requiring few other tools 
 
 except what are of hardened metal. The triangle, 
 square, and plumb-line, Sic. assist him in fixing what 
 he has previously reduced by the mallet and chisel to its 
 required dimension and shape. As to the laising pon- 
 derous columns, architraves, and cornices to their ap- 
 pointed destinations, of which there are numerous 
 astonishing instances still in existence, this must have 
 depended more on machinery of great power, or in 
 some instances, as is more probable, on the inclined 
 plane than on the mason : for it w'as the practice of 
 the ancients in works of great magnitude to pre- 
 pare, and that often at the quarry, so much only of the 
 column, architrave, &c. as immediately referred to its 
 joinings, leaving the detail or mouldings to be w orked 
 and formed after the blocks had reached their destinations, 
 and to this circumstance perhaps are to be attributed no 
 small part of their present sharpness and brilliancy. 
 Many of the columns in the temples in Upper Egypt 
 are entirely of one piece of granite, and w 7 hen of more 
 they were so minutely joined (and without cement) as 
 to defeat detection. In the Temple of Hermopo'.is, 
 such are the colossal proportions, that the diameter of the 
 columns is eight feet ten inches each, and they are placed 
 at equal intermediate distances ; so that the space 
 between the two middle columns within which the 
 gate is included is twelve feet, the portico is 120 
 feet, and its height is sixty feet. The architrave is com- 
 posed of five stones tw'enty-two feet long, and the 
 frieze of as many. The only remaining stone of the 
 cornice is thirty-four feet. These particulars will 
 convey an idea both of the power and skill which the 
 Egyptians possessed to raise enormous masses, and the 
 magnificence of the materials which they employed ; 
 but in using such colossal materials it was almost im- 
 practicable to employ cement in their joinings, the 
 weight of the mass alone being adequate to ensure their 
 solidity. The Pyramids afford another instance of 
 elaborate masonry ; and it may be here remarked that 
 it is only governments sacerdotally despotical who 
 could dare to undertake to build them, and people stu- 
 pidly fanatical who could contribute to their execu- 
 tion : but, to speak of them as they are, Grobert esti- 
 mates the base of that of Cheops to 720. feet and its 
 height 448 feet ; that of Chephrenes 655 feet and 390 in 
 height ; and there is one somewhat smaller. They are 
 wholly composed of large blocks of granite so inter- 
 woven by the skill of the architect and mason as to have 
 
 defied 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 415 
 
 defied the ravages of man and time. These blocks are 
 united together by being crossed and bonded, the joints 
 being constantly made over each solid, and the parts 
 which secured the sarcophagus are dovetailed together. 
 Walls of this nature were used by the Greeks, and 
 called emplection : and Vitruvius says, “ The faces of 
 stones in walls of this kind are smooth ; the rest is left 
 as it grows in the quarry, being secured by alternate 
 joints and mortar. The ancients made use of several 
 sorts of walls, in all which they appear to have con- 
 sidered it indispensable to employ more or less of 
 masonry. They had their reticulated walls, and also 
 the uncertain : of these two the reticulative kind is the 
 most handsome ; but the joints are so ordered that in all 
 parts the courses have an inferior position ; whereas in 
 the uncertain the materials rest firmly one upon another, 
 and are interwoven together, so that they are much 
 stronger than the recticulated, though not so handsome. 
 In this kind of wall the courses were always level, but the 
 upright joints were not ranged regularly or perpendicularly 
 to each other in the alternate courses, nor in any other re- 
 spect correspondently, but were disposed uncertainly, ac- 
 cording to the accidental size of the stone or brick. Thus 
 our bricks ard commonly ranged in ordinary walls, in 
 which all that is regarded is that the upright joints in two 
 adjoining courses do not coincide (See article Brick- 
 layiug for English and Flemish Bond). Both these 
 sorts of walls are formed of very small pieces that they 
 may be saturated with mortar, which adds greatly to 
 their solidity. 
 
 To saturate a wall with mortar is a practice which 
 ought to be had recourse to in every case practicable 
 in which brick or small 6tones are made use of. It 
 consists in saturating fresh lime with water, and pour- 
 ing it while hot among the masonry in the body of the 
 wall. 
 
 The walls called by the Greeks Isodomum, is when 
 all the courses were of an equal thickness, and Pseudo- 
 sodomum or false when they were unequal. Both these 
 walls are firm in proportion to the compactness of the 
 mass and the solid nature of the stones, which when so, 
 they do not absorb the moisture from the mortar, but it 
 preserves its humidity to a great age ; and being situated 
 in regular and level courses the mortar is prevented from 
 falling ; and the whole thickness of the wall being united it 
 endures almost perpetually. In the wall called emplec- 
 tion the faces of the stones are smooth, the rest is left as 
 it comes from the quarry, being secured with alternate 
 joints aud mortar. This kind of building admits of 
 greater expedition, as the artificer can quickly raise a 
 case or shell which serves for the two faces of the work, 
 filling up the middle with rubble-work and mortar. 
 Walls of this kind therefore consist of three coats, 
 two being the faces and one the rubble core, which is 
 in the middle ; but the great works of the Greeks were 
 not done in this manner ; they not only built the facing 
 courses regularly but also the alternate joints through 
 the whole thickness, not ramming the middle with | 
 rubble but building it the same as the face, and of one 
 
 united coat constructed the wall : besides this, they often 
 disposed single pieces, which they called diatonos,* in 
 the thickness of the wall, extending from one surface to 
 the other, which bound and exceedingly strengthened the 
 wall. It is imperious on those, therefore, who are in- 
 trusted with works requiring great strength as well as 
 durability, to weigh and consider well the different ways 
 of uniting the several parts of the masonry of a wall, 
 without which no work can be effected with credit. 
 
 The Roman emplection had sometimes partial cores 
 of rubble work or brick, many examples of which still 
 exist, which is a sufficient proof of its strength and 
 durability ; but the Greeks wrought their w'alls through- 
 out in the same manner as the facings or fronts, as their 
 temples now existing testify, which manner of working 
 no doubt they received from the Egyptians, both coun- 
 tries having aimed to eternalize its monuments. 
 
 At the revival of the arts in Europe in the fifteenth 
 century, Italy abounded in ancient examples, on which 
 the wealth of the world had been exhausted. The 
 artist aud the artisan, although perhaps with equal zeal 
 to their predecessors, found the means inadequate to 
 effect works of the description from which they had 
 formed their studies. Hence arose the miserable ex- 
 pedients in modern masonry, to enumerate which is 
 only to consecrate its poverty, and to emblazon its 
 pigmy efforts, for such they are compared to the great 
 works of Egypt, Greece, and Rome ; in the former of 
 which countries whole quarries were wrought into sump- 
 tuous temples, approached through avenues of marble, 
 leagues in extent, sculptured into sphinxes, obelisks, &c. 
 so much so that a modern traveller, who has witnessed 
 the ruins, remarked, “ while examining the mass, the 
 imagination becomes fatigued with the mere thought 
 of describing it. In the temple of Karnac, the por- 
 tico alone contains 100 columns, the smallest of 
 which is seven feet and a half in diameter and the 
 largest eleven feet. The space occupied by its circumva- 
 lation contains lakes and mountains ; while avenues of 
 sphinxes reach even to the very gates. In short, to 
 form a competent idea of so much magnificence, it is 
 necessary the reader should fancy what is before him to 
 be a dream, for even the spectator cannot believe his 
 eyes.” 
 
 Modern masonry is confined more to the working in 
 freestone than in marble, in the former of which these 
 islands abound, which offer many facilities arising 
 from the nature of its quality in reducing it to all the 
 required shapes in modern construction. At Bath and 
 all the W estern counties they saw it by a toothed saw 
 into smaller scantling, which is again cut by the mason 
 with a hand-saw, and afterwards hewn by an axe, then 
 dragged and smoothed in the same way, according to 
 the required situation or the quality of the proposed 
 work for which the stone is intended. The workman’s 
 
 * All these several kinds of walls, made use of in building by the 
 ancient Greeks and Romans, are to be seen by referring to New- 
 ton’s Vitruvius, vol. I. 
 
 tools 
 
416 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 tools consist of a hand-saw similar to what is made use 
 of by carpenters ; a drag, which is commonly nothing 
 more than a piece of an old saw. He has also his 
 chisels and gouges, gauges and moulds for his sunk and 
 moulded work, which are all afterwards cleaned up by 
 the drag. In Gloucestershire, the masons often use planes 
 for their mouldings, the stones there being more crisp 
 and not intersected by shells, 8tc., which prevent their 
 general adoption with regard to many other freestones. 
 
 Portland freestone is the common stone made use of 
 by the masons in London, which is brought from the 
 island of that name in blocks of almost all dimensions 
 roughly hewn. Its hardness gives it many requisites to 
 produce exquisite masonry. It is sawn into scantling 
 by the friction of sharp siliceous earth -and water by 
 means of a framed plate saw of iron. It is afterwards 
 worked by the mallet and chisel to the required form, and 
 then rubbed to a smooth face with sand or grits by hand. 
 Most of our public buildings are composed of this 
 stone ; and it has been the practice to make use of it 
 in private ones for the kerbs, strings, fascias, columns, 
 cornices and balustrades, when all the other parts were 
 of other materials. Internally, for the floors of halls, j 
 vestibules, staircases, &c. Portland stone is decidedly the I 
 handsomest freestone known, and capable of bearing 
 as fine an arras in moulding as marble, which is the 
 probable reason of its preference, although many other 
 freestones might be obtained at half the original cost 
 and without its great additional expense of freight and I 
 duty. The two latter, however, has risen so high of 
 late that the Gloucestershire stone is now at the wharfs j 
 as its competitor, and is daily coming more into use, 
 and perhaps may in a few years in some measure super- ! 
 sede it; it having been already employed in several j 
 works of consequence, in which it has been found 
 to answer the purpose best ; and as the masons get | 
 more used to it Portland stone will be discontinued, ex- 
 cepting for the internal work, where it will always be ; 
 preferred from its superior neatness. 
 
 The granites of Cornwall and that called Dundee 
 stone from North Britain are now employed for all 
 ■works in which great solidity and wear are required. 
 It has been sought for and used at the several Docks, 1 
 also at the new Bridges. Its excessive hardness is as | 
 much the terror of the London masons as the Glou- I 
 cestershire stone is for its softness ; on account of 
 which has arisen the necessity of bringing to London 
 the workmen as well as the stone, there not having 
 been found persons in London who would undertake 
 to work it. The bringing round of the granites to Lon- 
 don and other places arose in the first instance from the 
 necessity of finding something more solid and durable 
 for the locks and basons of canals. The freestone of 
 the neighbourhood having been generally found inade- 
 quate, these deriiands gave rise to the more multiplied 
 working of the several quarries. Hence it is that now 
 all these different qualities of stone are regularly to be 
 found in the markets, and modern masons will hence- 
 forth have the credit of effecting more lastifig works 
 
 than those from freestone, by a judicious blending aiid 
 arrangement of all the several qualities of stones, to the 
 various purposes of strength and ornament, than they 
 have hitherto had it in their power to do. A substan- 
 tial foundation is of the first importance in masonry, 
 without which no -work can be considered as 
 durable. However, in modern construction this vital 
 part of a building is almost usually intrustec| to the car- 
 penter and bricklayer ; the former for thq purpose of 
 piling such ground as is found inferior, soft, and 
 marshy, and to the latter to raise the needful walls in 
 the substructure in which little or no masonry is em- 
 ployed. Some architects latterly have abandoned 
 planking, many dilapidations having been occasioned by 
 its decay. 
 
 Planking consists in bedding strong boards of oak or 
 fir the whole length and breadth of the proposed foun- 
 dation ; {he former should never be less than three 
 inches and the latter five inches in thickness. And it 
 would be a wise precaution to scorch them all over 
 previously to laying them down. When the magnitude 
 of the superstructure requires that the solid earth should 
 be pierced, piling is had recourse to; it consists in 
 forcing into the infirm ground piles of squared fir, oak, 
 or any other wood, usually about nine or ten inches 
 square, of sufficient tenacity to withstand the driving, 
 the required length being previously ascertained by 
 boring the ground. The ends of the piles are com- 
 monly cased, or as it is called, shoed with pointed iron, 
 and their upper ends or tops are cased with the same me- 
 tal. The machine for forcing them consists of a frame of 
 wood (the height of which must be regulated according 
 to that of the pile and the power required in forcing it), 
 framed and braced with broad and secure ledgers and 
 feet: at the top is a cast-iron wheel usually about 
 eighteen inches in diameter, the outer edge fluted to 
 admit of a rope or chain to move in it, which rope or 
 chain is attached to the axis of an iron cylindrical beater, 
 which for ordinary purposes is from five to seven hun- 
 dred lbs. in weight. This cylinder slides sometimes in 
 grooves in the upright frame, and often on the face of 
 the upright. There is also a ladder attached to the 
 machine for the purpose of adjusting the chain in the 
 wheel, and for oiling the machine : ten or even twenty 
 or more men are employed, according to the nature of 
 the soil through which the piles are to be driven, and 
 they work the beater by raising it up and down in the 
 frame, each taking the end of a rope for the purpose, 
 which being all attached to the chain serve as so many 
 handles. The labour is considered so hard, that it is 
 not unusual, where a great many piles are to be driven, to 
 employ double sets of men to work the beater alter- 
 nately. Mr. Labelyn drove the piles of some of the 
 foundations' of Westminster Bridge by a machine 
 worked by a horse. The machinery was considered in- 
 tricate, and not practical for general purposes, and con- 
 sequently it has been discontinued. The piles are usu- 
 ally driven as close together as they can be, and when 
 finished their tops are sawn off and the intervals filled 
 
 up, 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 417 
 
 up, by the Romans with coal, by us with chalk and 
 rubble ; and their tops are planked in the same manner 
 as is described before for foundations in which planking 
 only has been employed. 
 
 At the London docks the piles were all grooved on 
 their opposite sides, and forced into the earth close to- 
 gether, and when all were so driven in, a tongue was 
 forced down between each sufficiently strong to bind 
 the whole together, and produce a continued chain of 
 wooden piling connected from one end to the other of 
 die foundation. Some architects have not deemed either 
 planking or piling eligible for foundations in infirm or 
 swampy ground, but have had recourse to a cradle, 
 which consists of oak in quartering, and sometimes of 
 fir, strongly framed and braced together in bays and in 
 lengths of from five to ten feet, and of adequate width 
 for the superstructure : these frames were again covered 
 over by cross pieces or joists, and the whole w as bedded 
 firmly on the ground, and filled up flush by chalk or 
 rubble work, for receiving the foundation of the brick 
 or stone wall, and this has been found to answer per- 
 fectly well, and is safer than in trusting to planking 
 only, because if the decay of the quarters of the cradle 
 should take place, they being but partial, and the rubble 
 still remaining united, a sinking of the building is 
 avoided, which is of the greatest importance, and which 
 is but too often the case in the practice by planking only. 
 
 In the foundations of bridges, the practice generally 
 adopted by the ancients and moderns has been to lay 
 the piers dry, either by turning the water into a new 
 course, temporarily, or by the erection of a coffer- 
 dam. A coffer-dam consists of a double chain of piles 
 driven into the ground at a sufficient distance from 
 the intended pier, to admit the work being conve- 
 niently proceeded in; when the piles are all firmly 
 fixed in the earth, strong horizontal beams are framed 
 and bolted to them with braces to stiffen the interme- 
 diate parts ; they are finally planked inside and out, 
 which forms a complete case, and the void between 
 each casing is filled by fat mould or strong earth ; 
 thus secured, very little water is found to percolate, and 
 this is removed by pumping. They have also practised 
 another method somewhat more ingenious. The em- 
 peror Claudius practised it at the port of Ostia ; Dra- 
 guet Keys at the Mosque in the sea of Constantinople; 
 Peronet at Pont Nieully, near Paris; and Sir Samuel 
 Benthnm at some works at Sheerness. It consisted of 
 forming a strong grating of timber, covered with planks, 
 which at once forms a floating raft, and the floor upon 
 which the stone pier is to be erected ; the pier is built 
 upon the raft, and is composed of stones amply se- 
 cured, and rendered by cement water-tight; the whole 
 body is so arranged as to float upon the water until it has 
 advanced in height; so that, if it w-ere sunk, it should 
 be above low'-w'ater-mark (if in a tidal river), or higher, 
 as might be found expedient; this levity is obtained 
 either by the assistance of vessels to which the raft is 
 attached by ropes, or sometimes by the pier being 
 worked up with sufficient vacuities to render it specifi- 
 
 cally lighter than an equal bulk of water ; the pier is 
 then sunk, either by letting the w ater into the vacuities, or 
 by loosening the ropes (as the case may be), but it 
 should be particularly observed previously to prepare 
 the bed of the river to receive the intended pier. — - 
 This is done by machines of the description of ballast- 
 heavers, and care should also be taken that the bottom 
 of the masonry ground be level ; should this not be the 
 case, it must be raised either by pumping the water 
 from out of the vacuities, or (if built in former man- 
 ner) by means of machinery in the vessels ; the opera- 
 tion is performed, in either case, till it ground to the 
 satisfaction of the architect. Mr. Labelyn, in the erec- 
 tion of Westminster bridge, conceiving he had improved 
 upon this latter method, erected the piers of it in 
 caissons, or water-tight-boxes ; the bulk of the box 
 producing a mass, though loaded with the pier, speci- 
 fically lighter than an equal bulk of water ; after each 
 pier had been erected, the sides of the box served 
 again for boxes of other piers ; the pier was sunk, and 
 raised after the same manner as before described. Mr. 
 Mylne, in erecting Blackfriars bridge, adopted the same 
 method in regard to the caissons. 
 
 The practice adopted in the middle ages, as, at the 
 bridges of Avignon, St. Esprit, Lyons, London, York, 
 Newcastle, Rochester, &c., until modern times, was 
 to drive piles into the bottom of the river, in the site of 
 the intended pier, and then to cut them off a little be- 
 low low water; the interstices w'ere then filled with 
 stone and strong cement : upon the piles they laid a 
 grating of timber, boarded with thick boarding, which, 
 so prepared, formed the floor to receive the intended 
 pier ; the workmen taking advantage of the times of 
 low water, till the pier had risen to the level of high- 
 water-mark. This manner is of the purest simplicity, 
 nor does it require the aid of any machine beyond a 
 pile-driving engine. The foundations of the piers of 
 London bridge, as appeared from that which was re- 
 moved, when the two small arches were converted into 
 one, was composed of a quadruple row of piles driven 
 in close together on the exterior site of the pier, forming 
 a case to receive the stone and cement ; it was not ascer- 
 tained whether there were piles in the heart of the pier, 
 for as soon as the exterior piles w'ere taken out, the great 
 force of the water cleared away the remainder, which 
 were carried down the river. With a view to protect 
 the piers of this bridge there have been constructed round 
 them what are called starlings. A starling consists of an 
 enclosure of piles driven into the bed of the river close 
 together, and secured by horizontal pieces of timber, 
 bolted by iron to the tops of the piles ; and the void 
 within, to the piling of the pier, is filled with chalk, 
 gravel, stone, &c., so as to form a complete defence 
 to the internal piling upon which the stone piers are 
 erected. 
 
 It has been very improperly stated, that starlings are 
 necessary to defend the piers in rivers liable to tidal 
 currents, when constructed after the manner last de- 
 scribed ; on the contrary, the use of a starling is not to 
 5 O * defend 
 
418 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 defend piers of any particular construction, they have 
 been used generally when by the plan of the bridge too 
 little water-way has been left. 
 
 The walls of modern buildings are sometimes built 
 for ornament, but more often in which both it and so- 
 lidity are sought for. In London they are regulated by 
 a specific Act of Parliament, but the act having been 
 framed more as a protection from fire than as a security 
 against dilapidation, a prudent builder finds it eligible to 
 trust to the law to avoid inconvenience, but to strengthen 
 his walls beyond the law to prevent their ruin. It is 
 too much to ask for specifics in regard to the thickness 
 of walls : they must be regulated, first, in reference to 
 the nature of the materials to be employed ; and, se- 
 condly, to the magnitude of the fabric to be erected. 
 Walls of stone may be made one-fifth thinner than 
 those of bricks ; and brick walls, in the basement and 
 ground stories of buildings of the first rate, should 
 be reticulated with stone to prevent their splitting, 
 a circumstance too much disregarded by our present 
 builders. 
 
 A plinth in masonry is the first stone inserted above 
 the ground ; it is in one or more pieces, according to 
 its situation, projecting beyond the wall above it about 
 an inch ; its projecting edge sloped downwards, or 
 moulded, to carry off the water that may fall on it. 
 
 Ashlering is a term used by masons to designate the 
 plain stone-work of the front of a building, in which 
 all that is regarded is getting the stone (which is com- 
 monly no more than a casing to the wall) to a 
 smooth face, called its plain-work. The courses 
 should not be too high, and the joints should be crossed 
 regularly, which will improve its appearance, and add 
 to its solidity. 
 
 Fascia is a plain course of stone generally about 
 one foot in height, projecting before the face of the 
 ashlering about an inch, or in a line with the plinth of 
 the building; it is fluted on its under edge (called by 
 the workmen, throating), as a check to prevent the 
 water from running over the ashlering ; its upper edge 
 is sloped downwards for the same purpose. It is 
 commonly inserted above the windows of the ground 
 stories, viz. between them and those of the principal 
 story. 
 
 Cills . — These belong to the apertures of the doors 
 and windows, at the bottom of which they are fixed ; 
 their thickness is various, most commonly about four 
 inches and a half ; they are also fluted on their un- 
 der edges, and sunk on their upper sides, projecting 
 somewhat beyond the ashlering, commonly about two 
 inches. 
 
 Imposts . — These are insertions of stone with their 
 front-facings commonly moulded, and sometimes left 
 plain, and when so left they are prepared in a similar 
 way to the fascias above described. They form the 
 springing-stones to the arches in the apertures of a 
 building, and are of the greatest utility. 
 
 Cornice . — This forms the crown to the ashlering at the 
 summit of a building ; it is frequently the part which is 
 
 marked particularly by the architect to designate the 
 particular order of his work, and when so, it is 
 moulded to that character; hence there are cornices 
 wrought after the three known orders in architecture, 
 viz. the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, when per- 
 haps no column of either is employed in the work, 
 the cornice alone designating the particular style of the 
 edifice. In working the cornice the mason should pre- 
 pare the top or upper side, by splaying it away towards 
 its front edge, that it may more readily convey off the 
 water which may fall on it. At the joints of each of 
 the stones of the cornice, throughout the whole length 
 of the building, that part of each stone which comes 
 nearest at the joints should be left projecting upwards a 
 small way, called, by workmen, saddling the joints ; 
 the intention of which is to keep the rain-water from 
 entering them, and washing out the cement; such 
 joints, however, should be chased or indented, and 
 such chases should be run full of lead. When dowels 
 of iron are employed they should be fixed by melted 
 lead also. 
 
 Blocking Course . — This is a course of stone tra- 
 versing the top of the cornice, to which it is fixed, it 
 is commonly in its height equal to the projection of the 
 cornice. It is of great utility in giving support to the 
 latter by its weight, and to w'hich it adds grace. It 
 at the same time admits of gutters being formed behiud- 
 it to convey away the superfluous water from the co- 
 vering of the building. The joints in it should always 
 cross those of the cornice, and should be plugged with 
 lead, or cramped on their upper edges with iron. The 
 Romans sometimes dove-tailed the joints of such courses 
 of stone. 
 
 Parapets. — These'are of great ornament to the upper 
 part of an edifice. They were used by the Greeks, 
 and afterwards by the Romans, and are composed of 
 three parts, viz. the plinth, w'hich is the blocking course 
 to the cornice ; also, the shaft, or die, which is the 
 part immediately above the plinth. It has a cornice, 
 which is on its top, and projects in its mouldings suffi- 
 ciently to carry off the rain-water from the shaft and 
 plinth. In buildings of the Corinthian style the shaft 
 of the parapet is perforated in the parts immediately 
 over the apertures in the elevation, and balustrade enclo- 
 sures are inserted in the perforations. The architects 
 have devised the parapets with reference to the roof of 
 the building which it is intended to obscure. 
 
 Pilasters . — In modern design these are frequently very 
 capriciously applied. They are vertical shafts of square- 
 edged stone, having but a small projection, with capi- 
 tals and bases like columns ; they are placed by us often 
 on the face of the wall, and with a cornice over them. 
 In Greek architecture they are to be met with com- 
 monly on the ends of the walls behind the columns, in 
 which application their face was made double the width of 
 their sides, their capitals differed materially from those 
 of the columns which they accompanied, they were 
 somewhat larger at bottom than at top, but without any 
 entasis or swell. The best examples are to be found in 
 
 Steuart’s 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 419 
 
 Steuart’s Ruins of Athens, viz. to the Propylea, tem- 
 ple of Minerva Polias, &c. See. 
 
 Architraves adorn the apertures of a building, pro- 
 jecting somewhat from the face of the ashlering ; they 
 have their facing sunk with mouldings, and also their 
 outside edges. When they traverse the curve of an 
 arch they are called archivolts. They give beauty to 
 the exterior of a building, and the best examples of 
 them are to be found in the ancient Greek buildings, 
 and in many also in Italy. 
 
 Rusticating, in architecture and masonry, consists 
 in forming horizontal sinkings or grooves in the stone 
 ashlering of an elevation, intersected by vertical or cross 
 ones, perhaps invented to break the plainness of the 
 wall, and to denote more obviously the crossing or bond 
 of the stones. It is often formed by splaying away the 
 edges of the stone only ; in this style the groove forms 
 the elbow of a geometrical square. Many architects 
 omit the vertical grooves in rustics, so that their walls 
 present an uniform series of horizontal sinkings. The 
 French architects have been very fond of this method, 
 as may be seen in the buildings at Paris ; and the Bank 
 of England is an instance of it in this country. There 
 are abundance of ancient examples in each of the three 
 manners. 
 
 Columns. — These comprise, generally, a conoidal 
 shaft, with a small diminution upwards to their upper 
 diameter, amounting generally to about one-sixth less 
 than the lower diameter. They have sometimes a 
 swell or entasis in, their whole height (see Rules for 
 makiug, article Architecture), but this practice was by 
 no means general. The Greek ruins do not seem to 
 coun'enance such a departure from nature, nevertheless 
 it is found to have been commonly practised among the 
 Roman buildings. The proportions of columns from 
 the Egyptians to the Greeks have varied but little ; the 
 columns of the former, in their large temples, as at 
 Thebes, amount to about four and a half diameters only 
 in their height. The columns of the Parthenon, at 
 Athens, are little more than five. In the best Roman 
 examples they were increased to upwards of seven di- 
 ameters. The columns of alt the Grecian remains are 
 fluted, and the fluting differs in each example. The 
 Doric shafts have their flutes in very flat segments 
 finished to an arris. To the other columns to the temples 
 of Erectheus, Minerva Polias, &c. (both of the Ionic 
 style), flutings of the semi-ellipsis shape with fillets were 
 adapted. 
 
 The application of columns has been that in which 
 the architect has most endeavoured to display his ge- 
 nius. The Greeks surrounded their public works with 
 them; their porticos carried this kind of splendour to 
 its highest, as in them may be sought and found the 
 whole syntax of architecture and masonry. To con- 
 struct a temple in the Greek manner required a con- 
 summate knowledge of architecture, combined with an 
 exquisite taste united to great judgment. In the Par- 
 thenon, at Athens, is to be found the most elaborate 
 display of masonry in the world. This temple to Mi- 
 
 nerva is the best example of this important branch (see 
 Plate I., Fig. 4). The columns are all constructed of 
 single blocks in diameter, and in courses of more than 
 a diameter in height (BB, Fig. a). The wall enclosing 
 the cell of the temple {Fig. 4), is formed of a single 
 course of marble blocks, in thickness, shewing a face 
 inside and outside, the vertical joints corresponding over 
 each other, and in seventeen horizontal courses, reckon- 
 ing from the bottom of the architrave to the top of the 
 upper step, and rising to an height of thirty-three feet. 
 The capitals to the columns consist each of one single 
 block, two feet nine inches high, and the architrave lies 
 upon them. The architraves are composed of three 
 blocks in thickness from face to back, each in length 
 extending from centre to centre of the columns, and 
 above fourteen feet long each, and that over the central 
 intercolumniation is seventeen feet, and each block also 
 the whole height of the architrave, and of an equal 
 thickness. The frieze is in two regular courses in 
 height, and each course wants so much of being the 
 whole thickness of the frieze as allows the metope to 
 lie against it. The triglyph tails are (AA, Fig. 2) in 
 one height, but does not go through it, and was so 
 formed that the back of the block was considerably 
 narrower where it went into the frieze than the breadth 
 of the triglyph, so that each side of the triglyph pro- 
 jected on to the face of the slab of the metope (BB, 
 Fig. 2) several inches, thus forming a rebate which en- 
 closed the metope ; and which completely prevented 
 their removal without taking off the cornice and pedi- 
 ment, and gave strength and solidity to the whole sculp- 
 tures of the friezes. The cornice is in blocks, which 
 are the width of one mutule and one of the spaces be- 
 tween them (Elevation, Fig. 1), their ends forming a 
 complete course on the inside. The tympanum of the 
 pediment is composed of one course of upright slabs 
 on the outside face, with horizontal courses behind 
 them. The pavement of the temple is in squares of 
 equal size, of about five feet each, and about one foot 
 in thickness (two or three of which are amongst Lord 
 Elgin’s Athenian marbles), joined with the most mathe- 
 matical precision. 
 
 The perfect state in which the monuments of Greece 
 still remain, which have not been destroyed by violence, 
 is a proof of the great judgment with which they were 
 constructed. The famous temple to Minerva would 
 have been entire at this day if a bomb had not been 
 thrown into it by the Venetians, when it was used as the 
 powder magazine of the Turks. The Propylea, ap- 
 plied to the same purpose, was struck by lightning, and 
 blown up. The temple of Theseus, not having been 
 exposed to accidents of this nature, is almost as entire 
 as when first erected. The little choragie monument 
 of Thrasyllus, as well as that of Lysicrates, are also 
 entire. These are sufficient instances to shew the great 
 judgment employed by the Athenians in the construc- 
 tion of their buildings, and it is hoped to impress on 
 modern architects and masons the utility of employing 
 large blocks, and also of causing great accuracy in 
 
 joining 
 
420 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 joining them tpgether, without which masonry is not 
 better than bricklaying. The core of rubble work now 
 remaining in many of their walls is impenetrable to a 
 tool, an additional proof if any be wanting of the care 
 employed in cementing the masonry. 
 
 The mode of erecting columns into screens or por- 
 ticos remains to be treated on. The Doric column 
 was effected in Greece without a base, it having a large 
 diameter which compounded for this deficiency. This 
 column was invariably approached by three steps, (see 
 Fig. 4. c c c) the third or last forming the floor on 
 which it was built. The lower shafts, as well as the 
 intended intercolumniation, were accurately marked out 
 on the floor, and on the parts to which the columns 
 were designed to be placed. A circle \yas drawn 
 about -j%th of the diameter of that of the column, 
 which was sunk down (See Plate I. Fig. 3. D D.). 
 The lower shaft was accurately shaped at its lowest 
 extremity to the proposed diameter (A, Fig. 3), leaving 
 it so much longer as to fit into the sinking in the upper 
 step, which formed for it a kind of rebate ; by thus 
 fixing all the shafts in the floor their intercoluinniations 
 were exactly preserved. The column is composed of 
 blocks (BB, Fig. 4), of, at least, a diameter in height, 
 exactly jointed, and, by the Greeks, without the least 
 cement between them. In the centre of each joint were 
 made square sinkings for the purpose of putting in a 
 joggle ; this joggle enters both the upper and lower 
 shafts, and serves to prevent the moving or fracture of 
 the column by any lateral thrust it might receive. The 
 joggles in the columns of the Parthenon were of olive- 
 wood ; they are commonly with us of iron painted 
 over, or of lead ; and, in columns of marble, they are 
 copper. The latter metal being preferred by reason of 
 its not being so liable to oxydate as the former, and 
 consequently not so probable to stain the stone, which 
 is too often the case by iron joggling. 
 
 The joining of columns in free-stone has been found 
 more difficult than in marble, and the French masons 
 have a practice to avoid the failure of the two arrisses 
 of the joint, which might be borrowed with success for 
 the constructing of columns of some of our softer free- 
 stones. It consists in sinking away the edge of the 
 joints, by which means a groove is formed at every one, 
 throughout the whole height of the column. Travellers 
 who have seen their porticos have compared them to 
 cheeses piled one on the other, the courses appearing, 
 by this practice, to be so regularly marked. This me- 
 thod is not had recourse to but for plain shafts : it is 
 not altogether of modern invention, as there are some 
 ancient remains in which it appears, but in them it may 
 fie conjectured to have been for a very different pur- 
 pose. It served to admit the shafts being adorned by 
 flowers and other insignia on the occasion of their 
 shews and games. In the French capital they even 
 now, on their public illuminations, affix row’s of lamps 
 on their columns, making use of these grooves to adjust 
 them regularly, which produces a very good effect. 
 
 The shafts of columns in large works intended to be 
 
 adorned by flutes, are erected plain, and the fluting 
 chiselled out afterwards. The ancients commonly^ 
 formed the two ex'reme ends of the fluting previously, 
 as may be seen in the remaining columns of the temple 
 of Apollo, in the island of Delos, a practice admitting 
 of great accuracy and neatness. The finishing the detail 
 of both sculpture and masonry on the building itself 
 w’as a universal practice among the ancients : they 
 raised their columns first in rough blocks, on them the 
 architraves and friezes, and surmounted the whole by the 
 cornice, finishing such parts only down as were not con- 
 veniently to be got at in the building ; hence, perhaps, 
 in some measure, arose that striking proportion of parts 
 together with the beautiful curvature and finish given to 
 all the profiles in Grecian buildings. 
 
 The Greeks, who carried architecture to its highest, 
 seem by their skill to have even chained down the 
 public convenience to submit to her notions of subli- 
 mity. Thus we find, that the general basement of the 
 Parthenon is composed of three gradations, or steps, 
 (Plate I. Fig. 4, ccc ) not proportioned to the human 
 step, but to the diameter of the columns it supports, 
 and forms one single feature extending through the 
 length of the temple, and of strength and consequence 
 sufficient to give stability and breadth to the mass above 
 it. The same means were pursued in all their works, 
 viz. in those of the Ionic and Corinthian styles, for the 
 Greeks affected none other. The bases and capitals to 
 the columns, and also the antse, were executed on 
 the building, as well as the accessories or ornamented 
 parts ; and although this practice is not common among 
 us, our neighbours, the French, who certainly are much 
 our superiors in architecture, always adopt it. It has one 
 great public convenience (besides admitting greater ac- 
 curacy in finishing) by allowing of more rapidity in 
 carrying forward the work, blocks being inserted for 
 and instead of laboured bases and capitals, from w hich 
 circumstances the case of the building is sooner ready 
 to receive its roof, and the interior may be more 
 quickly prepared for its intended purpose than by wait- 
 ing for all the several parts to be previously wrought’ 
 and finished to be inserted in the progress of the work ; 
 hence the public convenience becomes sooner supplied, 
 and if the finances should fail of fully effecting the 
 whole intention of the design, such failure would only 
 effect the ornamental part ; enough will remain to exhi- 
 bit the genius of the architect, and the work may be 
 completed, if it be worthy, in more prosperous cir- 
 cumstances. The French people seem fully to have 
 fallen in with this idea, for they have frequently left 
 unfinished the decorative part of their edifices, as there 
 are now to be seen at Paris and other places whole 
 ranges of columns and pilasters with no indication 
 of their precise order, except what may be collected 
 from the shape and size of the blocks inserted in the 
 walls to form them. 
 
 Pavements have occupied considerable attention in 
 architecture, and consequently masonry. The Greek 
 temples were paved with white marble, the same as 
 
 that 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 421 
 
 that of which the temple itself was constructed ; and 
 consisted of large squares joined with great precision, 
 and of such thickness as secured their stability; the 
 remaining stones in the Propylea, at Athens, are 
 fifteen inches in thickness ; and those in the Minerva 
 temple, eighteen inches. The Turks have found the 
 greatest difficulty in removing them, as has been their 
 practice, for the purpose of making lime for their pre- 
 sent houses. 
 
 Tessellated Mosaic pavements were used by the 
 Athenians, and consisted in forming, by inlaying mar- 
 ble in various specimens, to exhibit the most agreeable 
 and fanciful designs. Mr. Steuart discovered a frag- 
 ment of one, of great beauty, in the Ionic temple on 
 the Ilissus, at Athens. In the disclosures at Pom- 
 peii many floors were found to be so paved. There 
 does not, however, appear in Greece such marks of 
 luxury and extravagance in the decorative parts of their 
 buildings as the opulent Romans displayed, who, not 
 content with inserting in their floors pieces of mar- 
 ble of the most beautiful kind, had them painted and 
 varied with different colours. This custom commenced 
 under Claudius. Under Nero they began to cover 
 the marble with gold, thus the marble of Numidia 
 was gilded, and that of Phrygia was stained with 
 purple. 
 
 The mode of staining marble w as so perfect that the 
 dyers of Lacedemon and Tyre were envious of the 
 purple lustre which their marbles exhibited. Pieces of 
 solid gold, called crassum aurum, and of the same me- 
 tal beaten out called u bracteae,” were inlaid. Some 
 women, says Seneca, “ had baths paved with pure 
 silver; they placed their feet on the same kind of 
 metal in which their food was served up.” Such and 
 other traits of splendour are mentioned in the descrip-» 
 tion which Statius gives of the country-house of Man- 
 lius Vopiscus. 
 
 Arching is that in w'hich the modern mason has ex- 
 ceedingly excelled the ancient. In Greece, if it were 
 understood, it was but little practised ; but there, as in 
 Egypt, the necessity of it was not so imperious as it 
 was afterwards in Italy, and latterly in Europe ; the 
 former countries abounded in quarries of marble, from 
 which they could collect pieces of sufficient dimension 
 to compose lintels for all their apertures, and also for the 
 roofs of their porticos, which were formed of marble ; 
 and they appear satisfied in this application, without 
 having had recourse to arching, which they must, 
 bad not their marble been adequate to the support 
 of great weights laying in horizontal positions. The 
 Romans, who were indebted to the Greeks for all that 
 they performed on scientific principles in architecture, 
 took the rules that were afforded in arching (although 
 scanty) by their teachers, and if they did not much im- 
 prove them, made them more common ; hence we find, in 
 most of the Roman edifices arches in all positions, 
 in some of which there is great boldness of design, as well 
 as intelligence displayed ; but, as is usual in the infancy 
 of an invention, they appear never to have carried them 
 
 above, or varied them from, the portion of a circle 
 altering its versed sign only to answer the numerous 
 purposes of strength and ornament in building. — 
 The ancient Roman architects seem not to have been 
 conducted, in these their principles of arcuation, by 
 certain and geometrical principles, experience and 
 imitation served them principally as guides. The circle 
 with them answered every purpose ; and experience 
 having shewn its utility, no one seems to have pressed 
 from the ranks to exhibit his enterprise by a devia- 
 tion ; this was left for the work of the moderns, and, 
 like the late developements in chemistry, to which it 
 nearly approaches in both genius and importance, may, 
 in its results, eventually connect the most distant by 
 the easiest possible means, as w'ell as promote the 
 convenience of the present and admiration of succeed- 
 ing ages. 
 
 The masonry of an arch herein to be treated of, is so 
 intimately connected with the theory, that it appears 
 almost impossible to explain the one without giving 
 some information respecting the other. In theory, an 
 arch may be explained as follows, viz. to consist of se- 
 ries of stones, called voissoirs, in the shape of trun- 
 cated wedges which resist each other, through their 
 inclined sides, by means of that weight whereby they 
 would otherwise fall, and are suspended in the air with- 
 out any support from below, where a concavity is 
 formed. The voissoirs are subject to forces which arise 
 from their own weight, from external pressure, from 
 friction, and the cohesion of matter; all these forces 
 compose 'a system which ought to be in equilibration ; 
 and, moreover, that state ought to have a consistence 
 firm and durable. It was not till near the end of the 
 seventeenth century when the Newtonian mathematics 
 opened the road to true mechanical science, that the 
 mathematicians directed any part of their attention to 
 the theory of arches. Dr. Hook gave the first hint of 
 a principle, when he affirmed, that the figure into which 
 a chain or rope, perfectly flexible, will arrange itself, 
 when suspended from tw'o hooks, becomes, when in- 
 verted, the proper form for an arch constituted of stones 
 of uniform weight and size. The reason on which he 
 grounded his assertion, is, simply, that the forces with 
 which the parts of a standing arch press mutually on 
 each other, in the latter case, are precisely equal and 
 opposite to those with which they pull each other in the 
 case of suspension. This principle, true as far as it 
 goes, gave rise to most of the specious theories of the 
 mathematicians ; for they did not consider that though- 
 an arch of equal voissoirs might be thus balanced, it 
 would require much other matter to be placed over it, 
 to fill up the space between the extrados and a road- 
 way, if used for the purpose of a bridge, and that this 
 superincumbent mass must necessarily destroy the equili- 
 brium previously existing in the unloaded arch. There 
 is a certain thickness in the crown which will put the 
 catenaria in equilibrio, even with a horizontal road- 
 way ; but this thickness is so great that the pressure at 
 the vertex is equal to the horizontal thrust : the only si- 
 5 P tuation, 
 
422 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 tuation, therefore, in which the catenarian would be 
 proper, is in an arcade, carrying a height of dead wall 
 above it. During these discussions on the celebrated 
 catenaria, a new system of arching developed itself. It 
 was deduced from the consideration of the arch-stones 
 being frustrums, or parts of wedges ; hence the mathe- 
 matical properties of the wedge were introduced into 
 the science, and employed to establish the theory of 
 what were called balanced arches ; this practice was 
 taught in France by La Hire, Parent, Varignon, Beli- 
 dor, 'Riou, &c., and some bridges were formed on its 
 principles, viz. Pont La Concorde, at Paris, and also 
 one arch at Nieully. It required that the arch-stones 
 should be as long as economy would admit, and, if 
 possible, to fill up all the space between the intrados and 
 extrados of the bridge ; and further, they are all to be 
 locked together by bars and wedges of iron, which 
 will prevent the possibility of their sliding, on the arch 
 quitting the centering ; a circumstance not before ac- 
 complished in arching. 
 
 The theorist not yet having brought the practical 
 architect to adopt his visions, raised another system, 
 which is said to secure a perfectly equilibrated structure, 
 by making an equality at every point of the curve. The 
 deduction from this theory consists in making the 
 height of the wail incumbent on any point of the in- 
 trados, directly as the cube of the secant of the curve’s 
 inclination to the horizon at that point, or inversely as 
 the radius of curvature there. It must be added, that 
 this theory expects the joints of the voissoirs to be per- 
 fectly smooth, and not to be connected by any cement, 
 and therefore to sustain each other merely' by the equili- 
 brium of their vertical pressure ; and the theorist says, 
 
 “ an arch which thus sustains itself, must be stronger 
 than another which would not, because when in ima- 
 gination we suppose both to acquire connexion by ce- 
 ment, the first preserves the influence of this connex- 
 ion unimpaired ; whereas in the other, part of the co- 
 hesion is wasted in counteracting the tendency of some 
 parts to break off from the rest by want of equilibrium. 
 From these systems have been made tables for forming I 
 arches to equilibrate, by which the nature of each 
 voissoir may be found to any degree of curvation, and 
 Dr. Hutton has simplified it for practical men — (see 
 Table, article Arch, Part I, page 341). The prac- 
 tical mason, however neat in the execution of his work, 
 finds it extremely difficult to get the joints of the arch- 
 stones so smooth as is required by these systems ; and 
 even if he succeeds in doing so, circumstances may 
 take place in the construction of the work to render it j 
 useless ; for instance, the abutments may sink a little, 
 and one may retire more than another, hence will arise 
 an alteration in the arch, and, consequently, in the shape 
 of the joints ; but there are other circumstances to be 
 anticipated, known to the practical architect (if even a 
 sinking of the abutments should not take place), which 
 is an alteration in the centre on which the masonry is 
 raised. It is ascertained, that however firmly it may be 
 constructed and supported, its curvature will vary as it 
 
 receives the weight of the stone arch. It not being 
 possible that the centre could be loaded all at once, 
 produces this variation; but even if the centre should 
 be so constructed as to remain firm and unalterable, 
 a sinking w ill ensue on its removal ; this, as the prac- 
 tice is, is done gradually, and all the arch-stones in 
 some measure follow it; the middle ones squeezing 
 the lateral ones aside, which compresses all between 
 them ; hence the latter arch stones alter their shape, 
 a sinking of the crown ensues, consequently a general 
 change of form of not only the joints, but of the arch 
 also. Some architects, to secure as little friction in 
 the joints as possible, have covered their surfaces with 
 sheet-lead, and this practice was followed in the bridge 
 of Blackfriars, at Norwich, by Mr. Soane. It cannot 
 be too strongly recommended to the mason concerned 
 in arching, to make all the joints meet as correctly as 
 possible, using the least possible quantity of cement be- 
 tween them : the practice of wedging in the voissoirs at 
 the crown of the arch, commonly practised, should be 
 done with caution, or, instead of preventing a sinking, 
 it may endanger the whole arch. Peronet, who was 
 architect to so many bridges in France, and whose ex- 
 perience and sagacity in this branch of practice, had 
 developed more than a whole magazine of theorists 
 could do, rejected it. His rejection of it was not how r - 
 ever to the principle, but to the uncertainty in the 
 persons employed to perform it ; he conceived that the 
 stones might be so fractured in forcing them in, that no 
 two flat surfaces w'ould present themselves in that part of 
 the arch. — Nieully, one of the finest bridges he built, 
 and which the writer of this article has repeatedly ex- 
 amined, is of a very superior construction ; the road 
 occasions very little elevation, no more than sufficient 
 to keep it dry. The arches and piers are quite unique 
 in their shape, of considerable span, and so apparently 
 fiat and thin in the crown, as at first sight to create a 
 doubt if they be of stone. It is a principle in the 
 French bridges that the passengers may see their road- 
 w r ay from one end to the other. It would not be en- 
 dured by them to be ascending mountains over the in- 
 land waters ; and if their bridges are not so strong as 
 ours, they exhibit more intelligence, convenience, and 
 beauty. 
 
 The figures of arches are as various in their shape as 
 the most fastidious ideas of convenience can require ; 
 they w'ere, in the bridges of the Romans, semi-circles ; 
 by the moderns, of every form and curvature fancy 
 can suggest, or geometry delineate ; but the practical 
 mason should endeavour in effecting arches, if he ex- 
 pects the praise of intelligent men, to protect them by 
 some reference to known principles. Every arch of 
 curvature (and it cannot be an arch without it, although 
 it may be a lintel), should be described by its praxis in 
 known geometry, and if it require one, two, or more 
 centres to develope its form, the workman should not 
 forget that these points once ascertained are his guides 
 to find the shape of the voissoirs or arch-stones. The 
 joints of an arch are all traced from the centres of their 
 
 • curvature, 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 423 
 
 curvature, so that as a general axiom it may be assumed, 
 for instance, speaking of a semi-circle, that its centre 
 supplies the principle of giving form to the voissoirs ; if 
 a segment, the centre of the circle of which it is the 
 segment, be its versed sign what it may. If an ellipsis, 
 which is neither more nor less than three segments, the 
 arch-joints must be drawn from the centres of each cor- 
 respondent circle, and so on to the parabola, hyper- 
 bola, Sic. : if these principles were attended to by the 
 practical mason, the failure of so many arches in the 
 smaller works w'ould be prevented, and the arch itself 
 appear more neat ; inasmuch as principle would be op- 
 posed to that which is most commonly done-by chance, 
 as may be seen by any attentive observer, ou looking at 
 the arches in some of our buildings. 
 
 Of Domes . — A dome is said to be less difficult 
 of construction than an arch, by reason that the ten- 
 dency of each part to fall is counteracted not only by 
 the pressure of the parts above and below, but also by 
 the resistance of those which are situated on each side. 
 A dome may therefore be erected without any tempo- 
 rary support, like the centre which is required for the 
 construction of an arch, and it may at last be left open 
 at the summit, without standing in need of a key-stone. 
 
 The Greeks seem no more to have employed domes 
 than they did arches, one # only having been preserved, 
 and in that there is nothing to require any of the prin- 
 ciples of the Tambour-wall, as it is composed of a 
 single piece. The Romans certainly affected domes, 
 in which they developed great enterprise, genius and 
 taste. Vitruvius says nothing about them, though 
 he gives proportions for his monoptereal buildings, as, 
 probably, they were but little employed in his time ; 
 but we have still existing the Pantheon of Agrippa, 
 over which there is a beautiful hemispherical roof, and 
 it is probable that all their round temples were so 
 roofed ; indeed, in the remains of the Sybils’ temple at 
 Tivoli, there are evident marks of such a covering. 
 
 The masonry of domes must be conducted on similar 
 principles to those recommended for arching, excepting 
 only that the figure of each voissoir or wedge will be 
 so shaped as to fit the void in a sphere instead of its sec- 
 tions. The weight of masonry in a dome, however, will 
 require all the force of mind in the architect and mason 
 to prevent its forcing out its lower parts ; for instance, 
 if it rises in a direction too nearly vertical, with its form 
 spherical, and its thickness equable, it will require to be 
 confined by a chain or hoop, as soon as the rise reaches 
 *to about iiths of the whole diameter ; but if the pre- 
 caution be taken of diminishing the thickness of the 
 masonry as it rises, it will not require to be so bound. 
 
 The dome of the Pantheon is nearly circular, and its 
 l^*yer parts are so much thicker than its upper parts as 
 to afford sufficient resistance to their pressure, and this 
 was further prevented from spreading by being fur- 
 nished with many projections which answer the pur- 
 pose of abutments and buttresses. 
 
 * The monument of Lysicrates, at Athens, 
 
 I At the restoration of the Arts in Italy, in the fifteenth 
 century, the architects, no doubt struck with the amaz- 
 ing effect of domes, from viewing that remaining to the 
 1 Pantheon, projected many to the cathedrals and other 
 edifices at that time undertaken ; but their skill was not 
 equal to their zeal, and many attempts from want of 
 the former, failed. 
 
 At Constantinople, the church of St. Sophia was 
 covered by a dome, and its history will be useful to 
 prevent the temerity of the unscientific. Anthemius 
 and Isidorus, whom the emperor Justinian had selected 
 as architects the most proper for conducting the works 
 of this celebrated edifice, seem to have known but 
 little of the matter. Anthemius had boasted to Justi- 
 nian that he would outdo the magnificence of the Ro- 
 man Pantheon, for he would hang a greater dome than 
 it aloft in the air ; accordingly he attempted to raise it 
 on the heads of four piers, distant from each other about 
 one hundred and fifteen feet, and about the same height. 
 He had probably seen the magnificent vaultings of the 
 temple of Mars the Avenger, and also of the temple of 
 Peace, at Rome, the thrusts of the vaultings of which 
 were withstood by two masses of solid wall which joined 
 the side walls of the temple at right angles, and extended 
 sidewise to a great distance. It was evident that the walls 
 of this temple could not yield to the pressure of the vault- 
 ing, without pushing these immense buttresses along their 
 foundations ; he therefore in imitation placed four but- 
 tresses to aid his piers. They are almost solid masses 
 of stone, extending at least ninety feet from the piers 
 to the north and to the south, forming, as it were, the 
 side walls of the cross. They effectually secured them 
 from the thrusts of the two great arches of the nave 
 which supported the dome ; but there was no such pro- 
 vision against the thrust of the great north and south 
 arches. Anthemius trusted for this to the half dome 
 which covered the semi-circular east end of the church, 
 and which occupied the whole eastern arch of the great 
 dome : but when the dome was finished, and had stood 
 a few months, it pushed the' two eastern piers, with 
 their buttresses, from the perpendicular, making them 
 lean to the eastward, and the dome and half dome fell 
 in. Isidorus, who succeeded to the work on the death 
 of Anthemius, strengthened the piers on the east side, 
 by filling up some hollows, and again raised the dome, 
 but things gave way before it was finished ; and while 
 they were building in one part it was falling in another. 
 The pillars and walls of the eastern semi-circular end 
 were much shattered by this time. Isidorus, seeing they 
 could give no resistance to the push which was so evi- 
 dently directed that w'ay, erected some clumsy but- 
 tresses on the east wall of the square which surrounded 
 the w'hole Greek-cross, and these w'ere roofed in with 
 it, forming a sort of cloister, and leaning against the 
 piers of the dome, and thus opposed the thrusts of the 
 great north and south arches. The dome was now 
 turned for the third time, and many contrivances were 
 adopted for making it extremely light. It was made 
 offensively flat, and, except the ribs, it was roofed with 
 
 pumice- 
 
424 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 pumice-stone; but, notwithstanding these precautions, 
 the arches settled so as to alarm the architects, and 
 they made all sure by filling up the whole from top to 
 bottom with arcades in three stories. The lowest 
 arcade was very lofty, supported by four noble marble 
 columns, and thus preserved, in some measure, the 
 church in the form of a Greek-cross. The story above 
 formed a gallery for the women, and had six columns 
 in front, so that they did not bear fairly on those below. 
 The third story was a dead w'all, filling up the arch, 
 and pierced with three rows of small ill-shaped windows : 
 in this uuworkmanlike shape it has stood till now, and 
 is the oldest church in the world, but it is an ugly mis- 
 shapen mass of deformity and ignorance, resembling any 
 thing rather than what it w'as intended for, viz. a beau- 
 tiful piece of architecture. 
 
 But there has been domes effected since in every part 
 of Europe, combining and displaying, in this species of 
 building, every requisite of beauty and strength. The 
 one to St. Peter’s, at Rome, is a superb undertaking ; 
 and the set-off to it in this country, of St. Paul’s, is 
 another, in which equal taleut is developed ; but this 
 latter dome is more remarkable for its carpentry than its 
 masonry. At Paris they have that to the church of the 
 Invalids, a beautiful work ; and one, of very recent con- 
 struction, to St. Genevieve, now called the Pantheon ; 
 on the frieze of the portico of w hich is the following in- 
 scription in bronze letters, Aux grand hommes la Patrie 
 connoisante. This latter dome, including the peristyle on 
 which it rests, is perhaps the most beautiful in form and 
 composition in existence. The peristyle is formed by 
 fifty-two columns of the Corinthian order, completely in- j 
 sulated, and standing on a circular stylobate, each above j 
 fifty feet high. The dome rises above the cornice of the 
 peristyle in a beautiful curved line, and, on its top, is 
 formed a pedestal and gallery. On the pedestal is 
 erected a bronze statue of the figure of Fame, twenty- 
 eight feet high : but here, as in St. Sophia, the work of 
 dilapidation has commenced. It w'as observed, after 
 the dome was raised, that the columns composing 
 the interior began to sink with the weight. This inte- 
 rior consisted of four naves, over the centre of which 
 was the lantern and dome ; they are decorated with 
 one hundred and thirty fluted columns of the Corinthian 
 order, twenty-eight feet high, completely insulated ; the 
 shafts of some of which began to fracture at their joinings, 
 which obviously arose from the inadequacy of the material 
 they were composed of, and, to remove this defect, the 
 architects have directed the walling Up of the intercolum- 
 niation at the four quarters of the screen, in order to 
 prevent its further giving way ; and this now having 
 been done, a monument at once of great genius and 
 taste may be preserved. 
 
 A dome has been erected to the rotundo of the Bank 
 of England, in which the principles of the ancient one 
 of the Pantheon, at Rome, has been followed. It 
 takes its spring from a wall of great thickness, on which 
 it is bedded, furnished by many projections externally 
 graduated like steps, which answer the purpose of but- 
 
 tresses. It is open at its summit, like that from which 
 it is copied, and from which the interior of the build- 
 ing receives its light. It composes, on the whole, a 
 structure unique, and very honourable to the talents of 
 the architect, Mr. Soane. 
 
 The masonry of Gothic architecture now remains to 
 be treated. It is pretty generally agreed among anti- 
 quaries, that we had few, if any, buildings of stone 
 previous to the Norman advent: indeed, it is observed, 
 “ that before that event most of our monasteries and 
 church buildings were of wood.” “ All the monasteries 
 of my realm,” saith king Edgar, in his charter to the abbey 
 of Malmesbury, dated in the year 974, “ to the sight 
 are nothing but worm-eaten and rotten timber and 
 boards:” and that upon the Norman conquest such 
 timber fabrics grew out of use, and gave place to stone 
 buildings, raised upon arches ; a form of structure in- 
 troduced by that nation, furnished with stone from 
 Caen, in Normandy. 
 
 “ In the year 1087 (Stow’s words of the cathedral of 
 London) this church of St. Paul was burnt with fire, 
 and therewith most part of the city : Mauritius, then 
 bishop, began therefore the new foundation of a new 
 church of St. Paul ; a work that men of that time 
 judged would never have been finished, it was to them 
 so wonderful for length and breadth, as also the same 
 was builded upon arches of stone, for defence of fire ; 
 which was a manner of work before that time unknown 
 to the people of this nation, and then brought from the 
 French, and the stone was fetched from Caen, in Nor- 
 mandy.” St. Mary le Bow church, in] London, being 
 built much about the same time, and manner, that 
 is, on arches of stone, was therefore called New 
 Mary church, or. St. Mary leBow; as Stratford bridge, 
 being the first builded with arches of stone, was 
 therefore called Stratford le Bow. This, doubtless, 
 is that new kind of architecture the continuer of 
 Bede intends, where speaking of the Normans, lie 
 saith, “ you may observe every where in villages, 
 churches ; and in cities and villages, monasteries erect- 
 ed with a new kind of architecture/’ And again, 
 speaking doubtfully of the age of the eastern part of 
 the choir of Canterbury, he adds, “ I dare constantly 
 and confidently deny it to be elder than the Norman 
 conquest, because of the building it upon arches, a 
 form of architecture, though in use with, and, among 
 the Romans long before, yet, after their departure, not 
 used here in England till the Normans brought it over 
 with them from France.” 
 
 It is barely probable that we should have continued 
 ignorant of masonry till this period, and that we did not 
 there is abundant proof. With regard to the churches 
 being of wood, the only authority produced for it, is 
 the expression in one of king Edgar’s charters concern- 
 ing the ruinous state of the monasteries in his time. It 
 is true, indeed, some of their fabrics seem to have been 
 totally formed of timber. Bede, in his Ecclesiastical His- 
 tory, mentions a chapel so built on occasion, of the 
 conversion of Edwin, king of Northumberland, for the 
 
 purpose 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 425 
 
 purpose of his baptism. But he likewise informs us, that 
 soon after the king was baptized, he laid the foundation of 
 a stately and magnificent fabric of stone : this king was 
 baptized in the year 627, several hundred years previously 
 to the reign of the Norman king; so that there is a 
 great probability that the art of constructing buildings 
 of strength, supported by arches and vaulting, was well 
 understood long before. Among the fabrics of these 
 times may be included many heathen temples, some of 
 which were built by the Saxons themselves. In what 
 these temples differed from the Christian churches may 
 be difficult to determine with any certainty ; pope Gre- 
 gory, however, advised Augustin not to demolish them, but 
 only that the idols that were in them should be removed 
 and destroyed, and then consecrated to the service of the 
 true God. As the work of conversion was at this time 
 going on rapidly, a zeal began to display itself iu erect- 
 ing churches and other places of worship. One of the 
 first erected Saxon churches of any consequence appears 
 to have been at Canterbury, and Bede says, “ it was 
 called St. Peter, and in which all the bodies of the 
 bishops of Canterbury were interred.” From this time 
 to the conquest, and for some time after, Saxon archi- 
 tecture was the prevailing taste of the nation, and many 
 edifices combining all the requisites of true building 
 were made. The characteristic marks of this style are 
 these : — The walls were very thick, generally without 
 buttresses; the arches, both within and without, as 
 well as those over the doors and windows, semi-circular, 
 and supported by very solid or rather clumsy columns, 
 with a kind of regular base and capital. In short, 
 plainness and solidity constitute the striking features of 
 this method of building : nevertheless, the architects of 
 those days sometimes deviated from this rule, their ca- 
 pitals were adorned with carvings of foliage, and even 
 animals; and their massive columns were decorated 
 with small half-columns united to them, and their sur- 
 faces ornamented with spirals, squares, lozenges, net- 
 work, and other figures, either engraven or in relievo ; 
 various instances of these may be seen in the cathedral 
 of Canterbury, the monastery at Landisfern, the ca- 
 thedral at Durham, and the ruined choir at Orford, in 
 Suffolk. Their arches too, though generally plain, 
 sometimes came in for more than their share of orna- 
 ments ; particularly those over the chief doors, some of 
 these were overloaded with a profusion of carving. 
 Bishop Warburton, in his notes on Pope’s Epistles, 
 says, “ all our ancient churches are called, without dis- 
 tinction, Gothic, but erroneously. They are of two sorts ; 
 the one built in the Saxon times, the other in the Nor- 
 man.” Several cathedral and collegiate churches of the 
 first sort are yet remaining, either in whole or in part ; of 
 which, says he, this was the original. When the Saxon 
 kings became Christians, their piety (which was the 
 piety of the times) consisted chiefly in building churches 
 at home, or performing pilgrimages abroad, especially 
 to the Holy Laud ; and these spiritual exercises assisted 
 and supported one another. For the most venerable, 
 as well as most elegant models of religious edifices were 
 
 then in Palestine. From these the Saxon builders took 
 the whole of their ideas, as may be seen by comparing 
 the drawings which travellers have given us of the 
 churches still standing in that country, with the Saxon 
 remains of what we find at home. Now the archi- 
 tecture of the Holy Land was Grecian, or rather Ro- 
 man, but greatly fallen from its ancient elegance. Our 
 Saxon performance was indeed a bad copy of it, yet 
 still the footsteps of the ancient art appeared in the cir- 
 cular arches, the entire columns, the division of the 
 entablature into a sort of architrave, frieze and cornice, 
 and a solidity equally diffused over the whole mass. 
 
 To the Saxon style of building succeeded the Nor- 
 man, or pointed style. The marks which constitute its 
 character are its numerous and prominent buttresses, its 
 lofty spires and pinnacles, its large and ramified win- 
 dows, its ornamental niches or canopies, its sculptured 
 saints, the delicate lace-work of its fretted roofs, and 
 the profusion of ornaments lavished indiscriminately over 
 the whole building ; but its peculiar distinguishing cha- 
 racteristics are, the small clustered pillars and pointed 
 arches formed by the segments of two intersected cir- 
 cles, which arches, though last brought into use, are of 
 more simple construction than the semi-circular ones. 
 Sir C. Wren, who, in his Parentalia, has considered 
 this style of building, refers it to Saracen origin. He 
 says, “ the Holy war gave the Christians who had been 
 there an idea of the Saracen works, which w'ere after- 
 wards by them imitated in the west, and they refined 
 upon it every day as they proceeded in building churches. 
 The Italians (among whom were yet some Greek re- 
 fugees), and with them French, Germans, and Flemings, 
 joined into a fraternity of architects, procured papal bulls 
 for their encouragement and particular privileges. They 
 styled themselves Free-masons, and ranged from one 
 nation to another as they found churches to be built 
 (for very many in those ages were every w’here build- 
 ing, through piety or emulation) ; their government was 
 regular, and where they fixed, near the building iu 
 hand, they made a camp of huts. A surveyor governed 
 in chief ; every tenth man was called a warden, and 
 overlooked each nine : the gentlemen of the neighbour- 
 hood, either out of charity, or commutation of penance, 
 gave the materials and carriage.” He proceeds, “ those 
 who have seen the exact accounts in records of the 
 charge of the fabrics of some of our cathedrals, near 
 four hundred years old, cannot but have a great esteem 
 for their economy, and admire how soon they erected 
 such lofty structures. Indeed, great height they thought 
 the greatest magnificence. Few stones were used but 
 W'hat a man might carry up a ladder on his back from 
 scaffold to scaffold, though they had pulleys and spoked 
 wheels upon occasions ; but having rejected cornices, 
 they had no need of great engines, stone upon stone was 
 easily piled up to great heights, therefore the pride of 
 their works was in pinnacles and steeples.” 
 
 The difficulty of tracing the origin of the buildings 
 l with pointed arches, in this country, in some measure 
 vanishes by a close inspection, for towards the latter end 
 5 Q of 
 
426 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 of Henry the Second’s reign some pointed arches appear, 
 and also the columns are more slender, supporting archi- 
 volts of a different style,- but they do not appear to have 
 wholly prevailed during this reign, as some short solid 
 columns and semi-circular arches are retained, and 
 mixed with the pointed ones. An example of this is 
 seen in the west end of the Old Temple church, and at j 
 York, where under the choir remains much of the an- 
 cient work, the arches of which are but just pointed 
 and rise on short round pillars : both these were built in 
 that reign. 
 
 In the reign of the third Henry, the -pointed style 
 seems to have gained a complete footing. Indeed like 
 all novelties when once admitted, the rage of fashion 
 made it become so prevalent, that many of the ancient 
 and solid buildings erected in previous reigns were taken 
 down in order to be re-edified in the new taste, or had 
 additions made to them in this mode of architecture. 
 The cathedral church of Salisbury was begun early in 
 this reign and finished in 1253. It is entirely in the 
 pointed style, and is considered the best pattern of that 
 age. Its excellency is undoubtedly in a great measure 
 owing to its being constructed on one plan, whence has 
 arisen a symmetry and proportion of parts not to be met 
 with in many of our other cathedral churches. 
 
 In Edward the First and Second’s reign no very 
 material alteration appears to have been made, except 
 perhaps towards the end of the latter king’s reign the 
 vaulting of the roofs became more decorated than 
 before ; for now the principal ribs being spread over 
 the inner face of the arch run into an assemblage of 
 tracery, dividing the roof into various angular compart- 
 ments, and were usually ornamented at their intersections 
 with orbs gilded, heads of figures, and other embossed 
 work. The columns consisted of an assemblage of 
 small pillars or shafts, not detached or separate from 
 the body of the column, but made a part of it. The 
 vvindows were also greatly enlarged and divided into 
 several compartments by stone mullions branching off 
 at the top into various ramifications, and more particu- 
 larly so, those to the Eastern and Western ends of the 
 buildings, which were large, often taking up nearly the 
 whole breadth of the nave and as high almost as the 
 vaulting, set off by numerous details of beautifully painted 
 glass representing kings, saints, martyrs, and confessors. 
 Ely cathedral furnishes abundant specimens of the style 
 of the first and second Edwards. The same style after- 
 wards began to prevail all over the kingdom, and conti- 
 nued improving through every successive reign to its final 
 decline in Henry the Eighth’s, and its total overthrow in 
 Edward the Sixth’s and Elizabeth’s time. In Henry 
 the Seventh’s time this species of building arrived at a 
 perfection surpassing every thing that had before been 
 seen. Every detail of the sculpture and masonry was 
 better executed ; a taste for statuary began to appear ; 
 the ribs and vaulting of the roofs, which had been before 
 large and seemingly formed for strength and support 
 became now divided, and as from a centre spreading 
 themselves over the vaulting, which gave the whole the 
 
 appearance of embroidery with clusters of pendant 
 ornaments hanging down from the roofs. The most 
 striking instance of this kind is, the chapel of King Hen- 
 ry the Seventh at Westminster, King’s College Chapel 
 at Cambridge is another instance of the superlative style 
 of architecture of these reigns. This magnificent edi- 
 j fice had its principal ornaments during Henry the Eighth’s 
 reign. The towers were finished, as well as most of 
 its spreading roofs and tracery work ; some curious do- 
 cuments still existing in the archives of the college 
 shew the contracts of the artificers employed, and exhi- 
 bit a singular contrast to modern valuations. In one 
 contract is set forth the following items, concerning 
 the erecting of the “ fynyals” or pinnacles for twenty- 
 one buttresses, and finishing one of the towers, one 
 “ fynyal” having been previously set up as a pattern. 
 The contract runs thus, “ for every pinacle to be paid 
 61. 13s. 4d ; and for all the said pinnacles o£l00, and for 
 the upper part of the tower (viz. from the open-work 
 Upwards) <£100 ; the provost, &c. to find iron-work to 
 the amount of £5 for each pinnacle. In this reign 
 bricks became much in use, the arches were flatter 
 than in the time of the Edwards. The exquisite 
 tracery adorning the roofs and vaulting made this kind 
 of arch necessary, in order to bring the work of the 
 sculptor nearer the spectator’s eye. In all Cardinal 
 Wolsey’s buildings is to be seen this low-pointed arch. 
 It was described from four centres, was very round at 
 the haunches, and the angle at the top was very obtuse. 
 There is now a generally prevailing opinion among 
 antiquaries, that this style of architecture took its rise 
 
 - and received its culture in this kingdom, arising partly 
 from the numerous remains still extant ; in which they 
 fancy they can trace all its various improvements until 
 it arrives at its greatest perfection and glory. From this 
 understanding and concurrence among professional men, 
 
 e they have now in their writings discarded the term 
 o Gothic, as applied to the manner of building from the 
 f thirteenth to the sixteenth century, and have substituted 
 
 - the word English ; and for the style which subsisted pre- 
 e viously to the former period, and was introduced at the 
 e conquest, and whose chief characteristic and feature is an 
 e highly-pointed arch, they call Norman ; and to all buildings 
 d before the conquest they apply the term Saxon. The 
 >. architecture used by the Saxons is very properly called 
 e Saxon. The improvements introduced after the Nor- 
 
 - man conquest justify the application of Norman to the 
 i- edifices of that period. 
 
 il The nation assumed a new character about the time 
 n of Henry the Second. The language properly called 
 y English was then formed, and an architecture founded 
 a on the Norman and Saxon, but extremely different 
 n from both, was invented, cherished, and employed by 
 is the English ; this is now called the English style. The 
 ; term Gothic certainly has no real application to the ar- 
 e chitecture for which it is applied to distinguish ; these 
 rt people, (viz. the Goths and Vandals) had ceased to 
 ig make any figure in the world long before this species 
 le of building was in use. Sir C. YVren is the first 
 
 English 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 427 
 
 English writer who has applied it to designate this 
 species of architecture, who most probably adopted it 
 from the Italians of the fifteenth century, who were in 
 the habit of applying it to all the buildings not done 
 after the fashion of the remains then existing in Italy. 
 The term “ La Maniera Gotica” was used, partly no 
 doubt in contempt and partly to distinguish such Works 
 from what was considered by them the legitimate style 
 of architecture. This digression on the architecture 
 of these islands, was deemed eligible and necessary, 
 as it would have been absurd to treat of their masonry 
 without some notices of the buildings to which it had 
 been applied. 
 
 The desideratum of skill in all these works in which 
 the division of stone has produced the most striking 
 effects is iu the arching and vaulting. The other ma- 
 sonry was performed in the usual manner, adopting the 
 means to the local advantages derivable from the nature 
 of the material to be employed. The process of work- 
 ing in freestone was the mason’s chief employ ; this they 
 did with considerable address and judgment : they made 
 the walls of great thickness, composed of many small 
 stones accurately wrought and blended together and with 
 great compactness. The height of those walls, together 
 with the long and highly-pointed windows covered by a 
 vaulted deling, made it necessary to erect buttresses ; 
 these prevented the long narrow piers between the win- 
 dows from splitting, and secured the side-walls from the 
 thrust of the ribs aud arches of the vaultings.) The pinna- 
 cles which crowned the buttresses, and which were car- 
 ried considerably above the parapets of the roofs, added 
 by their weight to the solidity of the piers, as well as i 
 strengthened the whole range of the wall. Their towers 
 strengthened the quoins of the walls, and besides ad- 
 mitted of staircases being formed within them to com- 
 municate with every story of the building, as also with the 
 roof itself. The roof of King’s College Chapel at Cam- 
 bridge is justly esteemed the finest specimen of arching 
 in existence, and exhibits at the same time an elaborate 
 display of art and workmanship in every end of its de- 
 partments. It consists of a series of arches, one passing 
 through the .whole building, and several others which 
 find their centres in the several side buttresses ; these 
 are locked together in their intersections or apexes 
 by a large key-stone shaped wedge-like, surrounded 
 by additional keys cone-like, which altogether form 
 a circular key at each intersection of the groin, with 
 the square-shaped key-stone in its centre. These are 
 placed in the centre of every compartment at equal 
 distances along the central rib, which passes from East 
 to West. A small rib intersects this, and crosses the 
 roof almost in a horizontal line, and a much larger 
 rib running parallel with it springs from the capitals 
 of the clustered columns which run up betw'een the 
 w indows, taking its spring directly against the buttress. 
 Hence is supported this truly magical roof by a se- 
 ries of double arches, excentric to each buttress, with 
 one main arch passing through the whole; yet all 
 materially dependant on each other, and suspend- I 
 
 ing that weight of stone which appears laid almost 
 flat from side to side of the chapel. It is asserted by 
 Malden, that the stones composing the groining are 
 not more than three inches in thickness ; they, how- 
 ever, vary, and are nearer to six inches. The keys are 
 large and well fitted ; besides they drop down as pen- 
 dants, and are richly carved. There is a tradition 
 which has been repeated by every writer who has 
 written about this edifice, taken from Walpole’s Anec- 
 dotes of the Arts, that SirC. Wren became so much de- 
 lighted with the style of this vaulting that he went once 
 a year to survey it, and said, “ that if any man would 
 shew him where to place the first stone, he w'ould en- 
 gage to build such another.” That the most accom- 
 plished architect of his time could commit himself by 
 making so futile an observation is doubtful. It is never- 
 theless certain, that in this roof will be found successfully 
 executed one of the most difficult tasks in architecture. 
 
 Masons employ certain technical phrases by which 
 they designate every part of their work employed in 
 building, some of which have been previously noticed ; 
 and in point of the value of each description of w'ork, that 
 is ascertained by a datum to be hence explained, and 
 which has arisen from out of the experience attending 
 on the general w T ay adopted for the admeasuring of 
 artificers’ works. It does not appear to have been a 
 very early practice among the surveyors and masons to 
 separate all the distinct portions of labour which are 
 employed about their hewn stone into the several different 
 species, calculating the difficulty in each, and appor- 
 tioning a value commensurate, which is now the com- 
 mon and universal practice. This manner of assessing 
 the value of the labour and also of the materials, arose 
 in its beginning from out of necessity, there having 
 been found no other means of putting down the avarice 
 and injustice of the master artificers. On its first intro- 
 duction it met with very general opposition from all 
 mechanics ; but its rationality, together with its truth 
 and accuracy soon gave it that ascendency over this self- 
 ishness which it was so well calculated to produce. 
 Hence at this time every part of masonry as w'ell as other 
 artificers w'orks are divided and again subdivided into all 
 their several distinct parts, a value being assigned to each, 
 which is found adequately to remunerate them for all 
 their toil as well as the incidental expenses attending on 
 the execution and erection of their several wmrks. 
 
 In the admeasuring of mason’s work the measurer is 
 provided with two rods, commonly of five feet in length 
 each, divided into five equal parts or feet, and each 
 foot again subdivided into halves and quarter feet : 
 sometimes the feet are also drawn in inches, but this 
 latter method is by no means universal. When the stone to 
 be measured approximates to fractions, the common rule 
 is applied to ascertain them. All the stone is first mea- 
 sured, beginning at that w hich is fixed nearest to the 
 top of the building, and then taking the labour to it ; 
 and every piece of stone which exceeds in its thickness 
 two inches is valued by the cubic foot, and all other 
 stones under that thickness are deemed to be slabs, and 
 
 are 
 
428 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 are valued at per foot superficial ; these latter generally 
 embrace the paving-stones of all descriptions, as well 
 as chimney-pieces, copings, &c. There are also some 
 portions of the labour as well as the stone which are 
 valued by the foot measure running ; of this class are 
 the groovings in lusticated work, fiutings in the shafts 
 of columns;: and pilasters, joints in gallery floors, 
 called (joggled joints,) rebates in stairs, with the 
 throatings to cills and copings, &c. &c. In the latter 
 description may be included the various sorts of 
 copings employed on the tops of walls and parapets, 
 narrow slips to chimney-pieces, Sec. Sec. The dimen- 
 sions are all accurately put down in a book, which for 
 convenience is ruledj into three divisions on its left-hand 
 side, the middle division being about one-third of the 
 width of those on its sides ; this middle column is that 
 in which the inches and parts are expressed, and in the 
 left-hand column the feet, together with the number of 
 times the dimension is to be repeated or added, and the 
 last for placing the quantities when cubed and squared ; 
 for in taking the dimensions it often happens that there 
 may be several pieces of stone of the same size, and 
 this the measurer marks in his book, as well as at the 
 same time writing down the nature of the stone, and 
 also the species of labour about it. His dimension 
 book stands thus : 
 
 3/6 -.O') . .. 
 
 3 : Of 3 : 4£ Portland Landing. 
 
 :9) 
 
 3/7 : 6 84 : 4 Plain Work Do. 
 
 3:9 
 
 3/7 : 6 22 : 6 Groove Do. 
 
 By thus arranging the dimension book, every particle 
 of stone and labour on it is ascertained with the greatest 
 accuracy and dispatch ; they are all afterwards to be 
 abstracted, which consists in ruling out a loose sheet of 
 paper into as many columns or divisions as are required 
 for all the several species of work which has been mea- 
 sured, and writing over the head of each of the co- 
 lumns the particular kind to be inserted in it ; for in- 
 stance, beginning with cube of Portland, all of it which 
 has been measured is brought into the column under 
 that head, plain-work under its head, also sunk-work, 
 moulded work, and the several running measures all 
 stand respectively ; and when so separated, they are to 
 be cast up at the bottom of each several column, where 
 is to be seen the whole of the several quantities, after 
 which they are made out into bills, beginning with the 
 cubes first, then the superficies, and lastly the running 
 measures. The works which are valued singly or by 
 their number, are similarly classed and placed last of 
 all at the bottom of the account. For thus measuring, 
 cubing, and squaring the quantities, and valuing and 
 finishing the account, surveyors’ charge two and a half 
 per cent on the gross amount. 
 
 The plain-work on stone consists merely in the 
 cleaning up of its surface, and the rule for finding how 
 
 much of it is to be measured, is by observing that the 
 mason is entitled to all that is not covered, that is, 
 to every part of it which may be seen. Sunk-work 
 embraces that kind of labour to stone which requires the 
 surface or any other portion of it to be sunk down by 
 chiselling it away. The tops of all window-cills, for 
 instance, are sunk for the purpose of more readily con- 
 veying away the water which falls on them. Moulded- 
 work consists in forming on the edges of the stone cer- 
 tain forms, known in architecture as mouldings, that is, 
 to make it more obvious. Cornices, architraves, and 
 such parts of an edifice in which stone is employed are 
 fashioned into a variety of curved or other forms. The 
 dimensions of moulded work is ascertained by girting it 
 with a string or piece of tape over to every one and into 
 all its several parts, and then measuring the length of 
 the string or tape so girted, which will be the width of 
 the moulded-work, and the length of the cornice, Sec. Sec. 
 will be its length, which when squared together will 
 give the superficial quantity of moulded-work. Masons 
 have also their circular-work ; this kind of labour is ad- 
 measured in the same way as has been described for the 
 moulded-work, viz. by girting it all round. There are 
 distinct valuations for every one of these different spe- 
 cies of labour. Nevertheless, it is not deemed here 
 essential to recite them, as they vary as the price of the 
 workmen’s wages does, except in London where they 
 are uniform, but in the country they are somewhat 
 lower, the value of workmanship being less by reason 
 of the men having much less wages. 
 
 Masonry en pise. 
 
 This is a species of building entitled to considerable 
 attention, arising from out of its oeconoiny as well as its 
 general utility. Every country abounds with the materials 
 from which it may be formed, and in all nations it may 
 be had recourse to for the building of useful as well as 
 ornamental dwellings with fewer tools and with less of 
 mechanism and machinery than is required for any kind 
 of building now practised. In the year 1791, a work 
 was published at Paris by M. Francois Cointereax, 
 containing an account of a method of building strong 
 and durable walls and houses with no other materials 
 than earth, and which has been practised for ages in 
 the province of Lyons, though little known to the rest 
 of France or any other part of Europe. It appeared to 
 be attended with so many advantages, that many gentle- 
 men in this country who employ their leisure in the 
 study of rural economy, were induced to make trial of 
 its efficacy, and the event of their experiments has been 
 of a nature to make them wish by all possible means to 
 extend the knowledge and practice of so beneficial 
 an art. With a view to promote this desirable end, the 
 account contained in the following pages has been ex- 
 tracted from the French work, and it will be found to 
 contain every necessary instruction required by those 
 into whose hands the original work may not have fallen, 
 or who being unacquainted with the language may have 
 been prevented from consulting it. The appearance of 
 
 those 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 439 
 
 those wretched hovels which arc built with mud in 
 »onie parts of England, will perhaps dispose many 
 persons to doubt the strength and durability of houses 
 which are composed of no other materials than earth. 
 The French author says, “ the possibility of raising the 
 ivalls of houses two or even three stories high, with I 
 earth only, which will sustain floors loaded with the j 
 heaviest weights, and of building the largest manufac- 
 tories in this manner may astonish every one who has 
 not been an eye-witness of such things.” But it is I 
 hoped that a description of the manner of building will i 
 sufficiently explain the reason of its superiority. 
 
 The word pise, or en pise, is a technical term made i 
 use of in the country where the work about to be de- | 
 scribed is in common practice, and it has been retained I 
 because it cannot be rendered by any adequate word in 
 the English language. Pise is a very simple manner of 
 operation ; it is merely by compressing earth in moulds 
 or cases that we may arrive at building houses of any 
 size and height. This art, though until very lately con- 
 fined to the single province of the Lyonese in France 
 was known and practised at a very early period of an- 
 tiquity, as appears from a passage in Pliny’s Natural { 
 History, lib. 34. c. 14, which is exactly a description of j 
 this manner of building. M. Goiffon, who published a 1 
 treatise on Pise in 1772, is of opinion that the art was ! 
 practised by the Romans, and by them introduced into I 
 France; and the Abb6 Rozier, in his Journal de Phy- 
 sique, says, “ that he has discovered some traces of 
 it in Catalonia,” so that Spain, like France, has a 
 single province in which this ancient manner of building 
 has been preserved. The art, however, will deserve to 
 be introduced into more general use. The cheapness of 
 the materials which it requires, and the great saving of 
 time and labour which it admits of, must recommend 
 it in all places and on all occasions. But the French 
 author says, “ that it will be particularly useful in hilly 
 countries, where carriage is difficult and sometimes im- 
 practicable ; and for farm-buildings, which as they must 
 be made of considerable extent, are usually very ex- 
 pensive without yielding any adequate return. All 
 earths are fit for the purpose when they have not the 
 lightness of poor lands nor the stiffness of clay ; second- 
 ly, all earths fit for vegetation ; thirdly, brick-earth ; 
 but these if they are used alone are apt to crack, owing 
 to the quantity of moisture which they contain. This, 1 
 however, does not hinder persons who understand the 
 business from using them to a good effect. Fourthly, 
 strong earths with a mixture of small gravel, which for 
 that reason cannot serve for making either bricks, tiles, 
 or pottery. These gravelly earths are very useful, the 
 lest pise is made of them. These general principles 
 may suffice without over-burdening the memory of the 
 reader, and from the following remarks may be known j 
 what earths are fittest to be employed by themselves — ' 
 when those have been described, it will remain to point \ 
 out such as must be mixed with others, in order that i 
 they may acquire the necessary quality. The following 
 appearances indicate that the earth in which they are 
 
 found are fit for building ; for instance, when a 
 pick-axe, spade, or plough brings up large lumps of 
 earth at a time ; when arable land lies in clods or 
 lumps : when field-mice have made themselves subter- 
 raneous passages in the earth, all these are favourable 
 signs. When the roads of a village having been worn 
 away by the water continually running over and through 
 them are lower than the contiguous lands, and the 
 sides of those roads support themselves almost up- 
 right, it is a sure mark that the pise may be executed 
 in that village.. One may also discover the fitness of 
 the soil by trying to break with one’s fingers the little 
 clods of earth in the roads and find a difficulty in so 
 doing, or by observing the ruts of the road in which tire 
 cart-wIieeJs make a sort of pise by their pressure ; 
 whenever there are deep ruts in a road one may be sure 
 of finding abundance of proper earth. Such earth is 
 found at the bottom of slopes of low lands that are cul- 
 tivated, because every year the rain brings down the fat 
 or good earth. It is frequently found on the banks of 
 rivers, but above all it is found at the foot of hills 
 where vines are planted. In digging trenches and cel- 
 lars for building, it generally happens that what comes 
 out of them is fit for the purpose. 
 
 As it may sometimes happen that earth of a proper 
 quality is not to be found on the spot where it is in- 
 tended to build, it becomes of importance to attend to 
 the method of mixing earths ; for though the earth 
 which is near at hand may not of itself be proper, it is 
 very probable that it may be rendered so by the mixture 
 of a small quantity of another earth fetched from a 
 distance. The principle on which a mixture must be 
 made is very simple ; strong earths must be tempered 
 with light; those in which clay predominates with others 
 that are composed more of chalk and sand ; and those 
 of a rich glutinous substance, w'ith others of a poor and 
 barren nature. The degree in which these qualities of 
 the earths prevail, must determine the proportions of 
 the mixture, which it is impossible here to point out 
 for every particular case but which may be learnt by a 
 little practice. It would not be amiss to mix with the 
 earth some small pebbles, gravel, rubbish of mortar, 
 or in short any small mineral substance ; but none of 
 the animal or vegetable kind must be admitted. Such 
 hard substances bind the earth firmly between them, and 
 being pressed in all directions contribute very much to 
 the solidity of the whole, so that well worked earth in 
 which there is an admixture of gravel becomes so hard 
 in about two years time, that a chisel must be applied 
 to break it as though it were freestone. 
 
 First Experiment to ascertain the Qualities of 
 Earth proper for making Pise. — Take a wooden tub 
 or pail without a bottom, dig a hole in the ground of a 
 court or garden, and at the bottom of that hole fix 
 a piece of stone flat and level, place your tub upon the 
 stone, filling round it the earth that has been dug out to 
 make the hole, and ram it well that the tub may be en- 
 closed to prevent its bursting ; then ram into the tub the 
 earth you mean to try, putting in at each time about 
 5 R the 
 
430 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 the thickness of three or four fingers’ breadth ; when 
 this is well rammed, add as much more and ram it in 
 the same manner, and so for the third and fourth, &c., 
 till the earth is raised above the brim. This superflu- 
 ous earth must be scraped off extremely smooth, and 
 rendered as even as the under part will be which lies on 
 the stone. Loosen with a spade the earth round the 
 tub, and you will then be able to take it out, and with 
 it the compressed earth that it contains ; then turn the 
 tub upside down, and if it be wider at the top than at 
 the bottom, as such vessels usually are, the pise will 
 easily come out ; but if it should happen to stick let it 
 dry in the air twenty-four hours, you will then find the 
 earth is loose enough to fall out of itself. You must be 
 careful to cover this lump of pise with a little board, 
 for though a shower of rain falling in an oblique direc- 
 tion will not injure it, yet it may be a little damaged if 
 the rain fall perpendicular, and especially if it receive 
 it so for any length of time. Leave the lump exposed 
 to the air, only covered over with a board or flat stone ; 
 and if it continue without cracking or crumbling, and 
 increases daily in density and compactness as its natural 
 moisture decreases by evaporation, you may be sure 
 that the earth is fit for building. But you must re- 
 member that it is necessary that the earth employed 
 should be taken from a little below the surface of the 
 ground, in order that it may be neither too dry nor too 
 wet. It must be observed also, that if the earth is not 
 well pressed around the outside of the tub before it is 
 filled ; though the hoops were of iron they would burst, 
 so great is the pressure of the beaten earth against the 
 mould, of whatever size it may be. 
 
 Second Experiment. — This trial may be made in the 
 house : having brought from the field the earth you 
 want to try, press it in a stone mortar with a pestle of 
 wood, brass, or iron (the latter is best), or with a ham- 
 mer ; fill the mortar above its edge and then with a 
 large knife or some other instrument take off the su- 
 perabundant earth even with the brim ; if you then find 
 that the earth will not quit the mortar you must expose 
 it to the sun or near a fire, and when it is sufficiently 
 dry it may be taken out without difficulty by turning 
 the mortar upside down on a flat stone or on the 
 floor. It will have the shape of the mortar, and if 
 exposed as above directed will shew the qualities of the 
 earth. 
 
 In building en pise and preparing the earth all the 
 operations are very simple and easy ; there is nothing 
 to be done but to dig up the earth with a pick-axe, 
 break the clods with a shovel so as to divide it well, 
 and then lay it in a heap, which is very necessary; be- 
 cause as the labourers throw' up that heap the lumps of 
 earth and large stones will roll to the bottom, when 
 another man may break them or draw them away with 
 a rake. It must be observed, that there should be an 
 interval of about an inch and a quarter between the 
 teeth of the rake, so that the stones and pebbles of 
 llhe size of a walnut or something more may escape, 
 
 and that it may draw off only the largest. If the earth 
 that has been dug has not the proper quality, which 
 is seldom the case, and it be necessary to fetch some 
 better from a distance, then the mixture must be made 
 in this manner ; one man must throw one shovel-ful 
 of the best sort, while the others throw five or six of 
 the inferior sort on the heap, and so more or less ac- 
 cording to the proportion; which has been previously 
 ascertained. No more earth should be prepared than 
 the men can work in one day or a little more, that they 
 may not be in want when about the building ; but if 
 rain be expected you must have at hand either planks, 
 mats or old cloths to lay over the heap of earth, so that 
 the rain may not wet it, and then as soon as the rain is 
 over the men may resume their work, which without 
 this precaution must be delayed; for it must be 
 remembered that the earth cannot be used when it is 
 either too dry or too wet, and therefore if the rain 
 should wet it after it has been prepared, the meu 
 will be obliged to wait till it has recovered its pro- 
 per consistency ; a delay which w ould be equally dis 
 advantageous to them and their employer. When the 
 earth has been soaked by rain, instead of suffering com- 
 pression it becomes mud in the moulds, and even though 
 it be but a little too moist it cannot be worked ; it swells 
 under the blows of the rammer, and a stroke in one 
 place makes it rise in another. When this is the case 
 it is better to stop the work, for the men find so much 
 difficulty that it is not worth while to proceed. But 
 there is not the same necessity of discontinuing the 
 work when the earth is too dry, for it is easy to give 
 it the necessary degree of moisture in such a case ; to 
 do which it should be sprinkled w ith a watering-pot, 
 and afterwards w'ell mixed up together, it will then be 
 fit for use. It has already been observed that no vege- 
 table substance should be left in the earth, therefore in 
 digging, as well as laying the earth in a heap, great care 
 should be taken to pick out all sprigs and herbs, all bits 
 of straw or hay, chips or shavings of w'ood, and in 
 general every thing that can rot or suffer a change in the 
 earth. 
 
 Implements used in Buildings of Pise. — Besides the 
 common tools, such as spades, trowels, baskets, wg- 
 tering-pots, &c., a hatchet w ill be required as well as a 
 plumb, rule, hammer, and nails. The other ma- 
 chinery consists of a mould and a rammer, &c., of which 
 it will be necessary to give a particular description ac- 
 companied by drawings. 
 
 Plate II. Fig. 1 . is one side of the mould in which 
 the earth is to be compressed, and-seen on its outside. 
 
 Fig. 2, the other side seen within-side. 
 
 Fig. 3, the head of the mould seen without-side. 
 
 Fig. 4, the other face seen within-side. , 
 
 Fig. b, the wedges to secure the upright posts in tlie 
 joists, Fig. 9 and 10 . 
 
 Fig. (i, a round piece of wood called the wall-gauge. 
 
 Fig. 7, one of the upright posts seen on its flat side 
 with its tenon to enter the mortise in the joists. 
 
 % 
 
MASONRY, 
 
 431 
 
 Fig. 8, The sarhe on its back also with its tenon. 
 
 Fig. 9, a joist in which the mortises are made to re- 
 ceive the tenon of the uprights and wedges seen 
 flatways. 
 
 Fig. 10, the same with its side and bottom seen. 
 
 Fig. 11, the mould for the pise wall put together, in 
 which are seen all its several parts. 
 
 Fig. 12, the rammer (or pisoir) for ramming the earth 
 in the mould. 
 
 For the construction of the mould take several planks 
 each ten feet long, of some light wood, in order that 
 the mould may be easy to handle : deal is the best, as 
 being least liable to warp, to prevent which the board 
 should be straight, sound, well seasoned, and with 
 as few knots as possible ; let them be ploughed and 
 tongued together and planed on both sides. These 
 planks so prepared should be fastened together by 
 four good strong ledges, as seen Fig.. 1 . The mould 
 must be two feet nine inches in height, and two handles 
 composed of pieces of strong rope should be affixed to 
 each of the sides ( sec Figs. 1 and L 2.). The head of the 
 mould, which serves to form the angle of the building 
 must be made of two narrow pieces of wood ploughed, 
 tongued, and ledged together ; its breadth eighteen 
 inches and height three feet, and planed on both of 
 its sides (see Figs. 3 and 4), where it may be remarked 
 that this part of the mould diminishes gradually to the 
 top, in order that the wall may be made to diminish in 
 the same degree ; all the boards mentioned for making 
 the case of the mould should be of whole or one inch 
 and a quarter deal. The wedges, Fig. 5, must be at 
 least an inch thick and from eight to twelve inches 
 long : and as to the gauge, Fig. 6, it must be cut in its 
 length equal to the thickness of the wall you mean to 
 erect. The six or eight ledges that are necessary to 
 secure the two large sides of the mould serve also to 
 receive a corresponding number of upright posts, stand- 
 ing on a similar number of joists. The posts or up- 
 rights, Figs. 7 anil 8, may be made of either wood 
 sawed square, or of round wood of any kind : so that 
 one may use indifferently the ends of rafters, joists, 
 small trees or their branches. These posts are to 
 exceed the height of the mould by eighteen inches, 
 they must therefore be about five feet high, including 
 the tenons (which should be six inches long), and in 
 their scantling about three inches by four inches. That 
 part which is to bear against the ledges of the mould 
 must be flat and strait, the other sides need not be 
 worked with so much truth. The joists, Fig. 9, also 
 may be mgde of the same sort of stuff, and should be 
 three feet six inches long and in scantling three inches 
 and a half by three inches ; on the broad part of which 
 must be made the two mortises (as marked Fig. 9 and 
 10), each ten inches and a half long and about one and 
 a half inch wide, and at each end three and a half 
 inches must be left projecting beyond the mortises, 
 so th^t the interval between for the mould will remain 
 fourteen inches. These dimensions must be observed 
 in order that the t\yo sides of the mould may incline 
 
 towards each other, and the thickness of the wall be 
 gradually diminished till it be reduced to fourteen inches 
 at the roof. The dimensions of the joists then are as 
 I follows, viz. ... 
 
 The two ends remaining beyond the mortises 
 
 three and a half inches each . . — ; 7 
 
 The two mortises ten and a half inches each 1:9 
 The interval between the mortises . . 1:2 
 
 Total length of the joists, Fig. 9 and 10 3:6 
 
 The most simple things are sometimes difficult to be 
 understood without being seen, an elevation of the sec- 
 tion therefore of the whole machine has been annexed 
 (see Fig. 11). The following is a list of its several 
 parts enumerated in the same order, and which the 
 workmen must be careful to observe when they are 
 about to erect the mould. 
 
 Section of the Mould on the Wall. 
 
 A, a stone or brick foundation, one foot six inches 
 thick, on which a wall of earth is to be raised. 
 
 13 B, the joists placed across the foundation w all. 
 
 C C, the two sides of the mould, including between 
 them three inches of the foundation wail. 
 
 D D, the upright posts, the tenons of which fit into 
 the mortises of the joists. 
 
 E, the w'all gauge, which affixes the width of the 
 mould at top, and which is shorter than the thickness 
 of the wall at bottom for the purpose of regulating the 
 dimension of the wall to be erected. 
 
 F, a cord about half an inch in diameter, making 
 several turns round the tops of the posts to secure the 
 frame at top. 
 
 G, a round stick, which by being wound round fas- 
 tens the cord and holds the posts tight together. 
 
 II H, the wedges which enter into the mortises in 
 the joists, and keep the posts and moulds firmly fixed 
 against the wall. 
 
 Such is the process employed in erecting the mould, 
 a coutrary order must be observed in taking it to pieces. 
 To do which, the rope must be unloosened, the wedges 
 taken out, and the posts, the mould, and the joists re- 
 moved, in order to fix up the whole again. 
 
 The instrument with which the earth is rammed into 
 the mould is a tool of the greatest consequence, and on 
 which the firmness and durability of the pise will much 
 depend ; in short, the perfection of the work will be in 
 proportion to its goodness. It is called a pisoir, or 
 rammer, and though it may appear very easy to make, 
 yet more difficulty will be found in the execution than is 
 at first apprehended ; a better idea of its construction 
 may be formed by examining Plate II, Fig. 12, in 
 which it is delineated, than any words can convey. It 
 should be m.ide of some kind of hard wood, either oak;, 
 ash, beech, & c., or, which is preferable, the roots of 
 either of these. 
 
 Method of working Pise.— Let us not confound pist; 
 with that miserable way of building with clay, or mud 
 more properly, mixed w ith hay or straw, which is often 
 seen in country villages. Though some have been un- 
 able 
 
432 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 able or unwilling to distinguish between them, nothing 
 in reality can be more different. Those wretched huts 
 are built in the very worst manner that could be ima- 
 gined, whereas pise contains all the best principles of 
 masonry, together with some rules peculiar to itself. 
 Plate II. Fig. 13, represents the plan of a cottage 
 arranged for two rooms ; A A, the windows ; B B, the 
 fire-places ; C, the cross or partition-wall ; D D, the 
 door-ways, the building of which will be described 
 
 according to the method of Pise. To begin with 
 
 the foundation, as seen Fig. 1 1, A : this may be made 
 of any kind of masonry or brick-work that is durable, 
 and must be raised to the height of two feet above the 
 ground, which is necessary to secure the walls from the 
 moisture of the earth, and the splashing of the rain 
 which will drop from the eaves of the roof. When the 
 foundation-walls are built up level all round the cottage, 
 and eighteen inches thick, mark upon them the distances 
 at which the joists are to be set for receiving the moulds, 
 those distances should be three feet each from centre to 
 centre of the joists (see B B, Fig. II); each side of the 
 mould being ten feet long, will divide itself into three 
 lengths of three feet each and leave six inches at each 
 end, which serves to lengthen the mould at the angles 
 of the house, and are useful for many other purposes. 
 After having set all the joists of the mould in their 
 places, the masonry of the foundation must be raised 
 up six inches, that is, till it be level with the upper face 
 of the mould-joists ; there will therefore be upon the 
 whole a bjjse of tw'O and a half feet, which in most 
 cases will be found more than sufficient to hinder the 
 rain, frost, snow, or damps from injuring the w'alls. 
 Raise the mould immediately on this new masonry, 
 placing it immediately over one of the angles of the 
 wall. The method of raising the mould has already 
 been described. The head of it (See Plate II, Fig. 3 
 and 4) is to be placed against the angle, and should have 
 eighteen inches in breadth at the bottom, and seventeen 
 and a half inches only at the top ; thus the sides of the 
 mould will incline upwards, and produce that diminution 
 in the thickness of the wall which is usual in buildings 
 of this nature. The w'edges (Fig. 5) must then be 
 driven in, and the upright posts (D D, Fig. 1 ]) w-ell 
 secured by cords, and the head of the mould fixed by 
 iron pins or with screws and nuts ; after which the pre- 
 paration of setting the mould is complete, and the 
 workmen may begin the filling up of the pise wall. A 
 M'orkman should be placed in each of the three divisions 
 of the mould, taking care to put the best at the angle, 
 as it will be his business to direct the w ork of the other 
 two, and to occasionally apply a plumb rule to the wall 
 and mould, to prevent the mould from swerving from its 
 upright position. The labourers who dig and prepare 
 the earth, must give it in small quantities to the work- 
 men in the mould, who after having spread it with their 
 feet, begin to press it with the rammer. They must 
 only receive so much at a time as w ill cover the bottom 
 ot the mould to the thickness of three or four inches ; 
 the strokes of the rammer should be given close to the 
 
 sides of the mould, and afterwards applied to evefy 
 other part of the surface ; the men should cross their 
 strokes so that the earth may be pressed in every direc- 
 tion. Those who stand next to one another in the 
 mould should so regulate their strokes as to be at 
 the same time under the cora, because that part 
 cannot be got at without difficulty and must be 
 struck obliquely ; with this precaution the whole will be 
 equally compressed. The man who is stationed at the 
 angle of the wall, should beat carefully against the 
 head of the mould, and for the sake of the appearance, 
 or perhaps to increase the strength of the building, it is 
 usual to spread at every six inches a layer of mortar near 
 the head, in imitation of the joints in stone-w'ork. Care 
 must be taken that no fresh earth is received into the 
 mould till the first layer is properly beaten, w'hich may 
 be ascertained by striking it w ith the rammer, the strokes 
 of which should leave hardly any impression on the 
 face. They must proceed in this manner, putting into 
 the mould layer after layer till it is filled up completely; 
 when this is done the machine may be taken to pieces, 
 and the earth which it contained will remain firm and 
 upright, of about nine feet in length and about two feet 
 and a half in height. The mould may be then replaced 
 for another length, including one inch of that which has 
 first been completed, and that no joints may appear in the 
 work, the different lengths are united and made to press 
 one on another. In the second lengths and most of the 
 following, the head of the mould is useless, as it is only 
 made use of at the quoins or angles. When the work- 
 men have gone round the whole building, taking the 
 mould to pieces and putting it together again succes- 
 sively, they must begin upon the partition-wall : in it the 
 head of the mould must be used, as the jaumbs to the 
 doors are to be squared like the angles of the house. 
 When the jaumb next to a cross-wall is very narrow it 
 must be made of other materials such as brickwork, 
 | &c. The first course being thus completed w'e proceed 
 j to the second ; and here it must be observed that, if in 
 laying the first course we begin with an angle, we must 
 proceed with the second in a contrary direction. It 
 may be easily conceived that with this precaution the 
 joints (see Fig. 14) of the several lengths will be in- 
 clined in opposite directions, which will contribute very 
 much to the firmness of the work. There is no reason 
 to fear overcharging the first course with the second, 
 though but just laid, for three courses may be laid 
 without danger in one day. The grooves for receiving 
 the joists should be marked out at the distance of three 
 feet from one another, as before described, but not im- 
 mediately over the former grooves (see Fig. 14, A), but 
 over the middle points betw een them ; these grooves 
 must be chased or cut out of the pise with a pickaxe, 
 and the second course completed in the same manner as 
 the first, except that it must be proceeded in, in a con- 
 trary manner, as before observed, and that the head of 
 the mould and also the wall-gauge must be diminished, 
 in order that the same inclination of the sides to one 
 another which was given in the first course may be per- 
 severed 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 433 
 
 severed in for the second, &c. It must, however, be 
 remarked, that this second course is not exactly to be 
 continued like the firsts as it is necessary that the par- 
 tition-wall should join or bind (see Fig. 14, B B) into 
 the external wall, or rather that all the walls of the 
 building, whether outside or partition-walls, which meet 
 at an angle or otherwise, should cross each other at 
 every corner ; in pursuance, therefore, of this rule, when 
 the work has been advanced from E to F (see plan 
 Fig. 13) or perhaps not quite so far as F, leave the 
 exterior end walls and turn the mould to the partition 
 c, applying the base of it to F, and when the w'ork has 
 been carried along the partition wall as far as the door- 
 way D, bring back the mould to the part which re- 
 mained unfinished in the exterior wall, and after having 
 filled up the space, carry the mould on, beyond the 
 partition wall, and complete the course. The reason 
 why the partition wall in the side opposite (or where 
 the small jaumb of the door is) is not to be connected in 
 the same manner with this interior wall, has already 
 been given ; viz. that it ought to be made of w ood or 
 brickwork and not of pise ; but the third course must 
 be carried over the head of the doorway, and join into 
 the wall as directed for the other side. This description 
 of the two first courses is equally applicable to all the 
 others, and will enable any person to build a house 
 with no other materials than earth, of whatever height 
 and extent he pleases. With respect to gables (if any 
 are designed to be made) they cannot be crossed in their 
 courses as they are detached from one another, but as 
 their height is inconsiderable, and as they are besides 
 connected together by the roof, that part of the w'ork 
 will not be of any material consequence for them. They 
 may be made without any difficulty by merely marking 
 their inclination in the mould and filling in and working 
 up the earth accordingly. It has been observed that 
 each course will be two and a half feet high if the 
 mould is two feet nine inches, for the mould must 
 invariably include three inches of the course beneath, 
 for this reason the grooves are made six inches deep, 
 though the joists are only three inches in thickness. If 
 the directions which have been given for diminishing 
 the thickness of the walls are observed, that thickness 
 will be reduced to fifteen inches at the roof in a house 
 consisting of six courses of pise in height, for in each 
 course there will be an inclination of half an inch. The 
 gables might be reduced to fourteen inches only in 
 thickness, as an interval of fourteen inches only was left 
 between the mortises of the joists, and by increasing or 
 diminishing that interval the thickness of the walls may 
 be regulated at pleasure. Such is the method of build- 
 ing which has been practised by the Lyonnese for many 
 centuries. Houses so built, are strong, healthy, and 
 very cheap, they will last a great length of time, for the 
 French author says, “ he had pulled down some of them 
 which from the title deeds in the possession of the pro- 
 prietors, appeared to have been erected 165 years, 
 though they had been but ill kept in repair. The rich 
 traders of Lyons have no other way of building their 
 
 country houses. An outside covering of painting in 
 fresco, W'hich is attended with very little expense, con- 
 ceals from the eye of the spectator the nature of the 
 building, and is a handsome ornament to the house. 
 That kind of painting has more freshness and brilliancy 
 than any other, because water does not impair the 
 colours. No size, oil, or any thing expensive is re- 
 quired for it, manual labour is almost all that is 
 wanted either by the rich or the poor. Any person may 
 make his house look as splendid as he pleases for a few 
 pence laid out in red or yellow' ochre, or in other mine- 
 ral colours. Strangers who have sailed upon the Rhone 
 probably never suspected that those beautiful houses 
 which they saw rising on the hills around them, were 
 built of nothing but earth, nay, many persons have 
 dwelt for a considerable time in such houses without 
 ever being aware of their singular construction. Farmers 
 in that country generally have them simply white-washed, 
 but others who have a greater taste for ornamenting, 
 add pilasters, window-cases, pannels and decorations of 
 various kinds. There is every reason for introducing 
 this method of building into all parts of the kingdom, 
 whether we consider the honour of the nation as con- 
 cerned in the neatness of its villages, the great saving of 
 wood it will occasion and the consequent security from 
 fire, or the health of the inhabitants, to which it will 
 greatly contribute, as such houses are never liable to th6 
 extremes of heat and cold. It is attended with many 
 circumstances that are advantageous to the state as well 
 as to individuals. It saves both time and labour in build- 
 ing, and the houses may be inhabited almost immedi- 
 ately after they are finished, for which latter purpose 
 the holes made for the joists of the mould should 
 not be closed up directly, for the air, if suffered to 
 circulate through them, will dry the walls more 
 speedily. 
 
 The Method of forming the Apertures in Pise 
 Buildings. — The openings for the doors and windows 
 must be left at the time of building the walls. This 
 may be done by placing within the mould one or two 
 of the heads of the mould as may be found necessary, 
 w herever the wall is to terminate and the opening to 
 commence. They should be made sloping a little in 
 order to leave room for the frames and, sashes. The 
 exterior decorations of the windows and doors are 
 usually made by the rich of stone or bricks, and by the 
 poor of wood, which latter have a bad effect on the 
 appearance of the house, as wood will never unite well 
 with pise-work ; and, notwithstanding the greatest pre- 
 cautions, the exterior covering will break and fall off 
 the wood, whereas stone or brick-work unite perfectly 
 with the pise, and retain their plaster, and, of course, 
 their paint, of which it forms the ground. The chim- 
 ney-pieces (BB, Fig. 13) are laid and united with the 
 walls in the same manner as in a common building, 
 and the flues are also very firmly connected with them, 
 being made of brick-w'ork. But a very particular ad- 
 vantage is that the apartments may be very handsomely 
 finished without making any jaumbs'to the inside doors, 
 
 5 S either 
 
434 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 either of stone or wood. The faciugs of wood to the 
 earthen wall will render jaumbs unnecessary, and why | 
 should the expense of any other finishing be incurred, 
 when the doors may be hung on the grounds or wain- 
 scot of the apartments ? 
 
 Beating or compressing earth is used in many dif- 
 ferent sorts of work. The ancients employed it in 
 making their rough walls ; the Spaniards, the French, 
 and others, for some of the floors of their apartments. 
 The intent of the ancient architects, when they recom- 
 mended the beating of cement and other compositions 
 used in buildings, was to prevent them from shrinking 
 or cracking, and it is employed for the same purpose in 
 buildings which are made of earth. The beating, by 
 repeated strokes, forces out from the earth the super- 
 fluous water w'hich it contained, and closely unites all 
 the particles together, by w'hich means the natural at- 
 traction of the panicles is made to operate, as it is by 
 other causes in the fermentation of stoues. Hence 
 arises the increasing of strength and the astonishing 
 durability which houses of this kind are found to 
 possess. 
 
 On the Height of Pise Wall which may he raised in 
 a Day. — In one single day three courses, of about 
 three feet in height each, may be raised one over an- 
 other, so that a wall of earth of about eight or nine 
 feet, or one story high, may be raised in one day. Ex- 
 perience has proved, that as soon as the builders have 
 raised their walls to a proper height for the flooring, 
 the heaviest beams and rafters may without danger be 
 placed on the walls thus newdy made, and that the 
 thickest timber of a roof may be placed on the gables 
 of pise the very instant they are completed. 
 
 To make good walls of pise it is not sufficient that 
 the earth be well beaten, we must also learn to unite 
 them well together. In houses of brick or stone, to 
 consolidate their parts they make use of angles and 
 binders of free-stone, and of iron-braces and cramp- 
 irons, which are very expensive; but here the binders 
 cost very little, consisting only of thin pieces of wood, 
 a few cramps and nails, and these are found suf- 
 ficient to give the greatest solidity to buildings of pis6. 
 The first course H, Fig. 13, being laid on the front 
 and inner walls of a house, we begin with the second, 
 and if for the inferior course has been directed from G 
 to E, Fig. 1 3, it must for this second be directed from 
 G to II ; but before this second course is began, lay 
 at the bottom of the mould a board about five or six 
 feet long, resting on the angle G, and extending length- 
 wise towards H ; this board must be rough as the 
 sawyers have left it, and about an inch thick, and in 
 breadth about eight, nine, or ten inches, so that there 
 may remain on each side four or five inches of the earth 
 of the wall, which is eighteen inches in thickness ; by 
 this means the board will be entirely concealed in the 
 body of the pise, and w hen there placed, neither the air 
 nor damp can reach it, and, of course, there is no danger 
 of its rotting. This has been often proved by expe- 
 rience, as in taking down old houses of pise such boards 
 
 I have always been found perfectly sound, and many that 
 have not lost the colour of new' wood. It is easy to 
 conceive how much this board will equalize the pressure 
 of the work raised above it, and will also contribute to 
 bind together the two lengths G E, and to strengthen 
 the angle G ; but this is not all, it is useful (particularly 
 when the earth is not of a very good quality) to put 
 ends of planks into the pise after it has been rammed 
 to about half the height of the mould. These ends 
 of planks should be only ten or eleven inches long, to 
 leave, as before, a few inches of earth on each side of 
 the wall ; if it is eighteen inches thick, they should be 
 laid crosswise (as the plank before-mentioned is laid 
 lengthwise) over the whole course, at the distance of 
 about two feet from one another, and will serve to 
 equalize the pressure of the upper parts of the work on 
 the low'er course of the pise. The boards mentioned 
 need only be placed at the angles of exterior walls, and 
 in those parts where the partition-wall joins to those of 
 the exterior wall. The same directions that have been 
 here given for the second course must be observed at 
 each succeeding course up to the roof. By these 
 means the reader will perceive that an innumerable 
 quantity of holders or binders will be formed which 
 sometimes draw to the right, sometimes to the left, of 
 the angles, and which powerfully unite the front walls 
 with those of the partitions, the several parts deriving 
 mutual support from one another, and the whole being 
 rendered compact and solid. Hence these houses, made 
 of earth alone, are able to resist the violence of the 
 highest w'inds, storms, and tempests. The height of 
 each story being known, boards of three or four feet in 
 length should be placed before-hand in the pis£, in 
 those places where the beams are to be fixed; and as 
 soon as the mould no longer occupies that place the 
 beams may be laid on for each story, and the pis6 may 
 be continued as high as the place on which you intend 
 to erect the roof. 
 
 On building Park or Garden Walls en Pise.— With 
 respect to w'alls for enclosures of parks, gardens, yards, 
 &c., the mould must be fixed in an angle, or against a 
 building, if the wall is to reach so far, and the work- 
 men must proceed from thence to the other extremity 
 of the wall, and when they have fixed the first course 
 they must raise the mould to make the second, return- 
 ing to the place where they began the first. But when 
 a very great enclosure is to be made, as, for instance, 
 a park- wall, then, for the sake of speed, it is necessary 
 to set several moulds and men to w'ork. In such a 
 case, a mould should be placed at each end, and the 
 number of men be double ; they will work at the same 
 time, and meet in the middle of the wall, where they 
 ! will close the first course, after which each set of men 
 ' raise their mould to make their second course, and both 
 setting out again for the middle, continue’ working in op- 
 posite directions towards the ends where they first began. 
 Besides the advantages of strength and cheapness this 
 method of building possesses that of speed in the exe- 
 cution. That the reader may know the time that i§ 
 
 required 
 
MASONRY, 
 
 435 
 
 required for building a house or an enclosure, he need 
 only be told that a mason used to the work can, with 
 the help of his labourer, when the earth lies near him, 
 build in one day six feet square of the pise. If two 
 men can build in one day six feet square, it is evident 
 that six men, which is the necessary number to work 
 the mould (viz. three in the mould and three to dig and 
 prepare the earth), will build, in the course of sixteen 
 days, or three weeks at most, a house similar to plan 
 delineated Plate II, Fig. 13, and such a house is 
 estimated to contain two hundred and eighty-eight feet 
 square of wall. A very short space of time therefore is 
 sufficient for a man to build himself a solid and lasting 
 habitation. These facts, which have been proved by 
 numberless instances, afford a proposition by which 
 every one may determine the time that his house or 
 wall will take in building, having first ascertained the 
 number of feet it will contain . — Thus, if he wishes to 
 have a wall five hundred and forty feet long, and six feet 
 high, it will be finished in one month with one single 
 mould and six men, and if he doubles both moulds and 
 men it will be done in fifteen days. These are simple 
 but necessary instructions, for they will prevent the in- 
 convenience to which many are exposed from having 
 the completion of their building protracted beyond the 
 time that they originally expected. All persons who 
 wish to build may hence contract with a builder that 
 the work shall be finished on such a day, or that he 
 shall indemnify them for all the losses which they may 
 incur from his failure in the making good of his engage- 
 ment. 
 
 On the Plastering necessary to Pise Buildings . — 
 The outside covering of plaster which is proper for 
 pise-walls is quite different from that which is made use 
 of on any other w alls ; it is necessary too, to take the 
 proportion for laying it on. If a house of pis6 has been 
 began in February, and completed in April, the cover- 
 ing may be laid on in the autumn, or, that is to say, 
 five or six months after it is finished, or if it is finished 
 in the beginning of November (at which time the 
 masons generally give over working pis6) it may be laid 
 on in the spring. In this interval the walls will be suf- 
 ficiently dried ; but it must not be imagined that 'it is 
 drought or cold that extracts the moisture from the 
 earthen wall ; it is only the air, and particularly the 
 north air, which is of itself sufficient either in summer 
 or winter to dry a pise wall thoroughly. If you happen 
 to lay your plaster over them before the dampness is 
 entirely gone off, you must expect that the sweat of the 
 wall will cast off the plaster. To prepare a wall for 
 plastering, indent them with the point of a hammer or 
 hatchet without being afraid of spoiling the surface left 
 by the mould ; all those little dents must be made as 
 close together as possible, and cut in from the top to 
 the bottom, so that every hole may have a little rest in 
 the inferior part, w hich will serve to retain and support 
 the plaster. To do this the masons must make a small 
 scaffold in the holes which the joists of the mould have 
 
 left. This scaffold may be made in a few minutes, and 
 when with the assistance of it they have indented the 
 upper parts of the house, they must run a stiff brush 
 over the indented surface to remove all dust or loose 
 earth. The walls thus prepared, they may lay on the 
 plastering, but before the manner of doing this is de- 
 scribed it should be observed that there are two kinds 
 of plaster that may be used in the pis6, viz. rough-cast 
 and stuccoing. Rough-cast consists of a small quan- 
 tity of mortar, diluted with water in a tub, to which a 
 trowel of pure lime is added, so as to make it about 
 the thickness of cream ; stucco is nothing more than 
 poor mortar, which the labourers make up in a clean 
 place near the lime-pit, and carry to the masons on 
 the scaffold. Such is the manner of preparing the co- 
 verings, let us now see the manner of employing them. 
 For rough casting, one workman and his labourer are 
 sufficient ; the workman on tire scaffold sprinkling with 
 a brush the wall he has indented, swept and prepared, 
 after w hich he dips another brush made of bits of reed, 
 box, &c. into the tub which contains the rough-cast, 
 and throws it with the brush against the w-all ; when he 
 has covered with as much equality as possible so much 
 of the wall as is within his reach, he lowers his scaffold, 
 and stops up the holes of the joists with stones or old 
 plaster, &c., does as before, and continues lowering 
 his scaffold in the same manner till he comes to the 
 bottom of the house. This rough-cast, which is at- 
 tended with so little expense or trouble, is, notwith- 
 standing, the best covering that can be made for pis6- 
 walls, and for all other like constructions; it contri- 
 butes to preserve the building, and though not beauti- 
 ful, has the recommendation of being attainable by 
 people in moderate circumstances. It is the peculiar 
 advantage of these buildings that all the materials they 
 require are cheap, and the workmanship simple and easy. 
 
 The process of stuccoing is very different. T wo work- 
 men and two labourers are requisite ; the two workmen 
 being on the scaffold, and one of the labourers making 
 up the mortar, while the other carries it, with water, 
 and serves the workmen. One of the workmen holds 
 in his light hand a trowel, and, in the other, a brush 
 with which he sprinkles the wall, having before well 
 indented and swept it; after which he lays on a few 
 trowels full of stucco, which he spreads as much as 
 possible with the same trowel, and then he lays it on 
 more, and thus continues his work. The second work- 
 man has also in his left hand a brush, and in his right a 
 small wooden-float ; he sprinkles water over the mortar 
 his partner has spread, and rubs over the part he has 
 wetted with this wooden-float. The reader easily per- 
 ceives the progress of this work. The first workman 
 lays on the plaster and advances gradually, the second 
 follows and polishes ; one labourer makes up the stucco, 
 the other carries it and serves the workmen. By this 
 progress the smoothest finish and cheapest plastering is 
 made. At the same time that the plaster is laid on, it 
 may also be whitened by the use of lime alone, which 
 
 is 
 
436 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 is also an object of economy, since it saves white-lead, 
 &c. For this purpose, dilute lime in a tub of very 
 clear water, and let a labourer take some of it in a pot 
 and carry it to the workmen, who must lay it on with a 
 brush ; this, as well as all other colours, adheres to the 
 plaster and never falls off, although it is used with water 
 only, without either size or oil. This is to be attri- 
 buted to the precaution of laying on the colour whilst 
 the plaster is still wet, as it grows dry it incorporates 
 mineral colours with its own substance, and makes them 
 last as long as itself. 
 
 Lime is of very general utility, it is used in building, 
 in plastering, and in white-washing ; and it will appear 
 from the chapter about to be added on Painting, 
 that, for that purpose also, it may be employed with 
 advantage. Those who intend to build therefore ought 
 always to have a store of lime by them, and it should 
 be slaked a long time before it is used to prevent cre- 
 vices and blisters, which, without this precaution, will 
 arise in the plaster, and give it so disagreeable an ap- 
 pearance that it will be necessary to do the work over 
 again. The reason of it is this, there will always re- 
 main in the lime some particles that have not been 
 slaked in the pit, as all the stones are not reduced to 
 lime in the kiln, and those stones will resist the action 
 of the water for a time and will burst from the plaster 
 after it has been laid, leaving the crevices above-men- 
 tioned. This circumstance will not happen if the lime, 
 after being slaked, is left to stand some time before it is 
 used ; indeed it would not be amiss to let it lie by a 
 whole year. 
 
 With regard to the expense of walls of pis6, of w'hich 
 labour constitutes the principal, and as labour is dearer 
 in some places than in others, the best inode of esti- 
 mating it will be from the quantity of such work that a 
 man can perform in one day. Mr. Salmon, of Woburn, 
 has found, by employing a man in such work, that he 
 will perform easily, in a day of ten hours, J | square 
 yards superficial, from which he has estimated the ex- 
 pense as follows : — 
 
 Labour in making facing-composition, filling- s. d. 
 in, and ramming, to a sixteen-inch wall, I 
 when the earth is at hand (labourers’ wages >2 2 
 
 being at Woburn Is. lOd. per day), per yard k 
 
 superficial 
 
 Value of lime used in the composition rammed 
 
 into the face of a yard superficial (lime be- >0- 3 
 
 ing 8 d. per bushel) ) 
 
 Lime and labour for rubbing-up and finishing | Q ^ 
 the outside face of the wall j 
 
 Total for finishing and facing on one side 2 8 
 
 If a garden wall, or otherwise, which will re- 7 ^ „ 
 
 quire facing and finishing on both sides . . ) U 
 
 Total for walls finished on both sides 3 4 
 
 On the Painting in Fresco to Pise Buddings, fyc . — 
 That kind of painting, which is known by name of fresco, 
 is the most beautiful and the cheapest of any, and it is 
 
 that which the French author recommends for the deco- 
 ration of pise buildings. The most celebrated painters 
 were very partial to it, and Rome has furnished many 
 excellent models in its higher departments, which should 
 engage us to restore it from that neglect and disuse 
 into which it has without reason been suffered to fall. 
 Whoever wishes to have his house painted in fresco, 
 must have a painter ready, and place him on the scaffold 
 with the workmen. The latter lay on the mortar as 
 before directed, and are attentive to spread it very even 
 to receive the paint. When they have finished one part 
 they suspend their work to give the painter time to do 
 his ; for if they continued working on, the painter, 
 who cannot go on so fast as they do, would find the 
 mortar too dry, and the colours would not incorporate 
 with it. It is absolutely necessary that the plasterer’s 
 w'ork should be subordinate to that of the painter, for 
 which reason it is sometimes so arranged, that the latter 
 works, while the former are gone to their meals ; and 
 when, in his turn, he retires from work, he traces out 
 the part that the plasterers are to cover during his 
 absence, foreseeing how much he shall be able to paint 
 in the course of the day. All these precautions are 
 taken to prevent the too speedy drying of the mortar, 
 and to save the proper time to lay on the colours 
 whilst it is fresh. 
 
 Although this work does not profess to teach the art 
 of painting in fresco, it may perhaps be found to 
 contain directions sufficient for the execution of it in an 
 ordinary manner. To make the colour you mean to 
 give a country-house, dilute in a large tub a sufficient 
 quantity of lime which has been slaked a long time: 
 you must dilute, in another tub or pot, some ochre, 
 either yellow or red, or any other mineral colour you 
 please, but always in very clean water; after which, 
 pour a little of the colour into the large tub, and stir it 
 about with a stick or spatula, so as to mix it well with 
 the lime. Take some of the colour on a brush and try 
 it on a board or wall, and if it be too deep or too light 
 add fresh lime or colour from the tub ; and, by repeated 
 trials, you will bring it to the tint you wish to give the 
 house. The colour being made for the body of the 
 house, the frames for the doors and windows are next 
 to be considered, and a new colour chosen to distin- 
 guish them from the rest of the front. If the body of 
 the house be painted yellow, or a pale red, the angles 
 and frames may be while or blue ; if it be grey, they 
 may be yellow or deep red ; and in all cases it will be 
 a very easy matter to put the most suitable colours. 
 The plasterers are equal to painting the fronts of 
 houses in a common way ; but when builders or pro- 
 prietors wish to have them decorated in a superior 
 w'ay they must call in a painter, whose business it is 
 to do it. 
 
 These paintings in fresco are more lively and more 
 brilliant than any other, because the colours are not 
 deadened by size and oil, which do not enter into their 
 composition ; their effect is surprising, and that pleasure 
 may be had at a little expense. 
 
 Note. 
 
MINING. 
 
 437 
 
 Note . — The plaster proper to serve as a ground for 
 fresco painting or colouring, is made of one part lime, 
 and three parts clean, sharp, washed sand. This part of 
 painting has been executed with great success at Woburn 
 Abbey, and other places. It is not very usual to slake 
 the lime in England so long before it is wanted, but it is 
 an excellent practice, especially if it be wood-burnt. 
 
 In addition to the elaborate French-work on Pise, 
 there has now been published in the twenty-seventh 
 volume of the Transactions of the Society of Arts, 
 some very useful experiments made in it by Mr. Sal- 
 mon, which may be found of great utility to such as 
 propose making any buildings after the pis6 manner. 
 
 MINING. 
 
 Mining is the art of digging into and penetrating 
 the earth beneath its surface, either for the purpose of 
 discovering and working veins of metallic ores and other 
 valuable substances, or for forming subterranean pas- 
 sages for military operations. 
 
 To carry on all the processes of mining requires the 
 combination of very considerable skill in several difficult 
 branches of engineering. Most countries in which me- 
 tallic veins are found, have the strata under the upper 
 soil, consisting of rock of various degrees of hardness, 
 it is therefore an essential part of the miner’s art, 
 and what indeed particularly distinguishes him from a 
 common labourer, to be able to break ground of this 
 sort under all the disadvantages of being cramped for 
 room, exposed to constant streams of water, and not 
 unfrequently to unwholesome air. 
 
 In Cornwall the workmen generally divide the ground, 
 or rock, into two general classes, one of which they 
 call working-ground, and the other is distinguished by the 
 name of shooting-ground. 
 
 The first class includes all such kinds of rock as may 
 be separated or broken by the use only of the pick and 
 Vvedge, which latter is technically called a gad. 
 
 The latter denomination is applied to all rock that 
 is so hard as to require the use of gunpowder, which is 
 bored by tools of steel, and loosened and detached by 
 the explosion of the charges rammed into the holes. 
 
 The tools used by the miners of Cornwall and Devon 
 are simple, and in their hands very effective ; the form 
 of the principal ones is delineated in the annexed en- 
 graving (Mining, Plate I.) 
 
 The pick (Fig. 2) is usually of the shape shewn in 
 the drawing, but it is varied a little for some purposes, 
 or for different kinds of rock ; the one side is used as a 
 hammer, and is called the poll, it serves to drive the 
 gads, or to detach and loosen projecting parts ; the 
 point is steel, carefully tempered, and drawn under 
 the hammer to its proper form, in which considerable 
 nicety is required, as one kind of point w ill not do for 
 all kinds of ground. The weights of picks are likewise 
 
 various according to the situation and circumstances 
 in which they are to be used, but are never very heavy, 
 as experience has fully shewn that a rapid succession of 
 smart blows which may be given by a light tool produces 
 more effect than a lesser number from a weighty instru- 
 ment, which soon tires the workman. 
 
 The gads (Fig. 3) are wedges of steel, which are 
 driven into crevices of the rock, or into small openings 
 made with the point of the pick, and, in skilful hands, 
 they serve to loosen ground of very dense texture. 
 
 The miner s’ shovel (Fig. 4) has a pointed form, 
 which is necessary to make it possible to force it into or 
 under the coarse and hard fragments of which the 
 waste from a mine principally consists. It is furnished 
 with a long handle somewhat bent, by which a man’s 
 power is applied in the most convenient form without 
 stooping the body. 
 
 The tools for blasting, or, as it is technically called, 
 
 shooting, consist of the 
 
 Sledge, or mallet, 7 
 
 Borer, . . . . • 8 
 
 Claying bar, 9 
 
 Needle, or nail, 10 
 
 Scraper, 11 
 
 Tamping-bar, 12 
 
 Besides these tools there are required a powder-horn, 
 rushes to be filled with powder, occasionally tin car- 
 j tridges for very wet ground, and paper rubbed with gun- 
 powder, or sometimes grease, for the snufts or fuses. 
 
 The borer (Fig. 8) is a bar of iron, with a steel end, 
 formed like a thick chisel, and is used by one man 
 holding it in the hole and constantly turning it round, 
 while his comrade strikes the upper end with the iron 
 sledge or mallet (Fig. 7). The hole is occasionally 
 cleaned out by the scraper (Fig. 11), which is an iron 
 rod turned up at one end ; or, if the ground is very wet, 
 and the hole fills with mud, a stick beat at the extre- 
 mity till it forms a kifid of brush is used, and is called a 
 swab-stick. 
 
 5 T 
 
 Holes 
 
438 
 
 MINING. 
 
 Holes for blasting are generally about one inch and a | 
 quarter in the bore, and of various depths from ten or I 
 twelve inches to three feet, but these, as well as the po- i 
 sition and direction in which they are bored, and the 
 charge of powder employed, are subject to the skill and 
 discretion of the miner. The rules by which he is guided 
 are to direct the effort of the explosion to a part of ! 
 the rock which is most easily displaced, and to propor- 
 tion the charge to the effect required, so as to shake 
 and loosen a larger portion rather than to blow out a 
 lesser quantity. 
 
 Fig. 6 serves to explain the process of blasting, and 
 represents a section of a hole ready for firing. When 
 the hole is bored it must be made as dry as possible ; to 
 do which it is partly filled with good tenacious clay and a 
 round iron bar, nearly fitting the bore of the hole, but 
 somewhat tapering, and called the claying-bar; this is 
 driven in with great violence, w'hich so forces the clay into 
 all the crevices of the rock, that when the bar is with- 
 drawn, the hole usually remains dry. Where this plan fails 
 from the great flow of water all round, it becomes ne- 
 cessary to use tin cartridges furnished with a stem or 
 tube through which the powder may be inflamed. A 
 section of one of these cartridges is shown in the Plate, 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 When the hole is dry, either by clay, or otherwise, 
 the proper charge of gunpowder is introduced, and the 
 nail, a small taper rod which ought to be made of 
 copper, is inserted, and reaches to the bottom of the 
 hole ; the hole is then ready to receive the tamping, 
 which is the most difficult and dangerous part of the 
 process. It is by this that the gunpowder is confined, 
 and the effect produced ; different substances are in use 
 for ramming into the hole for this 'purpose ; that most 
 usually employed is any soft kind of rock, which is free 
 from quartz or flinty matter. Small quantities at a time 
 are introduced into the hole, and rammed very hard by 
 the tamping-bar, which is held by one man, and struck 
 with a sledge by another ; this is continued until the hole 
 is filled up, and the nail being then drawn out by putting 
 a bar through the eye, and striking it upward, leaves a 
 small perforation or vent for the rush which conveys the 
 lire. 
 
 The danger of beating the tamping with iron tools in 
 hard rock, and the many dreadful accidents that fre- 
 quently happen in this operation, have led to the intro- 
 duction of contrivances to diminish the risk ; but though 
 some of these have been well adapted for the purpose, 
 yet, as they occasion a little more trouble, they have not 
 been generally adopted by the miner. The simplest aud 
 best precaution against danger is to have the nail of 
 copper instead of iron, but as the former is not so 
 easily made or repaired by the smiths on a mine as the 
 latter, they are not so well liked by the workmen. 
 
 The other inodes of preventing danger in tamping is 
 by employing substances to confine the gunpowder which 
 require little or no force in beating them into the hole, 
 and as dry sand will often serve the purpose if the rock 
 is not very hard it may be sometimes used ; but there 
 
 | are many cases in mines where it will not succeed, and 
 j therefore it is seldom attempted. A better substance to 
 | confine gunpowder in holes is good tough clay, and this 
 will answer in many cases where sand will fail particu- 
 | larly in wet ground, or in holes that are inclined up- 
 j wards, it will produce the proper effect in all but very 
 hard rocks, and if the men could be induced to use 
 it would undoubtedly tend to the saving many lives. 
 
 When the tamping is completely rammed in, and the 
 nail drawn out, a small vent or touch-hole remains, 
 which is to receive the rush to communicate the fire. 
 Any small tube filled with gunpowder will answer for 
 this purpose, but nothing is better or more easily pre- 
 pared than those in common use. For this purpose, 
 the green rushes which grow in wet marsh lands are 
 chosen, and are selected as long and large as can be 
 had. By making a slit in one side and drawing along 
 in it the sharp end of a piece of stick, the pith may be 
 taken out very completely, and from the elasticity of 
 the skin of the rush the slit closes again. To fill this 
 tube w'ith gunpowder, the rush is held in one hand so 
 as to pass through a small quantity of powder retained 
 in the palm of the hand, and by opening the slit with a 
 small wedge and pushing the rush along through the 
 powder at the same time, it is made to embrace a quan- 
 tity sufficient to communicate inflammation. 
 
 To fire the hole, one of these charged rushes is 
 dropped through the vent, and is made steady by a piece 
 of clay ; a paper snuft is then fixed to the top, which i& 
 so adjusted as to burn a sufficient time to permit the man 
 who fires it to retreat to a proper distance. 
 
 Fig. 6 represents a section of a charged hole in a 
 rock. The portion which would be dislodged by the 
 explosion is that part included between A and B. The 
 charge of powder is sheum by the white part, which 
 reaches as high in the hole as C : from that point to 
 the surface of the rock the hole is filled with tamping, 
 excepting the small orifice which contains the rush, and 
 which has the snuff affixed at D. 
 
 Fig. 14 is a drawing of a wheelbarrow, such as is 
 used under-ground for conveying ore and waste to the 
 shafts : these barrow's are very simple in their construc- 
 tion, and adapted to the narrow and low levels through 
 which they have to pass. They are usually made all of 
 deal, this timber being lightest and most fitted to the 
 purpose. The wheel has a narrow band of iron round 
 it. 
 
 Fig, 5 is an iron bucket, or, as it is called in Corn- 
 wall, a kibble,, and is used for holding the ore and 
 waste while it is drawn up the shafts by machines, 
 worked by horses, called whims. Kibbles are generally 
 i made of wood, having very stout staves, very strongly 
 bound with heavy iron binds or hoops, but as those 
 made with iron plates are to be preferred, and need not 
 much exceed the others in w'eight, we are glad to be 
 able to exhibit a drawing of one of the latter of an ap- 
 proved form and construction. 
 
 A kibble, such as is used with horse-whims, holds 
 about three hundred weight of ore, and one hundred 
 
 and 
 
MINING. 
 
 439 
 
 and twenty kibbles will just clear a cubic fathom of 
 rock. 
 
 Miners’ work under- ground is chiefly divided into 
 sinking, driving, and stoaping. 
 
 Sinking is applied to shafts, and to other smaller per- 
 pendicular openings from one level to another, usually 
 called winzes. 
 
 Shafts are of different dimensions according to the 
 purposes they are designed for ; the largest kind is the 
 engine-shaft, in which are generally placed the pumps 
 for draining the mine of water, the ladders for the men, 
 and a part divided off and called the whim-shaft, for 
 the kibbles to pass up and down. Plate II (Mining) 
 will be found to represent a perspective view of a part 
 of the interior of one of these shafts. 
 
 A good engine-shaft measures about eight feet by 
 twelve, though some are sunk of larger dimensions. 
 Shafts intended only for hauling ores through, and those 
 for air and foot-w'ays, may be about six feet by four. 
 
 In large shafts, a set of twelve men are usually em- 
 ployed ; in smaller ones, eight, or even six, are a suffi- 
 cient complement to keep the work going. They work 
 two or three at a time, and relieve each other every six 
 or eight hours, keeping good the whole twenty-four 
 without intermission. The miners are attended by la- 
 bourers, or winze-men, who haul up the stuff out of 
 their way as it is broken. 
 
 Sinking is contracted for by the fathom in depth, and 
 the price therefore varies according to the dimensions of 
 the shaft as well as according to the hardness of the 
 ground, and the circumstances relating to water, air, &c. 
 A medium price is about <£20 a fathom for shafts at 
 some depth from the surface, but some have cost <£80, 
 and others are executed as low' as £5. 
 
 Driving is the term applied to the execution of hori- 
 zontal passages, which are called adits when used for the 
 conveyance of water near the surface, and levels when 
 made for opening the lode or vein, and forming com- 
 munications from one shaft to another under-ground. 
 Levels ought to be seven feet in height, and two feet 
 and a half w ide ; by constructing them as high as this, 
 room is given to admit contrivances for ventilation, so 
 that they may be continued to considerable lengths 
 without inconvenience. More than two miners cannot 
 vvork at one time on the end of a level, and the set of 
 men therefore employed may consist of six, relieving 
 every eight hours, or of four relieving twice in the 
 twenty-four hours, or two men only, who may work as 
 long as circumstances will permit. Driving is paid for I 
 by the fathom in length, the height and width being 
 limited ; a great variation of prices takes place according 
 as the rock is hard or soft, as w ork of this sort is done 
 from 10s. a fathom to ,£30, but about £5 a fathom is 
 the most usual sum paid for this kind of work. These 
 prices here, as well as in sinking shafts, include every 
 expense, as the men pay for their tools, candles, and J 
 gunpowder, and likew ise are charged with the wheeling j 
 the stuff, and hauling it to the surface. 
 
 Stoaping is that kind of w'ork which is not included | 
 
 in sinking or driving, but more generally means the 
 breaking away the ground between the levels on the 
 course of the lode or vein, to get the ore. When the 
 men work over head, it is called stoaping the backs, 
 and when the work is carried downwards it is deno- 
 minated stoaping the bottoms. As both these opera- 
 tions usually take place where ore is obtained, the mode 
 of payment is quite different from that in sinking or 
 driving, and is here called tribute work, while the other 
 is called tutzoork. Tribute means payment by a pro- 
 portion of the produce, so that the men agree to under- 
 take a particular piece of ground for a certain part of 
 the value of the ore they may procure, when completely 
 merchantable and fit for sale, every operation and pro- 
 cess to make it so being conducted at their expense, 
 i This mode of contracting is of great advantage to the 
 owners of the mine, as the men have a constant interest 
 concurring with that of their employers, in discovering 
 and procuring the greatest possible quantities of ore, 
 and of returning it in the best and cheapest manner. 
 The proportion paid to the miner, varies, of course, 
 exceedingly, as many things must be taken into account 
 in estimating a fair tribute for any particular part of a 
 mine, but the contracts are made at so much out of 
 every pound’s w'orih sold, and this fluctuates often in 
 different parts of the same mine from three-pence to 
 fourteen shillings. Nothing shews the necessity of a 
 mine being in the hands of skilful and honourable 
 managers more than the great variation in) the prices 
 of all kinds of work carried on in these extensive under- 
 takings. 
 
 We proceed to describe the parts of an engine-shaft, 
 as they appear delineated in the annexed engraving 
 (Mining, Plate II). 
 
 AAA A. Timber-framing put in to support the 
 ground, where, from the rock not being sufficiently 
 hard to stand securely, this precaution becomes neces- 
 sary. Where boarding is required, the planks are driven 
 perpendicularly between the transverse timber and the 
 ground. 
 
 BBBB are dividing-pieces, or beams thrown cross the 
 shaft. They serve to support the sides of the shaft, to 
 attach the casing-boards to, which part off the whim- 
 shaft from the foot-w’ay and pump, or engine-shaft 
 (it being [usual to consider a large shaft of this kind as 
 divided into the three kinds, each bearing its particular 
 name). And, lastly, the dividing-pieces support the 
 ends of the bearers which carry the pumps, ladders, &c. 
 
 CCCC, Casing-boards which part off the whim- 
 shaft from the other parts : they are stout planks se- 
 curely spiked to the dividing-pieces, and when the shaft 
 is not perpendicular, the kibble slides upon them. 
 
 D. The zehim-hibble which conveys up the ore and 
 waste, two of which are employed in a shaft, one going 
 up while the other goes down. 
 
 EF. Ladders for the workmen, forming what is 
 usually called the foot-way. 
 
 G. Sailer, a small platform at the foot of each 
 ladder. 
 
 H. A column 
 
MINING. 
 
 440 
 
 H A column of pumps drawing out of a cistern 
 
 *e cK which Likewise receives the stream 
 
 fl °r"whi| connects 
 one set goes into the column I, and anot 
 
 -«* su PP o rt 
 
 the pumps and keep them steady m t . e" P ^ ^ ? c( 
 
 Ji - sfShi is: V e 
 
 chine invented and app ie - i cop p e r mines, 
 
 from the Society for the Encouragement of Aits, 
 
 nufactures, and Commerce. employed for 
 
 it Next in importance to the means emp j 
 
 “- s 
 
 ^??®3SS553 
 
 who are practically ®° 8 »o® d tQ per3eV ere in their 
 that men are frequent y 0 P burn and where 
 
 labour, where a candle will scareei; Y o ^, ’ in the end, 
 
 not only their own health mater additiona l 
 
 »" e *" d ,hc " aste of 
 are confined to such mine, 
 
 as art^worked upon metalliferom veins, ^ccor&ngto^th^ 
 
 practice of this district, and that of .the g t 
 mining in the neighbors, count, . 
 
 orir ole 'shaft, not communicating by levels to another, 
 
 ZiSZ^t fc^nmi" Zt&fl ^ 
 
 driven horizontally to any great akfu^Ae 
 
 of those gases which occasionally in th 1 h . „ 
 
 the cause of such dreadful effects , such as nyn „ 
 
 gas, or the fire-damp, carbon, c acrd, or rtm rto 
 damp; the inconvenience we experien t jf e at . 
 
 gradually as we recede from the open mgs to^theat^ 
 mosphere, and seems to arise i so e y found t0 
 
 which have been before assigned, thou a u 
 come on more rapidly in certarn sffuat on hanm othe.^ 
 « The most obvious remedy, and that wi . 
 
 frequently resorted to, is the opening * ^ cu “ face 
 
 either to some other part of the mine, 01 t . 
 
 S and as soon as this is done, the ventilation is 
 found’ to be complete, by the currents which tmmedr 
 
 atelv take place, often with considerable force, from' 
 the different degrees of temperature in the subterranean 
 and upper atmospheres ; and these currents may be 
 observed to change tlieir directions as the temperatures 
 
 alternate. , . , c 
 
 “ The great objection to this mode of curing the 
 evil is, the enormous expense with which it is most 
 commonly attended. In driving a long level, or tun- 
 nel, for instance, it may happen to be at a great dept 
 under the surface, and the intervening rock of great 
 hardness; in such a case every shaft whmh must be 
 sunk upon it for air alone, where not required (as often 
 thev might not) to draw up the waste, would cost 
 several hundred pounds ; or in sinking a shaft it may 
 be necessary, at an expense not much less, to drive a 
 level to it from some other for this purpose alone. 
 
 “ To avoid this, recourse has been had to dividing 
 the shaft or level into two distinct parts, communicating 
 near the part intended to be ventilated, so that a current 
 may be produced in opposite directions on eaclt side 
 the partition; and this, where room is tp be spared fot 
 it is often effectual to a certain extent. It is found, 
 however, to have its limits at no very great distance, 
 
 a Jto current a. best is but a feeble one from the 
 
 nearly equal states of heat in the air on each side The 
 only scheme besides these has hitherto been to force 
 down a volume of purer air, through a sys em P P 
 Dlaced for the purpose, aud a variety of contrivances 
 has been devised for effecting this ; most of them are 
 so old that they may be found described in Agricola s 
 work De Re Metallica. The most common are by- 
 bellows worked by hand; by boxes or cylinders of va- 
 rious forms placed on the surface with a large opemn 
 against* the wind, and a smaller one communicating 
 with the air-pipes by a cylinder and piston working m 
 it which when driven by a sufficient force has giea 
 power. But the cheapest add most effectual scheme 
 for this purpose, where circumstances will admit of its 
 being applied, is one which was adopted some tune 
 s \nce in the tunnel of the Tavistock cana . It is by 
 anplyin” the fall of a stream of water for this purpose 
 and it has been long known that a blast of considerable 
 strength may be obtained in this manner, which has 
 the advantage of being constant and self-acting. The 
 stream being turned down a perpendicular column of 
 • d in at a vessel so contrived as to let oft 
 
 the water one way, with an opening at another part 
 for the air which being pressed into it by the falhn a 
 
 tier, may be conveyed in any direction, and wd pass 
 through air-pipes with a strong current, which will be 
 
 to ■£ had; and the perpendicular column can be so 
 
 Ripply of fr e §h a ' r * s re( l u “ e ^‘ „ 
 
MINING. 
 
 441 
 
 -■ It has been found, however, that the forcing into 
 vitiated air a mixture of that which is purer, even 
 when the best means are used, though a measure which 
 affords relief, is not, in bad cases, a complete remedy ; 
 and, where the operation depends on manual labour, 
 or any means that are not unremitted in their action, it 
 becomes quite ineffectual. The foul air, charged with 
 the smoke of gunpowder used in blasting, and which 
 it strongly retains, is- certainly meliorated by the 
 mixture of pure air, but is not removed. While the 
 blast continues, some of it is driven into the other 
 parts of the mine; but when the influx of pure air 
 ceases, it returns again : or if during the influx of pure 
 air a fresh volume of smoke be produced by explosions, 
 which are constantly taking place, it is not until some 
 time afterwards that it becomes sufficiently attenuated 
 for the workmen to resume their stations with comfort. 
 
 “ A consideration of these circumstances led me to 
 the supposition that the usual operation of ventilating 
 engines ought to be reversed, to afford all the ad- 
 vantages that could be desired ; that instead of using the 
 machines which serve as condensers, exhausters should 
 be adopted ; and thus, instead of forcing pure air 
 into that in a vitiated state, a complete remedy could 
 only be had by pumping out all that was impure as fast 
 as it became so. 
 
 “ Many modes of doing this suggested themselves, 
 by the alteration of the machines commonly applied, 
 and by producing an ascending stream of air through 
 pipes by a furnace constructed for the purpose. The 
 latter mode would, however, have been here expensive in 
 fuel as well as in attendance ; and the others, required 
 power to overcome the friction of pistons, and so on, 
 or considerable accuracy in construction. 
 
 “At length the machine was erected of w hich the 
 annexed is a drawing ; which, while it is so simple in 
 construction, and requires so small an expense of 
 power, is so complete in its operation, and its parts 
 are so little liable to be injured by wear, that nothing 
 more can be desired where such an one is applied. 
 This engine bears considerable resemblance to Mr. 
 Pepys’s gazometer, though this did not occur to the 
 inventor until after it w'as put to work. It will readily 
 be understood by an inspection of the engraving, PL III., 
 where the shaft of the mine is represented at A ; and it 
 may here be observed, that the machine will be as 
 well placed at the bottom of the shaft as at the top, 
 and that in either case it is proper to fix it upon a 
 floor, which may prevent the return of the foul air 
 into the mine, after being discharged from the ex- 
 hauster : this floor may be furnished with a trap-door, 
 to be opened occasionally for the passage of buckets 
 through it. 
 
 
 “ 13, the air-pipe from the mine passing through the j 
 bottom of the fixed vessel or cylinder C, which is ! 
 formed of timber and bound with iron hoops ; this is j 
 filled with water nearly to the top of the pipe B, on ■ 
 which is fixed a valve opening upwards at D. 
 
 “ E, the air, or exhausting-cylinder made of cast-iron, 1 
 
 open at the bottom and suspended over the air-pipe, 
 immersed some way in the water. It is furnished with 
 a wooden top, in which is an opening fitted with a 
 J valve likewise opening upwards at F. 
 i “ The exhausting-cylinder has its motion up and dow n 
 given to it by the bob G, connected to any engine by 
 the horizontal rod H, and the weight of the cylinder is 
 balanced, if necessary, by the counterpoise I. 
 
 “ The action is obvious. — When the exhausting-cy- 
 linder is raised, a vacuum would be produced, or rather 
 the water w ould likewise be raised in it, w'ere it not for 
 the stream of air from the mine rushing through the 
 pipe and valve D. As soon as the cylinder begins to 
 descend, this valve closes, and prevents the return of 
 the air which is discharged through the valve F. 
 
 “ The quantity of air exhausted is calculated of course 
 from the area of the bore of the cylinder, and the length 
 of the stroke. 
 
 “ The dimensions which have been found sufficient 
 for large works, are as follow' : — 
 
 “ The bore of the exhausting-cylinder two feet. 
 
 “ The length six feet, so as to afford a stroke of four 
 feet. 
 
 “ The pipes which conduct the air to such an en- 
 gine ought not to be less than six-inch bore. 
 
 “ The best rate of working is from two to three 
 strokes a minute ; but if required to go much faster, it 
 will be proper to adapt a capacious air-vessel to the 
 pipes near the machine, which will equalize the current 
 pressing through them. 
 
 “ Such an engine discharges more than tw'o hundred 
 gallons of air in a minute ; and I have found that a 
 stream of water supplied by an inch and a half bore falling 
 twelve feel, is sufficient to keep it regularly working. 
 
 “ A small engine to pump out tw'o gallons at a 
 stroke, which would be sufficient in many cases, could 
 be worked by a power equal to raising a very few 
 pounds weight, as the whole machine may be put into 
 complete equilibrium before it begins to work, and there 
 is hardly any other friction to overcome but that of the 
 air passing through the pipes. 
 
 “ The end of the tunnel of the Tavistock eanal, 
 which it was my object to ventilate, was driven into the 
 hill to a distance of nearly three hundred yards from any 
 opening to the surface ; and being at *a depth of one 
 hundred and twenty yards, and all in hard schistus rock, 
 air-shafts would have been attended with an enormous 
 expense ; so that the tunnel being a long one, it w'as 
 most desirable to sink as few as possible, and, of course, 
 at considerable distances from each other. Thus a 
 ventilating machine was required, which should act with 
 sufficient force through a length of nearly half a mile ; 
 and on the side of the hill where it first became neces- 
 sary to apply it, no larger stream of water to give it 
 motion could be relied on, than such an one as is men- 
 tioned after the description of the engine, and even that 
 flowed at a distance from the shaft where the engine 
 was to be fixed ; which made a considerable length of 
 connexion-rods necessary. 
 
 5 U “ Within 
 
442 
 
 MINING. 
 
 “ Within a very short time after the engine began to 
 work, the superiority of its action over those formerly 
 employed was abundantly evident. The whole extent 
 of the tunnel, which had been uninterruptedly clouded 
 with smoke for some months before, and which the air 
 that was forced in never could drive out, now became 
 speedily so clear, that the day-light and even objects at 
 its mouth were distinctly ’seen from its furthest end. 
 After blowing up the rock, the miners could instantly 
 return to the place where they were employed, unim- 
 peded by the smoke, of which no appearance would re- 
 main under-ground in a very few minutes, while it 
 might be seen to be discharged in gusts, from the valve 
 at the top of the shaft. The constant current into the 
 pipe, at the same time effectually prevented the accu- 
 mulation of air unfit for respiration. The influx of air, . 
 from the level into the mouth of the pipe, rushes with 
 such force as instantly to extinguish the flame of a large 
 candle ; and any substance applied, so as to stop the 
 orifice, is held tight by the outward pressure. 
 
 “ It is now more than two years since the machine 
 was erected, and it has been uninterruptedly at work 
 ever since, and without repair. The length of the tun- 
 nel has been nearly doubled, and the pipes, of course, 
 in the same proportion, and no want of ventilation is 
 yet perceptible. 
 
 “ Two similar engines have been since constructed for 
 other parts of the same tunnel, and have in every respect 
 answ'ered the purpose for which they were designed. 
 
 “ The original one is worked by the small stream of 
 water before-mentioned, by means of a light overshot- 
 wheel tw'elve feet in diameter, and about six inches in 
 breast. — The two others are attached to the great over- 
 shot-wheel which pumps the water from the shafts 
 which are sinking upon the line ; and as their friction is 
 comparatively nothing, this may be done in any case, 
 with so little w>aste of pow er for this purpose as not to 
 be an object of consideration, even if the power be de- 
 rived from more expensive means. 
 
 “ The size of the exhauster may always be propor- 
 tioned to the demand for air ; and bv a due cdnsidera- 
 tion of this circumstance, this engine may be effectually 
 adapted not only to mines and collieries, but also to 
 manufactories, work-houses, hospitals, prisons, ships, 
 arid so on. 
 
 “ Thus, if it were required to ventilate a shaft of a 
 mine, or a single level, which is most frequently the 
 case, where three men are at work at one time, and we 
 allow that those three men vitiate each tw'enty-seven 
 and a half cubic inches of air per minute (as deter- 
 mined by the experirnents-of Messrs. Allen and Pepys), 
 and allowing further that their candles vitiate as much 
 as the men, there will be six times tw’enty-seven and a 
 half cubic inches of air to be drawn out in a minute, 
 equal to one hundred and sixty-five. 
 
 “ Now a cylinder five inches in diameter, working 
 with a stroke at nine inches, will effect this by one 
 stroke in a minute ; though it would certainly be ad- 
 visable to make it larger. 
 
 “ Not being practically acquainted with collieries, or 
 mines that suffer from peculiar gases that are produced 
 in them, I cannot state, from actual experiment, what 
 effect this machine might have in relieving them ; but 
 it must appear evident to every person at all acquainted 
 with the first principles of pneumatics, that it must do 
 all that can be wished, as it is obvious that such a ma- 
 chine must in a given time pump out the whole volume 
 of air contained in a given space, and thus change an 
 impure atmosphere for a better one. And in construct- 
 ing the machine it is only necessary to estimate the vo- 
 lume of gas produced in a certain time, or the capacity 
 of the whole space to be ventilated. It is easy to judge 
 how much more this must do for such cases as these, 
 than such schemes as have lately been proposed of ex- 
 citing jets of w r ater, or slaking lime, both of which 
 projects, likewise, must fail when applied; as one of 
 them has when applied to the case of hydrogen gas. 
 But with such a machine as this, if the dreadful effects 
 of explosions of this air are to be counteracted, it may 
 . be done by one of sufficient size to draw off the air as 
 fast as it is generated ; and by carrying the pipes into the 
 elevated parts of the mine, where from its lightness it 
 w'ould collect. If, on the other hand, it is desired to 
 free any subterraneous work from the carbonic acid gas, 
 it may as certainly be done by suffering the pipe to ter- 
 minate in the low'er parts, where this air would be di- 
 rected by its gravity. 
 
 “ In workhouses, hospitals, manufactories, &c., it is 
 always easy to calculate the quantity of air contained in 
 any room, or number of rooms, and easy to estimate 
 how often it is desirable to change this in a certain 
 number of hours, and to adjust the size and velocity of 
 the engine accordingly. Where this change of foul air 
 for pure is to take place in the night, means for working 
 the machine may be provided by pumping up a quantity 
 of water into a reservoir of sufficient height to admit of 
 its flowing out during the night in a small stream, with 
 sufficient fall, so as to give motion to the engine ; or by 
 winding up a w eight of sufficient size, or by many other 
 means which are easily devised. 
 
 “ If, for instance, a room in which fifty persons slept 
 was eighty feet long, twenty wide, and ten high, it 
 would contain 16,000 cubic feet of air, and if this was 
 to be removed twice in eight hours, it w'ould require a 
 cylinder of thirty inches diameter, working w ith a four- 
 feet stroke four times in a minute, to do it ; or nearly 
 that. Such a cylinder could be worked by the descent 
 of ten gallons of water ten feet in a minute ; or, for 
 the whole time, by eighty hogsheads falling the same 
 height. 
 
 “ But this is a vast deal more than could be required, 
 as the fifty people would in eight hours vitiate only three 
 thousand gallons of air, w'hich could be removed by one 
 hundred and fifty strokes of a cylinder, twelve inches 
 diameter, with a four feet stroke, which would not re- 
 quire an expenditure of more than one thousand five 
 hundred gallons of water properly applied, or about 
 twenty-eight hogsheads.” 
 
 MODELLING. 
 
MODELLING. 
 
 Models, in imitation of any natural or artificial 
 substance, are most usually made by means of moulds, 
 composed of plaster of Paris. For the purpose of 
 making these moulds, this kind of plaster is more fit 
 than any other substance, on account of the power it 
 has of absorbing water, and quickly condensing into a 
 hard substance, even after it has been rendered so thin 
 as to be of the consistence of cream. It is sold in the 
 shops at different prices ; the finest being made use of 
 for casts, and the middling sort for moulds. It may 
 be very easily coloured by means of almost any kind of 
 powder excepting what contains an alkaline salt ; for 
 this would chemically decompose it, and render it unfit 
 for use. A very considerable quantity of chalk would 
 also render it soft and useless, but lime hardens it to a 
 great degree. The addition of common size will render 
 it much harder than if mere water is made use of. In 
 making either moulds or models, we must be careful 
 not to make the mixture too thick at first ; for if this is 
 done, and more water added to thin it, the composition 
 will always prove brittle and of a bad quality. 
 
 The particular manner of making models depends on 
 the form of the subject to be taken. The process is 
 easy, where the parts are elevated only in a slight 
 degree, or where they form only a right or obtuse 
 angle with the principal surface from which they pro- 
 ject ; but where the parts project in smaller angles, or 
 from curves inclined towards the principal surface, the 
 work is more difficult. This observation, however, 
 holds good only with regard to hard and inflexible bo- 
 dies. 
 
 The moulds are to be made of various degrees of 
 thickness, according to the size of the model to be 
 * cast ; and may be from half an inch to an inch, or, if 
 very large, an inch and an half. Where a number of 
 models are to be taken from one mould, it will likewise 
 be necessary to have it of a stronger contexture than 
 where only a few' are required, for very obvious reasons. 
 When a model is to be taken, the surface of the origi- 
 nal is first to be greased, in order to prevent the plaster 
 from sticking to it ; but if the substance itself is slip- 
 pery, as is the case with the internal parts of the human 
 body, this need not be done : when necessary, it may 
 be laid over with linseed oil by means of a painter’s 
 brush. The original is then to be laid on a smooth 
 table, previously greased or covered with a cloth, to 
 prevent the plaster sticking to it; then surround the 
 original with a frame or ridge of glaziers’ putty, at such 
 a distance from it as will admit the plaster to rest upon 
 the table on all sides of the subject for about an inch, 
 
 or as much as is sufficient to give the proper degree of 
 strength to the mould. A sufficient quantity of plaster 
 is then to be poured as uniformly as possible over the 
 whole substance, until it be every where covered to 
 such a thickness as to give a proper substance to the 
 mould, which may vary in proportion to the size. The 
 whole must then be suffered to remain in this condition 
 till the plaster has attained its hardness ; when the 
 frame is taken away, the mould may be inverted, and 
 the subject removed from it ; and when the plaster is 
 thoroughly dry let it be well seasoned. 
 
 Having formed and seasoned the moulds, they must 
 next be prepared for the casts by greasing the inside of 
 them with a mixture of olive-oil and lard in equal 
 parts, and then filled with fine fluid plaster, and the 
 plane of the mould formed by its resting on the surface 
 of the table covered to a sufficient thickness with coarse 
 plaster, to form a strong basis or support for the cast 
 where this support is requisite, as is particularly the 
 case where the thin and membranous parts of the body 
 are to be represented. After the plaster is poured into 
 the mould, it must be suffered to stand until it has ac- 
 quired the greatest degree of hardness it will receive ; 
 after which the mould must be removed : but this will 
 be attended with some difficulty when the shape of the 
 subject is unfavourable ; and in some cases the mould 
 must be separated by means of a small mallet and 
 chisel. If, by these instruments, any parts of the model 
 should be broken off, they may be cemented by making 
 the two surfaces to be applied to each other quite wet, 
 then interposing betwixt them a little liquid plaster; 
 and, lastly, the joint smoothed after being thoroughly 
 dry. Any small holes that may be made in the mould 
 can be filled up with liquid plaster, after the sides of 
 them have been thoroughly w'etted, and smoothed over 
 with the edge of a knife. 
 
 Besides models which are taken from inanimate bo- 
 dies, it is often necessary to take the exact resemblance 
 of people while living, by using the face itself as a 
 model, from whence to take a mould. The operation 
 is, undoubtedly, disagreeable, yet it is what many per- 
 sons of the highest rank have submitted to. There is 
 also some danger unless the operator understands his 
 business well. It may, however, be performed with- 
 out the smallest risque, and in a few minutes, by those 
 who are conversant with modelling. The person from 
 whom the cast is to be taken is to be laid horizontally 
 on his back, with the head raised to the exact position 
 in which it is naturally carried when the body is erect ; 
 then the parts to be represented must be covered over 
 
 with 
 
444 
 
 MODELLING. 
 
 with oil of almonds, after which the face is then to be 
 covered with tine fluid plaster, beginning at the upper 
 part of the forehead, and spreading it over the eyes, 
 which are to be kept close, yet not closed so strongly as 
 to cause any unnatural wrinkles. Cover then the nose 
 and ears, taking care to plug up first the “ meatus au- 
 ditorii” with cotton, and the nostrils with a small quan- 
 tity of tow rolled up, of a proper size, to exclude the 
 plaster. During the time the nose is thus stopped, the 
 person is to breathe through the mouth ; and in this 
 state the fluid plaster is to be brought down low enough 
 to cover the upper lip, observing to leave the rolls of 
 tow projecting out of the plaster. When this becomes 
 sufficiently hard, the tow may be withdrawn, and the 
 nostrils left free and open for breathing. The mouth is 
 then to be closed in its natural position, and the plaster 
 brought to the extremity of the chin. Begin then to 
 cover that part of the breast which is to be represented, 
 and spread the plaster to the outsides of the arms and 
 upwards, in such a manner as to meet and join that 
 which is previously laid on the face : when the whole 
 mass has acquired its due hardness, it is to be cautiously 
 lifted up and removed. After this, the mould is to be 
 seasoned, and it is fit for casting of models. In the 
 model, the eyes, that are necessarily shown closed, are 
 to be carved, so that the eyelids may be represented in 
 an elevated posture, the nostrils hollowed out, and the 
 back part of the head, from which, on account of the 
 hair, no mould can be taken, must be finished accord- 
 ing to the skill of the artist. The edges of the model 
 are then to be neatly smoothed off, and the bust fixed 
 on its pedestal. 
 
 We shall now give some account of modelling as it 
 refers to sculpture. As not only the beginning of 
 sculpture was in clay, for the purpose of forming sta- 
 tues, but as models are still made in clay or wax, for 
 every work undertaken by the sculptor ; we shall first 
 consider the method of modelling figures in clay or 
 wax. 
 
 Few tools are necessary for modelling in clay. The 
 clay being placed on a stand, or sculptor’s easel, the 
 artist begins the work with his hands, and puts the 
 whole into form by the same means. The most expert 
 practitioners of this art seldom use any other tool than 
 their fingers, except in such small or sharp parts of 
 their work as the fingers cannot reach. For these oc- 
 casions they are provided with three or four small tools 
 of wood, about seven or eight inches in length, which 
 are rounded at one end, and, at the other they are flat, 
 and shaped into a sort of claws. These tools are called, 
 by the French, ebauchoirs. In some of these the 
 claws are smooth, for the purpose of smoothing the 
 surface of the model ; and, in others, they are made with 
 teeth, to rake or scratch the clay, which is the first 
 process of the tool on the w ork, and in which state many 
 parts of the model are frequently left by artists, to give 
 an appearance of freedom and skill to their work. 
 
 If clay could be made to preserve its original 
 moisture, it would undoubtedly be the fittest substance 
 
 for the models of the sculptor ; but when it is placed 
 either in the fire, or left to dry imperceptibly in the air, 
 its solid parts grow more compact, and the work 
 shrinks, or loses a part of its dimensions. This dimi- 
 nution in size would be of no consequence, if it affected 
 the whole work equally, so as to preserve its propor- 
 tions. But this is not always the case, for the smaller 
 parts of the figure drying sooner than the larger, and 
 thus losing more of their dimensions in the same space 
 of time than the latter do, the symmetry and propor- 
 tions of the work inevitably suffer. 
 
 This inconvenience, however, is obviated by forming 
 the model first in clay, and moulding if in plaster of 
 Paris before it begins to dry, and the taking a plaster 
 cast from that mould, and the repairing it carefully 
 from the original w'ork ; by which means you have the 
 exact counterpart of the model in its most perfect state; 
 and you have, besides, your clay at liberty for any 
 other work. 
 
 In order to model in wax, you must prepare the wax 
 in the following manner : — To a pound of wax add half 
 a pound of scammony (some mix turpentine also), and 
 melt the whole together with oil of olives ; putting 
 more or less oil as you would have your modelling-wax 
 harder or softer. Vermilion is sometimes mixed with 
 this composition, to give it a reddish colour, in imita- 
 tion of flesh. 
 
 In modelling in wax, the artist sometimes uses his 
 fingers, and sometimes tools of the same sort as those 
 described for modelling in clay. It is at first more dif- 
 ficult to model in wax than in clay, but practice will 
 render it familiar and easy. 
 
 Of the Use of the Model . — Whatever considerable 
 work is undertaken by the sculptor, whether bas-relief, or 
 statue, &c., it is always requisite to form a previous 
 model of the same size as the intended work ; and the 
 model being perfected, according to the method before 
 described, whether it is in clay, or in wax, or a cast in 
 plaster of Paris, becomes the rule, whereby the artist guides 
 himself in the conduct of his work, and the standard 
 from which he takes all its measurements. In order to 
 regulate himself more correctly by it, he puts over the 
 head of the model an immovable circle, divided into 
 degrees, with a movable rule fastened in the centre of 
 the circle, and likewise divided into parts. From the 
 extremity of the rule hangs a line with a lead, which 
 directs him in taking all the points which are to be 
 I transferred from the model to the marble ; and from the 
 top of the marble is hung also a line, tallying with that 
 which is hung from the model ; by the correspondence 
 of which two lines the points are ascertained in the 
 marble. 
 
 Many eminent sculptors prefer measurements taken 
 by the compasses to the method just described ; for this 
 reason, that if the model is moved but ever so little 
 from its level, the points are no longer the same. 
 
 This method, however, offers the best means, by 
 which mechanical precision may be attained ; but it is 
 manifest, that enough yet remains to exercise and dis- 
 
 play 
 
MODELLING. 
 
 445 
 
 play the genius and skill of the artist. For, first, as it 
 is impossible, by the means of a straight line, to deter- 
 mine with precision the procedure of a curve, the artist 
 derives from this method no certain rule to guide him 
 as often as the line which he is to describe deviates 
 from the direction of the plumb-line. It is also evi- 
 dent, that this method affords no certain rule to deter- 
 mine exactly the proportion which the various parts of 
 the figure ought to bear to each other, considered in 
 their mutual relation and connexions. This defect, 
 indeed, may be partly supplied by intersecting the 
 plumb-lines by horizontal ones ; but even this resource 
 has its inconveniences, since the squares formed by 
 transversal lines that are at a distance from the figure 
 (though they are exactly equal), yet represent the 
 parts of the figure as greater or smaller, according 
 as they are more or less removed from one point of 
 view. 
 
 The method of making models in plaster of 
 Paris is undoubtedly the most easy way of obtaining 
 them. When models, however, are made of such 
 large objects that the model itself must be of consider- 
 able size, it is in vain to attempt making it in the way 
 above described. Such models must be constructed by 
 the hand with some soft substance, as wax, clay, 
 putty, &c., and it being necessary to keep all the pro- 
 portions with mathematical exactness, the construction 
 of a single model of this kind must be a work of great 
 labour and expense, as well as of time. Of all those 
 which have been undertaken by human industry, how- 
 ever, perhaps the most remarkable is that constructed 
 by General Pseiffer, to represent the mountainous parts 
 of Switzerland. It is composed of one hundred and 
 forty-two compartments, of different sizes and forms, 
 respectively numbered, and so artfully put together, 
 that they can be separated and replaced with the 
 greatest ease. The model itself is twenty'feet and a half 
 long, and twelve broad, and formed on a scale which 
 represents two English miles and a quarter by au Eng- 
 lish foot ; comprehending part of the cantons of Zug, 
 Zurich, Schweitz, (Jnderwalden, Lucerne, Berne, and 
 a small part of the mountains of Glarus; in all, an 
 extent of country of eighteen leagues and a half in 
 length, and twelve in breadth. The highest point of 
 the model, from the level of the centre (which is the 
 lake of Lucerne), is about ten inches : and as the most 
 elevated mountain represented therein rises 1,475 toises, 
 or 9>440 feet, above the lake of Lucerne, at a gross 
 calculation, the height of an inch in the model is about 
 900 feet. The whole is painted of different colours, 
 in such a manner as to represent objects as they exist in 
 nature ; and so exactly is this done, that not only the 
 woods of oak, beech, pine, and other trees, are dis- 
 tinguished, but even the strata of the several rocks are 
 marked, each being shaped upon the spo^ and formed 
 of granite, gravel, or such other substances as com- 
 pose the natural mountain. So minute also is the accu- 
 racy of the plan, that it comprises not only all the 
 mountains, lakes, rivers, towns, villages, and forests, 
 
 ! but every cottage, bridge, torrent, road, and even every 
 path is distinctly marked. 
 
 The principal material employed in the construction 
 of this extraordinary model, is a mixture of charcoal, 
 lime, clay, a little pitch, with a thin coat of wax ; and it 
 is so hard that it may be trod upon without any, damage. 
 It was begun in the year 1766, at which time the Ge- 
 neral was about fifty years of age, and it employed 
 him till the month of August 1785; during all which 
 long space of time he was employed in ihe most 
 laborious and even dangerous tasks. He raised the 
 plans with his own jiands on the spot, took the ele- 
 vation of mountains, and laid them down in their 
 several proportions. In the prosecution of this labo- 
 rious employment, he was twice arrested for a spy; 
 and in the popular cantons was frequently forced to 
 work by moon-light, in order to avoid the jealousy of 
 the peasants, who imagined that their liberty would be 
 endangered should a plan of their country be taken 
 with such minute exactness. Being obliged frequently 
 to remain on the tops of some of the Alps, where no 
 provisions could be procured, he took along with him 
 a few milch goats, who supplied him with nourish- 
 ment. When any part was finished, he sent for the 
 people residing near the spot, and desired them to ex- 
 amine each mountain with accuracy, whether it cor- 
 responded, as far as the smallness of the scale would 
 admit, with its natural appearance ; and then, by fre- 
 quently retouching, corrected the deficiencies. Even 
 after the model was finished, he continued his Alpine 
 expeditions with the same ardour as ever, and with a 
 degree of vigour that would have fatigued a much younger 
 person. All his elevations w'ere taken from the level of 
 the lake Lucerne ; which, according to M. Saussure, is 
 1,408 feet above the level of the Mediterranean. 
 
 To take a cast in metal from any small animal, in- 
 sect, or vegetable. — Prepare a box of four boards, suf- 
 ficiently large to hold the animal, in which it must be 
 suspended by a string, and the legs, wings, &c. of 
 the animal, or the tendrils, leaves, &c. of the vege- 
 table, must be separated, and adjusted in their right 
 position by a pair of small pincers. A due quantity of 
 plaster of Paris mixed with talc, must be tempered to 
 the proper consistence with water, and the sides of the 
 box oiled. Also a straight piece of stick must be 
 put to the principal part of the body, and pieces of 
 w'ire to the extremities of the other parts, in order 
 that they may form, when drawn out after the matter 
 of the mould is set and firm, proper channels for 
 pouring in the metal, and vents for the air, which 
 otherwise, by the rarefaction it would undergo from 
 the heat of the metals, would blow' it out, or burst the 
 mould. In a short time the plaster will set, and be- 
 come hard, when the stick and wires may be drawn 
 out, and the frame or coffin in w'hich the mould was 
 cast taken away ; and the mould must then be put, 
 first, into a moderate heat, and, afterwards, when it is 
 as dry as can be rendered by that degree, removed into 
 a greater, which may be gradually increased, till the 
 5 X whole 
 
446 
 
 MODELLING. 
 
 whole be red hot. The animal or vegetable enclosed 
 in the mould, will then be burnt to a coal ; and may 
 be totally calcined to ashes, by blowing for some time 
 into the charcoal and passages made for pouring in the 
 metal, and giving vent to the air, which will at the 
 same time that it destroys the remainder of the animal 
 or vegetable matter, blow out the ashes. The mould 
 must then be suffered to cool gently, and will be per- 
 fect, the destruction of the substance included in it 
 having produced a corresponding hollow ; but it may 
 nevertheless be proper to shake the mould, and turn it 
 upside down, as also to blow with the bellows into 
 each of the air-vents, in order to free it wholly from 
 any remainder of the ashes ; or where there may be an 
 opportunity of filling the hollow with quicksilver, it will 
 be found a very effectual method of clearing the cavity, 
 as all dust, ashes, or small detached bodies, will ne- 
 cessarily rise to the surface of the quicksilver, and be 
 poured out with it. The mould being thus prepared, 
 it must be heated very hot, when used, if the cast is to 
 be made with copper or brass, but a less degree will 
 serve for lead or tin. The metal being poured into the 
 mould, must be gently struck, and then suffered to rest | 
 till it be cold ; at which time it must be carefully taken 
 from the cast, but without the force : for such parts of j 
 the matter as appear to adhere more strongly, must 
 be softened, by soaking in wtter till they be entirely 
 loosened, that none of the more delicate parts of the 
 cast may be broken off or bent. 
 
 When talc caunot be obtained, plaster alone may be 
 used ; but it is apt to be calcined, by the heat used 
 in burning the animal or vegetable from whence the j 
 cast is taken, and to become of too incoherent and fri- I 
 able a texture. Stourbridge, or any other good clay, 
 washed perfectly fine, and mixed with an equal part of ! 
 fine sand, may be employed. Pounded pumice-stone, 
 and plaster of Paris, in equal quantities, mixed with 
 washed clay in the same proportion, is said to make 
 excellent moulds. 
 
 To take Casts from Medals. — In order to take co- 
 pies of medals, a mould must first be made; this is 
 generally either of plaster of Paris, or of melted sul- 
 phur. 
 
 After having oiled the surface of the medal with a 
 little cotton, or a camel’s-hair pencil dipped in oil of 
 olives, put a hoop of paper round it, standing up 
 above the surface of the thickness you wish the mould | 
 to be. Then take some plaster of Paris, mix it with | 
 water to the consistence of . cream, and with a brush 
 rub it over the surface of the medal, to prevent air- 
 holes from appearing; then immediately afterwards 
 make it to a sufficient thickness, by pouring on more 
 plaster. Let it stand about half an hour, and it will in 
 that time grow so hard, that you may safely take it off ; 
 then pare it smooth on the back and round the edges 
 neatly. It should be dried, if in cold or damp wea- 
 ther, before a brisk fire. If you cover the face of the 
 mould with fine plaster, a coarser sort will do for the 
 back : but no more plaster should be mixed up at one 
 
 time than can be used, as it will soon get hard, and 
 cannot be softened without burning over again. 
 
 Sulphur must not be poured upon silver medals, as 
 this will tarnish them. 
 
 To prepare this mould for casting sulphur or plaster 
 of Paris in, take half a pint of boiled linseed-oil, and 
 oil of turpentine one ounce, and mix them together in 
 a bottle ; when wanted, pour the mixture into a plate 
 or saucer, and dip the surface of the mould into it; 
 take the mould out again, and when it has sucked in 
 the oil, dip it again. Repeat this, till the oil begins to 
 stagnate upon it; then take a little cotton wool, hard 
 rolled up, to prevent the oil from sticking to it, and 
 wipe it carefully off. Lay it in a dry place for a day 
 or two (if longer the better), and the mould will ac- 
 quire a very hard surface from the effect of the oil. 
 
 To cast plaster of Paris in this mould, proceed with 
 it in the same manner as above directed for obtaining 
 the mould itself, first oiling the mould with olive-oil. 
 If sulphur casts are required, it must be melted in an 
 iron ladle. 
 
 Another method with isinglass. — Dissolve isinglass in 
 water over the fire ; then, with a hair-pencil, lay the 
 melted isinglass over the medal ; and when you have 
 covered it properly let it dry. When it is hard, raise 
 the isinglass up with the point of a penknife, and it will 
 fly off like horn, having a sharp impression of the 
 medal. 
 
 The isinglass may be made of any colour, by mixing 
 the colour with it ; or you may breathe on the concave 
 side, and lay gold leaf on it, which, by shining through, 
 will make it appear like a gold medal. But if you wish 
 to imitate a copper medal, mix a little carmine with the 
 isinglass, and lay gold leaf on as before. 
 
 To colHur Plaster.— Plaster of Paris may be tinged 
 with several colours, when you are casting, by mixing it 
 with Prussian blue, red lead, or yellow ochre, with 
 which you may compose a blue, red, yellow, and 
 green. As the coloured plaster takes a little more 
 time to dry than when it is unmixed, you may sift some 
 dry plaster upon the back of the casts when in the 
 mould, which will make them dry quicker. 
 
 It will not be deemed irrelevant to this subject to 
 notice M. Lenormand’s account of his art of moulding 
 carving in wood. It was published a few years since 
 in the “ Bibliotheque Physico-Economique ;” he was 
 led to the invention through that sort of necessity which 
 results from the want of good carvers. He had seen 
 plasterers supply the want of good modellers by in- 
 crusting in their decoratings plaster moulded on excel- 
 lent models; he therefore conceived that it might be 
 possible to mould carving in wood, to be afterwards 
 applied to cabinet-makers’ work. He was aware that 
 very hard w'ood, such as box, might be moulded by putting 
 it under a press in copper moulds, after having sub- 
 jected it to certain preparations, but for this purpose 
 very expensive moulds, an excellent press, &c. are re- 
 quired, which occasions considerable expense, and by 
 this method bas-reliefs only can be executed ; but the 
 
 art, 
 
MODELLING. 
 
 447 
 
 art, which Lenormand calls his own, requires only 
 cheap materials with very little practice, and affords the 
 means of making not only figures in relief, but even 
 the most difficult objects in sculpture. The following 
 is the process as described by the inventor. 
 
 “ I made very clear glue with five parts of Flanders’ 
 glue and one part of fish-glue, or isinglass. I dissolved 
 these two kinds of glue separately in a large quantity of 
 water, and mixed them together after they had been 
 strained through a piece of fine linen to separate the 
 filth and heterogeneous parts which could not be dis- 
 solved. The quautity of water cannot be fixed, be- 
 cause all kinds of glue are not homogeneous, so that 
 some require more and some less. The proper degree 
 of liquidity may be known by suffering the mixed glue 
 to become perfectly cold ; it must then form a jelly, or 
 rather a commencement of jelly. If it happens that it 
 is still liquid when cold, a little of the water must be 
 evaporated by exposing the vessel in which it is con- 
 tained to heat. On the other hand, if it has too much 
 consistence, a little warm water must be added. In a 
 word, the proper degree will be ascertained by a few 
 trials. 
 
 “ The glue, thus prepared, is to be heated till you can 
 scarcely endure your finger in it ; by this operation a 
 little water is evaporated, and the glue acquires more 
 consistence. Then take fine raspings of wood, or saw- 
 dust, sifted through a fine hair-sieve, and form it into a 
 paste, which must be put into moulds of plaster or sul- 
 phur after they have been well rubbed over with linseed 
 or nut-oil, in the»same manner as when plaster is to be 
 moulded. Care must be taken to press the paste in the 
 mould with your hand, in order that it may acquire all 
 the forms of the mould : then cover it with an oiled 
 board, and, placing over it a weight, suffer it in that 
 manner to dry. The desiccation may be hastened and 
 rendered more complete by a stove. When the im- 
 pression is dry, remove the rough part, and if any in- 
 equalities remain behind they must be smoothed : after 
 which the impression may be affixed with glue to the 
 article for which it is intended. Then cover it with a 
 few strata of spirit of wine varnish, as is done in gene- 
 ral in regard to carved work, or with wax in the encaustic 
 manner. It requires much attention to discover that 
 such ornaments are not carved in the usual manner. 
 Gilding may Be applied to them with great facility. 
 This operation is exceedingly easy ; nothing is necessary 
 but moulds ; and, with a little art, the ornaments may- 
 be infinitely varied. 
 
 “ I tried also to mould figures, and completely suc- 
 ceeded. These, however, require more care. I first 
 make a paste, similar to the former, with very fine saw- 
 dust, and place a stratum, of about two lines in thick- 
 ness, on every part of the mould ; after which it is left 
 to dry almost entirely. In the mean time, I prepare a 
 coarse paste with coarse saw-dust which has not been 
 made to pass through a fine but a coarse sieve, and in- 
 stead of Flanders’ glue I employ common glue, which 
 is less expensive, adding to it a sixth of fish glue. I 
 
 first put together two parts of the mould, after intro- 
 ducing into the joints a slight stratum of the fine paste, 
 which I make very clear, and apply with a small brush. 
 I fill up the vacuity between the two pieces with coarse 
 paste. I then apply the third piece as I did the second, 
 and so on until the whole are adjusted, always filling up 
 the vacuities with coarse paste. I suffer the whole to 
 dry in the mould, and obtain a figure in relief of solid 
 wood executed with all the delicacy of plaster figures. 
 Care must be taken to remove with a sharp knife, or 
 small file, the prominences formed by the joinings. If 
 the figure be not suffered to dry too much, these pro- 
 minences may be easily removed with the point of a 
 sharp penknife. It will be necessary to learn the art of 
 determining the proper degree of desiccation ; for if the 
 figure be taken from the mould before it is properly 
 dried it will become warped, and if it be too dry, it can- 
 not be corrected but with a file, which is tedious and 
 laborious, whereas, if the proper moment be seized, 
 the paste may be cut like wax ; especially if the saw- 
 dust has been fine, which is necessary for the exterior 
 strata. The figures may then be completely dried in a 
 stove, by which means they will acquire a degree of 
 desiccation and solidity hardly to be conceived. Figures 
 thus moulded may be bronzed or varnished : they will 
 then be unalterable by the effects of moisture or dryness. 
 
 “ I have already said, that Flanders, and not common 
 glue, ought to be employed for the exterior strata, be- 
 cause this glue is almost colourless. When this cannot 
 be had, a glue fit for the purpose may be made by 
 boiling shreds of parchment in common water till dis- 
 j solved : w'hereas the other, being dark-coloured, gives 
 too obscure a tint even to walnut-tree wood. Being 
 desirous to try whether my moulded figures would be 
 unalterable by the effects of moisture or dryness, I made 
 the following experiments: — 
 
 “ Experiment I. — I exposed, in a large bell-glass 
 filled with atmospheric air, two figures, one of which w-as 
 varnished and the other not. I placed under the beli 
 Saussure’s hygrometer, and a capsule tilled with water, 
 after having moistened the sides of the bell. The air 
 was soon saturated with water, and the hygrometer 
 marked 100 degrees. I observed no alteration what- 
 ever in the varnished figure, and the other exhibited no 
 other sensible alteration than a commencement of so- 
 lution in the glue, so that on applying my finger to its 
 surface it was found to be somewhat viscid ; in a word, 
 the figure was not in the least warped. 
 
 “ Experiment II. — I then introduced my two figures 
 and the hygrometer into another very dry bell, under 
 which I placed a capsule filled with calcined pot-ash. 
 The moisture of the air by which the figures were sur- 
 rounded was soon absorbed, and the hygrometer indi- 
 cated zero. In order to ascertain whether the whole 
 moisture imbibed by the unvarnished figure was entirely 
 dissipated, I left every thing in statu quo for four hours, 
 the hygrometer still indicating zero. I then took out 
 the two figures, neither of which had experienced the 
 least alteration. 
 
 <" Experiment 
 
448 
 
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKING. 
 
 “ Experiment III. — I repeated the first experiment" 
 with a view to cause the two figures to absorb as much 
 moisture as possible ; and when the hygrometer marked 
 100° I took them from the bell, and suddenly intro- 
 duced them into a stove, the heat of which was o0° of 
 Reaumur. The unvarnished one became dry without 
 cracking, and the other showed a little softening in the 
 varnish. This effect I ascribed to the imperfect desicca- 
 tion before the experiment, for the softening was more 
 considerable than is generally the case when a varnished 
 body is exposed to heat. 
 
 “ These experiments appeared to me sufficient to in- 
 duce me to conclude, that sculpture in moulded wood, 
 according to the process here described, is unalterable 
 by moisture or drought, for in our climates the thermo- 
 meter never rises to 50°. Such sculptured figures have 
 the solidity of wood, and are even preferable to it ; for 
 a slight blow given to wood, if cut across the fibres, 
 will detach some of the parts ; whereas figures formed 
 
 of artificial wood, if I may be allowed the expression, 
 are homogeneous in all their parts, and are not so easily 
 broken. 
 
 “ Besides the advantages which this invention on the 
 first view exhibits, it offers others which may be of 
 great utility to our arts and manufactures. 1st. In the 
 large manufactories of mirrors, the ornaments in gene- 
 ral are in a very bad taste, and miserably executed, be- 
 cause the carvers are very ill paid. If this new method 
 be adopted, sculptors would pay more attention to their 
 first work ; they would mould their ornaments in plaster 
 or in sulphur, then take a multitude of copies with the 
 greatest facility, and these ornaments would add to the 
 value of our furniture. 2d. Inlayers would make much 
 more elegant works by employing pastes of different co- 
 loured w'oods, which might be managed with greater 
 ease than the thin pieces of coloured boards which they 
 employ.” 
 
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKING. 
 
 This business requires the aid of a number of other 
 mechanics. The joiner, turner, cabinet-maker, wire- 
 drawer, &c. have all their share in the manufacture of 
 musical instruments of the different kinds ; it may there- 
 fore be more interesting to our readers to give an idea of 
 the construction of several of the more common instru- 
 ments, than pretend to lay down rules for putting the in- 
 struments together. 
 
 Musical instruments have been arranged, according 
 as they are calculated for exciting sound by the vibra- 
 tions of the air, or by the joint effects of the air and a 
 solid body vibrating together. The main varieties of 
 stringed instruments are found in the harp, the piano- 
 forte, the guitar, the violin, and the iEolian harp. Jn 
 these, and in others of a similar construction, the force 
 of the sound of the strings is increased by means of a 
 sounding-board, which appears agitated by their motion, 
 and to act with greater effect, and more powerfully on 
 the air than the strings could do alone. In the harp 
 the sound is produced by inflecting the string with the i 
 finger, and then permitting it to return to its place. It ] 
 is imagined, that the lyre of the ancients differed from j 
 the modern harp chiefly in its form and compass, except 
 that the performer sometimes used a plectrum, which 
 was a small instrument made of ivory, or some other j 
 substance, for striking the strings. Each note in the 
 harp has a separate string : in the Welsh harp, Which is 
 
 not much used in England, there are two strings to 
 each note of the principal scale, with an intermediate 
 row for the semi-tones. In the pedal harp, the half- 
 notes are formed by pressing pins against the strings, so 
 as to shorten their effective length. Instead of this 
 method, we have heard that an attempt was some years 
 since made to produce the semi-tones by changing the 
 tension of the strings. 
 
 In the harpsichord, and in the spinnet, which is, in 
 fact, but a small harpsichord, the quill acts like the 
 finger in the harp, or the plectrum in the lyre, and it is 
 fixed to the jack by a joint with a spring, allowing it, 
 without difficulty, to repass the string, which is metallic. 
 In some cases, leather is used instead of quills, which is 
 intended to render the tone more mellow, and, of 
 course, less powerful. Besides two strings in unison 
 for each note, the harpsichord has generally a third, 
 which is an octave above them. There are various 
 means adopted to produce different modifications of the 
 tone, as striking the wire in different parts, or by bring- 
 ing soft leather loosely into contact with its fixed extre- 
 mity. When the finger is removed from the key a 
 damper of cloth falls on the string, and destroys its 
 motion. In all instruments of this kind, the perfection 
 of the tone depends much on the sounding-board : it is 
 usually made of thin deal wood, strengthened at different 
 parts by thicker pieces fixed below it. 
 
 In 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKING. 
 
 449 
 
 In die piano-forte the sound is produced by a blow 
 of a hammer raised by a lever, which is as much de- 
 tached from it as possible. The dulcimer of the Ger- 
 mans is also made to sound by the percussion of ham- 
 mers held in the hand of the performer. The grand 
 piano-forte resembles the harpsichord in form, but its 
 action and tone are much superior. Its wires run lon- 
 gitudinally along the belly, or sounding-board, supported 
 at about two-thirds of an inch distance by small low 
 curved battens of beech, or other wood, on which are 
 pins firmly driven into the battens, for the purpose of 
 keeping the wires perfectly parallel. These battens, 
 called bridges, determine the lengths of the several 
 wires; though the latter pass beyond them for some 
 distance, being looped on at their farther ends to stout 
 pius driven into a solid part of the frame-work, and 
 coming over the bridge which is next to the keys, with 
 which it is parallel, and winding on a set of iron pegs, 
 which being driven into a solid block of hard wood, are 
 turned either right or left by means of a small instru- 
 ment called a tuning-hammer, and are thus tightened 
 or relaxed at pleasure. The shortest wires are the 
 thinnest, which lie to the right, and give the upper 
 notes. The longest are to the left, and give the lowest 
 notes; those between them are longer or shorter ac- 
 cording to their situation ; their several lengths in- 
 creasing as they approach towards the left side of the 
 instrument; forming, by means of the bridges, which 
 lay obliquely, a triangular figure. Each note has three 
 wires, lying within somewhat less than half an inch in 
 breadth : these are equidistant, and proceed to three 
 rows of tuning-pins, so that the tuner cannot mistake as 
 to which of the three wires he acts upon. The wires 
 are imported from Germany, our artisans not having 
 acquired the mode of giving them a due degree of 
 temper. We understand, a noble Earl is making expe- 
 riments on different kinds of wire, in hopes of rivalling 
 or surpassing that of foreign manufacture. Those of 
 the higher notes are of brass, and commonly begin 
 with No. 8, 9, or 10, gradually increasing in thickness 
 until they reach the extent of about four octaves, when 
 they give place to copper w ires, which produce a deeper 
 sound. 
 
 The wires of the piano are made, as w'e have ob- 
 served, to sound by means of wooden levers, called 
 hammers, each of which has a rising projection at its 
 end, covered with folds of leather, so as to produce a 
 clear tone. These hammers are impelled upwards by 
 means of the keys, which being depressed by the fingers, 
 and balancing on small battens, on which they are ar- 
 ranged and kept steady by strong pins passing through 
 near the points of equilibrium, also having little knobs 
 of pump-leather standing on stems of wire at their inner 
 ends, cause the levers to rise on the least touch of the 
 finger, with a smart stroke, so as to touch the three 
 wires of their respective notes. The levers being fixed 
 to a frame, parallel with the keys, by means of vellum 
 hinges, return to their places, and lay on a small parallel 
 apron covered with baize, so that no rattling nor gingling 
 
 results from their retrocession. These hammers may be 
 distinctly seen when working, as they pass through a 
 broad slit made in the sounding-board, the whole breadth 
 of the instrument. At the inner extremities of the keys 
 are small pieces of buff-leather, which take off the 
 sound that would else proceed from their contact with 
 the shafts of the dampers ; which are contrivances for 
 stopping the tones of such wires as are struck by the 
 hammers, so soon as the finger is taken off from the 
 key. 
 
 Most grand piano-fortes have two pedals, one for 
 each foot, communicating with the interior. One 
 serves to raise all the dampers completely, the other to 
 throw the whole of the key-frame to the right, more or 
 less ; by this means the hammers are slid at the same 
 moment, in a body, about a quarter of an inch to the 
 right, so as- to quit either one or two, at pleasure, of 
 the left-hand wires of each note, and to strike upon 
 only one, or two, as is judged proper for the greater or 
 less diminution of sound. Other pedals are sometimes 
 affixed for the purpose of opening a kind of flat cover, 
 like Venetian blinds, laying over the wires, thereby to 
 allow more or less sound to pass. The sounding-board, 
 or belly, is made of very fine narrow deals, chiefly im- 
 ported from the Continent, so closely joined that, in 
 many, no line, or indication of junction, can be distin- 
 guished. 
 
 The square piano-forte is very different in form from 
 the grand. It, however, has an action, or movements, 
 nearly similar. Its belly is short, and the bridge, or 
 sounding-board, is rather curved. In some, the tuning- 
 pegs, which are four in a line, form a kind of co- 
 lumn on the right ; in others, they are immediately be- 
 yond that bridge which is almost parallel with the keys. 
 Each note has two wires ; those in alt, and, indeed, 
 down to G, on the clef-line, are usually steel, from 
 No. 8 to 12 ; the middle notes have brass wire ; about 
 half an octave of the bass parts are furnished with 
 copper ; and the eight or ten lowest notes are of brass 
 wire, on which a thinner wire of the same metal is 
 wound in an open spiral manner ; whereby a deep 
 tone is produced. Square piano-fortes are made with 
 pedals, but not for sliding the keys and removing the 
 hammers laterally. That could not be done to any pur- 
 pose in this instrument; as the wires, instead of re- 
 ceding from the player in a perpendicular line with the 
 keys, lie across at nearly right angles. One pedal is all 
 that is necessary, namely, to raise the dampers while 
 tuning. 
 
 The piano-forte is of German origin, and derives its 
 name from its equal command both of softness and 
 strength of tone. The chief beauty of this instrument, 
 and which indeed constitutes its principal excellence 
 over the harpsichord, is ils capacity of obeying the 
 touch, so as to enable the performer to vary and ac- 
 commodate the expression to all those delicacies, ener- 
 gies, and striking lights and shades which characterize 
 the most refined compositions. This instrument, though 
 of modern invention, has received many useful and 
 5 Y valuable 
 
450 
 
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKING. 
 
 valuable improvements from the ingenuity of Englishmen, 
 as well as of foreigners. In that state, in which we 
 have described it as the grand piano-forte, and in which 
 it is furnished with its additional keys, it is not only 
 qualified to give brilliancy and effect to sonatas, con- 
 certos, and all pieces of extraordinary execution, but 
 forms an expressive accompaniment to the voice, and is 
 thought, by the best judges, to be one of the most 
 elegant, instruments in the whole compass of musical 
 practice. 
 
 The guitar, or cittern, is generally played with the 
 fingers, like the harp, and was in vogue with us some 
 years back, when improvements were made on it, par- 
 ticularly by the addition of six keys, corresponding with 
 the six wires ; these were called boxed guitars, and, by 
 some, piano-forte guitars. The instrument has a broad 
 neck, on which are various frets, made of wires, fixed 
 into the finger-board, at right angles with the wires ; 
 these being the guides for the fingers to make the several 
 notes, by pressing between the frets. The bridge is 
 very low', and stands behind a circular sound-hole, co- 
 vered with an ornamented and perforated plate ; the 
 body of the guitar is of an oval form, the sides perpen- 
 dicular to the belly and back. This instrument is strung 
 peculiarly ; the upper open note, G, is of double steel 
 wires, about No. 4 ; the second, E, is also double, 
 No. 5; the third is of brass, double, and gives C; the 
 fourth is double, of brass, and gives G, an octave be- 
 low the upper wires ; the fifth is E, an octave below' 
 the second wires ; and the sixth is C, the octave below 
 the third. The tw'o last are single wires, covered with 
 very fine wire, as closely as possible, like the fourth strings 
 of violins. The wires loop at the bottom to little 
 ivory studs, and at the top to small steel studs, moving 
 in grooves, each of them winding up with a watch-key, 
 so as to put them in tune respectively. The Spanish 
 guitar is strung with cat-gut partly ; but the lower notes 
 are, like those of the harp, made of floss-silk, covered 
 very closely with fine wire. The Spaniards are sup- 
 posed to be the inventors of the guitar, who derived its 
 name Guitarra from Cithara, the Latin denomination 
 for almost every instrument of the lute kind. These 
 people are so partial to music, and to that of the guitar 
 in particular, that there are few, even of the labouring 
 class, w ho do not solace themselves with the practice 
 of it. They use the guitar to serenade their mis- 
 tresses, and there is scarcely an artificer in any of the 
 cities, or principal towns, who, when his work is over, 
 does not entertain himself with his guitar. 
 
 The clarichord of the Germans differs from other 
 keyed instruments by the length of the string, which is 
 attached at one end to a bridge, and at the other to a 
 pin or screw as usual, but the effective length is ter- 
 minated on one side by the bridge, and, on the other, 
 by a flat wire projecting from the end of the key, which 
 strikes the string, and likewise serves as a temporary 
 bridge as long as the sound continues. The remainder 
 of the string is prevented from sounding by being in 
 contact with a strip of cloth, which stops the vibration 
 
 as soon as the hammer falls. The instrument is capable 
 of great delicacy, but is deficient in force. 
 
 Of the drum species we have an abundant variety. 
 The side, or military drum, is well known ; it is of a 
 cylindrical form, hollow', and covered at each end w'ith 
 parchment, that can be stretched or relaxed at pleasure, 
 by means of cords or braces, acted upon by bands of 
 leather. It is monotonous, but habit has so far recon* 
 ciled us to its uses that we consider it as a musical in- 
 strument, though it is not in strictness entitled to that 
 designation, nor is any instrument of this description to 
 be so classed, excepting the kettle-drum, or timbale, 
 which being regularly tuned, the one to the key-note, 
 and the other to its fourth below or fifth above, are sa- 
 tisfactorily and efficiently introduced into full bands, in 
 which their emphasis, their pow'ers, and their thunder- 
 ing roll, frequently prove very acceptable aids, and pro- 
 duce the richest effects. The kettle-drum derives its 
 English name from its form, the bottom being a large 
 semi-spherical kettle of copper, and the head being of 
 vellum, or goat-skin, stretched on a metal hoop, which 
 being lowered or raised by screws at pleasure, so as to 
 vary the internal measurement, can be tuned precisely 
 to any given intonation. They are accounted bass-instru- 
 ments, on account of their grave sounds. Though our 
 cavalry, for many years, were generally provided with 
 kettle-drums, yet they were not of our ow n invention ; 
 nor w-ere they known in Europe before the Holy Wars, 
 when they were first adopted from the Saracens, or 
 Moors, who w'ere accustomed to carry them, of im- 
 mense bulk, suspended on either side of camels ; the 
 driver beating as the animal moved on. 
 
 The tabor is a small drum, so flat, that the two heads 
 aFe not more than three inches asunder. It is only used 
 as an accompaniment to the pipe, for dances, &c. 
 Both are played by the same performer : while the tones 
 of the pipe are regulated by the fingers of the left hand, 
 which stop the holes, the tabor is beat by the right. 
 The tabor and pipe are favourite instruments with the 
 common people of most countries in Europe, and are 
 particularly calculated for dancing parties. 
 
 The tambourine is a kind of drum with only one 
 head, the other end of the hoop, which is not more 
 than four inches in breadth, being open. It is furnish- 
 ed at the sides with small bells and loose bits of tin. 
 The head, which is of the best parchment, is fixed to 
 an iron rim, and by means of screws fixed to the exte- 
 rior of the hoop, can be tightened at pleasure. The 
 performer puts the thumb of his left hand through a 
 hole in the hoop, lined with an ivory moveable box, to 
 prevent chafing. In this manner he whirls the tam- 
 bourine about, and makes the brass jingles or cymbals 
 (as they are called), which are inserted in pairs, through 
 slits in the hoop, strike so as to produce various sounds, 
 either clashing or tremulous, according as he may apply 
 his right hand. It has been denominated a tinkling 
 cymbal. 
 
 The triangle is a round steel bar, about the third of 
 an inch thick, made into an equilateral triangle, and 
 
 beat 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKING. 
 
 45 i 
 
 beat with a little piece of the same metal ; it forms a 
 passable accompaniment in a military band, and in 
 country dances gives life to the music. It appears to be 
 of a very ancient invention, though revived only within 
 these few years. 
 
 The organ is an instrument of the highest antiquity, 
 in the structure of which the greatest ingenuity has been 
 displayed. The reader cannot expect to find here a 
 detailed description of so very complex an instrument ; 
 but we shall endeavour to afford such a perspicuous and 
 general outline, as may exhibit the principal parts suf- 
 ficiently for his purpose. The most difficult to make 
 properly, is the wind-chest, which is an extensive, ho- 
 rizontal box, so closely fitted and prepared, as to retain 
 the wind impelled into it by various large bellows, 
 which must be numerous, and capacious, in proportion 
 to the size of the wind-chest. The quantity of wind in 
 it is always known to the organist by means of a tell- 
 tale, or index, attached to the bellows, which rises and 
 falls in proportion to the quantity of air, and apprizes the 
 performer in what degree the wind is exhausted. The 
 top of the wind-chest is bored with several lines of 
 apertures, proportioned to the sizes of the pipes they are 
 to receive, those of the bass-notes being the largest ; 
 but all the pipes in each row being different as to their 
 interior construction, and consequently producing very 
 different sounds, each row is called a stop, and has a 
 plug appropriate to it, acting upon a slide, which shuts 
 or opens the whole of that row at pleasure ; this is 
 called a register. There are as many of such rows of 
 apertures or registers as there are kinds of tones or 
 stops on the organ : some having few, others having nu- 
 merous stops. The wind is prevented escaping from 
 the wind-chest into the pipes by valves, which are 
 opened only when the performer presses the keys re- 
 spectively ; when, by means of communicating wires, 
 the valves are pressed down, and the wind passes into 
 the pipes. When the key is quitted, the pressure of the 
 wind, aided by a spiral wire spring shuts the valve, and 
 the sound of that pipe instantly ceases. In order to re- 
 gulate the force of the sound, most church-organs have 
 either two or three rows of keys, w hereby a greater or 
 less number of pipes may be filled, and the powers of 
 the instrument be controlled into what is called the 
 small organ, or be let loose so as to become the full 
 organ. The pipes suited to the higher notes are made 
 of mixed metals, chiefly tin and lead ; they increase in 
 length and diameter in proportion to the note ; until, 
 metal pipes being no further applicable, square ones of 
 wood are substituted in their stead for all the lower 
 notes. The dimensions of all the pipes of an organ are I 
 regulated by a scale or diapason, formed for the use of I 
 manufacturers in this line, and apportioned to every size 
 of instrument usually made. 
 
 The following are the stops usually made in a great ' 
 organ : — The open diapason, in which all the pipes are ! 
 open at the top ; this is a metallic stop. The stopped ; 
 diapason, the bass-notes of this, up to the tenor C, are 
 always made of wood, and are stopped at their summits 
 
 with wooden plugs, by which the tone is very much 
 softened. The principal is the middle stop, and serves, 
 when tuned, as the basis for tuning all the other parts, 
 above and below ; it is metallic. The twelfth is me- 
 tallic also, and derives its name from being a twelfth, or 
 an octave and a half, above the diapason. The fifteenth, 
 so called, because it is two octaves above the diapason. 
 The sesquialtera is composed of various pipes, tuned in 
 the parts of the common chord ; the upper part is often 
 called the cornet. The furniture-stop is very shrill, and 
 in some passages has a peculiarly fine effect. The 
 trumpet is a metallic stop, and derives its name from 
 the instrument it so admirably imitates : this peculiar 
 toue is produced by means of what is called a reed, but 
 is in reality a piece of brass, on which the wind acts 
 forcibly, giving a roughness to the sound, which is fur- 
 ther changed by all the pipes of this stop having bell- 
 mouths like trumpets. The clarion is a reed-stop also, 
 but an octave higher than the trumpet ; it is only suited 
 to a full chorus. The tierce is only employed in the 
 full organ, it being very shrill, and a third above the 
 fifteenth. The octave above the twelfth is too shrill to 
 be used but in the full organ. The cornet is a treble 
 stop. The dulcimer takes its name from the sweetness 
 of its tones The flute is named from the instrument it 
 imitates* as are the bassoon, vox-humana, hautboy, and 
 cremona, or krum-horn stops. The proper adaptation of 
 the several stops in the performance of sacred music, 
 and in accompanying a choir, requires both judgment 
 and experience. The fingering of an organ is precisely 
 the same as that of the piano-forte, so far as relates to 
 the situation of the keys, &c.; but on account of the 
 great number of holding-notes in organ-music, the fingers 
 are more kept down, whence it is considered highly in- 
 jurious to piano-forte performers to practise the organ, 
 they being subject to lose that lightness, and that deli- 
 cacy of touch, required for the former instrument. 
 
 Organs are likewise made without keys, but with bar- 
 rels, on which are a great number of pins and staples 
 of flat brass wire, and of different lengths. The barrel 
 being turned by means of a crank, or winch, the wires 
 that communicate with the valves in the wind-chest are 
 acted upon by the pins and staples ; which hold down 
 the valves for a longer or a shorter time, according to 
 the duration of the notes they respectively govern. On 
 these barrels, which are made to shift at pleasure, from 
 ten to fifteen tunes are usually made. The winch not 
 only turns the barrel, but also works a pair of bellows, 
 by which the wind-chest is supplied. This instrument 
 is called the hand, or barrel-organ, and is very common 
 in London streets. 
 
 Of all musical instruments the organ is the most pro- 
 per for the sacred purpose to which it has been generally 
 applied, in almost all countries w'herever it has been 
 introduced. Its structure is lofty, elegant and ma- 
 jestic, and its solemnity, grandeur and rich volume of 
 tone, have obtained for it an acknowledged pre-emi- 
 nence over every other instrument. The invention of 
 the organ is certainly of very ancient date, some writers 
 
 carry 
 
452 
 
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKING. 
 
 carry it as far back as five or six centuries before the 
 birth of Christ. It has been a subject of debate at 
 what time the use of organs was first introduced into 
 the Christian church. Some writers say they were first 
 applied to sacred purposes in the year 600 by Pope 
 Vitalian ; others contend they were not known in that 
 way till the ninth century; but it is asserted by Tho- 
 mas Aquinas, that in his time, viz. the middle of the 
 thirteenth century, the church did not use musical in- 
 struments. There are, however, other authorities 
 which positively declare that organs became common 
 in Italy and other parts of the Continent, as well as 
 in England, in the tenth century. We may observe, 
 that though of such long standing, yet Christians are by 
 no means unanimous as to the lawfulness of music in 
 divine service. The discussion has sometimes been 
 carried on with great zeal, not to say bitterness, by 
 different sects and denominations. The arguments on 
 both sides of the question are briefly, but very candidly, 
 stated in an excellent little work just now published by 
 Johnson and Co., entitled, “ A new Directory for 
 Nonconformist Churches.” 
 
 Before we quit the organ we may just observe, and 
 the observation will hold with respect to the manufactu- 
 rers of other musical instruments, that the organ-builder, 
 whose profession is to construct and to tune and repair 
 organs of every description, should possess a nice, ac- 
 curate, and highly cultivated ear, and a sound judg- 
 ment in the vibratory qualities of wood and metal. 
 The organ-builder should be acquainted with the 
 science of pneumatics and practical mechanics, and he 
 should be so far informed in the simple elements of 
 musical composition as in some degree to be capable of 
 trying the different stops and combinations of his own 
 instruments, and of deciding for himself on the effects 
 in performance. 
 
 The Mouth Organ, or Pan’s Pipes, are well known, 
 being so often played as an accompaniment to organs, 
 &c. in the streets ; they consist of a range of pipes 
 bound together side by side, gradually lessening with 
 respect to each other in length and diameter. The 
 longest is about six inches, and the shortest about two 
 inches in length. They are of various sizes and extent, 
 some being nearly three octaves ; however, a few have a 
 chromatic scale, at least for the adjunct keys: i. e. 
 those of the fourth and fifth. The tones of the mouth 
 organ are very agreeable, but are best heard at a little 
 distance ; when, either as an aid to the organ, or in per- 
 forming pieces arranged for several mouth-organs, as is 
 very common, they have a very pleasing effect ; when 
 played in a room, the notes are piercing, and the sibila- 
 , tions are apt to be very offensive. 
 
 The Eolian Harp may be best included in this class, 
 though it will not answer in every particular. It con- 
 sists of a long box, in which four or more strings are 
 stretched its whole length, and tuned to the component 
 parts of any common chord, such as C, E, G, 
 C, E, G, &c. : opposite the line of the strings, which 
 stand over a slanting sounding-board, are two slits, one 
 
 on each side, running parallel with the entire strings 
 This instrument being placed opposite to a window, 
 opened only an inch or two, the air will rush through 
 the slits, and vibrating upon the strings, in its passage 
 through the box, will cause a kind of tremulous mur- 
 muring repetition of the various notes. The Eolian 
 harp is by no means a disagreeable companion, when 
 perfectly in tune. Some idea of its notes may be 
 formed by stretching a thin violin string over the narrow 
 slit between the upper and under compartments of a 
 sash window ; these being generally rather open, allow 
 the wind to pass, and will cause the string to keep 
 perpetually humming that note it yields when plectrated 
 or touched by a bow. It changes from one note to an- 
 other, as the force of the wind varies, and as it acts on 
 different parts of the string. 
 
 The Trumpet, with all its tribe, now comes under 
 consideration. This most audible instrument is made 
 of metal ; those of silver are by far the softest in tone ; 
 but brass is in general used. The modern trumpet is 
 very short and portable compared with the old form 
 of the instrument : its tone or pitch is varied by means 
 of additional pieces called crooks, by which it may be 
 made to accord with any given key-note. It has a 
 mouth-piece, which is about an inch in diameter, con- 
 caved for the lips to act within, and closing into a 
 very narrow tube, through which the wind passes with 
 considerable force into the neck of the instrument. 
 The trumpet is a treble instrument; but, excepting 
 from C in the middle of the stave to its octave above, 
 can only perform the three under notes G, E, C, and 
 G in the bass ; in the above octave it can only deviate 
 from the key C, by a sharp fourth leading into the key 
 of G. In saying this we speak of the instrument un- 
 aided by the hand ; for by various modes of fingering 
 within the bell, or mouth, the trumpet can be made 
 to yield a great variety of semi-tones. Trumpets with 
 slides, which suddenly lower or raise the pitch one or 
 two notes, are capable of great execution, and may be 
 made to yield every note and semi-tone within their 
 whole compass, so as to go through all the intricate 
 passages of solo-concertos ; but to perform in such 
 style, and, indeed, to manage the slides with tolerable 
 accuracy, requires a faithful hand and the greatest 
 promptness. We have various sizes of trumpets, some 
 intended for concerts, and of course furnished with 
 crooks ; others are in use with our cavalry, made short 
 and compact, and invariably pitched to one key ; it is 
 not unpleasant, though rather uncommon, to hear the 
 trumpets of a cavalry corps sounding their several calls 
 in parts : though the harmony is not varied, there is 
 yet something in it that reconciles one to its narrow 
 limits, and indeed to the imperfectness of many 
 reputed concords ; few of which can be sounded cor- 
 rectly on trumpets. 
 
 The next in this class is the French Horn ; of which 
 we have various sizes and descriptions. It consists of 
 a long tube twisted into several circular folds, gradually 
 increasing in diameter from the end at which it is blown 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKING. 
 
 453 
 
 to that at which the wind issues. Those intended for 
 concerts, have, like the trumpet, various crooks and 
 a slide whereby they may be brought to accord with 
 the most scrupulous exactness. The horn always has 
 its music written in the key of C, and acquires any 
 other key at pleasure, by the addition of such crooks as 
 may bring it to the proper pitch : the more crooks are 
 affixed, the deeper will be the intonation. There is a 
 very strong affinity between the horn and the trumpet, 
 in regard to their capability of producing particular 
 notes ; w hat has already been said of the latter, in that 
 respect, applies equally to the former. The finest 
 notes of this instrument lie near the middle of the 
 treble stave, or at farthest between G and C ; though 
 its low notes, when properly sounded, are very fine and 
 mellow. The natural fourth is said to be seldom in 
 tune, aud therefore avoided by composers who are 
 acquainted with the constitution of the instrument. 
 
 The Serpent, so called from its form, seems to be 
 the link that connects the horn with the flute species ; 
 its mouth-piece is indeed very similar to that of the 
 trumpet, but it is made of ivory. This is the deepest 
 bass instrument of all that have finger-holes, and which, 
 consequently have a chromatic compass. But the 
 serpent has some of its lowest notes entirely dependant 
 on the lip-play of the performer. This instrument 
 descends two notes low er than the bassoon, and reaches 
 up to F, on the clef line of the bass, with perfect fa- 
 cility and correctness of intonation. Some performers 
 can by great practice advance several notes higher. 
 The serpent is made of very thin wood, covered with 
 buckram and leather, so as to become very firm : hence 
 its tone is by no means smooth, the materials vibrating 
 so very forcibly as to roughen the sounds, especially 
 among the low notes. It has three distinct parts, viz. a 
 mouth-piece, neck, and tail ; and six finger holes, each 
 lined with ivory, ebony, &c., requiring a very firm 
 hand to stop them well. This instrument forms an 
 exact reinforcement to the basses of a military band, to 
 w*hich it is chiefly appropriated. 
 
 The Flute is, by many, supposed to be of English 
 invention, but it appears to resemble the old calamus, 
 or shepherd’s pipe, more than any other of this species, 
 the sound is generated by blowing through a slit into the 
 bore, the superfluous wind passing out at a vent made 
 on the top, close to the upper end ; there are seven 
 finger-holes above, and one for each thumb below ; 
 some have only one thumb-hole, others two small ones, 
 like the G on a hautboy for the purpose of making a 
 semi-tone. All the flageolet tribe, which are of various 
 sorts and sizes, belong to this species. The common 
 flute is also made of various dimensions, thence as- 
 suming various designations of second, third, and fourth, 
 &c., according as it diminishes in size, and becomes 
 shriller in tone. The common flute yields a very 
 soft agreeable sound, and is very appropriate to little 
 artless airs ; but, having very little power, is by no 
 means adapted to join in a band. The flageolet is, 
 however, introduced, on many occasions, into dramatic 
 
 orchestras, and finds a place in some bands ; its very 
 piercing notes may be at all times distinguished. The 
 several kinds of flutes are distinguished according to the 
 number of keys, to their purposes, and to their sizes ; 
 they are generally called seconds, thirds, &c., as they 
 recede from the standard, diminishing gradually accord- 
 ing to the above terms. 
 
 The Bagpipe is of two sorts ; viz. the Scots and the 
 Irish : the former is filled by means of a wind-bag, 
 carried under the arm and worked like a pair of 
 bellows ; the other plays with a reed like the hautboy. 
 These two species have, within these few years, been 
 blended, under the designation of union-pipes ; both 
 are fingered much, the same as a flute, and have a 
 1 drone or open tube through which the wind passes, 
 causing a deep humming tone. It is thought that 
 the Norwegians and Danes first introduced the 
 bag-pipe into the Hebrides, which islands they long- 
 possessed. 
 
 We may further observe, that in mixed wind instru- 
 ments, the vibrations of solid bodies are made to co- 
 operate with vibrations of a given portion of air. Thus 
 in the trumpet, and in horns of the several kinds, the 
 j force of inflation, and perhaps the degree of tensiou of 
 the lips, determines the number of parts into which the 
 tube is divided. In the serpent, the lips co-operate 
 with a tube, of which the effective length may be 
 varied by opening or shutting holes, and the instrument 
 which has been called an organized trumpet appears 
 ! to act in a similar manner. The trombone has a tube 
 ! which slides in and out at pleasure, and changes the 
 actual length of the instrument. The hautboy and 
 clarionet have mouthpieces of different forms, made of 
 reeds or canes, and the reed-pipes of an organ are 
 furnished with an elastic plate of metal which vibrates 
 in unison with the column of air they contain. 
 
 The class of collision seems to appertain exclusively 
 to those instruments which are provided with strings or 
 wires, and are played upon by means of a piece of 
 j curved wood, subtending a quantity of horse-hairs, 
 
 ! regularly disposed in a flat and parallel manner : these 
 | we call bows ; they are of various sizes, according to the 
 j instruments to which they are respectively applied; 
 namely, the double bass, the violincello, the tenor, 
 the violin, and the kit. 
 
 | The violin may be considered as the chief of this 
 ! tribe : it will be unnecessary to describe its form, &c., 
 the instrument being so universally know'll : its scale 
 extends from G above the bass clef up to double D in 
 alt ; beyond which, though notes may be made, the 
 | tone becomes rather offensively shrill, and, generally 
 speaking, borders on a kind of whistling scream. The 
 pre-eminent expression, and the wonderful execution 
 which may be effected w ith the violin, added to the 
 great compass (it being full three octaves and a half), 
 justly occasion this incomparable instrument to take 
 1 the lead in concerts and orchestras ; and, in general, in 
 ! all musical meetings. It is to be lamented, however, 
 
 ! that we cannot boast of so complete an intimacy with 
 5 Z the 
 
454 
 
 NAIL-MAKING. 
 
 the construction of the violin aud of all its class, as 
 Italy and some other parts of the Continent. 
 
 All the violin class have four strings, fastened at one 
 end to a small piece of ebony, called the tail-piece ; 
 and, after passing over a raised bridge, made of sea- 
 soned beech-wood (particularly the back of old instru- 
 ments), and over a little ridge called the nut, are fastened 
 respectively to four pegs made of very hard tough 
 wood, by the turning of which they are put in tune ; 
 all the strings give fifths to their neighbours throughout ; 
 thus the first string is E, the second is A, the third is 
 D, and the fourth, which is a covered one, is G. The 
 tenors and basses have no E string, but a C one added 
 below the G. The notes are made by compressing, 
 i. e. by what is called stopping the strings on a rounded 
 slip of ebony, called the finger-board, which proceeds 
 from the nut full four-fifths of the distance between that 
 and the bridge ; the latter being always placed on the 
 belly, or sounding-board, exactly between the centres 
 of two sound-holes, which are in the form of an S. 
 The belly is supported by a small piece of rounded deal 
 called the sounding-port, without w hich the tones would 
 be imperfect and harsh. 
 
 Mr. J.C. Becker, of London, obtained some years 
 since, His Majesty’s letters patent for improvements in 
 musical instruments. His invention, it appears, con- 
 sisted chiefly in some improvements in the harp and 
 piano-forte. With respect to the harp, lie produces 
 the sharps, flats, quarter-notes, or any intermediate 
 variation deviating from the natural notes, by causing 
 the wrest-pins, that is, the pins by which the strings 
 are extended and tuned, to move partly round centres 
 and thereby increase or decrease the tension of the 
 strings more or less, as may be required to answer 
 the desired change of the notes. For this purpose the 
 w rest pins are connected with the pedals by a particular 
 apparatus. In the specification there are figures re- 
 presenting a wresl-pin passing through a socket, with 
 a lever, on which slides a quadrant ; and on this qua- 
 drant are fixed links that are kept stationary by a regu- 
 lating screw. The links communicate with the pedals 
 by the interposition of a crank. On the crank is also 
 
 a regulating screw to adjust the whole to the motion 
 of pedals. Now if one of the pedals is pressed down, 
 all its appertaining quadrants with the wrest-pins must 
 follow, and of course the tension of the appending 
 strings will be increased accordingly ; and as soon as the 
 pedal is left at liberty, the strings w ill, by their re-action, 
 resume their former degree of tension, and the pedal 
 its former station ; hence a variety of changes may be 
 effected on each string throughout the instrument by 
 the motion of the pedals. If in case new strings are 
 put on, perhaps differing- in size and quality, any irre- 
 gularity should take place, this is to be corrected by 
 the regulating screw. To stop the pedals at four dif- 
 ferent stations, answering to the natural note, to one- 
 quarter, to one-half, and to three-quarter notes, a rack 
 is applied which preserves the pedal in each situation in 
 a perpendicular line, and thereby prevents them coining 
 too close to one another. To ease the motion of the 
 pedals, having each of them six or seven strings to act 
 upbn, the patentee applies a spring to each pedal, to 
 counteract the tension of the strings, and thus to ren- 
 der the motion of the pedals as easy as necessary. 
 
 In piano-fortes, or other stringed instruments played 
 with keys, he uses one or more w'heels, to cause the 
 strings to vibrate. These wheels are placed under or 
 above the strings, and put into motion with a pedal 
 or pedals, or any other mechanical power, and the 
 strings are by the touch of the keys inclined to the 
 wheels. In the manner of extending and inclining the 
 strings consists the principle of the invention. The 
 principle will admit of a variety of forms and applica- 
 tions. If therefore the string be any-wise extended on 
 any thing moveable, having its fulchrum any where 
 within the extent of the string, the patentee claims that 
 as the principle of his invention. — He further adds, 
 that by his simple contrivances the pedal harp is ren- 
 dered the most perfect of any musical instrument what- 
 ever; because on it the skilful musician can raise and 
 depress each note at pleasure, and thereby modulate 
 and introduce graces beyond the limits of compo- 
 sition. 
 
 NAIL-MAKING. 
 
 Nakls, in building, &c., are small spikes of iron, 
 brass, &c., which being driven into w'ood serve to bind 
 several pieces together, or to fasten something upon them. 
 The several sorts of nails are very numerous : as, 
 1. Back and bottom nails, which are made with flat 
 
 shanks to hold fast and not open the wood. 2. Clamp- 
 nails, for fastening the clamps in buildings, &c. 
 3 . Clasp-nails, whose heads clasping and sticking into 
 the w'ood render the work smooth, so as to admit a 
 plane over it. 4. Clench-nails, used by boat and 
 
 barge 
 
nail-making. 
 
 455 
 
 barge builders, and proper for any boarded buildings 
 that are to be taken down, because they will drive with- 
 out splitting the wood, and draw without breaking; of 
 these there are many sorts. 5. Clout-nails, used for 
 nailing on clouts to axle-trees. 6. Deck-nails, for 
 fastening of decks in ships, doubling of shipping, and 
 floors laid with planks. 7 . Dog-nails, for fastening 
 hinges on doors, &c. 8. Flat-points, much used in 
 
 shipping, and are proper where there is occasion to 
 draw and hold fast, and no conveniency of clenching. 
 9- Jobent-nails, for nailing thin plates of iron to wood, 
 as small hinges on cupboard-doors, 8cc. 10. Lead- 
 nails, for nailing lead, leather, and canvass to hard 
 wood. 11. Port-nails, for nailing hinges to the ports 
 of ships. 12. Pound-nails, which are four-square, 
 and are much used in Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, 
 and scarcely any where else, except for paling. 
 18. Ribbing-nails, principally used in ship-building, 
 for fastening the ribs of ships in their places. 14. Rose- 
 nails, which are drawn four-square in the shank, and 
 commonly in a round tool, as all common two-penny 
 nails are ; in some countries all the larger sort of nails 
 are made of this shape. 15. Rother-nails, which have 
 a full head, and are chiefly used in fastening rother- 
 irons to ships. 16. Round-head nails, for fastening on 
 hinges, or for any other use where a neat head is 
 required; these are of several sorts. 17. Scupper- 
 nails, which have a broad head, and are used for 
 fastening leather and canvass to wood. 18. Sharp- 
 nails, these have sharp points and flat shanks, and are 
 much used, especially in the West Indies, for nailing 
 soft wood. 19- Sheathing-nails, for fastening sheath- 
 ing-boards to ships. £0. Square-nails, which are used 
 for hard wood, and nailing up wall-fruit. 2 1 . Tacks, 
 the smallest of which serve to fasten paper to .wood ; 
 the middling for wool- cards, &c., and the larger for 
 upholsterers and pumps. Nails are said to be tough- 
 ened when too brittle, by heating them in a fire-shovel, 
 and putting some tallow or grease among them. 
 
 Such are some of the various descriptions of nails 
 employed by mechanics in the different arts of life, and 
 as new arts and new inventions arise from human inge- 
 nuity, other kinds of nails will be formed, adapted to 
 the several purposes for which there is a demand. For- 
 merly the nail-maker’s process was very tedious, every 
 nail being made by the hand, and each begun and 
 finished by the same individual ; it was afterwards dis- 
 covered in this manufacture, as in many others, that by 
 a division of labour, and by assigning to different per- 
 sons the pointing, the heading, &c., a greater quantity 
 of work was done by the same number of hands ; of 
 course the processes were much simplified, and expe- 
 dited, and the article could be sold on much lower 
 terms. 
 
 Within the last five and twenty years divers ingenious 
 mechanics have not only improved the methods of ma- 
 nufacturing nails, but have thought it worth their 
 while to secure to themselves the exclusive right of 
 their inventions by obtaining the king’s letters patent : 
 
 of some of these we shall proceed to give an ac- 
 count. 
 
 In the year 1790, Mr. Thomas Clifford, of the 
 city of Bristol, obtained two patents for the manufacture 
 of nails of every kind. The principle on which his 
 | first invention is founded, was that of making the nails 
 | in a die ; that is, by having a die or the impression of 
 the nails to be cut into one or more pieces of iron, 
 
 I steel, or other metal, and the iron of which the nails 
 are to be formed, is drawn or rolled into the proper 
 I form or thickness, and, by a force adapted to the purpose, 
 
 1 pressed into a cavity or die, so as to form the nails, 
 
 ! either complete or so nearly complete as that they can 
 be finished with a very little labour. This operation 
 may be done in several ways, but the one particularly 
 recommended by Mr. Clifford, is by rollers of iron 
 or steel, and worked either by water, steam, wind, 
 horses, &c. 
 
 The two rollers are to be made of iron and cased 
 with steel, each of the same diameter, and the diameter 
 proportioned to the length and size of the nail intended 
 to be made. Each roller should have one or more cog- 
 wheels, the cogs of one roller to work into those of 
 the other, so that the rollers may both perform the same 
 exact revolution. One half the impress of the nail is 
 to be cut with one roller, the other half in the other, 
 so that the two impressions form a cavity, or die, of 
 the exact form of the nail, extending the lengthways of 
 the nail on the circumference of the rollers ; and as 
 many impressions of the same kind may be cut in the 
 rollers, one at the end of the other, as will complete 
 their circumference, and continue the cavity all round 
 the rollers : the point of one nail joining the head of 
 the next, or the two points and two heads joining each 
 other. The rollers must in this, as in other cases, be 
 made to work very true, and close to each other. 
 
 The mode of operation is this ; a rod of pietal, iron 
 for instance, rolled or drawn to a convenient size is to 
 be heated, and, while hot, the end of it is put between 
 the rollers, into the cavity or die which forms the im- 
 pression of the nail. The rollers being now put in 
 motion, will draw the iron through, pressed into the 
 cavity or die which forms the impression of the nail, 
 the one joined to the other, which must be afterwards 
 separated by means of instruments acting as nippers, 
 shears, chisels, &c. The rollers being made to work 
 very close to each other, where the edge of the nail is 
 formed, will prevent much of the metal from being 
 pressed out on each side of the nail, and what is pressed 
 out may be cut off by instruments adapted to the pur- 
 pose. Several pairs of rollers may be made to work 
 together, and each pair may have several rows of dies 
 cut on them, so as to form the impression for several 
 strings of nails ; and a rod of iron, being put into each 
 of them, will roll out as many strings of nails with one 
 revolution of the rollers. A pair of rollers may also 
 have the greater part of their surface cut with dies, and 
 a flat bar, or piece of iron, be made to pass between 
 the rollers, so as to form sheet nails ; the whole of 
 
 them 
 
456 
 
 NAIL-MAKING. 
 
 them connected to one another by thin plates of iron, 
 of which they are composed, and this would require 
 each nail to be cut out or separated from the sheet by 
 proper instruments. 
 
 Mr. Clifford’s second invention consists, 1 . In dra w- 
 ing the iron, or other metal, into a tapering or wedge- 
 like form, according to the length and thickness of the 
 different sizes of nails to be made. 2. The nails are to 
 be cut out of those wedge-like or tapering plates, by 
 means of a punch, the face of which is made accord- 
 ing to the size, taper, and form, of the nail to be cut 
 out; as also having a hollow bolster, the hollow or 
 aperture of which must also be made of the size and 
 form of the nail, and consequently to fit and receive 
 the punch above-mentioned. The punch thus fitted to 
 the bed, and sliding in the frame to keep it steady, will, 
 by a blow, or by pressure, cut or force a part of the 
 taper plate into and through an aperture of the bed 
 fitting to it, and by which the nail is formed. This 
 operation is by the manufacturers of buckles, buttons, 
 &c., generally called cutting-out. 3. To form the heads 
 of horse-nails, called rose-heads, and others of nearly 
 a similar kind, after the operations of drawing and cut- 
 ting out, the nail is to be put into a heading-tool, which 
 is also called a bed, which bed receives the nail, ex- 
 cepting a small portion, at the thick end of which the 
 head is formed, by a punch or die. This die, by a 
 blow, or pressure, forms the head as required ; and 
 when the nails are made of hard iron, after they are 
 cut, in the way described, the thick end is made hot 
 before they are put into the bed or heading-tool.' 4. An- 
 other method adopted in the manufacture of nails, is 
 by cutting them out of or from plates of equal thick- 
 ness, and afterwards to point them, either by a hammer 
 or other pressure. 3. In making nails that are of a 
 triangular form, the plate or strip of iron is pressed or 
 stamped into a die, having impressions cut to the form 
 of such nails, after which they are cut out by a 
 punch. 
 
 About the same period in which the foregoing patents 
 were obtained, Mr. William Finch, of Woombourne, 
 in Staffordshire, invented another method of making 
 nails and spikes by machinery, to be worked by steam, 1 
 &c., by which all manual labour was to be saved. In 
 his specification he describes his power as consisting of 
 one main shaft, caused to revolve in either a horizontal 
 or perpendicular direction by means of a water-wheel, 
 or a steam-engine. Such main shaft will put in mo- 
 tion, by means of cogs and pinion-wheels, other coun- 
 ter-shafts or barrels, on which are fixed arms, & c., and 
 on these are hammers that are worked in either a lift, 
 or tilt manner. lie also makes three divisions of hands 
 in the manufacturing of headed-nails, namely, one 
 man, woman, or child, to carry the heated rod to the 
 man, woman, or child, stationed before the hammer, 
 w hich person, by mere activity, will with one hand not 
 only form the largest size nail, but a far greater number 
 m the same given time : when the third person, will, 
 with the same kind of hammer, head and finish a num- 
 
 ber of the said shanks together, leaving them truer 
 made, and better for use, than the present mode. 
 Also, by a division of hands, will make such nails a 9 
 require no tool or frame to be headed in ; namely, the 
 one to*carry the iron from the fire, and the other sta- 
 tioned before the hammer to finish them. In enu- 
 merating the advantages and savings of this method 
 above the others then in use, Mr. Finch says, that by 
 heating many rods in one fire, there will be a saving of 
 coal : — by the more speedy motion of machine-hammers, 
 several nails will be made at once heating the rod, 
 whereas, by the old method, only one is made : — again, 
 the motioi) being regular, independently of strength, a 
 child will be able to make the largest nail or spike. A 
 farther benefit, it is said, will arise to the manufacturer 
 by this mode, viz. that he will have his business done at 
 one place, or under one roof, whereas, by the old me- 
 thod, the workmen sometimes live many miles asunder, 
 and cannot be overlooked. Likewise, by this method, 
 the limbs of those employed in the manufactory will 
 be preserved to the end of life, but, in the old method, 
 it frequently happened that nail-makers were lamed in a 
 few years, and became burdensome to the parish. 
 
 Another invention of this kind is that for which a pa- 
 tent was obtained in 1808, by Messrs. Willmore and 
 Tonk, and which may be thus described : — 
 
 “ They take a nail-rod, of a size suitable to the size 
 of the nail intended to be manufactured, and applying 
 it to a common screw-press, mounted with proper 
 cutters, cut off from the end of the rod two pieces at 
 once, obliquely across the rod in one place, and di- 
 rectly across it in another. Two studs or stops are set 
 up, which are attached to the press, and are moveable 
 in the direction of the rod, for the purpose of ascer- 
 taining the length of the nail ; and both studs are ad- 
 justable in the cross direction of the rod, so that the 
 -obliquity of the cut, according to the kind of nail to be 
 made, is thereby determined, as well as the length of 
 the nail. This is called the first operation. 
 
 “ The second operation is to anneal the pieces so cut 
 off, if the iron should not be sufficiently malleable, 
 which is done in the usual and well-known manner. 
 The third operation is that of heading, which for 
 clasp-head nails, consists of two parts, one for gather- 
 ing, and the other for forming the head of the nail. 
 The first part of this operation is performed by putting 
 a piece cut off the rod of iron, as before described, 
 into a pair of clams, leaving as much of the thick end 
 projecting above the clams as is sufficient to form the 
 head. These clams have steel bits let into them with 
 sharp edges, which press only against the two opposite 
 sides of the piece, and which have the effect of two 
 chisels when the punch of the press is brought down 
 upon the piece with considerable force, and raise or 
 gather up iron on each side towards forming the head. 
 The second part of this operation is to put the piece 
 thus prepared into another pair of clams, having bits 
 formed to correspond to the under side of the head ; 
 and the punch, having the impression of the upper side 
 
NAIL-MAKING. 
 
 457 
 
 of the head engraved or sunk into it, is brought to press 
 strongly upon the head iu the clams, and thereby the 
 clasp-head is properly formed. 
 
 “ For naiis intended to have rose-heads, or any other 
 kind of heads, except clasp-heads, the first part of this 
 operation is not absolutely necessary, but the bits, which 
 for clasp-nails musi have sharp edges, must for the other 
 kind of nails have blunt edges, to prevent the under- 
 cutting. For the second part of this operation, the 
 piece is put either into a pair of clams, or into the tool 
 commonly called a bore, and then pressed with punches, 
 properly engraved or sunk, according to the kind of 
 head wanted. By the first operation, the piece cut off 
 the rod of iron is formed something like a mortise- 
 chisel ; the fourth operation is to point it, which is done 
 by putting the piece into a bed of steel, in which is cut 
 a uick or groove, having parallel sides, but the bottom 
 rising towards the end where the point of the nail is to 
 be formed. The punch is shewn in the specification, 
 and the end which presses upon the point of the nail is 
 made to project farther than the other part, so as to 
 meet the corresponding part of the bed when the punch 
 is brought upon the nail. The groove, or nick, in the 
 bed should be just wide enough to receive the piece 
 easily, but prevent it from twisting when the impression 
 is made. The piece is put twice into the nick ; once 
 with the chisel, the end lying horizontal, and next turn- 
 ed a quarter round, to press the chisel edge into a 
 pointed form. If the nails, by the strong pressure 
 which is necessary in this operation, should become too 
 hard to clench, they anneal them in the’ ordinary way, 
 which may be called the 'fifth operation. The third, 
 fourth, and fifth operations above described are applied 
 to nails, or pieces cut off from sheet or rolled iron in 
 the ordinary way ; but as they, in consequence of the 
 fifth operation, which is necessary to give them the qua- 
 lity of clenching, are apt to be too soft to drive well, 
 a sixth operation is applied, viz. quenching them, when 
 red hot, in water or other proper fluid, which gives them 
 stiffness enough to drive without destroying the quality 
 of clenching. Figures attached to the specification show, 
 1. A pair of clams, with bits or dies let into them, 
 which can be renewed from time to time with more 
 ease, and at less expense, than by the usual method. 
 These bits are proper for the first part of the third ope- 
 ration. 2. A pair of bits, or dies, proper for making 
 either rose-heads or fiat heads. 3, A pair of bits, or 
 
 dies, proper for the second part of the third operation 
 for clasp-head nails. 4. A view of the common screw- 
 press, in which is shown the side-pin, or screw, by 
 which the clams are firmly pressed together at the time 
 the punch is pressed down upon the nail. This pin, or 
 screw, is generally worked by the foot, by means of the 
 lever connected with a treadle, while the hand applies 
 its force to the handle of the fly ; but to the head of the 
 main screw is fixed a portion of a pulley (or a whole 
 one), to which is attached a rope, chain, belt, or other 
 connecting pliable material, which flying round the edge 
 of another pulley fixed to the frame of the press, and 
 standing vertically descends, and is attached to the 
 moveable end of the treadle ; and on this treadle is 
 placed a weight, heavy enough to press the clams to- 
 gether with sufficient force. By means of the latter 
 described machinery, which is the only part claimed by 
 the patentees as their invention, the operation of press- 
 ing is performed by the action of the hand only, and is 
 found very convenient.” 
 
 We may mention, in connexion with this subject, a 
 new method, or improvement in the manufacture of 
 bagging for packing of nails, adopted by Mr. Benjamin 
 Haden, of Sedgley, in Staffordshire. He takes for his 
 warp, hurds or tow, prepared in the usual way, such as 
 are in common use in the manufacture of nail-bagging, 
 but for his wefts or woofs he takes old ropes, or junk, 
 of any dimensions ; and after untwisting or dividing the 
 threads or filaments thereof, he winds it into bobbins 
 or quills, and then they become fit for the shuttle ; and 
 he weaves them with the common warp in the common 
 way. The materials just mentioned are said to be pe- 
 culiarly adapted to give strength and durability to the 
 article, and are therefore perfectly fit for the bagging 
 of nails. The yarn, of which ropes are generally 
 made, particularly king’s ropes, is spun from the 
 choicest hemp, and strongly impregnated with tar. 
 The threads taken from the middle of such ropes, not 
 having been exposed to the weather, or to friction, are 
 as sound and as strong as when originally used. The 
 tarry matter with which these threads are impregnated, 
 renders them peculiarly advantageous in the manufac- 
 ture of sacks that require great strength, and substance, 
 the weft being composed of these threads, finely spun, 
 which are good and strong, tenacious, and not liable to 
 rent or perish with the wet, nor to burst in carriage, 
 to the great loss of those concerned. 
 
 s 
 
 6 A 
 
 NEEDLE-MAKING. 
 
NEEDLE-MAKING. 
 
 4 
 
 Needle, a very common little instrument, or uten- II 
 sil, made of steel, pointed at one end and pierced at 
 the other, used in sewing, embroidery, tapestry, &c. 
 Needles make a very considerable article in commerce, 
 though there is scarce any commodity cheaper, the con- 
 sumption of them being almost incredible. The sizes of 
 common sewing needles are from No. 1, the largest, 
 to No. 25, the smallest. Besides sewing-needles there 
 are, under the denomination of needle, the netting and 
 the knitting-needle : the glovers’ needle, with a trian- 
 gular point ; the tambour needle, which is made like a 
 hook, and fixed in a handle, the hook being thrust 
 through the cloth, the thread is caught under the hook, 
 and the needle is drawn back taking the thread with 
 it. 
 
 In the manufacture of needles, German and Hunga- 
 rian steel is of most repute. In the making of them, 
 the first thing is to pass the steel through a coal fire, 
 and under a hammer, to bring it out of its square figure 
 into a cylindrical one. This done, it is drawn through 
 a large hole of a wire-drawing iron, and returned into the 
 fire, and drawn through a second hole of the iron 
 smaller than the first ; and thus successively from hole 
 to hole, till it has acquired the degree of fineness re- 
 quired for that species of needles,; observing every time 
 it is to be drawn, that it be greased over with lard, to 
 render it more manageable. The steel thus reduced to 
 a fine wire, is cut in pieces of the length of the nee- 
 dles intended. These pieces are flattened at one end on 
 the anvil, in order to form the head and eye ; they are 
 then put into the fire to soften them farther, and thence 
 taken out and pierced at each extreme of the flat part 
 on the anvil, by force of a puncheon of well-tempered 
 steel, and laid on a leaden block to bring out, with an- 
 other puncheon, the little piece of steel remaining in 
 the eye. The corners are then filed off the square of 
 the heads, and a little cavity filed on each side of the 
 flat of the head ; this done, the point is formed with a 
 file, aud the whole filed over : they are then laid to heat 
 red-hot oh a long narrow iron, crooked at one end, in 
 a charcoal fire ; and when taken out thence, are thrown 
 into a bason of cold water to harden. On this opera- 
 tion a good deal depends ; too much heat burns them, 
 and too little leaves them soft ; the medium is learned 
 by experience. When they are thus hardened, they are 
 laid in an iron shovel, on a fire more or less brisk in ; 
 proportion to the thickness of the needles ; taking care 
 to move them from time to time. This serves to tem- 
 per them ; and to take off their brittleness ; great care 
 here too must be taken of the degree of heat. They 
 
 are then straightened one after another with the ham- 
 mer, the coldness of the water used in hardening them 
 having twisted the greatest part of them. 
 
 The next process is the polishing them. To do this, 
 they take 12 or 15,000 needles, and range them in little 
 heaps against each other on a piece of new buckram 
 sprinkled with emery-dust. The needles thus disposed, 
 emery-dust is thrown over them, which is again sprinkled 
 with oil of olives ; at last, the whole is made up into a 
 roll, well bound at both ends. This, roll is then laid 
 on a polishing table, and over it a thick plank loaded 
 with stones, which two men work backwards and for- 
 wards a day and a half, or two days, successively ; by 
 which means the roll thus continually agitated by the 
 weight and motion of the plqnk over it, the needles 
 withinside being rubbed against each other with oil and 
 emery, are insensibly polished. After polishing they 
 are taken out, and the filth washed off them with hot 
 water and soap : they are then wiped in hot bran, a 
 little moistened, placed with the needles in a round box, 
 suspended in the air by a cord, which is kept stirring 
 till the bran and needles be dry. The needles thus 
 wiped in two or three different brans, are taken out and 
 put in wooden vessels, to have the good separated from 
 those whose points or eyes have been broken either in 
 polishing or wiping ; the points are then all turned the 
 same way, and smoothed with an emery stone .turned 
 with a wheel. This operation finishes them, and there 
 remains nothing but to make them into packets of from 
 twenty-five to one hundred each. 
 
 Such is the ancient method of the manufacture of 
 needles ; we shall now give a rather more detailed de- 
 scription as the business is now. generally carried on. 
 The wire when drawn to a proper size, which is ascer- 
 tained by gages, is made up into coils for package: 
 these coils of wire are heated to a dull red-heat in a fur- 
 nace, and suffered to cool gradually, to soften and 
 anneal it, with a view of facilitating the working of the 
 steel ; this commences by cutting the wire into lengths, 
 which is done by a pair of shears. The workman 
 being seated before a bench, takes, perhaps, a hundred 
 pieces of wire for fine needles, and introduces their ends 
 between the blades, which he opens with his right 
 hand, and pressing the ends of the wire against a gage, 
 which renders them all of one length, he cuts them off, 
 and they drop down into a tin pan placed on a small 
 shelf in front of the bench ; the ends of the wire are 
 now pressed against the gage, and cut off again. In 
 this way the wires are cut into the lengths of the required 
 needles. The second operation is flatting the end for 
 
NEEDLE-MAKING. 
 
 459 
 
 the eye of the needle, which is done by a workman 
 taking three or four pieces of the wire between his 
 finger and thumb, placing them on a small anvil, and 
 striking one blow upon each, expands the end suffici- 
 ently to receive the point of the punch which pierces 
 the eye. This the same person does before he lays 
 them down, with a small instrument, fixed on the same 
 block as that to which the anvil is fixed. The end of 
 the needle is placed in a small notch in the bed of the 
 instrument, and is put exactly beneath the punch, and 
 a slight stroke of the hammer punches the eye, and at 
 the same time forms the semi-circular groove near the 
 eye of the needle, to bury the thread. The notch 
 which receives the needle is made in a piece of steel 
 which fits into a dove-tail notch in the bed of the instru- ' 
 ment, so that it can be changed for a larger or smaller, 
 correspondent to the size of the needles to be pierced. 
 The workman holds the needles in the same manner as 
 he did for flatting ; and placing them one by one, suc- 
 cessively in the uotcli in the bed-piece, pierces them by 
 striking a single blow of his hammer on the end of a 
 slider ; the slider is immediately returned by a spring. 
 He now places the next needle under the punch, and 
 when they are all pierced in this manner, he rolls them 
 over by moving his thumb, so as to turn them all half 
 round, and bring them upwards the opposite side to 
 that which was pierced ; this being done, he repeats the 
 punching on the other side with a view to finish, and 
 clear the eye, and to form the groove which there is in 
 all needles. They are now rounded at the eye-end to 
 take off the roughness, which is done in an instant by 
 applying them to a grindstone. 
 
 The next process is hardening and tempering : the 
 first is done by placing a great number together upon a 
 piece of iron, bent up at the ends and sides that they 
 may not roll off, and introducing them into a small 
 furnace : when they become of a red heat they are 
 taken out, and suddenly plunged into a vessel of cold 
 water ; this renders them very hard. Some manufactu- 
 rers make use of oil, or tallow, and other ingredients 
 instead of water, which substances are supposed to 
 improve the process. The needles thus hardened are I 
 returned to the furnace with the oil upon them, and 
 remain there till the oil inflames, when they are with- 
 drawn and again cooled in cold water. This second 
 process tempers them : at first they were quite hard, 
 and so brittle as to break with the slightest touch : 
 the tempering takes off the brittleness, but leaves them 
 hard enough to take a good point. When they are 
 hardened in water, according to the old method, the 
 heat for tempering them can only be guessed at, or 
 estimated by experience, but the flaming of the oil 
 is a much more certain method. The needles are now 
 examined, and many of them will be found crooked 
 by hardening, which are discovered by rolling them 
 over as they lay in row's on a board, and such are se- 
 lected and made straight by a blow' in the notch in the 
 anvii. Being thus straightened they require to be 
 pointed, which is done by a large grindstone turned by a 
 
 mill, either of water or steam. In this operation the 
 workman, sitting astride before the stone on a block 
 shaped like a saddle, takes up 20 or 30 needles, laid side 
 by side across a small wooden ruler, covered with soft 
 leather ; another similar ruler being laid over the needles 
 to confine them. The workman holds the rulers in his 
 hands, and thus presenting the ends of the needles to the 
 grindstone points them with great dexterity. After 
 pointing, they are to be polished in the manner already 
 described. The points are next finished and rendered 
 perfectly sharp, by grinding them upon a wooden 
 wheel covered with emery, being held in the same 
 manner as for the first grinding. They are then cleaned 
 and packed up in certain numbers according to their 
 sizes. A great number of the small packets are made 
 into larger parcels, wrapped in several thicknesses of 
 paper and coverings of bladder and packing-cloth, in 
 which state they are sent to market. 
 
 Surgeons’ needles are generally made crooked, and 
 their points triangular ; however, they are of different 
 forms and sizes, and bear different names, according to 
 the purposes they are used for. The largest are needles 
 for amputation ; the next, needles for wounds ; the 
 finest, needles for sutures. They have others, very 
 short and flat, for tendons ; others, still shorter, and 
 the eye placed in the middle, for tying together of 
 vessels, &c. Needles for couching cataracts are of 
 I various kinds ; all of which have a small, broad, and 
 j sharp point or tongue, and some with a sulcus at the 
 point. Surgeons have sometimes used two needles in 
 this operation ; one with a sharp point for perforating 
 | the coats of the eye, and another with a more obtuse 
 j point for depressing or couching the opaque crystalline 
 lens ; but care should be taken in the use of any of 
 I these, that they be first well polished with cloth or 
 leather, before they are applied to the eye. 
 
 Mr. Warner observes, that the blade of the couching 
 needle should be at least a third part larger than those 
 generally used upon this occasion, as great advantages 
 will be found in the depressing of the cataract, by the 
 increased breadth of the blade of that instrument. 
 The handle, also, if made somew'hat shorter than usual, 
 will enable the operator to perform with greater steadi- 
 ness, than he can do with a larger handled instrument. 
 It is to be observed, that needles of silver pierce more 
 easily in stitching arteries after an amputation, than 
 those made of steel. 
 
 We shall close this short article with an account of 
 a patent invention for the manufacture of needles of 
 all sorts by Mr. William Bell of Walsal, which we 
 shall give in his ow n words. 
 
 “ The method by which I make needles, bodkins, 
 fish-hooks, knitting-pins, netting- needles, and sail- 
 needles, is by casting them with steel or common 
 fusible iron, called pig or cast-iron, into moulds or 
 flasks made with fine sand. Or, otherwise, I make 
 stocks or moulds of iron or steel, or any other compo- 
 sition capable of being made into moulds, on which 
 stocks or moulds I sink, engrave, or stamp, impressions 
 
480 
 
 HOUSE-PAINTING. 
 
 of the said articles. Into these I pour my melted iron 
 or steel (I prefer for my purpose sand casting), and 
 prepare my iron or steel as follows : I melt it in a pot 
 or crucible, in small quantities about the weight of 
 twelve pounds (and upwards to twenty pounds), the 
 more conveniently to divest it of its heterogeneous par- 
 ticles, and to purify it from, its earthy or sulphureous 
 ualities. When the iron has attained a proper heat, 
 take charcoal-dust mixed with lime or common salt, 
 which I throw into the pot of melted iron; and, by 
 
 frequently stirring it with an iron rod, I bring to the 
 surface of the iron a scoria which I frequently skim off, 
 and thus bring my iron into a refined state. I then 
 pour it into the mould before described. The articles 
 being thus formed are capable of being softened, har- 
 dened, or tempered in the usual way by which needles, 
 bodkins, fish-hooks, knitting-pins, netting-needles and 
 sail-needles have heretofore been manufactured ; there- 
 | fore the principal merit of my invention is in casting 
 | them instead of making them in the usual way.” 
 
 HOUSE-PAINTING. 
 
 Painting, as applied to buildings, comprises in 
 the first place the colouring over all the several kinds 
 of wood, iron-work, &c., employed therein with mine- 
 ral colours, rendered fluid by saturation with oils, oil of 
 turpentine, &c. A pigment so prepared is spread over 
 them with a brush, and by the repetition of several coats, 
 they together operate to their protection, and at the 
 same time give a variety and neatness to the general 
 appearance of a house. This kind of painting will be 
 divided in this section under its several heads, as it is 
 practised in London, and will embrace the working in 
 common colours, also graining of its several kinds, or - ' 
 namental painting, inscription writing, 8tc. &c. All j 
 the prismatic colours are occasionally called into use | 
 by the painter, and he varies these to suit the taste of his 
 employer into almost every gradation of tint. But the i 
 ground-work of all house-painting is formed by a paint I 
 prepared from lead, known in the arts as ceruse, or 
 white-lead. This is manufactured for use at places 
 called the White-lead Works, and is performed in the 
 following manner, viz. by rolling leaden plates spirally 
 up, so as to leave the space of about an inch between 
 each coil, and afterwards placing them vertically in 
 earthen pots, at the bottom of which is some good 
 vinegar. The pots are then to be covered, and exposed 
 for a length of time to a gentle heat in a sand bath, or by 
 bedding them in hot dung. The vapour of the vinegar 
 assisted by the tendency of the lead to combine with 
 the oxygen which is present, corrodes the lead, and 
 conyeits the external portion of it into a white substance 
 which comes off in flakes when the lead is uncoiled. 
 The plates are thus treated repeatedly until they are 
 corroded through, and completely reduced to an ox- 
 yde ; this is called ceruse, or white-lead. It is after- 
 wards, bleached, ground, and saturated with linseed 
 oil. It is then put into tubs resembling butter firkins, 
 each containing about three hundred weight : in such 
 
 tubs it is dispensed at the colour shops. But at such 
 places it is frequently adulterated with powdered chalk, 
 so that an experienced painter who is desirous that his 
 work should retain its colour, prefers purchasing his 
 lead at the works, where he is sure of having it pure. 
 Lead improves by keeping, and all the best whites are 
 performed by it when it is at least two or three years 
 old. The Nottingham ceruse is most esteemed for 
 house work when it is required to be finished in what 
 is technically called flatting or dead white. 
 
 Litharge is employed by painters to render their 
 colours more drying, and is composed of the ashes of 
 lead, or a kind of dusky powder that first appears in 
 its oxydation. When in this state it is called by the 
 chemists a subcarbonate of lead, and is afterwards sa- 
 turated with linseed oil to render it more .drying. 
 
 Linseed Oil is obtained by pressure from the seed 
 of flax ; it is afterwards filtered to clear it of any of the 
 feculae of the seed, and then suffered to remain in tubs 
 to precipitate and clarify. The more colourless the 
 oil is the better, and this is greatly promoted by 
 keeping, as linseed oil will by being kept a year or two 
 deposit all its colouring particles, and be as transparent 
 as water : the best painting is made with oil in this 
 state. In Holland they whiten their linseed oil by a 
 very simple process, which is said by them to answer 
 every purpose to be derived from its age. They take 
 an earthen pot well glazed, into which they put one- 
 third of fine white sand and one-third of water with 
 the linseed oil they wish to whiten ; and after having 
 covered, the vessel with glass they expose it to the suu, 
 
 | taking care to stir it at least once a day. When the oil 
 | has become very white, it is left at rest during two 
 ' days, after which it is taken away for use. 
 
 | Of Dn/ing Oils .~^ The substances most usually em- 
 j ployed to produce them are the oxyde of lead, called 
 j litharge, plaster, and umber. The process consists in 
 
 taking 
 
HOUSE-PAINTING. 
 
 taking of these several materials in the proportions as 
 follow, viz. to one pound of oil add half an ounce of 
 litharge with as much ceruse, umber, and plaster. 
 The oil is boiled on these four drugs over a gentle fire, 
 taking care to skim it from time to time ; this matter so 
 skimmed off is called by the house-painter smudge, or 
 dryer ; it is of a lead colour, and is used by him in his 
 outside work, and sometimes mixed in the dark colours 
 to render them more susceptible of fixing and drying. 
 As soon as this scum begins to rarify and become red 
 the fire is stopped, and the oil being left at rest gra- 
 dually settles and clarifies. Linseed oil so prepared is 
 vended at the colour shops under the name of boiled- 
 oil. All the best house-painting is done with it. 
 
 Mr. Vanherman has lately laid before the Society of 
 Arts, a method of rendering fish-oil applicable to 
 painting ; and it appears to make a good and cheap 
 vehicle for colours exposed to the weather, though it 
 dries but slowly. To thirty-two gallons of vinegar he 
 adds twelve pounds of litharge and twelve pounds of 
 sulphate of zinc, shaking the mixture well twice a day 
 for a week. The mixture is then put into a tun of fish- 
 oil, with which it is well shaken and mixed, and the 
 next day the clearer part, about seven-eighths of the 
 whole, is poured off. Twelve gallons of linseed oil and | 
 two of oil of turpentine are then added to the clear 
 part, and this being well shaken together is left to 
 settle for two or three days, when it will be fit to grind 
 white lead and all fine colours in : these, however, are 
 to be thinned for use with linseed oil and oil of turpen- 
 tine. For cheap paints exposed to the weather, whiting 
 and road dirt finely sifted are to be mixed with lime 
 water to the consistence of mortar. To this composi- 
 tion may be added almost any pigment ground with the 
 sediment of the prepared oil, in the proportion of one 
 part to two of the lime water already used, and the 
 whole is to be thinned for use, by adding to . every 
 eight pounds a quart of linseed oil and as much of a 
 mixture of the prepared oil with lime water. The 
 proportions of the mixture are not mentioned. If two 
 ounces of litharge be added to a gallon of linseed oil 
 and well shaken every day for a fortnight, and the 
 clearer part mixed with half a pint of oil of turpentine 
 be exposed to the sun for two or three days in shallow 
 pans, Mr. Vanherman says “ it will be as white as j 
 nut oil.” If half a pound of frankincense be dis- 
 solved in a quart of oil of turpentine and added to a 
 gallon of this bleached oil and white lead ground in oil I 
 of turpentine be thinned for use with the mixture, he 
 asserts that it will be quite dry and void of smell in four 
 hours. 
 
 Oil of Turpentine, or, as it is called, Turps, is in 
 general use among us in house-painting, and is the 1 
 ingredient by which the flatting, as it is termed, is per- 
 formed. All the larch and fir trees furnish a resin 
 known by the general name of turpentine. Commerce 
 distinguishes several qualities according to its degree 
 of goodness. The larch tree furnishes what is called 
 Venice Turpentine ; it is obtained by being made to 
 
 46 1 
 
 flow from the trunk of the tree through holes made 
 with an augur in which small pipes are fixed, that 
 conduct the juice into buckets placed to receive it. 
 This turpentine has a yellowish and limpid colour, a 
 strong aromatic smell, aud bitter taste. In Canada the 
 peasants collect it from the fir tree by perforating the 
 sacs, which contain it under the bark, with the point of 
 a horn which is filled with this juice. It is afterwards 
 distilled, in which it liberates an oil more or less vola- 
 tile, according to the degree of beat employed. When 
 the operation is done by a bath, a white, limpid, and 
 odoriferous oil is obtained which is called essence 
 of turpentine. The residue from this distillation forms 
 the boiied turpentine of commerce. This is sold at 
 the colour shops in the same way in which oil is, viz. 
 by the gallon. This as well as the oil considerably im- 
 proves by age : hence all painters in a large way of 
 business keep it by them in quantities which enables 
 them to depend on their work retaining its colour : a 
 circumstance of no little importance in our mode of 
 house-painting. 
 
 Of the Colours. — The colours used by painters may 
 be classed as follows : 
 f Vermilion, 
 
 Native Cinnabar, 
 
 Red-lead, | Colour red, 
 
 Scarlet-Ochre, tending to 
 
 Common Indian Red, I Orange. 
 Spanish-Brown, 
 
 Terra di Sienna, burnt J 
 
 Red 
 
 
 Blue 
 
 Carmine, 
 Lake, 
 Rose-Pink, 
 Red-Ochre, 
 l Venetian Red. 
 f Ultramarine, 
 
 I Ditto, ashes, 
 
 ! Prussian-Blue, 
 
 | Colour Crim- 
 y son tending to 
 Purple. 
 
 Verditer, 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Green 
 
 Orange 
 
 Indigo, 
 l. Smalt. 
 
 f Kings-Yellow, 
 Naples Ditto, 
 Yellow-Ochre, 
 Dutch-Pink, 
 
 English Ditto, 
 
 Light Pink, 
 Gamboge, 
 
 Masticot, 
 
 Common Orpiment, 
 Gall-stone, 
 
 Terra di Sienna. 
 
 ( Verdigris, 
 
 J Crystals of Ditto, 
 Prussian-Green, 
 
 | Terra Ferte, 
 ^Sap-Green. 
 
 Orange- Lake. 
 
 6 B 
 
 Purple 
 
462 
 
 HOUSE-PAINTING. 
 
 Purple 
 
 Brown 
 
 f True Indian Red, 
 Archil, 
 
 Logwood Wash. 
 f Brown-Pink, 
 
 | Bistre, 
 
 J Brown-Ochre, 
 
 - Utnbre, 
 
 I Cologne Earth, 
 
 '-Asphaltum. 
 
 C White-flake, 
 
 White-lead, 
 
 | Calcined Hartshorn, 
 
 White ^ Pearl White, 
 j Troy White, 
 t Eggshell White, 
 
 ^Flowers of Bismuth. 
 f Lamp-black, 
 
 Black Ivory Ditto, 
 v Blue Ditto. 
 
 These embrace almost the whole of the colours em- 
 ployed by the house-painter, and which by expe- 
 rience he is enabled to mix in proportions to effect 
 almost every tint. 
 
 Vermilion is a bright scarlet pigment, and is formed 
 of common sulphur and quicksilver prepared for use by 
 a chemical process. The best vermilion comes from 
 China, where it is said the secret of making it alone 
 is known. The Dutch pretend to have obtained it, and 
 much of the vermilion at the shops is of their manu- 
 facture. It is so dear that the painters have recourse to 
 every expedient to avoid using it, hence it is that the 
 true Chinese pigment of this colour is seldom seen. 
 
 Cinnabar is a similar pigment, differing only from 
 vermilion by a more crimson colouring. 
 
 Red-Lead, or minium, is lead calcined till it ac- 
 quire a proper degree of colour by exposing it with a 
 large surface to the fire. 
 
 Scarlet-Ochre is an earth with a base of green 
 vitriol, and is separated from the acid of the vitriol by 
 calcination. 
 
 Common Indian Red, is of an hue verging to scar- 
 let, and is imported from the East Indies. 
 
 Venetian-Red is a native ochre rather inclining to scar- 
 let ; this is the pigment which is selected for the grain- 
 ing, as it is called by the house-painters, of doors, &c., 
 in imitation of mahogany. 
 
 Spanish-Brozm is a native earth, found in the state 
 and of the colour in which it is used. 
 
 Terra di Sienna is, a native ochre, and is brought 
 from Italy in that state in which it is generally found. It 
 is yellow originally, and in this state it is often made 
 use of, and is accordingly placed among the yellow 
 colours. It changes to an orange-red by calcination, 
 though not of a very bright tint, for which property it 
 is sought to produce a pigment of that colour. 
 
 Carmine is a bright .crimson colour, aud is formed 
 of the tinging substance of cochineal with nitric-acid. 
 It is not well calculated to mix up with oil, as its 
 colour changes rapidly by exposure to the air and light. 
 
 Lake is a white earthy body, as cuttle fish-bone, 
 the basis of alum or chalk tinged with some vegetable 
 dye, such as is obtained from cochineal or Brasil wood, 
 taken up by an alkali and precipitated on the earth by 
 the addition of an acid. 
 
 Rose-Pink is a lake like the former, except that the 
 earth or basis of the pigment is principally chalk, and 
 the tinging substance is extracted from Brasil or Cam- 
 peachy wood. 
 
 Red-Ochre is a native earth, but that \vhich is in 
 common use is coloured red by calcination, being yellovv 
 when dug out of the earth, and the same with the yel- 
 low ocnre commonly used. This latter substance is 
 chiefly brought from Oxfordshire, where it is found in 
 great abundance. 
 
 Ultramarine is a preparation of calcined lapis-lazuli, 
 which is, w'hen perfect, of a brilliant blue colour, of 
 an extremely beautiful and transparent effect ill oil, and 
 will retain this property with whatever vehicle or pig- 
 ment it may be mixed. It is excessively dear and is 
 frequently sold at the colour shops in an adulterated 
 state. 
 
 Ultramarine Ashes are the residuum or remains of 
 the calcined lapis-lazuli. 
 
 Prussian-Blue is a brilliant pigment ; it is the fixed 
 sulphur of animal or vegetable coal chemically com- 
 bined with the earth of alum. 
 
 V erditer is the mixture of chalk with the precipitat- 
 ed copper, which is formed by adding the due pro- 
 portion of chalk to the solution of copper made 
 by the refiners in precipitating the silver from the 
 nitric acid in the operation called parting, in which 
 they have occasion to dissolve it in order to its puri- 
 fication. 
 
 Indigo is a tinging matter extracted from certain 
 plants which are found iu both the Indies, and from 
 whence the Indigos of commerce are imported. 
 
 Smalt is glass coloured with zaffer, and afterwards 
 ground to a pow'der. 
 
 Kings-Yellow is a pure orpiment, or arsenic co- 
 loured with sulphur. 
 
 ~Naples-Yel!ow is a warm yellow pigment rather 
 inclining to orange. 
 
 Yellow- Ochre is a mineral earth, which is found in 
 many places, but of different degrees of purity. 
 
 Dutch-Pink is a pigment formed of chalk, coloured 
 with the tinging particles of French berries. It is not 
 well adapted -to work in oil by reason of its colour 
 soon flying oft’. 
 
 English and light Pink are merely a lighter and 
 coarser kind of Dutch pink. 
 
 Gamboge is a gum brought from the East Indies ; 
 it is dissolved in water to a milky consistence, and is 
 then of a bright yellow colour. 
 
 Masiicot, as a pigment, is flake-white c* white-lead 
 gently calcined, by which it is changed to a yellow, 
 which varies in tint according to the degree of the 
 calcination. 
 
 Orpiment is a fossil body of a yellow colour com- 
 posed 
 
HOUSE-PAINTING. 
 
 463 
 
 posed of arsenic and sulphur, with a mixture fre- 
 quently of lead and sometimes other metals. 
 
 Gall-stone is a concretion of earthy matter formed in 
 the gall bladder of beasts. It is but little used. 
 
 V erdigris is an oxyde of copper formed by a vegeta- 
 ble acid: it is used in most kind of painting where green 
 is_ required. 
 
 Crystals of Verdigris is the salt produced by the 
 solution of copper or common verdigris in vinegar. 
 
 Prussian-Green is in composition similar to blue of 
 the same name. 
 
 Terra Verte is a native earth ; it is of a bluish green 
 colour, resembling the tint called sea-green. 
 
 Sap-Green is the concreted juice of the buckthorn 
 berry. 
 
 Orange-Lake is the tinging part of annatto, precipi- 
 tated together with the earth of alum. 
 
 True Indian Red is a native ochrous earth of a 
 purple colour, but so scarce as seldom to be met with 
 at the colour shops. 
 
 Archil is a purple tincture prepared from a kind of 
 moss. 
 
 Logwood is brought from America, and affords a 
 strong purple tincture. 
 
 Brown-Pink is the tinging part of some vegetable 
 of an orange colour precipitated upon the earth of alum. 
 
 Bistre is a brown transparent colour of yellowish 
 tint. 
 
 Brown-Oclire is a warm brown or foul orange colour. 
 
 Cologne Barth is a fossil substance of a dark blackish 
 brown colour, a little inclining towards purple. 
 
 Asphaltum is sometimes employed by the painters to 
 answer the end of brown pink. 
 
 White-fake is a ceruse prepared by the acid of grape. 
 
 Troy White is simply chalk, neutralized by the addi- 
 tion of water in which alum has been dissolved. 
 
 Lamp-black is the soot of oil collected as it is 
 formed by burning. 
 
 Ivory-black is the coat of ivory or bone formed by 
 giving to them a great heat, all access of the air being 
 excluded. 
 
 Blue-Black is the coal of some kind of wood burnt 
 in a close heat where the air can have no access. 
 
 Such are the several colours employed by painters ; 
 they are all to be found in the colour shops both in a 
 crude and prepared state. Preparing the colours con- ' 
 sists in the first place of grinding them on slabs of 
 porphyry till the particles are reduced to the finest ima- j 
 ginable state ; this is done by saturating them with oil I 
 or water, according as the colour ground is to be used i 
 with either of them. j 
 
 House-painting is known in the trade by the number 
 of coats of paint applied, and the painting is divided 
 into work in oil and what is technically called fatting. 
 This latter description of work differs from the former 
 only in the colour being mixed up with turpentine in- 
 stead of oil. Good painting is known by the fullness 
 and solidity of its appearance without any marks of the 
 brush ; whereas cheap painters care little about this. 
 
 I To give a fresh appearance, and get their work out of 
 I hand, and be paid, is their only concern. 
 
 I In the division of house-painting, as understood be- 
 tween the surveyors and workmen, are as follow : — 
 
 Clearcole and finish, signifies that the w'ork is to be 
 done in the cheapest way, and the process of doing which 
 consists in first dusting and cleaning what is to be 
 painted, and stopping and filling-up all cracks and de- 
 fects with putty. After which the whole is painted 
 over with a paint prepared of whiting and size, which 
 forms the ground for the finish, as it is termed. This 
 finish consists of a coat of oil-colour prepared with 
 lead. Where the work is not very dirty this kiud of 
 painting will answer every purpose, but it is by no 
 means adapted for outside work. 
 
 Bringing forward, a term used by painters, applies 
 to such new-wood or other work which may have 
 ! been added to old wood-work; or in cases in which 
 the old wood-work has been repaired, and, in conse- 
 quence, partly replaned, the priming and painting such 
 ! parts to form a ground for the colour, so as that it 
 shall appear alike when finished, is the process in- 
 tended by this term. 
 
 Stopping is tio more than that the painter is to w’ell 
 fill up all the defects in the work he may have to paint, 
 with putty. 
 
 Twice in Oil is simply that the work has been twice 
 painted over. 
 
 Thrice in Oil, and Flat, signifies that the work has 
 been done twice over in oil colours and once in colour 
 mixed, or prepared in turpentine. 
 
 Three Times and Flat may be similarly explained, 
 that is, three coats of oil colour and one of turpentine. 
 This latter description of painting is generally that 
 which is required to new r wood-w'ork. 
 
 The painter’s tools are few in number, and they are 
 found for the journeymen by the masters. They con- 
 sist of a tool, or pound brush as it is called, which is 
 composed of hogs’ hair ; this they use as a duster, until 
 the ends of the hair of which it is composed are worn 
 away, and become soft ; it is then used in the colour, 
 being better adapted to spread it eveniy by such pre- 
 vious wear. The other brushes vary in size, as the 
 mouldings and work to be painted do ; the smallest are 
 to paint over the bars of sashes, or draw out lines 
 which are intended to be left of a different tint from 
 the general tone of the other work. 
 
 In mixing up the colours for oil-painting, white-lead 
 forms the base of all ingredients ; this the colour-pre- 
 parer modifies and changes by adding coloured sub- 
 stances to it, till it is tinged so as to produce a paint of 
 the colour he wishes. All those colours w hich are de- 
 rived from vegetable bodies have, at first being spread, 
 a more brilliant effect than those of mineral ones ; but 
 no vegetable colour will long stand the combined effect 
 of air and light ; w hile the mineral colours, so exposed, 
 remain unchanged. This defect in the vegetable co- 
 lours is owing to that spontaneous oxidation or 
 carbonization which is effected by the oxygen of the 
 
 atmosphere 
 
464 
 
 HOUSE-PAINTING. 
 
 atmosphere on all vegetable matter to which it can 
 operate upon freely. To make this phenomenon more 
 obvious, the air occasions a slow combustion or burn- 
 ing to take place, which dissipates the lighter or hy- 
 drogenous particles of the colour, and turns to a 
 state of charcoal those which remain combined in 
 the paint; hence all painting made with colours ob- 
 tained from vegetable bodies soon appear black and 
 discoloured. - 
 
 Graining is understood among painters to be the 
 imitating of the several different species of scarce woods I 
 such as are used for the best articles of furniture, viz. 
 satin-wood, rose-wood, king-wood, mahogany, &c. &c. 
 Imitations of this nature, when well performed, are ' 
 calculated to give a zest to painting : at Paris, every 
 species of wood-work used in their houses, as a part of 
 the building, is done in this manner. The dead-white 
 so much in vogue amongst us is not practised there. 
 To grain satin-wood a ground is previously laid, com- 
 posed of Naples yellow and ceruse, diluted with oil of 
 turpentine, this is spread very evenly over the work to 
 be grained, and is then left a day or two to get fixed 
 and dry. The painter then prepares his pallet-board 
 with small quantities of the same yellow and ochre, 
 with a little brown, having some boiled oil and oil of 
 turpentine mixed together, to saturate the colours to be 
 used in the operation. He is also provided with several 
 different sized camels’ hair pencils, and also with one or 
 more flat hogs’ hair brushes. When he has mixed the 
 colours he spreads it over a pannel, or any other small 
 part of the work, first, to see the effect of the tints, 
 and if it suit what he is about to perform, he perse- 
 veres by doing a pannel at a time ; and, in the instance 
 of doors and other framing, the pannels are done first, 
 and the margins round them afterwards. The flat 
 hogs’ hair brushes, by being dipped in the mixture of 
 oil and turpentine, and drawn down the newly-laid co- 
 lour, occasions the shades and grainings in it : this 
 effect takes place in the colour from the brush supplying 
 an excess of saturation to the colour it touches ; and to 
 produce the mottled appearance, the camels’ hair pen- 
 cils are applied, and when it is all finished, it is left to 
 fix and dry, afier which it is covered by a coat or two 
 of good oil-varnish. The other fancy-woods are per- 
 formed in a similar manner, the painter varying the 
 colours to produce them only. Some of our painters 
 are so expert at this kind of imitation, and also in that 
 of marbles, as to prevent their easy detection, except 
 by the touch. Among the best artists in this line now in 
 practice in London, are a Mr. Harman of Chelsea, and 
 Mr. Willement, of Green-street, Grosvenor-square. 
 Such kinds of painting are well calculated to last a great 
 many years by being occasionally re-varnished only. It 
 is not greatly dearer than good work in the common 
 way, but it will last ten times as long, without appear- 
 ing to loose any of its freshness. 
 
 Ornamental Painting embraces the executing of 
 friezes and the decorative parts of architecture in 
 chiara-obscura, or light and shade on walls and ceil- 
 
 ings. It requires, in the first place, a ground to be 
 well painted of the tint it is proposed to remain, and 
 exactly drawn into the width it is intended to be left on 
 such a ground so formed. The ornament to be. painted 
 is to be drawn out neatly with a black-lead pencil, and 
 then to be painted and shaded, to give it its due 
 effect. 
 
 Such kind of painting is often painted on slips of 
 paper, or Irish cloth, and pasted up afterwards ; some 
 artists also, to facilitate their work, aud when the orna- 
 ment is of a similar pattern all through, do it by what 
 is termed stinse/ling ; this method consists in drawing 
 out a certain length of the pattern to be painted, very 
 accurately on paper, and then pricking a large-sized 
 needle in regular distances all round the pattern 
 through the paper, which they afterwards lay smoothly 
 against the wall to be ornamented and strike its outer 
 surface, which has been pricked through with a small 
 linen bag containing pow'dered chalk, the powder enters 
 the apertures in the pattern, and fixes itself against the 
 wall, exhibiting the exact outline of the ornaments 
 which the painter immediately fixes by painting it on 
 the wall ; by this means a great saving of his time is 
 accomplished. Some paintings in this manner are 
 heightened with gold : this is performed after the orna- 
 ment is painted-in, as it is termed, by the process 
 known as Gilding in Oil. 
 
 Letter or Inscription Writing is performed by per- 
 sons known in the trade as letter-writers. The process 
 is similar to ornament painting, excepting the superior 
 ability and taste required in the one, whereas the other 
 is a mere mechanical operation. The letter-writer 
 sketches out in pencil the words he has to write, and 
 afterwards corrects the outline by the colour which he 
 applies with a camels’ hair pencil. When the letters 
 are to be gilt, the process is similar, and as the letters 
 are painted, they are covered with leaf-gold, and when 
 completely covered it is left to fix itself by the dry- 
 ing of the painting on which it has been laid. After 
 which, a sponge and water is used to clear away the 
 superfluous gold ; the whole is then covered by a coat 
 of good oil varnish. Letter-writing is charged by the 
 inch, viz. the height of one of the letters being taken, 
 will, by being multiplied by the number on the whole 
 inscription, denote exactly the quantity of inches which 
 has been written. The price varies in as much as sha- 
 dowed letters are a halfpenny an inch more than plain 
 ones, and gilt letters are treble the price of either. 
 Two-pence an inch is about the average price of inscrip- 
 tion letters. 
 
 Painters’ work is measured by the yard superficial, 
 of nine square feet, and the painter is allowed to take 
 his dimensions over and into every part where the brush 
 has passed. Sash frames are valued at per piece, and 
 sash squares at per dozen, as well as window bars, 
 balusters of stairs, stay bars, &c. Painting done on 
 new stucco is allowed one penny per yard more than 
 when on wooden work, and colours are charged an ad- 
 j ditional penny more than when done in plain whites. 
 
PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 465 
 
 The painters’ charges are regulated in London by the 
 surveyors, and their regulations are made from an average 
 of the price of the best materials of every kind ; but 
 painting is frequently offered to be done at from fif- 
 teen to twenty per cent, less than the price so regu- 
 lated. But, perhaps, no branch of trade allows of 
 
 greater description than painting, as oil and colours may 
 be purchased of all degrees of purity : hence painting, 
 like the gold of the jewellers, will be, in its quality, or 
 fineness, as it is, viz. by the ratio of its alloy or adul- 
 teration. 
 
 PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 This art, as at present practised, is not of a very 
 ancient date ; paper made of linen rags appears to have 
 been first used in Europe towards the beginning of the 
 thirteenth century, but of its origin nothing can with 
 certainty be affirmed. 
 
 The ancients, as substitutes for paper, had recourse 
 successively to palm-tree leaves, to table-books of wax, 
 ivory, and lead ; to linen and cotton cloths ; to the in- 
 testines or skins of different animals ; and to the inner 
 bark of plants. In some places and ages they have 
 even written on the skins of fishes ; on the intestines of 
 serpents; and, in others, on the backs of tortoises. 
 There are few plants but have at some time been used 
 for paper or books, and hence the several terms, biblos, 
 codex, liber, folium, tabula, &c., which express the 
 different parts on which they w'ere written, and though 
 in Europe all these disappeared upon the introduction 
 of the papyrus and parchments, yet, in some other 
 countries, the use of them remains to this day. In 
 Ceylon, for instance, they write on the leaves of the 
 talipot : and the Bramin MSS. in the Tulinga language, 
 sent to Oxford from Fort St. George, are written on | 
 leaves of plants. Hermannus gives an account of a 
 monstrous palm-tree, which, about the thirty-fifth year 
 of its age, rises to be sixty or seventy feet high, with 
 plicated leaves, nearly round, twenty feet broad, where- 
 with they commonly cover their houses, and on which 
 they also write; part of one leaf sufficing to make a 
 moderate book. They write between the folds, making 
 the character through the outer cuticle. 
 
 The paper which had been for a long time used by 
 the Romans and Greeks was made of the bark of an 
 Egyptian aquatic plant, called the papyrus, whence the 
 name paper. According to the description which Pliny, 
 after Theophrastus, gives us of it, its stalk is triangular, 
 and of a thickness that may be grasped in the hand ; its 
 root is crooked, and terminates by fibrous bunches, 
 composed of long and weak pedicles. The Egyptians 
 call it Berd, and they eat that part of the plant which is 
 near the roots. A plant, named papero, much re- 
 
 sembling the papyrus of Egypt, grows likewise m Si- 
 cily ; it is described in Lobel’s Adversaria. Ray, and 
 several others after him, believed it w r as of the same spe- 
 cies ; however, it does not seem that the ancients made 
 any use of that of Sicily, and M. de Jussieu thinks 
 they ought not to be confounded. 
 
 The internal parts of the bark of this plant were the 
 only ones that were made into paper, and the manner of 
 the manufacture was as follows: — 
 
 Strips, or leaves, of every length that could be ob- 
 tained, being laid upon a table, other strips were placed 
 across and pasted to them, by means of water and a 
 press, so that this paper was a texture of several strips, 
 and it even appears that, in the time of the Emperor 
 Claudius, the Romans made paper of three layers. 
 
 Pliny also informs us, that the leaves of the papyrus 
 were left to dry iu the sun, and afterwards distributed 
 according to their different qualities fit for different 
 kinds of paper ; scarcely more than tw'enty strips could 
 be separated from each stalk. 
 
 The Roman paper received a size as well as ours, 
 which w'as prepared with flour of wheat diluted with 
 boiling water, on which w’ere thrown some drops of 
 vinegar; or crumbs of leavened bread, diluted with 
 boiling water, and passed through a bolting-cloth, being 
 afterwards beaten with a hammer. This account of 
 Pliny is confirmed by Cassiodorus, who, speaking of 
 the leaves of papyrus used in his time, says, that they 
 were white as snow', and composed of a great number 
 of small pieces without any junction appearing in them, 
 which seems to imply necessarily the use of size. The 
 Egyptian papyrus seems even to have been known in the 
 time of Homer; but it was not, according to thf testimony 
 of Varro, till about the time of the conqq&ffs of Alex- 
 ander that it began to be manufactured ^yith the per- 
 fection which art adds to nature. 
 
 Paper made in this manner with" the bark of the 
 Egyptian plant, was that which was. chiefly used till the 
 tenth century, when cotton was used for making paper 
 by pounding and reducing it to a pulp. This method, 
 6 C known 
 
466 
 
 PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 known in China some ages before, appeared at last in 
 the empire of the East, yet we are without any certain 
 knowledge of the author, or the time and place of this 
 invention. 
 
 Father Montfaucon says, that cotton-paper began to 
 be used in the empire of the East about the ninth cen- 
 tury. There are several Greek manuscripts, both *on 
 parchment, on vellum, and cotton paper, that bear the 
 date of the time in which they were written ; but the 
 greatest part are without date. From the dated manu- 
 scripts a surer judgment may be formed by comparing 
 the writings of the age w'ith those that are without any 
 date. The most ancient manuscript on cotton paper 
 with a date, is that in the king of France’s library, 
 numbered £,889, w ritten in 1050: another, in the em- 
 peror’s library, that bears its date, is of the year 1095. 
 But as the manuscripts without a date are much more 
 numerous than those which are dated, Father Mont- 
 faucon, by comparing the writings, discovered some of 
 the tenth century : among others, one of the king’s li- 
 brary, endorsed with the No. 2,436. If the same 
 search were made in all the libraries, both of the East 
 and West, others, perhaps, might be found, of the same 
 time or more ancient. Hence it may be judged, that 
 this bombycine, or cotton paper, was invented in the 
 ninth century, or, at latest, in the beginning of the 
 tenth. Towards the end of the eleventh, or the begin- 
 ning of the twelfth, its use was common throughout 
 the empire of the East, and even in Sicily. About 
 the same time, the empress Irene, consort of Alexis 
 Comnenes says, in her Rules for the Nuns at a house 
 which she had founded at Constantinople, that she left 
 them three copies of the rule, two in parchment and 
 one in cotton paper. Since this time, cotton paper was , 
 still more in use throughout the whole Turkish empire. 
 
 Chinese paper is of various kinds ; some is made of | 
 the rind or bark of trees, especially the mulberry-tree 
 and elm, but chiefly of the bamboo and cotton tree. 
 In fact, almost each province has its several sorts of j 
 paper. The preparations of the paper made of the 
 bark of trees, may be instanced in that of the bamboo, 
 which is a tree of the cane or reed kind. The second 
 skin of the bark, which is soft and white, is generally 
 made use of for paper ; this is beat in fair water to a 
 pulp, which they take up in large moulds, so that some 
 sheets are above twelve feet in length ; they are com- 
 pleted by dipping them in alum water, which serves in- 
 stead of size among us, and not only hinders the paper ! 
 from imbibing the ink, but makes it look as if it were | 
 varnished over. This paper is white, soft, and close, 
 without the least roughness, though it cracks more 
 easily than the European paper, is very subject to be 
 eaten by the worms, and its thinness makes it liable to 
 be soon*worn out. 
 
 The inventor of the linen-rag paper, whoever he 
 was, is entitled to the gratitude of posterity, who are 
 enjoying the advantages of the discovery. The art 
 of printing would have been comparatively of little im- 
 portance without having the means of procuring a pro- 
 
 per material to receive the impressions : while the pa- 
 pyrus was the only kind of paper, it was impossible to 
 have procured it in sufficient quantities to have made 
 large editions of books, without which the great bulk of 
 mankind would have for ever retained the ignorant bar- 
 barity of the dark ages ; the cotton paper, though an 
 improvement, was but a rude and coarse article, unfit 
 for any of the nice purposes to which paper is now ap- 
 plied. The perfection of the art of paper-making 
 consisted in findings material which could be procured 
 in sufficient quantities, and would be easy of prepara- 
 tion. Such is paper now in use, of which we shall 
 endeavour to describe the manufacture. 
 
 A more common or economical substance could not 
 be conceived than the tattered remnants of our cloths, 
 linen worn out and otherwise incapable of being applied 
 to the least use, and of which the quantity every day 
 increases. Nor could a more simple labour be ima- 
 j gined than a few hours trituration by mills. The dis- 
 | patch is so great, that it has been observed by a French 
 ; writer, that five workmen in a milt may furnish suffi- 
 ! cient paper for the continued labour of 3,000 transcrib- 
 ers. This was on the supposition of the process being 
 conducted upon the old system of hand labour, but by 
 the improved system of our modern mills, where the 
 paper is produced in a constant and regular sheet by a 
 curious machine, instead of the workman making sheet 
 by sheet separately, a great portion of the labour is to- 
 tally done away. 
 
 The operations of paper-making, as they succeed 
 each other, are as follows : — 
 
 1st. The rags are washed, if requisite, and then 
 sorted. 
 
 2d. They are bleached to render them white, but 
 this is sometimes deferred to another stage of the 
 process. 
 
 3d. They are ground, with water, in the washing- 
 engine, till they are reduced to a coarse or imperfect 
 pulp, called half-stuff, in which state the bleaching is 
 sometimes performed ; at other times it is bleached in 
 the engine. 
 
 4th. The half-stuff is ground in the beating-engine, 
 and water added in sufficient quantity to make a fine 
 pulp, which being conveyed to, 
 
 5th. The vat, the sheets of paper are made by taking 
 up a quantity of the pulp upon a mould of fine wire 
 cloth, through w'hich the water drains away, and the 
 pulp coagulates into a sheet of paper ; to take this off 
 the w'ire is called couching. 
 
 6th. This sheet is put in a pile with many others, 
 with a felt between each, and the whole is subjected to 
 a strong pressure to press out the superfluous water. 
 
 7th. The sheets are taken out, the felts removed, and 
 the sheets of paper pressed again by themselves for a 
 certain time. 
 
 8th. The sheets are taken from the press and hung 
 up, five or six together, to dry in the drying-loft. 
 
 9th. The paper is dipped into a tub of fine size, and 
 pressed to force out the superfluity, after which it is 
 
 dried 
 
PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 467 
 
 dried again; but, in printing-papers, this process is 
 rendered unnecessary by sizing the stuff whilst in the 
 engine, by adding certain ingredients. 
 
 10th. The paper now undergoes an examination of 
 each individual sheet, and all knots and burs are re- 
 moved, and bad sheets taken out. 
 
 1 1th. The dry sheets are packed in a very large pile, 
 and pressed with a most immense force to render the 
 sheets flat and smooth. 
 
 12th. The paper is taken out, parted, and pressed 
 again; parting means, to take down the pile sheet by- 
 sheet, and make another without turning the sheets 
 over ; by this means new surfaces are brought in contact 
 with each other, and the surface of the paper im- 
 proved. 
 
 13th. The paper is now finished, and is counted into 
 quires, folded, and packed up in reams for market. 
 
 The linen rags, used for making paper, being col- 
 lected by itinerant merchants, are purchased by whole- 
 sale dealers or rag merchants, who, for the London 
 trade, separate them into five sorts of white rags which 
 they sell to the mills ; they are denominated Nos. 1, 2, 3, 
 4, 5, according to their respective qualities. No. 1, 
 called London superfine, being all linen, the remains 
 of fine cloth, which not being so much worn as the 
 coarser sort is used for making the finest paper. No. 5, 
 is coarse canvass, which by bleaching may be brought 
 to a good colour, but will not make paper of the 
 strength and fineness of the finer sorts. The next sort 
 rag bagging, a worse canvass, of which the bags are 
 made for packing the rags. Coloured rags are generally 
 cotton of all colours, except blue, vvhieh is selected for 
 making blue paper only. 
 
 Superfine paper for writing or fine printing can only 
 be made from Nos. 1, 2, and 3; Nos. 4 and 3 are 
 appropriated for making an inferior paper called news, 
 because used for news-papers ; the coloured rags are 
 only used for the inferior papers. 
 
 Woollen and silk rags are used for brown paper, 
 but even for this purpose they should be mixed up with 
 a large parcel of coarse linen. 
 
 Old paper may also serve for the same use, but the 
 waste would be too considerable; whence it is rather 
 reserved for pasteboard, in the manufacture of which 
 the material is worked in less time, with less force, and 
 with the same water. It will also lose much less. Be- 
 sides paper that has been once sized, though passed 
 through boiling water, still gives the pulp a viscidity 
 which ought to be guarded against. 
 
 The rags when first brought to the mill, if they are 
 very dirty, as the coarse sorts generally are, are washed 
 in hot water by a fulling mill, such as is used by dyers 
 for washing cloth. The rags being well dried are (if 
 they have not been previously sorted by the rag mer- 
 chant) delivered to women to sort and scrape them. 
 These women are disposed of in a large room full of ! 
 old linen, seated two by two on benches with a large 
 chest or box divided into five cases before them, 'for con- 
 taining the five different sorts of rags as beforementioned. 
 
 Each has a piece of pasteboard hung from her girdle and 
 extended on her kuees, upon which, with a long sharp 
 knife, she unrips seams and stitches, and scrapes off all 
 filth. Whatever can be used after being well shaken is 
 distributed into the three cases according to the degree 
 of fineness, and the women throw the rest at their feet. 
 Those manufacturers who choose to be more exact in 
 their sorting, have six cases for six different sorts of 
 rags ; the superfine, the fine, the seams, and stitches of 
 the fine; the middling, the seams and stitches of the 
 middling ; and the coarse, without including the very 
 coarse parts, which are reserved for making brown 
 paper. 
 
 Some manufacturers are persuaded that the labour of 
 the sorters is never sufficiently exact, and think that the 
 ! hems and seams should be kept apart ; that the coarse- 
 ness of the cloth should be considered, and that the 
 doth made of tow should be separated from that made 
 of the longer slips ; cloth of hemp from cloth of flax ; 
 and, lastly, that the degree of wearing in the cloth 
 should be attended to ; for if rags which are almost new 
 should be mixed with those that are much worn, the 
 one will not be reduced to a pulp in the mill, whilst the 
 other will be so attenuated as to be carried away by the 
 water, and pass though the hair-strainer, and hence 
 there must be a considerable w aste in the w'ork, a real 
 loss to the manufacturer, and even to the beauty of the 
 paper, for the particles already carried off, are perhaps 
 those which give it that smooth and velvet softness of 
 which it is often deficient. 
 
 This is not all, for the pulp of uneven tenuity produ- 
 ces those cloudy papers, wherein are seen by intervals 
 parts more or less clear, and more or less weak, occa- 
 sioned by flakes assembled on the mould in making the 
 paper not being sufficiently tempered and diluted to in- 
 corporate with the more fluid parts. 
 
 It would, therefore, be very advisable to have the 
 different qualities of the cloths milled separately, as also 
 the hems and threads of the stitching ; because sewing 
 thread being never so much w'orn as that of the cloth, 
 and being not so easy to be reduced, forms filaments in 
 the paper. When the rags unequally disposed for tri- 
 turation have been milled apart, then such different 
 pulps may be mixed together w'ithout inconveniency, 
 which will be found homogeneous, each having been 
 worked during the time that was necessary, according to 
 the state of the rag. Without this precaution the 
 finest particles will be always lost, and of course the 
 quality of the paper will be altered by an excess of the 
 coarsest. 
 
 This great precaution in the sorting of rags is of 
 course very expensive ; but there is no doubt of its 
 producing a total difference, in the beauty of the paper, 
 without hurting its goodness. It will besides be at- 
 tended with the advantage of mixing a pulp, which is 
 supposed to form the strength of the paper with ano- 
 ther that gives it softness and lustre ; and thus these 
 two qualities may be united which hitherto existed sepa- 
 rately. 
 
 The 
 
468 
 
 PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 The greatest modern improvement in paper-making 
 is the bleaching the rags. This enables the manufactu- 
 rer to produce the finest paper, in point of colour, from 
 any kind of rags. He has, therefore, only to find such 
 materials as will make a paper of a strong texture and a 
 fine even surface, knowing he can produce, colour at 
 pleasure. 
 
 The bleaching is conducted in different methods, 
 either bleaching the rags immediately after they are 
 sorted, bleaching them in the state of half-stuff, that is, 
 after it has been once ground in the washing engine, or 
 while they are in the engine. For the first of these me- 
 thods Mr. Campbell had a patent in 1 79“2. His me- 
 thod is very similar to the process of bleaching of cotton 
 thread. The apparatus consists of a receiver or cham- 
 ber made of wood to contain the rags to be bleached ; 
 it is of a cubical form, and the joints made air tight ; it 
 is provided with several retorts, w'hich being filled with 
 a mixture of manganese, with two-thirds its quantity of 
 sea salt, and a quantity of sulphuric acid equal to the 
 salt, will, when moderately heated by a small sand-bath 
 furnace, throw into the receiver a gas which quickly dis- 
 charges any colour the rags may contain. The patentee 
 directs that the rags should, before "they are put into the 
 receiver to be bleached, contain about their own weight 
 of water, the superabundant water being pressed out ; 
 the rags should then be opened by a machine, called 
 by the cotton manufacturers a devil, or some machine 
 of that nature : they are to be distributed in* the re- 
 ceiver in layers, spread in frames so that they will not 
 come in contact with each other, or the rags may be 
 placed in the body of the receiver, and have stirrers or 
 agitators provided to expose every part of them to the 
 action of the bleaching gas. After the process, which 
 must be concluded as soon as ever the rags are suffi- 
 ciently bleached, lest the gas should act upon and injure 
 their quality, they are to be washed in water, and will 
 be ready for the mill ; here they are ground and reduced 
 with water to a fine pulp till every individual fibre of 
 the rag is separated. 
 
 The paper-mill is represented in the Plate , Paper- 
 Mill. Here Fig. 1 is a front and Fig. 2 a side eleva- 
 tion, the same letter expressing the same part in both. 
 AB is the great waterwheel, giving motion to the whole 
 ©n its shaft or axis C ; a crown, or face wheel, DD is 
 framed, and gives motion to the pinion G ; this is fixed 
 on the lower part of a vertical axis E F, which goes up 
 into the upper room of the mill, and has two face wheels 
 I and K fixed upon it ; these actuate two pinions L M, 
 upon the end of the spindles of the two engines N 
 and O, where the rags are ground. W, Fig. I, is a 
 wheel turned by the teeth of the great wheel DD ; the 
 axis of this wheel is formed into a triple crank v, ze, x, 
 which gives motion to the three pumps, by means of 
 level s or beams y, z, y , which cannot be fully seen in 
 the figures, but may be easily imagined. These pumps 
 raise up a constant stream of fair water, which is ne- 
 cessary to be kept running through the rags in the 
 engine to wash away the dirt separated from them in 
 
 the grinding. By the arrangement of the cog wheels, 
 the pinions LM and cylinders of the engines are caused 
 to revolve at the rate of 150 times per minute, when the 
 water wheel moves with its proper velocity. The internal 
 construction of the engine is explained by the remaining 
 figures of the plate. Fig. 3, is a longitudinal section, 
 shewing the cylinder in action ; Fig. 4, a plan lookin'* 
 down upon it ; Fig. 6, the cylinder separate ; N and O 
 in Fig. 1, represent a large cistern or vat of an oblong 
 figure, with the angles removed, as shewn by Fig. 4 ; it 
 is lined with lead inside, and divided in the middle by a 
 partition e f, Figs. 3 and 4. On the front and back of 
 the engine two short beams TT, Figs. 2, 4, aud 5 are 
 bolted ; they have long mortises through them to re- 
 ceive tenons at the ends of two horizontal levers S S, 
 which rise and fall in bolts in one of the beams T as 
 centres ; the front one of these beams, or that nearest 
 to the cylinder R, is capable of being elevated or de- 
 pressed by turning the nut of the screw r, which, as 
 shewn in Fig. 5, is fixed to the tenon of S, and comes 
 up through the top of the beam T, upon which the nut 
 takes its bearing. Two brasses are let into the middle 
 of the levers S S, and form the bearing for the spindle 
 of the engine to turn upon. R is the cylinder made of 
 wood and fixed fast upon the spindle ; it has a number 
 of knives or cutters fixed upon it, parallel to its axis, 
 and projecting from its circumference about an inch : e. 
 Fig. 3 and 4, is a circular breasting, made of boards and 
 covered with sheet lead, which fits the cylinder very 
 truly and leaves but very little space between the teeth 
 and breasting. An inclined plane leads regularly from 
 the bottom of the engine trough to the top of the breast- 
 ing, at the bottom of the breasting beneath. The axis 
 of the cylinder, a block a, Fig. 3,*\s fixed, it has cutters 
 of the same size and exactly similar to those in the 
 cylinder, which at all times of the process pass very 
 close to the teeth in the block, but do not touch. This 
 block is fastened by a dove-tail fixed in the woodeu 
 bottom of the breasting ; it comes through the wood- 
 work of the chest, and projects a small distance, on 
 the outside of it, and is kept up to its place by a wedge, 
 so that by withdrawing this wedge the block becomes 
 loose, and can be removed to sharpen the cutters as oc- 
 casion requires. The great velocity of the cylinder 
 draws the rags, with which the engine trough is filled 
 between the cylinder and the cutters in the block a, and 
 by this they are cut in pieces ; then by the rapid motion 
 of the cylinder the rags are thrown over the top of the 
 breasting, and they run down the inclined plane, and 
 passing round the partition e f come to the cylinder 
 again, so as to be repeatedly cut till they are reduced to 
 a pulp. The screw r is used to raise or lower the cy- 
 linder, and cause it to cut finer or coarser by enlarging 
 or diminishing the space between the cutters in the 
 block and those of the cylinder. Th'ese cutters act in 
 the same manner as a pair of scissars cut, the teeth of 
 the cylinder being as before-mentioned parallel to the 
 axis of the cylinder, and those of the block are placed 
 rather inclined to them, so that the teeth of the cylinder 
 
 come 
 
PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 46'y 
 
 come first in contact with the cutters of the block at one I 
 end, and then successively the contact proceeds along 
 to the other end, so that any rags interposed between ! 
 them are cut in the same manner as they would be be- I 
 tween the blades of a pair of shears; sometimes the plates | 
 or cutters in the block are bent to an angle in the middle j 
 instead of being straight and inclined to the cylinder ; in j 
 this case they are called elbow plates, and of course 
 the two ends are botli inclined to the axis of the cylin- 
 der in an opposite direction ; in either case the edges 
 of the plates of the block cannot be straight lines, but 
 must be curved to adapt themselves to the curve, which 
 an inclined line traced on the cylinder will of course 
 have. The plates of the block are united by screwing 
 them altogether, and their edges are bevelled away on 
 one side only. The cutters of the cylinder are fixed in, 
 as shewn in Fig. 7 ; here R is the cylinder, formed of a 
 solid piece of wood, and having grooves cut on its 
 circumference parallel to its axis ; each of these grooves 
 has two cutters put into it, and a fillet of wood is 
 driven fast in between them to hold them in ; the fillets 
 are kept in by spikes driven into the solid wood of the 
 cylinder. A cover is put over the cylinder to prevent 
 the water or rags being thrown out of the engine by its 
 great velocity ; it is a square box, g h k i, Fig. 3 and 
 marked P, Figs. 1 and 2, it has two small troughs, 
 k and i, coming through the sides of the box ; at m m 
 are two hair or w ire sieves sliding in grooves made in 
 each side of the box. The cylinder as it turns throw's a 
 great quantity of w ater and rags up against these sieves ; 
 the water goes through them and runs down into the 
 troughs at k and i, and from thence into the ends of the 
 leaden pipes p p, Fig. 2, by which it is conveyed away ; 
 n n, Fig. 3, are grooves for two boards, which w'hen 
 down in their places cover the hair sieves and stop the 
 water from going through them. A considerable part of 
 the rags thus thrown up by the cylinder passes quite over 
 it, and goes down under it again. The water is brought to 
 the engine by a pipe from the pump ; this pipe delivers 
 it into a small cistern adjoining and communicating with 
 the engine ; the pipe has a cock to stop the entrance 
 of the water when required ; the exit of the foul water 
 is, as before-mentioned, made by the cylinder throwing 
 it up into the troughs i and k. The two engines N and 
 O are placed at different levels as shewn by Fig • 1, the 
 bottom of N being higher than the top of O ; the 
 latter is called the washer, where the rags are first 
 worked coarsely with water running through them, 
 to wash and open the fibres of them, which after wash- 
 ing are called half-stuff, and are then let down into the 
 beating engine O, here they are ground and reduced to a 
 finished pulp. 
 
 The proper management of'the rags while in the mill, 
 is a great part of the art of the paper manufacturer ; and 
 for this no rule can be given, as it wholly depends upon 
 the material h& has to work, and the article he intends 
 to produce from it. For making superfine paper, the 
 following may be described as the established system of 
 manufacture for the London market: one hundred 
 
 | weight of the best white rags, called No. 1, is put 
 into the washing engine, and the cock opened to let a 
 considerable stream of water run through it. The screw 
 of the cylinder is adjusted to raise it up, so that its teeth 
 do not actually touch the teeth of the block : the rags 
 are not therefore cut, but rather rubbed in a violent 
 manner, so as to open and expose every fibre to the 
 action of the w'ater, that it may carry off all dirt ; this 
 gentle washing continues for a quarter of an hour or 
 twenty minutes, when the cylinder is laid down, that is, 
 the screw' is turned back till the cylinder is let down 
 upon the cutters of the block, and rests its weight 
 upon them ; in this state they begin with a most tremen- 
 dous noise and vibration to cut the rags into pieces; 
 this is continued for about four hours, by which time 
 the engine will come to work very steadily and with 
 less noise, because the rags are cut into pieces and 
 chopped up very much, though not yet reduced to a 
 pulp. The bleaching now' commences, if it has not 
 been done in the first stage upon the rags. To bleach 
 the stuff in the engine they stop the water from run- 
 ning in, and throw into the engine a quantity of bleach- 
 ing salt, or muriate of lime ; for fine rags one or two 
 pounds, more or less, are used according to circum- 
 stances ; the two sliders, n n, Fig. 3, are put down 
 in the cover of the cylinder to prevent the water getting 
 away, and in this state the engine is worked about an 
 hour for the bleaching. During this time the rags lose 
 their colour, but this does not colour the water, though 
 it is rendered rather white and milky by the salt. The 
 very best rags, when first put into the engine, are of a 
 very yellow and dirty colour, but they become by the 
 bleaching a very perfect snow white. The cylinder i3 
 usually raised up a very little during the bleaching; 
 which being concluded, the water-cock is opened again, 
 the boards n n removed, and the washing continued 
 about an hour to wash the salt away. This concludes the 
 operation, and the half-stuff, as the rags are now called, 
 is let off into a basket which suffers the water to drain 
 through it : or if the manufacture is proceeding with 
 dispatch, and every thing is ready, it is let off into the 
 beating-engine at once ; here the stuff is worked for 
 about five hours with a sufficient quantity of water to 
 make a pulp ; in this affair great judgment is required 
 as it materially influences the quality of the paper ; the 
 w'ater is not suffered to run through the beater, as in 
 the other engine. The only difference between the two 
 engines is the firmness of their teeth. The cylinder of 
 the washer has twenty grooves in it, each containing two 
 bars or , teeth, as shewn in Fig. 7, but the beater has 
 three in each, so as to have sixty teeth in all. The 
 beater is made to turn with a greater velocity than the 
 other; the pinion L, Fig. I, which turns the beater 
 having only twenty teeth, while the other, M, has 
 twenty-two. This greater velocity and number of teeth 
 in the beater cause the strokes of the several knives 
 passing by each other to be so rapid tha^they produce 
 a coarse musical note or humming, which may be heard 
 to a great distance from the mill ; bvt the w'asher being 
 6 D coarser 
 
470 
 
 PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 coarser and less rapid, produces the most horrible 
 growling which can be conceived, and is so violent as to 
 shake the whole building; 
 
 In many small mills, which have only a local trade for 
 the supply of the surrounding country, and where per- 
 haps there is a deficiency of water, they only use one 
 engine both for washing and beating, as it will do for 
 either purpose ; but the mills near London, chiefly at 
 Maidstone in Kent, have two, three, or even five 
 engines. These require an immense body of water to 
 turn them, for there is a considerable force required to 
 turn the cylinder, and with so great a velocity it becomes 
 very great. The stuff when finished is conveyed to a j 
 general receptacle called the stuff-chest, where it is kept 
 till wanted to be made into paper, for the engines work 
 day and night, though the making the paper, as "it re- 
 quires many workmen, is of course only carried on in j 
 the day-time. The implements employed in this depart- I 
 ment of the manufacture are as follows : the vat with 
 its stirrer, the moulds and deckles, the felts, the vat 
 press, and another press similar to it for giving the paper 
 a second pressure. 
 
 The vat is made of wood in the form of a tub, and j 
 generally about five feet in diameter and two and a half 
 in depth. It is kept at a proper temperature by means 
 of a grate introduced at a bole in the side, and sur- 
 rounded on the inside of the vat with a case of copper. 
 For fuel to this grate charcoal or wood is used, and fre- 
 quently to prevent smoke the wall of the building comes 
 in contact with one part of the vat, so that the fire has 
 no communication with the place where they make the 
 paper. Every vat is furnished on the upper part with 
 planks, enclosed inwards, and even railed in with wood 
 to prevent any of the stuff from running over in the 
 operation. Across the vat is a plank pierced with 
 holes at one of the extremities, and resting on the 
 planks which surround the vats. This is used to rest 
 the mould upon when a sheet of paper has been made. 
 In different mills two methods are made use of to mix 
 up the stuff and water with which the vat is filled, and 
 keep it in such an agitation as will prevent any coagu- 
 lation or subsedence of the pulp, which would render 
 the paper flaky and the different sheets of unequal thick- 
 ness; in one, two instruments are employed to mix 
 them, one of which is a simple pole, and the other a 
 pole armed with a piece of board, rounded and full of 
 holes. The operation of stirring is repeated as often as 
 the stuff falls to the bottom. In the principal paper i 
 mills for making writing [taper, they use for this purpose 
 what is called a hog ; which is a machine within the 
 vat, that by means of a small wheel on the outside is 
 made to turn constantly round, and keep the stuff in 
 perpetual motion. When the stuff and water are pro- 
 perly mixed^ it is easy to perceive whether the previous 
 operations have been complete ; for if the stuff floats 
 close and in regular flakes, it is a proof that it has 
 been well w'orked in the engine. 
 
 The mould is a square frame or box made of well 
 seasoned mahogany, and covered at the top with wire. 
 
 In the old way, the wires were disposed in parallel 
 row's, with others across to strengthen them ; this may 
 be readily understood from the examination of a sheet 
 of paper. But the modern paper is chiefly made of 
 wool wire, which is exactly like cloth. The wire cloth 
 is made larger than the intended sheet of paper, and 
 turned down over the sides of the frame ; the size of 
 the sheet is determined by a square frame of mahogany 
 bound with brass ; this, which is called the deckle, 
 when placed upon the wire of the mould forms a shallow 
 dish or mould, in which a quantity of the pulp is taken up, 
 and by the draining through of the water the pulp is 
 left in a sheet upon the wire, therefore this frame is 
 necessary to retain the stuff of w hich the paper is made 
 on the cloth ; it must be exactly adapted to the wire 
 cloth of the mould, otherwise the edges of the paper 
 will be ragged and badly finished. The w'ire cloth of 
 the form is varied in proportion to the fineness of the 
 paper and the nature of the stuff. 
 
 The deckle is moveable, and only held upon the 
 mould by the workmen grasping the mould and deckle 
 together in both hands at the opposite sides, so that the 
 deckle being removed the sheet of paper may be taken 
 up from the wire by applying the mould upon a piece of 
 felt ; it is then pressed with a felt between each sheet. 
 The felts are pieces of woollen cloth spread over every 
 sheet of paper, and upon which the sheets are laid to 
 detach them from the wire of the mould; they prevent 
 them from adhering together and imbibe part of the 
 water with which the stuff is charged, and transmit the 
 whole of it when placed under the action of the press. 
 
 The two sides of the felt are differently raised, that 
 to w'hich the hair is longest is applied to the sheets 
 which are laid down, and any alteration of this disposi- 
 tion would produce a change in the texture of the paper. 
 
 The stuff of which the felts are made should be suf- 
 ficiently strong, in order that it may be stretched ex- 
 actly on the sheets without falling into folds, and at the 
 same time sufficiently pliant to yield in any direction 
 without injury to the w'et paper. As the felts have to 
 resist the reiterated efforts of the press, it appears ne- 
 cessary that the warp be made strong of combed wool 
 and well twisted. On the other hand, as they have to 
 imbibe a certain quantity of water and to retain it, it is 
 necessary that the woof be of carded wool, and drawn 
 out into a slack thread. These are the utensils together 
 with the presses which are used in the apartments where 
 the sheets of paper are formed. 
 
 Three workmen are employed in the operation of 
 making the paper, which they manage thus ; the first 
 called the dipper, stands in a nitch or hollow part of that 
 kind of ledge or table which goes round the circumfe- 
 rence of the vat; he holds a mould in both hands by the 
 two exn-emities with the deckle, applied exactly over the 
 mould as if only one piece ; then inclining it a little to- 
 wards him he dips it into the vat and brings it up again 
 in a horizontal position. The superfluous part of the 
 pulp flows over on all sides, and the quantity thought 
 sufficient is shaken gently from the right to the left, 
 
 and 
 
PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 471 
 
 and up and down horizontally until it is equally extended 
 over the whole surface of the mould. These two mo- 
 tions are also accompanied by a slight shake, that serves 
 to fix and stop the sheet as the water drains through the 
 wire; and then the parts of the pulp uniting, the mould 
 is immediately laid on the edge of the vat, the deckle 
 taken off, and the mould made to slide along the board 
 which is laid across the vat to the part where the sheet 
 is to be laid or taken off. This board which is but two 
 inches in breadth where the sheet is laid is nothing 
 more than-a deal board, which runs along the length of 
 the vat, and is pierced with several holes at the broad 
 extremity for letting the mould drain into the vat. 
 
 The dipper taking the deckle oflf the first mould, 
 places it immediately on the second which is given him 
 for dipping it immediately in its turn, and the second 
 workman called the coucher, taking the mould on the 
 board that runs across the vat, with the left hand raises 
 it gently and lays it in an inclined position against one 
 or two small pins which are driven into the board on 
 the edge of the vat. In this condition the mould re- 
 mains two or three seconds of time for draining into the 
 vat, whilst the coucher extends a felt on which he 
 applies the mould to take off the sheet, which being 
 done he returns the mould to the dipper. 
 
 These operations are performed in so short a time, 
 that seven or eight sheets of a middling size can be 
 made in a minute ; but it would be advisable to pro- 
 ceed more slowly, as no doubt the paper would be 
 better made, and of a stronger consistence. 
 
 The dipper should be attentive in distributing the 
 matter on the mould to reinforce the corner he is to 
 take hold of, in raising and extending the sheets ; for 
 without this precaution he would break a great many. 
 If he also takes up too much matter with his mould, if 
 he does not equally extend it, or if he strikes his mould 
 against the drainer, in all these cases, the matter is ac- 
 cumulated in certain parts of the mould, which pro- 
 duces something like ridges in the paper ; or, if he lets 
 the matter rest on the mould, and does not distribute it 
 immediately, there will be parts of unequal thick- 
 ness. When the vat is too hot, the stretching out of 
 the sheet will be ill performed, because the water eva- 
 porates too soon over the mould. Add to this, that, 
 in letting the matter run towards one of the edges, by 
 not giving his arm a regular motion, he may form a 
 feather-edged paper, which may likewise happen if he 
 does not extend his stuff sufficiently ; if the vat be too 
 hot, if the fecula of the pulp is too crude, and does 
 not run well ; if his arms are too stiff, and if he gives 
 a bad shake, or if the mould be ill made. An in- 
 dented sheet happens by not taking off the deckle pro- 
 perly, or by tl e fault of the felts having stitches, seams, 
 and selvages in them. 
 
 In examining a sheet of paper, before the light, a 
 greater opacity is seen on both sides of each brass wire 
 than towards the midst of the space. This thickness is 
 occasioned by the pulp, which the motion of the mould 
 could not distribute, being stopped by the wires, or the 
 
 manicord, that serves to string them. This defect is 
 completely remedied by the improvement of weaving 
 the wire of the mould like cloth, but a prejudice still 
 prevails in favour of the old paper with lines, which 
 obliges, manufacturers still to make it, though by no 
 means so fine or good as the wove. In order to avoid 
 drops of water, which, if they fall upon the paper will 
 make disagreeable spots, the mould should be laid 
 gently, and raised readily ; and, as often as the coucher 
 returns his mould to the drainer, he ought to be careful 
 to shake his hands behind him, for, without this pre- 
 caution, his fingers, which are wet, would drop upon 
 the sheet already laid, whilst he is covering it with the 
 felt. If he is also too quick in laying, the air* de- 
 tained and compressed under the sheet, occasions a 
 bloating, and makes some parts more clear than others. 
 
 The coucher having taken off the several sheets 
 from the mould as fast as they are made, lays them one 
 by one in a pile under the press, with the felt between 
 each individual sheet, until they have, in this manner, 
 made six quires of paper, which quantity is called a 
 post, and contains one hundred and forty-four sheets. 
 When the last sheet of the post is covered with the last 
 felt, the workmen about the vat assist each together to 
 submit the whole heap to the action of the press. 
 They begin, at first, to press it with a middling lever, 
 and, afterwards, with a lever fifteen feet in length ; this 
 operation expresses the water and thus gives the paper 
 a strength which it did not possess before. The ves- 
 tiges of the protuberances made by the wires of the 
 mould, are altogether flattened, and, of consequence, 
 the hollows opposite to them disappear also ; but the 
 traces formed by the interstices of the wire, in conse- 
 quence of their thickness, appear on both sides, and 
 are rounded by the press. 
 
 The business of the third workman, called the lifter, 
 begins after the operation of the press, and consists in 
 taking the sheets off the felts (for they are caused to ad- 
 here to them by the action of the press), and then 
 making the sheets up in a second pile:.butif the coucher 
 works too fast, and the lifter finds himself hard pressed, 
 he cannot stretch out his sheets exactly upon one ano- 
 ther, so as to make a neat and compact pile, for this is 
 very necessary to make the paper of a regular and 
 equal thickness, when it is put under a second press, 
 which is done as soon as several of the piles are com- 
 pleted, and can be collected together ; this second 
 pressure being made with all the sheets in contact with 
 each other expresses a great quantity of water from the 
 paper, and gives the sheets a very considerable strength ; 
 it also tends to take out those freckles in the surface of 
 the sheets, which were occasioned by the impression of 
 the felt ; though it is necessary to have felts in the first 
 pressure, because the paper is then so wet that it would 
 be pressed into a solid mass if the sheets touched each 
 other. The paper remains in the second press as long 
 as it can, until another pile is made ready by the lifter, 
 when it is taken out and the sheets carried to the drying- 
 house. 
 
 When 
 
472 
 
 PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 When the sheets are very thin, and it is found after 
 the second pressure that they are formed by a fecula 
 which is still saturated with a great deal of water, so 
 that they have little consistence, it is probable that the 
 second press has so joined them to one another, that it 
 is difficult to separate them ; and, indeed, they cannot 
 well be taken off, one by one, without tearing a great 
 number ; but, happily, this separation, sheet by sheet, 
 is not necessary for drying, so that seven or eight may 
 be taken together, which is called forming the pages ; 
 sometimes, also, a less number may do when the paper 
 is of a large size, but never less than three sheets are 
 hung up together. It is of more importance than we 
 are at first aware of, that the sheets should remain, as 
 it were, pasted several of them together; if they were 
 single, and one by one, they could not resist the 
 moisture of the size, yet this moisture is sufficient to 
 facilitate their operation ; and, to hinder their sepa- 
 rating, when they are hung up to dry, they should be so 
 placed that the pages may receive the wind in the sur- 
 face and not in the sides and edges. 
 
 The drying-lofts are very extensive apartments, usually 
 the upper parts of all the buildings of the mill ; the 
 sides are formed by loffer boards, which are a kind of 
 lattice, or boarding, which can be opened and shut to 
 admit more or less air at pleasure. The sheets are 
 taken up upon a piece of wood like a T, and hung upon 
 hair lines, stretched across large horizontal wooden 
 frames, called tribbles ; and then, as they are filled, are 
 lifted up between upright posts, to the top of the room, 
 and retained by pegs put in the posts ; then another 
 frame being filled, is put up in its turn, and so on, till 
 the loft is filled from top to bottom. 
 
 Mr. Bramah has made an improvement on this me- 
 thod, which enables women or children to perform the 
 business of the drying-house instead of men, and adds 
 considerable facility to the process of hanging and re- 
 hanging the sheets. Instead of using tribbles, he has a 
 proper number of frames, made of wood, mounted 
 with leaves, to represent so many frames or clothes’ 
 horses, similar to those used by any common laundress, 
 but of a length proportioned to the dimensions of the 
 drying-house, which may be divided into two or more 
 rows, so as to leave room and proper aisles or passages 
 for the convenience of the operators to hang and re- 
 hang the sheets ; and the height of the frames may be 
 equal, or nearly equal, to one half the story in which 
 they are fixed. They are stationed at proper distances 
 from each other by means of upright posts with grooves 
 fitted to the frames, so that each may slide vertically 
 up and down, by means of lines and pulleys affixed to 
 each, just like sash windows that are double hung ; so 
 that while one of the frames is sliding up to touch the 
 ceiling of the building with its upper edges, the alter- 
 nate one may be depressed till its lower edge, or the 
 paper which hangs upon it, may come nearly in contact 
 with the floor. By this means, children can reach to 
 hang the paper, aud can afterwards elevate the frames 
 to their proper height in the loft. 
 
 The paper, when dry, is carried to an apartment 
 where it is sized ; this is done by dipping each page, 
 that is, each bundle of thirty-four or thirty-five sheets, 
 which have been dried together, into a vat, containing 
 a weak size. This is made from shreds and parings got 
 from tanners, curriers, and parchment-makers; all the 
 putrefied parts, and the lime, are carefully separated 
 from them, and they are enclosed in a kind of basket, 
 and let down by a rope and pulley into the caldron. 
 This is a late invention, and serves two valuable pur- 
 poses. It makes it easy to draw out the pieces of 
 leather when the size is extracted from them by boiling, 
 or easy to return them into the boiler if the operation is 
 not complete. When the glutinous substance is suffi 
 ciently extracted, it is allowed to settle for some time, 
 and it is twice filtered before it is put into the vat where 
 they dip the paper. Immediately before the operation, 
 a certain quantity of alum is added to the size. The 
 workman takes a handful of the sheets, smoothed and 
 rendered as supply as possible, in his left hand, dips 
 them into the vat, and holds them separate with his 
 right, that they equally imbibe the size. After holding 
 them above the vessel for a space of time, he sizes on 
 the other side with his right hand, and again dips them 
 into the vessel. When he has finished ten or a dozen of 
 these handfuls, they are submitted to the action of the 
 press, from which the superfluous size is carried back 
 into the vat, by means of a small pipe. The vessel in 
 which the paper is sized is sometimes made of copper, 
 and finished with a grate, to give the size, when neces- 
 sary, a due temperature, and a piece of thin board or 
 felt is placed between every handful as they are laid on 
 the table of the press. 
 
 After the sheets are sized and pressed they must be 
 quickly separated from each other, to prevent their ad- 
 hering together, but it is to be remembered that the 
 size is an extremely weak solution, so that the sheets 
 will be in no danger of adhering, until they are dry. 
 In some of the most improved mills the sizing is per- 
 formed in a machine, consisting of a large square vat, 
 or wooden cistern, containing the size ; in this a strong 
 screw press is situated horizontally, the side beams of 
 the press forming the outsides of the vat, and the serew 
 works through a tight collar of leather. The press 
 being open, the sheets of paper are suspended on lines, 
 stretched in a frame, similar to those on which they are 
 dried, and this is let down to immerse them in the size ; 
 and, after remaining a proper time, the screw of the 
 press is worked, and the sheets thus gathered up into a 
 close parcel ; then the lines being withdrawn, a strong 
 pressure is given, and the paper, when taken out, is 
 finished ready to be hung up again to dry. By this 
 means the paper is sized very equally, whereas, in the 
 old method of tub-sizing, some sheets drained off more 
 size than others, and rendered them unequal as well as 
 making marks in them. 
 
 The operation of sizing is very expensive ; but, for 
 printing papers, and some others, it may be dispensed 
 with. In this case, a small quantity of oil mixed with 
 
 alum 
 
PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 473 
 
 alum, pounded very fine, is thrown into the beating- 
 engine towards the end of the process. About a pint 
 and a half, or less, is sufficient to give the paper a 
 proper quality for printing, and is rather better than 
 tub-sizing. Powder blue is also put into the engine to 
 give a bloom to the paper. 
 
 When the paper is sufficiently dry, it is carried to the 
 finishing room, called the Saul, where it is pressed, 
 selected, and examined, by women, who remove all 
 damaged and imperfect sheets ; it is then put into the 
 dry press, and squeezed with a most immense force, to 
 render the paper flat, and give it a good surface. The 
 lever of this press is fifteen or eighteen feet long, and 
 ten or twenty people are employed at the last to work 
 it, though they sometimes use Sampson; that is, a 
 windlass like a crane, with whiqji they purchase the 
 lever of the screw. The dry press is generally large 
 enough to hold two packs of ordinary paper side by 
 .side. The Saul is surrounded by the dry presses, 
 often twenty or thirty, but one windlass serves them all. 
 The paper remains under pressure as long as the de- 
 mand of the mill will admit, but while it is in this ope- 
 ration it is parted, once, twice, or even three times : to 
 do this, the heaps are carried back to the table, and 
 the whole turned sheet by sheet, in such a manner that 
 the surface of every sheet is exposed to a new one, and 
 iii this situation they are again brought under the press. 
 It is in conducting these two operations of parting and 
 pressing sometimes four or five times, or as often as the 
 nature of the paper requires, that the perfection and 
 finish of the finest writing and drawing-paper consist. 
 If the stuff is fine, or the paper slender, the parting is 
 less frequently repeated. In this operation, it is neces- 
 sary to alter the situation of the heaps, with regard to 
 one another, every time they are put under the press ; 
 and, as the heaps are highest in the middle, to place 
 small pieces of felt, which will bring all parts of the 
 pile to an equal pressure. 
 
 Mr. Bramah’s ingenious hydrostatic-press is most ad- 
 mirably adapted for dry-pressing the paper. This press 
 has no screw, but, in lieu thereof, a piston or plunger, 
 fitted accurately into a chamber, or barrel of cast iron, 
 by collars of leather ; a small force-pump is situated 
 near to the press, and water is injected by it into the 
 great chamber, and the piston is thus expelled from it ; 
 at every stroke a quantity proportioned to the quantity 
 of water injected, and this presses up the board, or 
 follower of the press, with a power in proportion to 
 the relative diameters of the pump and the piston. 
 
 The bottom of the cylinder must be made sufficiently 
 strong, with the other parts of the surface, to resist the 
 greatest strain which can ever be applied to it ; the pipe 
 from the forcing-pump communicates with the cylinder 
 at the bottom, and the pump has, of course, valves to 
 prevent the return of the water. 
 
 Now, suppose the diameter of the cylinder to be 
 twelve inches, and the diameter of the piston of the 
 small pump, or injector, only one quarter of an inch, 
 the proportion between the two surfaces or ends of the 
 
 said pistons will be as 1 to 2,304 ; and the intermediate 
 space being filled with water, which is an incompressi- 
 ble fluid, any force applied to the small piston will 
 operate upon the other in the above proportion, viz. as 
 1 to 2,304. Suppose the small piston, or injector, to 
 be forced down, when in the act of forcing or inject- 
 ing, with a weight of twenty hundred, which can easily 
 be done by means of a long lever, the piston of the 
 great cylinder would then be moved up with a force 
 equal to twenty hundred weight multiplied by 2,304, or 
 2,304 tons. 
 
 In a screw-press, of a fine thread, it requires nearly 
 as much labour to unscrew as to screw it down, an evi- 
 dence of the enormous friction of a screw when acting 
 against a great pressure ; but the hydrostatic-press only 
 requires a cock to be opened to let out the water from 
 beneath the piston, which then descends quickly by its 
 own gravity, or the elasticity of the substance under 
 the pressure. The greatest convenience of the hydros- 
 tatic-press is, that the power can so easily be trans- 
 mitted to it from any distance, and in any direction, by 
 means of pipes conducted along in situations, where 
 all other means of conveying the motion would be com- 
 plicated and expensive in the extreme. Thus, in a 
 large paper-mill, an injecting pump may be kept in 
 constant action by the water-mill, and inject water into 
 an air vessel, from which pipes are conducted to 
 presses in all parts of the mill, and by simply opening 
 a cock at any press, the required pressure will be in- 
 stantly given by the elasticity of the confined air ope- 
 rating on the enlarged surface of the piston of any 
 press. The air vessel has, of course, a safety-valve to 
 allow the escape of the water, when the pressure be- 
 comes so great as to endanger the rupture of any of the 
 vessels ; for it is to be observed, that the power of this 
 principle is irresistible when the pump is worked .by 
 a mill, and will burst any vessels without the least ap- 
 pearances of strain on the moving parts of the pump. 
 To avoid the necessity of having such a number of 
 presses for the dry-work of a mill, Mr. Bramah, in- 
 stead of more presses, proposes to use a considerable 
 number of another kind of apparatus called retainers, 
 which consist of a top and bottom bed, of wood or 
 metal, of sufficient strength to resist the re-action of the 
 paper, when the press is slackened from its severest 
 squeeze, and to retain it, in its most compressed state, 
 for any required length of time, after the grasp of the press 
 has been finally withdrawn. In these retainer^ verti- 
 cal bars are fixed at the corners of the lower bed, 
 passing through the holes in the upper one, and have 
 each several holes to receive wedges or keys ; by which 
 the upper bed of the retainer is confined to preserve the 
 state into which it has been pressed, notwithstanding 
 any efforts of the paper or felts to expand to the space 
 they originally occupied. These retainers are mounted 
 upon wheels, applied to the lower boards, in the man- 
 ner of a truck, and a railway is laid which goes through 
 the press, so that the paper may be piled upon the 
 trucks; the top board is then put on, and the whole 
 6 E wheeled 
 
474 
 
 PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 wheeled into the press, and the operation being finished, 
 the retainer is made fast ; the press is slackened, and the 
 whole is wheeled forwards, leaving the press vacant for 
 the reception of another retainer. 
 
 After the dry-pressing, the paper is finished, and only j 
 requires to be assorted into different lots, according to | 
 its quality and faults ; after which it is made up into ; 
 quires. The person who does this must possess great j 
 skill, and be capable of attention, because he acts as a j 
 check on those who separated the paper into different | 
 lots. He takes the sheets with his right hand to fold i 
 and examine them, laying them over his left arm till he 
 has the number requisite for a quire ; then brings the 
 sides parallel to one another, and places them in heaps 
 under the table. 
 
 The paper is afterwards collected into reams, of 
 twenty quires each, packed up for the last time, and 
 put under the press, where it is continued for ten or 
 twelve hours, or as long as the demand of the paper- 
 mill permits. 
 
 A great revolution has been recently made in the art 
 of paper-making, by the adoption of machinery for 
 fabricating it from the pulp, and, at one operation, 
 pressing it between the felts, and rendering it fit for the 
 second pressure, by which an immense saving of labour 
 is made, and the quality of the paper improved. 
 Messrs. Fourdrineer’s have a patent for these machines, 
 of which they have erected great numbers in different 
 parts of the kingdom. Their construction is extremely 
 curious and not easily explained without drawings. A 
 wire cloth, of many yards in length, is used ; its ends 
 being sewed together, and it is extended horizontally 
 between two rollers, so as to represent a table, which, 
 by the revolution of the rollers is in constant motion ; 
 at one end, the vat, containing the pulp, is situated, 
 having a lip, or low side, at which the pulp runs over in 
 a continued stream upon the cloth, and is, by its mo- 
 tion, carried forwards; the cloth is contrived to have a 
 continual shaking motion sideways, which tends with 
 the draining through of the water to coagulate the pulp 
 into a sheet of paper ; this is taken off from the wire, 
 at the other end, in a continued sheet, between a pair 
 of rollers, like those of a flatting-mill; each of these 
 has an endless felt passing round it, and the paper is in- 
 troduced to receive its pressure between the felts, so 
 that it is delivered from the machine in a continued dry 
 and firm sheet. A reel, turned by the machine, re- 
 ceives the paper, and winds it up as it comes off the 
 cloth ; and when a sufficient quantity is w'ound on it, it 
 is cut off by a knife, which, by cutting through the 
 folds, divides the paper into separate sheets, which are 
 ready for the operation of the second press. The ma- 
 chines are constructed with the cloth so wide, that the' 
 continual sheet is cut up into two, and sometimes three, 
 in width, by which means it produces an immense 
 
 number of sheets in a short time ; but the greatest ad- 
 vantage is in making very large sheets, which it will do 
 to almost any extent in length, and as much as two 
 yards in width. This machine is only adapted for 
 making wove paper, but a patent has lately been taken 
 out for carrying this invention further, and making the 
 paper with lines in it, which is done in separate moulds 
 similar to those at present used, but worked by ma- 
 chinery. 
 
 Mr. Bramah, Mr. Dickenson, and Mr. Cobb, have, 
 at different periods, taken out patents for paper-ma- 
 chines ; but it has not come to our knowledge whether 
 they have carried their inventions into practice, as Messrs. 
 Fourdrineer’s have done. 
 
 The great price which rags have acquired of late 
 years, in consequence of the great increase of printing 
 and the paper trade, has induced many ingenious men 
 to turn their attention to discover other materials for 
 making paper. A very large manufactory was esta- 
 blished some years ago, in London, for making straw- 
 paper at Mill Bank, by the river-side, but the scheme 
 proved abortive, and the premises were lately disposed 
 of. 
 
 In 1802, Mr. Matthias Koop invented the followiug 
 method of making straw-paper, for which he obtained a 
 patent. For each pound of straw, or hay, a pound 
 or a pound and a half of quicklime is to be dissolved in 
 about a gallon or six quarts of river water. The hay, 
 or straw, is to be cut into portions about two inches in 
 length, then boiled in a considerable quantity of water, 
 viz. about two gallons to a pound of materials, for three 
 quarters of an hour. It is then to be macerated in the 
 solution of lime and water for five, six, seven, or more 
 days, taking care to agitate the mass by frequently stir- 
 ring and turning it over. At the end of this time the 
 lime-water is to be drawn off, and the materials to be 
 washed very clean, then boiled in a large portion of 
 clean river water. This part of the operation is to be 
 repeated ; and, for the sake of improving the colour of 
 the paper, one pound of dissolved crystal of soda, or 
 pot-ash, may be used to every thirty-six pounds of straw 
 or hay. When the materials are pressed out of the 
 water, the manufacture of them into paper may be 
 proceeded with by the usual and well-known processes, 
 [n some cases, the patentee has thought it advisable to 
 suffer the materials to ferment and heat before they 
 were reduced to a pulp, as was formerly the case with 
 the rags for paper-making. This, however, will always 
 depend upon the warmth of the season. 
 
 When thistles are used, they are to be cut down when 
 the bloom begins to fall, to be dried, and reduced into 
 lengths of two inches ; and then the same process to be 
 made use of, as has been already described with regard 
 to the straw and hay. See Staining. 
 
 PATTEN-MAKING. 
 
PATTEN-MAKING. 
 
 This is one of the minor manufactures, when car- 
 ried on alone, but it is often conducted with some other 
 branches of business. A patten has been defined an 
 under shoe of w'ood, with an iron ring, worn under the 
 common shoe by women, to keep them from the dirt. 
 Trifling as this article is, yet it requires the aid of seve- 
 ral persons to render it complete. The wooden sole, 
 or support, is made chiefly of beech, by persons in 
 London or elsewhere ; the iron rings are manufactured 
 at Birmingham and Sheffield ; the leathern straps require 
 the aid of the currier or leather-dresser ; and, besides 
 these, ribbands or other strings are wanting to fasten 
 those straps tight to the feet. The chief tool for the 
 wood-work is a knife, of peculiar construction, fastened 
 down at one end and moveable on a joint at the other. 
 This seems to be the only description necessary with 
 regard to the common patten. It may, however, be 
 right to say, that His Majesty’s letters patent have been 
 granted to two persons for improvements of this article. 
 In the year 1798, Mr. Hornblower obtained an exclu- 
 sive right for an invention that is thus described:— 
 First, instead of that part of the common pattens now 
 made of wood, to which the rings are rivetted, he sub- 
 stitutes iron, or any other metallic substance, which 
 renders them, he says, much more elegant, lighter, 
 and not so liable to collect the dirt. Secondly, in order 
 to make the pattens as light as possible, he makes them 
 of thin iron plates, or of latten, or iron dipped in tin ; 
 and to prevent their bending or giving way, by the 
 weight of the wearer, he applies a piece of iron, or 
 other metallic substance, under the bend of the patten, 
 rivetted at each end, which prevents the patten from 
 bending or getting out of the true form. Thirdly, he 
 causes the ties to be fixed to the iron by rivetting, or 
 otherwise. Fourthly, in some cases, instead of the 
 ties now made, he applies elastic ties, made of any 
 metallic substance, covered with leather, cloth, &c., 
 
 something in the "same way as the ties are usually ma- 
 naged. And, lastly, he fixes to the hinder part of the 
 patten, or otherwise, an elastic string, made of brass 
 wire, covered with leather or cloth, and coming round 
 the hinder part of the foot, by means of which the 
 patten is fixed very firmly on the foot. 
 
 In June, 1801, Mr. Josiah Longmore obtained a 
 patent for the manufacture of a patten or clog, which, 
 by the aid of an elastic tongue or spring, made of iron, 
 or any other metallic substance, through a perforated 
 hole in the middle of the block of the patten, presses 
 against the sole of the shoe, thereby keeping it tight 
 against the ties. The foot or block of the patten or 
 clog may be made of iron, wood, cork, or of any 
 other material adapted to the occasion, or of any two or 
 more substances united. 
 
 Patten-shoes have been introduced into the veterinary 
 art : it is a horse-shoe so called, under which is soldered 
 a sort of ball of iron, hollow within. It is designed 
 for hip-shot horses, and put upon the sound limb, so 
 that the horse not being able to stand easily upon that 
 foot may be obliged to support himself upon the lame 
 foot, and thus counteract the disposition in the sinews 
 1 to contract the haunch. Some writers on this subject 
 j contend that the patten-shoe is only necessary in old 
 lamenesses where the muscles have been a long while 
 contracted. 
 
 In some parts of Lincolnshire, a patten of a different 
 kind has been used, namely, a flat piece of board, 
 adapted by proper ties to each foot of the horse, when 
 I he is sent on land too tender to bear the w'eight of the 
 animal ; and from land that w'ould be much injured by 
 the horses in the common way, great crops have thus 
 been obtained. By cultivation, the same soil has, in a 
 few years, become sufficiently firm to carry the horses 
 ; without this precaution. 
 
 PIN-MAKING. 
 
PIN MAKING. 
 
 A Pin, though an apparently insignificant instrument, 
 is an important article in commerce. The art of 
 making pins, of brass wire, was not known in England 
 before the year 1543 : prior to that period they were 
 made of bone, ivory, or box. In the year 1543, by 
 statute 34 and 35 of Henry VIII., cap. vi., it was 
 enacted, “ that no person shall put to sale any pins, but 
 only such as shall be double-headed, and have the heads 
 soldered fast to the shank of the pins, well smoothed ; 
 the shank well shapen, the points w'ell and round filed, 
 cauted, and sharpened.” From the above extract it 
 should appear that the art of pin-making is but of late 
 invention, probably introduced from France, and that 
 our manufactories since that period have been wonder- 
 fully improved. 
 
 The pin manufactory was introduced into Gloucester, 
 in 1626, by John Tilsby. There are now, in Glou- 
 cester, nine distinct pin manufactories, which employ, 
 together, at least, 1,500 persons. The pins sent an- 
 nually to' the metropolis amount to the value of <£20,000: 
 but the chief demand is from Spain and America. 
 
 Though pins are of apparently simple construction, 
 their manufacture, however, is not a little curious and 
 complex. We have traced, says a traveller, with much 
 pleasure the whole process in the manufactories at 
 Gloucester, and observed, that the article, small as it 
 is, passes through several hands from its first state of 
 rough wire to its being stuck in paper for sale. The 
 following may suffice for a general sketch of the me- 
 thod. 
 
 When the brass wire, of which the pins are formed, 
 is first received at the manufactory, it is generally too ! 
 thick for the purpose of being cut into pins. The | 
 first operation, therefore, is that of winding it off from ] 
 one wheel to another, with great velocity, and causing ! 
 it to pass between the two through a circle, in a piece j 
 of iron of smaller diameter ; the wire being thus re- ! 
 duced to its proper dimensions, is straightened by 
 drawing it betw’een iron pins, fixed in a board, in a 
 zig-zag manner, but so as to leave a straight line be- 
 tween them ; afterwards, it is cut into lengths of three 
 or four yards, and then into smaller ones, every length 
 being sufficient to make six pins : each end of these is 
 ground to a point, which is done by boys, each of 
 whom sits with two small grinding-stones before him, 
 turned by a wheel. Taking up a number in his hands 
 he applies the ends to the coarsest of the two stones, 
 being careful, at the same time, to keep each piece 
 
 moving round between his fingers, so that the points 
 may not become fiat : he next gives them a smoother 
 and sharper point, by applying them to the other stone. 
 By this means, a lad of fourteen years old is enabled to 
 point sixteen thousand pins in an hour. When the wire 
 is thus pointed, a pin is taken off from each end, and 
 this is repeated. The next operation is that of forming 
 the heads, or, as it is termed, head-spinning, which is 
 done by means of a sort of spinning-wheel ; one piece 
 of wire being thus, with great rapidity, wound round 
 another, and the interior one being drawn out, leaves a 
 hollow tube between the circumvolutions ; it is then cut 
 with shears, every two circumvolutions or turns of the 
 wire forming one, head: these are softened by throwing 
 them into iron pans, and placing them in a furnace till 
 they are red hot. As soon as they are cold they are 
 distributed to children, who sit w ith anvils and hammers 
 before them, which they w r ork with their feet, by means 
 of a lathe, and, taking up one of the lengths, they 
 thrust the blunt ends into a quantity of heads which lie 
 before them, and catching one at the extremity, they 
 apply it immediately to the anvil and hammer, and, by 
 a motion or two of the foot, the pointed end and the 
 head are fixed together in much less time than it can be 
 described, and with a dexterity only to be acquired by 
 practice. 
 
 We may notice a new invention for heading pins by 
 Mr. William Bundy, of Camden Town, to whom was 
 granted His Majesty’s letters patent, in September 1 809- 
 This operation is performed by means of a frame or 
 stock made of metal, in which are fitted a pair of steel 
 dies, in the manner of those generally used in the ma- 
 nufacture of screws, held together by cylinders ; the 
 dimensions may be various, according to the quality of 
 the work, but the dies most generally in use are about 
 tvvo[inches long, and one inch wide. In the prominent 
 parts and on that side of each of the two dies which 
 comes in contact when in use are made corresponding 
 grooves, which when pressed together form holes, each 
 to be the diameter of the shaft intended to have the 
 head fixed on ; these holes may be made tapering up- 
 wards, or contracted at that part close under the head, 
 where half a hemisphere, whose diameter being that of 
 the size of the head required, is to be worked out. 
 Viewing the dies thus worked, and in a particular kind 
 of frame, which is the position in which they are placed 
 while introducing the pointed shafts, each having a head 
 loosely put on, the upper die being at liberty in the 
 
 fiame, 
 
PIN-MAKING. 
 
 477 
 
 frame* the pressure of its weight will be found sufficient 
 to hold the number of shafts, with their heads in their 
 respective places, while they are pushed forwards with 
 a straight motion, till the quantity of the heads prevents 
 the shafts from going any farther. In this state it is ne- 
 cessary to turn a lever, to which is fixed a screw for the 
 purpose of forcing the dies together, which will hold the 
 shafts fil m enough to receive a stroke from a press on the 
 top piece to secure and form complete the whole number 
 of heads in the dies. The hemispheres are to be 
 finished according to fancy, as respects the ornament or 
 figure of moulding intended for the top of the head by- 
 sinking them accordingly. The patentee says, “ I leave 
 a point in the centre of those cavities in the top piece, 
 which, serves when forced into the top of the shaft to 
 widen it there, and form a rivet, and thereby secure 
 the head firm from coming off the top of the shaft; and 
 the dies being hard screwed together with the lever, 
 there will be a collar formed by that pressure on the 
 shaft under the head sufficient to prevent the liability of 
 the head being by any ordinary means forced down the 
 shaft. Having described the working parts and ex- 
 plained the process by the drawings, Mr. Bundy adds, 
 that placing the whole in a fly press, one stroke there- 
 with on the top piece will be found sufficient to com- 
 plete the whole number of heads in the dies. Hitherto 
 it has been the practice to strike the head several times, 
 “ but my method,” says Mr. B., “ of effectually and 
 securely fastening the heads on the shafts, and leaving 
 the heads of a superior form, is by placing the shafts 
 in a perpendicular direction, and striking the heads and 
 shafts on their tops, which I call superior heads, and 
 which method I claim as my invention. To succeed in 
 the completest manner in forming these superior heads, 
 it will be necessary that the dimensions of the heads be- 
 fore they are fixed to the shafts, should be particularly 
 attended to. If they are to be of nearly a spherical 
 figure, they should be prepared of a greater depth of 
 axis than the diameter ; that the diameter may be 
 small enough to go freely into the hemispheres in the 
 dies and top piece which are to receive them ; for this 
 purpose head wire may be made flat, either by drawing 
 or rolling to a size, so that when spun, one or more 
 rounds will be sufficient for a head. I recommend 
 head wire of a smaller size than ordinary without flatting, 
 so that when spun and cut three rounds, it shall con- 
 
 tain the quantity of metal required for the size of the 
 intended head.” When the heads have been fixed on 
 the shafts by the fly press, the screw is then to be 
 turned back by a lever, and taking hold of the milled 
 head, which is on the head of the small shaft, and 
 which goes through the screw, and is fixed to the top 
 dies by being screwed hard in the die : it may be drawn 
 back to separate the dies sufficiently w'ide for the supe- 
 rior headed pins which they contain, to fall through into 
 some place prepared to receive them. 
 
 The pin is now finished as to its form, but still it is 
 brass ; it is therefore thrown into a copper containing 
 a solution of tin and leys of wine, where it remains 
 some time, but when taken out it assumes a white but 
 very dull appearance : to give it a polish, it is put into 
 a tub containing a quantity of bran, which is set in 
 motion by turning a shaft that runs through its centre ; 
 and thus by means of friction it becomes perfectly 
 bright. The pin being complete, it only remains to 
 separate it from the bran, which is performed by a sort 
 of winnowing, the bran flying off and leaving the pin 
 behind. 
 
 On the Continent the mode of tinning brass pins is 
 rather different from that just described. A vessel is 
 filled by layers with plates of tin and brass pins, a tin 
 plate being at the bottom and another at the top. The 
 vessel is then filled with water, adding some cream of 
 tartar, by the acid of which the tin is dissolved. After 
 about five hours boiling the pins are found to be uni- 
 formly tinned. 
 
 The pins of this country are those most in repute, as 
 well in the pointing as the whitening, because our pin- 
 makers in pointing use two steel mills, the first of 
 which forms the point, and the latter takes off the irre- 
 gularities, and renders it smooth, and as it were po- 
 lished. In whitening they make use of the best block- 
 tin granulated, whereas in some places they are said to 
 have recourse to a mixture of tin, lead, and quicksilver ; 
 which not only whitens worse than tin, but is also dan- 
 gerous on account of the ill quality of the mixture, 
 which renders a puncture with a pin thus whitened 
 somewhat difficult to be cured. 
 
 Pins are sometimes made of iron-wire, rendered 
 black by a varnish of linseed-oil with lamp-black : these 
 are designed for the dress of persons in mourning. 
 
 6 F 
 
 PIPE-MAKING. 
 
PIPE-MAKING. 
 
 Pipes are of various sorts, as tobacco-pipes, once 
 much in use by persons of all conditions, but now the 
 practice of smoking tobacco is very generally laid aside 
 by persons in the middle class of life, and almost wholly 
 by those who move in the higher circles. Still the 
 demand for them is considerable, and there are many 
 manufacturers of them in the vicinity of London. It j 
 seems, however, to be one of the very lowest among j 
 our manufactures, and those employed in it seem never 
 to rise to a state of competence. There are pipes 
 likewise which answer the purpose of canals or conduits 
 for the conveyance of water and other liquids. These 
 are made of wood, of lead, of iron, of copper, of 
 pottery ware, and of stone. We shall give a sketch of 
 the manufacture of these. 
 
 Tobacco-pipes are too well known to need a minute | 
 description : they consist of a long tube from 12 to 15 | 
 or 18 inches in length, made of a peculiar kind of clay, 
 having at one end a little bowl for the reception of to- 
 bacco, the smoke of which when lighted is drawn by 
 the mouth through the other end. Tobacco-pipes are 
 made of various shapes and fashions : some are long, 
 others are short ; some are very plain, and can in these 
 times be sold to the publicans at the rate of four or five 
 a penny ; others are handsomely wrought and varnished 
 of different colours, and are sold as high as from eight 
 to twelve shillings per gross. The Turks who are 
 famed for smoking, make use of pipes three or four 
 feet long made of rushes or of wood, bored at the end 
 whereon they fix a kind of pot of baked earth, which 
 serves as a bowl and which they take off after smoking. 
 The clay of which tobacco-pipes are made is perfectly 
 white, and is distinguished from other kinds of clay by 
 its great adhesion to the tongue, which is well known 
 to be considerable when baked, in consequence of its 
 affinity to water. In a raw state this property is per- 
 ceptible in a slight degree. The pipe-clay is found at 
 the island of Purbeck in Dorsetshire, and at Teign- 
 mouth, in Devonshire, in large lumps which are purified 
 by dissolving in water in large pits ; the solution being well 
 stirred up is poured off into another, where it subsides 
 and deposits the clay ; the water becoming clear is let 
 off, and the clay at the bottom is left sufficiently dry 
 for use ; by this means the smallest stones or particles 
 of foreign matter are left at the bottom of the first pit ; 
 the clay thus prepared is spread on a board and beaten 
 with an iron bar to temper and mix it ; then it is divid- 
 ed into pieces of the proper size to form a tobacco- 
 pipe ; each of these pieces is rolled under the hand into 
 a Jong roll with a bulb at one end to form the bowl, 
 
 and in this state they are laid up in parcels for a day or 
 two, until they become sufficiently dry for pressing, 
 which is the next process, and is conducted in the fol- 
 lowing manner : the roll of clay has a small wire thrust 
 nearly through its whole length to form the tube, and is 
 put in between two iron moulds, each of which has 
 imprinted in it the figure of one half of a pipe, and 
 therefore when put together the cavity between them is 
 the figure of a whole pipe. They are put together by 
 pins which enter holes in the opposite half. The 
 moulds with the clay in them are now put into a press 
 which consists of an iron frame formed of two plates, 
 one of which is fixed down to the bench, and the other 
 pressed towards it by a screw turned round by a handle. 
 The moulds are put in between the two plates, and the 
 screw being turned round presses them together, im- 
 printing the figure of a pipe on the clay included be- 
 tween them. The lever is next depressed, and the 
 stopper entering the mould forms the bowl of the 
 pipe, and the wire which is still in the pipe is thrust 
 backwards and forwards to carry the tube completely 
 into the bowl. The press is now opened by turning 
 j back the screw, and the mould taken out. A knife is 
 next thrust into a cleft of the mould left for the purpose, 
 j to cut the end of the bowl smooth and flat: the wire is 
 j carefully withdrawn, and the pipe taken out of the 
 , mould. The pipes when so far completed are laid by 
 two or three days properly arranged for the air to have 
 ; access to them in all their parts, till they become stiff, 
 when they are dressed with scrapers to take off the im- 
 pression of the joints of the moulds : they are after- 
 i wards smoothed and polished with a piece of hard 
 i wood. The next process is baking or burning, and this 
 is performed in a furnace of peculiar construction. It 
 t is built within a cylinder of brick-work, having a dome 
 at top, and a chimney rising from it to a considerable 
 I height to promote the draught. Within this is a lining 
 | of fire-brick-work having a fire-place at the bottom of 
 it. The pot which contains the pipes is formed of 
 j broken pieces of pipes and cemented together by fresh 
 clay and hardened by burning : it has a number of verti- 
 cal flues surrounding it, conducting the flame from 
 the fire-grate up to the dome, and through a hole in the 
 1 dome into the chimney. Within the pot several pro- 
 | jecting rings are made, and upon these the bowls of the 
 pipes are supported, the ends resting upon circular 
 pieces of pottery which stand on small loose pillars rising 
 up in the centre. By this sort of arrangement a small 
 pot or crucible can be made to contain fifty gross of 
 pipes without the risk of damaging any of them. The 
 
PIPE-MAKING. 
 
 479 
 
 pipes are put into the pot at one side when the crucible 
 is open, but when filled this orifice is made up with 
 broken pipes and fresh clay. At first, the fire is but 
 gentle, and it is increased by degrees to the proper 
 temperature, and so continued for seven or eight 
 hours, when it is damped and suffered to cool gradu- 
 ally, and when cold the pipes are taken out ready for 
 sale. We have been aided in the above description, by 
 attending at the manufactory for pipes of Mr. W. An- 
 drews, Highgate, and observing the several processes 
 from the clay in lumps to the perfect pipe. 
 
 Wooden pipes are trees bored with large iron augers 
 of different sizes, beginning with the less and proceed- 
 ing on to those that are larger ; the first being pointed, 
 the rest are formed like spoons, increasing in diameter 
 from one to six or eight inches ; they are fitted into the 
 extremities of each other. Wooden pipes, if small, 
 are frequently bored by mere manual labour, but where 
 they are large and made of hard wood, the use of 
 horses or of the steam engine is required. On the 
 large scale the following will serve as a description : the 
 piece of timber, or perhaps the tree itself, when a little 
 shaped on the outside by the axe, intended to form a 
 pipe, is placed on a frame and held down firmly upon 
 it by means of iron chains going over it and round two 
 windlasses ; it is at the same time wedged up to pre- 
 vent its rolling sideways : if the piece is tolerably 
 straight this will answer every purpose, otherwise it 
 must be fixed firm by wedges, iron hooks, &c., similar 
 to those used by sawyers, drove into the carriage at one 
 end and into the tree at the other. The frame and 
 tree being bound together run upon small wheels travers- 
 ing two long beams, or as they are usually called 
 ground-sills, placed on each side of a pit dug to re- 
 ceive the chips made by the borers. At one end they 
 are connected by a cross beam bolted upon them ; this 
 supports the bearing for a shaft, the extremity of 
 which beyond the bearing is perforated at the end of a j 
 square hole, to receive the end of the borer. The tim- 
 ber and carriage are made to advance towards the \ 
 borer by means of ropes : one rope being made to wind 
 up, while the other gives out and draws the carriage 
 and piece of timber backwards and forwards according | 
 as the wheel is turned. The weight of the borer is 
 supported by a wheel turning between uprights fixed ! 
 on a block, the end of which rests upon the ground-sills. ! 
 It is moved forwards by two iron bars pinned to the 
 front cross-bar of the carriage. The distance between I 
 the wheel and the carriage may be varied, by altering ! 
 the iron bar and pins so as to bring the wheel always as 
 near as convenient to the end of the tree. The shaft, ! 
 as we have already hinted, may be turned by any first ' 
 mover, as w ind, water, horses, or steam, as is most 
 convenient, and a man or boy regulates the wheel. 
 When the borer is put in motion by turning the wheel, 
 he draws the tree up to the borer that pierces it ; when 
 a few inches are bored he draws the tree back by re- 
 versing the motion of the wheel, in order that the bo- 
 rer may throw out its chips; he then returns the tree, 1 
 
 and continues the process till the work is finished. The 
 borer in this case, be its size what it will, is of the 
 same shape as that of a common auger. 
 
 Mr. Howel, of Oswestry, some years back, invented 
 an engine for the purpose of boring or hollowing 
 wooden water-pipes, by means of which the process is 
 [ not only much more expeditious, but causes a consi- 
 | derable saving of timber. By this mode, instead of 
 ! the common method of boring by augers, or instru- 
 I ments of any other description which perforate the 
 I wood by cutting out the inner part of the substance in 
 j chips or shavings, a hollow tube or cylinder, made of 
 thin plates of iron, or other metal, about one inch less 
 I in diameter than the hole to be bored, is to be 
 I made use of. To one end of this tube or cylinder is to 
 j be fixed a flanch or ring, of from one quarter of an 
 j inch to five-eights of an inch in breadth ; and one part 
 ! of the circumference of this flanch or ring is to be di- 
 ; vided or separated, so that if it be made of steel, an 
 ! edge or cutter may be formed thereby ; or, for the 
 I more convenient use of it, a cutter of steel, or other 
 ; metal, may be screwed, or otherwise connected with 
 I the tube and the flanch or ring. The operation of this 
 i instrument is, that it will bore out a piece of wood ca- 
 pable of being converted into a pipe or pipes of less 
 i dimensions, and that it will do this with the aid of less 
 power, and at less expense and with less waste of wood 
 than by means of the boring instrument now in use. 
 
 By another invention, pipes have been made of 
 separate pieces or staves, instead of boring a solid tree 
 or timber. In this case, the end of one piece of pipe 
 is tapered off to fit into the next piece, and the different 
 parts are connected by dove-tailing, rabbeting, or by 
 means of screws, or by any other method of joining 
 the surfaces of w'ood together. The outer and inner 
 surfaces may be painted, varnished, or covered over 
 with pitch, tar, or any kind of cement that can be made 
 to adhere to wood. 
 
 The method of making leaden pipes consists in casting 
 the lead upon a smooth steel mandril, placed in a 
 mould also of metal, to form the outside. These 
 pieces are about eighteen inches long. They are after- 
 wards joined together by a process called lining. 
 
 A very great improvement has been made in the ma- 
 nufacture of leaden pipes, by drawing them in a manner 
 similar to wire. The lead to form the pipe is cast 
 upon a mandril of the diameter of the inside of the 
 pipe, but of such a thickness as to equal the whole 
 pipe in weight ; it is then fastened upon one end of a 
 eylindric steel mandril, and the lead is pulled through 
 different sized holes till the pipe is of sufficient length and 
 thickness. These pipes can be drawn to the length of 
 eight or ten feet. The power required, however, is 
 very great, which is one objection to the method. They 
 are also liable to flaws, for, if the casting happen to 
 be imperfect, the imperfection is much increased and 
 extended by the process of drawing. 
 
 This manufacture has been much improved by pass- 
 ing the lead upon the mandril through grooved rollers 
 
 of 
 
480 
 
 PIPE-MAKING. 
 
 of different sizes, following each other in succession. I 
 The power required is much less than that required for 
 drawing ; and the pipes are said to be superior in other 
 respects. For this method of manufacturing leaden 
 pipes, Mr. John Wilkinson obtained His Majesty’s 
 letters patent about twenty years ago. 
 
 For the manufacturing of iron pipes, we refer to the 
 article Founding, it being a considerable branch 
 of the iron-founder’s business. Copper and tin are 
 rarely used for pipe-making ; the former being too ex- 
 pensive, and the latter not sufficiently durable : when, 
 however, recourse is had to these metals, they are bent 
 round mandrils, or other proper instruments, and the 
 edges soldered together. 
 
 Of late years we have seen pipes, made of pottery, 
 brought much into use. In the neighbourhood of 
 London, and other large towns, where it is difficult to 
 preserve any thing from the hands of the pilferer, they 
 are excellent substitutes for lead, as they afford no 
 temptation to theft, and if the passage be always kept 
 clear, so that the w r ater will not be stopped in its 
 course, they must be durable. Mr. Bell, of Birming- 
 ham, in ]808, obtained, by His Majesty’s letters 
 patent, the exclusive privilege of manufacturing them. 
 We shall transcribe his own account attached to the 
 specification : — 
 
 “ It has been found, by long experience, that pumps 
 or pipes for conducting water from water-works which 
 have been made of wood, or iron, lead, or any other 
 metallic substances, have been justly objected to, for 
 the various following reasons : 
 
 “ First. Pumps or pipes which are made of wood 
 are liable to constant decay, and in a short time to be- 
 come rotten : and it is invariably the case that in their 
 rotten or decayed parts they generate insects and vast 
 numbers of noxious animalculae, which may always be 
 discovered in water which passes through wood pipes or 
 pumps which have been some time in use; and Dr. 
 Buchan • bserves, that ‘ waters become putrid by the 
 corruption of animal and vegetable bodies with which 
 they abound.’ Water, which is conducted through 
 pumps or pipes which are made of iron, lead, copper, 
 or most other metallic bodies, becomes impregnated 
 with the corrosive qualities of thb metals which renders 
 it unwholesome and poisonous, and, of course, unfit 
 for cooking or washing linen, and many other domestic 
 uses. The nature of my improvement is, therefore, to 
 remove the aforesaid objections, which I completely 
 perform by making tubes of porcelain pottery, and va- 
 rious compositions which are verifiable, and are not 
 liable to corrosion or decay. These tubes are formed 
 in such a way at the ends as to fit one within the other, 
 which I connect or unite together by cement, so as to 
 make them water or air tight. And by the addition of 
 any number of these tubes, connected as aforesaid, I 
 form one complete tube or pipe to any extent which 
 may be required. I prefer the method of enclosing 
 them in cast-iron pipes or cases, which are to be made 
 |u various ways and forms; which pipes or cases serve 
 
 as defenders of these porcelain or pottery tubes, to 
 prevent breaking or bursting. Cases or pipes may be 
 made of wood, and various other substances, for en- 
 closing these porcelain or pottery tubes or pipes ; but, 
 for the sake of compactness, strength, and durability, I 
 recommend cast-iron cases, boxes, or pipes. There 
 are compound metals which are less corrosive than the 
 real metals as aforesaid, of which tubes may be made, 
 and if enclosed in the manner before described would 
 | be useful in conducting water and various liquids, either 
 j hot or cold, for particular purposes ; as also thin tubes, 
 j made of wood, which may be prepared for durability 
 ! by boiling it, or burning or charring it, which has the 
 i effect of preventing its breeding or harbouring insects, 
 &c. These, in addition to my porcelain or pottery 
 j tubes enclosed, I claim the originality of.” 
 
 The Manchester Water-Works Company employ 
 stone pipes for the conveyance of their water, and the 
 ! stone which they have found most suitable to their pur- 
 pose comes from a quarry ai Fox-Hill, in the parish of 
 Gorting-Power, Gloucestershire, which is very like the 
 Portland-stone ; but the latter is the more dense or spe- 
 cifically heavy, in the proportion of 17 to J 6'; that is, 
 the Fox-hill stone requires seventeen cubical feet to the 
 , ton, but sixteen feet only of the Portland-stone go to 
 the ton. The following method is used in boring the 
 ' stone for pipes : the first mover is a steam-engine of a 
 power adapted to the work, giving a rotatory motion to a 
 shaft placed horizontally, and running from one end of 
 the w'drks to the other. The works are divided into 
 1 compartments, each of which serves for the boring of 
 1 four pipes at the same time ; by means of what is 
 known to mechanics, by the name of the bevel-geer, 
 motion is communicated from the main horizontal shaft 
 to a vertical arbor, at the top of which is a wheel. 
 
 ; The rotatory motion of this w heel, by means of a crank 
 bar, gives a reciprocating motion to the larger wheel, 
 and this latter motion is such as to give rather more 
 i than a complete rotation to each of four smaller wheels 
 ■ placed opposite ; with respect to the larger wheel, the 
 i mutual connexion between them and it, being by means 
 ; of teeth or cogs. Thus the small wheels go through 
 somewhat more than a complete rotation in one direc- 
 tion, and then rather more than a complete rotation in 
 the opposite direction, and so on alternately. On the 
 vertical shafts, beneath the smaller wheels, are placed 
 iron tubes, which are suffered to act by their own 
 weights upon the stones to be bored, and by means of 
 their rotation to bore those stones by attrition. The 
 stones are cut into lengths of six. or eight feet, and 
 bored into pipes of various diameters. When the pipes 
 are of fourteen inches diameter, the thickness of stone 
 allowed is about five inches. The tubes, by which the 
 boring is effected, are, of course, fourteen inches in 
 diameter, and weigh about one hundred and a half. 
 They are made of thin plate iron, except their circular 
 rim or sole at the bottom, which is about half an inch 
 thick. As the attrition wears away the stones oujwhich 
 the soles of the tubes rest, they sink lower and lower ; 
 
PLANING. 
 
 481 
 
 the whole is kept inoist by a sort of semi-fluid mixture 
 of sand and water, which runs down from the small 
 wheels at the top of the tubes, and, after sinking to the 
 
 bottom of those tubes, carries up with it the particles 
 of the stone taken off during the process of boring. 
 
 PLANING. 
 
 Although this art is strictly connected with Car- 
 pentry, Joinery, and Cabinet-making, yet we make a 
 distinct article of it, in order to introduce an account 
 of Mr. Bramah’s patent machinery, which we believe 
 to be not only interesting and curious, but adapted to 
 various purposes of utility. 
 
 A plane is an edged tool for paring and shaving of 
 wood smooth. It consists of a block of wood, very 
 smooth at bottom, as a stock or shaft, in the middle of 
 which is an aperture, and through this passes a steel 
 edge, or chisel, placed obliquely, which, being sharp, i 
 takes off the inequalities of the wood over which it j 
 is slid along. Planes have various names according 
 to their forms, sizes, and uses. Thus, Fig. SO, 
 Plate I, Carpentry, represents the /ore-plane, or 
 j'acA-plane, which is very long, and is usually that 
 which is first used : the steel or chisel part is composed 
 of two pieces shewn in Fig. 32 and 33, and in this 
 plane they are not ground quite straight, but are left a 
 little convex. They are called the top and bottom 
 irons ; the top iron having a .screw in it, by which it is ' 
 fastened to the other after the edges are sharpened. 
 The use of the jack-plane is to take off the greater 
 irregularities of the stuff, and to prepare it for the 
 smoothing plane. 
 
 The smoothing-plane, Fig. 34, is short and small ; 
 its chisel being finer, and its use is to take off the irre- 
 gularities left by the jack-plane, and prepare the wood 
 for th e. jointer, or trying-plane, which is the longest 
 of them all : its edge is very fine, and does not stand 
 out above an hair’s breadth ; it is chiefly used for shoot- 
 ing the edge of a board perfectly straight for joining 
 tables, &c. 
 
 The strike-block, is like the jointer, but shorter; 
 its use is to shoot short joints. 
 
 The rabbet-plane, which is used in cutting the upper 
 edge of a board, straight or square, down into the 
 stuff, so that the edge of another, cut after the same 
 manner, may join in with it, on the square ; it is also 
 used in striking facias on mouldings. The chisel of 
 this plane is as broad as the stock, that the angle may 
 be cut straight, and it delivers its shavings at the sides, 
 and not at the top, like the others. 
 
 The plough, Fig. 29, is a narrow rabbet-plane, with 
 the addition of two staves, on which are shoulders. Its 
 use is to plough a narrow square groove on the edge of 
 a board. 
 
 The moulding- plane, Fig. 33, is of various kinds, 
 accommodated to the various forms and profiles of the 
 moulding; as, the rounding-plane, the hollow-plane, 
 the ogee, the snipes-bill, &c., which are all of different 
 sizes, from half an inch to an inch and a half in width. 
 
 Fig. 35, represents a quirk-ogee plane. 
 
 There are many other kinds of planes, but w r e shall 
 now give an account of Mr. Bramah’s invention, 
 chiefly in his own words, for producing straight, 
 smooth, parallel surfaces, and curvilinear surfaces on 
 wood, and other materials, requiring great accuracy, in 
 a more perfect and expeditious manner than can be 
 done by the hand. 
 
 The principal .parts of my invention are as fol- 
 lows ; that is to say, to shorten and reduce manual la- 
 bour, and the consequent expenses which attend it, by 
 producing the effects stated in my patent by the use of 
 machinery,, which may be worked by animal, elemen- 
 tary, or manual force ; and which said effects are to 
 produce, straight, true, smooth, and parallel surfaces, 
 in the preparation of all the component parts of work 
 consisting of wood, ivory, horn, stone, metals, or any 
 other sort of materials, or composition usually pre- 
 pared, and render them true and fit for use, by means 
 of edge-tools of every description. I do not rest the 
 merits of this invention on any novelty in the general 
 principle of the machinery I employ, because the public 
 benefit I propose will rather depend on new effects, 
 produced by a new application of principles already 
 known, and machinery already in use for other pur- 
 poses, in various branches of British manufacture. 
 This machinery, and the manner of using it, with some 
 improvements in the construction, together with sundry 
 tools and appendages never in use before, are particu- 
 larly described and explained hereunder. 
 
 I mean to use and apply for the purposes above 
 stated, every kind of edge-tool, or cutter, already 
 known, either in their present shape, or with such vari- 
 ations and improvements as the variety of operations I 
 6 G may 
 
482 
 
 PLANING. 
 
 may encounter may severally call For. But the tools, 
 instead of being applied by hand, as usual, I fix, as 
 judgment may direct, on frames driven by ma- 
 chinery : some of which frames I move in a rotary di- 
 rection round an upright shaft ; and others having their 
 shaft lying in a horizontal position, like a common lathe 
 for turning wood, &,c. In other instances I fix these 
 tools, cutters, &c., on frames which slide in stationed 
 grooves, or otherwise, and like the former they are 
 calculated for connexion with, and to be driven by, ma- 
 chinery, all of which are hereafter further explained and 
 particularized. 
 
 The principal points on which the merits of the in- 
 vention rest are the following : — First, I cause the ma- 
 terials meant to be wrought true and perfect, as above 
 described, to slide into contact with the tool, instead of 
 the tool being carried by the hand over the work, in the 
 usual way. 
 
 Secondly, I make the tool, of whatsoever cutting 
 kind it be, to traverse across the work in a square or 
 oblique direction ; except in some cases, where it may 
 be necessary to fix the tool or cutter in an immoveable 
 station, and cause the work to fall in contact with it by 
 a motion, confining it so to do, similar to the opera- 
 tions performed on a drawing-bench. 
 
 Thirdly, in some cases I use, instead of common 
 saws, axes, planes, chisels, and other such instruments, 
 usually applied by hand ; cutters, knives, shaves, planes, 
 and the like, variously, as the nature of the work may 
 render necessary ; some in form of bent knives, spoke- 
 shaves, or deep-cutting gouges, similar to those used by 
 turners for cutting off the roughest part. I also apply 
 planes of various shapes and construction, as the work 
 may require, to follow the former in succession, under 
 the same operation ; and which latter I call furnishers. 
 
 Fourthly, these cutters, knives, &c., I fix on 
 frames of wood, or metal, properly contrived for their 
 reception, and from which they may be easily detached 
 for the purpose of sharpening, and the like — these I 
 call cutter-frames. JThese cutter-frames I move in 
 cases like those on which the saws are fixed in a saw- 
 ing-mill, and sometimes to reciprocate in a horizontal 
 direction, confined and stationed, by grooves or other- 
 wise, as may be found best calculated to answer the 
 several works intended. In other instances, and which 
 I apprehend will generally have the preference, I fix 
 cutter-frames on a rotary upright shaft, turning on a 
 step, and carrying the frame round in a direction similar 
 to the upper mill-stone ; and sometimes I cause the 
 frames to turn on a horizontal shaft, just resembling 
 the mandril of a common turning-lathe, or those ma- 
 chines used for cutting logwood, &c., for the dyers’ 
 uses. When these frames are mounted in any of the 
 foregoing directions for cutting ; planes, 8tc., are fixed 
 so as to fall successively in contact with the wood or 
 other materials to be cut, so that the cutter or tool, cal- 
 culated to take the rough and hilly part, operates the 
 first, and those that follow must be so regulated as to 
 reduce the material down to the line intended for the 
 
 surface. These cutter-frames must also have the pro- 
 perty of being regulated by a screw or otherwise, so as 
 to approach nearer the work, or recede at pleasure, in 
 order that a deeper or shallower cut may be taken at 
 discretion, or that the machine may repeat its action 
 without raising or depressing the materials on which 
 they act. The manner of thus regulating the cutter- 
 frames, when on an upright shaft, is particularly de- 
 scribed below. These cutter-frames may be made of 
 any magnitude and dimensions the work requires, only 
 observing to make the diameter of those on the rotary 
 plane so as to exceed twice the width of the materials 
 to be cut, as the said materials must slide so as to pass 
 the shaft on which the cutter-frame revolves, when on 
 the upright principle. 
 
 Fifthly, when I use upright shafts, for the purpose 
 of carrying the cutter-fratne as above described, I do 
 not mean that the lower end or point of such shafts 
 shall come in contact with, or rest on, the bottom of 
 the step or box in which they stand : neither do I mean 
 that such said shafts shall rest or turn on any stationed 
 unalterable point at rest, but the pivot or lower point 
 of the shaft shall actually rest and turn on a fluid body, 
 such as oil, or any other fluid proper for that purpose, 
 a considerable portion of which is always to be kept 
 between the lower point of the shaft and the bottom of 
 the step in which it works. The said shafts may be 
 either raised or depressed at pleasure to any required 
 altitude, by means of a greater or less- quantity of the 
 said fluid being confined as aforesaid between the end 
 of the shaft and the bottom of the step. This device I 
 deem of great consequence in the fabrication of all 
 kinds of machinery, where massy and heavy loaded up- 
 right shafts are used ; and I perform it in the following 
 manner : that is to say : the lower part of the shaft 
 must be turned perfectly smooth and cylindrical, to a 
 height something above the greatest distance or length 
 the shaft will ever be required to be raised or depressed 
 when in use. This part of the shaft 1 immerse or drop 
 into a hollow cylinder, which fits its circumference near 
 enough to allow freedom of motion, but sufficiently 
 fitted to prevent shake. This cylinder I call the step- 
 cylinder, and which must be of a length nearly equal 
 to that of the cylindrical part of the shaft above-men- 
 tioned, so that when the point of the shaft rests on the 
 bottom of the cylinder, the parallel or cylindrical part 
 may be something above the top or upper end of the 
 step-cylinder. In the upper end of this step-cylinder I 
 make a stuffing-box, by means of a double cupped lea- 
 ther, or other materials, surrounding the cylindrical 
 part of the shaft, in such a way as will cause the junc- 
 tion, when the shaft is passed through it, to remain 
 water-tight under any pressure that may be felt from 
 the efforts of the fluid retained as before mentioned, to 
 make its escape upwards through this part, which I have 
 called the stuffing-box, when the shaft, with all its 
 load, is passed through it, and immersed in the cylin- 
 der below. When this is done, the injecting-pipe of a 
 small forc>ng-pump, similar to those I use in my patent 
 
 press, 
 
PLANING. 
 
 483 
 
 press, must form a junction with the step-cylinder in 
 some part below the stufting-box ; then the pump being 
 worked, the oil, or other fluid injected by it, will, by 
 pressing in all directions, cause the shaft to be raised 
 from its rest, on the bottom of the cylinder, and to be 
 slided up through the stuffing-box just the same as the 
 piston of my patent press; and by this. means the shaft, 
 with all its encumbrance, and whatever may be its 
 weight, may be raised to any given point at pleasure, 
 and at the same time it will be left resting on the fluid 
 under it, whatever the quantity or thickness of such 
 fluid may be between its point and the bottom of the 
 step-cylinder. By this means the shaft, with all its 
 incumbent load, as aforesaid, should it even amount to 
 hundreds or thousands of tons, can be easily raised and 
 depressed to any required point at pleasure, by the 
 alternate injection or discharge of the fluid used, 
 exactly the same as performed by my patent press as 
 aforesaid ; and at the same time all friction will be 
 avoided, except that of the stuffing-box, which will be 
 comparatively trifling to that which would result from 
 the resting of such a shaft on the bottom of the step, 
 in the usual way. Thus will be gained the properties 
 above stated ; and in addition thereto, I think it may be 
 inferred, that, provided the stuffing-box is kept per- 
 fectly fluid tight, such a shaft, thus buoyed up by and 
 turning in a proper fluid, may continue working for 
 years, or perhaps hundreds of years, without a fresh 
 supply of oil, or whatever other fluid substance is found 
 the most proper to apply. 
 
 Sixthly, the material that is to be cut and made 
 true must be firmly fixed on a platform, or frame, 
 made to slide wdth perfect truth, either on wheels or in 
 grooves, &c., similar to those frames in a saw-mill on 
 which the timber is carried to the saw’s. These frames 
 must be moved in a steady progressive manner, as the 
 cutter-frame turns round either by the same power 
 which moves the latter, or otlierwise, as may be found 
 to answer best in practice. This motion also must be 
 under the power of a regulator : so that the motion of 
 the sliding frame may be properly adjusted according to 
 the nature of the w ork. The motion of the cutter- 
 frames must also be under the control of a regulator ; 
 so that the velocity of the tool in passing over the work 
 may be made quicker or slow'er, as such work may 
 respectively require, to cause the cutter to act properly, 
 and to the best advantage. 
 
 Seventhly, I regulate the motions of both these 
 parts of the apparatus, as aforementioned, by means of 
 a new invention, which I call a universal regulator of 
 velocity, and which is composed as follows ; viz. I take 
 any number of cog-wheels, of different diameters, 
 with teeth that will exactly fit each other through the 
 whole, suppose ten, or any other number, but for 
 example, say ten, the smallest of which shall not exceed 
 one inch in diameter, and the largest suppose ten inches 
 jn diameter, and all the rest to mount by regular grada- 
 tions in their diameters from one to ten. I fix these 
 ten wheels fast and immoveable, on an axis perfectly J 
 
 true, so as to form a cone of wheels. 1 then take ten 
 other wheels, exactly the same in all respects as the 
 former, and fix them on another axis, also perfectly 
 true, and the wheels in conical gradation also ; but 
 these latter wheels I do not fix fast on their axis, like 
 the former, but leave them all loose so as to turn upon 
 the said axis, contrary to the former which are fixed. 
 All these latter wheels I have the power of locking by a 
 pin, or otherwise, so that I can at discretion lock or 
 set fast any single w heel at pleasure. I then place the 
 tw'o axes parallel to each other, with the wheels which 
 form the two cones, as above described, in reverse 
 position, so that the large wheel at the one end of the 
 cone may lock its teeth into the smallest one in .the 
 cone opposite, and likewise vice versa. Then suppose 
 the axis on which the wheels are permanently fixed to be 
 turned about, all the wheels on the other axis will be 
 carried round with an equal velocity with the former, 
 but their axis will not move. Then lock the largest 
 wheel on the loose axis, and by turning about the 
 fastened axis as before, it must make ten revolutions, 
 while the opposite performs but one : then by unlocking 
 the largest wheel and locking the smallest one at the 
 contrary end of the cone in its stead, and turning as 
 before, the fastened axis will then turn the opposite 
 ten times while itself only revolves once. Thus the 
 axes, or shafts, of these cones, or conical combination 
 of wheels, may turn each other reciprocally, as one to 
 ten, and as ten to one ; which collectively produces a 
 change in velocity under a uniform action of the 
 primtim mobile, as ten to a hundred : for when the 
 small wheel on the loose axis is locked, and the fast one 
 makes ten revolutions, the former will make one hun- 
 dred. And by adding to the number of those wheels 
 and extending the cones, which may be done ad infini- 
 tum, velocity may be likewise infinitely varied by this 
 simple contrivance — A may turn B with a speed equal 
 to thousands or millions of times its own motion ; and 
 by changing a pin and locking a different wheel, as 
 above described, B will turn A in the same propor- 
 tion, and their power will be transferred to each, in 
 proportion as their velocities, reciprocally. Here is 
 then a universal regulator at once for both power and 
 velocity. In some instances I produce a like effect by 
 the same necessary number of w heels, made to corre- 
 spond in conical order, but instead of being all con- 
 stantly mounted on the axes or shafts, as above de- 
 scribed, they will reciprocally be changed 'from one 
 axis to the other in single pairs, match according to the 
 speed or power wanted, just as in the former instance. 
 This method will have in all respects the same effect, 
 but not so convenient as when the wheels are all 
 fixed, &c. 
 
 Eighthly, when spherical surfaces are to be pro* 
 duced perfectly true, and equidistant from their centres 
 in all directions, J use a tool, or cutter, of a proper 
 shape, according to the nature of the materials to be 
 cut. This tool must be fixed on a cutter-frame, fas- 
 tened to the rest of any common lathe, so as to present 
 
 its 
 
484 
 
 PLASTERING. 
 
 its point exactly to a line drawn through the centre of 
 the mandrel of the lathe horizontally, and the said frame 
 on which the cutter is fixed must have the capacity of 
 drawing out, at pleasure, to any required distance, to 
 accommodate the diameter of the sphere to fie cut or 
 turned true. This cutter-frame must be likewise made 
 to turn upon a centre or pin, very firm, and steadily 
 fixed on the rest above-mentioned, so as to enable the 
 cutter to be turned by its frame round a centre exactly 
 perpendicular to the centre of the lathe or line before- 
 mentioned, by which the altitude of the tool’s point is 
 to be regulated; when this is done, and the w'ood 01- 
 other materials fixed on the lathe in the usual way, the 
 cutter-frame must be drawn nearer, or farther distant 
 from the centre on which it turns, to accommodate the 
 diameter, just the same as the common rest. If the 
 materials be rough, and require to be reduced to a 
 spherical form by gradations, the work may be re- 
 peatedly gone over by the cutter, before it reaches the 
 diameter proposed. By this simple apparatus the dif- 
 ficulty of turning perfect spheres is overcome ; as it 
 must be obvious to any person of the most ordinary 
 capacity in mechanics, that while the work is turning 
 in the lathe in a vertical direction, and the tool or cutter 
 is by the hand or otherwise, turned, at the same time, 
 in a perfectly horizontal direction, round a centre, op- 
 posite to the actual centre of the sphere, the point of 
 the tool or cutter must, of necessity, generate or turn a 
 perfect sphere, true in all directions, without the small- 
 est attention or assistance from the use of the instru- 
 ment. I mention here the application of the cutter- 
 frame to a common lathe, conceiving it will, by such an 
 explanation, be more familiarly understood without a 
 drawing ; but, by this method, spheres of any practical 
 magnitude may be cut with perfect ease and cer- 
 tainty. 
 
 Ninthly, when concave surfaces are to be produced 
 perfectly true, smooth, and equidistant from their re- 
 spective spherical centres, the work is fixed on a ma- 
 chine the same in all respects as the common turning 
 lathe, as in the instance last .referred to ; I then fix a 
 tool or cutter on a centre, exactly in a line, both per- 
 pendicular to, and on a level with the exact centre of 
 the shaft or mandrel on which the work revolves ; and 
 which cutter or tool projects to the required radial 
 
 distance with its point, so that when the work goes 
 round by the revolution of the lathe, the tool or cutter 
 at the same time revolving round its centre, a spherical 
 concave will be generated and produced by the flection 
 of its point, as in the instance of the convex sphere. 
 
 Tenthly, I convert solid wood, or other materials, 
 into a thin concave shell, similar to a dish. I cut them 
 alternately out of each other, beginning at the smallest, 
 by means of another tool or cutter, likewise moving on 
 a stationed centre, as before, exactly on a level with, 
 and perpendicularly true with the centre of the mandrel 
 or shaft of the machine on which the work is fixed. 
 This tool, or cutter, is made at its exterior point, or 
 cutting end, of such a shape as best suits the nature of 
 the work ; and its shank, or stem, is bent to the exact 
 circle the concave is meant to be : it is then fixed on an 
 arm or frame calculated to receive others of different 
 circles, according to the work ; in fact, the same frame 
 may be used w hich is above described to hold the tool 
 for cutting spheres, either of the concave or convex 
 kind. The tool must be fixed on this frame or arm, as 
 above-mentioned, at such a radial distance from the 
 centre on which the frame or arm turns, so as to form 
 a quadrant with one leg, turning on its centre, and the 
 tool forming the periphery with its cutting point pro- 
 jecting to the line of the deficient leg. Before this 
 tool begins its action, a common rest must be applied 
 close to the face of the work, in order to support the 
 tool w'hen it begins its cut ; and on which rest the tool 
 will slide till its point proceeds under the control of 
 the centre on which its frame is fixed, until it reaches 
 the horizontal line of the lathe’s centre, when the part 
 cut off, or the inner dish, will fall from the stock, and 
 leave the rest for the operation of another tool, of a 
 larger circle. Thus the operation may be repeated till 
 the whole lump is converted according to the inten- 
 tions of the owner. 
 
 This is one of the patent inventions that has been 
 brought into use, and is found of very great importance 
 at Woolwich, where it has been long at work, and by 
 which we have been told thousands of pounds are an- 
 nually saved, as well by the velocity of the work per- 
 formed, as by enabling the w'orkmen to use up timber 
 that from its knotty substance could not be wrought by 
 the hand. 
 
 PLASTERING. 
 
 T h e plasterer occupies a very considerable space as 
 a mechanic in every department of architecture. To 
 him is intrusted the finishing of the sides and ceilings 
 of the interior of buildings, and, also, the stuccoing in 
 
 all the various manners on their exterior. The decora- 
 tive part of architecture owes a considerable part of its 
 effect to the plasterer, as he supplies the facilities of 
 producing it. 
 
 * Plastering 
 
 \ 
 
PLASTERING. 
 
 485 
 
 Plastering, in this article, will be divided, and placed 
 under its several heads, and will include plastering on 
 laths in its several ways ; also rendering on brick and 
 stone ; and, finally, the finishing to all the several kinds 
 of work of this description. Also, modelling and cast- 
 ing the several mouldings, both ornamental and plain; 
 stuccoing and other outside compositions which are ap- 
 plied upon the exterior of buildings, and the making and 
 polishing the scagliuola, so much the taste now for co- 
 lumns and their antae. 
 
 Lime forms an extensive part in all the operations of 
 this trade ; its nature and composition are too well known 
 to be much dwelt upon in this place ; chemically con- 
 sidered, its specific gravity is 2,3, and, when pure, it is 
 soluble in 300 parts of water. It is reduced to the state 
 known as quick-lime, by being deprived of its fixed air, 
 or carbonic acid and water by means of heat generated 
 from fuel in a kiln prepared for the purpose. Lime- 
 stone, or chalk, intended to be thus reduced, is broken 
 into convenient pieces, and piled with coal or wood, 
 stratum, super stratum, in kilns, where it is kept for a 
 considerable time in a zohite heat, by this means the 
 carbonic acid and water are driven off, and quick-lime is 
 the product. It is vended at the wharfs in bags, and 
 varies in its price from thirteen shillings to fifteen shil- 
 lings per hundred. Most of the lime made use. of in 
 London is prepared from chalk, and the greater pro- 
 portion comes from Purfleet, in Kent : but, for stucco- 
 ing and other work, in which strength and durability 
 are required, the lime made at Dorking, in Surrey, is 
 preferred. 
 
 The composition, known as plaster of Paris, is that 
 on which the plasterer is very much dependent for pro- 
 ducing whatever is good in his business : by it alone he 
 is enabled to give the form and finish to all the better 
 parts of plastering, with it he makes all his ornaments 
 and cornices, besides mixing it in his lime to fill up 
 the concluding coat to the walls and ceilings of rooms. 
 The stone from which it is obtained is known in the 
 Arts by several names, as sulphat of lime, selenite, 
 gypsum, &c. &c., but it is commonly called plaster of 
 Paris, from the circumstance, perhaps, of the immense 
 quantities which are extracted from a mountain in the 
 environs of Paris, called Mont-martre. The stone from 
 this place is, in its appearance, similar to common 
 free-stone, excepting its being surrounded and full 
 of small specular crystals. The French break it into 
 fragments of about the size of an egg, and then burn 
 it in kilns with billets of wood : till they perceive the 
 crystals have lost their brilliancy, it is afterwards ground 
 with stones to different degrees of fineness, and is then 
 considered fit for use. This kind of specular gypsum is 
 affirmed by some travellers to be employed in Russia, 
 where it abounds, as a substitute for glass in windows. 
 According to chemists its specific gravity is from 1.872 
 to 2.3 1 1 , it requiring 500 parts of cold w'ater and 450 
 of hot, to dissolve it ; when calcined it decrepitates, be- 
 comes very friable and white, and heats a little with 
 water, with which it forms a solid mass. In the process 
 
 d of burning or calcination it loses its water of cryslaliza- 
 n tion, which, according to Fourcroy, is 22 per cent, 
 d The plaster made use of in London is prepared from 
 s a sulphat of lime dug in Derbyshire, and is called ala- 
 
 - baster. It is said eight hundred tons are aunually raised 
 ; there. It is brought to London in a crude state, where 
 
 - it is calcined, and ground in a mill for use, and vended 
 I in brown paper bags, each containing about half a peck ; 
 
 - the coarser sort is about fourteen-pence per bag, and 
 the finest from eighteen-pence to twenty-pence. The 
 figure-makers use it for all the casts which they prepare 
 of anatomical and other figures, and it is of the first im- 
 
 - portance not only to the plasterer but to the sculptor, 
 s mason, &c. 
 
 i The working-tools of the Plasterer consist, in the 
 , first place, of a spade of the common sort, a two or 
 1 three pronged rake, which he uses for the purpose of 
 
 - mixing his mortar and hair together. His trowels are 
 
 i of two sorts, and of one of which there are in use 
 , three or four sizes. The first sort is called the laying 
 
 i and smoothing tool ; its figure consists in a flat piece of 
 
 ! hardened iron, very thin, of about ten inches in length 
 : and two inches and a half in width, ground to a semi- 
 
 l circular shape at one end, while the other is left square ; 
 
 on the back of the plate, and nearest to the square end, 
 is rivetted a piece of small rod iron having two legs, one 
 of which is fixed to the plate, and to the other a round 
 wooden handle is adapted ; with this tool all the first 
 coats of plastering are put on the work, and it is also 
 i used in setting, as it is called, or putting on the final 
 coat of plastering. 
 
 The trowels of the plasterer are made more neatly 
 than the tools of the same name used by other arti- 
 ficers. The largest size is about seven inches long' 
 on the plate, and is of polished steel, two inches and 
 three-quarters at the heel, diverging to an apex or point, 
 to the wide end of which is adapted a handle, commonly 
 of mahogany, with a deep brass ferrule ; with this trowel 
 the plasterer gauges, as he terms it, all his fine-stuff 
 I and plaster for the purpose of forming cornices, mould- 
 ings, &c. The other trowels are made and fitted up 
 in a similar manner, varying gradually in their size from 
 two to three inches long only. 
 
 The plasterer has in use also several small tools, called 
 stopping and picking-out tools ; they are made of steel, 
 and well polished, and are of different sizes, commonly 
 about seven or eight inches long, about half an inch 
 wide, flattened at both ends, and ground away till they 
 are somewhat rounding. With such tools he models and 
 finishes all the mitres, and returns to the cornices, and 
 fills up and perfects the ornaments at their joinings. 
 The plasterer keeps all his working tools uncommonly 
 clean ; they are polished by the hawk-boys daily, and 
 never put away without being w'iped and freed of the 
 plaster about them. 
 
 The plasterers require many rules and models of 
 wood ; these rules, or straight-edges, as they are called, 
 enable them to get their plastering to an upright line, 
 and the models to run plain mouldings, as cornices, &c. 
 
 6 H The 
 
486 
 
 PLASTERING. 
 
 The cements made use of by the plasterer for the in- 
 terior work, are of two or three sorts. The first of 
 which is called lime and hair, or coarse stuff, this is 
 prepared in a similar way to common mortar, with the 
 addition of having the hair from the tan-yards mixed 
 in it. The mortar to form lime and hair is previously 
 mixed with the sand, and the hair added afterwards ; 
 this the labourers incorporate by the three-pronged rake. 
 
 Fine stuft, as it is termed, is lime only, slaked with 
 a small portion of water, and afterwards saturated to 
 excess, and put into tubs in a semi-fluid state, w here it 
 is allowed to settle and the water to evaporate. A 
 small proportion of hair is sometimes added to the fine 
 stuff. 
 
 Stucco for inside walls, called troweled or bastard 
 stucco, is composed of the fine stuff above described, 
 and very fine washed sand, in the proportion of one of 
 the latter to three of the former. With such stucco 
 all walls intended to be painted are finished. 
 
 Mortar, called gauge-stuff by the plasterer, consists 
 in taking about three-fifths of fine stuff and one of plaster 
 of Paris, and mixing them together with water, in 
 small quantities at a time, to render it more susceptible 
 of fixing or setting, as it is called. A cement so 
 gauged, is employed to form all the cornices and 
 mouldings which are run with a mould of w'ood. The 
 plasterers gauge all their mortars with plaster of Paris 
 when great expedition is required, as they can immedi- 
 ately proceed in their work by so gauging the mortar, 
 as it fixes and sets as soon as laid on. 
 
 Plasterers' have technical divisions of their work, by 
 which is designated its quality, and from which its value 
 is ascertained. 
 
 Lathing consists in nailing up slips of wood on the 
 ceiling and partitions, which are rended . from fir, or 
 oak, and are called three-foots and four-foots, being of 
 these several lengths, and are purchased by the bundle 1 
 or load. There are three sorts of laths, viz. single 
 laths, lath and half, and double laths. Single laths 
 are the cheapest and thinnest ; lath and half is supposed 
 to be one-third thicker than the single lath ; and the i 
 double laths twice their thickness. The laths most in 
 use in London are made of fir, the wood for which is [ 
 imported from the Baltic and America, in pieces called I 
 staves. All the London timber-merchants are dealers 
 in laths, and there are many places besides, which con- 
 fine themselves exclusively to this business. The fir j 
 laths are generally fastened by cast-iron nails, whereas I 
 the oaken one$ require wrought-iron nails, as no nail of | 
 the former kind would be found equal to the perforation j 
 of the oak, but would shiver in pieces in the attempt at I 
 driving them through it. In lathing ceilings, it is desi- 
 rable the plasterer should make use ;of both the usual 
 lengths, and so manage the nailing of them up that the 
 joints are as much broken as possible, which will tend 
 much to strengthen the plastering with which they are 
 to be covered, by giving them a stronger key or tie. 
 The strongest laths are adapted to the ceilings, and the 
 slightest or single laths to the partitions of buildings. 
 
 Laying, as it is called, consists in spreading a single 
 coat of lime and hair all over a ceiling or partition, 
 taking care that it is very even in every part, and quite 
 smooth throughout. This is the cheapest manner of 
 plastering. 
 
 Pricking-up is a similar method to laying, excepting 
 that it is used as a preliminary to a more perfect kind of 
 work ; after the plastering has been put by in this me- 
 thod, it is crossed all over with the end of a lath which 
 has the effect of giving a key of tie to the finishing 
 coats, which are to follow afterwards. 
 
 Lathing, laying, and set, mean that the work is to 
 be lathed as before described, and covered with one 
 coat of lime and hair, and when this is sufficiently dry, 
 finishing it by covering it over with a thin and smooth 
 coat of lime only, called, by the plasterer, putty, or 
 set. This coat is spread by the workman with his 
 smoothing trowel ; in doing w'hich he is supplied w ith a 
 large flat hog’s hair brush and water. In his right hand 
 he holds his trowel, and in his left the brush : and as he 
 lays on the set he draws the brush backwards and for- 
 wards over it, and by the assistance of the brush and 
 trowel he is enabled to get the ceiling or wall tolerably 
 even for this cheap kind of work. 
 
 Lathing, floating, and set, consist as before in re- 
 spect of the lathing and covering them over by a coat of 
 plastering, excepting only, that for the floated work, a 
 pricking-up coat is used ; when this coat is sufficiently 
 dry another is put on to receive the set, and which is 
 called the floating : this is performed in manner follow- 
 ing, viz. the plasterer provides himself with a strong 
 rule, or straight-edge, often from ten to twelve feet 
 in length ; two workmen are necessary in this part of 
 the work, as one would be inadequate to the handling of 
 the straight-edge. It is begun by plumbing with a 
 plumb-rule, and trying if the parts to be floated are up- 
 right and straight, by which is ascertained where the 
 filling-out, as it is called, is wanting. This they do by 
 putting on a trowel-full or two of lime and hair only ; 
 when they have ascertained these preliminaries, the 
 screeds, as they are called, are commenced to be 
 formed. 
 
 A screed in plastering means a stile formed of lime 
 and hair about seven or eight inches wide, gauged ex- 
 actly true, by drawing the straight-edge over it till it is 
 so. In floated-work such screeds are made at every 
 three or four feet distance vertically round a room, and 
 are gotten perfectly straight by applying the straight-edge 
 to them to make them so, and when all the screeds are 
 formed the parts between them are filled up with lime 
 and hair, or stuff, as it is called, until they are quite 
 flush and even with the face of the screeds. The 
 straight-edge is then W'orked horizontally upon the 
 screeds, which has the effect of taking off all super- 
 fluous stuff which projects above them. In this way is 
 finished the floating by adding stuff continually, and ap- 
 plying the rule upon the screeds till it become quite even 
 with them, and straight in every part. Ceilings are 
 floated in the same manner, by having screeds formed 
 
 across 
 
PLASTERING. 
 
 487 
 
 across them, and filling up the intermediate spaces with 
 stuff, and applying the rule as is done for the walls. 
 Plastering is good or bad, in proportion to the care 
 taken in this part of the work, hence the most careful 
 workmen are generally employed about it. 
 
 The set to the floated work is performed in a similar 
 way. to that which has already been described for that to 
 the laid plastering ; but as floated plastering is em- 
 ployed to the best rooms, it is often performed with 
 more care than is found necessary in that inferior style 
 of work. The set-too for the floated work is frequently 
 prepared^ by adding to it about one-sixth of plaster of 
 Paris, wtiich fixes it more quickly, and gives it a closer 
 and more compact appearance ; and also renders it 
 more firm and better adapted to be whitened or co- 
 loured when dry. The dryer the pricking-up coat of 
 plastering is, the better for the floated stucco work ; but 
 it is not so exactly for the floating which is to receive the 
 setting-coat, for if the floating be too dry before the set 
 is put on, there is a probability of its peeling off, or 
 appearing all over in little cracks or shells, which is 
 particularly to be avoided in doing the ceilings. Good 
 plastering admits of no such defects, and cracks and 
 other disagreeable appearances in ceilings more fre- 
 quently arise from the weakness of the laths and too 
 much plastering, or, vice versa, strong laths and too 
 little plastering, than from the inadequacy of the timbers 
 of the building. Good floated work, executed by a 
 judicious plasterer, is by no means likely to crack, and 
 particularly if the lathing be previously attended to. 
 
 Rendering and set, or rendering, floated, and set, 
 embrace a portion of the process employed in both the 
 previous modes, except no lathing is required in this 
 branch of the work. Rendering is to be understood 
 when a wall of brick or stone is required to be plastered 
 over with one coat of lime and hair, and the set desig- 
 nates that it is again to be covered and finished in fine 
 stuff or putty. The method of doing it, is, as has been 
 before described for the setting of the ceilings and par- 
 titions for other kind of work. The floated and set is 
 performed on the rendering in the same manner as it is 
 on the partitions and ceilings of the best kind of plas- 
 tering, and has been explained above. 
 
 Troweled-slucco is a very neat kind of work, and is 
 used in dining-rooms, vestibules, stair-cases, &c., or 
 in cases in which the walls are proposed to be finished 
 by painting. This kiud of stucco requires to be worked 
 upon a floated ground, and the floating should be as dry 
 as possible before the stuccoing is commenced, when 
 the stucco is made as before described ; it is beaten and 
 tempered w ith clean water for use. The plasterer about 
 t<? do it is provided with a small wooden tool, called a 
 float, which is merely a piece of half-inch deal, about 
 nine inches long and three inches wide, planed smooth, 
 and a little rounded away on its lower edges ; a handle 
 is fitted to the upper side to enable the workman to 
 move it with ease. The stucco is spread upon the 
 ground, which has been prepared to receive it', with the 
 largest size trowel, and made as even as possible all 
 
 ’ over, and when a piece, four or five feet square, has 
 been so spread, the plasterer begins to use the wooden 
 float which he holds in his right hand, and in his left, a 
 brush, and he begins to work by first sprinkling a small 
 part of the stucco with water from a brush, and then 
 applies the float, alternately sprinkling and rubbing the 
 face of the stucco till he reduces it to a perfectly smooth 
 and even surface, and this he continues to do till the 
 whole be finished. The water has the effect of harden- 
 ing the face of the stucco surprisingly, and when well 
 floated the stucco feels to the touch as smooth as glass. 
 
 Cornices are plain or ornamented, and sometimes 
 embrace a portion of both. As to ornamental plaster- 
 ing a better taste has now developed itself, founded oil 
 principles derived from the study of the antique, than 
 has heretofore been practised. The preliminaries to 
 forming cornices in plastering consist of examining the 
 drawings, and measuring the projections of the members, 
 and if they should be found to project more than seven 
 or eight inches bracketing will be necessary. It consists 
 in affixing up pieces of w'ood about eleven or twelve 
 inches from one another all round the place intended to 
 have a cornice, and lathing over them with laths, and 
 covering the whole by one coat of plastering, making 
 allowance in the brackets for the stuff necessary to form 
 the cornice : about one inch and a quarter is generally 
 found sufficient. When the cornice has been so far for- 
 warded, a mould is to be made of the profile or section 
 of the cornice, exactly representing all its members ; 
 j this is generally prepared by the carpenters (but at the 
 plasterer’s expense) of beachen wood, and of about one 
 I quarter of an inch in thickness ; all the quirks or small 
 j sinkings being put in with brass. When the mould is done 
 ! the plasterer examines it, and rubs and files off all 
 j the sharp edges, and opens with his knife such parts as 
 he finds not adapted to leave the plaster well in the cor- 
 j nice. When the mould is ready the w'ork of running 
 j the cornice with it is commenced. Two w orkmen are 
 necessary for the operation ; they are provided with a tub 
 of set or putty, and a quantity of plaster of Paris; but 
 before they begin with the mould they gauge a straight 
 I line or screed on the wall and ceiling made of putty and 
 I plaster, extending so far on each as to answer to the bot- 
 I tom and top of the cornice to be formed. On the screed 
 so made on the wall, they nail one or tw'O slight deal 
 j straight-edges, and make a notch or chase in the wooden 
 J mould of the cornice for it to fit into. This is the guide 
 for moving the mould upon. When all is so far ready, the 
 putty is to be mixed with about one-third of plaster of 
 : Paris, and rendered together of a semi-fluid state, by 
 I being diluted with clean w ; ater. One of the workmen 
 j now takes two or three trowels-full of the prepared 
 putty upon his hawk, which he holds in his left hand, 
 having in his right a trowel with which he plasters it over 
 the parts where the cornice is to be formed, the other 
 workman applying the mould to see where more or less 
 of it is required ; and when sufficient has been put on 
 to fill up to all the parts of the mould, the u'orkman, 
 whose business it is to work the mould, moves if buck- 
 
 wards 
 
488 
 
 PLASTERING. 
 
 wards or forwards, holding it up firmly to the ceiling and 
 wall, and which has the effect of removing the super- 
 fluous stuff, and leaving the exact contour of the cornice 
 required, formed in plaster against the wall and ceiling. 
 This is not effected the first time, but the other work- 
 man keeps supplying fresh putty to all the parts which 
 he sees, by the moving of the mould, is in want of it ; 
 and by thus going on, the one working the mould, 
 and the other adding putty, a piece of cornice is soon 
 formed of from ten to twelve feet in length, or shorter 
 or longer, as they generally endeavour to finish all the 
 lengths or pieces which happen between breaks or pro- 
 jections at the same time, in order to its being more ' 
 correct and true. If the stuff gets too stiff by delay in 
 working the mould, one of the workmen sprinkles it 
 with water from a brush, and this is frequently the case 
 in large sized cornices, as the plaster occasions a very 
 great tendency to fixation in the putty. When the cor- 
 nices are of very large proportions, as is sometimes the 
 case in the application of the orders of architecture, 
 three or four moulds are requisite, and they are applied 
 in the same manner until the whole composition of its 
 parts are formed. The mitres, internal and external, 
 and also small returns or breaks are afterwards modelled 
 and filled up by hand ; the plasterer piques himself much 
 on the performance of this part of the work. 
 
 Ornamental Cornices are formed previously, and in a 
 similar way to those above described, except that the 
 plasterer leaves indents or sinkings in the mould to allow 
 of the casts being fixed in. The plasterers at this time 
 cast all their ornaments in plaster of Paris, whereas ori- 
 ginally they were performed by hand, by artists, known 
 in the trade as ornament-plasterers. Casting the orna- 
 ments in a mould has almost superseded this branch of 
 art, as those few which are left are confined wholly to 
 modelling and framing moulds to cast out of. The 
 most ingenious in this way is Mr. Bernasconi, and those 
 under him. This artist has been engaged by architects 
 of known taste, and there are to be seen, in his gallery, 
 capitals of the best Greek orders, embracing, perhaps, 
 as much of the spirit of the originals as can be accom- 
 plished in plaster. Indeed, every thing done by him is 
 like the work of an artist. All the ornaments which 
 are cast in plaster of Paris are previously modelled in 
 clay, exactly representing what is required by the design 
 and drawing. The clay model exhibits the power and 
 taste of the designer as well as that of the sculptor. 
 When it is finished and got somewhat firm, it is oiled 
 all over, and put into a wooden frame, w'hich it is 
 adapted to fit into ; and all its parts are then re-touched 
 . ®nd perfected, in order to their receiving a covering of 
 melted-wax, which is poured warm into the frame and 
 over the clay mould, where it is allowed to cool and fix 
 itself. It is, when cool, turned upside down, and the 
 wax conies easily away from the clay, and is an exact 
 cameo of it. In such a mould are cast all the enrich- 
 ed mouldings, which are performed by the common 
 plasterer. The waxen models are made so as to cast 
 about one foot in length of the ornament at a time, these 
 
 being found easily to be gotten from out of the cameo. 
 The casts are all made with the finest and purest plaster 
 of Paris, saturated with water, and the waxen mould is 
 oiled previously to pouring it in to form them. The 
 intaglios or casts, when first taken out of the mould, are 
 not very firm, and are suffered to dry a little either in 
 the air or in an oven adapted for the purpose ; and 
 when hard enough to bear handling, they are scraped 
 and cleaned up for the workmen to fix in the place 
 for which they were intended. Such is the process 
 adapted by plasterers in casting ornamental mouldings. 
 
 The friezes and basso-relievos are performed exactly 
 similar, excepting that the waxen mould is so, made as 
 to allow of a ground of plaster being left behind the 
 ornament, of half an inch, or more, in thickness ; this 
 is cast to the ornament or figure, and strengthens and 
 secures their proportions and promotes their general 
 effect when fixed in the places for which they are in- 
 tended. 
 
 Capitals to columns are got up in a similar way, but 
 w’ill require several moulds to complete them. To 
 make a good capital will demand the utmost exertion of 
 the modeller ; he must feel before he can execute them 
 with success. The Corinthian capital will require a 
 shaft or bell to be first made, exactly shaped, to pro- 
 mote a graceful effect to the foliage and volutes, all of 
 which, as well as the other details, will require sepa- 
 rate and distinct cameos when they are intended for the 
 capital to an order, as they are detached when fixed 
 upon its shaft. 
 
 The most beautiful capital perhaps ever executed, 
 and which approximates in its general character to 
 what is generally known as the Corinthian, is that to 
 the Choragic monument of Lysicrates at Athens. This 
 capital has been successfully modelled and executed in 
 plaster of Paris by the before-named Mr. Bernasconi. 
 
 The plasterers, as before mentioned, in performing 
 cornices in which ornaments are to be used take care to 
 have projections in the running moulds ; these have the 
 effect of leaving a groove or indent in the cornice ; into 
 | this groove is put the ornament after it is cast, and it is 
 fixed in its place by having a small quantity of liquid plas- 
 ter of Paris spread on its back part. Friezes are prepared 
 for, in the cornices, &c. in a similar way, by leaving a pro- 
 jection in the running mould at that part of the cornice 
 where they are intended to be inserted, and they are also 
 fixed in their places by liquid plaster. Detached orna- 
 ments, when designed for a cieling or any other part to 
 which no running mould has been employed are cast in 
 pieces exactly corresponding with the design, and fixed 
 upon the cieling or other place by white-lead. 
 
 Plasterers require a great many models in w’ood, as 
 there is very little of their finishing process completed 
 without them. But with a mould a good plasterer is 
 capable of making the most exquisite mouldings, pos- 
 sessing a sharpness and breadth unequalled by any other 
 mode now practised. But this is in some measure 
 dependent on the truth of the moulds. Good plaster- 
 ing is known by its exquisite appearance both as to 
 
 regularity 
 
plastering. 
 
 489 
 
 regularity and correctness, its solid effect, with no 
 cracks or indications of them, in words piano, piano 
 convero, or piano concavo may be taken as its symbolic 
 character. 
 
 Stucco-making and working has for a considerable 
 time employed the ingenuity of several descriptions of 
 persons, viz. architects, chemists, physicians, and plas- 
 terers ; but in our climate little good has been effected 
 by their experiments, excepting the teaching of a better 
 understanding of the materials employed in it. The 
 common stucco now made for external work is compo- 
 sed of cleanly-washed Thames sand and ground Dorking 
 lime, which are to be mixed in a dry state in the 
 proportion of three of the latter to one of the former 
 and when they have been well diffused one with the 
 other, the compound should be put into casks and se- 
 cured from the air. This is called among the plasterers 
 Baileys Compo. The process of using it on bricks or 
 other walls consists in first preparing the parts to be 
 covered with it by raking the mortar from out of all 
 the joints and picking over the bricks, &c. themselves, 
 till the whole of the wall appear indented. It is then 
 to be brushed to free it of all dust and other superfluous 
 matters which may be hanging about it ; after which it 
 must be sprinkled and washed over with clean w'ater, 
 and when wrought to this state the wall is ready to 
 receive its first coat. This part of the work is called by 
 the plasterers roughing in. It consists in diluting to 
 excess the stucco in pails of water, till it is little stiffer 
 in consistence than common white-zoash. With stucco 
 of this description the workmen rub over the whole of 
 the wall by means of a flat hogs’ hair brush, after which 
 it must be left till it becomes tolerably dry and hard, 
 which is known by its getting more white and 
 transparent than when first done. The finishing of this 
 kind of stucco-work is commenced by a process 
 similar to what has been previously described for 
 floated plastering, viz. by the forming of screeds ; to do 
 which the stucco is brought in casks, and tempered and 
 saturated with w ater, and when deemed of a consistence 
 proper for the work, some of it is spread on the wall 
 to about eight or nine inches wide, and against its tw'o 
 outward or extreme ends, first extending from the top 
 to the bottom of the wall. Two workmen are required 
 to do it, the one in supplying the stucco, the other in 
 using and trying the plumb-rule and straight-edge. 
 When the s creeds are formed and found to be quite 
 true, others will require to be made and usually at every 
 four and five feet distance from each other, unless it 
 should happen that the apertures prevent it, in which 
 case they must be formed as near together as possible. 
 When the screeding is done, the wall will appear with 
 sundry vertical stiles of detached stucco on it. These 
 are the screeds, and will be the guides to the workmen 
 in getting the wall covered over neatly and truly in 
 stucco. More compo is now to be prepared, and in 
 larger quantities than was wanted for the screeding ; and 
 when the stucco is ready, both the workmen begin by 
 spreading it with their trowels over the wall in the space 
 
 left between each two of the screeds which are nearest 
 together, and when this space is filled up flush to 
 them the straight-edge is applied across both, and 
 dragged from the top to the bottom, which removes 
 and brings aw'ay all the superfluous stucco which pro- 
 jected above the screeds. To the hollow and uneven 
 parts fresh stucco is added, and the rule again applied 
 and dragged backwards and forwards until the stucco 
 completely raises itself up to the face of the screeds, 
 and answers correctly to the edge of the rule ; and so 
 the workmen go on until all the spaces left between 
 the screeds are filled up flush to them with the stucco, 
 and the whole wall becomes entirely covered over with 
 it. As the work proceeds thus gradually, space after 
 space, one part will be done before another is ; this is 
 found to be a convenience, inasmuch as it admits of 
 those parts which have been done first getting somewhat 
 | more dry than the others, which allow's the final finish- 
 ing to be proceeded in without any delay. The finish- 
 ing to this kind of stucco-work consists in floating or 
 I hardening its surface by rubbing it with a w'oodeu float 
 and sprinkling it with w'ater. This operation is simi- 
 larly performed to the method before described for 
 trowelled stucco. 
 
 Cornices or mouldings are formed in this kind of 
 stucco by plasterers in the same manner (by moulds 
 and screeds) to what has been before explained for doing 
 them in common plastering. But the workmen find 
 it essential to add a small quantity of plaster of Paris to 
 the stucco, in order to produce a greater degree of 
 fixation to it while running or working the mould. 
 This is not much calculated to add strength to the 
 stucco, and is only employed from necessity. 
 
 The patent stucco of Dr. B. Higgins had consider- 
 able reputation about thirty years since, and was em- 
 ployed by the Messrs. Adam in several places, but 
 particularly in their great work to the Adelphi. It w r as 
 composed of 14 or 15 pounds of choice stone lime, 14 
 pounds of bone ashes finely powdered, and 98 pounds 
 of clean sand, fine or coarse according to the work 
 intended, mixed up into mortar as quickly as possible 
 with lime water, and used as soon as made. Altogether, 
 
 | there are about forty different suggestions and modes of 
 forming the same materials into stucco, varying the pro- 
 portions of each only, not one of which in this climate 
 has been found to remain in a tolerably entire state above 
 thirty years. Bailey’s is the best common stucco now 
 in use, and when done by himself is not very likely to 
 fail, but it cracks and becomes unsightly in a few years. 
 However, after all the toil and pains which had been 
 taken on the subject by the titled superiors in science, it 
 fell to the lot of a plain, and, we hope, honest man, with- 
 out either an university or an academic distinction, to 
 produce to his countrymen a cement embracing every 
 requisite of durability, facility of w'orking, and at the 
 same time singularly capable of being formed w’ith ease 
 and expedition into every moulding or device in ar- 
 chitecture and masonry. It is not too much to say of 
 j it, that it is the ne plus ultra of cements. This inven- 
 J 6 I tion 
 
490 
 
 PLASTERING. 
 
 tion was announced to the public by Mr. Parker, in 
 June 1796, at which time he obtained letters patent for 
 his invention. The way certainly in which he de- 
 scribes the nature of his new composition is liable to 
 some objection from want of definiteness, but the ob- 
 ject was obtained and he was satisfied. He says, no- 
 dules of clay or argillaceous stone generally contain 
 water in their centre surrounded by calcareous crystals, 
 and having veins of calcareous matter. They are formed 
 in clay, and are of a brown colour like the clay. The 
 nodules are directed to be broken into small pieces 
 and burned in a kiln-like lime, with a heat nearly suf- 
 ficient to vitfify them, and to be then reduced to a 
 powder. Two measures of water to five of the powder 
 makes tarras ; lime and other matters may or may not j 
 be added, and the proportion of water may be varied. 
 Mr. Parker’s patent now having expired there are many 
 other manufacturers of this cement, which are found to 
 be of equal goodness in point of quality and some of 
 them of rather a belter colour, which is a recommenda- 
 tion, as the fresco-painting now used upon it when ap- j 
 plied to buildings soon washes off by the rains and leaves 
 it of a dark dingy and bad appearance. That made and 
 sold by Mr. Cooke at Smart’s Wharf, near Westminster 
 Bridge, is of the lighter description of colour, and is of 
 excellent quality. There are two qualities of this cement 
 in use, the on tfine and the other coarse ; all the outsides 
 of buildings are done with the latter, while the cornices 
 and devices are formed of the former sort ; the plas- 
 terers mix about one-fourth of washed sand with it 
 w hen used for the stuccoing. The process of working 
 it, if it be mechanically considered, is the same as for 
 the other stuccoing ; but no roughing in coat is re- 
 quired for it, as w'ith this cement the work is done by 
 the finishing process only of the other kinds. It is 
 sold at all the wharfs and other depots in bags or casks 
 by the bushel, varying from 4s. 6d. per bushel to 5s. 6d. 
 for the coarser sort, and from 6s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. for the 
 finest. The bags or casks to be returned or paid for 
 at the option of the buyer of the cement. The bags 
 usually contain three and the casks five bushels. It is 
 perfectly impervious to water, and may be employed 
 with success in the lining of tanks, ice-houses, and cis- 
 terns, in all of which cases the writer of this article has 
 employed it with the desired effect. 
 
 The Frescoing or staining to the walls when stuc- 
 coed with this cement to make them represent the 
 masonry of building, is done by diluting sulphuric-acid, 
 or, as it is called in the shops, oil of vitriol with wa- 
 ter, by putting into the fluid ochres, &c. to vary the 
 tint of the fresco to the taste of the proprietor or 
 painter of the work. Of this kind of paint various 
 shades of colours are made, with which the stucco 
 is painted over in pieces representing stone work, and 
 the affinity existing in the iron of the cement ceases, 
 and fixes the acid and colour it suspended in and upon 
 the stucco, and renders its exterior appearance more 
 agreeable to the eye, and at the same time resembling 
 the ashlering bond of masonry. Some of the workmen 
 
 do this so adroitly as to cause a doubt at first viewing it, 
 whether it be cemented or not. Mr. Bernasconi is the 
 most distinguished for using the cement and frescoing 
 this kind of stucco work. 
 
 Rough-casting is an outside finishing cheaper than the 
 stucco ; from which circumstance it is more frequently 
 employed on cottages and farm-buildings than in the 
 better description of houses. It consists in the first 
 place in giving the wall to be rough-casted a pricking- 
 up coat of lime and hair, and when this is gotten tolerably 
 j dry it has a second coat of the same material added to it, 
 j which is laid on the first, and as smooth and even as it can 
 ; be spread, and as fast as this coat is finished a second 
 S workman follows the one who is doing it with a pail full 
 | of rough-cast, which he casts on the new plastering. 
 
 | The rough-cast is composed of fine gravel with the 
 earth washed cleanly out of it, and afterwards mixed 
 with pure lime and water till the whole together be of a 
 semi-fluid consistence; it is then spread or rather 
 splashed upon the wall by a float made of wood. This 
 float is five or six inches long and as many wide, of 
 half-inch deal, to which is fitted a rounded deal handle. 
 The plasterer holds this too in his right hand, and in 
 his left a common white-w'ash brush, with the former of 
 which he lays on the rough-cast, which is ready mixed 
 as above, and with the latter which he dips in the 
 rough cast also, he brushes and colours the mortar and 
 the rough-cast he has spread, to make them when finished 
 and dry appear even, regular, and of the same colour 
 throughout. 
 
 Columns, &c. done in Scagliuola is a separate branch 
 of plastering. The discovery was made 111 Italy, where 
 much has been executed : it was from thence introduced 
 into France, where it fascinated prodigiously all the 
 cognoscenti of taste, and hence every thing became 
 scagliuola. The first introduction of it into England w'as 
 by the late Henry Holland, who brought the artists from 
 Paris to perform it, some of whom, from finding there 
 was a demand here for their labour, remained among 
 us and taught our own workmen the art. The principal 
 artist who now works in the scagliuola is Mr. Alcott, 
 of Southampton-place, New Road ; and as the de- 
 mand of late has prodigiously increased he has taken 
 in many additional persons, and taught them the mak- 
 ing and working of the scagliuola. To execute columns 
 and their antae or pilasters in this kind of plastering re- 
 quire the following preliminaries. When the architect 
 | has furnished the drawing exhibiting the diameter of 
 I their shafts, a wooden cradle is made composed of 
 thin strips of deal or other wood, about two and a half 
 j inches less in diameter than the column is intended to 
 j be when it is completed. This cradle is lathed all 
 | round, as is done for common plastering, and after- 
 j wards covered by a pricking-up coat of lime and hair , 
 and when this is gotten quite dry the artists who work 
 ; in scagliuola commence their portion of the business, 
 j It must be remarked here that the scagliuola is ca- 
 pable of imitating beyond discovery (except by actual 
 j fracture) the most scarce and precious marbles ; any 
 
 stone 
 
PLASTERING. 
 
 491 
 
 stone partaking of the quality of marble may be ex- 
 actly imitated in it, the imitation taking as high a polish, 
 and feeling to the touch as cold and solid as the com- 
 pactest and densest marble. To perform this the 
 workmen are anxious to obtain the purest gypsum, 
 which they usually select themselves, and after breaking 
 it in small pieces calcine it. The fire is withdrawn as 
 soon as they perceive that the largest fragments 
 have lost their brilliance, and that the whole mass is 
 become opaque and of the same colour. The calcined 
 powder is then passed through a very fine sieve, and 
 mixed up as it is to be used with a solution of Flanders 
 glue, isinglass, &c., and it is in this solution that they 
 diffuse the colours required in the marble they are 
 about to imitate. But when the work is to be of various 
 colours, they prepare each separately, and afterwards 
 mingle and combine them nearly in the same manner 
 as a painter mixes on his pallet the primitive colours 
 which are to compose his different shades. When the 
 powdered gypsum or plaster is prepared and mingled 
 for the work, it is laid on the shaft of the column, &c., 
 covering over the pricked up coat which has been 
 previously laid on it, and is floated with moulds of wood 
 to the size required, the artist using the colours neces- 
 sary for the marble it is intended to imitate during the 
 floating, and which becomes mingled and incorporated 
 in it. In order to give his work the polish or glossy 
 lustre so much admired in works of marble, he rubs it 
 with a pumice-stone in one hand, while with the other 
 he cleanses it by means of a wet sponge. He next 
 proceeds to polish it with tripoli and charcoal, and fine 
 soft linen, and after going over it with a piece of felt 
 dipped in a mixture of oil and tripoli, finishes the ope- 
 ration by the application of pure oil. 
 
 Hence is effected perhaps one of the completest imita- 
 tions in the world, and when the capitals and bases of 
 columns so performed are made of white or other kinds 
 of real marble, as is the common practice, the decep- 
 tion is past a discovery. It is also as strong and as 
 durable as real marble for all works not exposed to the 
 effects of the atmosphere, retains its lustre as long and 
 equal to real marble, and is not one-eighth of the -ex- I 
 pense of the cheapest imported. 
 
 There is a species of plastering practised in the trade 
 an cl known to the public as Composition, or Composition- 
 Ornament. This is done by a distinct set of persons, 
 and consists in the making of all kinds of ornaments, not 
 only for the decorative part of architecture, but for 
 picture, glass frames, &c. &c. The composition for 
 this work is of a brownish colour exceedingly com- 
 pact, and when completely dry very strong. It is com- 
 posed of powdered whitening, glue in solution, and 
 linseed-oil ; the proportions of which are, to two pounds 
 of whitening and one pound of glue, half a pound of 
 
 6il is added. These are placed in a copper and 
 heated, stirring it with a spatula till the whole becomes 
 incorporated. It is then suffered to cool and settle ; 
 after which it is taken and laid upon a stone covered 
 with powdered whitening and beaten till it become of 
 a tough and of a firm consistence. It is then put by 
 for use, covered by wetted cloths to keep it as it is called 
 fresh. The ornaments to be cast in this composition 
 are modelled in clay, as is done for common plastering; 
 and afterwards a cameo or mould is carved in a block 
 of box-wood. The carving the cameo is done with 
 great neatness and truth, as on it depends the exquisite- 
 ness of the ornament that is to be cast in it. The com- 
 position when it is to be used is cut with a knife into 
 pieces adapted to fill the mould, and is closely pressed 
 by hand into every part ; it is then carried and placed in 
 a press worked by an iron screw, and by which it is 
 further pressed till it is supposed to be forced into every 
 part of the sculpture of the cameo : after which it is 
 taken out of the press, and by giving it a tap upside 
 down only it comes easily away and out of the mould. 
 One foot in length is as much as is usually cast at 
 a time, and when this is first taken from out- of the 
 mould, all the superfluous composition is removed by 
 cutting it off with a knife ; the waste pieces being 
 thrown into the copper to assist in making a fresh sup- 
 ply of composition. This composition when formed 
 into ornaments is fixed upon wooden or other ground by 
 a solution of heated glue, white lead, &c. It is after- 
 wards painted or gilded to suit the taste and style of the 
 work for which it is intended. The best plasterer in 
 this line was the late Mr, Thorp of Princes-street, 
 St. Anns ; and the work appears now to be equally well 
 performed by his successor Freeman. It is at least 80 
 per cent cheaper than carving, and in many cases 
 equally well calculated to answer every purpose to be 
 derived from it. 
 
 The measuring and valuing plasterers’ work is con- 
 ducted by persons known in the trade as measurers, to 
 the public as surveyors. All common plastering is mea- 
 sured by the yard square of nine feet ; this includes the 
 partitions and cielings of rooms, stuccoing in and ex- 
 ternally, &c. &c. Cornices are measured by the foot 
 superficial, girting their members to ascertain their 
 width. Their length is the length of the cornice. The 
 Running measures consist of beads, quirks, arrises, and 
 small mouldings. Ornamental cornices are frequently 
 valued in this way also, viz. by th efoot nm. 
 
 The labour on plasterers’ work is frequently of more 
 consideration than the materials ; hence cautious mas- 
 ter is particular in noting down the exact time his men 
 may take in performing their respective pieces of plas- 
 tering, in order to an adequate value being put upon the 
 work commensurate to its difficulty. 
 
 PLUMBERY. 
 
PLUMBERY. 
 
 Plumbery embraces a certain portion of hydraulics, 
 as well as casting and laying of sheet-lead as a covering 
 on buildings. To the plumber is confided tbe pump- 
 work, as well as the making and forming reservoirs, 
 large and small, for all the purposes of our domestic 
 economy. To him, also, we are indebted for tbe 
 water-closet, a delicate apparatus adapted to every 
 situation ; the utility of which, in as far as delicacy 
 is concerned, is too obvious to need observation : 
 it is of English invention, and was unknown on the 
 Continent till the Peace of Amiens allowed of its ex- 
 portation. 
 
 The plumber chiefly works in lead. This metal is 
 known in the Arts, from its durability, maleability, and 
 many other properties, which renders it of the very 
 highest importance. Lead is of a bluish-white colour, 
 and, when newly melted, very bright, but it soon be- 
 comes tarnished by exposure to the air. Its hardness is 
 5L its specific gravity is 1 1,3523. It may be reduced 
 by the hammer to very thin plates, it may also be drawn 
 out into wire ; but its tenacity is not great if compared 
 with many of the other metals. A lead wire inch 
 diameter is capable of supporting 18:4 pounds only with- 
 outbreaking. Lead melts when heated to the temperature 
 of 6 12 of Fahrenheit, and when a strong heat is applied 
 the metal boils and evaporates. If it be cooled slowly 
 it crystallizes. When exposed to the air it soon loses its 
 lustre, and acquires at first a dirty grey colour, and, 
 finally, its surface becomes almost white. This is 
 owing to its gradual combination with oxygen, and con- 
 version into an oxide ; but this conversion is exceedingly 
 slow. The external crust which forms first, preserving 
 the rest of the metal for a long time, from the further 
 action of the air. Water has no direct action upon 
 lead, but it facilitates the action of the external air ; for 
 when lead is exposed to the air, and kept constantly 
 wet, it is oxidated much more rapidly than it otherwise 
 would be. Hence the reason of the white crust which 
 appears upon the sides of leaden vessels containing wa- 
 ter just at the place where the upper surface of the 
 water terminates. 
 
 Lead is obtained from the mines, and is almost 
 always combined with sulphur, and hence it is called a 
 sulphuret. The operation of roasting the ore, or smelt- 
 ing, as it is called, to obtain the pure metal consists : — 
 1. In picking up the mineral to separate the unctuous, 
 rich, or pure ore, and the stony matrix, and other im- 
 purities. 2. In pounding the picked ore under the 
 stampers. 3. In washing the pulverized ore to carry off 
 the matrix by the water. 4. In roasting the mineral in j 
 
 a reverberatory furnace, taking care to stir it, to facili- 
 tate the evaporation of the sulphur. When the surface 
 begins to become of the consistence of paete, it is co- 
 vered with charcoal, the mixture is shaken, the fire in- 
 creased, and the lead then flows down on all sides to the 
 bottom of the basin of the furnace, from which it is 
 drawn off into moulds or patterns, prepared to receive 
 it. The moulds are made so as to take a charge of 
 metal equal to one hundred and fifty-four pounds ; 
 these are called, in commerce, pigs, or pigs of lead, 
 and are exported, and sold as such at the depots, by the 
 lead merchants. 
 
 The pi umbers use lead in sheets, and of these they 
 have two kinds ; one of which they call cast, and the 
 other milled lead. The cast lead is used for the pur- 
 pose of covering the flat roofs of terraces of buildings, 
 forming gutters, lining reservoirs, &c. In architec- 
 ture it is technically divided into 5, 5i, G, 6^, 7, 7\, 8, 
 and lbs. cast-lead, by which is understood, that to 
 every foot superficial of such cast-lead, it is to con- 
 tain these several weights of metal in each respectively ; 
 so that an architect when directing a plumber to cover 
 or line a place with cast sheet-lead, tells the workman 
 that “ it is to be done with 6 or 7 lb. lead meaning 
 by it, that he expects each foot superficial of the metal 
 to be equal in w eight to six, seven, or other number of 
 pounds. The plumbers sometimes attempt deception 
 in this arrangement, and particularly in work agreed for 
 by contract, by putting down a lighter metal than the 
 one they have engaged to do. The writer of this article 
 has once or more had occasion to interfere in such at- 
 tempts, and has had the whole of such lead removed, 
 not finding it adequate in weight per foot to that which 
 was contracted for. 
 
 Every plumber, who conducts business to any extent, 
 casts his sheet-lead at home; this he does from the pigs, 
 or from old metal which he may have taken in exchange. 
 The ductility of lead renders it easily to be run, which 
 they do with considerable address. To perform which 
 they provide a copper, well fixed in masonry, and 
 placed at one end of their casting-shop, and near to the 
 mould or casting-table. The casting-table is, gene- 
 rally, in its form, a parallelogram, varying in its size 
 from six feet in width to eighteen or more feet in 
 length. It is raised from the ground as high as to be 
 about six or seven inches below the top of the copper 
 which contains the metal, and stands on strongly framed 
 legs, so as to be very steady and firm. The top of the 
 table is lined by deal boarding laid very even and firm, 
 and it has a rim projecting upwards, four or five inches 
 
PLUMBERY. 
 
 493 
 
 all round it. At the end of the table, nearest to the 
 copper iu which is the heated lead, is adapted a box 
 equal in length to the w'idth of the table, at the bot- 
 tom of this is made a long horizontal slit, from 
 which the heated metal is to issue when it is to be cast 
 into sheets. This box moves upon rollers along the 
 edges of the projecting rim of the table, and is set in 
 motion by ropes and pulleys fixed to beams over the 
 table. As soon as the metal is found to be adequately 
 heated, every thing is gotten ready to cast it on the table, 
 the bottom of which is then covered by a stratum of 
 dry and clean sand, and a rake is applied to smooth it 
 regularly all over the surface. When this is done the 
 box is brought close up to the copper. It must be ob- 
 served, that these boxes are made, in their contents, 
 equal to the containing of as much of the melted lead 
 as will cast the whole of the sheet at the same time, and 
 the slit in the bottom is adjusted so as to let as much, 
 and no more, out during its progress along the table, 
 as will be sufficient to cover it completely of the thick- 
 ness and weight per foot required. When the box 
 has dispersed its contents upon 'the table, it is suffered 
 to cool and congeal, when it is rolled up and removed 
 away, and other sheets are made till all the melted 
 metal in the copper be cast up, and it is emptied. The 
 sheets so formed are rolled up and weighed, as it is by 
 weight the public are charged for sheet-lead. 
 
 The other kind of sheet-lead made use of by plum- 
 bers, called, in the trade, milled lead, is not manufac- 
 tured at home. This they purchase of the lead mer- 
 chant, as it is cast and prepared commonly at the ore 
 and roasting furnaces. Such kind of lead is very thin, 
 and commonly there is not more than four pounds of 
 metal to the foot superficial. It is used by architects 
 for the covering only of the hips and ridges of roofs of 
 buildings. It is by no means adapted to gutters or ter- 
 races, or, in fact, to any part of a building much ex- 
 posed either to great w'ear and tear, or the effects of the 
 sun, as it expands and cracks by the latter, and is soon 
 worn away by the former exposure. It is laminated in 
 sheets about the same size as has been described for cast 
 sheet-lead ; and, in the operation of making, a lami- 
 nating-roller is used, or a flatting-mill, which reduces it 
 to the state in which it is seen in commerce. 
 
 Solder is used by the plumber for the purpose of se- 
 curing the joints of leaden work, in cases in which a 
 lap or roll-joint cannot be employed. It is a general 
 rule with respect to solder, that it should always be 
 easier of fusion than the metal intended to be soldered 
 by it. Next to this, care must be taken that the solder 
 be as far as it is possible of the same colour wdth the 
 metal intended to be soldered. Technically, the soft 
 solder is that which the plumber makes use of, by rea- 
 son of its melting easily. This solder is composed of 
 tin and lead, in equal parts, fused together ; after 
 which it is run into moulds in shape not unlike a common 
 gridiron. In this state it is sold by the pound by the 
 manufacturer. In the operation of soldering, the sur- 
 faces of the metal intended to be joined are scraped 
 
 and rendered very clean, they are then brought close up 
 to each other, and, to secure them, they are held by one 
 plumber while another lays a little resin or borax about 
 the joint. This is done to defend the metal, while sol- 
 dering, from oxidation. The heated solder is then 
 brought in a ladle and poured on the joint te be sol- 
 dered, and is smoothed and finished by rubbing it about 
 with a heated grozing-iron, and when complete, it is 
 filed or scraped off, and made even with the joint and 
 contiguous surface of the lead. 
 
 The plumber has no need of great variety of working 
 tools, as the ductility of the metal he works in does not 
 require them, and what he may require are generally 
 supplied by the master-tradesman. They consist of an 
 iron hammer made rather heavier than they usually are 
 seen, having a short but thick handle. Two or three 
 different sized wooden mallets, and a dressing and flat- 
 ting tool. This instrument is made of beechen wood, 
 commonly about eighteen inches long, and two inches 
 and a half square, planed quite smooth on one side, 
 and rounded into an arch on the other, or upper side. 
 One of its ends is tapered and rounded to make it con- 
 venient to be held in the hand of the workman. With 
 this tool the plumber stretches out and flattens all the 
 sheet-lead, as well as dresses it into the shape it may be 
 wanted in the various purposes to which such lead is 
 applied, using first the flat side of this tool, and then 
 the round side, as may be required. They have also a 
 jack and trying plane, similar to the same kind of tools 
 used by carpenters. These tools consist of a piece of 
 beechen wood, that for the former about sixteen inches, 
 and, for the latter, twenty-two inches long, in each of 
 which a flat iron of sharpened steel is fitted, and held to 
 its work by wooden wedges adapted to mortises made at 
 the distance of about one-third from the fore-end of 
 each plane. At the opposite end is formed a handle 
 by which the planes are worked. With such tools 
 plumbers plane straight the edges of their sheet-lead, 
 when it is required to present a very regular and cor- 
 rect line, as it is frequently wanted to do in archi- 
 tecture. They are provided also with a line and roller, 
 called a chalk-line ; with this they line out all the lead 
 into the different widths it may be wanting. Their 
 cutting tools embrace chisels and gouges of different 
 sizes, as well as several cutting knives. These latter 
 are used for the purpose of accurately cutting the sheet- 
 lead into the strips and pieces to the division mark- 
 ed by the chalk-line which has been drawn on the 
 lead. They have files of different sizes, which they 
 use in manufacturing of -cistern leads to pipes, pump- 
 work, &c. 
 
 For soldering, they keep a variety of different sized 
 grozing-irons ; these are commonly about twelve inches 
 long, and tapered at both ends, the handle-end turned 
 quite round to allow of its being held firmly in the hand 
 while in use. The opposite ends of which are made 
 spherical, and some of them are of a spindle-shape, and of 
 a size in proportion to the soldering to be done with 
 them. These kind of irons are heated to redness when 
 6 K used. 
 
494 
 
 PLUMBERY. 
 
 used. Their iron ladles are of three or four sizes, and 
 used for the purpose of heating the solder. 
 
 A plumber’s measuring rule is of two feet in length, 
 divided into three parts, each of which is eight inches 
 long. Two of its legs are of box-wood, and duodeci- 
 mally divided, and a third of a piece of slow-tempered 
 steel ; this is attached to one of the box legs by a pivot, 
 on which it turns, and the same legs being grooved out 
 on its side it receives the steel leg, when not in use, in 
 this groove. The plumber finds a rule of this descrip- 
 tion very convenient, inasmuch as he can pass the steel 
 leg of his rule into places he may have to examine, 
 which he could not readily get any thing else to enter : 
 it also answers the purpose occasionally of removing the 
 oxide or any other matter from off his heated metal. 
 A plumber’s rule, by being so made, is constantly in 
 use in one way or another. 
 
 Scales and weights are also very essential, as nothing 
 done by the plumber is chargeable till it be weighed. 
 He is also supplied with centre-bits of all sizes, and a 
 stock to work them in, for the making perforations in 
 lead or wood, where he may have occasion to insert 
 pipes, &c. & c. The compasses he uses occasionally to 
 strike out any circular portion of lead wanted to line or 
 cover figures of that description. 
 
 Of laying Sheet-Lead. — The method usually adopted 
 consists, if it be for terraces or flats, of covering such 
 places with a bottom as even as possible, either by 
 boarding or plastering ; if, by the former, observing to 
 have the boards thick enough to prevent their warping 
 and twisting upwards, as, when this is not attended to, 
 the lead work is soon cracked and becomes very un- 
 sightly. The sheets of lead not being more than about 
 six feet in width makes it necessary to have joints when 
 a large surface is to be covered ; these joints the plum- 
 ber manages in various ways to prevent them leaking. 
 The best way is by forming what are called rolls; a roll 
 consists of a piece of w'ood of about two inches 
 square, planed rounding on its upper side, these are 
 fastened under the joints of the lead between the edges 
 of the two sheets which meet together, one of which 
 is dressed up over the roll on the inside, and the other 
 over both of them on the outside, by which means the 
 water is prevented from percolating the flat. No other 
 fastening is required than the adherence of the lead by 
 being closely hammered together, and down upon the 
 flat : indeed, all fastening to the sheet lead, exposed to 
 heat and cold, ought to be avoided, as it expands and 
 shrinks by such vicissitudes, and if secured so as to 
 prevent these from spontaneously effecting it, it will be 
 cracked and dilapidated quickly. When rolls are not 
 used, which is sometimes the case from their being 
 found inconvenient by their projection, seams, as they 
 are called, are employed, and consist in simply bending 
 flie two edges of the lead which approach to each other 
 up and again over one another, and then dressing them 
 down close to the flat throughout their whole length. 
 This plan is by no means equal to the one by the roll, 
 either for neatness or security. Soldering the joints 
 
 is sometimes had recourse to for such kind of work, but 
 it is a very bad way, and no good plumber would re- 
 commend it, as lead so fixed will be cracked and leak 
 like a sieve, after having been exposed to one sum- 
 mer’s sun. Leaden-flats, as well as gutters, require to be 
 laid with a current to keep them dry. The rule for 
 forming of which consists in giving a fall from back to 
 front, or in the way in which it is determined that the 
 sheets of lead are to be laid. A quarter of an inch to* 
 the foot run is a sufficient fall for lead, that is, if the 
 sheets be twenty feet long, and heuce they w ill require to 
 be laid five inches higher at one end than at the other. 
 This inclination, or, as it is called, giving a current, is 
 generally apportioned and determined on by the car- 
 penter and plumber previously to the laying of the lead, 
 while the former’s part of the business is doing. 
 
 Flashings, as they are called, are pieces commonly 
 of milled-lead about eight or nine inches wide, and fixed 
 all round the extreme edges of a flat or gutter, in which 
 lead has been used. If a wall of brick-work surround 
 it, it is passed into the joint between the bricks and its 
 other edge, dressed over that of the edge of the lead 
 in the flat or gutter, and when no joint can be found 
 to receive its upper edge, it is then fastened by wall- 
 hooks, and its other edge dressed down as before. 
 
 Drips in Flats or Gutters consist in raising one part 
 above another, and dressing the lead as has been de- 
 scribed for covering the rolls. They are had recourse 
 to when the lengths of the gutter or flat exceed that of 
 the length of the sheet, or sometimes for convenience ; 
 they are also an expedient to avoid joining the lead by 
 soldering it. 
 
 The pipes used by the plumber are of various sizes as 
 well as description. All the smaller sizes are called by 
 their caliber or bore, thus, 4 , |, 1, 14 , 1 3 , and 2-inch 
 pipe. They originally used to be cast by a core of 
 wood of these respective diameters, but they are now 
 all made by a machine worked by steam, which fur- 
 nishes a neater article of almost any length, and consi- 
 derably more cheap than heretofore. All those pipes, 
 from 4 > to 14 -inch caliber, are charged by the foot run, 
 and those above that size by the hundred w’eight. The 
 rain-water pipes attached to the outside of buildings for 
 the purpose of conveying off the superfluous water from 
 the roofs of them, called, by the plumbers, socket-pipes; 
 of these several respective diameters is 3, 34 , 4, or 5 
 inches, and are made from sheet-lead, and most commonly 
 from that which is called milled. They are formed in 
 lengths of from eight or ten feet each ; the sheet-lead for 
 making which is dressed on a rounded core of w'ood, 
 and the vertical joint which is made at the back is fast- 
 ened and secured by solder. The horizontal joints are 
 formed by an astrigal moulding in a separate piece of 
 lead about two or three inches wide, and which laps 
 completely over it, both above and below it, and is 
 called the lap-joint, or collar of the socket-pipe. „ Two 
 broad pieces of lead are attached to the back of the 
 lap-joints, called fhe tacks, these are spread out right 
 and left of the pipe upon the wall to which they are 
 
 hammered 
 
PLUMBERY. 
 
 495 
 
 hammered quite close, and answer the purpose of fixing 
 the whole to the buildings : to do which, more effec- 
 tually, wall-hooks of iron are sometimes put, and driven 
 into the masonry. The cistern-head, which is fixed at 
 the top of rain-water pipes, is made up of sheet-lead, 
 or cast in a mould. They are commonly moulded into 
 a variety of forms, these are easily supplied in a metal 
 so ductile as lead is : they are fastened by tacks in the 
 same way as the collars are. 
 
 Reservoirs are generally formed of wood or masonry 
 on their exterior, and their insides lined with cast sheet- 
 lead, the joints of which are secured by solder. In 
 this application of soldering no fear of cracking need 
 be anticipated, as change of temperature seldom takes 
 place in or near the place where reservoirs are commonly 
 placed. 
 
 Pumps are of various descriptions, and employed for 
 purposes multiplied and extensive ; but the plumber’s 
 employment in this kind of work is confined generally 
 to the making of two or three several kinds, as may be 
 required in our domestic economy. These may be con- 
 sidered as the sucking, forcing, and lifting pumps. The 
 former and latter being now the most commonly made 
 use of. 
 
 The Sucking-Pump consists of two pipes, one of 
 which is the barrel, and the other the suction-pipe, 
 which is of smaller diameter; these are joined by 
 means of flanches pierced with holes to admit of being 
 fastened by screwed bolts. The joint of the flanches 
 is filled with leather, which being strongly compressed 
 by the screwed bolts, renders, the joint air-tight. The 
 lower end of the suction-pipe is commonly spread out a 
 little to facilitate the entry of the water, and frequently 
 has a grating across it to keep out filth or gravel. The 
 working barrel is cylindrical, and as evenly bored as 
 possible,, that the piston may fill it with as little friction 
 as may be consistent with air-tightness. 
 
 The piston is a sort of truncated cone generally made 
 of wood, the small end of w hich is cut off at the sides, 
 so as to form a sort of arch, and by which it is fastened 
 to the iron rod or spindle. The two ends of the coni- 
 cal part may be hooped with brass : this cone has its 
 larger end surrounded with a ringf or band of strong 
 leather fastened to it by nails. The leather-band 
 should always reach to some distance beyond the base 
 of the cone, and the whole must beof uniform thickness 
 all round, so as to suffer equal compression between 
 the cone and working barrel when put into action. The 
 seam or joint of the two ends of this band must be 
 made very close, but not screwed or stitched together ; 
 if done so it would occasion lumps or inequalities, 
 which would destroy its tightness, and no harm can 
 result from the want of it, because the two ends will 
 be squeezed close together w-hen in the barrel. It is 
 by no means necessary that this compression be great ; 
 when it is so, it is found a detrimental error of the 
 pump-maker, by occasioning enormous friction, which 
 destroys the very purpose they have in view, viz. gen- 
 dering the piston air-tight ; and it moreover causes the 
 
 leather to wear through very soon at the edge of the 
 cone, and also wears away the working barrel ; in con- 
 sequence of which it becomes wide in that part which is 
 continually passed over by the piston, while the mouth 
 remains of its original diameter, and hence follows the 
 impossibility to thrust in a piston that shall completely 
 fill the part so worn aw’ay. 
 
 The suction-pipe is usually made of smaller size 
 than the working barrel, but only for the sake of eco- 
 nomy, as it is not necessary that it should be so ; but it 
 ought to be of such a size that the pressure of the at- 
 mosphere may be able to fill the barrel with water as 
 fast as the piston rises.* This is the kind of pump 
 fixed and made by plumbers, and is that which is com- 
 monly seen over wells and reservoirs for the purpose 
 of raising water for the common purposes of life. 
 
 The Forcing-Pump consists of a working barrel, a 
 suction-pipe, and a main, called serving main, or rais- 
 ing pipe. This kind of pump was formerly much 
 in use for the purpose of forcing water to unnatural 
 heights. The raising pipe of such pumps is usually in 
 three parts, the first of which may be considered as 
 making part of the working barrel of the pump, and is 
 sometimes cast in one piece, with it the second is 
 joined to it by flanches, with which it forms an elbow. 
 The third is properly the beginning of the main, and is 
 continued forward to the place of the delivery of the 
 water where it is supplied by two moveable valves. 
 The beauty of this kind of pump consists in the perfec- 
 tion of the barrel and piston, for which reason it is 
 now made of brass or bell metal, and when it is well 
 polished the piston may be used in it without either a 
 wadding or leather. 
 
 The Lifting-Pump consists as before of a working 
 barrel, which is closed at both ends. The piston is 
 solid and its rod passes through a collar of leather in 
 the plate, and closes the upper end of the working bar- 
 rel. The barrel communicates laterally with the [suc- 
 tion-pipe, and above with the raising main. This 
 kind ot pump differs only from the sucking-pump be- 
 fore described in having two valves, the lower one 
 moveable and the upper one fixed. 
 
 The first pump invented above a century before 
 Christ by Ctesibius, of Alexandria, to whom also mu- 
 sic is indebted for the organ, was a forcing-pump, as 
 may be easily collected from its description by Vitru- 
 vius (1. x. cap. 1£). 
 
 Mixed Pumps are the combination of the principle 
 of the forcing and sucking-pumps into one machine; 
 when the lower valve of a forcing-pump is above the 
 
 * The length of the suction-pipe should never be greater than 
 thirty feet below its moveable valve, and there may be a loss of 
 time in the ascent of the water, unless it be made even a few feet 
 shorter. In using it the velocity of the stroke should never be less 
 than four inches, nor greater than two or three feet in a second. 
 The stroke should be as long as possible to prevent loss of water by 
 the frequent alternations of the valves. When this pipe is adapted 
 to common purposes, its diameter should be about two-thirds or 
 three-fourths of that ot the barrel. 
 
 surface 
 
496 
 
 POTTERY. 
 
 surface of the water it can only raise it by suction, but 
 the manufacture of the pump remains as before. 
 The mechanism of a pump may be employed for con- 
 verting the weight of water descending in its barrel to 
 the purpose of working another pump ; such a pump 
 has been invented by Mr. Trevithick 1 , a description of 
 which may be seen in Nicholson’s Journal. 
 
 Of the Spiral Pump. — If we wind a pipe round a 
 cylinder of which the axis is horizontal, and connect one 
 end with a vertical tube while the other is at liberty to 
 turn round and receive water and air in each revolution, 
 the machine is called a spiral pump. This pump was 
 invented about 1746, by Andrew Wirtz, a pewterer in 
 Zurich, and was afterwards employed at Florence. At 
 Archangelsky near Moscow, it is reported such a pump 
 was erected in 1784, which raised a hogshead of water 
 in a minute to a height of 74 feet, and through a pipe 
 7 60 feet in length. The force employed is not stated, 
 we may therefore conjecture that it was turned by 
 water. 
 
 The Screw of Archimedes, or Water Snail, and the 
 Water Screw Pump, consist either of a pipe wound 
 spirally round a cylinder, or one or more spiral excava- 
 tions formed by means of spiral projections from an 
 internal cylinder covered by an external coating so as to 
 be water-tight. But if the coating is detached so as to 
 remain at rest while the spirals revolve, the machine is 
 called a water-screw. These kind of pumps are em- i 
 ployed by the architects in removing superfluous water 
 from out of the foundations of bridges or elsewhere. 
 The screw of Archimedes should always be so placed 
 as to fill exactly one half of a convolution in each turn. 
 It has often happened that very unfavourable reports 
 have been made of the power of this machine from 
 want of attention to this circumstance; for when its 
 orifice remains constantly immersed the effect is very 
 much diminished. Where the height of water is so 
 variable as to render this precaution impossible, the 
 
 water-screw will be preferable, although in this instru- 
 ment one-third of the water runs back, and it is easily 
 clogged by accidental impurities in the water. The 
 screw of Archimedes is generally placed when in 
 action, so as to form an angle of between 45 and 60 
 degrees with the horizon ; while the open water-screw 
 will do at an angle of 30 degrees only. For great 
 heights the spiral pump is preferable to either of the 
 before-mentioned machines, as promoting a greater effect 
 with less labour. 
 
 Pump-work will require a very rfned calculation 
 to develope its real powers. The machines here treated 
 of are reduced to public purposes by having their de- 
 tails regularly manufactured to almost every required 
 purpose, as such they are vended to the plumber and 
 public. ^ 
 
 Water-Closets are made in a similar way, manufactured 
 by one set of workmen and sold to the plumber, who is 
 another, to fix in their places. A water-closet consists 
 of a bason and apparatus, traps, socket-pipe, and cistern; 
 the whole of which is put into action by the plumber. 
 To supply the cisterns with water is the purpose of his 
 adopting a forcing or lifting-pump. These latter are 
 on a small scale, very neatly fitted up, and require only 
 the suction and main pipe to be added by the plumber, 
 to be capable of forcing or lifting water to almost any 
 height. They are sold by the manufacturers at 71. 7s. 
 each. The mains or pipes are charged by the plumber 
 additional, with such day-work as is required in putting 
 the whole in its place. The bason and apparatus to a 
 water-closet is sold for 51. 5s. ; but the whole fitting up 
 of such a convenience cannot be made, with all its pipes, 
 for a less sum than 25l. to 301. Plumbers charge their 
 sheet-lead by the one cwt., and their prices are arranged 
 half-yearly by the Warden and Court of Assistants of 
 the Plumbers’ Company. The milled-lead is always 
 charged two shillings per cwt. more than the cast-lead. 
 
 POTTERY. 
 
 Pottery is the art by which plastic earth is con- 
 verted into hard and brittle vessels of various kinds and 
 forms, and designed for various purposes. The essen- 
 tial material of all potteries is clay, which, of itself, 
 possesses the two requisite qualities of being in its na- 
 tural state so plastic, that, with water, it becomes a 
 soft qniformly extensible mass, capable of assuming 
 and retaining any form, and when thoroughly dried, and 
 having undergone a red-heat for a time, of losing this 
 
 plasticity, and of becoming hard, close in texture, and 
 able more or less perfectly to confine all liquids con- 
 tained within its hollow. The most important circum- 
 stances requisite to be considered in selecting the mate- 
 rials for pottery are plasticity, contractibility, solidity, 
 and compactness after drying, colour, and infusibility. 
 
 The plasticity seems to be simply owing Jo the pro- 
 portion of clay used, or the nature of the clay itself, 
 for all clays are, owing to their mixture with other sub- 
 stances, 
 
POTTERY. 
 
 497 
 
 stances, not equally plastic, and the foreign ingredients, 
 in no case increase, but, in many cases, diminish this 
 property in a very considerable degree. 
 
 The texture, including the qualities of hardness and 
 compactness, depends partly on the mixture of siliceous 
 or flinty ingredients, with the clay, and partly on the 
 heat employed in the burning of the pottery. The 
 very pure natural clays are infusible in almost any degree 
 of heat, and their hardness keeps pace with the inten- 
 sity of the fire, but they have the essential defects of 
 drying very slowly, of shrinking much, and of becoming 
 full of cracks when dried. On these accounts it is ne- 
 cessary to mix them intimately with some other earth or 
 earths of different qualities ; that is, with some that will 
 absorb but little water : will quickly part with it, and 
 will dry compact and close. 
 
 The colour of the earths used is also of essential im- 
 portance in the finer pottery, in which the great desi- 
 deratum is to find clay that, after burning, remains 
 perfectly white. The appearance, before burning, can- 
 not always be depended on ; for, though the whitest 
 clays, after burning, are those that were white before, 
 yet it is only the clay of certain districts that retain a 
 perfect whiteness. Thus, we are told, that there exists, 
 at the foot of a range of hills that overlook the Stafford- 
 shire potteries, a stratum of white clay, which, to ap- 
 pearance, is fully equal to the best Devonshire clays, 
 but which cannot be employed for fine pottery, from its 
 acquiring, in burning, a yellowish cream-colour, which 
 no art has yet been able to correct. 
 
 The fusibility of clays and other earths used in pot- 
 tery is a subject of great importance, as it is property 
 that constitutes the difference between common earthen- 
 ware, as it is sometimes called, and porcelain. 
 
 We shall now proceed to give some account of the 
 mixture and combination of the earths with respect to 
 potteries. 
 
 None of the primitive earths, treated separately, pre- 
 sent to us, as we have seen, the union of all the quali- 
 ties necessary to form a good potter’s clay ; and it is 
 also to the well-contrived mixture of some of the earths 
 that we are indebted for this production of the arts. 
 We shall comprehend under the general title of pottery, 
 all the productions of the art, from the coarsest manu- 
 factory to that of the finest porcelain : the whole art 
 consist* in the proper mixing of two or three earths ; 
 the only difference in the results proceeds from the 
 choice of the earths, from the care taken in their pre- 
 paration, the proportions in which they are employed, 
 and from the nature of the baking and degree of heat to 
 which they are subjected. There are, therefore, some 
 general principles which apply to all these operations ; 
 these are the principles w hich are necessary to be know n, 
 in order to adapt them to processes, which, though iso- 
 lated and separated in practice, flow from the same 
 laws, and should be elucidated by the same doctrine. 
 We may regard alumine as the base of all the potter’s 
 earths ; the property that it possesses, of dividing itself 
 in water, and forming a paste susceptible of being ma- 
 
 nipulated, turned in the lathe, ground, &c., in order to 
 assume easily and preserve all the forms we may wish to 
 give it ; the faculty which is peculiar to it, of becoming 
 so hard in the fire that it will strike fire with steel ; of 
 scratching glass, and of uniting, by the application of a 
 violent heat, so as to assume a smooth aril almost vitre- 
 ous surface without fusion; and of no longer being- 
 divisible or dilutable in water ; have caused alumine to 
 be adopted in preference to all the other earths. But 
 this earth is not free from inconveniences ; it contracts 
 upon being fired, and can bear with difficulty a sudden 
 transition from cold to heat. These defects are reme- 
 died by mixing it with sand or siliceous earth, which 
 being infusible like itself, do not sensibly contract in the 
 fire, and form a kind of frame, which, by isolating, as 
 it were, the argillaceous particles, admits of their being 
 subjected, without inconvenience, to the alternate tran- 
 sitions of heat and cold. Besides, the mixture of these 
 tw'o substances forms a kind of compound, the pro- 
 perties of which may differ from those of its constituent 
 principles. 
 
 By examining more closely the principal qualities of 
 baked earths, we shall perceive the reason of their 
 greater or less resistance to being broken by the sudden 
 change of temperature. In fact, it is known that the 
 earthy substances are bad conductors of caloric ; so that 
 when we apply heat to the surface, it produces its 
 effects of contraction or dilatation before it is able to 
 penetrate to the same degree all the mass; it must, 
 therefore, have unequal effects, which tend to break the 
 whole. This must be still more sensible when the 
 earthen-ware presents a great inequality of thickness. 
 But when we multiply the pores, or the small aper- 
 tures, by means of sand, the fluid of heat circulates 
 more freely; the mass is more equally heated, and 
 nearly at the same time ; and the vessel resists alternate 
 heat and cold. This property may also be given to it 
 by applying the heat gradually ; the changes then take 
 place slowly, and at once, over all the parts. But the 
 alumine is rarely pure, it is naturally mixed with lime, 
 silex, magnesia, oxydes of iron, copper, manganese, 
 &c.; and it is the nature of these mixtures, and the 
 proportions among the bodies which form them, that 
 give to argils a variety of modifications in their proper- 
 ties. 
 
 Among the number of these natural mixtures, there 
 is one of them which only requires the hand of the 
 potter to shape it into useful utensils. For this reason, 
 w'e see manufactories of coarse earthen-ware established 
 upon the very stratum of clay which supports them ; 
 but more frequently these argils require a particular 
 operation, and must be mixed with other earths to 
 make them of use for the purposes for which they are 
 wanted. In general, it is only from well conducted ex- 
 periments that we judge of the quality of an argil, and 
 that w'e determine the nature and proportions of the 
 substances most proper to add in order to make it fit for 
 producing good ware. It is almost needless to observe, 
 that we must not expect the same qualities for every 
 6 L kind 
 
498 
 
 POTTERY. 
 
 kind of ware, since these qualities are relative to the 
 different uses to which the ware is to be applied : thus, 
 in order that an earth should be fit for making pipes 
 for a drain, house-tiles, or bricks, it would be ridicu- 
 lous to require that it should be able to resist great heat, 
 or undergo the sudden transitions of heat and cold. In 
 this case it is sufficient if the mixture acquires hardness 
 enough to prevent w'ater from softening or penetrating 
 it. 
 
 Those wares destined to undergo a violent heat and 
 sudden transitions of temperature, such as crucibles, 
 retorts, furnaces, &c., should likewise have no attrac- 
 tion for the bodies which we intend to work in them. 
 The ware employed in our kitchens would be of very 
 limited use, if they did not undergo, without alteration, 
 a sudden change of temperature, and if they were not 
 compact enough to prevent liquids from filtering through 
 them. When we possess a pure clay, furnished with 
 the requisite qualities for forming the base of a good 
 earthen-ware, we may apply it to every purpose, by 
 well-contrived mixtures. It is necessary, therefore, to 
 know the qualities which constitute a good clay, before 
 we attend to the nature and proportions of the earths 
 that we ought to mix with such as do not already pos- 
 sess qualities required. 
 
 A good clay has the following characters: — 1st. It 
 divides or melts in water without any nucleus remain- 
 ing. 2d. It is precipitated in this liquid, without 
 leaving any thing suspended which injures its transpa- 
 rency. 3d. The deposit which is formed in the water, 
 dried to the consistence of a soft paste, should have so 
 much toughness and ductility, that we may easily work 
 it by a lathe, or by the hands. 4th. It should neither 
 lose its form nor consistence on drying in the air. 5th. 
 It should harden upon the application of heat, without 
 cracking, without being deformed, or melted. 6th. It 
 should undergo, when fired, the sudden transitions from 
 heat to cold, and vice versa. A clay, possessing all 
 these properties, is a natural mixture of various earths, 
 for no one in particular possesses them all. 
 
 When a slight part of oxyde of iron, lime, or plaster, 
 is united with the earth we are speaking of, the earthen- 
 ware made from it presents a brilliant and vitreous gloss 
 and fracture, at the same time that they acquire such a 
 hardness that they strike fire with steel, and break 
 nearly like glass. These wares sound well, as it is 
 calLed, and they are capable of containing corrosive 
 liquids, without being penetrated or altered by them. 
 They would be the best earthen-wares known, if they 
 could undergo, without accident, the sudden transi- 
 tions of temperature. This is what is called stone- 
 ware ; it resembles much the biscuit of porcelain, from 
 which they do not essentially differ, except in the grain, 
 the colour, and the semi-transparency. The most 
 common argillaceous earth, which is called fat earth, 
 and potter’s clay, and of which the coarser ware is 
 made, is a natural mixture of alumine, silex, lime, and 
 a little oxyde of iron. The silex generally predomi- 
 nates ; the alumine is in the proportion of about one- 
 
 half : this is, at least, the mean result of a great many 
 analyses. 
 
 When the argillaceous earth is too rich in alumine, it 
 is usual to mix pounded flints or sand with it, in order 
 to correct the defects of too pure argil. It has been 
 ascertained, that if we mix sand with clay, it is more 
 advantageous to employ that which is of a middling 
 size. Frequently, in place of sand, fired clay is used : 
 this mixture is preferable for the manufacture of cru- 
 cibles and glass-house pots, which must keep alkalis in 
 fusion, because these latter substances would attach the 
 sand in order to form glass. When the clay contains 
 pernicious substances, from which it must be freed, it 
 is carefully examined, the ochery veins are thrown away, 
 as also the pyrites, and other matters which alter its pu- 
 rity. By means of w'ater, we may afterwards free it 
 from the calcareous earth which floats above, and from 
 the sand, which is precipitated. These are nearly all 
 the general principles upon which the art of the potte- 
 ries is founded ; and, although there has been establish- 
 ed in society, an enormous difference between the 
 coarse earthen-ware which the common people use, 
 and the porcelain with which the rich decorate their 
 tables and ornament their apartments : it is not less 
 true, that, in both cases, the nature, the preparation of 
 the earths, and even the management of the fire, differ 
 in some respects only. After having, therefore, related 
 the principles which science presents to us as applicable 
 to the art of the potter, it only remains to give some 
 details essentially connected with each of the branches 
 of the art. 
 
 The choice of the earths, and the proportions in 
 their mixture, differ according to the nature of the 
 works we mean to execute ; but, when the choice and 
 mixture are made, the working of the paste and the 
 baking of the article, present a course of processes, in 
 which there is no difference, except in the more or less 
 care which the artist takes in these different operations. 
 The preparation of the earths is always confined to 
 giving them an extreme minuteness of division, by 
 means of water, with which they are impregnated. 
 They are disposed to this preliminary operation by re- 
 ducing them into small fragments, or into powder, by 
 means of mallets, of mills, or other mechanical me- 
 thods. The water employed should be pure, particu- 
 larly when delicate pieces of ware are to be made ; for 
 this reason, in some manufactories of porcelain, rain- 
 water only is used. The earths are allowed to soak, or 
 rot, as it is termed, for a longer or shorter period, ac- 
 cording to the nature of the earth, and that of the work 
 we wish to produce. The longer the earth is in the pit 
 to soak, the better it is prepared. Not only are the 
 bituminous or vegetable principles, which exist in some 
 earths, destroyed, but any sulphuric salts they may con- 
 tain, are decomposed; and it almost always happens, 
 that, after some time, sulphuretted hydrogen gas is 
 liberated. By their being allowed to remain some time 
 in the pit, the earths acquire more tenacity and tough- 
 ness, so that they can be wrought more easily. On 
 
POTTERY. 
 
 499 
 
 this account, in some celebrated manufactories in Ger- 
 many, they soak the earth at two seasons in the year 
 only, and the time of the equinoxes is chosen, because 
 it is generally thought that rain-water is more strongly 
 charged with fermentescible principles at these two 
 seasons. 
 
 When the earths are prepared for delicate and pre- 
 cious works, such as porcelain or china, care must be 
 taken to remove every thing which might alter the 
 paste, and not to use any tools which might mix any 
 prejudicial substance with it. The earth is purified by 
 a very simple process: for this purpose, after having 
 bruised it and diluted it in rain-water, it is put into a 
 cylindrical cask three or four feet high ; this cask has 
 stop-cocks placed in its side, the one above, the other at 
 the distance of about six inches, so that the lowest one 
 is about two or three inches from the bottom. This 
 cask is filled with diluted clay ; the liquid paste is care- 
 fully stirred, and after settling for a few seconds, in 
 order to allow the sand to precipitate, the upper stop- 
 cock is turned in order to draw off all that is above it; 
 the second is then opened, the third, and so on, until 
 the whole of the liquid which holds the earth suspended 
 in it is drawn off. The decanted liquor is put into ves- 
 sels of baked clay ; the clay suspended in it is allowed 
 to precipitate ; the water is decanted and the clay- is 
 collected, which is dried in the shade and out of the 
 reach of dustj This clay, mixed in just proportions 
 with calcined silex, pounded and ground, sometimes 
 with bruised fragments of old earthen-ware, with baked 
 and sifted gypsum and other substances, forms the com- 
 position of porcelain ; and this composition is sifted 
 several times through hair-sieves. The mixture is af- 
 terwards moistened with rain-water in order to form a 
 paste, which is put into covered casks. This paste is 
 called by the workmen the mass. A fermentation soon 
 takes place, which changes its smell, colour and con- 
 sistence. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas is formed ; its 
 colour passes from white to deep grey ; and the matter 
 is tougher and softer. The older this mass is the 
 better it succeeds. It must be carefully moistened from 
 time to time to prevent it from drying. The prepara- 
 tions of the mixture, and the art of rightly managing the 
 mass are secrets in almost all manufactories. It is 
 needless to repeat that the care taken in the preparation 
 of the earths varies according to the work intended to 
 be executed. In the potteries of coarse earthenware, 
 the earth is put to soak in pits dug under the open air, 
 and they are moistened with any kind of water. When 
 it is wanted afterwards, the quantity is extracted from 
 the pit which the occasion requires. 
 
 The second operation is to give the paste the form 
 vve wish, and this is done in three ways: 1st. by the 
 labour of the hands; 2d. by means of moulds; 3d. by 
 means of the lathe. The choice of one or other of 
 these methods is not in the power of the artist; the na- 
 ture of the works, their size and form, must determine 
 the employment of this or that method. Jn every case 
 where the paste is well prepared for working, a new 
 
 perfection is given to it, by mixing it and kneading it 
 with the hands, and even by beating it upon tables with 
 large round pieces of wood : this is what is called dress- 
 ing the earth. By these mechanical operations the 
 earth is well divided, well mixed, and of an equal con- 
 sistence. 
 
 It should be observed, that an intimate mixture of 
 the ingredients used in pottery is of great importance to 
 the beauty, compactness, and soundness of the ware. 
 Formerly the wet clay and ground Hint, or whatever 
 else was employed, were beat together with long con- 
 tinued manual labour; but this expensive method has 
 | now been laid aside in the larger potteries, and they 
 I substitute for it another plan, which is that of bringing 
 I each material first to an impalpable powder, and diffu- 
 sing them separately in as much water as will bring 
 them to the consistence of thick cream, and when tho- 
 roughly mixed, the superfluous water is evaporated till 
 the mass is brought to a proper consistence. In the 
 potteries of Staffordshire the materials are a fine clay 
 brought chiefly from Devonshire, and a siliceous stone 
 named cher, or common flint reduced to powder by 
 heating it red-hot, quenching it in water and then grind- 
 ing it in mills. Each material is passed through very 
 fine brass sieves, then diffused in water, and brought to 
 a plastic state. 
 
 The works which are made with the hand are, 1st. 
 all sculptures, which are afterwards baked in order to 
 j give them the convenient hardness ; busts and other 
 ! ornaments are of this description. 2nd. Good glass- 
 1 house pots, for by this means the earth is better dressed 
 | than it can be by the lathe. The works done in the 
 ' mould are tiles, bricks, &c. The mould, of wood or 
 iron, is of the form proposed to be given to the piece : 
 it is open at the two faces, so that it is, properly speak- 
 ing, merely a frame for the purpose of giving equal 
 dimensions to the various works w'e are doing. This 
 frame is used on a table covered with a little sand or 
 ashes, to prevent the adhesion of the paste : the frame 
 is then filled with prepared clay; by the help of a cut- 
 ting instrument, which we apply with both hands over 
 the top of the mould, the excess of clay is taken off. 
 
 Almost all vessels of a cylindrical form, or which are 
 hollow, are wrought with the lathe. The wheel and 
 lathe are the chief and almost the only instruments made 
 use of : the fir6t for large works and the last for small. 
 The potter’s wheel consists principally in the nut, which 
 is a beam or axis, whose foot or pivot plays perpendi- 
 cularly on a free-stone sole or bottom. From the four 
 corners of this beam, which does not exceed two feet 
 in height, arise four iron bars called the spokes of the 
 wheel ; which, forming diagonal lines w ith the beam, 
 desceud, and are fastened at bottom to the edges of a 
 strong wooden circle four feet in diameter, perfectly 
 like the fellies of a coach-wheel, except that it has 
 neither axis nor radii, and is only joined to the beam 
 which serves it as an axis by the iron bars. The top of 
 the nut is flat, of a circular figu re, and a foot in dia- 
 meter; and on. this is laid the clay which is to be 
 
 turned 
 
500 
 
 POTTERY. 
 
 turned and fashioned. The wheel thus disposed is en- 
 compassed with four sides of four different pieces of 
 wood fastened on a wooden frame; the hind piece, which 
 is that on which the workman sits, is made a little in- 
 clining towards the wheel ; on the fore-piece is placed 
 the prepared earth ; on the side-piece he rests his feet, 
 and these are made inclining, to give him more or less 
 room. Having prepared the earth, the potter lays a 
 round piece of it on the circular head of the nut, and 
 sittingdown, turns the wheel with his feet till it has got 
 the proper velocity ; then, wetting his hands with water, 
 he presses his fist or his fingers-ends into the middle of 
 the lump, and thus forms the cavity of the vessel, con- 
 tinuing to widen it from the middle ; and thus turning 
 the inside into form with one hand while he proportions 
 the outside with the other, the wheel constantly turning 
 all the while, and he wetting his hands from time to 
 time. When the vessel is too thick, he uses a flat 
 piece of iron, somewhat sharp on the edge, to pare off 
 what is redundant ; and when finished it is taken off 
 from the circular head by a wire passed underneath the 
 vessel. 
 
 The potter’s lathe is also a kind of wheel, but more 
 simple and slight than the former : its three chief mem- 
 bers are an iron beam or axis three feet and a half 
 high and two feet and a half diameter, placed horizon- 
 tally at the top of the beam, and serving to form the 
 vessel upon : and another large wooden wheel, all of a 
 piece, three inches thick and two or three feet broad, 
 fastened to the same beam at the bottom and parallel 
 to the horizon. The beam or axis turns by a pivot at 
 the bottom in an iron stand. The workman gives the 
 motion to the lathe with his feet, by pushing the great 
 wheel alternately with each foot, still giving it a greater 
 or lesser degree of motion as his work requires. They 
 work with the lathe with the same instruments and after 
 the same manner as with the wheel. The mouldings 
 are formed by holding a piece of wood or iron, cut in 
 the form of the moulding, to the vessel w'hile the wheel 
 is turning round, but the feet and handles are made by 
 themselves and set on with the hand ; and if there be 
 any sculpture in the work, it is usually done in wooden 
 moulds, and stuck on piece by piece on the outside of 
 the vessel. 
 
 Handles, spouts, See. are afterwards fixed on to the 
 moulded piece if required : and it is then set to dry 
 for some days in a warm room, where it becomes so 
 hard as to bear handling without altering its shape. 
 When dry enough it is enclosed along w ith many others 
 in baked clay cases of the shape of bandboxes, called 
 seggars, which are made of the coarse clays of the 
 country. These are next ranged in the kiln or furnace 
 so as to fill it, except a space in the middle for the fuel. 
 Here the ware is baked till it has remained fully red 
 hot for a considerable time, which in the larger kilns 
 consumes ten or fifteen tons of coals : after which the 
 tire is allowed to go out, and when all is cooled the 
 seggars are taken out and their contents unpacked. 
 
 The w'are is now in a state of biscuit, perfectly void 
 
 of gloss, and resembling a clean egg-shell. In order to 
 glaze it, which is the next process, the biscuit ware is 
 dipped in a tub containing a mixture of about sixty 
 parts of litharge, ten of clay, and twenty of ground 
 flint, diffused in water to a creamy consistence, and 
 when taken out enough adheres to the piece to give an 
 uniform glazing when again heated; for which purpose 
 the pieces are repacked up in the seggars, w'ith small bits 
 of pottery interposed betw'een each and fixed in the 
 kiln as before. The glazing mixture fuses at a very 
 moderate heat, and gives an uniform glossy coating, 
 which finishes the process for common white w’are; 
 though the painting and gilding require subsequent 
 attention. 
 
 The process as described by M. Chaptal, to whose 
 “ Chemistry, as applied to the Arts,” we are indebted 
 for a part of this article, is somewhat different. The 
 workman, he says, begins by moistening the paste and 
 kneading it with the hands to give it the requisite soft- 
 ness. The workman afterwards takes the quantity he 
 thinks necessary for his work. He sticks this piece 
 of paste upon the middle of the horizontal wheel, 
 to which he gives a rotatory motion, by pushing 
 with his foot the lower wheel, parallel to and 
 fixed on the same axis ; and with his hands, which 
 he applies forcibly to the paste, he shapes his work 
 which he finishes by wooden tools applied to the sides 
 of it while moving rapidly round, in consequence of the 
 motion given to the wheel, so that the action of these 
 mechanical agents is equal over all the points of the cir- 
 cumference; the workman then successively employs 
 his hands and tools, until his w-ork is finished. When 
 it is wished to give a work the most perfect finishing 
 possible, it is again carried to the lathe, when it has 
 been dried a little, in order to render its forms more 
 delicate and finished by means of various steel instru- 
 ments well sharpened. Sometimes several of these pro- 
 cesses are united in the execution of a single piece of 
 workmanship. For instance, after having roughly- 
 given the principal forms the workman soaks the piece 
 in water, and places it in a plaster mould ; afterwards, 
 by means of a wet sponge, with which he presses all 
 the points of the surface, he fits his piece of ware to 
 every part of the mould, and makes it assume the exact 
 shape. The moulded figures are then withdrawn in 
 order to dry them. The labour of the potter who 
 makes figures is not so tedious, but it requires more 
 address. The modeller, as well as the turner, has 
 plaster moulds in which he casts the paste, and having 
 left it some time in them in order to give it consistence, 
 he extracts from it the moulded figures. But these 
 figures very rarely come out whole, being moulded in 
 pieces which are afterwards cemented together. They 
 are then finished off with ivory tools, a pencil, and a 
 sponge, after which they are dried. 
 
 A third operation, common to all potters, is baking, 
 or firing : the construction of the furnaces varies ac- 
 cording to the nature of the potteries ; in general, they 
 are round or square towers, the interiors of which pre- 
 sent 
 
POTTERY. 
 
 501 
 
 sent two very distinct parts, separated by an arch 
 pierced with several holes which give a passage to the 
 flame. We may employ, almost indiscriminately, all 
 kinds of combustibles in the firing of coarse earthen- 
 ware ; but, in general, that which gives most flame is 
 preferred ; and when we bake porcelain, we make use of 
 very dry white wood alone, cut into small billets of an 
 uniform size. The baking of porcelain and fine earthen- 
 wares demands particular attention : w'e are obliged to 
 enclose every separate piece in a case or frame, formed 
 of a very porous taste, and which resists the action of 
 heat ; by this means we prevent the pieces baked from 
 running or adhering to each other ; and we also prevent 
 any alteration which the smoke might produce in their 
 colour. The firing of porcelain generally lasts from 
 36 to 48 hours. We judge of the state of the baking 
 by proof-pieces, as they are called, placed in conve- 
 nient situations, and which we can draw out and examine 
 from time to time. It often happens, that the pieces 
 of porcelain adhere to the sand which has been spread 
 upon the bottom of their case or frame, in order to 
 prevent immediate contact : the piece thus soiled, is 
 applied to an iron wheel, upon which is placed emery 
 bruised in water, and the half vitrified sand is thus 
 completely removed. This is the reason why the bot- 
 toms of porcelain vessels are never covered with varnish 
 on the place which rests upon the sand. 
 
 Of all the beautiful specimens of European porcelain 
 which have been made in imitation of the oriental, it 
 does not appear that any of them entirely unite the ex- 
 cellencies attaching to that manufactured in China and 
 Japan. Earthy combinations have been made equally 
 strong and infusible, and as truly porcelainous, or a 
 substance of a perfect middle nature between pottery 
 and glass, when burnt, but they have not quite rivalled 
 the best Japanese, in delicate whiteness and lustre. To 
 obtain these qualities, which have always been esteemed 
 the most essential, that of infusibility has been fre- 
 quently sacrificed : hence those that make a near ap- 
 proach to the oriental in beauty and delicate lustre, of 
 which many manufactures in different parts of Europe 
 have afforded capital examples, are frequently found to 
 soften and melt down in an intense wind-furnace, at 
 w hich the true Nankin or Japan china undergo no change 
 whatever. Of British porcelain the curious will witness 
 the finest specimens at the manufactory, at Derby. 
 
 There are some earthen-wares, which, after one 
 baking, attain all the perfection they require : such as 
 furnaces, crucibles, earths made into bricks, &c. But 
 those productions of the pottery, intended to hold j 
 liquids, would be porous and ill suited to the end for | 
 which they are destined, if they were employed after i 
 a first firing. It is usual to cover the surface with a 
 vitreous coating, which does not admit of w'ater pene- 
 trating : it is this vitreous coating which is called var- 
 nish or glazing, in speaking of coarse or brown earthen- j 
 ware ; enamel, in speaking of the white earthen-ware ; 
 covering, when the finest productions of the potteries, 
 porcelain or china, are mentioned. The varnish of the 
 
 coarse earthen-ware is made of lead : for this purpose 
 the oxydes of lead are employed, such as minium or 
 litharge, or rather the sulphuret of lead, which minera- 
 logists call galena, and which is known in the language 
 of commerce, and of the potteries, by the name of 
 potters’ ore. Whatever is the nature of the substance 
 which forms the varnish, it is not employed until it is 
 so well pounded that it remains some time suspended 
 in water ; and it is applied to the surface of the earthen- 
 wares previously well dried, or by soaking them in 
 water charged with it, when we wish to cover every 
 part of their surface with varnish, or by throwing the 
 same water upon such parts as we may wish to varnish 
 separately and distinctly from the rest. 
 
 In the greatest number of establishments of the com- 
 mon kind of pottery in Paris, they begin by drying in 
 the shade the pieces they wish to varnish ; and when 
 they have acquired the necessary degree of consistence, 
 they are plunged into water which holds suspended in 
 it a fat earth minutely divided, and previously passed 
 through a silk sieve ; the pieces are then hastily drawn 
 out, covered by this operation by a slight coat of this 
 earth. The colour of these earths forms the ground 
 of the colour of the ware ; and when a green colour 
 is wanted, a little copper filings are added. Upon this 
 coat of fat earth, a little dried, we may apply the sul- 
 phuret of lead, by projecting water charged with this 
 mineral upon the ware : but it is almost every where 
 mixed with equal parts of sand ; the mixture of these 
 two substances is pounded, so as to render it impalpa- 
 ble ; it is soaked in water, and the piece of ware is 
 covered with it where we wish to lay on the varnish. 
 It is easy to see, that by this method we may vary and 
 shade at pleasure the colour of the ware : it is only 
 requisite to apply separately, upon the different parts 
 of the surface, the fat, yellow, white, or red earths, 
 and mixed or not with copper-filings. Some potters 
 do not apply the varnish until the ware has undergone 
 one firing; in this case they employ less varnish, as 
 they only apply it to those pieces which have resisted 
 the action of the fire ; but the second firing which be- 
 comes necessary, requires more workmanship, consumes 
 much more combustibles; and it is for the artist to 
 calculate the advantages and disadvantages of these two 
 methods. A black and vitreous colour may be given 
 to earthen-ware, by throwing into the fire at the time 
 of its greatest heat, some coal in powder or dust ; the 
 draught of the fire is consequently checked, so that it 
 is filled with a thick smoke, which is deposited upon 
 the ware, and forms a coat, which is vitrified as soon 
 as the current of air re-kindles the fire. On throwing 
 common sea-salt upon a well-heated fire, the salt is 
 volatilized, and attaches itself in part to the softened 
 surfaces of the earthen-ware, where it produces a com- 
 mencement of vitrification. These two last methods 
 are only applicable when the fire is very strong, and 
 where the ware can undergo a sudden heat without flying 
 or melting. It would be impossible to practice it how- 
 ever in our common potters’ furnaces. 
 
 6 M M. Chaptal 
 
5 02 
 
 POTTERY. 
 
 M. Chaptal endeavoured for a long time to find a 
 substitute for the sulphuret of lead, by a varnish which 
 should unite the same advantages, and be at the same 
 time more economical. He first tried pounded glass ; 
 and obtained very satisfactory results from it. “ I begin,” 
 he says, “ first, by pounding with great care pieces of 
 clear broken glass, and when I have reduced them to 
 a very fine powder, I sprinkle with this powder the 
 surface of the earthen-ware, covered with a weak coat 
 of fat clay, according to the process above described. 
 We may also mix this glass-powder with fat clay, dilute 
 the whole in water, and plunge into it the dried pieces : 
 this second process succeeds extremely well. This var- 
 nish covers well, it is not dangerous to use it, it is very 
 economical, and does not require so much heat as the 
 former. Since the year 1782, when I made it known, 
 and executed it on a large scale, it has received sotne 
 useful improvements in the potteries of Normandy, 
 Languedoc, and Venaissin. I have also employed with 
 success, volcanic products, which I treated in the same 
 manner with the other varnishes. I transmitted in 
 1785, to the Comptroller-general of the Finances, a 
 considerable number of bottles made of lava, and 
 pieces of earthen-ware varnished with lava, that he 
 might submit them to experiments, and have their qua- 
 lity ascertained : the results of these experiments were 
 very favourable. M. Fourmv derived great advantage 
 from this, by applying it to the manufacture of water- 
 coolers, which he established at Paris.” The enamel 
 with which the earthen-ware called Delft, is covered, 
 is merely glass, rendered opaque by the interposition I 
 of the oxyde of tin, which requires, in Ol der to pass ' 
 to vitrification, a greater degree of heat than the other 
 substances which are mixed with it. Every artist has 
 his own recipe and process for making his enamel, but 
 all of them take lead and tin as their base, which they i 
 oxydate and mix in various proportions, with well-burnt i 
 sand. The composition which furnished Chaptal with 
 the finest enamel was the following : he calcines with 
 great care, equal parts of lead and tin : when the two ; 
 metals pass to the state of oxyde, and present a fine 
 powder only, they are carefully pounded and passed 
 through the sieve : this powder is then boiled, and water 
 is thrown upon it : after the deposit is formed, a fresh 
 quantity of water is poured upon the deposit, in order 
 to dilute it ; he then decants the water, which holds in 
 suspension the most minutely divided parts, and allows 
 it to settle. The residue is pounded, sifted, and treated 
 with Water in the same manner ; and by repeating this 
 course of operations several times, the whole is brought 
 to the same degree of fineness and tenuity: this pow- 
 der is afterwards dried, in order to use it as occasion 
 requires. On the other hand, he calcines very white 
 flints, free from ail foreign matter, and purifies them 
 from the salt of tartar, so that there is only a carbonate 
 of potash. These three substances being thus pre- 
 pared, he weighs 100 parts of mixed oxydes of lead 
 and tin, 100 parts of calcined flint, and 200 parts of ) 
 carbonate of potash : all these are to be well mixed, j 
 
 and melted in a crucible. Merret has suggested the 
 substitution of white oxyde of antimony for the oxyde 
 of tin. Dauet also observed, that a fine enamel was 
 obtained by melting white clay with gypsum. But 
 these processes are not yet sufficiently confirmed by ex- 
 periments, to entitle them to be adopted u the manu- 
 factories. The enamel of delft-ware, may be coloured 
 by adding various metallic oxydes to the composition. 
 The following are receipts given by M. Chaptal for 
 the composition of the coloured enamels : — 
 
 1st. Azure blue. Three ounces of zaffre, and GO 
 grains of calcined copper, added to six pounds of the 
 enamel composition. 
 
 2nd. Turkish blue. Six pounds of white enamel, 
 three ounces of oxydated copper, 98 grains of zaffre, 
 48 grains of manganese. 
 
 3rd. Green. Six pounds of white enamel, three 
 ounces of oxydated copper, 60 grains of iron-filings. 
 
 4th. Shining black, or deep blue. Six pounds o£ 
 white enamel, three ounces of zaffre, three ounces of 
 manganese. 
 
 5th. Very brilliant black. Six pounds of white ena- 
 mel, six ounces of red tartar, and three ounces of 
 manganese. 
 
 6th. Purple. Six pounds of white enamel, three 
 ounces of manganese. 
 
 7th. Yellozo. Six pounds of white enamel, three 
 ounces of tartar, 72 grains of manganese. 
 
 8th. Sea-green. Six pounds of white enamel, three 
 ounces of oxyde of copper, 60 grains of zaffre. 
 
 9th. Violet. Six pounds of white enamel, two ounces 
 of manganese, 48 grains of oxyde of copper. 
 
 Whatever be the nature of the enamel, when we 
 wish to apply it, it must be pounded and diluted in 
 water, and we must throw this water which holds it in 
 suspension, upon the vessels which have been already 
 fired once ; the water is absorbed into the texture of the 
 w'are, and the enamel powder remains on the surface. 
 A second firing, stronger than the first, must be given 
 to the ware, in order to melt the enamel. As it is 
 material to preserve its fine white colour to the delft- 
 ware, it must be fired in cases, in the same manner 
 as porcelain. The earthen-ware of Mr. Wedgwood, 
 having acquired great celebrity wherever it is known, 
 under the appellation of English ware, or Wedgwood’s 
 ware, we shall describe the principal compositions 
 which form the colours of this ware. 
 
 First Process, or Preparation of the Ingredients . — 1 
 1. A white earth from Ayoree, in North America: 
 calcine this in a red-heat about half an hour. 2. 
 Bronze-powder. Dissolve one ounce of pure gold in 
 aqua regia ; precipitate it with copper ; then wash the 
 precipitate with hot water till it is sweet, or clean from 
 the acid ; dry it, and lay it up for use. 3. Take two 
 ounces of crude antimony, levigated, two ounces of 
 tin ashes, and six ounces of white-lead ; mix them well 
 together, and calcine them in a potter’s furnace along 
 with glass cream-coloured ware. 4. Take eight ounces 
 of good smult, one ounce of roasted borax, four 
 
 ounces 
 
POTTERY. 
 
 503 
 
 ounces of red-lead, and one ounce of nitre; mix the 
 ingredients well together, and fire them in a crucible, 
 in a potter’s biscuit-oven. 5. Take English copperas, 
 or vitriol of iron, calcine it in a moderate red-heat 
 about two hours, then wash it in hot water till it is 
 sweet; dry it and lay it up for use. 6. White-lead. 
 7. Flint, calcined and ground. 8. Manganese. [)• 
 Zaffre. 10. Copper, calcined to blackness. 
 
 Second Process, or compounding and mixing the 
 Colours. 
 
 Shining Black, A. — Three ounces of No. 8, above, 
 three ounces of No. 9, three ounces of No. 10, eleven 
 ounces of No. 6, and six ounces of the green, F, be- 
 low. 
 
 Red , B. — Two ounces of No. 1, two ounces of 
 No. 3, one ounce of No. 5, and three ounces of 
 No. 6. 
 
 Orange, C. — Two ounces of No. 1, fourteen ounces 
 of No. 3, half an ounce of No. 5, and four ounces of 
 No. 6. 
 
 Dry Black, D. — One ounce of No. 4, and two 
 ounces of No. 8. 
 
 White , E. — Two ounces of No. 1 , and two ounces 
 of No._6. 
 
 Green, F. — One ounce of No. 1, two ounces of 
 No. 3, and five ounces of No. 4. 
 
 Blue, G. — One ounce of No. 1, and five ounces of 
 No. 4. 
 
 Yellow, H. — No. 3, alone. 
 
 Third Process, or Application of the Encaustic 
 Bronze and Colours. — Application of the Bronze, I. 
 — When the vessels are finished ready for burning, and 
 before they are quite dry, grind some of the powder, 
 No. 2, in oil of turpentine, and apply it to the vessels, 
 or figures, with a sponge or pencil, to imitate bronze, 
 in such a manner as your fancy directs : polish this pow- 
 der upon the vessel or figure, and burn it, in such a 
 furnace, and such a degree of heat, as is necessary for the 
 ware ; after it is burnt, burnish the bronze upon the vessel 
 to what degree you please, and the process is finished. 
 
 Another Method of applying the Bronze after the 
 Ware is f red Biscuit, as some Figures or V essels may 
 be too delicate to bear the Process 1. K. — Take four 
 ounces of No. 6, and one ounce of No. 7, grind them 
 well together; spread this very thin, with a sponge or 
 pencil, over the ware to be bronzed, and fire it till this 
 layer of size is fluxed, which may be done in a potter’s 
 furnace; then take the pow'der, No. 2, and apply it to 
 the vessel, as before directed ; then burn the ware over 
 again, till the powder adheres to the size : burnish, 8tc., 
 as before. 
 
 Application of the Shining Black upon Red Vessels, 
 in the Manner of the Antique Etruscan Vases, L. — 
 Take the colour, A, grind it very fine with oil of tur- 
 pentine, and with it trace the outlines of the design you 
 intend to have upon the vessel ; then fill up the vacant 
 spaces very even, and shade the drapery, &c. Fire the 
 vessels in a heat sufficient to flux the black, and they 
 are finished. 
 
 Another Method to produce a different Effect with 
 the same Colour, in the Manner of the Etruscans, M. 
 — Paint the design with the black laid on as dead co- 
 louring, upon the red biscuit-ware, and cut up or finish 
 the design with red and other colours ; for which purpose 
 the above-mentioned ones are prepared ; they must also 
 be ground in oil of turpentine, and burnt upon the 
 vessels in a muffle, or enamel-kiln. 
 
 Another Method to produce, in a more expeditious 
 Way, nearly the Effect of the Process L, N. — Take 
 the red, B, or the orange, C, and lay in your design 
 with it, as a dead colour, upon black biscuit vessels ; 
 and shade it with the black, D, with or without the ad- 
 dition of any of the other colours; firing them upon 
 the vessels as before directed. The covering of porce- 
 lain is a vitreous and transparent matter, w'hich must be 
 applied exactly over all the points of the surface, and 
 incorporated with the paste, without cracking or flying. 
 
 Count Milly, who, in his work upon porcelain, has 
 made us acquainted with three compositions for the co- 
 vering, makes them consist of the same materials, vary- 
 ing the proportions only. 
 
 I First 
 Coiqpos. 
 
 Very white quartz . 8 parts 
 
 White enamel ... 15 
 
 Calcined crystals of \ 9 
 
 gypsum . • S 
 
 Pure and colourless substances alone must be used 
 for the covering. Feldspar is also made use of. What- 
 ever be the composition, we must grind, with the 
 greatest care, the substances which enter into it ; their 
 
 powder must be diluted in water, and a paste formed 
 
 with it, which must be macerated in w'ater like the mass 
 of the porcelain. When we use it, it must be diluted 
 in w'ater, so as to give it a tolerable liquidity ; and we 
 must plunge in this liquid the porcelain which has 
 already undergone the first firing. Figures, and gene- 
 rally all porcelain articles which are neither to be 
 painted nor exposed to water, have no occasion for any 
 covering ; they are then sold in the state of biscuit. 
 W hen the biscuit has received its covering, it constitutes 
 white porcelain ; and in this state it may be applied to 
 every purpose. Hitherto we have only considered 
 earthen-ware in respect to its utility ; but art has so 
 perfected this valuable branch of our industry, that we 
 have succeeded in executing, in earthen-ware, the most- 
 complicated designs, with astonishing elegance and pre- 
 cision. “ There is no one,” says M. Chaptal, 11 who 
 does not admire the beauty of form, the correctness of 
 design, and brilliancy of colouring, in the porcelains of 
 Sevres, and those of Messrs. Dilk and Guerrard.” 
 Among these prodigies of French industry, some parts 
 of them belong to the art of design, and some to che- 
 mistry; with the latter branch, in particular, we are 
 now occupied. The application of colours upon por- 
 celain presents to us some very interesting points of 
 view : on the one hand, the nature and choice of the 
 colours ; on the other, the art of applying and incor- 
 porating them. The colours are all derived from the 
 
 metallic 
 
 Second 
 Compos. 
 17 parts 
 16 
 
 Third 
 Compos. 
 11 parts 
 
504 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 metallic oxydes; these alone retain sufficient fixity to 
 prevent the fire from destroying them. Nay, the me- 
 tallic colours, although dull, in general, when applied, 
 acquire lustre when they are subjected to the action of 
 the fire. The colours are incorporated with a flux, 
 which varies in the different manufactories. The fol- 
 lowing composition is generally adopted : — 
 
 Drachms. Grains. 
 
 Glass, in powder, free from lead, 4 . 0 
 
 Calcined borax, 2.12 
 
 Purified nitre, 4 . 24 
 
 These substances are carefully mixed and divided, 
 and then vitrified in a crucible. This glass is afterwards 
 ground, and incorporated with the colour. Gum, or 
 oil of lavender, is used as a vehicle, when we wish to 
 lay it on the biscuit. For this purpose, a pencil is 
 
 used, and all the methods known in painting. Oxyde 
 of gold, called precipitate of Cassius, makes purple 
 colour. Gold, precipitated by tin and silver, produces 
 violet colour. Copper, precipitated from its solutions 
 in the acids by the alkalis, furnishes us with a fine green. 
 The saffron of Mars and colchotar produce the reds. 
 Zaffre makes blue. Diaphoretic antimony, mixed with 
 glass of lead, forms the yellow. The browns and 
 blacks are made with iron-filings and strong doses of 
 zaffre. The oxyde of chrome forms a fine green. M. 
 Brongniart, director-general of the porcelain manufac- 
 tory at Sevres, has already attained several very im- 
 portant improvements in this branch of industry ; and 
 the manufacture of porcelain may expect great progress 
 from the zeal and intelligence of this experienced na- 
 turalist. 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 Much has been written on the history of this art;! 
 as, however, our limits do not allow us to enter at large 
 on the subject,' we shall briefly extract a paragraph or 
 two from Dr. Thomsons excellent History of the Royal 
 Society, to which we gladly refer our readers for a 
 great deal of valuable information, and many curious 
 and valuable articles on almost all kinds of scientific 
 subjects. 
 
 Printing was discovered at Haarlem, in Holland, by 
 Coster, and the first book was printed in the year 1430. 
 It was a Dutch piece of theology, printed only on one 
 side of the page, and in imitation of manuscript. The 
 first attempts at printing were upon loose leaves, and 
 the printed part was accompanied with cuts, somewhat 
 in the manner of our present ballads. Coster’s method 
 was to cut out the letters upon a wooden block. He 
 took for an apprentice John Fust, or Faustus, and 
 bound him to secrecy. But Fust ran away with his 
 master’s materials, and set up for himself at Mentz. 
 He had a servant called Peter Schoeffer, who first in- 
 vented separate metal types. Fust, upon seeing them was 
 so delighted, that he gave him, Schoeffer, his daughter 
 , in marriage, and made him his partner. The first book 
 they printed is said to have been Cicero de Officiis, 
 which bears the date of 14Q5. But other books are 
 mentioned with earlier dates, 1457, 1442. They 
 printed a number of Bibles, in imitation of manu- 
 script, and Fust carried them to Paris for sale. The 
 Parisians, upon comparing together the different co- 
 pies, were confounded at the exact similarity they bore 
 
 1 to each other in every part, a similarity so great, that 
 the most exact copyist could not have attained it. They 
 accused Fust of being possessed of some diabolical art. 
 
 [ This at once obliged him to discover the secret ; and 
 | gave origin to the story of Dr. Faustus. 
 
 After the discovery of the art of printing, thu 3 
 ; brought about at Paris, it quickly made its way over 
 the whole of Europe. The first book printed in Eng- 
 land is said to have been Rufinus on the Creed : printed 
 at Oxford, in 1468. 
 
 At first, the impression was taken off with a list, 
 coiled up, as the card-makers use at this day. But 
 when they came to use single types, they employed 
 stronger paper, with vellum and parchment. At last, 
 the press was introduced, and brought gradually to its 
 present state. The same observation applies to the ink. 
 At first, the common writing-ink was employed, and 
 *the printing-ink, of lamp-black and oil, at present used, 
 was introduced by degrees. Rolling-press printing was 
 not used in England till the time of King James the 
 First ; and then it was brought from Antwerp by the 
 industrious John Speed. 
 
 The workmen employed in this art are compositors 
 and pressmen. The first are those whose business it is 
 to range and dispose the letters into words, lines, pages, 
 &c. The pressmen are those who, properly speaking, 
 are the printers, as they take off the impressions from 
 the letters after they are prepared for that purpose by 
 the compositors. The types being provided for the 
 compositor, he distributes each kind by itself into small 
 
 cells 
 
PRINTING. 
 
 reJis or boxes made in two wooden frames called cases • 
 the upper-case and the lower-case. The cells in the 
 upper-case are ninety-eight in number : those of the 
 lower-case are fifty-four. 
 
 The upper-case' contains two alphabets of capitals 
 large and small capitals. They also contain cells for 
 the figures, the accented letters, the characters used in 
 references to notes &c ; and one cell, the middle one 
 in the bottom row, for the small letter k. The caoitals 
 in this case are disposed alphabetically. F 
 
 .1 T l ie !° w< : r ' case is appropriated to the small letters 
 the double letters, the points, parentheses, spaces, and 
 quadrats. The boxes of the lower-case are of different 
 sizes, the largest being for the letters most in use : but the 
 arrangement is not, in this instance, alphabetical, he 
 letters oftenest wanted being placed nearest to the 
 
 505 
 
 £ r ti ‘si 
 
 loose ^and uneveT ' Th^Tp^ef ^fpiec^ of'metaf 
 theTuers sha P ed Jlke ‘he shanks of 
 
 sjrs-jja." used to resuiate the 
 
 When the composing-stick has been filled with lines 
 I being about ten or twelve, the compositor empties it on 
 to a thin board called a galley, of an oblong shape with 
 tom^Wu tW °, sldes and a groove, to admit a fake hot- 
 s' he 6 ° 0I f P0Sit0r haS fil ' ed and em P tied hi3 
 
 ml P'f« of pack-thread, and re- 
 
 compositor’s hand. As S3 i^gLeTn t he oZ Itsi.f \“b P "Z * ” 
 
 side of die boxes to denote the letters which they I some othllTf' e “- her lo , the i ”>P°*g stone or 
 respectively contain, it is curious tn ,i.„ a y I ? me other safe and convenient place. In this manner 
 
 he proceeds until he has composed as many pie" as 
 are reouired tn .noL^ o _ • y P & es as 
 
 . . . . . ll,c letters winch tliev 
 
 espectively contain, it is curious to observe the dex- 
 tenty manifested by the compositor in taking up the 
 ktters as he wants them from the different cells. 
 Each case is placed in an inclined direction, that 
 difficulty P ° Slt0r ^ rGaCh lhC U PP er - case without any 
 
 The instrument in which the letters are set is called 
 a composing-stick; it consists of a long plate of brass 
 or iron, on the side of which arises a ledge that runs 
 the whole length of the plate, and serves to support the 
 letters the sides of which are to rest against it Alorn? 
 this ledge is a row of holes for a screw intended to 
 lengthen or shorten the line, by moving the sliders 
 farther from or nearer to the shorter ledge at the 
 end of the composing-stick. Where marginal notes 
 are required, the sliding pieces are opened to a proper 
 distance from each other. Before the compositor be- 
 gins his work he puts a thin slip of brass plate, called a 
 rule cut to the length of the line, and of the same 
 height as the letter in the composing-stick parallel with 
 the ledge, against which the letters are intended to rest 
 Being thus furnished with an instrument suited to hold 
 the letters as they are arranged into words, lines, & c . he 
 places his copy on the upper-case before him, and hold- 
 ing the stick in his left hand, his thumb being over the 
 gider, with the right lie takes up the letters, spaces 
 &c one by one, and places them against the rule' 
 while he supports them with his left thumb, by press 
 mg them against the slider, the other hand bein<f con- 
 stantly employed in setting in other letters. Having 
 
 H 3 Sheet ’ ° r ’ in SOme instances, a 
 
 ¥^4'-::' Et r 
 
 of five or six inches in thickness. *h e "f 
 
 S-SuMte "Xi'r w 
 
 ■II the imposing of a sheet o, iialf-sl,eet/pLtL3v of 
 works in sizes less than folio or quarto. J ° f 
 
 Having laid down or disposed the pages in mht 
 
 to d wb? the the compositor proceeds 
 
 to what is called dressing the chases. The chase is a 
 
 hi to" g th ° f dlffe,ent dimens t° n s, accord- 
 
 n to the size of the paper to be printed ; having two 
 
 cross pieces of the same metal, called a long and short 
 cross, mortised at each end so that they may be taken 
 out occasionally. By the different situations of these 
 crosses the chase is fitted for different sized volumes 
 as folios, min.*™ ^ — uu,es * 
 
 a set of ° CtaV ° S ’ &C - To d -th7= 
 
 a set of furniture is necessary, consisting of small slins 
 
 of wood of different dimensions. Th°e first thing 7 
 be done, is to lay the chase over the pages ; after this 
 that part of the furniture, called gutter-sticks, is placed' 
 between the respective pages. Then another part of 
 the furniture, called reglets, is placed along the sides* 
 of the crosses of the chase. The reglets a°re of such 
 
 fcV.S-' the book proper margin aflCT 
 is bound. Having dressed die inside of (he pages 
 
 • , ■ , - = letters. nav,„„ , si L t P ° S ''" r P roc ' eds «> do (he same with (heir out-’ 
 
 composed a line, he takes the brass rule from behind if S dm P u “ n £ . slde f'<*s and foot-sticks to them, 
 and places I before the letters of which it is composed’ are all Lfff “ n‘? g P ' aC f d W dis *~. 
 an, I proceeds to compose another line in the same °'fl “a a " d fastened together bv wooden wedges 
 
 and proems to compose another line in Te'Ee 
 way. But before he removes the brass rule he no- 
 tices whether the line ends with a complete word or 
 with an entire syllable of a word, including the hyphen 
 If he finds that his words exactly fill the measure, he has 
 nothing more to do with that line but proceeds with fhf 
 next; but if he finds the measure nof enfilt fi ed a 
 tlie ending of a word or syllable, he puts in more 
 spaces, increasing the distances between the w“rds 
 
 „ oII , -u iooicc, logetner by wooden wedffes 
 
 called quoins These wedges, being firmly driven lip 
 the sides and feet of the pages, by means of a mall"? 
 and a piece of hard wood called a shooting-stick all 
 the letters are fastened together. The work in th ! 
 condition is called a form, and is ready for the press 
 man, who lays it upon the press, fo/the purpose of 
 
 P e rubbed r0 ° f * d ° ne> the fo "» or forms 
 
 aie rubbed over with a brush, dipped in l ye , made of 
 
 pearl-ash and water; they are then carefully taken off 
 
 6N the 
 
PRINTING. 
 
 506 
 
 t 
 
 he press, and the proof and forms delivered to the 
 compositor’s further cafe. 
 
 As it is impossible for the most careful compositor 
 so to compose his sheets as that they shall not re- 
 quire to be carefully read and corrected before they 
 are worked off, the next thing to be done is to put the 
 proof, with the copy from which it has been composed, 
 into the hands of the reader or corrector, whose busi- 
 ness is to read over the whole proof two or three times 
 with great care and attention, marking the errata in the 
 margin of every page. The corrections are always 
 placed against the line in which the faults are found. 
 There are different characters used to denote different 
 corrections : thus — - is put to signify that a word is 
 divided that ought to be in one, as pe rson, instead of 
 
 person ; a mark resembling the Greek theta 3 is put for 
 dele, to intimate that something, as a point, letter, 
 word, &c., dashed in that line, is to be taken out. If 
 any thing is to be inserted, the place of insertion is 
 marked with a caret, a, and the thing to be inserted 
 written in the margin. Where a space is wanting be- 
 tween two words, or letters, that are intended to be 
 separated, a parallel line must be drawn where the sepa- 
 ration ought to be, and a mark somewhat resembling 
 a sharp in music ^ placed in the margin. An inverted 
 letter or word, is noticed by making a dash under it, 
 and a mark, nearly resembling the dele character re- 
 versed. 
 
 Mr. Stower, in his Printer’s Grammar, observes, 
 that marking turned letters tries a corrector’s skill in 
 knowing the true formation of them ; without which, 
 it would be better to mark them in the same manner 
 as they do wrong letters, which is done by dashing out 
 the wrong letter, and writing the proper one in the mar- 
 gin, unless they are very sure they can distinguish b, d, 
 n, u > P> q, s, x, z, when they are turned, from the 
 same letters with their nick the right way. Where a 
 space rises up between two words, it is noticed by a 
 + in the margin. When any thing is transposed it is 
 denoted thus: 
 
 4 _ /S\ . 2 , 
 
 you\meriy your mistake/ 
 
 for, “ you mistake your merit and in the margin is 
 added tr. for transposition. Where a new paragraph is 
 required, a line in the shape of a crotchet [ is made, 
 and the same mark placed in the margin ; also where 
 a paragraph ought not to have been made, a line is 
 drawn from the broken-off matter to the next para- 
 graph ; and in the margin is written no break. If italic 
 letters are to be changed for roman, or vice versa, a 
 
 line is drawn, thus , under the letters, and rom. 
 
 or ital. is written in the margin. Where words have 
 been struck out that are afterwards approved of, dots 
 are marked under such words, and in the margin is 
 written the word stet. Where the punctuation is re- 
 quired to be altered, the semicolon, colon, and period, 
 are encircled in the margin. The comma and other 
 points are marked as letters and words, viz. with a long 
 
 oblique line immediately before them; which line is 
 intended to separate the different corrections from each 
 other that occur in the same line. When letters of a 
 different fount or size are improperly introduced into 
 the page, they are noticed by a small dash drawn 
 through them, and the letters w. f. in the margin. 
 There are some other marks used in correcting; such 
 as s/ for superior ; where it is necessary to insert the 
 apostrophe, the star, or other reference marks, and 
 superior letters : cap. for capital ; 1. c. for lower- 
 case, &c. 
 
 After a proof sheet has been read, and the errata 
 noticed by the reader, it is again put into the hands of 
 the compositor, who proceeds to correct in the metal 
 what has been marked for correction in the proof. For 
 this purpose he unlocks the form on the imposing stone, 
 by loosening the quoins or wedges which bound the 
 letters together. He then casts his eye over one page 
 of the proof, noticing what letters, &c. are required. 
 Having gathered as many corrections from the cases, 
 betw een the thumb and fore-finger of the , left hand, 
 as he can conveniently hold, and an assortment of 
 spaces, on a piece of paper, or in a small square box 
 with partitions in it, he takes a sharp-pointed steel bodkin 
 in his right hand. Placing the point of the bodkin 
 at one end of the line, and the fore-finger of his left 
 hand against the other, he raises the whole line suffi- 
 ciently high to afford him a clear view of the spacing. 
 He then changes the faulty letters or words, and alters 
 his spaces before he drops the line. 
 
 The first proof being corrected, another is pulled, to 
 be put into the hands of the reader, or sent to the 
 author, for examination. This proof being read and 
 corrected as before, a revise is pulled, to see whether 
 all the errors marked in the last proof are properly cor- 
 rected. When the sheet is correct, the forms are given 
 to the pressman, whose business is to work them off 
 when they are so prepared and corrected. Four things 
 are now required ; paper, ink, balls, and a press. The 
 paper is prepared for use by being dipped, a few sheets 
 at a time, in water, and afterwards laid in a heap over 
 each other, to make the water penetrate equally into 
 every sheet ; a thick deal board is laid upon the heap, 
 on which is placed heavy weights. The reason why the 
 paper is to be wetted before it is in a fit state to be 
 printed upon, is, that it may be made sufficiently soft 
 to adhere closely to the surface of the letter, and take 
 up a proper quantity of ink, that it may receive a clear 
 impression. It is also necessary to wet the paper, lest 
 its stiff and harsh nature, when dry, should injure the 
 face of the letters. 
 
 The manufacture of good common ink seems to be as 
 yet very imperfectly understood. That used in fine print- 
 ing has been more attended to, and many of our printers 
 are able to produce impressions in a great degree free 
 from that offensive brown cast, which is to be observed 
 in books printed with what is called common ink. The 
 balls used in laying the ink on the forms are a kind of 
 wooden funnels, with handles, the cavities of which 
 
 are 
 
PRINTING. 507 
 
 are stuffed with wool or hair, and covered over with 
 a pelt prepared for the purpose. One skin generally 
 makes two proper sized balls. When the skin has been 
 sufficiently soaked in urine, which will take about four- 
 teen or fifteen hours, it is curried, by putting it round 
 an iron called a currying iron, or round some upright 
 post, the pressman taking hold of each end of it, and 
 drawing it with as much force as possible backwards 
 and forwards, till it is rendered soft and pliable. He 
 then cuts the skin exactly in two, puts the pieces under 
 his feet, and continues to tread on them till they are 
 so dry as to stick to the foot in treading. The skin is 
 then laid on a flat stone, and stretched as much as pos- 
 sible by rubbing the ball-stock upon it. It is then 
 nailed upon the ball-stock in plaits about an inch wide, 
 thrusting in as much wool as the cavity of the stock 
 and the skin will conveniently hold. If, however, too 
 much wool be put in, it will render the balls hard 
 and difficult to work with. If too little wool] is 
 in the balls, they soon fall into wrinkles, so as to pre- 
 vent an equal distribution of the ink on their surface. 
 When the balls are thus knocked up, as it is termed, 
 they are dipped in urine, and scraped with a blunt 
 knife until they are perfectly clean ; they are then dried 
 with a clean sheet of stout paper, and patted with the 
 hand until no moisture remains on the surface. The 
 balls, when they are completed, have the shape and 
 appearance of a large mallet, used by stone-ma- 
 sons, except that their surface is much broader and 
 rounder. 
 
 The press is a curious and complex machine : it con- 
 sists of two upright beams, called cheeks ; they are 
 generally about six feet one inch long, eight inches and 
 a half broad, and five inches thick, with a tenon at 
 each end. The tenon at the upper end of the cheek is 
 cut across the breadth, and enters the cap within half 
 an inch of the top. The cap is a piece of solid timber, 
 three feet long, eleven inches wide, and four inches 
 thick. The lower tenon of the cheek enters the feet, 
 which is a square wooden frame made very thick and 
 strong. The head, which is moveable, is sustained by 
 two iron bolts that pass through the cap. The spindle 
 is an upright piece of iron, pointed with steel, having a 
 male screw which goes into the female one in the head 
 about four inches. The spindle is so contrived, that 
 when the pressman r pulls a lever, which is attached to 
 it, the pointed end of it works in a steel pan, or cup, 
 supplied with oil, which is fixed to an iron plate let 
 into the top of a broad thick piece of mahogany, with 
 a perfectly plain surface, called a platten. This platten 
 is made to rise and fall as the pressman pulls or lets go 
 the lever or bar. When the platlen falls, it presses 
 upon a blanket, by which the paper is covered when it 
 lies upon the form, from which the impression is in- 
 tended to be taken. The form is laid upon a broad flat 
 stone, or thick marble slab, which is let into a wooden 
 frame, called the coffin, and which is made to move 
 backwards or forwards, by the turning of a wince, or 
 reunce, At the end of the coffin are three frames; 
 
 two of which are called tympans, and the remaining one 
 a frisket. 
 
 The following figure will afford a very good idea of 
 this machine. 
 
 The tympans are square, and are made of three slips 
 of very thin wood, and at the top a piece of iron, still 
 thinner ; that called the outer tympan is fastened with 
 hinges to the coffin ; they are both covered with parch- 
 ment, and between the two are placed blankets, which 
 are necessary to take off the impression of the letters 
 upon the paper. The frisket is a square frame of thin 
 iron, fastened with hinges to the tympan ; it is covered 
 with paper, cut in the necessary places, that the sheet, 
 which is put between the frisket and the outer tympan, 
 may receive the ink, and that nothing may hurt the 
 margins. To regulate the margins, a sheet of paper is 
 fastened upon this tympan, which is called the tympan- 
 sheet, and which ought to be changed whenever it be- 
 comes wet with the paper to be printed upon. On 
 each side is fixed an iron point which makes two holes 
 in the sheet, which is to be placed on the same points 
 when the impression is to be made on the other side. 
 In preparing the press for working, or, as it is called 
 by pressmen, making ready a form, great care and at- 
 tention is requisite that the printed sheets may be in 
 proper register, i. e. that the lines on one side may ex- 
 actly fall upon the backs of the other. That the im- 
 pression may be equable, the parchment which covers 
 the outer tympan is wetted till it is very soft, the 
 blankets are then put in, and secured from slipping by 
 the outer tympan. When the form is made ready, and 
 every thing is prepared for working, one man beats the 
 letters with the ink-balls, another places a sheet of 
 paper on the tym pan-sheet, turns down the frisket upon 
 it to keep the paper clean and prevent its slipping, then 
 bringing the tympan upon the form, and turning the 
 rounce, by which the carriage, holding the coffin, stone, 
 and form, is moved, he brings the form with the stone, 
 &c., under the platten ; pulls with the bar, by which 
 
508 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 the platten presses the blankets and paper close upon 
 the letter, whereby half the form is printed ; then easing 
 the bar, he draws the form still forward, gives a second 
 pull and letting go the bar, turns back the carriage, 
 &c., raises the tympans and frisket, takes out the 
 printed sheet and lays on a fresh one ; and this is re- 
 peated till he has taken off the impression upon the full 
 number of sheets of which the edition is to consist. 
 One side of every sheet being thus printed, the form, 
 for the other side, is laid on the press, and worked off 
 in the same manner. 
 
 Such is the description and operation of the common ! 
 printing press, of which, its greatest defect is, that it t 
 does not produce an adequate impression, from heavy [ 
 works, in small letter, without great labour and atten- 
 tion. It has therefore been long a desideratum in the 
 art to obtain an accession of power in the press, and that 
 power adapted to the very moment when it is wanted, 
 so that the force applied might, at all times, be equal : 
 for if a greater force be required in one part of the pull 
 than in another, the pressman, either from fatigue or 
 negligence, is apt to slight his business. This object, 
 so much wanted, has, in a great measure, been at- j 
 tained by the press invented by Earl Stanhope, of which 
 the following may serve as a brief notice, rather than 
 an accurate description ; and those who would wish for 
 a larger and fuller account we refer to Stower’s Prin- 
 ter’s Grammar, in which the several parts of the press 
 are illustrated with wood cuts. To this work, indeed, 
 we acknowledge our obligations for much of the pre- 
 sent article. In the common press, the perfect plane 
 in the table and platten, so long wished for, is 
 completely obtained. Here the cheeks, the cap, and 
 the winter, of the old press, are not required. In 
 this press the platten is fixed to the apparatus through 
 which the screw works ; and it is suspended to the 
 short arm by a lever, provided with a counterbalancing 
 weight, by which the form is released from the platten, 
 at the return after the pull. Instead of the stone is 
 substituted a cast-iron block, which has its upper sur- 
 face made accurately flat, and is laid correctly hori- 
 zontal ; this, w'ith the provision made for a vertical 
 pressure on the platten, and the care taken to bring its 
 lower face parallel to the surface of the block ensures 
 an uniform pressure on the form. 
 
 We may now notice an improvement in the common 
 printing-press, by Mr. Joseph Ridley, to whom the 
 Society of Arts, Manufactures, &c., in the Adelphi, 
 voted a premium of forty guineas. In this press, the 
 head is the chief object of improvement, from which j 
 the screw, hitherto in use, is taken aw'ay, and a perpen- 1 
 dicular bar of steel, with a conical end lodged in a cup | 
 on the platten, substituted in its stead. The purchase j 
 is obtained by means of a spindle through each side of i 
 the press, near the bar, to which it is attached by three j 
 chains ; the two outer ones serving to pull down the ; 
 bar and platten, and the middle to raise or recover i 
 them again. To one end of this spindle is fixed a 
 lever or handle, two feet long, which, by means of | 
 
 two chains pulls down the platten with any force re- 
 quired. At the other end .of the spindle is also another 
 lever, with a weight acting as a fly, which weight may 
 be fixed by means of holes in the lever, at such a 
 distance from the centre as may be judged necessary ac- 
 cording to the nature of the work to be done. N o work 
 with this press requires more than one pull. 
 
 We now come to the Stereotype method of printing, 
 to which the same presses are adapted as are required 
 by the common mode. The mode of stereotype- 
 printing is this : first, to set up a page, for instance, 
 in the common way, and when it is rendered perfectly 
 correct, a cast of plaster, hereafter described, is to be 
 taken from it, in this cast the metal for the stereotype is 
 to be poured. This method of printing, though not 
 by any means a new invention, has been lately brought 
 into practice by Earl Stanhope ; but, as the subject 
 has, of late years, caused some w r arm discussions, w'e 
 must not pass it over. 
 
 The history of the invention of modern stereotype 
 is, like that of common printing, involved in some ob- 
 scurity as to the name of the person to whom justly 
 belongs the honour of an invention so useful and curi- 
 ous. Mr. Andrew Tilloch, the editor of the Philo- 
 sophical Magazine, has given the following extract, 
 translated from a Dutch writer, which deserves to be 
 noticed. 
 
 “ Above a hundred years ago, the Dutch w r ere in 
 possession of the art of printing with solid or fixed 
 types, which, in every respect, was superior to that of 
 Didot’s stereotype. It may, however, be readily com- 
 prehended that their letters were not cut in so elegant 
 a manner, especially when we reflect on the progress 
 which typography has made since that period. Samuel 
 and J. Leuchtman, booksellers at Leyden, have still in 
 | their possession the forms of a quarto Bible, which 
 j were constructed in this ingenious manner. Many 
 : thousand impressions were thrown off, which are in 
 every body’s hand, and the letters are still good. 
 
 “ The iuventor of this useful art was J. Vander 
 Mey, father of the well-known painter of that name. 
 About the end of the sixteenth century he resided at 
 Leyden. With the assistance of Muller, the clergyman 
 of the German congregation there, who carefully super- 
 intended the correction, he prepared and cast the plates 
 for the above-mentioned quarto Bible. This Bible he 
 published also in folio, w'ith large margins, ornamented 
 with figures ; the forms of which are still in the hands 
 of Elive, bookseller, at Amsterdam : also an English 
 New Testament, and Schaaf’s Syriac Dictionary, the 
 forms of which were melted down. Likewise a small 
 Greek Testament, in 18mo. 
 
 “ As far as is known, Vander Mey printed nothing 
 else in this manner ; and the art of preparing solid 
 blocks was lost at his death ; or, at least, was not 
 afterwards employed.” The Dutch editor supposes that 
 the reason Vander Mey’s invention was dropped, was, 
 that “ though this process in itself is very advantageous, 
 it is far more expensive than the usual method of 
 
 printing, 
 
PRINTING. 
 
 509 
 
 printing, except in those cases were such works are to 
 be printed as are indispensably necessary, and of standing 
 worth. Mr. Tilloch, however, is of a directly con- 
 trary opinion.” 
 
 In the year 1781, was printed, by and for J. Ni- 
 chols, Loudon, a very interesting pamphlet, entitled 
 Biographical Memoirs of William Ged ; including a 
 particular account of his progress in the art of block- 
 printing. The first part of the pamphlet was printed 
 from a MS., dictated by Ged some time before his 
 death ; the second part was written by his daughter, 
 for whose benefit the profits of the publication were 
 intended ; the third is a copy of proposals that had 
 been published by Mr. Ged’s son, in 17 51, for reviv- 
 ing his father’s art ; and to the whole is added Mr. More’s 
 Narrative of Block Printing. 
 
 It appears, from this publication, that, in the year 
 1725, Mr. Ged began to prosecute plate-printing. In 
 1727, he entered into a contract with a person who had 
 a little capital, but who, on conversing with some 
 printer, got so intimidated, that, at the end of two 
 years, he had laid out only twenty-two pounds. In 
 1729, he entered into a contract w'ith Mr. Fenner, 
 Thomas James, a type-founder, and John James, an 
 architect. Sometime after, a privilege was obtained 
 from the University of Cambridge, to print Bibles and 
 Prayer-Books ; but it appears, that one of his partners 
 was actually averse to the success of the plan, and en- 
 gaged such people for the work as he thought most 
 likely to spoil it. A straggling workman, who had 
 wrought with them, informed Mr. Mores, that both 
 Bibles and Common Prayer Books had been printed ; 
 but that the compositors, when they corrected one fault, 
 made, purposely, half a dozen more; and the press- 
 men, when the masters were absent, battered the letter 
 in aid of the compositors. In consequence of these 
 base proceedings, the books were suppressed by au- 
 thority, and the plates sent to the King’s printing- 
 house, and from thence to Mr. Caslon’s foundry. 
 
 “ After much ill-usage,” says Mr. Tilloch, “ Ged, 
 who appears to have been a person of great honesty 
 and simplicity, returned to Edinburgh. His friends 
 were anxious that a specimen of his art should be 
 published, which was at last done by subscription. 
 His son, James Ged, who had been apprenticed to a 
 printer, with the consent of his master, set up the 
 forms in the night-time, when the other compositors 
 were gone, for his father to cast the plates from ; by 
 which means Sallust, a copy of which we have seen, 
 was finished in 1736.” Mr. Tilloch has not only a 
 copy of this work, but also a plate of one of the pages. 
 Besides Sallust, Mr. Tilloch has another work, printed 
 some years after from Mr. Ged’s manufacture. The 
 book is, The Life of God in the Soul of Man, printed 
 on a writing pot, l2mo., and with the following im- 
 print — “ Newcastle, printed and sold by John White, 
 from plates made by William Ged, Goldsmith in Edin- 
 burgh, 1742.” 
 
 Fifty years after the invention of plate-printing by 
 
 Mr. Ged, Mr. Tilloch made a similar discovery, with- 
 out having, at the time, any knowledge of Ged’s in- 
 vention. In perfecting the invention, Mr. Tilloch had 
 the assistance and joint labour of Mr. Foulis, printer to 
 the University of Glasgow. After great labour, and 
 many experiments, these gentlemen “ overcame every 
 difficulty, and were able to produce plates, the impres- 
 sions from which could not be distinguished from those 
 taken from the types from which they were cast.” 
 “ Though w r e had reason to fear,” says Mr. Tilloch, 
 “ from what we afterwards found Ged had met with, 
 that our efforts would experience a similar opposition, 
 from prejudice and ignorance, we persevered in our ob- 
 ject for a considerable time, and, at last, resolved to 
 take out patents for England and Scotland, to secure 
 ourselves, for the usual term, the benefits of our inven- 
 tion.” “ Owing to circumstances of a private nature,” 
 not, however, connected with the stereotype art, the bu- 
 siness was laid aside for a time ; and Mr. Tilloch 
 having removed from Glasgow to London, the concern 
 was dropped altogether ; not, however, till several 
 small volumes had been stereotyped and printed, under 
 the direction of Messrs. Tilloch and Foulis. 
 
 Some time elapsed after this, when Didot, the cele- 
 brated French printer, applied the stereotype art to logo- 
 rithmic tables, and, afterwards, to several of the Latin 
 classics, and to various French publications. It has 
 been said, by the French, that the merit of the inven- 
 tion properly belongs to Didot ; but, by what we have 
 already laid before our readers, it is evident this cannot 
 have been the case. 
 
 Some years after Mr. Tilloch had given up the pro- 
 secution of this art, Mr. Wilson, a printer of respecta- 
 bility in London, engaged with Earl Stanhope, for the 
 purpose of bringing it to perfection, and eventually to 
 establish it in this country. His Lordship, it is said, 
 received his instructions from Mr. Tilloch, and had 
 afterwards the personal attendance of Mr. Foulis, for 
 many months, at his seat at Chevening, where his lord- 
 ship was initiated in the practical part of the operation, 
 and, for which, we have been informed, he paid eight 
 hundred pounds. 
 
 After two years’ application, Mr. Wilson announced 
 to the public, “ that the genius and perseverance of 
 Earl Stanhope,” whom he styles the inventor, had 
 overcome every difficulty ; and that, accordingly, the 
 various processes of the stereotype art had been so ad- 
 mirably contrived, combining the most beautiful sim- 
 plicity with the most desirable economy, the ne plus 
 ultra of perfection, with that of cheapness, as to yield 
 the best encouragement to the public for looking for- 
 ward to the happy period when an application of this 
 valuable art to the manufacture of books would be the 
 means of reducing the price of all standard works, at 
 least thirty, and, in many cases, fifty per cent. 
 
 In January, 1804, the stereotype art (with the appro- 
 bation of Lord Stanhope), was offered, by Mr, Wilson, 
 to the University of Cambridge, for their adoption and 
 use in the printing of Bibles, Testaments, and Prayer 
 6 O Books, 
 
510 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 Books, upon certain terms and conditions, and, both at 
 Cambridge and Oxford, Bibles, Testaments, &c., are 
 now generally stereotyped. Some few school-books 
 have also been printed by this method ; but, at present, 
 there seems no reason to believe that the method will 
 come into general use. It will be sufficient for us, in 
 this place, to state the practice as given by Mr. Bright- 
 ley, and then mention the advantages and disadvantages 
 of this method of printing, as detailed by Mr. Wilson, 
 on the one side, and his opponents, on the other. 
 
 “ The first object of attention,” says Mr. Brightley, 
 “ in this department, is the form of the type most con- 
 venient for casting plates. In new founts the letter- 
 founder should be directed to leave the body of the 
 letter square from the foot to the shoulder ; the leads 
 and spaces corresponding in height with the shoulder 
 of the letter ; so that, when standing together in a page, 
 the whole may form one solid mass, with no other 
 cavities than what are formed by the face of the letter. 
 The composition of which the moulds are to be made , 1 
 when applied to such pages, having no interstices to 
 enter, and being indented only by the face of the letter, 
 may be easily separated : but if cavities be left in the 
 page, the mould will unavoidably break, and injure the 
 impression. 
 
 “ The quadrates should be cast rather lower than the 
 shoulder of the letter, about one-third of the depth of 
 pica. Otherwise the plate, which corresponds with the 
 page, will be inconvenient to work at press : for where 
 the whites are considerable, and the quadrates nearly the 
 height of the letter, it is difficult to prevent the fouling 
 of the paper. But if the quadrates be cast lower, this 
 inconvenience will be avoided ; and the cavities formed 
 by these quadrates being large and shallow, there will 
 be little difficulty in separating the moulds from the 
 pages. If the composition break in those cavities, 
 which sometimes happens, it is of little consequence, 
 as it does not affect the face of the letter; and the 
 metal may be afterwards reduced where it stands up 
 too high. As the thickness of the plate, however, 
 must in some measure be regulated by the position of 
 the quadrates, care should be taken not to have them 
 sunk toq low ; or the plate, when cast, will have holes 
 in the places where the quadrates stood. 
 
 ' The chases and furniture will next be considered, 
 and here very little alteration is required. Each com- 
 positor should be provided with four, five, or six small 
 chases, according to the nature of his work, so as to 
 lock up a quarto page, two octavos, or three or four 
 smaller ones when wanted. The furniture should be 
 nearly four-fifths the height of the letter, and cut to 
 such lengths that the page or pages, when locked up, 
 may leave openings at the four corners, large enough 
 to admit a quotation. The form should be carefully 
 examined before it be sent to the foundry, to prevent 
 letter or furniture from standing up above their proper 
 level. It is also necessary, after pulling the last proof, 
 to have the letter thoroughly cleaned. For this purpose 
 at should be well washed in lye, and afterwards rinsed 
 
 in clean water. And if any dirt or ink still remain in 
 the letter, it must be carefully taken out with a picker, 
 or the moulds will be defective wherever the dirt ad- 
 heres.” 
 
 We come next to the foundry in which the stereo- 
 type plates are cast. A room of sixteen or eighteen 
 feet square will be sufficient to cast as many pages as 
 can be set by fifteen or twenty compositors. It should 
 be well ventilated, to prevent the fumes of the metal 
 from injuring the workmen. The articles of furniture 
 are the following : 
 
 “ A moulding table or bench, covered with a piece 
 of horizontal marble, like an imposing-stone, about 
 eighteen inches wide, and long enough to contain ten 
 or a dozen small chases (according to the extent of 
 the business), in order to form the moulds from the 
 pages. Instead of one large piece of marble, the table 
 may consist of as many small ones as the number of 
 chases require: and, as it is easier to level a small 
 piece of marble than a large one, the latter method 
 may be preferred. Another common wood bench or 
 table, to lay plates and tools upon, will be convenient, 
 and may be placed wherever the Workman pleases. 
 Where any quantity of business is done, two cast-iron 
 ovens will be required, each four or five feet long, 
 eleven inches high, and sixteen inches broad. The 
 bottom and sides, which bear the action of the fire, 
 should be, at least, an inch thick ; the upper part some- 
 thing less. Double doors should be hung at each end, 
 meeting in the middle, and well fitted to exclude the 
 air. An additional lid, or door of sheet-iron, to close 
 the whole, will tend to confine the heat and save fuel. 
 The ovens are to be fixed in the open chimney, separated 
 by a thin brick partition, with a furnace under each, 
 fitted up in the best manner, with Rum ford doors, &«., 
 that the fire be not wasted. As metal will occasionally 
 fall into the oven, it may be made to run out at the 
 front, by raising the back a little higher at the time of 
 fixing it. If a vacancy be left between the chimney- 
 piece and the front of the ovens, the steam and heat 
 will be carried off without incommoding the room. 
 Fourteen or fifteen feet of the opening of the chimney 
 will be occupied by the ovens. In the remaining part 
 should be fixed a plumber s pot of cast-iron, to melt 
 and mix the metal as it may be wanted. A small one 
 will contain eight or ten hundred weight, and be suffi- 
 cient for a moderate business. Another small pot to 
 contain a quantity of metal equal to a day’s consump- 
 tion, may be fixed in the recess before-mentioned. 
 The flue of the furnace may be carried into the general 
 chimney.” 
 
 In speaking of the metal, made use of in the manu- 
 facture of the stereotype plates, we have the following 
 proportions : 
 
 To one hundred weight of regulus of antimony, 
 broken into small pieces, and thoroughly cleaned, are 
 to be added from five to eight hundred weight of hard 
 lead, according to the hardness of the metal required. 
 The lead is to be melted over a slow fire, and cleaned 
 
 of 
 
PRINTING. 
 
 511 
 
 of all scum or oxyde. When melted, the antimony is # 
 to be gradually thrown in and kept stirred till the whole 
 is melted. To every hundred weight of lead may be 
 added about two pounds of block-tin. 
 
 In casting these plates, there must of course be a 
 mould first made to form the counter-part of the ori- 
 ginal type. Here a substance is required of so delicate 
 a texture, when soft, as to be capable of receiving an 
 impression of the finest lines ; and when dry, it must 
 be capable of bearing the action of melted metal. The 
 qualities will be found in plaster of Paris or gypsum, 
 of which that found in Nottinghamshire is said to be 
 the best, called gypsum-in-the-rock. It soon spoils if 
 purchased in a prepared state ; the stereotype caster 
 should be able to burn it himself, and in quantities as 
 he wants it. Mr. Brightley gives the following rule : 
 
 “ Provide a pan of thin sheet-iron, of the length 
 and breadth of the oven, and about five or six inches 
 deep. Break the plaster into small pieces, sufficient 
 to fill the pan ; and after the process of casting for the 
 day be over, enclose it in the oven, and keep up the 
 fire about an hour afterwards. The oven doors should 
 not be quite closed, till the evaporation has subsided : 
 then the fire may be permitted to burn itself out, and 
 the plaster to remain there till the morning. It is then 
 to be laid upon a stone or bench, and pounded very 
 fine, so as to pass through a lawn, or fine wire sieve. 
 To ascertain its quality, mix a small quantity of it 
 quickly with as much water as will make it into a thin 
 paste. If it be good and fit for use, in about ten 
 minutes it will become hard and strong : if otherwise, 
 it will remain soft and watery.” 
 
 The chief defects in this composition are, 1 . That it 
 is liable to contract and warp when exposed to a very 
 high degree of heat : 2. That it is extremely difficult 
 to expel the air and moisture, which it rapidly absorbs 
 and tenaciously retains. We have heard that the chief 
 secret in the Stanhope composition is the peculiar 
 method by which his Lordship extricates his composi- 
 tion from these defects, and which he does in the com- 
 pletest way possible. To get rid of them the following 
 method is recommended by Mr. Brightley : dissolve 
 a quantity of common whitening in clear water, so as 
 to make it of the consistence of what is generally used 
 in white-washing. Mix the plaster with this solution, 
 and it will contract very little by heat ; the air and mois- 
 ture will be readily expelled, and the mould will not 
 be so liable to crack as plaster alone. 
 
 In the practice of moulding, which is done page by 
 page, a frame of cast iron must be prepared half an 
 inch wider and longer than the pages locked up in the 
 chases. The frame determines the thickness and 
 strength of the mould, and requires to be an inch 
 deep, with the lower side contracted about a charter of 
 an inch, to prevent the mould from dropping through. 
 To this must be added four cubical pieces of metal 
 like quotations, whose height should be exactly four- 
 fifths of the height of the letter : for on the height of 
 these depends the thickness of the stereotype-plate. 
 
 The pages are now to be laid flat upon the moulding 
 table, and the letter planed down to an even surface. 
 To prevent the adhesion of the plaster, it will be ne- 
 cessary to oil the face of the page with a soft brush, 
 taking care to remove with a sponge what is superflu- 
 ous ; for, if the oil be allowed to stand in the letter, 
 it will prevent the composition from sinking in, and the 
 face of the plate, when cast, will be filled with metal. 
 All the pages laid upon the moulding table are to be 
 prepared in the same manner. Take now a quantity 
 of the white-wash into a wooden bowl, and add to it 
 so much prepared plaster as will make it a thin paste : 
 stir it quickly with a large iron spoon till it be reduced 
 to an equal consistency : apply it to the face of the 
 letter with a brush, similar to what painters use, so as 
 to fill every cavity, and then pour on the remainder of 
 the plaster to fill the frame. When it begins to harden, 
 strike off the superfluous plaster down to the frame, 
 with a metal rule, and the back of the mould will be 
 smooth and regular. The mould will next require to 
 be separated from the pages ; then to be dried, and 
 afterwards hardened in a furnace, for all which pro- 
 cesses, and likewise for casting the plates, directions 
 are amply given in Mr. Brightley’s pamplilet on the 
 subject, to which we refer our readers. 
 
 After the plate has been cast, a few small imperfec- 
 tions will frequently be discovered ; the eye of the e 
 for instance, or other similar letters, may have been 
 filled with dirt : these defects must carefully be reme- 
 died by means of instruments called pickers. This part 
 of the business is done by persons employed for the 
 purpose, in a room called the picking room. The 
 plate is now ready for the press, and may be laid on 
 blocks, and fastened down with a slip of brass and 
 screws. Imperfections may still be found to exist, for 
 if the loaded plate, which in casting is laid on the back 
 of the stereotype-plate, be not truly horizontal, if the 
 frames containing the moulds be not so too, if any dirt or 
 other small substance get between, or if the mould have 
 been warped from heat, then the stereotype plates will 
 be of unequal thickness, and when put to the press, 
 cannot give an even and true impression. The follow- 
 ing remedy has been adopted to prevent these defects. 
 
 “ Solder four or five pieces of split lead to the back 
 of the plate, towards each corner and the centre, 
 with their ends a little curved. Lay the plate, with its 
 face downwards, on a smooth horizontal piece of 
 marble, and gently lock it up in a chase, so that four 
 straight pieces of iron, the exact height of moveable 
 types, may surround it in a hollow square, correspond- 
 ing with the size of the page. Mix up a quantity of 
 a Roman cement (manufactured by Messrs. Parker and 
 Co. Bankside, London), to fill the square, and strike it 
 off correctly level with the frame, as in brick-making ; 
 and it is obvious that the plate and cement together will 
 form a solid page, like moveable type. When har- 
 dened, it may be imposed and worked in the same 
 manner as in common printing; and, as the cement 
 will continue firm, without being affected by moisture, 
 
512 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 it will be nearly as durable as the metal to which it is 
 attached. 
 
 “ One precaution on this head is necessary. If the 
 front of the plate do not, in all points, touch the marble 
 when laid upon it, the face will, of course, remain 
 uneven ; and the defect, which this process was intended 
 to remove, still continues. Let seven or eight rods of 
 iron, about two feet long, be fixed to a horizontal rod 
 as a centre, each having a moveable point, and a 
 weight suspended at the end to form a lever. When 
 the cement is poured on the plate, immediately press 
 into it, at the four corners and centre, or at other dif- 
 ferent places in a large page, small pieces of thin tile. 
 The rods being brought down over the page, with their 
 points resting on the tiles, will press it close to the 
 stone in every part : and the cement, when hardened, 
 will keep it horizontal. The levers are then removed 
 and the superfluous cement is smoothly planed off. 
 Screws, or any thing else that will form a pressure, on 
 different parts of the plate, so as to keep the face flat 
 to the stone, will equally answer the purpose.” 
 
 “ The advantages arising from an application of this 
 invention to the manufacture of books, are not,” says Mr. 
 Wilson, “confined to any particular department of the 
 printing business. In every department of expenditure 
 they are as self-evident as profitable, and need only to be 
 mentioned to be well understood. In the first place, 
 the wear of moveable types, in stereotyping, does not 
 exceed 51. per cent, of the heavy expense incurred by 
 the old method of printing. — 2dly. The expenditure 
 upon composition and reading is nearly the same by 
 both methods, for a first edition : but this great ex- 
 pense must be repeated for every succeeding edition 
 from moveable types ; whereas, by the stereotype plan 
 it ceases for ever. — 3dly. The expense of stereotype 
 plates, when I am employed to cast them, is not 20l. 
 per cent, of that of moveable type pages. — 4thly. The 
 expenditure upon paper and press-work is the same by 
 both methods ; but it is not incurred at the same time. 
 The old method requires an advance of capital for a 
 consumption of four years ; whereas, by stereotype, 
 half a year’s stock is more than sufficient. It follows, 
 therefore, that 12^1. per cent, of the capital hitherto 
 employed in paper and press-work is fully adequate to 
 meet an equal extent of sale.— 5thly. A fire proof 
 room will hold stereotype plates of works, of which the 
 dead stock in printed paper would require a warehouse 
 twenty times the size ; and thus warehouse-rent and 
 insurance are saved ; w’ith the additional advantage, in 
 case of accident by fire, that the stereotype plates may 
 be instantly put to press, instead of going through the 
 tedious operations of moveable type printing ; and thus 
 no loss will be sustained from the works being out of 
 print. — 6thly. In stereotype;, every page of the most 
 extensive work has a separate plate; all the pages, 
 therefore, of the said work, must be equally new and 
 beautiful. By the old method, the types of each sheet 
 are distributed, and with them the succeeding sheets are 
 composed; so that, although the first few sheets of a 
 
 volume may be well printed, the last part of the same 
 volume, in consequence of the types being in a gradual 
 state of wear as the work proceeds, will appear to be 
 executed in a very inferior manner. — 7thly. The ste- 
 reotype art possesses a security against error, which 
 must stamp every work so printed with a superiority of 
 character that no book from moveable types ever can 
 attain. What an important consideration it is, that 
 the inaccuracies of language, the incorrectness of or- 
 thography, the blunders in punctuation, and the acci- 
 dental mistakes that are continually occurring in the 
 printing of works by moveable types, and to which every 
 new edition superadds its own particular share of error, 
 — what a gratifying security it is, that all descriptions of 
 error are not only completely cured by the stereotype 
 invention, but that the certainty of the stereotype plates 
 remaining correct, may be almost as fully relied on as 
 if the possibility of error did not at all exist ! — If these 
 observations be just with reference to the printing of 
 English books, how forcibly must they be felt when 
 applied to the other languages generally taught in this 
 country ! — how much more forcibly when applied to 
 those languages which are the native dialects of the 
 most ignorant classes throughout the United Kingdom, 
 but which are as little understood as they are generally 
 spoken! — 8thly. Stereotype plates admit of alteration; 
 and it will be found that they will yield at least twice 
 the number of impressions that moveable types are ca- 
 pable of producing. — Lastly, All the preceding advan- 
 tages may be perpetuated, by the facility with which 
 stereotype plates are cast from stereotype plates. 
 
 “ Such is a general outline of the present state of the 
 stereotype invention ; and such are the obvious advan- 
 tages arising from it to learning and to ignorance, — to 
 every state and condition of civilized life. From the 
 whole it results, that a saving of 25h to 40l. per cent, 
 will accrue to the public in the prices of all books of 
 standard reputation and sale, which, I believe, are 
 pretty accurately ascertained to comprehend three 
 fourths of all the book printing of England, Scot- 
 land, and Ireland. It is fair to conclude, therefore, 
 that the sales, both at home and abroad, will be con- 
 siderably increased, and that the duties on paper will 
 be proportionally productive ; so that the public will be 
 benefited in a twofold way by a general adoption and 
 encouragement of the stereotype art. With this view, I 
 think the period is now arrived when I ought to an- 
 nounce to all the respectable classes before-mentioned, 
 particularly to printers and booksellers, that I am fully 
 prepared to enable them to participate in the advantages 
 to be derived from the stereotype art, in any way that 
 may be most conducive to their particular interests, 
 either individually or collectively.” 
 
 We shall now state the arguments generally ad- 
 vanced in opposition to the practice of this invention. 
 
 “ In the first place, the expense of the composition of 
 every page (it being imposed separately, and two 
 proofs, at least, taken from it before it can be in a 
 proper state to undergo the process of making a plate 
 
 from 
 
RECTIFICATION. 
 
 513 
 
 from it), must be considerably greater than in the com- 
 mon mode. 
 
 “ Secondly. In a first edition the bookseller has not 
 only to pay for the higher-priced composition, but must 
 be at the great expense of the stereotyping, which, in 
 metal, independent of the charge for workmanship, is 
 equal in weight to one-fourth of the same work set up 
 in moveable types. 
 
 “ Thirdly. The printer in stereotype must use higher- 
 priced presses than are now commonly used, and must 
 consequently increase his charge per ream ; for hitherto 
 all stereotype works have been printed at the Stanhope 
 press, and at these presses it has not been done at the 
 common price. 
 
 “ Fourthly. The shape and manner of the first edition 
 must be continued, or the first expense must be again 
 incurred ; for no deviation as to plan or size can possi- 
 bly take place, nor any advantage be reaped from the 
 future improvements in the shape of types. 
 
 “ Fifthly. The bookseller has, at present, the cer- 
 tainty, or nearly the certainty, of detecting, particu- 
 larly in town, any unjust advantage which might be 
 taken of him, in point of number, by those with 
 whom he intrusts his works : that important security 
 will be wholly done away by plate-printing. He must 
 also be subject to the loss sustained by the damage of 
 plates (a highly probable circumstance), together with 
 fraud by the “ facility with which stereotype plates are 
 cast from stereotype plates .” 
 
 Copper-plate printing requires some notice: this, 
 which is a distinct trade of itself, is done by a machine 
 called the rolling-press, which may be divided into two 
 parts the body and carriage, analogous in some respects 
 to the other. 
 
 The body consists of two cheeks of different dimen- 
 sions, ordinarily about four feet and a half high, a foot 
 thick, and two and a half apart, joined at top and bot- 
 tom by cross pieces. The cheeks are placed perpendi- 
 cularly on a wooden stand or foot, horizontally placed, 
 and sustaining the whole press. From the foot likewise 
 rise four other perpendicular pieces, joined by other i 
 cross or horizontal ones, which may be considered as 
 
 the carriage of the press, as serving to sustain a smooth, 
 even plank, about four feet and a half long, two feet 
 and a half broad, and an inch and a half thick ; upon 
 which the engraven plate is to be placed. Into the 
 cheeks go two wooden cylinders or rollers, about six 
 inches in diameter, borne up at each end by the cheeks, 
 whose ends, which are lessened to about two inches 
 diameter, and called trunnions, turn in the cheeks be- 
 tween two pieces of wood, in form of half-moons, 
 lined with polished iron to facilitate the motion. The 
 space in the half moons left vacant by the trunnion, is 
 filled with paper, pasteboard, &c., that they may be 
 raised and lowered at discretion ; so as only to leave the 
 space between them necessary for the passage of the 
 plank charged with the plate, paper, and blankets. 
 Lastly, to one of the trunnions of the upper roller is 
 fastened a cross, consisting of two levers or pieces of 
 wood traversing each other. The arms of this cross 
 serve in lieu of the handle of the common press ; giving 
 a motion to the upper roller, and that to the under one ; 
 by which means the plank is protruded, or passed be- 
 tween them. 
 
 The practice of printing from copper-plates is nearly 
 as follows. The workmen take a small quantity of the 
 ink on a rubber made of linen rags, strongly bound 
 about each other, and with this smear the whole face 
 of the plate as it lies on a grate over a charcoal fire. 
 The plate being sufficiently inked, they first wipe it 
 over with a foul rag, then with the palm of their left 
 hand, and then with that of the right ; and to dry the 
 hand and forward the wiping, they rub it from time to 
 time in whitening. In wiping the plate perfectly clean, 
 yet without taking the ink out of the engraving, the ad- 
 dress of the workman consists. The plate thus pre- 
 pared is laid on the plank of the press ; over the plate is 
 laid the paper, first well moistened, to receive the im- 
 pression, and over the paper two or three folds of flan- 
 nel. Things thus disposed, the arms of the cross are 
 pulled, and, by that means the plate with its furniture 
 passed through between the rollers, which, pinching very 
 strongly yet equally, press the moistened paper into the 
 strokes of the engravings, whence it licks out the ink. 
 
 RECTIFICATION. 
 
 Rectification and Distillation ; we have 
 referred an explanation of these operations to one 
 article ; though in this country, particularly in the me- 
 tropolis, from whence we write, and its neighbouring 
 
 villages, they make two distinct trades. Rectification 
 is in fact but a second distillation, in which substances 
 are purified by their more volatile parts being raised by 
 heat carefully managed. Sometimes indeed the recti- 
 6 P fier 
 
514 
 
 RECTIFICATION. 
 
 fier has recourse to a third and even a fourth distillation, I 
 when he wishes his spirits or goods, as they are techni- 
 cally called, to be very clean and pure. 
 
 Distillation scientifically considered may be regarded 
 as a process of evaporation or volatization, performed 
 in vessels adapted to condense and collect the substance 
 volatilized. In this way of considering the matter, it 
 would divide itself into three classes, according as the 
 substance obtained is solid, fluid, or gasseous. Our busi- 
 ness is with the fluid class, but we may previously, to 
 entering upon it, observe that distillation, where the 
 principal product is solid, is commonly known by the 
 name of sublimation, thus Benzoin acid, or, as it is 
 called in the shops, Flowers of Benzoin, is a product 
 distilled from the Benzoin in the impure state. The 
 distillation of gasses is confined almost entirely to the 
 experimental chemist and philosopher. 
 
 The apparatus for the distillation of liquids must con- 
 sist of at least two parts, viz. the boiler, or vessel in 
 which the materials are heated, and the vessel commu- 
 nicating with it, in which the steam or vapour is con- 
 densed into a liquid. Distillation of liquids on a large 
 scale is usually carried on in the still refrigeratory. The 
 still for manufacturers, consists of a boiler fixed in 
 masonry with a fire-place beneath it, of a head, or capi- 
 tal as it is called, which is a hollow globe fitting upon 
 the boiler, and with its upper part drawn out into a 
 curved pipe of decreasing diameter, which describes a 
 complete arch, and terminates at the upper part of the 
 serpentine or worm in which it fits. The latter is a 
 long pipe with a regularly decreasing diameter, which 
 is arranged in a spiral form in the middle of a large 
 tub of cold water, by means of which the vapour is 
 condensed and trickles down in a small regular stream 
 from the lower end of the worm, where it emerges 
 from the side of the tub. The boiler of the still is ge- 
 nerally made of tinned copper as well as the lower part 
 of the capital, but the arched termination of the latter 
 as well as the whole w r orm are of pewter. The joining 
 between the boiler and the capital requires to be luted 
 with slips of blodded and well made paste. The line of 
 the tube from the arch of the capital to the bottom of 
 the worm should be an uniformly descending spiral to 
 prevent any lodgment of the distilled liquor, and some 
 nicety is required in large stills, to give the worm an 
 exact degree of slope. The management of the fire is 
 of great importance in all distillations, to avoid on the 
 one hand boiling over or burning the ingredients by too 
 great a heat, and on the other to keep up the fire suf- 
 ficiently strong to afford an even, regular evaporation 
 into the condensing part of the apparatus. When too 
 much heat is used there is danger of the capital being 
 blown off by the great expansive force of the vapour, 
 which is too suddenly generated and cannot be con- 
 densed with sufficient rapidity, or else the liquor in the 
 boiler rises up into the capital and flows over into the 
 serpentine. The latter accident, as it may be called, is 
 perceived by the liquor coming out at the bottom of the 
 serpentine not in a clear uniform stream, but by gushes 
 
 and starts with a guggling noise, and coloured or fouled. 
 When the stream of distilled water flows evenly, and 
 the boiling liquor is heard to simmer moderately within 
 the still, the process will be known to go on properly. 
 
 The objects of distillation, considered as a trade, are- 
 chiefly spirituous liquors ; and the distillation of com- 
 pound spirits and simple water, or those waters that are 
 impregnated with the essential oil of plants, is commonly 
 called rectification. 
 
 The great object of the distiller ought to be to pro- 
 cure a spirit perfectly flavourless, which, it is admitted, 
 is not an easy task . The materials for distillation that 
 have in this country been used in large quantities are 
 malt, molasses or treacle, and sugar. All these, but 
 sugar the least, abound with an oily matter, which 
 rising with the spirit, communicates a disagreeable 
 flavour, from which it is with the utmost difficulty 
 freed. Previously to the operation of distillation, 
 those of brewing and fermentation are necessary, for 
 which we refer to the article Brewing. Methods 
 have been suggested, and we believe carried into prac- 
 tice, for reducing the brewing and fermentation to one 
 operation, which are said to improve the spirit in quality 
 and greatly augment it in quantity. On this principle 
 the following recipe has been given for fermenting 
 malt for distillation, in order to get its spirit. Take ten 
 pounds of malt reduced to fine meal, and three pounds 
 of common wheat-meal ; add to these two gallons of 
 water, and stir them well together, then add five gal- 
 lons of water boiling hot, and stir the whole well to- 
 gether. Let the whole stand two hours and then stir 
 it again, and when grown cold, add to it two ounces 
 of solid yeast, and set it by loosely covered in a rather 
 warm place to ferment. This is said to be the Dutch 
 method of preparing what is technically called the wash 
 for malt spirit, which commodiously reduces the two 
 processes of brewing and fermentation to a single ope- 
 ration. In London and its neighbourhood the method 
 is to draw and mash for spirits as they do for beer, ex- 
 cept that instead of boiling the wort they pump it into 
 coolers, and afterwards draw it into backs to be then 
 fermented with yeast. Thus in the opinion of some 
 persons conversant with the subject, they bestow twice 
 as much labour as necessary, and lose a large quantity 
 of their spirit by leaving the gross bottoms out of the 
 still for fear of burning. 
 
 All simple spirits may be considered in their dif- 
 ferent states of low wines, proof spirit, and alcohol. 
 The first contain only one-sixth of spirit to five-sixths of 
 water. Proof spirits contain one-half of totally inflam- 
 mable spirit ; and alcohol, if very pure, consists wholly 
 of spirit, without any admixture or adulteration. 
 
 Malt low-wines, which is the first state after distil- 
 lation from the wash prepared in the usual way, are 
 exceedingly nauseous, owing to the gross oil of the 
 malt that abounds in it. When these are distilled 
 gently and by a slow fire into proof spirits, they leave 
 a considerable quantity of this fetid oil behind in the 
 still with the phlegm, the liquor loses its milky colour, 
 
RECTIFICATION. 
 
 515 
 
 and is perfectly clear and bright. When proof spirit 
 from malt is distilled over again to be brought into the 
 state of alcohol, the utmost attention must be paid to 
 the fire, or some of the oil will be forced over and 
 injure the whole process. The use of the balneum 
 marise, instead of the common still, though a much 
 more tedious process, would effectually prevent this 
 mischief, and give a purer spirit in one rectification 
 than can be procured in many, according to the common 
 methods. 
 
 Malt spirit, and indeed spirits from other substances, 
 must be brought into the state of alcohol, before it is 
 adapted to internal uses, after which it is said to be 
 more fit for all the various internal uses than even 
 French brandy, it being by this purification a more 
 uniform, hungry, tasteless spirit, than any other spirits 
 which are frequently esteemed much better. A quarter 
 of malt, according to its goodness, and the season of 
 the year, will afford from eight to fourteen gallons of 
 alcohol. The malt distiller always gives his spirit a 
 single rectification per se to purify it a little, and in 
 this state, though certainly not at all adapted to internal 
 uses, it is frequently and at once distilled into gin or 
 other ordinary compound liquors for the common peo- 
 ple, who in this country injure their health, and eventu- 
 ally destroy their constitutions by the free use of them. 
 The Dutch never give it any farther rectification than 
 this : they distil the wash into low wines, and then at 
 once into full proof spirit, from which they manufac- 
 ture their celebrated Holland’s geneva, which they 
 export to foreign countries. Malt spirit, in its unrecti- 
 fied state, is usually found to have the common bubble 
 proof, which makes it a marketable commodity, and 
 which is obtained by mixing with it a certain portion 
 of the gross oil of the malt ; this indeed gives the rec- 
 tifier much trouble if he require a very fine and pure 
 spirit, but in general he does not concern himself about 
 this, but mixes it still stronger by alkaline salts, and 
 disguises its taste by the addition of flavouring ingre- 
 dients. The spirit loses in these processes the vinous 
 character which it had when it came out of the hands 
 of the malt-distiller, and is, in all respects inferior, 
 except in the disguise of a mixed flavour. The alkaline 
 salts used by the rectifier, destroying the natural vinosity 
 of the spirit, it is necessary to add an extraneous acid 
 to give it a new one, and this is frequently what is 
 denominated in the shops “ spiritus nitri dulcis,” and 
 the common method of applying it, is the mixing it to 
 the taste with rectified spirit ; and it is said to be this 
 that gives the English malt spirit a flavour something 
 like brandy, which flavour is, however, very apt to fly 
 off, and accordingly experienced manufacturers recom- 
 mend the addition of a proper quantity of Glauber’s 
 strong spirit of nitre, to the spirit in the still. By this 
 means the liquor comes over impregnated with it, the 
 acid is more intimately mixed and the flavour is re- 
 tained. The action of the alkali is thus explained : 
 there is a greater attraction or affinity between the 
 alkaline salt and the water than between the water 
 
 and the spirit, of course the salt combines with the 
 water contained in the spirit, and sinks with it to the 
 bottom. 
 
 One great object with distillers in this country is a 
 method of imitating the foreign spirits, particularly 
 brandy and Holland’s gin, it may not therefore be amiss 
 to describe the modes adopted in France for the distil- 
 lation of spirits from their wines. As brandy is ex- 
 tracted from wines, and as these are very different 
 according to the grapes from which they are made, we 
 may expect that there would be, as experience tells us 
 there really is, a considerable difference in the flavour 
 of foreign brandies. Every soil and climate, every 
 variety of grapes varies with regard to the quantity and 
 quality of the spirit extracted from them. Some wines 
 are proper for distillation, others not at all so. The 
 wines manufactured in Languedoc and Provence afford 
 a great deal of brandy by distillation : but those of 
 Orleans and Blois afford still larger quantities, but the 
 best and what are deemed the highest flavoured brandies, 
 are those distilled from grapes that are produced in the 
 territories of Cogniac and Andaye. Hence in every 
 public house people are enticed by a notice that the 
 best Cogniac brandy is to be had there, whereas they 
 probably deal in none that is not manufactured in their 
 own neighbourhood. 
 
 Every thing that relates to the distillation of wines 
 may be confined or reduced to two principles: 1. To 
 communicate an equal heat to all the parts of the mass 
 of the liquid, and to apply to them all the heat which 
 is disengaged by combustion. 
 
 2. To condense expeditiously and entirely all the 
 vapours which arise. 
 
 The construction of the furnace produces the first 
 effect. 
 
 The disposition of the grate throws the fire-place 
 under the anterior half of the diameter of the boiler, 
 so that this part receives the direct action of the heat 
 of the fire-place ; and as the current of air always tends 
 to carry the flame and the heat towards the chimney, 
 it strikes in its passage against the other part of the 
 bottom of the boiler. 
 
 This same current then rushes into the spiral flue, 
 and applies itself to the whole lateral surface of the 
 boiler where it spends its heat; so that the liquid is 
 enveloped with all the heat that is disengaged from the 
 combustible. 
 
 The form of the boiler greatly facilitates the action 
 of the fire. Exclusively of the advantages which have 
 already been mentioned, the concavity of its bottom 
 contributes to augment the effect of the heat by apply- 
 ing it to a larger surface. 
 
 To produce the second effect, or to condense expe- 
 ditiously the vapours which pass into the worm, nothing 
 more is necessary than to keep cold water around it. 
 For this purpose fresh supplies of water are made to 
 enter at the bottom of the worm, and the heated water 
 is drawn off from the top. 
 
 When it is possible to have a constant current, the 
 
 water 
 
51.6 
 
 RECTIFICATION. 
 
 water always keeps at a cool temperature, and the spirit 
 exhales scarcely any smell, because it is highly con- 
 densed. 
 
 The distillation of wines has recently received im- 
 provement, and such are the advantages of these new 
 processes, that the old establishments are no longer 
 able to maintain a competition with those which are 
 formed on the modern principles. These processes are 
 still kept secret by their authors ; but they probably 
 depend on the apparatus. 
 
 The new apparatus for distilling is a genuine Woulf’s 
 apparatus. It consists of a cauldron fixed in a furnace, 
 and a series of circular boilers which communicate with 
 each other by means of pipes. The apparatus is ter- 
 minated by a worm. 
 
 Wine is put into the cauldron, and into all the inter- 
 mediate vessels between it and the worm. The neck 
 attached to the head of the cauldron plunges into the 
 liquor in the first vessel to the depth of ten or twelve 
 inches. From the empty part of this first vessel runs 
 a pipe, which plunges into the liquor of the second 
 vessel to the same depth as the first. From the second 
 issues another pipe that is adapted to the worm, which 
 is cooled by the process we have described. When 
 the wine contained in the cauldron is healed, the vapours 
 which rise from it pass over into the liquid in the first 
 vessel, and communicate to it a sufficient degree of 
 heat to disengage from it the spirit of wine. These 
 vapours of spirit of wine pass into the liquid of the 
 second vessel, and effect the volatilization of the 
 alcohol which it contains. Thus one moderate fire 
 occasions »J:he ebullition of a prodigious quantity of 
 wine, distributed in several vessels : and the condensa- 
 tion of this large mass of vapours, takes place, as usual, 
 in the worm. You may obtain spirit of greater or less 
 strength, and procure, at pleasure, any degree of spi- 
 rituosity you wish, by taking the produce of the first 
 receiver, or of the second, &c. If, instead of employ- 
 ing wine you put water into the cauldron, and wine 
 into the other vessels, you obtain a milder and more 
 pleasant spirit than when you put wine into it. There 
 is scarcely any occasion to observe that the water in 
 the cauldron must be increased as fast as it decreases 
 by evaporation, unless you calculate and determine the 
 quantity requisite to complete the evaporation of all the 
 alcohol contained in the wine to be distilled. In the 
 contrary case it is easy to replace, by a very simple 
 contrivance, the portion of the liquid which evaporates 
 from the cauldron, without suspending or retarding the 
 distillation. This process is attended with the two- 
 fold advantage of considerably diminishing the ex- 
 pense of fuel, since it is applied only to a small 
 vessel in proportion to the mass of liquid which is 
 evaporated, and of extracting more spirit from a given 
 quantity of wine, than by the ordinary apparatus. 
 
 The improvements successively made in the process 
 of distillation have produced spirits infinitely more mild 
 than those obtained by the old processes. The latter 
 have an empyreumatic, or burnt taste, but the con- 
 
 sumers, especially in the north of France, were so 
 accustomed to it, that for some time they refused to 
 drink the milder and more pleasant tasted spirits, so 
 that the distillers were obliged to render them empy- 
 reumatic by the admixture of burnt spirits, in order to 
 suit their taste. Wines furnish more or less spirit, ac- 
 cording to their degree of spirituosity : a very generous 
 wine yields one-third of its weight of spirit. In 
 Languedoc the average produce is one-fourth ; the wines 
 of Bourdeaux yield one-fifth, and those of Burgundy 
 not so much. 
 
 The spirit extracted from old is of better quality 
 than that obtained from new wines. Saccharine wines 
 furnish an excellent spirit. Sour wines yield a spirit of 
 very bad quality, on account of the great quantity of 
 malic acid, which is almost inseparable from them. 
 By diluting the husks of pressed grapes with water, 
 and proceeding to distillation, you obtain a further por- 
 tion of spirit, but it is of bad quality. 
 
 In distilling for the purpose of extracting spirits, you 
 continue the operation till no more spirit of wine passes 
 over, or till the produce ceases to be inflammable. — 
 The distiller forms a judgment of the degree of spi- 
 rituosity of the liquor which is distilling, by the number 
 and size of the bubbles produced by agitating the liquor, 
 and by the longer or shorter time of their duration. 
 For this purpose he either pours it from one glass to 
 another, letting it fall from a considerable height, or 
 he fills a long bottle two-thirds full, and stopping it 
 with his thumb, he shakes and strikes it with force 
 against the hollow of his hand to form bubbles. 
 
 Various methods for determining the strength of 
 spirits have been successively tried and practised : but 
 in the year 1772, Messrs. Poujet and Borie of Cette, 
 turned their attention to this subject, and obtained re- 
 sults which have furnished commerce with a spirit-gauge 
 of such accuracy, as not to produce the least error in 
 the estimates which are daily made with it. After 
 having made very nice experiments on the proportions 
 of water and alcohol, and on the action of the tem- 
 perature on the mixture, at every possible degree, they 
 adapted the thermometer to the spirit-gauge, and trans- 
 ferred to a scale the comparative progress of the real 
 spirituosity, together with the effects of the tempera- 
 ture, so that their spirit-gauge itself indicates the altera- 
 tions made by the temperature. This instrument is 
 now the only one employed in commerce in the south 
 of France. The use of such an instrument is so neces- 
 sary in commerce, that for more than fifteen years the 
 dealers of the south purchased Spanish spirits, which 
 varied in the degree of spirituosity, and took no 
 further trouble than to raise or reduce them to the 
 degree of commerce, merely by adding either spirit 
 of wine or water, in order to obtain an advantageous 
 sale. 
 
 The produce of the distillation of wine is called in 
 France Hollands proof spirits. But if you again sub- 
 ject this spirit to distillation, you then obtain a more 
 spirituous liquor, which is called three-fifths. In this 
 
RECTIFICATION. 
 
 tiase three parts of the liquor, mixed with two parts of 
 pure water, form five parts of spirits, Hollands-proof. 
 
 With the spirit-gauge of Messrs. Borie and Poujet, the 
 different degrees of spirituosity are very easily ascer- 
 tained by means of silver weights of various sizes : the 
 heaviest is inscribed with the words, Hollands-proof, 
 and the lightest three-sevenths. The other weights 
 serve to mark the intermediate degrees between these 
 two terms. Thus, if you screw to the end of the 
 beam of the spirit-gauge the weight denoting Hollands- 
 proof, and plunge it into three-fifths, the instrument 
 will descend in the liquid below the degree marked on 
 the scale Hollands-proof, but it returns to that point 
 on the addition of two-fifths of water, so that three- 
 fifths spirit is thus transformed into Hollands-proof 
 spirit. If, on the contrary, you screw on the three- 
 fifths weight, and plunge the spirit-gauge into Hollands- 
 proof, it will rise in the liquor above the latter mark, 
 and it may be easily carried down to that degree by the 
 addition of alcohol, or spirit of wine. When spirits 
 are distilled for the purpose of extracting alcohol, or 
 spirit of wine, the balneum marias is generally employed. 
 The heat is then more gentle and more equal, and the 
 produce of the distillation of superior quality. 
 
 Alcohol, or spirit of wine diluted, is used as a be- 
 verage. . It is the dissolvent of resins, and constitutes 
 the basis of drying varnishes. Spirit of wine serves as 
 a vehicle for the aromatic principle of plants, and is 
 then called spirit of this or that plant. The apothe- 
 cary likewise employs spirit of wine to dissolve resinous 
 medicines. These dissolutions are denominated tinc- 
 tures. It forms the base of almost all the different 
 sorts of beverage called liquors. It is sweetened with 
 sugar, or rendered aromatic with all kinds of substances 
 of an agreeable taste or smell. Spirit of wine pre- 
 serves vegetable and animal substances from fermenta- 
 tion or putrefaction. To this end it is used for pre- 
 serving fruits, vegetables, and almost all the objects 
 and preparations relating to the natural history of ani- 
 mals. All the liquors produced by the fermentation of 
 saccharine substances, yield alcohol. But the quantity 
 and quality vary according to the nature of the sub- 
 stances. 
 
 It is chiefly in consequence of the ascent of bodies of 
 greater lixity with certain bodies of greater volatility that 
 there is so much difficulty here of imitating the foreign 
 vinous spirits of other countries, as, for example— 
 French brandies, and West-India rums. All these are 
 remarkable by the character of the essential oil that 
 ascends with the spirit, and which gives it the peculiar 
 flavour by which one spirit differs from another. Now 
 we can obtain an essential oil from any of the vegetables 
 that furnish these different spirits: but we cannot, as 
 wc have seen, readily obtain a spirit altogether tasteless, 
 and destitute of some sort of essential oil still com- 
 bining with it. Could we do this, we could manufac- 
 ture to perfection an artificial Cognjac brandy or Ja- 
 maica rum ; but, as we cannot wholly separate the in- 
 herent essential oil from the purest and most colourless j 
 
 517 
 
 and most insipid spirit we can obtain, when we add the 
 essential oil vvith which we mean to flavour it, the union 
 , t ' ie .^ wo °'l s gives us a different result, and betrays 
 the artifice to those who are acquainted with the taste of 
 the genuine material. 
 
 In order, then, to prepare the oil of wine, or of 
 the grapes from which French brandies are distilled, 
 which are generally the worst that the country affords • 
 the best being selected for the process of wine itself’ 
 as yielding a far ampler profit ; take some cakes of dry 
 wine-lees, dissolve them in six or eight times their 
 weight of water, distil the liquor with a slow fire, and 
 separate the oil, reserving, for only the nicest uses, 
 that which comes over first, the succeeding oil being 
 coarser and more resinous. Having procured this fine 
 oil of wine, it may be dissolved in alcohol ; by which 
 means it may be preserved a long time, fully possessed 
 of all its flavour, but, otherwise, it will soon grow 
 rancid. 
 
 With a fine essential oil of wine, thus procured, and 
 a pure and tasteless spirit, French brandies may be imi- 
 tated to some degree of perfection. The essential oil, 
 it should be observed, must be drawn from the same 
 kind of lees as the brandy to be imitated was procured 
 from ; that is, in order to imitate Cogniac brandy, it 
 will be necessary to distil the essential oil from Cogniac 
 lees ; and the same for any other kind of brandy. a For 
 as different brandies have different flavours, and as these 
 flavours are entirely owing to the essential oil of the 
 grape, it would be ridiculous to endeavour to imitate 
 the flavour of Cogniac brandy with an essential oil pro- 
 cured from the lees of Bourdeaux wine. When the 
 flavour of the brandy is well imitated, other difficulties 
 are still behind. The flavour, though the essential part, 
 is not the only one; the colour, the proof, and the 
 softness, must also be regarded, before a spirit, that 
 perfectly resembles brandy, can be procured. With re- 
 gard to the proof, it may be easily accomplished, by 
 using a spirit rectified above proof; which, after being 
 intimately mixed with the essential oil of wine, may be 
 let down to a proper standard with fair water ; and the 
 softness may, in a great measure, be obtained by distil- 
 ling and rectifying the spirit with a gentle fire ; and 
 what is wanting of this criterion in the liquor when first 
 made, will be supplied by time ; for it is time alone 
 that gives this property to French brandies, they being, 
 at first, acrid, foul, and fiery. But with regard to the 
 colour, a particular method is required to imitate it to 
 perfection, which may be effected by means of treacle 
 or burnt sugar. 
 
 The spirit distilled from molasses or treacle is tole- 
 rably pure. It is made from common treacle, dissolved 
 m water, and fermented in the same manner as the wash 
 for the common malt spirit. But if some particular 
 art be not used in distilling this spirit, it will not prove 
 so vinous as malt spirit, but less pungent and acrid, 
 though otherwise much cleaner-tasted, as its essential 
 oil is of a less offensive flavour. Therefore, if good 
 fresh wine-lees, abounding in tartgr, be well fermented 
 
 6 Q with 
 
518 
 
 ROPE-MAKING. 
 
 with molasses, the spirit will acquire a greater vinosity 
 and briskness, and approach nearer to the nature of fo- 
 reign spirits. Where the molasses spirit is brought to 
 the common proof-strength, if it be found not to have 
 a sufficient vinosity, it will be very proper to add some 
 dulcified spirit of nitre; and if the spirit be clean 
 worked, it may, by this addition only, be made to pass 
 for French brandy. Great quantities of this spirit are 
 used in adulterating foreign brandy, rum, and arrack. 
 Much of it is also used in making cherry-brandy, and 
 other cordials, by iufusion ; but, in them all, many 
 persons prefer it to foreign brandies. Molasses, like all 
 other spirits, is entirely colourless when first extracted ; 
 but rectifiers always give it, as nearly as possible, the 
 colour of foreign spirits. 
 
 In a similar manner we may imitate foreign spirits of 
 all kinds. Thus, if Jamaica rum be our object, instead 
 of French brandy, it will only be necessary to procure 
 some of the tops of the sugar-canes, from which an 
 
 essential oil being drawn and mixed with clear molasses 
 spirit, will give it the real flavour ; or, at least, a flavour 
 as true as a spirit not totally divested of all essential 
 flavour of its own can possibly communicate. The 
 principal difficulty therefore must still lie in procurin'* a 
 spirit totally, or nearly, free from all flavour of its 
 own. 
 
 To rectify their spirit into Holland gin, the Dutch 
 distillers add to every twenty gallons of spirit of the 
 second extraction, about the strength of proof-spi- 
 rit, three pounds of juniper-berries, and two ouuces 
 of oil of juniper, and distil with a slow fire, till the 
 feints begin to ascend ; then change the receiving-can. 
 This produces the best Rotterdam gin. An inferior 
 kind is made with a less proportion of berries, sweet 
 fennel-seeds, and Strasburgh turpentine, without a drop 
 of juniper-oil. This last is also a better sort, and 
 though still inferior to that of Rotterdam, is produced, 
 in very large quantities at Welsoppe. 
 
 ROPE-MAKING 
 
 Is an art of very great importance, and there are few 
 that better deserve the attention of the intelligent ob- 
 server. Hardly any trade can be carried on without the 
 assistance of the rope-maker. Cordage makes the very 
 sinews and muscles of a ship ; and every improvement 
 which can be made in its preparation, either in respect 
 to strength or pliableness, must be of immense ser- 
 vice to the mariner, and to the commerce and defence 
 of nations. 
 
 Rope-making has been defined the art of uniting ani- 
 mal or vegetable fibres into an aggregate line, so that 
 the whole may concur in one joint action, and be em- 
 ployed under the forms of string, cord, cable, &c. 
 Animal fibres, on account of their expense, are but 
 seldom used, but those that are introduced into the em- 
 ployment are obtained either from the intestines or the 
 hair. The intestines of sheep and lambs are manufac- 
 tured into what is called cat-gut, of different sizes, for 
 the use of musical-instrument-makers ; for watch- 
 makers, opticians, cutlers, turners, and a variety of 1 
 other artificers. The tendrils of the ovary of the 
 Souai.us canicula, or dog-fish, are chiefly employed 
 in angling, more frequently single than in the combined 
 state, known in the trade by the name of Indian-grass. 
 Animal hair, as that from horses, is had recourse to 
 where there is no great friction, and it forms a rope 
 or cord much more durable than any that can be ob- 
 tained from vegetables : it is impervious to moisture, 
 
 is capable of resisting all weathers, and is extremely 
 elastic. 
 
 Hence, it is obvious, that the rope-maker must 
 derive his chief material from the vegetable kingdom ; 
 which he does from the inner bark of the hemp, or 
 Cannabis satira; or from that of some of the species 
 of flax, or Linum ; that of the L. usitatissimum is 
 the most important. The treatment of both these 
 plants being nearly the same, we shall describe, as 
 nearly as we can, that relating to flax. The plant is 
 rather common in most of the temperate parts of Eu- 
 rope, flowering in July. The root is annual, fibrous, 
 and small ; the stem is erect, round, smooth, and leafy ; 
 the flowers on stalks, erect, and of a sky-blue colour. 
 About the end of August, when the flowers have attained 
 their full grow th, and begin to turn yellow at bottom, 
 and brown at the top, and their seeds to ripen, it is a 
 proper time to pull the plants up. They are dried, 
 and threshed ; they are then to be put in water till the 
 I bark readily separates from the stalk, when they are 
 taken out and dried, after w'hich they are in a proper 
 state for the purpose of being converted into flax by the 
 hackler. We may observe, though not strictly con- 
 nected with the subject in hand, that, as from the bark 
 of the stalks is manufactured flax or lint, for making of 
 all sorts of linen cloth ; — from cloth, when worn out, 
 we make our paper ; — from the seeds of the plant lin- 
 seed oil is expressed; and, evenihe refuse, after the oil 
 
 is 
 
ROPE-MAKING. 
 
 is extracted, forms oil-cakes, so valuable in fattening 
 cattle, sheep, and other live stock. From hemp, how- 
 ever, treated in a similar way, we have the materials 
 for cordage, ropes, and cables. Russian hemp is most 
 used, but English hemp, when properly manufactured, 
 is superior to that introduced from the North. 
 
 The aim of the rope-maker is to unite the strength 
 of a great number of fibres, and the first part of his 
 process is spinning of rope-yarns ; that is, twisting the 
 hemp in the first instance. This is done in various j 
 ways, and with different machinery, according to the 
 nature of the intended cordage. We shall confine our j 
 description to the manufacture of the larger kinds, such j 
 as are used for the standing and running rigging of ships, j 
 An alley, or walk, is enclosed for the purpose, about 
 two hundred fathoms long, and of a breadth suited to 
 the extent of the manufacture. It is sometimes cover- 
 ed above. At the upper end of this rope-walk is set 
 up the spinning- wheel. The band of the wheel goes 
 over several rollers, called whirls, turning on pivots in 
 brass holes. The pivots at one end come through the 
 frame, and terminate in little hooks. The wheel, be- 
 ing tur ned by a winch, gives motion in one direction to 
 all the whirls. The spinner has a bundle of dressed 
 hemp round his waist, with the two ends meeting be- 
 fore him. The hemp is laid in this bundle in the same 
 way that women spread the flax on the distaff. There 
 is great variety in this; but the general aim is to lay 
 the fibres in such a manner, that, as long as the bundle 
 lasts, there may be an equal number of the ends at the 
 extremity, and that a fibre may never offer itself double, 
 or in a bight. The spinner draws out a proper number 
 of fibres, twists them with his fingers, and having got 
 a sufficient length detached, he fixes it to the hook of a 
 whirl. The wheel is now turned, and the skein is 
 twisted, becoming what is called rope-yarn, and the 
 spinner walks backwards down the rope-walk. The 
 part already twisted, draws along with it more fibres out 
 of the bundle. The spinner aids this with his fingers, 
 supplying hemp in due proportion, as he walks away 
 from the wheel, and taking care that the fibres come in j 
 equally from both sides of his bundle, and that they 
 enter always with their ends, and not by the middle, 
 which would double them. He should also endeavour 
 to enter every fibre at the heart of the yarn. This will 
 cause all the fibres to mix equally in making it up, and 
 will make the work smooth, because one end of each' 
 fibre is, by this means, buried among the rest, and 
 the other end only lies outward ; and this, in passing 
 through the grasp of the spinner, who presses it tight 
 with his thumb and palm, is also made to lie smooth. 
 
 A good spinner endeavours always to supply the hemp 
 in the form of a thin flat skein, with his left hand, 
 while his right hand is employed in grasping firmly the 
 yarn that is twining off, and in holding it tight from the 
 whirl, that it may not run into loops or kinks. It is 
 evident, that both the arrangement of the fibres, and 
 the degree of twisting, depend on the skill and dexterity 
 ©f the spinner, and that he must be instructed, not by 
 
 519 
 
 a book, but by a master. The degree of twist depends 
 on the rate of the wheel’s motion, combined with the 
 retrograde walk of the spinner. We may suppose him 
 arrived at the lower end of the walk, or as far as is ne- 
 cessary for the intended length of his yarn. He calls 
 out, and another spinner immediately detaches the yarn 
 from the hook of the whirl, and gives it to another, who 
 carries it aside to the reel ; and this second spinner 
 attaches his own hemp to the whirl-hook. In the mean 
 time, the first spinner keeps fast hold of the end of his 
 yarn ; for the hemp, being dry, is very elastic, and if 
 he were to let it go out of his hand, it would instantly 
 untwist, and become little better than loose hemp. He 
 waits, therefore, till he sees the reeler begin to turn the 
 reel, and he goes slowly up the walk, keeping the yarn 
 of an equal tightness all the way, till he arrives at the 
 wheel, where he waits with his yarn in his hand till an- 
 other spinner has finished his yarn. The first spinner 
 takes it off the whirl-hook, joins it to his own, that it 
 may follow it on the reel, and begins a new yarn. The 
 second part of the process is the conversion of the 
 yarns into what may, with propriety be called a rope, 
 cord, or fine. That we may have a clear conception 
 of the principle which regulates this part of the process, 
 we shall begin with the simplest possible case — the 
 union of two yarns into one line. 
 
 When hemp has been split into very fine fibres by the 
 hatchel, it becomes exceedingly soft and pliant, and 
 after it has lain for some time in the form of fine yarn, 
 it may be unreeled and thrown like flaxen yarn, so as to 
 make sewing-thread. It is in this way, indeed, that the 
 sail-makers’ sewing-thread is manufactured, and when it 
 has been kept on the reel, or on balls or bobbins, for 
 some time, it retains its twist as well as its uses require. 
 But this is by no means the case with yarns spun for 
 great cordage. The hemp is so elastic, the number of 
 fibres twisted together is so great, and the diameter of 
 the yarn (which is a sort of lever on which the elasticity 
 of the fibre exerts itself) is so considerable, that no 
 keeping will make the fibres retain this constrained po- 
 sition. 
 
 The end of a rope-yarn being thrown loose, it will 
 immediately untwist, and this with considerable force 
 and speed. It would, therefore, be a fruitless attempt 
 to twist two such yarns together ; yet the ingenuity df 
 man has contrived to make use of this very tendency to 
 untwist not only to counteract itself, but even to pro- 
 duce another and a permanent twist, which requires 
 force to undo it, and which will recover itself when this 
 force is removed. Every person must recollect that 
 when he has twisted a packthread very hard with his 
 fingers between his two hands, if he slackens the thread 
 by bringiug his hands nearer together, the packthread 
 will immediately curl up, running into loops or kinks, 
 and will even twist itself into a neat and firm cord. 
 The component parts of a rope are called strands, and 
 the operation of uniting them with a permanent twist is 
 called laying or closing, tire latter term being chiefly 
 appropriated to cables and other very large cordage. 
 
520 
 
 ROPE-MAKING. 
 
 The process for laying or closing large cordage is 
 this: the strands of which the rope is composed consist 
 of many yarns, and require a considerable degree of 
 hardening. This cannot be done by a whirl driven by a 
 wheel-band ; it requires the power of a crank turned by 
 the hand. The strands, when properly hardened, be- 
 come very stiff, and when bent round the top, are not 
 able to transmit force enough for laying the heavy and 
 unpliant rope which forms beyond it. The elastic 
 twist of the hardened strands must therefore be assisted 
 by an external force. All this requires a different ma- 
 chinery and a different process. At the upper end of 
 the walk is fixed up the tackle-board ; this consists of 
 a strong oaken plank, called a breast-board, having 
 three or more holes in it and fitted with brass or iron 
 plates. Into these are put iron cranks called heavers, 
 which have hooks or forelocks, and keys on the ends 
 of their spindles. They are placed at such a dis- 
 tance from each other, that the workmen do not in- 
 terfere while turning them round. This breast-board 
 is fixed to the top of strong posts, well secured by 
 struts or braces facing the lower end of the walk. 
 At the lower end is another breast-board fixed to the 
 upright post of a sledge, which may be loaded with 
 stones or other weights. Similar cranks are placed in 
 the holes of this breast-board; the whole goes by the 
 name of the sledge. 
 
 The top necessary for closing large cordage is too 
 heavy to be held in the hand, it therefore has a long 
 staff, which has a truck on the end. This rests on the 
 ground, but even this is not enough in laying great ca- 
 bles. The top must be supported on a carriage, where 
 it must lie very steady, and it needs attendance, because 
 the master workman has sufficient employment in at- 
 tending to the manner in which the strands close behind 
 the top, and in helping them by various methods. The 
 top is therefore fixed to the carriage by lashing its staff 
 to the two upright posts. A piece of soft rope or strap 
 is attached to the handle of the top by the middle, and 
 its two ends are brought back and wrapped several 
 times tight round the rope in the direction of its twist, 
 and bound down. This greatly assists the laying of the 
 rope by its friction, which both keeps the top from 
 flying too far from the point of union of the strands 
 and brings the strands more regularly into their places. 
 The first operation is warping the yams. At each end 
 of the walk are frames called w'arping frames, which 
 carry a great number of reels, or winches, filled with 
 rope-yarn. The foreman of the walk takes off a yarn 
 end from each, till he has made up the number neces- 
 sary for his rope or strand, and bringing the ends toge- 
 ther, he passes the whole through an iron ring fixed to 
 the top of a stake driven into the ground, and draws 
 them through; then a knot is tied on the end of the 
 bundle, and a workman pulls- it through this ring till 
 the intended length is drawn off the reels. The end is 
 made fast at the bottom of the walk, or at the sledge, 
 and the foreman comes back along the skein of yarns, 
 to see that none are hanging slacker than the rest. He 
 
 takes up in his hand such as are slack and draws them 
 tight, keeping them so till he reaches the upper end, 
 where he cuts the yarns to a length, again adjusts their 
 tightness, and joins them altogether in a knot, to which 
 he fixes the hook of a tackle, the other block of w hich 
 is fixed to a firm post, called the warping-post. The 
 skein is well stretched by the tackle, and then separated 
 into its different strands. Each of these is knotted apart 
 at both ends. The knots at their upper ends are made 
 fast to the hooks of the cranks in the tackle-board, and 
 those at the lower ends are fastened to the cranks in the 
 sledge. The sledge itself is kept in its place by a 
 tackle, by which the strands are again stretched in their 
 places and every thing adjusted, so that the sledge stands 
 square on the walk, and then a proper weight is laid 
 on it. The tackle is now cast off, and the cranks are 
 turned at both ends in the contrary direction to the 
 twist of the yarns (in some kinds of cordage the cranks 
 are turned the same way with the spinning tw'ist). By 
 this the strands are twisted and hardened up, and as 
 they contract by this operation the sledge is dragged up 
 the walk. When the foreman thinks the strands suffi- 
 ciently hardened, which he estimates by the motion of 
 the sledge, he orders the heavers at the cranks to stop. 
 The middle strand at the sledge is taken off from the 
 crank ; this crank is taken out, and a stronger one put 
 in its place. The other strands are taken off from their 
 cranks, and are all joined on the hook which is now in 
 the middle hole; the top is then placed between the 
 strands, and being pressed home to the point of their 
 union, the carriage is placed under it, and it is firmly 
 fixed down; some weight is taken off the sledge. The 
 heavers now begin to turn at both ends ; those at the 
 tackle-board continue to turn as they did before, but 
 the heavers at the sledge turn in the opposite direction 
 to their former motion, so that the cranks at both ends 
 are now turning one way. By the motion of the 
 sledge-crank the top is forced away from the knot, 
 and the rope begins to close. The heaving at the upper 
 end restores to the strands the twist w'hich they are con- 
 stantly losing by the laying of the rope. The workmen 
 judge of this by making a chalk mark on the intermedi- 
 ate points of the strands, where they lie on the stakes 
 which are set up along the walk for their support. If 
 the twist of the strands is diminished by the motion of 
 closing they will lengthen, and the chalk mark will 
 move away from the tackle-board; but if the twist in- 
 creases by turning the cranks at the tackle-board, the 
 strands will shorten and the mark will come nearer to 
 it. As the closing of the rope advances the whole 
 shortens, and the sledge is dragged up the walk. The 
 top moves faster, and at last reaches the upper end of the 
 walk, the rope being now laid. 
 
 In the mean time, the sledge has moved several fa- 
 thoms from the place where it was when the laying be- 
 gan. These motions of the sledge and top must be 
 exactly adjusted to each other. The rope must be of a 
 certain length, therefore the sledge must stop at a 
 certain place. At that moment the rope should be 
 
ROPE-MAKING. 
 
 521 
 
 laid; that is, the top should be at the tackle-board. 
 In this consists the address of the foreman. He has his 
 attention directed both ways. He looks at the’ strands, 
 and when he sees any of them hanging slacker between 
 the stakes than the others, he calls to the heavers at the 
 tackle-board to heave more upon that strand. He finds 
 it more difficult to regulate the motion of the top. It 
 requires a considerable force to keep it in the angle 
 of the strands, and it is always disposed to start for- 
 ward. To prevent or check this, some straps of soft rope 
 are brought round the staff of the top, and then wrapped 
 several times round the rope behind the top, and kept 
 firmly down by a lanyard, or bandage. This both 
 holds back the top, and greatly assists the laying of the 
 rope, causing the strands to fall into their places, and 
 keep close to each other, which is sometimes very diffi- 
 cult, especially in ropes composed of more than three 
 strauds. It will greatly improve the laying the rope, if 
 the top has a sharp, smooth, tapering pin of hard 
 wood, pointed at the end, projecting so far from the 
 middle of its smaller end, that it gets in betweenethe 
 strands which are closing. This supports them, and 
 makes their closing more gradual and regular. The 
 top, its notches, the pin, and the warp, or strap, which 
 is lapped round the rope, are all smeared with grease or 
 soap to assist the closing. The foreman judges of the 
 progress of closing chiefly by his acquaintance with the 
 walk, knowing that when the sledge is a-breast of a 
 certain stake, the top should be a-breast of a certain 
 other stake. When he finds the top too far down the 
 walk, he slackens the motion at the tackle-board, and 
 makes the men turn briskly at the sledge. By this the 
 top is forced up the walk, and the laying of the rope 
 accelerates, while the sledge remains in the same place, 
 because the strands are losing their twist, and are 
 lengthening, while the closed rope is shortening. When, 
 on the' other hand, he thinks the top too far advanced, 
 and fears that it will be at the head of .the walk before 
 the sledge has got to its proper place, he makes the j 
 men heave briskly on the strands, and the heavers at the 
 sledge crank work softly. This quickens the motion of ! 
 the sledge by shortening the strands ; and by thus com- | 
 pensating what has been over-done, the sledge and top j 
 come to their places at once, and the work appears to j 
 answer the intention. When the top approaches the ^ 
 tackle-board, the heaving at the sledge could not cause J 
 the strands immediately behind the top to close well, I 
 without having previously produced an extravagant de- 
 gree of twist in the intermediate rope. The effort of 
 the crank must, therefore, be assisted by men stationed 
 along the rope, each furnished with a tool called a 
 woolder. This is a stout oaken stick, about three feet 
 long, having a strap of soft rope-yarn, or cordage, fast- 
 ened on its middle or end. The strap is wrapped round 
 the laid rope, and the workman works with the stick 
 as a lever, twisting the rope round in the direction of 
 the crank’s motion. The woolders should keep their 
 eye on the men at the crank, and make their motion 
 correspond with his. Thus they send forward the twist 
 
 produced by the crank, without either increasing or dimi- 
 nishing it, in that part of the rope which lies between 
 them and the sledge. Such is the general and essential 
 process of rope-making. The fibres of hemp are twisted 
 into yarns, that they may make a line of any length, and 
 stick among each other with a force equal to their own 
 cohesion. The yarns are made into cords of permanent 
 twist by laying them ; and that we may have a rope of 
 any degree of strength, many yarns are united in one 
 strand, for the same reason that many fibres were 
 united in one yarn ; and in the course of this process it 
 is in our power to give the rope a solidity and hardness 
 which make it less penetrable by water, which would 
 rot it in a short while. Some of these purposes are in- 
 consistent with others ; and the skill of a rope-maker 
 lies in making the best compensation, so that the rope 
 may, on the whole, be the best in point of strength, 
 pliancy, and duration, that the quantity of hemp in it 
 can produce. The following rule for judging of the 
 weight which a rope will bear is not far from the truth. 
 It supposes them rather too strong ; but it is so easily 
 remembered, that it may be of use. Multiply the cir- 
 cumference in inches by itself, and take the fifth part of 
 the product, it will express the tons which the rope will 
 carry. Thus, if the rope has six inches circumference, 
 6 times 6 is 36, the fifth of which is 7j- tons. 
 
 It is usual in cables, and in other cases, to have re- 
 course to the operation of tarring. This is often done 
 in the state of twine or yam, as being the best mode by 
 which the hemp can be uniformly penetrated. The 
 yarn is made to wind off from one reel, and having 
 passed through a vessel of liquid hot tar, is wound on 
 another reel ; the superfluous tar is taken off by passing 
 through a hole surrounded with oakum : or, it is some- 
 times tarred in skeins, which are drawn by a capstern 
 through a tar-kettle, and a hole formed by two plates of 
 metal, held together by a lever, loaded with a weight. 
 There is this peculiarity to be noticed — tarred cordage 
 is weaker, when new, than white, and the difference 
 increases by the keeping. From some very accurate 
 experiments made more than half a century ago, it was 
 found, that on newly-made cordage, the white was one- 
 eighth stronger than that which was tarred, that, at the 
 expiration of thirteen months, the difference in favour 
 of the new was almost one-fourth : and, in about three 
 years and a half, the difference was as 29 to 18. 
 From these, and other experiments, it was ascertained, 
 1. That white cordage in continual service is one-third 
 more durable than that which is subjected to the opera- 
 tion of tarring. 2. That it retains its strength much 
 longer while kept in the warehouse. 3. That it resists 
 the ordinary injuries of the weather one-fourth longer. 
 It may then be asked, Why is tar ever used by the 
 rope-maker ? Because white cordage, wheu exposed 
 to be alternately very wet and dry, is weaker than that 
 which is tarred, and to this cables and ground-tackle are 
 continually subjected. It has also been pretty well ascer- 
 tained, that cordage which is only superficially tarred, is 
 constantly stronger than that which is tarred throughout. 
 
 6 R Before 
 
522 
 
 SAWING. 
 
 Before we conclude this article, we may notice Mr. 
 Chapman’s method of making ropes and cordage, for 
 which he obtained, some years since, His Majesty’s 
 letters patent. The specification may be found in the 
 ninth volume of the First Series of the Repertory, it 
 it being too long to be admitted in our work r the fol- 
 lowing is, however, an outline of the whole : — 
 
 Rope-yarns are spun either by hand, or by machi- 
 nery : in the practice of the first method rope-walks 
 are necessary, and the fibres of the hemp are drawn 
 into the yarn of different lengths proportionate in a 
 given degree to their position on the outside or inside 
 of the yarn; accordingly, when this yarn is strained 
 and its diameter collapses, the inside fibres of hemp 
 bear the greatest strain, and thus they break progres- 
 sively from the inside. 
 
 In the spinning by a mill ttie fibres are all brought 
 forward in a position parallel to each other, previously 
 to their receiving their twist. They are consequently 
 all of one length ; and, when twisted, the outside fibres 
 are most shortened by forming the same number of 
 spirals round a greater axis than the interior, and thus 
 they must consequently break the first, on the same 
 principle that the outside yarns of strands of ropes 
 manufactured in the old method break before the inte- 
 rior yarns ; and consequently with less strain than ropes 
 of the improved principle, where the strands (or im- 
 mediate component parts of the rope) have been formed 
 in such a manner as that all the yarns shall bear equally 
 at the time of the rope’s breaking. 
 
 Nevertheless, yarns spun by a mill have been found 
 stronger than common yarns, on account of the great 
 evenness with which they are spun ; the manual labour 
 in manufacturing is much less than in the common me- 
 thod : but on the other hand there is the expense of 
 machinery, and the greater waste of hemp in preparing 
 it for being drawn out in the progressive stages of its 
 advance to the spindle. 
 
 The method invented by Mr. Chapman differs from 
 both the preceding, in causing, by an easy and simple 
 
 contrivance, the fibres of the hemp to be laid in 
 the yarn in such a manner as the yarns themselves are 
 laid in the strands of the rope manufactured on the new 
 principle. 
 
 The machinery consists only of a spindle divided 
 into two parts, the upper containing apparatus to draw 
 forward the hemp from the spinner with twist sufficient 
 to combine the fibres ; which enables him to employ 
 women, children, and invalids, and also to appropriate 
 the rope-ground solely to the purpose of- laying ropes. 
 
 The remaining parts of their invention consist chiefly 
 in the giving from a stationary power internal motion 
 to a loco-motive machine, viz. to the roper’s sledge, on 
 which the strands and the rope itself are twisted, by 
 which contrivance they are enabled to apply a water- 
 wheel or steam-engine to the whole process of making 
 ropes of all kinds whatever. 
 
 Mr. Huddart likewise obtained a patent for an im- 
 proved method of registering or forming strands in* the 
 machinery for manufacturing of cordage ; which he 
 effects in the following manner. 1. By keeping the 
 yams separate from each other, and drawing them from 
 bobbins which revolve, to keep up the twist whilst the 
 strand is forming. 2. By passing them through a re- 
 gister, which divides them by circular shells of holes ; 
 the number in each shell being agreeable to the distance 
 from the centre of the strand, and the angle which the 
 yarns make 'with a line parallel to it, and which gives 
 them a proper position to enter. 3. A cylindrical tube 
 which compresses the strand, and maintains a cylindrical 
 figure to its surface. 4. A gauge to determine the 
 angle which the yarns in the outside shall make with a 
 line parallel to the centre of the strand when register- 
 ing ; and, according to the angle made by the yarns in 
 this shell, the length of all the yarns in the strand will 
 be determined. 5. By hardening up the strand, and 
 thereby increasing the angle in the outside shell, which 
 compensates for the stretching of the yarns and the 
 compression of the strand. 
 
 SAWING. 
 
 Tins is a distinct business from the trades, in which, 
 however, the saw is not only a, very useful, but neces- 
 sary implement, such as those of the carpenter, cabi- 
 net-maker, cooper, &c. 
 
 The saw is an instrument which serves to cut into 
 pieces several solid matters ; as wood, stone, ivory, &c. 
 
 The best saws are of tempered steel, ground bright and 
 smooth : those of iron are only hammer-hardened, 
 
 hence, the first, besides their being stiffer, are likewise 
 found smoother than the last. They are known to be 
 well hammered by the stiff bending of the blade ; and 
 to be well and evenly ground, by their bending equally 
 in a bow. The edge in which are the teeth is always 
 thicker than the back, because the back is to follow the 
 edge. The teeth are cut and sharpened with a trian- 
 gular file, the blade of the saw being first fixed in a 
 
 whetting- 
 
SAWING. 
 
 523 
 
 whetting-block. After they have been tiled, the teeth 
 are set, that is, turned out of the right line, that they 
 may make the kerf, or fissure, the wider, that the back 
 may follow the better. The teeth are always set ranker 
 for coarse cheap stuff than for hard and tine, because 
 the ranker the teeth are set, the more stuff is lost in 
 the kerf. The saws, by which marble and other stones 
 are cut, have no teeth : these are generally very large, 
 and are stretched out and held even by a frame. 
 
 The lapidaries, too, have their saw, as well as the 
 workmen in mosaic ; but of all mechanics, none have 
 so many saws as the joiners: the chief are as fol- 
 lows. — 
 
 The pit-saw, which is a large two-handed saw, 
 used to saw timber in pits ; this is chiefly used by the 
 sawyers. 
 
 The whip-saw , which is also two-handed, used -in 
 sawing such large pieces of stuff as the hand-saw will 
 not easily reach. 
 
 The hand-saw, which is made for a single man’s 
 use, of which there are various kinds ; as the bow, or 
 frame saw, which is furnished with cheeks : by the 
 twisted cords which pass from the upper parts of these 
 cheeks, and the tongue in the middle of them, the 
 upper ends are drawn closer together, and the lower set 
 further apart. 
 
 The tenon-saw, which being very thin, has a back to 
 keep it from bending. 
 
 The compass-saw , which is very small, and its teeth 
 usually not set ; its use is to cut a round, or any other 
 compass-kerf : hence the edge is made broad, and the 
 back thin, that it may have a compass to turn in. 
 
 The surgeons use a saw to cut off’ bones : this should 
 be very small and light, in order to be managed with 
 the greater ease and freedom, the blade exceedingly 
 6ne, and the teeth exquisitely sharpened, to make its 
 way more gently, and yet with great expedition, in cut- 
 ting off legs, arms, &c. 
 
 Saws are now generally used by butchers in sepa- 
 rating the bones of the meat : the divisions by the saw 
 are neater than those by the chopper, and there is a 
 certain saving, as the chopper splinters bones, the parts 
 of which cannot be included in the weight. 
 
 The pit-saw, is that which is chiefly used in the em- 
 ployment properly denominated sawing. The teeth are 
 set rank for coarse work, so as to make a fissure of 
 about a quarter of an inch. To perform the work, the 
 timber is laid on a frame over an oblong pit, called the 
 saw-pit ; and it is cut by means of a long saw fastened in 
 a frame, which is worked up and down by two men, the 
 one standing on the wood to be cut, and the other in the 
 pit. As they proceed in their work they drive wedges, 
 at proper distances from the saw, to keep the fissure 
 open, which enables the saw to move with freedom. 
 This, though a profitable, is a very laborious employ- 
 ment, and- hence have been introduced saw-mills, which, 
 in different countries are worked by different means, as 
 by men, by horses, by water, by wind, or by steam. 
 
 A saw-mil/, worked by men, consists of several pa- 
 
 rallel saws, which are made to rise and fall perpendicu- 
 larly by means of mechanical motion. In this case a 
 very few hands are necessary to carry on the operation, 
 to push forward the pieces of timber, which are either 
 laid on rollers, or suspended by ropes, in proportion as 
 the sawing advances. We shall, however, give a more 
 detailed account of the saw-mills, as used in various 
 parts of the w’orld. The history of the invention of 
 sawing is curious, and may be inserted. 
 
 In early periods of society, the trunks of trees were 
 split with wedges, into as many, and as thin pieces as 
 possible ; and if it was necessary to have them still 
 thinner, they were hewn, by some sharp instrument, on 
 both sides, to the proper size. This simple but waste- 
 ful' manner of making boards has been still continued 
 in some places, to the present time. Peter the Great, 
 of Russia, endeavoured to put a stop to it, by forbid- 
 ding hewn deals to be transported on the river Neva. 
 The wood-splitters perform their work more expediti- 
 ously than sawyers, and split timber is much stronger 
 than that which has been sawn ; for the fissure follows 
 the grain of the wood, and leaves it whole ; whereas 
 the saw, which proceeds in the line chalked out for it, 
 divides the fibres, and by these means lessens its .cohe- 
 sion and strength. Split timber, indeed, turns out 
 often crooked and warped ; but, in many purposes to 
 which it is applied, this is by no means prejudicial ; and 
 the fault may, sometimes, be amended. As the fibres, 
 however, retain their natural length and direction, thin 
 boards, particularly, can be bent much better. This is 
 a great advantage in making pipe-staves, and in forming 
 various implements of the like kind. 
 
 Our common saw, which needs only to be guided by 
 the hand of the workman, however simple it may be, • 
 was not known to the inhabitants of America when they 
 were subdued by the Europeans. The inventor of this 
 instrument has, by the Greeks, been inserted in their 
 mythology, with a place among those whom they have 
 honoured as the greatest benefactors of the earliest ages. 
 By some, he is called Talus, and, by others, Perdix. 
 Pliny ascribes the invention to Daedalus ; but Hardouin, 
 in the passage where he does so, reads Talus rather 
 than Daedalus. Diodorus Siculus, Apollodorus, and 
 others, name the inventor Talus. He was the son of 
 Daedalus’s sister ; and was^ by his mother, placed under 
 the tuition of her brother, to be instructed in his art. 
 Having, it is said, once found the jaw-bone of a snake, 
 he employed it to cut through a small piece of wood ; 
 and, by these means, was induced to form a like instru- 
 ment of iron, that is, a saw. This invention, which 
 greatly facilitates labour, excited the envy of his master, 
 and instigated him to put Talus to death privately. 
 We are told, that, being asked, when he was burying 
 the body, what he was depositing in the earth, he re- 
 plied, “ A serpent.” This suspicious answer disco- 
 vered the murder ; and thus, adds the historian, a snake 
 was the cause of the invention, of the murder, and of 
 its being found out. 
 
 The saws of the Grecian carpenters had the same 
 
 form, 
 
524 
 
 SAWING. 
 
 form, and were made m the like ingenious manner as 
 ours are at present. This is fully shewn, by a painting 
 still preserved among the antiquities of Herculaneum. 
 Two genii are represented at the end of a bench, 
 which consists of a long table that rests upon two four- 
 footed stools. The piece of wood which is to be sawn 
 through is secured by cramps. The saw, with which 
 the genii are at work, has a perfect resemblance to our 
 frame-saw. It consists of a square frame, having, in 
 the middle, a blade, the teeth of which stand perpen- 
 dicularly to the plane of the frame. The piece of wood 
 which is to be sawn extends beyond the end of the 
 bench, and one of the workmen appears standing, and 
 ,the other sitting on the ground. The arms, in which 
 the blade is fastened, have the same form as that given 
 to them at present. In the bench are seen holes, in 
 which the cramps that hold the timber are struck. 
 They are shaped like the figure 7 ; and the ends of them 
 reach below the boards that form the top of it. 
 
 The most beneficial and ingenious improvement of 
 this instrument was, without doubt, the invention of 
 saw-mills; which are now generally driven either by 
 steam, by water, or by the wind. Mills of the first 
 kind were erected so early as the fourth century, in 
 Germany, on the small river Roeur or Ruer, for though 
 Ausonius speaks of water-mills for cutting stone, and 
 not timber, it cannot be doubted that these were in- 
 vented later than mills for cutting out deals, or that both 
 kinds were erected at the same time. Pliny conjectures 
 that the mill for cutting stone was invented in Caria ; 
 at least he knew no building incrusted with marble of 
 greater antiquity than the palace of king Mausolus, at 
 Halicarnassus. This edifice is celebrated by Vitru- 
 vius, for the beauty of its marble ; and Pliny gives an 
 account of the different kinds of sand used for cutting 
 it ; for it is the sand, he says, and not the saw, which 
 produces that effect. The latter presses down the for- 
 mer, and rubs it against the marble ; and the coarser 
 the sand is, the longer will be the time required to 
 polish the marble which has been cut by it. Notwith- 
 standing these facts, there is no account in any of the 
 Greek or Roman writers of a mill for sawing wood ; 
 and as the writers of modern times speak of saw-mills 
 as new and uncommon, it would seem that the oldest 
 construction of them has been lost, or that some im- 
 portant improvement has made them appear entirely 
 new. 
 
 Becher says, that saw-mills were invented in the se- 
 venteenth century. In this he erred, for when settlers 
 were conveyed to the island of Madeira, w'hich was dis- 
 covered in 1420, saw-mills were erected also, for the 
 purpose of sawing, into planks, the various species of 
 excellent timber with which the island abounded, and 
 which were afterwards transported to Portugal. About 
 the year 1427, the city of Breslau had a saw-mill, 
 which produced a yearly rent of three marks; and, in 
 1490, the magistrates of Erfurt purchased a forest, in 
 which they caused a saw-mill to be erected, and they 
 rented another mill in the neighbourhood besides. Nor- 
 
 way, which is covered with forests, had the first saw* 
 mill about the year 1530. This mode of manufacturing 
 timber was called the new art; and because the ex- 
 portation of deals was by these means increased, that 
 circumstance gave occasion to the deal-tithe, introduced 
 by Christian III. in the year 1545. Soon after, the 
 celebrated Henry Canzau caused the first mill of this 
 kind to be built in Holstein. In 1552 there was a 
 saw-mill at Joachimsthal, which, as we are told, be- 
 longed to Jacob Geusen, mathematician. In the year 
 1555 the bishop of Ely, ambassador from Mary queen 
 of England to the court of Rome, having seen a saw- 
 mill in the neighbourhood of Lyons, the writer of his 
 travels thought it worthy of a particular description. 
 In the sixteenth century, however, there were mills with 
 different saw-blades, by which a plank could be cut 
 into several deals at the same time. The first saw-mill 
 was erected in Holland at Saardam, in the year 1596; 
 and the invention of it is ascribed to Cornelius Cor- 
 nelissen. Perhaps he was the first person who built a 
 saw-mill at that place, which is a village of great trade, 
 and has still a great many saw-mills, though the num- 
 ber of them is becoming daily less ; for within the last 
 thirty years a hundred have been given up. The first 
 mill of this kind in Sweden was erected in the year 
 1653. At present, that kingdom possesses the largest 
 perhaps ever constructed in Europe, where a w'ater- 
 wheel, twelve feet broad, drives at the same time 
 seventy-two saws. 
 
 In England saw-mills had at first the same fate that 
 printing had in Turkey, the ribbon-loom in the domi- 
 nions of the church, and the crane at Strasburg. When 
 attempts were made to introduce them, they were vio- 
 lently opposed, because it w'as apprehended that the 
 sawyers would be deprived by them of their means of 
 getting a subsistence. For this reason, it was found 
 necessary to abandon a saw-mill erected by a Dutch- 
 man near London, in 1663; and in the year 1700, 
 when one Houghton laid before the nation the advan- 
 tages of such a mill, he expressed his apprehension that 
 it might excite the rage of the populace. What he 
 dreaded was actually the case in 1767 or 1768, when 
 an opulent timber-merchant, by the desire and appro- 
 bation of the Society of Arts, caused a saw-mill, driven 
 by wind, to be erected at Limehouse, under the direc- 
 tion of James Hansfield, who had learned, in Holland 
 and Norw'ay, the art of constructing and managing 
 machines of that kind. A mob assembled, and pulled 
 the mill to pieces ; but the damage was made good by 
 the nation, and some of the rioters were punished. A 
 new mill was afterwards erected, which was suffered to 
 work without any molestation, and which gave occasion 
 to the erection of others. It appears, however, that 
 this was not the only mill of the kind then in Britain ; 
 for one driven also by wind had been built at Leith, in 
 Scotland, some years before. 
 
 Saw-mills, as they are now constructed, are of two 
 kinds, according as the saws employed effect their opera- 
 tion by a circular or by a reciprocating motion. Cir- 
 cular 
 
SAWING. 
 
 525 
 
 cular saw-mills are the most simple in their construc- 
 tion. Mr. George Smart, at his manufactory for hollow 
 masts, on the .Surrey side of Westminster Bridge, has 
 several of these. In one of the simplest, a wheel is 
 turned by a horse, which gives motion to a pinion on a 
 horizontal shaft ; a spur-wheel is fixed on the shaft, and 
 turns a pinion on another horizontal shaft, on which a 
 wheel is fixed in the room above the machine, and the 
 bearings for the gudgeons of the shaft are supported on 
 the joists of the floor : by means of an endless strap 
 passing round this wheel, and round a pulley on the 
 spindle of the circular saw, a rapid motion is given to 
 the saw : it is fixed on its spindle by a shoulder, against 
 which it is held by another moveable shoulder pressed 
 tight by a nut, on the end of the spindles which is tapped 
 into a screw to receive it. The saw has a circular hole 
 through the middle, fitting tight upon the spindle, so 
 as to cause them to turn together. 
 
 The ends of the spindle are pointed, and that point 
 nearest the saw works in a hole made in the end of a 
 screw, screwed in a bench of stout planks, and well 
 braced together ; the other turns in a similar screw 
 passed through a cross beam mortised between two 
 vertical beams extending from the floor to the ceiling : 
 one of the beams can. be raised or lowered in its mor- 
 tises by wedges put both above and below its tenons. 
 In order to adjust the plane of the saw to the plane 
 of the bench, there is a long parallel ruler, which 
 can be set at any distance from the saw, and fixed 
 by means of screws going through circular grooves 
 cut through the bench. In using the machine, the 
 ruler is to be set the proper distance from the saw 
 of the piece of wood to be cut, and as the saw turns 
 round, a workman slides the end of a piece of wood 
 to it, keeping its edge against the guide or ruler, 
 that it may cut straight. We have witnessed the 
 operation, which is as neat as it is expeditious and 
 ingenious. 
 
 When the saw requires sharpening, one of the screws 
 at the end of its spindle must be turned back : the 
 spindle and saw can be then removed, and may be fixed 
 in a common vice to whet it, in the same manner as a 
 common saw ; the outsides of the teeth are not filed 
 to leave a surface perpendicular to the plane of the 
 saw, but inclined to it, and in the same direction that 
 each tooth so filed is bent in the setting: by this means, 
 the saw, when cutting, first takes away the wood at the 
 two sides of the kerf, leaving a ridge in the middle of 
 it, the use of which is to keep the saw steady in a right 
 line, that it may not have a tendency to get out of the 
 straight line in any place where the wood is harder at 
 one side than on the other. 
 
 The most important machinery of this kind that we ! 
 have seen is, unquestionably, at Portsmouth, for the 
 manufacturing of ships’ blocks ; a full account of the 
 machines is given in Dr. Rees’s most valuable New 
 Cyclopaedia, to which we refer our readers, and from 
 which we shall extract a brief description of one or 
 two of the saws. 
 
 “ The great cross-cutting Sara . — -The tree subjected 
 to the action of this machine is placed on a long frame 
 or bench raised a little from the floor, and at the end 
 of it is erected a frame, composed of vertical posts 
 and cross timber, in the manner of a small and low 
 door-way : through this frame the end of the tree is 
 drawn by the capstan above-mentioned, its end project- 
 ing as much from the surface of the frame as is intended 
 to be cut off ; and it is fastened in the frame from roll- 
 ing sideways, by a lever, which can be readily made 
 to press upon it and hold it down. The saw itself is 
 a straight blade, fixed into a wooden handle or pole at 
 each end, to lengthen it : one of these handles is con- 
 nected by a joint to the upper end of a lever, bent like 
 an L, and having its centre beneath the floor : the hori- 
 zontal arm of the lever is connected by a spear rod, 
 w'ith a crank on the end of a spindle near the ceiling of 
 the room, the motion of which is regulated by a fly- 
 wheel. By this means the saw has a reciprocating 
 motion from right to left, nearly in a horizontal posi- 
 tion, and exactly across the log it is to cut off, imitating 
 in its motion the carpenter’s hand-saw, considering his 
 arm as the arm of the bent or L lever. The teeth of 
 the saw are of course on the lower side of the blade, 
 and are sloped so as to cut in drawing towards the lever. 
 It rises and falls freely upon its joint at the end of the 
 lever, and can be lifted up by the handle, at the op- 
 posite end of the blade, to take it off its work, which 
 it follows up by its own weight. The machine being 
 at rest, is prepared for work, by fixing the log in 
 the frame as before mentioned, so that the surface 
 of the frame intersects the log at the place where 
 it is intended to be cross-cut. The saw, which w'as 
 before lifted up by its handle, to be clear above 
 the log, is now suffered to rest upon it, in the place 
 where the cut is to be made ; and to guide it at first 
 setting in, the back of the saw is received in a saw kerf, 
 made in the end of a piece of board, which is attached 
 to the frame over the saw, but slides up and down in 
 a groove to reach the saw at any height, according 
 to the thickness of the log lying beneath it. Being thus 
 prepared, the machine is put in action by a rope or 
 strap which turns the fly-wheel and its crank. This 
 giving a vibration to the bent or L lever, causes the 
 saw to reciprocate horizontally across the tree, until it 
 cuts it through : it follows up its cut by its own weight 
 alone, but the attendant can at any time lift up the 
 saw from its work, though its motion continues, by 
 means of a rope which suspends the handle of the saw 
 when required. As the saw gets into the tree it quits 
 the guide above-mentioned, which becomes the less 
 necessary as the saw goes deeper ; a saw having no 
 tendency to alter its first course, when cutting across 
 the grain of the wood. We admire the simplicity of 
 this machine, which nevertheless executes its work 
 with much accuracy and expedition. It might be 
 very usefully employed in many situations where great 
 manual labour is spent in cross-cutting large logs of 
 timber. 
 
 6 S 
 
 “ The 
 
526 
 
 SHOT-MAKING. 
 
 “ The cross-cutting circular Saw. — This machine is 
 for similar purposes, and stands close by the former. 
 It is a circular saw, whose spindle is so mounted, as 
 to move in any direction parallel to itself ; the saw all 
 the while continuing in the same plane, and revolving 
 rapidly upon its axis, cuts the wood it is presented to, 
 and as it admits of being applied at first on one side, 
 and then on another side of the tree, a saw of mo- 
 derate dimensions will be sufficient to divide larger trees, 
 than could otherwise be done by it. 
 
 “ The great reciprocating saw for cutting up trees 
 lengthwise. — In this machine the saw works vertically : 
 it nas an horizontal carriage, on which the timber is 
 fastened ; this passes through a vertical frame with 
 grooves, in which another frame slides up and down in 
 the manner of a window-sash, and has the saw stretched 
 in it. The saw-frame is moved up and down by means 
 of a crank on an axis beneath the floor, which is turned 
 by means of an endless rope. At every time the saw 
 rises and falls, it turns a ratchet-wheel round, by means 
 of a click, a few teeth ; and this has on its axis a pinion, 
 working a rack attached to the carriage of the tree, 
 which by this means is advanced : at every stroke, the 
 saw makes a proper quantity for another cut. The 
 saw-frame is adapted to hold several saws parallel to 
 each other, for sawing a tree into several boards at 
 once, when required.” 
 
 Saw-mills, for cutting blocks of stone, are generally 
 moved horizontally. When a completely cylindrical pil- 
 lar is to be cut out of one block of stone, the first thing 
 will be to ascertain in the block the position of the axis 
 of the cylinder : then lay the block so that such axis shall 
 be parallel to the horizon, and let a cylindrical hole of 
 from one to two inches diameter be bored entirely 
 through it. Let an iron bar, whose diameter is rather 
 less than that of this tube, be put through it, having 
 just room to slide freely to and fro as occasion may re- 
 quire. Each end of this bar should terminate in a 
 screw, on which a nut and frame may be fastened 
 The nut-frame should carry three flat pieces of wood or 
 iron, each having a slit running along its middle nearly 
 from one end to the other, and a screw and handle 
 must be adapted to each slit ; by these means the 
 frame-work at each end of the bar -may readily be so 
 adjusted as to form equal isosceles or equilateral trian- 
 
 gles ; the iron bar will connect two corresponding angles 
 of these triangles, the saw to be used two other cor- 
 responding angles, and another bar of iron, or of 
 wood, the two remaining angles, to give sufficient strength 
 j to the whole frame. This construction, it is obvious, 
 will enable the workmen to place the saw at any pro- 
 posed distance from the hole drilled through the middle 
 of the block ; and then, by giving the alternating mo- 
 tion to the saw-frame, the cylinder may at length be 
 j cut from the block, as required. This method was 
 ! first pointed out in the collection of machines approved 
 by the Paris academy. 
 
 If it were proposed to saw a conic frustrum from 
 such a block, then let two frames of wood or iron be 
 fixed to those parallel ends of the block which are in- 
 tended to coincide with the bases of the frustum, cir- 
 cular grooves being previously cut in these frames to 
 correspond with the circumferences of the two ends of 
 the proposed frustum ; the saw being worked in these 
 grooves will manifestly cut the conic surface from the 
 block. This is the contrivance of Sir George Wright. 
 
 The best method of drilling the hole through the 
 middle of the proposed cylinder seems to be this : — On 
 a carriage, running upon four low wheels, let two ver-- 
 tical pieces (each having a hole just large enough to 
 admit the borer to play freely) be fixed two or three 
 feet asunder, and so contrived, that the pieces and 
 holes to receive the borer may, by screws, &c., be 
 raised or lowered at pleasure, while the borer is pre- 
 vented from sliding to and fro by shoulders upon its 
 bar, which are larger than the holes . in the vertical 
 pieces, and which, as the borer revolves, press against 
 those pieces. Let a part of the boring-bar between the 
 two vertical pieces be square, and a grooved wheel 
 with a square hole of a suitable size be placed upon 
 this part of the bar ; then the rotatory motion may be 
 given to the bar by an endless band which shall pas6 
 over this grooved wheel and a w'heel of a much larger 
 diameter in the same plane, the latter wheel being 
 turned by a winch handle in the usual way. As the 
 boring proceeds, the carriage with the borer may be 
 brought nearer and nearer the block, by levers and 
 weights, in the same manner as is described under the 
 article Pipe-Making. 
 
 SHOT-MAKING. 
 
 the fused metal to fall in equal spherical drops into 
 w'ater. The lead is melted with the addition of a small 
 proportion of arsenic, which, being reduced to a me- 
 tallic state, by means of grease stirred in during the 
 , . fusion, 
 
 hot, a -denomination given to all sorts of balls for | 
 fire-arms ; those for cannon being of iron, and those 
 for guns, pistols, &c. of lead. The manufacture of 
 ■common fowling leading shot consists merely in causing 
 
SLATING. 
 
 5m 
 
 fusion, renders it less fluid. An oblong shallow vessel 
 of iron, perhaps, ten inches wide, fourteen long, and 
 two and a half deep, called a card, whose bottom is 
 pierced w'ith holes proportionate to the intended size of 
 the shot, is placed at the height of from one to three 
 inches, over the surface of a tub of water, covered 
 with a thin film of oil. The card is previously heated 
 to the temperature of the metal, by immerging it in the 
 caldron ; and a stratum of soft dross or scoriae, which 
 is found on the surface of the fused alloy, is then placed 
 on its perforated bottom, and being slightly pressed down 
 with the ladle, forms a kind of filter, which partly 
 chokes up the apertures, and prevents the metal from 
 flowing through them in continuous streams. The fused 
 metal is then poured by ladle-fulls into this vessel, and ap- , 
 pears, notwithstanding, to run through it with consider- j 
 able velocity ; so that it seems difficult to believe that it 
 falls in separate drops, till convinced by taking up a 
 quantity of shot from the bottom of the water. 
 
 The shot thus made is not without considerable im- j 
 perfections. The exterior coat of the lower part of the 
 drop becoming suddenly fixed by the contact of the ; 
 water, its superior portion, which is still liquid, as it j 
 also cools and contracts, necessarily pits, like the sur- | 
 face of metal in the channel of a mould, so that the j 
 greater part of the shot are somewhat hollow, and of 
 an irregular form ; consequently too light for the pur- 
 pose to which they are destined, and^liable to unequal 
 resistance in their passage through the air. These de- 
 fects are remedied in the patent-shot, the manufacture 
 of which differs only from that of the preceding kind in 
 the addition of a larger portion of arsenic, which varies 
 according to the quality of the lead ; in dropping it from 
 
 such a height that it becomes solid before it enters the 
 w'ater, which is from forty to one hundred feet ; and, in 
 some subsequent operations, which are as follows : — It 
 is first dried and sifted. It is then boarded, which 
 consists in scattering it on several polished slabs or 
 trays of hard wood, with rims, in the form of a II, 
 except that the sides converge towards the lower part, 
 to which a slight inclination and alternate motion in 
 their own planes are given by boys employed in the ma- 
 nufacture. The shot, whose form is imperfect, are 
 detected by the sluggishness of their motion, and re- 
 main behind, whilst the others roll off from the board. 
 The last operation is the polishing ; which is performed 
 by agitating it with the addition of a very small quan- 
 tity of black lead, not exceeding two spoonfuls to a 
 ton, in an iron vessel, turning on an horizontal axis like 
 a butter churn. It does not appear that any higher de- 
 gree of perfection than that which is thus attained re- 
 mains to be desired. The argentine brilliancy of the shot 
 when newly made, the beautiful accuracy of its form, 
 and the curious instance of inanimate tactics which it 
 presents when scattered on a plate, render it even an 
 agreeable object of contemplation. 
 
 Patent milled shot is thus made: — Sheets of lead, 
 whose thickness corresponds with the size of the shot 
 required, are cut into small pieces, or cubes, in the 
 form of a die. A great quantity of these little cubes 
 are put into a large hollow cylinder which is mounted 
 horizontally and turned by a winch, when, by their 
 friction against one another, they are rendered perfectly 
 round and very smooth. There are other patent shot, 
 cast in moulds, in the same way as bullets are. 
 
 SLATING. 
 
 Slating is employed, in architecture, in sundry 
 ways, the principal of which refers to the covering, of 
 the roofs of buildings, but such has been lately the per- 
 fection of working in slate, that it is now wrought and 
 fitted into many useful utensils, as well as made up into 
 balconies, chimney-pieces, casings to walls, skirtings, 
 stair-cases, &c. &c. 
 
 The slate, principally in use in London, is brought 
 from Wales, taken from out of quarries, which are 
 worked on the Lord Penhryn’s estate at Bangor, in 
 Caernarvonshire, and it is from thence forwarded to all 
 parts of the United Kingdom. There are also in use 
 some other kinds of slate, the best sort of which is 
 brought from Kendal, in Westmoreland, and is called 
 
 I Westmoreland slate. These slates are of a fine pale 
 bluish-green colour, -and. are most esteemed of any by 
 j the architects. They are not of a large size, but they 
 j qre. of good substance, and well calculated to give a neat 
 ! appedr'ange to the roof on which they may be placed. 
 
 ! The slate brought from Scotland is,, nearly similar in 
 ! both size and quality to a slate from Wales, called 
 ! Ladies, from which circumstance they are very little 
 1 sought after. 
 
 j The French slates were very much in use about 
 seventy years since. They are small in size, most 
 commonly not larger than the Welsh doubles, exces- 
 | sively thin, and,' consequently, light ; but thin compo- 
 sition has been iound not to be well adapted to this 
 
 climate, 
 
528 
 
 SLATING. 
 
 climate, where there is an atmosphere containing an 
 excess of moisture. By analysis, this slate is ascer- 
 tained to contain of manganese, besides other mat- 
 ters, such as iron, &c., the excessive affinity of which 
 for oxygen soon shivers the stony portion of the slate 
 into atoms, when employed as a covering to buildings 
 in this country. The writer of this article has seen 
 slates of this kind on a roof reduced to the state of 
 powder, having become so by exposure, and appeared 
 to be completely decomposed. 
 
 Of the Pitch of a Roof. — This, in as far as the 
 elevation of the rafters is to be considered, is found to 
 vary in different climates. In Italy, and all the southern 
 parts of Europe, it is made generally less than one-fourth 
 of the span or breadth. In England, it W'as formerly 
 three-fourths, but it is now made to approach much 1 
 nearer to the Italian proportion. In northern climates, 
 a steep roof is required, on account of the great falls of 
 snow to which they are liable, and which greatly in- 
 crease the lateral thrust of the rafters. For, the hori- 
 zontal force exerted by a roof, if it be considered with 
 reference to the walls which sustain it, is, in propor- 
 tion to the length of a line perpendicular to the rafter 
 descending from its extremity till it meets another simi- 
 lar line drawn from the opposite rafter, and this perpen- 
 dicular is obviously increased when the roof is made 
 very flat. But a flat pitched roof is stronger than a high 
 one for resisting all transverse strains which tend to break 
 the rafters. 
 
 Slaters class the Welsh Slates after the following 
 Order and Designations, viz. 
 
 Ft. Inch. Ft. Inch. 
 
 Doubles, average size .1 1 by 0 6 
 
 Ladies 1 3 by 0 8 
 
 Countesses .... 1 8 by 0 io 
 
 Duchesses .... 2 O by 0 12 
 
 Welsh Rags ... 3 0 by £ (j 
 
 Queens 3 0 by £ b 
 
 Imperials .... 2 6 by 2 0 
 
 Patent Slate ... 2 6 by 2 0 
 
 The slates, called doubles, are so called from the 
 smallness of their size, and are made from the frag- 
 ments of the larger qualities as they are sorted respec- 
 tively. 
 
 The ladies are similarly obtained, being in pieces that 
 will square up to the size of such a description of 
 slate. 
 
 Countesses are still a gradation in dimension above 
 ladies ; and duchesses still larger. The slate is ex- 
 tracted from the quarries as other stony substances 
 usually are, that is, by making perforations between its 
 beds, into which gunpowder is placed and fused. This 
 opens and divides the beds of the slate, which the quarry- 
 
 men remove in blocks of very considerable size. These 
 blocks are afterwards split by having wedges of iron 
 driven between their layers, which separate the blocks 
 into scantling, of from four to nine inches in thickness, 
 and as long and wide as may be required. Some of 
 the scantling, which is intended to be exported as such, 
 is sawn to the sizes ordered, that is, the edges only of 
 such pieces ; for it is not necessary to use the saw to the 
 horizontal stratum of the slate, as that can be divided 
 nearly as correct by the above means, without having 
 recourse to such a tedious process as the sawing of it 
 would be. 
 
 For the purpose of sawing the slate, the works in 
 Wales are provided with abundance of beautiful ma- 
 chinery, some of which is put in motion by steam, and 
 others by water, which keep in action a vast number of 
 saws, all sawing the scantlings of slate into pieces 
 adapted to their several purposes. 
 
 The Imperial Slating for roofs is uncommonly neat ; 
 it is known by having its lower edge sawn, whereas all 
 the other slates used for covering are chipped square on 
 their edges only. 
 
 The Patent Slate is so called among the slaters from 
 the mode adopted to lay it on roofs, as no patent was 
 ever obtained for such a mode of slating. It w'as first 
 brought into use by Mr. Wyatt, the architect. It allows 
 of being laid on a rafter of much less elevation than any 
 other kind of slate, and is considerably lighter by reason 
 of the laps being so much more inconsiderable than is 
 found to be necessary for the common sort of slating. 
 This slating was originally made from that description 
 of slates known as Welsh Rags. The slaters now fre- 
 quently make it of Imperials, which gives to it still less 
 weight, and renders it somewhat more neat in its ap- 
 pearance than by the former mode. 
 
 Of the Westmoreland Slate. — Some experiments 
 have been instituted on this description of covering by 
 the present Bishop of Landaff, and as there appears very 
 little difference in the natural composition of this kind 
 of slate from that which is obtained from Wales, the Bi- 
 shop’s comparison of their absolute weight as compared 
 to that of other materials made use of as a covering 
 to buildings may be of great utility, inasmuch as it may 
 tend towards forming a data for adding to or diminish- 
 ing from the quantity of timber employed in roofs of dif- 
 ferent spans and elevations.- — “ That sort of slate,” says 
 he, “ other circumstances being the same, is esteemed 
 the best which imbibes the least water, for the imbibed 
 water not only increases the weight of the covering, but 
 in frosty weather being converted into ice it swells and 
 shivers the slate. This effect of the frost is very sensi- 
 ble in tiled houses, but it is scarcely felt in slated 
 ones, for good slate imbibes but little water ; and when 
 tiles are w ell glazed they are rendered in some measure, 
 with respect to this point, similar to slate.” He adds, 
 “ I took a piece of Westmoreland slate and a piece of 
 common tile, and weighed each of them carefully; 
 the surface of each was about 30 square inches ; both 
 the pieces were immersed in water for ten minutes, 
 
 and 
 
SLATING. 
 
 529 
 
 and then taken out and weighed as soon as they had 
 ceased to drip, and it was found that the tile had im- 
 bibed about one-seventh part of its weight of water, 
 and the slate had not imbibed a 200th part of its 
 weight. Indeed the wetting of the slate was merely 
 superficial, while the tile in some measure became satu- 
 rated with the water. I now placed both the wet 
 pieces before the fire ; in a quarter of an hour’s time 
 the slate was become quite dry and of the same weight 
 it had before it was put into the water; but the tile had 
 lost only' about twelve grains of the water it had imbibed, 
 which was as near as could be expected, the same quan- 
 tity which had been spread on its surface, for it was 
 this quantity only which had been imbibed by the 
 s/ate, the surface of which was equal to that of the 
 tile. The tile was left to dry in a room heated to 60° of 
 Fahrenheit, and it did not lose all the water it had 
 imbibed in less than six days. He adds further, “ that 
 the finest sort of Westmoreland slate is sold at Kendal 
 at 3s. 6d. per load, which will amount to 1/. 15s. per 
 ton, the load weighing two hundred-weight. The 
 coarser sort may be had at 2s. 4^. a load, or 1/. 3s. 4 d. 
 per ton. Thirteen loads of the finest sort will cover 
 forty-two square yards of roofing, and eighteen loads of 
 the coarsest will cover the same quantity ; so that there 
 is half a ton less weight put upon forty-two square 
 yards of roof, when the finest sort of slate is used, than 
 if it was covered with the coarsest kind, and the dif- 
 ference of expense only three shillings and six-pence.” 
 It must be remarked, that it owes its lightness not so 
 much to any diversity iu the component parts of the 
 stone from which it is split, as to the thinness to which 
 the workmen reduce it, and it is not so well calculated 
 to resist violent winds as that which is heavier. 
 
 On the comparison in weight of the sundry cover- 
 ings employed on Roofs. — A common plain tile weighs 
 thirty-seven ounces, and there are used, at a medium, 
 seven hundred to cover a single square of roof of one 
 hundred superficial feet. A pan-tile weighs seventy-six 
 ounces, or four and three-quarter pounds, and one hun- 
 dred and eighty are required to lay on a single square. 
 Both the plain and pan-tiles are commonly bedded in 
 mortar; indeed the former cannot be well laid on a 
 roof without it. The mortar for the bedding of either 
 will be equivalent to one-fourth of the weight of the 
 tiles. When a roof is to be covered with copper or 
 lead, it will depend upon what number of ounces of 
 the metal it is determined to assign to each superficial 
 foot of such covering. But for common lead or cop- 
 per covering, supposing seven pounds of the former to 
 the foot and sixteen ounces of the latter, the following 
 comparisons will suffice ; taking a square of one hun- 
 dred feet superficial to be covered of each of the several 
 materials, as all roofing is generally considered in such 
 quantities, then it will be 
 
 Cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 For Copper, per square, . 0 3 16 
 
 Lead, 6 1 0 
 
 Fine slate, . ... 6 0 21 
 
 Cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 For Coarser do 8 18 
 
 Plain-tiles, .... 18 O 0 
 
 Pan-tiles, 9 2 0 
 
 Hence may be seen what each square of a roof 
 sustains, and a careful builder may select such a cover- 
 ing as his building may be best calculated to support. 
 It will be noticed too, how much v tlie tiles exceed in 
 their weight that of the other coverings. The pan-tile 
 herein weighed, was at the time perfectly dry, and is of 
 the common sort made in and about London. The 
 plain tile is taken at the weight assigned it in the learned 
 prelate’s paper before referred to. The pan-tile is 
 equally adapted to imbibe water with the plain tile, 
 hence a somewhat greater weight than is here taken, 
 may be supposed to be generally operating upon the 
 roof, when loaded with such a covering. 
 
 Of the manner of laying Slates. — All the several 
 kinds before named partake of a similar mode, in as 
 far as refers to the bonding or lap of one portion of 
 the slate over another. The lap of each joint is gene- 
 rally equal to one-third of the length of the slate, and 
 the slater selects all the largest in size of the descrip- 
 tion about to be used, to be put on nearest the eaves 
 of the roof. When the slates are brought from the 
 quarry, they are not found in so square a shape as to 
 be immediately fit to be put on a roof, but are prepared 
 for that purpose by cutting and sorting. The slater, to 
 effect this, picks and examines the slate, observing 
 which is its strongest and squarest end. He then, by 
 holding the slate a little slanting upon and projecting 
 . about an inch over the edge of a small block of wood, 
 seating himself at the same time on something which is 
 equal to it in height, begins and cuts away straight one 
 of its edges. He then, with a slip of wood, gauges 
 the other edge parallel to the same, and cuts off that 
 also ; after which he turns it round and squares the end. 
 The slate is so far prepared, excepting it be the turning 
 of his tool round and pecking through it, on its oppo- 
 site end, two small holes, which are made for the nails 
 to enter when he lays it on the roof. All the quarry 
 slates require this preparation from the workman known 
 as the slater. All slates are put on with nails or screws, 
 and two are assigned to each slate at least. The cop- 
 per and zinc nails are esteemed the best, by reason of 
 their not being so susceptible of oxidation as the irou 
 ones. The slaters, however, to prevent the destruction 
 of their iron nails, have recourse to painting them ; this 
 they do by putting them in a tub containing white-lead, 
 rendered very fluid by excess of saturation with oil, and 
 stirring them up and about till they are completely 
 covered over, after which they are removed and spread 
 out upon boards and left to dry. Since the general 
 developements of chemistry, some of the slaters have 
 succeeded in plating over their iron nails with tin ; but 
 great address is necessary to succeed well at it; how- 
 ever, tinned nails are becoming more common, and 
 will be found greatly cheaper than copper ones. The 
 previous preparation necessary for laying slates on roofs, 
 6 T consists 
 
530 
 
 SLATING. 
 
 consists in forming a base or floor for the slates to lay 
 compactly and safely upon. For the doubles and ladies , 
 boarding is essential, if it be expected to have a good 
 water-proof covering to the roof. All that is required 
 in the boarding for such slates i9, that it be laid very 
 even and the joints close, securing the boards by pro- 
 perly nailing them down on the rafters. When the 
 boarding is ready, the slater examines it, and provides 
 himself with several slips of wood, called tilting fillets. 
 A tilting fillet is made about two inches and a half wide, 
 three-quarters of an inch thick on one edge, and cham- 
 pered away to an arris on the other edge. These fillets 
 he carefully lays and nails down all round the extreme 
 edges of the roof to be slated, beginning with the hips 
 if there be any, and if not, with the sides, eaves, and 
 ridge. When these are all done, he prepares for laying 
 the slates, and begins the eaves first. For these he 
 picks out all the largest slates, which he places regularly 
 throughout, setting their lower edges to a line, and 
 when so placed, he secures them by nailing them down 
 to the boarding. He then selects such slates as will 
 form the bond to the under sides of the eaves. This 
 part of the work consists in placing another row of 
 slates under those which he has previously laid, so as to 
 cross and cover all their joints ; such slates are pushed 
 up lightly under those which are above them, and are 
 seldom nailed, but left dependent for their support on 
 the weight of those above them and their own weight 
 on the boarding. The countesses and all the other de- 
 scription of slates, when intended to be laid in a good 
 manner, are also laid on boards. When the slater has 
 finished the eaves, he strains a line on the face of its 
 upper slates parallel to its outer edge, and as far from 
 it as he deems sufficient for the lap of those slates w’hich 
 he intends to go on to form the next course. This 
 course of slates being laid and nailed even with the 
 line, and crossing the joints of the upper slates of the 
 eaves. This lining and laying of the slates is continued 
 till the slater gets up close to the ridge of the roof, he 
 observing throughout to cross the different joints by the 
 slates he lays on one above another. This is the method 
 uniformly followed in laying all the different kinds of 
 slates, excepting it be those which are called the patent 
 slates, which will henceforth be explained. AH the 
 larger kinds of slate are found to lay firmly on what are 
 called battens, in consequence of which they are fre- 
 quently made use of, from their promoting a saving in 
 the expense, which will on an average amount to about 
 twenty shillings per square. A batten consists of a nar- 
 row portion of deal-wood, about tw'o and a half, or 
 three inches w ide ; there are commonly three taken out 
 flat-wise of a deal. When countesses are to be laid 
 on, battens three-quarter inches in thickness will he an 
 adequate substance for them ; but for the larger and 
 heavier kind of slates, inch battens will be necessary. 
 When a roof is to be battened for slates, the slater 
 himself is the best person to fix them, as they are not 
 placed at an uniform distance from each other, but so 
 as to suit the length of the slates, and as these vary as 
 
 they approach the apex or ridge of the roof, it follows 
 that the slater himself becomes the best judge where to 
 fix the batten to best support the slates intended to lay 
 on it. When they have been fixed by the carpenters he 
 almost alw'ays finds it necessary to take them up and 
 re-lay them. The nails used by slaters, as before ob- 
 served are of iron, copper, and zinc. They are of the 
 description called clout-nails. A clout-nail consists 
 in being made round on its shank, or driving part, with a 
 large round and flat head. Clout-nails are made of several 
 qualities, but those used by the slater, are about an 
 inch and a quarter long on the shank, and are termed 
 eight-penny nails. The copper nails are considerably 
 dearer than those of iron, or zinc, hence slating done 
 by them is charged somewhat more per square. 
 
 The patent slating, as it is called, consists in selecting 
 the largest slates, and those also of uniformity in their 
 thickness. — The slates called imperials, are those now 
 taken for it. A roof to be covered with this kind of 
 slate, requires that its common rafters be left loose upon 
 their purlins, as they must be placed so as to suit the 
 widths of the slates, it being necessary to have a rafter 
 under every one of their meeting joints. — Neither bat- 
 tening nor boarding is required for these slates, and the 
 quantity of rafters will depend on the widths of the 
 slates ; hence if they are of a large size very few will be 
 required, and of course a great saving in the timber will 
 take place, besides giving a much less w'eight in the 
 roof. The w'ork of covering by this kind of slate is 
 commenced as before at the eaves, but no crossing or 
 bonding is wanted, the slates being uniformly laid, with 
 the end of each reaching to the centres of each of the 
 rafters, and are all butted up to one another through- 
 out the length of the roof ; the rafters being so 
 placed as to come regularly under the ends of two of 
 the slates. When the eave’s course is laid, the slates, 
 composing it, are all screwed down by tw'o or three 
 strong one-and-a-half inch screw's at each of their ends 
 into the rafters under them. A line is afterwards 
 strained about two inches from their upper edge, this 
 being Showed as a lap for the course of slates which 
 goes on above, the edges of which course being fixed 
 straight with the line, and this lining laying with a lap 
 and screwing down is continued till the roof is finally 
 covered all over. — After which the filleting is to com- 
 mence; this consists in covering all the meeting joints 
 of the slates which come on the rafters with fillets of 
 slate bedded in glaziers’ putty, and screwing them 
 down through the whole into the rafters under them.— 
 The fillets to cover these kind of joints, are usually 
 made about three inches wide, and as long as the slate 
 they are intended to cover. They are solidly bedded iu 
 the putty, their joints lapped as is those of the slates ; one 
 screw is put in each lap, and one in the middle of the 
 fillet ; these fillets are after being so laid, bedded and 
 screwed down, pointed neatly up all round their edges 
 with more putty, and are painted over with a paint 
 resembling the colour of the slate, and hence the work 
 is deemed to be finished.— The hips and ridges of such 
 
 slating 
 
SLATING. 
 
 531 
 
 slating are frequently covered by fillets in a similar way, 
 and have a very neat effect. But lead is the best co- 
 vering for all hips and ridges of roofs, and it is not 
 greatly dearer than covering them by this mode. Slating 
 is done also in several other ways, but the principles 
 before explained embrace the most of them ; some 
 workmen have shaped and laid their slates in a lozenge 
 form. This kind of work consists in getting all the 
 slates to a uniform size, and into the shape of a geo- 
 metrical square; they are, when laying on the roof (which 
 it is always necessary to have boarded for this work) 
 bonded and lapped as the common slating is ; observing 
 ouly to exactly let the elbow or half of the square ap- 
 pear above each slate which is under it, and to be re- 
 gular in the courses all over the roof. One nail or 
 screw only can be used for such slating, lienee it soon 
 becomes dilapidated. It is commonly employed in 
 places near to the eye, or where particular neatness is 
 required . — The patent slating may be laid so as to be 
 perfectly water-tight, with an elevation of the rafter 
 considerably less than any other slate or tile covering ; a 
 rise of two inches in each foot to the length of the rafter 
 is deemed an adequate rise for this covering, and this for 
 a rafter of fifteen feet, would be only two feet six 
 inches, a rise in the pitch of a roof which at any height 
 from the ground would be hardly to be perceived. 
 
 Of the Slater’s Tools.- They consist of a few only, 
 and these are sometimes found by the master and some- 
 times by the men. The tool called the saixe, is composed 
 of tempered iron, about sixteen inches in length, and 
 two inches in width, somewhat bent at one end, and 
 prepared for, and handled with beechen wood at the 
 other. — This instrument is not unlike a large knife ex- 
 cept its having on its back a piece of iron, projecting 
 about three inches from out of it, and drawn sharp to a 
 point. With this tool when ground sharp, the slater 
 chips or cuts all his slates to the sizes he requires them 
 for all the various purposes of his business. — He has 
 also a Ripper as he calls it ; this tool is formed of iron 
 about the same length as the saixe, it is very thin in its 
 blade part, which is oue inch and three quarters wide, 
 tapered somewhat towards its top, where it has a round 
 head projecting over the blade on each side about half 
 an inch, and having also two little round notches in the 
 two internal angles at the intersection of the one with 
 the other. There is a shoulder formed at the handle 
 end of this tool, which raises it up above the blade, and 
 which enables the workmen to hold it firmly in his 
 hand when in use. The use of this tool is in repairs of 
 old slating, as by forcing its blade up under the slates, 
 the projecting head catches the nail of the slate, which 
 enters into the little notch at its intersection, and which 
 enables the workmen to pull it out, and which also at ' 
 the same time loosens the slate, and allows him to take 
 it away and insert another in its place, this is the prin- 
 cipal use of the ripper, viz. the repairing of the old 
 elating. 
 
 The hammer of the slater is somewhat different in 
 shape from the common tool of that description ; it is 
 
 on the hammer, or driving part, about five inches in 
 h- ight, bent on the top a little back, and ground to a 
 tolerably sharp point, its lower or flat end being about 
 three quarters of an inch in diameter, and quite 
 round. On the side of the driving part, is a small pro- 
 jection made with a notch in its centre, and which is 
 used as a claw to draw or extract the nails, when nail- 
 ing down the slates which do not drive satisfactorily. 
 This kind of hammer is of great utility to the slater, 
 and enables him to get through his new work with the 
 greatest address. 
 
 The tool called the shaving-tool, is used for the 
 purpose of getting the slates to a smooth face when 
 so wanted, for skirtings, floors of balconies, or any 
 other purpose to which slate may be required with a 
 smooth face. It consists of a blade of iron, sharpened 
 at one of its ends like a chisel, and is mortised through 
 the centre of two round wooden handles, one of which 
 is fixed at one end, and the other about the middle of 
 the blade. The blade is about eleven inches long, and 
 two inches wide, the handles to which are about ten 
 inches long, so that they project four inches over on 
 each side of the blade. The workman in using this 
 tool, takes it in both his hands, placing one hand to 
 each side of the handle which is in the middle of the 
 blade, allowing the other to come up and press against 
 the wrists of both his arms, and in this way he works 
 away all the uneven parts from off the surface of the 
 slate, and gets it to a smooth face. This tool is well 
 calculated for what it has to do, but it is a very uneasy 
 kind of instrument to the workman, its whole purchase 
 in its operation upon the slate being against his wrists, 
 and which is sometimes attended with so much pain 
 that he is obliged to give over his work. To avoid this 
 inconvenience, he often puts flannel and other things 
 over the handle which lays against his wrists; still a day 
 or two’s work, with this tool, will lame an inexperienced 
 workman. 
 
 The slater’s other working tools consist of numerous 
 chisels and gouges, together with files of all sizes, with 
 which he finishes his slates for the better parts of his 
 work into mouldings, and other forms, required for the 
 different uses to which slate is applied. 
 
 The strength of slate is very great in comparison of 
 any kind of freestone, as it is ascertained that a slate 
 of one inch in thickness will support in an horizontal 
 position as much in weight as five inches of Portland 
 similarly suspended. Hence slates are now wrought 
 and used for galleries and other purposes were strength 
 and lightness combined are essential. 
 
 Slates are also fashioned into chimney-pieces, par- 
 | taking of the different varieties of labour applied to 
 ' marble ; but it is incapable like it of receiving a polish, 
 in consequence of which it will not get greatly into use 
 j for that purpose It makes excellent skirtings of all de- 
 scriptions, as well as casings to walls where dilapida- 
 tions or great wear and tear is to be anticipated. It is 
 capable of being fixed for these purposes with joints 
 equally neat with wood* and may be painted over if 
 
 required/ 
 
532 
 
 SOAP-MAKING. 
 
 required, to appear like it. Staircases may be executed 
 in slate, and will have an effect not unlike to black 
 marble. The writer of this article has had a double 
 gallery staircase leading to a suite of baths constructed 
 of it, the effect of which was so good as by strangers to 
 be generally taken and considered to be made of marble. 
 Messrs. Warmsley and Milton, of Lambeth, are among 
 the best slaters in London when slaters’ work is required 
 to be done on a large scale, or when any of the better 
 departments of the working of slates are required, as they 
 keep people competent to work it up into almost every 
 shape, and with a neatness equalling works in 
 marble. 
 
 Slaters’ work is measured by the surveyors, as most 
 artificers’ work now usually is, and is afterwards re- 
 duced into squares, each square containing 100 feet 
 superficial. 
 
 Slaters are allowed, in addition to the nett dimensions 
 of their work (w'hen taking the measure of roofs) six 
 inches for all the eaves and four inches for the hips ; 
 this allowance is made in consequence of the slates being 
 used double in the former case, and for the waste in 
 cutting away the sides of the slates to fit into, the Jatter. 
 Some of these eaves, for instance, when rags or impe- 
 rial slates are used, require an addition of nine inches 
 
 to be allowed for the eaves, such kind of slates being 
 «o much larger than the size of most of the other kinds 
 of slate now in use. All faced work in slate skirtings, 
 staircases, .galleries, &c. is charged by the foot su- 
 perficial, admeasuring it without any kind of addition. 
 The chimney pieces are made up and sold at per piece, 
 as is done by the masons. Slating by the square to 
 roofing varies as die size or quality of the slate made 
 use of, beginning, for instance, with the Doubles at 
 about two guineas, Countesses, &c. two guineas and 
 a half, Welsh Rags and Imperials at three guineas and 
 a half, and Westmoreland, the dearest of all, at four 
 guineas and a half per square. The present prices of 
 slaters’ work done in a good and workmanlike manner, 
 will be found to be equal to the above charges. Galle- 
 ries and other slates worked up for such kind of pur- 
 poses, and fixed complete, will vary as the mouldings 
 about them do from 4s. fid. to 5s. fid. per foot superfi- 
 cial. Skirtings and linings of slate with one face only- 
 worked, but squared and fixed up, from Is. fid. to 2s. 
 per foot superficial. From these data, a tolerably cor- 
 rect idea may be formed of the value of any kind of 
 slating which may be wanting, and a comparison may 
 be made of its value with the several other cover- 
 ings, &c. employed in buildings. 
 
 SOAP-MAKING. 
 
 The combination of an oil with an alkali uniformly 
 produces a compound, soluble in water, and in which 
 the characteristic properties of oils and alkalies are de- 
 stroyed or changed. These combinations are termed 
 soaps ; but as those of soda or pot-ash are only em- 
 ployed in the business, it is those alone that we shall at 
 present particularly consider. It is probable, that ages 
 must have elapsed before mankind arrived at a know- 
 ledge of the combination of oil and alkali, which we 
 term soap. Saponaceous plants, argils, marls, and 
 magnesia, appear all to have been employed in cleansing 
 linen, long before the discovery of soap. We even 
 see that some animal matters were employed with ad- 
 vantage for the same purpose. It is equally certain that 
 the use of ash lyes preceded the discovery of soap. 
 But the capability of combining oil with alkali so as to 
 form a solid compound, soluble in water, and which 
 can dissolve spots of grease, without changing the co- 
 lour of the stuffs on which they are found, is a disco- 
 very of inestimable value in the arts. This discovery, 
 successively improved, constitutes what is now termed 
 the art of soap-making. 
 
 Of the Substances employed in the Manufacture of 
 Soap. — Oils, tallow, and every kind of grease, are 
 susceptible of combination with the alkalies, so as to 
 form soaps ; but they do not all furnish soap of an 
 equally good quality. It is of importance then to ascer- 
 tain the various matters that may be employed for this 
 purpose, and shortly to point out the differences be- 
 tween them with the view' of directing the choice of 
 the manufacturer. Olive oil is generally employed in 
 the preparation of soap. It combines perfectly with 
 the soda ; the soap thus produced is very white, uni- 
 form, of a proper consistence, and exhales an odour 
 which is peculiar to this kind of soap. But every kind 
 of olive-oil is not equally proper for saponification ; 
 three kinds are known in commerce — sweet, or virgin- 
 oil ; common, or dyer’s-oil ; and, expressed oil. The first 
 is that which flows upon the pressure of the olive, the 
 second requires a stronger degree of pressure, assisted by- 
 heat, and the third is produced by great pressure exerted 
 on the refuse of the olives, in order to extract every re- 
 maining particle of oil, and which is always mingled 
 with a considerable quantity of mucilage, and ligneous 
 
 bodies. 
 
SOAP-MAKING. 
 
 533 
 
 bodies. The first is pure, and almost wholly free from j 
 any viscous principle. The second is mixed with a con- 
 siderable portion of mucous matter, which forms, with j 
 the oil, a species of emulsion. The third contains 
 little oil, and a great portion of the mucous and fibrous 
 principle. 
 
 In order to ascertain whether the oil be of a good 
 quality, we ought to have at hand an alkaline lixivium 
 prepared without heat, and indicating from one to two 
 degrees of concentration. Having introduced into a 
 phial a few drops of the oil, the quality of which we 
 wish to prove, we pour upon it some lixivium. Imme- 
 diately upon the mixture becoming milky, we trausfer 
 it repeatedly from one phial into another, and allow it 
 afterwards to remain at rest in the phial. If, after the 
 lapse of a few hours, the combination remains uni- 
 formly white, and no particles of oil appear on its sur- 
 face, we may rest satisfied that the oil is of a good 
 quality ; and, if the contrary, that it is bad. Pure oils 
 require stronger lixivia than those of a coarser kind. 
 Common oil is only employed in soap manufactures, 
 not only because it bears a less price, but because it sa- 
 ponifies better. Fine oil is reserved for the use of our 
 kitchens and tables. It is particularly from Italy, and 
 chiefly from Genoa, that the French procure the best 
 oil for their soap manufactures. Some oil is also im- 
 ported from Barbary, which, conjointly with Genoa, 
 supports the immense soap-works established at Mar- 
 seilles. Next to olive-oil, that of sweet almonds yields 
 the most consistent soap. But as this oil bears a high 
 price, it is only employed in the composition of medi- 
 cinal soap. Rape-oil forms a soap neither so consistent 
 nor so white as the former. Hemp-seed oil produces 
 a porous green-coloured soap, reducible to a paste by 
 a small portion of water. Nut-oil forms a soap not 
 proper for the hands ; it is of a yellowish white colour, 
 of a moderate degree of consistence, unctuous, gluey, 
 and continues so on exposure to the air. The soap, 
 of which linseed oil forms a constituent part, is, at 
 first, white, but changes to yellow in a short time, 
 on exposure to the air. It possesses a strong odour, 
 is unctuous, clammy, glutinous, does not dry in 
 the air, and softens with a very small quantity of 
 water. 
 
 All the oils, of which we have spoken, are either 
 oleaginous or fixed. The volatile oils are not, how- 
 ever, less susceptible of entering into combinations 
 with the alkalies, but as these soaps are not employed in 
 the arts, we shall not notice them in this article. 
 Many animal substances are capable of combining 
 with alkalies, and furnish us with valuable materi- 
 als for the formation of soap. Suet forms, with soda, 
 a white soap of an excellent quality ; excepting only 
 that it always retains a slight odour of grease, which it 
 imparts to linen. Strong lixivia are necessary to the 
 saponification of suet, or its conversion into soap. 
 This soap requires much water to soften it, and destroy 
 its consistency. 
 
 Butter may also be converted into soap by combining 
 
 it with soda. The soap thus produced is white and 
 solid. 
 
 Fish, and train-oils, produce soaps of a dirty grey 
 colour, of a firm consistence, and retaining the smell 
 peculiar to these oils. Oleaginous and fatty matters 
 may be classed in the following order, as to their sus- 
 ceptibility of saponification. 1 . Olive-oil, and that of 
 sweet almonds. 2. Suet, butter, and the oil extracted 
 from the fat of horses. 3. Oils drawn from rape-seed. 
 4. Oils procured from beech-mast, and clove July- 
 flowers. 5. Fish-oil of different kinds. 6. Hemp-seed, 
 nut, and lint-seed oils. 
 
 M. Chaptal long since proposed the employment of 
 old wool, and the shreds and shearings of woollen 
 cloth, for the formation of soap. Caustic alkaline 
 lixivia readily dissolve these animal substances, and may 
 be saturated with them, thus producing a saponaceous 
 greenish paste, which might be successfully employed 
 in the arts, for the fulling of cloth and other pur- 
 poses. 
 
 In this country soap is usually made with tallow, or 
 other fat ; the process with oils being rather more diffi- 
 cult than that in which tallow is used. A good deal 
 more of practical skill seems to be required in producing 
 the proper union between oil and alkali, than between 
 fat and alkali, and the process appears liable to sudden, 
 and often unaccountable failures, from the refusal of 
 the materials to unite with sufficient intimacy, or from 
 their disunion after having been already combined. 
 
 Of Alkalies . — The three species of alkalies, soda, 
 potash, and ammonia, may all be employed in the for- 
 mation of soap. Soda and potash are the only alkalies 
 employed in preparing the soaps, of commerce. Am- 
 monia is only used in forming some saponaceous com- 
 position for medicinal purposes. Soda forms firm and 
 consistent soaps. Potash forms soft soaps, which 
 attract humidity from the atmosphere. This difference 
 proceeds from the nature of the alkalies, the former of 
 which effloresces in the air, while the latter on exposure 
 to it runs per deliquum. It rests not therefore with 
 the artist'to employ the soda or potash indiscriminately ; 
 his choice must be regulated by the kind of soap which 
 he wishes to procure. All marine vegetables yield soda 
 by incineration, but they do not furnish it in the same 
 quantity or of the same quality. The alkali in the soda 
 is always found mixed with marine salts and earthy mat- 
 ters ; the best is that which contains the greatest por- 
 tion of the alkaline principle. The only kinds of soda 
 employed in the manufacture of soap, are the barilla, 
 or soda of Alicant, the salicornia, or soda of Narbonne, 
 Sicilian ashes, and natron. The sodas held in the 
 highest estimation are those of Alicant, of which three 
 kinds are to be found in the shops : 1. The mild soda, 
 or mild barilla, which is of the best quality. 2. The 
 soda properly so called, or the mixed barilla. This is 
 hard, of a smooth fracture, of a greyish black colour, 
 and with difficulty soluble in water. 3. Counterfeit soda, 
 which is of the worst quality. The sodas of Carthage- 
 na possess nearly the same qualities as the mixed 
 6 U barilla 
 
534 
 
 SOAP-MAKING. 
 
 barilla of Alicant. Sicilian ashes and those from the 
 Levant, are inferior in quality to the sodas of Alicant, 
 though when these last cannot be obtained, they are 
 frequently made to supply their place. Natron is like- 
 wise very much employed; the low price at which it is 
 sold during peace, operates to induce manufacturers to 
 use it, though it contains very little pure alkali. Pot- 
 ash, properly so called, is rarely employed in this state 
 for the formation of soap. Instead of it, the ley of 
 ashes rendered caustic by lime is now r very generally 
 substituted. 
 
 Of solid Soaps, or Soaps of Soda. — The white and 
 solid soap of commerce is composed of olive-oil and 
 soda. The preparation of the leys, and the boiling of 
 the soap constitute the principal operations in such ma- 
 nufactures. 
 
 OJ the preparation of the Leys. — The alkalies, such 
 as they are found in commerce, cannot be employed in 
 the manufacture of soap. They must previously be 
 deprived of the carbonic acid, the saline and earthy 
 matters which they contain. This process is conducted 
 in the following manner : Into a vessel about eight 
 
 feet square and one foot deep is introduced quicklime, 
 in the proportion of one-fifth to the weight of the oil I 
 intended to be converted into soap. Water is slightly 
 sprinkled over this quicklime, which then grows hot, 
 cracks, smokes, and falls down into powder, after 
 which the soda, previously pounded, must be carefully 
 mixed with it by means of a shovel. In order to favour 
 the operation, a little water is occasionally added. As 
 soon as the mixture is accomplished it is transferred j 
 into tubs. In small establishments their vessels are 
 made of white wood, but in those which are on a | 
 larger -scale they are composed of stone lined with 
 bricks formed on the spot, and sunk into a mortar made 
 with puzzolona or similar earths. Frequently these ves- 
 sels are constructed of bricks laid flat, and cemented by 
 a mortar of the same kind. These vessels are usually 
 about five feet square by four and one-half feet in , 
 depth. They are perforated at the lower part of the 
 side next the workhouse, with tw'o holes or openings, 
 which are dosed by a stop-cock or pegs of wood. 
 Under each of these vessels are placed two reservoirs 
 constructed with the same care, and intended for the 
 reception and preservation of the leys. At the bottom 
 of these vessels are placed pieces of broken tiles to fa- 
 cilitate the efflux of the ley. When the mixture of the ; 
 lime and soda has been transferred into the tub, there j 
 is poured on it a quantity of water sufficient to cover it 
 to the height of a foot and a half. After leaving the 
 water in this state for several hours, it is draw n off by 
 means of a spigot into one of the reservoirs placed be- 
 neath. This ley marks from 15 to 20 degrees of con- 
 centration, and is called the first ley. After the ley 
 has ceased to run and the spigot been shut, water is 
 poured into the tub as before, and at the end of the 
 four hours drawn off into the second reservoir. This 
 is termed the second ley, and indicates between 10 and 
 12 degrees of concentration. A third ley is extracted 
 
 with the same care ; it only marks from 4 to 6 degrees. 
 The soda is still further exhausted, by pouring on it 
 a fourth water, and even a fifth if it appear necessary. 
 The last leys are employed as common water, for the 
 lixiviation of a fresh soda. When the soda is com- 
 pletely exhausted, the tubs are emptied, and the resi- 
 duum thrown away as useless, or employed as manure 
 on wet land. 
 
 Leys are powerfully influenced by the seasons ; thus, 
 in winter they are weaker, unless attention be given 
 either to employ sodas of the best quality or in a 
 greater quantity. The proporti ms of soda and lime 
 employed are different, in different countries and in 
 different establishments; in some they employ equal 
 parts, while in others they use only one-sixth of quick- 
 j lime. This difference appears to depend on the lime, 
 and more frequently on the nature of the soda. In 
 general old sodas and natrons require the most lime. 
 Lime in a state of efflorescence, possesses not the same 
 power as that which is newly made; and as this is not 
 always at hand, we preserve it in proper repositories 
 sheltered from the contact of air and moisture, in order 
 to obviate all change. It is seldom that the manufac- 
 turers of soap confine themselves to one kind of soda 
 in the formation of the lixivium; they for the most 
 part employ a mixture in different proportions of na- 
 tron, Alicant soda, Sicilian ashes, the Salicornia of 
 Narbonne, &c. 
 
 Of the boiling of Hard Soap. — The art of com- 
 bining oil with caustic soda, and of reducing this com- 
 bination to a suitable degree of consistence is the most 
 difficult and the most important operation of soap- 
 making. This combination is performed in a caldron, 
 and by the aid of heat. The caldron used in soap- 
 manufactures is of a peculiar construction ; the lower 
 part of it is of copper, while its sides are constructed 
 of mason or brick-work. Much skill and dexterity are 
 requisite in erecting such furnaces, for it must be ob- 
 vious that if the junctures be not w’ell closed the mat- 
 ter would escape. On the other hand, the expense at- 
 tendant on their erection is so great, and the suspension 
 of the labour so inconvenient, that nothing should be 
 neglected to give to them the greatest possible degree 
 of solidity. If the operations be performed in caldrons 
 entirely metallic instead of those above-mentioned, not 
 only will the soap be less white, but the management of 
 the process will be rendered extremely difficult, inasmuch 
 as the metal being a more ready conductor of heat than 
 stone, occasions the saponaceous matter to boil over 
 ; and burn. 
 
 The manner of boiling the soap likewise varies in dif- 
 ferent establishments; in some they employ weak 
 lixivia, and in others that which is very strong. We 
 shall here, as succinctly as possible, describe these two 
 methods. The lixivia being prepared, the next step 
 is to put into the caldron all the oil intended to be em- 
 ployed. It is not, however, possible previously to as- 
 certain the exact quantities of oil and soda, as these 
 proportions vary according to the nature of the soda and 
 
SOAP-MAKING. 
 
 535 
 
 oil, and can therefore only be known from experience. In 
 general, six parts of olive-oil are used with five of soda. 
 In some soap-houses the oil is boiled previously to the 
 addition of the ley ; but when the oil is extremely thick 
 and contains many impurities, it is mixed with a strong 
 lixivium and then boiled : the clear and transparent oil 
 quickly rises and ascends to the surface, while the 
 impurities are precipitated. The fire is then stopped, 
 and the workman removes the supernatent oil from 
 the gross matters which have subsided. 
 
 After cleaning the caldron, and returning into it the I 
 oil which had been taken off, he rekindles the fire and ! 
 proceeds to the boiling. He pours some buckets of 
 the weakest ley on the oil, and digests the whole with a 
 gentle heat, which is carefully kept up, till the soap be I 
 completely made. The combination is facilitated by 
 incessantly agitating the mixture with a long wooden 
 spatula. There is added, gradually, more of the same I 
 lixivium ; and, w hen it is exhausted, the second is em- 
 ployed. The oil gradually combines, the matter thick- 
 ens, and becomes white ; more of the first ley must 
 then be added, after which the paste soon becomes 
 more consistent, and separates imperceptibly from the 
 aqueous liquor. Some chemists advise us, at this mo- 
 ment, to throw into the caldron a few pounds of sea- 
 salt, in order to produce a more complete separation ; 
 the paste then assumes a grained form, having some re- 
 semblance to spoiled cream ; the ebullition is maintain- 
 ed, during two hours, after which the fire is withdrawn, 
 and the agitation discontinued. When a few hours have 
 elapsed, the liquor, which remains at the bottom of the 
 caldron, is drawn off by means of a pipe, communi- 
 cating with its inferior part ; the fire is rekindled ; the 
 soap is dissolved by the aid of a little w'ater poured into 
 the caldron ; the mixture is agitated, and when it is 
 completely liquified, and in a boiling state, the remainder 
 of the first ley is gradually added to it. 
 
 We ascertain that the soap has attained a due degree 
 of consistence : 1 , by allowing a small portion of it to 
 fall and coagulate on a slate ; 2, if, on shaking a spa- 
 tula, dipped into the paste, briskly in the air, the soap 
 is detached in the form of ribbons, without adhering to 
 the wood ; 3, by the peculiar odour of soap, by handling 
 it between the fingers. Although the method of graining 
 the soap, and separating the aqueous part be far from 
 common', yet it has been successfully employed in many 
 establishments since it was made known. The process 
 may unquestionably be conducted without the aid of 
 salt ; but as it frequently happens that the process fails 
 toward the conclusion, and thereby embarrasses even a 
 skilful manufacturer, it may not be improper to point 
 out the means of remedying it. In some manufactures 
 the strongest lixivium is employed at the commence- | 
 ment of the ebullition ; by which method the paste be- j 
 comes quickly thickened to a considerable degree, and 
 requires to be managed by persons skilled in such oper- 
 ations. It is judged necessary to pour in fresh ley, 
 when the paste sinks down, and remains at resfi They 1 
 continue to employ the strong ley till it be nearly ex- j 
 
 hausted. Then the boiling subsides, that is, it sinks 
 down, and appears as if stationary ; it boils in this 
 manner during three or four hours ; after which it is 
 moistened by pouring into it the second lixivium, while 
 care is at the same time taken progressively to augment 
 the heat. It very rarely happens, when the strongest 
 lixivium has been used at the beginning, that the third 
 ley is necessary. This is only employed when the paste 
 does not boil, because then the object is to dilute it. 
 As soon as the boiling is finished, the fire is withdrawn ; 
 the lixivium is then drawn off, after which the paste is 
 left to cool, and taken up before it be fully coagulated, 
 by means of copper or wooden buckets, to be transfer- 
 red into moulds, into the bottoms of which, a portion 
 of pulverized lime has been previously introduced, to 
 prevent the soap adhering to them. At the end of 
 two or three days, when the soap becomes sufficiently 
 hard, they remove it from the moulds, and divide it 
 into wedges of different sizes, by means of a brass wire. 
 They place these wedges on a floor edge-wise, where 
 they are allow'ed to remain till they become perfectly 
 firm and dry. The fair trader lays bis account in pro- 
 curing five pounds of soap from three pounds of oil. 
 The soap is not marketable, till it ceases to receive any 
 impression from the fingers. It must not be supposed 
 that the lixivium employed at the commencement of the 
 process should be constantly continued. The great art 
 of soap-making consists in knowing how to determine, 
 from the appearance of the paste, and other circum- 
 stances, what kind of lixivium should be employed dur- 
 ing each step of the operation. The overseers regulate 
 their conduct in this respect by observation and experi- 
 ence. The form and size of the bubbles, the colour of 
 the paste, the volume of that which is thrown out on 
 the edges of the vessel, the consistence of the matter, 
 and its disposition to swell, as w'ell as the appearance 
 of the steam, all furnish them with marks by which they 
 regulate their conduct. 
 
 With respect to the proportion of ingredients, it is 
 reckoned that sixteen bushels of good wood-ashes, are 
 equal to one hundred-weight of the best pearl-ash, and 
 that this latter quantity will saturate two hundred-weight 
 of tallow, and produce three hundred and a quarter 
 weight of soap, so that twelve parts of tallow will make 
 twenty pounds of soap. Again, twelve bushels of wood 
 ashes are reckoned equal to one hundred-weight of barilla, 
 and this will saturate one hundred and a half-weight of 
 tallow. A boil of twenty-nine hundred-weight of tallow 
 with ten hundred-weight of barilla, and five hundred- 
 weight of pearl-ash requires eight hundred-weight of 
 common salt. The common yellow soaps are made in 
 this country with tallow and barilla, to which after sa- 
 ponification, is added a quantity of rosin, and sometimes 
 a little palm-oil and the materials thoroughly incorpor- 
 ated. The following materials and proportions are said 
 to make a good yellow soap: twenty-five hundred-weight 
 of tallow, four hundred-weight and a half of oil, seven 
 hundred-weight of rosin, eighteen hundred-weight of ba- 
 rilla, ten hundred-weight of black ashes, or waste ley eva- 
 porated 
 
536 
 
 SOAP-MAKING. 
 
 porated and calcined, and half an hundred-weight of palm i 
 oil. They produce sixty-four hundred-weight of soap. i 
 In manufactures of white soap, it is usual to vein ( 
 some portions of it, of a blue colour, in order to form < 
 what is termed marbled or mottled soap. The oxydes i 
 of iron are employed for this purpose ; but it is not till 1 
 after two days’ boiling that they begin the process of va- 
 riegation. With this view, a one hundred and fortieth 
 part of the sulphate of iron, relatively to the oil intend- 
 ed to be formed into soap, is diluted, and decomposed 
 with a weak lixivium. 
 
 Marbled soap is harder than that which is white, and 
 is preferred to it for washing. This hardness, probably, 
 does not merely proceed from the parts of the paste 
 being brought into closer contact, but from a portion 
 of oxygen abandoning the oxyde to combine with the 
 iron. What tends to strengthen this hypothesis is, 1st, 
 That the marbled soap never acquires its genuine qua- 
 lity, until by ebullition, the colour of the oxyde has 
 been reduced to a blackish tint. 2d, Because white 
 soap, though very hard, never assumes the same cha- 
 racter as the marbled. At all times has the soap ma- 
 nufactured at Marseilles, stood deservedly high in the 
 public estimation; cupidity has, it is true, sometimes 
 operated on certain individuals to impose this article on 
 customers, in an adulterated state ; but the manufac- 
 turers, who are necessarily interested in supporting its 
 character, have never failed on such occasions to stig- 
 matize them as they deserve. 
 
 Apothecaries and druggists prepare a medicinal 
 soap by combining two parts of oil of almonds and one 
 part of soap leys, so concentrated, that a phial which 
 is capable of holding eight ounces of water, may con- 
 tain eleven of ley. The soap thus prepared acquires 
 consistency within a few days. It retains sometimes a 
 caustic taste for a short period, but this may be obviat- 
 ed by combining with it a fresh portion of oil, or by 
 preparing it with greater care at first. The grease col- 
 lected in kitchens, may be employed in the composition 
 of soaps, prepared without the aid of heat. With this 
 view, to six pints of lixivium, must be gradually added, 
 constantly shaking the mixture, three pounds of grease, 
 melted in a copper basin. The basin is kept on warm 
 ashes for one hour, while at the same time the agitation 
 is continued. It is then taken from the ashes, and 
 agitated again for half an hour, till the mixture thickens. 
 The saponaceous pasta thus prepared, is run into an 
 earthen pan, in which it is left to the follow ing day, 
 when being stirred, it is poured into moulds. Within 
 three or four days it is taken out of the moulds, and 
 set to dry, till it acquires a suitable degree of hardness. 
 
 0/ soft Soaps . — Soft soap is composed of potash 
 and oil. This soap is very useful in scouring and 
 cleansing stuffs from greasy matters with which they 
 happen to be soiled. The greatest manufactures of 
 soft soap are established in Flanders, Picardy, and Hol- 
 land. The fish oil used by the Dutch, which imparts 
 a disagreeable odour to the soap, has not a little con- 
 tributed to bring their manufacture of this kind of soap 
 
 into discredit. The use of this oil is prohibited by law 
 in Flanders and in Picardy. The oils employed in 
 these countries, for similar purposes, are generally those 
 drawn from flax, hemp, and rape seed. These are 
 distinguished by the appellation of warm and cold oils. 
 Those which the Flemings denominate warm oils, the 
 inhabitants of Picardy call yellow oils, and restrict the 
 term green oil to cold oil. The warm oils bear a higher 
 price than those called cold ; and on this account they 
 are frequently mixed. The kinds of potash employed 
 for the formation of soap, are procured from the North, 
 or from Alsace. The caldrons are composed of plates 
 of hammered iron, fastened together with rivets. After 
 introducing into the caldron the half of the oil in- 
 tended for one coction, the fire is kindled, and w'hen 
 the oil begins to grow hot, we add to it a portion of 
 the lixivium ; what remains of the oil and the lixivium 
 must afterw ards be gradually poured in during the ebul- 
 lition. If too much of the lixivium be employed at 
 the commencement, no combination takes place ; if 
 the lixivium be too strong, the mixture separates into 
 clots, and if it be too weak, the union is incomplete. 
 The quantity of the lye employed in one coction, ought 
 to be in the proportion of four parts to three of the 
 oil. Two hundred parts of oil, and one hundred and 
 twenty-five of potash, yield three hundred and twenty- 
 five of soap. When the union is fully accomplished, 
 and the liquor is rendered transparent, nothing remains 
 but to employ the necessary degree of coction. The 
 soap-boilers judge of the degree of coction by the con- 
 sistence, by the colour, and from the time which the 
 soap takes to coagulate. In order to make the froth 
 subside, and render the mass fit for barrelling, one ton 
 of soap is emptied into the caldron. The soap held 
 in the greatest request is of a brown colour inclining 
 to black. 
 
 Of Domestic Soap . — The only advantage in render- 
 ing soap of a hard and solid form is to facilitate its 
 carriage, and to adapt it to certain manipulations ; but 
 for a great variety of purposes, it is reduced into a 
 liquid state, to render its employment more convenient. 
 For domestic purposes, the operation of coction in the 
 preparation of soap, might, perhaps, be superseded, 
 by the formation of saponaceous liquor, well adapted 
 for the purpose of cleansing and whitening of stuff and 
 linen. 
 
 “ The preparation and employment of these sapo- 
 naceous liquids have,” says M. Chaptal, “ long engaged 
 my attention, and as my experiments on this have been 
 attended with the happiest success, I shall here enter 
 into some details respecting them. 1. We employ 
 i either the potash sold in the shops, or a strong ley of 
 I common ashes. In the first case we pour w'ater on the 
 ' potash, and allow it to dissolve, till the solution marks 
 F two degrees of concentration. We then decant this 
 
 - solution, and pour it on a portion of oil contained in a 
 3 vessel. The mixture instantly becomes of a white co- 
 
 - lour, and forms a milky liquor. In general, we ought 
 to employ a small quautity of oil, and at most, not 
 
 more 
 
SOAP-MAKING. 
 
 5S7 
 
 more than the proportion of one-fortieth part to ,the 
 bulk of the ley. In the second case, we mix a por- 
 tion of quick-lime with the ashes we mean to employ, 
 and then lixiviate them, in the usual manner. This 
 lixivium is used, like the solution of potash, after 
 having been brought to the proper degree of concen- 
 tration. This lixivium should always be prepared im- 
 mediately before being used; and for this purpose recent 
 ashes answer better than those that have been long kept. 
 The coarser oils, termed dyer’s oils, are also preferable 
 to the purer kinds in the composition of this mixture. 
 When they exhale a disagreeable odour it is communi- 
 cated to the linen ; but this fault may easily be cor- 
 rected, by rincing it through a pure lixivium. When 
 the liquor is too thick, it ought to be diluted with a 
 weak lixivium; it should likewise be agitated, and beaten 
 up to a froth, before being employed. When soda is 
 used instead of potash, it must first be grossly pounded, 
 and then put into a vessel, and covered with water, by 
 which means we obtain a solution marking two degrees 
 of concentration. The oil being put into a proper 
 vessel, from forty to forty-five parts of the solution of 
 soda is poured on it, when the mixture immediately as- 
 sumes a milky appearance, which it ever afterwards 
 retains, if the oil and soda be of a good quality. The 
 Alicant soda is the best with which we are acquainted, 
 and the addition of lime will be found unnecessary, 
 except the soda be old, or in a state of efflorescence. 
 Several lixivia may be thus formed, by pouring fresh 
 water on the undissolvedsoda. Independently of these 
 very simple processes, soaps may be' formed with rancid 
 butter, and other oily and greasy substances, rejected 
 in the kitchen. I have also succeeded in procuring a 
 soap from wool ; which, at the same time that it is 
 extremely economic, possesses very excellent qualities. 
 To prepare this soap, it is sufficient to saturate a boil- 
 ing lixivium with the wool rejected in our manufac- 
 tures. This soap answers extremely w6ll for scow'ering or 
 cleansing stuffs. The British prepare a very economic 
 soap from the remains of the fish which are employed 
 in the formation of glue, .and of those that are salted 
 for the market. Cases may occur, in which, though 
 possessing potash, marine salt, and oil, it is impossible 
 to find a supply of soda proper for saponification ; yet, 
 even under such circumstances, hard or solid soap may 
 be prepared by decomposing the soap of potash by the 
 marine salt. Thus, for example, if we combine three 
 pounds of oil with a sufficient quantity of potash to 
 form a soft soap, nothing more is requisite, but gradu- 
 ally to add, towards the end of the process, six pounds 
 of marine salt. The saponification is begun with the 
 potash, and completed by the salt.” 
 
 Of the Uses of Soap . — The first and most import- 
 ant use of soap is, that of scowering or cleansing stuffs, 
 because it possesses the property of uniting with the 
 oil or grease by which they are soiled, and rendering 
 them soluble in water without dissolving or changing 
 the texture of woollen, silk, or cotton fabricks of any 
 kind whatever. The manner of scowering or washing 
 varies according to the nature of the cloth and the con- 
 sistence of the soap ; when the soap is hard, hand- 
 washing is usually employed, or, in other words, the 
 soap is rubbed upon the cloth itself, with the view of 
 forming a direct combination between the oil or grease 
 contained in it and the soap ; the matters thus combined 
 are then washed out by the aid of water. The soap 
 is frequently dissolved in water ; and this saponaceous 
 liquor is used to impregnate the cloth, and extract from 
 it by repeated friction and the employment of water all 
 the greasy matters with which it is imbued. Woollen 
 cloth, blankets, flannels, and indeed all animal sub- 
 stances, are most effectually cleansed by soft soaps, or 
 soaps of potash. Some w'aters are not favourable to 
 the solution of soap; those impregnated with earthy 
 salts decompose it. Soda-soap forms the basis of wash- 
 balls. With this view it is melted and then mixed with 
 fine starch, which is the only article besides the soap 
 used in the preparation of the common kinds. The 
 usual proportions are three parts of starch to five of 
 soap; the soap being cut into finger lengths is melted in 
 a caldron, and two-thirds of starch thrown in, care 
 being taken to stir it frequently ; it is next poured on a 
 board or smooth table, and the remaining third of the 
 starch kneaded into it with the hand until they be suffi- 
 ciently incorporated ; after which the paste is made up 
 into the shape that may be desired. Another kind of 
 wash-balls is prepared by dissolving white soap in al- 
 cohol. For this purpose alcohol is digested upon soap 
 previously cut into finger-lengths, and at the end of 
 twenty : four hours this mixture or paste is triturated in 
 a mortar, with aromatics reduced to powder, or with a 
 small quantity of some aromatic oil, such as that of 
 jasmine, tuberose, lemon, citron, and orange. When 
 j the paste is become sufficiently consistent, it is formed 
 I into balls which exhale an agreeablo perfume. Some- 
 times the aromatics are incorporated with mucilage of 
 gum tragacanth, and whites of eggs. It is customary, 
 in some manufactures to prepare an aromatic dye, by 
 infusing different aromatic substances in alcohol, and 
 afterwards kneading a portion of it with the soap, to 
 which it imparts a strong perfume. Different sapona- 
 ceous essences are prepared by dissolving aromatic soaps 
 in double their weight of ardent spirits. 
 
 6 X 
 
 STAINING 
 
STAINING OF PAPER. 
 
 The colours proper for staining of paper are the same 
 as those used for other substances, and they are applied 
 with soft brushes, after being well tempered to a due 
 degree of subsistence with size, gum-water, &c. If the 
 paper on which they are laid is soft, so that the co- 
 lours are apt to go through, it must be fixed before 
 they are laid on, or a proportionally larger quantity 
 must be used with the colours themselves. If a consi- 
 derable extent of the paper is to be done over with one 
 colour, it must receive several coatings, as thin as 
 possible, letting each coat dry before another is put on, 
 otherwise the colour will be unequal. 
 
 Take yellow ochre, grind it with rain-water, and lay 
 a ground with it upon the paper all over ; when dry 
 take the white of eggs, beat it clear with white sugar- 
 candy, and strike it all over: then lay on the leaf gold, 
 and when dry polish it with a tooth. Some take saf- 
 fron, boil it in water and dissolve a little gum with it, 
 then they strike it over the paper, lay on the gold, and 
 when dry they polish it. 
 
 Take two scruples of clear glue made of neats’ 
 leather, one scruple of white alum, and half a pint of 
 clear water, simmer the whole over a slow fire till the 
 water is consumed or the steam ceases. Then, your 
 sheets of paper being laid on a smooth table, you dip a 
 pretty large pencil into that glue, and daub it over as 
 even as you can, repeating this two or three times : then 
 sift the powder of talc through a fine sieve made of 
 horse-hair or gauze over it, and then hang it up to dry, 
 and when dry rub off the superfluous talc, which serves 
 again for the same purpose. The talc you prepare in 
 the following manner: take fine white transparent Mus- 
 covy talc, boil it in clear water for four hours ; then take it 
 off the fire, and let it stand so for two days ; then take 
 it out, wash it well, and put it into a linen rag, and 
 beat it to pieces with a mallet; to ten pounds of talc 
 add three pounds of white alum, and grind them toge- 
 ther in a little hand-mill, sift it through a gauze-sieve, 
 and being thus reduced to a powder put it into water 
 and just boil it up ; then let it sink to the bottom, pour 
 off the water from it, place the powder in the sun to 
 dry, and it will become of a hard consistence ; beat 
 this in a mortar to an impalpable powder, and keep it 
 for the use above-mentioned, free from dust. 
 
 The common grounds laid in water are made by 
 mixing whitening with the common glovers’ size, and 
 laying it on the paper with a proper brush in the most 
 even manner. This is all that is required where the 
 
 ground is to be left wlnte ; and the paper being then 
 hung on a proper frame till it be dry, is fit to be 
 painted. When coloured grounds are required, the 
 same method must be pursued, and the ground of 
 whiting first laid, except in pale colours, such as straw 
 colours or pink, where a second coating may sometimes 
 be spared, by mixing some strong colour with the 
 whitening. 
 
 There are three methods by which paper-hangings are 
 painted ; the first, by printing on the colours ; the se- 
 cond, by using the stencil : and the third, by laying them 
 on with a pencil, as in other kinds of painting. 
 
 When the colours are laid on by printing, the im- 
 pression is made by wooden prints ; which are cut in 
 such a manner that the figure to be expressed is made to 
 project from the surface by cutting away all the other 
 part ; and this, being charged with the colours tem- 
 pered with their proper vehicle, by letting it gently 
 down on a block on which the colour is previously 
 spread conveys it from thence to the ground of the 
 paper, on which it is made to fall more forcibly by means ' 
 of its weight, and the effort of the arm of the person who 
 uses the print. It is easy to conclude, that there must be 
 as many separate prints as there are colours to be printed. 
 But w'here there are more than one, great care must be 
 taken after the first to let the print fall exactly in the 
 : same part of the paper as that which went before, other- 
 | wise the figure of the design would be brought into 
 I ii regularity and confusion. In common paper of low 
 j price, it is usual, therefore, to print only the outlines, 
 j and lay on the rest of the colours by stencilling, which 
 both saves the expense of cutting more prints, and can 
 be practised by common w orkmen, not requiring the 
 great care and dexterity necessary to the using several 
 prints. 
 
 The manner of stencilling the colours is this. The 
 figure, which all the parts of any particular colour 
 make in the design to be painted, is to be cut out in 
 a piece of thin leather or oil-cloth, which pieces of lea- 
 ther or oil-cloth are called stencils ; and being laid flat 
 on the sheets of paper to be printed, spread on a table 
 or floor, are to be rubbed over with the colour properly 
 tempered by means of a large brush. The colour pass- 
 ing over the whole is consequently spread on those 
 parts of the paper where the cloth or leather is cut 
 away, and gives the same effect as if laid on by a print. 
 This nevertheless is only practicable in parts where 
 there are only detached masses or spots of colours ; for 
 
 where 
 
STARCH-MAKING. 
 
 539 
 
 where there are small continued lines, or parts that 
 run one into another, it is difficult to preserve the con- 
 nexion or continuity of the parts of the cloth, or to 
 keep the smaller corners close down to the paper : and, 
 therefore, in such cases, prints are preferable. Sten- 
 celling is indeed a cheaper method of ridding the work 
 than printing; but without such extraordinary attention 
 and trouble as render it equally difficult with printing, it 
 is far less beautiful and exact in the effect. For the 
 outlines of the spots of colour want that sharpness and 
 regularity that are given by prints, besides the frequent 
 extralineations or deviations from the just figure, 
 which happen by the original misplacing of the sten- 
 cils, or the shifting the place of them during the 
 operation. 
 
 Pencilling is only used in the case of nicer work, such 
 as the better imitations of the India paper. It is per- 
 formed in the same manner as other painting in water or 
 varnish. It is sometimes used only to fill the outlines 
 already formed by printing, where the price of the 
 colour or the exactness of the manner in which it is 
 required to be laid on, render the stencilling or printing 
 it less proper ; at other times it is used for forming or 
 delineating some parts of the design, where a spirit of 
 freedom and variety, not to be had in printed outlines, are 
 desired to be had in the wwk. 
 
 The paper designed for receiving flock is first pre- 
 pared with a varnish-ground w'ith some proper co- 
 lour, or by that of the paper itself. It is frequently 
 practised to priut some mosaic or other small running 
 figure in colours on the ground before the flock be laid 
 on ; and it may be done with any pigment of the co- 
 lour desired, tempered with varnish, and laid on by a 
 print cut correspondently to that end. 
 
 The method of laying on the flock is this. A wooden 
 print being cut, as is above described, for laying on the 
 colour in such manner that the part of the design which 
 is intended for the flock may project beyond the rest of 
 the surface, the varnish is put on a block covered with 
 the leather or oil-cloth, and the print is to be used also 
 in the same manner, to lay the varnish on all the parts 
 where the flock is to be fixed. The sheet thus pre- 
 pared by the varnished impression is then to be removed 
 to another block or table, and to be strewed over with 
 flock, which is afterwards to be gently compressed by 
 a board or some [other flat body, to make the varnish 
 take the better hold of it, and then the sheet is to be 
 hung on a frame till the varnish be perfectly dry ; at 
 which time the superfluous part of flock is to be 
 brushed off by a soft camel’s-hair brush ; and the 
 proper flock will be found to adhere in a very strong 
 manner. 
 
 The method of preparing the flock is by cutting 
 woollen rags or pieces of cloth with the hand, by 
 means of a large bill or chopping-knife, or by means 
 of a machine worked by a horse-mill. 
 
 There is a kind of counterfeit flock- paper, which 
 when well managed has very much the same effect to 
 the eye as the real, though done with less expense. 
 The manner of making this sort is, by laying a ground 
 of varnish on the paper ; and having afterwards printed 
 the design of the flock in varnish in the same manner as 
 for the true, instead of the flock some pigment or dry 
 colour of the same hue with the flock required by the 
 design, but somewhat of a darker shade, being well 
 powdered is strewed on the printed varnish, and pro- 
 duces nearly the same appearance. 
 
 STARCH-MAKING. 
 
 It a quantity of wheat-flour be formed into a paste, 
 and then held under a very small stream of water, 
 kneading continually till the water runs off from it co- 
 lourless ; the flour, by this process, is divided into two 
 constituents, viz. a tough substance, called gluten, which 
 remains in the hand, and the water, which, running off 
 white, deposits a white powder, known by the name of 
 starch. The starch obtained in this manner is not alto- 
 gether free from gluten, and, accordingly, its colour is 
 not very white, and it has not that fine crystallized ap- 
 pearance which distinguishes the starch of commerce. 
 Manufacturers employ a more economical and more 
 
 efficacious process, which it will be our business now 
 shortly to describe. 
 
 The mode of manufacturing the common starch, 
 which is made for sale, is almost exclusively from 
 wheat, though potatoes are sometimes used. This grain 
 consists of gluten, fecula, a colouring extractive matter, 
 and phosphate of lime; and it is the object of the 
 starch-maker to separate the fecula alone from all the 
 other ingredients. 
 
 Wheat-starch is made in the following manner : — The 
 grain, after being coarsely ground, is suffered to fer- 
 ment with w'ater for many days, by which its texture is 
 
 entirely 
 
540 
 
 TALLOW AND WAX-CHANDLERY. 
 
 entirely broken down, and the starch, which is scarcely 
 alterable in the process, is probably more effectually 
 separated from all the other ingredients, and obtained 
 finer and whiter. The actual method is this : — The 
 wheat is first coarsely bruised, and placed in large 
 wooden vats water-tight, and intimately mixed with 
 water. Here a fermentation begins after a time, which 
 is a mixture of the vinous and acetous, and is attended 
 with a strong, sour, mouldy smell. The wheat re- 
 mains in the vat for about a fortnight, till the fermenta- 
 tion ceases, which is known by its settling at the bottom 
 of the vat. The contents are then emptied into a small 
 tub, and mixed with fresh water, till all the pulpy part 
 is thin enough to pass through a hair sieve, which sepa- 
 rates the bran. What has gone through contains the 
 starch, suspended in a very sour water, and considerably 
 foul. This is put into tubs, and allowed to remain for 
 two days undisturbed, during which the impure starch 
 settles to the bottom. The water is then drawn off, the 
 tubs or frames turned on their sides, and the dirty dis- 
 coloured part of the starch, which is the last that sub- 
 sides, and therefore is at the top, is scraped off, and 
 the remaining starch is well washed and brushed, till 
 it is nearly free from the muddy sediment, which is 
 called slimes, and is treated separately to obtain its 
 starch. The starch is stirred w ith fresh water, suffered to 
 settle, and again cleansed, till its impurities are removed ; 
 it is then mixed with water enough to make it liquid, 
 and passed through a fine law'll sieve. It is then fit to 
 receive its bluish colour, which consists of smalt mixed 
 with water and a small quantity of alum, to be tho- 
 roughly incorporated with the starch. After settling 
 once more, the starch is taken out and put into oblong 
 boxes, about six feet long and one broad, with holes at 
 the bottom, and lined with linen cloth, where the 
 moisture of the starch drains off till it becomes solid 
 enough to be cut into square lumps. These are laid on 
 bricks which absorb much of the moisture, and make 
 them sufficiently hard to be stoved. Here the starch re- 
 mains in a moderate heat, till a slimy crust rises to the 
 surface, which is carefully scraped off, and the rest, 
 which is now pure starch, is prepared and placed again 
 in the stove with a good hot fire, till it is quite dry. 
 
 This last stoving causes the lumps to crack pretty uni- 
 formly into the small pieces in which they appear when 
 sold. The slimes are treated in the same way till all the 
 starch is separated. All the refuse matter from starch- 
 making affords very valuable food for fattening hogs. 
 The whole time of making starch, from the first steep- 
 ing of the wheat to the last stoving, is about five or six 
 w'eeks ; five hundred and fifty-one Winchester bushels of 
 wheat will make about six ton of starch. This will be 
 about of the weight of the wheat. 
 
 In the process of starch-making a great quantity of a 
 sour nauseous jnilky water is obtained, from which the 
 starch subsides after it is removed from the fermenting 
 vat. This has been analyzed w ith great care by Van- 
 quelin, and is found to contain the following substances, 
 viz. acetous acid, ammonia, alcohol, gluten, and phos- 
 phate of lime ; but, of these, only the two last are na- 
 tural to the wheat, the others are, undoubtedly, the 
 products of the fermentation, the ammonia being gene- 
 rated by the decomposition of part of the gluten, the 
 alcohol by the saccharine mucilage which every species 
 of grain contains, and the acetous acid, perhaps, from 
 all the other principles. The peculiar office which this 
 acid performs in starch-making is to dissolve the gluten, 
 and phosphate of lime, and thus to separate them from 
 the pure starch. Hence, when wheat is employed, 
 arises the necessity of continuing the fermentation long 
 enough to generate a sufficient quantity of acetous acid ; 
 for the other grains and roots, which afford starch, con- 
 tain little or no gluten. A considerable quantity, how- 
 ever, of the starch must be destroyed in the process, 
 for wheat contains much more of it than is obtained in 
 the manufacture, as may be found by washing flour-paste 
 with water, in the way mentioned in the beginning of 
 this article. 
 
 Starch has a fine white colour, and is usually con- 
 creted into longish masses ; it has scarcely any smell, 
 and very little taste. It does not dissolve in cold water, 
 but falls to powder. It combines with boiling water, 
 and forms with it a kind of jelly, which may be diffused 
 through boiling water, but when the mixture is allowed 
 to stand a sufficient time, the starch slowly precipitates, 
 to the bottom. 
 
 TALLOW AND WAX-CHANDLERY. 
 
 These trades, when united, consist principally in the 
 n>anufacture of candles. A candle has been defined a 
 cotton wick, loosely twisted, and covered with tallow, 
 wax, or spermaceti, in a cylindrical figure, which, be- 
 ing lighted at the end, serves to illuminate the place in 
 
 the absence of the sun. In general, the trades are 
 distinct, the tallow-chandler manufacturing tallow-can- 
 dles only ; the wax and spermaceti being made by the 
 wax-chandler. 
 
 The cotton used for dipped, or common candles, 
 
 is 
 
TALLOW AND WAX-CHANDLERY. 
 
 541 
 
 is brought from Smyrna, in the wool, which grows on 
 trees in the shape of nuts; the shells enclosing the 
 cotton. The cotton for moulded candles comes from 
 Turkey, and the adjacent countries, packed in bales, 
 which, when brought to England, is made to perform 
 quarantine, lest in the unpacking on shore, it should be 
 infected with some pestilential disorder. 
 
 The tallow-chandler employs women to wind the 
 cotton into large balls ; he then takes five, six, or eight 
 of these balls, and drawing out the threads from each, 
 cuts them into proper lengths, according to the size of 
 the candles wanted. The machine for cutting the cotton 
 is a smooth board, made to be fixed on the knees ; on 
 the upper surface are the blade of a razor, and .a round 
 piece of cane, placed at a certain distance from one an- 
 other, according to the length of the cotton wanted: 
 the cotton is carried round the cane, and being brought 
 to the razor, is instantly separated from the several 
 balls. 
 
 The next operation is denominated “ pulling the cot- 
 ton,” by which the threads are laid smooth, all knots 
 and unevennesses removed, and, in short, the cotton is 
 rendered fit for use. It is now spread, that is, placed 
 at equal distances, on rods about half an inch in dia- 
 meter and three feet long ; these are called “ broaches.” 
 
 A tallow-candle, to be good, must be of sheeps’ and 
 bullocks’ tallow. The wick ought to be pure, suffici- 
 ently dry, and properly twisted, otherwise the candle 
 will emit an inconstant vibratory Dame, which is both 
 prejudicial to the eyes and insufficient for the distinct 
 illumination of objects. 
 
 There are two sorts of tallow-candles; the one 
 dipped, the other moulded : the former are common 
 candles. The tallow is prepared by chopping the fat, 
 and then boiling it for some time in a large copper ; and 
 when the tallow' is extracted by the process of fire, the 
 remainder is subjected to the operation of a strong iron 
 press, and the cake that is left after the tallow is ex- 
 pressed from it is called greaves : with this dogs are fed, 
 and the greater part of the ducks that supply the Lon- 
 don markets. 
 
 When the tallow is in proper order, the workman 
 holds three of the broaches with the cottons properly 
 spread between his fingers, and immerses the cotton 
 into the vat containing the tallow : they are then hung 
 on a frame and suffered to cool ; and when cold they 
 are dipped again, and so the process is continued till the 
 candles are of a proper size. During the operation, the 
 vat is supplied from time to time with fresh tallow-, 
 which is kept to the proper heat by means of a gentle 
 fire under it. 
 
 An invention of modern date has taken off much of 
 the labour of the tallow’-chandler, in dipping candles : 
 this consists in the mode^>f dipping. The wicks are pre- 
 pared as has been described, and spread on the lyoaches, 
 and when five or six of these broaches are filled with cot- ! 
 ton, they are, at both ends, fixed into two small pieces of : 
 boxwood, so as to unite, as it were, the several broaches 
 into one moveable frame, full of wicks. This frame is 
 
 suspended on one end of a lever, over the vat, while 
 the other is balanced with weights in a scale, which may 
 be increased as the candles become larger and heavier. 
 The workman, by this simple and excellent contrivance, 
 has only to guide the candles, and not to support the 
 weight of them between his fingers. 
 
 The mould, in which the moulded candles are cast, 
 consists of a frame of wood, and several hollow metal 
 cylinders, generally made of pewter, of the diameter 
 and length of the candle wanted : at the extremity of 
 these is the neck, which is a little cavity in forrp of a 
 dome, having a moulding withinside, and pierced in the 
 middle, with a hole big enough for the cotton to pass 
 through. The cotton is introduced into the shaft of the 
 mould by a piece of wire being thrust through the aper- 
 ture of the hook till it comes out of the neck : the 
 other end of the cotton is so fastened as to keep it in a 
 perpendicular situation, and in the middle of the can- 
 dle ; the moulds are then filled with warm tallow, and 
 left to be very cold before they can be drawn out of the 
 pipes. 
 
 Besides these, there are other candles made by tal- 
 low-chandlers, intended to burn during the night without 
 the necessity of snuffing : the wick has been usually made 
 of split rushes ; but lately very small cotton wicks have 
 been substituted for the rush : these are lighted much 
 easier, are less liable to go out, and, owing to the small- 
 ness of the cotton, they do not require the aid of snuffers. 
 
 To make W ax-candles with the Ladle . — The wicks 
 being prepared, a dozen of them are tied by the neck, 
 at equal distances, round an iron circle, suspended di- 
 rectly over a large bason of copper, tinned and full of 
 melted wax : a large ladleful of this wax is gently 
 poured on the tops of the wicks one after ano- 
 ther, and the operation continued till the candle arrives 
 at its destined bigness, with this precaution, that the 
 first three ladles be poured on at the top of the wick ; 
 the fourth at the height of three-fourths, the fifth at 
 one-half, and the sixth at one-fourth, in order to give the 
 candle its pyramidal form. Then the candles are taken 
 down, kept warm, and rolled and smoothed upon a 
 w alnut-tree table, with a long square instrument of box, 
 smoo.h at the bottom. 
 
 As to the manner of making wax-candles by the hand 
 the workmen begin to soften the wax by workingit several 
 times in hot water, contained in a narrow but deep caldron. 
 A piece of the wax is then taken out, and disposed by 
 little and little around the wick, whici} is hung on a 
 hook in the wall, by the extremity opposite to the neck ; 
 so that they begin with the large end, diminishing still 
 as they descend towards the neck, in other respects 
 the method is nearly the same as in the former case. 
 However, it must be observed, that in the former case 
 water is always used to moisten the several instruments, 
 to prevent the wax from sticking; and, in the latter, oil 
 of olives, or lard, for the hands, &c. The cylindrical 
 wax-candles are either made as the former, with a ladle, 
 or drawn. Wax-candles, or tapers drawn, are so called 
 because they are actually drawn in the manner of wire 
 6 Y by 
 
542 
 
 TANNING. 
 
 by means of two large rollers of wood turned by a 
 handle, which turning backwards and forwards several 
 times, pass the wick through melted wax contained in a 
 brass bason, and at the same time through the holes of 
 an instrument like that used for drawing wire, fastened 
 on one side of the bason. 
 
 The wax-chandler makes and sells sealing-wax, and 
 wafers. It is from the combination of lac with Venice 
 turpentine, sealing-wax is formed. Four parts of lac 
 are said to be meked with two of turpentine, and two* 
 of resin : the composition is coloured red by the addition 
 
 of one part of cinnabar and one of red-lead; or black, by 
 the addition of lamp-black. — See Murray’s Chemistry, 
 vol. iv. 
 
 Wafers are said to be made in the following manner : 
 — Take very fine flour, mix it with the white of eggs, 
 isinglass, and a little yeast ; well mix the matenals, 
 and spread the batter, thus formed, on even tin plates, 
 and dry them on a stove, then cut them out for use. 
 They may be coloured with vermilion or red-lead ; or 
 indigo, saffron, turmeric, gambouge, &c. 
 
 TANNING. 
 
 Tan, tannin, or the principle that effects the opera- 
 tion of the art of tanning, is usually produced from the 
 bark of oak, chopped and ground in a mill into a coarse 
 powder. M. Deyeux was the first chemist w'ho ascer- 
 tained and gave an account of the peculiar nature of 
 tan. He pointed it out in his analysis of nut-galls, as 
 a peculiar resinous substance, but without assigning to 
 it a name. Seguin, who ranks high in France, as a 
 chemist, and as one who has entered deeply into the 
 principles of tanning, though not so much regarded 
 by the tanners in England, engaged in a very extensive 
 set of experiments on the art of tanning leather, during 
 which lie discovered that tan has the property of pre- 
 cipitating glue from its solutions in water, and also of 
 combining with skins of animals. This led him to 
 suppose it the essential constituent of the liquids em- 
 ployed for the purpose of tanning leather, and hence 
 arose the names tan, tannin, and tanning principle 
 given it by the French chemists. To M. Proust, how r - 
 ever, we are indebted for the investigation of the nature 
 and properties of tan, and of the methods by w'hich it 
 is obtained in a separate state. Much curious and im- j 
 portant information has been obtained by the experi- i 
 meuts of Sir Humphry Davy, on the constituent parts 
 of astringent principles, and on their operation in the 
 business of tanning, and to the papers of that gentleman, 
 which we understand are founded on practice, we shall 
 be chiefly indebted for the rules hereafter given, as 
 guides to the English Tanner. 
 
 Tan exists in a great number of vegetable substances, 
 but it may be procured most readily, aud in the greatest 
 purity from nut-galls and catechu. Nut-galls, are, as 
 most of our readers know, excrescences formed on the 
 leaves of the oak by the puncture of an insect which 
 deposits its eggs upon them. The best are known by 
 the name of Aleppo-galls, imported in large quantities 
 
 into this country for the use of dyers, calico-printers, 
 &c. They are hard like wood, round, often nodulated 
 on the surface, of an olive-green colour, and of an ex- 
 cessively disagreeable taste. They are, in a measure, 
 soluble in water, aud what remains is tasteless, and 
 possesses the properties of the fibre of wood. A very 
 great proportion of w ater is necessary to carry off every 
 thing soluble. It has been ascertained that one hundred 
 and fifty English pints of water are necessary to carry off 
 whatever is soluble in a pound troy-w'eight of galls. 
 The soluble part of nut-galls consists chiefly of five 
 ingredients, viz. tan ; extract ; gallic-acid ; mucilage ; 
 and lime : but tan constitutes more than two-thirds of 
 die w'hole. Hence the importance of nut-galls and 
 oak-bark in the art of tanning, of which the following 
 is a brief description. 
 
 Hides quickly become putrid when in a moist or wet 
 state, but may be preserved for a great length of time 
 by being perfectly dried, but then are hard like horn, 
 and not fit for any useful purpose. These inconveni- 
 ences are obviated by tanning, and they then take the 
 name of leather. To tan a hide, is to saturate it with 
 tannin, or the astringent principle of vegetables, and by 
 that means, to render it incorruptible. We shall not 
 here dw'ell upon the theories by which the operations 
 and the effect of tanning have been explained ; but shall 
 content ourselves with observing that M. Seguin has shewn 
 that the tannin unites itself with the gelatine which forms 
 almost the whole of the hide, and that there thence re- 
 sults a new substance possessing properties altogether 
 distinct. In order to prepare a hide for receiving the 
 tan, it is necessary to begin by removing the hair, sepa- 
 rating the adhering pieces of fat, &c. These prelimi- 
 nary operations are performed in the following man- 
 ner : — 
 
 When the hides, which are to be tanned, are raw (in 
 
 which 
 
Tx\NNING. 
 
 543 
 
 which state they are called green hides), they are put to 
 steep in water, in order to clear them of the blood and 
 filth they may have collected in the slaughter-house. 
 They are left "to soak in the water for some time, and 
 if the hides are dry, they are steeped a longer time, 
 sometimes for fourteen days ; less in hot weather, or 
 more in cold. They are drawn out once or twice to 
 see if they are well softened. The neighbourhood and 
 the command of water are necessary to these opera- 
 tions. Without that the hides cannot be prepared. 
 
 After the hides have been well softened they next 
 proceed to cleanse or free them from the hair. With 
 this intention several different methods are employed ; 
 that which is the oldest, and still most generally follow- 
 ed, consists in the application of lime. In all tan- 
 neries, pits are formed under-ground, having their sides 
 lined with stone or brick, in which lime-stone is slacked 
 so as to form milk of lime. These pits are divided 
 into three kinds, according to the greater or less strength 
 of the lime. The hides intended to be scoured are first 
 put into the weakest of these pits, wherein they are 
 allowed to remain until the hair readily yields to the 
 touch. If this liquor be not sufficiently active, they are 
 removed to the next in gradation. The time they are 
 soaked is longer or shorter in proportion to the strength 
 of the lime, the temperature of the air, and the nature 
 of the hides. It has been proposed to substitute lime- 
 water in place of the milk of lime. But, though the 
 lime-water acts at first with sufficient strength, its action 
 is not sufficiently permanent, and, in order to succeed 
 m clearing the hides by this means, it is necessary to 
 renew it occasionally ; and in this way the hides may be 
 prepared in a few days. In some tanneries, after they 
 have been kept in the pits for a short time, they pile 
 them up in a heap on the ground, in which state they 
 are suffered to remain during eight days ; after which 
 they return them into the same pits from whence they 
 were taken, and this process is repeated till the hair can 
 be easily scraped off. 
 
 In many countries they mix a large quantity of ashes 
 with the lime ; but the only effect this mixture appears 
 to produce is that of rendering the leather less con- 
 sistent than when lime is solely employed. Many attri- 
 bute the bad qualities of leather to the too great use of 
 lime, which has a tendency to burn and render it brittle. 
 Hence, in several well-conducted tanneries, in manu- 
 facturing leather for some particular uses, the employ- 
 ment of lime is carefully avoided. Hides may, in- 
 deed, be cleansed by subjecting them to an incipient 
 fermentation, which may be produced in a variety of 
 ways. But in whatever manner the first part of the 
 operation has been conducted, as soon as it is per- 
 ceived that the hair is in a fit state to be removed, it is 
 scraped off, on a wooden horse, by means of a crooked 
 knife, which is not so sharp in any part of its edge as 
 to injure the hide, or, by a whet-stone. This opera- 
 tion is not only intended to remove the hair, but likewise 
 the scurf and filth which collects on the skin at the root 
 of the hair. 
 
 After removing the hair and filth, the next ob- 
 ject is to free the hides from the adhesion of any part 
 of the muscle, or fat, and to render them soft and 
 pliant. Those which are intended for particular kinds 
 j of work, such as calves’ skins for the upper leather of 
 shoes, and neats’ leather for shoulder-belts, do not re- 
 quire to be raised or swelled. As soon, therefore, 
 as they are cleansed and freed from the flesh, &c. they 
 are laid in a pit. The hides intended for the soles of 
 shoes, and other strong leathers, are afterwards raised 
 by means of processes which vary in different countries. 
 When lime is employed, the operation is commenced 
 by putting the cleansed skins into the weakest of the 
 lime-pits, and afterwards passing them successively 
 through the two others. They are kept about a week 
 in each of the two weakest pits, and another in the 
 strongest. During this operation care is taken to with- 
 draw them, and pile them up in a heap, every two or 
 three days, putting them again into the pit after it has 
 been well stirred. Lime hardens the skin, and in those 
 tanneries where it is used, the hides are put into a ley 
 of pigeons’ dung in order to soften them, and this pro- 
 cess is termed graining. Thpy are daily withdrawn from 
 the ley, and laid up in a heap for half an hour. This 
 operation is usually continued for ten or fifteen days. 
 Sometimes also acid compositions are employed for 
 raising the hides; and this operation is greatly acce- 
 lerated by using the acids warm, as well as by the me- 
 thod practised in this country, of removing them from 
 a weaker liquor into a stronger, until they be properly 
 raised or swelled. 
 
 The skin being thus prepared, is next subjected to 
 the operation of tanning ; and to this purpose vege- 
 table astringents are employed. Those vegetables an- 
 swer best which contain the greatest portion of the 
 astringent principle, now known under the name of 
 tannin. Mr. Davy has demonstrated that caoutchoue 
 or Japan earth, contains more of this principle than 
 any other vegetable with which we are acquainted ; but 
 oak bark is the substance most commonly employed in 
 our climates; for it is not only very abundant in Europe, 
 but likewise contains much tannin. Every species of 
 oak, however, does not supply us with bark of the 
 same quality ; the white oak is inferior to the green oak 
 which grows in the south, while this in its turn yields 
 in the value of its bark to that procured from the roots 
 of the kermes-beariug oak, which is employed in 
 southern climates for tanning strong leathers. But 
 whatever kind of bark be employed, it is previously 
 ground down to powder. The tan-pits are sometimes 
 of a round, and at others of a square form, dug out to 
 a considerable depth in the earth, and lined with wood 
 or mason-work ; their size being in proportion to the 
 extent of the works. The method of tanning is dif- 
 ferent in different countries. 
 
 According to calculation, from five to six pounds of 
 tan is required to each pound of strong leather ; and one 
 hundred weight of hides yields from fifty-two to fifty-six 
 pounds of leather. 
 
 It 
 
544 
 
 TANNING. 
 
 It appears that the operation of tanning is nothing 
 more than combining the tannin, or astringent principle 
 with the gelatin, which is the basis of the skin, and all 
 the manipulations of the art are directed to effect or 
 facilitate this combination. We will now detail another 
 method chiefly takeu from Mr. Davy’s memoir on the 
 subject. 
 
 After the skin has been cleaned, it is submitted to 
 other operations before it is immersed in the tan liquor. 
 According to Mr. Davy’s account of the practices of 
 the art, the large and thick hides which have undergone 
 incipient putrefaction, are introduced for a short time 
 into a strong infusion of oak bark, and after this they 
 are acted on by water impregnated with a little sulphuric 
 or acetic acid ; in consequence of which they become 
 harder and denser than before, and titled after being 
 tanned, for the purpose of forming the stouter kinds of 
 sole leather. The lighter and thinner skins are treated 
 in a different manner : they are macerated for some days 
 in a ley formed from the infusion of pigeons’ dung in 
 w ater, which contains a little carbonate of ammonia ; 
 the skin is thus deprived of its elasticity, and becomes 
 more soft. 
 
 The tanning liquor is prepared by infusing bruised 
 oak bark in water ; and skins are tanned by being suc- 
 cessively immersed in such infusions, saturated in dif- 
 ferent degrees with the astringent principles of the 
 bark. The first leys in which they are immersed are 
 weak, but towards the completion of the process they 
 are used as strong as possible ; and in preparing stout 
 sole leather, the skins are kept in an ooze, approaching 
 to saturation, by means of layers of oak bark. 
 
 The infusion of oak bark, especially that obtained by 
 the first maceration, contains principally tannin and 
 extractive matter; the gallic acid, if present, as has 
 been supposed, being at least in an inconsiderable pro- 
 portion. In the course of the maceration of the skins 
 in these liquors, the tannin combines gradually with 
 the gelatin, which, in an organized form, principally 
 constitutes the skin, and forms with it a compound in- 
 soluble in water, dense and impermeable to that fluid, 
 while it possesses at the same time a certain degree of 
 elasticity. The extractive matter also enters into the 
 combination; for when skin in a large quantity has ex- 
 erted its full action on a small quantity of infusion, it at 
 length abstracts the whole dissolved matter, and renders 
 it colourless. From this extractive matter colour is 
 derived, and the skin may perhaps be rendered more 
 dense. 
 
 It has been supposed, that the gallic acid frequently 
 contained in vegetable astringents, facilitates the action 
 of their tanning, in converting skin into leather. Ac- 
 cording to the theory of the operation, as given by 
 Seguin, skin is gelatin in a hardened state from slight 
 oxidizement ; the gallic acid in some measure de-oxi- 
 dizes it, and hence reduces it to that state in which it 
 combines more easily with gelatin. There is little proof 
 given, however, of this theory ; and it appears suffi- 
 ciently established, that the operation can be performed 
 
 without the presence of this acid ; and indeed in the 
 tan liquor prepared by one maceration from oak 
 bark it is scarcely discoverable, and, if it do exist in 
 it, it is in intimate combination with the extractive 
 matter. 
 
 The operation of tanning, as now described, requires 
 a number of months, from the skins being successively 
 and slowly introduced into infusions of different degrees 
 j of strength. Seguin, after his discovery of tannin, pro- 
 posed to abridge the process by introducing the skins 
 more speedily into strong infusions of the tanning sub- 
 stance ; and in this way, according to the excellent 
 report given on the art of tanning by Pelletiere aud 
 Lelivre, in which his method is fully described, the 
 whole could be finished in about twenty days, and 
 leather obtained equal in quality to that prepared by 
 the old method. There is reason, however, to doubt 
 of the superiority of this new method. Mr. Nicholson, 
 in some observations on this subject, when a patent was 
 taken out for Seguin’s method in this country, stated, 
 that from information acquired from the manufacturers, 
 he found that they had previously been sufficiently ac- 
 quainted with the powers of the strong tanning infu- 
 sions ; and that it had been even proposed to employ them 
 so as to abridge the process. But the leather thus pre- 
 pared w'as by no means equal to that prepared in the 
 old method. The advantage of the slow and gradual 
 process appears to be, that the whole substance of the 
 skin is penetrated and equally changed ; while in the 
 more rapid method the external parts must be more 
 acted on ; and the texture probably will be more un- 
 equal. It appears also from Mr. Davy’s experiments, 
 to combine with a larger quantity of the extractive mat- 
 ter contained in the astringent infusion ; and hence too 
 the advantage of the immersions in the w'eak liquors, 
 as these contain more of this thail^the strong infusions. 
 It must be confessed, however, that for any thing 
 theory can discover, the common process appears 
 to be unnecessarily protracted, and some advantage 
 might probably be derived from adopting some of the 
 manipulations of Seguin. 
 
 The skin in drying increases in weight from the fix- 
 ation of the vegetable matter : the quantity of this sel- 
 dom exceeds one-third of its weight. The increase is 
 greater, according to Mr. Davy's experiments from 
 quick than from slow tanning. In the latter, he sup- 
 poses more of the extractive matter enters into combi- 
 nation, and this weakening the attraction of the skin to 
 tannin, less of it is absorbed, and less vegetable mat- 
 ter on the whole enters into the composition of the 
 leather. Probably also, in the slow process, more of 
 the animal matter is removed. Other substances are 
 used in tanning, as the bark of the willow, elm, and 
 other trees, and, as we have seen, galls and catechu. 
 The leather prepared from these varies in colour, and in 
 some other external qualities. 
 
 Catechu, or terra Japonica, as it is sometimes called, 
 is a substance obtained by decoction and evaporation 
 from a species of Mimosa , which abounds in India. 
 
 There 
 
TANNING. 
 
 54b 
 
 There are two varieties of it ; one from Bombay, and j 
 the other from Bengal. This substance is found to ' 
 consist chiefly of tan, combined with a peculiar species i 
 of extract. Tan is chiefly found in the bark of trees, | 
 but it has been obtained from the sap, the wood, and 
 even the leaves. It varies in quantity according to the 
 season of the year, and it likewise varies with the age 
 and size of the trees. The greatest proportion of tan is 
 contained in the inner barks. The* epidermis usually 
 contains none. The following table exhibits the pro- 
 portion of solid matter extracted by water from different 
 vegetable substances, and the quantity of tan contained I 
 in that solid matter, as ascertained by the experiments ; 
 of Mr. Davy : 
 
 One Ounce of 
 
 White inner bark of old oak, contains 
 
 • — young oak 
 
 Spanish chesnut 
 
 — Leicester willow 
 
 Middle bark of oak . 
 
 • Spanish chesnut 
 
 Leicester willow 
 
 Entire bark of oak 
 
 Spanish chesnut 
 
 Leicester willow 
 
 Solid 
 Matter. 
 108 
 111 
 , 89 
 117 
 43 
 41 
 34 
 61 
 53 
 71 
 165 
 1 06 
 
 Tan. 
 
 72 
 
 77 
 63 
 72 
 19 
 14 
 16 
 29 
 21 
 33 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 261 
 231 
 127 
 
 covered with leather, and scraped on the flesh side 
 with the semicircular blunt knife with two handles, used 
 in this operation. They are then covered with a coat 
 of lime of the consistence of paint, on the flesh side, 
 and hung up in considerable numbers in a small 
 close room heated by flues, where they remain to 
 putrefy for a given time. During this process a thick 
 slime works up to the surface of the skin, by which 
 the regularity of the process is ascertained, and the 
 wool is loosed so that it readily comes off with a 
 slight pull. Each skin is then returned to the beam, 
 the wool taken off, and all. the lime worked off with 
 the knife, and the rough edges pared away. The 
 skin is then put into a pit filled with lime-water 
 and kept there from two to six weeks, according to 
 the nature of the skin, which has the effect of 
 checking the further putrefaction, and produces a very 
 remarkable hardening and thickening of its substance, 
 and probably also it detaches a further portion of the 
 slime. The skin is again well worked, and much of 
 its substance pared down, and all inequalities smoothed 
 with the knife. Pains and judgment are required in 
 these operations on the one hand not to endanger 
 the substance of the skin by the putrefaction, and on 
 the other hand to work out every particle of the lime, 
 of which the least if retained will prevent the skin 
 from dressing well in the subsequent processes, and 
 from taking the dye uniformly and well. The skin is 
 then again softened and freed from the lime. All the 
 thickening produced by the lime is thus removed, and 
 the skin is now highly purified, and is a thin extensible 
 white membrane called in this state a pelt, and is fit 
 for any subsequent operation of tawing or dyeing, or 
 oil-dressing, or shamtnoying. 
 
 The method of bringing kid and goats’ skins to the 
 state of pelt is nearly the same as for lambs, except that 
 the lining is used before the hair is taken off, the hair 
 being of but little importance, and only sold to the 
 plasterers ; but the lambs’ wool, which is more valu- 
 able, would be greatly iujured by the lime. Kids’ skins 
 
 Sicilian sumach 
 Malaga sumach 
 
 Bombay catechu ■ — • 
 
 Bengal catechu — 
 
 Nut-galls 180 
 
 Of Taicing, Leather-dressing and Dyeing, and other 
 Processes. — The dressing and preparing of the skins of 
 lambs, sheep, goats, and other thin hides, though in 
 many particulars closely resembling the method used 
 with the thick cow and ox hides, forms a totally distinct 
 branch of business, and is one in which a good deal of 
 practical skill and nicety of manipulation are required 
 to succeed perfectly. The processes are various ac- 
 cording to the article required, and this branch of the 
 manufacture supplies the immense demand of white and jj w ill take a longer time in tanning than lambs’, 
 dyed leather for gloves, the morocco leather of dif- 
 ferent colours and qualities for coach-linings, book- 
 binding, pocket-books, and thin leather for an infinite 
 number of smaller purposes. Of these the white 
 leather alone is not tanned but finished by the process of 
 tawing, the coloured leather receives always a tanning 
 independently of the other dyeing materials. The pre- 
 vious preparation of each, or that in which the skin 
 is thoroughly cleansed and reduced to the state of 
 simple membrane in which it is called pelt, is essen- 
 tially the same whether for tawing or dyeing. It is thus 
 performed at Bermondsey, near London, a place long 
 celebrated for all branches of the leather business. 
 
 By far the greater number of the skins are im- 
 ported : if lambs, they are thus prepared ; the skins are 
 soaked for a time in water, to cleanse them from any 
 loose dirt and blood, and put upon the beam commonly I 
 used for the purpose, which is a half cylinder of wood 
 
 If the pelts are to be taw'ed they are put into a 
 solution of alum and salt in warm water, in the pro- 
 portion of three pounds of alum and four pounds of salt 
 to every 120 middle sized skins, and worked therein till 
 they have absorbed a sufficient quantity. This again 
 gives the skin a remarkable degree of thickness and 
 toughness. 
 
 The skins are now taken out and washed in water, 
 and then again put into a vat of brau and water and 
 allowed to ferment, till much of the alum and salt is got 
 out and the unusual thickening produced by it is for the 
 most part reduced. They are then taken to a room 
 with a stove in the middle, and stretched on hooks, and 
 kept there till fully dry. The skins are now converted 
 into a tough, flexibly, and quite white leather; but to 
 give them a glossy finish, and to take off the harshness 
 of the feel still remaining, they are again soaked in 
 water, and put into a large pail containing the yolks of 
 6 Z eggs 
 
346 
 
 TIN-PLATE-WORKING. 
 
 eggs beat up with water. Here the skins are trodden 
 for a long time, by which they so imbibe the substance 
 of the egg that the liquor above them is rendered almost 
 perfectly limpid, after which they are hung up in a loft 
 to dry, and finished by glossing with a warm iron. 
 
 The essential difference, therefore, between tanning 
 and tawing is, that in the former case the pelt is com- 
 bined with tan and other vegetable matter, and in the 
 latter with something that it imbibes from the alum 
 and salt (possibly alumine), and which is never again 
 extracted by the subsequent washing and branning. 
 
 The Morocco leather, as it is called, prepared from 
 sheep-skins chiefly, and used so largely for coach- ; 
 linings, pocket-books, and the best kind of book- i 
 binding, is thus made : the skin, cleansed and worked in 
 the way already described, is taken from the lime-water, 
 and the thickening brought down, not by bran liquor 
 as in tawing, but by a bath of dogs’ or pigeons’ dung 
 diffused in water, where it remains till suppled, and till 
 the lime is quite got out and it becomes a perfectly 
 white clean pelt. If intended to be dyed red it is then 
 sewed up very tight in the form of a sack with the j 
 grain side outwards, and is immersed in a cochineal 
 bath of a warmth just equal to what the hand can sup- 
 port, and is worked about for a sufficient time till it is 
 uniformly dyed. The sack is then put into a large vat 
 containing sumach infused in warm w r ater, and kept for 
 some hours till it is sufficiently tanned. 
 
 The skins intended to be black, or any colour but red, 
 are merely sumached without any previous dyeing. Af- 
 ter some fut ther preparation, the colour of the red skins 
 being finished with a weak bath of saffron, the skins when 
 dry are grained and polished in the following way ; they 
 are stretched very tight upon a smooth inclined board, and 
 rubbed over with a little oil. Those intended for black 
 leather are previously rubbed over with an iron liquor, 
 which uniting with the gallic acid of the sumach, in- 
 stantly strikes a deep and uniform black. They are 
 then rubbed by hand with a ball of glass with much 
 manual labour, which polishes them and makes them 
 very firm and compact. Lastly, the graining or ribbed 
 
 surface by which this kind of leather is distinguished is 
 given by rubbing the leather very strongly with a ball of 
 box-wood, round the centre of which a number of 
 small equidistant parallel grooves are cut, forming an 
 equal number of narrow ridges, the friction of which 
 gives the leather the desired inequality of surface. 
 
 The process for the real Morocco leather, as pre- 
 pared from goat-skins at Fez and Tetuan, is thus de- 
 scribed by M. Broussonet. The skins are first cleansed, 
 the hair taken off, limed, and reduced with bran 
 nearly in the way already described for the English 
 morocco leather. After-coming from the bran they 
 are thrown into a second bath made of white figs mixed 
 with water, which is thereby rendered slimy and fer- 
 mentable. In this bath the skins remain four or five 
 days, when they are thoroughly salted with sal-gem, or 
 rock salt alone, after which they are fit to receive the 
 dye, which for the red is cochineal and alum, and for the 
 yellow, pomegranate bark and alum. The skins are 
 then tanned, dressed, suppled with a little oil, and dried. 
 
 Much excellent leather, and of various colours, is ma- 
 nufactured in different parts of Russia; of which, the 
 processes are given in Mr. Tooke’s “ View of the Rus- 
 sian Empire,” Vol. III. The saffian, or manoquin, 
 W'hich is prepared largely at Astracan, is manufactured 
 only from the skins of goats and bucks ; the usual co- 
 lours of these are red and yellow. The shagreen, which 
 is also manufactured at Astracan, consists of hides of 
 horses and asses ; but of these only a small part is used, 
 cut from the crupper-line along the back about thirty- 
 four inches upon the crupper, and twenty-eight along the 
 back. The chief dyes of shagreen are green, blue, and 
 black. 
 
 Various processes have been invented to render leather 
 for shoes and boots water-tight, which is effected by an 
 additional dressing with an oily or resinous matter : the 
 following recipe is said to be effectual. One pound of 
 linseed-oil; half a pound of mutton suet; six ounces of 
 bees-wax, and four of resin, are to be melted, thoroughly 
 incorporated, and applied, while warm, to the upper- 
 leather and the soles. 
 
 TIN-PLATE-WORKING. 
 
 On the affinity which there is betw’een tin and iron 
 is founded the art of forming what is commonly called 
 tin-plates, which is, properly, tinned iron, or as it is 
 denominated in Scotland, and also on the Continent, 
 white iron. The process in manufacturing these plates 
 is simplv this : thin plates of malleable iron thoroughly 
 •cleared from all rust or oxyde, are clipped into a vessel 
 
 of melted tin, the surface of which fluid metal is pro- 
 tected from oxydizement by the air, by a thin layer of 
 melted tallow, the tin unites with the iron at each sur- 
 face, but whether the two metals actually combine is 
 not yet ascertained. The iron thus acquires a white 
 colour, is rendered less liable to rust, and its ductility 
 is scarcely at all impaired ; hence the plates can be 
 
 easily 
 
TIN-PLATE-WORKING. 
 
 547 
 
 easily bent, and from the alloy of tin at the surface can 
 be also easily worked. Iron-plates when tinned over, 
 and which are very thin, have been denominated latten. 
 Of the manufacture of these we have an account in 
 the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 
 and from which we shall extract some particulars. 
 Plates of iron being prepared of a proper thickness, are 
 smoothed by rusting them in an acid liquor, as common 
 water made eager with 17c; with this liquor they fill 
 certain troughs, and then put in the plates, which they 
 turn once or twice a day that they may be equally 
 rusted over; after this, they are taken out and well 
 scowered with sand, and to prevent their rusting again 
 are immediately plunged into pure water, in which they 
 are to be left till the instant they are to be tinned or 
 blanched, the manner of doing which is this : they flux 
 the tin in a large iron crucible, which has the figure of 
 an oblong pyramid with four faces, of which two oppo- 
 site ones are less than the two others. The crucible is 
 heated only from below, its upper part being luted with 
 the furnace all round. The crucible is always deeper than 
 the plates which are to be tinned are long ; they always 
 put them in downright, and the tin ought to swim over 
 them ; to this purpose artificers of different trades pre- 
 pare plates of different shapes, though M. Reaumur 
 thinks them all exceptionable. But the Germans use 
 no sort of preparation of the iron to make it receive the 
 tin, more than the keeping it always steeped in water 
 till the time only when the tin is melted in the crucible, 
 they cover it with a layer of a sort of suet, which is 
 usually two inches thick, and the plate must pass 
 through this before it can come to the melted tin. The 
 first use of this covering is to keep the tin from burning; 
 for if any part should take fire the suet would soon 
 moisten it and reduce it to its primitive state again. 
 The blanchers say, this suet is a compounded matter ; it 
 is indeed of a black colour, but M. Reaumur supposed 
 that to be only an artifice to make it a secret, and that 
 it is only coloured with soot or the smoke of a chimney, 
 but he found it true so far that the common unprepared 
 suet was not sufficient, for after several attempts, there 
 was always something wanting to render the success of 
 the operation certain. The whole secret of blanching, 
 therefore, was found to lie in die preparation of this 
 suet, and this he discovered at length to consist in the 
 first frying and burning it. This simple operation not 
 only gives it the colour, but puts it into a condition to 
 give the iron a disposition to be tinned, which it does 
 surprisingly. The melted tin must also have a certain 
 degree of heat, for if it is not hot enough, it will not 
 stick to the iron : and if it is too hot it will cover it 
 with too thin a coat, and the plates will have several 
 colours, as red, blue, and purple, and upon the whole 
 have a cast of yellow. To prevent this, by knowing 
 when die fire has a proper degree of heat, they might 
 try with small pieces of iron ; but in general, use 
 teaches them to know the degree, and they put in the 
 iron when the tin is at a different standard of heat, 
 according as they would give it a thicker or a thinner 
 
 coat. Sometimes also they give the plates a double 
 layer, as they would have them very thickly covered. 
 This they do by dipping them into the tin, when very 
 hot, the first time ; and when less hot the second. The 
 tin which is to give the second coat must be fresh co- 
 vered with suet, and that with the common suet, not 
 the prepared. 
 
 Tin-plates are often manufactured in a different way : 
 the iron in bars, or plates is cased over with tin, and 
 then drawn out by means of rolling-mills. In 1681 tin- 
 plates were made in England by a person named An- 
 drew Yarranton, who was sent into Bohemia to learr, 
 the art, but it was not brought into perfection, for 
 more than fifty years, and since the middle of the last 
 century, it has been carried on in these islands in so 
 perfect a manner, that scarcely any have been imported 
 from the continent. Our plates are of a finer gloss, or 
 coat, than those made beyond sea, the latter being 
 chiefly hammered, but ours, according to the plan of 
 which we are now speaking, are always drawn out by 
 the rolling-mill. 
 
 The tin-plate worker, a trade well known in London, 
 and all large towns, receives his tin-plate in sheets, and it 
 is his business to form them into all the various articles 
 of domestic use, which are known to every body. The 
 principal instruments that he makes use of are a large 
 pair of fixed shears, to cut the tin to the proper size 
 and shape : a polished anvil, and hammers of various 
 kinds, some of which are highly polished on the face. 
 The joints of his work are made with solder, which he 
 makes himself, and which is a composition of equal 
 parts of tin and lead, that the workman causes to unite 
 with the tin-plate, or tinned-iron, by means of rosin. 
 The two principal wholesale houses in London, are 
 those of Jones and Taylor, in Tottenham-Court-Road, 
 and of Howard and Co. in Old-Street-Road. These 
 and other wholesale traders have constantly travellers in 
 various parts of the kingdom ; and as they cannot carry 
 the articles of their trade, in saddle-bags, like many 
 other manufacturers, they take with them drawings of 
 all works of taste, in their line of business. 
 
 Tin, in blocks, resemble silver, but it is of a darker 
 hue ; it is also much softer, less elastic and sonorous, 
 than any other metal excepting lead : it is most readily 
 extended, and melts with a lower heat than all other 
 metals. When tin is made is made very hot, it will 
 break with a blow. In the state of ore, it is found 
 mixed with arsenic. The chief tin mines in the known 
 world are those of Cornwall ; and it is a fact well as- 
 certained, that the Phoenicians visited these islands, for 
 the purpose of getting tin from our ancestors, several 
 centuries before the Christian aera. In tracing the history 
 of the Cornwall mines, we find that they produced very 
 little in the reign of king John, but the right, at that period 
 was wholly vested in the sovereign, as Earl of Cornwall. 
 Their value has fluctuated at different periods ; of late 
 years they have produced to the value of a hundred and 
 fifty, or two hundred thousand pounds. The Prince 
 Regent, as Duke of Cornwall, receives four shillings 
 
 upon 
 
548 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 upon every hundred weight of what is called coined 
 white tin, which sometimes amount to ten or twelve 
 thousand a year : the proprietors of the soil have one- 
 sixth, and the rest goes to the adventurers in the mine, 
 who are at the whole charge of working. As the tin is 
 to be thus divided, or rather its real value ascertained, it 
 is stamped and worked at the mill, and it is then carried 
 under the name of block-tin to the melting-house, where 
 it is run into blocks, and thence carried to the coinage 
 town. The coinage towns are Leskard, Lestwithiel, 
 Truro, Helston, and Penzance, being the most conve- 
 nient parts of the county for the miners. 
 
 We may observe that from the affinity between tin 
 and copper, a thin layer of the former metal can be 
 
 easily applied to the surface of the latter; and this prac- 
 tice of tinning, as it is named, is often employed to 
 prevent the erosion or rusting of copper-vessels, and the 
 noxious impregnation which they would of course com- 
 municate to liquors kept in them. The surface of the 
 copper is polished so as to be quite bright : sal-ammo- 
 niac is applied to it when hot, by which the oxidation 
 appears to be prevented ; or pitch is sometimes used 
 for the same purpose ; the melted tin, or what is often 
 substituted, on account of its hardness being greater 
 than that of pure tin, an alloy of tin and lead, is 
 applied to the surface of the copper, to which it 
 adheres. 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 Turning is a mechanical operation, for shaping vari- 
 ous hard substances, as wood or metal, into a round or 
 oval figure, in a machine called a lathe. The operation 
 differs very essentially from most others, in the circum- J 
 stance, that the matter to be operated upon is put in I 
 motion by the machine, and is wrought by means of 
 edged tools presented to it, and held fast ; whilst in 
 most others, the work is fixed, and the tool put in mo- 
 tion by the workman. 
 
 In turning, the work is caused to revolve upon a sta- ' 
 tionary straight line, as an axis, while an edge tool set 
 steady to the outside of the substance in a circumvolu- | 
 tion thereof, cuts off all the parts which lie farther off j 
 the axis, and makes the outside of that substance con- ! 
 centric to the axis. In this case any section of the j 
 work, made perpendicularly to the axis, will be of a 
 circular figure; but there are methods of turning ellipses, 
 and various other curves, which are known by the name 
 of engine-turning. 
 
 When compared with many other mechanical opera- 
 tions, the art of turning may be considered as perfect in 
 the accuracy and expedition of the work, which is pro- 
 duced, and that independently of any extraordinary skill 
 or dexterity of the workman; the lathe is therefore 
 resorted to by mechanics to perform every work it is 
 capab|e of, and these are so numerous as to demand in 
 preference to other mechanic operations, a minute de- 
 tail. 
 
 Lathes are made in a great variety of forms, and put 
 in motion by different means, they are called center 
 lathes where the work is supported at both ends; man- * 
 drel, spindle , or chuck lnthes when the w ork is fixed at 
 the projecting extremity of a spindle. From different 
 
 methods of putting them in motion, they are called pole 
 lathes, and hand wheel-lathes , or foot wheel-lathes ; for 
 very powerful works they are turned by horses, steam 
 engines, or water-mills. The lathes used by wood tur- 
 ners are generally made of wood, in a simple form, and 
 are called bed-lathes, the same kind will serve for turn- 
 ing iron, or steel, but the best work in metal is always 
 done in iron lathes, which are usually made with a tri- 
 angular bar, and are called bar-lathes. Small ones for 
 the use of watch-makers, are called turn-benches, and 
 turns, but there is in fact no proper distinction between 
 these and the centre-lathes, except in regard to size, 
 and that they are made of iron instead of wood. 
 
 The Centre-lathe is now very little used, but by 
 country turners, to make trifling articles of household 
 furniture in soft wood, as table-legs, stair-case rails, &c. 
 it consists of the following parts, 1st. the bed, which is 
 composed of two-beams bolted together at a small dis- 
 tance asunder, and parallel to each other, it is supported 
 horizontally on legs at the ends, and forms the support 
 of the whole; th e groove, is the narrow opening between 
 the two halves, or chucks of the bed, to receive the 
 tenons of the puppets, which are two short upright posts 
 fastened down upon the bed at any place by means of 
 wedges, driven through mortises in the tenon of the 
 puppets beneath the bed ; one of the puppets has a 
 pike or pin of iron fixed into it, and the other one has 
 at the same level the centre-screw, working through a 
 nut fastened in the puppet, both the screw and the pike 
 have sharp points made of steel, and hardened and tem- 
 pered, that they may not wear away ; there must be 
 exactly opposite, and in a line with each other, the 
 piece of work which is to be turned, suppose for instance 
 
 a pole 
 
TURNING. 
 
 549 
 
 a pole of wood, is supported by its ends, between the 
 points- of the pike and the screw, that it may turn round 
 freely, and the screw is screwed up, till it has no shake, 
 the puppets can be placed at any distance asunder ac- 
 cording to the length. 
 
 The rest is a rail or bar, extending from one puppet 
 to the other, for the support of the tool ; it lays in hooks 
 projecting from the faces of the puppets ; the work is 
 put in motion by means of the treadle , which is worked 
 by the turner’s foot, the string or cat-gut is fastened to 
 the treadle, and passing two or three turns round the 
 work, it is fastened to the end of an elastic pole, fixed 
 to the ceiling over the turner’s head : now as the turner 
 presses the treadle down by his foot, the string turns the 
 work round, and a sharp chisel or gouge, being held 
 against the wood upon the rest, will cut the wood to a 
 circular form. When he has brought the treadle to the 
 ground, he releases the weight of his foot, and the 
 elasticity of the pole draws up the treadles turning the 
 Avork back again ; during which retrograde motion he 
 withdraws the chisel from the work, as it would not cut 
 in this direction through it, and might impede the mo- 
 tion of the wood; and the pole is fastened to the ceiling 
 of the room where the lathe is placed by a pin, upon 
 which it can be turned about as a centre, and it rests 
 upon a horizontal bar fixed at some distance from the 
 centre ; it is placed in a position nearly perpendicular 
 to the axis of the work, so that when it is turned upon 
 its centre pin, the string at the other end may be 
 brought over any part of the length of the work where 
 it will be most convenient for the turner to have the 
 string put round it : in the same manner the end of the 
 treadle is placed, w'ith one end over a centre pin in the 
 floor, that its opposite end may be moved under the 
 work to the proper place for the string. It is held in 
 this position while moving up and down, by a second 
 treadle, perpendicular to the first which moves on a 
 loose centre on the floor at one end, and the other is 
 perforated with a number of holes to receive a pin 
 fixed in the first treadle, and thus to confine the treadle 
 to move up and down under any place it is set to: the 
 end of the principal treadle is turned in the lathe and 
 made like a pulley, to hold the line or string which is 
 wound upon it, and the turner winds the string on or 
 off this end of the treadle, to adjust its length to the 
 diameter of the work round which the string passes ; 
 the string is fastened to the end of the spring pole in a 
 similar manner. The workman stands or is seated be- 
 fore his lathe, having one of his feet on the treadle to 
 give the motion ; it must be very moderate and equal : 
 he places his tool on the rest, and approaches the head 
 of it gently to the piece, performing his work gradually 
 without leaving any ridges, and when he meets with a 
 knot, he must go ou still more gently, otherwise he 
 would be in dangej both of splitting his work, and 
 breaking the edge of his tool. For turning light-work, 
 a bow, such as is used for shooting arrows, is suspended 
 by its middle over the lathe, the string is then tied to 
 the middle of the bow-string in lieu of the pole, and 
 
 acts in the same manner. The continued rotatory mo- 
 tion given by a wheel, is so much superior for turning 
 to the reciprocating motion of a treadle and string, that 
 regular turners seldom make use of the latter, yet the 
 simplicity of the whole is a great recommendation, es- 
 pecially among country workmen, who are not so care- 
 ful of their time, as in the towns where competition 
 obliges every one to use the best and quickest means of 
 dispatching his work. 
 
 The common centre lathe becomes a powerful ma- 
 chine, when worked by means of a large wheel, turned 
 by one or more labourers ; the wheel should be heavy 
 that its momentum may be sufficient to overcome any 
 trifling obstacle in the work, and the frame in which it 
 is mounted must be of sufficient weight to stand steady, 
 and not be liable to move by the exertions of the man turn- 
 ing it. An endless line is used to communicate the motion 
 of the wheel to the work ; it passes round a groove in the 
 circumference of the wheel, and after crossing like a fi- 
 gure of eight, goes round a small pulley fixed upon the 
 work ; by this means when the great wheel is turned, it 
 gives a rapid rotatory motion to the matter to be turned, 
 and with a much greater power than can be obtained 
 from the treadle, with the additional advantage of the 
 work turning always the same way round, so that the 
 turner has no need to take his tool off the work ; the 
 small pulley is perforated with a square hole, to receive 
 a square made on the end of the work, and the turner 
 has many different pulleys, each with a different sized 
 hole through it, to suit work of different diameters ; 
 but there is an inconvenience attending this method, for 
 if the four corners of the square, on which the pulley 
 is fitted, be not all equally distant from the centre of 
 the work, the pulley will not turn round truly, and the 
 band will be liable to slip round upon it. To obviate 
 this, the pulley, Fig. 1 3, Tu n N i N g, PL 1 1 , is often used ; 
 it has a square hole through it to receive the work, and 
 is made to fit upon it by means of four screws a a a a 
 passing through a part of the wood by the side of the 
 pulley, and their point pressing into the work : in this 
 manner one or two pulleys can be made to serve work 
 of any dimensions and can always be set truly upon it : 
 it has, as shewn in the edge view, two different sized 
 groo\’es, A B, in either of which the band may be work- 
 ed when required. 
 
 There is a kind of centre lathe, which is generally 
 employed by Millwrights, aud Iron-founders, in turning 
 heavy metal work, such as the gudgeons of mill- 
 shafts, rollers for sugar or rolling-mills, pump-rods, 
 which are to pass through stuffing boxes, or in short, 
 any work which will admit of having both its ends sup- 
 ported on centres : it is in many respects similar to that 
 we have described, but is adapted to give a continued 
 rotatory motion to the work ; it has legs which support 
 it from the floor, and the bed is formed by two parallel 
 beams or cheeks bolted to the legs : one of the legs 
 stands up above the bed to support the main, or left 
 hand centre point, instead of having a puppet on put- 
 pose. The centre pin is fastened into it, by a nut and 
 7 A screw 
 
550 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 screw behind, and upon this pin two wooden pulleys 
 are fitted side by side, close to each other, so that they 
 appear but one : either of those at pleasure is caused to 
 turn round by means of an endless strap, going round 
 a drum extending over head, or under the floor, and 
 which is turned by horses or a steam engine ; the strap 
 being only the breadth of one of the pulleys, will turn 
 but one of them at a time, but it can easily be shifted 
 from one to the other at pleasure, and then the other 
 will stand still ; the front one of these pulleys gives mo- 
 tion to the work. 
 
 The back puppet is fixed upon the bed of the lathe, 
 by a tenon projecting downwards, and entering the 
 space between the two chucks of the bed ; it is fixed at 
 any place by means of a screw bolt, which passes down 
 through the puppet, and goes through a piece of iron, 
 which takes its bearing on the under side of the bed ; a 
 nut f is fitted on this screw, and thereby the whole 
 puppet can be drawn down upon the cheeks, so firmly 
 that it will not move by any strain the work may 
 occasion ; the back puppet carries the back centre 
 screw, which has a steel point to support the work. 
 
 The rest of this kind of lathe is made of iron in the 
 usual manner of bed lathes, as is represented at Fig. 5, 
 of Plate I ; its construction will be detailed when we 
 describe that plate. 
 
 The work is turned about in this lathe by means of 
 an iron pin, projecting some inches from the flat surface 
 of the front pulley, which, as before mentioned, is fitted 
 on the centre point ; a piece of iron called a driver (see 
 Fig. 5. Plate 11 ) is screwed upon the work near its left 
 hand end, so as to project perpendicularly from it, and 
 the pin, in the pulley, intercepts this as it turns, carry- 
 ing the w'ork round with it. 
 
 The other pulley which is fitted on the centre pin, is 
 only of use, when the lathe is wanted to stand still, in 
 the same manner as the live and dead pulleys used in 
 cotton-mills. When the workman wishes to put the 
 lathe in motion, he presses the handle of his tool, or 
 any other smooth piece of wood, against the edge of 
 the endless strap while it is in motion, and pushes it 
 towards the front pulley ; in a very short time the strap 
 will get completely on the pulley, and shift itself to a 
 fresh place on the drum corresponding to the pulley: 
 this causes the pulley to turn round, and by the pin 
 pushing round the end of the driver screwed on the 
 work, communicates its motion to the work to be turn- 
 ed. When he wishes the motion to cease, for the pur- 
 pose of examining his work, he pushes the strap back 
 again on to the other pulley, which has no communication 
 with the work as it slips freely on the centre pin ; the 
 driver, as shewrn by the figure, is simply an iron ring, 
 having a screw' tapped through one side of it, to pinch 
 the work so fast, as to prevent its slipping. The side 
 opposite the screw should be angular, that it may fit 
 any sized work ; this driver may be fixed on either end 
 of the work while the other is turning, but when it is 
 necessary to fix the driver on that part of the work 
 which is finished, the end of the screw is apt to pinch 
 
 and bruise it ; it is therefore proper to use the driver, 
 Fig. 6, composed of two bars of iron screwed together 
 by two screws, passing through one bar tapped into the 
 other ; both bars are somew hat hollowed out in the 
 middle that they may encompass the work. If this 
 should be found to injure the work, a piece of sheet-lead 
 wrapped round it before the driver is put on, will pre- 
 vent the possibility of its damaging the work, and if the 
 screws of the driver are drawn very tight, it will carry 
 the work about with sufficient force to bear turning. 
 
 The manner of mounting and giving motion to a 
 piece of metal work in the centre lathe is this : the back 
 puppet is first fastened on the bed of the lathe at the pro- 
 per length to receive the work, the workman then places 
 one of its ends against the points of the front centre, 
 with the point as near to the centre of the W'ork as he 
 can guess; he then brings the centre of the other end of 
 the work opposite the point of the centre screw, and 
 screws it up so as to hold the work just tight enough, to 
 prevent its falling down. In this state by turning it 
 round with one hand, while he holds a piece of chalk 
 against it with the other, he finds whether it is pitched 
 nearly concentric on the points; and if it varies much at 
 any points, he turns back the screw and tries again, ob- 
 serving to shift the centre point nearer towards that 
 side which appears to project farthest in revolving, and 
 therefore gets marked by the chalk. When he has 
 found the true centre, he screws up the point so hard 
 that it may mark the end of the w'ork ; then taking the 
 j w ork out of the lathe, he punches or drills holes in the 
 ends where the screw and centre points have marked, 
 j and when the work is returned into the lathe it will run 
 nearly concentric ; the driver being screwed fast on 
 either end of the work as is most convenient, the work 
 w ill be turned round by the pin projecting from the 
 pulley as before described ; the turning of heavy iron 
 work, for which these lathes are used, is performed by 
 various tools chiefly called hooks, but these will be 
 farther described. 
 
 The centre lathe will perform any kind of w'ork w'hich 
 can be turned upon centres made in the ends of it, but 
 a great portion of the articles which are formed in the 
 lathe must have one of their ends at liberty, to be 
 operated upon w'hile they are turning, as cups, boxes, 
 and all kinds of hollow articles ; these are turned in 
 
 The foot lathe with mandril and collar. — A lathe 
 of this kind serves equally well for centre work ; there- 
 fore if the professed turner is without a mandril lathe, 
 one of these, constructed in the simplest and most 
 economical manner, and chiefly of wood, that the arti- 
 ficer may be enabled to make it himself, is shewn in 
 PI. I, of Turning. It is put in motion by a foot- wheel 
 and treadle, so that the turner has both his hands at 
 liberty for directing the tools. A, is the bed of the 
 lathe, consisting of two beams or cheeks fixed parallel 
 to each other, and leaving a small space between them, 
 as shewn in Fig. 3, and at o o, Fig. 4. The bed is 
 supported by three upright legs, as shewn in the figure ; 
 one of these projects up above the bed a sufficient height 
 
 to 
 
TURNING. 
 
 551 
 
 to form one of the puppets C, for the support of the ex- 
 tremity of the spindle or mandril e E ; the other end 
 is supported in a collar fixed in an iron standard or 
 puppet B, which is screwed down upon the bed by 
 two bolts marked tt; this standard is shewn separately 
 in Fig. 4. The back puppet D has a tenon which is 
 received through the bed, and a wedge s put through 
 it beneath the bed, by which it can be fastened at any 
 place ; f is the back centre pin, fitted through the 
 puppet, and g is a screw' situated behind it, to advance 
 and keep it up to its work. The mandril is turned 
 round by a band of catgut passing round the pulley c, 
 and also round the large foot-wheel G, which is made 
 of cast iron, and fixed on the end of the axis H ; this 
 is bent as in the figure, to form two cranks ; united by 
 two iron links to the treadle I, on which the workman 
 presses his foot ; this treadle is affixed by two short 
 boards to an axis on which the treadle I moves. The 
 wheel G is of considerable weight in the rim, and 
 being wedged fast on the axis, turns round with it ; it 
 is the momentum of this wheel that continues to turn 
 the work while the crank and treadle are rising, and 
 consequently while the workman exerts no power upon 
 them. When the crank has passed the vertical position, 
 and begins to descend, he presses his foot upon the 
 treadle, to give the wheel a sufficient impetus to con- 
 tinue its motion until it arrives at the same position again. 
 
 The length of the iron links which connect the cranks 
 with the treadle I, must be such, that when the cranks 
 are at the lowest, the board I of the treadle to which the 
 links are hooked, should hang about two or three inches 
 from the floor. The turner gives the wheel a small 
 turn with his hands, till the crank rise to the highest and 
 pass a little beyond it, then by a quick tread he brings 
 the cranks down again, putting the wheel in motion 
 with a velocity that will carry it several revolutions ; he 
 must observe to begin his next tread just when the 
 cranks pass the highest point, and then it will continue 
 running the same way, with a tolerably regular motion, 
 if he is punctual in the time of his treads. 
 
 The rest F which supports the tool while it is in the 
 act of turning, is made of iron, as shewrn in Fig. 3 : it 
 is supported on the bed of the lathe by its foot, which 
 is divided with a groove in the manner of a fork, to 
 receive a screw bolt going down through the lathe bed, 
 and fastening it at any place along them by a thumb- 
 nut ; the groove in the foot is for the purpose of allow- 
 ing the rest to be moved to and from the centre of the 
 lathe, to adjust it to the diameter of the work which 
 is turning. The height of the rest is a matter of some 
 importance in turning, and for some w'ork it should be 
 fixed higher than others ; therefore the shank of the 
 cross piece, or T, upon which the tool is laid, is re 
 ceived into a socket in the foot of F, and can be held 
 at any height by a screw’. As the socket is cylindrical, 
 the edge of the rest can be placed inclined to the axis 
 of the work, when turning cones, or other similar w oi k ; 
 though the same purpose may be accomplished by the 
 screw which holds the foot of the rest down , to the 
 
 I bed of the lathe, admitting it to stand in an oblique 
 direction. 
 
 The mandril or spindle is the most important part 
 of the lathe ; it is made of iron, in the manner shewn 
 at Fig. 2, but the two extremities are of steel, which 
 are hardened after being turned and finished ; the small 
 end has a hole made in it to receive the point of a 
 screw, which, as shewn at e, Fig. 1 , supports the end 
 of it ; the other end of the mandril is made larger, 
 and has a hole within it cut with a female screw, for 
 the purpose of fixing on the various chucks by which 
 the work is turned ; the outside surface of this end is 
 turned extremely true, and is fitted in a brass collar at 
 the top of the standard B, as shewn in Fig. 4 ; here 
 o o represent the sections of the two cheeks of the bed, 
 q one of the bolts marked t, Fig. 1, which fasten the 
 standard down, this bolt goes through a piece of iron, 
 r, situated beneath the bed. In the top of the standard 
 is a square hole for the reception of two pieces or dies 
 of brass, h h, which include the mandril between 
 them ; these are kept in their places by a piece of iron, 
 i, fastened down by screws, l /, and m is a serew tapped 
 through this, which presses the two dies together, and 
 thus adjusts them to receive the neck of the mandril 
 W'ithout any shake ; the screw which supports the other 
 extremity of the mandril fits in two iron or brass nuts, 
 which are let into the back and front of the wooden pup- 
 pet C, and by turning this, the mandril can be adjusted 
 to run very correctly in length ; to prevent the screw 
 from turning back when the lathe is in motion, a nut 
 is placed on the screw outside of the puppet, and after 
 the screw is turned by its head to fit and hold up the 
 mandrel, the nut is screwed firmly against the nut W'hich 
 is let into the outside of the puppet ; this causes such 
 a pressure upon the threads of the screw, that it is in 
 no danger of turning back, as it would otherwise be 
 liable to do with rough work. 
 
 The mandril by this means runs very steadily and 
 accurately in its bearings, and it is plain that any piece 
 of work being firmly attached to the end of it, by 
 means of the screw before mentioned, may be turned 
 by a tool held over the rest, in the same manner as if 
 it w'as mounted between centres, but with the advantage 
 that it be turned at the end, to make hollow work 
 when required. The foot wheel causes the mandril to 
 revolve very rapidly, so that it will perform its work 
 very quick, and the workman must acquire a habit of 
 standing steady before his work, that lie does not give 
 his whole body a motion when his foot rises and falls 
 w ith the treadle I. 
 
 Turning Tools. — The tools which are generally used 
 for turning wood and metal, are shewn in Fig. 5 to 2 1 ; 
 they are fixed in long handles, and the turner holds 
 them firmly down upon the rest, steadying them by 
 placing the end of the long handle under his arm ; at 
 least this is the case with several of the principal of 
 the tools which are most used ; they are as follows : 
 
 Fig. 5. A gouge chiefly used for soft wood, for re- 
 ducing it speedily to shape ; the blade of this tool is 
 
 formed 
 
552 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 formed nearly half round to an edge, and the two 
 extreme ends of this edge are a little sloped off, in the 
 manner of an apple-scoop, that the middle part of the 
 edge may cut away the prominences which are not con- 
 centric with the axis, and it has no corners which would 
 catch and get fast in the rough wood ; the hollow part 
 is whetted upon a piece of Turkey stone, made with a 
 convex edge for the purpose ; the outside is whetted 
 upon a common flat Turkey stone, turning it round, 
 that all parts of the convex edge may successively be 
 sharpened- In turning, the gouge must be held with 
 an inclination, and the handle considerably depressed, 
 so that the bevil or outside of the edge of the gouge 
 may come very nearly in the tangent to the circumference 
 of the work, and the cutting edge is above the axis. 
 
 Chisels, Figs. 13, 16 and 21, are used upon wood, 
 after the gouge has reduced it to proper dimensions, to 
 smooth and finish ; they are not like carpenters’ chisels, 
 made flat on one side and bevelled upon the other, but 
 are bevelled on both the flat sides, so that the edge is 
 in the middle of the tool, and either side may be in- 
 differently applied to the work ; they are ground up 
 and sharpened on the oil-stone to a keen edge. In 
 using the chisel, the rest is raised considerably above 
 the centre of the work, so as to be nearly on a level 
 with the top of it, and the cutting edge must stand 
 oblique to the axis of the cylinder, so as to prevent 
 either angle from running into the work ; for this pur- 
 pose some have inclined edges, as Fig. 16. The chisel 
 ought to be traversed along the work gradually, but not 
 too fast, otherwise it will leave a roughness on the 
 surface. 
 
 Fig. 6 is a graver ; this tool is used for roughing-out 
 metal, and smaller ones are used for finishing metal 
 work, for which they are well adapted, as either the 
 point or one of its edges may be used indifferently. 
 
 Fig. 7. A chisel with a round end, for turning hol- 
 low mouldings in wood. 
 
 Fig. 8. Another round edged chisel bent sideways; 
 it is used for turning hollow work, or forming mould- 
 ings at the end of any work which is turning round in 
 the lathe. 
 
 Fig. [). A hook tool, with an edge formed at the 
 end of the hook, that it may be applied to bore or en- 
 large the inside of a hollow piece of work when it is 
 held in a chuck, or for turning hollow spheres. 
 
 Fig. 10. The pointed grooving tool is an angular 
 pointed chisel, for turning grooves in any piece of 
 work, or for making flat shoulders, by using its edges 
 like a chisel. 
 
 Fig. 11, is a chisel sharp at its edges like a knife ; 
 it is used for turning the inside of hollow work, or deep 
 grooves in any work. 
 
 Fig. 12, is a hooked tool with an edge upon the 
 inclined side ; it is used for turning hollow cones which 
 are largest inside. 
 
 Figs. 14 and 15, are a pair of male and female screw 
 tools for cutting male and female screws, by a method 
 which we shall describe at length. 
 
 Fig. 18, is a knife or side tool, with an edge on the 
 right hand side. It is used for turning the left hand 
 side of a shoulder, or flat side of any work ■ it is also 
 used for turning the cavities of hollow cylinders, or 
 those hollows which have only one internal angle for 
 turning both the bottom and the side ; for this purpose 
 the tool is made to cut both by its end and side edges, 
 and these two cutting edges form an angle with each 
 other rather acute. This tool must be held on a level 
 with the. axis of the w'ork, as all inside tools are. 
 
 Fig. 17, a left-hand side tool ; is not used for internal 
 work, but for turning the right-hand side of a shoulder, 
 or upon the left side of convex surfaces, such as 
 spheres, torus, mouldings, ovolos, &c. The angle is 
 upon the contrary side of this tool to the other. Left- 
 side tools are made to various widths and sizes. 
 
 Fig. 19- A side tool with a curved edge for turning 
 inside work. 
 
 Fig. 20. A narrow tool with a point, and an edge 
 on each side of it some distance from it ; it is called a 
 parting tool, and is used to cut or part off a piece of 
 wood w'hen in the lathe. 
 
 Fig. 22. A pair of callipers to measure the size of 
 the work. 
 
 Fig. 23. A large pair of the same kind, but pro- 
 vided with an arch and a screw, to fasten the points 
 when opened to any certain distance. 
 
 Fig. 24. A pair of in and out callipers, one end for 
 measuring the diameter of outside work, and the other 
 for measuring the diameter of inside work. The two 
 ends are equally distant from the centre, so that they 
 always open to the same extent, and have an arch to 
 fix them at any place ; it is of use when the turner 
 wishes to turn a cylinder or pin to fit exactly into a 
 hollow cylinder already made; to do this the size of the 
 hollow cylinder is measured with the lower end of the 
 callipers, then the upper end will be ready opened to 
 the proper extent to turn a cylinder which will exactly 
 fit the other. 
 
 Fig. 25. A depth gauge, consisting of a ruler, which 
 is applied across the face or end of a piece of hollow 
 work, and a slip of steel sliding through it ; the end of 
 this is the gauge for the depth of any hollow work 
 which is turning. 
 
 Fig. 26. A pair of callipers with a straight and a 
 curved leg, to measure the thickness of the sides of a 
 hollow box or cup. 
 
 These are the principal tools which are required 
 for w'ood-turning. The turner must likewise be pro- 
 vided with a grindstone and an oil or turkey stone to 
 sharpen his tools. For fixing his work in the lathe he 
 must have a great assortment of chucks ; these are blocks 
 of wood which have a screw projecting from them, by 
 which any one can be attached to the spindle at E, so 
 as to be turned round with it; the screw draws the 
 chuck hard up against the end of the mandril, which 
 being turned true, and the shoulder of the screw upon 
 the chuck being also turned true, the chuck fixes so 
 tight to the spindle that it becomes like one piece with 
 
TURNING. 
 
 it. Some chucks are only flat round boards, and the 
 work is cemented or screwed against them ; but the 
 generality of chucks are cylindrical blocks, with a 
 hole turned in the end like a box, into which the piece 
 of wood to be turned is driven fast, so as to be carried 
 about with it. The chucks are generally hooped with 
 iron to prevent their splitting. 
 
 The manner of turning in Wood. — To explain all 
 these things in a clear manner, it will be best to describe 
 the simple process of turning a plain cylinder or 
 roller. A piece of w'ood being chosen, is by means of j 
 the saw, axe, and chisel, reduced to a cylindrical 
 form, and by the rasp or draw knife it is made to- J 
 lerably correct ; a chuck is then selected which has a ; 
 hole in it nearly the size of the piece of wood. The ! 
 diameter of this being taken in the outside end of the [ 
 callipers, the chuck is screwed into the mandril, tire 
 rest fixed in a convenient position, and the hole in the 
 chuck turned out by the right side tool, Fig .18, to the 
 size measured by the inside end of the callipers. The 
 hole should be rather conical, and the w-ood being rasped 
 to the same figure, is driven in fast by a hammer. By ! 
 turning the mandril slowly round, it will be seen if the 
 wood is fixed straight in a line with it, and if not a I 
 blow or two of the hammer properly directed will rec- 
 tify it. The rest is set with its edge parallel to the out- | 
 side of the piece of wood, and it is roughly turned by | 
 the gouge to a cylinder. To do this the gouge is held i 
 very firmly down upon the rest, taking its handle in the I 
 right hand and placing the fingers of the left in the hoi- j 
 low part near the w'ork ; the edge is presented to the j 
 work in such a direction that the tool is nearly a tangent • 
 to the surface of the cylinder. In this state it cuts 
 best, and must be held very firmly to prevent the edge 
 being depressed by the motion of the work ; for if it 
 does, it will take hold too deep and tear the w'ork. This 
 tool is applied first to one end of the work and gradually 
 advanced to the other, turning the work true all the 
 wav, and reducing it till the callipers determine it to be 
 near the intended diameter. The chisel is now em- 
 ployed to smooth the cylinder ; its handle is held in the 
 right hand, whilst the left grasps the blade and keeps it 
 steady upon the rest, holding the edge a little inclined 
 over the work, so that one side of the flat part of the 
 blade lays on the rest, and the other side is elevated 
 that the plane of the blade, and consequently the edge 
 is not horizontal but inclined thereto ; so that one 
 corner of the edge of the chisel is elevated upon the 
 work, then the bottom or near the bottom of the edge 
 of the chisel cuts away a shaving off the work, and this 
 is the only way in which it will cut: for if the edge of 
 the chisel is held parallel to the axis of the cylinder, it 
 acts across the length of the grain of the wood, scraping 
 away the fibres one by one without cutting, and leaves 
 the surface very rough. Some chisels, Fig. 16, have 
 their edges inclined for the convenience of holding them 
 properly before the w r ork. The work, being thus re- 
 duced to a rough cylinder, must have its end made ex- j 
 actly flat ; to do this the thin side of the chisel is laid 
 
 553 
 
 upon the rest, so that the plane of the edge may stand 
 exactly upright ; the hand is depressed that the lower 
 corner of the edge will rise against the work and cut a 
 deep circle into it near the end, and being steadily ad- 
 vanced cuts to the centre, separating a thin round chip 
 and leaving the end quite flat. The cutting corner of the 
 chisel must be directed exactly perpendicular to the 
 length of the work in advancing it, otherwise the end 
 will be either concave or convex, and care must be 
 taken to keep the plane of the edge truly upright and 
 hold it very fine, for there is danger of the work draw'- 
 ing the chisel into the end of it w ith a deep spiral cut 
 like a screw, and tearing it out of the chuck. 
 
 The gouge and chisel are only used for turning soft 
 wood, such as alder, sallow, beech, &c. ; but if the ma- 
 terial to be turned be hard wood, as ebony, lignum 
 vita, or ivory, bone, &.c. the same mode of chuck- 
 ing is employed, but the tools and the manner of hold- 
 ing them is different. The hard wood tools are made 
 with a stronger and more obtuse edge, for a fine keen 
 edge would be carried away by the work when hard. 
 In turning soft wood, as before mentioned, the edge of 
 the chisel is at a considerable distance from the rest, 
 and inclined upwards at such an angle as will cut off 
 the greatest chip. But in hard wood the rest is raised 
 nearly to a level with the axis, so that the upper flat 
 surface of the tool points to the centre of the work to 
 be tui ned ; it is to be held down as firmly as possible to 
 the rest, and advanced to the work at intervals when- 
 ever it ceases to cut, by having removed all the projec- 
 tions of the work without the circle it describes by its 
 revolution. 
 
 Thus in turning soft wood, the tool is followed to the 
 work, but in hard, the work, by its revolution, comes 
 against the edge of the tool, tending to depress the 
 point and throw 7 up the handle, for this reason it is ne- 
 cessary to hold it very steady upon the rest. Hard 
 wood when first fixed is wrought with the sharp-pointed 
 grooving tool, Fig. 10, cuts small contiguous grooves on 
 the surface till it has broken the grain of the wood, 
 removed all exuberances, and reduced the w'ork nearly 
 to its intended size and figure. Thin tools, like chi- 
 sels, Figs.Q}, 13, or 17, but made very thick with an 
 obtuse edge and only bevelled on one side, are used to 
 remove the eminences left between the grooves formed 
 by the first tool ; the w'ork is then smoothed by apply- 
 ing the edge of a piece of the blade of a broken 
 knife bevelled away, and the work is followed up w ith 
 it that its sharp edge may scrape aw'ay any roughness 
 left by the tools. To polish it, a piece of seal skin, 
 Dutch reed, or glass paper, is held upon the Work as it 
 runs round, and cuts away a fine powder, making the 
 work smooth enough to receive a polish. This is 
 raised by applying a piece of bees’ wax till the work is 
 lightly covered with it, then burnishing or polishing it 
 by holding a flat piece of hard wood upon it, and the 
 finish is given by the friction of a coarse woollen rag, 
 lightly smeared with olive oil. 
 
 Ivory is turned nearly in the same manner, but is po- 
 • 7 B lished 
 
554 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 fished with chalk and water, and, afterwards by the 
 friction of a woollen cloth. If it is first toughed with 
 an oily rag, and rubbed off with a dry woollen rag, it 
 will have a very fine surface. 
 
 The reader will by this have a very good idea of the 
 method of turning wood, both hard and soft; and it is 
 plain, if any mouldings or other ornaments are required 
 upon the work, they may be made by some of the tools 
 contained in the plate. Thus, the rough-edge tools, Figs. 
 7 or 8, may be used to turn hollows on the work, and 
 any convex rims may be performed by the chisels, or the 
 side tool, Fig. 1 1. We shall, to give a farther example, 
 describe the method of turning a small round box with 
 a screw lid, as being best calculated to explain every 
 kind of chuck w'ork, and also the method of cutting 
 male and female screws. A cylinder of wood, the size 
 of the outside of the intended box, being formed by 
 the process we have just described, the rest is set oppo- 
 site the end of it, the edge perpendicularly to the length; 
 then a sharp-pointed tool, Fig. 10, is used to bore such a 
 hollow in the end as will form the cavity for the lid of 
 the box, using the outside callipers to determine the size 
 of it. The side tool, Fig. 18, is now used to make the 
 bottom of the lid square,; or the hook, Fig! 9 ; the edge 
 at the end of the hook being employed to enlarge the in- 
 side to the proper size to have the female screw cut 
 within it : to form this, the screw' tool, Fig. 15, is used ; 
 this, as the figure shews, has several teeth, which being 
 applied to the inside of the cylindrical part of the lid, 
 whilst the length of the tool is in the direction of the 
 mandril, will evidently cut as many parallel and equi- 
 distant circles as there are teeth in the tool. Now, if 
 instead of holding the tool still withinside, it is first ap- 
 plied at the end of the inside of the lid, and is regularly 
 advanced up towards the mandril, as the work turns 
 round its teeth, it will, instead of describing circles, trace 
 the spirals of a screw on the inside of the lid ; and if the 
 advancement is timed so exactly that, in one revolution, 
 the tool is advanced, the exact quantity of a space be- 
 tween two adjacent teeth, then the second tooth will, at 
 the end of a revolution, fall into the spiral cut by the 
 first tooth ; and one complete spiral being thus cut, it 
 guides the whole tool by means of the second tooth re- 
 gularly along, the first tooth continuing the spiral for- 
 wards till a third tooth lays hold, then a fourth, and so 
 on, till the required length, or rather depth, of screw is 
 cut : the trace of a screw being thus made, the tool is 
 pressed deeper till the threads are fully formed, the 
 turner taking care every time that the end tooth of the tool 
 gets to the bottom of the lid to disengage it, and draw 
 it back, for, as it could not advance any farther, it 
 would then spoil all the threads by cutting them to cir- 
 cular rings. 
 
 This method of cutting screws is called cutting fly- 
 ing ; and requires great habit and dexterity to give the 
 motion so exact that it will cause the teeth to fall pro- 
 perly into the spirals cut by their predecessors, and this 
 . without any sudden advance at the place, for the screw 
 would then be what is called drunken, that is, its thread 
 
 would be mole inclined at one part of its revolution 
 than another, and such a screw can never be fitted ex- 
 actly with its fellow'. 
 
 The habit of cutting screws accurately with the 
 screw tool can only be acquired by practice and experi- 
 ence ; the only precaution which is taken being to get 
 the lathe-wheel into a regular and steady movement, 
 and then to advance the tool with a regular motion, and 
 at such a rate as has been found by experience will be 
 proper for the size of thread intended to be cut. 
 
 Professed turners, who are constantly in tire habit of 
 cutting such threads, will do them extremely well, but 
 others are glad to avail themselves of the assistance of 
 a regulator, on the mandril ; this is shewn at a, Fig. ] . 
 It is a steel thread, cut very accurately. A small pup- 
 pet j is wedged in the bed beneath this, and in the top 
 of it is a mortise to receive a square piece of wood, which 
 slides in the mortise, by driving in a w'edge d; the top 
 of this slider has a half-circle cavity cut in it, which 
 embraces the screw, and has a thread in it. The man- 
 dril, when this regulator is employed, is made with cy- 
 lindrical collars at each end, instead of the point of the 
 screw at c, so that it is at liberty to slide endways by the 
 movement of the screw, when the wedge d is driven in. 
 Therefore, every thing being prepared for cutting the 
 screw, the wedge is driven in ; this raises the slider or 
 die up to touch the regulator, the tool is then applied, 
 and the lathe put in motion ; the mandril will then 
 move along endways, and also the work with it, so that 
 [ the tool will cut a screw, although it is held fast upon 
 I the rest. In this case, the screw may be cut by a single 
 pointed tool, but it will be better to use a screw tool, 
 Fig. 15, which is of exactly the same thread as the regu- 
 lator. The turner should be provided with a variety of 
 sets of screw-tools, and as many regulators, a, corre- 
 sponding to them, which are made like a tube, and fitted 
 on the mandril. 
 
 We will suppose, that, by either of these means, the lid, 
 with a screw withinside of it, is finished, and is only to be 
 separated from the end of the wood out of which it is 
 formed ; this is done by the parting tool, Fig. 20, with 
 which a narrow groove is turned to the centre, and the 
 lid falls off. The box^is now began from the remainder 
 of the piece of wood ; the first thing is to turn down 
 a smaller cylinder at the end, leaving a shoulder to 
 screw the lid up to : this part is to have the male screw 
 cut upon it. The proper size of the cylinder is mea- 
 sured by the callipers, but it is left rather larger than the 
 screw' is intended to be, because it can be reduced gra- 
 dually by the screw-tool till it exactly fits, the female 
 screw in the lid. The male screw is cut by the tool. 
 Fig. 14, the rest being shifted parallel to the work; the 
 points of the tool are applied to the cylinder in a line 
 pointing to the centre, and, as the work turns, the tool 
 must have a regular advance given to it from right to 
 left, to trace the spiral for the male screw, in the same 
 manner as the female screw, and this is repeated by re- 
 turning the tool to the right hand, and cutting again till 
 it comes up to the shoulder ; in this manner the screw 
 
 is 
 
TURNING. 
 
 555 
 
 is soon cut up to a sharp thread, and the size of it is fitted 
 to the female screw cut in the lid. Then the length 
 of the screw is adapted to bring the lid true up to the 
 shoulder of the box, so that it makes a perfect joint ; in 
 this state the lid becomes again fixed in the lathe, and 
 the top or end of it is turned clean and true. The out- 
 side cylinder of the box, and the lid, are turned to the 
 same size, and polished as before directed ; this being 
 done, the lid is unscrewed and taken off, the rest turned 
 across the end of the work, and proper tools used to 
 bore or turn out the hollow or inside of the box, and, if 
 the work is particular, the gauge, Fig. 25, is used to de- 
 termine the depth to which it is to be turned. The box 
 is now finished, and only requires to be cut off the end of 
 the wood, by turning a groove with a parting tool till it 
 is separated. If it is afterwards thought proper to turn 
 the bottom of the box flat and smooth, it is done by 
 turning the lid for a second box, from the end of the 
 same wood, if enough remains ; then the box, by be- 
 ing screwed into this lid, becomes fixed in the lathe, 
 and may be finished and polished ; or, if the turner 
 does not intend to turn any more boxes, he puts a small 
 chuck in the lathe, the outside of which is turned to fit 
 the inside of the box, and this being driven upon it is 
 turned clean and flat at the bottom. 
 
 It is unnecessary to give any further example of wood 
 turning in a chuck, but if the work is long and slender, 
 and does not require to be hollow, its extremity is sup- 
 ported by the back centre-point J) the other end is 
 driven into a chuck, by which means motion is given to 
 it ; or, for some things in soft wood, a chuck is used, 
 which is flat at the end, and has two points fixed in it 
 at equal distances, on opposite sides of the centre; the 
 end of the work being placed against these points, is 
 pressed by the back screw, so that they penetrate it, and 
 it is thus carried about : the turning is conducted just as 
 before described for chuck-work. 
 
 This lathe is such as is commonly employed by wood 
 turners, for whose use it is well adapted ; but, for turn- 
 ing metal, an iron lathe is best ; these are sometimes 
 constructed in the same form as the wooden ones, only 
 differing the size of the parts, which are of cast iron ; 
 but this form is unwieldly when applied to delicate and 
 accurate work, such as is required by mechanics, clock- 
 makers, &c.; for their use the triangle-bar lathe is ad- 
 mirably adapted, as it is, also, for gentlemen, who make 
 this interesting art, an amusement, being the most accu- 
 rate and convenient of any kind of lathe. 
 
 The triangle-bar Lathe, on the best construction, is 
 shewn in Plate II, with many beautiful tools applied to 
 it, which render it an universal machine, applicable to a 
 great variety of purposes. Fig. 1 is an elevation, and 
 Fig. 2 is an end view of that part which is above the 
 bench or frame (A, Fig. 1, Plate I) containing the 
 foot-wheel, which is omitted in Plate II, to give the 
 parts on a larger scale. AA, Plate II, represents the 
 upper surface of a very thick and solid mahogany bench, 
 upon which the whole is fixed, and the foot-wheel is si- 
 tuated beneath it, if convenient, to apply it in this 
 
 manner ; the puppets, and other parts of the lathe, are 
 all fitted upon a strong triangular bar G, made of cast 
 iron, planed and ground perfectly straight and true ; it 
 is supported by standard a b and c, fixed to the bench 
 by screws, as shewn in the figure. Upon this bar the 
 puppets H, I, and K, are fitted with the nlost perfect 
 accuracy, and H, which is called the back puppet, can 
 be fastened upon any part of the bar, by a screw e be- 
 neath it ; the other two puppets are likewise furnished 
 with screws beneath, to fasten the bar to them ; but 
 these tw'o are supported independently of the bar, being 
 connected together by a thick plate of metal D, screwed 
 to their lower surfaces, and this is fixed on the standards 
 a and b, so as to form an insulated frame, a K, b I 
 and D, containing the mandril, or spindle, L. The 
 puppet K, has a steel pivot with a hole in the end to 
 receive the pointed end of the mandril L, a screw f is 
 placed behind to force it up, and another at the top, to 
 fasten it when adjusted, so that the neck of the mandril 
 will exactly fit, without shake, into the steel collar 
 which is fixed in the upper end of the puppet I. The 
 back puppet H has a hole bored through it, exactly in 
 the line of the spindle, to receive a cylindrical steel pin 
 n, which has a sharp conical point to support the end 
 of a long piece of work : a screw m is placed behind 
 to force it up and keep the w'ork always tight, and a 
 screw z fastens the pin in its place. 
 
 The rest of the lathe is thus made : — A brass piece 
 o o, called the saddle, is fitted- upon the sides of the 
 bar ; upon this a steel slider p is fixed, having a tube Y 
 to receive the shank of the rest T, with a screw to 
 fasten it at any height ; the slider p has a dove-tailed 
 groove in its lower surface (see Fig. 1), for the recep- 
 tion of dove-tails, formed, at the upper ends, of two 
 steel bars, shewn by the dotted lines 1, 2, in Fig. 3 ; 
 the two bars are united by a horizontal piece beneath the 
 bar, the whole being made of one piece, bent like a 
 staple or fork, and its tw'o arms, 1 and 2, fitted in mor- 
 tises cut through the saddle ; by this means, a single 
 screw, 4, tapped through the horizontal piece, and the 
 point pressing on the under side of the bar, will fasten 
 the rest, drawing the slider p down upon the saddle, by 
 the two dove-tails, and, at the same time, drawing the 
 saddle dowm fast upon the bar. 
 
 The mandril L is made hollow nearly through, and, 
 at the open end, is cut with a female screw, for the re- 
 ception of male screws upon the various chucks, which 
 fit to the lathe. This is a better method than the com- 
 mon way of a male screw on the mandril, because of 
 the care with w hich the male screws for the chucks can 
 be cut in brass, and the convenience of putting long 
 work up the hollow mandril. This lathe has all the parts 
 before described of the wooden lathe, but is far more 
 convenient, because of the ease with w'hich the puppet 
 and rest can be shifted and fixed by only the finger and 
 thumb, and yet the whole is much stronger, the puppets 
 being so low from the bar ; and another advantage is, 
 the accuracy with which the back centre-point n alw'ays 
 keeps in a line with the mandril, which is indispensable 
 
556 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 for good turning; also, the puppets being so slender, 
 the. operator has better access to the work than between 
 clumsy wooden puppets, and which are not so strong as 
 the small metal ones. 
 
 When very large or very long work is required to be 
 turned in this lathe, another standard exactly similar to 
 c, is placed under the bar in the position shewn by the 
 dotted lines, 5, Fig. I ; the bar is then drawn out, leaving 
 the mandril standing between the two standards I and K, 
 in which situation it will admit a piece of work of very 
 large diameter. The rest is fixed upon the end of the 
 triangular bar which projects beyond the dotted standard 
 5; or, if any long work is to be turned, the back 
 puppet H is to be placed on the end of the bar beyond 
 the standard c ; this, as well as the temporary standard, 
 has a thumb screw in the under side, between its legs, 
 to fasten the bar in it. The most convenient method of 
 fastening the temporary standard upon the bench A, is 
 by means of a piece of brass, 5, screwed fast upon the 
 bench ; it is dove-tailed in between the two legs or feet 
 of the standard, and thus holds it fast down, though it 
 «an be removed by sliding it endways, without drawing 
 any screw. By this contrivance of drawing out the bar, 
 the lathe has all the conveniences of a small and deli- 
 cate machine, when used for small work, but the strength 
 and other advantages of a large one when required. 
 
 The small figures in the plate describe the chucks and 
 other very useful tools, which are occasionally applied 
 to this lathe. 
 
 Fig. 7 is a section of a wood chuck, the uses of 
 which has been fully explained in the description of the 
 wooden lathe. A brass screw, D, is cut to fit the 
 mandril ; the other end, E, is also cut with a screw, 
 which is forced very hard into the wood F, so as not to 
 come off without great force ; by this means the fitting 
 of the chucks to the mandril is not with a wooden 
 screw, as in general, but with a brass one, which will 
 not be liable to get out of truth, but always screw up 
 to the same shoulder; the lathe should, at least, have 
 two dozen of these wood chucks, some of them hooped, 
 as at d , to prevent them splitting. 
 
 Fig. 1 1 is a very useful arbor, for turning wheels, 
 collets, 8cc., or any other flat work that will admit of 
 having a small hole in the centre of it ; it is a brass 
 screw' chuck a, fitted to the mandril, and a steel pin d, 
 shewn by the dotted lines fixed into it, and projecting 
 an inch or more ; it is turned true, and the work fitted 
 upon it either by turning the pin to size, or by broach- 
 ing the hole in the work ; and, to prevent slipping, the 
 work, marked E, is jambed fast up against the brass 
 shoulder b, of the chuck a, by a nut c, tapped on the 
 end of the steel pin ; by this the work E will be held 
 fast, and be carried round by the chuck, so as to be 
 turned by the application of proper tools upon the 
 rest. 
 
 Fig. 10 is a watch-maker’s arbor, for similar work to 
 the last, but where the work is thick enough to stand 
 fast in the square without requiring the support of a 
 shoulder, or requiring a nut to screw it fast. A is a 
 
 | chuck made hollow like a box, with a small piece of 
 ! hard steel b, having a small hole through it, exactly in 
 the centre. B is a watch-maker’s arbor, such as is used 
 in the turn-bench; it is made of steel, rather conical, 
 but turned extremely true ; one of its points is to be 
 supported in the hole in the centre of the chuck, and 
 , the other end in the back centre of the lathe. The 
 work to be turned has, as before, a hole in the centre of 
 it, and the arbor is driven into this till it is fixed quite 
 j fast upon it ; then, to turn this arbor about by the 
 mandril, a piece of brass c, called the driver, is tapped 
 upon the arbor, and fixed fast by being screwed up 
 i against the pulley b, which is fixed on the arbor; the 
 ends of this piece are received in notches made in the 
 opposite sides of the box chuck A, at d d; by these 
 means the motion of the lathe is communicated to the 
 arbor to turn the work rapidly till it is near its dimen- 
 sions ; and, having done this, if extreme truth is required, 
 the arbor is to be taken out of the lathe, the driver c is 
 unscrew'ed, and the arbor is turned by the bow in the 
 manner of a turn-bench, which will be described ; so 
 that if the hole b, in the chuck, should not be exactly in 
 the centre of the mandril, the error will be rectified. 
 
 Centre work, such as a long axis, or arbor of steel, 
 may be mounted in the lathe by two methods : — In one, 
 a small chuck, with a square hole in the end of it, is 
 screwed into the mandril, and the work has a square 
 filed at one end to fit this hole, the other end is sup- 
 ported by the back centre, a small hole being made in 
 the end to receive its point ; or, if the end of the work 
 is pointed, the back centre is drawrn out, and turned end 
 for end, the end opposite to the point having a small 
 centre hole for the reception of such pointed work. 
 This method of turning the work, by means of a square, 
 is very convenient but not very accurate, and if the 
 work should, at any future period, be required to be re- 
 turned in the lathe, its true centre cannot be found 
 again; therefore, all spindles, arbors, axles, screw's, &c., 
 are turned between centres : thus, a chuck H, Fig. 12, 
 is screwed into the mandril, it has a steel centre-point 
 formed at the end of it, which is turned extremely true, 
 to be in the centre of the mandril; between this and the 
 point of the back centre, the work is mounted, and, to 
 give it motion, the driver, Fig. 5 or 6, before de- 
 scribed, is screwed on that end of the work nearest to 
 the chuck, which has a steel clutch D fitted into it, and 
 fastened by a screw ; the end of this is bent so as to 
 clutch the tail of the driver W, and thus turn it round, 
 and the work all together ; the clutch slides in and out 
 to adapt itself to different sized drivers for delicate or 
 large work. This method of turning is best, because 
 the centres are preserved, and, when one end is finished, 
 the driver may be shifted to the other end ; or such w'ork 
 may, at any time, be mounted again in any kind of 
 lathe, to turn wheels, collets, &c., which may be fitted 
 upon it. 
 
 In Fig. 9, are two views of a very useful chuck to 
 hold brass or steel wire, for turning screws or small 
 pins. It is a steel or brass tube A B, with a screw B 
 
 to 
 
TURNING. 
 
 557 
 
 to fit the mandril, and it has also six small screws 
 three at a a, and three at b b, pointing to the centre, as 
 shewn in the end view. The points of these are 
 screwed fast to pinch the w ire between the points. By 
 this, a long piece of wire, of any size, may be held, 
 the greatest part of its length being put within the hol- 
 low of the mandril, and only as much left projecting 
 beyond the chuck as is sufficient to turn one or two 
 screws, which being finished, by slacking one of the 
 screws another length of the wire may be drawn out. 
 The three screws give the means of centering the wire ' 
 very truly, so as to waste very little. 
 
 Fig. 12 is an apparatus useful for many purposes 
 when the small centre hole at the end of any long piece 
 of work has been lost, or cut away, and it is necessary 
 to put it in the lathe again. H is a horizontal section 
 of the back puppet ; through the middle of its centre- 
 pin n, the cock of the screw m, Fig. 1 , being removed. 
 ABC is a piece of steel screwed to the face of the 
 puppet H, by screws B and C, which being fitted in 
 grooves, permit the steel to slide ; it has a conical hole 
 through it at A, exactly in the line of the centre-pin, 
 and in this the end of any piece of work may be sup- 
 ported, if the centre is lost. The same apparatus is 
 also useful to drill small tubes of brass from a piece of 
 wire, as F, Fig. 1 2 ; this is shewn with a driver W of 
 the same form as Fig. 5, screwed on one end of it, 
 which is supported by the steel centre-point of the 
 chuck H, screwed into the end of the mandril. The 
 wire is turned round by the steep arm D attached to 
 the chuck, and intercepting the tail of the driver W ; 
 the other end of the wire is supported in the conical 
 hole at A. The drill is applied thus ; a cylindrical pin 
 of brass K is drilled through with a small hole of a 
 proper size to receive a metal steel wire L, the point of 
 which is made to a drill ; the outside of the pin K is 
 turned to fit exactly in the hole through the back puppet 
 H, then the drill L, being thrust forward by hand, will 
 be exactly in the centre of the work F, which is to be 
 bored, and may be occasionally withdrawn to clear the 
 chips, which would otherw ise clog it up, and break a 
 small drill. By this apparatus, tubes, not larger than 
 a pin, may be drilled up four or five inches, and per- 
 fectly straight. 
 
 Fig. 8, is a stock for drills, consisting of a steel ar- 
 bor, v, with a square hole in the end of it, fixed fast 
 into a brass screw A, which fits it to the mandril ; then 
 a drill b, being fitted into the square hole at the end of 
 it, forms a very complete drilling machine ; the work to 
 be perforated is held against a flat chuck B, which is 
 pushed upon the centre n of the puppet H, and the 
 screw m, advances it to the drill : the great advantage of 
 this method is that it will always bore perpendicularly 
 to the flat sides of the work. 
 
 An apparatus is fitted to this lathe for turning cylin- 
 ders, or cutting screws, in the following manner : two 
 strong steel rods, 7 7, Figs. 1 and 2, are fixed fast into 
 the saddle o o of the rest ; these rods must be exactly 
 parallel to the bar, and are received in holes through a 
 
 1 piece of brass, 8, fitted upon the angle of the bar ; it 
 has two screws to fasten it to the rods at any distance 
 from the rest, and then it gives the rest two bearings on 
 the bar, at a considerable distance asunder, viz. fromoo 
 to 8, Fig. 1 ; a heavy weight of cast iron is suspended 
 under the lathe from the two rods, 7, and thus keeps 
 the whole tight down upon the bar, whilst it slides in 
 the most accurate manner from one end of the lathe to 
 the other, and exactly parallel to the axis of it, the 
 screw 4 under the saddle of the vest is of course turned 
 back to admit of the motion ; but as it is necessary to fix 
 the steel slider p, firmly down upon the saddle, it is 
 done thus; two bars of steel are fixed across the under- 
 side of the brass saddle at 10, 10, Fig. 1, so as to have 
 one on each side of the bar of steel fork, 1, 2, Fig. 2, 
 before described ; then a washer, being put under the 
 I shoulder of the screw, 4, aud resting upon the bars, 
 
 I 10, 10, the point of the screw will not touch the bar 
 j when screwed tight, but will draw down the fork 12 3, 
 thus fastening the slider,/?, upon the saddle, but leaving the 
 saddle at liberty to slide along the bar freely ; the washer 
 being removed, the screw, 4, will fasten the whole rest 
 upon the bar as before described. 
 
 The tool, for cutting screw's or cylinders is fixed in a 
 small apparatus called a slide rest, shewn in Fig. 2 ; it 
 consists of a strong plate, 12, w'ith a stem or shank, to 
 fix into the tube, y, of the rest, and upon this a dove- 
 tailed piece is fixed by two pieces screwed dow’n upon 
 the plate, 1 2, at each side of it, to form a dove-tailed 
 groove ; at the ends of the slider two cocks or holders, 
 14, rise up from it, which have holes for the reception 
 of the tool, 15, and screws to fasten it in a screw 
 turned by means of a key with a milled head applied 
 to its square, shewn near 12, is employed to force the 
 slider and tool forward to its work. In this state the 
 lathe is prepared for turning an exact cylinder mounted 
 between the centres of the lathe, the tool being fixed in 
 its holders, 14, and its point set to the proper depth 
 by the screw 12, it will be held fast without the aid of 
 hands, and the w hole slider being traversed along the bar, 
 the tool advances in a right line parallel to the axis, turn- 
 ing the cylinder exactly true and of any required diame- 
 ter, according to the depth to which the tool is set by the 
 screw 12, w ith the greatest ease, which is a great conve- 
 nience for many kinds of work, as it turns much more 
 accurately than tan le done by hand; but when it is 
 required to advance the tool with such a regular pro- 
 gressive motion as will trace or cut out the spiral of a 
 screw upon the circumference of the cylinder, the fol- 
 lowing addi:ionsare made: a cock, t, Fig. I, is screwed 
 on the side of I lie puppet I, it has a socket formed in it 
 for the reception of the end ot a long screw', shewn by 
 the doited lines t; it is tapped through the saddle o o of 
 the rest, at t, Fig. 2, so that by turning this screw 
 the lest is caused to traverse along the bar of the lathe; 
 the motion is given to the screw by a cog-wheel, 17, 
 fixed upon it, and the chuck of the lathe has also a 
 wheel, 18, Fig. 2, fixed upon it, the motion being con- 
 veyed from one to the other by means of an interme- 
 7 C diate 
 
 I 
 
558 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 diate wheel shewn by the dotted circle in Fig. 3, which i 
 turns on a pin fixed in a piece of brass, held by a screw | 
 against the face puppet I, so that it can be adjusted 
 into a proper position, to gear or work, with both | 
 wheels, 17 and 18, let their relative diameters, be what 
 they may. The proportions of these determine the 
 size of the screw, which will be cut upon the cylinder 
 in the lathe, for the thread of the screw which is cut 
 will bear the same proportion to the thread of the screw 
 t, as the two wheels 17 and 18 bear to each other. 
 Thus if the screw t, has twenty threads per inch, and 
 the wheels 17 and 18 are as 2 to 1, the screw which is 
 cut will have forty threads per inch. For cutting female 
 screws, the same method is used, but a tool formed 
 like a hook is used that its point may enter a piece of 
 hollow work when it is put in the chuck at the end of 
 the mandril. 
 
 This method of cutting screws by the lathe is prefer- 
 able to any other, as it admits of the greatest accuracy, 
 and is quite general, for if the regulator screw t, is per- 
 fect and correct, it will cut a correct screw of any kind, 
 and, by having a number of wheels, any kind of screw' 
 may be cut, and any form of thread, either sharp or 
 square ; the tool used for it may be either a single point, 
 or a screw tool such as before described, which will 
 cut best, because it guides itself, and, therefore, does 
 not throw so much strain upon the regulator screw t, 
 by means of the sliding rest has been explained ; it is 
 one of the greatest modern improvements in the art of 
 turning metal to employ the slide rest, for all kinds of 
 work, which it will do with the greatest dispatch and 
 accuracy, and without any labour on the part of the 
 workman. 
 
 A complete'sliding rest is shewn in Figs. 3 and 4, fitted 
 to the triangle bar lathe, the first of these figures, is in 
 part a repetition of the mandril as shew'n in Fig. 1 ,*and 
 its frame, to shew the manner in which the slide rest, 
 applies itself to the work held in a chuck, at the end of 
 the mandril, the slide rest has two horizontal sliders in 
 directions perpendicular to each other, to one of these 
 the tool is firmly attached, and by means of screws 
 with handles, the sliders and the tool can be moved in 
 any direction to follow the tool to the work; 12 in both 
 figures is a frame of metal, fitted to the bar of the lathe, 
 and provided with a screw beneath to fasten it at any 
 place ; upon its upper surface, which is made flat, two 
 pieces of brass are screwed, to form a dove-tail groove, 
 in which a steel slider, 13, is fitted to move with free- 
 dom and precision ; a screw is mounted in a frame, 
 and is tapped into a piece of metal, projecting from the 
 lower side of the slider, so that the screw, when turned 
 round by a handle, 1 5, fitted on its square end, advances 
 or draws back the slider in its groove. Upon this slider, 
 a frame, 1 (j, is screwed, having a second slider fitted 
 on the top of it, and provided with a screw, 17, as the 
 former to move it, and this upper slider carries a piece 
 of metal, 18, with square holes through it in two op- 
 posite directions to receive the tool, and a screw at top 
 to fasten it in. The slide-rest being mounted in the 
 
 manner of Figs. 3 and 4, upon the bar ; the upper slider 
 is parallel with the mandril, and the lower one perpen- 
 dicular thereto. For turning flat W'ork, the tool is put in 
 as there shown: Now', by turning the screw, 17 of 
 the upper slider, the tool is advanced in contact with 
 the work, which is mounted as in Fig. S ; then, by the 
 other screw’, 15, it is drawn across the face of the 
 w'ork, turning it, as it proceeds, to a perfectly flat sur- 
 face. For turning a cylinder, mounted between cen- 
 tres, the tool is put through its holder, in a direction 
 perpendicular to that shewn in Fig. 3, and then the 
 screw, 15, of the lower slider is moved to adjust the 
 tool to the diameter of the intended work, and the 
 upper slider is moved by its handle, 17, to carry the 
 tool along the length of the cylinder, and cut it as it 
 goes : the whole rest can be fixed at any part of the 
 bar, and can be removed instantly if required. The 
 slider rest will also turn cones, by the following con- 
 trivance : — The frame, 16, supporting the upper slider, 
 is fitted to the low'er slider by one pin, upon which the 
 whole frame and the upper slider may be turned round, 
 and fastened at any inclination by two screws r passing 
 through circular grooves. By this means, the upper 
 slider is inclined in any required angle to the mandril, 
 and will then turn a cone, either hollow' or solid, ac- 
 cording as the tool is put in its holder, 18, in one or 
 other direction. The great advantage of the slide rest 
 is, that it presents the tool so firmly to the work that it 
 will not retreat in the least when any protuberance 
 comes by, but cuts it away if the strain is not so great 
 as to break the tool, but of this there is no danger if it 
 is properly managed, because the screw advances the 
 tool so slowly that there is no need to push it forwards 
 suddenly, as it is often unavoidable in turning by hand. 
 The sliders are often divided into inches and subdivi- 
 sions, by which the work can be made exactly to any 
 , dimensions, without trouble ; any two things may be 
 f fitted exactly together ; and the upper slider has an 
 1 index to shew the angle of inclination which it makes 
 3 with the lower, when set for turning cones, so that a 
 s hollow cone being bored out in a chuck, a solid plug 
 1 may be turned to fit it, the rest, without trial, making 
 
 1 it certainly of the true angle. A very convenient uni- 
 , versal chuck is shew'n in the act of holding the piece of 
 7 work, in Figs. 3 and 4; it consists of a flat circular 
 ) plate D, having two grooves in it pointing to its centre : 
 
 , these grooves contain sliders, which have steel jaws a , 
 
 similar to those of a vice, attached to them, for the 
 , purpose of clamping the work between their teeth. 
 
 2 The sliders go through the plate at b b, Fig. 3, and 
 1 have a screw c, tapped through them ; one end of this 
 s screw is cut with a right-hand thread, and the oppo- 
 , site end has a left-hand thread; so that the inclination 
 1 of the spirals, upon the two ends, are contrary to each 
 e other ; by this means, when the screw is turned one 
 e way round, by means of a key applied to its end, it 
 - will cause the two sliders to recede mutually from the 
 p centre of the chuck ; but, on turning it in the opposite 
 e direction, they will advance towards each other, always 
 
 I keeping v 
 
TURNING. 
 
 559 
 
 keeping equally distant from the centre, by which means 
 any piece of circular work, F, may be held on the lathe 
 to be turned, with the same ease and steadiness as it 
 would be fixed in the vice to be filed ; the circular 
 plate is screwed against a centre piece, G, which is 
 screwed into the mandril, and is cut hollow to permit 
 the sliders to come almost close to each other when 
 small work is to be held between them ; the centre 
 piece has also a collar for the reception of a neck 
 formed in the middle of the screw between the two 
 threads, to prevent it moving endways, or the work 
 would be at liberty to slide backward and forward in 
 the grooves of the flat plate, but this collar makes it 
 all fast. 
 
 Metal-turning tools . — The tools used for turning 
 brass or cast iron, are made from bars of steel ; for as 
 those who turn metal are usually general mechanics, 
 they make the tools themselves, and adapted for any 
 particular occasion they require ; the principal tools are 
 gravers, square tools, pointed tools, round tools, and 
 hooks. The graver, see Fig. 6, PI. I, is made like 
 those used by engravers, from a square steel bar, cut 
 off by an oblique plane at the end, which makes a] 
 lozenge, or diamond face, and produces two inclined 
 edges at two of the flat sides of the bar ; these two are 
 inclined opposite ways, so that the graver serves either 
 for left or right-hand work by only turning it one quarter 
 round to bring up another side. The point formed by 
 the acute angle in which the two inclined edges meet, 
 is best adapted for cutting of any other form, and is 
 exceedingly strong ; the flat sides give it an excellent 
 bearing upon the rest ; another convenience of the graver 
 is, the ease with which it is sharpened, which is an 
 object in turning hard metal, when it is so frequently 
 necessary ; it only lequires to be held on the grind-stone 
 in the proper angle, to grind the diamond face away, 
 and thus make sharp edges with the two flat sides. 
 Gravers, and all tools for metal, are hardened and | 
 tempered to a light straw colour, so as to leave them j 
 very hard ; cast steel is the best material. The graver 
 is used to rough the work, its point being used to cut 
 grooves all over the surface till it is true, and then the 
 welved edge of the graver, or else a square or round 
 tool, makes it smooth and a proper figure. It is neces- 
 sary in beginning to turn w'ith a small sharp point, for 
 the resistance to any kind of edge, would, in beginning, 
 be so great as to tear every thing in pieces. Square 
 tools are made like a narrow chisel, except that they 
 are very thick, and the angle of the edge very obtuse ; 
 the upper surface which is flat, is, in turning, made to 
 point to the centre of the work. Round tools are like 
 the former, except that the edges are made round for 
 forming hollow mouldings, &c. 
 
 The pointed tool has two inclined edges forming a 
 point which cut grooves in any piece of work ; or its 
 edges may be used to turn shoulders either right or 
 left. 
 
 v Drills of various sizes to bore holes in chuck work ; 
 they are fixed in handles. 
 
 Right and left side tools, such as before described. 
 
 Heel tools are used for turning wrought iron, steel 
 or copper; they are made with edges of all the shapes 
 above-mentioned, but the end where the edge is formed 
 is bent, so that when it is presented to the work in its 
 proper direction, the handle is inclined upwards, in 
 such a position, that the end of it will lay on the 
 turner’s shoulder, and he holds it down firm with both 
 his hands, the heel of the tool being supported on the 
 rest. The metals above-mentioned are of a fibrous 
 texture, and turn away in a connected shaving, the tools 
 are therefore presented in the direction of a tangent to 
 the work, the same as for soft wood ; but as the drift 
 of the work would force the tool endways, if held in 
 the same manner as the chisel, it is necessary to have 
 a heel, or angle, which is placed immediately upon the 
 rest, then the long handle serves to guide and fix it, 
 and by elevating the end the edge cuts deeper. 
 
 Cast iron is turned by hook tools ; their edges are 
 formed in various ways, but very obtuse, being nearly 
 a right angle : in turning they are held in such a posi- 
 tion, that a line bisecting the angle of the edge is made 
 to point nearly to the centre ; but as the work is usually 
 large, and the metal very hard, some contrivance is 
 requisite to keep the tool up to the work, they are 
 therefore made with a hook which has the edge at the 
 end of it; the hook part is laid over the rest, in the 
 same manner as a crow bar is used to draw out a spike 
 or nail, and then by raising or depressing the end of 
 the handle, the edge is caused to approach or recede 
 from the work with any required force, by only a mo- 
 derate power applied at the end of the long handle ; 
 cannons, and other heavy cast-iron w'ork, are turned in 
 this manner. 
 
 The chucks used for turning metal are different from 
 those used for wood, because the articles are so various 
 in shape, and projecting pieces are never made for the 
 purpose of holding the work, as can be done in w ood ; 
 small brass work is held in wood chucks ; brass wheels, 
 collets, rings, &c. are chucked on the arbors, Fig. 10, 
 or 11, but if they are large, and require to have the 
 centre hole bored or turned out, they are fastened 
 against a flat chuck, by screws or small bolts with nuts 
 at the back ; this method is very general for all kinds 
 of flat work, and the lathe should have two or three 
 sizes of flat circular chucks, turned perfectly true, and 
 drilled with a great number of holes for the reception 
 of screws in any part, by which the work may be fixed 
 against it. 
 
 The universal chuck before mentioned at Fig. 3, will 
 hold almost any kind of work, and will supersede the 
 necessity of most others. Some turners use instead of 
 it a circular box with three or four holes tapped through 
 the sides of it and pointing to the centre ; this is conve- 
 nient for some work, because it admits of adjusting the 
 work truly to the centre. The steel for the dies used 
 for coning are checked in this way. 
 
 The only difference in the management of turning 
 different substances is, to adapt the velocity of the 
 
 motion 
 
560 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 motion to the nature of the material ; thus wood will 
 work best with the greatest velocity which can be given 
 to it, and of course a thin and delicate shaving must 
 be cut off ; brass should have a motion about half as 
 quick as wood ; iron and steel should be considerably 
 less, though few mechanics attend to this : cast-iron j 
 must go very slow, and the chip which is taken off will : 
 be in proportion, in order to save time. If these cir- 
 cumstances are not attended to, the edges of the tools 
 will be destroyed ; for it is a curious fact, that a soft 
 substance will wear away or cut the hardest steel by 
 only giving it a sufficient velocity, most probably by 
 heating or softening the steel just at the edge ; this will 
 be avoided by properly adjusting the velocity ; for this 
 purpose, the pulley or mandril is made with a number 
 of different sized grooves for the band, and the foot 
 wheel has likewise three or four grooves of different 
 sizes corresponding with them, so that by shifting the 
 band from one to another, any required velocity may 
 be given. A complete lathe should have a pulley on 
 the axis of the foot-wheel, not much larger than that 
 on the mandril, for turning steel or cast-iron, though 
 this material, being generally used for very large work, 
 is not often turned in a foot-lathe. For these purposes 
 a large massive lathe is employed ; it is generally made 
 in cast-iron, in the same form as the lathe in Plate II, 
 but turned by a steam-engine or horse-mill ; the endless 
 strap which communicates the motion being worked 
 upon a live and dead pulley fitted on the mandril, for 
 the convenience of discontinuing the motion at plea- 
 sure. Mr. Maudslay, of Westminster road, Lambeth, 
 who has a more complete and extensive turning-shop 
 than any other mechanic, employs the triangle bar lathe 
 for the largest work, the bar drawing out to admit it, 
 and all his lathes are provided with slide rests and uni- 
 versal chucks, like Fig. 3, which instrument he first 
 introduced into general practice ; his lathes are made 
 in a more elegant form than that represented in our 
 Plate, but contains all the same parts and has the same 
 uses. 
 
 The reciprocating motion of a treadle and string, like 
 the centre lathe, is never used for turning large work 
 in metal ; as the time and labour employed to do it in 
 this manner would be too great to answer ; but artists 
 who make small work, as watch and clock-makers, are 
 constantly in the habit of using. 
 
 The Turn Bench. — This is a small centre lathe in 
 which the motion is given to the w'ork by means of a 
 bow, like that used for drilling. The turn bench, Fig. 
 14, Plate II, is a very convenient kind of lathe for 
 small centre work, for it requires no frame, but is held 
 in the vice ; A A is the bar, made of iron, very straight 
 and tiue at oue end, the puppet B is fastened perpen- 
 dicularly to the bar; it has a hole drilled through it at 
 top to receive a cylindric steel pin, a, which is the 
 centre point, and a finger screw, b, to fasten it ; D is 
 a puppet similar to'B, but moveable along the bar to 
 any place to suit the length of the work, where it may 
 be fixed by the screw, cl ; F, is a socket for the rest, 
 
 sliding on the bar, and furnished with a screw, e; it 
 has a hole through it perpendicular to the bar, to con- 
 tain the slider J, Fig. 15, of the rest; this slider when 
 in its place, touches the top of the bar A, that when 
 the socket E is drawn by its screw' e, the slider f is 
 held tight from moving either in a direction perpendi- 
 cular or parallel to the bar : F is the rest, supported 
 by the slider and fixed at any height from the bar 
 by the screw g ; the steel centre points, a a, have a 
 sharp conical point at one end, and in the other a fine 
 hole, and either end is used according to the nature of 
 the work. 
 
 The manner of using the turn bench will be best 
 understood, by describing the method of making a small 
 ring or collet of brass ; a piece of brass plate is first to 
 be selected, of the proper thickness, and the hole drilled 
 and opened out by a broach to the intended size, then 
 with a pair of conical-pointed compasses a circle is 
 drawn round the hole, a small quantity larger than the 
 ring to be made, and by the saw, cold chisel, or shears, 
 the brass is cut out to the circle, and smoothed on the 
 edge by the file ; in this state the ring is to be driven 
 tight upon an arbor, G, see also Fig. 10 ; it is a co- 
 nical steel wire, with sharp points at the ends turned 
 truly ; several sized arbors of this kind accompany a 
 turn bench for various sized works : the string, or rather 
 catgut of a drill-bow, is now to be passed round the 
 small brass pulley H, fastened on the arbor, and the 
 arbor and collet are to be placed in the turn bench by 
 first sliding the puppet D on the bar to the proper 
 distance to receive the arbor, and fastening it by the 
 screw d, then inserting the point of the arbor into the 
 hole in the end of one of the pins a , and pushing the 
 other up till the arbor has no shake, the screw b being 
 turned will prevent it getting loose ; the rest F must 
 now be fixed opposite to the work and close to it, by 
 the screw e, and set rather below the level of the centre 
 of the arbor ; the whole turn bench being screwed in 
 the vice by the part n, the turning is began by drawing 
 the bow held in the left hand backwards and forwards; 
 this causes the work to turn round, and a graver, or 
 other turning tool before described, being held in the 
 right hand over the rest to the work, soon cuts it to a 
 circular figure. In the same manner, by means of 
 various sized arbors, small globes, nuts, or any other 
 work which will admit of having a hole through it, 
 may be formed in the turn bench. 
 
 A different method is employed in turning pins with 
 heads, small spindles, or arbors for wheels, &c. ; these 
 are made from brass, or steel wire, and the woikman 
 must provide himself with a number of small brass 
 pulleys, each having a small hole through it, which 
 holes are of different sizes, to suit various work ; if a 
 piece of steel wire is to be turned, it must be filed to 
 points at the ends, and one of the ends made a little 
 conical, then by driving it into one of the brass pul- 
 leys it may be turned by the bow, in the same manner 
 as the collet above described. But for some peculiarly 
 nice work, as the arbors of watch wheels, 8cc. which 
 
 are 
 
TURNING 
 
 are cylindrical, and therefore will not receive a brass 
 pulley without danger of slipping, another kind of pul- 
 ley must be used ; a simple one for this purpose is 
 made of wood, an 1 has a conical hole through it ; this 
 being driven on the c/lindric wire or arbor, will accom- 
 modate itself to the size of it without bruising or dis- 
 figuring the work, as the brass pulley would if it should 
 slip about it. The small pulley or ferrule shewn at Fig. 
 13, Plate Clock-Work, is intended for this kind of 1 
 work ; it is a steel ring or pulley, having a small bar left , 
 across it, this bar is tapped to receive two screws, by which | 
 another moveable bar is drawn up towards the fixed 
 one ; a small notch is filed in the middle of each bar 
 to hold the work, and by the screws it will adapt itself 
 to work of different sizes ; as the fixed bar is in the 
 same piece with the pulley, it will only fit one size of 
 work to be concentric with the axis of it ; but this is 
 not material when the pulley is to be turned by a drill 
 bow, for the string passes all round it, and will not be 
 more liable to slip for the pulley being eccentric. A 
 brass pulley, made like Fig. 13, is intended to be 
 fitted upon work which requires that it should be 
 concentric, and is adjusted by means of its three or 
 four screws, a a, as described before for the centre 
 lathe. When pins are to be turned from brass wire, 
 the sharp points at the ends of the pivots a a of the 
 turn bench are to be used, and corresponding holes 
 made in the ends of the brass wire ; for if points were j 
 made to the ends of the brass, there would be danger 
 that they would be w'orn away before the work was 
 finished, and it is not an easy matter to find the centre 
 again ; the treatment is the same in other respects as 
 for steel, except that different tools are used for cut- 
 ting it. I 
 
 In turning either brass or steel wire, it sometimes 
 happens that the wire is small, and is not of sufficient 
 strength to bear turning, or it may be in short pieces, 
 in such cases a stock is employed ; it is an arbor made 
 of steel, with a brass pulley fixed on at one end, the 
 other end is perforated with a round or square hole to j 
 receive the end of the short piece of w'ire which is to j 
 be turned ; this wire is to be pointed if steel, or if 
 brass, it should have a small hole in it for the point of 
 the turn bench centres, a a, between which it is turned 
 as before mentioned ; a notch is tiled in the stock near 1 
 its hollow end, so as to expose the end of wire which I 
 is driven into it tor the purpose of introducing the end 
 of a screw driver, or any other similar tool to force i 
 out the wire, for after it is turned it cannot be drawn 
 out by the pliers or vice without injuring, or perhaps 
 destroying the work : for turning very small work, a 
 round hole in the end of the stock w ill answer very 
 well, without slipping, but the larger articles must be 
 turned in a stock which has a square hole, and the wire ‘ 
 is filed square to go into it. Another very useful ap- 
 pendage to the turn bench is, a pin or pivot, see K, 
 Fig. 11, PI. Clock-work, which is fixed in the place 
 of the centre points, a or a, for the purpose of turn- 
 ing exceedingly fine pivots to the arbors of wheels, or 
 
 56T 
 
 for making sharp points to pins ; it has a conical hole 
 drilled up it, opening into a notch d, tiled in the point; 
 the article to be turned is prepared for this point by 
 first turning it by the common centres until the end of the 
 work is small enough to go through the hole in the 
 point, and project into the notch d; in this state, the 
 bearing for the turn is taken on a shoulder which 
 rests against the end of the point, and the end of the 
 pivot, which is beyond the hole, is relieved from the 
 strain occasioned by the motion of the bow ; and may, 
 in this state, be wrought extremely fine by files, and, 
 afterwards, by emery, or powder of rotten stone, spread 
 on the end of a piece of steel, and held against it. — See 
 Watch-Work. 
 
 Turn benches are greatly used by watch-finishers ; in- 
 deed, many have no other lathe or turning machine 
 than a turn bench and a turn. Their turn benches are 
 often made and finished in a most capital manner. The 
 best sort are called Geneva turn benches, and are like 
 Fig. 14 in shape; they are made of iron, and case- 
 hardened, so that a file will not touch them. The 
 points a a, are made to fit their sockets very truly, and 
 to defend them from receiving injury from the end of 
 the screw b b, pieces of steel, called bridle-bits, or, 
 more properly, saddles, are placed upon them. A 
 square hole is made through the puppet, intersecting 
 both the hole for the screw b, and the hole for the 
 point a, at right angles. The saddle is a small piece 
 of brass inserted into this hole, covering the centre- 
 point, and preventing the end of the screw from touch- 
 ing it, at the same time giving the screw a firmer hold 
 of the point, and preserving both point and screw from 
 injuring each other. The saddle is prevented from 
 dropping out of its hole, when the screw is loose, by a 
 screw which passes through a square piece of plate 
 which is in the same piece with the saddle ; in the same 
 manner, a steel spring is interposed between the end of 
 the screw d, and the lower side of the bar A A ; and 
 these springs act when the screws are slack, to make 
 the puppets slide stiffly, yet smoothly, along the bar 
 j A A. 
 
 A wheel and a pulley are sometimes applied to a 
 turn bench in the same manner as the centre lathe used 
 by millwrights. It is then called a throw, and is used 
 for turning small screws, &c., in brass ; in this case, a 
 brass pulley as large as will conveniently turn in the 
 turn bench, is fitted upon one of the centre points a ; 
 an opening is filed out in the pulley exactly similar to 
 one of the openings which would be in it if it were filed 
 out with four arms, and the remaining solid part is 
 tapped with several holes at different distances from the 
 centre, to receive pins, in the same manner as the centre 
 lathe above described. The pulley is turned by a cat- 
 gut band from a wheel worked with a handle ; the wheel 
 is mounted in a frame fixed on a board, and the turn 
 bench is set up in a frame fixed to the same board, be- 
 fore it ; the arbors, and other pieces of mechanism, 
 used in the turn bench, are turned by small drivers made 
 like Fig. 5, or the ends of them are filed square, and 
 7 D driven 
 
562 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 driven into pieces of brass plate, which are pushed 
 round by the pins in the pulley. 
 
 The watch-maker’s turn, shewn in P/. Clock-work, 
 Fig. 11 , is the tool in which he turns the most de- 
 licate and minute work. It is described in our article 
 Watch-work. 
 
 Elliptical Turning. — This is performed in the same 
 lathe and with the same tools as the circular work, but the 
 lathe is provided with a chuck which causes the work to 
 traverse in a very curious manner, to and from the 
 centre as it revolves, so that a tool, held up' 1 against it, 
 will cut it into an elliptical figure instead of a circle. 
 The work has a curious appearance, when in motion, 
 for, after the work has been turned truly elliptical, 
 every part of the circumference, except the exact point 
 where the tool is applied, appears to wabble, or be ec- 
 centric, in a great degree, but that one point of the cir- 
 cumference runs perfectly true and regular, the same as 
 the whole circumference of circular work does. The 
 mode of action of this ingenious chuck is rather difficult 
 to describe, but we will endeavour to give an idea of it, 
 by adverting to the principle of its action. This is the 
 same as the trammel, or elliptic compasses, see Fig. 
 16 ; these consist of a circular or square board A A, 
 B B, having two grooves in it perpendicular to each 
 other, this is fixed down upon the surface where the 
 ellipse is to be described ; the centre lines of the 
 grooves, forming the two diameters thereof, and, of 
 course, their intersection its centre, so that the curve 
 will be traced beyond the circumference of the board 
 by means of a pen or pencil, which is fixed at C to a 
 radical bar or beam E, the above carries two points or 
 pins F G, which are attached to dove-tailed sliders in- 
 serted into the grooves of the board as shewn in the 
 figure ; they are fitted in truly, so that each of the dove- 
 tails have a motion in its grooves, G moving along 
 B B, and F along the groove A A. By turning about 
 the beam E, they go backwards and forwards along the 
 cross grooves, so that when the beam has gone half- 
 way about, one of these sliders will have moved the 
 whole length of one of the halves of the cross, and 
 when the beam has gone quite round, the same dove- 
 tail has got back the whole length of the cross. The 
 same applies to the other dove-tail. 
 
 The pins F G and C can be fixed at any part of the 
 beam E at pleasure (though not represented so in the 
 figure), for the purpose of setting it to draw any parti- 
 cular ellipses ; thus place the beam in the direction of 
 the line B B, then the pin F will be in the centre of 
 the cross grooves ; now fix C at such a distance from 
 the centre F as is equal to half the small diameter of 
 N the ellipse, and set G so far distant from F as the dif- 
 ference of the two diameters ; consequently, from C to 
 G will be equal to half the longest diameter. Now, in 
 turning the beam round from the direction B B till it 
 comes to A A, the point F will depart from the centre 
 along A, and G will approach it along B, till it gets to 
 the centre ; then will C be so much farther from the 
 centre as F is distant from G, and has in its circuit 
 
 traced one-fourth of an ellipse; and, the beam being 
 turned quite round, will complete the whole curve. To 
 shew how' this apparatus may be applied to turning, we 
 must suppose the cross groove, made in a round board, 
 as large again as the figure ; then, if it is inverted, 
 and the beam E held fast in a vice, or otherwise, the 
 board with the cross may be traversed round upon the 
 dove-tails in the same manner as the beam could be 
 traversed round upon the board : Now, if we suppose 
 a tracing point, fixed exactly opposite the place where 
 the tracing point C is fixed to the beam, it is evident 
 its point will trace the same ellipsis on the back of the 
 board, which was before described on the face of the 
 surface it laid upon ; or, a chisel being held fast here, 
 will cut the board elliptical when turned round, and 
 being successively applied at different points along the 
 line of the beam E, a series of concentric ellipses may 
 be turned in the board to make mouldings for picture- 
 frames or other ornaments ; the distance of the two fixed 
 pins F and G being altered, will, at pleasure, vary the 
 proportion between the diameter of the ellipses in the 
 same manner as before described. 
 
 The oval chuck is constructed in a different manner 
 from this, though it preserves the same movements. It 
 consists of three parts — the chuck, the slides, and the 
 circle. The chuck H H, Fig. 17, is attached to the 
 mandril, by a screw projecting from the centre of it be- 
 hind, and turning round with it. Fig. 18 is a view of the 
 chuck behind, where the screw is marked h ; the chuck 
 has a dove-tailed groove formed in it at the part for the 
 reception of a slider K, which traverses freely in the 
 groove ; this is formed as the figure shews, by pieces 
 a a screwed to the chuck on each side. The centre of 
 the slider in front has a screw L, Fig. 17, projecting 
 from it, by which a wooden chuck may be screwed 
 against the slider, and any work can be fixed in it in the 
 usual manner, so that the work, at the same time it 
 tnrns round, by the motion of the chuck, has a sliding 
 motion across the cutter, which being given in a certain 
 line produces an elliptic motion. The sliding motion is 
 given by the circle, Fig. 1 9- This is a ring of brass 
 M attached fast to the puppet of the lathe, the mandril 
 passing through the aperture N : the ring has a flat 
 plate O, to strengthen it, and forming two bends at 
 the ends, which have screws P Q tapped through them, 
 and pointing exactly to each other ; these screws have 
 sharp points which enter small holes in each side of the 
 puppet, and the back of the circle M lying flat against 
 the front of the puppet, is, by this means, fixed fast; 
 the tw o screws P Q being then horizontal, and both 
 pointing to the centre of the mandril ; but, by screwing 
 one screw in, and the other out, the whole circle may 
 be brought forwards horizontally so as to give it any re- 
 quired degree of eccentricity from the mandril, and it 
 w ill be stationary wherever it is placed. Fig. 18, which 
 is a back view of the chuck, shews two grooves made 
 through it ; then admit the shanks of two straight-edged 
 pieces of steel R R, which are firmly attached to the 
 slider by a screw for each, as shewn at pp, Fig. 17, 
 
 in 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 563 
 
 in front thereof. The two inside edges of R are ex- 
 actly parallel, and the distance between them is exactly 
 equal to the diameter of the outside of the ring M, 
 which is included between them, when the chuck is 
 screwed to the mandril, and the circle fixed to the 
 puppet, as above-mentioned. Suppose then, the circle M 
 is set concentric with the mandril, which being turned 
 round, causes the chuck and slider together with the 
 work attached to the screw L, to revolve ; but the work ! 
 will now' run in a circle, and turn circular work as 
 usual, because the slider is guided by its claws RE, 
 embracing the circle M, to keep the same position in 
 its groove in the chuck, during all the parts of a revo- 
 lution. Now place the tool at such a distance from 
 the centre that it will describe a circle of equal diame- 
 ter to the breadth, or smallest diameter of the ellipses 
 intended to be turned (this is best done by fixing the ! 
 tool in the slide rest). Now turn about the mandril till 
 the slider comes horizontal, and setting the circle M 
 eccentric by its screws P and Q, it, of course, moves 
 the slider in the groove, and also the w-ork with it, 
 farther from the centre, because the two steel pieces 
 R R, at the back of the slider, include the circle be- 
 tween them. The quality of eccentricity given to the 
 ring is equal to the difference between the two diame- 
 ters of the required ellipses, so that the work shall 
 move or throw' out a sufficient distance to bring the 
 point of the tool as much beyond the circle first de- 
 scribed, as the length of the ellipses exceed the 
 breadth ; the point of the tool will now be at one end 
 of the longest diameter, and here we will commence 
 to trace the curve all round. In turning the mandril 
 round till the slider comes vertical, it must "return in its 
 groove to the place it first occupied, viz. the centre ; 
 because the circle M which guides it, is not eccentric 
 in a vertical direction, though it is in the horizontal. In 
 this motion, the point of the tool has described one 
 
 quadrant of an ellipsis, because it gradually approached 
 the centre a quantity equal to the eccentricity of the 
 circle M. By continuing to turn it round farther, the 
 circle will cause the slider to move out the other way 
 from the centre, in its groove, until it comes again ho- 
 rizontal, when it will be at the greatest throw-out, as 
 the turners call eccentricity ; and the point of the tool 
 will be at the other end of the longest diameter, having 
 described one half the curve. Continuing forwards, till 
 the slider becomes vertical, it will be eccentric again, 
 the tool, at the breadth of the oval, having finished 
 three quarters of the ellipses ; and, in turning the next, 
 or fourth quarter, the slider throws out till it comes 
 horizontal, and brings the work to the position where it 
 first set out, viz. at the greatest eccentricity, and the tool 
 at the end of the longest diameter of the ellipse. 
 
 The reader will not, perhaps, easily recognize tlie 
 simple trammel in this complicated chuck, though it 
 has, in reality, the same movement. Thus recurring 
 to our first idea of a board, with two cross grooves in 
 the back of it, turning round on two fixed pins which 
 enter dove-tails in those grooves. Suppose, that one of 
 the pins is extended to a large ring M, the groove being 
 proportionably widened to receive it, will have the same 
 effect ; this groove is two pieces of steel R R, which 
 have straight edges made truly parallel to each other, 
 and perpendicular to the length of the slider K, which 
 carries them. The other fixed pin is represented by 
 the mandril, and the slider K being always confined in 
 a right line across it, has the same effect as a pin enter- 
 ing a straight groove. 
 
 In turning oval work, in wood, the same tools are 
 used as for circular work, but they must be very deli- 
 cately used, because the circumference of the work 
 moves with such an unequal velocity, at different parts 
 of its revolution, that it is liable to draw the tool in, 
 if too much hold is taken in the first instance. 
 
 WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 The term watch is commonly applied to pocket or 
 portable time-keepers, and such of these as are in- 
 tended for the more curious purposes, have, of late 
 years, been carried to a high degree of excellence, both 
 regarding their theory and execution. But in the vari- 
 ous approaches to the present high state of improve- 
 ment, no one appears to have made so great a stride at 
 once as the late eminent Dr. Hooke, by his excellent 
 contrivance of applying a spiral spring to the arbor of 
 
 I the balance, by which means effects are produced on it* 
 i vibrations similar to the action of gravity on the pendulum 
 ! of a clock. Since this great improvement of Dr. Hooke’s, 
 ! very little has been added to common pocket watches. 
 The principal changes they have undergone has been in 
 i respect to their form, and, in this respect, the utility of 
 the instrument has been somewhat sacrificed to the 
 fashion of the day. Before Dr. Hooke’s improvements, 
 the performance of watches was so very irregular that 
 
 they 
 
564 
 
 WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 they were considered as serving only to give the time, 
 for a few hours, and this, in rather a random kind of 
 way ; and, accordingly, they were constructed so as to 
 be wound twice in twenty-four hours, and to be set oc- 
 casionally ; and for a longer period there could be no 
 trust in them. However, it was found to be of some 
 advantage to carry about the time even in this incorrect 
 way. Various attempts were made by Dr. Hooke to 
 render their performance more regular. One method 
 was, by applying a loadstone so as to affect the balance 
 in the manner that gravity affects the pendulum, and 
 this appears to be an ingenious notion ; for, by the ap- 
 plication of this, as a kind of artificial gravity, a pen- 
 dulum might be made to vibrate, either in the plane of 
 the horizon, or in any degree inclined, as well as per- 
 pendicular to it. But this scheme was found to appear 
 better in theory than in practice, and a tender spring was 
 next applied to produce effects analogous to the former, 
 by making one end of it play backwards and forwards 
 with the balance, so that the balance acted like the bob 
 of the pendulum, and the tender spring as gravity upon 
 it ; and after various trials and changing the form of this 
 spring to that of the spiral, it might be said to be re- 
 solved into this scheme at last. 
 
 The principles of watches thus improved, they were 
 soon brought to a wonderful degree of accuracy by that 
 admirable artist Mr. Tompion. They were made at 
 first with two balances, each having the like number of 
 teeth, and running in one another ; of course, they 
 moved in contrary directions, and, therefore, their mo- 
 tion could not be disordered by sudden turns or jerks of 
 the watch. Both balances had spiral springs applied to 
 their centres, though the pallets were fixed to one only. 
 These curious watches appear, by various testimonies, 
 to have been executed about the year 1658. On one 
 of these double-balance watches, presented to King 
 Charles the Second, was this inscription — “ Robert 
 Hook, inven. 1658 : T. Tompion, fecit, 1675.” — This 
 watch appears to have been wonderfully approved of by 
 the King, and the invention got into great repute, and 
 was much spoken of abroad as well as at home, parti- 
 cularly its fame flew into France, and the Dauphin had 
 two made for him by the hand of that eminent artist 
 Mr. Tompion. 
 
 After these inventions of Dr. Hooke, Mr. Huygens’s 
 watch, with a spiral spring, came abroad and made a 
 great noise in England, as if the longitude could now 
 be found. 
 
 Mr. Huygens’s watch agreed with Dr. Hooke’s in 
 the application of the spring to the balance, but Huy- 
 gens’s had a longer spring, and the beats were much 
 slower; and his verge had a pinion (like the present 
 lever-watches) instead of pallets, and had an interme- 
 diate wheel acting in the pinion so as to turn it more 
 than once round every vibration, and to this wheel were 
 the pallets fixed on which the crown-wheel acted. Dr. 
 Derham has suggested that, probably, Mr. Huygens’s 
 fancy was at first set to work by some intelligence he 
 might have received of Dr. Hooke’s invention from 
 
 Mr. Oldenburg, or others, his correspondents here in 
 England* Mr. Oldenburg vindicates himself against 
 this charge in the Phil. Trans. Nos. 118, 129. 
 
 Dr. Derham speaks of Mr. Huygens’s contrivance 
 as being very pretty and ingenious, but remarks, that it 
 is subject to some defects ; for instance, “ whenever 
 the watch stands still, that it will not go again until it be 
 set a vibrating, which, though it be no defect in a 
 pendulum-clock, may be one in a pocket-watch, which 
 is exposed to continual jogs : also, it doth somewhat 
 vary in its vibrations, making sometimes longer, some- 
 times shorter, turns, and so some slower, some quicker 
 vibrations.” 
 
 We have remarked above, that the operation of the 
 pendulum-spring, when applied to the watch-balance, 
 is analogous to the action of gravity upon the pendulum 
 of a clock, and which it may be necessary to offer a 
 few w'ords in explanation of. If the bob of a pendu- 
 lum be drawn aside any certain number of degrees from 
 its perpendicular state or point of rest, and then let 
 freely go, the action of gravity upon it will bring it 
 back again to its lowest point, but, as in its passage 
 thither, it will have acquired a certain momentum, this 
 will carry it up nearly as far on the opposite side the 
 perpendicular, when the same operation will again take 
 place ; and, in this way (if the pendulum be steadily 
 supported), the vibrations will continue for many hours 
 without any fresh impulse being given. So, in respect 
 to the watch-balance, if it be put into its place (inde- 
 pendent of the wheel-work), with the pendulum-spring 
 properly attached to it, and the outer end of this spring 
 
 * As the honour of this invention has been claimed by so formi- 
 dable a rival as the late celebrated Huygens, it seems due to the 
 memory of Hooke, to state a few unquestionable facts. — That 
 Hooke had, many years before Huygens mentioned it, discovered 
 the invention, is certain, as appears by what is related in the His- 
 tory of the Royal Society (p. 247), where other of his inventions 
 are mentioned: it is said — “ There have been invented several sorts 
 of Pendulum- Watches for the pocket, wherein the motion is regu- 
 lated by springs, &c.”f — { Waller (secretary to the Royal Society), 
 gives some account of the Life of Hooke, and he there quotes a 
 Letter from Sir Robert Moray to Mr. Oldenburg, dated Sept. 30, 
 1665, from Oxford. Sir R. Moray (addressing himself to Mr. Old- 
 enburg), says — “ You will be the first that knows when his watches 
 will be ready (meaning Huygens), and I will therefore expect from 
 you an account of them, and if he imparts to you what he does, let 
 me kuow of it; to that purpose, you may ask him if he cloth not 
 apply a spring to the arbor of the balance, and that will give him 
 occasion to say somewhat to you : if it be that, you may tell him what 
 Hooke has done in that matter, and what he intends more.” Huy- 
 gens’s discovery was first published in the Journal des Scavans, and 
 from thence in the Philos. Trans, for March 25, 1676, about ten 
 years after the above letter was written, and near fifteen years after 
 Hooke’s first discovery of it. But, according to Derham, the inven- 
 tion which best answered expectation, was at last executed with two 
 balances, that both balances had the same number of teeth, which, 
 running in each other, caused both balances to vibrate alike. These 
 teeth were not cut in the rims of the balance, but each balance had 
 a small wheel under it, and these wheels, running in one another, 
 caused both to move with the same velocity, though in contrary di- 
 rections, and each of these balances had its spiral spring, though 
 the pallets were fixed to one only. 
 
 t See Sprat’s History of the Royal Society. 
 
 t See the above, and other articles to this purpose, p. 5 anu 6, of 
 the Life of Hooke, at the head of his Posthumous Works. 
 
 fixed 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 565 
 
 fixed in its proper stud (in the pottance-plate), and the 
 balance moving freely on its pivots. If in this state of 
 things you draw the balance several degrees from its point 
 of rest, and then give it free liberty, the elastic power of 
 the spring (which must have been bent in this opera- 
 tion), will act upon it similar to the action of gravity 
 upon the pendulum-bob, to bring it back to its point of 
 rest; but, in this instance also, a certain momentum 
 being acquired in its passage, the balance will be carried 
 thereby nearly as far on the opposite side the point of j 
 rest, and, in this way, the vibrations will be continued ! 
 awhile without a fresh impulse being given ; and this 
 experiment serves to shew in what manner the pendu- 
 lum-spring enables a watch to operate upon a balance 
 of much superior weight to what it would otherwise 
 carry, by which a great advantage is gained, for the 
 effects of the pendulum-spring are two-fold : in the first 
 place, it empowers the watch to carry a balance of such 
 weight as to acquire a sufficient momentum to resist, in 
 a great measure, the inequalities of the main-spring and 
 the train of the wheels, and, also, by causing an in- 
 crease of velocity ; as the arc of the vibration increases, j 
 the various vibrations, though different as to the quan- 
 tity of the arc, are nearly brought to an equality in re- 
 spect to time, or made what is called isochronal. 
 
 In respect to balance-rings, it is wonderful that the 
 English artists should not, long since, have taken ex- 
 ample from the French, in totally throwing aside steel 
 balances ; and no opportunity should be lost in explain- 
 ing the pernicious effects of using them. It must ap- 
 pear obvious to every body, that the regular perform- 
 ance of a watch must depend on the regular vibrations 
 of the balance, and, that whatever disturbs the latter, 
 must, in the same degree, affect the former. And it 
 has been found, by experience, that steel balances, in 
 general, possess more or less of magnetism, and that 
 most of them, on trial, exhibit a distinct polarity. Now, 
 it is impossible that there can be any watch with a balance 
 pretty strongly impregnated with this quality, however 
 excellent its construction in other respects, but must be 
 subject to great inequalities in its going, and these will 
 be produced by a variety of causes, such as change 
 of position of the watch ; or by the wearer of it 
 carrying any thing in his pocket, formed of iron or of 
 steel; and, more particularly, by the near approach to 
 any thing that itself possesses magnetism. The late Dr. 
 Knight was well aware of this pernicious influence, 
 many years ago, and it was a common practice with 
 him when any gentlemen came to see his magnetical ap- 
 paratus, to warn them, before they entered the room, 
 that, if they bad watches, with steel balances, in their 
 pockets, they would infallibly be spoiled by approach- 
 ing his magnetical mass. 
 
 To explain the mechanism of a watch it is necessary 
 to refer to the Plate, Watch-Work, which contains 
 drawings of a sunk pocket watch of the best construction. 
 Fig. 1 represents the wheel-work immediately beneath the 
 dial-plate, and also its hands, the circles of hours and I 
 minutes being marked, though the dial on which these 
 
 are engraved is removed. Fig. 2 is a plan of the 
 wheel-work all exhibited at one view, for which pur- 
 pose the upper plate of the watch is removed. Fig. 3 
 is a plan of the balance, and the work situated upon 
 the upper plate. Fig. 4 shews the great wheel and 
 the pottance wheel detached. Fit*. 5, the spring barrel, 
 chain, and fusee detached ; and Fig. 6 is an elevation 
 of all the movements together, the works being sup- 
 posed to be opened out into a straight line, to exhibit 
 them all at once ; Fig. 7 is a detached view of the 
 balance, and what is called the escapement, in action. 
 
 The principal frame for supporting the acting parts 
 of the watch, consists of two circular plates, marked 
 C and D in the figures ; of these the former is called 
 the upper plate, and D is called the pillar plate, from 
 the circumstance of the four pillars, E E, which unite 
 the tw'o plates and keep them a proper distance asunder, 
 being fastened firmly into the lower plate; the other 
 ends pass through holes made in the upper plate, C, 
 and small pins being put through the ends of the pil- 
 lars, keep all together ; but by drawing out these pins, 
 the whole watch may be taken to pieces ; the pivots of 
 the several wheels being received in small holes made 
 in these plates, they of course fall to pieces as soon 
 as the plates are separated. 
 
 The maintaining power is a spiral steel spring, which 
 is coiled up close by a tool used for the purpose, and 
 put into a brass box called the barrel ; it is marked A 
 in all the figures, and shewn separate in Fig. 5, with 
 the spring in it : the spring has a hook at the outer end 
 of its spiral, which is put through a hole, a, Fig. 5, 
 in the side of the barrel, and rivetted fast thereto ; the 
 inner end of the spiral has an oblong opening cut 
 through it, to receive a hook upon the barrel arbor, B, 
 
 , Fig. 5 ; the pivots of this arbor pass through the top 
 and bottom of the barrel, and one of them is filed 
 square to hold a ratchet wheel, b, Figs. 1 and 6, Which 
 | has a click and retains the arbor from turning round, 
 i except in one direction ; the tw r o pivots of the arbor 
 are received in pivot holes in the plates C D of the 
 watch, and the pivot which has the ratchet wheel upon 
 it, passes through the plate, and the wheel marked 
 b, Figs. 1 and 6, with its click, is therefore on the 
 outside of the pillar plate D of the watch ; the top 
 of the barrel has a cover or lid fitted into it, through 
 which the upper pivot of the arbor projects; thus the 
 arbor of the barrel is to be considered as a fixture, the 
 click of the ratchet wheel preventing it from turning 
 round, and the interior end of the spiral spring being 
 hooked, this arbor is stationary likewise. The barrel 
 thus mounted has a small steel chain, d, Figs. 2 and 6, 
 coiled round its circumference, and attached to it by 
 a small hook of the chain which enters a little hole, 
 made the circumference of the barrel at its upper end ; 
 the other extremity of this chain is hooked to the 
 lower part of the fusee, marked F, Figs. 2, 5 and 6, 
 and the chain is disposed either upon the circumference 
 of the barrel, or in the spiral groove cut round the 
 fusee for its reception, the arbor of which has pivots 
 7 E at 
 
566 
 
 WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 at the ends, which are received into pivot holes made 
 in the plates of the watch ; one pivot is formed square 
 and projects through the plate, to adapt the key by 
 which the watch is wound up. 
 
 It is evident that when the fusee is turned by the 
 watch-key, it will wind the chain off the circumference 
 of the barrel on itself; and as the outer end of the 
 spring is fastened to the barrel, and the other is hooked 
 to the barrel arbor (which, as before-mentioned, is 
 prevented from turning by the click of the ratchet 
 wheel, a b, beneath), the spring will be coiled up into 
 a smaller compass than before, and by its reaction will, 
 when the key is taken off, turn the barrel, and by the 
 chain turn the fusee and give motion to the wheels of 
 the watch, which will be hereafter described. The 
 fusee has a spiral groove cut round it, in which the 
 chain lies ; this groove is cut by an engine, in such a 
 form that the chain shall pull from the smallest part 
 or radius of the fusee, when the spring is quite wound 
 up, and therefore acts with its greatest force on the 
 chain ; from this point the groove gradually increases 
 m diameter, so as the spring unwinds and acts with less 
 pow'er, the chain operates on a larger radius of the fusee, 
 so that the effect upon the arbor of the fusee, or the 
 cog-wheel attached to it, may always be the same, and 
 cause the watch to go with regularity. 
 
 To prevent too much chain being wound upon the 
 fusee, and by that means breaking the chain or over- 
 straining the spring, a contrivance called a guard-gut is 
 added; it is a small lever, e, Fig. 2, moving on a stud fixed 
 to the upper plate C of the watch, and pressed down- 
 wards by a small spring, f ; as the chain is wound 
 upon the fusee, it rises in the spiral groove, and lifts 
 up the lever until it touches the upper plate, and it is 
 then in a position to intercept the edge or tooth, g, of 
 the spiral piece of metal seen on the top of the fusee, 
 and thus stops it from being wound up any further. 
 
 The power of the spring is transmitted to the balance 
 by means of several cog-wheels, which multiply the 
 number of revolutions that the chain makes on the 
 fusee, to such a number, that though the last or balance 
 wheel turns Q~ every minute, the fusee will at the 
 same time turn so slowly, that the chain will not all 
 be drawn off from it in less than twenty-eight or thirty 
 hours, and it makes one turn in. four hours ; this as- 
 semblage of wheels is called the train of the watch. 
 The first cog-wheel, G, is attached to the fusee, and 
 is called the great wheel ; it is shewn separated from 
 the fusee in Fig. 4, having a hole through the centre 
 to receive the arbor of the fusee, and a projecting ring 
 upon its surface ; the under surface of the base of the 
 fusee is shewn in Fig. 5, at F, having a circular cavity- 
 cut in it to receive the corresponding ring upon the 
 great wheel G, Fig. 4 ; a ratchet wheel, i, is fixed 
 fast upon the fusee arbor, and sunk within the cavity 
 excavated in the lower surface of the fusee. When the 
 wheel and fusee are put together, a small click, h, 
 Fig. 4, takes into the teeth of the ratchet i ; as the 
 fusee is turned by the watch-key to wind up the watch, i 
 
 i 
 
 this click slips over the sloping sides of the teeth 
 without turning the great wheel ; but when the fusee 
 is turned the other way by drawing the chain from 
 the spring barrel, the click catches the teeth of the 
 ratchet wheel, and causes the cog-wheel to turn with 
 the fusee. 
 
 The great wheel, G, has forty-eight teeth on its 
 circumference, which take into aud turn a pinion of 
 twelve teeth, fixed on the same arbor with the 
 
 Centre wheel, H, so called from its situation in the 
 centre of the watch ; it has fifty- four teeth to turn a 
 pinion of six leaves, on the arbor of the 
 
 Third wheel, 1, which has forty-eight teeth ; it is 
 sunk in a cavity formed in the pillar plate, and turns a 
 pinion of six, on the arbor of the 
 
 Contrute wheel, K, which has forty-eight teeth cut 
 parallel with its axis, by which it turns a pinion of six 
 leaves, fixed to 
 
 The balance wheel, L ; one of the pivots of the 
 arbor of this wheel turns in a frame, M, called the 
 pottar.ce, fixed to the upper plate (shewn separately 
 in Fig. 4), and the other pivot runs in a small piece 
 | fixed to the upper part, called the counter pottance, 
 (not shewn in any of the figures), so that when the 
 two plates are put together, the balance wheel pinion 
 may work into the teeth of the contrate wheel, as 
 shewn in Fig. 6. The balance wheel, L, has fifteen 
 teeth, by which it impels the balance o p ; the arbor of 
 the balance, which is called the verge, has two small 
 leaves or pallets projecting from it, nearly at right 
 angles to each other, these are acted upon by the teeth 
 of the balance w'heel L, in such a manner, that at 
 every vibration the balance receives a slight impulse to 
 continue its motion, and every vibration so made, suffers 
 a tooth of the wheel to escape or pass by, whence this 
 part is called the escapement of the watch, and con- 
 stitutes its most essential part. The wheel L, is some- 
 times called the scape wheel, or crown wheel ; its ac- 
 tion is explained by Fig. 7, which shews the wheel 
 and balance detached. Suppose in this view, the pinion 
 h, on the arbor of the balance wheel or crown wheel, 
 i k, to be actuated by the main spring which forms 
 the maintaining power, by means of the train of wheel- 
 work in the direction of the arrow, while the pallets 
 m and n, attached to the axis of the balance, and 
 standing at right angles to each other, or very nearly 
 so, are long enough to fall in the way of the ends of 
 the sloped teeth of the wheel when turned round at an 
 angle of 45°, so as to point to opposite directions, as 
 in the figure ; then a tooth in the wheel below for in- 
 stance, meets with the pallet n (supposed to be at 
 rest), and drives it before it a certain space, till the 
 end of the tooth escapes ; in the mean time the balance, 
 o s p r, attached to the axis of the pallets, continues 
 to move in the direction r o s p, and winds up the 
 small spiral or pendulum spring, q, one end of which 
 is fast to the axis, and the other to a stud on the upper 
 plate of the frame ; in this operation, the spring op- 
 poses the momentum given to the balance by this push 
 
 of 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 56 7 
 
 of the tooth upon the pallet, and prevents the balance 
 going quite round, but the instant the tooth escapes 
 the upper pallet, m, meets with another tooth at the 
 opposite side of the wheel’s diameter, they therefore 
 moving in an opposite direction to that below ; here 
 this pallet receives a push which carries the balance 
 back again (having as yet but small momentum in the 
 direction o s p r), and aids the spring, which now un- 
 bends itself till it comes to its quiescent position, but 
 it swings beyond that point, partly by the impulse from 
 the maintaining power on the pallet m, and partly by 
 the acquired momentum of the moving balance, par- 
 ticularly when this pallet, m, has escaped ; at length 
 the pallet n again meets with the succeeding tooth, and 
 is carried backward by it in the direction in which the 
 balance is now moving, till the maintaining power and 
 force of the unwound spring together overcome the 
 momentum of the balance, during which time the re- 
 coil of the balance wheel is apparent (or the seconds 
 hand of the watch has one put on the pivot of the 
 arbor of the contrate wheel ;) at length the wheel 
 brings the pallet n back again till it escapes, and the 
 same process takes place with pallet m as has been 
 described with respect to pallet n ; thus two contrary 
 excursions or oscillations of the balance take place 
 before one tooth has completely escaped, which is the 
 reason there must always be an odd number of teeth 
 in this wheel, that a space on one side of the wheel 
 may always be opposite to a tooth on the other, in 
 order that one pallet may be out of action while the 
 other is in action. 
 
 The upper pivot of the verge is supported in a cock 
 screwed to the upper plate, as shewn at N, in Fig. 6, 
 which covers the balance, and protects it from violence, 
 and the lower pivot works in the bottom of the pot- 
 tance, M, at t, Fig. 4. The socket for the pivot of the 
 balance wheel, is made in a small piece of brass, V, 
 which slides in a groove made in the pottance, as shewn 
 Fig. 4, so that by drawing the slide in or out, the 
 teeth of the balance wheel shall just clear one pallet 
 before it takes the other ; and in the perfection of this 
 adjustment, which is called the scaping of the watch, 
 the performance of it very greatly depends. We shall 
 speak more fully of this in another place. The bank- 
 ing of the watch is to prevent the balance from being 
 turned round too far by accidental jerks, in which case 
 one of the pallets would be pitched upon the point of 
 a tooth of the balance wheel, and recoil it back too 
 far, perhaps injuring its point; this is called being 
 overthrown. Sometimes if the balance gets turned 
 round too far, the pallets are both turned away from 
 the teeth of the wheel, which then runs down vvith 
 inconceivable rapidity, and probably breaks the points 
 of its teeth by striking against the pallets as they turn 
 round ; to avoid these accidents, the banking is intro- 
 duced ; it is a pin fixed in the rim of the balance, and 
 therefore describing a circular arc round the edge of 
 the cock N, which covers the balance ; but the proper 
 extent of this arc is determined by the banking-pin 
 
 meeting two projecting parts of the cock, which are 
 extended out so far as to reach beyond the circle the 
 banking-pin moves in. 
 
 We have now described the means by which the 
 watch keeps time, viz. that every vibration of the ba- 
 lance suffers a tooth of the balance wheel to escape and 
 run down, by the constant action of the main spring ; 
 it now remains to shew the communication of this 
 motion to the hands of the watch, which indicate the 
 time on the dial plate. The hands are moved by the 
 central arbor, which comes through the pillar plate and 
 projects a considerable length ; it has a pinion of twelve 
 leaves, called 
 
 The common pinion , w, Fig. fi, is fitted upon it, the 
 axis of which is a tube formed square at the end, to 
 fix on the minute hand, W ; it fits tight upon the pro- 
 jecting arbor of the centre wheel, and therefore turns 
 with it, but will slip round to set the hands when the 
 watch is w'rong and requires to be rectified ; the com- 
 mon pinion is situated close to the pillar plate, and its 
 leaves engage the teeth of 
 
 The minute wheel, X, Figs. 1 and 6, of forty-eight 
 teeth, which is fitted on a pin fixed in the plate, and 
 its pinion, x, of sixteen leaves, which is fixed to it, 
 turns 
 
 The hour wheel, Y, of forty-eight teeth ; the arbor 
 of this is a tube, which is put over the tube of the 
 cannon pinion carrying the minute hand, and has the 
 hour hand, Z, fixed on it, to indicate the time upon 
 the dial plate. Thus, by the cannon pinion, w, which 
 is to the minute wheel X, as one is to four, and the 
 pinion x of this, which is to the hour zvheel, Y, as 
 one is to three, the hour wheel Y, and its hand z, 
 though concentric with the cannon pinion and minute 
 hand, make but one revolution for twelve of the other, 
 therefore one turns round in an hour, and the other 
 turns round once in twelve hours, as the figures on the 
 dial shew'. 
 
 An increase of force in the action of the main 
 spring would alter the rate of the watch, by commu- 
 nicating a greater force by the teeth of the balance to 
 the pallets. The fusee is therefore grooved in such 
 a way, after being made in the shape of the frustum 
 of a parabolid, that the decrease of the acting radius 
 is always inversely proportional to the intensity of the 
 main spring. By this admirable contrivance the effec- 
 tive power of the spring is at all times very nearly 
 alike. The adjustment of the varying levers, or points 
 of action of the fusee, is made very conveniently by a 
 long lever with a moveable weight like a steel yard 
 being inserted on the square of the fusee arbor which 
 is made for the key, as will be explained more par- 
 ticularly in its proper place, when we come to explain 
 the methods used by watch-makers for adjusting and 
 finishing their watches. 
 
 It is necessary to have some regulation by which the 
 rate of the watch’s movement may be regulated, for 
 hitherto we have only spoken of making the watch keep 
 always to a uniform, or certain rate of motion, but it is 
 
 necessary 
 
568 
 
 WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 necessary to make it keep true time. This can be done by 
 two means, either by increasing or diminishing the force 
 of the mainspring, which increases or diminishes the 
 arc that the balance describes; or it may be done by 
 strengthening or weakening the pendqlum-spring, which 
 will cause the balance to move quicker or slower. 
 
 The pendulum-spring, q } Fig. 3, is fixed to a stud, 
 upon the plate c, by one end, and is attached to the 
 verge of the balance by the other. 
 
 The regulation is effected by means of what is called 
 the curb ; this is a small lever, z, Fig. 3, projecting 
 from a circular ring, rr, which may be considered as its 
 centre of motion, but perforated with a hole through 
 the centre, large enough to contain the pendulum-spring 
 within it ; a circular groove is turned out in the upper 
 plate, nearly concentric with the balance, and the ring, 
 r r, fits into this. Both are turned rather largest at the 
 bottom, in the manner of a dove-tail ; but the ring be- 
 ing divided at the side opposite to the level - , z, can be 
 sprung up and rendered so much smaller as to get it into 
 the groove, but being once in the elasticity of the ring, it 
 expands it, so as to fill the groove completely ; in this 
 state it may be considered as a lever which describes a 
 circuit round the verge as a centre, and the end of it 
 points to a divided arc engraved on the upper plate, at 
 one end of which is marked F, and, at the other, S, 
 denoting that the index or lever, z, is to be moved to- 
 wards one or the other, to make the watch move faster 
 or slower as its regulation requires. 
 
 The manner of its operation is thus, the end of the 
 lever, or index z, continues within the circle a small 
 distance towards its centre, and passing beneath the 
 outer turn of the spiral spring q, has two Very small 
 pins rising up from it, which include the spring between 
 them; the actual length of the pendulum-spring is 
 therefore to be estimated from these pins to its con- 
 nexion with the verge ; now, by altering the position of 
 the index, this acting length can be regulated at plea- 
 sure, to produce such vibration of the balance as will 
 make the watch keep true time. By shortening the 
 length, the spring becomes more powerful, and returns 
 the balance quicker so that it will vibrate in less time ; 
 this is effected by moving the index towards F. On 
 the other hand, turning the index toward S, lengthens 
 the spring by which it becomes more delicate, and less 
 powerful, returning the balance slower than before. 
 
 The old-fashioned watches have their curbs turned 
 by a pinion, to which the watch key is applied, and it 
 has a small dial to contain the divisions by w'hich its 
 motion is determined. These divisions are not of any 
 actual value in time, but they serve to shew where the 
 index stood, and which way it has been moved when 
 any regulation is made. The same kind of watches 
 usually have, instead of the ratchet-wheel 6, on the ar- 
 bor of the spring-barrel, a small wheel turned by an 
 endless screw', to the end of which a key was applied; 
 this was the remains of the old w'atch made before Dr. 
 Hooke invented the pendulum-spring, because such a 
 w atch was necessarily regulated by winding up the main- 
 
 spring arbor, and, therefore, it was left so that the pos- 
 sessor of the watch could effect it without recurring to 
 the maker. A watch of this- description is in possession 
 of the writer of this article, and is, in general, similar 
 to the watch above described ; but the balance is not 
 quite half the size of the common watch, because the 
 vibrations of a balance without a spring are so much 
 slower, as it had no quiescent point to return to, being 
 merely a fly to which the maintaining power gives a 
 smart stroke, urged in one direction, and then the next, 
 tooth of the balance-wheel destroys its motion and 
 drives it back again, so that constantly giving it an im- 
 pulse in a new direction, makes a resistance to the 
 maintaining pow'er, which keeps the watch to its rate, 
 but not with any great accuracy, because the slightest 
 motion greatly disturbs the motion of such a balance, 
 and its small size renders it very subject to variation 
 from any irregularity in the force of the main-spring. 
 
 Delicate watches have jewelled pivot-holes for the 
 top and bottom of the verge, t-o diminish the friction. 
 These jewels are fixed in the bottom part t of the pot- 
 tance and in the top of the cock, each consists of two 
 pieces, one of which has a cylindrical hole drilled 
 through it to receive the pivot ; the other is a flat piece, 
 making the rest or stop which forms the bottom of the 
 hole. Both stones are ground circular on the edge, 
 and are fitted and burnished into a small brass ring, 
 which is fastened into the cock and pottance by two 
 small screws applied to each. The addition of jewels 
 to a watch is a great advantage, as they do not tend to 
 thicken the oil in the manner brass holes do, from the 
 oxydation of the metal. 
 
 The reader is now well acquainted with the mechanism 
 of the common pocket watches, which are in most 
 general use ; but those watches which are intended for 
 accurate measurement of time, have some difference in 
 their construction, chiefly in the escapement, and the 
 i balance, which, as before-mentioned, are the parts on 
 I which the measure of time depends, the others being 
 | only to actuate and record the time measured out by the 
 balance. 
 
 It is essential to a watch which is intended to keep 
 time with extreme accuracy, that 
 
 1st. It shall not be affected by variation of tempera- 
 ture ; for the balance of the common watch is expanded 
 by heat, and the pendulum-spring is relaxed by its 
 I force, both which alterations tend to diminish its rate in 
 I hot weather, and make it gain in cold weather. This 
 I defect is obviated by the compensation-balance. 
 
 2d. That the balance must, if possible, vibrate in the 
 same time, whether it describes long or short arcs; 
 this is called the isochronim of the balance. It is at- 
 tained by a proper adjustment of the pendulum-spring, 
 and by rendering the balance as little dependant on the 
 influence of the maintaining power as possible, leaving 
 it to its own free vibrations; this is effected by the 
 escapement. 
 
 3d. That the watch shall go whilst winding-up, so as 
 it may not lose time during that essential operation ; 
 
 the 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 569 
 
 the contrivance, called the going-fusee, accomplishes 
 this> 
 
 4th. Tliat it shall keep the same rate in all positions, 
 therefore the balance must be truly poised on its verge. 
 
 The first of these conditions is attained by the intro- 
 duction of the compensation-balance, which is a most 
 admirable contrivance ; it consists of weights instead of 
 the solid rim of the balance, and these weights are so 
 fixed that they approach the centre of the balance in 
 hot weather, and recede from it in cold, just as much 
 as is requisite to compensate for the loss or gain of 
 force in the pendulum-spring. 
 
 Fig. 10, represents a compensation-balance such as 
 is usually introduced into the best chronometers or time- 
 keepers made by the English artists. It is made in the 
 following manner : — A circular groove is turned in the 
 flat surface of a piece of steel, and into this groove a 
 piece of good brass is driven, and a little of the solu- 
 tion of borax is applied to prevent oxidation. This 
 compound piece, being then put into a crucible, is 
 made sufficiently hot to melt the brass, which, in these 
 circumstances, adheres firmly to the steel without re- 
 quiring solder. The face of the steel is then cleaned, 
 and by proper application of the mechanical means of 
 turning and filing, the superfluous steel is taken away, 
 and the balance is left, consisting sometimes of two or 
 three radii, A B, and a rim, C D ; the external part of 
 which is brass, and the internal part of steel ; the 
 former metal being about twice the thickness of the 
 latter, in order to allow for the superior susceptibility 
 of brass to steel, of any change of temperature. Some 
 artists solder the metals together, and others plunge the 
 steel balance into melted brass, and suffer them to cool 
 together, but the method we have described seems to 
 be the best.* 
 
 In this state the arcs, C D, of the rim are then cut 
 through, and then diminished in their length, as in the 
 figure ; and near that extremity of each arc, which is 
 farthest from its radius, a piece of brass or weight, E F, 
 is put on, which can be slided along the arm so as to 
 be adjusted at that distance which, upon trial, shall be 
 found to produce a good performance under the different 
 changes of temperature. The peculiar advantage of 
 this balance may be explained as follows : — When an 
 increase of heat diminishes the elastic force of the pen- 
 dulum spring, the outer brass rim being lengthened by 
 expansion more than the steel, must cripple or warp the 
 steel, on the same principle as the warping of wood by 
 damp, and this throws the weights, E F, nearer to the 
 axis, and diminishes the effect of the inertia of the ba- 
 lance, which, consequently, is as speedily carried through 
 its vibrations as before, though the force of the spring 
 
 • Mr. Harrison, in observing the effects of change of tempera- 
 ture of the air on his thermometer-kirbs, observed, that the brass 
 parts became sooner affected always than those of steel, and, in 
 order to counteract this superior susceptibility in brass, he thought 
 it necessary, in constructing his gridiron-pendulums, to make the 
 brass rods stouter than the steel ones, to prevent their overacting 
 their antagonists. 
 
 is diminished. And, on the contrary, when cold wea- 
 ther adds to the elastic force of the spring, the same 
 weights are thrown farther out, and prevent the acce- 
 leration which would have followed. The exact adjust- 
 ment of the weights is found, by trial, of the going of 
 the machine. If it gains by heat, the weights compen- 
 sate too much, and must be moved farther from the ex- 
 treme ends of the circular compound bars ; but if the 
 gain be produced by cold, the spring predominates, and 
 the weights will accordingly require to be set farther out. 
 For it is evident that the flexure of these arms by 
 change of temperature, will carry the weights nearer to 
 the centre in hot than in cold w'eather, and the more, 
 the greater the distance of the weights from the radius. 
 The small screw's, G H, near the ends of the radii, 
 afford an adjustment for time, as the balance will vibrate 
 more quickly the further these are screwed in, and the 
 contrary will be the case if they be unscrewed or drawn 
 further out. This is requisite in an accurate watch, it 
 being found to be a much better method than making 
 alterations in the pendulum-spring, because this destroys 
 the adjustment by which our second condition, viz , that 
 the vibrations shall be performed in equal times, whe- 
 ther long or short, is fulfilled. It is found, by experi- 
 ence, that, in every spring sufficiently long, a certain 
 portion of it will be isochronal, whether long or short ; 
 that the length of this portion being found, if it be 
 lessened, the long vibrations will be quicker than the 
 short ones; and, that, on the contrary, if the length be 
 increased, the small arcs will be performed in less time 
 than the great arcs. This isochronal length of the 
 pendulum-spring can only be found by experiment, 
 and, when once determined, should not be altered on 
 any account. Some artists taper the thickness of 
 the spring, making it thinner at one end than the 
 other ; but, after all, if the balance is not made very 
 independent of the maintaining power, by a proper 
 contrivance of the escapement, the isochronal property 
 of the spring will be overruled by the irregularities of 
 the maintaining power, which irregularity alone requires 
 the necessity for any such property, by diminishing or 
 increasing the arc of vibration as the maintaining power 
 varies in its force ; for though a fusee may be adjusted, 
 so that the action of the spring may be in every part 
 equal ; yet a watch, when it has been long in use, al- 
 ways has less power on the balance, which loses in the 
 extent of its vibration, from the gradual accumulation 
 of dirt in the wheelwork, and more from a clamminess 
 which takes place in the oil, w'hich is applied to the 
 pivots, particularly that at the verge pivots ; so, that, if 
 the actual pow-er of the main-spring is not diminished, 
 the resistance to that power is constantly increasing, and 
 would, in the course of years, completely put a stop to 
 the motion of the watch. 
 
 A good escapement for a watch should only apply the 
 impelling power to the balance at the moment w'hen it 
 is near the quiescent point, leaving it to finish the vi- 
 bration by the combined action of the pendulum-spring, 
 and its own momentum alone ; w ithout being influenced in 
 
570 
 
 WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 the period of its return by the action of the maintaining 
 power. This is not the case in the escapement used in 
 the common watch we have described, which is called the 
 crown-wheel escapement: in this, the balance is constantly 
 connected with, and influenced by, the maintaining 
 power, except during the exceedingly small time of the 
 drop of the wheel from one pallet to the other, on 
 which account the measure of time will greatly vary 
 when the force of vibration is nearly equal, or not much 
 greater than the maintaining impulse ; this is shewn in a 
 striking manner by urging the motion of a common 
 watch by means of the key. If the key be pressed in 
 the usual direction of winding up, the beats of vibra- 
 tion will become very slow, or even stop ; and, if the 
 pressure be made in the opposite direction, the vibra- 
 tions will become very loud and quick. To remedy this 
 defect of the crown-wheel escapement, many different 
 kinds have been devised and employed by different 
 artists, and with good effects : that which has been 
 most generally employed in pocket watches is called the 
 horizontal escapement, from the circumstance of the 
 last, or balance-wheel, having its plane horizontal or pa- 
 rallel with the balance and the other wheels. 
 
 In Fig. 9, the balance-wheel is seen with twelve 
 teeth, upon each of which is fixed a small wedge sup- 
 ported above the plane of the wheel, as may be seen 
 by the letters A B and C D. On the verge of the ba- 
 lance there is fixed part of a hollow cylinder E, of steel 
 or other hard metal, the imaginary axis of which passes 
 through the pivot of the verge. H represents this cy- 
 lindrical piece, with a notch cut in one side which 
 nearly divides it. The wedge A, Fig. Q, may be sup- 
 posed to have fallen into this notch. While the vibra- 
 tion causes the cylindrical piece to revolve in a direction 
 which carries its anterior edge a, towards the axis of the 
 wheel, the point of the wedge A, will merely rub the 
 internal surface, and no otherwise affect the vibration of 
 the balance than by retarding its motion by the friction of 
 the cylinder against the point of the tooth. But when 
 the return of the vibration clears the edge a of the cy- 
 linder of the point of the wedge, the wheel will ad- 
 vance, and the slope surface of the wedge A, acting 
 against the edge u of the cylinder, will assist and impel 
 the vibration of the balance. When the edge a of the 
 cylinder arrives at the outer point of the wedge A, its 
 posterior edge b must arrive at the position denoted by 
 the dotted lines of continuation, immediately after 
 which, the wedge or tooth B will arrive at the dotted 
 position, and rest on the outer surface of the cylinder, 
 where it will produce no other effect than that of re- 
 tardation from friction, as was remarked with regard to 
 the wedge A, until the returning course of the vibration 
 shall bring the posterior edge b of the cylinder clear of 
 the point of the wedge dotted in this last situation, the 
 wedge will act on the .wedge b of the cylinder, and 
 assist the vibration as in the former case ; but, in a con- 
 trary direction, until that edge shall arrive at the outer 
 point of the wedge, immediately after which the leading 
 point will fall on the inner surface of the cylinder in 
 
 the first position, as was shewn - in the wedge A : thus 
 the cylinder, and the balance attached to it, receives an 
 impulse on the edge b, every time a tooth escapes or 
 enters into the cylinder, to urge it in one direction, 
 and every time a tooth escapes out of the cylinder an 
 impulse is given on the edge a, in a contrary direc- 
 tion. 
 
 Horizontal watches w r ere greatly esteemed during the 
 last thirty years, until lately when they gave place to 
 those constructions which are known by the name of 
 detached or free escapements. In the common escape- 
 ment, Fig. 7, an increase of the maintaining power, 
 as before mentioned, increases the recoil and acce- 
 lerates the vibrations ; but with the horizontal escape- 
 ment there is no recoil, and any increase of the main- 
 taining power, though it may enlarge the arc of vibra- 
 tion, will not necessarily diminish or alter the time. 
 It is accordingly found, that the experiment of altering; 
 the maintaining power by the application of the key, 
 does not alter the rate in the same perceptible manner 
 as in common watches. 
 
 The only objection which can be raised to the hori- 
 zontal escapement, is the friction occasioned by the 
 tooth of the wheel resting either within or without the 
 cylinder. In what is called the detached escapement, 
 this defect is remedied by introducing a detent or click 
 to lock the teeth of the wheel ; now in the interval, 
 when the tooth ir. the horizontal wheel would be rest- 
 ing against the cylinder, this detent rests or locks the 
 tooth of the wheel, and keeps it in repose, without 
 touching the cylinder, or pallet (as it is called in the 
 detached escapement) ; the balance therefore vibrates 
 with perfect freedom, but at a certain part of its 
 movement (near the quiescent point), a pin in 
 the verge unlocks the detent, and the balance re- 
 ceives an impulse or stroke, by a tooth of the wheel 
 dropping on a pallet through a part of every second 
 vibration ; but during a great part of its course it 
 is free and detached, wheuce the name of the escape- 
 ment. 
 
 A great variety of forms of escapement are in use 
 j in watches, but the detached escapement at present 
 takes the lead among them, and it is certainly the best 
 of any we have described. There is a class of escape- 
 ments called remontoire, from the circumstance of 
 their having a small spring near the balance, which is 
 by the mechanism wound up at every vibration, and 
 then the pallet of the balance presents itself and receives 
 the force of this spring to give it the impulse for its 
 vibration, and whilst this is performed the remontoire 
 is wound up again for the next stroke ; by this means 
 the remontoire spring becomes the measure of the 
 force dealt out to the balance at each time, and the 
 irregularities of the main .spring have then no effect 
 upon the balance, because if stronger, it only winds up 
 or charges the remontoire more swiftly, but cannot 
 give it more power to exert on the balance, nor less 
 if the maintaining power is diminished, because in this 
 case the remontoire is charged more slowly, but still 
 
 to 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 571 
 
 to the same extent of force. The complexity of these 
 escapements is a bar to their general use. 
 
 Our third condition for an accurate watch, viz. that 
 it shall continue its motion whilst winding up, is car- 
 ried into effect by the going fusee ; this is one among 
 those inventions which have proved the most useful in 
 practice. By very simple mechanism, the main spring 
 while the watch is going, acts on an intermediate short 
 spring, which Mr. Harrison (the inventor) calls the 
 secondary spring ; it is constantly kept bent to a certain 
 tension by the former, for the fusee has no communi- 
 cation with the great wheel except by this spring; 
 when the watch is winding up, and the principal 
 spring, fusee, chain, Sic., ceases to act, the secondary 
 spring, being placed on a ratchet wheel which is hin- 
 dered from retrograding by a click, continues the motion 
 of the great wheel without alteration. Other con- 
 trivances have been proposed and executed, to make 
 time-pieces go while winding up, but none which like 
 this combines the advantage of simplicity, and the pro- 
 perty of providing a supplementary power, which is 
 equal to that of the main spring when its action ceases. 
 And it is to be observed, that the utility of the going- 
 fusee, which has induced manufacturers to introduce it 
 into all good watches, even of the common kind, is 
 peculiarly important in those time-pieces which have 
 not the power of setting themselves in motion, as is 
 the case with the best modem escapements, because 
 the balance is the greater time completely detached. 
 
 Figs. 2 1 , 22 and 23, are representations of a going 
 fusee taken to pieces ; in Fig. 23 it is supposed to be 
 seen from below, and shews the under sides of the 
 parts, while 2 1 shews the other faces ; a, Fig. 23, the 
 small ratchet, like the common fusee, fixed upon the 
 arbor of the fusee F, and sunk into an excavation in 
 the large end of the ’fusee, its plane is therefore the 
 same with the end of the fusee ; the clicks and springs, 
 b b, Fig. 21 , for this ratchet, are fixed on the plane 
 of the large or perpetual ratchet, L, which has a 
 stationary click applied to its teeth to prevent it ever 
 returning in a direction contrary to the direction of the 
 motion of the great wheel ; therefore when the fusee 
 turns round by the draft of the chain, the clicks b b of 
 the small ratchet, causes the perpetual ratchet L to 
 turn round with it ; but when the fusee turns in the 
 opposite direction for winding it up, the perpetual 
 ratchet remains stationary by its click, which is situated 
 on an arbor pivoted between the plates of the watch ; 
 G, in both figures, is the great wheel, and Fig. 22 is 
 a horse-shoe spring, bedded between the perpetual 
 ratchet and the great wheel, a circular groove being 
 turned in the plate of the large wheel, as shewn in 
 Fig. 21, at n, or it might be made in that of the large 
 ratchet, or partially in both, to form a bed or box for 
 this secondary spring; the pin f, at one end of the 
 spring, is inserted into a. corresponding hole in the bed 
 of the wheel, and the other pin, s, into a similar hole 
 perforated through the perpetual ratchet at g; this 
 spring thus connected with both the great wheel and 
 
 perpetual ratchet, would produce no other effect than 
 to attach them together and make them like one wheel, 
 if the horse-shoe piece was not elastic, in which case 
 the large ratchet would be superfluous, and the effect 
 produced would be that of an ordinary simple fusee 
 and ratchet ; but the piece in Fig. 22, is of a spring 
 temper, and its elasticity small enough to be acted 
 upon by the main spring, so as to make two pins s 
 and J\ at the ends, approach each other ; and in this 
 situation it is that the secondary spring is said to be 
 wound up, in which it continues whenever the watch 
 is going. 
 
 In this state it is evident that whatever power the 
 fusee exerts upon the great wheel must be through the 
 medium of the secondary spring, which therefore be- 
 comes wound up or charged with as much force as is 
 required to turn the watch. Now suppose the power 
 of the fusee removed, or its action to cease, and at 
 the same time the ends of the spring which the fusee 
 operated upon by the medium of the perpetual ratchet, 
 to be supported by any fixed object, the effort of the 
 spring to extend or discharge itself will act between 
 this fixed object and the pin f which connects it with 
 the great wheel, to turn the wheel round for a time, in 
 the same manner as before. Now on applying the 
 key R to wind up the watch, the clicks b of the small 
 ratchet a, which turns with the fusee, slip over the 
 sloping sides of its teeth, and relieves the great ratchet 
 L from the power which caused its motion, and it 
 endeavours at first to accompany the fusee by the ex- 
 ertion of the secondary spring to unbend itself, but a 
 tooth of this ratchet meeting the stationary click, pre- 
 vents its retrograde motion farther than the interval 
 between two teeth. In consequence of this opposition 
 to the great ratchet’s temporary motion, by the action 
 of its click, the pinjf, at the other end of the secon- 
 dary spring, pulls at its hole in the great ratchet wheel 
 G, and draws it away from s, which is stationary ; or 
 in other words, draws the great wheel round in a con- 
 trary direction, and with a force, equal for the time to 
 that of the original maintaining power by which the 
 two pins were made to approach each other. The 
 reason of the piny, in Fig. 21, being made to project 
 both ways across the end of the secondary spring, is, 
 that the remote end beyond may move in a little cir- 
 cular aperture made through the plane of the great 
 wheel behind, Fig. 23, which aperture allows the two 
 ends of the spring to approach and recede steadily, 
 and the length of the aperture is determ ned by the 
 quantity that pin is drawn by the main spring towards 
 the pin before; there is an equipoise in their inten- 
 sities. 
 
 Repeating Clocks are such as by pulling a string, 
 &c., are made to strike the hour, quarters, &c., at any 
 time. These clocks are the invention of a Mr. Barlow, 
 about the year 1676.' This ingenious contrivance soon 
 took air, and various artists set their heads to work, 
 and several different methods were contrived to effect 
 such a performance, and hence arose the various ways 
 
 of 
 
572 
 
 WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 of executing repeating work. This invention had been 
 practised in larger movements only, till James the Se- 
 cond’s reign, at which time it was applied to watches, 
 (commonly called pocket clocks,) and hence arose some 
 contention respecting the right to the invention. Mr. 
 Barlow, who no doubt was the inventor of the prin- 
 ciple, engaged Mr. Tompion to execute the first re- 
 peating watch, for which Mr. Barlow purposed to 
 obtain a patent. Mr. Quase, an ingenious artist, had 
 entertained some thoughts of executing such a piece, 
 but had laid it by, until the talk of Mr. Barlow’s patent 
 renewed his former thoughts, which he then brought 
 to effect. This being known among the watch-makers, 
 they pressed him to hinder Mr. Barlow’s patent ; ac- 
 cordingly applications were made at court, and a watch 
 of each invention produced before the king and council. 
 The king upon trial of each of them, was pleased to 
 give the preference to Mr. Quase’s, of which notice 
 was soon after given in the Gazette. The difference 
 between these two inventions was, Mr. Barlow’s was 
 made to repeat by pushing in two pieces, one on each 
 side the box, one push gave the hour, and the other 
 gave the quarter. Mr. Quase’s was made to repeat 
 by a pin that stuck out near the pendant, which by 
 thrusting in gave both the hour and the quarter, as is 
 now done by the pendant. 
 
 The mechanism of the repeating watch is extremely 
 complicated, and would far exceed our limits to ex- 
 plain it. It contains all the mechanism of the com- 
 mon watch, and arranged in the same manner, except 
 that it is all crowded to one side, to make room for 
 the striking movement; this has a small spring box 
 with a train of wheel work, which actuates the ham- 
 mer that strikes the hours and quarters upon a bell, 
 which is fastened on the inside of the watch case and 
 encloses the work, but without touching any part of 
 it, it is screwed into the case. The numerous detents 
 which govern the number of strokes the hammers will 
 make, are situated beneath the dial plate, along with 
 the motion or dial work, shewn in Fig. 1. On push- 
 ing in the pendant of the watch, it drives before it a 
 lever, which has a small chain attached to it, and 
 this draws round a small wheel, about which it is 
 wound, and thus winds up the striking spring, and 
 at the same time sets off the detents, the spring now 
 causes the hammers to strike the hour and the nearest 
 quarter. 
 
 Striking watches are such, as beside the proper 
 watch part, for measuring time, have a clock part 
 for striking the hours, &c. These are real clocks, 
 only moved by a spring instead of a weight, and are 
 properly called pocket clocks. The difference be- 
 tween the striking watch and the repeater is, that the 
 former has the spring barrel of the striking movement 
 wound up at the same time with the main spring of 
 the other part, and at every hour the dial work dis- 
 charges the striking part, and causes it to strike the 
 number of hours. The objection to these watches is, 
 that the power necessary to move the hammers through 
 
 the whole day, obliges the springs and striking train 
 to be so large that it crowds the going parts too close, 
 and renders the repairs, as well as making, of such 
 watches most difficult and expensive. One great dis- 
 tinction between a striking-watch and a repeating-watch 
 is, that in the striker you wind up the main-spring of 
 the striking-part once in twenty-four hours, and which 
 supplies its pow'er occasionally through that space of 
 i time ; but, in the repeater, you wind up the striking- 
 spring by pushing in the pendant occasionally. 
 
 In the early stages of the business, watches were of 
 simple construction, and very imperfect in their per- 
 formance ; and every artist was compelled, from neces- 
 sity, to make almost the whole watch himself ; but, in 
 the present state of the art, it is divided into a great 
 number of branches ; and each, by devoting himself 
 exclusively to that branch, becomes more expert and 
 accurate than any one could hope to be who undertook 
 to do the whole himself ; and when the trade is subdi- 
 vided, the expense of tools adapted to each operation 
 becomes trifling, w'hereas few individuals could afford to 
 purchase all the tools and engines necessary to form the 
 whole machine. 
 
 The general use of watches among a commercial peo- 
 ple has a great effect in introducing strict habits of 
 punctuality, and economy of time ; and when this is 
 once understood, as it is in our ow'n country, the manu- 
 facture and repair of watches becomes an immense 
 trade, employing many thousand individuals, who, by 
 ! uniting ingenuity, industry, and experience, are able to 
 make the parts of them at so low a price as is truly 
 . astonishing. 
 
 We must observe, that the mechanism of w'atches is 
 made in the villages of Lancashire, where the most mi- 
 nute operations are divided into a separate and distinct 
 trade, each of which is provided with its proper tools 
 : and engines for expediting the business, and making se- 
 veral of the parts at once. 
 
 A stranger will be much surprised at being told, that 
 to make a single watch, by the same means as are at 
 present in use, w’ould require various tools and engines 
 to the value of more than two thousand pounds ; but as 
 these are distributed among a great number of different 
 trades, the expense to each is moderate, and the advan- 
 tages derived from their use is very great, both in the 
 economy and accuracy of the work. 
 
 ; To enumerate the different trades would be a list as 
 I numerous as there are parts in the watch ; but, in a 
 ' general way, they may be divided into the following; 
 j though this division is not to be considered by any 
 j means as invariable. 
 
 1st. The spring-maker makes the springs to all 
 lengths, thicknesses, and breadths ; curves them, and 
 tempers them. 
 
 2d. The chain-maker. This is a very curious art 
 from the very minute parts of which it is composed ; 
 he makes all kinds which can be required. 
 
 Sd. 1 he fusee-cutter employs very curious engines to 
 form the spiral grooves on it, and as the expense of these 
 
 requires 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 573 
 
 requires him to be a man. of more capital than some 
 others, he frequently keeps other engines for cutting the 
 balance wheels and other wheels ; but this is sometimes 
 a separate branch, as follows : — 
 
 4th. The wheel-cutter employs engines to divide and 
 cut all the cog wheels, but his workmen generally con- 
 fine themselves to one kind of wheel. 
 
 5th. The dial-plates are enamelled by a distinct 
 trade. 
 
 6th. The case-maker makes all kinds of cases in 
 gold, silver, or metal. These last are gilt by the wa- 
 ter-gilder. 
 
 7 th. The watch-glass maker. 
 
 8th. The hands, and many other small parts, also 
 chasing and ornamenting the cock and upper plate, are 
 the work of as many different hands. 
 
 9th. The pinions are made by the wire-drawer, of 
 any size or number of teeth. 
 
 10th. The movement-maker makes the plates ; he 
 collects the wheels, fusee, &c., from the different work- 
 men, fixes the wheels upon their arbors, callipers, or 
 sets out the watch, and puts the w heels in the frame, 
 but in a rough way, and only as a preparation for 
 
 1 1th. The finisher, or, as he is generally termed, the 
 maker. He polishes the teeth and steel parts, finishes 
 and turns the pivots, and fits them to their holes ; 
 adjusts all the parts, together with the escapements, 
 and completes the w'hole business. It is this depart- 
 ment of watch-making that we particularly intend to 
 explain. 
 
 All the parts of a watch, made in the most accurate 
 manner, may be pdrchased, ready prepared by the 
 above trades, at many shops in the metropolis. The 
 most extensive and established of these is Mr. Samuel 
 Fern’s, Newgate Street. 
 
 The principal tools necessary to a watch-maker, are, 
 as follows : — 
 
 A small bench-vice to hold the tools, so called from 
 its being screwed or fixed to the bench. 
 
 A pin-vice to file up pins and hold various small 
 works. 
 
 Pliers, of various sizes and forms. 
 
 Wire-nippers for cutting off wire pins. 
 
 Drills, of various sizes. The smallest are made 
 from needles or fine wire, and are held in a drill-stock, 
 which has a screw nose that will hold any size. Also, 
 drill-bows and breast-board to cut them. 
 
 Files of all descriptions, as flat, square, round, cross- 
 ing-files, &c. &c. 
 
 Gravers and turning-tools, of various kinds ; several 
 pieces of Turkey stone ; oil-stone dust to polish steel; 
 and brushes to clean watches with. 
 
 Small hammers for riveting wheels upon the arbors, 
 and various small drifts, punches, sets, &c , for the 
 same purpose ; also, small stakes or anvils to place the 
 work upon. These latter are held in the bench-vice. 
 
 Five-sided broaches, of various sizes, to open or en- 
 large pivot holes to the proper dimensions, and round 
 broaches to burnish the insides of the holes. 
 
 A turn-bench, or, a watch-maker’s turn, which is 
 nearly the same, except in dimensions, is indispensable 
 for forming the pivots and all parts which are circular, 
 see Fig. 11, of Plate Clock-Work. The watch- 
 maker must be provided also with a variety of arbors 
 for fitting collets, wheels, &c., to turn them on (see 
 Fig. 12) ferrules, which are small pulleys to fix upon 
 pins, arbors, and various works, to turn them round by 
 the bow with a catgut band. Screw ferrules are the 
 same, but have clams to bite the work like a vice; 
 these must be exceedingly small to be used for turning 
 the verge-pivots, its bow must be very slender, and 
 work with a horse-hair. See a full explanation of all 
 these kind of tools under Turning. 
 
 A balance-tool, which is a small lathe with a man- 
 dril and collar, for turning the rim of the balance cir- 
 cular. See Fig. 8. 
 
 A pair of callipers, with an index adjustible by a 
 thumb screw, of use for trying if a wheel 'is placed at 
 right angles to its arbors, or, what is called, in the flat ; 
 and, also, if it is perfectly concentric, or in the rouud. 
 See Fig. 16, Plate Watch-Work. 
 
 Spring-tongs to take up the parts, for they should 
 never be touched by the fingers. See Fig. 11. 
 
 Inside and outside gauge for measuring work. See 
 Fig. 15. Also, 
 
 A magnifying-glass, to view the works. Some ar 
 tists have a pedestal or stand to support it, while others 
 apply it to their eye. 
 
 Spring-tool, for coiling up the main-spring to put it 
 into its barrel. See Fig. 19- 
 
 Pendulum-spring blueing-tool. This is to hold the 
 spring over a caudle to temper it, and has a small w'heel 
 held on the spring to prevent it from warping, or from 
 getting away. See Fig. 12. 
 
 The balance-wheel pitching-tool, Fig. 13. Of its 
 use more will be said. 
 
 The pitching-tool, Fig. J 8, is for ascertaining the 
 i distances at which the pivot-holes of any wheel and pi- 
 I nion should be situated, to make their teeth engage pro- 
 | perly with each other (called, running the depths). 
 
 An adjusting-tool, for fusees, with sliding weights to 
 suit any given maintaining power of the main-spring of 
 the watch. Fig 20. 
 
 A fusee tool, for cutting the groove in the fusee, or 
 for rectifying it after being cut by the maker. 
 
 Screw-drivers, of various dimensions ; and a 
 
 Poising-tool, to try the balance ; it is perfectly equi- 
 poised. S ee Fig. 17. 
 
 The movement of a watch complete may be procured 
 at Mr. Fern’s, or many other shops, for the trifling sum 
 of seven shillings. This is truly surprising when we re- 
 flect what it consists of, viz., the plates and pillars, 
 fitted together parallel to each other ; the spring-barrel, 
 but without a spring ; the fusee, great wheel, and all 
 the wheels complete. They are fixed fast on the ar- 
 bors, but the pivots are not formed, neither is the 
 groove of the fusee cut. The balance-wheel is not 
 fitted upon its arbor, because the pivot must be turned 
 7 G first, 
 
374 
 
 WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 first, neither is the balance, but both wheel and balance 
 are provided, and also the verge, and they only require 
 to have pivots formed. 
 
 For a small increase of expense, the watch-maker 
 may have the movement in a more perfect state ; viz. 
 the pivot holes determined, and then he has only to 
 fit the pivots to them, and make the escapement ; but 
 as it will be interesting to explain the manner of doing 
 this, we will describe the method of fitting the wheels 
 together, or what is called callipering the movement ; 
 though it is to be observed, that it is far better to let 
 the movement-maker do this, because having done one 
 by the process we shall describe, he makes perhaps 
 one hundred other movements of exactly the same 
 dimensions, and then he has only to drill off the pivot 
 holes of all the hundred, from the first one so ascer- 
 tained, and the wheels being made to the same dimen- 
 sions, will all fit together without further trouble. 
 
 We will suppose our watch to be of the following 
 numbers : 
 
 The fusee 74 spirals, great wheel 48 teeth, revolves 
 once in four hours. 
 
 The centre wheel, pinion 12 leaves, centre wheel 
 34 teeth, revolves once per hour. 
 
 The third wheel, pinion 6 leaves, wheel 48 teeth, 
 revolves 9 times per hour. 
 
 The contrate wheel, pinion 6 leaves, wheel 48 teeth, 
 revolves 72 times per hour. 
 
 The balance wheel, pinion 6 leaves, wheel 1 5 teeth, 
 revolves 376 times per hour. 
 
 The balance has two pallets, and will make 17,280 
 beats per hour. 
 
 Watches are made of many different numbers in the 
 train, but a general rule to obtain their ultimate pro- 
 ducts, viz. the number of beats per hour, is as follows: 
 Divide double the product of all the wheels, from the 
 centre wheel to the balance wheel inclusively, by the 
 product of all the pinions with which they act, the 
 quotient will be invariably the number of beats that the 
 watch in question makes in an hour ; and again, if we 
 divide this quotient by 3,600, the number of seconds 
 in an hour, the latter quotient will be the number of 
 beats in every second, which may be carried to any 
 number of places in decimals. 
 
 It must be remarked that in this rule no notice is 
 taken of the wheels and pinions, which constitute the 
 dial work, nor yet of the great wheel and central pinion 
 with which it acts; the use of the former of these is only 
 to make the hour and minute hands revolve in their re- 
 spective times, and must not be the same in all watches, 
 to make the motion of the hour-hand to that of the 
 minute hand as 1 to 12, and the use of the great wheel 
 and its central pinion is to determine in conjunction 
 with the number of spirals on the fusee, the number of 
 hours the watch shall continue to go at one winding up 
 of the chain from the barrel of the main spring ; all 
 these wheels and pinions therefore, it will be per- 
 ceived, are unnecessary to be taken into the account 
 in calculating the beats per hour. The reason why 
 
 , double the product of the wheels specified is taken 
 into the calculation, is this, that one tooth of the crown 
 wheel, completely escapes the pallets at every two 
 beats or vibrations of the balance. An example will 
 render the general rule perfectly intelligible. Let us 
 take for example, the numbers of a common watch as 
 above stated. 
 
 Now omitting the great wheel and its pinion of 12, 
 we have 34 x 48 x 48 x 15 x 2 — 3,732,480 for double 
 the product of the specified wheels; and 6x6x6=216 
 for the produce of the specified pinions, also 37 4 t&^ p — 
 17,280, are the number of beats in an hour, and 
 V/str# rr48 the exact number of beats per second ; ac- 
 cordingly Mr. Emerson says that this watch makes 
 about 4 1 beats in a second, which it does very nearly. 
 The number of spirals on the fusee is 7 1, therefore 
 74x4 the number of hours it makes one turn, —-SO is 
 the number of hours that the watch will go at one wind- 
 ing up : the dial w'ork 44 X !■§•= 4 x 3 — 12 likewise shew s 
 that whilst the first cannon pinion of 12 goes tw elve 
 times round, the last wheel of 48 goes only once, 
 whence the angular velocity of two hands carried 
 by their hollow axles, are to each other as twelve 
 to one. 
 
 Many watches are called stop watches, from the 
 circumstance of their having a small detent with a 
 spring, which can at pleasure, by touching a stop 
 at the outside of the case, be made to press against 
 the run of the contrate wheel. These watches always 
 have a hand on the dial to indicate seconds ; the con- 
 trate wheel, the arbor of which carries the seconds' 
 hand, must therefore revolve 60 times per hour, or 
 once per minute ; the following numbers are proper 
 for such a watch ; it will go 30 hours : 
 
 Fusee 6 turns, great wheel 60 teeth, revolves once 
 ; in five hours. 
 
 | The centre wheel pinion 12 leaves, wheel 64 teeth, 
 revolves once per hour. 
 
 The third wheel, pinion 8 leaves, wheel 60 teeth, 
 revolves 8 times per hour. 
 
 The contrate wheel, pinion 8 leaves, wheel 60 teeth, 
 t 60 per hour, or once per minute. 
 
 The balance wheel, pinion 6 leaves, wheel 1 5 teeth, 
 600 per hour, or 10 per minute. 
 
 The balance has two pallets, and will make 1 8,000 
 beats per hour, or 5 per second. 
 
 Having thus given the numbers and the rule for cal- 
 culating the movements of any watch, we must return 
 i to the method of callipering the movement. The 
 ■ watch-maker first measures the distance between the 
 inside of the two plates of the watch, with his inside 
 gauge, see Fig. 15, Plate Watch-Work, the two 
 ends, a b and c d, of which are equally distant from 
 the centre joint e, and therefore when the points a b 
 of one end are opened to any extent for an inside gauge, 
 and set by the screw g, the points c d of the other 
 end are adapted to the same opening, to measure out- 
 | side work or lengths, the spring h keeps them shut up 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 573 
 
 H e now prepares to turn the pivots ; for this purpose 
 he fixes his screw ferrule, Fig. 13 of Plate Clock- 
 Work, upon it, then passes the gut of the bow round 
 the "roove of the ferrule, and mounts the arbor in his turn, 
 Fig. 1 1, thrusting the centres A B towards each other, till 
 the arbor, which enters holes in the ends of the centres, 
 runs without shake, and there he fastens them by the 
 thumb screws CD; the turn is now held in the bench 
 vice by the lower part E E of the frame, tire rest 
 E G H> is next adjusted, and all is then prepared for 
 turning with the graver, which the watch-maker applies 
 to the work by his right hand, holding it on the rest G, 
 while he turns the work round by the bow held in the 
 left; when he has by these means reduced the end of 
 the arbor to a tine pivot, he polishes and grinds it hue 
 by a small quantity of oil-stone dust applied with oil 
 on a piece of steel, which he holds against the pivot; 
 as it turns round he uses the gauge, Fig. 1 5, to make 
 his arbor of the right length between its shoulders; 
 having reduced the pivot to size, he brings it to the 
 length by pulling the point marked K into the turn, 
 this is filed away with a notch, d, to expose the end 
 of the pivot which fits into a hole made through the 
 part beyond the notch ; a file can now be applied in 
 the notch to cut off the pivot to the proper length, 
 and then to file it to an obtuse cone, which is the 
 shape the ends of pivots are usually left. 
 
 All the pivots being made in this manner, the wheels 
 must be fitted on to those arbors which were not pre- 
 viously done by the respective makers ; these are the 
 third wheel and balance wheel, because these are 
 so near the ends of their arbors that the pivots 
 cannot be turned after the wheels are put on ; the 
 arbors have a small brass collet fastened and brazed 
 upon them, this collet is turned away to fit exactly the 
 centre hole in the wheel, and a shoulder is left to fit 
 the wheel up against, and when put on, it is riveted ; 
 this is done by resting the collet upon the stake, Fig. 
 14, which is a small piece of steel with a hole through 
 it to admit the arbor, but affords a resting place to the 
 collet ; this is held in the bench vice and the wheel put 
 in it ; the set which is a punch with a hole drilled in 
 it, is put over the end of the arbor which comes 
 through the wheel, and a few gentle blows with the 
 hammer rivets it on all sides at once, by expanding the 
 collet in the hole in the wheel. 
 
 He now' tries the wheel in his callipers, Fig. 16, 
 Plate Watch-Wop.k ; the ends of the points a a , or 
 beaks, have several small holes made in them to receive 
 the pivots of any arbor; they will open to any extent, and 
 can be fastened by the clump c, or its screw d ; the ar- 
 bor being mounted between them is twirled round to try 
 the wheel h if it is truly centred upon the arbor, and 
 also if its plane is truly perpendicular thereto, or if it 
 is true in the Hat, as the workmen say ; it is ascertained 
 by holding some fixed object against it. It is usual 
 among watch-makers to hold a small straight ruler 
 across the blades a a of the callipers, to prove if the 
 wheel runs true upon its arbor ; but some callipers are 
 
 provided with a small finger or index, made of two 
 pieces, e f, jointed together, and one of them, e, 
 united to the callipers by a joint, by which means the 
 point of f can be brought to meet a wheel of any 
 size. When it is applied as in the figure, it proves 
 whether the wheel is in the square, for if on holding 
 it up to the light the wheel appears to advance and 
 recede from the point of the finger, it shews an error 
 which must be rectified by what is called setting ; to 
 do this the workman observes that side of the rim of 
 the wheel which comes nearest to the finger f in its 
 revolution, he then removes the wheel and places it in a 
 tool called a mandril, Fig. 15, Plate Clock-Work, 
 which is similar to a cup or inverted bell; it is held in the 
 vice and its circular edge supports the rim of the wheel, 
 leaving its centre hollow', and its arbor completely de- 
 tached: he now with the pen or beak of the smallest 
 riveting hammer, strikes an extremely light blow on that 
 arm of the wheel which is opposite to the faulty side of 
 the rim, this bends or sets the arm so as to put the 
 wheel in the square w ith its axis ; it is after this tried 
 in the callipers again, to prove that the setting is suffi- 
 cient, and if not, it is repeated. In setting a wheel, 
 the workman is particularly attentive to avoid twisting 
 the rim of the w-heel ; this he does by bedding it fairly 
 on the edge of the mandril, and taking care not to 
 strike its rim when he hammers on the arm, because 
 it is only intended to bend the arm, leaving the rim a 
 true plane as it was before the setting, but its incli- 
 nation altered so as to make it exactly perpendicular 
 to the arbor, of which the trial in the callipers is the 
 most delicate test. 
 
 All the wheels being finished in this manner, are 
 prepared for putting in the watch, by drilling the holes 
 for their pivots in the plates ; to find the proper situa- 
 tion for these holes, a pitching tool, Fig. 18, is used; 
 it is in reality two small turns, A A, B B, united to 
 gether by a joint, C; each is provided with its pair of 
 centres, a b and c d, and fixing-screws to hold them 
 wherever they are placed ; by means of a screw, E, 
 which passes through the turn B, and operates against 
 the other, A, the two can be separated on their joints 
 C to any required extent ; but it is plain in this move- 
 ment, that its centres, a b and c d, will ahvays continue 
 parallel to each other. A spring, F, tends always to 
 shut the two together, as its two ends are connected 
 to the turn B by two links, g g, and the middle of the 
 spring, which is convex, presses against the turn A, 
 and tends alw'ays to press them together, as far as the 
 screw E will permit. The use of this tool is to ascer- 
 tain the distance that any wheel and pinion should be 
 placed asunder, for the teeth to work into each other 
 in a proper manner; to effect this the wheel is placed 
 between one pair of centres, a b or c d, and the pinion 
 between the other pair and the screw E is adjusted 
 until they will work into each other with freedom, and 
 without any material looseness or shake between the 
 teeth ; in this state, it is evident that the points a b or 
 c d, formed at the extremities of the respective centres, 
 
 will 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 S7G 
 
 wjll exactly represent the distance that the pivot-hole 
 of the wheel and pinion should be placed asunder, 
 and these points may be used as a pair of compasses, 
 to mark off the distances on the plates of the watch ; 
 and this being done for every wheel and pinion succes- 
 sively throughout the watch, will ensure their being 
 pitched truly. 
 
 The centre wheel is known to be placed in the 
 centre of the w atch plates ; a hole is therefore first 
 drilled in the centre of the pillar plate, D D, Plate I, 
 to receive the arbor of the centre wheel, not its pivot, 
 because the arbor of this wheel passes through the 
 plate to receive the cannon pinion, to carry the minute 
 hand, as before described ; the pivot hole, after drill- 
 ing, is opened out and enlarged to the proper dimen- 
 sions by a round broach ; this is a round piece of steel, 
 like a wire, but rather tapering ; it is forced into the 
 hole, and turned round at the same time, by which 
 it enlarges the hole without cutting out any metal, and 
 therefore it burnishes and hardens the interior surface 
 of the hole, so that it will wear much better than the 
 soft brass would, if merely drilled. 
 
 The great wheel and centre wheel are now put in 
 the pitching tool, and by it the distance proper for 
 the great wheel to work in the ceutre wheel pinion 
 is ascertained, and then one point, a, of the tool being 
 set in the centre hole of the plate, an arch is described 
 with the other, c, and in some point of this arch the 
 great wheel pivot must be placed ; this point being 
 found (by trial), so that the wheel and fusee W'ill be 
 clear of the other works, is drilled ; than the spring 
 barrel is tried, not by the pitching tool, but by placing 
 it in any situation where it will be free from the other J 
 wheels, and here its pivot hole is drilled. The pitch- j 
 ing tool next determines the distance of the third wheel ! 
 from the centre wheel, and also the distance the con- j 
 trate wheel is to be from this. The callipering of I 
 the pillar plate is now finished, and when the corres- j 
 ponding pivot holes are drilled in the upper plate, the 
 watch may be put together ; now it is essential for the 
 wheels to run well, that the arbors must be exactly per- 
 pendicular to the plane of the plates ; to ensure this, 
 the holes in the upper plate are drilled by means of the 
 upright tool, shewn in Fig. 9, Plate Clock-Work; 
 this is a kind of lathe, which is held in the bench 
 vice, and its spindle turned by a bow, in the same 
 manner as the turn, before described. In this figure, 
 which is an elevation taken from one side, A B repre- 
 sents a steel spindle mounted in a brass frame, CDE, 
 the part E of which is held in the bench vice; the 
 spindle has a neck formed on it, which is accurately 
 fitted into a socket formed in the part D of the frame ; 
 the opposite end, A of the spindle, is supported by 
 the point of a centre screw, F, which can always be 
 screwed up, to make the spindle run without shake ; 
 the end of the spindle which projects through the 
 collar, or socket D, is formed into a screw’, by which 
 any kind of chuck can be screwed on ; thus this tool 
 is exactly the same as a small lathe. The chuck which 
 
 is represented as fixed on in the figure, is a flat brass 
 plate, G, which has three grooves cut through it, 
 extending nearly from the centre to the circumference; 
 these grooves are arranged at equal distances round the 
 centre ; three thumb-screws, such as is shewn at a a 
 pass through each of these grooves, and each is tapped 
 into a piece of brass, b ; now by shiftiug these screw's 
 along in their grooves, the three pieces of brass, or 
 clams, b b, may be removed to any distance from the 
 centre, and the screw's, a a, will confine them in any 
 position ; each clam has a small piece of brass, d, 
 which by means of the screw' e, can be made to bite 
 or clamp the edge of the watch plate, H ; the biting 
 parts of all these clams being equally distant on the 
 face of the chuck, the watch plate, H, will of course 
 be parallel thereto, and therefore perpendicular to the 
 length of the spindle, A B ; this is hollow for some 
 distance from the chuck, to receive a piece of steel 
 wire, which is accurately fitted into it, as shewm by 
 the dotted lines, K, and can be slid backward and 
 forward by means of a small bolt at I, which comes 
 through a cleft in the spindle ; the extremity, r, of this 
 wire, which is called the centre-pin, is formed to a 
 very delicate centre point, which can be protruded any 
 distance from the face of the chuck, but always pre- 
 serves its point accurately in the centre line of the 
 spindle, and therefore perpendicular to the chuck G. 
 
 The manner of using the upright tool is this; the 
 watch plates, H L, are pinned together, and the 
 centre point, r, being advanced considerably beyond 
 the chuck, its point is applied to any of the pivot- 
 holes made in the pillar plate H, by the process be- 
 fore described ; the three clams, b b, are then set, so 
 that they will touch the circumference of the plate, 
 by advancing them respectively towards the centre a 
 proper distance, and fixing them by the screws a a ; 
 the other screws, e e, being now turned close to the 
 jaw’s, d d , of the clams, and they hold the edges of 
 the plate H fast between them, as is shewn in the 
 figure. By this means the watch frame is fixed, so 
 that its plane is perpendicular to the axis of the spindle 
 A B, and the pivot hole, which is intended to have 
 another drilled opposite to it, is exactly in the centre 
 line of the spindle ; the rest M, is now set in a pro*- 
 per position before the watch plate, and a drill being 
 held over it, is presented to it, while the plate and 
 spindle are turned round by means of a bow, the band 
 or cat-gut of which encompasses the small pulley, N, 
 on the spindle ; the drill (as is w'ell known to turners) 
 is easily guided to pierce the watch plate in the exact 
 centre line of the spindle, because if it is not pre- 
 sented to this centre, its point will scratch a small 
 circle upon the plate, and when the drill is set in the 
 centre of this, it will be in its correct position. Make 
 a pivot hole in the upper plate, L, exactly opposite 
 to that in the pillar plate, M, which is guided to its 
 place by the centre point, r, of the spindle ; when 
 one pivot hole is thus drilled, the watch plate is very 
 quickly shifted to another pivot hole, which is brought 
 
 opposite 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 577 
 
 opposite to the centre, in the same manner as we 
 have before described. It is by means of the upright 
 tool that the cavities are made in the plates of the 
 sunk watches, to receive the centre wheel and third 
 wheel ; these are turned by a graver at the same time 
 of fixing as when the respective pivot holes are drilled, 
 and the circular excavations will therefore be exactly 
 concentric with the pivot holes ; the excavation for 
 the centre wheel is very shallow, few except the flattest 
 watfches having any at all ; the cavity for the third 
 wheel is cut quite through the plate, and the pivot is 
 supported by a cross bar, fixed by two little screw's 
 on the under side of the plate, and extending across 
 the centre of the hole. It should have been observed, 
 that this cross bar is fitted before the movement is 
 put in the upright tool, a hole is drilled through it in 
 continuation of the pivot hole, this bar is removed, 
 as is also the upper plate, and the movement is fixed 
 in the tool by the edge of the pillar plate, instead of 
 the upper plate ; the excavation for the third wheel is 
 then turned out, but the cross bar, when fixed up again 
 by its screws, will certainly be concentric with this 
 cavity. The upright tool will hold the watch by either 
 pillar or upper plate, just as is required, and will pro- 
 duce the same effects in either case, but it is best to 
 hold that plate which is to be operated upon, because 
 the pillars of the frame are not then liable to strain. 
 In this manner a hole is frequently turned to cut 
 through the upper plate, to admit the top of the spring- 
 barrel to pass through it, the upper pivot of the barrel 
 arbor is then supported by a cross bar or piece, called 
 the barrel cover ; this method admits a greater length 
 of barrel, and of course a broader and stronger spring. 
 The upright tool which w'e have described, is that 
 which is generally used by watch-makers for finishing 
 the works, and occasionally enlarging or deepening the 
 excavations, or for boring out one of the pivot holes 
 large enough to receive a jewel ; but the professed 
 movement-maker, who constantly employs an upright 
 tool, has it fixed with a wheel to be turned by the 
 foot, and generally has a slide rest fixed before the 
 work, to hold the tool, instead of trusting to the un- 
 steadiness of holding it in his hand upon the rest N. 
 The upright tool is frequently attached to the watch- 
 maker’s lathe, and this is perhaps the best method. 
 
 The fusee, centre wheel, third wheel, and contrate 
 wheel being put in the watch in this manner, the 
 pottance is fitted by temporary pins to the upper 
 plate, in such a position that it will not interfere with 
 the rest of the w'orks, which being determined it is 
 rivetted fast, the cock is then screwed on with the 
 steady pin, and by fixing the upper plate alone in the 
 upright tool, the hole to receive the jew r el to form 
 the socket for the upper pivot of the verge is bored, 
 and will be truly perpendicular to the hole which has 
 been previously drilled in the pottance for the jew'el 
 of the lower pivot; then without removing the plate 
 from the upright tool, the cock is taken off, and a hole 
 bored through the upper plate, to permit the axis of 
 
 the verge to pass through (this hole is afterwards filed 
 square, to suffer the balance wheel to reach the upper 
 pallet), at the same time the circular groove in the 
 upper plate, which is to receive the ring of the curb, 
 is formed. 
 
 The balance wheel is next fitted ; one of its pivot 
 holes being drilled in the centre of the small dove- 
 tail slider of the pottance. Then to make the pivot 
 hole in the counter pottance exactly the same distance 
 beneath the upper plate, so that the balance wheel 
 arbor shall be exactly perpendicular to the verge, the^ba- 
 | lance wheel pitching tool, Fig. 13, Watch-Work, is 
 employed. It consists of a brass plate, a b c, with an 
 ! index, d e, moveable on -a centre, d, by means of the 
 ! screw f, against the point of which it is constantly 
 ! pressed by the spring g; it is in fact a pair of com- 
 passes, adapted to this particular purpose ; the straight 
 edge b of the plate a b c is applied fiat against the 
 under surface of the upper plate, and the screwy being 
 turned, adjusts the point e till it comes exactly op- 
 posite the pivot hole in the slider of the pottance. 
 The tool being now applied in a similar manner to 
 1 the counter pottance, marks the proper height for the 
 pivot hole to be made therein, which is accordingly 
 drilled with a large hole, to receive a pin called the 
 I follower, at the end of this the pivot hole itself is 
 : drilled ; the balance wheel is now tried in its place ; 
 its pivots having been made in the same manner as the 
 other W'heels, and if on trial it is found to come on 
 its right place, so that its arbor does not interfere with 
 the contrate wheel arbor, the counter pottance, which 
 was only fitted in a temporary manner, is rivetted fast. 
 In this trial, it will be seen if the teeth of the contrate 
 wheel works well with the balance wheel pinion, and 
 if not, it must be rectified, by setting the contrate 
 wheel in the same manner first described, by the man- 
 dril, Fig. 15, and a proper acting punch or drift; this 
 bends the arms so as to throw the rim and teeth of 
 the wheel nearer or farther from the balance wheel 
 pinion, as is required to make it work properly ; it is 
 scarcely necessary to add, that the wheel ought to be 
 tried in the callipers, that it runs square every time 
 it has been set. 
 
 Having thus described the means of putting in all 
 the wheels, which is called fitting the movements, we 
 must attend to the manner of fitting and adjusting the 
 spring barrel and mounting fusee. A spring must be 
 procured from the tool shop, which is of such a 
 breadth .as to fit the spring barrel, and a proper length 
 and stiffness to have a sufficient power to actuate the 
 watch ; the knowledge for the proper strength for the 
 main spring of a watch of any dimensions, can only 
 be obtained by experience and practice, which teaches 
 the artist that a watch of certain dimensions will re- 
 quire a main spring, the length, breadth, and thick- 
 ness of which he measures by accurate gauges. These 
 he takes with him to the tool shop, and selects, from 
 an immense number, a spring which suits them ; as 
 an additional proof, it is weighed. Those who are not 
 7 H possessed 
 
>78 
 
 WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 possessed of this experience, may find it necessary to 
 try two or three springs, before one is met with of the 
 proper strength, and which will act u'ith a due degree 
 of regularity. 
 
 It has been asserted, that a spring will act more 
 regularly, and be less liable to give under friction 
 among the coils, if the breadth be gradually diminished 
 from the exterior to the interior, and that the friction 
 of the sides of the spring against the ends of the barrel | 
 will thereby be greatly diminished. The spring arbor 
 must be strong in proportion to the force of the spring, 
 particularly at the pivots, the front one of which must 
 be thick enough to admit of being squared, to hold a 
 ratchet, or small serrated wheel, at the outside of 
 the pillar plate, shewn at b, Fig. 1, the teeth of 
 which ratchet must be strong enough to hold the 
 arbor in any situation to which it is turned, which 
 it does by means of a click, attached by a screw to the 
 exterior surface of the pillar plate of the frame; the 
 spring arbor has a strong hook formed out of its sub- 
 stance at the middle, within the barrel, on which hook a 
 hole made near the interior end of the spring is hitched, 
 while the exterior end is rivetted to the circular side 
 of the box ; hence it is not difficult to conceive, that 
 when the spring fills the box in its relaxed state, and 
 has its coils most close at the rim of the barrel, it 
 may be coiled up close to the arbor in the centre, 
 or in other words, it may be wound up by two dif- 
 ferent methods ; either the barrel may be held fast, 
 and the arbor be turned backward by its ratchet, or 
 by a key fitting its square ; or otherwise, which is the 
 general and better practice, the ratchet may be suffered 
 to retain the arbor in its place, and with it the interior 
 end of the spring ; and the barrel itself, to which the 
 exterior end is rivetted, may be turned forwards by the 
 chain attached to it by a hook at one end, and wound 
 round it, as seen at Figs. 2 and 6. We have said the 
 latter method is the better, and the reason is, that 
 when the greatest and smallest forces of the spring 
 are adjusted to the shape of the fusee, or rather the 
 fusee to them, the ratchet cannot be altered without 
 deranging this adjustment. The arbor is turned in the 
 turn bench, with pivots and shoulders sufficiently re- 
 mote from each other, to reach the interior faces of the 
 watch-plates, but to have just so much play endways 
 as will prevent friction, and the chain must be long 
 enough to fill the spiral grooves of the fusee. Care 
 also must be taken, that the depth or side of the barrel 
 must be nearly equal to the effective length of the 
 fusee, otherwise the chain will be liable to slip off at 
 the ends of it. 
 
 The bottom of the barrel is soldered fast, and has 
 a large pivot-hole against which an inner shoulder of 
 the arbor rests, and the lid is turned so large, as to be 
 capable of being forced or sprung into a receptacle 
 turned for it round the inner part of the edge of the 
 circular rim of the barrel, in which situation it rests 
 against a corresponding inner shoulder of the arbor, 
 and completes the barrel ; when this adjustible end is 
 
 to be taken off, for the purpose of examining or taking 
 out the spring, a slight stroke at the remote pivot of 
 the arbor will force it out of its place : some skill is 
 necessary for putting the spring in the barrel, in the 
 manner which is usually done by the country watch- 
 makers ; but it is very easily performed by using the tool 
 represented by Fig. 1 9 ; it consists of a brass frame, 
 A D, which is held in the bench vice by the projecting 
 piece D ; C is a small steel spindle extending across 
 the frame, provided with a small handle, E, by which 
 it is turned round, and it is prevented from turning 
 back again by a ratchet wheel which is hid behind the 
 plate F; a is a small click, which engages the teeth 
 of this ratchet and prevents its retrograde motion ; the 
 projecting parts of the frame, A D, immediately above 
 the spindle, are cut with two clefts to receive a parallel 
 ! bar, G, which has liberty of motion in these clefts 
 either endways or up and down, and it has a steel 
 beak, g , projecting from it. At the extreme end of 
 the spindle, c, a small hook is formed, corresponding 
 with the hook upon the barrel arbor of the watch ; 
 upon this hook the interior end of the spring is caught, 
 and the hook at the outer'end of the spring is hitched 
 upon the projecting beak, g, of the slider G. Now 
 by turning the handle E, the spring can be wound up 
 to any required compass, and the ratchet a prevents 
 its return ; the spring is thus wound up so small as to 
 enter the box or barrel which is applied to it, and the 
 click a being relieved, suffers the spring to expand 
 itself and fill the barrel : the hook at the extreme end 
 | now enters the hole prepared at the side of the barrel 
 for its reception, this being done, the barrel arbor is 
 put in its place, the cover of the barrel put on, and 
 it is ready to take its place in the watch. 
 
 The fusee is next prepared ; as we have before 
 mentioned, the experienced watch-maker know's what 
 proportion the two ends of this fusee should bear to 
 each other, to compensate for the irregular action of 
 the main spring he has chosen ; if he has not had 
 these opportunities, the follow ing method may be used 
 to determine it. A rough estimate for the power of 
 the spring must be first made, by coiling the chain in 
 a proper direction a few times round tiie barrel, till 
 it is nearly all wound up, the arbor being held in a 
 ratchet or vice, and then by suspending a weight to 
 the sphere end, such as will just pull the barrel two 
 or three times round from its relaxed state, this weight 
 will denote the smallest power, which suppose to be 
 three ounces ; then add a heavier weight, such as will 
 uncoil as much more of the chain as may be supposed, 
 from a previous measurement, to be sufficient to fill 
 the fusee, and note it, which we will again suppose 
 to be seven ounces, for the greatest power of the 
 spring ; now this proportion of three to seven may be 
 J taken as a guide for the respective diameters of the 
 conical piece of metal called the fusee, which is intro- 
 duced to equalize the varying power of the spring, 
 by causing the chain to act, as it were, with a succes- 
 ’ sion of levers, of different lengths reciprocally pro- 
 
 J portionate 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 579 
 
 portionate to the power of the spring in any given 
 situation, so that when the power is great, it is pulling 
 by a short lever, and vice versa. The piece of solid 
 metal intended for the fusee, must be drilled through 
 the centre* and opened with a broach, and then have 
 a steel arbor of considerable strength driven tight into it, 
 by which it is turned into a conical, or rather a para- 
 boloidal shape, generally having its thicker end some- 1 
 what smaller than the diameter of the spring barrel, j 
 and die odier end reduced in proportion, according to 
 the supposition of 3:7, but sometimes in a greater j 
 ratio, without reckoning the thickness of the chain ; I 
 the length of the fusee must be shorter than the pillar, 
 by as much as will admit the great wheel and ratchet, 
 with the centre wheel behind them, to be introduced [ 
 between it and. the plate at one end. Room is left j 
 for a contrivance for stopping the revolutions when the 
 spirals are filled with the chain, called the guard-gut, 
 because the first watches had a cat-gut instead of a 
 chain. The fusee is prepared in this manner by its i 
 maker, who cuts the spiral groove in it in some cases, j 
 by a very curious engine for the purpose ; but the 
 w'atch-maker will generally have to rectify this groove, 
 to suit the irregular action of the individual spring which 
 he has adapted to the watch. 
 
 After the groove is cut, a pair of strong pivots may 
 be turned on the fusee arbor, the pivot-holes in the 
 plates opened by a pivot broach, held perpendicularly J 
 with respect to the faces of the plates,' and the fusee ! 
 introduced into the frame, parallel to the spring barrel 
 arbor ; the extreme end of the groove at the large end 1 
 of the fusee, is made much deeper for a very short 
 distance, and a pin being fixed across the groove in 
 this deep part, serves to attach the chain to the fusee 
 by passing round it the hook formed at the extremity 
 of the chain. The chain, perhaps, is the most sur- 
 prising piece of workmanship in the whole watch, 
 considering the very minute parts of which it is com- 
 posed ; every inch in length of some watch chains con- 
 tains thirty links, one half of which number are formed 
 of two plates opposite to each other, while the other 
 half of the number are single links, to unite the double 
 links together, by means of a pin or rivet put through 
 the end of every link, and passing through all the 
 three ; thus one inch in length cousists of fifteen double j 
 and fifteen single links, making forty-five plates, and 
 thirty pins to unite them together, in all seventy-five J 
 pieces ; yet a chain of four inches in length, polished i 
 and finished, is sold for less than one shilling ; some i 
 of the fine chains for a repeating watch, have near j 
 double this number of links in an inch, If now a 1 
 square be made, either on the front or back pivot of 
 the fusee which must project through the plate, ac- 
 cordingly as the watch is intended to be wound up in 
 the face or behind, and if a key be inserted upon it, 
 the spring may be wound up, and it will appear whether 
 or not the chain is too long, and how much, which 
 may accordingly be altered. Hitherto the work has 
 proceeded on a supposition that the fusee has been 
 
 turned of a paraboloidal shape, and that the spring Ts 
 perfect at the two extremities as well as at all the inter- 
 mediate degrees of tension ; but it yet remains to be 
 proved, by mechanical adjustment, that these coin- 
 cidences have been effected without material subsequent 
 alterations in the length of the chain and shape of the 
 fusee. 
 
 These adjustments are made by means of the adjust- 
 ing-tool, Fig. 20, which is made of a long steel wire 
 A B, upon which tw r o sliding weights D and E are 
 fitted, and at one end is a clam or vice C, which is 
 screwed up by a nut F ; by means of this clam the tool 
 is affixed to the square at the end of the fusee arbor 
 where the key is applied to wind up tTie watch ; this is 
 done when the fusee is mounted in its place in the 
 watch, which being held so that the fusee arbor is hori- 
 zontal, and the lever of the adjusting-tool is turned 
 round until it becomes horizontal also. The weights 
 are now gradually moved along the wire A B, until, by 
 trial, they are found to be an exact counterpoise to the 
 spring, previously wound up by means of the ratchet on 
 the barrel arbor. Such balance being effected, the 
 spring may be wound up by the adjusting-tool, used as a 
 key, till the seventh spiral at the top, or small end of 
 the fusee, be filled with chain ; in w hich situation, if 
 the weight of the tool still constitutes an exact counter- 
 poise to the power of .the spring, it is to be presumed, 
 that the spring is properly fixed w'ith respect to its quan- 
 tity of intensity by its ratchet ; but, if in the latter situ- 
 ation of the tool it turns out to be more than a coun- 
 terpoise, either the spring is of too low an intensity in 
 the present situation of its ratchet, or the fusee is too 
 small at the small end, or both may be so circumstanced. 
 On the contrary, if the tool is not a counterpoise for 
 the spring when wound up, either the spring is set too 
 high by the ratchet, or the small end of the fusee is too 
 thick ; a few successive trials of similar adjustment for 
 opposite ends of the fusee, by an increase or decrease 
 of the intensity, being gradually given to the spring by 
 the means of turning its ratchet, will generally deter- 
 mine w hether the failure in the adjustment is occasioned 
 by the mounting of the spring, or the curve of the 
 fusee, and the former may be rectified by the ratchet, 
 or the latter altered by a detached tool to run in the 
 groove, as it revolves in the turning bench, if a fusee- 
 engine is not at hand ; though it must be confessed, that 
 some experience in this business will greatly facilitate 
 the determination of the proper means of final adjust- 
 ment. We will now suppose the spring fixed, and the 
 fusee adjusted by the tool, so as to render the maintain- 
 ing power precisely the same at the bottom and top of 
 the spiral groove ; the adjustments must next be made 
 for all the intermediate turns of the helix, successively, 
 by means of the same adjusting tool, with the weight of 
 the adjusting tool unaltered, the spring arbor also re- 
 suming at every trial, its original position which we will 
 suppose to have been marked on the holding tooth of 
 the ratchet. 
 
 When the spring is good, and the fusee approaching 
 
 to 
 
580 
 
 WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 Co a conical shape, it will be found, on trial, that the 
 maintaining power is too great for the tool of adjust- 
 ment to balance before it is wound up half way ; in 
 consequence of which increase in the maintaining power, 
 the fusee must necessarily be again put into the fusee- 
 engine, and have its groove deepened, so as to make a 
 parabolic curve, instead of a straight line from the top 
 to the bottom of the fusee. After this alteration, the 
 frame of the watch must be remounted, the spring 
 coiled up again to its determined position, and the 
 weights of the adjusting-tool kept unaltered in its situ- 
 ation on the wire. The intermediate grooves in the 
 helix may not yet be found all correct in their effects 
 throughout the whole length of the fusee, but the ad- 
 justing tool will detect the particular places where the 
 power predominates ; which places, when marked, may 
 be again altered in the fusee-engine, and the parts re- 
 placed in the frame ; when, after three, four, or per- 
 haps more alterations of the fusee, and adjustments of 
 the spring, at length the effect produced by the power 
 of the spring is the same, whatever part of the fusee be 
 actuated by the chain. The accuracy of this adjustment 
 is of the utmost importance, and should be minutely 
 attended to, otherwise the watch may be made to vary 
 its rate of going on each successive hour of the day, by 
 reason of the irregularity of the maintaining power, un- 
 less, indeed, such a consequence be obviated by the na- 
 ture of the escapement, or other contrivance, which 
 ought not to be depended upon while there is a funda- 
 mental remedy. The escapement of the common watch 
 is such, that any increase in the maintaining power very 
 materially affects the going of the watch : hence it is 
 evident, that whenever the original main-spring of a 
 watch happeus to be broken, or by any means altered, 
 another spring, though of the same dimensions, ought 
 not to be substituted, as is often injudiciously done, 
 without a corresponding alteration in the fusee is found 
 necessary by a trial of the adjusting tool. 
 
 If the chain should be broken, and its length at all 
 altered by the repairs, the mounting of the ratchet must 
 be altered to suit it, because an alteration in the length 
 of the chain has just the same effect as letting down or 
 taking up the ratchet of the spring. 
 
 During this labour of adjusting the fusee to the 
 spring, it will occur, that the chain might be wound up 
 beyond the end of the fusee if it were turned more than 
 seven times and a half round, on] which account a small 
 piece of soft steel, equal in diameter to the small end 
 of the fusee, independently of the claw or projection 
 piece, is usually driven on the fusee arbor, and fastened 
 to the end of the fusee at g, Fig. 2. 
 
 VVe will now suppose our watch furnished with a 
 maintaining power and a train of wheel-work, it only 
 remains to provide it with an escapement, balance, pen- 
 dulum-spring, and their appendages ; we have supposed 
 our watch of the common construction, having the 
 crown-wheel escapement, the operation of which we 
 have minutely explained ; but, although this escapement 
 is extremely simple, it is susceptible of many degrees 
 
 of goodness, or imperfection, by the variation of the 
 few particulars of its construction. We shall, there- 
 fore, briefly describe that construction, which long ex- 
 perience has sanctioned as approaching near to the best 
 performance that can be obtained from the common 
 escapement. 
 
 Fig. 8, represents it in what are esteemed its best 
 proportions, as it appears when looking straight down 
 on the end of the balance arbor or verge. L is the 
 centre of the balance and verge. M N are the two 
 pallets, M being the upper pallet, or the one next to 
 the balance, and N being the iower one. O P are two 
 teeth of the crown-wheel, moving from left to right ; 
 and Q R are two teeth on the lower part of the circum- 
 ference, moving right and left. The tooth P is repre- 
 sented as just escaped from the point of pallet M, and 
 the low’er tooth Q as just come in contact with the 
 iower pallet N. The escapement, however, should not 
 be quite so close, because a slight inequality on the 
 teeth might prevent it from escaping at all ; for if Q 
 touch the pallet N before P has quitted M, all will 
 stand still. This fault will be corrected by withdrawing 
 the wheel a little from the verge by shortening the 
 pallets. 
 
 The proportions are as follow : — The distance from 
 the points of the teeth, that is, of O P, Q R, and the 
 axis L of the balance is one-fifth of the distance be- 
 tween the points of the teeth. The length L m, or 
 L 7i, of the pallets is three-fifths of the same distance. 
 The pallets make an angle m L n of ninety-five degrees, 
 and the front P x, or leading edge of the teeth O P Q R 
 make an angle of 25° with the axis LX of the crown- 
 wheel. The form of the back of the teeth is of no im- 
 portance, as they have no action on those parts, it is 
 only necessary for them to be so curved at the back 
 that the pallet M, in returning, will not interfere with 
 the back of the tooth P, and this being ensured, as 
 much substance as is practicable should be left for 
 strength. 
 
 From these proportions it appears, that the pallet 
 M may throw out by the action of the tooth P, and 
 the momentum of the balance, till it reaches r, 120 
 degrees from L X, the line of the crown-wheel axis ; 
 for it can throw out till the pallet N will strike on the 
 leading edge of the tooth Q, whereas it should only be 
 acted upon by the point of the tooth. The leading 
 face, as before stated, is inclined 25° to C L, to this, 
 therefore, add n Lm — 95°, and we have XL r — 120. 
 In like manner, N will throw out to s as far on the 
 other side. From 240° the sum of these angles (viz. 
 s L X and X Lr) take the angles of the pallets (»L»i) 
 — 95°, and there remains 145°; fix the greatest vibra- 
 tion which the balance can make without striking the 
 front of the teeth. This extent of vibration supposes 
 the teeth to terminate in points, and the acting surfaces 
 of the pallets to be planes, directed to the very axis of 
 the verge. But the points of the teeth must be rounded 
 off a little for strength, and to diminish the friction on 
 the face of the pallets. This diminishes the angle of 
 
 escapement 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 581 
 
 escapement very considerably, by shortening the teeth ; 
 moreover, we must by no means allow the point of the 
 pallet to bank or strike on the foreside of the teeth ; 
 this would greatly derange the vibration by the violence 
 and abruptness of the check which the wheel would 
 give to the pallet. This circumstance makes it impro- 
 per to continue the vibration much beyond the angle of 
 escapement. One third of an angle, or 120°, is, there- 
 fore, reckoned a very proper vibration for an escapement 
 made in these proportions. The impulse of the wheels, 
 or the angle of escapement, may be increased by making 
 the face of the pallets a little concave, preserving the 
 same angle at the centre. The vibration may also be 
 increased by pushing the wheel nearer the verge ; this 
 would also diminish the recoil. Indeed, this may be 
 entirely removed by bringing the front of the wheel up 
 to L, and not making the acting faces of the pallets 
 N M a radius, but a parallel to the radius and behind 
 it, i. e. by placing the pallet so that its acting face may 
 be where its back is just now. In this case, the tooth 
 will drop on it at the centre, and lie there at rest while 
 the balance completes its vibration. But this would 
 make the pitching (as the stroke on the teeth is called), 
 almost unavoidable. In short, after varying every cir- 
 cumstance in every possible manner, the best makers 
 have settled on a escapement very nearly such as we 
 have described. Precise rules can scarcely be given, 
 because the law by which the force acting on the pallets 
 varies in its intensity, deviates so widely from the ba- 
 lance-spring, especially near the limits of the excur- 
 sions. 
 
 To prepare the escapement, the watch-maker first 
 turns pivots to the verge, and fits them very delicately to 
 the jewelled pivot-holes, previously made in the pottance 
 and cock by the means before described ; but it should 
 be observed, that all good watches have jewelled pivot- 
 holes for the verges. In these cases, holes of consider- 
 able size are bored in the pottance and cock, by the up- 
 right tool, and the jewel is fixed into a steel keep or 
 ring, which is fitted into these holes, and held therein 
 by two very small screws. The steel balance is now 
 fitted and rivetted upon the small brass collet which is 
 fixed on the verge, and turned to fit in the same manner 
 as the rest of the wheels were ; it is then tried in the 
 callipers, if it turns true, and, if not, it is set square 
 by bending or setting its arms in the same manner as any 
 other wheel ; if it should not be true in the round, which, 
 however, oannot happen if the turning has been truly 
 done, it is rectified by the balance-tool, Fig. 8, Plate 
 Clock-Work. This tool is a small turning spindle, 
 such as we have before described of the upright tool ; 
 at the end of it a chuck h is fixed, and against it a 
 small brass ring n is attached by two screws ; in the 
 centre of the face of the chuck a slight hollow is turn- 
 ed, and the balance o being placed with its arms against 
 the face of the chuck, the ring n is screwed against it 
 but very lightly, so that its position can be adjusted till 
 the pivot n of the verge is found to run perfectly true 
 when the spindle A B is turned round ; the screws are 
 
 then made fast, and hold the balance fast to the chuck, - 
 that its rim may be turned true, and brought to its in- 
 tended form by the graver held over the rest M. It is 
 plain, that this process might have been performed in 
 the turn, but from the extreme delicacy of the verge- 
 pivots, which will scarcely bear turning themselves, 
 hence is the necessity for the balance-tool. 
 
 The chuck is made to unscrew from the end of the 
 spindle, and various other small chucks are screwed on 
 for different purposes, as cleaning and burnishing screw- 
 heads, turning the ring of the index for regulating the 
 pendulum-spring, &c. It is, in fact, a small lathe, 
 which the w'atch-maker uses for turning any article 
 which the turn will not command. 
 
 Some watch-makers have small triangular bar lathes, 
 which are very complete, and serve very conveniently 
 for all purposes of upright tools, balance-tool, &c. — 
 (See a description of such a lathe in our article Turn- 
 ing.) 
 
 Before the pendulum-spring is attached to the verge, 
 the balance is tried in the balance-poising-tool, if it is 
 equally heavy on all sides; for if this is not the case, it 
 will greatly injure the performance of the watch when 
 laying in different positions: the balance-poising-tool, 
 Fig. 17, P/a/eWATCH-WoRK, is a square brass plated tf, 
 on which are erected tw o small standards a b ; the latter 
 is firmly fixed to the plate, while the former slides in a 
 groove by means of the screw c. To adapt the distance 
 between the standard, to the length of the verge, w hich 
 is laid upon them in the manner shewn by the figure, 
 its pivots rest on two small straight edges at the 
 top of the standards, which being made sharp on the 
 edge like a knife, and the pivots rolling on them, have 
 scarcely any friction, and it will soon be ascertained whe- 
 ther the balance has any preponderating side ; if so, it must 
 be rectified by filing away a small quantity from the in- 
 side of the rim. The pallets of the verge are now filed 
 up to their proper length, according to the proportions 
 we have given. In this the watch-maker is usually 
 guided only by his eye, but we would advise watch- 
 makers to work by a gauge, such as is shewn by Fig. 
 14, which will measure to the part of an 
 
 inch, if requisite ; this is the invention of Mr. Pen- 
 nington, and a full explanation of its various uses will 
 be found at the end of this article. It is sufficient here 
 to say, that it would give the dimensions of the smallest 
 parts of the escapement in decimals of an inch, there- 
 fore, by measuring the distance between any tw o teeth 
 of the balance-wheel, every part of the escapement 
 may be made by the proportions we have given. 
 
 The balance-wheel is prepared by filing up its teeth 
 to sharp points. The teeth are cut by the wheel-cutters 
 in an engine for the purpose, which forms the straight 
 or leadirfg edges to the teeth, and these must never af- 
 terwards be touched by the file, because of the danger 
 of reducing one more than another, and thus rendering 
 the intervals betw een the teeth unequal ; the back of the 
 teeth alone must be filed away to make them properly 
 sharp. The manner of proceeding is this : — having ri- 
 7 I vetted 
 
582 
 
 WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 -vetted the wheel ou its arbor, tiled it in the callipers, 
 and set the back of it to a true square, the watch-maker 
 puts it in the turn, and while he turns it round with the 
 bow, holds a piece of Turkey-stone over the rest, and 
 applies it to the teeth of the wheel as they pass by ; this 
 grinds them all to one exact length, but makes them 
 blunt ; then he takes out the wheel, and, holding it in 
 liis finger and thumb, files away the back of the teeth, 
 successively, till they come to sharp edges, so that 
 looking at the end of the arbor, he cannot ses the ends 
 or edges of the teeth to look of any width, and by this 
 lie knows them to be sharp enough. But he is very 
 careful not to file them too much, as that would shorten 
 the teeth, and then the certainty of having them all of 
 one length would be lost, which is very essential to the 
 performance of the watch, because every short tooth 
 will give the balance a less impulse and will escape too 
 soon, w hile every long tooth will give too great an im- 
 pulse ; and these successive variations would completely 
 destroy that regularity in the vibrations of the balance 
 which is necessary to make a watch keep good time. 
 
 The balance-wheel is now put in its place, as is also 
 the verge, and the cock screwed on ; then taking the 
 upper plate alone with these parts, viz., the balance- 
 wheel and verge in their places, the watch-maker tries 
 the escapement by turning round the balance-wheel, and j 
 he examines how it escapes. If it has too much drop, 
 that is, if one of the teeth quits its pallet before the 
 opposite tooth meets with its pallet, the wheel will, in 
 this case, drop or suddenly advance forwards, until the 
 opposite tooth meets the pallet ; this space or drop 
 should be as small as possible, so as to be sure it will 
 escape ; but if the trial shews it to be too great, it 
 must be remedied by advancing the wheel nearer to the 
 verge. This is done by filing away the face of the 
 slides of the pottance. If, on the other hand, the 
 wheel is too near the verge, its teeth will be engaged by 
 both pallets at once, in which case it will be locked, 
 and have no motion at all ; the workman avoids this by 
 making his slider too wide at first, and diminishing it 
 very cautiously until the drop is diminished to the pro- 
 per quantity. But if he should carry it too far, the 
 only remedy will be to make a new slider, or else set 
 the balance-wheel back upon its arbor, by setting it in 
 the manner we have before described of the contrate- 
 >vheel, but this will be very troublesome, because of 
 making the teeth true again. 
 
 The w'heel being scaped, the next adjustment is to 
 make the balance-wheel-axis point exactly to the verge. 
 This is tried by listening to the sound of the escape, 
 and if it seems louder from one pallet than the other ; 
 or, if the glass shews that the wheel acts more upon 
 one pallet than the other, the slider must be adjusted till 
 they come to an equality ; and here it must be observed j 
 that if one pallet is longer than another, or, if the teeth 
 of the balance-wheel are not all of a length, and true 
 in the square, also its axis placed truly perpendicular to 
 the verge ; any of those defects will prevent the escape- 
 ment acting truly and equably on both pallets, and it 
 
 will be extremely vexatious to discover the fault. All 
 these things must, therefore, be carefully made, and 
 tried by callipers, balance-wheel pitchiug-tool, &c., as 
 before described. Then the slider being duly adjusted, 
 all the work will come true, and the w'atch will scape 
 well. 
 
 The adjustment of the slider is very conveniently 
 made in the French watches by means of a screw which 
 comes to the outside of the w'atch, and, therefore, may 
 be adjusted when the watch is going without taking the 
 watch to pieces, and this is often a great convenience in 
 repairing a watch. 
 
 Having thus fitted the escapement, the pendulum- 
 spring is prepared by attaching the interior end of its 
 spiral to a small collet or ring which is fitted upon the 
 low'er side of the same collet of the verge to which the 
 balance is rivetted. This ring is fitted upon the collet 
 with sufficient friction to make the attachment, but ad- 
 mits of being twisted round the collet to adjust the 
 spring required. 
 
 Pendulum-springs of all possible sizes may be ob- 
 tained at the tool-shops, and the watch-maker has no- 
 thing to do but to blue them by holding them over the 
 flame of some sinall-coal. In the choice of a pendu- 
 lum-spring, proper for his watch, the watch-maker must 
 be guided by experience, both as to the number of turns, 
 size, and strength ; but it will always be found best to 
 have them long, and make a great many turns, because 
 the spring may have more thickness and strength, and 
 will be more elastic than a short spring, which must be 
 extremely delicate, or it will be too powerful for the ba- 
 lance, and make it vibrate too quickly. Between these 
 extremes the choice must be made, either by the expe- 
 rience of the workman, or he must select one at ran- 
 dom to make a trial of. He first fixes the interior end of it 
 into the hole made in the collet which fits on the verge, 
 then, putting this on, he tries it to its place to see if 
 the spiral comes free and proper ; and, if not, he bends 
 it as he wishes by a small pair of pliers. The spring 
 is now taken out and tempered, or blued, by holdiug it 
 over lighted small-coal in a tool. 
 
 Fig. 12, consists of a circular plate B, to which 
 is affixed a small handle A, by which it is held over 
 the candle ; and to confine the spring down on the 
 plate a small wheel e is fitted on the end of a detent 
 c d e, which is connected with the handle by a joint d, 
 and the wheel is always pressed towards the plate by a 
 small spring f acting under the tail of the lever cde. 
 The operation of bluing the spring is simply placing it 
 on the plate B, and suffering the wheel to rest upon it 
 by the spring, this holds the spring and keeps it flat 
 while it is heated, until the workman perceives through 
 the arms of the wheel that the spring is turned to a fine 
 blue colour; it now is of what they call a spring tem- 
 per, and is so elastic that, if bent, it will always return 
 to the same position, and it cannot in this state there- 
 fore be set or bent so-as to alter its figure; whence is 
 the necessity of trying it into its place before bluing, 
 not to determine the effect it will have on the watch, 
 
 because 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 583 
 
 because this is altered by the bluing which renders the 
 steel more elastic. It is only tried to fit it and bend the 
 curves to the intended shape. That part where the re- 
 gulator or curb operates upon it must be bent to an 
 arch of a circle struck from the centre on which the 
 curb moves. The pendulum-spring is now fitted on, 
 and put into its place, the end being pinned iuto the 
 stud on the plate, then the watch-maker puts the works 
 together, mounts up the main-spring, and tries it by 
 winding up the watch. He knows how many beats his 
 watch should make in a second, by calculation, and he 
 counts them for a few seconds by another watch or a 
 pendulum, and this adjustment is quite sufficient to de- 
 termine the length of the spring from the stud to the 
 verge, leaving it to be perfected by the adjustment of 
 the curb. The workman now finds if his pendulum- 
 spring is the proper strength, and, if it is not, he must 
 put it aside, and fit another to it, observing if the 
 watch vibrates too slowly, and has a great recoil, the 
 spring must be changed for a stronger or a shorter one, 
 and vice versa , he can increase the strength of it very 
 materially, if the watch should vibrate too slowly, by 
 shortening the spring, that is, by drawing it farther 
 through the stud, and pinning it in another place, so 
 as to have a turn less of the spiral in action between the 
 stud and the verge ; on this account, the vvatch-maker 
 should chuse his spring long enough, as he can so rea- 
 dily shorten it to any required strength ; but if he should 
 have it too short and strong at first, he will have no re- 
 medy but to change it. By these means the watch is 
 roughly put together and got into action, but the final 
 adjustment to it remains to be made, and this is the 
 most delicate part of the whole business. 
 
 In the adjustment of the pendulum-spring, the first 
 and most essential condition is, that the watch shall be 
 in beat ; this means, that the quiescent point to which 
 the pendulum-spring will incline the balance to rest, 
 shall be exactly intermediate between the two points of 
 escape, or in other words, that the two extremes of the 
 angle of escapement shall be equally distant from the 
 quiescent point ; to effect this, most watch-makers de- 
 pend upon their ear to ascertain if the beating of the 
 watch be equally loud on either pallet, and the time 
 between the beats be equal ; but this criterion is not so 
 correct as might be wished, because an inequality in the 
 beats may arise from other circumstances, viz., the dif- 
 ferent lengths of the pallets, or from the dovetails of 
 the pottance-nose not beiug duly adjusted, as we have 
 before explained : but if the artist is convinced that all 
 these things have been accurately determined, he may 
 depend upon his ear to inform him if the w'atch is in 
 beat. The best method of trial will be to hold back 
 the contrate-wheel, so that the maintaining power has 
 no action on the balance ; if it is a stop-watch this will 
 be extremely easy, but if it is not, a stout bristle 
 should be thrust between the arms or teeth of the con- 
 trate-wheel, which will effectually stop the motion of 
 the watch; then examining with the glass if the pallets 
 are both completely detached from the teeth of the ba- 
 
 I lance-wheel, this \yill be also shewn by shaking the 
 \ watch. If the balance vibrates very small arcs, with 
 apparent freedom, and relief from the escapement, now 
 suffer the balance to come to rest; this will, of course, 
 be its quiescent position, which must be marked by 
 scratching on the upper plate opposite one of the arms 
 of the balance, or any other mark upon it, then apply- 
 ing the finger to the contrate wheel, and pressing it 
 round very slow ly, at the same time feeling or retarding 
 the motion of the balance by holding something against 
 it until one of the pallets is felt to escape. The place 
 where the arm or other mark on the balance now stands 
 is to be marked on the plate; then continue to press the 
 coutrate-wheel forwards till the other pallet escapes, 
 which place is likewise to be marked, and if these 
 two marks are equidistant from the point of rest, the 
 balance is properly in beat; if not, it is out of beat, 
 and must be rectified accordingly. To do this, the ba- 
 lance is taken out, and the collet of the pendulum- 
 spring, which is fitted on the verge, is twisted round 
 upon its fitting, by holding the collet fast in pliers while 
 the balance is turned round by the finger and thumb in 
 such a direction that when the balance is put in again, 
 the quiescent point will fall in between the two extremes 
 of the angle of escapement, as marked on the plate by 
 the experiment. In making the trial, care must be 
 taken to move the contrate-wheel so slowly by the thumb 
 as to retard the motion of the. balance by holding some- 
 thing against it, so much as to give the balance no im- 
 pulse, that the mark may be the precise point where the 
 tooth escapes from the pallet. Without this caution, the 
 angle of vibration, instead of the angle of escapement, 
 would be marked, though both ought- to be equally 
 distant from the quiescent point when the watch is truly 
 in beat. 
 
 Watch-makers, in general, are not very anxious re- 
 specting the angle of vibration in the common watch. 
 They seldom use any means to increase or diminish 
 this, though they conceive it to be a point of perfection 
 if a watch crosses well , that is, if it describes a vibra- 
 tion of full 120 degrees, or one-third of a circle; they 
 try this by holding a pin on the watch-plate, in such a 
 position that one arm of the balance, when in vibration, 
 comes as close as possible to it without touching ; then, 
 if another arm, at the opposite side of the vibration, 
 comes to touch the same pin, or comes close to it, the 
 watch is said to cross well, because this proves that it 
 vibrates very nearly one-third of a circle, the arms of 
 the balance being that distance asunder, or it may be 
 tried by the banking-pins in the balance. The angle of 
 vibration will depend conjointly upon the quantity of the 
 angle of escapement, and the strength and elasticity of 
 the pendulum-spring, compared with the maintaining 
 power which actuates the teeth of the balance-wheel ; 
 the angle will, therefore, be regulated, either by in- 
 creasing the maintaining power, or by diminishing the 
 elasticity of the pendulum-spring, the former cannot 
 so easily be done : it is, therefore, customary to change 
 the pendulum-spring, if the arch of vibration should be 
 
 5 ® 
 
584 
 
 WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 so different from 120° as to render it indispensable. 
 But, as we have before observed, watch-makers are not 
 very anxious respecting the angle of vibration, and 
 many watches will keep time extremely well, though 
 their angles of vibration differ very widely. 
 
 The watch is now finished, and only wants a trial of 
 a few days to bring it to true time by means of the re- 
 gulating-curb, moving it one way or the other, accord- 
 ing as the watch gains or loses, and it operates, as has 
 been before described, by increasing or diminishing the 1 
 acting length of the pendulum-spring, causing the ba- 
 lance to vibrate quicker or slower. The regulator 
 should have sufficient range to alter the rate of the 
 watch as much as twenty minutes per day, that is, that j 
 the watch should gain that lime in a day when the index < 
 is set at the end S of the scale, more than when it j 
 stands at the end marked F ; and if the maker gives it i 
 this allowance, the owner of the watch will have the J 
 means of regulating it to time, as the change of sea- j 
 son or the gradual accession of dirt in the works, and 
 change in the oil, alters its daily rate. 
 
 We shall conclude this article by a description of an 
 instrument invented by Mr. Pennington for taking di- ! 
 mensions of the parts of watches, which, in its appli- I 
 cations, would be extremely useful to the trade, by en- 
 abling the watch-maker to send his orders and have the 
 parts made in the most accurate manner exactly to the 
 dimensions he requires. A view of it is given in Fig. 
 14, of the Plate, where a a, represents a plate of brass, 
 upon which is screwed a piece b b, and likewise a steel 
 spring c. The space between the piece b b, and spring 
 c , is dovetailed, as is the slip dd, and the spring c 
 causes it to slide with a gentle stiffness. Upon the 
 piece b b is screwed the piece of steel g, and upon the 
 slip dd another piece of steel /, the sides of which are 
 close together, when the index points to zero, and 
 the end of the sliding slip d d is made narrow', and the 
 end of it is exactly even with the plate a b. This end 
 of the sliding slip is made narrow, as represented at d, 
 for the convenience of going through a hole, &c. This 
 slip b b is divided into inches, and each into fifty parts, 
 and upon the pieces dd is a vernier, which shews the 
 space between the two steel pieces fg, and likewise how 
 far the end of the slip d d projects beyond the end of the 
 plate a b, and thus the dimensions of any thing put be- 
 tween those steel pieces will be determined ; and in 
 order to determine the inside dimensions, the ends of 
 the piece g and f are, when close together, just 0,05 
 inches, so that in gauging the inside of any thing 0,05 
 inch must be added. The projection of the slip d d 
 will determine the depth of any thing, which will be 
 found very useful. If this gauge was universally used it 
 certainly would be of great benefit, and it is to be 
 wished that, in time, a watch-maker would use this 
 gauge as a carpenter does his rule. 
 
 This gauge is well adapted for giving the proportional 
 diameters of wheels and pinions, and for giving the pro- 
 per distances of their centres. 
 
 The method of giving the proportional diameters of 
 
 w heels and pinions, is this : — Suppose a wheel of sixty- 
 four teeth, and a pinion of eight leaves, and the dia- 
 meter of the wheel to be 1.256 inches, what will be 
 the diameter of the pinion, as the diameter of wheels 
 j and pinions are not in proportion to the number of 
 I teeth ; Mr. Pennington has found, by long experience, 
 i that, by adding 2i to the number of teeth in the wheel, 
 
 ! and to the number of leaves in the pinion, and using 
 ! these numbers instead of the real number, will be 
 ! found very near the truth. Now, to give the diameter 
 of a pinion of eight leaves to a wheel of sixty-four 
 teeth, as aforesaid, must be done by the Rule of Three, 
 and the statement will stand thus, 66.25 : 1.256 :: 9.5, 
 that is, 64, with the addition of 2.25 is 66.25, and 8, 
 
 | with the addition of 1.5, is 9-5. — To give the proper- 
 distance of their centres having the number of teeth, 
 and diameter of the wheel, and the number of leaves 
 in the pinion, add the number of the wheel and pinion 
 together, 64 and 8, will be 72 ; take the half of this, 
 and say, as 66.25 : 1 .256 inches : : 36. 
 
 By this means, in drawing callipers of movements for 
 watches, the diameters, as w ell as the number of teeth 
 in the wheels and pinion may be marked upon the cal- 
 liper’s plate, which would supercede the use of a gauge 
 for each wheel ; thus far this method has the advantage 
 of the sector, which only determines the proportional 
 diameters. 
 
 Of the invention of Pendulum-Clocks . — In tracing 
 back the history of clock and watch-work, it soon be- 
 comes obscure, as the instruments spoken of in ancient 
 history, as having been applied to the purpose of mea- 
 suring time, were of a very different nature from those 
 we now call clocks and watches. “ It is probable,” 
 says Dr. Derhain, “ that in all ages some instruments 
 or other have been used for this purpose. But the ear- 
 liest w'e read of is the dial of Ahaz, concerning which 
 little of certainty can be said. The Hebrew word pro- 
 perly signifying degrees, steps, or stairs, by which we 
 ascend to any place. Among the Greeks and Romans 
 there were two ways chiefly used to measure then- 
 hours. One was by clepsydra, or hour-glasses ; the 
 other, by the solaria, or sun-dials. The clepsydra ap- 
 pears to have been a vessel filled with water, with a 
 small hole in the bottom of it, which was set in the 
 courts of judicature, by which the lawyers pleaded. 
 This was, says Phavoninus, to prevent babbling, that 
 such as speak ought to be brief in their speeches. As 
 to the invention of these water-watches, which were, 
 no doubt, of more common use than only in the law 
 courts ; the invention of them is attributed to P. Cor- 
 nelius Nasica, the censor. 
 
 “ Scipio Nasica, Pliny calls him, and saith, Scipio 
 Nasica was the first, that, by water measured the hours 
 of the night as well as the day. This was about one 
 huudred and fifty years before Christ. The other way 
 of measuring the hours, viz., with sun-dials, seems from 
 Pliny and Ceusorinus, to have been an earlier invention 
 than the last. Pliny says, that Anaximander invented 
 dialing, and W'as the first that shewed a sun-dial at 
 
 Lacedaemon; 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 5 $5 
 
 Lacedeemon ; he flourished about the time of the pro- j 
 phet Daniel. But these are not very much to our ! 
 purpose, being not pieces of clock-work. In the next 
 place the Doctor takes notice of a few horological 
 machines of which he met with an account, these, 
 whether pieces of watch-work or not, the reader may 
 judge for himself. The first is that of Dionysius, 
 which Plutarch commends as a very magnificent and 
 illustrious piece. But this might be only a well deli- 
 neated sun-dial. Another piece is that of Sapor, king 
 of Persia ; Cardan saith, “ it was made of glass ; that 
 the king Would sit in the middle of it, and see its stars 
 rise and set.” But we do not find whether this sphere 
 was moved by clock-work, or whether it had any re- 
 gular motion. The last machine we shall mention in 
 this account, is one described by Vetruvius, which 
 seems to have been a piece of watch-work, moved by 
 an equal influx of water. In the French edition of 
 Vetruvius may be seen a cut of it. This machine 
 performed various feats, such as sounding trumpets, 
 throwing stones, &c. ; but what comes most to our 
 purpose, was the use made of it to shew the hours 
 (which were unequal in that age) through every month 
 of the year. The inventor of this curious machine 
 was one Ctesibius, a barber’s son of Alexandria; which 
 Ctesibius flourished under Ptolomy Euergetes, and might 
 be contemporary with Archimedes.” Having given a 
 concise account of the ancient methods of measuring 
 time, we shall now come to some particulars which 
 more nearly relate to the present business. Clock and 
 watch-work is thought to be an invention of much 
 later date than the foremeutioned pieces, and to have 
 had its beginning in Germany, within these three hun- 
 dred years. It is probable that the balance clocks and 
 watches might have their beginning there, or that watch 
 and clock-work (having been long buried in oblivion), 
 might be revived there ; but that watch and clock- 
 work was not the invention of that age, we can prove 
 by two instances to the contrary, of much earlier date. 
 The first example is the sphere of Archimedes, who 
 lived about two hundred years before Christ. We have 
 accounts of this from Cicero, and an accurate descrip- 
 tion is given of it by Claudian ; from whence it ap- 
 pears, that in this sphere the sun and moon, and other 
 heavenly bodies had their proper motions, and that 
 these motions were effected by some enclosed spirit. 
 What this enclosed spirit was, we cannot tell, but sup- 
 pose it to be weights or springs with wheels or pulleys, 
 or some such means of clock-work, which being hidden 
 from vulgar eyes, might be taken (at least in a poetical 
 way), for some angel, spirit, or divine power. 
 
 Dr. Derham mentions an instance of ancient clock- 
 work from Cicero, who gives the account, that Posi- 
 donius had contrived a sphere, whose motions were 
 the same as those of the sun, moon and five planets 
 in the heavens. That it was a piece of clock-work 
 cannot be doubted, if it be considered that it kept 
 time with those celestial bodies, imitating both their 
 annual and diurnal motions ; which we may conceive, 
 
 from the description, it did. It may rather be supposed 
 that these machines could not be in common use, but were 
 considered as rarities at that time. — Though on the other 
 hand, in two such ages as those in which Archimedes and 
 Tully lived, the liberal arts were greatly encouraged. 
 
 After these times, barbarism came on, and the arts 
 and sciences became neglected, so that little worthy 
 remark is to be found till towards the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, and then clock-work was revived in Germany; 
 and because the ancient pieces are German work, it 
 has been supposed by many to have been invented 
 anew in that country. But who was the inventor, or 
 in w'hat time does not appear. Dr. Derham speaks of 
 a stately clock which stood in his time in his Majesty’s 
 palace, at Hampton-court, whose inscription shewed 
 it to have been made in the time of Henry VIII. 
 in the year 1540. This clock shewed the time of 
 the day, and the motion of the sun and moon 
 through all the degrees of the zodiac, together with 
 the matters depending thereon, as the day of the month, 
 the sun and moon’s place in the zodiac, moon’s south- 
 ing, &c. He also speaks of the arrangement of the 
 work as being very complete for the time in which it 
 was made. Another piece he speaks of also, which 
 he had seen in the early part of his time, which was 
 a watch belonging to the same king Henry VIII. which 
 went a week. But these pieces must have been sub- 
 ject to great irregularities, as time-keeepers, and the 
 same remark may be applied to all the clocks and 
 watches which had been constructed before the appli- 
 cation of the pendulum to the one, and the balance- 
 spring to the other. So that before these applications 
 had been made, philosophers had adopted the use of 
 the pendulum,* exclusively, as a correct method of 
 measuring time. The famous Tycho Brahe is sup- 
 posed to have made use of them ; but Strumius saitb, 
 that Riccioli first made use of pendulums to measure 
 time, and that Langrene, Wendeline, Mersenne, Kir- 
 cher and many others followed the practice, although 
 they were ignorant that he had recourse to it before them. 
 
 Although several different persons have laid claim to 
 the excellent invention of applying the pendulum as 
 the governing principle to clocks, yet Mr. Christian 
 Huygens affirms that he first applied it to clock-work, 
 and gives very cogent reasons for it ; and that he put 
 it first in practice in the year 1657, and in the follow- 
 ing year published a delineation and description of it. 
 Galilaeo laid claim to the invention, but it is certain 
 that he never brought it to any perfection, and the in- 
 vention never flourished till Huygens sent it abroad. 
 After M. Huygens had contrived these pendulum 
 clocks, and had caused several to be made in Holland, 
 a Dutch clock-maker, called Fromantil, came over into 
 England, and made the first that ever was made here, 
 
 • It may not be amiss to remark here, that a bullet fixed to the 
 end of a string, when applied to such purposes, is called a pen- 
 dulum, and as the times of their vibrations are known to be as 
 the squares of their lengths, of course various periods may be 
 marked out by them. 
 
 7 K 
 
 about 
 
586 
 
 WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 about the year 1662. One of the first pieces that 
 was made in England was given to Gresham College 
 by the late eminent Seth, lord bishop of Salisbury, 
 which was formed exactly according to M. Huygens’s 
 method, with a crown-wheel and the pendulum playing 
 between cycloidal checks. This method was practised 
 for many years, till the application of the long pen- 
 dulum, and at the same time the mode of escapement 
 was altered. The late Dr. Hook claims the credit of 
 this last improvement, the addition of the long pen- 
 dulum. Sir Christopher Wren first proposed the pen- 
 dulum as a perpetual and universal measure, or stan- 
 dard, to which all length may be reduced, and by which 
 they may be judged of in all ages and in all countries. [ 
 Pendulum Clock . — In order to give the reader a I 
 tolerably correct notion of the machine which is the 
 object of his present inquiry, it may be necessary to 
 explain to him, that the chief and most essential part of 
 the whole composition is the pendulum. To a cursory 
 observer the pendulum may appear (in more than the 
 literal sense of the word) to be an appendage to a 
 complicated machine, whereas the fact is, that the 
 whole complicated machine is really no more than an 
 appendage to the pendulum, and that every part of 
 the machine is constructed with a view to its subser- 
 viency to this instrument. It is the pendulum which 
 is the efficient measurer of time, and the wheels may 
 be considered as the recorders only, of those divisions of 
 time which the pendulum marks out ; and the wheels, 
 instead of contributing to the regularity of its vibra- 
 tions, are well known to disturb it. The prime office 
 of the wheels is (by repeated impulses given at certain 
 little periods), to prevent the pendulum getting to a 
 state of rest. But as this effect may be produced by 
 one wheel only, all the others are added to supply the 
 maintaining power (from the weight or spring) to a 
 longer period, so that the machine may not require a 
 frequent attention to re-wind it. However, the train 
 is so constructed, as to accord to certain relative pe- 
 riods, as seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, 
 &c. But all these, however multiplied, must still re- 
 main under the same control. 
 
 Clock-making . — Since clocks have become so com- 
 mon as to be considered as articles of household furni- 
 ture, the art of making them has not been confined as at 
 first, to one department of mechanics, but has gradually 
 been divided into various branches, so distinct from one 
 another, that the maker of one part is frequently un- 
 acquainted with the operations of the other. Since 
 the time that clocks became an article of our manu- 
 factories requiring various tools and engines for faci- 
 litating their construction, the subdivision of the art 
 into various departments was a natural consequence, 
 which has been found to contribute to expedition, and 
 consequently to cheapness. A finisher of a clock has 
 now no need to cast or cut his wheels himself, much 
 less to make his springs, &c. ; however, that man is 
 called a clock-maker, who finally adjusts and puts to- 
 gether the different parts of a clock when made. 
 
 The art of clock-making is so nearly allied to that 
 of watch-making, that after the full description we 
 have given of the tools and operations of the latter 
 art, it will be unnecessary to enlarge upon clock- 
 making. The tools are in general pretty much the 
 same, except that they differ in size. The first opera- 
 tion in making a clock, (as well as a watch), is the 
 callipering, or setting out the positions of the pivot- 
 holes for the several wheels ; this is done by drawing 
 it out on paste-board, and transferring the points or 
 centres so ascertained to the plates of the clock, by 
 pricking them through ; this sets them out in a rough 
 way, and then one of the pivot-holes being drilled, 
 the places for the others are accurately determined by 
 I the pitching tool, as described in watch-work. The 
 great size and weight of a pair of clock plates, with 
 their connecting pillars, render the use of the upright 
 tool inadmissible ; but to be certain that the arbors of 
 the wheels shall be truly perpendicular to the plane 
 of the clock plates, the two plates are pinned together 
 at each end before the holes are drilled, and then 
 both plates are pierced at once by the drill, as well 
 for the pivot-holes as for the four pillars, which being 
 turned in the turn bench with truly flat shoulders, 
 ensures the perpendicularity of the w r ork when they 
 come to be inserted in their places, so that the arbors 
 will cross the frame at right angles to the surfaces of 
 the plates, which is an essential condition in putting 
 together the wheel work, and requires the workman 
 to drill in as perpendicular a direction as possible, 
 otherwise the plane of the wheels would not be pa- 
 rallel to the surfaces of the plates, and consequently 
 the communication of motion would be given in au 
 oblique direction, which would produce injurious fric- 
 tion and unequal wear among the teeth of the w'atch. 
 
 The preparation of the wheels and pinions of clocks 
 is exactly the same as for watches, the pinions being 
 made out of steel pinion wire, drawn with the right 
 number of leaves, which are left standing at the part 
 where the pinion is intended to be, and the rest of the 
 wire is filed and turned cylindrical, the wheels are 
 then fitted on and tried, as described in w'atch-making. 
 As the pallet or swing wheel makes many more revo- 
 lutions than any other wheel in the clock, it is neces- 
 sary that the metal of which it is made should not 
 be very destructible; it will therefore be best to use 
 a tempered steel wheel, or one of brass well hammered, 
 which ought to be also divided and cut with extraor- 
 dinary care, because any irregularity in the shape of 
 the tooth, or distance between the teeth, would in- 
 jure the escapement, and produce, besides, such irre- 
 gularity in the motion of the seconds’ hand of the 
 clock, which is placed on this wheel’s arbor, as would 
 offend the eye. There is no part of the clock which 
 requires greater nicety than the escapement, or part 
 which limits the quantity and duration of the impulse 
 given to the pendulum by the maintaining power, and 
 which keeps up the due quantity of motion of the 
 whole machine, that would otherwise be gradually 
 
 ' diminished 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 587 
 
 diminished till it came to a state of rest. To con- 
 struct the escapement the clock-maker must set out 
 or draw the exact form of the wheel and pallets, so 
 that they may act properly, on a smooth sheet of 
 brass, as a plate of trial for the escape, (see Fig. 10, 
 Plate Clock-Work), which will admit of pivot- 
 holes being drilled exactly as in the plates of the 
 frame, for the centres of the pallet and pallet wheel 
 arbors. A piece of good steel must then be forged 
 nearly into the shape of the anchor compared with 
 the plan on the frame or brass plate, but somewhat 
 larger ; after the arbor-hole is drilled in the anchor and 
 enlarged to the proposed aperture, the requisite circles 
 may be described, with extents borrowed from the 
 brass calliper, by means of a pair of bullet compasses, 
 and the slopes may be copied or retracted for the faces 
 of the pallets, the excluded metal may be then filed 
 away very nearly, and all the surfaces be smoothed, first 
 with fine files, and then with oil-stone-dust and oil.* 
 Hitherto we have considered the back pivot-hole of 
 the pallets’ arbor as being in the plate of the frame, 
 but it becomes necessary to cut away that portion 
 
 * The method of constructing Mr. Graham’s dead escapement, as 
 executed by Mr. John Shelton, (Plate Clock-Work, Fig. 10.) 
 
 Draw a circle of the exact size of your swing-wheel, and let 
 fall a perpendicular on the point A, or centre of the circle, as B A, 
 then if your wheel be of 30 teeth, and your escapement of 9\ 
 teeth, set off from the vertical point C, 57 deg. on either side, as 
 at D and E, double of which is 114 deg. and is the exact portion 
 of the circle taken up hy teeth. From the centre of the circle 
 A, draw radii through the points of 57 deg. as A F, A G, and on 
 the points where they cut the circle at D E, erect perpendiculars 
 meeting in the verticle line at B, which gives the centre of mo- 
 tion of the anchor, (see the figure). Having thus obtained your 
 centre of motion, describe, from that point, the arc H I passing 
 through the points of 57 deg. which will give the circular face 
 of each pallet on which the tooth rests in the dead part of the 
 escapement. In the last place, the inclined planes of the pallets 
 must make an angle with the radii A F, AG, of about 45 deg. in- 
 tersecting them at the obtuse angle of the pallets. The angle 
 is marked (in the figure) on both sides the intersection, in order I 
 to shew that it may be taken on either side ; or the angle may 
 otherwise be obtained, by measuring off from these obtuse angles 1 
 of the pallets, chords of about 83 deg. on the original circle, as 
 at a 6 and c d, (in the figure). 
 
 In escaping these pallets, you file away from the inclined planes 
 of the pallets, till the tooth which has escaped from one pallet 
 falls a little within the circular face of the opposite pallet, taking 
 care not to alter the angles in this operation. 
 
 The teeth of the swing-wheel should be cut somewhat deeper 
 for dead beating pallets, and the straight face of the tooth (not 
 the sloping part) should act upon the pallets, and the face of the 
 teeth should not point to the centre of the wheel, but about one- 
 tenth of an inch on one side of it, so that the face of the teeth 
 may tend a lit tie forward. — The same mode of construction of 
 pallets may be applied, with small variation, to those of the re- 
 coiling kind, by not filing the external arc of the pallet at D, 
 but continuing the plane from D to K, and making the dotted 
 line at D the face of that opposite pallet. 
 
 Whatever number of teeth you please to make your escape- 
 ment of, you may take, from an exact line of chords, that por- 
 tion of your circle (or swing-wheel) which that number of teeth 
 occupies, and halving this measure, set it off each side the per- 
 pendicular, as above directed ; for instance, if your wheel has 
 30 teeth, the portion taken of the circle will be 
 
 Deg. Deg. 
 
 For 8| teeth 10-2 set off on each side 51 
 
 9i - - H4 57 
 
 10i - - 126 63 
 
 - - 138 69 
 
 of the back plate where the pivot-hole falls, by rea- 
 son of the crutch, or little rod of steel, which must 
 be screwed to a collet attached behind the frame 
 to the arbor, to form an L, which contrivance im- 
 presses the force that the pallets receive from the 
 maintaining power upon the pendulum ; the bent end 
 of the crutch is usually inserted into a slit made in 
 the verge or rod of the pendulum, but when the bent 
 part is divided and encloses the pendulum rod, it is 
 denominated the fork ; the crutch is most usually about 
 one-sixth part of the whole length of the pendulum 
 rod ; but there seems to be no fixed rule laid down 
 by which its length might be determined. 
 
 The exact placing of the cock, so that the arbor 
 pivotted into it shall be perfectly at right angles to the 
 surface of the plates, is of the greatest importance, 
 and therefore ought to be placed, and its steady pins 
 fixed, before the original pivot-hole, through which it 
 must protrude, is cut away in the back plate, for in 
 that case, the protruding end of the arbor, on which 
 to slide the cock and fix its position, before ^lie steady 
 pins are applied and the screws fitted to their places. 
 Jt is, however, the practice of some workmen, to 
 adjust the escapement by moving the cock before the 
 steady pins are inserted, and a very proper mode, within 
 certain limits. 
 
 Before the crutch is screwed it should be hung on 
 the verge of the pallets’ arbor, after the pallets are 
 balanced and suffered to find the place of rest, in order 
 to find its own perpendicular direction, and then it 
 | should be fixed in that situation ; for without this care, 
 it will require to be bent so as to offend the eye, for 
 the purpose of putting the clock into beat, or will 
 require a slit in it across the centre, to admit of an 
 j eccentric adjustment, or some such contrivance. When 
 all the adjustments of the escapement are thus made, the 
 pallet-faces and the pivots must be hardened, and finally 
 dressed by the usual successive operation ofpolishing. 
 
 Of the Pendulum . — In the various attempts to mark 
 out the divisions of time, nothing seems to have an- 
 swered the purpose so correctly as the vibrations 
 of the pendulum ; and since the application of the 
 pendulum to clocks, (I mean of the second’s, or royal 
 pendulum), they have obtained so much , credit, as 
 time-keepers, as to become useful in matters of science. 
 
 The vibration of the pendulum has indeed been 
 found sufficiently correct, in its principle, to afford 
 the means of discovering that the chief error which 
 appeared in its use (at first), arose, not from the im- 
 perfection of the principle itself, but from that of the 
 matter of which the rod was composed. 
 
 The celebrated Huygens, at first attributed the in- 
 equalities which he remarked in the pendulum, to their 
 being performed in an arc of a circle, and that con- 
 sequently the longer vibrations must be slower than 
 the shorter. And he demonstrated in a Treatise* which 
 he published, “ That the vibrations of a pendulum. 
 
 * Horologium Oscillatorium. 1658. * 
 
 moving 
 
583 
 
 WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 moving in a cycloid, must be performed in equal times, 
 even though the vibrations are unequal.” Pendulums 
 were therefore made to vibrate in a cycloid, but still 
 great inequalities remained, and after many ingen To us 
 experiments had been made, these inequalities were 
 found to proceed from the change of temperature of 
 the air, by its expanding or contracting the metal of 
 which the pendulum-rod was formed. In consequence 
 of this discovery several men of genius set about con- 
 triving means of obviating these irregularities, and three 
 curious compound pendulums have been produced, and 
 though these are very various in their constructions, 
 yet they possess the same common principle, viz. that 
 of making the expansion and contraction of one metal 
 counteract that of another. The first in course appears 
 to be the quick-silver pendulum, invented by the late 
 very eminent philosophical mechanic, Mr. George Gra- 
 ham, and which is yet held in esteem.* In the same 
 year (1726), Mr. John Harrison, of Barrow, in Lin- 
 colnshire, made a curious combination of rods, of 
 brass ant^ of steel, which by their different degrees of 
 expansion and contraction, enabled him to make them 
 counteract each other, so as to preserve the centre of 
 oscillation always at the same distance from the line of 
 suspension of his pendulum.f The next in course was 
 Mr. Ellicot’s compound-pendulum, with levers. This 
 ingenious contrivance is found to operate to great ex- 
 actness, and has a great advantage in the contrivance, 
 by which the adjustment of the levers may be made, 
 without tending to alter the time of its vibrations. Mr. 
 Alexander Cummins has improved this instrument by 
 his mode of executing it.J The skill and labour which 
 are required to make one of these complicated pen- 
 dulums, necessarily enhances the price so considerably, 
 as to put them out of the reach of common purchasers. 
 However, an excellent substitute has been found in 
 the application of straight grained, well seasoned deal, 
 for the rod of a pendulum, which has been proved by 
 experiments to alter its length in so very small a de- 
 gree, by heat and cold, as to render it a most eligible 
 material for the above purpose. Respecting the pen- 
 dulum, there are three things essentially necessary, — 
 that the pendulum should be properly constructed, that 
 its suspension should be most firm and steady, and that 
 the impulses should be properly communicated to or 
 from the wheels. Directions respecting each of these 
 particulars shall be given at the end of this section. 
 
 Notwithstanding, it appears most obvious, that the 
 correctness of a time-keeper must greatly depend on 
 the equality of the vibrations of the pendulum ; yet 
 small attention has been paid till of late, to the manner 
 of its suspension, the common mode being from a 
 
 * The quick-silver pendnlum^ias been improved by Mr. Trough- 
 ton, an eminent mathematical instrument-maker, who applies a 
 glass tube with a bulb, (instead of the simple tube of Graham), 
 by which means the variable surface of the mercury produces the 
 necessary compensation to more advantage. See an account of 
 this, Philosophical Trans. 1726, No. 392. 
 t See the Plate, with the explanation. 
 i See Elements of Watch and Clock-Work, by A. Cummins. 
 
 cock screwed to the upper part of the back plate, and 
 totally unconnected with any firm fixture. Mr. Ludlam 
 has remarked, that M r. Harrison seems to be the first 
 who in conversation and in print, insisted much on the 
 importance of a very firm suspension of the pendulum • 
 and he farther observes, that it appears, both from 
 theory and practice, to be of more consequence than 
 cycloidal checks, saddle- pieces, &c. all together. When 
 it is possible, the pendulum should be suspended to 
 a firm fixture to the wall itself. 
 
 Pendulum-bobs are generally formed with sharp 
 edges, that they may pass through the air with less 
 resistance ; but this is not the best form, for when the 
 bob is a pretty heavy one, it must necessarily increase 
 its diameter considerably, and then its vibrations are 
 more liable to be disturbed, by its edges not standing 
 precisely in the plane of its vibrations, so as to subject 
 it to be acted upon by the air, as an inclined plane, 
 which evil its large surface will render it the more ob- 
 noxious to. Besides, the absolute quantity of resistance, 
 or different states of the air, varies but very little, and as 
 the resistance from the air increases with the arc de- 
 scribed, it may operate as a check whenever the pen- 
 dulum has a tendency, from other causes, to cross out 
 beyond the usual limits. 
 
 A 
 
 It is not attempted 
 to give the true pro- 
 portions of the grid- 
 iron-pendulum in the 
 annexed Figure, as it is 
 drawn much too broad 
 (between the bars), in 
 order to shew the bars 
 the more distinctly, and 
 and for this reason, the 
 cross-braces are omit- 
 ted. 
 
 Gridiron-Pendulum . — In this pendulum the bob is 
 fixed to the single steel rod in the middle, and on each 
 side this are four other rods, alternately of brass and 
 steel, which are disposed so as to act in pairs, in order 
 to support the weight of the bob, equally, on each 
 side the centre. The rods of each pair are marked 
 (in the figure) with the same numerical figure, and the 
 transverse bars take the number of the dart which 
 points to each. The expansion or contraction pro- 
 duced in brass and steel With the same change of tem- 
 perature, are in the proportion of about three to two. 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 589 
 
 The pendulum being suspended at A, we will suppose 
 for instance, that by the increment of heat, expansion 
 takes place. Now it will appear from inspection of 
 the figure, that in this instance, all the steel rods must 
 extend downwards, and all the brass rods upwards, 
 when the account will stand thus : 
 
 1 st Pair steel rods, marked 1, 1, extend downwards, - 2 
 2d Pair steel rods, marked 3, 3, extend downwards, - 2 
 3d The single central rod extends downwards also, - - 2 
 
 Extension downwards 6 
 
 Now the proportional expansion of brass to steel 
 being as three to two, of course the 
 
 1st Pair brass rods, marked 2 , 2, extend upwards, - - 3 
 2d Pair brass rods, marked 4, 4, extend upwards, - - 3 
 
 6 
 
 which exactly balances the abov^. 
 
 If this statement should not appear sufficiently plain, 
 we will endeavour to explain the operation of eaeh 
 pair of rods distinctly ; to do which, it will be neces- 
 sary particularly to regard whence each particular pair 
 of rods springs as from a root. The first pair of steel 
 rods, being fixed to the upper rail (where the suspend- 
 ing spring is fixed), must of course stretch downward, | 
 and must carry down the under transverse piece equal 
 to two; from this transverse piece (I mean No. 1), 
 arises the first pair of brass bais, which of course 
 will stretch upwards, equal to three, and will advance 
 the rail. No. 2 (which is fixed on their extremities), 
 in the excess, upwards of one. From this transverse 
 bar (No. 2), spring the second pair of steel bars, 
 marked 3, 3, which must stretch downwards (and like 
 the first pair) equal to two. But as the rail whence 
 they spring was carried up in the excess of one that 
 must be deducted, and so the remainiug excess down- 
 ward is only equal to one. Now from this same 
 piece (Noj» 3), arises the last pair of brass bars, which 
 by their extending upwards equal to three, will ad- 
 vance the shortest transverse piece, seen at the top, 
 equal to two only, as we must deduct the depression 
 of their root equal to one. VVe now find the little 
 transverse piece at the top (to which is fixed the central 
 rod), to be advanced upwards in the excess of two. 
 The last operation is that of the central rod, which 
 sustains the bob, and this extending downwards equal 
 to two, exactly counterbalances the remaining ex- 
 cess of two upwards, so that the centre of oscillation 
 suffers no change. The effect of contraction of the 
 several bars, by the operation of cold, produces the 
 reverse of the above description, but this need not 
 be gone over again. 
 
 Mr. Harrison having observed the effects of heat 
 and cold on his thermometer curb, found that brass 
 became sooner effected, by any change of temperature 
 in the air, than steel, and therefore to counteract this 
 superior susceptibility in brass, he advised, that, in con- 
 structing his gridiron-pendulums, the brass rods should 
 be made somewhat stouter than the steel ones. In 
 the above description, I have supposed the propor- 
 tional change in brass and steel to be as three to two, 
 
 
 to render the description free of fractions. But the 
 real proportion is said to be as one hundred and thir- 
 teen to sixty-eight. In theory, Mr. Harrison’s pen- 
 dulum is considered to have the operation of five rods 
 only, viz. two of brass and three of steel. Now to 
 produce the effect, accurately, let the sum of the 
 length of the two rods of brass be as sixty-eight, and 
 the sum of the length of the three rods of steel be 
 in the proportion of one hundred and thirteen, and by 
 this inversion you obtain an equality of expansion in 
 both metals. 
 
 A description of a pendulum with a wooden rod . — 
 
 ! The rod of this pendulum should be made of a straight 
 grained yellow deal, which you may procure from the 
 lath-makers, it should be split down both ways ; 
 neither the sort which is white and spongy, nor that 
 which is of a strong grain and full of turpentine. The 
 rod is a cylinder of about of an inch diameter, and 
 42 inches long ; it should be painted and gilt, and if 
 varnished it would be less subject to changes from 
 moist weather. The rod being first roughed out, a 
 brass ferrule (a, Fig. 1, above), must be driven on 
 its lower end, previously turned to receive it, the 
 rod is then to be put into the lathe, the ferrule 
 turned true, and a few other places in the rod may 
 likewise be made round ; the whole is afterwards to 
 be planed straight, round and smooth, a hole is then 
 to be drilled at the bottom of the rod, to receive the 
 wire h along the axis. This wire should be steel, and 
 the part which goes into the rod a little taper and 
 rather larger than the hole in the end of the iod, the 
 rest of the wire cylindrical, and the end conical ; a 
 7 L screw 
 
590 
 
 WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 screw must be cut upon the cylindrical part with stocks; 
 the wire must be forced into the hole at the bottom 
 of the rod, and then cross-pinned through both ferrule 
 and rod, as at P. The top of the rod, Fig. 4, is 
 slit along the grain with a fine spring saw, to receive 
 the spring at X, by which the pendulum is suspended ; 
 the two parts are to be drawn together by a screw, and 
 made to pinch the spring ; this screw passes through the 
 quarter part of a brass ferrule and is tapped into the 
 opposite quarter part; the head of the screw, with the 
 first quarter, appears at c. Fig. 4. The spring is a 
 piece of strong watch-spring which has never been 
 coiled up, (such may be got at the spring-makers) ; the 
 tipper part has two cylindrical buttons rivetted to it 
 opposite to each other, one of these appears at Z, 
 F'ig. 4 ; these bear the weight of the pendulum during 
 the time of adjusting its suspension, before the screws 
 are drawn tight. The ball of the pendulum is made 
 of lead, and consists of two parts screwed together 
 upon the rod, so as to pinch it. Fig. 2 is the ball 
 as it appears edgewise, and shews the section down the 
 axis of the rod, where the two parts join. The shape 
 of tlie ball when the two parts are screwed together, is the 
 middle frustum of a globe, as is seen by the figure. These 
 two parts should be moulded from a neat turned pattern 
 of wood, where the hole should be left to receive the 
 rod ; they may be cast so near their true form, as to 
 give but little trouble in turning down in the lathe and 
 finishing ; if the pattern be made true, the axis of the 
 rod will pass through the centre of gravity of both. 
 Fig. 1, is the pendulum seen flatwise ; two pieces of 
 brass are soldered to the back part of the bow, 
 and tapped to receive the screws which fasten the 
 two parts together; one of these pieces appears at y, 
 Fig. 2. The place of the ball upon the rod being 
 found, it is then to be screwed fast to the rod, and 
 not to be moved to regulate the clock. On the screw 
 part of the wire, at the bottom of the pendulum-rod, 
 is a cylinder of brass in two parts, the screw passing 
 through the centre of both parts, see Fig. 1 ; the 
 upper part, d, d, consists of a milled torus and a 
 plain cylindrical part, both in one piece ; the cylinder 
 has numerical figures engraven on it, in the order they 
 are represented in the plate, the lower part consists 
 of a milled toms only, as at e, e. When the upper 
 part is screwed to its proper place it must be held 
 fast, and the lower part screwed against it, so as to 
 pinch the screw-wire, and secure it against any acci- 
 dental turning. Whenever there is occasion to move 
 the upper part (in order to regulate), the under part 
 must first be detached till the adjustment be made, 
 and then screwed close again, as before. This part 
 knay be called the regulator, and will perform that 
 office to a much greater correctness than where the 
 whole ball (of the pendulum is moved. It should be 
 *)oted, that this regulator, as it appears in the plate, 
 ts represented at half size, and also the whole of Fig. 1, 
 Fig. 2, and Fig. 6 ; all the rest are shewn at full 
 ■size. Having thus described the pendulum-rod with 
 
 its ball, we shall now describe the proper method of 
 suspending it, which is by a projecting cock made of 
 brass, and is composed of three distinct pieces, fixed 
 together with rivets and screws. It is difficult to de- 
 scribe the exact form of it without giving many views 
 of it, but the general principle may be easily explained. 
 Strength and steadiness are particularly sought in its 
 formation, and the side view, Fig. 4, will make 
 it appear how those are attained in the vertical line, 
 by the part marked a, a, above the line of suspension, 
 and that marked c, c, below the line, as these serve 
 as strong hutments each way in that direction ; but the 
 part which serves as its butment in the horizontal line 
 does not appear in the side view, but may be seen in 
 the plan, No. 6 (which for want of room we were 
 obliged to reduce in size) ; the form of the part from 
 b to b, is'the same as that seen in the side view from the 
 dotted line e to c. The screw marked at Z, Fig. 4, 
 appears sideways in the plan, and is marked there x ; 
 this screw goes through the two parts, which project 
 forward to hang the pendulum upon. The right angled 
 part, d , d, b, b, ( Fig. 6,) is fixed to the flat brass 
 plate by three rivets, as large as their thickness will 
 admit, one at the angle near the lower b, and one at 
 each extremity of the piece ; the parts are put together 
 by rivetting, that when separate they may be hammer- 
 hardened. This cock is firmly fixed to a strong piece 
 of wainscot which is placed against the back of the 
 clock-case, and the whole firmly attached to the wall. 
 The mode of suspension should be such, that none of 
 the lateral motion of the pendulum, as it vibrates, can 
 be communicated to the parts of the apparatus, nor 
 should the wh^le, however firm, be liable to be dis- 
 turbed by foreign causes. The two planes of the cock 
 at Z, which are to receive the spring between them, 
 should be filed flat when the plate T is taken off, and 
 thus the spring may be pinched firm between them ; 
 so also should the cheeks of the slit at the upper eDd 
 of the rod, so that the spring should not have the 
 least play at either of its terminations, otherwise its 
 force will be very unequal. In placing the cock, care 
 should be taken that the place where the spring bends, 
 {Fig. 4,) should be adjusted to the level of the verge 
 or arbor of the pallets at A H. 
 
 When the pendulum is to be suspended upon the cock, 
 take out the screw marked ®, Fig. 4, and release the 
 screw at 2, and hang the pendulum-spring between 
 the two planes at Z, Fig. 4, putting the cylindrical 
 buttons which are rivetted at the top of the spring, 
 into the hollow 7 made to receive them at Z, then return 
 the screw 7 into its place, but do not tighten it; then 
 tighten the screw c at the top of the pendulum-rod, 
 and afterwards the two screws, H, 2, which will se- 
 cure it in its place ; and from its having hanged freely 
 before these screws were tightened, the several parts 
 will have been drawn into the true perpendicular line ; 
 the clock is afterwards put to it. We shall now ex- 
 plain the contrivance by which the pendulum receives 
 its impulses from the wheel-work. A, Fig. 7- is the 
 ! verge 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 591 
 
 verge or arbor, on which the pallets are fixed ; 1 , 1 , is 
 a round piece of brass rivetted to the collet ; k, k, k, is 
 the stem of the crutch, seen edgewise, and in Fig. 8 
 it appears flatwise. In the centre of the upper part is 
 a round hole, A, made to fit the verge; and at 1, 2, 
 are two circular slits. In Fig. 7, at 2, 2, is another 
 round piece of brass, fitted rather loose on the verge ; 
 the screw at A, and another on the opposite side, go 
 through the fixed plate marked 1,1, and also through 
 the curved slits in Fig. 8, marked 1, 2, and are tapped 
 into the plate marked 2, 2, (Fig. 7,) so that the crutch 
 has a considerable motion round the centre of the 
 verge, and may be fixed in any position by these 
 screws, one of which only can appear in this view, 
 and is opposite to A, Fig. 7. At the other end of 
 the stem of the crutch, (Fig. 8,) is a hole to receive 
 the screw-shank of the steel piece seen edge-wise, 
 Fig. 3, and when screwed up, appears at K, L, 
 (Fig. 5.) The sides of this piece must be filed flat,) 
 and polished, or at least a fine grain given to it ; its j 
 thickness shoi'ld be about of an inch ; the end of 
 the flat part is seen at Fig. 9. The shoulder marked 
 zv, w, (at Fig. 3,) should be turned flat, and when 
 the screwed shank is put through the hole B of the 
 crutch, in order to fix it, a collet of brass should be 
 interposed between the nut and the face of the crutch ; 
 this collet or brass plate should be turned hollow to- 
 wards the crutch, and somewhat round towards the 
 nut, which will make binging more effectual. The 
 flat faces of the steel part must be set parallel to the 
 line A B, (Fig. 8.). An oblong hole is pierced through 
 the wooden rod, Fig. 9, in the direction of the axis 
 of the rod ; two fine steel screws s, s, are tapped 
 through the sides of this hole. These screws pinch 
 the fiat part of the steel piece between them ; the ends 
 of the screws which bear against the plate are somewhat 
 rounded off ; the ends of these screws and the flat 
 part they bear against must be made as hard as pos- 
 sible. The holes for the screws must be made at right 
 angles to the flat sides of the faces of the steel piece, 
 and must pass through the axis of the rod. These 
 screws are Ar of an inch in diameter, and have eighty 
 threads in an inch. They must be forced in so as to 
 cut their own threads in the wood, after which they 
 must never be turned quite out. After having pro- 
 perly suspended your pendulum, and come to set up 
 the clock, draw back the screws s, s, (Fig. 9,) so as 
 to leave room for the flat of the steel part, T, to enter 
 clearly between them. We are now come to set the 
 dock into beat, in order to do which, release the screws 
 at A, (Fig. 7,) and its opposite screw, (which is hidden 
 in this view,) so as just to let the verge move stiff in 
 the hole of the crutch. The frame containing the 
 wheel-work must then be set into its place, carefully 
 directing the flat of the crutch between the screws, 
 which pass through the sides of the rod. After having 
 screwed down the frame of the work to the rising- 
 board as usual, the crutch must be held fast whilst the 
 pallets and verge are turned so as to bring the clock 
 
 I into beat. The screw at A (Fig. 7,), and its opposite 
 ! must then be tightened, so as to set the pallets and 
 | verge fast to the crutch. Note, the back frame must 
 j be cut so as to get at the heads of these screws with 
 | a key, from the front of the clock. These screws have 
 square heads, not slits, and are turned with a key, 
 to prevent the thrusting forwards which is necessary 
 when a turn-screw is used. The clock may be adjusted 
 into beat to a curious niceness, by releasing one of the 
 screws, s, s, (Fig. 9,) and screwing up the other; take 
 care not to overturn these screws so as to strip the 
 threads in the wood. The rule to be observed is this, 
 you must always hear the flat, T, Fig. 9, strike against 
 the screws, and if you do but hear it, they cannot be 
 too close ; these parts should be oiled. O, P, Fig. 5, 
 is a piece of steel wire, which passes through the axis 
 of the rod in order to catch it, by means of two slips 
 of wood properly carved, and fastened to the rising 
 1 1 board, so that this wire just sweeps clear of it in the 
 j vibrations of the pendulum. The more curious me- 
 * chanic will easily perceive, that if the above work be 
 carefully executed, according to the directions given, 
 j the impulses will be given in the axis of the pendulum- 
 | rod, and thence conveyed to the centre of gravity of 
 ! the ball, circumstances absolutely necessary to produce 
 ' a steady and regular motion of the pendulum, 
 j A change of temperature equal to four degrees of 
 i Fahrenheit’s thermometer, will produce an error in the 
 going of a clock per day, 
 
 If with a steel rod, - - l" 
 
 Brass, nearly - - - - 2 
 
 Glass, ------ 0| 
 
 By observations of transits of the sun over the me- 
 ridian, made by Professor Bliss, he found that a clock 
 of Dr. Bradley’s, made by Mr. Graham, with a brass 
 rod to the pendulum, gained in the coldest weather 
 of two winters, above 15" per day, and in the hottest 
 'weather, of two summers, lost above 13" per day, 
 
 and in temperate weather went very near to equal 
 
 time. — Mr. Bliss’s Fetter to Mr. Shot t. 
 
 Mr. Ellicott states the comparative expansion and con- 
 traction of the several different metals given below, to be as 
 Gold. Silver. Brass. Copper. Iron. Steel. Lead 
 73 103 95 89 60 56 149* 
 
 The length of the pendulum that swings seconds 
 in the latitude of London, is 39£ inches, or 39,2. 
 Now to find the length of a pendulum that shall make 
 any other given number of vibrations (in the same lati- 
 tude) in a minute; say, as the square of the given 
 
 number of vibrations is to the square of 60, so is 
 
 3<)j inches, (being the standard length) to the length, 
 in inches, of the pendulum sought. 
 
 A pendulum that vibrates seconds at the equator 
 must be -r^ parts of an inch shorter than one which 
 vibrates seconds at I^ondon, (or in that latitude ;) and 
 a pendulum that vibrates seconds at the poles must 
 be parts longer Ilian one that swings seconds at 
 London. The cause of this difference arises from the 
 spheroidical difference of the earth, and the centri- 
 fugal 
 
5<J2 
 
 WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 fugal force diminishing, as the diurnal motions become 
 slower and slower, from the equator to the poles. A 
 pendulum that vibrates seconds at the equator is 39 
 inches in length. And to vibrate seconds at the poles 
 a pendulum must be the length of 39.226 inches. 
 
 A Table shewing how much a pendulum that swings 
 seconds, at the equator, would gain every twenty-four 
 hours in different latitudes ; and how much a pendulum 
 would need to be lengthened, in these latitudes, to 
 make it swing seconds therein. 
 
 Lengthening the 
 
 Time gained 
 
 Latitude of 
 the place, 
 Deg. 
 
 5 
 JO 
 15 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 40 
 45 
 50 
 55 
 60 
 65 
 70 
 75 
 80 
 85 
 90 
 
 in one day. 
 Seconds. 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 26 
 
 40 
 
 57 
 
 75 
 
 94 
 
 114 
 
 134 
 
 153 
 
 171 
 
 187 
 
 201 
 
 213 
 
 221 
 
 226 
 
 228 
 
 pendulum to 
 swing seconds. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 % 0 
 
 0 
 
 Parts. 
 
 .0016 
 
 .0062 
 
 .0138 
 
 .0246 
 
 .0369 
 
 .0516 
 
 .0679 
 
 ,0853 
 
 .1033 
 
 .1212 
 
 .1386 
 
 .1549 
 
 .1696 
 
 .1824 
 
 .1927 
 
 .2033 
 
 .2050 
 
 .2065 
 
 The opposite Table may be useful to such clock- 
 makers who have clocks to construct for particular 
 situations, such as turrets, 8tc.; or'it may be consulted 
 to advantage when they have a clock to alter, in order to 
 accommodate it to a different purpose from the original one. 
 
 A Table shewing of what length a pendulum must 
 be to make a given number of vibrations in a minute, 
 in lat. 51° 30". 
 
 Vibrations 
 
 Length of Pendulum. 
 
 Vibrations 
 
 Length of Pendulum. 
 
 in a minute 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 in a minute 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches, 
 
 10 
 
 116 
 
 8,608 
 
 95 
 
 1 
 
 3,597 
 
 . 15 
 
 52 
 
 2,048 
 
 100 
 
 1 
 
 2,068 
 
 20 
 
 29 
 
 4,154 
 
 105 
 
 1 
 
 0,776 
 
 25 
 
 18 
 
 8,377 
 
 110 
 
 0 
 
 11,641 
 
 30 
 
 13 
 
 0,512 
 
 120 
 
 0 
 
 9,782 
 
 35 
 
 9 
 
 6,99S 
 
 125 
 
 0 
 
 9,015 
 
 40 
 
 7 
 
 4,038 
 
 130 
 
 0 
 
 8,335 
 
 44 
 
 6 
 
 0,759 
 
 135 
 
 . 0 
 
 7,728 
 
 45 
 
 5 
 
 9,561 
 
 136 
 
 0 
 
 7,615 
 
 50 
 
 4 
 
 8,344 
 
 137 
 
 0 
 
 7,510 
 
 7,396 
 
 55 
 
 3 
 
 10,465 
 
 138 
 
 0 
 
 60 
 
 3 
 
 3,200 
 
 139 
 
 0 
 
 7,201 
 
 6.3 
 
 2 
 
 9,340 
 
 140 
 
 0 
 
 7,137 
 
 70 
 
 2 
 
 4,747 
 
 141 
 
 0 
 
 7,085 
 
 75 
 
 2 
 
 1,042 
 
 142 
 
 0 
 
 6,935 
 
 80 
 
 1 
 
 10,009 
 
 143 
 
 0 
 
 6,888 
 
 85 
 
 l 
 
 7,490 
 
 144 
 
 0 
 
 6,793 
 
 90 
 
 1 
 
 5,390 
 
 145 
 
 0 
 
 6,699 
 
 Vibrations 
 
 Length ofPendulum. 
 
 Vibrations 
 
 Length ofPendulum. 
 
 in a minute 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches, 
 
 in a minute 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 146 
 
 0 
 
 6,608 
 
 164 
 
 0 
 
 5,238 
 
 147 
 
 0 
 
 6,518 
 
 165 
 
 0 
 
 5,211 
 
 148 
 
 0 
 
 6,431 
 
 166 
 
 0 
 
 5,1 12 
 
 149 
 
 0 
 
 6,345 
 
 167 
 
 0 
 
 5,051 
 
 150 
 
 0 
 
 6,260 
 
 168 
 
 0 
 
 4,991 
 
 151 
 
 0 
 
 6,175 
 
 169 
 
 0 
 
 4,932 
 
 152 
 
 0 
 
 6,096 
 
 170 
 
 0 
 
 4,847 
 
 153 
 
 0 
 
 6,017 
 
 171 
 
 0 
 
 4,817 
 
 154 
 
 0 
 
 5,939 
 
 172 
 
 0 
 
 4,761 
 
 155 
 
 0 
 
 5,863 
 
 173 
 
 0 
 
 4,707 
 
 1 56 
 
 0 
 
 5,788 
 
 174 
 
 0 
 
 4,652 
 
 157 
 
 0 
 
 5,715 
 
 175 
 
 0 
 
 4,599 
 
 158 
 
 0 
 
 5,643. 
 
 176 
 
 0 
 
 4,547 
 
 159 
 
 0 
 
 5,5 72 
 
 177 
 
 0 
 
 4,496 
 
 160 
 
 0 
 
 5,502 
 
 178 
 
 0 
 
 4,445 
 
 161 
 
 0 
 
 5,434 
 
 179 
 
 0 
 
 4,390 
 
 162 
 
 0 
 
 5,367 
 
 180 
 
 0 
 
 4,347 
 
 163 
 
 0 
 
 5,301 
 
 300 
 
 0 
 
 1 ,565 
 
 The setting a clock into heat is effected in common 
 clocks by bending the crutch one way or the other till 
 the vibration on each side is equal. The trial of this is 
 easily made, first marking on the clock-case, or other 
 fixture, the exact point opposite which the pendulum- 
 ball hangs, when perfectly free and at rest ; then, mov- 
 ing it by hand slowly to one side until the tick or the 
 escape of the wheel of the pallet is heard. Mark the 
 point when this occurs, then move the ball to the other 
 side of the centre, and also mark the opposite point 
 of the escape, and if these two are equally distant from 
 the centre or point of rest the clock is correctly in 
 beat ; but if it is not, the crutch of the verge must be 
 bent, or, in more complete machines, an alteration 
 made by screws, as directed in section pendulum, to 
 one side or the other till this is effected. It is also 
 an essential condition that the centre of suspension of 
 the pendulum shall be exactly in the same vertical plane 
 with the centre of the verge, for if the pendulum-spring 
 happen not to coincide with a perpendicular line passing 
 through the pivot hole of the pallets’ arbor one half the 
 arc of vibration will be greater than the other, even 
 after the bending or eccentric adjustment of the crutch 
 has brought the clock to beat. An error of this kind 
 must be very obvious, and may be remedied by the 
 1 eye. 
 
 The clock is now finished, and only requires to be 
 adjusted to the proper rate so that it will keep true 
 time. The adjustment is made by turning the nut at 
 the bottom of the pendulum-rod, letting the bob down 
 if the clock gains, or raising it up if it loses time, as is 
 shewn by comparison with some other accurate clock, 
 or else by the stars. 
 
 The ingenuity displayed by the Dutch in the con- 
 struction of their w'ooden-clocks, has induced us to give 
 a drawing of one of the best kind, and it is to be ob- 
 served that this is a very tolerable kind of clock when 
 made in brass ; but even when framed in wood, with 
 
 brass 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 593 
 
 brass wheels, as shewn in our drawing; it will keep 
 time while its simplicity and cheapness render it worthy 
 of attention. It is well adapted to a kitchen. 
 
 Fig. 1, Plate Clock-Work, is an elevation of 
 wheel-work of the going part of the clock, supposing 
 the dial-plate removed, but the hands, m and n, re- 
 maining in their places. The circles of the dial-plate 
 are represented by the dotted circles in the figure. 
 
 Fig. 2 is an elevation taken sideways, and shewing 
 both going and striking movements at one view. 
 
 Fig. 3 is an elevation taken from behind, and exhi- 
 biting the wheel-work of the striking mechanism. 
 
 The frame of this clock consists of two flat boards 
 AB united by four w'ooden bars, or pillars, at the 
 angles, and also three upright pieces C D E, which 
 contain and support the wheel-work. 
 
 F, Fig. 2, represents the dial-plate attached to the 
 boards. A B and G represent a similar board, fasten- 
 ed in the same manner, to the boards A B behind the 
 clock ; this board has a hole through it, at the upper 
 hand, by which the clock is suspended upon the pin or 
 spike H, driven into the wall M ; and the board G has 
 two small legs or pillars L, projecting from the bottom, 
 which have sharp points in their ends bearing against 
 the wall. By this means the clock is firmly fixed and 
 kept at such a distance from the wall as to admit the 
 pendulum I K to vibrate freely between them. 
 
 The pendulum is simply a wooden rod I K, with a 
 weight or ball attached to the lower end, and suspended 
 at the upper end by means of a wire hook fixed into it. 
 If this is taken from the point of suspension to a little 
 below the centre of the ball, it measures 39, lAr inches, 
 and, as before stated, every vibration will occupy one 
 second of time. This is the measure of time for the 
 clock, which has only to record the number of vibra- 
 tions the pendulum has made, and, at every time, to 
 give it a slight impulse sufficient to continue its motion, 
 w hich must be done by a maintaining power, the action 
 of which is transmitted to it by a train of wheel-work, 
 as w r e shall describe. 
 
 The clock is provided with two distinct trains of 
 wheel-work, one adapted to what is called the going 
 part, because it is constantly in motion, and actuates 
 the pendulum with a slight impulse at every vibration, 
 at the same time carries round the hands to indicate the 
 number of vibrations which the pendulum has per- 
 formed. This mechanism, in the clock before us is, 
 contained within the space between the uprights CD of 
 the plane, except that some of the movements, called 
 the dial-zc'ork, is contained between the upright C and 
 the back of the dial F ; this motion is particularly ’ 
 shewn in Fig. 1 . The other train of wheel-work is for 
 the purpose of striking the hour upon the bell N, w hich 
 is mounted on the top of the clock. The striking me- ! 
 chanism is contained between the two uprights D E of I 
 the frame. The going part of the clock is actuated by | 
 a weight which is attached to a cord P, Fig. 1 and 2 ; j 
 this cord passes over a pulley Q, which has pins in the | 
 bottom of its grooves to catch the cord and prevent its j 
 
 slipping. The other end of the cord O, Fig. 1, has a 
 light weight appending to it, which keeps the cord to 
 a proper tension, and holds it upon these pins. The 
 pulley Q is fixed upon a spindle which also carries the 
 great wheel a ; the latter is loosely fitted on its spindle, 
 so that it slips round freely upon it, but to cause it to 
 turn with it when required. The edge of the pulley is 
 serrated or cut with sloping teeth like a ratchet, and a 
 click is attached to one of the arms of the wheel, 
 which, holding on the teeth, compels the wheel to turn 
 round with it in the direction when the weight P is de- 
 scending; but when the clock is to be wound up, 
 which is done by pulling the end O of the cord, the 
 pulley and spindle slip round without giving any motion 
 to the great wheel, because its click slips over the sloping 
 sides of the teeth of the ratchet cut on the edge of the 
 pulley. The great wheel has seventy teeth, and actuates 
 a pinion or lantern of seven leaves upon a second arbor, 
 marked 28 in Fig. 2 : it has on it a wheel b of seventy 
 teeth, which turns a pinion of seven teeth, on the axis 
 of which the swing or scape-wheel c is fastened : this 
 has forty-five serrated teeth, as is shewn in Fig. 1 . In 
 these teeth the pallets act ; they are fixed on a spindle 
 d e, called the verge , which passes through the whole 
 of the frame, and has a lever ff fixed to it, which is 
 bent outwards at the end, and passes through a hole in 
 the pendulum-rod I K. By this arrangement it is evi- 
 dent that, at every vibration of the pendulum, the verge 
 and the pallet will accompany it in its motion. The 
 manner in which the escapement takes place of one 
 tooth of the wheel for every vibration, is explained by 
 the separate view in Fig. 5, which represents the ver- 
 tical swing-wheel marked e in Figs. 1 and 2 ; it has 
 forty-five teeth, c ef represents the pallets, moveable 
 in conjunction with the pendulum, on the centre or 
 axis d. One tooth of the wheel, as shewn in the figure, 
 rests on the inclined surface of the outer part of the 
 pallet c, on which its disposition to slide tends to throw 
 the point of the pallet further from the centre of the 
 wheel, and, consequently, assists the vibration in that 
 direction. While the pallet c moves outwards, and the 
 wheel advances, the point of the pallet f y of course, 
 approaches towards the centre in the opening between 
 the two nearest teeth ; and when the acting tooth of the 
 wheel slips off or escapes from the pallet c, another 
 tooth, on the opposite side, immediately falls on the 
 exterior inclined face f ; and, by a similar operation, 
 tends to push that pallet from the centre. The return- 
 ing vibration is thus assisted by the wheel, while the 
 pallet c moves towards the centre, and receives the suc- 
 ceeding tooth of the wheel, after the escape from the 
 pointy! Thus may the alternation be conceived to go 
 on without limit, each vibration of the pendulum letting 
 down a tooth of the wheel, and, in the act of escaping, 
 it receives a sufficient impulse. 
 
 We have now described the going part of the clock, 
 except those wheels called the dial-uork, which give 
 motion to the hands. The first wheel, a, Figs. 1 and 
 2, which revolves once in two hours, is not placed in 
 7 M the 
 
594 
 
 WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 the centre of the dial-plate, but a little below, and has 
 its strong arbor passing through the vertical partition- 
 bar c of the interior frame-work, and receives a wheel 
 g, of forty teeth, and also a pinion h, of ten leaves, 
 which are attached and asserted on this arbor by fric- i 
 tion. The wheel g, of forty, which we have seen, re- 
 volves in two hours, drives a . pinion k, Fig. 2, with a 
 long tube, called the common pinion, which is con- 
 cealed in Fig. 1, behind the wheel i. On the tube of i 
 this pinion k, which has twenty teeth, and which, 1 
 therefore, revolves in one hour, is placed the minute- 
 hand n, the end of the tube being squared to admit the 
 square aperture of the hand. The pinion h, of ten 
 leaves, which also revolves in two hours, drives the 
 wheel i, of sixty teeth, in twelve hours, the tube of 
 which admits, on its circular part, the hour-hand m, 
 which consequently revolves in twelve hours (2 x ?£)• 
 This work is denominated the dial-work , being that 
 which regulates the relative velocities of the two hands, 
 as seen in Fig. 1. 
 
 The next portion that offers itself for description, is, 
 the ’larum, which has an immediate connexion with the 
 dial-work, and has the time of its going off limited 
 thereby. On the tube of the twelve-hours wheel i is 
 placed loose, or, at least, only so tight as friction will 
 fix it. The small plate o, pointed to by the tail formed 
 within the hour-hand m, which small plate has twelve 
 hours engraven on it, and a pin inserted into it behind, 
 which comes in the way of the lever, Fig. 1, every 
 twelve hours this pin is put into a certain situation with 
 respect to the hour ot twelve and the lever p ; also, in 
 order that the pin may catch the said lever at a ceitain 
 hour, placed under the tail of the hour-hand at any 
 time previously to the hour intended ; the consequence 
 is, that when the twelve-hour wheel i has revolved far 
 enough to prevent the pin of the small ’larum dial, 
 borne by it to the end of the lever p, this lever is ele- 
 vated, a little ; its arbor has its pivots running in the inte- 
 rior frame-work of the going part, and a second lever r is 
 fixed oh the same common arbor ; this is also, at the 
 same time, elevated from the pin fixed in the edge of 
 an escapement crown-wheel s, shewn detached in Fig. 
 4, at which instant the small weight of the ’larum pulls 
 the pulley x on the back of the escapement-wheel of 
 the ’laru.n, and gives it a rotatory motion as long as 
 the weight continues to fall. The escapement-wheel s, 
 here mentioned, has coarse teeth of the serrated kind, 
 which, like the escapement of a watch, act with two 
 pallets on the perpendicular arbor, and have their fre- 
 quency regulated by the vibration of the balance, where- 
 as in. this there is no regulator, but the pallets go and 
 come alternately as fast as the impelling w'eight can 
 force them to move. On the top of the perpendicular 
 arbor v of these pallets is fixed a hammer with iwo 
 faces, within the bell N, as represented by dots, which 
 moving backward and forward from one interior side of 
 the bell to the other, with the force communicated to 
 the pallets v, by the pallet-wheel s, make a reiterated 
 »>oise, the intensity and continuance of which are suffi- 
 
 cient to disturb the repose of a sound sleeper. When 
 the weight has drawn up all the cord, it is only neces- 
 sary to pull it up again, and the lever n acts as a detent 
 with the pin fixed in the pallet-w'heel, till the pin of the 
 ’larum-dial o set to any given hour, shall again detach, 
 when the same continued noise will be repeated. The 
 pulley x, on which the cord of the ’iurum acts is, as 
 shewn in Fig. 4, connected with the escapement-wheel s, 
 by a ratchet-wheel and click, w’hich suffer the pulley to 
 turn round independently of the wheel when the ’larum 
 is wound up, in the same manner as the pulley of the 
 going part. 
 
 The last portion of the clock is the striking portion, 
 which also has a connexion with the dial-work. The 
 wheel g, which, as before stated, revolves in the space 
 of two hours, has two pins at the distance of a semi- 
 circle from each other behind the wheel, as is* seen in 
 Fig. 2 ; one or other of these two pins, at the end of 
 each hour, seizes the end of a tail-piece. (1) attached to 
 the long horizontal arbor 2,3. ; which reaches the whole 
 depth of the two internal frames. This long arbor 
 has another lever (4), Fig. 3, or detent, which reaches 
 far enough to fall in way of a pin in the w heel (12), so as 
 to arrest the motion of the striking f movement, when 
 its-quiescent position is parallel to the long arbor; and 
 above it is another similar arbor turning by its pivots in 
 the frame of the striking part. This upper arbor (5) 
 has a wooden lever (f>), Fig. 3, by which it may be 
 raised by the contact of the detent (4) of the lower 
 arbor 2,3. The end of the lever (6) is formed into tw o 
 catches or detents, on one of these. The detents fall 
 into a notch made in a projecting part of the axis (10), 
 j Fig. 3, of a w heel-mark (13), thence called the detent- 
 wheel, which revolves once at every, blow of the ham- 
 j mer. The second catch of the lever (6) is a w ire-hook, 
 
 ' marked (8), Figs. 2 and 3, which turns up and falls suc- 
 { cessively into (12) notches cut at unequal distances 
 | through the edge of the hoop, or ring, which is fixed fast 
 j to the wheel, marked (8), called the count-wheel, because 
 | its teeth and these notches count the stroke paces be- 
 tween the notches of the locking hoop, which are placed 
 1 respectively at 7 \, &c., of the circumference of 
 
 the plate from each other. To explain this, it must be 
 observed, that the wheel has seventy-eight teeth ; the 
 space between the notches in the hoop increase in arith- 
 metical proportion ; the space between the two first be- 
 ing one tooth, or ^ of the wheel ; the second space is 
 equal to two teeth, and so on, till the twelve, which is 
 twelve teeth, is extant. 
 
 The wheel (9) first actuated by the cord or chain 
 passing round the third pulley fastened in it, has twelve 
 pins fixed to it for raising the tail-piece (10) of the 
 hammer. The arbor of the tail-piece (10) is seen in 
 Figs. 2 and 3, marked 17; it has, at the opposite 
 end, a lever (19), which operates on a short lever pro- 
 jecting from a vertical arbor (20), which has the ham- 
 mer (1 6) fixed on the top of it, which is thrown to- 
 wards the bell by a spring, marked 21, so that, as the 
 great w'heel turns, its pins seize the hammer-tail (10), 
 
WATCH AND CLOCK-MAKING. 
 
 595 
 
 and, by depressing it, its arm (19) acts on the arbor 
 (20), and draws the hammer (16) from the bell till the 
 pin quits the tail (10), then the spring (21) throws the 
 hammer against the bell. 
 
 The pin-whee), or striking-wheel (9), has sixty teeth, ! 
 and drives a pinion of ten leaves, marked 10, on the 
 arbor of the detent-wheel (13), which has seventy 
 teeth, driving a pinion on the remote end of the arbor 
 of the warning-wheel (12) of fifty-six teeth, which 
 wheel again turns the pinion (14) of seven leaves on 
 the arbor of the fly, which is seen at 15. On that end 
 of the arbor of the pin-wheel, which passes through 
 the back part E of the frame-work, is inserted a pi- 
 nion of twelve leaves, called the pinion of report, 
 driving the counting-wheel (11) of seventy-eight teeth, 
 which has been before-mentioued. 
 
 The action of the striking-part is this : — One of the 
 pins in the two-hour wheel (9) first lifts the tail of the 
 long lever. Figs. 1 and 2, and, with it, the detent (4), 
 Fig. 3. The warning-wheel (7) is not yet at liberty, 
 but it begins to revolve the instant that this detent has 
 raised the wooden lever (6) of it, which raises with it 
 both the catches or detents before described ; then one 
 of them leaves the notch made in the axis (10) of 
 the detent wheel (13) and the other (8) leaves, the 
 count-wheel, under the command of the suspended 
 weight. The motion of the wheel, how'ever, does not 
 proceed far, because the detent (4) is raised into the 
 way of the wheel (12), and the motion of the works is 
 arrested. The noise of this temporary motion of the 
 wheels is called the warning ; and the wheel (12) the 
 warning-wheel ; presently the pin of the tw o-hour 
 wheel g, drops from the end of the tail (1) of the 
 arbor 2, 3, and thus during the temporary motion of 
 the warning-wheel, the axis (10) of the detent wheel 
 and also the locking attached to the count- wheel (11) 
 had moved far enough, to take the notches from the 
 claws of their respective detents, or catches, (6 and S), 
 the moment therefore that the detent ( 1 ) takes quiescent 
 position, by the detent (1) slipping off the pin in the 
 wheel g, the warning-wheel is again at liberty, as 
 are also the detent-wheel and the count-wheel ; the 
 whole movement consequently now proceeds, and the 
 pin-wheel raises the hammer-tail (10) as often as the 
 pins meet with it, till the detent (8) meets with a notch 
 to receive it iuto the locking-plate, at which moment 
 
 all motion is at an end, because the detent (6) of the 
 axis (10) falls also into its notch, and holds the whole 
 movement in a quiescent state. At the end of another 
 hour, the second pin of wheel g again detaches the 
 detents, and renews the same process, which happens 
 at the conclusion of every hour. 
 
 From this account of the movement of the striking- 
 part, and of the other auxiliary parts of this me- 
 chanism, it is easy to apprehend the reason of the 
 numbers of teeth, fixed upon in their different wheels 
 and pinions, first, because there are twelve pins in 
 the striking or pin-wheel, g, it is necessary that the 
 pinion of report on the same protruding arbor should 
 have twelve leaves, in order that every tooth in the 
 count-wheel, one of which measures the first interval 
 on the locking-plate, two of which measure the se- 
 cond, three the third, and so on, till the last space 
 between the notches is measured by twelve teeth of 
 this wheel. Again, as the pin-wheel (9) has sixty 
 teeth and twelve pins, each pin is removed from the 
 next £§ — 5 teeth ; if the detent-wheel (13) were ne- 
 cessarily obliged to have an exact revolution at every 
 stroke of the hammer, the pinion on its arbor, driven 
 by the pin-wheel (9), must necessarily have five leaves 
 only ; but when the teeth are not laid very deep into 
 one another, the play will allow the hoop-wheel to 
 have only one revolution in two strokes, which is the 
 case before us, where the pinion has ten leaves. The 
 pin-wheel, however, might very well have had ninety- 
 six teeth, and the pinion in question eight leaves, and 
 then there would have been an entire revolution of 
 the hoop-wheel at each stroke. 
 
 We have seen that the count-wheel revolves once in 
 twelve hours, and that the pin-w'heel (9) revolves in 
 of this time, or makes turns in the twelve hours ; 
 but if the number of pins had been thirteen, the time 
 of a revolution of these would have been of twelve 
 hours, or once in two hours, which is the case of the 
 great wheel a of the going-part, and the two move- 
 ments would, in that case, have been more uniform, 
 with respect to the calculations of continuance. It is 
 but of little importance what the numbers of teeth 
 be in the tw'o remaining pinions and w'arning-wheel, 
 as they only regulate the velocity of the fly, provided 
 the teeth are numerous enough to act without much 
 friction. 
 
 WEAVING, 
 
WEAVING. 
 
 Weaving is the art of making threads into cloth. 
 This art is of very ancient origin. The fabulous story 
 of Penelope’s web ; and, still more, the frequent allu- 
 sions to this art in the sacred writings, tend to shew, 
 that the constructing of cloth from threads, hair, &c., 
 is a very ancient invention. It has, however, like 
 other useful arts, undergone an infinite variety of im- 
 provements, both as to the materials of which cloth 
 is made, the apparatus necessary in its construction, 
 and the particular modes of operation by the artist. 
 
 Weaving, when reduced to its original principle, is 
 nothing more than the insertion of the weft into the 
 web, by forming sheds ; but this principle has been 
 so extensively applied in almost every country, and 
 the knowledge of its various branches has been derived 
 from such a variety of sources, that no one person 
 could ever be practically employed in all its branches ; 
 and though every part bears a strong analogy to the 
 rest, yet a minute knowledge of each of these parts, 
 can only be acquired by experience and reflection. 
 
 The arts of spinning, throwing, and weaving silk, 
 were brought into England about the middle of the 
 fifteenth century, and were practised by a company 
 of women in London, called silk-women. About 
 A. D. 1480, men began to engage in the silk manu- 
 facture, and the art of silk-weaving, in England, soon 
 arrived at very great perfection. The civil dissensions 
 which followed this period, retarded the progress of 
 this art ; but afterwards, when the nation was at rest, 
 the arts of peace, and, among others, that of weaviiig, 
 made rapid advances in almost every part of the 
 kingdom. It has been generally supposed, that silk- 
 weaving, particularly that of figure-weaving, has never 
 been brought to that perfection in England, to which 
 it has attained in other countries. 
 
 The art of cotton-weaving, in its present improved 
 state, has not been long known either in this or any 
 other country. Wherever it originated, it is certain 
 that most of our manufactures, in this respect, are 
 unequalled in any part of the known world ; and were 
 it not for the many commercial restrictions, by which 
 the present war is so unfortunately distinguished, there 
 is every rational prospect that our cotton trade would 
 be still further improved and extended. 
 
 The apparatus necessary in the art of cloth-w r eaving 
 consists, chiefly, in the loom, shuttle, reed, and heddles, 
 or harness, the form and use of which are here de- 
 scribed, 
 
 When the weaver has received his warp from the 
 warping-mill (for an account of which see Cotton- 
 Manufacture), his first care is to wind it upon 
 the beam in a proper manner. When this has been 
 done, and the cord made fast at both ends of the 
 shaft, the knotting left by the warper is cut, and the 
 warp stretched to its proper breadth. An instrument, 
 called a ravel, is then to be used. Ravels are some- 
 what like reeds, and are also of different dimensions. 
 One proper for the purpose being found, every half- 
 gang is placed in an interval between two of the pins. 
 The upper part, or cape, is then put on and secured, 
 and the operation of winding the warp upon the beam 
 commences. I u broad works, two persons are em- 
 ployed to hold the ravel which serves to guide the 
 warp, and to spread it regularly upon the beam ; one 
 or two to keep the chain, or chains, of the w'arp at 
 a proper degree of tension, and one or more to turn 
 the beam upon its centres. The warp being regularly 
 wound upon the beam, the weaver prepares to take 
 it through the heddles, and this operation is called 
 drawing. 
 
 Before the operation of drawing commences, two 
 rods are inserted into the lease formed by the upper- 
 lease-pins on the warping-mill ; the ends of these rods 
 are tied together, the twine by which the lease was 
 secured is cut away, and the warp stretched to its 
 proper breadth. The beam is then suspended by 
 cords behind the heddles and somewhat higher, the 
 warp hanging down perpendicularly. The weaver then 
 places himself in front of the heddles, and another 
 person is placed behind. The former opens every 
 lieddle in succession, and it is the business of the 
 latter to select each thread in its order, and deliver it 
 to be drawn through the open heddle. The succes- 
 sion iu which the threads are to be delivered is easily- 
 ascertained by the rods, as every thread crosses that 
 next to it. The warp, after passing through the 
 heddles, is next drawn through the reed by an instru- 
 ment called a sley, or reed-hook, two or more threads 
 being taken through every interval. 
 
 These operations being finished, the cords or mount- 
 ing which move the heddles are applied ; the reed is 
 placed in the lay, or batten, and the warp is divided 
 into small portions, which are tied to a shaft connected 
 by cords to the cloth-beam. 
 
 When the weaver has finished these t\yo operations 
 of beaming and drawing, he proceeds to dress his 
 
 warp. 
 
WEAVING. 
 
 597 
 
 warp. Dressing is justly esteemed of the first im- 
 portance, in the art of weaving warps spun from flax 
 or cotton ; for it is impossible to produce work of 
 a good quality, unless care be used in dressing the 
 warp. The use of dressing is, to give yarn sufficient 
 strength or tenacity, to enable it to bear the operation 
 of weaving into cloth. It also, by laying smoothly 
 all the ends of the fibres, which compose the raw 
 material, from which the yarn is spun, tends both to 
 diminish the friction during the process, and to render 
 the cloth smooth and glossy, when finished. The 
 substance in common use for dressing, is simply a 
 mucilage of vegetable matter boiled to a consistency 
 in water. Wheat flour, and sometimes potatoes, are 
 the substances commonly employed. These answer 
 sufficiently well in giving to the yarn both the smooth- 
 ness and tenacity required ; but the great objection to 
 them is, that they are too easily and rapidly affected 
 by the operation of the atmosphere. When dressed 
 yarn is allowed to stand exposed to the air, for any 
 considerable portion of time, before being woven into 
 cloth, it always becomes hard, brittle, and compara- 
 tively inflexible. It is then tedious and troublesome 
 to weave, and the cloth is rough, wiry, and uneven. 
 
 When the warp, previously dressed, has been wrought 
 up, as far as can be done conveniently, iiie weaver 
 is obliged to suspend the operation of weaving, and 
 to prepare a fresh quantity of warp. It is necessary 
 to stop, when the dressed warp has approached within 
 two or three inches of the back leaf of the heddles, 
 that room may be allowed to join the old dressing to 
 the new. The first operation, as in wool and silk, is 
 to clear the warp, with the comb, from the lease rod 
 to the yarn roll, or beam. The proof that this opera- 
 tion has been properly executed is, by bringing back 
 the rods, successively, from their working situation to 
 the roll. When this has been done, the two rods 
 nearest to the heddles, are drawn out of the warp to 
 one side, and the lease rod only remains. The next 
 duty of the weaver is, to examine the yarn about to 
 be dressed, and carefully to take away every knot, 
 lump, or other obstruction, which might impede the 
 progress of the work, or injure the fabric of the 
 cloth. In silk warps no further dressing is necessary ; 
 but in cotton warps the weaver proceeds to apply the 
 substance used for dressing, which is rubbed gently, 
 but completely, into the whole warp, by means of two 
 brushes used in succession, one of which he holds in 
 each hand. He then raises the lease-rod, which in 
 cotton-weaving is a middle rod, on one edge, to divide 
 the warp, and sets the air in motion by moving a 
 large fan, for the purpose of drying the warp which 
 has been dressed. Fustian-weavers use a large red- 
 hot iron for this purpose. It is proper, in this stage 
 of the operation, to draw one of the dressing brushes 
 lightly over the warp at intervals, in order to prevent 
 any obstruction, which might arise by the threads, 
 when agitated by the fan, cohering, or sticking to each 
 other, whilst in a wet state. Whenever the warp is 
 
 sufficiently dried, a very small quantity of grease is 
 brushed over it, the lease-rod is again placed upon 
 its flat side, and cautiously shifted forward to the 
 heddles. The other rods are then put again into their 
 respective sheds, and the process is finished. 
 
 The first operation of dressing the warp being 
 finished, the weaver begins that of forming the cloth. 
 The operations required are only three, and these 
 are very simple: 1st. Opening the sheds in the warp, 
 alternately, by pressing die treddles with his feet. 2d. 
 Driving the shuttle through each shed, when opened. 
 This is performed by the right hand, when the fly- 
 shuttle is used, and by the right and left hand, alter- 
 nately, in the common operation. 3d. Pulling for- 
 ward the lay, or batten, to strike home the woof, 
 and again pushing it back nearly to the heddles. This 
 is done by the left hand with the fly, and by each hand, 
 successively in the old way. 
 
 In describing operations so simple and uniform, it 
 is neither easy nor necessary to go much into detail. 
 By examining any piece of plain cloth, it will be found 
 to be composed of two or more distinct sets of threads, 
 or filaments, running in opposite directions perpendicu- 
 larly to each other ; those threads (or, as some weavers 
 call them, yarns) in the direction of the cloth’s length 
 are called the warp, and extend entirely from one end 
 of the piece of cloth to the other. The thread, or 
 yarn, running across the cloth in an horizontal direc- 
 tion is called the woof, or weft. It is in fact one 
 continued thread through the whole piece of cloth, 
 being woven alternately over and under each yarn of 
 the warp, until it arrives at the outside one. It then 
 passes round the yarn, and returns back over and 
 under each thread, as before ; but in such a manner, 
 that it now goes over each yarn which it passed under 
 before ; thus firmly knitting or weaving the whole 
 together. The outside yarn of the warp, round which 
 the w'oof is doubled, is called the selvage, and cannot 
 be unravelled without breaking the woof. The breadth 
 of the cloth determines the number of yarns the w'arp 
 shall contain ; and its quality limits their distances 
 from each other, and determines the fineness or set 
 of the reed. 
 
 Stripes are formed upon cloth, either by the warp 
 or by the woof. When the former of these ways is 
 practised, the variation of the process is chiefly the 
 business of the warper: in the latter case it is that 
 of the weaver. By unravelling any shred of striped 
 cloth, it may easily be discovered, whether the stripes 
 have been produced by the operations of the warper 
 or those of the w'eaver. 
 
 Checks are produced by the combined operations 
 of the warper and the weaver. 
 
 Tw'eeled cloths are so various in their textures, and 
 at the same time so complicated in their formation, 
 that it is impossible to convey an adequate idea of 
 the mode of constructing them, without the aid of 
 several engraved figures. In examining any piece of 
 plain cloth, it will be observed, that all the threads 
 7 N in 
 
WEAVING. 
 
 598 
 
 in the warp and woof cross each other, and are tacked 
 alternately. This is not the case in tweeled cloths; 
 for in this instance only the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, 
 &c., threads, cross each other to form a texture. 
 Tweeled cloths have been fabricated of various de- 
 scriptions. In the coarsest kinds every third thread 
 is crossed: in finer fabrics, they cross each other at 
 intervals of four, five, six, seven, or eight threads, 
 and in some very fine tweeled silks the crossing does 
 not take place until the sixteenth interval. 
 
 Tweeling is produced by multiplying and varying 
 the number of leases in the harness ; by the use of 
 a back harness, or double harness ; by increasing the 
 number of threads in each split of the reed ; by an 
 endless variety of modes in drawing' the yarns through 
 the harness ; and by increasing the number of treddles, 
 and changing the manner of treading them. When 
 the number of treddles requisite to raise all the variety 
 of sheds necessary to produce very extensive patterns 
 would be more than one man could manage, recourse 
 is had to a mode of mounting, or preparing the loom, 
 by the application of cords, &c., to the harness ; 
 and a second person is necessary to raise the sheds 
 required, by pulling the strings attached to the respec- 
 tive leases of the back harness, which are sunk to 
 their first position by means of leaden weights un- 
 derneath. This is the most comprehensive apparatus 
 ased by weavers for fanciful patterns of great extent, 
 and it is called the draw-loom. In weaving very fine 
 silk tweels, such as those of sixteen leases, the num- 
 ber of threads drawn through each interval of the 
 reed is so great, that, if woven with a single reed 1 , 
 they would obstruct each other in rising and sinking, 
 and the shed would not be sufficiently open to allow 
 the shuttle a free passage. To avoid this inconve- 
 nience, other reeds are placed behind that which 
 strikes up the weft ; and the warp threads are so dis- 
 posed; that those which pass through the same interval 
 in the first reed are divided in passing through the 
 second, and again in passing through the third. By j 
 these means the obstruction, if not entirely removed, 
 is greatly lessened. 
 
 In the weaving of plain thick woollen cloths, to pre- 
 vent obstructions of this kind, arising from the closeness 
 of the set, and roughness of the threads, only one- 
 fourth of the warp is sunk and raised by one treddle, 
 and a second is pressed down to complete the shed, be- 
 tween the times when every shot of weft is thrown 
 across. 
 
 Double cloth is composed of two webs, each of 
 which consists of a separate warp and separate weft ; 
 but the two are interwoven at intervals. The junction 
 of die two webs is formed by passing each of them 
 occasionally through the other, so that each particular 
 part of both is sometimes above and sometimes below. 
 This species of weaving is almost exclusively confined 
 to the manufacture of carpets in this country. The 
 material employed is dyed woollen, and, as almost 
 all carpets are decorated with fanciful ornaments, the 
 
 colours of the two webs are different, and they are 
 made to pass through each other at such intervals as 
 will form the patterns required. Hence it arises, that 
 the patterns of each side of the carpet are the same 
 but the colours are reversed. Carpets are usually 
 woven in the draw-loom. 
 
 Gauze differs in its formation from other cloths, 
 by having the threads of the warp crossed over each 
 other, instead of lying parallel. They are turned to 
 the right and left alternately ; and each shot of weft 
 preserves the twine which it has received. This effect 
 is caused by a singular mode of producing the sheds, 
 which cannot easily be described without the aid of 
 drawings. Cross, or net-weaving, is a separate branch 
 of the art, and requires a loom particularly constructed 
 for the purpose. Spots, brocades, and lappets, are 
 produced by a combination of the arts of plain, 
 tweeled, and gauze-weaving ; and, as in every other 
 branch of the art, are produced in all their varieties 
 by different ways of forming the sheds, by the appli- 
 cation of heddles, and their connexions with the 
 treddles which move them. Indeed, the whole know- 
 ledge of the art consists in this part of the apparatus 
 of a loom. 
 
 Stockings are woven with a loom, which like other 
 looms consists of treedles : of a bobbing of twisted 
 silk, &c. fixed on a bobbin-wire, which it turns with 
 ease to feed the engine : of a wheel, by the motion 
 of which the jacks are drawn . together upon needles ; 
 and of a needle on which the stockings are made. 
 The loom is a very complicated piece of machinery, 
 but by it, in its present improved state, stockings of 
 all sorts can be made with great expedition. Some 
 years since, a patent was taken out by Mr. George 
 Holland, for a method of making stockings and other 
 articles of wearing apparel adapted to give peculiar 
 warmth to invalids, which may be thus described :« — 
 The work is to be begun in the common way of 
 manufacturing hosiery, and having worked one or more 
 course, or courses, in the common way, the workman 
 is to add a coating in the following way : draw the 
 frame over the arch, and then hang wool or jersey, 
 raw or unspun, upon the beards of the needles, and 
 slide the same off their beards upon their stems, till 
 it comes exactly under the nibs of the sinkers ; then 
 sink the jacks and sinkers, and bring forward the 
 frame till the wool or jersey is drawn under the 
 beards of the needles, and having done this, draw 
 the frame over the arch, and place a thread of spun, 
 materials upon the needles, uuder the nibs of the 
 sinkers, and proceed in finishing the course in the usual 
 way of manufacturing hosiery with spun materials. 
 Any thing manufactured in this way, has on one sida 
 the appearance of common hosiery, and on the other 
 side the appearance of raw wool. The raw or uuspun 
 materials may be worked in with every course, or with 
 the second, third, fourth, &c. course, according to the 
 warmth or thickness required. 
 
 Other methods are described in the specification, 
 
 anti 
 
WEAVING. 
 
 599 
 
 and it is added that hosiery may be coated by any of 
 these methods, not only with wool and jersey, but 
 also with silk, cQtton, flax, hemp, hair, or other things 
 of a similar nature, raw or unspun, but the method 
 which we have described, is reckoned by the patentee 
 the very best. The method of making false or downy 
 calves in stockings, is by working raw or unspun 
 wool, or jersey, or any other raw or unspun materials 
 into the calves of stockings, in the way already de- 
 scribed. 
 
 Garpet-weaving . — Carpet is a sort of stuff wrought 
 with the needle or on a loom, which is part of the 
 furniture of a house, and commonly spread over tables, 
 or laid upon the floor. Persian and Turkey carpets 
 are most esteemed ; though at Paris there is a manu- 
 factory after the manner of Persia, where they make 
 them little inferior, not to say finer, than the true 
 Persian carpets. They are velvety, and perfectly 
 imitate the carpets which come from the Levant. 
 There are also carpets of Germany, some of which 
 are made of woollen stuffs, as serges, 8tc., and called 
 square carpets; others are made of wool also, but 
 wrought with the needle, and pretty often embellished 
 w ith silk ; and lastly, there are carpets made of dogs’ 
 hair. We have likewise carpets made in England, 
 which are used either as floor-carpets, or to make 
 chairs and other household furniture. 
 
 In weaving carpets the design or pattern is traced 
 in its proper colours on cartoons, tied before the work- 
 man, who looks at them every moment, because every 
 stitch is marked upon them, as it is to be in his work. 
 By this means he always knows what colours and 
 shades he is to use, and how many stitches of the 
 same colour. In this he is assisted by squares, into 
 which the whole design is divided ; each square is 
 subdivided into ten vertical lines, corresponding with 
 the parcels of ten threads of the warp ; and besides, 
 each square is rided with ten horizontal lines, cross- 
 ing the vertical lines at right angles. The workman, 
 having placed his spindles of thread near him, begins 
 to work on the first horizontal line of one of the 
 squares. 
 
 The lines marked on the cartoon are not traced on 
 the warp, because an iron wire, which is longer than 
 the width of a parcel of ten threads, supplies the 
 place of a cross-line. This wire is managed by a 
 crook at one end, at the workman’s right hand; to- 
 wards the other end it is flatted into a sort of knife, 
 with a back and edge, and grow's wider to the point. 
 The weaver fixes his iron wire horizontally on the 
 warp, by twisting some turns of a suitable thread of 
 the woof round it, which he passes forward and back- 
 ward, behind a fore thread of the warp, and then 
 behind the opposite thread, drawing them in their turn 
 by their leashes. Afterwards he brings the woof-thread 
 round the wire, in order to begin again to thrust it 
 into the warp. He continues in this manner to cover 
 the iron rod or wire, and to fill up a line to the tenth 
 thread of the warp. Ho is at liberty either to stop 
 
 here or to go on with the same cross-line in the next 
 division, according as he passes the thread of the woof 
 round the iron wire, and into the warp, the threads 
 of which he causes to cross one another at every in- 
 stant : when he comes to the end of the line, he takes 
 care to strike in, or close again all the stitches with 
 an iron reed, the teeth of which freely enter between 
 the empty threads and the warp, and which is heavy 
 enough to strike in the woof he has used. This row 
 of stitches is again closed and levelled, and in the 
 same manner the weaver proceeds ; then with his left 
 hand he lays a strong pair of shears along the finished 
 line, cuts off the loose hairs, and thus forms a row 
 of tufts perfectly even, which, together w'ith those 
 before and after it, form the shag. Thus the work- 
 man follows stitch for stitch, and colour for colour, 
 the plan of his pattern, which he is attempting to 
 imitate; and he paints magnificently, without having 
 the least notion of painting or drawing. 
 
 Tapestry-weaving. — Tapestry-work is distinguished 
 by the workmen into two kinds, viz. that of high, 
 and that of low w arp ; though the difference is rather 
 in the manuer of w'orking than in the work itself, 
 which is in effect the same in both, only the looms, 
 and consequently the warps, are differently situated ; 
 those of the low warp being placed flat and parallel 
 to the horizon, and those, on the contrary, of the high 
 warp, erected perpendicularly. The English anciently 
 excelled all the world in the tapestry of the high 
 W'arp ; of which the following is a description. 
 
 The loom, whereon it is wrought, is placed per- 
 pendicularly. It consists of four principal pieces ; two 
 long planks or cheeks of wood, and two thick rollers 
 or beams. The planks are set upright, and the beams 
 across them, one at the top, and the other at the 
 bottom, or about a foot distance from the ground. 
 They have each their trunnions, by which they are 
 suspended on the planks, and are turned with bars. 
 In each roller is a groove from one end to the other, 
 capable of containing a round piece of w'ood, fastened 
 therein with hooks. The use of it is to tie the ends 
 of the warp. The w arp, which is a kind of worsted, 
 or twisted w'oollen thread, is wound on ihe upper 
 roller; and the work, as fast as woven, is wound on 
 the low'er. Withinside the planks, which are seven or 
 eight feet high, fourteen or fifteen inches broad, and 
 three or four thick, are holes pierced from top to 
 bottom, in which are put thick pieces of iron, with 
 hooks at one end, serving to sustain the coat-stave : 
 these pieces of iron have also holes pierced, by putting 
 a pin, in which the stave is drawn uearer or set further 
 oft ; and thus the coats or threads are stretched or 
 loosened at pleasure. The coat-stave is about three 
 j inches diameter, and runs all the length of the loom ; 
 on this are fixed the coats or threads, which make 
 the treads of the warp cross each other. It has much 
 the same effect here, as the spring-stave and treddles 
 have in the common looms. The coats are little 
 threads fastened to each thread of the warp with a 
 , ‘ kind 
 
GOO 
 
 WEAVING. 
 
 kind of sliding knot, which forms a sort of mesh or 
 ring. They serve to keep the warp open for the 
 passage of broaches wound with silks, woollens, or 
 other matters used in the piece of tapestry. In the 
 last place, there are a number of little sticks of dif- 
 ferent lengths., but all about an inch in diameter, 
 which the workman keeps by hitn in baskets, to serve 
 to make the threads of the warp cross each other, by 
 passing them across ; and, that the threads thus crossed 
 may retain their proper situation, a pack-thread is run 
 among the threads, above the stick. 
 
 The loom being thus formed, and mounted with its 
 warp, the first thing the workman does, is to draw on 
 the threds of this warp, the principal lines and strokes 
 of the design to be represented on the piece of tapestry ; 
 which is done by applying cartoons, made from the 
 painting he intends to copy, to the side that is to be 
 the wrong side of the piece, and then, w’ith a black- 
 lead pencil, following and tracing out the contours 
 thereof on the thread of the right side, §o that the 
 strokes appear equally both before and behind. 
 
 As for the original design the work is to be finished 
 by, it is hung up behind the workmen, and wound on 
 a long staff, from which a piece is unrolled from time 
 to time as the w'ork proceeds. 
 
 Besides the loom, &c. here described, there are 
 three other principal instruments required for working 
 the silk or the wool of the woof within the threads 
 of the warp ; these are a broach, a reed, and an iron 
 needle. 
 
 The broach is made of a hard wood, seven or eight 
 inches long, and two-thirds of an inch thick, ending in 
 a point with a little handle. This serves as a shuttle ; 
 the silks, woollens, gold, or silver, to be used in the 
 work, being wound on it. 
 
 The reed or comb is also of wood, eight or nine 
 inches long, and an inch thick on the back, whence it 
 grows less and less to the extremity of the teeth, which 
 are more or less apart, according to the greater or less 
 degree of fineness of the intended work. Lastly, the 
 needle is made in form of the common needle, only 
 larger and longer. Its use is to press close the wool 
 and silk, when there is any line or colour that does 
 not fit well. 
 
 All things being prepared for the work, and the 
 workman ready to begin, he places himself on the 
 wrong side of the piece, with his back towards the 
 design ; so that he works in a manner blindfold, seeing 
 nothing of what he does, and being obliged to quit 
 his post, and go to the other side of the loom, when- 
 ever he would view and examine the piece, to correct 
 it with his pressing-needle. To put silk, 8tc. in the 
 warp, he first turns and looks at the design ; then, 
 taking a broachful of the proper colour, he places it 
 among the threads of the warp, which he brings across 
 each other with his fingers, by means of the coats or 
 threads fastened to the stall* ; this he repeats every 
 time he is to change his colour. Having placed the 
 silk or wool, he beats it with his reed or comb ; and 
 
 when he has thus wrought in several rows over each 
 other, he goes to see the effects they have, in order to 
 reform the contours with his needle, if there should 
 be occasion. As the work advances, it is rolled upon 
 the lower beam, and they unrol as much warp from 
 the upper beam as suffices them to continue the 
 piece, the like they do of the design behind them. 
 When the pieces are wide, several workmen may be 
 employed at once. 
 
 We have two things to add: the first is, that the 
 high-warp tapestry goes on much more slowly than the 
 low-warp, and takes up almost twice the time and 
 trouble. The second is, that all the difference the 
 eye can perceive between the two kinds, consists in 
 this ; that in the low-warp there is a red fillet, about 
 one-twelfth of an inch broad, running on each side 
 from top to bottom, which is wanting in the high-warp. 
 
 But, for the satisfaction of our readers, we shall 
 here describe the principal parts of the loom for the 
 manufacture of tapestry of the high warp, or that in 
 a situation perpendicular to the horizon. The loom 
 consists, 1. Of two strong upright posts fixed in the 
 floor : these support, 2. Two rollers, of which the 
 upper end holds the chain, the lower holds the tapestry, 
 which is rolled upon it according as the work goes 
 forward -. il>c tU.- e acls are fastened at their ends to a 
 dweet, or thick rod, which is lodged in a groove made 
 in each roller. 3. The two tantoes, one called the 
 great tantoe, for turning the lower roller. 4. The 
 pole of the leashes, which runs quite across the chain, 
 
 I takes up all the leashes, and brings them to the work- 
 i man’s hand. These leashes are little strings, tied by 
 I a slip-knot to each thread of the chain, to be raised up 
 | according as the chain sinks down : they serve to draw 
 the particular thread which the weaver wants. He 
 | holds the thread separate from the rest, and passes a 
 | spindle of such a woof" and colour as he thinks proper: 
 then he lets the spindle hang down, and hinders the 
 I thread from running off by a slip-knot. After having 
 j taken one or two threads of the fore-part of the chain 
 I by another leash, he brings the threads of the opposite 
 side to him. By this alternative work he constantly 
 makes them cross one another, to take in and secure 
 the woof. In order to distinguish the threads of both 
 sides, he is assisted by the cross-rod, which is put 
 between two rows of threads. 5. A long tract of 
 dots formed by the ends of the leashes which take hold 
 of the leashes of the chain by a slip-knot ; and on the 
 other hand encompasses the pole of the leashes. 6. The 
 cross-rod. 7. A little chain, each loop of which con- 
 tains four or five threads of the warp, and keeps them 
 perpendicular. 8. An iron hook, to support the pole 
 of the leashes. 9- The broacher-quill, to pass the 
 threads of the woof, which is wound on it. 10. The 
 comb, to strike in the work. 11. The end of the 
 dweet let into the roller, in a groove. 
 
 When the chain is mounted, the draughts-man traces 
 the principal out-lines of the picture, which is to be 
 wrought with black chalk on the fore and back side of 
 
 the 
 
WHEEL-WRIGHT. 
 
 601 
 
 the chain. The weaver in the upright way having pre- 
 pared a good stock of quills, filled with threads of all 
 colours, goes to work, placed on the back part, as in 
 the flat way, or in the manufacture of the low-warp. 
 
 He has behind him his drawings, on which he frequently 
 looks, that he may from time to time see how his 
 work succeeds on the right or fore side, which the 
 other cannot do. 
 
 WHEEL-WRIGHT. 
 
 This artisan’s employment embraces the making of 
 all sorts of wheels for the carriages which are em- 
 ployed in husbandry, as well as for those adapted to 
 the purposes of pleasure. Road-waggons and other 
 vehicles constructed for burden, are also the manu- 
 facture of the wheel-wright. In London this business 
 is divided into two distinct branches of work j one of 
 which being confined to the purpose of manufacturing 
 wheels for carriages of pleasure, is a., appendage to 
 coach-making ; the other to the making of the bo- 
 dies, wheels, &c. of the different kind of machines 
 required for the transport of the various commodities 
 for the purposes of trade, or the comfort and con- 
 venience of the people. It will appear by a very 
 superficial examination, that such a business is of very 
 great consideration, inasmuch as it contributes largely 
 to the facilitating of our first necessities, by supplying 
 the means of ready transit for articles of all descrip- 
 tions, as well as in offering a similar comfort of quick 
 communication for ourselves ; and it is pleasing to re- 
 flect, that amidst all the various improvements in arts 
 and manufactures, that this of wheel carriages has 
 been by no means neglected. Our artisans in this line 
 stand pre-eminent, our carriages are manufactured on 
 better principles, as well as more neat in their execu- 
 tion, than are to be found in any other country. 
 
 It is intended here to describe first, the manu- 
 facture of a wheel as adapted to carriages of pleasure, 
 and also to those of burden, pointing out at the same 
 time the various improvements which have been made 
 by flie manufacturer for the different purposes of light- 
 ness and strength, as well as those which have been 
 secured by a patent. 
 
 A wheel consists of three parts, viz. the nave or 
 stock, which is its centre ; the spokes which are radii 
 from it, and the ring, which is the outside or periphery 
 of the wheel. When a wheel is to be made, the 
 workman ascertains its exact diameter, to which he 
 adapts moulds of the length of the several fillies neces- 
 sary to form its outside ring, or periphery. If it be 
 a wheel for a carriage, he selects such fillies as are of 
 small size to form it, these he chops away with his 
 axe till they approach nearly to the form he wants 
 
 them, and to the sweep of the moulds. The fillies 
 are generally left in their length equal to admit of two 
 of the radii or spokes being framed into each, and as 
 much longer as to reach to the centre on each side 
 between the two adjoining spokes. Twelve spokes 
 are commonly assigned to the larger wheels of car- 
 riages, and ten to the smaller ones. The working 
 and finishing of the several fillies to form the periphery 
 of a wheel, consists, after it has been roughly chopped 
 to the pattern, in forming its inside edge somewhat 
 rounding, and getting its outside edge perfectly cir- 
 cular, and to form such an acute angle, as that when 
 the wheel is adapted to the axle-tree, it shall stand 
 square and solid under the body of the carriage. 
 This is required from the circumstance that all wheels 
 are made to a conical or dish-shape, as it is technically 
 called, which is done partly for the purpose of keeping 
 the dirt which collects upon their outer edge from 
 splashing the body of the carriage. This dishing of 
 a wheel, which is almost peculiar to this country, has 
 given rise to considerable discussion. That it is by 
 no means calculated to lessen friction, which ought 
 to be the first consideration, is very obvious, and 
 particularly if it be considered, that as being the frus- 
 tum of a cone, it must be constantly operating against 
 the line of draft of the power employed to give it 
 motion. Hence its tendency is to impede rather than 
 promote the effect of the impulse. Nevertheless, all 
 our wheels are dished, and such is the power of habit, 
 that to decrease the friction, the wheel-wrights, fre- 
 quently in our largest road-waggons, increase the acute- 
 ness of their conical wheels, fancying, perhaps, that 
 all they have to overcome lays in the breadth of the 
 surface which they oppose to the road, which this 
 kind of form, say they, “ makes very little.” Our 
 wheels to road machines, perhaps, are the only 
 things that have been neglected, in as far as giving to 
 them those forms best calculated for their various pur- 
 poses. 
 
 This is a subject requiring the attention of both the 
 mechanician and mathematician, and for their attention 
 to w'hich, the public convenience would be much in- 
 debted. Principles must be laid down, and in such 
 7 0 a plain 
 
602 
 
 WHEEL- WRIGHT. 
 
 a plain and obvious mauner, as to fix attention by their 
 simplicity. By a scientific pursuit of this subject, it 
 is probable that one-half the animal power now re- 
 quired for our road machines might be dispensed with, 
 the roads improved, and science directed to its true 
 end, viz. to the purposes of public utility. This digres- 
 sion arose only from the circumstance of our desire 
 to promote the public convenience. The fillies, when 
 accurately shaped, are cut to their several lengths, so 
 as to make up the complete circle, or outside ring of 
 the wheel , every one of their meeting joints being so 
 formed as to approach exactly together close and firm. 
 After the ring is thus worked and prepared, it is placed 
 round, and the meeting joints corrected by planing, 
 or saw-curfing, as it is called, till they become in a 
 state capable of uniting very close when fixed to the 
 spokes. Every joint is then perforated to about five 
 or six inches deep by an auger, and a dowel of oaken 
 wood is driven into the perforations ; these are in- 
 tended to keep the joints from springing, or getting 
 out of place when the wheel is about to be put to- 
 gether. The fillies of wheels are commonly made of 
 beechen wood, viz. from small trees, or the arms and 
 branches of large ones ; they are sawn into lengths of 
 about three feet, each, and rended by the pith of 
 the piece, they are then chopped to a somewhat cir- 
 cular shape; the largest size being taken for waggon 
 or cart-wheels, and the smaller for those to carriages. 
 They are sold by a dealer, known as the filly and 
 spoke merchant, commonly by the hundred of Jive 
 score, and they vary as their size from 60s. to 200s. per 
 hundred. The supply to London is generally from 
 Yorkshire, but considerable quantities are gotten in 
 Buckingham and Oxfordshire ; but those from York- 
 shire are most preferred by the coach wheel-wrights. 
 The spokes of wheels are made from oak, rended from 
 the small trees into pieces of from two to three feet 
 in length, and to about three inches square ; some- 
 times for the smaller description of wheels, they are 
 rended to a quadrant form : they are vended by the 
 hundred as the fillies are, and vary in their price as 
 their size from 30s. to 60s. per hundred. 
 
 The manufacture of the spokes consists in chopping 
 them first to their shape, and then smoothing them up 
 with spoke-shaves to the form they are required; when 
 this is done, they are all gauged to an exact length, 
 and their shoulders are made, and the tenons left to 
 enter the stock and fillies. The tenon intended to be 
 framed into the stock or nave is generally left square, 
 whereas that which enters the filly is round. The 
 tenons at both ends are left somewhat larger at their 
 shoulder than at their other ends, for the purpose of 
 giving them greater tightness when fixed in their in- 
 tended mortises. The tenon in the stock depends 
 wholly for its firmness to the tightness of its framing ; 
 whereas that which enters the filly is secured by being 
 wedged in its mortise on its outside edge. The strength 
 of a wheel depends greatly on the attention paid to 
 the arrangement and framing of the spokes; in com- 
 
 mon wheels they are framed regularly and equally all 
 round the thickest part of the nave, the tenons of the 
 spokes being so bevilled as to stand with reference to 
 the horizontal position of the nave about three inches 
 out of the perpendicular ; this is done to produce what 
 is called the dishing of the wheel. But for wheels 
 of strength, and for instance the wheels to our mail- 
 coaches, the spokes are framed somewhat differ- 
 ently into the nave, which is made also rather larger 
 than is usual for common coach-wheels. The framing 
 of the spokes in these wheels consists in getting 
 every other one perpendicular to the nave. Hence 
 the mortises to receive them in it are not made in a 
 parallel line round it, but stand, as it were, in two 
 different parallels, one without the other, by which 
 means greater solidity is given to the nave, and an im- 
 mense addition of strength to the whole wheel. This 
 will appear rather more obvious, if it be considered 
 that by this plan, supposing ten spokes to form the 
 levers, five will be perpendicular to the weight of 
 the body to be put in motion, and the other five in- 
 clining from it to produce the dish-shape ; the wheels 
 are found to resist their work considerably longer than 
 any other at present employed to our lighter kind of 
 wheel-carriages. This is a sufficient proof of their 
 utility. 
 
 The stock, or nave, of a wheel is commonly formed 
 of elm-wood. These are cut and sold by the hundred, 
 as are the fillies and spokes, and vary also, as their sizes, 
 from o Cb. to £l . per hundred. To produce their sound 
 conical form, they are turned in a lathe, and many 
 small projections and mouldings are left to give to them 
 greater neatness when painted and finished. After the 
 nave is turned, it is put into the hands of the wheel- 
 wright, who divides and marks the places where he in- 
 tends to form the mortises to receive the spokes ; as he 
 makes them, he tries the tenant of the spoke to each 
 several mortise, and puts a private mark on the spoke 
 he finds best adapted to fit into it. When these are all 
 made and fitted, he begins to put the whole wheel to- 
 gether, fitting all the spokes to the nave first, and then 
 adjusting and adding the fillies. When the wheel has 
 arrived in this state it is put by to season ; this consists 
 in nothing more than placing it in a place exposed to a 
 current of air, or, as at some manufactories, putting it 
 into a kiln. A few hours is sufficient in it, when heated 
 to about 140° of Fahrenheit, whereas a week or two 
 will be necessary if it is to be seasoned by the natural 
 means. The wheel, when properly seasoned, is knocked 
 up together, and all its joints and parts are examined to 
 see if they are in such a state as to come together firmly, 
 and, if found to be so, they are all secured and fixed. 
 This operation is begun by driving firmly in all the 
 spokes to the nave, and then putting on the fillies or 
 ring on the outside, which is also driven close down 
 upon the shoulder of the other tenon of the spoke, 
 which has been prepared to receive them. As these 
 tenons pass quite through the fillies, they are secured 
 by having wooden wedges driven into their centres, 
 
 which 
 
WHEEL-WRIGHT. 
 
 603 
 
 which has the effect of making them very tight and 
 firm in the ring of the wheel. When this is done, the 
 wheelwright cleans off, and finishes his work. This he 
 does by using a spoke-shave to those parts which are 
 uneven at the joints in the fillies, and when he has 
 brought them fair and smooth, he rubs off the whole 
 with dried fish-skin and glass-paper, till he gets the wood 
 to a smooth ground adapted to receive the paint. 
 
 The last operation of the wheelwright in finishing a 
 wheel, consists in putting on the iron-tire. The iron 
 for making it is the flat bar-iron, in thickness and width, 
 selected by the size of the ring of the wheel it is in- 
 tended to cover. It is purchased of the iron merchant 
 in bars of about twelve feet in length, by the hundred 
 weight of 1 12lbs.; and varies in its price from sixteen 
 shillings to one guinea per hundred. Such bars are cut ' 
 into lengths equal to those of the fillies, they are then | 
 forged and hammered to the sweep of the ring of the I 
 wheel, having perforations made at every eight or ten 
 inches apart, to admit the nails through, w'hich are in- 
 tended to secure them on the outside of the ring of the 
 wheel. The iron-tire fillies are placed so as to cross 
 each joint in the wooden fillies, and the nails, bypass- 
 ing quite through the latter, and being rivetted on the 
 inside of it, tend exceedingly to strengthen the wooden 
 ring of a wheel. The tire U also put on while red hot 
 from the forge, and the nails are driven through it, and 
 the wooden filly in a similar state, which promotes its 
 firmness upon the wooden ring by burning down and 
 compressing all bumps and other inequalities in the 
 wood. Hence, when it is done, the wood and iron, by 
 this kind of compression, becomes impressed one into 
 the other, and produces great compactness, solidity, and 
 strength to the periphery of the wheel. 
 
 Tiie nails used for fastening the iron-tire on wheels 
 are made on purpose for the work ; they have square 
 heads, forming a cube of about three-quarters of an 
 inch each way. The driving part is about five or six 
 inches in length, made quite flat and w'edge-like, and 
 they are larger or smaller in proportion to the size of the 
 fillies and tire to be perforated and fixed by them. The 
 coach wheelwrights now’, in their better-most kind of 
 wheels, have the iron-tire drawn into one complete ring, 
 exactly adapted to surround the wooden one of the 
 wheel. This has been found not so much to strengthen 
 the wheel as to give it greater neatness. There was 
 a patent obtained, about fifteen years since, for 
 making the filly of the wheel in one piece, a method 
 which had been long the practice in the Noitb. The 
 plan consisted in selecting beams of straight-grained 
 ashen-wood, of the proposed si;ze of the intended 
 filly, and boiling it in a bath of water until the wood 
 became reduced almost to a state of pulp, when 
 it w’as bent on a cylinder of the diameter of the intended 
 ring of the wheel. After which, it was shaped, mor- 
 tised, and fitted to the spokes, as before described. 
 Such kind of wheels are still continued to be made by a 
 Mr. Greenstreet, at Lambeth, but the) boiling the filly 
 to give it its shape, greatly weakens it. Hence wheels, 
 
 so made, are not in common use ; they, however, are 
 neater, and, of course, look much better than any wheel 
 which can be made by the common method. The 
 drawn iron-tire is always made use of for such wheels. 
 
 The boxing of a wheel, and adapting the axle-tree, is 
 done usually by the coach or tire smith. The box of a 
 wheel consists in a hollow conical tube of iron, fur- 
 nished on its outside with two or three square pro- 
 jections, which have the effect of giving it a key when 
 mortised through the nave of the wheel. The box is 
 well polished on its inside, and the axle-tree is accurately 
 formed to fit into it, with a sufficient play to admit of 
 oil being introduced to modify the friction. 
 
 The external ends of axle-trees, which pass through 
 the boxes, are generally formed into screws, to which 
 ai e adapted nuts, of sufficient size to cover completely 
 the external edges of the boxes of the wheels, which, 
 with a linch-pin, that passes through both it and also 
 the mortises in the axle-tree, completely secures the 
 wheels to their work. 
 
 The patent boxes to the mail coaches are of a differ- 
 ent construction, and owe their safety to four bolts, 
 which pass completely through the nave of the wheel, 
 having a square shoulder on the back of the nave, with 
 screws and nuts on its front. The box to such a wheel 
 is made, as are the other boxes above described, except 
 being completely closed at its outer end, with a solid 
 and broad cap of iron, of sufficient diameter to enclose 
 completely the end of the nave. The axle-tree, too, is 
 formed to fill the box, and press up close to this iron 
 cap. There is also a large round iron flaunch made and 
 welded to the base of the solid cone or axle, which 
 works in the box of the nave. This cap has four per- 
 forations through which the iron bolts are put, and 
 which also pass through the nave of the wheel with their 
 screws presenting themselves through the iron cap at its 
 outer end. When these bolts are all adapted and in 
 their places, four nuts of about an inch and a quarter 
 square, are screwed on to them, the shoulders of which 
 are supplied by the iron cap, which secures the axle- 
 tree in the box, and holds up the wheel mote firmly 
 to its work than by any other plan now adopted. By 
 this method no dirt can penetrate to impede the motion 
 or create friction, as the end of the cone of the working 
 axle is completely enclosed, and when once the wheel is 
 put on and properly oiled, it is found to go on in its 
 work for a considerable time ; for instance, the mail 
 coaches go their longest journeys with oiling and rectify- 
 ing in London only, where it is always done by a con- 
 tractor specially retained for that purpose. 
 
 Collinge’s patent box is of a similar construction, 
 but being adapted to carriages of pleasure it was got 
 up with greater neatness, being sometimes formed of 
 solid silver on its outside, but mostly of brass or plated 
 metal. Its principal object was to combine the pro- 
 perties of the above boxes, with spme regard to ele- 
 gance of shape, which has been accomplished. All the 
 naves of wheels are capped with a ferrule of iron on 
 their large or but-end, and the smaller naves at both 
 
 their 
 
604 
 
 WHEEL-WRIGHT. 
 
 their ends ; this is done to prevent their splitting w hen 
 wedging in the iron boxes, and it is also of use to 
 keep the weather from cracking and dilapidating them. 
 The manufacture of all wheels, either to carriages of 
 pleasure or of burden, partakes of a similar mode of 
 manufacture, varying the weight and size of the ma- 
 terials employed to their respective purposes. 
 
 In the provinces, the business of wheel-wright and 
 carpenter is frequently combined ; nor is this so much 
 to be wondered at, if it be considered how large a 
 proportion of their employ is embraced in making not 
 only waggons and carts, but the machines for agricul- 
 tural purposes, the most of which are manufactured 
 at the wheel-wright’s. In London it is different, as 
 there trades are almost respectively pursued. The 
 working tools of this tradesman do not differ greatly 
 from those of a carpenter or joiner, but they are not so 
 multiplied as is required by the latter. He is provided 
 with two or three axes of different sizes, the largest of 
 which is formed for cleaving and reducing his fillies 
 and spokes to a rough form, approaching to what they 
 are intended to be’when more finished. The other axes are 
 made with a broad but narrow chopper and short handle, 
 and ground to an edge from their concave or inside 
 only ; their blade part is made convex on its outside, 
 in order to its being applied to cut away the internal 
 side of the fillies. The axes of the wheel-wright are 
 kept uncommonly sharp, being whetted on a Turkey 
 stone, as their plane irons and other tools are. They 
 have also an adze similar to a carpenter’s, with abun- 
 dance of all kinds of gouges and chisels, which differ 
 only from the common tools of that description by 
 being furnished with longer handles, and made some- 
 what stronger. The handle is required to be longer, as 
 the wheel-wright works on the floor at his work, aud the 
 additional length of his tool is for the purpose of 
 enabling him to reach his labour more conveniently. 
 His other tools consist of a numerous collection of 
 augers of different sizes, varying from one-fourth of 
 an inch diameter, to two inches or more ; these he re- 
 quires to perforate the fillies of his wheels, as the mor- 
 tices in them are always round ; he has also a stock, 
 with a collection of centre, dowelling, and pin-bits, as 
 they are called. He has several different sized spoke- 
 shaves, which are used to smooth and finish the dif- 
 ferent portions of his work. The flat-iron, as it is 
 termed, is also a tool much used by the wheel-wright ; 
 it consists in a long and narrow strip of hardened iron, 
 about an inch wide, turned up to receive a handle on 
 each of its ends ; with a tool of this description the 
 spokes and other similar pieces of work are prepared. 
 
 Their planes consist of a jack, trying, and smoothing 
 plane, precisely the same as are in use among car- 
 penters, and called after the same designations. Some 
 portions of their work are occasionally moulded, to 
 effect which they have a plane formed to produce it, i 
 and which is made exactly corresponding to a moulding 
 plane of a joiner or cabinet-maker. Their hammers 
 are of various sizes, some being very small, and others 
 
 in size equal to that of a sledge, and they differ only 
 from the common instruments of this description by 
 being invariably made with a claw at one of their ends. 
 It has been before observed, that this tradesman's em- 
 ploy includes as well as the making of wheels, that 
 of carts, waggons, and implements in agriculture ; these, 
 it must be obvious, will partake in their shape and 
 make from local circumstances ; hence it is found that 
 in almost every country a different manner is adopted, al- 
 though the mechanical labour of the several parts is nearly 
 every where the same. The machines employed in and 
 about London are manufactured with a greater proportion 
 of iron (from the wear and tear of traversing the 
 pavement), than is found to be requisite in parts where 
 roads of the common nature prevail. Wooden axle- 
 trees are by no means uncommon in the country dis- 
 tricts ; but such axle-trees would not transport a slight 
 load for an hour over the sudden jerks of a London 
 pavement; hence machines of this description will 
 always be formed to combine such advantages as are 
 required from their local circumstances. 
 
 To describe a London waggon would be of no im- 
 portance to the country manufacturer, where such a 
 machine is unnecessary, and to the London manu- 
 facturer « country machine is not of the least utility. 
 Our road-waggons certainly claim great attention, as 
 combining all the properties of strength and lightness 
 but their wheels are badly formed. On this important 
 point a paper has been presented to the Board of 
 Agriculture, by Mr. Cumming, from which we shall 
 here add some extracts : the same paper may be also 
 further consulted by referring to the Repertory of Arts, 
 vol. 13. page 257- 
 
 “ The properties of all wheels, so far as regards 
 this inquiry, depend upon their affinity to the cylinder or 
 to the cone ; and in order to shew the nature and tendency 
 of each class, it is necessary briefly to state such pro- 
 perties as unavoidably arise from the form of these bodies. 
 The cylinder having all its parts of equal diameter, 
 will in rolling on its rim, have an equal velocity at 
 every part of its circumference, and necessarily advauce 
 in a straight line. And as all the parts of the rim 
 have an equal velocity, none can have a tendency to 
 drag forward or retard the progress of the others • 
 they all advance with one consent, without the rubbing 
 of any part on the surface on which they roll. As 
 there is no rubbing, there can be no friction, and con- 
 sequently a cylinder perfectly round, hard, and smooth, 
 forms the least possible resistance, however great its 
 weight, or the pressure on its rim. It therefore fol- 
 lows, that all the power that is employed in drawing 
 forward a cylindrical body in a straight line, on a com- 
 pressible substance, is ultimately applied in compressing 
 smooth and levelling the substance on which it rolls. 
 The rolling of a cylindrical body therefore can have no 
 i tendency to alter the relative situation or position of the 
 i parts of materials on which they pass, nor any how to 
 I derange them, but by a progressive dead pressure to 
 consolidate, level, and smooth them. If a cylinder be 
 I cut 
 
WIRE-DRAWING. 
 
 605 
 
 cut transversely into several lengths, each part will pos- 
 sess all the above properties, and if the rim of a carriage 
 wheel be made exactly of the same shape it must neces- 
 sarily have the same tendencies. When wheels, with 
 cylindrical rims, are connected by an axis, the tendency 
 of each being to advance in a direct line, they proceed 
 in this connected state with the same harmony and unity 
 of consent that exist in the parts of the same cylinder ; 
 but, as conical rims have been universally preferred for | 
 a series of years, it is natural to suppose that there were j 
 obvious reasons for such preference. The cone dimi- j 
 nishing gradually from its base to its point, the velocity of 
 every part of its circumference, in rolling on an even plane, 
 will be diminished, as the diameter ; and at the very point 
 where there is no visible diameter, it will have no per- 
 ceptible motion ; but if the cone be made to advance 
 iu a straight line, the natural velocities of its several 
 
 I parts will not be as the spaces, therefore a rubbing and 
 i friction will take place at its circumference from the 
 different velocities of its parts, which must render the 
 draught heavier. In rolling on paved streets nothing 
 can be conceived more calculated for their destruction 
 than the conical rim of a broad wheel. It may be 
 thought extraordinary that no good qualities should have 
 been imputed to the conical shape of a w heel, although 
 sanctioned by universal preference for so many years. — 
 “ But,” says Mr. Cumming, “ if any do belong to it ex- 
 cept only the flat bearing of its whole breadth, I have 
 not been so fortunate as to discover them.” He says, 
 also, “ that conical wheels promote the destruction of 
 j the roads, increase the labour of the animals, and oc- 
 | casion an immense wearing of the tire of the wheels, 
 by their constant dragging and grinding on the roads, 
 none of which take place with cylindrical wheels.” 
 
 WIRE-DRAWING. 
 
 The iron of which wire is made is smelted from the 
 rich ores of Cumberland and Lancashire, by wood 
 charcoal, and from the state of pig iron. It is refined 
 into nialeable iron, also, by the use of tire same fuel, 
 by which processes, and the entire use of wood, added 
 to the excellent quality of the ore, the great ductility of 
 wire iron is obtained. 
 
 When produced from the forge in bars, it is rolled 
 into sizes suitable to the particular purpose for which it 
 is intended, and being then softened or annealed by 
 heat, is, when cold, scoured, by means of sand or 
 gravel and water, in barrels formed for the purpose (and 
 turned on their axis by machinery), till it is quite bright 
 and clean, after which it is suffered to acquire a cover- 
 ing of rust by being splashed with water. When well 
 dried it is drawn through plates of steel, in which are 
 made tapering holes of smaller diameter than the size of 
 the iron to be drawn, the rust giving its surface sufficient 
 roughness to carry grease into the hole with it to prevent 
 any scratches on its surface. Thus, by means of re- 
 peated annealings, scourings, rustings, dryings, and dra wr- 
 ings, it is brought to the sizes required, which in iron 
 amount to thirty-six, known in trade by the numbers 1 , 
 2, 3, &c. 
 
 The first process of drawing is performed by very 
 strong pincers moved to and fro by machinery, but these, 
 
 as they move only a little way, leave marks of their bite 
 at short distances along the wire, which is obviated by 
 the use of wheels or blocks which revolve horizontally, 
 so that one end of the wire being fastened in a vice 
 fixed at its circumference, the whole is drawn con- 
 stantly forward from beginning to end without any mark, 
 and, at the same time, is formed into its rings or coils 
 round the block during its revolution. 
 
 When the wire becomes too small to be scoured in 
 barrels with gravel, without being tangled, it is obliged 
 to be cleaned by means of diluted acid, when the pro- 
 cess becomes again as before. 
 
 The very fine sizes are, at the best works, finished by 
 hand labour, a small block being worked bright, and 
 polished till completed. 
 
 The machinery employed is various at different works, 
 but is chiefly remarkable for its strength, w'hich is ren- 
 dered necessary by the resistance that the iron affords to 
 the tools. 
 
 The process with steel is similar to that for iron. 
 
 Brass and copper are prepared from the ingot, by 
 rolling and slitting into strips or rods of the thickness 
 and breadth necessary for the several sizes intended to be 
 drawn ; but the process of drawing is very similar to 
 what has been described — See the article Gold-Beat- 
 ing, &c. 
 
 7 P 
 
 WOOL-COMBING. 
 
WOOL-COMBING. 
 
 Tins is a very ancient trade in our country, wool 
 having been long reckoned one of its staple commodi- 
 ties. The raw material, as it is well known, is the hair 
 or covering of the sheep, which, when washed, and 
 combed, and spun, and woven, makes worsted, many 
 kinds of stuff, and other articles adapted to the use, the 
 comfort, and even the luxuries of life. While the wool 
 remains in the state in which it is shorn from the sheep’s 
 back, it is called a fleece. Each fleece consists of wool 
 of different qualities and degrees of fineness, which the 
 wool-stapler, or the wholesale dealer in wool, sorts, and 
 sells in packs, at different rates, to the wool-comber. 
 For the London market, and for towns and villages in 
 the neighbourhood of the metropolis, Bermondsey 
 was formerly the resort of wool-staplers. The finest 
 wool grows on and about the head of the sheep, 
 and the coarsest about the tail. The shortest is on 
 the head and some parts of the belly, the longest on 
 the flanks. 
 
 The fineness and plenty of our wool is owing, in a 
 great measure, to the short sweet glass in many of the 
 pastures and downs ; though the advantage of our sheep 
 feeding on this grass all the year, without being obliged 
 to be shut up under cover during the winter, or to se- 
 cure them from wolves at other times, contributes not a 
 little to it. 
 
 Wool is either shorn, w'hile the sheep is living, or 
 pulled off after it is dead. In the first case, it is called 
 fleece-wool ; the other sort, called skin-wool, if very 
 short, is used much in the manufacture of hats. See 
 Hat-Making. 
 
 Wool, in the state in which it is taken from the sheep, 
 is always mixed with a great deal of dirt and foulness of 
 different kinds, and, in particular, is strongly imbued 
 with a natural strong-smelling grease. These impurities 
 are got rid of by washing, fulling, and combing, by 
 which the wool is rendered remarkably white, soft, 
 clean, light, and springy under the hand. When boiled 
 in water for several hours in a common vessel, wool is 
 not in any way altered in weight or texture, nor does the 
 water acquire any sensible impregnation. 
 
 The wool intended for the manufacture of stuffs is 
 brought into a state adapted for the making of worsted 
 by the wool-comber, who having cleared it from all 
 impurities, and well w'ashed it with soap and water, 
 to drain it as much as possible from its water, he puts 
 one end of a certain quantity on a fixed hook, and 
 the other on a moveable hook, w'hich he turns round 
 
 with a handle, till all the moisture be completely forced 
 out. It is then thrown lightly into a basket that is 
 pretty open at the sides, as well as at the top. When 
 he comes to use it with the comb, he scatters a few 
 drops of oil on each layer of wool, as it is spread out, 
 and then puts it closely together into a bin that is 
 situated immediately under the bench on which he sits 
 to work. At the back of the bench is another bin 
 for the refuse wool, or noyles as it is called, that is, 
 the part of the wool that is left on the comb after the 
 sliver is drawn out. 
 
 The comb used in this trade consists of three rows 
 of highly tempered and polished steel, fixed in a long 
 handle of w'ood, and set parallel to one another. 
 Each comber lias two combs which he fills with wool 
 and then works them together, till the wool on each 
 is perfectly fine and fit to draw out in slivers. The 
 best combs of this kind are manufactured at Halifax, 
 in Yorkshire. In using these combs, the workman 
 has a pot made of clay with holes in its side, in which 
 he heats them to a certain temperature before they 
 can be made to pass readily through the wool. Each 
 comb-pot is made to hold eight combs, so that four 
 men usually work in one compartment of the shop, 
 round a single pot ; of course there must be four se- 
 parate benches, bins, &c. in it. 
 
 When the wool is sufficiently worked on the combs, 
 the workman places one comb and then the other on 
 a spike placed in the wall, or in a pillar attached to 
 the wall, at a proper height for him to draw it out as 
 he stands. The wool thus drawn out is called a sliver, 
 and is from five to six or seven feet in length. 
 
 Wool-combing is preparatory to the manufacture of 
 worsted yarn, and is the first process towards the 
 making flannels, serges, stuffs, baize, &c. The manu- 
 factures connected with and depending upon this trade, 
 are very important in foreign as well as domestic com- 
 merce. Hence wool-combers have in various instances 
 been encouraged and protected by particular acts of 
 parliament : thus by an act in the 35th of the present 
 reign, all those who have served an apprenticeship to 
 the trade of a wool-comber, or who are by law en- 
 titled to exercise the same, and also their wives or 
 children, may set up and exercise such trade, or any 
 other trade that they are equal to, in any town or place 
 within the kingdom, without any molestation ; nor shall 
 I such wool-combers, their wives and children, while 
 ! they exercise such trades be removeable from such 
 
WOOL-COMBING. 
 
 607 
 
 place to their last place of settlement, till they actually 
 become chargeable to the parish. 
 
 The wool being combed, it is next spun, which is 
 now usually performed by machinery on a large scale, 
 but when done by hand it is the employment of 
 women and children : it is then to be wound on to 
 little wooden articles called spo/es, and these to the 
 number of several hundred at a time, are put uppn 
 spindles placed round a mill, and worked into skeins 
 of proper size for sale. They are now washed in 
 soap and water, thoroughly dried, and if to remain 
 undyed and white, they are blanched with the fumes 
 of burning sulphur, and made up by the master comber 
 or his principal man or men, when it is fit for sale. 
 Such is the wool-combing for worsteds. 
 
 A pack of wool weighs 240lbs., and it is said, it 
 will employ more than sixty persons a full week to 
 manufacture it into cloths, viz. three men to sort, dry, 
 mix, and make it ready for the comber or carder, 
 where cards are used instead of combs ; five to scribble 
 it; thirty-five women and girls to card and spin it; 
 eight to weave it ; four to spole it ; and eight to scour, 
 mill, pack, and press it. When wool is to be made 
 into stuffs, serges, &c., it will employ two hundred 
 persons ; and when made into stockings, it will afford 
 work for a week to one hundred m.d eighty-four 
 persons, viz. ten combers, one hundred and two spin- 
 ners, winders, &c. and sixty stocking-weavers, besides 
 doublers, throwers, and a dyer. 
 
 The price of wool, in this country, was in very 
 early times, much liigher in proportion to the wages 
 of labour, than it is at present, because till the time 
 of Edward III. it was always exported raw, the art 
 of working it into cloth and dyeing it being imperfectly 
 known here. The first steps taken to encourage the 
 manufacture of woollen cloths was by Edw'ard III., who 
 procured some good workmen from the Netherlands 
 by means of protection and liberal encouragement. 
 The value of wool was considered as so great, that 
 taxes were received in that commodity, reckoning by 
 the number of sacks, and in proportion to the price 
 of the necessaries of life, and the value of silver was 
 at least three times dearer than it is now. The manu- 
 facturing of cloth being once introduced into the coun- 
 try, the policy of preventing the exportation of the raw 
 material was soon evident, and the first act was in 
 the reign of Henry IV.; by which the exportation of 
 sheep, lambs, or rams is forbidden under heavy pe- 
 nalties. By a statute, in the 28th of the present reign, 
 all former statutes respecting the exportation of wool 
 and sheep are repealed, and numerous restrictions are 
 consolidated in that statute ; for an account of which 
 we must refer to the act itself. 
 
 At the present period vast quantities of wool are 
 imported from foreign countries : to give the reader an 
 idea of the wool imported, we shall transcribe, from 
 the Repertory of Arts, Vol. XII., an account of the 
 wool purchased in foreign countries in the years 1802, 
 3, and 4, and employed in our manufactures of the 
 
 finest woollen goods. In the statement, which is 
 curious and very important, is included the probable 
 expense to this country of the wool so purchased. 
 
 In the three years specified, there were imported, of 
 Spanish wool, directly from Spain, 16,986,644 lbs. 
 
 Holland, 403,400 
 
 Portugal, 400,723 
 
 Gibraltar, 288,274 
 
 France, 252,222 
 
 Germany, 122,150 
 
 America, 10,567 
 
 Prussia, 3,357 
 
 Denmark, 381 
 
 Total . 18,467,718 lbs. 
 
 Of this quantity, about 15,307,718 lbs. were im- 
 ported in Spanish or neutral vessels, and the remaining 
 
 3.160.000 lbs. in English vessels. 
 
 Of the quantity imported in Spanish or neutral 
 vessels, about 15,141,900 lbs. were sheeps’ wool, 
 and 165,778 lbs. lambs’ wool. Of the sheeps’ wool 
 the proportions were, of the R, or first sort, 
 about 1 2,000,000 lbs. ; of the F, or second sort, 
 about 2,000,000 lbs. ; of the T, or third sort, about 
 
 1.127.000 lbs. ; and of the K, or coarser sort, about 
 14,920 lbs. 
 
 The average prices given for these wools by the 
 clothiers in England were nearly as follows : 
 
 £. 
 
 R, sheeps’ wool, J 2,000,000 at 6s. per lb. 3,600,000 
 F, ditto, . . 2,000,000 at 5s. . . 500,000 
 
 T, ditto, . . 1 , 127,020 at 4s. 6d. . 253,579 
 
 K, ditto, . . 14,920 at 3s. . . 2,238 
 
 Lambs’ wool, . 165,778 at 4s. 3d. . 35,227 
 
 15,307,718 lbs. =£4,391,044 
 
 These £4-, 39 1,044. were the sum paid by our clo- 
 thiers for this wool. What the merchants’ profit might 
 be is not presumed to be determined ; but if we allow 
 15 per cent, inclusive of interest, or =£658,656. the 
 remainder, or £3, 733, 288. will be the sum actually 
 paid out of the kingdom for this part of the imported 
 wool. 
 
 Besides these quantities, there were imported in Bri- 
 tish vessels about 3,l60,000lbs. of Spanish wool; of 
 which the respective proportions were, probably, nearly 
 as follows : — ■ 
 
 R, sheeps’ wool, 2,477,182lbs. at 6s. =£743,154 
 F, ditto, . . . 412,864 at 5s. 103,216 
 
 T, ditto, . . . 232,652 at 4s. 6d. 52,346 
 
 K, ditto,. . . 3,079 at 3s. . . 461 
 
 Lambs’ wool, 34,223 at 4s. 3d. 7,272 
 
 3,160,000 £.906,449 
 
 From the gross amount of the latter sum, which is 
 what is paid by the manufacturer, there must, in this 
 case, be deducted not only the merchant’s profits, but 
 also the expenses of freight and insurance. These can- 
 not with any accuracy be staled. 
 
 There 
 
WOOL-COMBING. 
 
 60S 
 
 There were brought into England, within the same 
 period, from Germany, 56 l,(j04lbs. of wool, not called 
 Spanish, but a great deal of which was of the same 
 quality. 
 
 There is the same difficulty with regard to 6l3,059lbs. 
 of wool imported from Africa and the Cape of Good 
 Hope. 
 
 From Portugal there came also 486, 124lbs., the 
 greater part of which was probably equal to the third, 
 or even the coarser second sor ts of Spanish wool. 
 
 From these data, gross as some of them are, little 
 doubt can be entertained, that during the three years in 
 question, Great Britain paid to foreign countries for the 
 wool which was the chief basis of its line w'oollen manu- 
 factures, at least ,£4,7Q0,000, or upwards of <=£1, 560, 000 
 per annum. 
 
 Having referred to machinery introduced into the 
 wool-combing business, for which several patents have ! 
 been taken by different persons, we shall give an account | 
 of that invented by the very ingenious Mr. Edmund j 
 Cartwright, to whom the manufactures of this coun- 
 try are, in many particulars, much indebted. In de- 
 scribing his own machine, Mr. C. says, " if is the first of 
 the kind ; at least, all former attempts, if there have 
 been any, must have proved abortive, as, previously to 
 my invention no wool was ever known to have been 
 combed any other way than by the slow and extensive 
 process of hand labour.” He then goes on to shew the 
 importance of his machinery from the vast magnitude of 
 the woollen manufactures, stating that there cannot be 
 less than from 3 to 400,000 packs of wool worked up, 
 of which the average expense of combing is estimated 
 at from ,£800, 000 to a million. He says, he obtained 
 his first patent in April, 1790, his second in the De- 
 cember following, but that it w'as not till nearly two 
 years afterwards that his machine was brought to its then 
 (1792) state of simplicity and perfection. By this in- 
 vention, the wool, if for very nice operations, goes 
 through three operations, otherwise two are sufficient. 
 The first opens the wool, and makes it unite into a 
 rough sliver, but does not clear it. The dealing is 
 performed by the second, and, if necessary, by a third 
 operation. A set of machinery, consisting of three ma- 
 chines, will require the attendance of one overseer and 
 ten children, and will comb a pack, or 240lbs., in 
 twelve hours. As neither fire nor oil is necessary for 
 machine combing, the saving in these articles will, in 
 general, pay the wages of the overseer and children, so 
 that the actual saving to the manufacturer is the whole 
 of what the combing costs by the old mode of hand- 
 combing. The patentee contends also that machine- 
 combed wool is better, especially for machine-spinning, 
 by at least twelve per cent. ; being all equally mixed, 1 
 the slivers uniform, and of any required length : and it I 
 makes much less noyle than any hand-combing whatever. | 
 The machinery invented by Mr. Cartwright may be 
 thus described: — It consists of what he calls, 1st. A I 
 crank-lasher; 2d. A circular clearing-comb ; and, 3d. 
 A comb-table. 
 
 In the crank-lasher there is a tube, through which the 
 material being drawn into a sliver, and slightly twisted, 
 is drawn forward by delivering rollers. There is a 
 wheel fast upon the cross-bar of the crank ; and another, 
 on the opposite end of whose axis is a pinion working 
 in a wheel upon the axis of one of the delivering rollers. 
 The clearing-comb, for giving work in the head, is car- 
 ried in a frame by two cranks. The comb-table having 
 the teeth pointing towards the centre, is moved by cogs 
 upon the rim, and carried round upon trucks, like the 
 head of a wind-mill : in this there are drawing-rollers 
 and conducting-rollers. 
 
 To the introduction of this machinery there was a 
 violent opposition, which the inventor naturally expect- 
 ed, as it tended to throw out of employ 50,000 combers, 
 and was likely to ruin all the master wool-combers on a 
 small scale, who, perhaps, had neither property nor en- 
 terprise to engage in works so extensive as to afford em- 
 ployment for a set of machinery. 
 
 Notwithstanding the introduction of Mr. Cartwright’s 
 machines, and others intended for the same purposes, 
 there is still a great deal of wool combed in the old way> 
 in different parts of the kingdom, we shall, therefore, 
 mention a curious custom which still exists among the 
 journeymen in that business. When any of them are 
 out of employ, they set out in search of a master, with 
 a sort of a certificate from their last place. This is 
 called going on the tramp, and at every shop at which 
 they call, and can get no work, they receive each a 
 penny, which is given from the common stock raised by 
 the workmen in that shop. 
 
 The invention of wool-combing is ascribed to Bishop 
 Blaize, who, on that account, is looked up to as the 
 patron saint of the trade, and, in honour of whom, a 
 splendid festival is annually kept by the whole body of 
 wool-combers in this kingdom, on the third of Febru- 
 ary. 
 
 We shall conclude this article, and our volume, with 
 a very brief account of some of the chemical properties 
 of wool. 
 
 Some of the simple chemical properties of wool have 
 been examined by M. Achard, and compared with the 
 corresponding properties of the hair of different ani- 
 mals. The copious generation of oxalic acid by treat- 
 ment of wool with nitric acid, has been particularly de- 
 scribed and explained by M. Berthollet, in his beautiful 
 researches on animal matter; and the great solvent 
 power of the caustic fixed alkalies, has been happily 
 applied to some use by M. Chaptal, as a saponaceous 
 compound. 
 
 The action of the nitric acid on wool is very curious. 
 W hen cold, this acid not only disengages a large quan- 
 tity of azotic gas, but, when warmed, much nitrous gas 
 is given out, and, at least, two new acids are formed, 
 viz., the malic and the oxalic ; the latter is in greater 
 abundance than even from sugar and nitrous acid, or 
 i any other hydro-carbonous basis. A small scum of a 
 
 [ peculiar oil always arises during the action of nitrous 
 acid on these animal substances. 
 
 The 
 
WOOL-COMBING. 
 
 609 
 
 The carbonated alkalies have little action on wool, 
 but the caustic fixed alkalies, when digested with it, 
 speedily weaken its fibre, reduce it to a soft gelatinous 
 pulp, and, finally, make a perfect solution. The alkali, 
 at the same time, loses its alkaline properties as it 
 does in common soap. This saponaceous solution of 
 wool is made for experiment in a few minutes by boil- 
 ing bits of wool or flannel in a caustic alkaline solution ; 
 and it has been recommended by Chaptal to be em- 
 
 I ployed instead of common soap in cleansing cotton and 
 ' other goods in manufactures, as, by this means, a num- 
 ber of refuse bits and clippings of wool and woollen 
 cloth which are now thrown away may be put to some 
 use. This soapy solution does not lather well when 
 agitated with water, nevertheless, it acts very powerfully 
 in cleaning cloth. It has a stroug and somewhat offen- 
 sive smell, w-hich is left at first in the cloth, but goss 
 off by short exposure to the air. 
 
 7 Q APPENDIX. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 Geometry is the science and doctrine of local ex- 
 tension, of lines, surfaces, and solids, with that of ratios. 
 
 The name geometry literally signifies measuring of 
 the earth, as it was the necessity of measuring the 
 land that first gave occasion to contemplate the prin- j 
 ciples and rules of this art, which has since been ex- 
 tended to numberless other speculations ; insomuch, j 
 that together with arithmetic, geometry forms now the 
 chief foundation of all the mathematics. 
 
 Geometry is distinguished into theoretical or specu- j 
 lative and practical. 
 
 Theoretical or speculative geometry, treats of the 
 various properties and relations in magnitudes, de- 
 monstrates theorems, &c. 
 
 And practical geometry, is that which applies those 
 speculations and theorems to particular uses in the 
 solution of problems, and in the measurements in the 
 ordinary concerns of life, which is the subject of the 
 present article. 
 
 We shall now proceed to give the principles of prac- 
 tical geometry, beginning with 
 
 Geometrical Definitions. — A geometrical 
 point has neither length, breadth, nor thickness. From 
 this definition it may be easily understood that a geome- 
 trical point cannot be seen or felt ; it can in fact only 
 be imagined. A point is only to mark the place 
 whence a line is to begin, or where it is to end. And 
 this point or mark may be made as small as possible, 
 provided it be still distinct, that the length of lines 
 and their meetings and intersections may appear plainly, 
 and from this sort of convenience has arisen the 
 phrase that is supposed to describe its essence, viz., that 
 it is without parts. 
 
 This idea has nothing to do with the reasoning ; all 
 that is necessary is, that the point, dot or mark should 
 take up no sensible pan of the line, in order that the 
 diagram may be distinct. Points then are only sub- 
 servient to the convenience of construction. 
 
 A line is length without breadth or thickness; this 
 definition will present no difficulty, if the preceding 
 be well comprehended ; for drawing any line as narrow 
 as convenience will admit, and the geometrical figure 
 
 or diagram will be the clearer ; and there is no neces- 
 sity to conceive length without breadth. 
 
 The extremities of a line are points. 
 
 A right line, or what is most commonly called a 
 straight line, is that which traces the shortest distance 
 between its extreme points, or one that tends every 
 where the same way. 
 
 A crooked line is that which consists of straight 
 lines not continued in the same direction. See Fie. 1, 
 Plate Geometrical Definitions. 
 
 A curved line is that of which no portion is a straight 
 line. Fig. 2. 
 
 A plane rectilineal angle is the inclination of two 
 straight lines to one another, which meet together, but 
 are not in the same straight line. 
 
 To abridge the reference, it is usual to denote an 
 angle by tracing over its sides; the letter at the vertex, 
 which is common to them both, being placed in the 
 middle. 
 
 Thus the angle contained by the straight lines A B 
 and B C, (Fig. 3), or the opening formed by the re- 
 volution of B A about the point B into the position 
 B C, is named ABCorGBA; or, in short, as the 
 angle B. 
 
 Also, Fig. 4, there are two angles, and each formed 
 about the point B, and named A B C, C B D or 
 C B A, D B C. 
 
 A right angle is the fourth part of an entire circuit 
 or revolution, as A B C, Fig. 5. 
 
 The sides of a right angle are said to be perpendi- 
 cular to each other. 
 
 Beginners are sometimes very apt to confound the 
 terms perpendicular, and plumb or vertical line. A 
 line is vertical when it is at right angles to the plane 
 of the horizon, or level surface of the earth, or to the 
 surface of water which is always level. The sides of 
 a house are vertical. But a line may be perpendicular 
 to another, whether it stands upright, or inclines to 
 the ground, or even if it lies fiat upon it, provided 
 only that it makes the two angles formed by meeting 
 with the other line equal to each other. 
 
 An acute angl« is less than a right angle. Fig. 6. 
 
 Au 
 
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 61 i 
 
 An obtuse angle is greater than a light angle. Fig. 7. 
 
 One side of an angle forms with the other produced 
 a supplemental or exterior angle ; thus the angle ABC, 
 
 ( Fig. 8), is supplemental to the angle A B D, and 
 the angle ABD supplemental to the angle ABC. 
 
 A vertical angle is formed by the production of both 
 its sides ; thus in Fig. 9> if the sides of the angle 
 JD E B are produced to A and C respectively, then 
 1) E B, A £ C, are called vertical angles, and they 
 are always equal to one another. 
 
 Two straight lines are said to be inclined to each 
 other, if they meet when produced, and the angle 
 so formed is called their inclination ; thus in Fig. 10, | 
 the lines AC, B D, are said to be inclined to each j 
 other, because when they are produced they intersect 
 each other in E, and the angle A E B is said to be 
 their inclination. 
 
 Straight lines which have no inclination are termed 
 parallel lines, as Fig. 1 1 . 
 
 A figure is a plane surface included by a linear 
 boundary called its perimeter. 
 
 Of rectilineal figures the triangle is contained by 
 three straight lines. 
 
 An equilateral triangle is that which has all its sides 
 equal; thus in Fig. 12, the triangle A B C is said to 
 be equilateral, because the sides A B, B C, and C A, 
 are each equal. 
 
 An isosceles triangle is that which has only two of 
 its sides equal: thus the triangle at Fig. 13, is termed 
 isosceles, because the sides A B and A C are equal. 
 
 A triangle whose sides are unequal is named scalene ; 
 thus in Fig. 14, the sides A B, B C, and C A are 
 all unequal. 
 
 A right angled triangle is that which has a right 
 angle ; thus in Fig. 15, the angle A B C is a right 
 angle. 
 
 An obtuse angled triangle is that which has an obtuse 
 angle ; thus in the triangle ABC, Fig. 1 6, the angle 
 B A C is an obtuse angle. 
 
 An acute angled triangle is that which has all its 
 angles acute. Fig. 17. 
 
 A quadrilateral figure is contained by four straight 
 lines. 
 
 Of quadrilateral figures, a square has one right 
 angle, and all its sides equal. Fig. 18. 
 
 An oblong has one right angle, and its opposite 
 sides equal. Fig. 19 . 
 
 A rhombus has all its sides equal. Fig. 20. 
 
 A rhomboid has its opposite sides equal. Fig. 21. 
 
 A trapezium is a quadrilateral which has not its 
 pairs of opposite sides equal. Fig. 22. 
 
 A trapezoid has only one pair of opposite sides 
 parallel. Fig. 23. 
 
 The straight line which joins obliquely the opposite 
 angular points of a quadrilateral figure, is named a 
 diagonal ; thus in Fig. 24, B D is termed the dia- 
 gonal. 
 
 A rectineal figure having more than four sides, bears 
 the general name of a polygon , and receives particular 
 
 names according to the number of their sides or angles, 
 as pentagon, hexagon, &c. 
 
 A pentagon is a polygon of five sides, Fig. 25 ; a 
 hexagon has six sides, Fig. 26 ; a heptagon seven, Fig. 
 27 ; an octagon eight, Fig. 28 ; a nonagon nine, Fig. 
 29 ; a decagon ten, Fig. 30 ; an undecagon eleven, 
 Fig. 31 ; and a dodecagon twelve sides, Fig. 32. 
 
 A polygon is regular when it has all its sides and 
 all its angles equal. If they are not both equal, the 
 polygon is irregular. 
 
 An equilateral triangle is also a regular figure of 
 three sides, and the square is one of four ; the former 
 being called a trigon, and the latter a tetragon. 
 
 A circle is a plane figure described by the revolution 
 of a straight line about one of its extremities. 
 
 The fixed point is called the centre of the circle; 
 the describing line its radius, and the boundary traced 
 by the remote end of that line its circumference ; thus 
 in Fig. 33, the point B is the centre, and A B the 
 radius. 
 
 The diameter of a circle is a right line drawn 
 through the centre, and terminating in the circum- 
 ference on both sides ; Umis in Fig. 34, the line CEO 
 passes through the centre E, and is terminated bv the 
 circumference. 
 
 An arc (f a circle is any part of its circumference. 
 
 A chord, is a right line joining the extremities of 
 an arc ; thus Fig. 35, A B is the chord. 
 
 A segment is any part of a circle bounded by an arc 
 and its chord ; thus A is a segment in Fig. 36. 
 
 A semicircle is half the circle, or a segment cut off 
 by a diameter ; so in Fig. 37, A is a semicircle. 
 
 A sector is any part of a circle bounded by an arc, 
 and two radii drawn to its extremities; see B, Fig. 38. 
 
 A quadrant or quarter of a circle, is a sector having 
 a quarter of the circumference for its arc, and its two 
 radii are perpendicular to each other. Fig. 39, A C, 
 C D are perpendicular to each other ; and the arc 
 A B D is a quarter of the whole circumference. 
 
 A tangent is a straight line, drawn so as just to 
 touch against a circle without cutting it, as A C B, 
 Fig. 40. The point A when it touches the circle is 
 called the point of contact. And a tangent cannot 
 touch a circle in more than one point. 
 
 The base of a figure is the side on which it is sup- 
 posed to stand erect, as A B in Figs. 41 and 42. 
 
 The altitude of a figure is its perpendicular height 
 from the base to the highest part, as C D in Figs. 41 
 and 42. 
 
 A solid is any body that has length, breadth and 
 thickness. A book, for instance, is a solid ; so also 
 is a sheet of paper; for though its thickuess is very 
 small, yet it possesses some thickness. The boundaries 
 of a solid are surfaces. 
 
 Similar solids are such as are bounded by an equal 
 number of similar planes. 
 
 A prism is a solid, of which the sides are paral- 
 lelograms, and the two ends or bases are similar po- 
 lygons, parallel to each other. Prisms are denominated 
 
 according 
 
612 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 according to the number of angles in the base, trian- 
 gular prism, quadrangular, heptangular, and so on. 
 Fig. 43 is a triangular prism. 
 
 Figs. 44, 45 and 46 are quadrangular prisms, usually 
 termed parallelopipeds. 
 
 A rhomboid is an oblique prism, whose bases are 
 parallelopams. Fig. 47- 
 
 A cylinder is a solid ( Figs. 48, 49,) formed or gene- 
 rated by the rotation of a rectangle about one of its 
 sides, supposed to be at rest ; this quiescent side is 
 called the axis of the cylinder. Or it may be conceived 
 to be generated by the motion of a circle in a direction 
 perpendicular to its surfaces, and always parallel to 
 itself. 
 
 A cylinder is either right or oblique, as the axis is 
 perpendicular to the base or inclined ; thus Fig. 48 is 
 a right and Fig. 49 an oblique cylinder. 
 
 Fig. 50 represents a hollow cylinder; it may be con- 
 ceived to be formed by boring a hole through the centre 
 of a cylinder. 
 
 Fig. 5 1 represents the section of a cylinder cut off 
 by a plane parallel to the axis. 
 
 Fig. 52 represents the sector of a cylinder contained j 
 by two planes forming an angle, and the curved sur- 
 face of the cylinder; the line of concourse of the , 
 planes being parallel to the axis of the cylinder. 
 
 A pyramid (Figs. 55, 56 and 57,) is a solid bounded 
 by or contained within a number of planes, whose 
 base may be any polygon, and whose faces are ter- 
 minated in one point, commonly called the vertex of 
 the pyramid. 
 
 When the figure of the base is a triangle, it is called 
 a triangular pyramid ; when the base is a quadrilateral, 
 it is called a quadrilateral pyramid, and so on. 
 
 A pyramid is either regular or irregular, according 
 as the base is regular or irregular. 
 
 A pyramid is also right or upright, or it is oblique. 
 It is right, when a line drawn from the vertex to the 
 centre of the base is perpendicular to it, as Figs. 55 
 and 56; and oblique when this line inclines, as in 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 
 A cone is a solid (Figs. 58, 59,) having a circle for ! 
 its base, and its sides a convex surface, terminating in 
 
 a point, called the vertex or apex of the cone. It 
 
 may be conceived to be generated by the revolution of 
 a right angled triangle about its perpendicular. 
 
 A line drawn from the vertex to the centre of the 
 base is the axis of the cone. 
 
 When this line is perpendicular to the base, the cone 
 is called an upright, or right cone, as Fig. 58 ; but 
 
 when it is inclined it is called an oblique cone, as 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 If it be cut through the axis from the vertex to the 
 base, the section w ill be a triangle. 
 
 If a right cone be cut by a plane at right angles to 
 the axis, the section will be a circle. 
 
 If it be cut oblique to the axis, and quite across 
 from one side to the other, the section will be an 
 ellipsis, as Fig. 60. 
 
 When the section is made parallel to one of the sides 
 of the cone, as Fig. 6l, the curve which bounds the 
 section is a parabola. 
 
 When the section is taken parallel to the axis, as 
 Fig. 62, the curve is called an hyperbola. 
 
 These curves, which are formed by cutting a cone 
 in different directions, have various properties, which 
 are of great importance in astronomy, gunnery, per- 
 spective and many other sciences. Their, description 
 in plans arc exhibited in Problems 27, 28, 29 and 30, 
 of Practical Geometry. 
 
 A sphere is a solid, terminated by a convex surface, 
 every point of which is at an equal distance from a 
 point within, called the centre, Fig. 63. 
 
 It may be conceived to be formed by making a semi- 
 circle revolve round its diameter. This may be illus- 
 trated by the process of forming a ball of clay by the 
 potter’s wheel, a semicircular mould being used for 
 the purpose. The diameter of the semicircle round 
 which it revolves, is called the axis of the sphere. 
 
 The ends of the axis are called poles. 
 
 Any line passing through the centre of the sphere, 
 and terminated by the circumference, is a diameter of 
 the sphere. 
 
 Every section of a sphere is a circle ; every section 
 taken ttnowgL the centre of the sphere is called a great 
 circle ; every other is called a lesser circle. 
 
 Any portion of a sphere cut off by a plane, is called 
 a segment; and when the plane passes through the 
 centre, it divides the sphere into tw'o equal parts, each 
 of w hich is called a hemisphere. 
 
 A spheroid is a solid, ( Fig. 64,) generated by the 
 rotation of a semi-ellipsis about the transverse or con- 
 jugate axis ; and the centre of the ellipsis is the centre 
 of the spheroid. 
 
 The line about which the ellipsis revolves, is called 
 the axis. If the spheriod be generated about the conju- 
 gate axis of the semi-ellipsis, it is called prolate sphe- 
 roid. 
 
 If the spheroid be generated by the semi-ellipses re- 
 volving about the transverse axis, it is called an oblong 
 spheroid. 
 
 Every section of a spheroid is an ellipsis, except when 
 it is perpendicular to that axis about which it is gene- 
 rated ; in which case it is a circle. 
 
 All sections of a spheroid parallel to each other, are 
 similar figures. 
 
 A frustrum of a solid means a piece cut off from the 
 solid by a plane passed through it, usually parallel to the 
 base of the solid, as the frustrum of a cone, a pyramid , 
 &c. &c. 
 
 There are a lower and an upper frustrum, according 
 as the piece spoken of does or does not contain the base 
 of the solid. 
 
 Ratio is the proportion which one magnitude bears to 
 another of the same kind, with respect to quantity, and 
 is usually marked thus, A : B. 
 
 Of these, the first is called the antecedent, and the 
 second the consequent. 
 
 The 
 
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 613 
 
 The measure or quantity of a ratio is conceived by 
 considering what pait of the consequent is the ante- 
 cedent ; and it is obtained by dividing the consequent by 
 the antecedent. 
 
 Three magnitudes or quantities, A, B, C, are said 
 to be proportional, when the ratio of the first to the 
 second is the same as that of the second to the third. 
 Thus 2, 4, ri are proportional, because 4 is contained 
 in 8, as many times as 2 is in 4. 
 
 Foui qua ties A, B, C, D, are said to be propor- 
 tional, when the ratio of the first A to the second B 
 is the same as the ratio of the third C to the fourth D. 
 It is generally written A : B : : C : D, or if expressed 
 in numbers 2 : 3 : : 4 : 6. 
 
 Of three proportional quantities, the middle one is 
 said to be a mean proportional between the other 
 two ; and the last a third proportional to the first and 
 second. 
 
 Of four proportional quantities, the last is said to 
 be a fourth proportional to the other three taken in 
 order. 
 
 to each other. 
 
 Inverse ratio is when the antecedent is made die 
 consequent, and the consequent »v.<= antecedent. Thus 
 if 2 : 4 : : 6 : T2, then inversely 4:2:: 12 : 6. 
 
 Alternate proportion is when antecedent is com- 
 pared with antecedent, and consequent with conse- 
 quent. Thus if 4 : 2 : : 12 : 6, then by alternation 
 4 : 12 : : 2 : 6 . 
 
 Proportion by composition is when the antecedent 
 and consequent, taken as one quantity, are compared 
 either with the consequent or with the antecedent. 
 Thus if 4 : 2 : : 12 : 6, then by composition 4 + 2 
 : 2 : : 1 2 -:- 6 : 6 , and 4 + 2:4:: 12 + 6 : 12. 
 
 Div.ded proportion is when the difference of the ante- 
 cedent and consequent is compared either with the con- 
 sequent or with the antecedent. Thus if 3 : 2 : : 9 : 6 ; 
 then by division 3 — 2 : 2 : : 9—6 : 6, and 3 — 2 : 3 : : 
 9—6 : 9. 
 
 Continued proportion is when the first is to the 
 second as the second to, the third ; as the third to the 
 fourth ; as the fourth to the fifth ; and so ou. 
 
 Compound ratio is formed by the multiplication of 
 several antecedents and the several consequents of ratios 
 together, in the following maimer : 
 
 If A be to B as 3 to 3, B to C as 5 to 8, and C to 
 
 _ i » , , -p. 3x5x8 120 1 
 
 D as 8 to 6; then A will be to D as — — 
 
 5x8x6 240 2 
 
 that is A : D : : 1 : 2. 
 
 Bisect means to divide any thing into two equal 
 
 parts. 
 
 Trisect is to divide any thing into three equal 
 
 parts. 
 
 Inscribe, to draw one figure within another, so that 
 all angles of the inner figure touch either the angles, 
 sides, or planes of th‘ external figure. 
 
 Circumscribe, is to draw a figure round another, so 
 that either the angles, sides, <?r planes of the- cir- 
 
 cumscribing figure, touch all the angles of the figure 
 within it. 
 
 Rectangle under any two lines, means a rectangle 
 which has two of its sides equal to one of the lines, 
 and two of them equal to the other. Also the rectangle 
 under A B, C D, means A B x C D. 
 
 An axiom is a manifest truth, not requiring any de- 
 monstration. 
 
 Postulates are things required to be granted true, 
 
 I before we proceed to demonstrate a proposition. 
 
 A proposition is when something is either proposed 
 to be done, or to be demonstrated, and is either a 
 problem or a theorem. 
 
 A problem is when something is proposed to be 
 done, as some figure to be drawn. 
 
 A theorem is when something is proposed to be de- 
 monstrated or proved. 
 
 A lemma is when a premise is demonstrated, in 
 order to render the thing in hand the more easy. 
 
 A foro/fo?;?/ is an in erence drawn from the demon- 
 stration of some proposition. 
 
 i A scholium io when aome remark or observation is 
 I made upon something mentioned before. 
 
 The sign — denotes that the quantities betwixt which 
 it stands are equal 
 
 The sign + (plus) denotes that the quantity after it 
 is to be added to that immediately before it. 
 
 The sign — (minus) denotes that the quantity after 
 it is to be taken away, or subtracted from the quantity, 
 preceding it. 
 
 Practical Geometry. 
 
 Problem 1. To bisect a given angle. 
 
 In A B, Fig. l , take any two points B, D ; from 
 A E cut off A C equal to A B, and A E to 
 A D ; join the alternate lines B E and D C inter- 
 secting in the point F ; join A F and it will bisect the 
 angle D A E as required. 
 
 Otherwise : In Fig. 2, take A B and A C equal to 
 each other ; and from these points as centres, and with 
 any distance as radius describe two arcs intersecting 
 each other in D ; join D A and it will bisect the angle 
 B A C as required. 
 
 Problem 2. To bisect a given finite straight line. 
 
 Let A B, Fig. 3, be the right line which it is re- 
 quired to bisect ; and from one of its extremities as A, 
 draw A F forming any angle with A B; and make 
 A C — C D — D F of any convenient length ; join F B 
 and continue it beyond B till B G be equal to BF; 
 lastly, join G C which will bisect A B in the point E. 
 
 Otherwise : From the points A and B as centres, 
 Fig. 4, and with any distance or opening of the com- 
 passes, greater than half A B, describe arches in- 
 tersecting each other in C and D. Draw the line C D ; 
 and the point E, where it cuts A B, will be the 
 middle as required. 
 
 Problem 3. Through a given point, to draw a line 
 parallel to a given straight line. 
 
 Let A B, Fig. 5, be the given line, and F the given 
 point. Io A B take any two points C, D ; join F C 
 7 R which 
 
614 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 which produce till C E be equal to it ; again join E 
 with the point D, and continue till D G be equal 
 to D E; then F G being joined, will be parallel to 
 A B. 
 
 Otherwise : In Fig. 6, take any point D in the pro- 
 posed line, and with the centres C, F, and distance 
 C F, describe the arcs F D, CG; then again with 
 centre C and distance C G equal to D F describe an- 
 other arc, intersecting the arc C G in G ; join F G, 
 and it will be parallel to A B. 
 
 Problem 4. From a point in a given straight line, 
 to erect a perpendicular. 
 
 In Fig. 7, let C be the proposed point, and A B 
 the straight line. In A B take any other point D, and 
 draw D E equal to D C, forming with A B any angle 
 whatever ; join E C and produce it until C E be equal 
 to C D or D E ; make C G equal to C E ; join G E 
 and produce this till F E be equal to C E ; join F C, 
 and it will be perpendicular to A B. 
 
 Otherwise : In Fig. 8, take C D equal to C E, and 
 with centres D and E, and any convenient distance 
 greater than CEorCD, describe iwu »ioa intersecting 
 each other in F ; join F C and it will be perpendicular 
 to A B, as was required. 
 
 A^ain, when the point is near the extremity of the 
 line °as in Fig. 9, take any point D above the line, 
 an d’ with centre D and distance D C describe the cir- 
 cular arc A C F meeting A B again in A ; join A D 
 and produce it to meet the circular arc in F ; join F C 
 and it will be the required perpendicular. 
 
 Another method, when the proposed point C is at 
 the extremity of the given straight line, Fig. 10, in 
 A C take any other point B ; and with centres B and 
 C and distance equal to B C describe two arcs inter- 
 secting each other in D ; join B D which produce 
 till DF=B D; join F C and the thing required is 
 done. 
 
 Problem 5. To let fall a perpendicular upon a given 
 straight line, from a point without it. 
 
 In Fig. 11, let F be the point and A B the line. 
 In this line take any point D ; and draw D G obliquely, 
 and make D R = D G=:D E; join G H and produce 
 it till II I be equal to H E ; make H KnH G join 
 I K, and (Problem 3) draw F C parallel to it: F C is 
 the perpendicular required. 
 
 Again, Fig. 12, with centre F and any radius de- 
 scribe the arc E D cutting A B in E, D ; from these 
 points with the same or any other distance, describe 
 arcs intersecting each other as in G ; join G F meeting 
 A B in C, and F C will be the perpendicular re- 
 quired. 
 
 Problem 6. To make an angle equal to another 
 given angle. 
 
 Let ABC, Fig. 1 8, be the proposed angle ; from 
 the point B with any radius describe the arc A C 
 cutting A B, B C, in the points A C. Draw the 
 line D F ; and from the point D with a radius equal 
 to B C describe the circular arc E F ; and then from 
 F with a radius equal to C A describe another arc inter- 
 
 secting the former in E ; join D E which will be the 
 angle required. 
 
 Problem 7 • To divide a given line A B into any 
 proposed number of equal parts. 
 
 From A, one end of the line A B, Fig. 14, draw 
 A 3 forming an angle with A B ; and from B the other 
 extremity of the given line, draw B 4, making the 
 angle A B 4 equal to B A 3 by the preceding problem. 
 In each of these lines A3, B 4, beginning at A and 
 B, set off as many equal parts of any length as A B 
 i is to be divided into ; join the points 1, 4; 2, 5 ; and 
 3, 6. and A B will be divided, as was required. 
 
 ! Problem 8. To find the centre of a given circle, or 
 of , any one already described. 
 
 In Fig. 15, draw any chord A B which bisect with 
 the perpendicular diameter D E ; divide D E into two 
 equal parts in the point C ; then will C be the centre 
 of the circle. 
 
 Problem 9- To draw a tangent to a given circle 
 that shall pass through a given point A. 
 
 From the centre O, Fig. 16, draw the radius O A; 
 then through the point A draw B C perpendicular to 
 O A, and it will be the tangent required. 
 
 Problem 10. To draw a tangent to a circle from 
 a given point A without it. 
 
 Find the centre C, Fig. 17, of the given circle; 
 and join A C, and on it as a diameter describe the 
 circle A B C D intersecting the given circle in the 
 points B, D ; join A B, A D, and they will be tangents 
 to the required circle. 
 
 Problem 1 1 . Given three points A, B, C, not 
 in a straight line, to describe a circle that shall pass 
 through them. 
 
 Join A B, B C, Fig. 18, and bisect each of them 
 with the perpendiculars a b, c d, intersecting O ; from 
 O with the distance O A, OB, or O C, describe a 
 circle which will pass through the given points. 
 
 Problem 1 1*. To describe the segment of a circle 
 to any length A B and height C D, Fig. 19. 
 
 Bisect A B by the perpendicular D O, and make 
 D C equal to the given height of the segment ; join A D, 
 which bisect by the perpendicular E O, meeting D O 
 in O ; with centre O and distance O A or O D de- 
 scribe the circular arc A D B meeting A B in B, and 
 the thing required is done. 
 
 Problem 12. On a given straight line, to describe 
 a segment of a circle, that shall contain an angle equal 
 to a given angle. 
 
 Let A B be the given line, and C the given angle ; 
 (Fig. 20). Draw A D, making an angle BAD 
 equal to C; erect also A E perpendicular to A D, 
 and draw E F to bisect A B at right angles, and 
 meeting A E in E, and from this point as a centre, 
 and with the distance E A describe the required seg- 
 ment. 
 
 Problem 13. In a given triangle to inscribe a 
 circle. 
 
 Bisect any two angles A and C (big. 21), with the 
 lines AD and DC; from D, the point of intersec- 
 tion, 
 
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 615 
 
 tion, let fall the perpendicular D E ; it will be the ra- 
 dius of the circle required. 
 
 Problem 14. — In and about a given circle, to inscribe 
 *nd circumscribe a square. 
 
 1st. To inscribe a square in a given circle. 
 
 Draw the diameter F G, and through the centre H 
 draw the perpendicular E H I ; join EG, E F, FI, 
 and I G. The inscribed figure E F' G I is a square. 
 
 2d. To circumscribe a square about a given circle. 
 
 At the extremities E, F, G, I, of the diameters E I, 
 F G, let tangents be drawn intersecting each other in ' 
 the points A, B, C, D, which will form the required j 
 square. 
 
 Problem 15. — About, and in, a given square, to I 
 circumscribe and inscribe a square. 
 
 1st. Let A B C D {Fig. 23) be the proposed square, j 
 join the diagonals AD, C B, intersecting each other 
 in the point H ; and from that point with the distance 
 H A, describe the circle A B C D. This circle will 
 circumscribe the square. 
 
 2d. To inscribe a circle in the square A B C D. 
 
 From H, the intersection of the diagonals, let fall 
 the perpendicular H E ; then, with H, as a centre and 
 distance H E, describe a circle which will touch the 
 given square internally. 
 
 Problem 16. — To construct a triangle, of which the 
 three sides are given {Fig. 24). 
 
 Let A, B and C denote the sides of the triangle ; ! 
 draw D E equal to A : and with D, as a centre and I 
 distance equal to B, describe an arc ; then, with centre ! 
 E, and distance E F, equal to C, describe another arc [ 
 intersecting the former in F, join D F, E F, and | 
 D E F will be the triangle required. 
 
 Problem 17- — On a given finite straight line to con- 
 struct a square. 
 
 In Fig. 25, let A B represent the proposed line. 
 From the extremity B, draw B D, perpendicular to 
 B A, and equal to it ; and from the points A and D, 
 with the distance B A or B D, describe two circles in- 
 tersecting each other in the point C ; join A C and D C; 
 the quadrilateral figure A B C D is the square required. 
 
 Problem 18. — To describe any regular polygon, the 
 sides of which shall be equal to a given line. 
 
 Set the given line upon any other convenient line, 
 and with a radius equal to the given line describe a semi- 
 circle. Divide the semi-circle into as many equal parts 
 as there are to be sides in the polygon ; then the half of 
 the diameter is one side of the polygon ; through the 
 centre of the semi-circle, and through the second 
 division from the other end of the diameter draw 
 another right line, which will form an adjoining side to 
 the former ; bisect each of these adjoining sides by per- 
 pendiculars, and the meeting of these perpendiculars 
 will give the centre of a circle, which will contain the 
 given straight line. 
 
 Fig. 26, is an example of a hexagon. 
 
 Fig. 27, is an example of a heptagon. 
 
 Problem 19. — To inscribe a polygon in a given circle. 
 
 Draw the diameter of the circle, and another dia- ! 
 
 meter at right angles, produce this last diameter so that 
 the part produced shall be three-fourths of the radius ; 
 divide the first diameter into as many equal parts as the 
 polygon is to consist of sides, through the second divi- 
 sion, and the extremity of the part produced of the 
 other diameter, draw a line to cut the circumference 
 without the points ; the chord of the arc intercepted be- 
 tween the point in the diameter, applied successively to 
 the arc, as other chords, will form the polygon re- 
 quired. 
 
 Fig. 28, is an example of a pentagon. 
 
 Fig. 29, is an example of a decagon. 
 
 Problem 20. — A square being given to form an octa- 
 gon, of which four of the sides at right angles to each 
 other, shall be common to the middle pails of the sides 
 of the square. 
 
 In Fig. 30, let A B C D represent the given square, 
 and draw' the diagonals AC, B I) intersecting each 
 other in E; then, with the points A, B, C, D, as 
 centres, and distances, A E, B E, C E, or D E, describe 
 the arcs G E M, NEK, L E H, and 1 E 1 ; , inter- 
 secting the sides of the square in the points F, G, H, 
 I, K, L, M, JN ; join G H, IK, LM and N F, 
 and FGHIKLMN will be the polygon required. 
 
 Problem 21. — To make a triangle equal and similar 
 to a given triangle. 
 
 Let the triangle ABC, Fig. 3 1 , represent the given 
 one, and take the line D F equal to A C ; then with 
 centres D and F, and distances A B, C B describe two 
 arcs intersecting each other in E ; join D E, F E, and 
 D E F will be a triangle equal and similar to ABC. 
 
 Problem 22. — To make a trapezium equal and similar 
 to a given trapezium. 
 
 Divide A BCD the proposed trapezium into two 
 parts by the diagonal B C ; make E G equal to B C, 
 and on it construct the two triangles E F G, E FI G, 
 by the preceding problem ; then will E F G H be the 
 required trapezium. 
 
 Problem 23. — To make a square equal to two given 
 squares. 
 
 In Fig. 33, make the sides A B, B C of the two 
 given squares D and E, form the sides of a right- 
 angled ABC; draw the hypothenuse A C, and on it 
 describe the square F which will be the one required. 
 
 Problem 24. — Between two given lines A and B, 
 {Fig. 34) to find a mean proportional. 
 
 Draw the right line E C, in which take E F equal 
 to A, and F C equal to B ; on E C describe a semi- 
 circle, and draw F D perpendicular to E C, intersect- 
 ing the circumference m D ; then will F D be the mean 
 proportional required. 
 
 Problem 25. — To find a fourth proportional to three 
 given straight lines. 
 
 Let A, B and C, Fig. 35, be the three given 
 straight lines. Draw the diverging lines H E and H D, 
 in wliich take H F equal to A, H C to B, and H E 
 to C ; join F C, and through E draw E D parallel to 
 F C, meeting HD in D; ED is a fourth propor- 
 tional to the three straight lines A, B and C. 
 
 Problem 
 
616 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 Problem 26. — To cut a given straight line into seg- 1 
 ments which shall be proportional to those of a divided 
 straight line. 
 
 Let A K be a straight line, which it is required to 
 cut into segments proportional to those of a given di- 
 vided straight line. 
 
 Draw the diverging line A H, and make A B, BD, 
 D F and F H equal respectively to the segments of 
 the divided line; join HK and draw F G, DE and 
 B C, parallel to it, and meeting AK in G, E and C; 
 then is A K cut in those points proportionally to the 
 segments of AH. 
 
 Problem 27 — The transverse and conjugate axes 
 A B and F G, of an ellipsis being given, to find the 
 two foci, and from thence to describe the ellipsis, 
 
 Pig. 37. 
 
 Take the semi-transversal AC or C B, and from F, 
 as a centre, describe two arcs cutting A B in D and E, 
 which are the foci required. 
 
 In these points fix pins, and then a string being- 
 stretched about the points D F E, the point F is 
 caused to move round the fixed points D and E, keep- 
 ing the string tight, and it will describe an ellipsis as 
 required. 
 
 Problem 28. — The same being given as in the pre- 
 ceding problem, to describe an ellipsis, by an instrument 
 called a trammel. 
 
 The trammel, as used by artificers, consists of two 
 rules, with a groove in each, so that the grooves may 
 be at right angles to each other ; to this there is a rod, 
 with two moveable nuts, arid another fixed at the end, 
 with a hole through it to hold a pencil. On the under 
 side of the sliding nuts are two round pins, made to fill 
 the groove of the trammel, and is used as follows : — 
 
 OPERATION. 
 
 Set the distance of the first pin at B, from the pen- 
 cil at C to half the shortest axis, and the distance of 
 the second pin at A, to half the longest axis ; the pins 
 
 being put iu the grooves, as is shown in the figure ; then 
 move the pencil at C, and it will describe the required 
 figures. 
 
 Problem 29. — To describe a parabola, having given 
 the position of its directrix D E, and its focus F. 
 
 Take a thread equal in length to C A, the end of a 
 square D C A, and fix one end of it at F, and the other 
 end at A ; then, if the side DC of the square be 
 moved along the right line D E, and if the point B be 
 always kept close to the edge C A of the square, keep- 
 ing the string tight, the point or pin B will describe 
 the required parabola. 
 
 Problem 30. — Having given the transverse diameter 
 and the foci of two hyperbolas to describe an hyper- 
 bola. 
 
 Let A B denote the transverse axis, and F and C the 
 foci, and let a rule be made moveable about the point 
 C, and a string H G F tied to the other end of the 
 1 rule and to the point F ; then, if the point H is moved 
 I round the centre C, the angle G of the string H G F, 
 by keeping it always tight and close to the edge of the 
 j rule H C, will describe the required hyperbola. 
 
 But, if the above order be reversed, and the end C 
 „of the rule be fixed in the point F, and the end F of 
 the strmg ... tUp point C, and a similar operation be re- 
 pelted us described ubovc^ another iine ? opposite to the 
 former, will be described, which will be another hyper- 
 bola, and they both together are called opposite hyper- 
 bolas. 
 
 | We would direct the inquiring student, who wishes to 
 1 pursue farther the interesting subject of Geometry with 
 its applications, to the excellent edition of Euclid, by 
 Dr. Robert Simson, and to the other Elementary 
 Treatises by Emerson, Thomas Simpson, Bonny castle, 
 and Leslie, and, for the Conic 'Sections, to the treatises 
 by Hamilton, Simson, Robertson, and Newton ; the 
 last of which is, in the writer’s opinion, one of the best 
 that has yet been presented to the scientific world. 
 
 FINIS. 
 
 J. M‘Creehy, Printer, 
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