IN COURSE OF PUBLICATION. 
 
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 Adapted to the requirements of Students in Science and A rt Classes, and 
 JligJur and Middle Class Schools. 
 
 ELEMENTARY SERIES. 
 Printed uniformly in idmo, fully Illustrated, cloth extra, price, 75 cents each. 
 
 1. PRACTICAL PLANE AND SOLID GEOMETRY. By II. 
 
 Angel, Islington Scienee School, London. 
 
 2. MACillNE CONSTRUCTION AND DRAWIl^G. By E. 
 
 Tomkins, Queen's College, Liverpool. 
 3A BUILDING CONSTRUCTION— Stone, Brick and Slate 
 
 Work. By R. S. Burn, C.E., Manchester. 
 3B BUILDING CONSTRUCTION— TiMUER and Iron Work. By 
 
 R. S. Burn, C.E., Manchester. 
 
 FRANKLIN INSTITUTE LIBRARY 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 Class Book ^ ^ 'b. Accession 
 
 Given by \fsx^.. ^.tLOX.OA £>X.^.^.^ 
 
 Master, Grammar School, Manchester. 
 
 15. ZOOLOGY. By M. Harbison, Head-Master Model Schools, 
 
 Newtonards. 
 
 16. VEGETABLE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. By J. H. 
 
 Balfour, M.D.. Edinburgh University. 
 
 17. SYSTEMATIC AND ECONOMIC BOTANY. By J. H. Balfour, 
 
 M.D., Edinburgh University. 
 
 19. METALLURGY, By John Mayer, F.C.S., Glasgow. 
 
 20. NAVIGATION. By Henry Evers, LL.D., Plymouth. 
 
 21. NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY. By Henry Evers, LL.D. 
 
 22A STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE— Land and Marine. 
 
 By Henry Evers, LL.D., Plymouth. 
 22n STEAM AND STEAM ENGINE— Locomotive. By Henry 
 
 Evers, LL.D., Plymouth. 
 
 23. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. By John Macturk, F.R.G.S. 
 
 24. PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY. Hy John Howard, London. 
 
 25. ASTRONOMY, By J. J. Plummer, Observatory, Duiham. 
 
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 1. PRACTICAL PLANE AND SOLID GEOMETRY. By Professor 
 
 F. A. Bradley, London. 
 
 2. MACHINE CONSTRUCTION AND DRAWING. By E. 
 
 Tomkins, Queen's Collecje, Liverpool. 
 
 3 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. Bv R. Scott Bum, C.E. 
 
 4 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE— Shipbuilding and Laying off. 
 
 By S. T. P. Thearle, F.R.S.N.A., London. 
 
 5. PURE MATHEMATICS. By Edward Atkins, B.Sc, (Lond.,) 
 
 Leicester. 2 vols. 
 
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 of Natural Philosophy, Edinlnirgh. 
 
 7. APPLIED MECHANICS. By Professor O. Reynolds, Owens 
 
 Colletre, Manchester. 
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 2 Vols. 
 
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 Lecturer on Chemistry, Edinburgh. 
 
 12. GEOLOGY. By John Young, M.D., Professor of Natural History, 
 
 Glasgow University. 
 14. ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. By J. Cleland, M.D., F.R.S., Professor 
 
 of Anatomy and Physiology, Galway. 
 15 ZOOLOGY. By E. Ray Lankester, M.A., (Oxon.,) London. 
 
 16. VEGETABLE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. By J. H. 
 
 Balfour, M.D., Edinburgh University. 
 
 17. SYSTEMATIC AND ECONOMIC BOTANY. By J. H. Balfour, 
 
 M.D., Edinburgh University. 
 
 19. METALLURGY. By W. H. Greenwood, A.R.S.M. 2 VcCs. 
 
 20. NAVIGATION. By Henry Evers, LL.D., Professor of Applied 
 
 Mechanics, Plymouth. 
 
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 22. STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE— Land, Marine, and 
 
 Locomotive. Bv Henrv Evers, LI-.D., Plvmouth. 
 
 23. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. By John Young, M.D., Professor of 
 
 Natural History, Glasgow University. 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION: 
 TIMBER LEAD, AND IRON WORK. 
 
BUILDING COKSTEUCTION 
 
 SHOWING THE EMPLOYMENT OP 
 
 TIMBER, LEAD, AND lEON WOEK, 
 
 IS THE 
 
 PEACTICAL CONSTEUCTION OP BUILDINGS. 
 
 R. SCOTT BURN, 
 
 :*•::: .'. 
 
 Author of " The Hand-Bc»D'k:c^^Mle5\Ieolmicil Ail»,"«,nd«tfiJ(Tr:oT 
 ' The New Practical Guide Jx) JIas5it5:i.eJcTiIa>iii£,Wi<iIpiti9teriiig«''etc. 
 
 Vol. I.— Text. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, 
 
 FOURTH AVENUE AND TWENTY-THIRD STREET. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In preparing the following pages, the author has been 
 mainly desirous to place before the student a statement 
 of the leading points connected with the employment of 
 Timber, Lead, and Iron in the construction of buildings, 
 in such a way that, while being to a large extent explana- 
 tory of the technical terms used in Building Construction, 
 they would also convey a fair idea of the methods by 
 which these various materials are used, and the forms 
 and arrangements they assume in practice. An explana- 
 tion of the natural peculiarities, and a description of the 
 industrial characteristics and values of the materials, and 
 of the principles upon which the structures in which they 
 are used are based, forms no part of the scheme of the 
 work. This is reserved for the volume on Building 
 Construction, Advanced Course, in this series, to which, 
 therefore, the student is referred. 
 
 The plan of the work is based upon the Syllabus of the 
 Government Science and Art Department, so that it may 
 serve as a hand-book for those who design to pass the 
 examinations in that department to which its pages refer. 
 But while the syllabus in its general detail has been 
 2/" followed, a somewhat different arrangement has been 
 ^ aimed at, so as to permit of a wider range of subjects 
 beini? given, and their more systematic treatment secured 
 
6 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The limits, no less tlian tlie scope and sclieme of the 
 ■work, have prevented any attempt at giving it the 
 peculiarities of a regular treatise on Building Conslruc- 
 iion, which would embrace notices of various modifica- 
 tions in practice, or of the numerous recent inventions 
 connected with the art. The student desiroiTS to become 
 acquainted with these, must consult larger works recently 
 published, as, for example, the author's work. The New 
 Practical Guide to Masonry, Bricklaying, and Plastering, 
 to which he may be here permitted to refer. 
 
 Brook House, September, ISIS, 
 
 R S. B. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. P^QE 
 
 Drawing— Drawing Instruments— Drawing Scales- 
 Plans, Elevations, and Sections, .... 9 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 TniEER Construction, as Exemtlieied in the Framing 
 
 OF Floors, Partitions, and Eooes, .... 27 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Timber Construction, as Exemplified in Doges, Win- 
 dows, and Internal Fittings oe Houses, . . 77 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 VroRK IN Lead and Iron, . , . . . .111 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 TIMBER, LEAD, AND IRON WORK. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Drawing— Drawing Instruments— Drawing Scales— Plans, 
 ° Elevations, and Sections. 
 
 The remarks in this chapter will be confined to simple 
 elementary statements and descriptions. The pupil de- 
 sirous to go fully into technical drawing will find^ the 
 subject taken up in a separate volume, noted below. 
 
 1. Drawing Appliances— Board and T-Square.— 
 The principal appliances required by the pupil m the 
 preparation of drawings used in building construction 
 are (1.) The drawing board; (2.) The "T" square; (3.) 
 " Set" squares and curves ; (4.) Rulers. (1.) The draw- 
 ing board is, for common purposes, well enough made ot 
 fir or pine; but for superior boards, a mahogany, bay 
 wood, sycamore, or plane tree wood makes a capital 
 board. Tlie wood, of whatever kind, should be thoroughly 
 seasoned, as damp or unseasoned wood is sure to warp 
 when made up into the drawing board; and the preserva- 
 tion of a perfectly flat surface is for this, it need scarcely 
 be said, a desideratum. The shape of the board is 
 rectangular, that is, having a greater length than breadth. 
 It may be made of any dimensions deemed advisable ; 
 
 * Technical Drawing, for Students of Architecture and Buildinj. 
 
io 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 wlaere a wide range of drawing work is to be carried out, 
 including detail drawings, as well as smaller plans and 
 sections, it is useful to have several sizes of boards. For the 
 work for beginners a useful one will be two feet long by 
 sixteen to eighteen inches broad. The body of the board 
 should be provided with cross pieces at each end, grooved 
 at their edges, into which pass the tongues formed at the 
 ends of the body or main surface of the board ; the object 
 of these cross pieces is to prevent the body from warping. 
 In large drawing boards, the back is provided with a 
 series of cross pieces having the same object in view. 
 (2.) The " T" square — This is so called from being com- 
 posed of a thin blade or flat ruler, varying in breadth 
 from one inch and a half up to three or four inches, 
 according to the length of the square, and from three- 
 sixteenths up to five-sixteenths of an inch in thickness. 
 To one end of this the "head" or "butt" is secured at 
 right angles, the two pieces thus assuming the form of a 
 cross or " T," hence the name. In some forms of " T square," 
 the blade is fastened in the centre of the head or butt, 
 so that on each side of the blade there is a recess formed, 
 so that when the inner edge of the head is drawn along 
 the edge of the drawing board, the blade Avill slide along 
 the surface of the board at right angles to the head. In 
 other forms of " T " square the blade is secured to the 
 upper side of the head, the sliding recess or rebate being 
 thus below the blade. Another form of "T" square is 
 that in which the head is made in two thicknesses, lying 
 flat one upon another, and connected together by a 
 central thumb screw. The blade of the square is secured 
 to the upper of these two pieces, and by means of the 
 screw the lower half of the head can be adjusted to form 
 any desired angle with the upper half of the head. The 
 result of this arrangement is, that by sliding the lower 
 half of the head along the edge of the board, the blade of 
 the square will slide along the surface at the correspond- 
 ing angle to which the head was adjusted. This form of 
 "T square" is very useful when a number of lines 
 
DRAWING APPLIANCES. 
 
 11 
 
 paraEel to one another, but not at right angles to, or 
 paraEel with the edge of the board, are required to be 
 drawm. When this form of adjustable square" is 
 used for ordinary drawing, when the head of the square 
 is desired to be at right angles to the blade, it is necessary 
 to seie that the thumb screw is screwed tightly up to 
 prevent the lower half of the head from separating and 
 getting out of line with the upper half of the head. The 
 use of the " T square " in the drawing of lines on the 
 paper secured on the surface of the board, will be now 
 explained. Suppose the head of the square to be sliding 
 along; the lower edge of the long side of the boai-d (which 
 in practice is always placed next the draughtsman, or 
 nearcist the outside edge of the table upon which the 
 board is placed while the drawing operations are going 
 on), the blade at right angles to it is sliding along the 
 surfa(ce of the paper, with its edges parallel to the ends, 
 so that all lines drawn along the edges of the blade of the 
 squar-e will be at right angles to the side of the board ; 
 and all these lines, at whatever distances they may be from 
 each other, will be parallel to one another. By shifting 
 the square so that the head will now slide along the 
 right-hand end of the board, the blade will slide along the 
 surface of the paper with its edges parallel to the sides of 
 the b'Oard, so that lines drawn along the upper edge, while 
 they will be all parallel to one another, at whatever dis- 
 tances they may be drawn from each other, will be at 
 right angles to the lines drawn when the blade was in 
 the previous position, as before explained. When long 
 lines are requii'ed to be drawn upon the surface of the 
 paper or on the board, at right angles to each other, this 
 shifting of the square so that its head shall slide along 
 the lower edge and right hand edge of the board is neces- 
 sary but when short lines are required to be drawn at 
 right angles to any line or lines drawn along the edge of 
 the square when in any position, they may be drawn 
 witliout shifting the position of the "T square " by using 
 (3.) tJie "set square." This is made of a thin piece of 
 
12 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 hard wood, the edges of which are made perfectly smooth 
 and square — ^that is, at right angles to the surface ; the 
 form is usually a " right-angled triangle " — that is, at 
 which the hypothenuse is at an angle of 45° to the base. 
 By sliding the base of this along, and keeping it in close 
 contact — which can easily be done with a little practice 
 — with the edge of the "T square" lying in accurate 
 position on the board, all lines drawn along the " per- 
 pendicular" of the "set square" will be at right angles 
 to the lines drawn along the edge of the T square," so 
 that these lines can be drawn without shifting the ** T 
 square." When this "right-angled triangle" form of 
 " set square " is used, all lines drawn along its hypo- 
 thenuse will be at an angle of 45° to those lines di-awn 
 along the edge of the " T square," the base of the " set 
 square " sliding as before along the edge of the "T square." 
 Other forms of " set squai-es" are used; a very commonly 
 used one having the hypothenuse line forming an angle 
 of 60^ with the base line, this form being useful in putting 
 down isometrical drawings (see Drawing Booh, noted in 
 p. 9.) " Curves" are pieces of thin hard wood, the edges 
 of which are cut to various curved lines, the interior 
 surface having also cut out from it portions, the edges of 
 which also form various curved lines. These are useful 
 for drawing curves not easily or conveniently descril»ed 
 by the compasses, or which form part of eccentric curves 
 not describable by compasses. Those are to be had in 
 great variety. (4.) "Rulers" are made of two kinds — 
 " ordinary" and " parallel." " Ordinary rulers" made of 
 hard wood are flat, and of various lengths and breadths, 
 and are useful for drawing lines between points to which 
 the " T square " is not conveniently applicable. One; of 
 the edges of the ruler is often made with a bevil, but we 
 prefer both edges to be square to the face. The edge of 
 a "set square" affords a good ruling surface, if Long 
 enough. " Parallel rulers," as their name indicates, are 
 for drawing lines parallel to one another, to which the 
 ordinary " T square" is not applicable, or not conveniently 
 
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 13 
 
 SO. Tliey are of two kinds — the old fashioned, consist- 
 ing of two blades, connected by brass links ; and the 
 single ruler, with wheels or rollers at each end. This 
 is the modern form of the instrument; and when the 
 draughtsman becomes accustomed to its use, it is very 
 much quicker in its operation than the double-bladed 
 parallel ruler. But a beginner is apt to make mis- 
 takes in its use, hence by some the old-fashioned ruler is 
 
 preferred. , . 
 
 2. Drawinglnstruments.— A complete set of drawmgm- 
 struments comprises a very considerable number of pieces,— - 
 several, however, being duplicates, so far as the principle of 
 their construction and the mode of using them is con- 
 cerned,— but of different sizes and forms but a very wide 
 range of work can be done by the aid of the following:— 
 (1.) The "large compasses," with shifting leg, into which 
 can be put (a) a leg carrying a pencil, and (6) a leg carry- 
 ing a pen, for the drawing of pencdled and inked circles 
 and parts of cii'cles. (2.) The " spring compasses," one leg 
 of which is adjustable by means of a sprmg acted upon 
 by a small set screw. By this instrument, when a mea- 
 surement is taken in the compasses— as in dividing a line 
 into any number of equal parts— if the measurement is 
 either a trifle too long or too short, the accurate measixre- 
 ment may be taken by adjusting the screw. (3.) " Spring 
 dividers" — these are small compasses for taking small 
 measurements, the legs of which are connected by a 
 spring and a screwed link, the latter being provided with 
 a small set screw, so that an accurate adjustment of the 
 dirider is easily attainable; and, when once set, the 
 measurement taken will be retained, as the screw and 
 spring keep the legs always at the same distance. This 
 convenience is very great when the same measurement is 
 to be often repeated in making the drawing. (4.) The 
 " pencil bow compasses," for describing small circles and 
 parts of circles in pencU. (5.) The " ink bow compasses," 
 for describing small circles and parts of circles in ink. 
 (G.) The " drawing pen." The above named instruments 
 
u 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 will not be here further described. Without them the 
 piipH cannot even begin to the work of drawing, he must, 
 therefore, purchase them ; and a few minutes' examiriation 
 of them will convey to him a more satisfactory notion of 
 their peculiarities and uses than pages of description here. 
 Fuller remarks upon them will, however, be found in the 
 work in this series, noted on page 9. To the above will 
 be requii'ed a common (7.) foot-rule. 
 
 3. Drawing Paper and Pencils. — For the pui-poses of 
 the beginner good cartridge paper will do well enough ; 
 for superior drawings the regular drawing papers should 
 be used; they are made in sheets of different sizes, as 
 "demy," "royal," "imperial," &c., and of the different makes 
 that of "Whatman's" — if not the best — enjoys the highest 
 reputation. The pencil most useful is that marked H H, 
 although that marked H will be found, perhaps, most 
 useful for the first lessons of beginners. The pencil 
 should be cut so as to form a long, fine point ; some pre- 
 fer to finish the point round, some chisel-shaped, or flat 
 edged. A piece of very fine sand paper is useful to finish 
 the point, after being first pointed by means of the knife. 
 India-rubber is used to erase pencil lines, "Indian" or 
 "China" ink to work them in and make them permanent. 
 This is rubbed doAvn with a little water in colour dishes ; 
 these can be had of various sizes. For beginners, the 
 paper may be fastened down upon the board by means of 
 small drawing pins stuck into the corners, or by pieces of 
 gummed paper at the same places. The method of 
 stretching the paper by damping it and glueing it to the 
 board by the edges will be found fully described in -the 
 volume on Architecture and Building Drawing, noted on 
 page 9, 
 
 4. Scales used in Drawings. — The scale to which 
 drawings are constructed are conventional arrangements 
 by which the proportion is maintained between the mea- 
 surement which the drawing gives, and the actual lengi;h 
 of the same parts when constructed, would be. Thus,, a 
 part of any building 15 feet in length could obviously n.ot 
 
SCALES USED IN DRAWINGS. 
 
 15 
 
 be drawn full size on paper ; but if the length of each 
 actual foot was supposed to be represented by a distance 
 of an inch, a piece of paper a little over 15 inches in 
 length would allow the line to be drawn ; with a margin 
 over, the line on the drawing paper would be 15 inches 
 in length ; but if the conventional measurement adopted 
 was named in the drawing, it would be known that the 
 line would be representing a line which in actual practice 
 would be 15 feet in length. The formation of scales, 
 of which the above is the general principle, is a matter 
 comparatively simple, and will be found further illus- 
 trated in fig. 1, Plate I. Thus, suppose it is desired to 
 construct a scale of "2 inches to the foot," take in 
 the compasses from a " foot-rule " the distance or extent 
 of two inches, then draw any line, as a b, fig. 1, Plate I., 
 and from any point c, which will be the " zero " or " 0 " 
 point of the scale, set off the distance in the compasses 
 any number of times as there are to be feet in the scale, 
 from c towards b, on the line a b, to d and c. The size 
 of the Plate here limits the number of times the distance 
 c d and b twice to three. Then each of the distances will 
 represent a " foot." But as there are inches in the foot 
 to be arranged for in the scale, divisions must be made to 
 represent these inches ; the large division to the left 
 hand, as from the zero point, c to d, is that usually 
 allotted to the inch division, this being divided, in 
 large scales, into twelve equal parts, each represent- 
 ing an inch; but if the scale be small, as in fig. 10, 
 then these first divisions, as a b, fig. 3, Plate I., 
 is only divided into four parts, as a /, / e, d e, e h, 
 each of these representing three inches, the extent 
 or length of an inch in these small scales being guessed 
 at. This is exemplified in the scale in fig. 10, which 
 is a scale of \ inch to the foot," or of *• 4 feet to tho 
 inch." Fig. 8 is a scale of ** 2 feet to the inch," or, as 
 more commonly expressed, a scale of inch to the foot." 
 Fig. 9 is a scale of " 3 feet to the inch." Fig. 1 1 is a 
 scale for a detail drawing, " one-fourth full size " or \ of 
 
IG 
 
 TIMBER AND IROSr WORK. 
 
 a foot, or " 3 inclies to the foot." Fig. 14 is a scale of 
 I of a foot ; or two-thirds of full size. Fig. 15, a scale 
 of I of a foot or of full size, both with " eighths " marked. 
 Fig. 4 shows the scale of 2 inches to the foot completed, 
 with the division in the first division to the left indicating 
 inches, all the larger divisions being feet. Fig. 2 repre- 
 sents a scale of " 1 yard to the 2 inches," the last division, 
 a h, being divided into three, a d, d ,e, and e b, each 
 division representing a foot, the other divisions, as bf, 
 representing a yard. Fig. 7 represents a scale of 10 feet 
 to f of an inch, vised like the last, in laying down draw- 
 ings of general plans, where the distances and measure- 
 ments are great. In this scale of tenths, the last division 
 is divided into ten equal parts, each representing a foot, 
 and each of the larger divisions represent ten feet. Fig. 
 12 is a scale of "5 feet to the inch;" and fig. 13, " 10 
 feet to the inch," with " inches " marked. Fig. 5 is a scale 
 of " U inches to the foot ;" fig. 6, a scale of " 1 inch to 
 the foot." 
 
 5. Practical Use of the Scales in Drawing Plans, &c. 
 
 ■ — To take measurements from scales is a simple matter. 
 Suppose the drawing, of which the dimensions of various 
 parts are required to be taken, is drawn to a scale of " 1 
 inch to the foot and suppose that a certain distance 
 from point to point of any given line in the drawing is 
 taken in the compasses, then, by applying it to the scale, 
 as say that in fig. 6, which is a scale of 1 inch to the foot, 
 while one leg of the compasses is in the point 4, while the 
 other reaches to the point 6 in the last division of inches, 
 then the measurement of the distance in the compasses, 
 and by consequence that of the part repi'esented in the 
 drawing, is shown to be 4 feet 6 inches. Again, suppose 
 that to a general plan a scale of 10 feet to three quarters 
 of an inch" is attached, and the actual length of a line 
 taken in the compasses from the drawing be required to 
 be known ; if by applyiiig the compasses to the scale, as 
 in fig. 7, Plate I., the one leg of which being at the 
 division marked 50, and the other reaches to the point 5 
 
USE OF THE SCALES IN DRAWING PLANS. 17 
 
 on the division to the left j then the distance is known 
 to be 55 feet. 
 
 To lay down measurements from a scale is the exact 
 converse of the above, and is simply done. Thus, suppose 
 that on the line a e, fig. 1, Plate II., it is desired to lay 
 down a line, as a b, representing the side of a box, as 
 abed, and that the drawing is to be made to a " scale 
 of ^ of an inch to the foot." First, draw the line a e 
 along the edge of the square, in a light pencil line ; if the 
 length of the side of the box, as a b, is to be 8 feet 9 
 inches, then on the scale, as in fig. 10, Plate I., put the point 
 of one leg of the compasses in the division to the right, 
 marked 8, and draw out the compasses till the point of 
 the other leg reaches exactly to the point indicating the 
 ninth division on the division of inches to the extreme 
 left of the scale ; then take this distance, and with one 
 point -of the compasses, on the line a e, at a, nieasui-e from 
 a to b, this will give a line in length equal to 8 feet 9 
 inches, as desired. The depth of the box, as a c, which 
 we shall suppose to be 1 foot 2 inches, is measured from 
 the scale iia fig. 10, Plate I., in the same way, and the 
 mode of drawing it is as follows : — Suppose that the edge 
 of the square is coincident with the line a b, previously 
 drawn ; move the square so that the edge be a little be- 
 low the line, as /g' in fig. 1, Plate II. ; then take the " set 
 square," as represented by the dotted lines at h, and, 
 putting the base on the edge of the square, as g f, slide 
 the set square till the perpendicular of the base be coin- 
 cident with the point 6, on the line a e, and di-aw a liae 
 along the edge b d ; then slide the "set square" along 
 the edge of the " T-square," till its perpendicular be coin- 
 cident with the point a, in the line a e ; next, from the 
 scale in fig. 10, Plate I., take the distance in the com- 
 passes of 1 foot 2 inches, by measuring from the first 
 large division marked 1 to the second small division in 
 the part o, 12; and, with this distance in the com- 
 passes, set one leg in the point c, and with the other 
 mark a poiat in the line a c, at c j next, move the " T- 
 
 B 
 
18 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 square" up the board till its upper edge be coincident 
 with the point c, and draw a line along the edge cutting 
 the line h d in the point d ; the outline of abed will 
 then be drawn, and the lines ah, c d will be parallel to 
 each other, as will also a c, h d. Dimensions, when 
 ]narked on drawings, are usually put in as shown in fig. 
 
 1, Plate II., between marks as < >, with a dotted 
 
 line ; the acute angles of the marks being the limits of 
 the line of which the dimensions are figured.* In some 
 drawings, owing to the complications of the parts, or to 
 preserve the drawing itself from being marked with 
 figures, the dimensions are indicated in the manner 
 shown in fig. 1, Plate II.; the lines, a,^ c a, d b, being ex- 
 tended in dotted lines to a short distance beyond the 
 drawing, and the dotted line put between the marks 
 
 < > as shown. The other measurement in this 
 
 diagram is indicated in like manner at k e. In finished 
 
 drawings these dimension marks, < >, should be 
 
 put in neatly and carefully. This will best be done by 
 the aid of the " set square," as shown in fig. 2, Plate II. 
 Thus, let a & be the dotted line terminated by the dimen- 
 sion marks at a and b; let c d represent the upper edge 
 line of the " T-square," and the dotted triangle, d ef, the 
 " set square," the base, e d, of which is placed on the 
 edge, G d, of the "T-square;" adjust the "set square" so 
 that its hypothenuse, e f, is coincident with the point h; 
 then along the edge draw a shoi-t line, marked in the 
 diagram by a strong black line; the corresponding 
 angular line is drawn in at a, by sliding the set square 
 along the edge of the " T-square," till the point in the 
 hypothenuse is coincident with the point a. The re- 
 verse angular line is put in by reversing the position of 
 the " set square," as shown by the dotted lines, g Gh\ the 
 angular lines should all both be of the same length. In 
 
 * The figures, as " |," put to the foot of the diagrams to fol- 
 low in this volume, are meant to denote the scale to which the 
 drawings are made. Thus, in fig. 1, "i" means that the scale 
 of the drawing is or one-fourth of an inch to the foot." 
 
USE OF THE SCALES IN DRAWING PLANS. 
 
 19 
 
 place of putting to drawings the scale in the manner as 
 indicated in fig. 10, Plate I., it is the practice of some 
 architects and builders to write merely on the drawing 
 the scale to which it is made, as " scale, 1 inch to the 
 foot," " scale, | inch to the foot," and so on. Some make 
 the matter more simply still, by merely writing " -|tli 
 scale," or "one-eighth scale;" or " -x\th. scale," or " one- 
 twelfth scale." This does not mean that the -Jth scale, 
 for example, is " -^th of an inch to the foot," but that it 
 is -^th of a foot, or " equal to a scale of 1| to the foot." A 
 T^^th scale is thus equal to 1 inch, as there are 12 inches 
 to the foot, and is equal, therefoi'e, to a scale of 1 inch 
 to the foot;" a -^^th. scale is equal to "half an inch to the 
 foot;" a -|th scale equal to " 2 inches to the foot." But in 
 all cases it is by far the most satisfactory method to draw a 
 properly divided scale to each drawing. The easier me- 
 thods above-named go on the assumption that in the office, 
 scales (on ivory or box- wood) of various sizes are at hand, 
 from which the specific dimensions of certain parts can be 
 taken ; but drawings are often referred to in the actual 
 carrying out of the work, in circumstances where these 
 scales are not available, so that it is better to put a pro- 
 perly divided scale to each drawing as recommended. At 
 all events, this should be done in the drawings of pupils 
 beginning practice. Scales of tenths, as in figs. 7 and 13, 
 Plate I., are, as already stated, used for laying down draw- 
 ings of general plans, as block plans, where the measure- 
 ments are long. As a useful lesson in drawing, and as 
 further exemplifying the use of scales, we shall suppose 
 fig. 3, Plate II., to represent the plan of the ground upon 
 which a house is to be erected. The scale to which this 
 is drawn being that in fig. 7, Plate I., which gives 10 feet 
 to three-quarters of an inch, the first thing to be done is 
 to draw a line representing ab in. fig. 3, Plate II., along 
 the upper edge of the " T-square," the blade of which is 
 parallel to the lower edge of the drawing board — ^the butt 
 or head of the " T-square " being thus placed on the edge 
 of the right hand end of the drawing board. The length 
 
20 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 of the line a & is marked in tlie drawing as shown to be 
 equal to 35 feet. This is taken from the scale in fig. 7, 
 Plate I., by putting one point of the compasses in the 
 division marked " 30," and extending the other to the 
 point "5," in the division to the extreme leffc of the 
 scale. Then, from any point on the line a h, fig. 3, 
 Plate II., as a — ^this point being selected so as to put the 
 drawing when finished as nearly in the centre of the paper 
 as possible — mark off the distance taken from the scale 
 to the point, as h, fig. 3, Plate II.; the length of the line a h 
 will then be equal to 35 feet, measured from the scale, 
 fig. 7, Plate I. The next point is to obtain the position 
 of the point c in the drawing, fig. 3, Plate II. On the 
 drawing which is being thus copied extend by a very fine 
 and light pencil line — so that it can be easily erased — the 
 line d do some distance beyond the point c, as, say, to 
 the point e. Next, at right angles to the base line a h, 
 draw another line, lightly put in by a pencil line, so as to 
 cut the line d c extended in e. On the paper on the 
 drawing board di-aw now a line from a (or, rather, from 
 the points on the drawing board corresponding to the 
 point a in the copy, which is supposed to be fig. 3, Plate 
 II.), perpendicular to ab; this can be done by shifting the 
 " T-square " so that the blade will be run parallel to the 
 end of the board, the head or butt running along the 
 lower edge of the drawing board ; or, if the line is not too 
 long, the " set square " can be used, as described in con- 
 nection with fig. 1. Take from the copy the distance 
 a e, and measure it on the scale, fig. 7, Plate I., and set ofi", 
 from a on the drawing board, this distance, cutting the 
 line a e in the part e. Through e draw along the edge of 
 the square — which is again shifted, so that its blade shall 
 be in its original position, that is, parallel to the lower 
 edge of the drawing board— a line ef; this line will cor- 
 respond to the same line in the copy, fig. 3, Plate II., and 
 will be the same distance from the line a b. Take in the 
 compasses the distance e c from the copy, and measure it 
 from the scale, fig. 7, Plate I., and from the corresponding 
 
USE OF THE SCALES II? DRAWlNa PLANS. 
 
 21 
 
 point e on the drawing board, set off this distance from 
 a eio c; the position of the point c will thiTS be obtained, 
 and, if the operations have been correctly performed, the 
 length of the line a c, when measured from the scale, fig. 7, 
 Plate I., will be found to be as marked — 33 feet 6 inches. 
 In practice, where the copy is to be the same size as the 
 original, the length of the lines a e and e c need not be mea- 
 sured from the scale, but simply transferred from the copy 
 to the drawing board, as above described. The next opera- 
 tion is to measure from the scale the distance c d 22 feet, 
 and transfer it to the drawing board, or, rather, the paper 
 on its surface. On examination of the copy, the line d g 
 will be found to be exactly at right angles to the line c d. 
 The " set square " should then be brought into use, and 
 by it the line d g should be drawn of same length, and on 
 it the distance taken from the scale — namely, 13 feet, set 
 off from d to g. The line g h will be found, on examirdng 
 the copy, to be parallel to ah ; draw, then, on the paper 
 the line g h at right angles to d g, or parallel to a h, and 
 make it equal to 7 feet ; join h h, and the plan is complete. 
 The line b h is not at right angles to the line a h; and the 
 accuracy of the drawing will be tested by measuring this ; 
 and if the drawing be correct, it will be found to be 20 
 feet. But in place of the copy beuag accurately drawn — 
 as it is suj^posed to be, in fig. 3, Plate II.— the case may 
 be supposed that the copy might be a rough outline sketch, 
 something like the form of fig. 3, with the dimensions or 
 measurement marked on it ; in this case, if the pvipil was 
 desired to make an accurate drawing to scale of this rough 
 sketch, no such facilities for ascertaining the position of 
 the point c in relation to the point h a would be afibrded 
 such as we have described. The pupil would therefore 
 have a veiy different process to go through before he could 
 make his drawing. We have also stated that by exa- 
 mination of the copy he could ascertain whether the lino 
 d g was or was not at right angles to c d. This could 
 only be done if the copy was accurately drawn, and very 
 simply by placing the copy on the drawing board, and 
 
22 
 
 Timber and iron worS. 
 
 marking the base line parallel to the edge of it, by means 
 of the " T-square," and then shifting the square to test 
 the line d g. Examination like this can, after a little 
 practice, be very quickly made. But, if a rough sketch 
 was provided, the line d g might be put in obliquely, as 
 also the line g h. The pupil will find in the volume 
 noted on page 9 full instructions how to draw from 
 rough sketches, or from the ideas of his own mind, 
 which, in the case of original work, take the place of 
 rough sketches. For the mftthod of constructing and of 
 using " diagonal scales," see the volume in this series 
 noted on page 9. 
 
 6. Scales for Detail or Enlarged Drawings. — These are 
 constructed on the principle already explained for scales 
 for general plans, but are designed to give facilities for 
 measuring fractions of the inch, just as the division to 
 the extreme left of scales, such as in fig. 6, Plate I., give 
 fractions of the foot. And, as there are eight equal parts 
 in an inch, which are technically called " eighths of an 
 inch," the last division of the scale to the left is divided 
 into eight equal parts, each of which is equal to |^th of an 
 inch as read off from the scale. A scale constructed on 
 this principle is shown in fig 14, Plate I., which is a 
 scale of 3 inches to the foot. The measurements are 
 taken from this in the same way as already described, so 
 far as feet and inches are concerned ; but if, in the measure- 
 ment, parts of an inch be given, the compasses are ex- 
 tended to the point indicating the measurement in the 
 last division of the scale to the extreme left. Fig. 15 is 
 a scale of |ths of a foot, or |ths of full size. Detail draw- 
 ings in practice, as a rule, are drawn to scales, some regular 
 proportion of a foot, as ;|th of a foot, or " 3 inches to the 
 foot," -Jth or " 2 inches to the foot," and sometimes half size, 
 which is equal to " 6 inches to the foot." The scales being 
 named in the order above given, as " one-fourth full size," 
 " one-sixth full size," " one half size." When details are 
 made, say half size, no regular scale is required to be con- 
 structed -J as all the measurements can be taken from the 
 
tLANS, ELEVATIONS, AND SECTIONS, 
 
 23 
 
 ordinary foot rule, for all that is necessary is to take lialf of 
 the full size measurements which the object would present : 
 thus, if a distance was 6 inches, 3 inches would be taken ; 
 if 4 inches, 2 inches, and so on. Agam, if the detail would 
 be drawn to "one-fourth full size," one-fourth of the full size 
 measurements would be taken ; thus, if the measurement 
 was 8 inches, 2 inches would be laid down on the draw- 
 ing ; if 6 inches, 1|- inches would be taken from the 
 ordinary foot rule, and so on. In these, the eighths of an 
 inch, if any, in the measurement, would be approximately 
 taken or allowed for : thus, fths of an inch, or "six eighths" 
 in a detail drawing " half full size " would be represented 
 by a measurement of three eighths ; an eighth by half this 
 or " T 6^^^ " inch, and so on. 
 
 7. Plans, Elevations, and Sections. — The various 
 structures, and parts of structures, met with in building con- 
 struction; are solids, haying length, breadth, and thickness, 
 and sides more or less numerous, accorduig to their form. 
 The paper on which the drawings connected with building 
 construction are made, having only surface, that is, length 
 and breadth, some method of representing upon a flat 
 surface, the form of solids, so as to show each side and the 
 peculiarities in construction dependent on, or connected 
 with, that side is obviously required. The delineation 
 upon paper of an object which is a solid is, technically 
 speaking, a " projection ; " and the peculiar method of 
 projection employed in building construction is called 
 " orthographic projection." For the principles of this, and 
 other kinds of projection, as " isometrical," the pupil is 
 referred to the volume in this series on Plane and Solid 
 Geometry. The projection of any body taken on a line 
 parallel to its base, or as viewed when looking down upon 
 it in the direction of a line at right angles to its surface, 
 is called a " plan," as fig. 4, Plate II., which may be sup- 
 posed to represent the plan of a house, or of a box with 
 the lid or top taken off. Plans of houses are, in reality, 
 " horizontal sections," taken on a line, at a distance a 
 little above the ground level, which line is parallel to the 
 
24 
 
 TIMBEK, AND IRON WOES. 
 
 base. A " section " is the view of an object, representing 
 it as it is supposed to appear, when it is cut either 
 horizontically or vertically by a line parallel to any 
 given line in the plan. Thus, fig. 4, Plate II., may 
 be taken as a " horizontal section," on the line a h, 
 in fig. 5, Plate II., showing the thickness of the walls of 
 the house, or of the thickness of the sides of the box, as 
 the case may be. The section in fig. 6, Plate II., is called 
 a " longitudinal section," or a " longitudinal vertical sec- 
 tion," on the line a h, va. the plan fig. 4, Plate II., this 
 line being parallel to the front and back lines. If the 
 section was taken on the line c d, fig. 4, Plate II., the 
 section would be called a " transverse or cross section," 
 or a " transverse vertical section." " Elevations " are 
 Adews of the vertical or standing pai-t of objects, and are 
 called " front elevations," " back elevations," " end ele- 
 vations," or " side elevations," according to the side from 
 which the object is viewed; the point of view being 
 taken from a point at right angles to the surface of the 
 front, back, end, or side of the object. Thus, fig. 5, 
 Plate II., is a front elevation, and gives the height of 
 the openings e,f, and g, in plan fig. 4, Plate II., the breadth 
 of which only is there given ; fig. 7, Plate II., is the 
 "end elevation," A, fig. 4; fig. 8, Plate II., the "end 
 elevation," B, fig. 4, Plate II. If the object were a house, 
 these two end elevations would be distinguished by the 
 points of the compass to which they looked, as " west- 
 end elevation," " east-end elevation." The " back eleva- 
 tions" of fig. 4, Plate I., will be the same as fig. 5, omit- 
 ting the openings e and /, with the opening g, the same 
 as in fig. 5, Plate II. Where there are peculiarities in 
 the back part different from the front part of any object, 
 a back elevation would be necessary. The pupil desirous 
 further to pursue the subject of drawings is referred to 
 the volume noted in p. 9. But we give a few examples 
 of a simple kind to show methods of copying and laying 
 down drawings. In fig. 9, Plate II., we give a drawing 
 showing a " front elevation " of a building, of which, in 
 
PLANS, ELEVATIONS, AND SECTIONS. 25 
 
 fig. 10, we give part "ground plan." Tlie two drawings 
 are placed in relation to each other to show the method 
 of taking the lines of an elevation from the distance given 
 in the ground plan, and vice versa. A' glance at the two 
 figures 9 and 10, in Plate II., will show this ; the dotted 
 lines being carried up from the plan to give the lines of front 
 elevation, or carried down from the elevation to give the 
 lines of the plan. The letters of the two diagrams, figs. 
 9 and 10, show corresponding parts ; and the pupil, 
 by a study of these should be able to understand, to see 
 the principle of the method adopted, and be able to apply 
 it to other subjects of a like nature. In Plate III., fig. 
 1, we give a diagram showing the method of "laying 
 down" or "setting out," the principal lines of the elevation 
 of building in fig. 9, Plate II. The line a h, fig. 1, 
 plate III., is first drawn as the " gromid line " or " base 
 line." Near the centre of this line, as at the point c, a 
 line c is drawn at right angles to a h. This is the main 
 " centre line " of the building, and corresponds to the line 
 h I, in fig. 9, Plate II. From c the distances, c e, e g 
 (equal to the distance of centre lines m n, o p, fig. 9, 
 Plate II.) are set off; and lines ef,g h, are drawn parallel 
 to c c^; these give the centres of the side wings, a b, 
 c d, fig. 9, Plate II. The heights of the points r, s, t 
 (taken from the copy the drawing in fig. 1, Plate III., 
 being to a larger scale than that in fig. 9, plate II.), are 
 then to be set off from the base line a h, fig. 1, Plate III., 
 to the points/, A, d, and h, and lightly pencilled lines drawn 
 through these parallel to the base line a h. The distance of 
 the terminating lines of these lines on each side of the centre 
 \\.\\e,po,kl,mn,^g. 9, Plate II., should then be taken and set 
 off from points/ A and d, on both sides of the centre lines ef, 
 c d, and g h, this will give the width of the respective parts.^ 
 The heights of the top and bottom lines of windows, as i 
 and e, fig. 9, plate III., should then ,be taken and set off 
 in the lines, e f, g h, fig. 1, Plate III., to the points, m n, 
 0 20, and through these points lines drawn parallel to a h, 
 the full lines show the parts when inked in, the dotted lines 
 
TIMBER AND lEON WORK. 
 
 represent the lightly pencilled in lines at the first operation. 
 Fig. 2, Plate I., is an enlarged sketch of the windoAv e, in 
 fig. 9, Plate II., showing the method of drawing it. First, 
 draw a " centre line," a b, and a " base line," c d, at right 
 angles to this ; then set off the various heights, as b, e, 
 and/, those taken from the copy, or the scale according to 
 dimensions given. Then take half the width of opening 
 and set this distance off", on each side of the centre line, a 
 h, to the points, g and h ; then di'aw parallel to a b lines, 
 g k, h i, making the line drawn through /parallel to c d. 
 Measure next to the end scd, and draw lc,mn parallel to 
 a b. Fig. 3 shows the lines required to draw the door in 
 fig. 6, Plate II., fig. 4 being an enlarged sketch, showing 
 the method of putting in the panels ; in this a 5 is the 
 " centre line " of the door, corresponding to a 6 in fig. 3, 
 and the line c d, fig. 4, Plate III., gives the top line of 
 panels, the widths of the panels being set off" from the 
 point a, to e and/ Fig. 5 shows the method of drawing 
 a pediment terminating a roof. The line a b gives the upper 
 line of last number of the cornice, and c e the centre line 
 of roof; from b, set ofi'the height b c, measure from a to d, 
 and join c c^. Fig. 6, Plate II., is a front elevation of a 
 house, the leading lines of which are given in fig. 7, showino- 
 the method of commencing the drawing ; fig. 8, Plate III* 
 is pediment of door; fig. 9, drawing, enlarged, of chimney 
 stalk, and fig. 10 shows the method of drawing in the 
 " quoins;" the distance, a b, being divided into nine equal 
 parts, and lines drawn through them parallel to c d ; the 
 line a 6 is the outside boundary line, and the projections 
 of the quoin stones inward from this are given by 
 measuring from the point e, to / and g ; and drawing 
 from these, lightly pencilled in lines, the intersection of 
 which, with the lines drawn through the points 1, 2, 3, 
 &c.,^ parallel to c d, give the widths or breadths of the 
 quoins. 
 
FLOORS, PARTITIONS, AND ROOFS. 
 
 27 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 TIMBER CONSTRUCTION AS EXEMPLIFIED IN THE FRAMING 
 OF FLOORS, PARTITIONS, AND ROOFS. 
 
 The operations to be described under this bead are 
 those with which the carpenter is concerned, the 
 framing of the various constructions being made up 
 of members of considerable size and weight, and known 
 under the general term, or name, of carpentiy ; this 
 being distinguished from the operations of joinery, 
 which concerns itself with the fitting together of pieces 
 of timber of small size and of comj)aratively little 
 weight. Carpenter's or framed work may be divided 
 into several sections, as floors, partitions, and roofs, and 
 of general work, as centring of bridges, timber bridge 
 work, gates, etc., etc. It is with the first three of these 
 only that this treatise concerns itself, and we shall take 
 them up in the oi'der here named. 
 
 1. Floors. — In constructing floors, the assemblage of 
 timber is made up according to one of three modes : first, 
 " single flooring second, " framed floors, or double 
 floors;" third, "double framed floors j" these are illus- 
 trated in elevation, plan, and section in Plate TV., and are 
 described in the following paragraphs : — 
 
 (a) /Single Floors. — This species of floor consists of a 
 series of timbers termed "joists," or "flooring joists," 
 (a a, fig. 1, Plate IV.), the ends of which rest on the walls 
 b b, and run in a direction at right angles to these. In 
 common, and, we may here say, in bad woi-k, the joists 
 on the lowest, or ground floor, at their ends simply rest 
 upon, and are built into, the wall material, as brick or stone. 
 In better class work the ends of the joists rest upon, and are 
 framed into, or secured to, "wall plates," as c c, fig. 1, Plate 
 I., these being set into and rest upon the walls, as shown 
 in the best work. The " wall plates " and ground floors 
 rest upon, and are supported by, small piers or pillars 
 
28 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 of brick or stone, tliese being carried up from the ground to 
 the level of the under side of flooring joists. The object of 
 these piers is to preserve the soundness of the timber, 
 by leaving it exposed on all sides ; timber being found to 
 decay much more rapidly when built into walls and sur- 
 rounded by brick, or stone and mortar, than when left 
 freely exposed to the air. In the upper floors of buildings 
 the joists are built into the walls, as in fig. 1, Plate IV. 
 At right angles to the " flooring joist" a a, the "flooring 
 boards" d d are placed, and, of cotirse, on the tipper 
 side of the joists. These boards are laid and secured to 
 the joists in one of several ways hereafter in present 
 chapter to be described. Such is a " single floor " as 
 employed on the ground floor of a building ; but, in the 
 upper floors, where a ceiling is to be carried by the floor 
 timber, "ceiling joists," as c c, flg. 2, Plate I Y., are secured 
 to the lower edges of the joists, running in a direct line at 
 right angles, to these. To these " ceiling joists " the laths 
 which support and carry the plaster are secured. The 
 " bearing," or " span," or distance between the walls in 
 which the joists, a a fig. 1, rests, should not exceed twenty- 
 four feet for single floors on the ground level, but as this is, 
 however, too great, we are disposed to place the maximum 
 span at twenty feet. The " span," or " bearing," as it is 
 more frequently termed, is measured from inside the walls, 
 as shown by the dotted lines in fig. 1, Plate IV. The illus- 
 tration being of a floor for a fifteen feet bearing, half only 
 up to the centre line e f being given. Where a ceiling is 
 to be carried by the floor, as in upper floors, the span 
 should not exceed fifteen feet. The "bearing" of the 
 joists on the wall plates should not be any less than four 
 inches, but, according to the bearing of the joists, may go 
 from this tip to nine inches. By the term "bearing," here 
 given, is meant the part, or length, of one of the joists 
 which rest upon the wall or wall plate, as the part g h in 
 fig. 1, Plate IV. The distance between the joists is usually 
 fourteen inches, this distance being measured from centre 
 to centre of the joists, as shown in fig. 3. Where the 
 
FLOORS, PARTITIONS, AND ROOFS. 
 
 29 
 
 bearing of the joists is considerable, and tlie depth, there- 
 fore, increased, they should he strengthened, and lateral 
 movement prevented by what is called " strutting." The 
 simplest form of strut is a flat and thin piece of board, as 
 * i, fig. 2, placed between the joists, the stmt bearing at 
 its ends in the faces of the two contiguous joists. The 
 struts are all placed in line, as at i i, fig. 2, Plate IV. A 
 more complicated and complete form of strutting is 
 known as " herring bone strutting," and is illustrated in 
 fig. 11, and is formed by two pieces crossing each other, 
 butting at each end on the faces, or inner sides, of the 
 joists, and secured thereto by nails. In superior work 
 the struts are slightly notched at the bearings into the 
 joists. In fig. 2, Plate IV., the plan of the herring bone 
 strutting is shown at^. As simple longitudinal struts, 
 as * i, in fig. 2, are sometimes apt to give way laterally, 
 the best plan is to make the edges butt up on one side to 
 triangular fillets nailed to the joists, as shown in fig. 14, 
 Plate IV., where a a is part of the face of joist, h h the 
 strut, c the triangular fillet. For joists with a "bearing" 
 of from eight to ten feet, one row of sti-utting, as e e, 
 fig. 2, Plate IV., wUl be sufficient, allowing another row for 
 each four feet of increase in length of bearing of the 
 joists. Fig. 2 is a plan, and fig. 3 a cross section, of 
 which fig. 1 is the side elevation. In all, corresponding 
 letters are used to indicate corresponding parts. 
 
 (6) Framed and Double Floors. — In this kind of 
 floor there is a member in addition to those forming the 
 assemblage of timbers in a single floor. This additional 
 member is called a "binder," or "binding joist," as b, in 
 fig. 4, Plate IV., a a being the "flooring joisits," coiTespond- 
 ing to a a in fig. 1, c the " ceiling joists," and d d the 
 "flooring boards;" e e indicates the line of plaster on 
 ceiling. Fig. 5 is a side elevation of this double floor, 
 fig. 6 a cross section, a a being the flooring joists, also 
 sometimes called " bridging joints," 6 & the "binder," or 
 "binding joists," c c the " ceiling joists," e e line of lath 
 and plaster ceiling. Fig. 8 is part plan. The thickness 
 
30 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 of the binding joists varies witli the bearing; as a rule, 
 they are made half as thick again as the flooring joists of 
 the corresponding floor, the bearing on the wall, g h, fig. 
 1, Plate IV., will be ample if at six inches. The distance 
 between the binders, measured from centre to centre (see 
 figs. 4, 5) is generally from five to six feet. When, in 
 the arrangement of the timbers of a " double floor," the 
 binding joists are placed to, or come near a wall, their 
 thickness is reduced one-third; thus, if the binder is 
 nine inches thick in the central part of the floor, it is 
 only six inches when near a wall. When a fireplace inter- 
 rupts the line of joisting, or when a hole is required to 
 be made in a floor to receive a staircase, or a trap-door, 
 etc., etc., an arrangement known as a " trimmer," or 
 " trimming joists," is introduced — this is illustrated in 
 fig. 9, Plate IV. In this drawing, a h represent the jambs 
 of a fireplace projecting from the wall c c, d d show two 
 of the ordinary " flooring joists," a a, figs. 1, 2, Plate I., 
 the other joists, as e e, are broken ofi", and in place of 
 resting upon the wall, which cannot be used as a bearing 
 surface for them in consequence of the fire-place, they are 
 jointed to, and are carried by, the cross joist, which is 
 termed a " trimmer," / f, this being at its ends jointed 
 to, and carried by the " trimmer," or "trimming joists," 
 g g, which run parallel to the flooring joists d d, e e. 
 The "trimmers" //, and "trimming joists" g g, are 
 thicker than the flooring joists d d, e e, one-sixth or 
 one-eighth of the thickness of the flooring joists being 
 added for each joist, e e, carried or supported by the "trim- 
 mer" //. 
 
 (c) " Double Framed Floors." — Ploors of this sort, in 
 addition to " flooring joists," " binding joists," and 
 " ceiling joists," have an additional member, this being 
 called a "girder," or sometimes simply a "bearer." Floors 
 of this kind are used with large bearings, or where 
 heavy weights have to be supported. The ends of the 
 " girder " are carried by the walls, and are, or should be, 
 placed in the j)arts where there is no opening, as that of 
 
FLOORS, PARTITIONS, AND ROOFS. 
 
 31 
 
 a window or door, below; that is, on the part of the wall 
 which is solid from bearing of girder to the ground or 
 footing.^ And in order to allow of the pressure on the wall 
 being distributed as much as possible, the girder a a a, fig. 10, 
 Plate I Y., rests upon a "plate," or " or template," h h, 
 which will be better if of stone than of wood. This plate 
 should have a considerable projection on each side of the 
 bearer; a stone cap c c, and backpiece d, are usually added, 
 thus enclosing the end of the girder a a in an open box, 
 so_ to call it, thus freely exposing the timber to the air. 
 Girders are sometimes placed in cast iron boxes, called 
 "girder boxes;" examples of these ^vill be found in the 
 second, or "Advanced Course of Building Construction" 
 in this department of the present series of works. 
 In place of inserting the ends of "girders" into apertiu-es 
 in the walls, as illustrated, or into cast-iron boxes, 
 they are sometimes made to rest at, or bear upon, 
 the upper surfaces of stone corbels, which project 
 from the wall, thus keeping them free from it, and quite 
 exposed to the air. The girder a a, fig. 10, Plate IV., 
 carries the "binding joists," e e, which are framed, or 
 jointed, to the sides of the girders, as shown in fig. 11, 
 Plate TV., and the "binding joists," ee, carry the "flooring, 
 or bridging joists,"//, upon which the "flooring boards," 
 9 9, are placed. The " ceiling joists," h h, are carried by 
 the binders, and to these are secured the laths and plaster 
 ceiling, i i. The distance apart of the "girders," a a, fig. 
 10, Plate lY., is usually ten feet from centre to centre, the 
 bearing on the wall nine to twelve inches. In Plate lY, 
 fig. 11 is a cross section, and fig. 12 part plan of the 
 double framed fioor, of which fig. 10 is side elevation. 
 The corresponding parts are indicated by correspondin» 
 letters. All the drawings in Plate lY. are drawn to a scale 
 of " half-inch to the foot." The "herring bone strutting" 
 is shown ^tjj in fig. 11. Floors are, in the better class 
 of floors, provided with what is called " deadening " or 
 "deafening." This is made as follows : — To the sides of 
 the flooring joists,//, fig. 11, small "fillets," or "firring 
 
32 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 pieces," k h, are nailed, these carry tlie "sounding boards," 
 1 1, on whicli is laid the "pugging" m, composed of a 
 coarse plaster, and sometimes cut hay or straw, or 
 of coarse plaster and mortar alone. Fillets are some- 
 times nailed to the lower edges of the joists to carry the 
 laths ; these fillets serve, in the case of thick joists, as 
 keys to the plaster, in addition to those afforded by the 
 laths. The operation is termed " fining down." 
 
 2. Flooring Boards. — The boards which form the 
 walking surface of a floor are laid ujDon thcjoisting in 
 one of three ways. First, " folding floors," " straight 
 joint floors," and " dowelled floors." In the first of these 
 systems, the boards are laid four or five close together, 
 the fourth and fifth boards being laid rather closer, or 
 nearer, to each other than would be due to the space which 
 they would occupy if laid so as to allow the intervening 
 boards to go easily into the space left between this board 
 and the one laid last down. The I'esult of this is, that 
 the space left for the three or four boards to go into, is 
 rather less than the space they would actually occupy; 
 these four boards have therefore to be forced or jammed 
 into the space, this being done generally by laying down 
 a flat board, and pressing this down with the foot. Thus, 
 suppose the board, a a in tig. 1,* to be the last laid down, 
 the fourth board, h h, is then nailed to the rafters, so as 
 to make the space between it and a a a little less than 
 the space required by the three intervening boards, c d 
 and e, these being forced into the space between a a and 
 h h, and when flat, secured by nails to the joists ff f f. The 
 "heading joiats," g g, that is, the lines where the ends of the 
 contiguous boards butt against each other, are not in this 
 kind of flooring specially attended to, three or four meet- 
 ing in the same line, as at g g. The "heading joints" should 
 be arranged so as to meet in the centre, or, at least, above 
 
 * Where figures as "IJ," in fig. 4, are placed at the under 
 part of a diagram, they denote the scale to which the drawing in 
 the figure is drawn, thus, fig. 4 is drawn to a scale of "1^ inches 
 to the foot," or "1^" 
 
FLOORS, PARTITIONS, AND ROOFS. 33 
 
 tlie edges or solid face of rafters. In "straight joint floors," 
 
 
 1 n/ n n Hf n n f 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 a ai 
 
 
 ) 
 
 c ■ 
 f/ -J 
 
 
 I . — . ^ '± ■ 
 
 , — - — i 
 
 
 U 1 
 
 J u y HUM u 
 
 rig. 1. 
 
 the boards are laid across the joists, aaaa, fig. 2, with the 
 vertical, or side joints, in one continuous line, one board 
 being laid down and secured to the joists at a time, and 
 
 
 
 HI [51^ 1 f?l Ifl aKl 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •■!\ I'l' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kg. 2. 
 
 the next forced up close in contact with it, so as to make 
 the joint good, this being done with an instrument known 
 as a flooring clamp. The edges of the boards, as b h, are 
 kept in close contact by one or other of the methods pre- 
 sently to be described. The " heading joints," c c, are 
 generally secured together by one or other of these joints, 
 or, simply, in the least expensive work, made to butt 
 against each other. In "dowelled" floors, the boards are 
 laid straight, joints edge to edge, but are kept together by 
 
 C 
 
34 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 dowels, or pieces of oak or beacli set into the edges of the 
 boards, as shown in fig. 3, in which a a are the joists, h h 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, , 
 
 
 
 IS 
 
 I 
 
 J- 1 
 
 ] i 
 
 
 J 
 
 ri 
 
 1 " 
 
 \ 
 
 Fig. 3, 
 
 the flooring boards, c c the dowels. In fig. 4 the position 
 of these is shown to a larger scale, 1|- inches to the foot, 
 the leng-th of the dowels, a a, being about 3|- inches, and 
 
 Fig. 4, 
 
 the diameter -j^ths. The dowels may be inserted as shoAvn 
 &t aaaa, two dowels being given to the space between the 
 two joints, bh,hh; or the dowel may be placed so that it 
 
FLOOKS, PARTITIONS, AND KOOFS. 
 
 35 
 
 ■will be above tbe joists, as at c, the other as d, in the centre 
 of the space between the two joists b h. The flooring 
 boards, in "straight joint," d', and "dowelled floors," are 
 joined at their edges, by joints running in the du-ection 
 of the length of the boards, by one or other of the methods 
 illustrated in figs. 5 and 6, by a "rebated" joint, as at 6 6 
 in figs, 5 and 6, " tongued" and "grooved," as at c in same 
 figures. In "folded floors" (see fig. 1) the edgas of the 
 boards are straight-jointed, as at a in fig. 5, In this form 
 the boards are nailed to the joists at both edges ; but in 
 dowelled boards, or " tongued " or " rebated " joints, as 6 
 and c in fig. 6, one edge only may be nailed, the 
 tongue or groove keeping the other boards down. In 
 the better class of work, the boards are nailed at 
 the outer edge only, the nails or brads being driven 
 in a slanting or oblique direction. The mode of fastening 
 is thus not seen. The "heading joints" of flooring boards 
 may be left square, as at a in fig. 5 ; splayed, as at 6 ; or 
 " grooved and tongued," as at c in same figure. The 
 diagram a in fig. 6, shows the mode of nailing down the 
 heading joints, as at c in fig. 6, by the nail or brad driven 
 in an oblique direction. Flooring boards vary in breadth 
 from 5 to 9 inches and broader ; the narrowest of these 
 make the best flooring boards, as they are less apt to 
 warp and become hollow than broader boards. The 
 thickness varies from |- of an inch to two inches. Deal 
 boards are generally 1 to 1| inches in thickness. The 
 
 Kg. 5, 
 
 tipper surface of the boards, after "firring up," are 
 planed to an even surface. The joists should be "firredup" 
 perfectly level before the boards are laid doAvn. "JFirring 
 
36 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 tip " consists in laying down flat and thin slips of wood 
 on the surfaces or tipper edges of suck joists as happen 
 to be below the proper level, the object being the attaining 
 a uniform suirface. Flooring boards are not usually 
 finished off quite level on the surface, the central part 
 being higher than the sides by a height of from, half-an- 
 inch to one inch and a half; ceilings should also be 
 finished off higher in centre than at sides. This admits 
 of the "settlement" which usually takes place in all 
 buildings, ultimately bringing the surfaces as level as 
 possible. The edges of the boards must be shot and 
 squared, and brought to a uniform edge before they are 
 tongued and grooved. 
 
 V 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 3. Skirting Boards. — In order to conceal the joints 
 where the flooring boards butt up against, or approach to 
 the wall, and otherwise to add to the finish of the room, 
 boards more or less ornamented with mouldings, and of 
 greater or less depth, are fixed round 
 the walls of the room at their lower 
 parts where they join the floor. If this 
 finish is made up with a board com- 
 paratively narrow, and finished with 
 a moulding of a simple character, 
 the arrangement is known as a "skirt- 
 ing board," if the depth is considerable, 
 and finished with a base and a pro- 
 jecting cornice, it is called a " dado," 
 or "plinth." The reader will find this, 
 the more complicated form, illustrated Kg. 7. 
 
 in the " Advanced Course," the simpler form of finish to 
 
SKIRTING BOARDS. 
 
 37 
 
 the edge of a floor— namely, the ''skirting board" — being 
 only illustrated here, as in fig. 7, in which a a is part of 
 the timber to which the skirting board, in section,^ is 
 secured, finished with a moulding at c. The drawing 
 on the right is an elevation of the part to the left, or 
 showing the sku-ting board at the end of the room 
 lookuig toAvards it, the sides a a being supposed 
 to be at the left. In fig. 8, is illustrated a deepei 
 skirting board than in fig. 7. The lower part, 
 a a, is grooved into the flooring boards at h, the upper 
 c being grooved into a a, and fixed to the " ground " 
 — a piece of wood so called secured to the wall — d ; 
 e, the lower ground or fillet;/, the plaster; g, the wall. In 
 the drawing to the right, the upper and moulded part, a ,is 
 grooved into the lower part, h ; c, the plaster, keyed at d 
 into the ground, d e. The groove 
 at h, fig. 8, is to prevent the dust, 
 &c., from entering the room be- 
 tween the joints and getting be- 
 liind the skirting board. In place 
 of this a fillet, e, is sometimes used. 
 The thickness of the skirting board 
 varies from f of an inch to one 
 inch; the depth, from 4 to 6 inches 
 to one foot. The " ground," as d, 
 fig. 8, regulates the thickness of 
 the plastering, and should be accu- 
 'm%<m'MM^ rately fitted so as to present the 
 sides vertical, the edge horizontal; 
 Fig. 8. the usual thickness is an inch; the 
 
 plaster being keyed into the " ground," as at d in fig. 8, 
 or the upper edge of the ground may be bevelled or splayed 
 ofi" to serve it as a key for the plaster. The fitting of 
 boards of the skirting boards to an irregular surface as 
 that of a floor, is sometimes described as " scribing." 
 
 4. Joining of Timbers in Floors.— Fig. 9 illustrates a 
 method of joining the end of a " flooring joist," a, to a 
 wall plate, b ; a groove, as c, being cut out in the face of 
 
38 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 the wall plate, to allow the lower edge of the joist to pass 
 into it, the depth of the groove, as at d, being equal to the 
 
 depth to which the joist is to enter. In fig. 10 anothei 
 method is illustrated, a part being cut out on the 
 
 |7i 
 
 face of the wall plate, as in fig. 9, of same width 
 as the thickness of the joist, but a rib, a a, is left in 
 the centre, across its breadth ; this goes into a groove, b, 
 cut in the lower edge of the joist, and of the same depth 
 as the rib, a a ; a cross section of the wall plate is shown 
 ate; d showing the rib a a. Dovetail joints are sometimes 
 used in connecting joists with wall plates, the best form 
 being that illustrated in fig. 10, well known as the 
 "swallow-tail" joint. In this a part is cut out in the 
 upper face of the wall plate, as at e e, the end of the joist 
 
JOINING OF TIMBERS IN FLOORS. 
 
 39 
 
 on its lower edge being formed of tlie corresponding 
 shape, as at//; the side elevation of this is shown at g, 
 and a cross section on the line h h at i. Wall plates are 
 joined together in the direction of their lengths by the 
 "half lap" joint at ah, fig. 11, and at the corner of the wall, 
 
 3 'A." 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 as at c, by the same half lap joint, of which a side elevation 
 is at d, one of the plates at e, or they may be joined by the 
 "mitre" joint, as at / Joists are jointed to "trimmer 
 joists" (see fig. 9, Plate lY.), by the joint, in fig. 12; the 
 
 tenon a, in place 
 of stopping shoi't 
 as at the dotted 
 line, may be ex- 
 tended through 
 the trimming 
 joist, h b, as at c, 
 and secured by a 
 Fig. 12. "pin" as shown; 
 
 the front of trimmer is shown at e e, with the joint cut into 
 its face. The ends of "binding joists" are secured to the 
 
40 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 faces of "girders " by a joint of the same kind, which is 
 called a "tusk tenon," as illustrated at ee in fig. 1 1, Plate lY. 
 The usual depth of the tenon, e, is one sixth of the whole 
 depth of the binding joist ; and the plate of the tenon, e', 
 is one third of the depth of the joist measured from its 
 lower side. The "ceiling joists," c, fig. 4, Plate Y., are 
 joined to the " binding joists," as shown in fig. 13, where 
 a notch, a, is cut out of 
 the lower edge of the 
 binding joist, 6, into 
 which the ceiling joist, 
 c, is passed ; d d shows 
 the under side of bind- 
 ing joist with notch, e, 
 cut otit of it ; /, cross 
 section of do., with 
 ceiliiigjoist,^/. Another 
 method is adopted in 
 which a chase, or sunk 
 part, is cut, in a hori- 
 zontal direction, out on 
 
 one face of the binding joist, near its lower edge, the end 
 of the ceiling joist, a, being provided with a projecting 
 part or tenon passing into the chase or mortice, /yi 
 
 5. Lengthening of Beams.— Where " tie beams " are 
 required of such lengths as prevent them being in one 
 piece, two beams are lengthened by joining them in vari- 
 ous ways. We shall at present illustrate one or two of 
 the methods in use, describing others in a succeeding 
 part of this volume. The simplest and the strongest 
 mode of joining two timbers together in the direction 
 of their length is what is known as " fishing." In 
 this the two beams, a and h, fig. 1, Plate Y., to bo 
 joined, have their ends carefully squared ofi", and made 
 to butt against each other at c c; they are kept together 
 and secured by the flat pieces of timber, d d, e e, one 
 placed at the upper, the other at the lower edges of 
 the two beams; bolts,/ /, pass through the "fishing 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 liiil 
 
 i 
 
 Si 
 
LENGTHENING OF BEAMS. 
 
 41 
 
 pieces" d d e e, and the beams a h, and are secured by 
 nuts at the end ; the nuts should be screwed tightly up, 
 as on these depend the strength of the joints. As they are 
 apt to be incrusted into the wood, plates of iron are 
 sometimes placed beneath the bolt-heads and the nuts, or 
 in place of the fishing pieces being of timber, as in fig. 
 1, they are of iron, as shown in fig. 8, at a a. Usually 
 two fishing pieces are employed, as in fig. 1, Plate V., 
 and shown in section in fig. 4 ; in some cases, however, 
 fishing pieces are placed at the sides of the beams, thus 
 enclosing them, as it were, and as illustrated in fig. 5, 
 where a is the beam, b the lower, c the upper, d the left 
 hand, e the right hand fishing pieces, and secured by the 
 bolt and nuts. As said above, the method of " fishing 
 beams " is the strongest employed, but it is obviously un- 
 sightly and clumsy, in consequence of the projecting parts 
 as d de e, fig. 1, Plate V. To avoid this, the fishing pieces 
 are sometimes let in to the surface of the beams wholly, 
 as at b b, fig. 8, Plate Y., or partially, as at c c, same 
 figure ; but this method, although adding to the sightli- 
 ness of the joint, greatly takes from its strength. Other 
 methods are, therefore, adopted where appearance can be 
 gained without sacrificing the strength of the joint too 
 much. The principal upon which those other joints are 
 made is that known as scarfing, which enables the 
 joint to present a smooth, or rather flush appearance on 
 all sides. The simplest form of scarfed joint, known as 
 the half lap, with flat or rectangular "tables," by 
 which term the projecting parts or scarf joints are de- 
 signated, is illustrated in fig. 10, Plate V. In this a 
 part is cut out at the end of each beam, equal in depth 
 to half of the full depth of beam, and of length equal to the 
 required length of scarf. The two ends, when brought 
 together, form the joint, as in fig. 10, the projecting part 
 of one, as a, falling into the recessed part, b, of the other. 
 The two are secured together by the timber or iron plates 
 c c, d d, and by screw bolts and nuts. The plates 
 are better when extending beyond the ends of the 
 
42 
 
 Timber and iron worr. 
 
 joints, as shown by the dotted lines. The iron plates 
 should be provided with angular ends, as shown at 
 d, m %. 8. A very common form of scarfed ioint, 
 with angular or oblique "table," is illustrated in fig. 
 14, where the meeting faces of the two beams, a 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 and h, is oblique, as at c c; the ends being indented 
 angularly, as at e ; the two being secured together by 
 the plates,// g g ; better form of fishing 23late bein^, 
 hoAvever, as illustrated at a a, fig. 8, Plate V., the plates 
 extending beyond the joints, as in dotted lines in fig. 10, 
 Plate V. Another form of scarfed joint, with two tables^ 
 is illustrated in fig. 15,— a h, the two beams; c c, the 
 
 Kg. 15. 
 
 oblique tables. In addition to the screw bolts, and 
 nuts, and plates, d d d, wooden " key," e, is driven into 
 a groove cut to receive it; the key is of hard wood. 
 Keys are sometimes added to the scarf with plain table 
 as in fig. 10, Plate V., at the dotted lines e e. ' 
 
 6. Increasing the Depth of Beam.— Where beams 
 are required to be of greater depth than can be con- 
 veniently obtained by a single beam, two beams are 
 laid edge to edge, and secured in various ways. Fig. 16 
 illustrates one method known as cog'ging', caulking", 
 
iNCRHASlira THE THICKNESS OF BEAMS. 
 
 43 
 
 or keying A series of grooves, as a a, fig. 17, — wliicli 
 is a plan of tlie upper edge of the lower beam, h b, in fig. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 16^_are cut in the edges of the beam, at equal distances, 
 as shown, and keys or cogs, c c, driven into the grooves. 
 These prevent all lateral or side movements of the two 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 beams, a a, b b, upon one another ; and the beams are 
 secured and kept together vertically by the screw bolts, 
 d d. In place of these, straps, as e e, are sometimes em- 
 ployed. These are also sometimes used in place of bolts 
 in scarfing of beams, already illustrated in Plate V. Fig. 
 2, Plate v., is the plan of upper edge of the fished beam in 
 fig. 1 ; fig. 9 the plan of fig. 8; fig. 11 plan of fig. 10 ; 
 fio-. 6 section of fig. 8, on line d b' ; fig. 7 section of fig. 10, 
 on line a! V . The scale to which all the drawings in 
 Plate V. are drawn is " half-inch to the foot." 
 
 7. Increasing the Thickness of Beams.— When beams 
 are required to be of great thickness, in place of employ- 
 in«- one very thick beam, two beams are used, laid face 
 to^face, and strengthened either by inserting a flitch or 
 plate of wrought iron between the two beams, and 
 securing them together by screw bolts and nuts, or by 
 what is called trussing them. These methods are illus- 
 trated in Plate VI., fig. 1, being part elevation of a 
 "flitch" beam (sometimes also called a "sandwich" 
 
44 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 beam),^^ff a, the timber beam, with wrought-iron flitch, 
 h h, I" thick. The two beams shown at a a, 6 h, in 
 figs. 2 and 4 —plans of top of beam at its ends,— are 
 secured together by screw bolts, which pass through the 
 beams, a a, h h, and the flitch c, as at d d. Fig. 3 is a 
 cross section. The scale of this drawing is half-inch to 
 the foot. Fig. 5 is a " trussed beam." The beam to be 
 trussed is usually made out of two beams formed by 
 cutting up a beam in the direction of its length, and 
 reversing the sides, so that what formed the inside 
 of the beam is turned to the outside. This plan of 
 sawing up a single beam to form either a flitch beam 
 or a trussed one is very good, as it exposes the 
 central part of the wood to the action of the air, and 
 shows defective parts. In fig. 6, a and h are the two 
 beams, and fig. 6 shows the arrangement of the truss 
 between the two. This consists of a central stud of 
 wrought iron, a ; the head, h, of which is formed with a 
 plate which lies in the upper edges of the beam, as shown 
 in plan, fig. 7, at a; the lower part is provided with a 
 screwed part and a nut, c, for tightening up the stud ; the 
 nut presses upon a small washer plate as shown. The 
 upper part of the stud, a, fig. 5, Plate VI., is made with 
 two angular butting faces, d d, against wliich the upper 
 ends of the struts or braces, e e, of hard wood or of iron 
 butt, the low end butting against the part /of the stud, g. 
 This stud is provided with a bolt, h, to resist the pressure 
 and keep it in place ; or the stud is made wider, and let 
 ni at both sides into grooves cut in the faces of the two 
 beams. The whole parts are further secured by bolts, i i. 
 Fig. 8 is part elevation; fig. 9 paii; plan; and fig. 10 
 section of a beam trussed in the queen post principle, 
 a straining piece, a a, being placed between the two 
 studs, ^ h; G c, the struts. In Plate XI., fig. 1, the 
 elevation of a method of forming girder beams of greater 
 depth than could be made out of a single beam or of 
 tAvo beams, is already illustrated. This, as the reader 
 will perceive, is an open beam, and is sometimes called 
 
BRESTSUMMERS. 
 
 45 
 
 a trellis beam " although the more correct form of a 
 trellis beam will be found illustrated in the Advanced 
 Course, Building Construction, in this series. In fig. 1, 
 Plate XI., the open beam is made up of a sill, or lower 
 beam, a a, this may be according to the span or bearing 
 of the beam— either iii one length, or if made up of one 
 or more lengths, these may be scarf jointed as already 
 illustrated. The " head," or upper beam, b b, supported 
 at intervals by studs, posts, or puncheons, or short 
 beams, c c, placed vertically. Between the beams, braces 
 or struts, d d, are stretched ; butting at the ends against 
 the sills, e e, heads, b b, and studs, c c, as shown. The 
 heads and sills are further secured together either by screw 
 bolts and nuts as shown at e e, or by straps at //. Fig. 
 2 is a vertical section through line a' b', showing how the 
 posts, c c, are mortised into the head, b, and sill, c, and 
 secured by the bolt, e. Fig. 3 is a section on the line 
 c' d', showing the crossmg of the struts or braces, d d, 
 which are half lapped into each other at the point of 
 crossing,//, the strap. Fig. 4 is a horizontal sectional 
 plan in the line e'/i ^ is a plan of upper side of 
 sill, a a, showing the mortise, at b c, into which _ the 
 tenon at foot of struts, as in fig. 8 at a (in side elevation), 
 and at b (in plan) pass. At a, in fig. 7, is shown the 
 mortise in which part of the tenon or strut, as c d, fig. 8, 
 passes. Fig. 6 is a plan of upper side of one of the 
 studs, c c. 
 
 8. Brestsummers, or Bressumers, are beams of consider- 
 able thickness and depth thrown across wide openings, as 
 that of a shop front, to support breast of front wall, built 
 above the opening. They may be strengthened by one or 
 other of the methods just described, and should have a bear- 
 ing of at least nme inches in the wall at each end. " Tem- 
 plates " of stone, or timber, should be used, on which the 
 ends of the brestsummer rests ; a very usual size for the 
 brestsummer is 14 in. by 12, or 14 in. by 9. A lintel is a 
 beam or small bressummer thrown across a narrow opening 
 made in a wall, as that for a window or door opening of 
 
45 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 the usual width. It is the ordinary practice to allow 
 one nich m depth for each foot of width of opening • a 
 good proportion for a lintel is 7 in. by 5. The bearino- 
 in the wall should be nine inches. If the wall is thick^ 
 two or more lintels are used ; and it is good practice to 
 give tlie lintels a bearing upon oak templates, whicli 
 should stretch across the full breadth of wall. 
 
 9. Partitions.—When the partitions of a house are 
 formed of timber, they are finished in one of two ways. 
 When the spaces between the various timbers forming the 
 partition are filled up with bricks, the partition is termed 
 bricknog-ged ; if the spaces are not so filled up, but left 
 void, and these and the timbers first covered with lath- 
 ing, and the laths then plastered, the partition is termed 
 a "quarter" or "quartering." In some cases a quarter 
 partition is not covered with laths and plaster, but simply 
 with boarding, painted or papered on its outer surface ; 
 the boards being tongued and grooved. The following are 
 the names of the various members which make up the 
 assemblage of timbers of a partition, as illustrated in ficr 
 3, Plate YII.— a a a, the "sill;" b h 6, the "head;" c c c, the 
 "l)osts" or "quarterings;" dd,ihQ "struts" or "braces-" 
 e, the " head at a door opening;"//, the " filling-in pieces'" 
 or " single quarterings." Partitions are of various kinds. 
 Pig. 2 illustrates part of one of the simplest forms, in 
 which there are only "sill," a a; "head," h'h- 
 "post," c; and "filling-in pieces," d d ; this is 
 called a "framed partition." Fig. 3 is a "framed 
 and braced partition," as is also the upper part 
 of fig. 1. When folding doors or a large opening in 
 the centre of a partition are required, as at a in fig. 1, 
 Plate VII., or where the partition is to support a second 
 partition above it, as in the same figure, the lower 
 partition is to be "trussed" in the same manner 
 as a roof is trussed (see "Roofs" in this chapter); and 
 the partition is then termed "framed, braced, and 
 trussed," or simply a "trussed partition." This is 
 illustrated in fig. 1, Plate YIL, where the trussed part 
 
JOINING OF TIMBERS IN PAKTITIONS. 
 
 47 
 
 is Sit g g, h h, i i. The other parts are the same as 
 described in fig. 2 of this Plate. The "truss" in fig. 1 is 
 what is called a " queen post" truss (see " Eoofs") ; g g 
 corresponding to the tie beam ; h h, the queen posts ; i i, 
 the "struts" or "braces;" jj, the "straining beam." 
 Partitions are sometimes made to rest upon the floor 
 joists, but this should be avoided in good and sound con- 
 struction ; as, if done, the joists in settling, which they do 
 in all cases more or less, will allow the partition to drop, 
 and the result will be a crack or joint opening at the line 
 of the cornice, or where the plaster of the partition joins 
 that of the ceiling. The best plan is to support the upper 
 partition sill upon upright blocks or "puncheons" of 
 wood, same thickness and depth as the flooring joists, 
 these blocks resting upon the head of the partition below, 
 as illustrated in fig. 4, Plate YII. ; where a a is part of 
 ' " head" of lower partition ; b b, part of " sill " of upper 
 do. ; c c, " flooring joists ;" d, " puncheon" or block of 
 wood, which may be placed between the joists, or close to 
 them, as at e. Comi)lete settlement of all the timbers 
 should be allowed to take place 
 before plastering of a partition is 
 begun to. 
 
 10. Joining: of Timbers in 
 Partitions. — These are now to 
 be illustrated. Fig. 18 shows two 
 methods of joining the "post," c, 
 fig. l,Plate VII., with the "sill," 
 a, as at the end, on ; the end of 
 the post, a, as fig. 18, being ten- 
 oned, as at 6 ; this passing into 
 a mortice made in sill, as at c ; 
 or the tenon on end of post may 
 be lengthened, so as to pass to the 
 Fig. 18. under edge of sill, a groove being 
 
 made in the end of sill, as shown at d. The junction of 
 the post, c, with sill at joint, n, fig. 1, Plate YII., is made 
 by mortice and tenon joint, as in fig. 19, where a is the 
 
48 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 "post," hh "sill," c the "tenon," passing into the mortice 
 d. The mortice and tenon joint may be much stisngtli- 
 ened by what is called fox-tailing. In this the s.des of 
 
 i! 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 f 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 the mortice are made with sloping sides, as at g g, in fig. 
 19; and the ends of the tenon,/, are provided with small 
 wedges, partly driven into the end of the tenon. When 
 the post, G e, is driven into the sill, h h, the small wedge. 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 being forced into the tenon, causes the sides to bulge 
 out, and fill up, or partially fill 
 
 the mortise. Fisc. 
 
ROOFS. 
 
 40 
 
 20 slhows a method of joining the end of the " brace " or 
 " strut," d, fig. 1, Plate VII., with the sill, a a, as at the 
 point o; a, fig. 20, being the strut; b, the sill; the tenon, 
 c, being made with a shoulder or part cut out, as at c^; 
 e IS am edge view of the strut ; / a cross section of the 
 sill. The junction of the " fiUing-in pieces," as/ f, fig. 1, 
 
 Fig. 21, 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 Plate YII., as at j) and q, are shown at j and k in fig. 20, 
 j and k corresponding to p and q, d to d, and c to a, fig. I, 
 Platei YII. The head, e, of door opening, fig. 1, Plate VII., 
 may be joined to the posts, c c, by 
 the method shown in fig. 21, or fig. 
 22, where a a is the head, h b the 
 post. The method in fig. 23, at 
 a, is that most usually adopted. 
 The end may be terminated by a 
 tenon, as at b, fig. 23, this going 
 into a mortise made in the post. 
 The edge view of the post is 
 shown at c, with the sloping 
 shoulders of notch and the mor- 
 tise shown. A section of the 
 S/4'j " head " is shown at d 
 
 11. Roofs.— The simplest form 
 Fig. 23. of roof is what is called a shed 
 
 or lea,n-to roof, in Avhich the rafter is supported at one 
 end om the front wall, a, and at the other on the back wall 
 which is higher than the front, and which may be repre- 
 sented by the dotted line b c, in fig. 3, Plate IX.; the end of 
 this forms a triangle, of which the rafter, d c, forms the 
 
50 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 hypothenuse. Where the walls are of equal height, as af, 
 fig. 3, Plate IX.; and the rafters, d c, gh, are placed at equal 
 angles, the lower end resting on the wall, and the upper 
 butting against each other, or against a board, h, called a 
 " ridge pole ; " the roof is called a " span roof" sometimes 
 a "couple roof" Tliis is only used for roofs of very 
 small span, and supporting a very light covering, as 
 boards or asphalted felt, as there is no provision made 
 to prevent the ends, d h, of the rafters separating, or 
 pressing the walls, a f, outwards. This tendency is pre- 
 vented in the next simplest form of roof, called a "collar 
 beam roof," shown to the right of fig. 3, in Plate IX., by 
 the addition of what is called a "collar beam," i, which 
 stretches across from rafter to rafter, at a height of about 
 one-third of the rise of the roof, and is secured to the face 
 of the rafters by the joint at /c is a member called 
 a "purlin," of which more presently. 
 
 In fig. 1, Plate YIII., what is called a "Idng jiost" roof 
 is illustrated. In this a " tie beam," a a, stretches from 
 wall to wall, resting at its ends upon " wall plates," b b, 
 built into the wall, c c. The vertical central post, d d, is 
 called the " king post" The "principal rafters," e e, butt 
 against the upper and bevelled sides,//, of the king post 
 at their upper end, and at their lower are jointed to the 
 tie beam at g g. The " cominon rafters," h h, butt at their 
 upper extremities against the " ridge pole," i, and at 
 their lower are notched into and supported by the "^90?e 
 plates," jj, which again are notched into the upper face of 
 the tie beam, a a. These numbers form an assemblage of 
 timbers, called a " truss" and are placed upon the Avall 
 at equal distances from (but parallel to) each other, about 
 nine to ten feet, as shown at a « in plan, fig. 2. The 
 "common rafters," h h, fig. 1, and// fig. 2, are placed 
 between these trusses, at equal distances of generally 14 
 inches from centre to centre, being supported at one or 
 more parts of their length between " pole plate" h b, and 
 " ridge pole" c c, fig. 2, by one or more timbers, called 
 " purlins," h h, fig. 1, and d d, fig. 2. Fig. 3 is part ver- 
 
EOOFS. 
 
 51 
 
 tical section and edge view of the truss in fig 1, looking 
 towards it in the direction of the arrow, I; and fig. 4 do., in 
 the direction of the arrow, m. Fig. 5 is part plan of wall; 
 fig. 6 part elevation of wall. " Sto'uts " or " braces," n n, fig. 
 1, Plate YIII., support the '■'principal rafters," and butt 
 against the lower bevelled sides at the foot of " king post." 
 In fig. 2 the dotted lines, e e, show the way in which the 
 boards supporting the slates are carried ; or if battens are 
 used for these, they run as at dotted line, e, fig. 2. In fig. 5, 
 5 6 is " wall plate," c c the "gable wall," c " side wall," h h 
 "common rafter," i a "ridgepole." (See fig. 1, Plate V.) 
 
 In fig. 1, Plate IX., we give an illustration of a " queen 
 post truss," used for wider spans than the king post truss, 
 or for cases where a central space is required in the roof. 
 a a, the tie beam /" b b, ''wall plates ;" c c, the " walls," 
 d d, the "queen iwsts f e e, "straining beam f f, 
 "straining sill;" g g, "principal rafters;" h h, "common 
 do.; ii, "p>ole plates;" j, "ridge pole;" k k, " p)urlins." 
 Fig. 2 is edge view of the truss. Where the gable or end 
 wall of a house is carried up to form with its sides 
 angles of the same slope as that of tlie truss, the " pur- 
 lins" terminate at, and are supported by, the walls, 
 and sometimes project beyond them. Fig. 1, Plate X., 
 illustrates the arrangement of timbers in a span roof with, 
 gable end in one half of the drawing, to the left of the 
 central line, a'b'; the " pirincipal rafters" are indicated by 
 double lines, bb;i\iQ gable wall, c c, is carried up parallel to 
 these, and finished at the same angle; d d, the " oidge 
 pole" or "ridge piece;" e e, the " purlins ;" f f "wall 
 plates;" gg," common rafters." The half of the diagram 
 in fig. 1, Plate X., shows plan of roof with flashing", 
 h h, at ridge, " gutter " at i i;Vc h 1 1, lines indicating the 
 slating. In what is called a hip or hipped roof, 
 the ends of the wall of buildings are not gabled, but are 
 terminated at the same level as the side wall. The roof 
 at the end is thus formed at an angle to meet the angle of 
 the roof springing from the sides, as a c, fig. 2; b, c, and d, 
 indicating the lines of slating. In the half of the drawing 
 
52 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 towards the left of the central line, o! b', c c indicate the 
 " ridge o^ole;" i i, the "wall plates" at side ; and h, the 
 " commo7i rafters;" the "principal rafters" being indicated 
 by the double lines; / g, the "purlins." The sloping 
 or anoTilar rafters, //, which spring from the corners of 
 the wall, are termed the hip rafters " or " angle rafters; 
 the short rafters, to meet the hips springing from the 
 wall plate in the end wall, are called "jack rafters, &sgg. 
 
 Fi^. 4, Plate IX., illustrates a form of " truss m 
 which the king post of timber is dispensed with, and a 
 wrought-iron rod or bolt, a a, is used; the rafters butt 
 against the ends of, and are passed into hollow parts of 
 a cast-iron " rafter box, b; c, " braces;" d, "purlin; ee, tie 
 beam;" //, " wall plates ;" g g, "pole plates. _ What are 
 called sometimes " cushion rafters " or " prmcipal braces, 
 are subsidiary rafters, placed close below the_ principal 
 rafters, to strengthen these when required; their position 
 is indicated at a c, fig. 4, Plate X., b being the principal 
 rafter ; a a, the line of upper edge of tie beam. _ 
 
 12 Covering for Roof Surfaces.— Roofs are covered m 
 this- country generally with slates ; in rural buildings with 
 tiles ; and iron roofs are covered with galvanized iron, 
 zinc, or with slates. We purpose to describe slate cover 
 inc^, leaving noticeof other materials to the Advanced Course 
 in Building Construction in this series, where also will be 
 found a list of the dififerent kinds and sizes of slates. _ In 
 
 fig. 24 we give illustrations 
 of two sizes of slates, known 
 as countess, a ; and duchess, 
 b ; the size of a being 
 20 in. long by 10 wide, 
 that of 6 2 feet long by 
 1 foot wide. The upper 
 surface of a slate, that ex- 
 posed to view when on a 
 roof, is called the " back ;" 
 Y\g. 24. the lower or under edge, the 
 
 "bed;" the lower edge, a, fig. 25, the "taH;" the upper 
 
COVERING FOR ROOF StlRFACES. 
 
 53 
 
 edge, h, fig. 25, the " head." Slates are placed on a roof 
 in such a way that certain parts only of their surface are 
 exposed to view, the other part being covered by slates 
 which overlap them ; the whole arranged so that they 
 "break joint," as the technical term is, and as shown iu 
 fig. 25, where the joint of the lower course, as c c, 
 is covered by the solid part of the course, as d d. The 
 part exposed to view, as the part between e e of the slate 
 
 cl 
 
 3/ 
 
 d 
 
 c pi 
 
 CU 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 3/ 
 
 above c, is called the margin. This varies according to 
 circumstances, and its width, or rather depth, as from e to e, 
 is called the gauge of the slated covering of the roof. 
 The bond or lap is the depth which an upper slate 
 covers or overlaps the plate below it. This "lap" or 
 " bond " is measured from the line c d, or ef'va. a or h, 
 fig. 24, running through the centres of the nail holes, 
 pai-allel to the " head " of the slate ; this line being 
 known as the nail line. Before fixing, the slates are 
 trimmed at the edge, and the holes punched as near to 
 the head as possible without incuning the danger of 
 breaking the slate. The slates are fixed either to " board- 
 ing " or to " battens," these being secui-ed at intervals to 
 the upper edges of the rafters of the roof Fig. 26 illus- 
 trates the mode of fixing slates to boarding — a a, a a, the 
 
54 
 
 Timber and iron work. 
 
 board nailed to the rafters, hhhh; c c c, the " slates;" d d, 
 the "margin." 
 
 If the slates are fixed to battens, which are small 
 timbers 2 to 3 inches wide and three-fourths of an inch in 
 thickness, the distance from centre to centre of the battens 
 is determined by the "gauge" or depth of the margin e e, 
 fig. 25. This is found by halving the distance from the 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 "nail line," c d, fig. 24, to the tail, a, fig. 25, of the 
 slate, deducting from this the width or depth of the 
 "bond" or lap, and dividing the result by 2. Thus, in 
 fig. 25, the slate, a 6, is a duchess slate, 2 feet long by 1 
 foot wide. The nail line is 1 inch from head, h ; this 
 gives 23 inches as the distance from this to the tail, a, of 
 the slate; the "bond" or "lap" is fixed at, say, 3 inches, 
 which deducted from 23 gives 20, and this divided by 2 
 gives 10 inches as the "margin," e e, fig. 25, and the 
 distance from centre to centre of the battens, f f. Fig. 
 27 gives the section of the arrangement, where a a is 
 
Weather boarding. 
 
 65 
 
 t\ie rafter; 6 h, the battens ; c c, the slates. In fig. 28, 
 the "tilting piece" or "eaves board" is shown at a. 
 This is feather edged, 
 thicker at one edge 
 than at the other, 
 and its ofl&ce is to 
 tilt lip the lower or 
 eaves course of slates ; 
 the width of the tilt- 
 ing piece, a, is 6 
 inches; the thickness 
 of lower edge, IJ; Fig. 27. ^ 
 
 and of its upper edge, three-fourths of an inch in thick- 
 ness. In this fig. 6 6 6, the battens; c, the rafters; 
 d d e e, the slates. For lead flashing, and lead work 
 
 e 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 generally, see the Chapter in this volume on " Work 
 in Lead and Iron." 
 
 13. Weather Boarding. — What is called "weather 
 boarding," used to cover the oiitside walls, and sometimes 
 the roofs, of sheds, &c., is " feather edged"— that is, with 
 one edge thicker than the other. The thin edge is 
 
56 
 
 TIMBER AN£) IUON WOKK. 
 
 place;! uppermost, and the boards are placed so tliat a 
 "la])" of from f to 1 inch is allowed. 
 
 14. Gutters of Roofs. — There are various methods of 
 making these. The simplest is that illustrated in lig. 3, 
 Plate X., the "gutter," a, being one formed of cast iron, 
 zinc, or galvanized iron ; it is nailed to one end of the 
 rafter, h, and the rain from the roof is dropped into the 
 gutter by the lower course of slates, as c, projecting a 
 little beyond the face of the rafter, h. The diagram to 
 the right is a front elevation of the gutter. The gutter, 
 a a, is attached to the end of the rafters so that there 
 shall be a slight fall or inclination in the direction of its 
 length, and towards the "down spout," which leads the 
 rain water to the drain or to the cistern. In fig. 5, 
 Plate X., we illustrate a method of forming a gutter 
 and the eaves of a roof very commonly used; in this, a a 
 is the wall ; h, the "pole plate ;" c c, the "common rafter." 
 The "gutter," d d, is formed as shown; the bottom, e e, 
 being tailed into the wall ; to the front or face board, f, the 
 mouldings, g, are secured. The board, e e, rests upon 
 the upper face of the cantalever, h li, the outer face of 
 which is moulded, as shown, or the moulded fascia, 7i', may 
 yiTyjTTrj^r^^ be secured to the wood 
 
 i^i/i /li'/ ^'^'^ ,' 7~ "'~ — brick, shown by the 
 
 dotted line, i, the canta- 
 lever being dispensed 
 with. The drawing to 
 the left is a front eleva- 
 tion of the gutter 
 In figs. 29 and 30 we illusti'ate other 
 forms of "cantalevers," the office of which is to support the 
 eave and overhanging gutter. Fig. 30, properly speak- 
 ing, is a bracket, the lower end of which is supported 
 by a small stone corbel, a, moulded on face, and tailed 
 or built into wall, 6 6 ; c c, a bracket, also tailed into 
 wall, supported at its outer end by the angillar piece, 
 chamfered (see Chapter Third on " Joiner's "Work ") on 
 its edges, as shown. The angular part between the 
 
 ^ "'"Tig. 29. 
 
 mouldings, &c. 
 
GUTTERS OP ROOFS. 
 
 57 
 
 bracket, c c, and corbel, a, is frequently Hglily orna- 
 mented with scroll work. In e e is an edge or front 
 view of parts c a and e. What is termed a bridged 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
 gutter is illnstrated in fig. 31. In this the gutter, 
 a, is behind the front wall, the upper part of which 
 is terminated by the cornice ; so that the lower part of 
 roof or eave and the 
 gutter are not seen from 
 the outside; h h, the 
 • wall ; c, wall plate ; 
 common rafter; the 
 gutter boarding, e e, 
 is supjDorted by the 
 bridging piece, f. 
 What is known as 
 a valley, or valley 
 gutter, is illustrated 
 in fig. 32, being used Fig. 31. 
 
 where two span roofs parallel to one another meet in a 
 central point in the "valley;" a a is the tie beam, 
 
68 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 supported in the centre by a tnissed partition, part of 
 "which is seen at 5 ; c c, the common rafters, butting 
 
 against the plate, d ; 
 e, the bridging piece 
 of gutter, which 
 carries the gutter 
 board, f. In the 
 Advanced Course of 
 Building Construc- 
 tion in this series, 
 other forms of gut- 
 ters, with details 
 of the parts, will be 
 given. 
 
 The eaves of 
 Kg. 32. gabled roofs are 
 
 frequently finished with cut or ornamented timber, as 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 in fig. 33, fig. 34, showing an ornamented eaves- 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 board for a horizontal eave. In the Advanced 
 
JOINTS USED IIT FRAMING OP ROOFS. 
 
 59 
 
 Course, designs for barge board and eaves will be 
 given. 
 
 Joints used in Framing of Roofs. 
 
 36 we illustrate Junctions 
 Wall Plates. In fig. 35, 
 
 15. In figs. 35 and 
 of Tie Beams with 
 
 a notch, c, is cut out 
 in the lower or under 
 edge of the "tie 
 beam," a a ; the "wall 
 plate," b, passing into 
 this. In fig. 36, the 
 plan of ''cogging" the 
 "tie beam," c c, to the 
 "wall plate," b, is 
 shown — in this a 
 groove is cut in the Tig. 35. 
 
 face of the " toall plate" at e e, with a notch in the lower 
 edge of th«! "tie beam," as at /; a key or cog, d, of 
 hard wood is driven into the notch, e e, in " wall plate," 
 and the " tie beam" placed in situ, the upper part of 
 the cog, d, passing into the notch on its under side. 
 
 16. Junction of Foot of Principal Rafter with Tie 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 Beam. — The simplest method of forming this junction is 
 by cutting out a notch in the upper edge of tie beam, a 
 
60 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK;. 
 
 fig. 37, with an angular end, as at h c, and sloping edge, 
 c d; the end, b c, being at right angles to the face, b e, 
 of the principal rafter, thus giving the best butting 
 
 rig. 37. 
 
 surface. But this method, cutting too deeply into the tie 
 beam, the joint is passed in a horizontal direction, as at 
 / g, the form of the part cut out being as in h h, which is 
 the upper edge of the tie beam. The pai-t from b to e 
 is kept the full width of the thickness of tie beam ; but 
 the part ef g dis formed into a tenon, as atj, which goes 
 into a mortise, kk; this last diagram being plan of upper 
 side of tie beam, showing seat for the foot of principal 
 rafter. Another form of joint is that indicated by the 
 line i d, the part b i being at right angles to h e. Fig. 38 
 shows another method of forming the junction of the foot 
 of principal rafter, a a, with tie beam, hh', d, the tenon; 
 
62 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 17. Junction of Foot of King Post with Tie Beam.— 
 
 In fig. 39, the foot of the " king post," a a, is tenoned into 
 the upper face of the "tie beam," h h, as at c, in the cross 
 section to the right. The end of the "strut," d, may simply 
 butt up against the sloping shoulder at foot of king post; 
 but the better way is to tenon the end of the strut, as at 
 e, the mortise being made in the face of the shoulder at/. 
 In the diagram, half of the king post is shown in section. 
 As the tendency of the tie beam is to fall away from the 
 " king post" (see "Eemarks on Strains in Beams" in the 
 Building Construction, Advanced Course, in this series), an 
 iron strap is used to connect the tie beam. In fig. 40, the 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 method of using a strap is illustrated — a a, the king post 
 tenoned into the "tie beam," h h, as at c. A wrought-iron 
 strap, d d, is passed round the tie beam, and secur'ed to the 
 king post by the iron " gibs," e e, and "keys," //; g g, 
 the struts or braces. The diagram to the right is a cross 
 section. (See last Chaptei', p. 24.^ 
 
JUNCTION OF STRUTS WITH KING POST. 63 
 
 18. Junction of Struts or Braces with Upper Ends of 
 King and Queen Posts. — Fig. 41 illustrates two methods, 
 — one to the right, the other to the left of the central line 
 a'h';aa, the king post ; the sloping shoulder to receive the 
 butting end of the strut, *, may be of the same width as the 
 end of the strut, as 6 c ; the end of i being tenoned into the 
 shoulder, h c, at d. But, as this arrangement gives a wide 
 and, in some cases, a clumsy appearance to the head of 
 king post, the method shown to the left of the line a' b' 
 is adopted. In this there are two faces, e f, f g, to the 
 
 Eig. 41. 
 
 end of the strut, j ; and two faces corresponding to the 
 tenon, e' /' g', in the edge of the king post, a' a'. (See 
 second view to the right.) In both cases the lines b o 
 and e f are at right angles to the line of face of struts, 
 i j. The " ridge pole," or ridge piece, is inserted at top of 
 the king post, in a groove, h, cut for the purpose. In 
 usual practice, especially necessary in the case of roof 
 trusses for wide spans, the " struts," i and j, are kept 
 in connection with the king post by an iron strap; for 
 description of which see Chapter on "Lead and Iron 
 Work." 
 
64 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 19. Junction of Straining Beams with the Head of 
 
 Queen Post — Ilhistrated 
 in fig. 42, ill wMch a a is 
 the head of queen post ; h, 
 upper terminationof "prin- 
 cipal rafter]" and c, right 
 hand end of the "straining 
 beam." The joint &if g h 
 is made in the same way 
 as joint, e f g,in fig. 41, 
 and the end of straining 
 beam, c, is simply notched 
 into the edge of the queen 
 post, as Sit d e. A better 
 joint for this part is shown in fig. 43, a tenon, a a, being 
 formed at the end of the straining beam, c, this pass- 
 ing into a mortise, h b, 
 in edge of queen post. 
 In some forms of queen 
 post trusses, the depth 
 or thickness of the 
 queen post is made 
 up of two timbers, 
 as a a, h h, fig. 44 ; 
 these embrace the " tie 
 beams," c c, as shown ; 
 as also the "straining 
 sill," dd; and "strut" 
 or " brace," e e, as shown 
 in the section at f. 
 The ends of these 
 pieces butt against each 
 Fig. 43. other, as shown at 
 
 g h. The whole are secured together by screw bolts 
 and nuts, * i. The drawing in fig. 45 illustrates the 
 junction of head of queen post corresponding to the ar- 
 rangement shown in fig. 44, a a being the queen post made 
 up of two pieces, hh,ccj cZ(i, the "principal rafter;" 
 
JUNCTION OF PURLIN WITH PRINCIPAL RAFTER, 65 
 
 e e, the straining beam, jointed at / g, and secured by 
 the screw bolts and nuts, h h; i, section of straining 
 beam, e e. 
 
 Fig. 44, 
 
 20. Junction of Purlin with Principal Rafter.— Purlins 
 are secured to the principal rafter in a A^ariety of ways, 
 one of wliicli is shown in fig, 46 ; in which a a is 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 the "principal rafter;" J, the "purlin," notched at it^ 
 lower end into edge of " principal rafter," a a, and at its 
 upper end to the " common rafter," c c. A " blocking 
 
66 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WOIIK. 
 
 p'ece," d, is notched into face of the rafter, a a, against 
 which the lower face of purlin, b, rests. When it is 
 deemed to have the space e e between the principal, a a, 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 
 V 
 
 i ' 
 
 < 
 
 
 1 
 
 - h 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 and common rafter, c c, done away with, in order to lessen 
 the depth of the truss, the " purlin," h, is cut into short 
 
 lengths, and each length 
 tenoned at the end into 
 mortises, as shown by the 
 dotted lines, /, made in 
 the faces of the rafter, 
 a a. This method, weak- 
 ening as it does the 
 strength of the rafter, and 
 throwing the whole strain 
 on the purlin upon the 
 tenon,/, is not to be re- 
 commended. In roofs of 
 small span, the blocking 
 piece, d, is dispensed with, 
 Fig. 47. and the purlin merely 
 
 notched into edge of rafter, a a; or it may be simply 
 luid in the edge and spiked to the rafter. In fig. 46, 
 
JUNCTION OF A COLLAR BEAM WITH RAFTER. 67 
 
 the drawing to the right is a side elevation of the 
 section to the left. 
 
 21. Junction of a Collar Beam with Rafter— Illus- 
 trated in fig. 47, in which a a is the rafter ; h h, the' collar 
 beam ; " the two being notched to each other with a half 
 lap joint, as shown at d e, which is a section of the 
 collar beam, b b, on edge. The notch cut in face of the 
 rafter is equal in depth to half the thickness of the 
 collar, b h, so that when the two are laid together the 
 surface of 6 5 is "flush" or even with the surface 
 
 a a. The two are secured together by a nail at c. 
 In simple work, the collar, b b, is simply nailed to the 
 face of a a. In fig. 48, we illustrate another form of 
 
 Kg. 48. 
 
 this joint, a part of the face of " rafter," a a, is cut out at 
 6, the end of the " collar beam," c d, being cut to corre- 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 spond j the end c is of the thickness of the depth of the 
 part h cut out in face of a a, so that when put together 
 
63 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 tlie faces oiaa,c d, will be flush." The lower diagram 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 upon it fi-om the side, a when laid horizontally. In fig. 49, 
 
JUNCTION OF SIP RAFTER WITH WALL PLATE, 69 
 
 the joint known as a bird mouth joint is shown, being 
 used where an angular timber, a a, as a rafter joins 
 a " wall plate," h h ; this is shown also in fig. 50. 
 
 32. Junction of the Foot of a Hip Rafter with Wall 
 Plate. — In this a h, fig. 51, are the wall plates, joined at the 
 corner of the wall, c, by the joint, as shown a,i d e f g ; a 
 piece, h h, is thrown across at the angle shown, joining the 
 two wall plates with a half lap joint; this piece, h A, is 
 called the angle tie;" and in roofs of small span this 
 receives the foot of the "hip 
 rafter," as at a in fig. 52. 
 But in a higher class of 
 work, and with roofs of 
 great span, another mem- 
 ber is provided, as * i in 
 fig. 51. This is called the 
 dragon beam, or dragon 
 tie, and its office is to 
 carry the foot of the hip 
 rafter, as a a, fig. 53 j in 
 this . figure, h being the 
 dragon beam, correspond- 
 ing to h h, fig. 51 ; c, 
 the " angle tie," corresponding to i 
 being the wall plate, b, in fig. 51. Fig: 
 side elevation and section in the line j j, fig. 
 "dragon heam"b, fig. 
 53, is tenoned into 
 the " angle tie," c, as 
 shown, with a " tusk 
 tenon ; " or a tenon 
 may be carried 
 through the tie and 
 pinned, as shown by 
 the dotted lines. The 
 end of the dragon 
 beam near the wall 
 plates is half lap notched, into face of wall plates, as 
 
70 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 shown at d, fig. 53, a corresponding notch being cut in 
 the wall plates, as shown at e/^, fig, 51. 
 
 23. Centres and Miscellaneous Joints.— In addition 
 to its uses in the construction of floors, roofs, and parti- 
 tions, such as we have described in the preceding para- 
 graphs, timber is used in framing structures for a Avide 
 variety of purposes, as "gates," " scafiblding," "bridges," 
 " centres," and in the construction of houses built entirely 
 of wood, such as " sheds," " warehouses," &c. To illus- 
 trate all these in the present volume would not only take 
 up much more space than its pages can afford ; but not 
 coming within its scope, these most important structures 
 Avill be found by the Eeader anxious to gain a know- 
 ledge of their general features and of their special 
 details, in the volume entitled, The Advanced Course of 
 Building Construction, in the present series of technical 
 volumes ; and very full information, not coming within 
 the scope of the volumes in this series, in the large work 
 entitled. The New Guide to Carpentry, edited by the 
 author of the present volume. "We think it right, 
 however, to give here a few examples of simple 
 forms of "centres" or "centreings," which are certain 
 arrangements of timber framing, used to support 
 the brick or stone work of arches when these are in 
 course of construction, and are, therefore, purely temporary 
 structures, and are taken down after the brick or stone 
 arch has firmly settled. The taking down of the centres 
 from beneath the brick or stone work is called striking 
 the arch, and to aid this a certain arrangement is made 
 use of, which will be presently explained. In fig. 54 
 a simple form of centre for a semicircular arch is shown; 
 in this the lines ah,c d, show the side walls terminating 
 the width of opening, e e, which is to be finished with a 
 semicircular arch at top. When the walls are at the 
 height of the line a c, which is the springing line of the 
 arch, the " centreing" or " centre" is erected; The upper 
 part of the arrangement of timbers which is to support 
 the arch is framed in a way more or less complicated, 
 
Centees and miscellaneous joints. 
 
 71 
 
 according to the width of the opening, e c, or the span of 
 the arch. In fig. 54 this part is simple, being formed of 
 two planks, / g, the outer edges of which are cut to the 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 circle of the arch, this being described from the point A 
 in the line a c. These two pieces butt at their upper 
 termination at i ; and are nailed at their lower ends, 3 
 and h, to a cross piece, 1 1. In some cases this cross piece 
 is omitted, the ends j and h simply resting on the pieces 
 m and n, which run across the walls in the direction of 
 their thickness, and at right angles to the piece I I. In 
 the arrangement shown, the pieces or " centre" proper, 
 / g and 1 1, are supported by the cross pieces or cushion 
 timbers m and n. These are again supported by the up- 
 right posts 0 and the lower ends of which rest upon 
 the ground, in the case of arches being built on the 
 ground floor of a building, and upon a sill in the wall in 
 
72 
 
 Timber and ihon work. 
 
 the case of an arch being built on an upper storey. To 
 prevent the feet of the posts penetrating the ground or 
 soil, they rest upon a piece of timber termed a " cill " or 
 " sill," shown at 1 1 in fig. 54, 2 being the foot of posts, 
 p 0. The cross pieces, m and n, pass through, as above 
 stated, the opening across the thickness of the wall, a h, 
 d c, and are terminated at the opposite or inside face of 
 the wall, supposing the side, as seen in drawing, to be 
 the "outside of the wall. The inner end of the cross 
 pieces, m and n, support an arrangement of timber pre- 
 cisely similar to that 
 shown in j f, g h, and 
 1 1. This is illustrated in 
 fig. 55, which is a side or 
 edge elevation of the 
 centring and wall, — the 
 wall, a b, being that let- 
 tered also as a h in fig. 
 54. In fig. 55, c c, d d 
 indicate the parts cor- 
 responding to j f, g k 
 in fig. 54, — c c being 
 that at the outer, d d 
 that at the inner face of 
 wall ; m m, in fig. 55, is 
 the cross piece, m, in fig. 
 64 J 0 0, the posts corre- 
 sponding to p and o in 
 fig. 54. The two pieces, 
 c c, d d, fig. 55, support 
 or carry cross pieces, q r s, 
 fig. 64, these uniting the 
 two sides, c c, d d, of the 
 Fig. S5. centre j)roper. These 
 
 pieces are either placed close to each other, as at r s, 
 forming a platform or floor, so to say, on which the brick 
 or stone forming the arch is laid in course of buildino- ; 
 or the pieces may be laid each being separated from i1;s 
 
CENTRES AND MISCELLANEOUS JOINTS, 73 
 
 neighbour by a short space, as shown at q q, in fig. 54. 
 The interspaces may be less than the breadth of a brick, 
 in small arches ; or in the case of arches of wider span, 
 and where stone is used, may be much wider. These cross 
 pieces, qr s, fig. 5 4, are termed bolster pieces. The arrange- 
 ment for " striking the centres" is shown at t u, v w, in 
 figs. 54 and 55. In this double wedges are employed, 
 the large end of one of the wedges, as t, in fig. 55, being 
 placed at the small end of the other wedge, as u. When 
 the building of the arch is completed, the centre is not 
 removed at once, but the whole allowed to remain for a 
 length of time, longer or shorter according to circum- 
 stances. As the brickwoi-k or stonework of the arch 
 gradually settles, the wedges are gradually driven out or 
 loosed, thus allowing the cross pieces, m and n, and the 
 upper part of the centre to drop gradually. When the 
 settlement is completed, the wedges are driven clear 
 out, and the centring wholly removed. In some cases 
 the wedges are used at the lower part of the posts. 
 
 In describing the various forms of floors, partitions, and 
 roofs, in the preceding part of this chapter we have 
 followed up each division with illustrations and descrip- 
 tions of the "joints" used in framing the component 
 parts of the various structures. In these we have 
 comprised examples of nearly 
 every class of joints used 
 in framing timbers together, 
 whether these be employed 
 in floors, partitions, or in 
 roofs, or in other structures, 
 as bridges, &c. As supple- 
 mentary to tliese, and as also 
 afibrding examples of forms of 
 joints not there described, we $r' 
 add a few more illustrations 
 before concluding this chapter. 
 In fig. 56 a double mortise and Fig. 56. 
 
 tenon joint is illustrated (for a single joint of this kind, see 
 
 # 4 i M 
 
 I 
 
74 . Timber ANt) iron WoRfi. 
 
 fig. 19), being that most generally employed. In fig. 56 
 a a represents part of the horizontal timber in which 
 the two mortise holes, b c, are cnt to 
 receive the two tenons, d e, cut at the 
 end of the vertical piece, /, which is to 
 be joined to the piece a a. A cross 
 section of a a is shown at g g ; and 
 a side elevation of the foot of / at 
 h; i being one of the tenons. In joining 
 two pieces in the direction of their 
 length which ai'e to stand vertically, as 
 where a long post is to be made out of 
 two short ones, various modifications of 
 the mortise and tenon joints are used. 
 Fig. 57 illustrates one of these; in this 
 c* a is the upper, h h, the lower post. 
 In the cross section of the lower post, a a, 
 shown at c c, a mortise is cut, formed 
 in two parts, one, d, at right angles to 
 the other, d' ; in the elevation e is the 
 tenon in the end of a a, which goes into 
 the mortise, d'. The joint is sometimes 
 Fig. 57- formed as in the lower cross section of 
 h, as at / the mortise in this case forming a cross 
 
 of which g h i and 
 j are the arms. 
 The tenons in one 
 end of the piece, 
 a a, are made to 
 correspond to 
 these ; and in 
 plan, the end of 
 5 a is precisely 
 similar to ff, the 
 solid part of the 
 Fig. 58, tenons being the 
 
 same as the part indicated in horizontal shading ; the parts 
 cut into at the corners of the tenoned foot oi a a beinsr 
 
CENTRES AND MISCELLANEOUS JOINTS. 
 
 75 
 
 represented by the parts indicated in / / by cross line 
 shading. In fig. 58 a form of joint is illustrated, used 
 
 rig. 59. 
 
 in joining two horizontal timbers, one of which, as a a, 
 joins the other, as h b, at an angle. The pieces are half 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
 lapped, so that the surface of a a is "flush" with 
 that of 6 5, as at c and d d; c being side elevation 
 
76 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 of end oi a a, d d being that of piece h h, looking in the 
 direction of arrow, a'. In this construction the head of the 
 piece a a terminates in a line with the outside line of the 
 piece h b. In fig. 59 is illustrated a joint, in which the 
 piece a a crosses another piece b b, and is passed 
 on at a to cross another piece parallel to h b, or to 
 terminate with a bearing in a wall ; c is the side elevation 
 of the piece b b. Another form is shown a,t d d in 
 same figure, this being let into a notch, e e, cut in the 
 face of b b, with a rib or cog, /, passing across it ; this 
 rib passing into a notch cut in the lower face of d d. 
 g is side elevation, showing notch, e e. Fig. 60 shows two 
 pieces crossing at an angle ; one of these, as a a, may 
 simply be nailed on to the surface of the other piece b b i 
 
 Pig. 61. 
 
 but to make a flush joint, they should be notched 
 together half lap fashion, a,s at c c, d d ; c being the edge 
 view of one of the pieces, d d, or vertical section at the 
 point of meeting of the two pieces ; e e being an edge view 
 of the two, looking in the direction of the arrow. Fig. 61 
 illustrates a joint for a hori- 
 
 at an angle, b b ; the end, c, oi 
 Fig. 62. a a is cut with a projecting part, 
 
 f\H at e, in edge view of piece, e f, fig. 62 ; this goes into 
 the part d cut out in the face of 6 6 ; the part li, within 
 dotted lines, receives the corner of a a, and a part, is 
 cut out in the face of e fig. 62. 
 
joiners' work. 
 
 77 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 TIMBER CONSTRUCTION, AS EXEMPLIFIED IN DOORS, 
 WINDOWS, AND INTERNAL FITTINGS OF HOUSES. 
 
 24. Joiners' Work. — While the work of the car- 
 penter concerns itself with the designing and put- 
 tino- together of the various members constituting 
 what is called framework, as roofs, floors, and 
 the like, and deals with pieces of timber of consider- 
 able size and weight, the work of the joiner concerns 
 itself with the designing and putting together of pieces 
 of timber, of which the dimensions are small, and weight 
 but trifling. In large framework, the goodness of the 
 work depends upon the accuracy with which the various 
 members constituting the framing are placed in relation 
 to each other, so as to distribute the pressure to which 
 they are subjected in such a way as to obtain the maxi- 
 mum of strength to meet this pressure with the minimum 
 of size and weight of the various parts. The joints and 
 junctions of these parts, although of consequence, do not 
 form the principal feature of heavy framework ; whereas, 
 in joinery, the goodness of the work depends almost en- 
 tirely upon the accuracy with which the joining together 
 of the various parts is performed, — the pieces themselves, 
 as a rule, having comparatively little weight to carry, or 
 small pressure to resist. Joiners' work, in the case of 
 domestic structures, is chiefly connected with the construc- 
 tion of doors and windows, and the various parts of in- 
 ternal fittings made of wood; as partition and other linings, 
 doors, skirting boards, cornices, &c. As the various minor 
 details, such as joints, mouldings, are nearly all to be met 
 
78 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 with in doors and windows, we shall proceed to describe 
 the construction of doors, then of windows, and there- 
 after describe the joints used in putting the parts to- 
 gether, and the mouldings and ornamental parts by which 
 these are emiched or decorated. 
 
 Fig- 63. Fig. 64. Fig. 65. 
 
 25. Doors are of various kinds, and may be divided into 
 two classes— first, those in which "panels" do not; and, 
 
 second, those in which "panels" form a part of the 
 design. Of doors belonging to the first class, or non- 
 
DOORS. 
 
 79 
 
 panelled kind, the most simple is what is called a 
 " ledged ; " the next in order is a " ledged and braced ; " 
 the third, "ledged and framed;" and the fourth, the 
 "ledged, framed, and braced" door. Of the second 
 class, or panelled, the doors are classed according to the 
 number of the panels in each, as " four-panelled," 
 "six" (fig. 63), and "eight-panelled" (fig. 66). 
 A "casement or sash door" (fig. 65) has its upper part 
 provided with a mndow or glass sheets as c c, its lower 
 part being panelled as h b. Fig. 64 is a two-panelled or 
 front door. _ A " folding door" (fig. 66) is made into two 
 parts, opening from tlie centre, and is used between two 
 rooms.^ The drawing illustrates two methods of panelling 
 this kind of door — half of the design being on each side 
 of the centre line a h. 
 
 _ Ledged Door.— ha. Plate XII. will be found illustra- 
 tions of the various forms of doors of which we have now 
 given general descriptions. In fig. 1 is inside elevation ; 
 fig. 2, vertical section through centre of door; and in 
 fig. 3, plan of a ledged door. In this a a are the boards 
 forming the face of the door ; these are either laid — in the 
 simplest of work — edge to edge, or are tongued and 
 grooved, or rebated (see " Joints used in Joiners' Work") ; 
 h h, the ledges to which the boards are nailed. Fig. 3 is a 
 sectional plan on the line in h in fig. 1, 
 
 ^ Ledged and Braced Door. — In fig. 4, Plate XII., we 
 give iiiside elevation ; in fig. 5, sectional plan through line 
 c ' (iMn fig. 4 ; and in fig. 6, vertical section of a " ledged 
 and braced door." In this the door is made up, as in fig. 
 1, of boards, a a, and ledges, h h ; these being strengthened 
 by the additional members, the braces, c c. 
 
 Frar)ied and Ledged Door. — In fig. 7, plate XII., we 
 give inside elevation of a " framed and ledged " door. In 
 this the boards, a a, are surrounded by a frame of two side 
 pieces, h h, and top and bottom pieces, c and d; the ledges, 
 e, e, and d, are tenoned into the side pieces, as shown at 
 fig. 10, and the boards a a are secured to the ledges, the 
 one outside surface being flush with the outside of the 
 
80 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK, 
 
 ledges and frame. Fig. 8 is a sectional plan; and fig. 9 a 
 vertical section on line e f in fig. 8. 
 
 Ledged, Framed, and Braced Door. — In fig. 11 we give 
 elevation of outside; and in fig. 13, elevation of inside, of 
 a ledged framed and braced door ; fig. 1 2 being plan ; 
 fig. 14, being sectional plan through line ij in fig. 13; and 
 fig. 15, vertical section on line g h, in fig. 13. 
 
 Framed and Panelled Door. — In fig. 16, plate XII., we 
 give elevation; in fig. 17, sectional plan; and 18, vertical 
 section on line h I, fig. 16. The frame surrounding the 
 panels is made up of two vertical pieces, a a, h h, these 
 being called the " styles." The style to which the hinges 
 are fixed is called the " hanging style;" the other and 
 opposite, sometimes the "lock style," the lock being secured 
 to it. The top cross piece, c c, is called the " top rail," 
 the lowest cross piece, d d, the " bottom rail;" the centre 
 cross piece, e e, the "lock rail;" the vertical pieces, paral- 
 lel to the styles, aa,h &,and placed centrally between them, 
 are called the "muntins;" the panels, g g g g, are tongued 
 and grooved into the styles and rails as shown in fig. 17. 
 In fig. 19, plate XII., we give details, one-fourth full size 
 of the ledge, e e, of the door in fig. 7 ; and in fig. 20, section 
 and elevation of part of the boards, a a, of same door, 
 showing how they are joined. In fig. 21, plate XII., we 
 give a section showing part of panel, g, and of style, h, of 
 door in fig. 16. The scale to which the elevations are 
 drawn in plate XII. is given in plate XIII. 
 
 Interior or Dining Room Door. — In plate XIII. we give 
 drawing of this, having moulded panels and architrave, 
 rig. 1 is elevation of side of door towards the room ; fig. 
 2, that of door towards the passage; fig. 3 is vertical 
 section ; fig. 4, plan ; fig. 5 is a section of the architrave, 
 a a, a a, figs. 1 and 4 ; fig. 6, a section of part of fig. 1 , 
 on the line a' U. In fig. 6, a is the style h ', fig. 1 ; c, part 
 of the panel and its moulding on the back "bead and 
 butt," as shown in elevation &t a a, h h, fig. 2 ; the 
 moulding, d',, fig. 6, to the front of the panel is " bead and 
 flush ;" d, part of the panel and moulding towards the 
 
DOORS. 
 
 81 
 
 muntin, c, fig. 1 ; e being part section of this in fig. 6. Part 
 of the door lining is shown at/ g, being the "rebate," or 
 part cut out, into which the style, a, fits. Fig. 7 is sec- 
 tion of the lining" with the end, a, moulded in place of 
 being plain, as at /, in fig. 6. The corner, I, is finished 
 with a "double quirk," as at 5 in fig. 4. In same figure, e 
 is the style corresponding to 
 /in fig. 1, plate XIII.; d, the 
 panel ; c, the muntin ; e, the 
 panel ; and e', the style, / in 
 fig- 1 ; / /, fig- 4, the door 
 lining, section of which is 
 given in fig. 7 ; ^j' ^, the grounds 
 for architraves ; a a, being 
 section in fig. 5 ; h h, the 
 brick wall ; i i, the plastering. 
 In fig. 3, plate XIII., a, is top 
 rail; b, lock rail ; and c, bottom 
 rail of door ; d e, panels j / f, 
 skirting boards ; g g, door Fig. 67. 
 
 linings with double quirk at h j i, line of architrave. 
 
 Casings of Doors. — Doors are hinged or "hung" to 
 door casings, which line three sides of the door opening 
 in the wall, as in fig. 67 ; the pieces enclosing the side 
 walls being termed the 
 "jambs j" as a 6; the cross 
 piece, c, the "head." 
 The jambs, a h, are secured 
 to wood bricks inserted in 
 and built into the wall, as 
 at d; these wood bricks 
 are the same dimensions 
 as ordinary bricks. (See 
 Building Construction, 
 Elementary Series, Part ' Fig, 68. 
 I, "Work in Brick and Stone." The jambs are "re- 
 bated " (see description of " Joints," in a succeeding para- 
 graph) on one side, as at a in fig. 68, to receive the door 
 
 F 
 
82 
 
 TIMBER AND IKON "WORK. 
 
 styles, part of one of which is shown at h. Tn place of 
 having the other end of the jamb square, it may be 
 moulded, as at c, with a " double quirk bead." Tlie 
 door casing is surrounded on three sides, in finished 
 work, with what may be called a frame, made of wood, 
 ornamented more or less completely with mouldings, 
 and designated an architrave. This, as seen in the 
 elevation in Plate XII., extends up the sides and across 
 the head of the door opening. The side architraves are 
 called "jamb architraves;" the cross or head, the "tra- 
 verse" or "transverse" architrave. The architrave is placed 
 with relation to the door opening, that the small end, as 
 in fig. 68, is always next the opening. The architraves 
 are secured to pieces of timber called " grounds," which 
 are again secured to the wall by wood bricks, as d d, 
 fig. 68. The edges of these are generally ploughed or 
 grooved, as at e e, fig. 68, to afibrd a " key" or " hold" to 
 the plaster, / ; or the edge of the ground may simply 
 be splayed or bevelled off, as at g in fig. 68. In this 
 figure, h is the brick or stone wall ; i, the architrave. 
 Both sides of the opening in wall may be provided witli 
 architraves, or one only, as that towards the room. The 
 other may he left plain, and finished up in the door jamb 
 with the plastering only. Where no architi-ave is pro- 
 vided in the door opening, the edge of the jamb lining 
 is usually rounded off with a quirk bead. When the 
 opening for the door is made in a partition, the posts of 
 the partition (see Chapter Second, " Partition") bounding 
 the opening are called the "jamb posts," and to these the 
 door lining is secured. 
 
 26. The Panels of Doors, a, fig. 65, are usually of greater 
 length than breadth; if of the same dimensions every 
 way, they are called "square panels," as a, fig. 63; if 
 they are of greater breadth than height, as when they 
 stretch across from the hanging to the lock style, they 
 are termed "lying panels," as a in fig. 66. The panels, 
 as will be seen from Plate XII., are fixed to the styles by 
 their edges being passed into grooves made ia the styles. 
 
THE PANELS OP DOORS. 
 
 83 
 
 As a general rule, the thickness of the groove is one- 
 third of the thickness of the framing or style. When the 
 panel is of this thickness, as in fig. 69, a recess, as abed, 
 
 Fig. C9. 
 
 being formed on both sides of the panel between this 
 surface and the surface, e eff, of the style, it is termed 
 a "square panel." This panel being square, both back, 
 b d, and front, a c, the surfaces, it will be seen, do not 
 come beyond the line of the groove— that is, the panel 
 faces and groove sides are all in one line. When one 
 surface of the panel, as ff h, is flush with the surface, i j 
 of the style, k I, it h called a " flush panel," the back' 
 m m, being " square." When the panel has its central 
 part raised, as at n n, the surface being flush with the 
 surface,^ o o, of the styles, p q, it is called a " raised 
 panel;" in this the margins or sides slope off to the 
 groove, as at r r. Other forms of " raised " panel are 
 shown at s s and 1 1. These are all " square" at the back, 
 but they may be made flush," as at g h. When the 
 centre of a "raised panel," as n n, fig. 69, is separated 
 from the "margin," r r, by a moulding, as at a a, in fig. 
 
84 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON "WORK. 
 
 70, the panel is termed a "moulded raised panel;" h h 
 is part of the "margin" in each case ; c c, part of the raised 
 centre. In fig 70, other methods of forming the margin 
 of a panel are shown at d and e. 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 Panels are generally separated from the styles by 
 mouldings more or less elaborate. When the panel is 
 "flush," as at g h in fig. 69, the moulding is formed 
 on the two longest sides only 
 of the panel itself, the mould- 
 ings being terminated at the 
 rail lines at top and bottom, 
 the moulding being formed 
 with the grain of the wood. 
 This is illustrated in fig. 71, 
 in which a a is part of the 
 style; h h, part of the panel ; c, 
 the moulding formed on the 
 edge. The upper part of the 
 diagram is the lower part in 
 elevation — d d being part of 
 the "rail;" e e, of the style; 
 //, of panel; g, of moulding. I'ig- 71. 
 
 This arrangement is known as "bead and butt panel," or 
 a "bead-butt panel." When the moulding is carried 
 round, the panel being at top and bottom, as well as at the 
 sides ; and when the moulding is formed on the under 
 edges of the styles and rails, being "mitred" at the 
 corners, the arrangement is known as a "bead and 
 flush panel," or " bead-flush panel." This is illustrated 
 
THE PANELS OP DOORS. 
 
 85 
 
 in fig. 72, where a is part of the panel ; h h, part of the 
 style or rail ; c c, the moulding on its edge. The upper 
 part of the diagram shows 
 the elevation, d being part of 
 the style ; e, part of the rail ; 
 the moulding at the point 
 of junction of the horizon- 
 tal and vertical parts being 
 joined by a " mitre" joint, 
 at/ (see " Joints" in a suc- 
 ceeding paragraph). A 
 moulding ig said to be 
 " struck on " when it is 
 struck or formed upon the 
 framing, as at c in fig. 72 ; 
 it is said to be " laid on " 
 when it is laid on the panel, 
 as at a in fig. 73 — its end, as Fig. 72. 
 
 h, butting against the edges of the style or rail, c. In this 
 case the moulding may be nailed either to the panel, d, or 
 to the rail or style, c, but it should not be nailed to both, 
 as when the framing " gives," and the panel leaves the 
 framing, or vice versa, the expansion will cause the 
 
 J'ig- 73. Eig. 74. 
 
 moulding, a, to be split at the nail parts. When the 
 panel is "flush" the mouldings, a, are laid on the style 
 or rail, as h, fig. 74. When mouldings are laid on to 
 either panels or the framing, they are formed in long 
 lengths, and cut up to the requisite lengths, and mitred 
 at the corners, as at / in fig. 72. When mouldings 
 
86 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 project from any surface, they are generally termed 
 " bolection " mouldings. 
 
 27. Windows. — In fig, 75, in a and h, we give 
 sketches illustrative of the ordinary form of sash win- 
 dows. Sash windows are either "fixed" or "hung." 
 
 c 
 
 h 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 If " fixed," the window is of course not capable of being 
 opened ; if " hung," it may either be " single-hung" or 
 " double-hung." If single-hung, the lowe» sash, as e, 
 fig. a, in fig. 75, is capable of being lifted up, the upper 
 sash being fixed, or vice versa. The upper sash in a 
 single-hung window is, however, that which is usually 
 made capable of being opened by being lowered. If the 
 window is " double-hung," the lower sash, e, is made to 
 lift up ; the upper sash, d, to pull down. In what is 
 called a " casement window," as at c in fig. 75, the two 
 leaves or sashes, / and g, are hinged to the frame or 
 casings at their outer edges, and are made to open inward 
 towards the room, or outwards towards the exterior, the 
 inner edges butting or closing against the central part, h. 
 This form of casement window is that generally used for 
 kitchens and sculleries. Fig. 76 illustrates two forms, a 
 and h, used for superior rooms and frequently termed 
 "French casement windows." A mode of making a case- 
 ment window is shown in h, fig. 76. In this the two 
 upper compartments, c and d, are fixed ; the two leaves, 
 g and /, open right and left. Windows are sometimes 
 made so as to open by sliding horizontally into grooves 
 or recesses formed in the walls. In factory buildings, 
 
Windows. 
 
 87 
 
 the windows are formed with an upper part, as c and d 
 in b, fig. 76 ; this turning on pins at the centre of the ends, 
 so that it can be made to be horizontal, or opened at any 
 less angle, or the part, c cZ, may be hinged at its lower 
 edge to the cross bar, e e, and opened at any angle re- 
 quired, being kept in this position by cords and pulleys. 
 
 C 
 
 ct a 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 In " fixed" sash windows, the window proper is in- 
 closed in a frame fixed in the wall, called a " solid sash 
 frame," the sides of the opening made in the wall being 
 boarded. But in the case of a balanced sash, e., a 
 single or double-hung sash — ^the frame at the sides is 
 made as shown in fig. ?>, Plate XIV., arid is called a 
 "cased framing" — the sides are hollow, as at fig. 3, 
 Plate XIV., and the top-piece or "head" is similar 
 to the head of a door frame (see c, fig. 67) ; the 
 bottom of the frame is called the "sill" or "cill," 
 as a in fig. 77, and is generally made of oak. If 
 the part of the sill outside of the window is made 
 sloping, as 6, fig. 77, in order to admit of the rain 
 falling on it being quickly carried away; if there are 
 more than one sloping face to the sill, it is called a 
 " double sunk sill," the first on 6 being separated from 
 the second on e, fig, 77, by a splayed, or bevelled, or by 
 a curved face as shown. The oak sill of the window 
 casing frame rests upon the stone sill, as at a, fig. 0, 
 
88 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK, 
 
 Plate XIV ; h, the lower bar of sash. The parts making 
 up the sides of the window frame are shown at fig. 3, 
 Plate XI Y., the sides being known as the " casing pieces," 
 or " casing;" in this, 6 6 is the " pulley style," or " pulley 
 piece; " the office of which is to carry at the upper part 
 of the style, near the head of the window, the pulleys 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 
 over which is passed the cord, one end of which carries a 
 heavy weight, c, to counterbalance the sash, as a a, to the 
 side bar of which the other end of the pulley cord is 
 fixed. The " sash weight," c, is that for the upper sash 
 a a, dis the weight for the lower sash, which slides in 
 the part e e. Between'the two sash weights and separ- 
 ating them, so that they and their attached cords may 
 not get entangled, is the " parting slip," shown at d, fig. 3, 
 Plate XIV. The " pulley piece," h b, is secured at the 
 end toward the outside of the window to the piece ef, called 
 the " outside lining " at the other, or inside end, to the 
 piece g, called the "inside lining;" these two linings 
 being joined by a third piece, 7i h, called the " back lining," 
 parallel to b b." As the bead, i, fixed to the "inside lin- 
 ing," g, is called the "inside bead;" that to the "outside 
 lining,"/, the "outside bead." The outer end of / is 
 
"WINDOWS. 
 
 89 
 
 sometimes worked round to form a bead, as shown by the 
 dotted lines. The bars of the upper and lower sashes are 
 kept separate by, and made to slide up and down in the 
 gi'oove, or recess formed by a piece of wood called the 
 "parting bead," as./, fig. 3, Plate XIV. All these pieces 
 run from top to bottom of the window opening, being 
 secured at bottom to the sill, at top to the head of the 
 framing (see figs. 2 and 5, Plate XI Y.) The reader will, 
 of course, understand that the arrangement shown at 
 fig. 3 is repeated in the case of an ordinary sash win- 
 dow, such as a in fig. 75; each end of the same sash 
 being hung to a balance weight, corresponding to c d in 
 fig. 3, Plate XIII. Fig. 1, in this plate, is the front 
 elevation of a "three-light window;" when the central 
 part, a a, of a window of this sort is much wider 
 than the side parts, the arrangement is called a " Vene- 
 tian window." Pig. 4 is plan of the part, d d, of fig. 
 1, Plate XIV., one side of which covers the " casing " 
 or " casing pieces " of the right-hand side bars of win- 
 dow, b b, fig. 1 (fig. 3 showing the casing bars for 
 left-hand bars of window) ; while the other side of 
 the central line, a b, fig. 4, covers the casing pieces of 
 the left-hand side of window, c c, the right-hand casing 
 pieces of this being precisely like the drawing in fig. 3, 
 only reversed in position — that is, with the " back lining," 
 b b, towards the right hand, in place of to the left, as in 
 fig. 3, Plate XIII, In fig. 4, c d, the " pulley pieces " or 
 "pulley styles;" e e, "outside lining;"/, "inside lining;" 
 g g, " inside bead ; " h h, " outside bead ; " i i, " parting 
 bead;" jy, the "sash weights" (double for the two windows, 
 h b and a a, fig. 1), separated by the "parting slip" made 
 in the form of a cross, as shown. In fig. 77, the part of 
 the lower or bottom bar of a sash window is shown, e e 
 being the beaded " inside lining," corresponding to i in 
 fig. 3, Plate XIV.; -H, the "parting slip" or "bead," 
 corresponding to j, fig. 3, Plate XIV.; and jj, fig. 77, 
 the "outside lining," corresponding to /, fig. 3, Plate XIV. 
 In fig. 78, the meeting of the sash bars of the lower sash, a 
 
90 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 ^corresponding to e in a, fig. 75), and upper sash, h 
 (corresponding to din a, fig. 75), is shown, — d, the upper 
 
 cross bar or rail of 
 
 lower sash, corres- 
 ponding to e in a, 
 fig. 75, and the 
 lower rail of which 
 is at d d, fig. 77 j 
 d', the lower cross bar 
 or rail of upper sash, 
 corresponding to in 
 a, fig. 75. The up- 
 per and lower halves 
 are technically term 
 ed " sheets," e e, h h, 
 * h 3 3 correspond 
 to sanae parts as in 
 fig. 77, e e, being 
 the " inside lining ; " 
 jj, the "outside lin- 
 Fig- 78. ing;" i the "part- 
 
 ing slip " "or bead." In fig. 79, c is the upper or cross bar 
 of upper sash ; the letters indicate similar parts as in 
 figs. 77 and 78. 
 
 The panes of glass 
 of a sash window are 
 fastened to the "as- 
 tragals " or " sash 
 bars," which are so 
 placed as to form 
 squares or rectangles, 
 as shown in fig. 75. 
 The forms or sections 
 of the "sash bars" 
 Fig. 79. 
 
 vary much, accord- 
 ing to the design of the building, or taste of the architect. 
 A very common form is illustrated in fig. 80, at a a, 
 which is known as the " lamb's tongue sash bar." The 
 
SfiUTTERS TO WINDOWS. 
 
 61 
 
 glass is shown at 6 6 towards the outside, being secured 
 at a and d by putty, c c, or by a small bead or fillet, i, 
 same figure. ff,gg^^ the front elevation, showing the 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
 junction of a vertical sash-bar, f f, with a horizontal 
 one, g g. Another form of sash bar is shown at h h, in 
 fig. 80, and at a a, in fig- 81. In fig. 82, the junction of 
 the horizontal bars, h h, d d, with the vertical, a a, c c, 
 are shown, a a, b b being the front elevation of a a in 
 fig. 81 j c c, d d oi h h in. fig. 80. 
 
 28. Shutters to Windows. — These are generally pro- 
 vided to windows, and are of several kinds — " folding," 
 " lifting," and "rolling." Folding shutters are illustrated 
 
92 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 in fig. 83, whicli are those for a superior room, as they fold 
 into and are inclosed by what are called shutter box- 
 ings." ^ The boxing is made up of two side linings and a 
 back lining. The side lining next the window is in fact 
 the " inside lining " of the window casing, part of which 
 
 Fig. 81. 
 
 is shown by the line a a, fig. 83. The other side of the 
 shutter boxing is* at b b, and the "back lining" is at c c. 
 
 Fig. 82. 
 
 The side, b b, forms the " ground " to which the " archi- 
 trave," d d, is secured ; e e, the plastering keyed into the 
 side lining of boxing. In superior work the back lining 
 is panelled at f, to show finished work when the fol(£ 
 ing shutters— called " flaps "—as g g, h h, i i, are pulled 
 
HINGING OF DOORS AND WINDOWS. 
 
 93 
 
 out in order to cover the window. The front of the 
 shutters, as g g, is called the " front flap " or " first flap ; " 
 h h, the " second back flap ; " i i, the " back flap." The 
 " front flap " is generally panelled in front, so that — as 
 in the day time — when the 
 
 shutters are in their place 
 in the boxing, the front or 
 outside oi g g may be orna- 
 mental. If the flap is very 
 broad, it may be pannelled 
 in two. Fig. 83 is a cross 
 section of the shutter and 
 shutter boxing, showing the 
 thickness of the pieces. In 
 elevation the length of the 
 shutter wovild show equal 
 to the height of the window 
 to be covered. The bottom 
 of the shutters slide above, 
 and rest a little above 
 upper face of inner sill. 
 The arrangement shown in 
 fig. 83 is of course repeated 
 at the other side of the 
 window, the shutter flaps 
 being of such a width that 
 they cover only half of the 
 breadth of the window, the 
 other half being covered by 
 the flaps in the boxings 
 at the other side. Other 
 forms of shutters will 
 be found, described and 
 illustrated, in Building ^ig- 83. 
 
 Construction, Advanced Course, in this series. 
 
 29. Hinging of Doors and Windows. — The hinging 
 of doors is a work involving considerable nicety in lay- 
 ing out the lines for the joi»t§ of the various parts ; and 
 
94 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORE. 
 
 will be found more fully described in the volume forming 
 
 the advanced course in 
 this series. We can 
 only glance at one or 
 two of the simpler 
 methods in use. In 
 fisr. 84, we give the 
 
 j.g. 84, we give 
 elevation — half actual 
 size — of a very com- 
 monly met with hinge. 
 This is shown as fully 
 open or extended, being 
 attached at one end to 
 the style a a, and at the 
 other to the style 6 h ; 
 when closed, they are 
 Fig. 84. as at a b, in fig. 86. 
 
 The hinges in rough work are simply screwed to the surface 
 
 of the wood, so that they 
 project beyond its sur- 
 face; in better class 
 work, they are sunk so 
 as to be flush vatli the 
 surface of the wood, 
 as in fig. 85. In fig. 
 84, d d shows how the 
 screw-nail holes are 
 countersunk, so that, 
 when screwed home, 
 the surface of the end 
 of screw-nail, c c, is 
 flush with the siirface 
 ofi'hinge ; e e is the end 
 view of hinge. Fig. 85 
 shows the application 
 of this simple form of 
 hinge to the hanging of 
 a door, in which a is part of the "lock style" of the 
 
HINGING OF DOORS AND WINDOWS. 
 
 95 
 
 door, going into the rebate, h, of the jamb lining, c. 
 The lining at the opposite side of the door is at 
 cl d e; f is part of the hinging 
 style of the door, in the position 
 which it assumes when wide oj)en, 
 at right angles to the door opening ; 
 g is the half of the hinge sunk into 
 the edge of style, / ; h, the other 
 half sunk into recess in jamb d d ; 
 //, plaster of wall; g, wall. Fig. 
 87 shows the form of hinge joint 
 known as a rule joint. Fig. 88 
 shows a form of hinge joint, which prevents any one 
 seeing through the line when 
 the door is opened. Fig. 86 
 illustrates the usual method of 
 hinging shutters ; sometimes 
 they are let into the flaps. 
 The lock of a door is secured 
 to the "lock style" of the door, 
 at a convenient height from the 
 door, generally about the centre 
 of the middle rail. Locks are 
 of various kinds. A "mortise 
 lock" is concealed within the 
 thickness of the style, nothing being seen but the handles 
 on either side and the key- 
 holes. The key-hole is covered 
 with a hanging cover called 
 an escutcheon. A "rim- 
 lock" is placed on the out- 
 side of the door style, and is I'ig- 88. 
 of course visible, as also is the part which receives the bolt 
 of the lock when the door is locked ; this being secured to 
 the 'jamb lining of the door frame. Bolts are generally 
 provided to doors as well as locks, and are usually placed 
 immediately below tlie lock. It is a good plan, for further 
 security, to have sunk bolts placed at top and bottom rails. 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
96 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 The sash-frames, already illustrated, show what are "cased 
 framings," so called from the framing, as &Xhh, b b, fig. 3, 
 Plate XIV,, being made hollow, or like a case, to contaia 
 the sash weights, and are adapted to "hung" sashes. These 
 are sashes capable of being moved up and down. If both 
 sashes, the upper and lower, are capable of being so moved. 
 
 b b, fig 3, Plate XIV. a, the pulley frame, secured by screw- 
 nails to the pulley piece, b b ; c c, the outside bead ; d d, 
 the inside bead of window lining ; e, the bearing, a, for the 
 axis of the roller for the window blind ; f h, the rope or 
 cord, the lower end of which is attached to the upper cross 
 bar of the lower sash; the cord passing over the pulley, g g, 
 and terminated at the end by the sash weight, c, fig. 3, 
 Plate XIV. Windows are secured from being lifted or 
 lowered by locking the upper and lower sashes together by 
 
 /I 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 the window is said to be " double- 
 hung if one only is capable of 
 being moved up and down, it is 
 said to be "single-hung." Where 
 the window frames are " solid," the 
 upper sash is fixed, the lower only 
 being made capable of being moved 
 up and down, sliding between the 
 parts as between f and i, fig. 3, 
 Plate XIV., at e e. The window 
 in this case is fixed at any desired 
 point of vertical opening by a 
 jointed catch, the termination of 
 which slips into notches made at 
 desired intervals in the bead of 
 lining of frame. The cords for sus- 
 pending the sash- weights, c d, fig. 3, 
 Plate XIV. , pass over "pulleys" 
 fixed in the pulley style, 6 b, same 
 fig. In fig. 89, we give a sketch of 
 the pulley piece, which is fixed 
 into a mortise or aperture cut in 
 the face of the pulley piece or style, 
 
HINGING OP DOORS AND WINDOWS. 
 
 97 
 
 means of a " catch." This is illustrated in fig, 90 ; and the 
 part a is screwed down to the top surface of the upper 
 cross bar or rail of the lower sash ; the part a a being 
 secured to the upper cross bar of the lower sash ; 6 is a 
 horn, over which the bar, d, is brought by the handle c, a 
 spring at / bringing back the bar or lever, d, when it 
 is released from the horn ; g g shows part of the lower 
 cross bar of upper sash ; e e the upper cross bar of the 
 
 psize 
 Fig. 90. 
 
 lower sash. For the convenience of lifting the lower sash 
 finger or ''thumb bows" or "hooks," as a a, in fig. 91* 
 are secured, two to each sash, to the lower cross bar or rail 
 
 Q 
 
98 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK, 
 
 h h, of tlio lower sash. In fig. 91, h shows a "moulded," 
 c, a " bevelled," and d, a " square," sash, bar or cross rail, 
 the side rails or styles being finished in the same way all 
 round, mitreuig at the corners. In fig. 91, e is the glass 
 pane; /, the putty, which secures it to the cross bar 
 rail. It is a convenienco to have a ring or bowe at- 
 tached to the top cross bar of the upper sash, in the 
 centre ; by means of a hooked rod, the upper sash may, 
 by the aid of this hook, be raised or lowered very con- 
 veniently. 
 
 Fig. 91. 
 
 30. Method of Joining Pieces of Timber in Joinery 
 Work. — Before deseribing the more simple forms of 
 joints used in putting doors, windows, and Internal 
 
METHOD OP JOINING PIECES OF TIMBER, 99 
 
 fittings together, we illustrate the forms of ordinary 
 mouldings used in decorating work. The methods of 
 describing or setting out the curves of such will be 
 found in the volume in this series on Technical Draidng, 
 for the use of Students of Architecture and Building; and 
 illustrations will also be found in Building Construction, 
 Advanced Course, in this series of technical educational 
 works, of the more complicated and higher class of 
 mouldings, Gothic and the like. In fig. 92, « is the 
 " fillet," with a flat face as shown ; the office of this is 
 to divide mouldings of different or of the same character 
 from each other. In the same figure, a, h, and c are three 
 fillets in conjunction. Fig. 93 is the "torus" or 
 " round," being a projection from a surface of half or a 
 semi-circle. "When small, the torus is called a bead. 
 When the bead, a, fig. 93, projects from the surfaces, as 
 
 Fig. 92. Fig. 93, Fig. 94, Fig. 95. 
 
 6 c, it is called a cock-bead. When a number of small 
 beads run parallel to each other, the assemblage is 
 called a reeding, as in fig. 94. When the bead is 
 flush with the face, as the bead a, fig. 95, with the 
 
 Fig. 96. Fig. 97. Fig, 98, Fig. 99. 
 
 face h, the bead is called a quirk, or quirked bead. 
 When, the returns, as c, are two in number, as 
 
100 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 Fig. 100. Fig. 101. 
 
 a h, in fig. 96, the bead is called a double quirk. Fig. 
 97 is the " ovolo," or " quarter round." Fig. 98 is_ the 
 " cavetto," or *' hollow," which is a quarter of a circle 
 reversed. Fig. 99 is the " scotia." Fig. 100 is the " cyma 
 recta," or " cymatium," in which the hollow, ct, is at the 
 top, the round, h, at bottom. In the " cyma reversa," 
 ^ or "ogee," fig. 101, 
 
 the round, a, is at the 
 top, and the hollow, h, 
 is at the bottom of the 
 moulding. Fig. 102, 
 the " congee," being 
 the curve used to con- 
 Fig. 102. nect a horizontal fillet, 
 a, with a vertical part, h. We now come to describe 
 the difi'erent methods of joining timbers together under 
 the head of 
 
 31. Joints Used in Framing Doors, Windows, &c.— 
 
 In joining narrow hoards together in order to make a 
 
 hroad surface, as the 
 boards formiag a 
 door, there are vari- 
 ous methods em- 
 ployed. When the 
 boards are planed, 
 with their edges left 
 square, they are said 
 103; h h h being 
 the boards in sec- 
 tion. When a small 
 part — square or 
 rectangular — is 
 cut out of the 
 edge of a board, 
 taking away part 
 of the edge, c, 
 and part of the 
 
 ct 
 
 
 cv 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 103. 
 to be " shot," as at 
 
 a a a, 
 
 face, d, fij 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 104, the edge is 
 
 said to be made with a 
 
JOINTS USED IN DOORS, WINDOWS, ETC. 
 
 101 
 
 rebate;" and boards placed togetber, as at e cZ c, are 
 said to be "rebated." A'fben a small groove, aa d a b, 
 fig. 104, is cut out of tbo edge of tbe board, it is said 
 to be "ploughed" or grooved, a corresponding projection, 
 being cut in the other edge, as c d, this being called a 
 *' tongue " or " feather." Boards put together this way, 
 as e e e, are said to be "matched," sometimes "ploughed 
 and feathered," and sometimes "ploughed and tongued," 
 although this latter term is applied sometimes to the 
 method illustrated in fig. 106, in which both of the 
 edges of the boards are ploughed or grooved, as at a b, 
 fig. 105, the boards brought together, as at c, and a 
 narrow piece of wood (shown at e e in side, and at // 
 in edge view, called a tongue, or slip feather) driven 
 into the space, c, as &t d ; g g shows one of the edges 
 of a board. In " matching" boards, as in fig. 106, 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 the plough or groove is formed, as in fig. 107, at a; the 
 tongue or feather, b, being of the same section ; c c is 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 the ploughed edge of a board done in this way. Rebated 
 boards, with fillets a and 6, are illustrated in fig. 108 ; c c 
 
102 
 
 (TBiBER AND IRON WORK, 
 
 being elevation of tlie fillets, and d d oi the boards. In 
 fig. 109, we illustrate tbree other methods of joining 
 boards -with moulded edges, e, f f, and g g are the 
 elevations of the sections at a 6 and c d. Boards are 
 
 Fig. 107. 
 
 often made to show a bevelled open joint, as at h. 
 By " chamfering" is meant the cutting ofi" of the corner 
 
 or corners, otherwise 
 called splaying" or 
 *' bevelling," as at 
 a a a a, in. fig. 110 ; 
 ^ j 1 ^ ^ shown in elevation 
 
 at h h. In place of 
 carrying on the cham- 
 fer or bevel from one 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 Fig. 108. 
 
 end of the piece to the other, as at h h, it is sometimes 
 stopped at some distance from the ends, as at c ; this 
 being called a " stop chamfer ; the sharp corner, as c ', 
 being met with a curve, as shown at c d, and in side eleva- 
 
 Fig. 109. 
 
 tion at e e. " Stop chamfers" are often made ornamental, 
 especially in Gothic work. One method is shown at /; 
 the dotted line indicates the sharp corner as continued* 
 
JOINTS USED IN BOOKS, WINDOWS, ETC. 103 
 
 Boards put together in tlie way we have now illustrated 
 arefurther secured and • 
 
 It Of 
 
 —'mm 
 
 kept together in vari- 
 ous ways, some of 
 which are now to be 
 figured. In fig. Ill, 
 the method known as 
 " ledging " is illus- 
 trated at h hf c d 
 being the section. 
 When the boards, as 
 a a a, fig. 112, are 
 cross-grooved or 
 ploughed in their 
 ends, as at h, and held 
 together by the piece 
 ccd, which is feathered 
 in its edge, they are 
 said to be "clamped;" 
 d being the "clamp." 
 
 Fig. 110. 
 
 In place of the clamp being 
 
 Fig. 111. 
 
 terminated at the ends, as at e, that is, made to reacll 
 
104 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 across the full breadth of the boards, a a a', the ends 
 of the clamp and the last of the boards on each side 
 
 
 
 
 \ 1 
 1 1 
 1 - 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 i 
 
 \m. 
 
 Fig. 112. 
 
 are mitre jointed, as at g'; y being the last board at the 
 edge. This joint may be further secured by a tenon at 
 the end of g, as shown by the dotted line, 7i, going into 
 the " mortise," as shown in the section. In some cases 
 the boards, a, a, are finished with a tenon, shown by 
 the dotted lines, j, going into a mortise cut through 
 clamp, c. This is shown in the plan at k, and in 
 
 the section at I. The 
 face of the mitre joint 
 at g is shown at m 
 — n being the tenon 
 h ; m, the clamp. 
 When the "clamj)," 
 as a a, fig. 113, is 
 finished at the back 
 with a dovetailed part, 
 as at 6 h, this going 
 into a corfespond- 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 Fio;. 113. 
 
 ingly formed groove cut along the faces of the boards to 
 be joined together, the clamp is said to be a " mitre 
 clamp," and the boards to be "mitre clamped." (See 
 
JOINTS USED IN FEAMING BOOKS, WINDOWS, ETC. 105 
 
 1 T 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 ( 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 Fig. 114. 
 
 Advanced Course, Building Construction). Boards are 
 framed together, as already partly 
 illustrated, in the paragraphs treating 
 of " Doors." In place of a single 
 tenon and mortise, a double mortise 
 and tenon is used, as at a a, .6 h, fig. 
 114. The tenons are sometimes 
 wedged up; this prevents the tenon 
 from being drawn out ; as illustrated 
 
 in fig. 115, where a is the tenon, f 
 h b the wedges, shown in section at ^ 
 c c, the wedges, d the tenon. The Fig. 115. 
 tenon, in place of being single, as already shown, may be 
 
 d 
 
 ^ ^ 14 
 
 ... 
 
 a 
 
 » " 
 
 c 
 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 116. 
 
 Fig. 117. 
 
lOG 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 double — two mortises, as a a, fig. 116, being requisite in 
 the thickness of the frame or style. 
 
 6 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 / 
 1/ 
 
 
 Fig. 118. 
 
 Pieces are joined at right angles by several methods, 
 
 one of which is il 
 
 lustratedinfig. 117. 
 Other methods will 
 be found in the 
 Advanced Course 
 of Building Con- 
 struction, in this 
 series. In fig. 117 
 the pieces, as a and 
 ^'ig- 119- h, are simply 
 
 mitred " at the angle of 45° on the line c d, the faces of 
 the joint being made square, the two 
 secured together by a nail, or a small 
 " dowel," or pin, as e, may be put in, 
 as shown about the centre of the 
 mitre line, c d ; the lower diagram is 
 plan of the lower piece, h, looking 
 down vertically upon the face of joint, 
 c d, this being indicated by the longi- 
 tudinal shading, e being position of 
 the dowel, e. Fig. 118 shews a 
 method of joining pieces at right 
 angles, used for the internal angle of 
 Fig. 120. skirting boards — the projecting piece, 
 a, at the end of h, passing into a groove, cut on the edge 
 
JOINTS USED IN FRAMING DOORS, WINDOWS, ETC. 107 
 
 of the piece, d. Other methods, in which the mitre is 
 rebated, or made with dowels or keys, will be found 
 illustrated in the Advanced Course. Fig. 119 is a joint 
 for two pieces at regular angles, on which the piece a 
 
 Fig. 121. 
 
 is finished with a single quirk bead. A joint of this 
 kind is also made, in which the sharp corner of the two 
 joining pieces is got rid of 
 by terminating the piece a 
 with a double quirked bead, 
 as at a 6 in fig. 120. Fig. 
 121 is a joint in which one 
 piece, as a, is at an angle 
 to another piece, h, other 
 than a right angle, the two 
 being secured by a mortise 
 and tenon, 6 and a. Fig. 122 Fig. 122. 
 
 illustrates another method. The various forms of joints 
 of pieces at angles to each other are sometimes strengthened 
 by pieces, called 
 " blockings," 
 placed behind, 
 these being glued 
 or nailed to the 
 pieces. Various 
 forms of block- 
 ings, a, a, a, are 
 illustrated in fig. 
 123, he being the 
 pieces joined at right angles to each other : and at a 
 in fig 124. 
 
 Fig. 123. 
 
103 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 Dovetail joining is a method of joining pieces at right 
 angles to each other by projecting pieces, which may 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 il e 
 
 *Fig. 124. Fig. 125. 
 
 be called tenons, broader at one end than another; 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
 Fig. 127. 
 
 these passing into parts cut, of corresponding shape, in 
 
 the edge of the others, and 
 •which may be called the 
 mortises. In what is 
 known as "common dove- 
 tailing," the joints are 
 seen on both sides, as 
 shown in fig. 126. In 
 fig. 125, d a is the front 
 surface of the piece to be 
 Fig. 128. joined, with a "common 
 
 dovetail " joint, to the piece h &, of which the edge only is, 
 
JOINTS USED IN FRAMING DOOES, WINDOWS, ETC. 109 
 
 of course, seen in the drawing; c c are the expanding 
 projecting pieces or tenons; these are passed into the 
 parts, d d, cut out on the edge of 6 6 ; e e shows the 
 return face of b b, this being, of course, at right angles 
 to the face of the other piece, a a; the ends of the 
 piece cc are shown at //. Fig. 126 shows the pieces 
 put together— a a corresponding to piece a a in. fig. 
 1 25, with expanding tenons, c c, the ends of which show 
 at d, corresponding to / in fig. 125 ; e in fig. 126 being 
 one of the parts cut out of//, corresponding to d d in 
 fio-. 125. In fig. 127, a a show the position and shape 
 which the hole, 6 b, fig. 125, presents, as seen from the 
 inside face of 6 6 in that figure. In what is known as "lap 
 dovetailing," the end, d, fig. 126, of expanding piece, c, 
 is concealed, and only the flat sides are shown at one 
 side; this is efiected by shortening 
 the expanding projection, as at a a, 
 fig. 128, and cutting off the inden- 
 tation of the other piece, so as not 
 to go through the piece entirely, as 
 in fig. 125, a solid piece, b b, being 
 left. In fig. 128, c c shows the 
 appearance of the only side at which 
 the joint is seen; this is further 
 illustrated in fig. 129, a showing 
 one piece cut out completely as in 
 common dovetailing, as in fig. 125 ; 
 b, the expanding mortise cut short 
 so as not to go through, leaving 
 a piece, as at c. The kind of 
 dovetailing known as "mitre," used 
 for superior work where the joiiats 
 are entirely concealed, will be illus- 
 trated in Building Construction, 
 Advanced Course, in this series. 
 
 Brackets. — In fixing plaster cornices to rooms, as at aaa, 
 fig. 130, the plaster is worked out on the outside of 
 pieces of wood, as b b, the outer edges of which are gut 
 
110 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON "WORK. 
 
 SO as to follow roughly the outline of moulding. The 
 bracket foi' the cornice may be 
 made with its outer edge cut to 
 the several shapes of the part 
 indicated, and may be biiilt up 
 of Geparate pieces of timber 
 do welled and jointed together, 
 as in making wooden pillars; 
 this and other methods of join- 
 ing timber will be found in 
 the Advanced Course named 
 above. We have already shown 
 how architraves are secured to 
 grounds. Architraves are of 
 two kinds — single and double. 
 Fig. 130. In fig. 131 is illustrated a "single 
 
 architrave." The mouldings are at one end only, the 
 
 Fig. 131. 
 
 architrave being generally terminated with a quirked bead; 
 
 Fig. 132. 
 
 when a moulding is placed in the middle, as at a in fig. 
 132, the architrave is called ^ " double architrave." ° 
 
LEAD FLASHINGS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 CHAPTER lY. 
 
 WORK IN LEAD AND IRON. 
 
 In the Advanced Course on Building Construction, in 
 this series, the reader will find remarks on the above 
 materials — their nature and constructive peculiarities. 
 We now proceed to point out briefly some of the more 
 simple parts of construction in which they are employed, 
 taking up lead first. 
 
 33. Lead flashings are the strips or bands of sheet 
 lead, generally 8 to 9 inches in breadth, and weighing 
 about 5 to 6 lbs. the square foot, which cover the joints 
 made at the junction of the roofing boards, or slates to 
 chimneys, &c. In fig. 133, we give a section at a, and 
 part elevation at V/////J 
 h, of flashing to . ^-^LL^C 
 
 — is passed into the joint, /, of the brick- work, part 
 of the mortar being scraped out to allow of e being 
 inserted. Fig. 134 represents the ordinary mode of 
 employing lead flashing for gutters at the back of a 
 parapet wall. The edge, a, of the lead is inserted into 
 the joint, h, of the brickwork for about 1 inch in width, 
 the mortar being taken out for this distance between the 
 
 a chimney stalk; 
 6 6 is the flashing 
 or strip of lead ; 
 the joint, at c, 
 is covered by the 
 piece of sheet 
 
 lead, d, the end, 
 e, of which — 2 
 inches in length 
 
 Fig. 133. 
 
112 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 joints to admit of the lead being entered. It is then 
 bent vertically downwards at c, against the wall, d, then 
 returned horizontally, as at e, over the surface of the 
 
 Fig. 134. 
 
 gutter, /, and up under the slates, tiles, or roof covering, 
 at g g, some 5 or 7 inches. Fig. 4, Plate XV., 
 illustrates another method of finishing the part at a, 
 fig. 134. Fig 7, Plate XV., illustrates the gutter at 
 the outer or parapet side of a flat roof; fig. 8 the 
 
LEAD FLASHINGS. 113 
 
 central gutter of tlie same ; with method of making the 
 lead junctions. 
 
 Fig. 135. 
 
 In the case of the junction of a roof surface with a 
 parapet wall, or coping of the gable, the " flashing " is 
 
 II 
 
114 
 
 TIMBER AND lEON WORK. 
 
 required to be done witli great care, so as to prevent the 
 rain from insinuating itself to the work below. In the 
 case supposed, the " flashing" is laid on the slope corre- 
 sponding with that of the roof. " But, as it would not 
 be convenient," says Pasley, " to groove the bricks for 
 receiving the upper part of it in any other manner than 
 by opening the joints, which are all horizontal, the lead 
 is notched at top, in the form of steps, in the manner 
 shown in fig. 135 j 1 inch of each step, the upper part of 
 it (a b), is then let into one joint of the successive courses 
 
 ^4' 
 
 Fig. 136. 
 
 of brickwork, whilst the lower part of the flashing (c d), 
 being bent at right angles, is introduced along the slope 
 of the roof, and is either covered by, or covers the ex- 
 treme course of slates or tiles which rest against the 
 walls." Fig. 135 is an elevation of the 
 lead flashing, but with the edges not bent ; 
 fig. 135, a in section shows the edges bent and 
 inserted in the joints of the brickwork. 
 In fig. 135, e e ai-e the mortar joints, with 
 the parts of / taken out to admit the lead ; 
 g g, the bricks. In fig. 135, e e are the 
 Fig. 137. mortar joints ; g', the bricks. In figs. 
 
 136 to 141, various modes of using lead flashings are 
 illustrated, fig. 136 being that for a valley roof Figs. 
 
 137 and 138 illustrate a good use of lead flashings for 
 parapet walls ; the lead being returned over the top, and 
 
LEAD FLASHINGS. 
 
 115 
 
 terminating at tlie front, as shown at a a. It is good 
 practice to have, in the case of parapets, a bed of cement 
 
 Z 
 
 Fig. 138. 
 
 Fig. 139. 
 
 laid above the lead flashing, as at a a in fig. 139 — h h, the 
 lead flashing. Fig. 
 140 illustrates, in 
 plan, a, and sec- 
 tion, h, the flashing 
 of a " hip rafter." 
 In fig. 141, the 
 mode of covering 
 joints in a " flat" 
 is illustrated ; a, a 
 wood "roll," two 
 inches deep, is 
 secured to h, and Fig. 140. 
 
 the lead joint formed as shown ; the part, c, being carried 
 up the right hand side of 
 the roll, and terminated 
 by the point at c?; the 
 part, e, is covered over 
 this, and terminated at 
 the drip,/ Fig. 3, Plate 
 XV., illustrates another Fig. 141. 
 
 form of " roll." The cuiTent or " fall" to flats should 
 
116 
 
 TIMBEE AND IRON WORK. 
 
 be some 3 inches; foi' gutters, 2 inclies to every 10 feet. 
 The finishing of roofs at the ridge is carried out in various 
 ways, each with a ridge roll and lead flashing, similar to 
 fig. 141 ; or by earthenware or slate ridges, more or less 
 oi'namented. 
 
 33. Iron Straps and Bolts. — In binding and securing 
 
 together the mem- 
 bers of timber 
 structures, as roofs, 
 partitions, &c.,&c., 
 wrought-iron bolts 
 and straps are 
 vised. In one or 
 more of the figures 
 already given these 
 appliances are il- 
 lustrated. "We now 
 J" propose to give a 
 
 Fig. 142. few more illustra- 
 
 tions of their use. In fig. 142 we give a method of 
 securing together and of strengthening the joint 
 at the foot of a principal rafter, a, where it joins 
 
 Fig. 143. 
 
 the tie beam, 6 6; c, the strap of wrought iron; 
 the neck, c, is rounded to form a bolt which passes 
 through the butting plate, and is secured by the 
 
IRON STRAPS AND BOLTS. 
 
 117 
 
 nut, e. Bolts are sometimes used to connect parts. 
 Fig. 6, Plate XV., illustrates two other methods of 
 securing the feet of rafters with the beams, a being a 
 strap with key; h, c, a bolt and nut ; d illustrates the use 
 of a bearing-plate at end 
 of bolt, c. In Chapter 
 Second we have illustrated a 
 method of forming the junc- 
 tion of the foot of a king- 
 post with tie beam, in which 
 the strap is secured by keys 
 and cottars. Fig. 143 illus- 
 trates a form of strap for 
 the junction between the 
 head of a king post and the 
 two principal rafters; re- 
 versed in position, it will be 
 a strap for the foot of the king post at its junction with the 
 two braces or struts. Fig. 144 illustrates a form of strap 
 at the junction of the upper end of a brace or strut 
 with the principal rafter. In fig. 145, the head and 
 
 Fig. 144. 
 
 Fig. 145. 
 
 sill of a framed partition are shown united and strength- 
 ened by a bolt, a, the ends of which are secured by 
 nuts bearing upon small iron butting pieces, b c. The 
 
118 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 use of these prevents the necessity to cut deeply into the 
 timber to get the bearing plates of the nut set at right 
 angles to the bolt. The pieces may be united and 
 strengthened by plates, one on each side, as shown at e, 
 secured by bolts and nuts. The head and the post of 
 a partition may be united and strengthened by a strap, 
 /, fig. 145, secured by key and cottar, as at g g. In fig. 
 1, Plate XV., we give a sketch of a strap for securing the 
 foot of a king post with a tie-beam ; this passes over the 
 tie-beam, which slips into the part d d, the bolt, a, being 
 passed through the hole in the eye, h, and through a 
 hole bored in the foot of the king post. In fig. 2, Plate 
 XV., ah c d ma, strap or plate — two being used, one at 
 each side — used to connect and secure together the foot 
 of a king post with the ends of the two braces or struts ; 
 the wing, a, being secured by a bolt and nut to the left- 
 hand brace or strut ; the wing, c, to the right hand strut; 
 the central part, h, to the king post ; and the lower part, 
 d, to the tie-beam. Or in place of being used as single 
 straps or plates — one at each side — the whole may be 
 formed into a strap or " stirrup plate," as shown by the 
 extended dotted lines at / and e ; the upper parts at / 
 being edge views of the two separate parts, a b, c d. 
 Fig. ^2, Plate XV., also illustrates a strap or plate, at 
 ghi,to connect a collar beam (horizontal) — this being 
 at /i— with a rafter (inclined), g and i being the bolt or 
 pin holes for the rafter. A strap, suitable to secure a 
 queen-post straining beam and principal rafter, is shown 
 at I m, same figure ; n 'n being edge view ; the part, 
 I h, in practice is horizontal ; k m, inclined. The ends of 
 straps may be finished, as at a 6 or g, fig. 2, Plate XV. 
 Fig. 5, Plate XV., illustrates anothar method of securing 
 the head of a king post with the inclined rafters. 
 
 34. Iron Columns. — Iron is used in a variety of ways 
 in combination with wood, as in beams, roofs, &c., &c. 
 In fig. 6, Plate XVI., a form of cap of a cast-iron column 
 to receive the timber sandwiched beams, a h, is illus- 
 trated. The beams rest in, or are embraced by the box, 
 
Iron and timber roofS, 
 
 119 
 
 c c, of wHcli the side is shown at d, this being strength- 
 ened by the curved wing, e ef; the beams are secured 
 to the box by two bolts and nuts, as shown ; the cap of 
 cokimn or pillar is at gr c;-, c c being cast to this so as to 
 form one piece ; h h, the base ; there are several methods 
 of securing the base to the ground. Others will be illus- 
 trated in the Advanced Course of Building Construction. 
 In the one here shown, the base, b, is provided with a 
 circular projecting part, i i ; this is passed into a circular 
 hole cut in the stone base, j j. In some cases the 
 square plinth is partly let into the surface of stone 
 
 hnT 
 
 Fig. 146. 
 
 sill or base, jj, as shown by the dotted lines in fig. 6, 
 Plate XVI. 
 
 35. Iron and Timber Roofs. — Timber roofs are some- 
 times constructed with certain members of the combin- 
 ation formed of wrought iron, as the tie rods and king 
 bolts, for which parts, being in tension,* wrought iron is 
 so well adapted — cast iron being used for rafter boxes, 
 clips, &c., &c. In figs. 146 and 147 we give parts of a 
 timber roof of this kind, adapted to a 30 to 34-feet span — 
 
 * For a description of the strains to which materials are sub- 
 jected, see Advanced Course of Building Construction. 
 
120 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 the truss assuming the form as rl^own in fig. 148, but 
 without the struts or braces, h c. Fig. 146 is the 
 assemblage at junction of the rafters, a b, the ends of 
 these being let into each other by the notch at c ; the 
 
 Fig. 147. 
 
 ends are secured to the cast-iron clip, d e, by the bolts 
 and nuts, as shown — the lower end,/, being rounded off to 
 admit of the end of the king bolt being jointed to it ; the 
 lower end of this being secured to the central part, h, of the 
 iron tie-rod, i i. Fig. 147 is the assemblage of the truss 
 at the foot of the rafters; a, the wall; h, the rafter; c, 
 the clip of tie rod, d, this being bolted to the rafter. In 
 fig. 1, Plate XVI., we give the detail of rafter box, d e; 
 in fig, 146, in front elevation, a a, and in side view, at b b, 
 fig. 2, c d, the clip, between the jaws of which the eye, a, 
 of the king bolt, b, fig. 3, Plate XVI., is passed and se- 
 cured by bolt and nut. The lower part, c, of the king 
 bolt, b, is eyed out at i c, and terminated by a round bolt, d, 
 which passes through the eye, e, of the enlarged central 
 part, /, of the tie rod, g g, and secured by the nuts, h h ; 
 iiis & side view of the parts, ab c. In fig. 4, the eu- 
 
IRON ROOFS. 
 
 121 
 
 larged detail of clip, c, fig, 133, is shown a a, being the 
 side view ; h b, the plan ; and c c, the end view of the 
 whole when put together. A lateral tie is made between 
 the trusses by a bolt or iron rod passing through the eye, 
 c, fig. 3, Plate XVI., reaching from end to end of the 
 building, and secured by nuts at each end. Fig. 4, 
 Plate XVI., illustrates on larger scale the clip, c, fig. 147 ; 
 a a, being the front ; b b, the edge view ; c, the end view. 
 Other examples of combined iron and timber roofs will 
 be given in the Advanced Course, Building Construction. 
 36. Iron Roofs. — Roofs wholly made of iron — cast and 
 
 a 
 
 Fig. 148, 
 
 wrought — are now largely used. Fig. 148 illustrates a 
 skeleton truss of an iron roof adapted to small spans 
 
 Fig. 149. 
 
 from 18 up to 25 feet; fig. 149 being another form for 
 small spans ; and fig, 150 for large spans from» 30 to 
 40 feet. In Plate XVII, we illustrate the details, 
 drawn to a scale of 3 inches to the foot on one fourth 
 full size. In fig. 1 we give detail of assemblage of 
 parts at junction of the foot of king bolt, a b, of 
 which fig. 148 is the skeleton truss, with the tie bolt, 
 
12^ lIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 a b. This tie bolt is made in two parts, each of which 
 is terminated towards centre or king bolt part of the roof, 
 with eyes, a h, fig. 1, Plate XVII. View of upper face 
 of their termination is shown at a h, and section at 
 e, in fig. 3, Plate XVII. The ends, a 6, fig. 1, Plate 
 XVII., of the two parts of tie bolt are secured to- 
 gether by two wrought-ii-on plates, c c, d d, one of which 
 is shown in plan in fig. 5, and in section at fig. 6, Plate 
 XVII.— the whole being secured together by bolts and 
 nuts, as shown at e e,ff; but before these are put in, 
 the ends of the struts or braces, g h — corresponding to 
 a h c, fig. 148 — are put in place, the ends being pro- 
 vided with bolt holes. The plates, c c, d d, are provided 
 with a central bolt hole, through which the lower end, i, 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 7 ^ 
 
 Fig. 150. 
 
 of king bolt ; fig. 1, Plate XVII., is passed, being secured 
 by the nuts k I. Fig. 2 is plan of fig. 1 from upper side. 
 In fig. 7, Plate XVII., is given front elevation ; and in 
 fig. 8, side, and in fig. 9, plan of the under side of the 
 rafter box, at the point where the rafter, a d, joins 
 with the upper end of king bolt, h a, fig. 148. The 
 rafter box, a a, is made of cast iron. The end of the 
 \ui\g bolt, h, passes into an aperture made in the box, 
 a a, and is secured by a key passing through a slot 
 made in the sides of the box, and through the head of 
 king bolt. The upper part of box is made, as at d, 
 to receive the lower edge of the ridge piece or board, 
 
lEON ROOFS. 
 
 123 
 
 The ends of the rafters are shown at e e—f /, on plan 
 and side elevation, being the slots made in box, into 
 which the ends are slipt, and which are generally secured 
 by bolts and nuts, or by rivets. In fig. 10, we illustrate the 
 form of rafter box, with junction of tie bolt, with same 
 at the foot of rafter, a d, fig. 148; a ah the box of cast 
 iron, in side elevation; in front elevation, in fig. 11, 
 secured to the wall by the bolt h, leaded to the wall and 
 nuts, c c. The rafter, d, fig. 10, is passed into the slot h, 
 fig. 11, made in the box to receive it, and secured by the 
 bolt which passes through the bolt hole e, fig. 10, this being 
 fastened by the nuts ee, fig. 11. The end of the tie bolt,/, 
 fig. 10, is eyed out, and passed into a slot,/, fig. 11, made 
 in the box, and secured by bolt and nut, not shown in the 
 drawing. Fig. 1, Plate XVIII., shows detail of the junc- 
 tion of end of the braces or struts, h c, with the rafters, 
 or a d, fig. 148. In fig. 1, Plate XVIII., a a is 
 the rafter corresponding to the rafter e, fig. 7, or d, 
 fig. 10, Plate XVIII.; h h, end of strut or brace, corre- 
 sponding to h, fig. 1, Plate XVII. The two are 
 secured together by plates, one on each side, as c c, and the 
 whole fastened together by bolts and nuts, d d, which 
 pass through the plates, and rafter, and struts. The 
 section in fig. 2 is on the line a h ; fig. 3, is end or 
 vertical section. The letters on figs. 2 and 3, con'espond- 
 ing to those in fig. 1. Pig. 4, Plate XVIII., are different 
 views of the binding plates, c c, fig. 1. For a roof, the 
 truss of which is as in fig. 149, the part at a will be 
 almost precisely as illustrated in figs. 10 and 11, Plate 
 XVII. — the part at / fig. 149, somewhat similar to 
 fig. 7, Plate XVIII.; but the junction of the ends of the 
 rods, h / fig. 149, with the rafter box, will be as 
 illustrated in fig. 7, Plate XVIII. The junction of the 
 strut, h e, fig. 149, with the rafter and the tie-bolt will 
 be as in fig. 151 — a a in this, being the rafter; h b, the 
 cast-iron bi-ace or strut, bolted to the rafter; the latter 
 passing into a recess made at the head of the strut, b. 
 The lower end of the strut is provided with a snug, to 
 
124 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 whicli the ends of the rod, c c, are bolted, as also 
 the end of the rod, d, corresponding to h /, fig. 150. 
 In fig. 8, Plate XVIII., we give the front eleva- 
 tion, showing the junction of the upper ends of rafters 
 of the truss to the right hand of fig. 150, at point 
 d, with the upper end of tie bolt, c d. In this arrange- 
 ment, the cast-iron rafter box, as shown in fig. 7, Plate 
 XVII., is dispensed with, and the rafters, a a, b b, fig. 8, 
 Plate XVIII., are secured together by two plates of 
 wrought ii'on, one on each side, as, c c c c, the whole 
 
 being bolted to- 
 gether — the 
 ends of the 
 rafters butting 
 together with a 
 plain or butt 
 joint. The tie 
 bolt, d d, is eyed 
 out at its upper 
 extremity, and 
 embraces the 
 two plates and 
 the rafter, as 
 sho'Nvn in the 
 section in fig. 
 5, Plate XIX. 
 The ridge pole, 
 or piece, e e, fig. 
 ■P^ig- 151. 8, Plate XVIII., 
 
 is notched into the block of timber, / /, secured 
 between the angle irons ri vetted to the flange of the 
 rafter ; h h, the roofing boards. The rafter box at foot of 
 rafters is shown in elevation at fig. 6, Plate XIX ; a a, 
 the wall ; b h, the cast-iron rafter box, provided with a 
 recess in front to receive the end of rafter, c c, and 
 which is secured by a bolt passing through the bolt hole, 
 ; e, the end of the clip of tie bolt, the eye of which is 
 secured by a bolt passing through the bolt hole,/. A 
 
IKON ROOFS. 
 
 125 
 
 sectional plan of this in its full length (fig. 6, Plate 
 XIX., being too small to admit of its being given there), 
 is given in fig. 6, Plate XVIII. ; a side elevation in fig. 5. 
 In fig. 6, a a is the end of the bolt ; this is embraced by the 
 clip, hh (hh, fig. 5, in side elevation), which is secured to 
 the rafter, c c, by the pin or bolt, d, passing through the 
 bolt hole, /, fig. 6, Plate XIX. ; this pin or bolt is 
 kept in place by the split pins, e e ; / is part of the rafter 
 box corresponding to 6 h, fig. 6, Plate XIX., secured 
 by the bolt, g, passing through the bolt hole, d, fig. 6, 
 Plate XIX. In fig. 6, Plate XVIII., filling-in or 
 bolster pieces, h h, are placed at side of rafter to make up 
 
 Fig. 152. 
 
 the space ; the clip, h h, and end of tie rod, a, fig. 6, Plate 
 XVIII., are secured together by the " gibs," * i, j j, and 
 cottar, k k; a,n inside edge view of one of the gibs being 
 shown at fig. 7, Plate XVIII. In fig. 2, Plate XIX., 
 we give a side elevation at a, fig. 150, showing method 
 of joining the upper end of strut or brace, c a, with 
 rafter, d e, and queen bolt, a b. In fig. 2, Plate XIX., 
 a a is rafter; b, end of strut, secured to the rafter by plates 
 at each side, one of which is shown at c c ; the upper end 
 of queen bolt, d d, is secured to the plate, c, and rafter, a, 
 
126 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 by a bolt passing througb the bolt hole, e. Fig. 1 is a 
 side elevation and section of the arrangement taken 
 through the line, a' b',in fig. 2. In fig. 3, side elevation 
 of the arrangement of parts at the point 6, fig. 150, is 
 shown — a a, the lower end of strut or brace, 6, fig. 150; 
 b, the lower end of queen bolt, d, in fig. 2, Plate XIX., 
 this passing through the end of flange, c, of brace or 
 strut, a, and the eye, d, of tie bolt, e e (corresponding to 
 c e in fig. 150), and as shown in plan, fig. 4, Plate XIX. 
 The flange of the strut or brace is shown to be upper- 
 most, as in the arrangement usually adopted, although in 
 some cases the flange is placed on the lowest side, as in 
 
 . Fig. 153. 
 
 fig. 1, Plate XVII., at g h. In rafters the flange is always 
 placed uppermost, as shown in fig. 10, Plate XVII., fif^. 
 8, Plate XVIII., and fig. 6, Plate XIX. In fig. 152, 
 we give at A a section, and in B a side elevation, of a 
 wrought-iron rafter of the form used in iron roofs, the 
 drawing showing in full size a section adapted to a roof of 
 18 to 20 feet span. The arrangement of the parts at c, 
 fig. 150 will be very similar to that illustrated in Plate 
 XVII., fig. 1. The arrangement of the parts at / and g, 
 fig. 150, similar to those illustrated in Plate XIX., 
 fig^ 1, 2, 3, and 4. In fig. 5, Plate XVII, a form of 
 
IRON BEAMS. 
 
 127 
 
 gutter of cast iron adapted to an iron roof is shown ; and 
 in fig, 7, same plate, a wrouglit-iron or zinc one, this 
 being riveted to the end of the flange of the rafter, a, 
 prolonged for this purpose beyond the line of rafter box, 
 b, and wall, c. Other arrangements 
 of roofs and details the reader will 
 find in the Advanced Course of 
 Building Construction in this series. 
 
 37. Iron Beams. — As substitutes 
 for those of timber, beams are made of 
 cast and wx'ought iron, and of various 
 forms, the best for cast iron being 
 that illustrated in fig. 153 ; in this 
 the area of the section of upper 
 flange, c d, is one sixth that of the Fig- 154. 
 lower flange, ah; e f, depth of beam over all; c d, 
 width of upper flange ; i, thickness of upper flange; 
 a b, width of lower flange; g h, thickness of lower 
 flange; k, thickness of rib. In the Advanced Handbook of 
 
 Fig. 155. Tig. 156. 
 
 Building Construction, the reader will find a resume of 
 the peculiarities of cast iron as a building material, and 
 of the reasons why — where the safest and best method of 
 construction is considered — beams of that material should 
 
128 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 be discarded in favour of wrouglit iron, the peculiarities 
 of which will also be described. 
 
 The scope of the present work admitting only of 
 c general illustrations of form being 
 
 given, the reader must refer to 
 the same work — above named — 
 for a description of the "strains" 
 to which iron and timber ai^e sub- 
 jected, and for the principles upon 
 which beams and framework of 
 these materials are designed, to 
 meet the requii-ements of various 
 positions and localities. 
 
 Beams of wrought-iron, as 
 Fig. 157. now used in practical construc- 
 
 tion, are of three classes — 1st, Solid KoUed, as 
 in fig. 154, a, b, and c, these being used for small 
 spans, and for buildings where comparatively light 
 
 Fig. 158. 
 
 weights are to be carried, or small pressure sustained. 
 2nd, Built Beams (solid), as in figs. 155, 156. 3rd, 
 Built Beams, open or hollow, or, as they are generally 
 
IRON BEAMS. 
 
 129 
 
 termed, "Box Beams," as in fig. 157. These two latter 
 forms are used when the span is great, and the weights 
 to be supported, or pressure resisted, heavy. 4th, The 
 hollow conical beams, or " Fer Tubulaire," the invention 
 of M. Zore, of France. These have for some years been 
 largely used on the Continent, and are now being rapidly 
 introduced into this country into the construction of build- 
 ings. This form is illustrated in fig. 158. 5 th, Phillips' 
 
 Patent Flanged Beams, illustrated in figs, 159 and 
 160, fig. 159 being a solid, and fig. 160 a box beam 
 on this principle.* '..'/AaigleijjotiS," .as in % 161, and 
 "T-irons," as in£g.:i'5^^•av^,lMdll uSsTiiiin th^'.cjcJiJst'ijle;.*: 
 tion of built beams* Md bf Vi'OH^ht^irdh ¥®©fe;:brid|es, • 
 &c. ; " T-irons being used% rafters, and struts or braces • * 
 angle irons chiefly forJct^aeclingAaM. Sti-snfft}]£5ii!n«- . 
 
130 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 is also used for struts or braces ; as also T-iron, placed 
 together as in fig. 163. The following brief notes on 
 the strength of beams, and of the rules for finding 
 their dimensions, will conclude the subject. 
 
 In fig. 153, we have given the most approved form of 
 cast-iron beams, in which the sectional area of the bottom 
 flange, a h, is six times that of the top flange, c d. The 
 best proportion for the depth, e/, of a beam is one-twelfth 
 of the span, this being the depth at the centre. But the 
 depth at the bearing ends of the beam may be reduced to 
 two-thirds of the depth at the centre, although in practice 
 it is not usual to make the beam this shape ; the top and 
 bottom lines being almost universally made parallel — • 
 i.e., the beam of the same depth thi-oughout. The reasons 
 for this will be obvious on considering the case of beams 
 built into brick or stone work, as the upper flange will 
 
 Fig. 161. Fig. 162. FigTieS. 
 
 be flat throughout its length as required, in which to 
 place the bricks. The bearing of the beams on the wall 
 may be two-thirds of the depth at the centre. The 
 width of the bottom flange at the centre is generally 
 determined by the best proportions in which to distribute 
 the sectional area of the flange ; but this width may be 
 reduced at the ends to two-thirds of the width of the 
 centre. This reduction of the breadth of the flange at 
 the ends will give the plan a form, tapering from the 
 centre; the .taper or o,utlirie is;^e;»eraSy made of the 
 j),ii;'bolic ciirye. Jl'hij con^ianfe, c^foir breaking weight on 
 the centK of <!ast?irbh 'grrdertj, is* 25/ or 5*0 for the weight 
 uniformly distributed over the ^eam (see Advanced Course 
 .on strains).- 'Thv? bA;eakkig \v^^t of the beam, w, the 
 yspp,iij:i^, thevdepth, d'-^itt ^e-beam being known, the 
 
lEON BEAMS. 
 
 131 
 
 sectional area of the lovfer flange, a h, fig. 153, maybe 
 ascertained by multiplying w by s, and dividing the 
 product by d, multiplied by the constant c. The sec- 
 tional area may be proportioned so as to give a width of 
 bottom flange capable of resisting the strain of pressure 
 to which the beam is to be subjected, the thickness being, 
 say from one-fifth to one-tenth. The thickness of the 
 central web of the beam is generally about the thickness 
 of the bottom flange where it joins the flange, tapering 
 to about the thickness of the top flange, where it joins 
 this. The transverse strength of a cast-iron girder is 
 found by the following formula : where w is the break- 
 ing weight, s the span or length of the beam, a the sec- 
 tional area of the bottom flange in sq. inches, and d the 
 depth of the beam in inches, and c the constant. Then 
 a multiplied by d, multiplied by c, and divided by s. 
 The safe load of a beam is variously estimated as from 
 one-third to one-sixth of the calculated strength. In 
 ascertaining the breaking weight of a beam, it is of 
 coiirse necessary to know the load which it has to carry ; 
 this will vary according to circumstances. This, if 
 multiplied by six, assuming the breaking weight to be 
 six times the load, and the quotient multiplied by the 
 span, will give the breaking weight. The constant 
 employed is generally that which will give the breaking 
 weight at the centre; the beam being able to carry 
 double this weight when the load is uniformly dis- 
 tributed over its surface (see strains on materials in the 
 Advanced Course). The sectional area of the bottom flange 
 being found by the rule already given; this is to be 
 made up by a flange of a determinate width and thick- 
 ness; this, if the area is twenty-four square inches, in 
 flange of twelve inches in width by two inches in thick- 
 ness, will be the dimensions which will absorb, so to say, 
 the sectional area found. Usually the width is deter- 
 mined upon by circumstances, as position and thickness 
 of wall, &c., &c., so that the thickness will be found 
 when the width is determined upon — a good proportion 
 
132 
 
 TIMBER AND IRON WORK. 
 
 IS for tlie width of tlie flange, one half or thereabouts of 
 the depth of the beam ; and that, as we have already 
 said, may be taken at one twelfth of the span. The 
 sectional area of the top flange, c d, fig. 153, should be 
 one sixth of the area of the bottom flange. As to this 
 proportion, much depends upon the way the beam is 
 loaded ; if on the bottom flange, as in the case of bridg- 
 ing joists resting upon it, the proportion of top flange 
 may be one-sixth of the bottom flange ; but, if the load is 
 on the top flange, this should bear a gi-eater proportion 
 say one-third of the bottom flange. The width of the 
 top flange is in practice uniform, from end to end. 
 
 In beams, the central part, as e e in a, fig. 154, is called 
 the "web"; and d d, the top and bottom flanges In 
 the solid "built" beam, as fig. 155, the "web," a a, is 
 a plate of wi-ought-iron ; the "bottom flange," h h, hem<y 
 secured by rivets to the "web," a, by the angle "irons " 
 ee, the angle irons being of the same length as the 
 "web," a a. The "top flange," c c, is secured to the 
 upper edge of the "web," a a, by the angle ii-ons, d d. 
 In fig. 156, we give a side view of fig. 155, this last 
 named figure being a cross vertical section ; the corres- 
 ponding letters show corresponding parts. Fig. 157 is a 
 built beam, but hollow, and is called a " box beam ; " in 
 this the sides, a a, are made of plates of wrought iron • 
 and these carry a "bottom flange," b h, secured to the 
 side plates, a a, by the angle irons, d d; rivetted by the 
 rivets placed at certain distances from each other, in the 
 manner shown in fig. 156. The "top flange," c, is 
 secured m a similar manner to the upper edges of the 
 side plates, a a, by the " angle irons," e e. Fig. 158 is a 
 section of the "Zore," or tubular wrought-u-on beam 
 already referred to. This is hollow and conical, or 
 rather, has inclined sides, as a c, 5 cZ; ea,hf being the 
 flanges in which the beam rests ; the load being carried 
 on the ujDper flange, or the top plate, c d. In fig. 159, a 
 section of Phillips' patent wrought-iron beam is given; 
 it IS simply a beam, a, with top and bottom flanges, 6 6^ 
 
IRON BEAMS. 
 
 133 
 
 of the ordinary form, but with an additional plate or 
 flange, c c, secured to the upper flange, b, of the beam, a, 
 by rivets, as d e. This addition, simple as it is, gives 
 great additional strength to the beam, abb. Fig. 160 
 shows a box beam on this pi-inciple, which is made up of 
 two beams, a b, of the ordinary form, with the ends of 
 their upper and lower flanges coming in contact at the 
 points, c d ; the upper plate, / e, and the lower, g h, are 
 secured by the rivets, i i. 
 
 In Plate XX. we give one-half of a transverse vertical 
 section of a warehouse or factory, taken on a line across 
 its breadth; a a, the walls, the footings of which rest 
 upon concrete, c?; as also the stone bases, e e, of the 
 cast-iron pillars supporting the wrought-iron beam flooring, 
 g g g — h h h, mark the portion of the cross or longitudi- 
 nal beams for supporting flooring timbers. The iron roof 
 is shown at i i; j, the rafter box; k k, the rafter; 1 1, the 
 tie-rod; m, the king bolt; n, o, the queen bolts; p, the 
 struts or braces; r, the gutter. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Appliances for Drawing, 9-16. 
 
 Bars, Sasli, for Windows, 91. 
 Beam, Trellis or Open, 45. 
 Beams, Cast Iron, 126. 
 
 Fishing of, 40. 
 
 Flitches in, 43. 
 
 Increasing the Depth of, 42. 
 
 Increasing the Thicltness of, 43. 
 
 Iron, Proportions of, 130. 
 
 in Iron, Wrought and Cast, 126. 
 
 Lengthening of, 40. 
 
 Scarfing of, 41. 
 
 Trimming, 44. 
 
 Wrought Iron, 127. 
 Binding Joists, 29. 
 Boarding, Weather, 55. 
 Boards, Flooring, 32. 
 Boards, Slcirting, 36. 
 Bolts and Straps, Iron, 110. 
 Braced, Framed, and Trussed Parti- 
 tion, 40. 
 
 Brestsumraers, or Bressumers, 45. 
 Bricknogging in Partitions, 48. 
 Bridging Gutter, 58. 
 Bridging Joists, 29. , 
 
 Cantalevbr, 56. 
 Casings of Doors, 81. 
 Cast-iron Beams, 126. 
 Ceiling Joists, 28. 
 Centres, 70. 
 
 Cogging, Caulking, or Keying of 
 
 beams, 42. 
 Collar Beam Roof, 50. 
 Columns, Iron, 118- 
 Couple or Span Roof, 50. 
 Covering for Roof, 52. 
 " Curves " for Drawing, 12. 
 
 Depth, Increasing the, of Beams, 41. 
 Detail Drawings, Scales for, 22. 
 Doors and Windows, Furniture of, i.e., 
 
 Locks, Hinges, &c., &c., 93-98. 
 Doors — 
 
 Architrave, 82. 
 
 Casings of, 81. 
 
 Framed and Lodged, 79. 
 
 Doors— 
 Framed and Panelled Door, 80. 
 Hanging of, and Windows, 93. 
 Interior or Dining Room, 80. 
 Ledged, 79. 
 
 Ledged and Braced, 79. 
 
 Ledged, Framed, and Braced, SO. 
 
 Panels, 83. 
 
 Jambs of, 81. 
 
 Various Forms of, 78. 
 Double and Framed Floors, 29. 
 Dowelled Floors, 33. 
 Drawing Appliances, 9-16. 
 
 Board, 9. 
 
 Instruments, 13. 
 
 Paper and Pencils, 1-11, 
 
 Scales used in, 1-11. 
 Drawings, Scales for Detail, 22. 
 
 Elevations, Plans, and Sections, 23. 
 
 Fishing of Beams, 40. 
 Flashings, Lead. 
 Flitching of Beams, 43. 
 Flooring Boards, 32, 
 
 Joints in, 35. 
 Flooring Joists, 27. 
 Floors, Double Framed, 30. 
 
 Dowelled, 33. 
 
 Framed and Double, 29. 
 
 Joining of Timber in, 37. 
 
 Single, 28. 
 
 Straight Joint, 33. 
 Framed and Double Floors, 29. 
 Framed, Braced, and Trussed Parti- 
 tion, 40. 
 Framed Partition, 46. 
 Furniture, Looks, &c., of Doors and 
 
 Windows, 93-98. 
 
 Girder, 31. 
 Gutter, Valley, 57. 
 Gutters, Bead Lining of, 114. 
 Gutters of Roofs, 56. 
 
 HANaiNQ of Shutters, 95. 
 
 Hingeing of Doors and Windows, 93. 
 
 Hip or Hipped Roof, 61. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 135 
 
 INSTRUMBKTS ioT Drawing, 13. 
 Iron and Timber Boofs, 119. 
 Iron Beams, Proportions of, 130. 
 
 Columns, 118. 
 
 Roofs, 121. 
 
 Straps and Bolts, 116. 
 Wrought, Beams, 127. 
 
 Joinery, Joints in, 99-110. 
 Joining of Timbers in Floors, 87. 
 Joining of Timbers in Roofs, 59, 60. 
 Joinings of Timbers in Partitions, 47. 
 Joints in Flooring Boards, 35. 
 Joints in Joinery, Various Kinds and 
 Names of — 
 
 Architraves, 110. 
 
 Blockings, 107. 
 
 Brackets, 109. 
 
 Chamfering, 102. 
 
 Clamping, 103. 
 
 Cross Grooving, 103. 
 
 Dovetail Joints, 108. 
 
 Joints at Obtuse Angles, 107. 
 
 Joints at Right Angles, 106. 
 
 Lodging, 103. 
 
 Mitre Clamped, 104. 
 
 Mortise and Tenon, 105. 
 
 Ploughed, 101. 
 
 Ploughed and Tongued, 101. 
 
 " Rebate," 101. 
 
 Slip Feather, 101. 
 
 Stop Chamfer, 102. 
 
 Tongue or Feather, 101. 
 Joints, Miscellaneous, in Timber, 73-76. 
 
 King-post Roof, 50. 
 
 Lead Coverings for Parapets, 115. 
 Lead Flashings, 111. 
 Lead Linings for Gutters, 114. 
 Lean-to or Shed Roof, 49. 
 Lengthening of Beams, 40. 
 
 Miscellaneous Joints in Timber, 73- 
 76. 
 
 Mouldings, 99. 
 
 Panels of Doors, Kinds and Parts of— 
 Bead and Butt, 84. 
 Bead and Flush, 84. 
 Flush, 83. 
 Laid on, 85. 
 Lying, 82. 
 
 Margin of a Panel, 83. 
 Mitre, 85. 
 
 Moulded Raised Panel, 84. 
 Raised, 83, 
 Square, 82. 
 Stuck on, 85. 
 Partitions, 46-48. 
 
 Partitions, Joints of Timbers in, 47. 
 Plans, Elevations, and Sections, 23. 
 Proportions of Iron Beams, 130. 
 
 Quartering Partition, 46. 
 Queen-post Roof, 51. 
 
 Roofs, 49-51. 
 Covering for, 52. 
 Gutters of, 56. 
 in Iron and Timber, 119. 
 Joining of Timbers in, 59. 
 of Iron, 121. 
 Collar Beam, 67. 
 Dragon Beam, 69. 
 Hip Rafter, 69. 
 King-post, 02. 
 
 Parts of tie Beams, Wall Plates, 60. 
 Purlin, 65. 
 Queen-posts, 64. 
 Rafter, 61. 
 Ridge Pole, 64. 
 Struts or Braces, 63. 
 Rulers for Drawing, 12. 
 
 Sasii Bars for Windows, 91. 
 Scales for Detail Drawings, 22. 
 Scales, Practical use of, 16-19. 
 Scales used in Drawing, 1-11. 
 Scarfing of Beams, 41. 
 Sections, Plans, and Elevations, 23. 
 Shutters, Hanging of, 95. 
 Shutters, Window, 91. 
 Single Floors, 28. 
 Skirting Boards, 36. 
 Slates, Fixing of, on Roof, 53. 
 Span or Bearing of a Floor, 28. 
 Span or CoupTe Roof, 50. 
 Straight Joint Floors, 33. 
 Straps and Bolts, Iron, 116. 
 Strutting of a Floor, 29. 
 
 Thickenino of Beams, 43. 
 Thickness, Increasingthe,of Beams, 43. 
 Timber and Iron Roofs, 119. 
 Timber Joints, Miscellaneous, 73-76. 
 Timbers, Joining of, in Roofs, 59. 
 Timbers, Joints of, in Partitions, 47. 
 Trellis, or Open Beam, 45. 
 Trimmer, Trimming Joists, 30. 
 Trimming of Beams, 44. 
 Trussed, Framed, and Braced Parti- 
 tion, 46. 
 "T" Square, 9. 
 
 Valley Gutter, 57. 
 
 Wall Plates, 27, 39. 
 Weather Boarding, 55. 
 Window Shutters, 91. 
 
13G 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Window Shutter Flaps, 92. 
 
 Kinds and Parts of Folding, 92. 
 
 Lifting, Rolling, 92. 
 
 Shutter Boxings, 92. 
 Windows and Doors, Furniture of, i. e.. 
 
 Locks, Hinges, &c., &o., 93-98. 
 Windows and Doors, Hinffing of, 93. 
 Windows, Sash Bars for, 91. 
 Windows, Various Forms of— 
 
 Beads, 89. 
 
 Cased Framing, 87. 
 
 Casement, French Casement, 87. 
 
 Casing Pieces, 83. 
 
 Windows — 
 Cill or Sill, 87. 
 Fixed, 86. 
 
 Hung, Double Hung, Single Hung, 
 
 Lining, 8S, 89. 
 
 Panes of Glass, 90. 
 
 Parting Slip, 83. 
 
 Pulley Pieces and Styles, 89. 
 
 Sash, 86. 
 
 Sash Bars, 91. 
 
 Sash Weight, 88. 
 
 Solid Sash Frame, 87. 
 
 WILLIAM COLLIXS AND COMPANY, PRINTERS. GLASGOW. 
 
136 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Window Shutter Flaps, 92. 
 
 Kinds and Parts of Folding, 92. 
 
 Lifting, Rolling-, 92. 
 
 Shutter Boxings, 92. 
 Windows and Doors, Furniture of, {. e., 
 
 Locks, Hinges, &c., &c., 93-98. 
 Windows and Doors, Hing-ing of, 93. 
 ■\Vnidows, Sash Bars for, 91. 
 Windows, Various Forms of — 
 
 Beads, 89. 
 
 Cased Framing, 87. 
 
 Casement, Freneh Casement, 87. 
 
 Casing Pieces, 83. 
 
 Windows — 
 Cill or Sill, 87. 
 Fixed, 8C. 
 
 Hung, Double Hung, Single Hub?. 
 
 86. ^* 
 Lining, 83, 89. 
 Panes of Glass, 90. 
 Parting Slip, 88. 
 Pulley Pieces and Styles, 89. 
 Sash, 86. 
 Sash Bars, 91. 
 Sash Weight, 88. 
 Solid Sash p'rame, 87. 
 
 WILLIAM COLLINS AND COMPANY, PRINTERS, OLASGOtT.