1 ADVERTISEMENTS, FACILINE For Yarn S:zers. Lays the Fibre, makes Yarn wind and weave well, and improves the appearance, of \ Cloth. Saves its ^ * cost in flour. A few pounds will in most cases be 1 sufficient for \ a trial; and \ this quantity \ will be sent ' on applica¬ tion, free of charge. 9A€ T. TABBERNER & C3., 31 & 33, Rochdale Road, MANCHESTER. ’^ESTABLISHED 1805. Acid, Acetic. ,, Oxalic. „ Picric. ,, Tartaric. Ammonia, Carb. Barytes, Nitrate. Bichrome. Borax. Caustic Soda. Chlorate of Potash. Copper, Sulphate. Cream of Tartar. Cocoa-nut Oil. Dextrine. Farina. French Chalk. Lead White. ,, Bed. Litharge. Manganese, Black Oxide. Prussiate of Pot¬ ash, Yellow. Ditto, Bed. Pearl ash. Quicksilver. Salts of Tartar. Saltpetre. Soda Crystals. „ Ash. ,, Bicarb. Strontia, Nitrate. Sulphur, Boll. ,, Flowers of. Sugar of Lead, White. ,, ,, Brown. Tallow, P.Y.C. Wax, Paraffin, Befined. „ „ Crude. ,, ,, Scales. ,, Japan. „ Bees. Patent steam Hydro-extractors, Thomas Broadbent, Engineer, HUDDERSFIELD. Also Maker of Hydro-Extractors Underdriven by Straps. ADVERTISEMENTS. 11. TORSION , friction TEST PUMPS, ^S\^> TRANSVERSE & CRlJ SRlNr TESTERS FOR BOTTLE TESTERS. ^ STRAWS & FRESSTJREs y3VIRE,E OILERS. FLUES. ^ A \K , E k=r A JT springs, &c. POST FREE BAILEY’S BOOK OF TESTERS, being an account of Testers, for the use of Cotton Spinners, Oil Manufacturers, Engineers, and others. Bailey’s “ Swivel Valve” Donkey Pumps. STEEL AND WROUGHT IRON FORGINGS, STEEL PINS, CASE-HARDENED JOINTS, GUN METAL RAM AND VALVES, AND WELL FINISHED For Boiler Feeding for ^ \ \ s The sim P lest and least liable Mines, Quarries, Dye Works, iv U> l s ^1 to get out of order. Breweries, &c. TRADE \<\~ k<7 V" / Tested by steam before delivery. MARK VERTICAL VERPCA HORIZONTAL W. H. Bailey & Co., Hydraulic Engineers and Tester Makers, ALBION WORKS, SALFORD, MANCHESTER. THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS AND THE Causes unit llrebeutirm of fflilfrefaj. BY WM. THOMSON, F.R.S. Edin.; F.I.C., F.C.S. Lond., ROYAL INSTITUTION, MANCHESTER. SECOND EDITION. MANCHESTER : JOHN HEYWOOD, EXCELSIOR BUILDINGS, RIDGEFIELD., JOHN DALTON ST.; AND 18, PATERNOSTER SQUARE, LONDON, E.C. AGENTS; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO., LONDON. MDCOCLXXIX. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. About the middle of March last I delivered a Lecture in London before the Society of Arts on “ The Sizing of Cotton Goodsand, at the soli¬ citations of many friends connected with the cotton trade, I have been induced to take that Lecture as a nucleus, and to extend it into the form of this Treatise, believing as I do that such a work is required now that the manufacture of sized cloth has become so important an industry. WILLIAM THOMSON. Royal Institution , Manchester, 28th June, 1877. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. The first edition of this work was out of print a few months after its publication, and, having been many times since recpiested to produce a second edition, I have endeavoured to supply those demands by the present volume. As far as pos¬ sible I have touched upon the various laws of chemistry and physics which are involved in the manufacture of cloth. The substances usually employed in sizing are treated of, and their pro¬ perties and the mode of testing their purity given, so that the manufacturer or sizer may, by following these directions, be able to dis¬ tinguish between a pure and an adulterated article. The effects of these bodies in promoting or preventing the growth of mildew in cloth, into which they are introduced, are also referred to in each case. I have further given a description of the con¬ ditions of growth and mode of propagation of mildew, and the causes which determine its development, and also the methods of examining bales of goods alleged to be damaged, so that VI. a definite idea of the cause of injury may be obtained. I have aimed at making this treatise valuable to the shipper and merchant, as well as to the manufacturer, not only in showing what sub¬ stances are usually employed in sizing grey and other cloths, but also in giving methods by which the presence of these bodies can be determined by simple chemical experiments, and the con¬ ditions which are likely to result in mildew or damage, feeling certain that, if a little attention be given to these details, it will be repaid a thousand - fold by greatly diminished risks from mildew and other kinds of damage from which both merchants and manufacturers have, in late years, so heavily suffered. I am indebted to the kindness of several gen¬ tlemen for various technical details which appear in these pages, such as the descriptions of different sizing machines, the classification of grey cloths, and for mechanical appliances for treating and preparing the size. It is idle to call in question the morality of producing heavily sized cloth. Lancashire manu¬ facturers must produce what the natives of India, China, and other countries demand, and not what they think would be best for them, and if they object to do this, the people of some other nation would, doubtless, quickly prove themselves less quixotic, and more respectful of the free will and liberty of the people. Heavily sized cloth is Vll. undoubtedly better adapted for many purposes, for wbicli the natives use it, than the pure cotton fabric, besides being less costly, and manufac¬ turers are often unjustly accused of adulteration : as a matter of fact, there are few manufacturers who would not mucb rather make pure cloth, but as there is such a limited demand for that commodity, they are forced, by the interests of themselves and their workpeople, to supply the requirements of the market. Utopian philanthro¬ pists have spoken strongly about heavy sizing as having been the cause of the present unsatisfac¬ tory state of the cotton goods trade; heavily sized cloths are, however, in much greater demand at the present time than pure calicoes; and it is more than probable that if manufacturers had not produced heavily sized goods, Lancashire would never have acquired such an important cotton industry as that which she now possesses. Royal Institution, Manchester , 24th October , 1879. CONTENTS PAGE Introduction . 1 CHAPTER I. Apparatus employed in testing the various substances USED IN SIZING . 22 Reagents „ D j? >> 42 CHAPTER II. Cotton ; its physical characters and chemical composition 49 CHAPTER III. Materials employed for giving adhesive qualities to the SIZE . . 64 CHAPTER IV. Materials employed to give body and weight to the size AND YARN . . 114 CHAPTER V. Materials used to soften the size and yarn; oily and GREASY MATTERS . 132 CHAPTER VI. Deliquescent substances used for giving weight and STRENGTH TO THE YARN . 145 Soap . CHAPTER VII. . 159 CHAPTER VIII. Substances employed for preserving size from mildew and DECOMPOSITION .. .. 166 CHAPTER IX. Effects of the conditions of the atmosphere on weaving... 180 CHAPTER X. PAGE Sizing mixtures ; their, preparation. 195 Colours employed for tinting the size. 202 CHAPTER XI. Methods op applying the size to the yarn . 206 CHAPTER XII. Sized grey cloth ; mode op analysis, etc. 224 CHAPTER XIII. Packing op grey cloth; packing materials. 231 CHAPTER XIY. Varieties of damage to which sized cloth is liable; mildew, decomposition, etc . 238 INTRODUCTION. milE practice of heavily sizing cloth has lately —afforded to some political economists and writers of sensational articles an ample field for the display of their eloquence. These gentlemen are generally not well acquainted with the merits or demerits of the practice, and this enables them to give ample rein to their tongues or pens, and. compels them to consider it their duty to injure the reputations of grey cloth manufacturers generally. It is not here intended either to defend or condemn such practices. The demand will in these, as in other things, regulate the supply of such goods; but in the manufacture of cloth the sizing of the warp is absolutely necessary, and has been practised by weavers of different nations for thousands of years. If we examine a piece of ordinary cloth, we observe that it is composed of two sets of threads, running at riodit anodes to each other. The one set, which runs O O 7 along the piece of cloth, is called the “ warp; ” the other set, which runs across the piece, is called the “woof” or “weft.” And, as a rule, if the fabric be more closely examined, it will be observed that the 2 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. warp is the thicker and stronger of the two ; but, whatever differences may be observed, one thing is certain, that the warp has to withstand a much greater amount of strain and wear and tear in the process of weaving than the weft, and consequently the limit of strength required by the former is much greater than that required by the latter. The accompanying drawing (Fig. 1), will serve to show how the warp and weft are woven into cloth. The warp is received by the weaver wound on a large roller, called a beam ; this is placed at the back of the loom so that it may revolve, and gradually unwind the warp as it is required. The beam contains as many ends or distinct threads as are required to form the entire breadth of the cloth. These threads are taken and passed through an arrangement in the loom, called “heddles” or “healds.” A heald is formed of a series of cotton or woollen threads, stretched between two loner loose rods of wood. The healds O are knitted by a most ingenious process. They are made so that the loops through which the rods pass, together with the threads which stretch between the two rods, and the loop in the centre of each thread, are all knitted from two threads— one forming the bottom, the other the top part of the fabric ; and when the knitting has been finished, the heald is completed by passing and fixing a flat rod of wood along the top, and another along the bottom of the fabric; thus each of the threads stretching from each side is provided with a loop Plate 1 INTRODUCTION. ' 3 in the centre. These ioops are generally varnished, to render them smooth, and so prevent them, as far as possible, from injuring the threads of the warp which pass through them during the process of weaving, and also as a protection to themselves against the wearing action of the warp. Four healds are required for each loom to form a “set.” They are arranged the one behind the other. The first thread of vcarp is passed through the first loop of the first heald, the second thread is passed through the first loop of the third heald, the third through the first loop of the second heald, the fourth through the first loop of the fourth heald. The fifth is passed through the second loop of the first, the sixth through the second loop of the third heald, and so on to the end. The first and second healds have an upward motion, whilst the third and fourth have a simultaneous downward motion, which is communicated to them by an arrangement of machinery called treadles. These motions thus make every alternate thread of the warp to be pulled up by the first and second healds, whilst the third and fourth pull down the other alternate threads, and so produce what is called the “ shed, 1 ’ along which the thread of weft is shot. The w r arp threads, after passing through the healds, are passed through an arrangement called the reed. This is constructed of a series of long flat steel ribs or “dents” extending between two rods of wood which are placed about 3 inches apart. 4 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. It resembles a comb, the teeth of which are fixed at each side by two long rods. These teeth or “dents” are placed so close to each other that from thirty to sixty or more are set along each inch of the rods, the total length of the reed coinciding with the breadth of the cloth to be manufactured, and the number of teeth in the reed corresponding with the number of picks or warp threads required to be put in the cloth. Generally, two threads of warp are passed between each of the dents of the reed. The warp threads are then stretched over a fixed frame, and attached to a beam or roller in front of the loom, which has a revolving motion in unison with the rest of the machinery, and on which the cloth, as it is produced, is wrapped. The reed or long comb is fixed in a wooden frame called the “ lay,” the length of which is greater than the breadth of the loom, and the lay is supported from the floor by two flat rods of iron called “ swords,” one placed at each end. These are fixed at the bottom so that they are free to oscillate, and to give to the lay, which carries the reed, shuttle, and shuttle-boxes, a backward and forward motion parallel with the warp like the motion which a pendulum would give to the bob, if it could be imagined to be working upside down. The part of the lay in front of the reed, resembles a shelf upon which the reed is supported, and is called the “ shuttle-race.” It is set inclined slightly up¬ wards from the bottom of the reed, and is formed INTRODUCTION. 5 thus as a guide to the shuttle, which is shot to and fro across it. A shuttle-box is fixed at each end of the shuttle-race, which receives the shuttle as it is shot from the box on the opposite side. Inside each box, parallel with the “race,” is a steel rod, called a guider, for the purpose of guiding the “ picker ” which strikes the shuttle. The picker is a small arrangement made of raw buffalo hide, which has previously been soaked for some time in linseed oil, to give it more tenacity, having a hole through which it is passed on to the steel guider, and the top of the picker is attached to one end of a strap, which is fixed at the other end at right angles to a rod of wood about 18 inches long and 2 inches diameter, called the “ picking-stick.” The other end of the picking-stick is attached to an iron rod at the back of the loom. This gives to the picking-stick a quick jerking horizontal motion, which it communicates to the strap and picker. The picker is thus projected violently along the steel guiding rod, and striking the shuttle, shoots it violently along the “ race.” The shuttle is made of boxwood, tapered, pointed, and tipped with steel, about 1^- inches in diameter at its centre and thickest part, and about 12 inches long. Along the centre of this piece of wood is cut an oblong hole, about 7 inches in length, in which the cop is fixed upon a steel pin. The cop is a bobbin of weft, or yarn, very ingeniously wrapped; the end of the thread from the cop being passed through a small hole in the side and 6 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. near one end of the shuttle, so that by pulling the thread it unwraps from the cop with the greatest facility. The shuttle thus charged with weft is placed in one of the shuttle-boxes on the race, and when the loom is started the first pair of healds rise at the same time as the other pair descend, carrying with them in opposite directions the alternate threads of the warp and forming the “ shed,” which resembles the letter Y, the apex of which is at the point at which the cloth is produced. The healds being placed behind the reed, the bottom row of threads are pulled down, and rest on the shuttle-race. At this moment the shuttle is struck by the picker, and shot across the threads lying on the shuttle-race, leaving a thread of weft behind it. No sooner has the shuttle arrived at the opposite side of the race than the swords supporting the lay make an oscillation, carrying the lay and reed with them, the teeth of the reed pushing the thread of weft before it, close up to the previous thread— i.e., to the point at which the cloth is being produced ; when this point is reached the healds reverse, making the alternate warp threads cross each other, thus fixing the weft thread as the lay falls back. The warp threads, which at the last oscilla¬ tion of the lay formed the top of the “ shed,” now form the bottom, and they now rest on the shuttle- race. At this point the shuttle receives another stroke from the opposite picker, which shoots it across the race, leaving another line of weft, which INTRODUCTION. 7 is again forced home by the forward motion of the lay, and so the cloth is formed. 1/ A simple and ingenious arrangement, called the “ fork,” is placed at one side of the loom, outside the line of warp threads, near one of the boxes, into which the shuttle is shot for the purpose of stopping the loom if the weft breaks. It is an arrangement like an ordinary fork bent twice at right angles to itself, the first bend bemg at the prongs, about two- thirds their length from the points ; the other end, representing the handle of the fork, being bent down in the same direction for about a quarter of an inch. It is supported or poised on a cross pin passing through the horizontal part of the arrangement; the last bend is rather heavier than the fork side of this balance, and rests on a semicircular piece of iron in communication with levers, which has also a projection at one end and an oscillating movement. If, then, this projection be caught by anything so that it cannot perform its complete oscillation, a series of levers fall, and the loom stops. It is, however, arranged that the thread of weft left by the shuttle between the line of warp and the shuttle-box touches the fork near the bottom as the sleigh moves forward, and thus carries with it the end of the fork for about an inch. This has the effect of raising the other end with its projecting piece, so that it passes the projecting piece on the oscillating arrangement, and so permits it to make its complete oscillation, and the machine goes on; 8 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. but if the weft break the fork is not raised, and the two projecting pieces catch each other, preventing the oscillation from being completed, and causing a set of levers to fall and the loom to be stopped. So quickly do these machines or looms work that, at an ordinary speed, the shuttle is struck by the pickeV 180 times per minute. Thus 180 threads of weft are woven with the warp in that space of time; and as each inch of an ordinary cloth or grey shirting contains about G4 threads or “picks,” about three inches of cloth are produced per minute by each loom. But some looms are worked at even a greater speed than this, namely, giving about 220 threads or picks per minute, and thus producing in that time, from the above calculation, about three and a half inches of cloth per minute ; but those which, work at this high speed produce narrow cloths, that is to say, the shuttle has not so far to travel, and can therefore be shot backwards and forwards more often in the same space of time than those which have to travel further at each stroke of the picker, as when broader cloths are being produced. It will now be evident that the wear and tear on the warp by the pulling action of the liealds on the one hand, and the wearing action of the shuttle passing across the threads on the other, is very great, and from the earliest ages weavers have prepared or “sized” the warp threads with some preparation before the process of weaving, with a view to strengthen them, the material used by ancient INTRODUCTION. 9 oriental . nations was rice-water. The method which was at first adopted in Lancashire was simply to pass the threads of warp through some adhesive matter, such as flour-paste, and to dry them ; this gave the extra strength required for the warp to pass through the loom, but it made the cloth produced feel harsh. Tallow or oil was then boiled with the flour or starch-paste, to give it the desired softness, and this mixture gives all that could be desired for the absolute manufacture of the fabric ; but here the progress in sizing did not end. It was observed that different kinds of size, and modes of mixing and applying it to the threads of the warp gave to them properties which, when woven into cloth, made the fabric appear and feel fuller and better, and so well can this process be now applied that “ connoisseurs ”—and there are many in Lancashire who profess, and no doubt with much reason, that they can tell how much cotton a cloth contains by simply feeling it—are often deceived by the arts of an expert warp sizer The problems then which the manufacturer of the present day must solve are rather complicated. First, he must arrange to produce pieces of grey cloth of a certain number of yards in length and a certain number of inches in breadth. Second, each piece of cloth must weigh a certain number of pounds. Third, together with the first two qualities it must possess an appearance equal to some standard, i.e., it 10 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. must be made so that a “connoisseur” shall be able to say: “ This piece is equal to the sample required, it has the proper ‘feel/ and it contains the proper number of threads or picks of warp and weft to the quarter inch.” The latter is ascertained by means of a small brass arrangement witb a lens, which folds into three parts, and when opened for use has the appear¬ ance of three sides of a box ; one side serves as a stand, this has a square or round hole cut in the centre, which is exactly an eighth, a quarter, or some other part of an inch, in diameter ; the second side acts as a pillar to support the third, in which an ordinary glass lens is set opposite to the hole in the lower side. This arrangement is put on the piece of cloth to be tested, and the eye of the operator is placed above the lens, which magnifies the threads, and so enables him to count the number present in every quarter or other part of an inch of the cloth, i.e., the the number of threads which are in the space which the small hole includes, and he is thus able to tell how many “picks” or threads of warp and weft the cloth contains to the quarter inch. They say that the “count” of this cloth is 15-16, and of that P.0-24, meaning that the one contains 15 threads of warp and 16 of weft, and the other 20 threads of warp and 24 of weft to the quarter inch. The last and most important object of many Lancashire manufacturers is, to make grey cloths of specified dimensions, weight, and appearance, with as little cotton as possible. The remainder of the weight, INTRODUCTION". 11 “ feel,” and general appearance of the fabric to be made up with size. Any idea of all the different mixtures which are used to produce “ size ” cannot be given,—their name is legion,—but below are the different substances generally used, of which two, three, four, or more, are mixed, and boiled with water to produce the desired compound. The substances employed may be divided into five different classes, viz. :— 1. For giving Adhesive Properties to the Size. Wheaten flour of different kinds. Sago. Maize or Indian corn starch. Farina (potato starch). Rice. Dextrine or British gum. Irish moss. 2. Materials used to give Weight and Body to the Size and Yarn. China clay. Sulphate of baryta. Sulphate of lime. Sulphate of magnesia. Sulphate of soda. Silicate of magnesia (soap stone.) Silicate of soda. Chloride of barium. 3. Oily or Greasy Matters used for “ Softening ” the Size and Yarn. Tallow of different kinds. Bleached palm oil. Cocoa-nut oil. Castor oil. Olive and other oils. Shea butter Paraffin wax. Japan wax. 12 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. f Other Substances used for “ Softening ” and giving Weight and Body to the Size and Yarn. Chloride of magnesium. Chloride of calcium. Glycerine. Soap of different kinds. Grape sugar. 5. For Preserving the “ Size” from Mildew and Decomposition. Chloride of zinc. Carbolic acid. Cresylic acid. Salicylic acid. Thymol. Salts of arsenic, and when anyone manufactures heavily-sized grey shirtings he knows that they are, as a rule, intended to be shipped abroad, and they must, therefore, be made so that they will stand the voyage and storage abroad for a reasonable length of time, without becoming damaged by any inherent defect of manu¬ facture. It is in the power of the manufacturer to make heavily-sized cloths which will bear this test; and if by carelessness, or want of knowledge, the manufacturer fail to do this, and thereby cause, INTRODUCTION. 21 money to* be lost on them, it would not be fair to say that the merchant must suffer for the manu¬ facturer’s carelessness or ignorance; but still, from demonstrations which were made after the last mentioned trial, it is clear that many of the producers of cloth are very anxious that they should throw from their shoulders all responsibility after the goods leave their hands. One of the arguments which they bring forward, and with some show of justice, is that they cannot hold themselves respon¬ sible for goods which are packed and shipped by other people, and which may not be treated in a proper manner, or sent abroad in good ships, or stored in proper places ; but a history of the goods, together with an examination of one or more of the damaged bales, and a chemical examination of the packing and damaged fabric, will nearly always suffice to show whether the damage has resulted from bad sizing, or from too much or too little of certain ingredients used in the size, or from external damage produced by rough handling, from bad packing, or from improper storage of the goods. These should and will, no doubt, prove nearly always sufficient protection for the manufacturer, and the more clearly cloth producers comprehend the exact nature of the existing law in the matter the less loss will they themselves, and those to whom they sell their goods, be called upon to suffer. 22 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Chapter I. APPARATUS EMPLOYED IN TESTING THE VARIOUS SUBSTANCES USED IN SIZING. I T is very important that manufacturers and sizers should arrange to have all the samples which they purchase tested or analysed, so that they may be certain, first, that they receive the actual article ordered; and, secondly, that the articles be of the nature and quality demanded. In some cases the performance of a slight test may be of great value to them, whilst in others the making of a simple analysis may save much after-trouble, anxiety, and expense. With these ends in view it has been considered advisable to describe the use and methods of using various appliances which are employed in chemical laboratories for making tests or analyses of substances intended to be used for sizing purposes. The following are some of the most important pieces of apparatus which should be in the hands of the intelligent manufacturer or sizer. THE BALANCE. 23 THE BALANCE AND WEIGHTS. » For quantitative analysis it is necessary to liave a delicate balance and a set of weights, preferably grain weights. Many may consider that the use of such a balance is unnecessary and demands too much time and care in manipulation to be of value to the manu¬ facturer, but this is not so ; with little practice any one of moderate ability may use it in weighing, almost as quickly, and with a much greater degree of accuracy, than with the somewhat rude scales which are at present in use for weighing leas of yarn to determine the “count.” Fig. 2 shows one form of the chemical balance. The cross-beam is generally made of brass, in the centre of which at right angles to it is fitted a sharp triangular piece of steel or agate, which, when the balance is in use, rests on or oscillates between two flat pieces of steel or agate, fitted into the top edges of two flat pieces of brass, joined together at the bottom and open at the top, resembling the letter U, supported on a rod which can slide up and down inside the fixed pillar. To a slip of brass, projecting at right angles from the centre of the beam, is fixed a long needle which hangs perpendicularly in front of the pillar; and near to the bottom of the pillar is fixed a graduated ivory scale. When the balance is not required the beam and pans are supported by the arms which project from the sides of the centre pillar, for the purposes of preventing the knife-edge of the centre from touching- the steel or agate 24 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. planes and for taking any strain off the beam when the pans of the balance are loaded. When it is desired to use the instrument, the beam should be allowed to rest upon the knife-edge at its centre, and it should then be observed whether or no it is in equilibrium,—if correct, it will remain at rest, or move up and down causing the needle in front to oscillate to equal distances from the centre, or zero line, on the graduated ivory scale. If it be slightly heavier on one side than the other the needle in front will oscillate further WEIGHING. 25 towards the side, opposite to the heavier arm, from the centre line. If this be so, care should be taken to see that no particles of matter are resting on the pans or on either side of the beam which might cause the disturbance. If the balance be perfectly clean, and the beam do not remain in equilibrium when thrown on the knife-edge, it may be adjusted by a small lever which projects from its top and centre. When the balance is thus proved to be correct or is corrected, the substance to be weighed is placed on one pan and the weights on the other till equilibrium is restored. The weights required for that purpose may then be added together and the total weight recorded in a book kept for that purpose. The set of grain weights is arranged in a series as follows : The four heaviest weights are 600, 300, 200 and 100 grains; then follow four weighing 60, 30, 20 and 10 grains ; then, 6, 3, 2 and 1, grains; then '6, ’3, '2 and T grain ; and lastly, ‘06, ‘03, '02 and '01 grain. With such a set the weight of any substance can be determined to the second place of decimals, provided it do not weigh more than the sum of all the weights in the set. As an example of the method of arriving at the exact weight of any substance, it might be well to assume that something is taken weighing, say 325T grains, which is placed on the pan ah the left side of the balance. We proceed to put weights in the opposite pan to counterpoise it. 26 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. The heaviest, or 600 grain weight, is first tried, the beam being thrown on to the knife-edge by turning the brass disc, or button in front of the balance. (See Fig. 2.) The needle will move quickly to the left as the right hand pan descends, showing that the weight is much too heavy ; it is then taken off, and the 300 grain weight put on. The needle will move this time more slowly to the right, showing that the weight is too light; the 200 grain weight is then added to the 300, but these two together will be found to be too heavy; the 200 is taken off and substituted by the 100 grain weight; but as this would be also too heavy, it is taken off, and the 60 and then the 30 grain weights respectively tried, and as these would prove to be too heavy, the 20 grain should next be put on ; this would be too light, and would indicate that the true weight lies between 320 and 330 grains. The lower weights are now added, commencing from the highest of the series, viz., 6 grains, and going down, as shown above, through the decimal weights, till the exact weight is arrived at. The beam should be lifted from the knife-edge by turning the button in front, previous to taking weights from or putting them on to the pan, other¬ wise the balance is apt to get thrown out of gear or damaged. With a little experience, one can soon, by the eye, judge about how much a certain amount of substance will weigh, and consequently be able to put on the opposite pan, weights closely approaching to the DRYING CLOSET. 27 correct ones, and the exact weight obtained without difficulty. The balance should be kept, if possible, in a dry room, and the door of its case kept closed, to protect it, as far as possible, from dust, acid fumes, or moisture. Steam Batli or Drying Closet .—This appliance is shown in Fig. 3. It is simply a double-cased box, made of copper ; the space between the two cases being half filled with water, by means of the funnel and tube at the side. A Bunsen’s burner is kept burning under it, and the steam is allowed to escape by an opening at the top ; a small tube may be arranged to allow cold water to drop into the funnel as the evaporation continues. A small tube comes away from the lower part of the funnel, which may be attached by means of a piece of indiarubber tubing to the waste pipe, so that if too much cold water should be put in, the excess will be carried away by the india- Fig. 3. rubber tube, thus keeping the water in the bath always at the same level. When in use, the heat is conveyed by means 28 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Fig. 4. of the hot water and steam to the inner chamber, in which anything to be dried is placed, the temperature of the bath being thus constantly main¬ tained at that of boiling water, viz., 212° Fah. Bunsens Burner (Fig. 4).—This arrangement is simply a piece of metallic (usually copper) tube put over an ordinary gas burner, the sides of the tube near the bottom, under the point where the gas issues from the ordin¬ ary burner, being pierced with holes, to allow air to pass through them and mix with the gas, the mixture of air and gas passes up and is burned at the top of the tube. This flame has a bluish colour, and emits little or no light. It has the advantage over the ordinary white gas flame of being free from smoke or soot, so that when anything to be heated is touched by it, it is not blackened, and a greater amount of heat can be obtained from the burning 1 of the same amount of gas through this burner than at the oidinary jet. Chimney Burner. —This form of burner is shown in Fig. 5. It is of great use where it is not desirable to apply the direct flame of a Bunsen’s burner to the vessel to be heated, such as in evaporating or boiling down liquids in porcelain capsules or glass vessels. It is formed of sheet iron perforated Fig. 5. BUNSEN’S BURNER. 29 with holes .at the bottom. The top is covered over with a piece of iron-wire-gauze, which is fixed by pressing over it a circular sheet-iron heading; this forms a support for basins, flask, etc., to be heated. The gas is arranged to burn from an ordinary jet fixed in an ordinary bracket. By this means the heat can be raised or lowered at will, and as the vessels are always placed above the flame, and do not touch it, they are not liable to break, and are never blackened by soot. The flame from below should not be allowed to touch the wire gauze, because, if it do, it will blacken and stop up the holes or meshes, which should always be kept open. If they get filled up by any means, the gas underneath will not burn properly, and when this happens the gauze must be cleaned. If it gets covered with soot, the holes or meshes may be opened by holding the gauze over the flame of a Bunsen’s burner, which will soon burn away all the soot. Should it be desired to get a stronger heat, the gas from below may be turned on, and a light applied on the top of the gauze, where it will burn with a bluish flame, like that from the Bunsen’s burner ; the supply of gas may then be adjusted so that the flame burns close to the gauze all over it. A glass flask, or other vessel containing liquid, supported on the heading above the gauze, with this flame touching it, may be rapidly heated without fear of breakage. 30 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Retort Stands (Fig. 6) may be used for a variety of purposes—for supporting wire triangles (see Fig. 10), for platinum or porcelain crucibles in burning organic bodies ; for supporting glass flasks and porcelain basins whilst being heated by Bunsen’s burners applied directly to them, or when placed some distance above the flame, the distance from the flame being regulated by sliding the up or down the stem, and Fig. G. rings fixing them at any desired position by means of screws. Wedgewood Mortar (Fig. 7).—For reducing to powder any salt or moderately hard substance, and for knead¬ ing samples of flour into dough with water. In using it the pestle should be taken in the right hand and rubbed O against the body to be powdered with a circular move¬ ment, pressing at the same time firmly to the sides and bottom of the mortar. This movement may be occasionally altered by rubbing upwards and down¬ wards, keeping the bottom parts of the pestle pressed firmly against the sides. The attrition thus produced on the particles of substance brought succes¬ sively between the pestle and sides of the mortar soon reduces them to fine powder. THERMOMETER. 31 Thermometer (Fig. 8).—This instrument should he used with great care; the one generally em¬ ployed in this country is Fahrenheit’s. The freezing point of water on this scale is 32° above zero, and the boiling point 212° above zero. In reading the temperature from the scale, the thermometer should be kept in the place or fluid, the sensible heat of which is to be ascer¬ tained, and the eye brought as nearly as possible in a line at right angles to the top of the column of mercury in the capillary tube, and its position on the scale read off. Platinum Capsule .—This appliance in appear¬ ance resembles the porcelain basin; it is useful for many purposes : for burning organic bodies, such as flours, starches, etc. It cannot be fused by any ordinary temperature, and may be heated to whiteness without fear of injury. When being heated, or whilst red-hot, it should never Fig- 8 be allowed to come in contact with iron or other metal, as most of the metals will combine and form with the platinum at a high temperature, easily fusible alloys, and thus spoil the crucible. To prevent this action it should be supported on a triangle (Fig. 10), the wire of which should be covered with pieces of the stem of tobacco pipe, which can be slipped on to it previous to twisting up the ends. Hydrochloric or nitric acids have no action upon platinum when used separately, but together they act upon and dissolve it with facility. 32 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Porcelain Crucibles (Fig. 9) may be used for burning organic bodies instead of the platinum cap¬ sule; they are, however, liable to be broken, and the organic substance does not burn away so quickly as it does in platinum. Fi g- 9. They may be supported on ordinary iron triangles during the time the flame of the Bunsen lamp is playing upon them. These crucibles are sup¬ plied with lids, which should not be put on until after the organic matter and black carbon which is at first produced is entirely burned away, leaving the ash or mineral matter. The lid will prevent the ash from absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. Iron Wire Triangles for supporting crucibles (Fig 10).—This ar¬ rangement is made by taking three pieces of iron wire about 1 0 or 12 inches in length, fixing the ends of two pieces in a vice, making them from the diverge Fig. 10. fixed ends so as to form the letter Y; the fore-finger and thumb should then be placed at the point of the V, and the two wires twisted together for about 3 or 4 inches. The third wire is twisted up in the same way with the free end of one of the first wires, for the same distance and then crossed to form the triangle of the TEST TUBES, ETC. 33 required size, fixed by the vice, where the two wires cross and the two loose ends thus left twisted together. If it be desired to make a triangle to support the platinum capsule, pieces of tobacco pipe should be pushed on each of the two first wires after twisting, and a third piece on the third wire before making the last joining. Crucible Tongs (Fig. 11) are used for taking hold of anything which is too hot to be touched by the fingers ; they may also be employed for holding the platinum capsule or other small vessel, during the operation of heating liquids or solids in it, when the heating is only required for a few minutes. Test Tubes are tubes of thin glass closed at one end and open at the other. Fig. 12 shows test tubes set in a stand; T Fig. 12. they are useful for heating small quantities of fluid and for holding two or more dif¬ ferent samples of the same kind of fluid to be examined comparatively for depth of colour, or for making comparative tests of liquids by means of reagents, in observing the amounts of precipitate formed. To boil or evaporate a fluid in a test tube, the tube should never be more than one-fourth full; it may be heated in the naked flame of a Bunsen’s burner, and may be held near c 34 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Fig. 13. the top between the thumb and two forefingers, if it be only necessary to gently heat the liquid; but if it be desired to boil it, the tube should be fixed in the test tube-holder, as shown in Fig- 13, and kept shaken gently to prevent the liquid from being thrown from the tube by an} 7 sudden disengagement of steam. Filtering .—When a liquid appears turbid, or when a precipitate has been formed by adding to a solution, a reagent with a view to precipitate some ingredient from solution ; that precipitate or turbidity may be separated from the fluid by the process of filtration. For this purpose a kind of paper, resembling blotting paper, is employed. This paper may be bought in bundles ready cut in circles. To make these circular slips ready for use in filtering they are first folded in two along one of the cross lines shown in Fig. 14, forming a semi-circle. This doubled paper is then folded on itself, so as to form the quarter of a circle. If this be opened at the circular side, at its first fold, it will form a cone, one half of the side of which will be formed of one, and the other of three plies of the paper, as shown in Fig. 15. This is placed in a glass FILTERING OPERATION, ETC. 35 funnel, shown in Fig. 16, which is supported by the funnel holder. Fig. 17. Underneath this is placed some vessel to receive the filtrate. The liquor to be filtered should Fig. 16 be poured into the cone of paper and allowed to filter through into the glass beneath, leaving the solid matter which makes the solution turbid, on the filter. If only a small quantity of fluid is to be filtered, only a small paper and funnel should be employed; but if a large quantity is to be treated, then a larger funnel and paper should be used. Enamelled Iron Basin. —This is employed only for boiling large quantities of fluid. It requires a larger flame than the ordinary small Bunsen’s lamp, and a larger Bunsen’s burner should be employed. The basin is most conveniently supported on a tripod stand. Porcelain Basin (Fig. 18) is useful for heating, boiling, or evaporating liquids. It is safer not to allow the naked flame of a Bunsen’s burner to touch it. It is generally advisable to apply heat by Fig. 18. placing it on the top of a chimney burner, so that 36 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. the heat may be equally distributed over the bottom. Glass Flasks (Fig. 19).—These may be employed for a variety of purposes—viz., for boiling water, or for heating or boiling large quanti¬ ties of liquid. If the flasks be made of thin glass, and be kept well filled with liquid, the naked flame of a Bunsen’s burner may Fig. 19. p e a ppq ec i ^ 0 them when set on the ring of a retort stand ; or they may be heated and liquid boiled in them over the ordinary chimney burner. It should be observed that the thicker the glass, the more liable the flask is to break, if it be suddenly heated or cooled. Fig. 20. Thin Glass Beakers (Fig. 29).—These vessels are convenient for containing or heating fluids gently, but the naked flame of a lamp should never be allowed to touch them. They should be heated by the flame beneath whilst standing on the wire gauze of the chimney burner, and care should be taken that the fluid does not evaporate to dryness, if this be allowed the beaker almost invariably breaks. Another convenient method of applying greater heat to it is by allowing it to rest on a piece of wire gauze laid on a ring of a retort stand, and applying the naked flame of a Bunsen’s burner to the gauze underneath. Glass Stirring Rods are made by cutting off pieces APPARATUS EMPLOYED IN TESTING. 37 of solid glass rod, by making a file mark at the point at wliicli it is desired to make the breakage, then wetting the file mark and breaking it between the hands. The two ends of each rod should be held in the flame of a Bunsen’s burner, near the top, where it is hottest, till they become fused and rounded; this prevents the sharp edges from scratching glasses during the operation of stirring. When not thus fused, small particles of glass are apt to break from the sharp corners, and get mixed with substances which are intended afterwards to be weighed. Glass Tubing .—This is obtained like the solid glass rods, in long lengths; it may be employed for many useful purposes. By holding it in the flame of a Bunsen’s or the white flat flame of an ordinary gas burner, it softens, and may be bent in any desired shape; or the ends of pieces may be fused up, and thus hermetically closed, by simply holding them in the top of the Bunsen’s flame, keeping the piece turning, so that the end shall soften and collapse, equally all round, to form stirring rods, which are lighter than those made from the solid rod. Graduated Measures .—For the experiments and tests given in this work, two measuring glasses will suffice, the one of 2oz., the other of 20oz. capacity, the latter being an imperial pint measure; the former is graduated into parts of an ounce, and the latter into ounces. Different Kinds of Glasses .—A long glass (Fig. 21) may be employed both as the holder of the funnel 38 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. ¥ and receiver of the filtrate in the operation of filtering, the funnel being placed so as to rest on the top edge of the glass ; it may also be used for taking the specific gravity of any liquid by means of the hydrometer. The small test glass (Fig. 22) is well adapted for holding small quantities of fluid -j to be tested, whilst the precipitating j jar (Fig. 23) may be used when larger bulks of fluids are to be operated Fi g- 21- Fig. 22. u P on - Stoppered Test Tubes. ■— No substance which is hot or warm should ever be placed on the pan of the balance to be weighed, for several reasons. First , the heat creates an upward current of air, which, acting on the pan of the balance, makes the substance Fig. 23. appear lighter than it really is. Second, all matter which is exposed to the atmosphere has either on its surface or in itself, a certain proportion of moisture, and when the balance is accurately adjusted the moisture adheres to each side of the beam and pans equally ; but if a warm body be placed on one side it heats the pan, the moisture is evaporated from it, and the substance is made to appear lighter than it really is, in proportion to the amount of natural moisture evaporated from the pan—and it also throws the balance wrong for many hours after¬ wards, till it has again taken up a sufficient amount of moisture to bring it into equilibrium with the APPARATUS EMPLOYED IX TESTING. 39 opposite side of the beam. The use, then, of the stoppered tube is this, that when it is desired to determine the proportion of moisture in any sub¬ stance, such as doth, for example, the cloth should be first dried thoroughly in the water bath, and while still hot should be pressed as quickly as possible into a tube supplied with a stopper, the stopper inserted and the whole then allowed to cool; when cold, the tube with the cloth should be weighed together, and the weight of the tube and stopper deducted from the total weight, which would give the weight of the dried sample. If the cloth were allowed to cool in the open air it would absorb moisture from the atmo¬ sphere as it cooled, and the actual proportion of water which the substance originally contained could therefore not be determined. Watch Glasses and Clip. —These are used to determine the proportion of moisture in substances in the form of powder, magma, or solution; two watch glasses are placed on the top of each other (Fig. 24), leaving a hol¬ low space between, and fixed in this position by Fig. 24. means of two slips of brass joined together at their ends, called a “ clip.” This arrangement should first be weighed. A certain quantity of the material—• flour, starch, soap, or other substance—the moisture in which it is desired to determine, is placed in the bottom watch glass, the other glass placed on the 40 THE SIZING OF COTTON" GOODS. top and fixed by the clip ; this prevents the evapora¬ tion of moisture during the process of weighing. The whole is again weighed, and the increase in weight gives the amount of substance taken. The clip is then taken off, the glasses carefully separated from each other, and the lower one containing the dry substance placed in the steam bath to dry, and left there for four or five hours. After this the other glass should be placed on the top, the clip adjusted, and the whole allowed to cool, and weighed as soon as it has completely cooled. For very accurate determinations, the substance should again be returned to the water bath, and after an hour or two more, again weighed, and this should be repeated so long as the sample continues to lose weight; but generally for ordinary purposes, a few hours’ heating in the bath will suffice. Hydrometers (Fig. 25).—Those in general use are Twaddells. The scale ascends by degrees from 1 or unity, which is taken as pure water ; so that the greater the number of degrees indicated by the hydrometer, the greater is the density of the liquid, and consequently the proportion of solid matter contained in the solution. To take the density of any liquid, the hydro¬ meter should be floated in the liquid Fig. 26. con tained in a long glass (Fig. 26), or other vessel and the point of the scale on the stem, which is exactly at the surface of the fluid is read APPARATUS EMPLOYED IN TESTING. 41 L off, and this figure indicates its density. It is important, however, in taking the density of any fluids, or solutions, that they should be at some fixed temperature, and 60 ° Fah. is generally taken as the standard. A thermometer should first be put into the solution, and if it indicates less than 60 °, the flame of a Bunsen’s burner should be passed quickly up and down the side of the glass vessel, and the fluid stirred well with a stirring-rod, this will suffice to bring it up the few degrees required. If, however, the tempera¬ ture be too high, a stream of cold water should be run on to the outside of the glass, or vessel, with occasional stirring or shaking. This will, as arule, suffice to bring down the temperature to the desired standard. If the density be taken when the temperature is under 60 ° Fah. the resulting number of degrees (Twaddell) will be too high, and if above 60 ° Fah. it will be too low.* Fig. 25. * For tlie convenience of anyone who may wish to have the apparatus mentioned above for testing the various ingredients, etc., used by them, it may be stated that Messrs. Mottershead and Co., of Manchester, will be able to supply them. 42 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Reagents. It is advisable to have the following reagents, in the solid or crystallised form when possible, and to make solutions of them when required. The solid substances should be kept in wide-mouthed bottles, and their solutions and other liquids should be stored in ordinary glass stoppered bottles, all properly labelled ; convenient sizes are those from 12 to 16 ounces capacity. It should be borne in mind that if solid substances, such as salts, or reagents, be kept in papers, they are liable to get mixed with impurities, or acted upon and destroyed by the moisture or oxygen of the air. Ammonia .—This liquid is the solution of the gas ammonia, which is a compound of two gases, hydrogen and nitrogen. It has strongly alkaline properties, and when added to any acid, neutralises it, and if added to some salts'' 5 has the power of combining with their acids and setting free, and so, in many cases, precipitating their bases. Distilled Water .—This may be bought or pre¬ pared by passing steam from a boiler, or glass flask, containing ordinary water, through a coil of block tin pipe immersed in cold water contained in a vessel. The cold water being renewed from time to time, or it may be kept constantly supplied with cold water by a pipe going to the bottom of the vessel, the hot * Tlxe name “ salt” is given to any body which is a compound of an acid, such as sulphuric, nitric, hydrochloric, etc., with any base, such as soda, lime, zinc, lead, etc., forming sulphates, nitrates, chlorides, etc., of these bases. REAGENTS. 43 water, which always rises to the surface, being allowed to run away by another pipe passing through the side near the top of the refrigerating vessel. The steam condenses in the coil, and the condensed water drops, from the end of the tin worm which passes water-tight through the bottom of the wooden or other vessel. The water in the glass flask, or boiler, may be boiled conveniently by a Bunsen’s burner. A clean glass vessel should be used to collect the distilled water, which should be stored for use in a clean “Winchester quart” or other glass bottle. Where a steam boiler is employed in works, or mills, a jet of the steam may be conveniently drawn from it, and condensed by being passed through a coil of tin pipe, as explained above. Distilled water should be employed for making solutions of all the reagents, and for dissolving substances required to be tested, as most ordinarv waters are much too impure for those purposes. Ammonium Chloride .—This is a solid crystalline body, which is sold in tough fibrous lumps or in powder; the latter-mentioned form is the more convenient. The solution is prepared by filling the bottle intended to hold the liquid, to about one-third its capacity, with the small crystals or powder, then filling it completely with distilled water, and shaking up occasionally till the water has dissolved as much of the salt as it can; the operator mny then either 44 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. filter the solution through filter paper to separate any insoluble particles, and store the fluid in a clean bottle, or allow any insoluble matter, together with the crystals which are not dissolved, to settle to the bottom, and use the clear liquid, taking care not to shake the bottle previous to use. Ammonium Oxalate .—This salt, which is obtained in small crystals, is a combination of oxalic acid, an organic body, with ammonia. The solution is prepared as above-mentioned in the case of ammonium chloride, and this is the usual way, and unless otherwise mentioned, this mode of procedure should be adopted in every case where the solution of a salt to be used as a reagent is required. Ammonium Sulphide .—This may be purchased and stored in the liquid form. It is liable to change to a deep yellow colour in course of time, but this change does not interfere with what is required of it. It should, however, be kept in a well stoppered bottle, otherwise it will decompose and become useless. It is a combination of hydrosulphuric acid gas with ammonia, and is prepared by passing hydrosulphuric acid gas through ammonia till the liquid ceases to produce a white precipitate, when a few drops of it are mixed with a small quantity of a solution of sulphate of magnesia. Caustic Soda. —It is advisable to store this sub¬ stance in the solid form, and to keep it in well corked or stoppered bottles. The commercial article is all that is required. REAGENTS. 45 Sodium Phosphate is a combination of soda with phosphoric acid. It is obtained in moderately large crystals. Its solution should be prepared in the usual way. Barium Chloride .—This salt is a combination of barium and chlorine, and is used for testing for sulphuric acid and sulphates. It is obtained in small crystals, and its solution is prepared in the usual way. Silver Nitrate is a combination of the metal silver with nitric acid. It is a salt which occurs in clear white plates or crystals. Being much more expen¬ sive than the other salts, it is well to use it more carefully. A solution should be prepared by dissolving about 60 grains of the salt in about 2oz. measure of water. The solution is employed for testing for the presence of hydrochloric acid or chlorides. Gall-Nut Solution .—Gall nuts are globular in form, and have irregular projections all over their surface. To prepare a water extract of them, they should be broken into little bits by placing some between folds of paper and breaking them with a few strokes of a hammer, or they may be more conveniently broken in a mortar. The pieces are put in a glass and com¬ pletely covered with distilled water, and allowed to steep during the night. The solution should then be poured off and filtered into a small bottle, and a drop of carbolic acid added to preserve it from decomposition. Not more than a few ounces measure of this solution should be prepared at a time, as it is liable to change by keeping. 46 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Tincture of Logwood .—Some logwood, in fresh chips or powder, should be steeped in alcohol or methylated spirit; the liquid will soon become deeply coloured; and it may then be filtered, and the filtrate preserved in well stoppered bottles. Only a small quantity of this tincture should be made at a time, as it becomes unfit for use on keeping. Hydrochloric or Muriatic Acid .—There are two kinds of this acid with which it is advisable to be provided—the one the pure, the other the impure article. These liquids are simply solutions of the gas hydrochloric acid in water, and give off fumes when exposed to the air. The impure variety contains iron and other impurities, and has a more or less yellow or reddish colour, but is less expensive, and as well suited for some purposes as the pure. The pure solution is free from colour and should be used when the impurities of the former mentioned solution would interfere with the results. Nitric Acid .—This liquid is a compound of nitro¬ gen and oxygen in combination with water. It fumes in the air, and is highly corrosive. If it come in contact with the fingers, it should be washed off with water as quickly as possible to prevent its corrosive action. It changes the colour of the skin to yellow, which can afterwards be conveniently removed only by rubbing off with pumice stone. If any of these acids fall on the clothes, ammonia should at once be applied with a piece of cloth to the stain; this will prevent their EE AGENTS. 47 corrosive Action, and will often prevent the dis¬ charge, or restore the colour of any fabric with which it comes in contact. Iodine Solution .—To every 6oz. measure of pure water dissolve 25 grains of potassium iodide crystals, and add to it 16 grains of iodine. The latter will dissolve in the solution of the salt, forming a clear brown coloured solution. Litmus Paper .—This article is used tor testing for the presence of free alkali or free acid in any solution. It is prepared by making a decotion of blue litmus in hot water, and then painting the blue solution on paper, and allowing it to dry, when it is ready for use. This blue litmus paper is used for testing for the presence of free acid. If a piece of this paper be brought in contact with free acid, it is at once changed to red ; but if it come in contact with free alkali no change is produced. The presence of the latter is indicated by red litmus paper. This is made by adding to the solution of blue litmus a weak solution of hydrochloric acid, drop by drop, until it is changed to a red colour, taking care to produce this result with the smallest possible amount of acid solution. This red liquor should then be painted on paper, and allowed to dry. If the red paper thus prepared be dipped into a solution containing free alkali, the red colour will at once be changed to blue. O Small oblong strips, joined into book forms, may be bought, each slip having one of its sides covered 48 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. with the blue or red coloured litmus. A whole or part of a slip may be torn from the book and dipped into any solution which it is desired to test for free acid or free alkali, the blue paper being employed for the former and the red for the latter test. COTTON: ITS PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 49 Chapter II. COTTON: ITS PHYSICAL CHARACTERS AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 1 BEFORE entering upon the study of the sizing ^ of cotton goods and substances employed therein, it might be of advantage to refer to the physical characteristics and. chemical constitution of raw cotton. Cotton is the hairy substance attached to the seeds of various plants belonging to the genus Gossypium, of the natural order Mcdvaccce. The number of species in existence is not accurately known, from the fact that seeds of the same species, when planted on different kinds of soil, and when acted upon by different climates during several years, produce plants and cotton differing considerably from each other. Professor Parlatore, who has paid much attention to the botanical study of the cotton plant, asserts that there are only seven species of cotton, and that many which are classed as distinct species are merely varieties of the same. The cotton generally found in commerce may be classed under two great divisions, viz., those derived D 50 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. from the Old World and those derived from the New. To the first division belong the principal varieties of Indian cotton, which are known under the generic name of Surats, and under which are classed Hingun- ghat, Oomrawuttee, Broach, Dhollerah, and Dharwar. From the list of American cottons may be men¬ tioned those in most general use, viz., Sea Island, New Orleans or Uplands, and Boweds. The two last-named are known generally as American cottons, and constitute the principal production of the United States. There are other classes of cotton, which are seldom met with in commerce, and among which may be mentioned Nankin or Nankeen cotton, which is of a tawny colour, but of different shades, varying from fawn to brown or reddish brown. It is said by some to belong to the species Gossypium religiosum, also known as Gossypium cirboreum , a plant which grows about the temples in India, and is held sacred by the Hindoos, and from which the threads for the sacerdotal tripartite, the emblem of the trinity of the Brahmins are made. Nankeen cotton is also said to be produced by the same plants which produce the white varieties. Cotton, according to some authorities, may be divided into three classes. First, Nankeen, its special peculiarity being its colour; second, green seed, producing white cotton and green seeds; and third, black seed cotton, cultivated generally near the sea, producing white long staple, fine and COTTON: ITS PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 51 silky in appearance, and for which the Sea Island cotton may be taken as an example. Cotton plants, with the exception of the Gossy - pium Arboreum or tree cotton above-mentioned, are annual plants. One species, the herbaceous cotton, has smooth leaves, and produces yellow flowers, which are succeeded by round capsules filled with seeds and cotton. Another kind—the liciiry cotton plant : the leaves and stalks of which are covered with hair, produces yellow flowers and oval pods ; and a third—the Barbadoes shrubby cotton —has a shrubby stalk, and produces yellow flowers and oval pods. The physical appearances of cotton from different plants, and from the same plant grown in different soils and climates, differ more or less from each other. The fibres of all are thicker at the end which was attached to the seed, and taper more or less gradually towards the other end. Each fibre or filament is a hollow tube, as shown by microscopi¬ cal examination, by which means cotton may be distinguished from any other kind of fibre. The length of the staple of cotton is an important consideration with spinners and manufacturers. This is generally found by taking a tuft of the cotton between the thumb and forefinger of each hand, and drawing it out repeatedly till all the fibres lie parallel with each other, with their ends in a line, and then measuring the length of the tuft so arranged. Although this process gives satis- 52 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. factory results, it cannot pretend to great accuracy. Mr. Charles O’Neil, F.C.S., in a most interesting paper read before the Manchester Philosophical Society in the year 1863, details the mode employed by him for measuring filaments of cotton, and gives the measurements of many different sorts. He took a piece of ordinary window glass, and having wfith a diamond marked off in the centre, a scale of two inches, divided into tenths of an inch, he laid the glass on a black cloth ; then with a pair of forceps he selected from different parts of the sample pinches of the cotton fibre, mixed them together, and rolled them into a loose ball. Then taking hold of one of the fibres from the ball with the forceps near to the thicker end, he fixed that end at the first line on his scale with a camel-hair pencil moistened with saliva, and whilst holding this end firmly he stretched out the fibre by means of another moistened camel-hair pencil, the black cloth under the glass enabling him to see the hair distinctly, he read off its exact length upon the scale. These results show that the lengths of the hairs differ very much from each other. Thus, in the measurements of twenty fibres from Sea Island cotton, grown at Edisto (13th .December, 1860), the first fibre measured l’80in., the second was the same length, the third l*70in., the fifth measured 2 00in., the eleventh measured P45in., and the nineteenth l*35in. The mean length was l‘68in. The longest fibre was '3210. longer than the mean, and the shortest fibre ‘33m. shorter than the mean. COTTON: ITS PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 53 The following table gives a few of the results obtained by Mr. O’Neill, showing the average lengths of the fibres of some of the different kinds of cotton obtained by him between the years 1860 and 1863 : Mean Length of Cotton Hairs. Sea Island—Edisto. . U680 inch. Queensland. . 1-475 99 Egyptian. . 1-252 99 Maranham . . 1-220 99 Benguela. . 1-177 99 Pernambuco . .. 1-167 79 Orleans . . 1-002 99 Upland ... . -992 99 Surat—Dhollerali . . -942 19 „ Comptah ... . -905 99 An idea of the extreme tenuity of the hairs of cotton may be gathered from the fact that in ono grain weight of cotton there are from fourteen to twenty thousand hairs, consequently one hair of cotton weighs on an average the one-seventeen- thousandth part of a grain. Captain J. Mitchell, of the Government Central Museum in Madras, has devoted considerable atten¬ tion to the measurement of the breadth of the hairs of different kinds of cotton, some idea as to this :— Place of Growth. The following will give Mean Diameter of Cotton Hairs. United States—New Orleans or Uplands T^koth part of an inch. Sea Islands . _i_+}, 99 97 99 South American—Brazilian. 99 99 97 Egypt . _i_ tp 99 99 99 India—Indigenous or native _ . TT?n>th 99 9T 99 ,, Exotic, American. i_th 5* 97 99 ,, Sea Island and Egyptian. 1 th . TS6 9 111 97 99 99 54 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Mr. Charles O’Neill lias also devised an apparatus for measuring the tensile-strain which individual hairs of cotton will bear. This ingenious arrange¬ ment may also be used for hairs of other textile materials, and for individual threads of yarn. The difficulties which Mr. O’Neill has overcome in his apparatus are—first, the very gradual application of the force; and second, the measurement of the stretch of the fibre or thread before breakage. O This apparatus is shown in Fig. 27 . COTTON - : ITS PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 55 A is a tin vessel for holding water, provided with i a stop-cock, C. B is a hollow cylinder of metal or glass, closed at the bottom end and weighted, so that it floats vertically when placed in water. To the top of this cylinder a hook is attached, for the purpose of fixing the hair or thread to be tested. D is a fixed support, from the top of which a rod projects having a hook attached to its end corres¬ ponding with the one attached to the cylinder for fixing; the other end of the fibre or hair. F is a lever to indicate the stretch of the hair or thread before breakage, and G is a graduated scale over which the long arm of the lever moves. H is the support for the vessel A, and E is a vessel for measuring the amount of water run off from A. The cotton hair is attached at each end to a small thin wire triangle by a piece of gum-paper ; one tri¬ angle is hung from the hook on the fixed arm, and the other put on the hook on the floating cylinder. Water is then run off gradually by the cock C, the floating cylinder sinks, and the lever passes over the scale till the thread or hair is taut, the water is then allowed to run slowly and regularly from the tap into the empty measuring vessel, the eye being kept on the lever, which moves slowly over the scale indi¬ cating the stretch of the fibre or thread, and this is read off at the moment previous to breakage, which is indicated by a sudden jerk of the lever, and at this moment the tap is turned off, and the water which has run out either measured or weighed. 56 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. These data give all that is required for finding the breaking strain. It is necessary that the capabilities of the apparatus should be tested, and this is done by attaching the hook of the floating cylinder to one of the beams of a delicate balance, and placing weights on the pan at the other end to keep the cylinder at the same height in the outer vessel, when given quantities of water are drawn off from the outer cylinder. As more water is drawn off more weights are required to be placed in the pan of the balance to keep the cylinder in its original position, and the measure or weight of the water drawn off corresponds with the actual weights placed on the balance, and which were required to support the floating cylinder in its original position. It is evident that the less the sectional area of the floating cylinder, as compared with the outer cylinder, the greater will be the quantity of water required to be run off to indicate 1 grain, or any other given weight, and so the apparatus is capable of an extraordinary degree of accuracy. Only one correction is necessary in calculating the breaking strain of the fibre, and that is the stretch of the fibre. This is indicated by the long arm of the lever which multiplies the stretch six times, con¬ sequently the sixth part of the distance registered on the scale will equal the depth which the floating cylinder has sunk from zero, and its equivalent in water must be subtracted from the total amount of liquid run off from the cylinder previous to the breakage. COTTON: ITS PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 57 As an example, it was found, by preliminary experiment, that to support the floating cylinder in its original position it was necessary to place 1 grain weight in the pan of the balance for every 21*09 grains of water which were drawn off from the cylinder A. A hair of Sea Island cotton was fixed at its ends to two small triangles, and stretched between the fixed arm and the floating cylinder. When the hair was taut, the position of the longer arm of the lever on the scale was observed, and water was then allowed to run off from the cylinder A into the measuring vessel. It was found that 3,300 grains of water had been drawn off before the hair broke, and the lever had moved over 1^ divi¬ sions of the scale, which equalled 0*15 inch. This divided by 6, for the length of the lever, gave 0*025 incb as the actual stretcli of the fibre. The quantity of water required to be drawn off to make a differ¬ ence in height of 0*025 inch is G2 grains, which, when subtracted from 3,300 grains, leaves 3,238 to represent the breaking strain; and as 21*09 grains of water are equal to 1 grain of breaking strain, then 3238 -4- 21 *09 = 153*5 grains, which is the actual breaking strain of the fibre. The weakest part of any cotton hair lies towards its tapering or thinner end. In determining the strengths of different hairs it was found advisable to fix between the two triangles about a quarter of an inch of each at a distance of about a quarter of its length from its thicker end, then to draw off 58 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. the water from the cock C, so as to apply the strain gradually. The following table, arranged by Mr. O’Neill, will give some idea of the strengths of the different hairs :— Sea Island—Edisto ... Mean Breaking-Weight of Cotton Hairs. Queensland . . 147-6 99 Egyptian . . 127-2 99 Maranham . . 107-1 99 Benguela . .. 100-6 99 Pernambuco. . 140-2 99 New Orleans . . 147-7 99 Upland. . 104-5 99 Surat—Dhollerah ... . 141-9 99 ,, Comptah. . 163-7 99 When cotton is freed from all impurities it may be regarded as pure cellulose, which is an organic com¬ pound corresponding with linen, and with the tough or woody matter of wood and pith, &c. To it, chemists have assigned the formula C 6 H 10 0 5 . That is to sav, it is composed of six atoms of the element carbon in chemical combination with ten atoms of the elements hydrogen and five of oxygen, and as water is a chemical combination of two atoms of hydrogen with one of oxygen, it is evident that cellulose is a chemical combination of six atoms of carbon with five atoms of water. One hundred parts by weight of cellulose contain— Carbon . 4 4’444 Water / . 6173 ( Oxygen . 49'383 100-000 COTTON: ITS PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 59 Raw or ordinary cotton, however, is not pure cellulose ; it is cellulose to which is adhering a variety of impurities, the principal of which are moisture or water, wax, oily and colouring matters, organic substances belonging to the pectine group, albumen, and mineral ingredients. Among the last-named may be mentioned the phosphates of potash, soda and magnesia, chloride of magnesium, sulphates, and potash in combination with some of the organic constituents of the fibre. *Dr. Edward Schunck, F.R.S., has examined raw cotton with a view to throw some light on the nature of the substances which are contained in or attached to the framework of cellulose of which cotton fibre mainly consists, and which are, together with the latter, produced by the plant. Most of these sub¬ stances are almost insoluble in water, and the principal process in the bleaching of cotton consists in sub¬ jecting it to a boiling solution of soda ash, with the view of dissolving from the cellulose or fibre the resinous, oily, and part of the colouring matter it contains, so that the remainder of the colouring matter which would he protected by the oily and waxy matters from the action of the chlorine in the following process, may be exposed and acted upon by it and removed by washing. In the first of Dr. Schunck’s experiments he treated 450lb. of East India cotton (Dhollerah), * “ Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester,” Vol. iv. Third series, p. 95. GO THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. from which all mechanical impurities, such as par¬ ticles of seed, &c., had been carefully separated, and for convenience had been spun into No. 20 yarn. This was boiled for 7J hours in a water solution of 13gib. of soda ash, and produced a dark-brown liquor, which was run off into another vessel and neutralised with sulphuric acid, which precipitated a copious light-brown flocculent matter. The liquid became almost colourless as the precipitate settled; the supernatant liquor was run off, the precipitate washed with water by decantation, and then thrown on to a piece of calico and allowed to drain. About 60lb. of thick pulp were so obtained, which, when dried, possessed a brown colour, had a brittle and horn-like appearance, and was translucent at the edges. The cotton yielded about 0’337 per cent by weight of this substance. In another experiment 500lb. of American cotton (middling Orleans) were treated in the same way, and yielded 0’48 per cent of dry brown horn-like substance similar to that obtained from the Indian cotton. On submitting this horn-like substance to analysis he isolated from it a number of substances. The first was a wax, which closely resembled the well- known vegetable wax, cerosine prepared by Avequin from the leaves of the sugar-cane, and the wax from the leaves of the Carnauba palm (corypha cerifera) examined by Brande and Lewy. To this substance Dr. Sehunck gave the name, “ cotton wax.” COTTON: ITS PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 61 Cotton wax is insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol and ether, and, strange to say, in the pure state it is practically insoluble in alkaline solutions. Dr. Schunck assumes, therefore, that this wax is simply adherent to the outside of the filaments of cotton, and is melted and so detached mechanically by the action of the hot liquid in bleaching, and he assumes that the property which raw cotton possesses of resisting water is due to the thin coating of this wax with which each filament is covered. The cotton wax from the East India cotton was found to melt to a transparent liquid at a tempera¬ ture of 1S6‘8° Fall, and to solidify again at 177'8° Fah. The wax from the American cotton fused at 186’8° Fah., and solidified at 179'6° Fah. Whilst the waxes obtained from the leaves of the simar O cane and Carnauba palm had slightly lower melting points. The following gives the percentage compositions of the different kinds of wax as examined by the authors above-mentioned :—• Indian American Leaves of Leaves of Car¬ nauba Palm, Cotton, Cotton, Sugar Cane, Carnauba Cotton Wax. Cotton Wax. Cerosine. Wax. Carbon . .... 80-32 ... 80-38 . .. 81-00 ... 80-36 Hydrogen .. .... 14-29 ... 14-51 . .. 1416 ... 1307 Oxygen . 5-39 ... 5 11 . 4-84 6-57 100-00 100-00 10000 10000 The next substance isolated by Dr. Schunck from the brown precipitate referred to as obtained from cotton was a fcitty acid , which was white, and solid, 62 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. and crystallised in microscopic needle-like crystals arranged in spheres. It fused at 132° Fah., and solidified again at 123° Fah. This fatty acid, Dr. Schunck, from ultimate analysis, found to have the composition C 1T H 34 0 2 , which is identical with margaric acid. The next products obtained from cotton were two colouring matters, one soluble, the other insoluble, in cold alcohol, and lastly pectic acid, which was found to be present in the horny substance in large quantity. The pectic acid exists in cotton in largest pro¬ portion, then follows the colouring matters, and. lastly the wax, fatty acid, and albuminous matters. These, however, do not represent all the substances found in raw cotton, because it is well known that during the process of bleaching it loses about 5 per cent, and the total amount of substance precipitated by acid from the alkaline solutions from the cotton, found by Dr. Schunck amounted to less than half a per cent. He, therefore, accounts for the remaining 4 J per cent of loss as being substances which are soluble in water or alkalies, and which are not precipitated by neutralising the alkaline solution with acid, and he thinks that perhaps the larger proportion of these matters which escaped his obser¬ vation is parapectic acid, or some other derivatives of pectine, which are soluble in water, and which may have been produced by the action of the hot alkalies upon pectine originally contained in the fibre. COTTON: ITS PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. G3 The average proportion of water found in raw cotton is about 8 per cent, and the wax, oil, colouring matter, and other organic bodies present amount to about 4 per cent, whilst the mineral matter form about 1 per cent, consequently raw cotton in its unsized state cannot be regarded as pure, but as containing only 87 per cent of pure dry cellulose. Cotton to be employed for very heavy sizing should neither be of too long nor of too short staple ; because, if too long, the size would lay all the fibres, and make the threads appear like wire, so that cloth prepared from them would not have the requisite “nap,” whilst, if too short, it would be necessary to put so much twist into the thread to give it the necessary strength that the size would not penetrate it easily. The cotton usually employed for sizing is American. 64 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Chapter III. MATERIALS EMPLOYED FOR GIVING ADHESIVE QUALITIES TO THE SIZE. FLOUR. HE term “flour” is applied to the substance produced by grinding to a fine powder any root, seed, grain, or other substance containing fari¬ naceous or starchy ingredients. Flour is by no means a simple chemical substance; it is a compound of a number of organic bodies. In the same way as an animal is formed of bone, flesh, fat, blood, etc., so the grain, root, or seed is com¬ posed of starch, gluten, albumen, sugar, cellulose, mineral matters, etc.; and as the grain, root, or other vegetable substance is simply ground to powder to form the flour, so the flour may be regarded as con¬ taining all the substances above mentioned in a fine state of division. If a thin section of a grain of wheat be made with a sharp knife or razor, the grain being previously moistened to render it less brittle, FLOUR. 65 and the section placed under the microscope, it will be seen to be built up of a structure quite as beautiful as the honey-comb. It is composed of a series of cells, the walls of which are formed of cellulose and a nitrogenous' 5 ' body called gluten, and these cells are filled with minute granules called starch. During the growth of the grain a circulation of fluid containing albumen and other ingredients is kept up, from the roots through the stalk of the plant by a series of comparatively large vessels or veins which divide ‘and subdivide into more and more minute vessels, like the branches of a tree, through which the sap flows like the blood in the veins and arteries of an animal. My raids of these delicate vessels are interspersed among the minute cells which form the grain, and through them the grain is nourished and developed. The proportions, however, of the different constituents differ to a large extent, not only in flour of different species, but also in those of the same kind, when grown in different climates or on different soils. Wheaten flour is composed of cellulose or woody fibre ; gluten, which is again a compound of several organic constituents, viz., fibrin, glutin, casein, and fatty matter; also albumen, dextrine, sugar, starch, mineral matter, a small pro¬ portion ofcerealin, and water. Cellulose, or Woody Fibre —This ingredient re- * Nitrogenous bodies such as gluten, albumen, etc., differ from non-nitro- genous ones such as starch, fat, etc., inasmuch as both classes contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but the former contains in addition the element Ditrogen. E 66 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. sembles both in properties and chemical composition the fibre of wood. An example of this body in another condition is ordinary cotton. Gluten .—This body is obtained by placing the flour in the form of a dough in a piece of cloth or bag, and washing away the starch and other ingredients with water. A tenacious, sticky, caoutchouc-looking body is left, of a brownish colour, which is called gluten ; which, however, as before stated, is a mix¬ ture of a number of organic bodies. Fibrin is one of the constituents of gluten. The fibrin of the vegetable corresponds with the fibrin of the animal, which is obtained by stirring fresh blood with a few twigs. The impure fibrin adheres to the twigs, and when washed to free it from foreign ingredients is a tough stringy substance, and a nitro¬ genous compound. Glutin is the nitrogenous substance of the vege- o o table, which corresponds with and resembles the gelatine or glue of the animal. It is, however, not a simple compound, but is supposed by some chemists to be composed of several organic con¬ stituents. It contains sulphur and nitrogen, as well as the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen of which starch and other organic bodies are composed. Casein, or Legumin, is another constituent of gluten. It corresponds with and resembles cheese, obtained from the milk of animals. This sub¬ stance occurs to a comparatively large extent in the flour obtained from the seeds of leguminous plants, FLOUR. 67 such as beans, peas, etc., but in wheaten flour it exists only in small proportion. Fatty Matters of the flour correspond with the butter, tallow, oils, or fatty ingredients of the animal. They are also found principally in the gluten. Albumen .—This nitrogenous body, which is found in flour and vegetables generally, is identical with the albumen of the animal, both as regards its physical appearances and chemical composition. The white of the egg may be taken as representing almost pure albumen. If flour be steeped in cold water, the albumen, with other constituents, is dis¬ solved out; and if the insoluble matter be allowed to settle, and the clear liquor drawn off and boiled, the albumen will be coagulated, and fall from solu¬ tion, thus rendering the liquid turbid. Dextrine .—This substance is always found, but in very variable quantities, in flour. It is better known by the name of “ British gum” of commerce, and may be regarded as the product of the intermediate stage through which starch passes in its conversion into glucose or grape sugar. This body differs from starch and other ingredients of flour in being soluble in cold water; so that if flour be mixed thoroughly with that fluid, and the insoluble ingredients allowed to settle or filtered from it, and a few drops of a solution of iodine (see page 46) added to the aqueous solution, a purple coloration will be produced, the intensity of which will depend on the proportion of dextrine present. 68 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Sugar is always found in greater or less quantity in flour. It is known as glucose or grape sugar, and differs from cane sugar in several respects. It is not exactly the same in chemical composition, is not crystallizable, and is not so sweet to the taste. Starch .—This body is more or less crisp to the touch, according to the plant from which it is obtained, and when viewed under the microscope each variety is shown to be composed of granules of charac¬ teristic size, shape, and general appearance. Starch is insoluble both in cold or in hot water; but if it be boiled in water it appears to dissolve, although no real solution takes place. The granules simply swell out to many times their original bulk, and form a gelatinous mixture which will pass through ordinary filter paper as if it were really in solution ; but if a filter with much finer pores be employed, water passes through and leaves the starch behind. Or, if the liquid produced by boiling the starch with water be submitted to great cold, the granules will gradually contract, and fall to the bottom of the liquid as a precipitate, leaving the pure water as the supernatant liquid. A solution of iodine in iodide of potassium produces with starch when contained in water with which it has been boiled, even when only very minute quantities are present, a deep blue colour; and this test is of great value in detecting the presence of that body in different substances. In applying the test the liquid should be cold. On heating the fluid the blue colour disappears. FLOUR 69 Cerealin. —This is a nitrogenous body closely re¬ sembling in composition and properties the diastase of malt. It is found in the epispermium, which is the membrane immediately surrounding the seed, and is consequently present in large proportion in the bran, but only to a small extent in the flour. It has the remarkable power of transforming starch, with which it comes in contact, into dextrine and sugar. Mineral Matter .—This is found in all flours. It is left as ash when the flour is burned, and is composed principally of potash and phosphoric acid, together with smaller proportions of soda, lime, magnesia, and oxide of iron, in combination with silicic, sulphuric, and carbonic acids, and chlorine. Water is a constituent of all vegetables. Bran is the cortical part of the grain. It is often found mixed with the flour from imperfect dressing. Wheaten Flour. —There are many kinds of wheaten flour, but the sorts which are most often used by the sizer are— 1. Certain kinds of English wheaten flour. 2. „ Chilian ,, ,, 3. „ Egyptian „ „ 4. „ Irish „ „ The species of wheat usually cultivated in this country is that known by the botanical name of “ Triticum Vulgare,” and of this there are two varieties, viz., “Triticum ^Estivum” and “Triticum Hybernum the former is perhaps better known as white or summer wheat , because the husk or outer covering of this grain is white, and it is sown in the 70 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. spring ; and the latter as red or winter wheat, because the husk or outer covering is red, and it is sown in the autumn. The former is considered the more valuable of the two, and is almost exclusively used for food, whilst the latter is much more hardy in its growth, generally not so expensive, and probably finds its way more often into the hands of the manu¬ facturer or sizer. Chilian flour is manufactured from the wheat grown in Chili, and this, together with the first'mentioned, differs from the third, or Egyptian wheaten flour, inasmuch as they are whiter or of better colour, and may be used for bread making, whilst the last-mentioned has a brownish appearance, and cannot be employed directly for that purpose; the former two consequently command higher prices in the market. Mixtures, however, of two or more varieties of these flours are often employed for sizing purposes. The following table will give some idea of the proportions of the different ingredients contained in 100 parts of different kinds of wheaten flour :— English Wheaten Flour. Chilian Wheaten Flour. Egyptian Wheaten Flour. Starch . 68-09 70-05 67-71 Gluten (dry) . 9-88 676 2-36 Glucose (grape sugar). 4-93 5-17 8-55 Dextrine . 3-51 4-11 7-39 Bran, &e. trace trace trace Water . 1278 13-31 13-52 Mineral matter (ash) •81 •60 •47 100-00 100-00 100 00 Moist gluten . 25"81 17'65 6"18 Quality of gluten . good good very bad. Moist gluten . 25"81 17'65 6"18 Quality of gluten . good good very bad. FLOUR. 71 The quality of the gluten depends upon its adhesive and elastic properties. “ Good ” gluten can be stretched between the hands for a con¬ siderable distance without breaking, whilst “bad” gluten is found often in little bits, which do not adhere to each other firmly, and if of “ moderate ” quality it breaks short if an attempt be made to stretch it. It would be of much value to the sizer or manu¬ facturer if he could ascertain the composition of the different flours he uses in sizing, as completely as those shown in the above table, but the time required for making such analyses would be too great for practical purposes, and the following simple tests and modes of estimation are given for his guidance:— Colour of Flour .—It is important to take note of the colour of flour, because any dark shade which it possesses will be communicated to the cloth into which it is introduced. To make this test it is advisable to select samples of the different kinds of flours employed, and keep them in well-stoppered bottles, marked “ Standard.” Small quantities of the standard and the sample to be tested should be taken with a knife or spatula and placed side by side on a sheet of white paper in two little heaps, and pressed at the same moment by drawing a flat body, such as a paper knife, over them, so that when flattened out both samples will be perfectly together in one piece. If any difference in colour exist it 72 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS, can easily be seen, especially along the line where the two samples join each other. To begin with, any sample may be taken as the standard for future guidance, and, if on comparing this standard with any other sample, the latter prove to be the better in colour, part of it should be taken as the standard, and this should be repeated till the highest degree of whiteness is obtained as a standard for each class of flour. It might also be advisable to have several standards, marked 1, 2, 3, &c., in accordance with their degree of whiteness or darkness of shade, so that the samples submitted might be referred by number to the shade with which it most nearly corresponds. Consistency of Flour Paste .—One of the physical properties of flour, which furnishes a valuable test of its suitability for sizing purposes, is the consistency of the paste which it produces when boiled with water, and which may be felt by the resistance which it offers to the stirring rod on being stirred, whilst other valuable indications are given by an examination of the appearance and consistency of the paste after it has been allowed to cool in a glass vessel. This test may be conveniently made by weighing out 1 ounce (437-J grains) of the flour to be examined, placing it in a porcelain basin, mixing it with 9J ounces of cold water till it forms a creamy mixture, heating it over a chimney or Bunsen’s burner, and keeping the mixture stirred by a glass rod during the time it is being heated. In five or ten minutes FLOUR. 73 the mixture will boil. The time when ebullition commences should be noted, the boiling continued for three minutes, and the consistency during the last few minutes, as felt by the stirring rod, noted. As soon as the heating is stopped the paste should be poured into a small cup or glass, and left to cool for not less than six hours, when it will set, taking the form of the cup or glass into which it was poured. This shape should then be examined as to its appear¬ ance in the cup. Good flour should remain unchanged for several days. If the flour be adulterated with rice the shape will separate itself from the sides of the vessel, leaving a space round it. Some samples of flour which appear of good colour in their original condition will, when boiled with water, assume a much darker colour; and this change should be noted, because two samples may be taken—the one considerably whiter than the other, but on boiling with water the originally whiter one may produce the darker coloured paste. When these points have been observed, each shape of paste should be tilted from the cup or glass on to the palm of the left hand ; and by pressing one of the fingers of the right hand into it a very fair idea can be obtained as to its density, tenacity, &c. ; and if these tests be made with each sample of flour which is used, and the results noted side by side with the results found by using it in sizing, the manufacturer or sizer will soon arrive at a dexterity in choosing the special kind of sample which is best adapted for his work. 74 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Nitric Acid Test. —The question may sometimes arise as to whether a certain sample is a flour or is simply starch, and this test will quickly and easily decide the point. To make it, a small quantity, about 20 grains, of the sample is placed in a small test glass, and stirred into a paste with strong nitric acid, and the colour of the resulting mixture noted. If the sample be starch it will remain white, but if it be flour it will be changed to a deep yellow colour. This colour is due to the action of the acid upon the nitrogenous constituents of the flour, viz., gluten and albuminoid substances, which are absent from the starch. This test, however, may be made cf value in testing different samples of flour against each other. If a flour contain a large proportion of nitro¬ genous matters it will be changed to a deeper yellow colour than if it contain only a small proportion of these bodies. This test furnishes, then, a ready means of distinguishing differences between starches or flours of the same kind, and makes it easy to decide whether two samples are of the same or of different varieties, two different sorts seldom giving the same intensity of colour. Specific Gravity Test .—Some interesting informa¬ tion may be gained as to the character of different samples of flour by boiling a certain weight of each in sufficient water to prevent it from solidifying on cooling, and then taking the specific gravity of the liquid so produced. This test is made by boiling I part by weight of the flour with 50 parts by weight FLOUR. 75 or measure* of water— i.e., 100 grains of flour may be weighed, placed in a porcelain basin, lloz. of water measured and added to the flour, in small quantities at first, with constant stirring to mix them thoroughly, ultimately the remainder of the lloz. is poured in and the mixture heated to boiling, keeping it stirred during the operation. It should then be allowed to boil for five minutes; the same size of flame, as nearly as can be judged by the eye, being employed for every sample to be tested. When the operation is completed the gas should be extinguished, part or the whole of the liquid transferred to a glass flask, and a stream of water from a tap allowed to run on the outside of the flask, which should be kept agitated until the liquid is completely cooled; the bulb of a thermometer should then be placed in the liquid and the temperature brought, by further cooling or gentle heating, to 60° Fah. This liquid should then be poured into a long glass, and its specific gravity taken by floating in it a hydrometer. This test is important in showing what proportion of flour will be absorbed with facility by the threads of the warp, thus the greater the density the less of the sample will be taken into the threads of the warp in sizing. It is interesting to note that Irish flour gives a thinner paste and a solution of lower specific gravity than English or Egyptian flours. * An ounce of water, either by weight or measure, indicates the same quantity. 7G THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. It is often important to make a still further examination of the sample, and the following deter¬ minations and examinations will suffice :— Estimation of Moisture .—The amount of moisture differs considerably in different samples of flour. The proportion is found by weighing off a certain amount of the sample, placing it in the steam bath, drying, and weighing the dried material. The loss in weight will give the proportion of moisture present. The modus operandi is fully described on page 39, but the following example may be taken :— Weight of watch glasses ancl clip. 320 - 4 grains. Do. do. do. and flour. 344'2 „ Do. do. do. do. after drying 34Id „ 344 - 2 — 320'4 = 23’8 grains of flour taken. 344’2-341d = 3d „ moisture or loss. 23'8 grains of the sample contain 3T grains of moisture, and this is calculated to percentage by the ordinary method, viz. :— 23‘8 :3d:: 100 = 13‘03 per cent of moisture. Estimation of Gluten .—Half a sheet of well-glazed note paper should be folded in two and cut with a sharp knife ; three sides of each piece should be folded over, and the two corners pointed, so as to form three upright sides of about inch in depth. One of these papers should be placed on each pan of the balance, and if one be found to be heavier than the other a small slip of paper, about 1J inch long by a J inch broad, should be cut with a pair of scissors, folded in two, and hung on the beam FLOUR 77 of the balance at the side which weighs the less. By pushing this slip nearer to, or further from the centre of the beam, the weight may be gradually diminished or increased till the two pans exactly balance each other, and the centre needle remains at, or oscillates to equal distances from each side of, the centre line on the ivory index. The 300 grain weight should then be placed on the paper on the right-hand pan, and flour put on the paper on the left-hand pan, till they balance each other. The 300 grains of flour thus weighed should be emptied carefully to prevent loss, into a Wedgwood, mortar, a hollow made in the centre of the small heap at the bottom, by pressing on it the end of the pestle, a little water poured into it, and both thoroughly mixed by rubbing and pressing with the pestle, adding from time to time a few drops more water if necessary, till the flour has been formed into a homogeneous dough of the consistency of putty. Every particle of the dough should be carefully taken from the mortar by means of a spatula, if the whole cannot be rolled into one piece by the dexterous use of the pestle ; the dough is then kneaded between the hands to form it into a ball, and placed in the centre of a small piece of wet silk, of fine mesh, about G inches square (that used in dressing flour answers this purpose well). The sides of the silk should be taken up, so as to form a loose bag round the dough, and a piece of cord tied round the mouth of the bag so formed. A porcelain basin, 78 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. or other vessel, is partially filled with about a pint or more of ordinary water ; the top of the silk bag is taken in the left hand, and the dough dipped into the water with a jerking motion, to keep the ball from adhering to the silk; it is then with¬ drawn and pressed gently all round from the outside of the bag with the thumb and fingers of the right hand, and dipped or plunged quickly into the water again, and so on. By this pro¬ cedure the starch is washed out, the water becomes milky, and this operation is carried on until the water appears very turbid with the starch which has been washed out; this vessel is then set aside to allow the starch to settle to the bottom for further examination. Fresh water is placed in another vessel, and the washing continued in the same way, renew¬ ing the water occasionally, till it ceases to be rendered turbid; or the washing may be finished by allowing a small stream of water from the tap to flow over the bag, pressing the dough gently on all sides till the water ceases to run off milky. A glass of clean water should next be taken, the bag plunged into it and pressed ; and if it be not rendered anything more than slightly turbid, the operation is finished. The string should then be unfastened, the silk with its ball of gluten laid on the table, the cloth opened out and laid flat, the ball of gluten placed in the hollow of the left hand, a small amount of water poured on it, and the ball pressed in different directions, changing the water till it is quite free from starch. The gluten FLOUR 79 is then laid on a wet surface, whilst the hands are being thoroughly dried ; the ball is again taken and rolled between the palms of the hands till it begins to stick slightly to them, which it does when part of the water is evaporated by the heat of the hands. The ball is then placed on a watch glass, and both weighed, the weight of the watch glass being deducted from the total weight, leaves the weight of moist gluten in 300 grains of the flour. This number divided by 3 gives the percentage of moist gluten given by the sample. The gluten should be examined by taking it between the fingers of both hands and stretching it out; if it appear very adhesive, so that it may be drawn out for a considerable distance without break¬ ing, it indicates that it is of a very good quality, and the flour may be regarded as thoroughly sound ; but if the flour has been in any way damaged or altered by decomposition, by the action of moisture and warmth, or other cause, the gluten will show very different properties. Sometimes it may be stretched for about an inch before breakage ; in some cases it cannot be stretched at all without breaking, and in other cases where badly damaged Egyptian flours are tested, the gluten does not adhere in one piece, but remains in the silk in the form of little pellets. To find the weight of dry gluten present, one or both of two methods may be employed ; the first is to dry it and weigh the dry residue ; this may be done by spreading the gluten on a thin previously weighed 80 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. piece of sheet iron about 2 or 2^ inches square, and placing it in the water bath to dry. If it be dried on a watch glass it will adhere at some points firmly to the glass, and as it dries will contract with such force as to pull little bits out of it. The other method is to divide the weight of the wet gluten by 2'61, the result giving about the weight of the dried substance. The quantities of gluten given by English, Chilian, and Irish flours range between 15 and 35 per cent, and in Egyptian flour between 1 or 2 and 15 per cent; and it will, as a rule, be observed, cceteris paribus , that the greater the proportion of gluten the better will be its quality. So when very small quantities of gluten are found, as in low qualities of Egyptian flour, it is nearly always of a very bad quality, and generally remains in the silk in small pellets, which will not adhere to each other. Gluten is a strongly adhesive body, and flours which are rich in it are capable of fixing much larger quantities of China clay or other mineral substances in the yarn than those which are poor in this respect. Flours containing much gluten have also the advan¬ tage over those containing little, of giving greater strength to the warp. During the process of fermen¬ tation a small part only of the gluten is eliminated in the form of gaseous products, the greater part being simply transformed remains in solution, and possesses many of the properties of the original substance. MINERAL ADULTERATION. 81 Detection and Estimation of Mineral Matters or Ash .—It sometimes happens that flours are adul¬ terated with mineral matters, such as China clay, or plaster of Paris. Such adulterations may be easily detected by a variety of methods. The sim¬ plest, perhaps, is to place a small quantity of the suspected sample in a test-tube, which is then half filled with chloroform, and shaken violently with the thumb on the mouth of the tube. The pure flour or starch will float on the chloroform, which liquid is much heavier than water, whilst the mineral sub¬ stance will separate and settle to the bottom of the tube. If all the sample float it may be considered free from mineral contamination. The next method, which is also simple, is to deter¬ mine its quantity by the following procedure : First, weigh a porcelain or platinum crucible, and note the weight; put into it a small quantity, from 20 to 4Q grains, of the sample, and weigh both together; the difference between the two weighings represents the quantity of flour taken. Place the crucible, with its contents, on a triangle, supported on a retort stand, and put under it the flame of a Bunsen’s lamp. At first the flour will burn with a pale blue flame, which will soon disappear, and leave a hard black piece of charcoal. On continuing the heating for an hour or two this will crumble down to powder as the carbon or charcoal is burned away. The ash may be stirred occasionally with a clean smooth iron or platinum wire, to bring any black particles into F 82 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. contact with the red-hot parts of the crucible, and soon afterwards a white or grey coloured powder will remain, part or all of which, if the heat be too great, may fuse into a glass at the bottom. The lamp is removed or extinguished and the lid put on the crucible, which is then allowed to cool, and weighed immediately afterwards. The weight of the crucible, deducted from the total weight, gives the amount of ash contained in the quantity of flour taken, the percentage of which may be calculated by the ordinary method shown on page 76. Flour free from mineral adulteration will give about ADULTERATION OF FLOUR. 83 07 per cent of ash; but if the amount be above 1 or 2 per cent, the sample should be looked upon with suspicion, or pronounced to be adulterated. Adulteration with other Flours or Starches .—The general mode of adulterating wheaten flour is to add to it some flour or starch of a different and cheaper variety. These adulterations, if they exist to any extent, can, as a rule, be detected by means of the preliminary tests already given ; but by far the best mode of detection is by the aid of the microscope, which instrument should be in the hands of every manufacturer or sizer. The microscope (Fig. 28) is one which seems best to combine utility with moderate cost. 4 ' The milky liquid washed from the flour into the first basin, in the extraction of gluten, should be thoroughly stirred with a glass rod to mix the sediment, which will probably have settled to the bottom. When the glass rod is withdrawn a drop of the milky liquid will remain adhering to it, which should be allowed to fall on the centrej)f a microscope slide, and a small, thin, circular piece of glass allowed to fall gently on the top of it, the excess of liquid being absorbed all round the edges of the thin glass by a bit of blotting paper. The slide is then placed on the stage of the microscope, the body of which is brought down carefully by means of the large screw * This instrument is made by Mr. James Swift, 43, University Street, Tottenham Court Road, London, W. It is furnished with an eye-piece and with 1-inch and |-inch objectives. In its simplest form its price is £5 5s. The arrangement for viewing objects by polarized light may be fitted to it. 84 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. till tlie granules of the starch can be seen, and the exact focus adjusted by means of the fine screw. The granules of different starches, when viewed under the microscope, are found to differ in size principally, but they differ also in shape and construc¬ tion, and by these characters the admixture of one starch or flour with another can be readily detected. Fig. 29 shows the appearance of pure wheaten starch when viewed simply by the microscope, but a further aid to the microscopic examination is furnished by viewing the granules by means of polarised light. * Fig. 29.—Magnified 420 diameters. This is effected by screwing on to the under part of * The large polygonal cells at the bottom represent the cellulose of the wheat filled with granules of starch. ADULTERATION OF FLOUR. 85 the stage a small arrangement with one brass tube within another. The inner tube is fitted with two Nicoll’s prisms, and is arranged that it may be turned round ; this arrangement is called the “ polariser.” The lens is screw ed on to another small arrangement called the “ analyser,” which, with the lens attached, is screwed on the end of the microscope. The granules are brought into focus in the ordinary way, and when the eye is fixed on them, the inner tube of the analyser is turned slowly round. It will be observed that at one point in turning, the granules will appear as they did before the polarising arrange¬ ment was attached ; this point we may term zero. When the inner tube with the prisms is turned round from this about 90° (a quarter of the circle) the appearances of the granules of some of the starches change, and dark shades or bands in the form of crosses are observed on them. As the polariser is still further turned these bands will appear deeper and deeper till the prisms have been moved through about half a circle, when distinct black crosses will be observed. With wheaten starch no bands are seen, so that if they are shown on any of the granules of the starch washed from a sample said to be wdieaten flour, adulteration may be suspected, and the exact shape, size, and general appearance of the suspected granules may be compared with the engravings shown further on, to ascertain what flour or starch has been em¬ ployed as the adulterant. 86 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Fig. 30 shows the appearance of wheaten starch adulterated with rice, when viewed without the Fig. 30.—Magnified 420 diameters. assistance of polarised light. To accustom oneself to the use of the microscope for the detection of starch adulteration, it is advisable to have samples of the different starches at hand, and to examine them in comparison with any suspected sample. A fair idea of the amount of adulteration may also he obtained by counting the number of granules of the different starches seen in the field of the micro¬ scope ; changing the field by moving the slide, and again counting, repeating this several times, and taking the mean of the different observations. Then preparing a set of test samples for comparison—one by mixing, for example, 90 parts of wheaten starch DECOMPOSITION OF FLOUR 87 with 10 parts of rice, another with 80 of the one to 20 of the other, a third with 70 to 30, and so on to the tenth, and mixing each sample thoroughly ; then making the same observations as to the number of granules of each present in the known mixtures. The prepared mixture, which coincides most closely with the suspected sample, may be taken to repre¬ sent about the proportion of the adulteration. In making these examinations too many granules should not be in the field at the same time. If this be so the mixture of starch and water in the glass should be further diluted with water, well mixed, and a fresh drop submitted to examination. Not only can the presence of foreign starches be detected by means of the microscope, but it will also show whether the sample has been mixed with mineral substances. These would be seen as amor¬ phous or crystalline particles. Insects in Flour .—When flour is left under certain conditions, in warm and damp atmospheres, insects are found to develop and multiply in immense cpiantities in it, and gradually to eat it up and destroy it. It is well, therefore, to guard against the purchase of flour so contaminated, as it cannot be regarded as sound. Some of the ova of these insects are probably present in all samples of flour, because, when flour of any kind is exposed for some time to the necessary conditions of warmth and dampness, the ova become developed, and the insects appear. The insect most 83 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. commonly found in flour is the “ Acarus faringe,” shown in Fig. 31. They are somewhat of the same Fig. 31.* kind as those which make their appearance in sugar, but differ considerably from them in structure. Another species of the acarus is shown in Fig. 32. This species is sometimes, but not often, met with. These insects are mixed up with the flour, but strange to say they always inhabit the top or surface parts of a sack or large bulk of it, few or none ever being found in the centre of the heap; and it is further of interest to observe that if a sample of flour which has been attacked by these insects be shaken up in a vessel so as to mix them thoroughly with the * Magnified 75 diameters— a, shews the ova of the acarus farinse. b, „ young „ c, „ male „ d, „ female „ INSECTS IN FLOUR. 89 flour* in a short time they will nearly all rise near to the surface, leaving the bottom and middle parts almost free from life. This is owing to the fact that the insects require to breathe air, so that if they were kept for some time in the centre of the heap they would be suffocated and die. Many lots of flour attacked by insects may he sold and the fact never observed by the purchaser, although their presence might he most easily ascertained. A small quantity of the flour should be taken from the top of a sack, or from the sample, and laid on a piece of blue or white paper, and flattened down by means of a paper knife, the flat part of which being rubbed over it until the surface of the sample is perfectly smooth. If watched closely for a few minutes by means of the naked eye or an ordinary lens, the insects, if present, will soon show themselves by disturbing the smooth surface, and rising in minute specks, which may be distinctly observed moving. One of these small * Magnified 220 diameter. 90 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. specks may then be taken on the point of a knife, placed on a glass slide, and examined by a low magnifying power of the microscope. Fermentation of Flour .—For many years in Lan¬ cashire it has been the custom to ferment flour pre¬ vious to using it in sizing. This process is of great advantage, and by different manufacturers it is carried out for one or more of several different reasons. By some the flour is fermented with a view to prevent the growth of mildew in the cloth, into which it is introduced; and by others, because flour after being fermented does not give such a harsh feel to the cloth as when employed without being fermented. And, again, some state that the colour of cloth sized with fermented flour is better than that given by it previous to fermentation. In conducting the fermentation, a certain number of sacks of flour are mixed with just sufficient water to make the mixture thoroughly liquid, so that every particle of the flour may be free to undergo fermenta¬ tion. As little w^ater as possible is used, so that the soluble products formed by the fermentation of the flour may, by dissolving in the limited quantity of water, produce a strong solution, and as the specific gravity is raised, the particles of starch or flour would remain more or less in suspension in the solution, and not settle to the bottom as a solid mass; if, however, too much water were employed the solution could not become of sufficient density to keep the particles in suspension, and they would settle and FERMENTATION OF FLOUR. 91 form a hard cake at the bottom, which could after¬ wards be mixed with the water only with great difficulty. In this operation 25 gallons of water are employed for every sack of flour (2801b.), and the whole should be kept stirred whilst mixing. During the first few days frothing takes place, from the effer¬ vescence produced'by a violent fermentation. This soon ceases, and a quiet and continuous fermentation goes on for months afterwards, during which time the mixture of flour and water should be stirred* for some time each day to prevent the flour or starch from settling. The arrangements for most conveniently carrying out the fermentation are shown in plate 33*, where the cisterns (Nos. 1, 2, and 3, in which the flour is fermented and manipulated) are connected with the vat (4) in which the various ingre¬ dients of the size are mixed, the apparatus (K) in which it is boiled, and the sizing machines (Q) in which the hot size is applied to the yarn. If then it be required to mix, say, 30 sacks of flour for fermenta¬ tion, 750 gallons of water should be introduced into the cistern No. 1, which amount should not fill it more than one-third full. At first two or three sacks should be gradually emptied into the cistern, during which time the “compound action dashers,” should be worked for the purpose of thoroughly mixing the flour and water. Each dasher is formed of an oblong wooden frames, along which, rails are attached parallel * The sketch for this engraving was supplied through the kindness of Mr. James Eastwood, of Castleton. 92 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. with the longer side. Two of these frames are fixed in each cistern, on centre-shafts, so that the outside of the one nearly touches the centre-shaft of the other, but being set at right-angles to each other they revolve without touching. The top of each shaft is provided with a ratchet-wheel, as shown in the drawing, and the power is communicated from the shafting overhead by means of belting. Two of these dashers are shown in section in No. 2 cistern. The remainder of the 30 sacks are added, at the rate of about half a sack every half-hour till the whole has been introduced. Towards the end of the operation of mixing, it may be necessary to add the flour in smaller quantities at a time to prevent the fermentation from becoming too violent, and so causing the mixture to froth over. After about a week, when the effervescence has ceased and the mixture has subsided, it is pumped into another similar cistern (No. 2), where the further slow fermentation is allowed to go on for one, two, three, or more months, during which time the dashers should be worked a few hours each day to prevent the flour from subsiding to any extent. During this time the water becomes more and more charged with soluble matters produced by the fermentation. The author examined two samples of liquor from a mix¬ ture of two parts of Egyptian and one part of English flour which had undergone fermentation, the one for two and the other for five months in the ordinary vats, and each for two months longer in bottles in References. No. 1. Gib tern in which flour is mixed with water ■^ a 2. „ „ fermented, shewing elevating cot pound dashers. No. 3. Cistern for diluting the flour-mixture, and preparing t B. Pan for boiling tallow, china clay, &o. No. 4. Cistern from which the sizing machines are supplied. C. and F, Ram-force-pump and pipes for conveying size to No. 4 Cistern. . . _ D. Piping for conducting size or flour-mixture from one cistern to another. , , H. and I. Brass-Ram force pump and piping, connected with tubular size-boiler, for supplying “sow box.” Overflow valve for size. K. and L. Tubular size-boiler, and sectional view of same. M. Tubing for supplying “sow box ' with boiled size. N. Reducing valve for steam. O. Sectional view of “sow box” of tape sizing machine. P. Ball tap for regulating the supply of size. Q. Front view of the tape sizing machine. R. and S. Tubing and condensed steam chest. T* Trunks for carrying steam from tape sizing machine* ' i FERMENTATION OF FLOUR. &3 his laboratory. They were filtered, to separate any particles of insoluble matter from them, and then tested : the following results will give some idea of the difference between the two :— Liquor after Liquor after Four Months’ Seven Months’ Fermentation. Fermentation. Specific gravity . 1032 ... 1‘040 Equal to degreesTwaddell... G^ 0 ... 8° Total solid matter . 11 ‘28 per cent 13’24 per cent Free acid, calculated as lactic acid 324 „ 4T0 „ During the first week of fermentation a large quantity of carbonic acid gas is liberated, producing a copious effervescence and frothing. Afterwards, when the slower and calm fermentation takes place, the liquor gradually becomes sour, and exhales a peculiar heavy, somewhat aromatic odour. These peculiar effects are produced by the combined actions of certain living cells and animalcules, called “ fer¬ ments,” the germs of which exist originally in the flour, and are found in myriads floating about in the atmosphere, in the form of exceedingly fine particles of dust, which can be observed by the naked eye on looking at the beams of sunshine as they enter the window of a room. As some soils and climates will allow some kinds of plants and trees to grow luxuriantly, whilst they stunt or entirely prevent the growth of others, so different organic substances allow of the luxuriant growth only of special ferments ; but it often happens that a number of these ferments will develop 94 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. simultaneously in the same organic fluid or mixture, some of which may have a good, and others a bad influence upon the desired result. For instance, in the manufacture of beer, the brewer, after boiling his wort, cools it as quickly as possible, and immediately afterwards mixes with it a ferment known in England as “yeast,” and called by M. Pasteur “ mycoderma vini,” because it has the power of transforming sugar into alcohol. The reason for this care and speed in cooling, commencing, and finishing the fermentation of the wort, is to prevent any other ferment than the mycoderma vini from acting upon it, because the product given by any others would not be alcohol, but some sour, bitter, or noxious compounds highly disagreeable to the palate, which would thus have the effect of spoiling the beer. Cells of the mycoderma vini are found in the dust of the atmosphere; and wort, if simply left exposed to the air, would soon undergo alcoholic fermentation ; and if no other ferment could take hold upon it, the beer produced would be of much finer quality than that made by the process now adopted ; but as a number of other ferments would be sure to develop simultaneously with the alcoholic one, it is necessary for the brewer to add to the wort a large quantity of the cells of the required ferment, so that they may quickly eat up and transform the organic constituents, before any others have time to develop. The same principles hold good in the fermentation Principal Varieties 0 F LIVING CELLS & ANIMALCULA WHICH PRODUCE FERMENTATION IN FLOUR Magnified400 diameters % John Htvwooo, London & Manchester FERMENTATION. 95 of flour—certain ferments produce indifferent or bad effects, whilst the actions of others are beneficial. Plate 34 shows drawings of the ferments which generally act upon the constituents of flour during the process of fermentation. The animalcule shown in No. I takes a great part in bringing about the required decomposition. Animalcules of this class are found in large numbers in the mixture of flour and water which is undergoing, or has under¬ gone, fermentation, and it seems probable that it acts upon the lactic acid produced by another ferment converting it into butyric acid and other bodies; but besides these, many of the cells shown in Nos. 2 and 4 may be observed. The former has the property of converting some of the organic principles of the fermenting mixture into lactic acid and other compounds, whilst the principal product produced by the latter is acetic acid. M. Pasteur, an eminent French chemist, who has done more than any other towards investigating the laws of development and action of these ferments, has named the cells shown in No. 2 “ mycoderma lacti,” and those shown in No. 4 “ mycoderma acetic The animalcules shown in No. 3 represent bacteria or vibriones. They are thicker than those shown in No. 1, and their action upon organic matter is very different. They may easily be distinguished from those of No. 1, inasmuch as they swim about in all directions, whilst the others only move gently to and fro. 96 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Yibriones or bacteria produce wbat is termed putrefactive fermentation, and when they develop in large numbers, the mixture exhales a putrid odour. It is evident that if this decomposition be allowed to go on, the flour would soon be rendered useless by reason of the objectionable smell which it would acquire, and which would be communicated to the cloth sized with it. The moment, then, that any putrid odour can be detected, the fermentation should be stopped by the addition of some antiseptic, such as chloride of zinc, if that be one of the components of the size, or carbolic acid if it be not. About 2lb. or 2^1b. of cresylic acid (No. 5 carbolic acid) to each sack of flour would be sufficient to stop the further develop¬ ment of the putrid ferment, and the flour from that cistern should then be used as quickly as possible and the cistern thoroughly cleansed by the use of boiling water, or better, of hot water and steam. This fermentation is sometimes set up by using damaged flour, or flour which originally contained bacteria in large quantity; but perhaps generally it is commenced by the direct action of bacteria which fall into it as dust from the atmosphere, and it would doubtless be of advantage to keep each vat covered with light frames, over which cloth is stretched, so that the air might get free access to the vat, but from which the dust or atmospheric spores would be separated. The above-named ferments do not however com- VIBRIO TRITICI. 97 plete the list of animalcules and ferments which may act upon flour during fermentation. Fig. 35 repre¬ sents a peculiar eel-like animalcule of much greater size than the bacterium. It produces in the grain of wheat the disease called ear cockle or purples, and belongs to the species “vibrio tritici.” This vibrio is sometimes found in flour, and when mixed with water multiplies in great numbers, so that they may be observed swimming about most actively in the mixture. It would be productive of much interest and in¬ formation if sizers or manufacturers would examine microscopically their mixtures of flour and water during the fermentation, to observe what ferments are really at work in each batch ; and make notes of G 98 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. these observations to be afterwards compared with any peculiarities observed in the process of sizing or after change which may take place in the size on the fabric. Ferments feed principally upon the nitrogenous prin¬ ciples of the flour— i.e., upon the gluten, albumen, etc., and so long as any of these bodies remain, a copious liberation of carbonic acid gas takes place, producing much frothing on the surface of the mixture, and not only are the gluten and other nitrogenous principles decomposed, but part, or the whole of the dextrine and sugar, and part of the starch also suffers change. The transforming action on the starch, however, is not entirely due to the ferments; the substance named cerealin no doubt takes part in it, by converting some of it into dextrine, sugar, and other soluble com¬ pounds. This nitrogenous body is crystalline, and resembles in its action the diastase of malt, and it is this substance which transforms the insoluble starch into soluble products for the nourishment of the plant whilst the grain is sprouting. As the result of fermentation a large number of new organic bodies are formed, among which may be mentioned lactic, acetic, butyric, and other free acids, alcohol, and compounds which have a powerfully poisonous effect upon fungus or mildew growths. That a substance of the nature last-named is produced may be observed by looking at the tops of the dcabers and sides of the cisterns which PRODUCTS OF FERMENTATION. 99 contain flour not more than a few weeks old, in com¬ parison with the same places in a cistern containing flour which has fermented for two or three months. It will be observed that whilst fungus grows well on the undisturbed pieces of partially dried flour adhering to the tops of the dashers and sides of the cistern in the recently mixed flour, little or none can be seen growing on any part of the older mixture. To ascertain when the fermentation is nearly com¬ plete, some of the liquor should be separated by filtration, or by allowing the starch to subside sufficiently that the liquor may be drawn off from the top. The fluid so separated should be left exposed to the air, and if the fermentation has been complete it will remain clear for some considerable time, but if not, it will become turbid, and the surface will, in a few days, be covered with a thin white skin, which will continue to increase in thickness and in area, so much so, that it will become puckered all over the surface, resembling a piece of rumpled white velvet. This skin and the turbidity are produced by the ferment cells, which multiply so long as there remains any matter in the liquor upon which they can feed. With the view to demonstrate the presence of antiseptic substances in well fermented flour the author took some which had been allowed to ferment during two months and some which had fermented two weeks, and boiled each respectively, with its acid liquor, making a further addition of water to each, ta 100 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. form pastes. Each sample was divided into two parts and put into separate vessels, which were placed in different rooms. After a week it was observed that the surfaces of the one which had fermented for the shorter time, in both samples, were covered with fungus, which ultimately formed a dense growth, whilst the others were free from it and remained so, and after six weeks they had almost completely dried up, but still remained free from mildew growth. Part of the flour which had fermented for two months was washed with cold water till free from acidity, then boiled into a paste with water and exposed to the atmosphere. After one week, fungus made its appearance and afterwards quickly covered the surface. These experiments prove clearly that some of the products formed by the fermentation possess highly antiseptic properties. Eungus attacks more readily and grows with much greater facility on substances containing nitrogenous bodies than on those free from them, as will be shown in another part of this work; but the last-named experiment demonstrates that the small liability of fermented flour to mildew is dependent, not nearly so much upon the destruction or transformation of the gluten and other nitrogenous constituents of the flour, as on the antiseptic properties of the sub¬ stances into which these bodies are transformed. Further experiment has shown that unless flour be allowed to ferment for about two months, sufficient of the peculiar organic antiseptic is not produced to RICE FLOUR. 101 prevent the growth of fungi; and to utilise the results of fermentation it is necessary to boil up the whole of the starch, together with all the liquor with which it has fermented, without washing it, as some manufacturers do, because this antiseptic substance is soluble in water, and by adopting such a course, most of the good results produced by fer¬ mentation would be nullified. It has been shown by the author that free acid has a powerful effect in aiding the growth of fungi or mildew ; so that, not only roust sufficient of the antiseptic principle be produced by fermentation to prevent a neutral flour from mildewing, but it must also be formed in sufficient quantity to counteract the increased tendency to mildew which the free acid gives to it, and which is formed simultaneously with the antiseptic substances. A little soda ash or milk of lime added to the size, sufficient to neutralise the greater part of the free acid, has consequently the effect of rendering the resulting size still less liable to be attacked by fungus growths. Among the substances produced in the fermentation of flour may be mentioned glycerine and other compounds of a highly hygroscopic nature, which, having the power of abstracting water from the atmosphere, keep the yarn into which they are introduced, moist, thus giving greater strength to the yarn, and producing better weaving. Rice Flour .—This substance is prepared by grind¬ ing to powder the seeds of the rice plant, “ Qryza 102 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Sativa.” When taken between the fingers, it feels much crisper than wheaten flour, and is used to a large extent to mix with it; in some cases because sizers prefer it, and in others as an adulteration ; but if it be mixed in large proportions, its presence can be easily detected by the crisp or harsh feel which a little of the adulterated sample gives when rubbed between the thumb and finger. The microscope reveals the presence of rice with certainty, showing the starch granules (Fig. 36). The following may be taken as an average analysis of rice flour :— Per Cent. Starch . 78-21 Fat . -74 Cellulose . 3-06 Gum and Sugar . ‘45 Nitrogenous Substances . 6’82 Ash . *81 Water . 9*91 100-00 When boiled with water, rice forms a much thicker mucilaginous mixture than wheaten flour, but requires more boiling to produce a homogenous paste. It is less adhesive than wheaten flour; but is of value in light sizing because a much smaller amount of it than of wheaten flour is required to produce a paste of any required density. It should, however, not be employed when it is desired to fix large propor¬ tions of china clay or other mineral substances POTATO STARCH. 103 in the fabric. Rice flour, or starch, gives a crisp feel to the cloth, and is often used along with other starchy ingredients in very heavy sizing, where much softening material is employed. It is much improved for sizing purposes by submitting it to fermentation along with wheaten flour. jR ice Starch .—The starch is in a much finer state of division than the flour consequent upon the granules being separated from the glutinous substances which fix them together in the flour; these bodies, unlike those in wheaten flour, cannot be separated by simply washing with water, but may be removed by fermentation. An easy and effective method is to treat the ground rice with carbonate or caustic, alkali, which dissolves the gluten and nitrogenous matters, leaving the starch, which settles to the bottom of the alkaline solution. A liquor con¬ taining about -|nz. of caustic soda to the gallon of water is employed for this purpose. The gluten may also be dissolved out by hydrochloric or other acid. The starch granules of rice (Fig. 36) are among the smallest known, and their polygonal shape renders them very characteristic and easy of detection. Rice starch is seldom directly employed in the sizing of grey cloth, the cost of manufacture evidently advancing its price too much. Potato Starch , “ Farina .”—The potato forms the exuberant growth of part of the root of the Solanum Tuberosum. This root is composed principally of 104 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. water, only about one quarter of its weight being dry Fig. 36.—Magnified 420 diameters. solid matter, as shown by the following analysis :— Per Cent. Farina or Starch. 20*00 Fat or Oily Matters. *10 Cellulose . T65 Gum and Sugar . 1*07 Nitrogenous Substances. 2*17 Ash . 1*01 Water . 74*00 100*00 In the preparation of potato starch the roots are rasped to pulp by means of suitable machinery ; the pulp then thrown upon a sieve, and a series of fine jets of water allowed to fall upon it, during which it POTATO STARCH. 105 is kept thoroughly stirred and kneaded, the water falls through the sieve as a milky liquid, carrying with it the starch, leaving the parenchyma or cellulose, &c., behind. This liquid is allowed to rest for some time when the starch falls to the bottom, the supernatant liquor may then be run olf by suitable taps, and the starch taken out and dried. “ Farina ” is a starch having a glistening appear¬ ance and crisp feel when pressed between the fingers. Weight for weight, it produces a thicker paste when boiled with water than any other starch, and consequently in sizing, when as little weight as possible is required to be put on the yarn, this article is generally employed. It contains a larger proportion of moisture than any other starch, varying as it does from 17 to 20 per cent. The granules are very characteristic when viewed under the microscope. They are large, and marked with eccentric rings, as shown in Fig. 37 ; but when viewed by means of polarized light they are still more easily identified, the dark crosses on each granule showing very distinctly. Potato starch gives a crisp feel to cloth into which it is introduced, but owing to the thick- mess of the paste which it forms when boiled with water, a large quantity of it cannot be put in, and it is, therefore, seldom used alone as an adhesive material in heavy sizing, and, if used at all, it is mixed with some substances which makes it boil into a thinner paste, such as the chlorides of calcium or 106 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. magnesium. A mixture of this kind fixes clay very firmly in the warp. Fig. 37.—Magnified 220 diameters. It is supposed by many that the best test for farina, as to its suitability for sizing purposes, is to boil it into a paste with water, and judge of its value by the thickness of the paste produced. This test is, doubtless, of use, but whatever value it may have, it can hardly be contended that the suitability of farina can be, in all cases, directly proportional to the thickness of the paste which it forms with water. It is evident that if all dry samples of farina were precisely the same in all their physical properties, such tests would be of value in determining the “sizing power” of any sample, because it is clear that the one which contains most water TENACITY OF STARCH PASTE. 107 would produce a paste with the least degree of firmness; but inasmuch as equal weights of two different samples of dry farina, when boiled with equal bulks of water, may produce pastes of different degrees of firmness, and as it is evident that the thinner paste will permeate the threads of warp with greater facility than the thicker, consequently a greater proportion of solid matter may be introduced by using the former. The test for determining the degree of firmness of the pastes given by different samples of farina will, however, under any circumstances be of value. It may be performed in different ways. One ounce of the sample may be mixed with 15 ounces of cold water, and heated in the inner pot of an ordinary glue kettle, for, say from 15 to 20 minutes; the water in the outer pot being thoroughly boiling before the inner pot, containing the farina and water, is introduced. The pastes so formed should then be emptied into glasses, and left for some hours to set. They may then be tested by pressing the finger on the surfaces of each, or by transferring each to the left hand, and testing its consistency by the fingers of the right; or, again, a small tin box may be placed on the top of the paste and pellet shot poured into it till the weight breaks through the surface; the shot being after¬ wards weighed ; the weight indicates approximately the resistance which the paste offers. Another method of preparing the pastes for testing is that 108 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. mentioned on page 72, for the production of flour paste, with the exception that 15 ounces of water should be employed for every ounce of farina. Maize, or Indian Corn Starch, is prepared from the “ Tea Maysthe seeds are ground to powder to form the flour, which is then treated by the same process as that described for the preparation of rice starch, as the glutinous matters cannot well be separated by simply washing the dough with water. The starch or flour forms a very thick paste with boiling water ; in this respect it stands next to farina, and it is generally used when it is desirable to introduce as little size into the fabric as possible. Its starch granules (Fig. 38) are very characteristic, each having a star-shaped appearance in the centre, SAGO. 109 and, when viewed by polarised light, a dark and white cross may be alternately observed on each granule by turning either the analyser or polariser of the polariscope. Sago .—This farinaceous matter is obtained from the pith of the stems of several kinds of palm. The starch is washed from the pith by the same process as that adopted for the manufacture of farina. It produces a thick paste when boiled with water, and in its general properties, so far as its use in sizing is Fig. 39.—Magnified 225 diameters. concerned, closely resembles maize. The microscopic appearance of its starch granules is shown in Fig. 39, and this is rendered still more character¬ istic by means of polarized light. 110 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Tajpioca .—This starch is prepared in the same way as farina, from the large tuberous roots of the genus “ Manihot.” Fig. 40 shows the microscopical appear¬ ance of its granules. It is seldom used directly in the operations of sizing, but considerable quantities of it are manufactured into “British gum or dextrine.” For that purpose, this starch produces the most easily soluble gums. Irish Moss , known also as Pearl Moss , and as Carrageen Moss , is a species of sea weed, “ Chondrus Crispus.” It contains a large proportion of a peculiar gelatinous matter, termed pectin or vegetable jelly. Fig. 40.—Magnified 225 diameters. When boiled with water it forms a thin, almost transparent jelly, which is sometimes mixed with sulphates of soda, and magnesia, &c., for introducing DEXTRINE. Ill into dyed goods, as Oxford shirtings, to produce a more mellow feel, and to make the fabric more pliable and less likely to curl at the edges when dry. It is also employed to some extent as an ingredient of size for the warp of grey cloth. Dextrine or British Gum .—This is produced by “calcining” or heating at temperatures ranging between 200° and 300° Fah. any of the starches before mentioned ; farina or potato starch, however, is the one generally employed for this purpose. The higher the temperature used in “ calcining ” the starch, the darker is the colour of the resulting product or dextrine, and the solubility of the gum in w r ater increases in proportion to the depth of colour. If 1 part of farina be boiled with 12 parts of water, the resulting paste becomes so thick during boiling as to present considerable difficulty in stirring, and if allowed to cool, forms a dense solid mass ; but if the farina be “ calcined ” at a tempera¬ ture of about 250° Fah. for some time, it undergoes considerable modification, although to the eye it may appear as if no change had taken place. When a little is put on the tongue it is found to have acquired a sweetish taste, and when boiled with water in the proportions of 1 to 12 it remains quite liquid during the boiling, but if allowed to cool, strange to say, it congeals into a mass nearly as thick as the original farina paste ; if, again, farina be “ calcined ” so that it do show a difference to the eye in colour, till it acquire a yellowish or 112 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. brownish appearance, this sample, when heated with water will not only appear very liquid when boiling, but will not set or congeal on cooling, and will remain a thin, more or less, syrupy liquid, depending on the depth of colour to which it has been “ calcined.” This change is brought about by a re-arrangement of the molecules of which the starch is built up, but it is greatly accelerated by the addition of some free acid, such as hydrochloric, oxalic, or nitric ; it is customary, therefore, for gum manufacturers to employ one of them, and nitric acid is the one usually selected. This liquid is first sprinkled on the starch, and then thoroughly mixed with it by means of a shovel, and afterwards the whole is brushed through a sieve ; the resulting mixture then feels practically dry, but the small pro¬ portion of acid added has such a powerful effect in bringing about the change, that not more than a few minutes heating at any of the different temperatures is required to convert the starch into dextrine. This is accomplished by allowing the starch mixture to enter ojie end of a hollow iron cylinder, set in an inclined position, kept constantly revolving, and heated up to the required temperature, the starch mixture moves slowly along, is transformed, and dextrine flows gradually out at the other end. Dextrine is sometimes employed to mix with flour, starch, &c., in producing size, and may, for some kinds of cloth, be of advantage. When used alone for sizing it makes the threads harsh and wiry, and DEXTRINE. 113 further differs from flour or starch in being soluble in cold water. The colour of the more soluble varieties of dextrine render it objectionable in sizing. If dex¬ trine be used in too large proportions it will give a sticky “feel” to the fabric, especially when employed in conjunction with deliquescent salts. Mildew does not grow either quickly or luxuriantly on this substance; in comparison with flour an experiment was made by boiling equal weights of the two substances in water, and leaving the result¬ ing mixtures exposed to the air. Fungus growths made their appearance on the flour paste after five days, whilst they were not observed on the dextrine mixture till after sixteen days. 114 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Chapter IY. MATERIALS USED TO GIVE BODY AND WEIGHT TO THE SIZE AND YARN. CHINA CLAY, KAOLIN. T HIS substance, which constitutes the most important member of the group of weight - giving materials, is an almost pure hydrated silicate of alumina, occurring in nature in primitive mountain districts, among blocks of granite, forming interposed seams or strata, frequently of great thickness. The varieties found in China and Japan are whiter and more unctuous to the touch than those occurring in Europe, and no doubt the material obtained from the south of England has received its name in deference to the superior qualities of the clay found in China. Kaolin has great affinity for water, of which it retains about 10 per cent, even after being heated for some hours at 212° Fah., a temperature at which all bodies lose their hygroscopic or uncombined water or moisture. This water is chemically combined with SOURCES OF CHINA CLAY. 115 the clay, and can only be eliminated from it by heating nearly to redness. China clay differs from porcelain clay in not possessing such a strong affinity for water, a difference which may be readily demonstated by touching the tongue with a dry sample of each. The porcelain clay, by abstracting water from the tongue, will adhere strongly to it, whilst the China clay will not. China clay occurs in large deposits in Devon and Cornwall, and this variety is whiter and possesses a more unctuous feel than that found under similar conditions in the continent of Europe. It is produced by the decomposition of a substance called Felspar , which is a double silicate of potash and alumina, the most common variety being “ Ortho- clase,” which has a subtranslucent appearance. This crystalline substance occurs in large proportion as a constituent of many of the older rocks, and in con¬ junction with crystals of quartz, mica, &c., forms granite. When felspar is exposed to the air, the combined actions of the frost, rain, and carbonic acid of the atmosphere cause it to crumble to an impalpable powder, and the China clay thus formed is found mixed with a variety of impurities which require to be separated from it before it becomes marketable; this process forming one of the most important industries of Devon and Cornwall. The old process of China clay manufacture ill us- 116 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. trates well the principle by which that substance is separated from its impurities. Three vessels, A, B, and C, are placed at different levels, as shown in the drawing. The impure disin¬ tegrated felspar is put into A, which is then filled with water, and stirred by means of a wooden shovel. The fine particles of the pure clay become suspended in the water, whilst the pieces of quartz Fig. 39. and heavier particles sink to the bottom. The supernatant liquor charged with the suspended particles is run off by the spout (a), passes through the sieve ( b ) and falls into the vessel B ; the sieve separating any pieces of mica, straw, or other impuri¬ ties of a similar nature. The liquor is allowed to settle in B for a short time, where a certain amount of the suspended clay, together with the coarser particles deposits. The supernatant liquor still charged with the bulk of the clay in suspension is allowed to run into the third vessel, C, by opening a plug placed about MANUFACTURE OF CHINA CLAY. 11 7 the centre of the second, and here it is allowed to settle completely, and the water then permitted to run away. When the vessel C becomes nearly filled with the mud it is allowed to settle thoroughly, and the water run off as completely as possible. Tn this state it is called “ slip.” The slip is taken out and placed in trays, where it is allowed to dry in the air by the heat of the sun to the consistency of a firm dough, and then cut into brick forms, which are piled on the top of each other to dry thoroughly, and subsequently sent into the market. The mode of manufacture generally adopted at the present day in Devon and Cornwall is, first to remove the “overburden” or surface earth, and to lay bare the disintegrated granite rock or “ stope.” A small stream of water is then directed so as to run over the face of the rock, which is broken up from time to time by workmen, with pickaxes, whilst others agitate the water against the disintegrated rock by other instruments. By this means the water takes up and holds in suspension the clay and mica, which it carries with it, forming a milky stream, leaving behind the coarse grains of quartz. On arriving at the bottom of the hill the milky stream is directed along a channel, called the “ drag.” Here the fine sand and coarse particles of mica are deposited, and the clay-water is then allowed to flow into a shaft, from which it is raised, by means of pumps and tubes, up the hill, above the point from w 7 hich it originally flowed, and is there 118 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. allowed to enter a series of narrow channels, about 100 feet long, called “ micas/’ Here the fine mica is deposited, and the clay-water flows on into round tanks, where the clay is allowed to settle and the clear water drawn off and allowed to flow a^ain over the “stope.” Thus the same water may be used over and over again. When the clay has settled to a certain extent in the round tanks, a “hatch” is drawn and it is allowed to run into a large square tank, where it settles still further, till it has the consistency of cream cheese. The water which rises to the top is drawn off and the soft clay trans¬ ferred to the “ dry,” which is a building composed of two parts—the “ dry ” proper and the “ linhay.” The floor of the “ dry ” is composed of porous tiles, heated underneath, and the water is separated from the clay principally by its being absorbed by the tiles, and passed as steam into the flue and stack of the furnace. The “linhay” is generally from 6 to 8 feet lower than the “ dry,” and is used for the storage of the dry clay. About 13cwt. of water must be evaporated on the “dry” for every ton of clay produced. In the first operation of washing the “stope,” from 150 to 200 gallons of water passing down per minute, carries with it about 1 ton of clay per hour. There are other clay works where two shafts are sunk, with an underground passage between them, and water is allowed to flow down one, to take up the clay, and pumped up the other by means of a EXAMINATION OF CHINA CLAY. 119 water-wheel or steam-engine, separated from coarse particles, as above described, and tbe clay allowed to settle. Tbe deposit from tbe “micas” is sold as inferior mica clay, whilst that from tbe “drags” is useless.* In choosing China clay for sizing purposes, it is well to obtain a sample of good quality, and to keep it in a well-stoppered glass bottle, for comparison with other samples intended for future purchase. The following four observations may be made in selecting :— (1) The sample should be perfectly free from mica¬ ceous matter or grit, because unless this point be ensured, loss would be incurred by the filing action which it would exert upon the healds and reeds during the process of weaving, when fixed in the warp. This point may be readily decided by placing a little of the sample under examination between the teeth, when the slightest grittiness would make itself evident, the same test being made with the standard sample for comparison. In the inferior varieties the grittiness may be felt by the fingers alone. (2) A sample may pass the first test satisfactorily and yet not have the unctuous feel of the standard. This point is important, inasmuch as the “ feel ” of the manufactured cloth, to a certain extent, depends upon it. For this test equal quantities (about 10 grains) of the standard and the sample respectively should be * “ The China Clay and Stone Industries.” By J. H. Collins, F.G.S. 120 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. placed on smooth glass plates, and equal quantities of water added, sufficient to make them into thin pastes. They should then he rubbed alternately with the linger, and the feel noticed. The degree of harshness can easily be determined by this means. If it he wanting in smoothness it may be owing to the presence of chalk or limestone, which may be ascer¬ tained by adding a few drops of hydrochloric acid to a small quantity of the sample in a test glass. If the mixture effervesces, some carbonate is present as an impurity, which wall most probably be chalk or limestone. Pure China clay should not effervesce when treated with acid. (3) No less important is the colour of the sample, which may be tested by the method given for the examination of flour. (Page 71.) (4) It is advisable sometimes to ascertain whether any substance be present, such as iron, which would undergo change of colour on exposure to the air when introduced into the warp. For this, the standard and sample may be exposed to the air in a wet condition for several days, and any change in colour noted. Although China clay is a chemical compound of silica and alumina, unlike most other chemical compounds these bodies do not exist in definite proportions, but vary considerably in different samples. The soft or oily feel, however, seems to depend more upon molecular constitution than upon chemical composition. The dark colour, which COMPOSITION OF CHINA CLAY. 121 China clay sometimes possesses, is due princi¬ pally to organic substances which become mixed with it. Its colour is sometimes much improved by calcining at a red heat, till all organic matter is burned away, or by bleaching the organic substances by means of chlorine or bleaching powder. Acids are also said to have been used for bleaching clay, and statements to that effect seem to have scared some sizer from using the whiter varieties. Clay, when mixed with water and tested with blue litmus paper, will be found to be nearly always free from any trace of acid, but, even if it did contain a trace, it could not produce any injurious effect upon the cotton fibre. The following analysis shows the composition of China clay of average quality used by sizers, taken from a large number of analyses made by the author :— Per Cent. Silica . 46‘47 Alumina . 4003 Oxide of Iron. *38 Lime. trace Magnesia . trace Potash and Soda Salts . 1*24 * Water, Fluorine, and Organic Matter, &c. 11 -88 100-00 In the process of making size the China clay is often boiled for some hours with water before being mixed with the starchy matters and other * Principally water. 122 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS, ingredients. This prolonged boiling, however, is unnecessary. When China clay is boiled alone with water, the bubbles of steam as they are disengaged, project the clay from the vessel in which it is heated and spatter it about in all directions, and it is remarkable to observe how quickly this spirting is stopped by the addition of certain substances, such as tallow, soap, chloride of magnesium, &c. The mixture, from some cause not well explained, becomes at once much thinner and boils more evenly. Soap or alkali possesses this property to a marked degree. This action is in all probability a purely mechanical one, China clay being much denser than water, settles on the steam pipes used to heat the mixture, and as each bubble of steam is disengaged, it carries with it particles of mud, which it projects from of the boiler. If, however, soap or other substance be dissolved in the water it increases the specific gravity of the liquid, and the clay remains more in suspension, and so the mixture appears thinner and boils more evenly. The action of tallow in preventing spirting depends probably on its combining with the particles of clay, making them lighter, and so keeping them more thoroughly in suspension. Sulphate of Baryta.—Heavy Spar ,—This sub¬ stance, as its name indicates, is a very heavy mineral, being about four and a half times as heavy as water. It is met with both in the crystalline and amorphous conditions, in large veins in the SULPHATE OF LIME—EPSOM SALTS. 123 mountain limestone, and also accompanying the ores of lead and other metals. At one time this mineral was used rather exten¬ sively for mixing with size to give weight to the cloth, and so far as this goes no better substance could be found ; there are, however, many objections to its use. The powder, no matter how finely ground, is harsh to the touch, and exerts a most injurious filing action on the healds and reeds in the process of weaving. Further, it is not so easily fixed in the fibre as China clay, and is, therefore, not so valuable as a filling material, but it is sometimes used where weight and a certain harshness of feel are required. Sulphate of Lime. — Gypsum , known also as plas¬ ter of Paris, occurs in nature both in the crystalline and amorphous conditions, often associated with rock salt. It is, to a small extent, used in warp-sizing, and is largely employed in filling bleached cloth. It is nearly three times as heavy as water, harsh to the feel, and possesses, but to a less degree, the objectionable properties of sulphate of baryta. It is known under the names of “ Mineral ” and “ Mineral White,” and is prepared for sizing purposes from gypsum, which is found in large deposits in Derby¬ shire. The gypsum is first crushed to a rough powder by steel rollers, and then ground to an impal¬ pable powder between mill-stones. Sulphate of Magnesia;.—Epsom Salts .—This sub¬ stance was formerly prepared by dissolving the 124 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. mineral “ magnesite ” (carbonate of magnesia) in dilute sulphuric acid, evaporating the neutralised liquor, and allowing the salt to crystallize out. It is now prepared from kieserit, a substance found as one of the salt deposits of Stassfurt, in Prussia. Kieserit is composed of a mixture of sulphates of potash, soda, and magnesia, with other impurities, and is worked principally for the potash salts wtqch it contains; when these have been separated the sulphate of magnesia, with other remaining salts and impurities, is cast into blocks, and sent to this country under the name of “ kieserit.” From this substance, most of the Epsom salts of commerce is now manufactured. It is first dissolved in boiling: water, the insoluble impurities allowed to settle, and the clear hot liquor run off and allowed to cool, when the sulphate of magnesia separates out in the form of small needle-shaped crystals ; most of the impurities, such as chloride of magnesium, and potash, and soda salts remaining in solution in the mother liquor. Epsom salt crystals contain more than half their Aveight of water of crystallization, as shown by the following analysis Per Cent. Sulphate of ( Magnesia . 16*26 Magnesia. ( Sulphuric Acid. 32*52 Water . 51*22 100*00 By careless manufacture, or by the direct use of solutions of specially impure “kieserit,” a certain EPSOM SALTS—IMPURITIES. 125 proportion of chloride of magnesium may be intro¬ duced into cloth along with the sulphate, which may prove highly injurious or destructive to the fabric from several different causes. First. The chloride of magnesium is a highly deli¬ quescent salt, and when present in cloth, hi con¬ junction with flour or other organic matters, it may by abstracting moisture from the atmosphere, cause mildew or decomposition, unless the injurious effects of the moisture be counteracted by some powerfully antiseptic substance. Second. Under certain conditions the presence of chloride as an impurity in sulphate of magnesia, which has been employed as the principal or only filling material, may have the effect of causing a frosting or efflorescence of the sulphate of magnesia to appear on the surface of the cloth. Third. If chloride of magnesium be submitted to a temperature as low as that of boiling water, it decomposes and liberates hydrochloric acid, so that if cloth containing a considerable proportion of this substance be submitted to a high temperature for some time, such as in the process of calendering with specially hot rollers, the chloride might be decomposed and hydrochloric acid liberated in sufficient quantity to injure or destroy the cloth. Fourth. Several curious cases of damage, arising from the presence of chloride of magnesium in Epsom salts with which goods were finished, have come under the author’s notice, which it 12G THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. might be of advantage here to mention. The goods in each case were Oxford shirtings, and there was abundant evidence to show that they were sound before being shipped abroad, but tender when they arrived at their destination. In one of these cases a certain firm shipped Oxford shirt¬ ings, the same in quality, and made at the same time, but finished by three different finishers. These pieces were packed indiscriminately in bales, and a number of them were returned, some damaged and others undamaged. The only difference between the damaged and undamaged pieces, from a physical examination, was that the former were tender and the latter were not, the colour being uninjured. Had the injury been caused either by free acid or mildew, some of the colours would have been injured; but, as a matter of fact, the damaged pieces were prac¬ tically free from free acid, and no trace of fungus growths could be found. A most marked difference, however, was shown by chemical analysis. Each contained chloride as well as sulphate of magnesium, but all the damaged pieces contained a much larger quantity of the chloride than the undamaged. The following gives the ratio of chloride of magnesium to sulphate of magnesia per centum in each sample:— Damaged. Undamaged Crystallized Sulphate of Magnesia . 86-8 . 98T1 „ Chloride of Magnesium. 13-2 . 1-89 100-0 100 00 EPSOM SALTS. 127 It seemed then that chloride of magnesium was capable of tendering cloth by reason of some physical action ; and various experiments were made with a view of testing this point. It is well known that if a piece of cloth be steeped in a solution of sulphate of magnesia, taken out, and the salt allowed to crystallize in the fabric, the latter will be more or less slightly tendered; and if the salt he washed out, and the cloth again dipped into the solu¬ tion, and the salt allowed to crystallize in it, the cloth will be still further tendered; and if this be done repeatedly the cloth would become as weak as tinder. The question then suggested itself whether chloride of magnesium might not produce a very similar effect, and by experiment it was found that it would do so. The chloride being a very deliquescent salt, would, especially in damp weather, remain in the fabric as a liquid, and as such would dissolve some of the Epsom salts; but if the weather became colder or drier, or both, the “salts” alone, or in company with the chlo¬ ride of magnesium, would crystallize in the fibre, and in so doing would expand in the filaments of cotton, and rupture them. This action of crystallization and solution, so far as the heat and cold is concerned, can he observed in the storm glass, where in cold weather the glass seems nearly full of crystals, whilst in warm weather only a few can be observed at the bottom of the liquid. The damage above-mentioned was therefore clearly traced to this peculiar action. It is questionable, however, whether this action could 128 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. take place except where the goods were heavily weighted with sulphate of magnesia, and contained a considerable peicentage of the chloride. In the pure state, crystals of sulphate of magnesia are efflorescent, parting with a proportion of their water of crystallization and crumbling to a white powder, when left exposed to the air. From the above it will be seen that it is important that Epsom salts intended to be used for heavily weighting cloth should not contain more than a small proportion of chlorides. These may be detected by dissolving a little of the salt in water, and adding to the solution a few drops of nitric acid and a few drops of a solution of nitrate of silver. The quantity of the curdy precipitate which forms and falls to the bottom of the vessel is an indication of the proportion of chloride present. Epsom salts is a good filling material, because, being soluble in water, it enters the threads easily, expands them, and so gives to the fabric a substantial feel, whilst there has seldom, if ever, been any case of mildew damage in goods filled with the reasonably pure salt. Sulphate of Soda.—Glauber s Salt .—This substance is produced on a large scale by adding sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) to common salt in the process of preparing hydrochloric acid and soda ash. The production of sulphate of soda is, however, in this process, only one stage in the conversion of common salt (chloride of sodium) into soda ash (carbonate of soda). SULPHATE OF SODA. 129 Sulphate of soda is also formed as a by-product in the preparation of nitric acid, by acting upon nitrate of soda with sulphuric acid. Sulphate of soda is left as a residue in the retort, and from this product most of the sulphate of soda used for sizing purposes is prepared. The residue only requires to be dissolved in hot water and any free acid which it contains neutralised with soda ash, and the solution allowed to cool and crystallize. The crystals which aie colourless, and usually larger than those of Epsom salts, contain more than half their weight of water, as shown by the following analysis :— Per Cent. Sulphate oft Soda . 19'25 Soda. ( Sulphuric acid . 24-84 Water . 55’91 100-00 Like sulphate of magnesia, they effloresce, and at the ordinary temperatures of the atmosphere will give off nearly all their water of crystallization, and crumble to powder. Sulphate of soda is sometimes used in conjunction with sulphate of magnesia as a filling for goods to be calendered. It sometimes contains chloride of sodium (common salt) as an impurity, the presence of which can be determined by the nitrate of silver test, mentioned under “ Sulphate of Magnesia; ” and if this impurity be present to any extent, the sulphate should not be employed for mixing with Epsom salts, because, when chloride of sodium is added to sulphate of i 130 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS, magnesia, a double decomposition takes place, sul¬ phate of soda and the objectionable salt, chloride of magnesium, being produced. Glaubers salt has a peculiar saline taste, different from Epsom salts in not being so bitter. The taste may be often conveniently employed for detecting the presence of these salts in any fabric. Silicate of Magnesia. — Steatite. — Soap-stone .— This substance is a mineral which is exceedingly greasy to the feel. It is a variety of talc found in veins traversing the serpentine rock of Cornwall and Shetland. It is also foi nd in other places, in some of which it is associated with limestone. Its chemi¬ cal composition is :— Per Cent, Silica ... 6>2T4 Magnesia . 32'92 Water . 4 -9 4 100 00 Steatite sometimes contains impurities, such as iron, manganese, or chromium, which colour it, and so render it useless as a sizing ingredient, for which it is only employed in producing special results, and has not found its way into general use. The sub¬ stance should be in an impalpable powder, and the tests mentioned under China clay may be applied equally to it. Silicate of Soda.—Soluble Glass .—At one time tbis salt promised to be a valuable ingredient of size. It contains the same substances which go to form CHLORIDE OF BARIUM. 131 ordinary window glass—viz., silica or sand, and soda, the difference between them being, that the soda is present in much larger proportion in the soluble glass. It is prepared by fusing together 45 parts of white sand with 23 parts of calcined soda, and 3 parts of pulverised wood charcoal, the last men¬ tioned burns away, and leaves a salt, which is easily soluble in water, forming a thick syrupy liquid. This solution is strongly alkaline, and when intro¬ duced into cloth in certain proportions, has the effect of damaging or tendering it, by reason of the carbonic acid of the air combining with the soda, forming carbonate of soda and liberating the silica. These substances, occupying more space than the salt originally did, rupture the fibres or filaments of cotton by expanding, and so damage the fabric. Chloride of Barium .—This substance is generally prepared by dissolving the mineral witherite, which is composed principally of carbonate of baryta, in hydrochloric acid. The solution of chloride of barium so formed is sometimes employed directly, or the salt might be crystallized from it and the crystals, which are flat and colourless, redissolved in hot water and mixed with the size. As a sizing ingredient it can only be employed as a means of adding weight. It is neither deliquescent nor efflorescent, and possesses little or no antiseptic properties : it is, however, highly poisonous, and therefore advisable •that it should not be employed in sizing. 132 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Chapter V. MATERIALS USED TO SOFTEN THE SIZE AND YARN.—OILY AND GREASY MATTERS. O NE or more of this class of substances is gener¬ ally introduced with the size into the fabric in larger or smaller quantities, according to the relative amounts of the other ingredients of the “ mixing” for the purpose of giving to the fabric the desired softness and pliability. Samples intended for sizing should, as far as possible, be of a good colour, and free from objectionable smell, and should not be liable to undergo alteration in colour or quality by exposure to air. Tallow .—This substance is the most generally and extensively used of this class, as a softening agent. It is the concrete fat of certain animals, such as the ox, sheep, goat, and deer. That of the first men¬ tioned consists of about 76 parts of stearine, which is a hard solid fat, and 24 of olein, which is an oil. MANUFACTURE OF TALLOW. 133 Tallow does not exist in the animal in the same state in which it finds its way into the market. It is contained in individual globules, separated by mem¬ branous tissue, and to prepare it for use, that cellular matter must be broken up by mechanical means, and the tallow melted from it, so as to form a homogenous mass. This operation is termed rendering. Perhaps the simplest method of effecting this, consists in cutting the suet into small pieces, and placing it in a pan over a naked fire. The heat ruptures the enveloping tissue, and a milky liquid pours out of the broken cells, consisting of a mixture of the melted fat and water ; on continuing the heat, the fat gradually separates and becomes clear, as the water falls to the bottom of the vessel or is evaporated. The tissue, now termed “ cracklings,” which sinks to the bottom, is removed and pressed free from fat, and thrown aside. The fat is then remelted with water, the mixture well stirred, and the water and impurities allowed to settle, when the layer of fat, which floats on the top, is removed and allowed to cool, and this con¬ stitutes the tallow of commerce. The rendering is still better carried out by another method, in which a mill-stone, working on its edge, breaks and thoroughly crushes the cellular tissue of the suet, and allows the tallow to separate very easily and at a lower temperature, on the subsequent ojneration of heating. Weak sulphuric acid is sometimes employed to act on the cellular tissue of the tallow to facilitate the 134 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. breaking up process, whilst the melting operation is sometimes conducted by means of superheated steam. Russia supplies a large amount of ox tallow, and from this source our supplies were formerly principally draw, but large quantities of mutton tallow, imported from Australia and the United States of America, are now used. The fats from different animals differ considerably in many respects as regards colour, melting point, smell, &c., the last being generally characteristic of the animal from which it is derived. Tallow has always a smell, but in good samples it should not be strong. One of the reasons why Russian tallow is so well suited for sizing purposes is because of its degree of hardness; it is harder than most other varieties, and this is chiefly due to the fact that in Russia the animals are fed for eight months of the year on dry fodder. Hard tallow combines more easily and com¬ pletely with China clay and the other ingredients of size when boiled with them, and is not so liable to rise to the top as softer tallow, when the mixture is allowed to stand. In determining the value of tallow for sizing pur¬ poses the following tests should be made :— Melting Point .—To find the melting point of tallow or other solid fat or wax, the following mode of procedure should be adopted: Take a piece of soft glass tube, about 4 inches long and \ inch diameter, between the hands; heat the middle portion in TALLOW—MELTING POINT. 135 the flame of a Bunsen’s lamp, turning the tube round and round continually, to distribute the heat evenly until it is red-hot and quite soft, then remove it from the flame, and, holding the two ends firmly, separate the hands slowly, so as to draw out the heated portion till the internal diameter is no greater than will admit an ordinary pin. With a triangular file make a mark at each end of the thin tube which has been drawn out, break off the pieces of thicker tube, and divide the thin tube into pieces, each about 2 inches long. It is necessary to see that these tubes are all about the same diameter. Warm the end of one of these tubes by passing it through a Bunsen’s flame, and dip it into a little of the melted tallow under examination. The fat will run up the tube by capillary attraction, and form a slender column about £ inch long. The small tube should now be held perpendicularly, with the small column of fat at the bottom, till it solidifies. A portion of the end con¬ taining the fat should be cut off by the method above described, leaving a column in the tube of ^ to £ inch of fat. The tube should now be set aside and allowed to remain for 12 hours. One or more of these little tubes containing the fat to be tested is now attached to the side of a thermometer, by means of a small elastic band or piece of thread, with the extremity of each small column of fat touching the bulb. The thermometer should be fixed in a clamp on a retort stand, as 13 G THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. shown in the engraving (Fig. 40), and the end with the capillary tubes, immersed in cold water contained in a beaker, to a depth of about an inch. The beaker stands on the wire gauze of a chimney burner, and is heated by an ordinary gas jet underneath, the flame being regulated so that the temperature does not rise more than five or six degrees per minute. During the operation, the eye should be fixed on the slender column of fat, which, being solid, prevents the water from rising into the capillary tube ; but the moment the temperature rises sufficiently high to melt it, the water will suddenly rise in the tube, pushing the fat before it. As soon as this occurs, the temperature is read off on the stem of the thermometer, and the figure so obtained is the melting point of the fat examined. The average melting point of good tallow is, by this method, about 110° Fah. Characters of Tallow .—Some kinds of tallow when exposed to the atmosphere are acted upon by the oxygen of the air and darkened in colour; such a sample would obviously be objectionable for sizing TALLOW—COLOUR, RANCIDITY. 137 purposes, and it is expedient therefore to be able to tell within a reasonable length of time, whether any sample would be liable to such change. By repeated experiment the author has found that this change is brought about in a marked degree by partially converting the tallow into soap, and expos¬ ing the mixture so produced to the action of the air. For this purpose about 500 grains of the sample are placed in a porcelain basin, and 2|oz. of water, containing in solution 12 J grains of solid commercial caustic soda added to it, and the mix¬ ture stirred and boiled for a few minutes till it forms a thoroughly homogeneous mass. It is then removed from the lamp, stirred whilst cooling, and the colour then noted and left for a few days exposed to the air. If, after that time, the soap mixture be found to be discoloured, either on the surface or throughout, or if the tallow should originally form a soap of a bad colour, such samples should be rejected in favour of one yielding a soap which remains permanently white. Rancidity. — For this test, a portion of the sample should be placed in a small porcelain basin, about three times its bulk of water added, and the vessel heated till the tallow melts ; the tallow and water should be well mixed by stirring, and the whole allowed to cool. The cake of fat should then be removed from the surface, and a piece of blue litmus test-paper dipped into the water. The presence of free acid will be at once indicated by a reddening of the paper. 138 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. As previously mentioned, sulphuric acid is- occasion¬ ally used to assist in the operation of rendering, and it, or hydrochloric acid, is sometimes employed for the purpose of bleaching. If, after such opera¬ tions, the tallow be not sufficiently washed, traces of one or other of these acids would remain, and the reddening of the test paper may be due to- them. To decide whether this is so> the water is filtered if necessary, and the clear solution divided into two portions. To one, a drop of hydrochloric acid and two or three drops of a solution of barium chloride, are added—a white precipitate indicates the presence of sulphuric acid. To the other portion a drop of pure nitric acid and a few drops of silver nitrate arc added. A white precipitate indicates hydrochloric acid. If no precipitates are obtained it shows that the tallow or fat is free from either hydrochloric or sulphuric acids-, and the reddening of the test paper may be taken as duie to rancidity, the depth of colour of which will give a fair idea as to its amount. The smell of the sample may also be regarded as a good criterion of rancidity. Water .—By heating a small portion of the fat in a platinum capsule over a lamp it will crackle when the temperature rises sufficiently high, if water be present. If it appear from this- test te be present in any quantity, it may be estimated by weighing a porcelain capsule and light glass rod, adding about 200 grains of the sample, and again weighing. The difference between the two weights indicates the rALM OIL. 139 actual amount of the sample taken. The capsule is now heated gradually, and the tallow stirred to avoid loss by spirting, until all crackling ceases; and the whole is then removed from the lamp, allowed to cool, and weighed. The difference between the weight before and after heating gives the amount of water present in the quantity of the sample taken, from which the percentage may be calculated. Ash or Mineral Matter ..—A portion of the sample is weighed off as above mentioned, in a platinum dish, which should then be supported over the flame of a Bunsen’s burner, and heated till the tallow, and carbon which at first forms, are completely burned away. The dish, with its contents, is then allowed to cool and weighed, and the percentage of ash calculated. Good samples of tallow will not leave more than O'l per cent of ash. For the production of a certain degree of con¬ sistency in cloth, and as a constituent of certain varieties of size mixings^ some fat which is not so hard as tallow, or some oil is often found of advan¬ tage, to be used either alone, or in conjunction with tallow, or other softening materials of the same class. The following are the names and properties of these different substances :■— Bleached Palm Oil .—Palm oil is the produce of “ Avoira elais,” and is used, to a considerable extent, as a softening ingredient of size. The fat is obtained by throwing the broken fruit or nuts of the palm on to boiling water in a huge vat. 140 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. The oil separates from the fibrous matter and floats on the surface of the water, and is then drawn off and allowed to cool. In this state it is exported, and is of a dark orange colour ; but before being employed in sizing it is necessary to remove the colour by bleaching, which is accomplished by exposing the fat in a molten condition, in thin layers, to the action of the air and light; or the colour may be more rapidly destroyed by treating the oil with some oxidising agent, such as bichro¬ mate or permanganate of potash and sulphuric acid. The specific gravity of the bleached fat is 0'96S, and its melting point varies from about 85° to 95° Fah. Cocoa-Nut Oil .—This fat is extracted from the kernels of the Cocos palm — “ Cocos nucifera,” sometimes by the mode employed for palm oil, and sometimes by expression. It is a solid fat or butter, melting about 75° Fah. The seeds contain, in their original state, about 46 per cent of oil. This oil may perhaps be regarded as the most objectionable of this class of softening materials. It contains a large proportion of mucilaginous matters, which are liable to undergo decomposition and produce rancidity; and it is alleged that it has undergone decomposition after being introduced into grey cloth, and that this had the effect of colouring the fabric yellow, and so rendering it unmerchantable. Chemically considered, this fat is a specially complex one, being composed of a larger group of SHEA BUTTER. 141 different fatty substances than any of the others mentioned herein. Shea-Butter is a tenacious solid vegetable fat, obtained from the seeds of Bassia and Butyrospermum parkii, growing on the west coast of Africa, where it forms an important article of commerce, being highly prized by the natives as an article of food, and used by them instead of cows’ butter. Unlike cocoa-nut oil, it seldom becomes rancid, even on being kept under conditions most favourable for decomposition, for long periods. It was discovered by Mungo Park (“ Travels,” p. 202), who describes the tree from which it is obtained as resembling the American oak and bearing fruit having the appearance of olives. These, when ripe, consist of three parts : 1st, an exterior fleshy portion, which is eaten by the natives. It is very sweet and is said to resemble a ripe pear; 2nd, the endocarp or shell; and 3rd, the kernel, which contains the butter. The fleshy portion is first removed, the endocarps dried in the sun, and the nuts then bruised and boiled with water, upon the surface of which the fat floats. It has a dirty yellowish-white appearance before being purified, but may be obtained almost pure white by repeated filtration. In this state it consists of about 7 0 per cent of a variety of stearine, about 29 per cent of oleine, and about ^ per cent of a hydrocarbon, to which the name of “gutta-shea” has been applied. Its non-liability to become rancid is ascribed to the presence of this hydrocarbon. 142 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. which probably possesses antiseptic properties. Possessed of these qualities, Shea butter appears to be admirably adapted for sizing purposes, though we have not as yet heard of its application in that direction. The “ returns ” show that about 8,000 cwt. are annually brought into this country, and used princi¬ pally in the manufacture of soap and candles. This figure will, however, probably be much below the mark, as it is often imported and sold under the name of palm oil. There are other similar butter trees belonging to allied species which are found growing in Northern India, Sierra Leone, &e. ; but the fats from these are not well known, and do not appear to have found their way into this country. Castor Oil is the expressed oil of the “Palma christi,” or “ Picinus communis,” a native of the East and West Indies and South America, whence it has been introduced and cultivated in France, Spain, and Italy. It is a thick viscid oil, having a specific gravity of 0'9611, and is used to a considerable extent for sizing purpose. In 1875 48,044 cwt. wmre imported into this country, most of which would be utilized for the production of high class soaps. Olive and other oils are occasionally used, but they are not of sufficient importance to require further notice here. With a view to test different oils for adulteration, JAPAN WAX. 143 the taking of their specific gravities by the hydro¬ meter is one of the simplest methods. Another characteristic test which may be easily made, is to determine the increase of temperature which is pro¬ duced by mixing the sample with strong sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol). For this purpose a certain bulk of the oil to be examined is placed in a test glass, the bulb of a thermometer put into it, and the tem- jierature noted. The oil is then mixed by means of a stirring rod with one-fourth its bulk of strong sulphuric acid, and the rise of the temperature on the thermometer noted. The same class of oils gives about the same rise of temperature, but if adulterated the temperature would be greater or less than that given by the pure sample. The sense of taste is valuable as a convenient test for adulteration in either oils or fats. Japan Wax is a substance met with in commerce, and sometimes sold under the name of “Beeswax Com position. 77 It is a vegetable wax derived from the fruit of “ Bdius suecedanea,” a tree indigenous to Japan. It is a hard solid substance, resembling beeswax, and melts about 124° Fall. It is of good “body,” and when mixed with a certain amount of oil forms a valuable softening agent, but its high price is an obstacle to its general adoption, and it is said to be removed with difficulty from cloth intended for dyeing and printing. According to M. Ch. Benner it is imperfectly saponified, and as it cannot, therefore, be removed in the ordinary 144 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. bleaching process, the cloth comes up blotched after dyeing or printing.* Paraffin Wax .—This substance is often employed in sizing. It is obtained in the manufacture of paraffin and petroleum oils, by cooling the last portions of the distillate or heavy oil, when a scaly substance separates, which is paraffin ; the cooled oil is filtered through calico bags and the paraffin then submitted to hydraulic pressure to separate from it as much oil as possible. It is a brownish soft scaly substance, and is generally sold in this crude state for sizing; it is, however, sometimes partially purified and rendered white and more homogeneous, but still remains soft, whilst on further purification it becomes whiter and harder. In either case the melting point of the sample should be taken as mentioned on page 134 :— The melting point of the crude wax varies from 75° to 100° Fah. „ „ refined „ is about 125° Fah. It should, however, only be employed in the sizing of goods not intended to be afterwards bleached, dyed, or printed, because it differs from all the other fats and oils before mentioned, inasmuch as it cannot be dissolved by lime or soda ash in the process of bleaching, and can only be with great difficulty, if at all, separated from the fibre, and may leave stains on the bleached goods or prevent the even spreading of the colours on the fabric in the after operations of dyeing or printing. * Bulletin of the Industrial Society of Rouen. DELIQUESCENT SUBSTANCES. 145 Chapter VI. DELIQUESCENT SUBSTANCES USED FOR GIVING WEIGHT AND STRENGTH TO THE YARN. HIS class of sizing ingredients has come —L into general use during the last few years, especially for yarns or warps which are to be heavily weighted. It is evident that when a large pro¬ portion of China clay and starch or flour are put on to yarn, it is essential that some substance of a liquid nature should he mixed with the size to counteract the harshness which otherwise would be produced, and as a substitute for tallow and oils, the bodies classed under the above heading have been employed. The utility of these substances does not, however, rest alone upon their producing softness in the yarn, but also upon their strength-giving properties, so enabling the cloth to be woven more rapidly, K 146 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. without requiring to stop the looms to join broken threads ; thus by their use cloth can be produced of better quality and at less cost than without them. The softness and strength is not directly due to the salts themselves, but to the water which the deliquescent salts hold or absorb, from the air, if originally completely dried. The substances of this class in general use are the chlorides of magnesium and calcium, but the first mentioned is generally preferred. Chloride of Magnesium .—This substance is a com¬ pound of the metal magnesium with the gaseous element chlorine. It crystallizes in beautiful needles, having the following composition :— Per Cent. Magnesium . 11 '82 Chlorine . 34-98 Water of crystallization. 53-20 100-00 The substance employed in sizing is not the chemi¬ cally pure chloride. It is produced in large quantities at the salt mines of Stassfurt, in Prussia, and is a waste product from the manufacture of chloride of potassium, which is largely used in agriculture and in the manufacture of nitrate of potash, a constituent of gunpowder. At Stassfurt a large number of saline deposits of different kinds are found, and the one from which chloride of magnesium is prepared is called ' DELIQUESCENT SUBSTANCES. 147 “ carnallite.” The pure mineral has the following composition :— Per Cent. Chloride of magnesium ... 34*50 Chloride of potassium... 26*76 Water . 3S'74 100*00 In the manufacture of the various products from pure carnallite, the mineral is reduced to powder and treated with a quantity of hot water, not sufficient to dissolve ail the salt, and as the chloride of magnesium is more soluble than the chloride of potassium, the former goes into solution, leaving part of the latter undissolved at the bottom of the vessel. The hot liquor is then allowed to cool, during which nearly all the chloride of potassium crystallizes out, together with a small proportion of chloride of mag¬ nesium, leaving the remainder of the latter salt in solution; the mother-liquor, charged with the chloride of magnesium, is then run off, and the chloride of potassium crystals allowed to drain. The mother-liquor is then evaporated to a certain specific gravity and poured into casks, where it crystallizes into solid masses. In this state it is shipped to England for sizing purposes, sent to France for the manufacture of magnesia cement {by Sorel’s process), and used in Germany for the manu¬ facture of artificial marble. Carnallite is not often found pure ; it is generally mixed with chloride of calcium, sulphates of soda, 148 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. and lime, and other impurities, among which may be mentioned bromine salts, which are of great value, and are present to the extent of about ^ per cent; these, however, are separated and recovered. In the treatment of the impure carnallite the same process is adopted as that described for the pure mineral. The crystals left undissolved are, however, in this case, not chloride of potassium, but a mixture of a small proportion of this salt with chloride of sodium and sulphates of soda and lime. The hot liquor, containing in solution the remainder of the chloride of potassium and all the chloride of magne¬ sium, is allowed to cool, when nearly all the former, together with a small portion of the latter salt, crystallizes out. The cold liquor is then concentrated by evaporation to a certain specific gravity, as above described, filled into casks, and allowed to cool. The following analysis may be taken as an average sample of this crystalline product:— Per Cent. Chloride of magnesium . 46’600 Chlorides of potassium and sodium . T942 Sulphates of potash and soda. -814 Matter insoluble in water . *028 Water . 50'616 100 000 Chloride of magnesium is a salt, possessing highly deliquescent properties, and on this depends its value as a sizing material. If a small piece, or a few small crystals of this sub¬ stance be left exposed to the air, it will spontaneously CHLORIDE OF MAGNESIUM. 149 absorb moisture and go into solution, so that after a few hours the small piece of solid will have become a drop of liquid; and so great is the affinity of this salt for water that if it be left for some weeks or months in casks which are not very sound, it will absorb moisture from the atmosphere through the staves, and leak or run away as a liquid and be lost. It sometimes happens that this salt contains oxide of iron as an impurity, this is objectionable, on account of its yellow colour, which it would com¬ municate to the cloth if used as size. The mode of analysis of chloride of magnesium is too complicated to be given here, but the following tests may be applied with the view of getting a general idea of its purity. It should contain only small proportions of sulphates and chlorides of potas¬ sium and sodium :—• Sulphates .—Dissolve a small portion of the salt in water, filter if necessary, and to part of the filtrate add a few drops of pure hydrochloric acid and barium chloride solution. A white precipitate indicates the presence of sulphates, and the intensity of the whiteness or amount of precipitate is an indication of the proportion present. Chloride of Sodium may be detected by the same method as that mentioned under the examination of chloride of zinc for that substance—the platinum wire being dipped into the solution, and placed in the blue flame of a Bunsen’s burner. Chloride of magnesium is sometimes offered in the 150 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOOD& market in the form of solution, and in this state it is more liable to> be mixed vith other impurities or adulterations than when sold in the solid state. In the liquid form it is sometimes adulterated with chloride of calcium and other salts, and as the chloride of calcium would prove most objectionable if added to a sizing’ mixture containing sulphates of soda or magnesia, if would be well to test such solutions previous to use. This is done by adding to some of the solution contained in a test glass, a small quantity of ammonium oxalate; a white precipitate indicates the presence of chloride of calcium. The following gives the analyses of two samples of liquid which were sold for sizing purposes :— Per Cent. Per Cent. 1. 2. Chloride of magnesium . 29-05 ... ... 10-21 Oxychloride of magnesium... •14 ... Chlorides of sodium and potassium .... 1-07 ... •41 Sulphate of lime.. •36 ... — Oxide of iron ... trace. ... absent. Water ........ 69-38 ... ... 89-38 100-00 100-00 Specific gravity. 1*265 ... ... 1095 Equal to degrees Twaddell. 53 a ... 19° It is hardly necessary to mention that it is neither a profitable nor a wise method to purchase chloride of magnesium in the liquid form, and it behoves manufacturers or sizers to be on their guard against liquid “ softenings,” as they are termed, which are often sold under fancy names and at prices far in CHLORIDE OF MAGNESIUM. 151 advance of their value. These “ softenings,” as a a rale, are solutions of chloride of magnesium or chloride of calcium alone, or thickened with a little flour, potato starch, or Irish moss, and in some cases scented with a small quantity of citronelle or other cheap scent. Some of these mixtures look syrupy and prepossessing, as softening substances, and when such names as “glycerine softening” or “honey dew ” are given to them the vendor has played his part. These softening mixtures may answer the purposes of buyers and so they may continue to pay exorbitant prices for them ; but it is better that the intelligent sizer should know exactly what chemical ingredients he employs, so that he may know whether they would act objectionably on other ingredients of the size. When chloride of magnesium is evaporated to dry¬ ness it liberates hydrochloric acid, consequently it should not be put into fabrics which have afterwards to be subjected to great heat, such as in the process of hot-calendering, because the salt would be de¬ composed, and the acid thus liberated, would damage or destroy the cloth. This has occurred on several occasions even when the salts used to fill such fabrics have contained chloride of magnesium as an im¬ purity only. Chloride of magnesium is also known under the singular name of “ antiseptic,” and it seems unfor¬ tunate that such a name should ever have been given 152 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. to it, because manufacturers have on many occasions bought and used this substance under the impression that it would prevent their goods from damage by mildew, and have only found, when too late, that the contrary was the result. The word “ septic ” would certainly be more appropriate. This salt has a sufficient number of valuable properties, which make it quite unnecessary for anyone to assume for it a quality which it does not possess. In the use of chloride of magnesium certain pre¬ cautions are necessary. It must not be used in conjunction with soap, because they will mutually decompose each other, producing magnesium soap, which is insoluble, and common salt, both of which compounds are harsh, and thus a contrary result to that desired would be obtained. Tallow or oils may, however, be used with it, but the proportion of fatty matters should be much reduced, or entirely dispensed with, when magnesium chloride is em¬ ployed. This salt abstracts moisture from the atmosphere and keeps the goods soft and moist, so that little or no other softening agent is necessary. Care must, however, be exercised that too much is not used, because in that case the goods may be made to feel wet. The advantage of the use of this salt lies principally in the weaving ; it strengthens the warp threads to a greater extent than any other substance, and thus produces good weaving and a good average produc¬ tion of cloth per loom ; but many, no doubt, look CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM. 153 upon it as a cheap ingredient for producing weight. Under any circumstance, it should never be used alone, because it is liable to produce mildew by absorbing moisture into the fabric, and thus forming, with the organic constituents of the size, a good pabulum for the development of fungoid growths. A few years ago, when this substance came into exten¬ sive use, a large amount of money was lost by mildew damage through using it alone ; now its properties are better known, and it is generally employed in conjunction with chloride of zinc, which is a powerful antiseptic. By this means it may be safely used in heavy sizing, and the great annoyance to manu¬ facturers which cold weather produces on weaving to a large extent obviated. Chloride of Calcium .—This substance is some¬ times used in sizing, but not so generally as chloride of magnesium, which it closely resembles in most of its properties. It is highly deliquescent, but less so than chloride of magnesium, and is consequently said not to exercise so much softening action on the yarn. It is obtained as a waste product from many chemical works, but specially so from alkali works where bleaching powder is produced by Weldon’s process. It may be evaporated down to a certain specific gravity and poured into casks, in which it becomes solid, and in which state it is generally sold ; it is also produced by neutralising hydrochloric acid with lime or chalk, or by precipitating some 154 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. base from its chloride, as in Weldon’s process, where lime is added to chloride of manganese, oxide of managanese being precipitated, and chloride of cal¬ cium left in solution. Chloride of calcium for sizing purposes should be free from free acid. This point may be tested by dissolving a little of the salt in water and dipping a piece of blue litmus paper into the liquid. It should also be nearly colourless and free from oxide of iron. Chloride of calcium differs in certain respects from chloride of magnesium. It should not be employed in sizing in conjunction with any sulphate, such as sulphates of soda or magnesia, because a double decomposition would result, producing sulphate of lime on the one hand, and chloride of sodium or magnesium on the other; the first-named product is almost insoluble in water, and is generally formed in minute hard crystals, which have a deleterious action on the healds and reeds in the process of weaving, whilst the chloride of magnesium may produce most injurious results as mentioned under the heading of Epsom salts, p. 125. Chloride of Sodium .—This substance, (common salt), which is used for culinary purposes, is found in immense deposits in Cheshire, in England, and in some parts of Poland and Spain. It is one of the principal solid constituents of sea water, from which, in some parts of the world, it is extracted. Common salt has been from time to time employed in sizing, but of all the salts tried for that purpose GLYCERINE. 155 this one seems to have given the most unsatisfactory results ; it barely comes into the class of deliquescent salts ; it, however, does attract moisture when the air is saturated. It crystallizes in anhydrous cubes, and can hardly be said, even under the most favour¬ able circumstances, to produce a softening effect on the yarn. Glycerine .—This body differs from the substances already mentioned in this group in being an organic substance; it is, at all ordinary temperatures a syrupy liquid, having a sweet taste, and is deliques¬ cent, absorbing water from the atmosphere and becoming less syrupy. The glycerine usually employed in sizing is the crude variety, which is of a dark colour, the purified or colourless product being too expensive for the purpose. It is prepared from vegetable or animal oils or fats. These substances are combinations of certain fatty acids with glycerine. In the manu¬ facture of soap, oils or fats are boiled with a solution of caustic soda, the soda combines with the fatty acids, oleic, stearic, margaric, etc., to form the oleate stearate or margarate of soda, or soap, liberating the glycerine which is found in solution in the spent lyes after the soap has been separated by the addition of common salt. The principal source of glycerine is in the prepara¬ tion of stearic and other solid fatty acids for the manufacture of stearine and other kinds of candles. There are many methods by which this substance 156 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. is separated from the fatty acids with which it is combined in the neutral oils or fats, but the method in general use is the one based on the principle patented many years ago by Tilghman. The fat or oil is thoroughly mixed with hot water, and passed through iron pipes under great pressure, at a temperature of about 630° Fah.; by a few minutes exposure under those circumstances the fat or oil is decomposed, and the emulsion of hot w r ater and fatty acids allowed to flow from the apparatus, the water containing in solution all the glycerine, whilst the fatty acids float on the surface. The water solution, which is of a dark colour, is evaporated down to a certain specific gravity and allowed to cool, when it becomes of a syrupy con¬ sistency, and constitutes the crude glycerine of commerce. The specific gravity of the crude product is about D206. Equal to 26°Beaume or 41-2°Tw. If the temperature at which the oils or fats are decomposed be allowed to rise too high, the glycerine itself may be decomposed, and a product called acrolein formed, which possesses most pungent and disagreeable qualities, producing irritating effects on the eyes and the respiratory passages. This substance may be better known as the vapour which is given off from a tallow candle when the flame is blown out and the wick allowed to smoulder. When glycerine contains this substance it produces very GRAPE SUGAR. 157 objectionable effects on the workpeople who use it, especially when it is introduced into hot liquors. Glycerine is sometimes adulterated w ith other bodies, such as chloride of magnesium, grape sugar, etc. The former or any other mineral impurity or adulteration may bs easily detected by placing a small proportion of the sample in a platinum cap¬ sule, and heating it over a Bunsen’s burner. If free from mineral admixture the glycerine will burn away, leaving no ash ; but if not, an ash will remain. Glycerine possesses a certain degree of antiseptic power, and is of much value as a softening agent, but if too much be added to the fabric, it will give to it a sticky feel. Grape Sugar .—This body is sometimes, but not often, used as a sizing material. It is the peculiar kind of sugar found in the grape, and differs from ordinary cane sugar in being of slightly different chemical composition, incapable of crystallization, and less sweet. It is prepared on the continent in large quantities from “farina” (potato starch), by boiling it with dilute sulphuric acid in large caldrons ; by this means the starch is converted in a short time into glucose or grape sugar. The excess of sulphuric acid is neutralised with chalk, with which it combines, forming sulphate of lime, which is thrown down as a white precipitate, the excess of chalk remaining insoluble. The sugar liquor, which is of a dark colour, is decolourised by filtering through animal 158 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. charcoal, and the clear solution concentrated in vacuo, and then run out of the pan and allowed to cool, when it becomes solid. It is sent into the market in hard, white or slightly coloured lumps. Being very soluble in water, like dextrine, a large proportion of it may be introduced into' warp. It is slightly deliquescent, and holds water with great tenacity, and has consequently a certain degree of softening power. It is, however, prone to decomposition, and may give rise to mildew growths unless it be used in conjunction with some strongly antiseptic substance. SOAPS. 159 Chapter VII. SOAPS. T HE action of soap in sizing is so indirect as a rule that, according to the modes of size manufacture at present in use, it is seldom, if ever, found as such in ordinary grey cloths. Both hard and soft soaps are employed to a large extent, and they are believed by many to act directly as softening agents, but this is not so, they have, however, a special value to the sizer. Soap is produced by boiling tallow or other animal or vegetable oil or fat in a solution of caustic soda or potash. , Fats or oils are combinations of fatty acids with glycerine, and by the above process they are decom¬ posed, the fatty acids combining with the alkalis, producing soap, whilst the glycerine is liberated. In the formation of hard soap, hard fats, such as tallow, and caustic soda are generally employed. 160 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. They are boiled together with water into a thin paste and common salt added, which has the effect of separating the soap from the solution and making it float on the top of the liquid, which is drawn off by a tap at the bottom of the boiler, and the soap pumped or ladled into iron or wooden frames, in which it cools, becomes hard, and is then cut into bars ready for the market. Soft Soap is generally produced by boiling together some oil or mixture of oil and fat with a solution of potash. This combination always remains soft. Linseed and fish oils are often employed for this purpose. An exceedingly soft soap is formed by combining oleic acid with potash. This soap is also very deli¬ quescent, so much so, that when exposed for some time to a humid atmosphere it absorbs about one and a half times its own weight of water, and becomes almost quite liquid. Soaps containing Silicate of Soda .—Such soaps are now in general use for washing and scouring, and for these purposes the presence of silicate of soda is possibly an advantage, but for sizing purposes it is not. Resin Soap is sometimes employed, and may be produced by boiling resin with carbonate of soda; unlike fats and oils, this substance has the pro¬ perty of decomposing that salt, combining with the soda, producing resin soap, and liberating carbonic acid. Resin, however, is often, if not generally,- MANUFACTURE OF SOAP. 1G1 employed in conjunction with tallow or other fatty matters, in the manufacture of hard soap. Soap has the power of dissolving fatty matters, and for this reason, if boiled together with tallow or other fat or oil to he employed as a softening agent, it dissolves, and forms a thorough emulsion with it, thus bringing it into a better state for mixing with the size. It has also an extraordinary influence when added to the mixture of China clay and water in making it boil thinner, and in preventing it from spirting ; but, unless under very exceptional circum¬ stances, it should not be used as a softening substance. That soap will soften the yam is certain, but it does so indirectly from the fatty matter which it contains, and which is therefore simply introduced in a much more expensive form than as tallow or other fat or oil. The proportion of soap necessary to accomplish the results required of it is only very small. When introduced in large quantities into size composed principally of unwashed fermented flour, the acid of the fermented liquor at once combines with the soda and liberates the free fatty acids, which, by the way, possess less softening power than the original fat or oil from which the soap was produced. The proportion of soap employed for bringing the clay into proper condition for mixing with the other constituents of the size, should be as small as possible when the chlorides of calcium, magnesium, or zinc are employed, because the chlorine contained in these compounds combines with the soda or potash of the L 162 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. soap, forming chloride of sodium or potassium, whilst the oxide of zinc combines with the fatty acids, forming insoluble compounds, and both of these products being more or less harsh, would have a tendency to produce effects the opposite of those intended. Again, by the double decomposition with chloride of zinc the antiseptic properties of that body would be more or less neutralised in relative proportion to the quantity of soap employed. Soaps contain very different percentages of fatty matters, alkalis, mineral salts, and water; and, as their values depend principally upon the first-named ingredient, it is well to know its percentage in any sample. For this purpose a certain quantity (about 250 or 300 grains) of the sample are cut from the inside of the piece of hard soap, or taken directly from the body of soft soap after mixing it thoroughly. This should be weighed in a tared porcelain capsule, about S^in. diameter, with a light glass rod, a small quantity of water added, and the whole heated over a chimney burner, and stirred. When the mass softens, crude hydrochloric acid should be added, and the capsule left with a small flame under it, stirring occa¬ sionally, and adding more acid if necessary, till the soap is completely decomposed and the fat appears floating on the water solution as a transparent oil. It is then allowed to cool; this may be hastened by floating the capsule on cold water. When cold, the cake of fat, if sufficiently solid, should be lifted up with the stirring rod, which has remained in the* ANALYSIS OF SOAP. 163 capsule, and the acid liquor poured out, pure water added, and the capsule with its contents again heated, and the liquid fat stirred and so washed with the water. It is again allowed to cool, and the cake of fat taken off and placed on a piece of blotting or filter paper, the water poured out carefully into a glass, taking care that no particles of fat are lost. The bottom of the capsule and cake of fat should then be dried carefully with blotting paper, and the cake placed again in the dry capsule and heated. It will at first melt, and as the heat increases will crackle; during this time the fat must be kept constantly stirred till the crackling ceases, which is an indication that all the water has been eliminated from it. The whole should then be allowed to cool, and weighed. The weight of the capsule and rod deducted from the total weight gives the weight of the fat contained in the amount of soap taken, which may then be calculated to percentage. If it be found after the first cooling that the fat is not sufficiently solid to be raised as an entire cake, from 50 to 100 grains of white beeswax should be weighed off, added to it, the capsule again heated, and the contents stirred till the fat and wax are completely mixed. It should then be allowed to cool, when in all probability the cake will be suffi¬ ciently solid to be removed in one piece, and the operation completed as above described. The weight of wax used should of course be added to the weight of the capsule and rod, and subtracted 164 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. from the total weight, the difference giving the proportion of oil or fat in the weight of soap taken. The following analyses of different soaps will give some idea of their composition :— Per Cent. ^--A-.- N Hard Soap. Hard Soap. Soft Soap. Fatty acids . 66-46 ... 54-26 ... — ... 42-74 Soda. S‘61 ... 6-63 ... potash ... 7’24 Chloride and sulphate of sodium. 1-65 ... 1 "99 ... * ... 2'87 Silicate of soda. — ... 2-48 ... — ... — Water . 23-28 ... 34 - 64 ... — ... 4715 100-00 100-00 100-00 Before leaving this subject, it might be well to refer to a number of compounds which are sold under various names, such as “ softening,” “ softening grease,” and the like, most of which are neither more nor less than ordinary hard soap, which has been boiled with water and allowed to cool. The mixture congeals, and has then a consistence about equal to that of butter. These “ softenings” are sometimes made by boiling tallow or bleached palm oil, or both, with caustic soda and water. Sometimes other oils and fats are employed for the same purpose, and occasionally potash is used instead of soda. For some purposes such mixtures may have their value, but often, if not as a rule, the prices demanded for them are considerably above their actual values. The softness, which makes it appear somewhat like grease, * Chlorides and sulphates of potassium and sodium. “SOFTENING MIXTURES.” 165 being given to it by water, which of course eva¬ porates from the cloth, and is lost. In some cases solid paraffin is intermixed in these compositions, but under any circumstance it would be well for sizers to understand exactly the nature of the substance they are purchasing. The following analyses give some idea of the compositions of these mixtures :—• Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Fatty acids. 17-738 20-493 14-180 38-35 Paraffin wax (soft white).. — — — 13-65 Soda .. 2-496 1-639 1-356 •44 Carbonate of soda . Sulphate and chloride of — — 7-442 — sodium . 3-849 •306 3-403 2-73 Silicate of soda. •457 28-094 •145 Water. 75-460 49-468 73-474 44-83 100-000 100-000 100-000 100-00 166 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Chapter VIII. SUBSTANCES EMPLOYED FOR PRESERVING SIZE FROM MILDEW AND DECOMPOSITION. S INCE the introduction of heavy sizing, softening materials have been employed which produce softness by reason of their holding water in the fabric, and as water produces, with the starchy matters of the size, a pabulum which is well suited for the development of fungoid growths or mildew, and other kinds of decomposition, one of the following power¬ fully antiseptic substances is generally, in such cases, used to prevent the discoloration or entire destruc¬ tion of the cloth arising from mildew. Chloride of Zinc .—This substance is the one in general use for the preservation of the size from mildew and decomposition. It is a compound of zinc and chlorine, and is prepared in a variety of ways, but the simplest is by adding hydrochloric acid, otherwise known as muriatic acid, to metallic zinc, a violent reaction takes place, the zinc is dissolved, and chloride of zinc produced. It is also prepared from a mineral named “Cala- CHLORIDE OF ZINC. I 67 mine,” which is composed of oxide of zinc in combination with silica and carbonic acid. This mineral is broken up into coarse powder, put into a vessel, and hydrochloric acid poured over it, effervescence is produced from the liberation of carbonic acid as a gas, and the zinc contained in the ore is dissolved with the formation of chloride of zinc, which is left in solution in the resulting liquid. The process in general use is the first mentioned ; but the chloride of zinc thus prepared is, as a rule, more or less impure, especially from the presence of chloride of iron. Hard spelter is usually employed in its preparation, and this variety of metallic zinc owes its hardness to impurities, especially iron, which it contains, and which are also dissolved by the acid. The presence of iron salts is objectionable, and they ought to be eliminated before using the zinc solution for mixing with the size, because they abstract oxygen from the air, turn brown, and so discolour the cloth to an extent depending on the proportion of iron present. Immediately after chloride of zinc has been prepared from hard spelter it is colourless, but if it be left in a glass, exposed for some days to the atmosphere, the iron in solution absorbs oxygen from the air, the solution gradually becomes of a reddish colour from the formation of a fine precipitate in suspension, which ultimately settles to the bottom; and although by this means a large proportion of the iron present will separate, a considerable amount will remain 16S THE SIZTNG OF COTTON GOODS. dissolved even after absorbing oxygen, and the liquor itself will then assume a brownish red or yellow colour. To separate iron from the solution it is necessary hist to oxidise it by some chemical means, such as by passing chlorine through the solu¬ tion, or by adding to it some oxidising agent such as bleaching powder, and then precipitating the iron thus oxidised by some alkali or alkaline earth, such as soda or lime ; one of these substances being added gradually until all the iron is separated from solution. Chloride of zinc is a white crystalline solid, possessing a sharp metallic taste, and is exceedingly deliquescent. It is always supplied to the manu¬ facturer in the form of solution, and perhaps no other article used in sizing is subject to so much or so varied sophistication. It is most important to the manufacturer that it should be commercially pure; or if not pure, that he should know exactly what kinds and amounts of impurities it contains, because it is evident that if it be found that a certain quantity of pure chloride of zinc, when added to a certain quantity of size, will preserve it from mildew, and if, instead of buying a pure article, the sizer use one which is composed, say, of half its weight of some other ingredient possessing no antiseptic properties, it is probable that the goods to which the size has been added will mildew, and several cases of damage, resulting from this cause, have been met with. Each fresh supply of chloride of zinc should, therefore, be tested as to its strength and purity. IMPURITIES IN CHLORIDE OF ZINC. 169 Specific Gravity.—To make this determination, see page 40. The specific gravity, or number of degrees Twaddell, indicates somewhere about the amount of total solid matter in the solution, without giving any clue as to what those solids are. Thus two liquids may stand at 90° Tw., and the one may be a solution of pure chloride of zinc and the other a solution of a mixture of the chlorides of zinc and calcium The following salts are often found in liquids sold as chloride of zinc solutions, either as adulterations or as impurities :— (1) Chloride of sodium (common salt). (2) Chloride of calcium. (3) Chloride of magnesium. (4) Sulphate of soda. ( 5 ) Chloride of ammonium. (6) Chloride of iron. Common Salt .—For the detection of this ingredient, a fine platinum wire, soldered at one end into a piece of glass tube or rod, to act as a handle, is taken and the free end of the wire cleaned thoroughly by washing alternately in hydrochloric acid and water between the fingers, and then dipping it into pure hydrochloric acid and placing it in the top part of the flame of a Bunsen’s lamp, and heating it to whiteness, till it ceases to communicate a yellow colour when placed at the outside of the lower part of the flame. It is then dipped into the sample of chloride of zinc solution to be tested, and again placed in the lower 170 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. part of the flame. This test may be repeated several times, and the intensity of the yellow colour which it communicates noted. It is advisable to make this test in comparison with a standard sample of chloride of zinc— i.e ., a sample known to be practically free from common salt, because the purest com¬ mercial sample will show a little yellow colour ; but if it be adulterated with common salt, the colour of the flame will be intense. The common salt soon evaporates by the intense heat of the flame, leaving the wire clean for another trial. A second test may bo applied by placing in a test tube a certain quantity of the sample, and mixing with it about its own bulk of strong hydrochloiic acid; a copious crystalline precipitate indicates adul¬ teration with common salt; but this test is only applicable where a considerable amount of salt is present. Test for Chloride of Calcium .—A small quantity of the sample is placed in a test glass, and diluted with about twice its bulk of distilled water ; strong ammonia is then added, drop by drop, till the white precipitate, which at first forms, is redissolved. A solution of oxalate of ammonia is then added, and mixed with the ammonia solution. If the mixture remain clear, it shows that chloride of calcium is absent; if it show a slight milkiness it indicates the presence of a small amount, and if it turn very white and throw down a copious precipitate, which settles to the bottom in a few minutes, it indicates EXAMINATION OF CHLORIDE OF ZINC. 171 the presence of a large proportion of adulteration or admixture with a calcium salt. Test for Chloride of Magnesium. —This salt may he tested for in the solution to which oxalate of ammonia has been added in testing for chloride of calcium. If no precipitate has been produced, sodium phosphate solution should he added at once; but if a precipitate has been formed, owing to the presence of calcium, it must be separated by filtration, and sodium phosphate added to the filtrate. A white precipitate, if formed immediately, indicates the presence of magnesia, but a precipitate will form slowly after a few minutes, when the phosphate is added to pure chloride of zinc, this must not be mistaken for magnesia. '_5 Test for Sulphates. —The presence of such salts as sulphates of magnesia or soda is detected by adding to a small quantity of the diluted chloride of zinc solution a few drops of strong hydrochloric acid and a few drops of a solution of barium chloride. A white precipitate indicates the presence of sulphates. Test for Chloride of Ammonium.— This salt is sometimes present as an impurity in chloride of zinc. Its presence may be detected by placing 1 volume of the sample in a test tube, and adding to it about 3 or 4 volumes of water and about 1 volume of a strong solution of caustic soda, boiling for a few seconds, and then placing the mouth of the test tube under the nose. The smell of hartshorn indicates its pre¬ sence, but this salt is seldom found in any appreciable 172 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. quantity. The principal adulterations to be feared are common salt, and chlorides of magnesium and cal¬ cium. The last mentioned, however, is sometimes found in small proportion in good samples, from lime having been employed to precipitate iron oxide from solution. Tests for Chloride of Iron .—This impurity is a very objectionable one. Its presence can be shown in solutions of chloride of zinc by any of the following simple methods :— Nitric Acid Test. —To a portion of the sample in a test tube, add a few drops of nitric acid, boil, and cool by running a stream of water from a tap on the outside of the tube. If the fluid remain colourless it is free from iron; but if it be changed to a yellow or reddish brown colour chloride of iron is present. Gall Nut Test. —To a small portion of the sample add a few drops of a decoction of gall nuts. (See page 45.) A black or dark coloured precipitate indi¬ cates the presence of iron. A copious precipitate of nearly white colour will always be thrown down by this reagent in pure solutions of chloride of zinc. Logwood Test. —A few drops of tincture of logwood (see page 46), when added to a sample of chloride of zinc free from iron, colours the liquid pink, but if iron be present a dark blue colour is produced. Free Acid. —Chloride of zinc solution will always turn blue litmus paper red. This test should be made in the cold, and if the solution turn the paper deep red as soon as it is immersed, the sample should FREE ACID IN CHLORIDE OF ZINC. 173 be rejected as unfit for use, as tlie presence of such a proportion of free acid would have a tendency to weaken the fibre of the cloth. The following analyses show the compositions of some samples which may be considered commercially pure chloride of zinc solutions : — Chloride of zinc . Per Cent. 41-744 1-278 trace absent 1-560 Per Cent. 41-659 1-834 absent •912 Per Cent. 43-970 2-885 absent •724 •601 „ calcium . ,, magnesium . „ iron . ,, sodium... „ ammonium . Sulphate of soda . Water. 55-418 55-595 51-820 100-000 100-000 100-000 Specific gravity . 1-461 92°-2 1-457 91°-4 ' 1-490 98° Equal to degrees Twaddell.. The following gives the compositions of some samples which have been at different times sold as pure chloride of zinc solutions, and which had been adulterated:—• Per Cent. Per Cent. Per CenT. Chloride of zinc . 29-958 34-786 14-585 ,, calcium . •509 trace 11-496 „ magnesium . trace ,, iron . •098 2-923 T99 „ sodium. 18-892 8-947 14-370 ,, ammonium . Sulphate of soda . •314 Water. 50-229 53-344 59-350 100-000 100-000 100 000 Specific gravity . 1-458 1-452 1-360 Equal to degrees Twaddell.. 91°-6 90°-4 72° 174 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Carbolic and Cresylic Acids .—These acids are obtained from coal tar. To separate them, the tar is placed in a large boiler or still, to which heat is applied by means of a fire underneath, and the pro¬ ducts which evaporate are passed through a worm placed in cold water, and so condensed into liquid. About the first half of all the distillate which comes over, and which is composed of benzole, naphtha, carbolic and cresylic acids, and some heavier oils, is placed in a large tank, fitted with an agitating arrangement; caustic soda solution, which dissolves the carbolic and cresylic acids, is added and thoroughly mixed with the oils, and the whole allowed to settle, the caustic soda solution of the above-named acids separates and sinks to the bottom of the oily liquid, and is drawn off into a tank by a tap placed near the bottom of the agitating vessel, and neutralised by sulphuric or other acid. The carbolic and cresylic acids are liberated as an oily liquid, which floats on the top of the watery fluid, and which constitute the crude carbolic acid of commerce. The crude acid is put into an iron still, mixed with a little acetate of lead, heat applied by means of a fire, and the crude acids submitted to distillation. At first water passes over, then an oily liquid, which, when cooled to the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, crystallizes to a mass of beautiful, small, white, needle-shaped crystals. The last portion of the distillate, however, remains as a liquid oil at the SALICYLIC ACID. 175 ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, and refuses to crystallize even when the temperature is reduced to nearly the freezing point of water. This is called cresylic acid, and is known also as “No. 5 carbolic acid,” but is sufficiently pure for most purposes, while the crystalline product (carbolic acid) is sold after the first crystallization, or further purified for medical purposes. The liquid portion, or cresylic acid, possesses somewhat more powerful antiseptic proper¬ ties than the crystallized product. It is a much stronger antiseptic than chloride of zinc. For sizing purposes it can have but one defect and that is the smell, which many persons object to ; but this may be almost imperceptible, even when the acid is present in the size in sufficient quantity to preserve the goods from mildew or decomposition. Although it is, chemically speaking, an acid— i.c., capable of combining with bases, it has none of the properties which are usually attributed to those bodies ; for instance, it will not discharge colours nor injure cotton or other fibre. Salicylic Acid .—This is a bitter substance, which was originally prepared from the bark of the willow. It is now prepared from crystallized carbolic acid, by saturating it with caustic soda, then evaporating the solution of the resulting carbolate of soda to dryness, and heating the residue in a current of car¬ bonic acid gas, gradually raising the temperature from 212° to about 450° Fah. Part of the carbolic acid distils over unchanged, whilst the remainder is 176 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. transformed into salicylic acid, and is left as a residue in combination with the soda, as salicylate of soda, This residue is dissolved in water, and the salicylic acid precipitated by means of hydrochloric acid, and afterwards purified. Salicylic acid is a powerful antiseptic substance, and a small proportion added to flour or size will prevent the development or growth of mildew. When pure it is free from smell, and is in every way suited as an antiseptic for sizing purposes. Its present cost, however, prevents its getting into general use. Thymol .—This body has been lately introduced as an antiseptic and preservative substance. It is, like carbolic and cresylic acids, a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and is homologous with them. It is a camphor, of a pale yellow colour, obtained from thyme oil and the volatile oils of horse-mint and ajowan, by agitating them with a water solution of caustic soda, drawing off the soda solution of thymol, and neutralising the soda with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. The thymol then separates and floats on the top as an oily fluid. A simpler method of preparation is, to cool any of the volatile oils above-mentioned, to about the freezing point of water, when the thymol crystallizes out. The oil which remains fluid may then be allowed to drain from the thymol crystals. Thymol is very sparingly soluble in water, 100 gallons being required to dissolve lib. of the crystal; but it is said to possess much greater antiseptic CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. 177 action than either carbolic or cresylic acids. The author can vouch for its remarkable antiseptic properties ; 1 part of thymol, when boiled with 1100 parts of water and 110 parts of flour, produced a paste which remained free from fungoid growths, for 3 weeks, when two little specks of white fungus made their appearance; on exposure for about a month longer it dried up, no further development having taken place ; whilst flour paste, made in the same way, but which contained no thymol, showed a a few specks of mildew after 2 days, and was completely covered with the growth after 4 days. Thymol possesses a feeble aromatic smell. It is much more expensive than either carbolic or salicylic acid, but it is possible that, from its exceptionally powerful antiseptic properties and its innocuous character, it may yet be employed as an ingredient of size. Heavy Oils of Tar .—These oils, known also as the dead oils of tar, possess antiseptic properties; but the odour emitted by them is strong and very dis¬ agreeable, and unless this can be removed it is not likely that they will be employed as antiseptics for sizing purposes. Corrosive Sublimate or Perchloride of Mercury is prepared by heating together sulphate of mercury, common salt, and dioxide of manganese. The chloride of mercury sublimes from the mass and condenses as a white solid. It is not easily soluble in water, about 7Olb. being dissolved by 100 gallons in the cold. This and also other compounds of mercury M 178 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. possess powerfully antiseptic properties, more so than chloride of zinc; but their commercial value being much higher, they are not likely to be used in the preparation of size. They are also most poisonous substances, and it is to be hop/ed that, under any circumstance, they will not be employed. Arsenious and Arsenic Acids .—These substances and also other compounds of arsenic have powerful preservative effects on organic matters, but their action in the prevention of mildew is not equal to that of chloride of zinc; and it is to be hoped that these salts will never be employed by the sizer. In using antiseptic substances it is important that their full power should be brought to bear on those substances contained in the size which are most prone to decomposition and decay, and as these are, as a rule, the flour or other starchy matters, the anti¬ septic— i.e., the chloride of zinc, cresylic acid, or other compound recommended in this chapter, should be mixed and heated with them for some time before the clay, chloride of magnesium, or other ingredients are added. Some manufacturers are in the habit of mixing and boiling the chloride of zinc solution with the clay, and then adding this mixture to the starchy matters. This course of procedure, however, always renders inert as an antiseptic, a considerable pro¬ portion of the antiseptic employed, and perhaps, more especially so, chloride of zinc, because part of that substance is actually decomposed by the constituents of the clay, besides the loss in preservative power ANTISEPTICS. 179 which results from the antiseptic being more asso¬ ciated with the particles of mineral than with the organic matter of the size. The author has found by experiment that when two samples of size are prepared with the same materials in equal propor¬ tions, hut where the antiseptic is added directly to the organic constituents in the first experiment, and to the clay previous to mixing with the organic constituents in the second, the size prepared by the latter method mildewed sooner and to a greater extent than that produced according to the former. 180 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Chapter IX. EFFECTS OF THE CONDITIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE ON WEAVING. T is well known that the condition of the -L atmosphere has a great influence upon the weaving of cloth, and further, that the condition is not only dependent upon the weather, but also upon the locality and surroundings of the weaving-shed. The conditions of the air which affect weaving are (1) the temperature, and (2) the amount of moisture which the air contains; but to show how these produce their effects it will be necessary to refer to some of the physical laws of air or gases. If, for example, we take a room the size of an ordinary weaving shed, say 50 yards square and five yards high, the floor of which is covered with water, and reduce the temperature of the air in it to 32° Fah. (the freezing HUMIDITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 181 point of water), and leave the whole for some time, part of the water from the floor would evaporate, and the atmosphere would become saturated with moisture. If then we could extract all the moisture existing as gas or vapour in the 12,500 cubic yards of air contained in the shed, we should find that it would measure about 11^ gallons, and at that temperature it would be impossible to make the air take up more than that amount of water ; if, however, we raise the temperature of the air in the shed till the thermometer indicates, say 65° Fah., the air would commence to absorb more water from the floor as the temperature rises, and if left there for a sufficient length of time, it would go on absorbing until it became saturated, when it would cease to do so. If, then, we could extract all the water thus absorbed and put it into measuring vessels, we should find that it would measure about 33 gallons and 1 pint; consequently, on raising the temperature of the air in the room from 32° to 65° Fall., we render it capable of absorbing 21 gallons and 5 pints of water. All substances, and especially such bodies as cotton and cloth contain in themselves water, and if we can imagine cold air, saturated with moisture, entering and remaining in the weaving shed at a temperature of, say 32° Fah., it could not absorb more moisture, and could therefore not interfere with the weaving, but if it be warmed by the heating arrangements of the shed to, say 65° Fah., it would at once commence 182 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. to absorb water from everything in the room which contained it—from the bodies of the operatives, and from the cloth and warps in the looms. To under¬ stand the effects of this change of temperature on the weaving, we must consider what influence water has upon the strength of the threads of cotton. From some experiments made by the Author, it appears that cotton thread, when deprived, especially of its natural moisture ( i.e ., an amount of about 8 per cent., which is always found in cotton), its strength is very rapidly decreased in proportion. This point was tested by taking nine different leas of the same yarn. A lea is a small hank, produced by wrapping on a reel, having a circumference of 54 inches, eighty threads of yarn; a lea, therefore, is 120 yards in length. These were accurately weighed separately, and each placed in a stoppered glass tube; three of them were afterwards put in a steam bath, partially dried, and replaced in stoppered tubes. Three were placed over some water con¬ tained in a plate, which was slightly warmed and covered with a large glass bell-jar, to allow them to absorb as much water as possible, and then placed in stoppered tubes, whilst the remaining three were left in the original tubes, thus representing the yam in its original condition. All these leas were broken by means of a yarn strain-tester, each then weighed, dried thoroughly, and weighed again, and the following average results of each three leas obtained:— EFFECTS OF MOISTURE ON YARN. 183 Original weight of yarn. Grains. Condition of same. Percentage of moisture. Breaking strain. lb. (1) 33*21 ... unaltered 8-93 64 (2) 33-33 ... moistened 17*39 69-2 (3) 33*85 ... dried 2*89 39*9 From these results it will be seen that an increase of moisture to the extent of 8 ‘46 per cent over the natural amount contained in the yarn only increases the strength by 5’2lb. on each lea, whilst a decrease of G’04 per cent from the natural moisture reduces the strength by 24'lib. on each lea. These figures will show how important it is that the warp and weft threads should not become too dry daring the process of weaving. These results also show clearly why the condition of the atmosphere, depending upon the position of the shed, greatly influences the weaving, and as the air in a weaving-shed built upon the top of a hill is generally drier than in one situated in a valley near a stream, it is evident that the weaving in the former will be much worse than that in the latter, the threads being weakened by being drier would be constantly breaking, and as the loom must be stopped for each thread to be mended, the result would be that much less cloth could be woven in a given time in a shed where the air is dry than in one where the surroundings keep it moist. Again, if the weft threads break there is an arrange¬ ment provided (page 7) for stopping the loom, but if a warp thread break, the loom continues 184 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. to work, and the remedying of this fault lies entirely upon the care and quickness of the operative who has to attend to two or more looms; and if the weaving is continued after one of the warp threads breaks an unsightly flaw is produced in the cloth, which cannot be afterwards remedied. The cloth under those circumstances is therefore reduced in value. The general state of the weather, in¬ fluences the weaving: in all sheds. Manufacturers assert that east winds materially affect the weaving, making the warps “brittle.” The words “east Avinds,” however, might be more accurately rendered “ cold winds,” independent of the direction from which they come. It is necessary, for the sake of the delicate machinery of the looms, as well as for the health of the operatives, that the air in the weaving shed be kept as nearly as possible about the same temperature, which is about 65° Fahrenheit. If the cold air, at say 32° or 40° Fah., enter the shed, it is at once heated to 65° Fah., and as this rise of temperature raises its point of saturation for water vapour, it commences to absorb moisture from the yarn which is thus rendered brittle. The best weaving is produced when the temperature of the outside air is considerably higher than that of the shed. To avoid the objectionable results in weaving caused by dry air, chloride of magnesium and other deliquescent salts are employed, and it is evident from the foregoing that by the use of these substances, HUMIDIFIER AND AIR DISTRIBUTOR. 185 which hold moisture in the cloth and prevent to a large extent its evaporation, a better and cheaper fabric can be produced. Lacy’s Patent Humidifier and Air Distributor .— With a view of counteracting the vicissitudes of weather and keeping the atmosphere in buildings under uniform conditions, Mr. Henry Lacy has patented an apparatus for ventilating weaving sheds and other buildings. The apparatus is a most ingenious one, and by it the air of any room can be brought to and kept at any desired conditions of both temperature and humidity. A drawing of this apparatus is shown in Fig. 43. The trunk B is in communication with the outer air, whilst the tube C is taken to some room, such as the boiler-house or engine-room, where the air is warm, and from which it can be carried to the weaving- shed to be ventilated. The trunk and tube are each provided with dampers, so that when it is desired to draw warm air, the damper is closed in the trunk B and opened in the tube C, and vice versa when it is desired to take the ordinary outside air. The air is drawn by means of a fan, which works in the circular arrangement A, the power being transmitted to it by a strap acting on the small cylinder shown to the right, in the drawing. The box shown in section is arranged for treating the air so that it might be brought to any required temperature. This compartment, or box, is divided in its centre 186 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS Fig. 43, HUMIDIFIER AND AIR DISTRIBUTOR. 137 longitudinally by an iron plate perforated with holes, and above and below this division are arranged two sets of pipes, D and H, shown in the drawing, through which cold water may be allowed to flow, when it is simply desired to cool the air, and in which high-pressure steam may be introduced from the boiler if it be required simply to heat it. The air might be also very effectively cooled by placing a few blocks of ice in the box. The air from the fan enters at the lower part of the box, and has, therefore, to pass through the holes in the perforated plate before it escapes into the pipes, three of which are represented in the drawing, at the left side of the box. These are connected with several lines of pipes, which are carried along the shed, near the roof, at equal distances from each other ; and each line of pipes is provided with a series of cowls, or “ chimney-jacks,” set along the top, which revolve by means of the air which is forced through them ; thus, the currents of air which enter the room are so regulated as to prevent any down¬ ward draughts on to the heads of the operatives, and thus a copious supply of pure air can be obtained ; the washing which it receives by being forced through the water, separating from it most of the dust and spores which it contains. Arrangements are also made for drawing off the water, which is carried as spray and deposited in the ventilating pipes. When the air is to be saturated with moisture, 1S3 THE SrZING OF COTTON GOODS. water is allowed to flow by turning the tap, on the pipe shown in the figure to the right of the letter E, into the trough which runs along the right hand side of the compartment, in connection with the perforated plate, and from which the water flows over the plate to a similar trough on the opposite side, any excess being, if necessary, allowed to flow away by a waste pipe. By this means, a layer of water, about an inch or more in thickness, rests upon the perforated plate, and is kept in constant ebullition and prevented from falling through the holes by the air forcing its way through it. The air thus becomes saturated with moisture ; but when water is taken up in this way, and converted into vapour, it absorbs from the air, and renders latent, a corresponding amount of sensible heat, so cooling it in proportion to the amount of water which it takes up and carries away. Air, thus saturated with moisture, will be at a, lower temperature than the original air, and if it enter a room, the walls of which, and the air con¬ tained in it, are at a rather higher temperature, the temperature of the saturated air will be raised, and that of the air already in the room reduced; but inasmuch as the temperature of the originally satu¬ rated air is increased it is no longer saturated, but being capable of absorbing more moisture, owing to its increased temperature, it may be regarded as dry air, and Mr. Lacy has found that when air below G4° Fall, is passed through cold water in his apparatus, that it cools it without apparently DEGREE OF HUMIDITY OF AIR. 189 Tendering it moist. If it be desired then to have air at a certain temperature saturated with moisture, it must be allowed to pass into the apparatus at a considerably higher temperature than the one required; for this reason, Mr. Lacy employs the warm air from a boiler-house, or engine-room, to give the cool saturated air for the weaving shed, and for still better effecting this, he has the pipe, shown in Fig. 43, to the left of the letter E, arranged so that he can pass a jet of steam into the trough, so heating the layer of water on the perforated plate, and thus increasing the temperature and point of saturation of the air which is passed through it. To find by experiment whether the air in a shed or room will absorb moisture rapidly from articles with which it comes in contact— i.e., to determine its drying power, it is only necessary to determine its degree of saturation with moisture. This may be simply done by taking a polished silver cup, half filled with water, in which a thermometer is placed ; the water is then gradually cooled, by throwing into it some salt, such as anhydrous chloride of potassium, which will gradually absorb the heat from the water as it dissolves. The water is kept constantly stirred with the thermometer, and at the moment the brightness of the silver is dimmed by the formation of a dew or film of moisture upon the outside, the temperature on the thermometer is read off. If the temperature of the air be 70° Fall., and this film form at 60° Fah., it indicates that the air is dry, but if the temperature 190 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. of the original air were suddenly to fall to, or under 60° Fah., it would be regarded as damp. If the surface become dulled only at 40° Fah. it indicates that the air is exceedingly dry, and would rapidly interfere with the weaving in sheds. This example will show the necessity of attending to the hygrometric state of the atmosphere. A simple instrument for measuring the degree of humidity or drying power of the atmosphere is called the psychrometer or wet bulb hygrometer. It con¬ sists of two delicate thermometers placed near to each other, the bulb of one of which is kept wet, by being covered with a piece of muslin, the end of which dips into a small vessel filled with water ; the water rises by capillary attrac¬ tion, and keeps the muslin and bulb wet on the same principle that oil flows up the wick of a lamp to supply the flame. The glass in the centre is arranged on the principle of a bird-glass, being filled with water, which is always kept at the same level at the bottom. The working of this instrument depends upon the reduction of temperature which is produced by evapo¬ ration. If the air is very dry the water on the muslin which covers the bulb of one of the thermometers will evaporate very Fl S- 44 - rapidly, and the temperature will become proportionately reduced and be registered by that thermometer. It may be taken, then, that the HYGROMETER. 191 greater the difference between the temperatures regis¬ tered by the two thermometers, the drier the air, and if the air be perfectly saturated with moisture both thermometers would indicate the same temperature. According to Glaisher, the temperature at which air will begin to deposit moisture — i.e., at which it would be saturated, may be calculated from the psychrometer by multiplying the difference between the temperatures by a co7istant, depending upon the temperature of the air at the time, and subtracting the product so obtained from the temperature in¬ dicated on the dry bulb thermometer. The factors or constants are as follows :—• Temperature on dry bulb thermometer. Fab. Below 24° 24° to 25° 25° V 26° 26° 27° 27° 28° 28° 5 ) 29° 29° >> 30° CO o o 31° 31° ?? 32° 32° 33° 33° 34° Temperature on dry bulb Factor. thermometer. Factor. Fah. 8-5 . o CC to 35° .. .... 2-8 6-9 . . 35° 40° .... 2-5 6-5 . . 40° 45° .. 0.9 6-1 . . 45° 50° .. .... 2-1 5-6 . . 50° 55° ... .... 2-0 5-1 . . 55° 60° .. .... 1-9 4-6 . . 60° 65° .. .... 1-8 4-1 . . 65° 70° .. .... 1-8 3-7 . . 70° 75° .. .... 1-7 3-3 . . 75° o I C • CC .... 1.7 30 . 00 ■ O ' o 85° ... .... 1 6 In weaving-sheds generally, and particularly in sheds where Lacy’s apparatus is employed, the hygrometer should be used, and the hygrometric state and temperature of the atmosphere in the room registered from time to time, in comparison 192 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. with the state of the outside air. By this means manufacturers would be able to know precisely the capabilities of any ventilating apparatus they may he using; and under any circumstance the study of the varying conditions of the air in weaving-sheds would be a step in the right direction of working on scientific principles. It is important that reliable apparatus should be in the hands of Sizers and Manufacturers, not only to determine the breaking strain of yarns of different kinds, but also to find the breaking strain of the same yarn when sized in different ways and with different mixtures, and after being exposed under different atmospheric conditions. The apparatus employed by the Author in the experiments made by him on the influence of mois¬ ture on the strength of yarn, was one the front and side drawings of which are shown in Figs. 45 and 46. To work this apparatus the lea to be tested is placed on the hook shown under the dial, and then on the projecting piece of brass on the centre stem, which is attached to a long screw, so that by turning the wheel (shown in the engraving) by means of the handle attached to it, the ratchet wheel in connection with it revolves and simultaneously acts upon the other ratchet wheel placed at right angles to it, in the axis of which fits the long screw with the pro¬ jecting piece attached to it. When the lea is adjusted and the handle worked, the projecting piece is gradually drawn away and the strain put YARN STRAIN-TESTER. 193 on the hank, which, acting over the iron drum by the chain, both of which are shown in Fig. 4G, the x 194 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. bob or weight is raised, describing part of a circle as it rises; the “ catch” at the bottom of the weight (Fig. 45) allows the weight to rise, but if the strain be suddenly taken olf, as would result from the breaking of the lea, the “ catch ” is fixed by one of the teeth on the circular piece of iron, and the weight thus prevented from falling. The hand on the dial in front passes round simultaneously with the rising of the weight, thus indicating the number of pounds of strain to which the yarn is subjected, the number at which it rests when the hank breaks being taken as the “ breaking strain.” SIZING MIXTURES : THEIR PREPARATION. 195 Chapter X. SIZING MIXTURES : THEIR PREPARATION. I N treating of the different substances employed in sizing in the foregoing pages, a description of each, together with its properties as an ingredient of size, has been given; and in this chapter it would serve but little purpose to give much space either to the different mixings or modes of mixing which are employed by Sizers and Manufacturers. Many are arranged on truly scientific bases, and many are not. With the ingredients in use as many different results may be produced in cloth, as regards appear¬ ance, feel, and other properties, by different com¬ binations and proportions of these substances, as may be produced of musical airs from the differently toned bells which form a scale. The Sizer or Manufacturer must select from the materials which he has at command, that combination of them which will give the result he desires. There are, however, 196 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. certain rules with regard to some of the ingredients employed, and to the modes of mixing them, which are necessary to be observed to avoid waste, and to produce the desired result at the smallest cost and in the best manner possible. In all warp-sizing mixtures, flour, or farinaceous substances of some kind, are almost invariably em¬ ployed to give adhesive qualities to the size, and so aid in strengthening the yarn. Flour, especially if it be English, Chilian, or some variety rich in gluten, cannot profitably be used without submitting it to fermentation, because the gluten in its undecomposed state would give too great stickiness to the yarn, and make it too harsh. Flour is therefore always fermented for a week or a fortnight for the purpose of transforming the gluten into certain less adhesive bodies, and the fermentation is often carried on much longer, for the purpose of producing bodies possessing antiseptic properties, and for the production of glycerine and other substances which are highly deliquescent, and which serve as softening materials. It is quite unnecessary and unprofitable to ferment starchy substances, such as farina, sago, wheaten starch, &c., which contain no nitrogenous compounds. It might be well to repeat here the advisability of mixing any antiseptic substance which is to be added to the size, with a view to preserve it from decomposition, directly with the substance most liable to decay, such as the starchy or organic con- SIZING MIXTURES : THEIR PREPARATION. 197 stituents; and if fermented flour be employed the bulk of the acid produced by the fermentation should be neutralised by soda ash; about 3 or 4 or more pounds being required for every sack (280lb.), depending upon the length of time during which the flour has fermented, and this should be done 'previous to adding the chloride of zinc solution or other antiseptic. In preparing china clay for sizing purposes many different modes are employed, but that described on pp. 121 and 161, will probably be found to be best adapted. If the chlorides of calcium or magnesium are to be used as softening ingredients they ought not to be introduced till after the clay, tallow, and soap mixture has been incorporated with the flour or starchy matter, and chloride of zinc or other anti¬ septic ; and if sulphate of magnesia, or any similar salt be used, it should be added after the other ingredients have been put together, when the whole mixture may be diluted to the required specific gravity previous to boiling. Usually, different ingredients are employed in size intended for use in light, medium, and heavy sizing, although a mixture which is adapted for heavy sizing may be equally employed for introducing any lighter weight into yarn by simply diluting the size mixture with water to the required density. When yarn is to be sized as lightly as possible, potato starch, “ farina,” is usually employed alone with a little softening material, or in conjunction 198 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. with flour, because it produces a crisper feel in the cloth than flour. The same result is also produced by the addition of a little rice flour, which is brought into a much better state for sizing if allowed to ferment with the wheaten flour. For obtaining the best results as regards the pro¬ duction of softening and antiseptic substances from fermentation, a mixture of English, or Chilian and Egyptian flours is in all probability best adapted. The percentage of gluten in English flour may be regarded as too high, and that in Egyptian flour as too low. The best result being obtained by the use of a mixture of one-half of each, and for light sizing by the addition of a certain proportion of rice flour or farina to them, in accordance with the degree of crispness of feel desired. In adjusting the strength of the size-mixture it is usual to dilute the whole with water till it indicates a certain number of degrees on Twaddell’s hydro¬ meter at a certain constant temperature. By some, it is taken in the cold (about 60° or 70° Fah.), and by others when moderately hot (from 120° or 130° Fah.). It is, however, very important, if it be desired to obtain the same result in sizing, that the specific gravity should be taken at precisely the same tem¬ perature, and that the mixture should be thoroughly stirred immediately before floating the hydrometer in it, because the particles of starch and clay indicate upon the hydrometer when in suspension in the liquid, but not when they fall to the bottom. SIZING MIXTURES. 199 As examples merely, of sizing mixtures which, have been employed by manufacturers at different times, the following are given :— 1. For Light Sizing. Per cent. Wheaten flour (1 sack). . 2801b. ... ... 91-80 Tallow . . 151b. ... 4-92 Curd soap . . 101b. ... ... 3-28 100-00 The flour is mixed with water and fermented in one vessel, and the tallow and soap boiled together in another and added to the flour and water; the whole mixture, which then has a density of about 35° Twaddell at 130° Fah., is reduced by the addition of water to 15° Twaddell, the hydrometer being floated in the liquid when it is at a temperature of 130° Fah. 2. For Medium Sizing. Flour (3£ sacks) . . 9801b. Per cent. . 56-56 Tallow . . 1801b. . 10-38 Brown paraffin wax . 51b. . *29 White soap. . 1051b. . 6-06 Soft, soap. 151b. . -86 China clay (2 bags) . . 4481b. . 25-85 100-00 In this mixture the flour, after being fermented, is heated with the acid liquor to 120° Fah. in one vessel, the tallow, paraffin wax, soft and hard soap, and clay are boiled in another vessel, added to the 200 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. flour mixture, and the whole, after being diluted with water till it registers 20° Twaddell, boiled with steam and applied to the warp. 3. For Heavy Sizing. Per cent. Flour (2 sacks) . 5601b. .. .... 37-66 Clay (3 bags). 6721b. .. .... 45-19 Tallow . 1201b. .... 8-07 Chloride of magnesium liquor, Twaddell, 20 gallons — 751b. at 56° i solid ... j .... 5-05 Chloride of zinc liquor, at 92° Twaddell, } 4-03 10 gallons — 601b. solid. . J '• 100-00 The flour, water, and zinc liquor are heated together first, and the clay, tallow, and chloride of magnesium, which have been boiled together in a separate vessel, added to the first-named mixture, and the whole brought to a specific gravity of 40° Twaddell, taken at 120° Fah., then boiled and applied to the yarn. If 1001b. of yarn, after sizing, be found to weigh I25lb., manufacturers and sizers speak of it as having been weighted with 25 per cent of size. What is termed lightly-sized cloth, is cloth the warp of which contains about 20 per cent of size, for unless the yarn be of exceptional manufac¬ ture, such as is known in the market as “ throstle twist,” or “double twist,” it will not be strong enough to weave without size. The yarn generally employed is from 32’s to 40 s mule twist, i.e., yarn which contains from 32 to 40 hanks to the pound weight, each hank being 840 yards long. SIZING MIXTURES. 201 The following mixture for light sizing is one for which the manufacturer claims special advantages in colour and feel:— Flour is allowed to ferment for 5 or 6 months, and the starchy matter washed several times with water to free it from the acid liquor. The water which remains at the top as the starch settles is run off by means of a teJescope tube, which may be gradually lowered till it reaches nearly to the layer of starch at the bottom. To every sack of flour so treated is added 140lb. of china clay, 30lb. of soap, 5lb. of paraffin wax, 2 gallons of chloride of magnesium at 5G° Tw., and f gallon of chloride of zinc at 90° Tw., and the whole diluted with water to 8° Tw., at a temperature of 120° Fah. A loosely-woven fabric, called “ Egyptian Union Scrym,” is one in which the warp threads are required to be wiry and to be weighted with 100 per cent of size. The mixture employed for producing this result is composed principally of British gum (dextrine), sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts), and china clay. A short time ago a orentleman of the highest integrity informed the author that the custom of the trade compelled him to weight his warp with 150 per cent of size. He did so much against his will, but, unfortunately, he could find a market for a thousand pieces of this heavily-sized fabric for every single piece of lightly-sized cloth he could dispose of, the sized fabric being sold, of course, at a cor¬ respondingly low rate. 202 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. The composition used to introduce this extraor¬ dinary weight was as follows :— Fermented flour, containing rice flour (1 sack) ... 2801b. China clay (2 bags) . 4481b. Sulphate of magnesia . 2241b. Tallow . 501b. Chloride of magnesium at 54° Tw. (7 gallons) ... 891b. Chloride of zinc at 92° Tw. (7 gallons) . 1021b. The whole is brought to a specific gravity of 84° Tw., when at a temperature of about 68° Fah. It might be interesting, before leaving this part of the subject, to give the size composition used by a native Indian manufacturing firm for light sizing. It is as follows :—Roughly ground rice flour, with a little wheaten flour, 10001b.; clay, 500lb.; tallow, 1001b.; soap, 25lb.; gum arabic, 25lb.; bees’-wax, 151b. COLOURS EMPLOYED FOR TINTING THE SIZE. It need hardly be mentioned that to all these sizing mixtures blue of some kind is added, for the purpose of improving the colour of the size and of the cloth. The blue colouring matters which are usually employed, or which maybe used, in sizing are—ultra- marine, smalt, indigo and some of its compounds, prussian blues, and aniline colours, or combinations of two or more of these. Ultramarine .—This is a mineral colour formed by heating together in certain proportions, China clay, COLOURS FOR TINTING THE SIZE. 203 sulphate of soda, charcoal, and sulphur. The real composition of this beautiful blue colouring material is not well known. It is not affected by light, air, or alkalies, but cannot be employed in acid size— i.e., where the flour has been fermented, because acids discharge the colour liberating hydrosulphuric acid gas, which possesses the smell of rotten eggs. Smalt is a glass formed by fusing partially-roasted powdered cobalt ore with ground calcined quartz and carbonate of potash. This forms a glass (silicate of potash) which is of a beautiful blue colour, derived from the cobalt which it contains. In its fused state the impurities of the ore settle to the bottom, and the glass is ladled out and poured into cold water, where ifc breaks into innumerable fragments, which are then stamped to powder, ground under water between granite stones, and the fine particles washed away with water and allowed to subside. This is a very permanent colour, and is not easily acted upon by either acid, alkali, light, or air. Indigo .—This is one of the most permanent colours known. It has the property of losing its blue colour and becoming soluble when deoxidised, but when exposed, it readily absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere, and again becomes blue and insoluble. This substance may be reduced and mixed with the size, so that the colour would develop in the warp after sizing. Indigo has seldom been used alone as a tinting material. It however combines with sulphuric acid, forming sulphindigotic acid, a 204 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. compound of a deep blue colour, generally with a green tinge, which, when precipitated from solution by common salt, is sold under the name of “ carmine of indigo.” This colour is not easily discharged; the lower qualities are, however, not very pure blues, and on that account not so well adapted for tinting. Prussian Blues .—There are several kinds of prussian blue, having different chemical composi¬ tions, colours, and properties. For instance, the colour of some is discharged with hot water, whilst that of others is not. They are combinations of ferro-and ferri-cyanic acids with iron oxide, and are produced by adding ferro- or ferri-cyanide of potassium to proto- and per-sulphate, or other salt of iron These blue colours have invariably a green tinge, and are at once discharged by alkalis, such as soda, potash, &c., and by soap, but they are not easily affected by acid, light, or air. Aniline Blues .—Considering the value of materials for tinting from their tinctorial powers and beauty of shade or purity of colour, the aniline blues are the best and least expensive. Although they are affected by outward influences, such as light, and more or less by acids and alkalis, they are the most extensively used for the purposes of size-tinting. Two varieties are employed, viz., soluble, and insoluble or spirit blues. The soluble blues are usually the sulpho-derivatives of aniline blues. In using them, from 2 to 4 ounces of the solid colour should be dis¬ solved in hot water, and the solution filtered through COLOURS FOR TINTING THE SIZE. 205 flannel previous to use. The reddish or violet shades of blue possess a greater neutralising effect upon the yellow or brown shades in the cloth or size than the greenish blues, and they should therefore be pre¬ ferred. “ Nicholson’s blue ” is a soluble blue often used by sizers. It is the sodium salt of the sulpho- derivative of triphenyl-rosaniline, and is also known as “alkali-blue.” The purest and most decided blues are obtained from the insoluble aniline colours. One variety is sold as an alcoholic solution called “No. 1 Spirit Blue.” The colour is, however, pre¬ cipitated, on the solution being diluted with water, but the precipitate is in such a fine state of division that it tints the size evenly. “ Spirit blue powder ” is also sold ; and to prepare it for use, from 2 to 3 ounces should be boiled for a short time with 1 gallon of methylated spirit, the solution poured care¬ fully off from the insoluble sediment, which should again be heated with from 1 quart to half a gallon more spirit. This solution should be diluted with from 5 to 10 times its volume of water before being added to the size, and it is well to prepare the solution immediately previous to use, and employ it whilst hot, because, on standing, much of the colour will be precipitated. 20G THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Chapter XI. METHODS OF APPLYING TPIE SIZE TO THE YARN. T HERE are four modes of applying size to yarn, viz., “dressing/’ “slashing” or “tape-sizing,” “ ball-sizing,” and “hank-sizing.” The first mentioned was the one in general use many years ago, but it is now almost obsolete. The second is the one usuallv employed at the present time, and has gradually developed from the operation known as “ dressing,” which was a slow method of sizing. Tape-Sizing .—-The machine, the drawing of which is shown as the frontispiece, or some slight modifica¬ tion of it, is the one employed for tape-suing or slashing. The number of threads of warp required to make the entire breadth of cloth are divided equally among a number of beams or rollers (A) placed in the creel at the back of the machine, as shown in the drawing, each having its allotted TAPE-STZING. 207 number of threads distributed along it and wound on. The ends of the threads on the last beam are taken from the top and passed under the second beam; here it is joined by the threads from the second, which, being drawn off from the bottom, makes the beam revolve in the opposite direction from the previous one ,* the threads from both of these pass over the top of the third beam, from which its threads are taken, in company with those from all the previous beams; thus the threads from the different rollers travel, as shown by the red line in the drawing, and are then collected together in one line and passed through the size by going under a small roller working in it, and then between the two pairs of rollers, B and C., the under rollers being immersed in the size, contained in a double cased box heated with steam, whilst the upper ones serve the purpose of pressing the size, carried round by the under rollers, into the threads which pass between them. The size is kept agitated by open steam, which is constantly blown through it, and the box is regularly supplied from a reservoir, the size being kept at a given height in the box by means of a ball-tap arrangement, or better, by a floating roller (A, fig. 47), which is kept revolving by the motion of the paste caused by the pressing- rollers ; by this means the size is not liable to dry on the roller, as sometimes happens with the ball- tap arrangement, so as to interfere with its regular working. 208 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS, A convenient arrangement for boiling the size, immediately before entering the size-box, was patented by Mr. James Eastwood some years ago, Fig. 47.* and is now finding its way into general use. It consists of a copper tube, about 2in. diam., made in the form of a coil enclosed in a steam-tight iron case, * These drawings have been supplied through the kindness of Mr. Richard Ainsworth, of Blackburn. TAPE-SIZING. 209 and heated to any required degree by passing the steam from the boiler into the case, and keeping it there under any desired pressure. The pipe marked “raw size inlet” is attached by means of iron or copper tubing to a pump which is kept constantly pumping from the vat containing the raw size (see Plate 33). It is evident, however, that if the ball or roller tap in the size-box were closed by reason of the pump delivering the size too quickly, the tubes would burst if they were not strong enough to stop the pump. Either result would be highly objectionable, and to avoid them, an arrangement is fixed on the pipe which rises from the pump shown in Fig. 48. This is composed of a disc held tightly against the lower part of a flange on the “ outlet ” pipe by means of the lever and weight. When everything is going well, and the pump delivering only the necessary quantity of size, this contrivance is entirely superfluous; the size passes it and goes on to the coil, but when the pump delivers too much, the pressure in the tubes increases till it overcomes the weight on the weighted lever, the disc is pressed down and the superfluous size then passes by the tubes marked “ inlet ” and “ outlet,” again into the cistern. It happens some¬ times that the pump does not work properly, or the pipe leading from the cistern becomes stopped, so that although the pump is working no size is delivered into the coil. An ingenious arrangement, on the same principle as that above, is sometimes o 210 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. attached so as to indicate when this occurs. In this appliance a lever is held up by the pressure of the size in the pipes when the normal pressure is acting, but when this ceases the lever drops, and its end is caught by a projection from the crank of the pump at each revolution, and is carried down to a certain extent, and striking a bell as it recoils indicates that the pump is not delivering size. The threads on leaving the sizing rollers are passed over the large drum D (frontispiece), and then over the smaller one E ; these are termed drying cylinders, and are heated by steam to the required temperature. The threads are then made to travel along to the front, near the floor of the machine, till they arrive at the roller (a), over which they pass indirectly to the roller (b). The threads across the whole breadth are then roughly separated from each other by the iron rods shown at (c), which lie across the machine, and thus they are opened up and separated to a certain extent; lastly, the whole of the threads are wound on to the beam F at the front of the machine, which is not so long as any of those at the back which held the warp previous to sizing. The breadth of the line of threads is adjusted by an ingenious arrangement called “wraiths,” patented by Messrs. Howard and Bullough. This is an arrangement of iron spikes or teeth, placed in a line parallel with, and in front of the beam F, between which the threads in the line of warp pass, and by turning a handle at the side of the machine in one direction or the TAPE-SIZING. 211 other, each spike separates or goes closer to its neighbour, carrying the threads with them, and so making the line broader or narrower as may be desired. A small brush attached to the end of a rod of wood, works underneath the warp-threads on a revolving shaft, making daubs of colour on the warp after certain lengths, sufficient to form pieces of cloth have passed on to the beam, for the guidance of the weaver. About 25 yards 1ft. of warp are required for each 24 yards of cloth to be produced, and a certain amount more size is put into the warp than that actually required, because a portion is invariably lost during the weaving, depending on the weight in¬ troduced, and the quality of the size employed. It is important that the drying cylinders C and D should be kept at a constant temperature; this is adjusted in many machines by one of the workmen looking from time to time at a pressure gauge, and adjusting the supply of steam accordingly by means of an ordinary tap ; but as the pressure in the boilers is liable to variation, so the pressure in the drying cylinders, and consequently the temperature will vary, and much attention is required to maintain a constant supply of heat. This difficulty has been overcome by Mr. Locke, among others, who has patented an ingenious arrangement, called the reducing valve, which is self-acting, and keeps the drying cylinders at any desired temperature. It is a cylinder into which is fitted a piston, the one end of which is acted upon by an india-rubber diaphragm, whilst the 212 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. other projects from the the top of the cylinder. This is so arranged, that if no weight be placed, upon the piston-rod, no steam can enter the cylinder, and the number of pounds weight placed on it will represent exactly the number of pounds pressure on the drying cylinders. If the pressure of steam from the boiler be greater than the weight placed on the top of the piston, it will act on a column of water, at the bottom of which is the india-rubber diaphragm, which is thus kept cool, and which will, being pressed outwards, acts on the piston, raise it, and permit less and less steam to enter the drying cylinders, as the pressure from the boiler becomes greater and greater, and vice versd when the pressure becomes less, so keeping the temperature always constant. This arrangement is fixed on the floor, as shown in the engraving, Plate 49,* attached to one of Messrs. Howard and Bui lough's tape-sizing machines, which is so arranged that when the sizing machine is stopped by the strap-fork motion, it simultaneously throws off the weight from the reducing valve, with the exception of about half- a-pound, which pressure serves to keep the cylinder warm. When the machine is started, the weight is simultaneously re-adjusted, and the desired pressure of steam is again reproduced within the cylinders. This apparatus is equally well adapted for regulating the pressure of steam, and conse- * This drawing was supplied through the kindness of Messrs. W. H. Bailey nd Co., of Salford. Plate 49 AIR-DRYING SIZING-MACHINES. 213 quently the temperature in. the steam-chest containing Eastwood’s size-boiling coil. One objection to the ordinary slashing machine is, that the threads, on passing over the hot cylinders, are flattened, and the size more baked or dried on the one side than the other. To obviate this, other arrangements have been devised which will, in time, to a large extent, supersede the ordinary slashing frame. Air-drying Sizing - Machines. —• There are two machines of this class which are regarded as suc¬ cessful,—the one patented by Messrs. Howard and Bullough, of Accrington, the other by Messrs. Baerlein & Co., of Manchester. In the first, the line of warp threads, after leaving the sizing trough, passes horizontally along a box arrangement supplied with three longitudinal shelves, each being open at the alternate ends. Underneath this large wooden box is a long cylinder, through which a large number of tubes pass heated with high- pressure steam, and at the top of the box is a fan worked rapidly by machinery. The line of warp threads enters this box arrangement underneath the lowest she'd, passes to the end, over a roller, and travels along; between the lowest and middle shelf. When it arrives at the end it, is again diverted by a roller, and passes along between the middle and highest shelf, then moves in a dry condition along the “ head-stock ” arrangement, and is wound on to the beam in.front. The fan draws air through the 214 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. tubes in the heated cylinder, which passes from underneath between the shelves, along which the warp is passing, and is ultimately drawn through the passage between the third shelf and the top of the drying box charged with the moisture which it has carried off from the wet warp. Baerleins Patent Sizing-Machine is an air-drying apparatus (shown in section in Fig. 50) arranged upon different principles from the one last described. The warp threads are passed directly into the size and there pressed between three rollers, as shown in Fig. 51, the lowest one being completely, and the other two partially immersed in the size. For this contrivance the pa¬ tentees claim that Fig. 50. each thread is kept distinct, and prevented from entangling with its neighbour, and the air is pressed from the thread, so that the size may enter it whilst it is immersed ; and by this, they assert that the yarn is more uniformly and thoroughly saturated with size than by the old method, in which the yam is first immersed in the size by one roller and then pressed between other two couples, the lower of each of which being only partially immersed in the size. After leaving the “sow-box,” the line of threads passes up the side of the drying chamber, as shown in the drawings, till BAERLEIN’S AIR-DRYING SIZING MACHINE. Plato 50. BAERLEIN’S SIZING-MACHINE. 215 it reaches the top, where it passes over a roller and goes downwards to another roller at the centre, which again diverts it so that it rises to the top, goes over another roller, and down again by the opposite side into another chamber of the same kind, as shown by the dotted lines. Each drying chamber is open at the top, and is provided with a series of tubes, the lengths of which are equal to the breadth of the drying chamber. These are set in a circular form, making a cylinder of pipes, as shown in the section to the right, and inside these cylinders are fixed fans. These tubes are kept filled with high-pressure steam from the boiler; and, according to the latest form of this apparatus, two lines of steam-pipes, fixed horizontally to each other, rise to the top of each chamber at each side. The air is drawn by the fans through a hole in the side of the chamber, and is heated to a high temperature by the steam pipes and forced by the fans, which are made to revolve rapidly by means of straps acting on the wheels, shown outside, through the partitions formed by the line of warp threads, making its exit charged with moisture through the V partition of threads in the centre, and between the warp threads and the sides of the drying chamber. Any number of these chambers may be attached to any machine, depending upon the speed at which it is desired to work it. The patentees also recommend the use of a brush arrangement, which lays the fibres of the threads 21G THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. after passing from the “ sow-box,” and this, they state, gives greater strength to the yarn, and as the threads are smooth and retain their round form, they can be woven more easily than, and without producing as much wear and tear on, the healds and reeds, as the warp, sized in the ordinary manner. Ball-Sizing .—In this mode of applying size to the warp, the whole of the threads required to make the entire breadth of the cloth are put together so as to form a long, thick rope, and the amount of warp required to fill one beam in this rope form is rolled into a ball. As a rule, ball-warp sizers are not manufacturers, and consequently when the warp has been sized it is again wrapped into the form of a ball, and in this state is returned to the manufacturer. The arrangements for the carrying out of this process is shown in Plate 52' # . A is a cone, upon which the ball of warp (B) to be sized is placed. C is the size-trough, which contains the size, and through which the ropes of warp are passed. At the bottom of this vat are fixed two lines of rollers (D), between which the warp passes, and by which the air is pressed out of the yarn so that the size can enter it more thoroughly and evenly. Open steam is blown into the size in this trough to keep the whole hot and fluid. The warps, after passing through the sizing-trough, are squeezed by the large rollers E, for the purpose of removing the excess of * This drawing was supplied through the kindness of Messrs. Mather and Platt, of Salford. BALL-SIZING. 217 size which may be adhering to them ; they are then passed over the “ delivery wince” (F) and folded into warp-boxes (G). Each box is supported on wheels, and when full is pushed along to the drying machine (H), where a series of warps are passed from these boxes over the “pulleys” (J), which flatten them, so that a larger surface may be exposed to the action of the drying cylinders (K), over which they are passed. Each drying cylinder is made of sheet-iron, and is heated by steam at about 15lb. pressure. An inge¬ nious arrangement, devised by Messrs. Mather and Platt, serves the double purpose of strengthening the cylinders and running off the condensed water into the steam-trap. It is a spiral gutter, fixed round the inside of the cylinder, along which the condensed water runs to the exit-pipe as the cylinder revolves. The guiding rails and pegs are shown at L, by which the different warps are kept in their proper places. M is the delivering wince, by which the dry warps are folded again into the warp-boxes. The dry warp from each box is lastly passed over a balling machine and again wrapped into balls. N represents the mixing, steeping, or fermenting cistern ; 0, the agitating vat; and P, the pan in which the size is boiled previous to entering the sizing trough. o The size compositions before mentioned may be used equally in any of these machines, but irregularities in the sizing are much more common in ball than in tape-sizing. This arises from the fact that in the 218 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. former all the threads are pressed together in a bundle, whilst in the latter each thread is acted upon by the rollers separately. Further, much larger quantities of size are kept boiling in the ball-sizing cistern than in the sow-box of the tape-sizing machine, and the size is consequently more subject to change by evaporation, or by dilution with condensed water from the “live-steam,” and the threads in ball-sizing being all put together, it sometimes happens that from the size not being in a proper state of fineness, or from the threads being pressed so close to each other that the size does not find its way into the core of the bundle, that the cloth made from these warps has a streaky appearance. Hank Sizing .—For many reasons, such, for instance, as when warp of different colours is employed for the manufacture of certain kinds of cloth, or when it is considered advisable to size the weft threads, the size is introduced into the yarn in the hank form. The old process and the one which is yet practised is done by hand. A. man, provided with two small wooden rollers, places the hank upon one, and after striking the inner part of it a few times with the other roller to open it and to lay all the threads straight; he dips it into the size in the sizing-trough, and after making it revolve a few times in the size by means of the two pieces of wood passed alternately over and under each other, one end of the hank is put on to a horizontal piece of w r ood attached to the opposite side of the cistern, and one of the short, thick HANK-SIZING. 219 rods of wood put through the other end, and by it twisted up to wring out the excess of size. The hanks are then partially untwisted, hung along a pole, and then taken to the drying-room, which is heated by steam. The size, in hank-sizing, is never kept at a temperature much higher than blood-heat, and the starchy matters contained in it are never more than slightly “ sprung ” by heating, previous to being allowed to enter the size-trough ; it would, of course, be rendered much thicker by bringing it to the temperature of boiling water. Mechanical arrangements have been successfully applied to the wringing of the hank, and the machine which has been generally employed consists of two slowly revolving discs, fixed together by a shaft or axle in in the centre. To the inner side of one disc, near its circumference, are placed some fixed hooks, and opposite to these, on the other side, are arranged other hooks, which, by a mechanical contrivance, make several turns in one direction during the first half revolution of the disc, so as to twist or wring the hank ; and then turn in the opposite direction during the next half revolution, so as to untwist the hank. These discs are set over the sizing-trough, and the operator passes the hank through the size, places it between two of the hooks on the revolving disc in front of him, so that when the same hooks are brought again to him he finds the hank wrung and partially untwisted, so that he can remove it. 220 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. This machine, although acting with tolerable cer¬ tainty, is liable sometimes to break the threads, and with a view of sizing hanks more regularly, and at less cost, Messrs. Mason and Conlong have lately patented an apparatus, shown in Plate 53.* This machine is evidently a modification of Nichols’ patent hank-dyeing machine. Four vats are set together, as shown in the drawing, with gearing working between them, and they are so arranged that the large wheel in the centre, which is toothed round one third of its circumference, acts upon gearing which turns the four hooks in the four vats at the sides nearest the centre along which the crank works. One end of each of the opposite hooks, which do not revolve, passes loosely through a square hole, as shown in the drawing, and is attached to a chain which passes over a small wheel, and to which is attached a weight of about 1001b. This hook is released from the weight by the lever shown at the end of the vat to the left, when it is brought down and fixed in the catch, as shown in the drawing. The hank to be wrung is taken from the size by a boy or girl, and placed on the hooks during the interval which the machine rests, and as soon as it is adjusted the knee of the operator is pressed against the lower part of the catch, liberating the weight, which, falling, pulls the hook inward, making it strike the hank, and, rebounding, strikes again and again. This has the * “Textile Manufacturer.” Vol. v., No. 55, p. 255. CLOTH-SIZING, 221 Plate 53. 222 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. effect of straightening the threads. The hook oppo¬ site the weighted one now begins to revolve by the machinery, and twists up the hank, which becomes shorter, and as it does so pulls the shank of the hook partially out of the socket. This shank, which is attached to the weight, is made square to a certain point and is then made round, and as it is pulled inwards by the shortening of the hank by twisting, it draws up the weight and depresses the lever. The attendant now takes off the superfluous size by drawing his hand over the twisted hank, and when the hook ceases to revolve he depresses the lever so as to be held by the catch, and this takes the weight off. The square part is pulled out of the bracket alto¬ gether by the twisted hank, and only the round part being left in, the hook spins round, untwisting the hank to a certain extent, which is then taken off and allowed to dry in its partially twisted condition. In the case of sized hanks, it is necessary not to untwist them entirely, because if that were done the threads would bend about in all directions. Clotli-Sizing. —The machine shown in Plate 54 gives a good idea of the method employed for sizing or filling cloth. The lower roller revolves in a trough containing a solution of Epsom salts, or starch paste, or other sizing material, whilst the cloth is passed, as shown by the black line, between the bowl or *This drawing is supplied through the kindness of Messrs. Mather & Platt, of Salford. JOHN MEYWOOD. L'TrtO MANCHESTER 1 lONOON - ' : r CLOTH-SIZING. 223 roller, which is generally made of wood, and the iron roller above it. By this means the size is pressed into or on to the cloth, which is then passed on to the drying cylinders, the number of which may be increased or diminished in accordance with the speed at which it is desired to work the machinery. 224 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Chapter XI. SIZED GREY CLOTIIS. MODE OF ANALYSIS, ETC. REY cloths are classed according to character- istic differences, and known by different names, which, however, do not always express the same material. In each class there are some general characteristics, such as the length, or breadth, or weight of each piece ; or the “count” of the cloth, or combination of these. Thus— Shirtings are usually 8gdb. in weight, 39 inches in breadth, and 37^ long-yards measure (equal to 39 ordinary yards) in length, and have usually a count of 16 x 15— i.e., 16 picks of warp and 15 picks or threads of weft to the quarter inch. There are, however, 5, 6, and 71b. shirtings. Mexican Cloths were those made at one time to pass, duty free, into the Mexican market, and which had to be made of a count not less than 17 x 17, and were usually 24 yards in length. SIZED GREY CLOTHS. 225 “ T” Cloths are ordinary cloths which were origin¬ ally made by a Manchester firm, and shipped abroad under the trade mark “T,” and from this they have derived their name. “T” cloths may be of any breadth or pick; it. is only necessary that they should be 24 yards long. “Domestics ” have usually from 12 to 1G picks to the quarter inch square; they ore made in different widths, and in different standard lengths for shipping, which are 60, 72, 80, and 96 yards. For home trade the length is generally 72 yards, and the cloth is only sold by measure, and never by weight. Printing Cloths are of great varieties in fineness, length, width, and weight, and these varieties are further subdivided according to the town near which the special class is generally made. Thus there are “Burnley Printing Cloths,” “ Glossop Printing Cloths,” and so on. Printing cloths and domestics are usually not heavily sized. China Sheetings are usually 15lb. in weight, 40 yards long, and 36 inches wide, with a count of 12 x 12. These are made both lightly and heavily sized, and sold at very different prices. Jacconets are generally very lightly sized, and par¬ take of the nature of muslin. In these goods the counts of yarn are usually stipulated for; the picks range from 10 to 16 square. Mulls are still lighter fabrics than jacconets. China Drills are made with 3 shafts, and are usually lllb. weight, 40 yards long, and 30 inches p 226 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. wide, with a count of 17 warp and 12 weft to the quarter-inch. Jeans .—These are also drills, but the fabric is much lighter than China drills. They are usually made 8lb. weight, 30 yards long, and 30 inches wide. There is a number of others bearing different names, but the above will give some idea as to how grey cloths are classed and known in the trade. ANALYSIS OF CLOTH. It is often of advantage to find the amount and general composition of the size contained in grey cloth, and for this the following plan may be adopted:— Estimation of Total Size .—A strip of the cloth, weighing from 300 to 600 grains, should be torn across the piece and weighed; any loose threads of weft being pulled out, folded up, put through a hole made at the selvage of the strip, and tied. This piece should then be alternately soaked in cold water and squeezed between the hands for five or ten minutes, till as much size is removed as possible. It should then be placed in a large enamelled iron basin containing water, in which has been dissolved caustic soda in the proportion of loz. to every lOOoz. of water, and there boiled for one hour, the soda liquor poured away, and the cloth again washed in clean cold water. To every lOOoz. of water in the basin, loz. of impure hydrochloric acid is added, and ANALYSIS OF CLOTH. 227 the cloth boiled for one hour in the mixture, fresh water being introduced occasionally to replace that lost by evaporation. This acid liquor should then be thrown away, and the cloth again washed in cold water ; and, lastly, boiled for one hour in clean water, again washed, wrung as dry as possible, and placed loosely in the steam-bath to dry. When perfectly dry it should be pushed into a tared stoppered tube, the stopper inserted, and the whole weighed when cold. The loss in weight indicates the proportion of total moisture, size, and mineral matter natural to the cotton fibre. Mineral Matter (China Clay ) etc .).—One or two hundred grains of the cloth, torn across the piece as before, should be burned in a platinum capsule, until the ash which remains is free from carbonaceous matter, and weighed; the weight of the capsule deducted from that of the whole, gives the amount of ash in the weight of cloth taken. Moisture .—Two or three hundred grains of the cloth should be placed loosely in the steam-bath till quite dry; then pushed, whilst still hot, into a tared stoppered glass tube, as above-mentioned, and weighed when cold. The weight of the tube deducted from the total leaves the weight of the dry fabric, the loss being water. All these results should be calculated to per¬ centages, and in making up the results 1 per cent of mineral matter should be added to the percentage of fibre, which is about the amount natural to it, and 228 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. this should be deducted from the ash. If China clay be present, 10 per cent of its weight should be added to it, for moisture which it would contain in its natural state. The percentage weight of the total ash, plus the above mentioned 10 per cent, should be added to the percentage oftotal moisture, and the sum deducted from the percentage of the total size ; this will leave the percentage of the organic constituents of the size, viz., starchy and fatty matters. Eight per cent should be taken as representing the moisture natural to cloth, and anything above that represented as excess of moisture.” The fatty matters may be separated, and estimated by means of ether, but the process is too complicated for description here. General Qualitative Examination of the Fabric .— A piece of the cloth is put into a glass, and suffi¬ cient distilled water added to immerse it thoroughly. This should be left over night, and the liquor examined in the morning;. Acidity or Alkalinity should be tested for in the solution with litmus paper. (See p. 47.) Dextrine, or British Gum. —To part of the solution after filtration, add a few drops of iodine solution. A dark purple colour indicates dextrine. Chlorides and Sulphates should be tested for re¬ spectively by the methods given on pages 128 and 171. Chloride of Zinc. —To a small portion of the filtrate in the test glass add a few drops of ammonia, mix, and add a drop or two of ammonium sulphide. QUALITATIVE EXAMINATION OF CLOTH. 229 A white precipitate indicates tlie presence of zinc chloride. Chloride of Calcium may be tested for in the filtrate by the method given on page 170. Sulphate, or Chloride of Magnesium, may be de¬ tected in the filtrate from the ammonium oxalate precipitate of lime by the mode described on page 171. Starch .—The piece of cloth should be held under a stream of water from a tap for a few minutes, and then boiled with water .; a small quantity of the liquid poured into a small test glass and a few drops of iodine solution added. A deep blue coloration indicates the presence of starch. Cloths proposed for shipment should be con¬ demned if any of the following among other com¬ binations of conditions are found. (1) If .the organic constituents and excess of moisture are large— i.e., the former above 13., and the latter above 1 per cent, and zinc chloride or other antiseptic absent, or present only in small proportion. (2) If the goods contain chlorides, especially of calcium or magnesium, in considerable or large pro¬ portion ; zinc chloride or other antiseptic being- absent, or present only in small proportion. (3) If the mineral ingredients are under 3 per cent and the amount of starchy matters, &c., exceed 13 per cent, with more than 0 - 5 per cent of excess of moisture, and absence of any powerful antiseptic. The liability of goods to mildew increases as the pro¬ portion of mineral substances of the size is reduced. 230 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Conditions such as those above mentioned may, however, exist in goods, and yet they may not mildew on shipment, but from numerous analyses of mildewed cloth made by the author, it has been found in most cases that conditions resembling some of these have existed. The following analyses of different kinds of cloth will serve as examples. Analyses of Six Different Samples op Grey Cloth. Percentages. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Cloth:— Fibre . 46-87 53-85 60 "7 5 63-98 71-86 80-03 Natural moisture . 4-07 4-68 5-28 5-56 6’24 6-95 Size:— Moisture. 7-73 3-94 4-65 5-32 4-81 1-28 Starchy matters, etc. 11-41 15-05 7-83 11-04 9T6 776 Oily or greasy matters. 3-47 1-85 5-50 •94 2'07 1-97 Mineral matters . 26-45 20-63 15-99 13T6 5-86 2-01 100-00 100 00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 Total cloth. 50-94 58-53 66-03 69-54 78-10 86-98 „ size . 49-06 41-47 33-97 30-46 21-90 13-02 Excess of moisture . 3-80 •62 1-93 2-88 3-05 •23 The mineral matter is composed of— China clay. 20-41 16-16 11-12 10-41 234 1-34 Chloride of magnesium . 3-67 1-58 •33 275 3-33 •39 „ calcium . 217 ... 2-50 • • • . . . • • • „ zinc . « • • •85 2-04 ... T9 •28 „ iron . trace •39 trace trace trace trace ,, sodium . trace trace trace trace trace Sulphate of magnesia . • . . 1-65 ... • • • ... • • • „ lime . •20 ... ... ... ... ... 26-45 20-63 15-99 13T6 5-86 2-01 PACKING MATERIALS. 231 Chapter XII. PACKING OF GREY CLOTH. -PACKING MATERIALS. W HEN the cloth leaves the hands of the manufacturer it is usually sent to the merchant, who arranges for it to be examined, measured, weighed, and packed. The first operation is that of “ hooking,” which answers the double purpose of folding and measuring. This is done by boys, who attain to great dexterity in the art. It is performed by folding the cloth backwards and forwards on itself, by fixing one end on a long, sharp, projecting steel pin, then stretching it to another pin of the same kind one yard distant, doubling the cloth and pushing the end of the fold on to the other pin and returning it, folding and fixing the end of the fold on the first pin, and so on till the piece is wrapped. When finished each piece is taken off and again folded into three, thus leaving the length of the folded piece equal to the whole breadth of the cloth, and the breadth about one foot. 232 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. These pieces are then packed into bales after putting the requisite marks or stamps on the outside of each. Bales are made of different sizes in accordance with the market for which they are intended. The general and most convenient size is made by putting 50 pieces into each, but often 200 or 300 are packed together, and sometimes as many as 400 and 500, depending on the size and weight of each piece. There are many modes of packing, but the follow¬ ing may be taken as a type. Four strong iron hoops, with two small oblong holes perforated at one end of each, are placed parallel with each other on the stage of a hydraulic press, so arranged that the perforated ends will reach to about the middle of the bale to be formed; and on these is placed a piece of coarse canvas a little larger than the size of one piece of the cloth. On this is laid a sheet of ordinary tarpaulin, or canvas covered with cotton seed oil pitch. On the top of this is put, in successive layers, sheets of coarse brown absorbent paper, of brown glazed, and of thick, slightly absorbent white paper. Then the pieces of cloth are piled, the one on the top of the other, two being placed on at a time, and the sides of each couple reversed till the required column has been completed. On the top of this is placed a sheet of thick white paper of the same kind as that put underneath, but larger; then the same successive layers of the other kinds of paper, tarpaulin, and coarse canvas. The stage of the press is raised, and the whole com¬ pressed into about one-half its original bulk. The MODE OF PACKING CLOTH. 233 papers on the top are then folded down on all sides, and from the bottom upwards to overlap the top sheets. The ends are then folded in, a piece of tarpaulin is made to encircle the sides and ends of the bale, and the layers of tarpaulin from the top and bottom folded on to it all round. Lastly, the coarse pack-sheets are folded down from the top and up from the bottom to overlap each other all round. In this position they are temporarily fixed with wooden pegs, and then sewn together with twine. Four bars are arranged at the top or roof of the press, which are unfastened and pressed up from the top of the bale, the hoops from the bottom are passed through the openings thus made across the top, bent down on the other side to meet the ends which are bent up from below, small oblong holes are punched in the end to correspond with the holes at the other ends of the hoops, by means of an arrangement like a pair of tongs, with two dies near the hinge, the arms of the tongs being used as levers. Small fiat dumb-bell shaped rivets are put through each hole in the overlapping ends of the hoops, and fixed by turning them at right angles to the oblong holes ; small pieces of cloth are put round each joining and the stage releasedas it descends, the hoops bind firmly round the bale, and it is ready for shipment. The paper placed next the goods should always be white, because it is purer than other papers. The outside part of the cloth is sometimes stained or iron- moulded by using brown paper, which often contains 234 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. minute particles of iron oxide, which are quickly acted upon by chlorides of magnesium or zinc, or by moisture. Some questions were lately raised as to the liability of tarpaulin used in packing to stain the cloth round which it is wrapped, and in the case of Provand v. Langton, before mentioned, this theory was brought forward to account for the brick-red discoloration which made its appearance on the cloth, and this upon the ground, principally, that it was observed that certain letters, which were stamped or painted with coal tar on a wrapper, in which some bleached cloth had been wrapped, were reproduced on the cloth in a faint pink colour; but from several reasons it must have been perfectly clear that this was not the cause of the brick-red stain in question. Firstly, because the colour produced from coal tar was pink, and not that found on the damaged goods. Secondly, the tarpaulin employed was not prepared with coal tar; and in fact, from the evidence of tarpaulin manufacturers, no tarpaulin is ever made containing that substance. The mixtures used in the production of tarpaulin are somewhat as follows : One manufacturer employs 5 parts of Stock¬ holm tar pitch,* melted with 4 of resin and 1 of Stockholm tar; whilst another uses a mixture of 48 parts of Stockholm tar pitch, 10 of Stockholm tar, 32 of resin, and 1 of tallow. * Stockholm tar is obtained from the distillation of wood. STAINS CAUSED BY TAB YAPOUB. 235 When cloth is placed over coal tar for a few days it becomes tinged of a pink colour, but when placed over wood tar, it does not. If, however, it be left for some months over wood tar, it becomes slightly coloured, as if oil-stained. Again, only about one-tenth part of the tar composition is com¬ posed of wood tar, the other substances being inert solids. Lastly, no colour could be obtained from wood tar, or from the pitch composition used for covering the tarpaulin, which resembled in any way the dis¬ coloration in question, although many experiments were made with that end in view. From the author’s experiments, aniline was found to stain cloth very rapidly of a pink or brownish colour, and to produce a bright violet magenta colour when its vapour is brought in contact with cloth saturated with the vapour from wood tar; but this bright colour evapo¬ rates readily on exposure to the air for a few days, and the cloth again becomes nearly colourless. Granting, however, for the sake of argument, that aniline would produce such a colour as the brick-red stain in question, then, inasmuch as wood tar may be regarded as practically free from that substance, it could not produce any effect. That this discoloration on the cloth in the case above mentioned was conclusively not due to emana¬ tions from the tarpaulin was clearly proved by the evidence of two packers, who stated that they packed cloths at the same time during several weeks or 23G THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. months for Provand, some of which were supplied by the defendants and some by another manufacturer named Bury ; both cloths contained starchy matters and the chlorides of zinc and magnesium, were packed with the same supplies of tarpaulin, and some of each shipped in a number of different vessels, yet all the bales' of Langton’s goods which were opened were found to be stained, whilst ail the cloth supplied by Bury was perfectly free from damage. One case might be mentioned in which the author examined a bale of goods which had been returned from abroad damaged by precisely the same kind of stain distributed along the edges of the goods in the same way as the one in question ; but there was this marked difference, that it occurred on 10 or 12 pieces all lying together in one part of the bale, and the 10 or 12 pieces to either side were absolutely free from stain. Several damaged lots were found like this throughout the bale, forming alternate strata of damaged and undamaged pieces. It was assumed that the composition of the damaged and undamaged cloth was different, and on analysis it was found, that whilst the starchy and mineral matters were about the same in each, the relative proportions of the chlorides of calcium and zinc varied in the damaged and undamaged lots to a large extent, as the following shows •:— Per Cent. Damaged Pieces. Sound Pieces. Chloride of Calcuim 3'300 . 2 v>00 Chloride of Zinc. ‘791 . 2 - 040 OIL-PITCH TARPAULIX. 237 Thus, it is evident that if the vapour of wood tar were capable of producing the result in question, it would not have left ten or a dozen pieces at one part of the bale perfectly colourless and stained deeply those in immediate contact with it. In this case the coloration appearing where the antiseptic was defi¬ cient, pointed indirectly to the cause being a growth of a fungoid character and not due to> emanations from the tar, and this was borne out by the results of transplantation experiments. In conclusion, in the case of Provand v. Langton the white paper which touched the stained cloth was stained also, whilst the other side of the paper, which was near the tarpaulin, was quite free from colour. It was held that the emanation from coal tar would pass through tissue paper and stain cloth whilst it would not colour the tissue paper; this experiment was tried with the vapour of aniline, and although at first, the stain showed on the cloth,, whilst the tissue- paper appeared to be unstained, this might have been due to the difficulty of seeing the pink on the bluish white of the paper, because, as the action of the aniline vapour was continued for a short time longer, the tissue paper became distinctly coloured. It should be noted that for packing purposes, in using tarpaulin made with the pitch of cotton seed and other oils, pack sheet and thick paper should be placed between it and the goods, as stains of a greasy nature and damage have been produced by its being used in the ordinary way. 238 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. Chapter XIII. VARIETIES OF DAMAGE TO WHICH SIZED CLOTH IS LIABLE—MILDEW, DECOM¬ POSITION, &G. T HE losses sustained by merchants and manu¬ facturers in Lancashire from mildew and de¬ composition of the size contained in cloth, and especially in grey cloth or shirtings which have been shipped abroad has been enormous. There have been from time to time waves of disasters of this kind, but at no time since the foreign trade in such goods with this country commenced has there been an entire freedom from damage. The causes of these misfortunes are daily becoming better known, and many manufacturers have taken such steps and pre¬ cautions as will in future, in all probability, save them from further loss, still there are some, who, from obstinacy, ignorance, or carelessness, as to the modes of sizing and after-treatment of their goods, suffer, or cause others to suffer loss, from damage which lies clearly within their power to avoid. MILDEW. 239 MILDEW. The damage to which by far the greatest proportion of loss must be attributed, is mildew. Mildew, is a name given generally to damage resulting from the growth of a class of low fungi, which stain or destroy textile fabrics, and render them more or less unmerchantable or valueless. There are about two thousand varieties of fungi, known and classified according to their botanical peculiarities, and these vary in size, from that of a man’s head to that of a pin point, and from a weight of several pounds to less than the thousandth part of a grain—and again, beyond these still lower in the scale, is a group of bodies or particles endowed with life which seem to be of a fungoid nature, and which grow, producing in some cases an even but slight discoloration over the whole cloth, whilst in others the discoloration may be confined to certain parts of the pieces. In the first or highest class might be mentioned the ordinary edible mushrooms, some of which (the Agaricus) have the form of an open umbrella, with gills underneath, upon which the seed grows, whilst others, as the Polyporei, resemble somewhat in form a cauliflower without leaves ; one of this species, the Morchella crassipes, attains a height of 11 in. by 71 in. diameter; and another of the same class, Polyporus fomentarius , when cut into slices and beaten soft, 240 TPIE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. furnishes the amadou of commerce, from which warm caps, chest protectors, and other articles are made. One of the most interesting features of fungi is their habitats. In walking through a wood in the autumn we may observe that a large number of the species Agaricini, popularly known as “ toad-stools,” grow on the ground under the shade of the trees; others flourish on rotten stumps and decaying trees, whilst a few groups only of this class prefer the open field. It is of further interest to notice that of the different species of agarics which grow on the soil under woods, each selects special trees to afford it shelter. This is most probably due to the different sorts of soil or humus produced by the different kinds of decaying leaves. The Tulostoma mammosum grows amongst moss on old stone walls. The species, Sclero¬ derma, on sandy soils. While some have predilections for special kinds of decaying fungi; a few species grow on dead fir-cones, others on old ferns, and so on. Again, amongst the rarer classes of this species which have been from time to time discovered, may be mentioned Agaricus cojfece, with rose-coloured spores, found on old decomposing coffee-grounds by Viviani, in Genoa, and Agaricus markii, found in wine casks in Austria, by Tratinnick. Another species, Pohjporus avellanus, is grown for food in Italy upon charred blocks of cob-nut trees, which are simply watered and set aside in a heap. The ordinary truffle of the market, forms another example of the extraordinary influences which appa- FUNGI. 241 rently trifling differences of soil has upon the growth of fungi. Truffles are found growing underground, under the shade of certain trees. According to ZD Broome, in an article on truffle culture,* the oak and hornbeam are most propitious to their development; but in England truffles are dug by truffle-hunters from the ground, generally in mixed plantations of beech and fir ; they employ dogs—usually retrievers— to find them. It was stated by a truffle collector that when a plantation of beech, or beech and fir, is made on the chalk district of Salisbury Plain, after the lapse of a few years, truffles may be found in the ground, although no truffle seed had been planted. These plantations remain productive for ten or fifteen years, and then cease to be so, and, strange to say, no authentic instance has ever been recorded in which any one has succeeded in growing truffles from seed on a soil in which they had not been naturally found. So much, then, for the special! habitats of the higher fungi; those of the lower class are equally selective in the soil or pabulum upon which they develop : “ Some species are always found on animal matters—leather, horn, bone, etc., and some affect such unpromising substances as minerals, from which it would be supposed no nourish¬ ment could be obtained. Not only hard gravel, stones, fragments of rock, but also metals, such as iron and lead.”t Some of this low class of fungi are Q * Journal of the Horticultural Society, p. 15. (1866.) t Berkeley’s “ Outlines of British Fungology,” p. 2i. 242 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. parasitic on vegetables, such as the Peronospora infestans , which produce potato disease. The myce¬ lium of this fungus is contained in the diseased tuber, and grows into the stalk as the potato sprouts, and soon betrays itself by producing black spots on the stalks and leaves. The generative system of this fungus is of a peculiar type : round swellings, called conidia, develop on the mycelia, or fine filaments, and when these are sown in water, according to De Bary, each conidium opens and liberates a number of small globular bodies, to which are attached two or three long filaments, or cilia, and by which they swim about rapidly like animalcules. After swimming for two or three hours they come to rest, the cilia dis¬ appear, and they send out a long filament or tube, and from this, mycelia are produced, and so the fungus goes through its circle of development. Other varieties of the Peronospora attack other vegetables, as P. gangliformis, which attacks lettuces, whilst the P. ejfusa is found in spinach and allied plants. Bunt (Tilletia caries ) develops in and ulti¬ mately destroys the whole farinaceous portion of the grain of wheat, whilst the fungus ergot attacks and grows to a certain extent upon rice and wheat; but it developes with immense rapidity on rye, and often seriously injures or destroys the crop. Again, certain kinds of fungi attack insects. Wasps, spiders, moths, and butterflies become enveloped in a kind of mould called Isaria, and certain sorts belonging to the same species attack the larvae and POLYMORPHISM IN FUNGI. 243 pupae of moths and butterflies, converting the whole interior into a mass of mycelia. The house fly may be observed sticking to the window glass with a white circle of fungus round it, the sporendonema muscce, which originally developed in its interior and destroyed it, the spores of which are cast off from the dead body on to the glass. The gaepes vegetantes attacks the wasp, which is said to fly about with the fungus protruding from its. body. Again, various classes of low fungi attack the human body. Tinea circinata (ringworm) attacks the skin, producing violent irritation, whilst others attack and destroy the hair follicles, and some, such as in the affection called Pityriasis versicolor, merely grow on the skin, producing discolorations of different kinds. It is clearly shown by mycologists that some of the microscopic fungi do not propagate true to their species, but may under different condition of pabulum, &c., give rise to other quite different kinds, which have been recognised as distinct species ; but although this has been distinctly proved in some cases, other alleged cases of polymorphism may be questioned, owing to the difficulty of keeping out foreign spores from the media used for the experiments. The fact which speaks most strongly in favour of polymorphism is the well known one that com planted in the neigh¬ bourhood of barberry bushes becomes mildewed. The leaves of barberry bushes are nearly always attacked by a species of fungus belonging to the family 244 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. PEcidium. The class generally found is the /Ecidium berberidis, which occurs in cluster-cups, the cup being white and the seeds contained in it, yellow, whilst the mildew on wheat, which it is said to produce, is the Puccinia graminis , Fig. 55, which is light brown in colour and does not develop cups. This species is known to be dimorphous, producing one-celled and two-celled fruit, as shown in the clrawin a. O Fig. 55. De Bary demonstrated, by experiment, that by sowing the spores of the Puccinia gvaminis on to young leaves of the barberry, he could produce the jEcidium berberidis , but he was not so successful ASPERGILLUS GLAUCUS. 245 in his attempts to produce the Puccinia from the JEcidium by planting the latter upon the grains of wheat. It is now a well-recognised fact that from some kinds of fungus spores two kinds of fruit are produced. As an example, De Bary experimented upon the well- known green fungus Aspergillus glaucus, which is often seen growing upon such substances as jelly and flour paste. It appears first as a white woolly crust, which afterwards becomes coloured at the top by the development of the spores or conidia. Be took one of these spores, and having placed it under the microscope, watched it closely for some time and observed that it threw out a filament(c), Fig. 56, which grew erect for some distance, when on the top of this stem a spore or conidium appeared ; another formed underneath, pushing the first upwards, and this con¬ tinued until a chain of spores ( b ) was produced. This took place at many points at the same time, forming the green head (a), which is termed Aspergillus glaucus ; but at the same time, as these were forming, another fine filament, of a corkscrew form, gradually appeared, at the end of which developed a yellow- coloured bulb, called Eurotium herbariorum, under the assumption that it was a separate species of fungus. This was filled with small cells or asci. After a time the conceptacle of eurotium burst and liberated the asci , one of which is shown in the figure at (e) filled with cells. The yellow cells of the eurotium can be seen by raising a tuft of the aspergillus. The 246 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. whole appears like a green tuft growing from a yellow ground ; but again, under certain circumstances, it is possible for the eurotium to take a separate existence and grow in cloth, for instance, producing yellow spots, amd it is possible for the aspergillus to grow without producing eurotium . To return now to the point which is of more immediate importance in this work, we may ask the question, how does it come that fungus or mildew developes in grey cloth ? It is quite certain that fungus cannot spring into ex¬ istence de novo, and it is equally certain, that if size has been boiled and warp threads passed through the boiling size that all fungus spores which might have ex¬ isted originally in the size or on the yarn Fig. 56. would be destroyed by the heat, unfortunately, however, for the manu¬ facturer, the spores of fungi exist in enormous quantities, floating about in the air everywhere, and * “Quarterly German Magazine,” Vol. II., 1872. A. De Bary, “On Mildew and Fermentation.” YELLOW MILDEW. 247 especially in the air at and near large towns, and these are constantly falling upon the cloth and yarn ; but spores also remain adhering to the weft threads, and are not destroyed, because they are not sized, and consequently, not subjected to heat. It is clear, then, that every piece of grey cloth which is made, contains abundant spores of fungi, and all that is necessary to allow them to develop and cause damage, is to give them the necessary conditions for their development. The cloth contains starchy matters, which form a good pabulum for their growth. Air, another necessity, is also present, and all that remains to complete the requirements is water, or moisture, and if this be present in the necessary quantity, mildew will make its appearance, unless some powerful antiseptic be also contained in the cloth which proves poisonous to fungus life. The varieties of fungi which are found to have from time to time developed in grey cloth are large, and their distribution in the pieces in the bale are very different, depending upon the cause of their develop¬ ment. The following are some of the fungi which O O have been found growing upon grey cloth. Yellow Mildew .—Fungus of this colour is very often found upon cloth, usually in irregular spots or patches; it is produced in some instances from the yellow conceptacle of Aspergillus glaucus (Euro - tium),\ Fig. 56, and does not require nearly so much air for its development as the green conidia of the same fungus. 24S THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. The Oidium orcmteacum, Fig. 57, is another bright, yellow variety closely allied to the last-named. Fig. 57. Green Mildew. —This maybe produced by the Asper- gillusglaucus, Fig. 56, or Penicillium glaucum, Fig. 58. These two species are closely allied to each other, but they are distinguished from each other by the arrange¬ ment of the spores at the head; in the former they spring directly from one point, producing a head com¬ posed of radiating chains of spores, whilst in the latter the filament becomes branched at the head, and the chains of spores are borne by the branches. Black Mildew. —Cloth is often found stained of a deep black colour, and in some cases where slight folds BLACK MILDEW. 249 have left small crevices in the inside of pieces of cloth, black fungi will there be found to have grown, and to resemble soot; the fungus usually found is of the genus Tilletia. They grow in small erect stems with black globular heads. Some time ago a fungus of this species came under the notice of the author, remarkable for Fag 58. the rapidity and peculiar method of its propagation. Some hanks of yarn, which, after being sized and hung up in the drying room of a mill, were found to have become coloured of a dark colour like a light black dye, which was confined principally to the inner threads and the lower part of the hanks when hung 250 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. over poles in the drying room. No satisfactory ex¬ planation could be given for a long time as to what was the nature of this dark, evenly-distributed colour, until from a consideration of the method of its develop¬ ment, is was suspected to be fungus, and a few experi¬ ments were made which placed that suspicion beyond doubt. A little of the coloured yarn was damped and put side by side with a much larger quantity of good sized yarn, which was also damped; both were wrapped together in paper, and then in gutta-percha tissue, to prevent the yarn from drying. On the morning when opened, within twenty hours of its having been planted, to his surprise, the larger piece of yarn was coloured all over as if it had been dyed, but, no distinct spores could be observed on microscopical examination, a day or two afterwards, however, the whole yarn became covered with the black spores of a fungus with black round heads supported on slender white stems. This was evidently an unknown variety of fungus or its mode of growth was most singular, and it is questionable whether any other fungus can be found which is capable of developing with such extraordinary rapidity. In a few hours yarn attacked by this fungus when placed in contact with many times its own bulk of white yarn coloured it evenly all over nearly black, and when sown on flour paste which was kept warm, a splendid crop, covering the paste, was obtained within 24 hours. There seems no doubt that these peculiar fungi, which from time to time make their appearance, are PURPLE MILDEW. 251 imported adhering to the cotton, and develop as soon as they have an opportunity. In hank sizing the size is not made much warmer than blood heat, which was not sufficiently great to destroy the fungus. Purple Mildew .—This most interesting growth was accidentally discovered by the author when examining some mildewed cloth which had some purple stains on it. In the room where this cloth was being examined a basin of flour paste was left, and after a few days some beautiful purple spots, which looked as if purple ink had been dropped or spilt on it, made their appearance and rapidly spread over part of the paste; and as flour paste had often been left to mildew before in that room, and as no such growth had ever before been observed, it was assumed that the spores from the cloth had floated into the atmosphere and fallen on the paste. Some of this purple fungus was then scraped from the cloth and placed on another basin of flour paste, and a splendid crop of it was obtained. It grew only on the surface of the paste; large quantities of it were produced by touching a camel hair brush with a little and then passing it gently over large surfaces of paste. When this was done little or no difference could be observed ; but in a day or two afterwards, each line over which the camel hair brush had been drawn, appeared as if it had been streaked and daubed with purple ink, and the whole surface was soon covered with the purple or purple-blue colour. It was examined by the micro¬ scope, but no distinct spores were observed. It is 252 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. probable, however, that by more searching examina¬ tion they might have been discovered. When the surface of the purple paste was scraped and boiled with water, it dyed both silk and cotton of a beautiful fast purplish-blue colour. It was further of interest to observe that for months after examining the damaged fabric, the air of the room remained so thoroughly contaminated with these spores, that on all occasions when flour paste was left in it, this purple fungus would be certain to make its appearance. Bright-pink Mildew .—This resembles the last in appearing to have no sufficiently large or distinctly- formed spores to be seen when examined by the microscope. It grows usually in small round spots in cloth and on paste, but does not develop rapidly, and the author has never succeeded, although many trials were made, to cultivate it in large quantity. Brick-red Mildew .—This is the growth which formed the subject of inquiry in the case Provand v. Langton. This fungus is possibly a derivative of some apparently different fungus, as the eurotium is of the aspergillus glaucus. Like the purple and pink fungi, no ‘distinctly formed spores could be observed on submitting the cloth to microscopical examination. It spreads like a colouring matter, but differs very materially from the purple and pink fungi, inasmuch as it is capable not only of covering the surface of paste but also of developing downwards and colouring the paste for several inches in depth, BRICK-RED MILDEW. 253 if other fungi do not interfere with its growth. When cloth upon which this fungus had grown first came under the notice of the author, the same results were obtained as that observed in the purple variety ; paste left in the room in which this cloth was kept, became coloured with a fungus precisely similar in colour to that on the cloth, and when some of the colouring matter was scraped from the surface of the cloth and sown on flour paste copious crops of it were obtained. These fungi, however, after a time lose their vitality to some extent, so that the growth can only be repro¬ duced with some difficulty. This was shown in a very marked manner by the purple fungus, which, when the bale was opened, developed with the greatest ease in marvellous quantity, but after two years it could not be reproduced with certainty. The author some time ago transplanted some of the brick-red fungus from the cloth of Langton and Riley on to another different kind of cloth, which was wrapped up damp with a piece of the' stained portion out¬ side. The brick-red colour propagated itself into the folds of the cloths inwards on the one hand, and through the folds of the paper outwards on the other. With a view to> find whether, like ordinary fungi, this peculiar brick-red variety could be killed by heat, a piece of cloth was divided into two parts and each damped and wrapped in paper with a small piece of stained cloth on it. Each was then put into a bottle, one of which was heated for some time at a temperature of 220° Fah., tire stopper of 254 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. the bottle being tied down to prevent evaporation. Both were then left for about a fortnight or three weeks, and then opened; both were found to be equally damp, but in the one case the colour had propagated itself into the folds of the cloth and paper, and in the other, which had been heated, the stain had not propagated at all, and both cloth and paper were free from discoloration. The author has further observed lately, that the fungus in question in the case of Provand v. Langton produces spores which resemble yeast cells, but are very much smaller and of an oval form, and they seem to propagate by budding in the same way as yeast. From the fact of their being so minute and growing into the body of the size, instead of develop¬ ing on the surface only, they could not be observed when on the fibre of the cloth. They were discovered in flour paste in which the fungus from the cloth had been transplanted, by dissolving the starch granules with caustic soda on a microscope slide and then submitting the mixture to microscopical examination. Dull reddish stains, resembling in colour that of the fungus above mentioned, were observed growing on flour paste, and which on microscopical examination were found to be caused by a species of bacteria, which swim about in liquids with great rapidity, and emit a putrid odour. B roum Mildew is often found growing upon cloth. One variety of this colour belongs to the species Puccinia, Fig. 55. DAMAGED CLOTH. 255 It is well known that fungus is capable of growing in different ways. The yeast plant, for instance, multiplies in beer by a process termed ‘‘budding,” which consists in large cells giving birth to small ones, and in this process no mycelium or fungus threads are produced, whilst under other conditions it will develop mycelia and produce spores like the penicilium glaucum, Fig. 56. The spores of the last named plant, when immersed in liquid such as beer, wort, or wine, will also take upon itself the same mode of development and growth as yeast, and like it produce alcohol The influences which cause damage to cloth packed in bales and shipped abroad, are many and varied; and it often becomes a question who is the party re¬ sponsible for the damage. A careful examination of the goods will generally suffice to decide this question. It is advisable, and especially where the claims for damage are heavy, to have an unopened bale returned from abroad in a hermetically sealed tin case. When the bale arrives, each side of it should be carefully inspected, and any flaws or stains on the outside canvas or packing, noted in writing; the hoops should be taken off and the bale carefully unpacked, and any peculiarities as regards stains or flaws noted. If stains be found on the papers it should be noted whether or no they are more intense on the side nearer to the goods; the packing should be placed aside, so that it can be with certainty replaced in precisely the position which it originally 25 G THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. occupied, and the positions of any stains on the out¬ side of the block of cloth compared with any stains or flaws in the packing, and the results noted. Some of the pieces should then be separated and examined, fold by fold, to observe how the damage is distributed, and what peculiarities it presents; whether it is confined to the warp or is present on both warp and weft equally. The remainder of the examination should be conducted by the aid of chemical tests and the microscope. Sometimes goods which are manufactured and packed with all reasonable care, are damaged or destroyed by carelessness in handling the bales or during transport; for instance, water may have been allowed to fall on them, or they may have been placed on a wet ground or flooring, so that water has penetrated the bale and come in contact with the goods, and either stained them or caused mildew. In such cases, it will be observed that the outside packing and papers are water-stained, and the damage to the goods corresponds in position to them. When this happens,, the question arises whether these stains have been caused by fresh or salt water; and to decide this, it is advisable to submit to chemical tests, which are too complicated to be mentioned here, one of the papers of the packing not in contact with the goods. A simple test is to touch the tongue with a portion of the unstained and then with the stained part of the paper. The peculiar saline taste of the salts left DAMAGE TO CLOTH IN BALES. 257 from sea water may give some idea as to whether this has been the cause, but care should be exer¬ cised to see that saline matters are not dissolved from the cloth by fresh water. This may be further tested by touching the tongue with the successive layers of stained paper. The intensity of saline taste will increase from the outside inwards with salt water damage, and vice versa, if the saline matters have been washed from the goods by fresh water. To find whether a stain is due to “iron-mould,” a little of the stained portion of the cloth should be moistened with pure dilute hydrochloric acid warmed gently over a lamp, and then floated on a mixture of w'eak solutions of ferro-, and ferricyanides of potas¬ sium. If the stain be changed to a deep blue colour, it indicates “ iron-mould.” A microscopical examination of a few filaments of one of the stained threads shows sometimes fungus in its completely developed state, as shown in Fig. 58, in others only the spores can be detected ; and in others, fungoid filaments alone are present, which may pene¬ trate the filaments of the cotton in all directions, thus tendering the fabric, but which resemble so closely the cotton filaments that they can be with difficulty distinguished from them by the microscope. The steeping of the fibres of cloth in oil or Canada balsam, to make the cellulose more transparent, or the partial solution of the cellulose in a strong solu¬ tion of ammonio-sulphate of copper often aids the microscopical examination. In some cases, however, R 258 THE SIZING OF COTTON GOODS. colours may be observed which have been produced by fungoid growths, but which, either from the way in which the spores are mixed with the size, or from their minuteness, cannot be detected by microscopical examination. A popular notion exists to the effect that mildew cannot be washed out of cloth, with soap and water, and that this may be regarded as a test to determine whether or no, stains are produced by mildew, but inasmuch as the facility with which this can be done, or the impossibility of doing it, depends upon the looseness and proportion of the size present, and upon whether the fungus has actually attacked the cotton fibre, it is evident that this cannot be regarded as a criterion. Mildew colours can be removed from cloth by chloride of lime, peroxide of hydrogen, and other bleaching agents. The distribution of the mildew in the bale, if it exist, should be carefully noted. If, for example, the goods have been packed damp, mildew will be found throughout the hale, whilst, if they contain some deliquescent salt which has absorbed moisture from the outside air, the mildew will be confined principally to, and be strongest at the parts of the pieces which form the outside of the bale, whilst mildew may be observed to develop from one point only, in a bale in which water ha3 penetrated the packing, and come in contact with the cloth. INDEX. A. Acarus farince, 88. Acid, acetic, 95. „ butyric, 95. „ carbolic, 174. „ „ manufacture of, etc., 174. „ cresylic, 175. „ ,, properties of, etc., 175. „ detection of free, 47. „ free in fermented flour, 101. „ „ in chloride of zinc, 172. „ „ in cloth, 228. „ hydrochloric, 40. „ lactic, 95. „ muriatic, 46. „ nitric, 46. „ salicylic, 175. „ „ preparation and pro¬ perties of, 175. jEcidium berberidis, 244. Adulteration of flour, 62, 64. „ of starch, 67. A'jaricus , 238. „ coffeoe, 240. ,, mar Hi, 240. Air, drying power of, 189. ,, „ „ method of testing, 187. ,, in sheds, apparatus for cooling, 187. ,, „ „ saturating with moisture, 187. „ moisture contained in, 180. ,, point of saturation of, 181. Albumen, vegetable, 67. Alcohol, from fermentation of flour, 98. Alkali, -blue, 205. „ free, mode of detection, 47. „ „ in cloth, 228. Alumina, silicate of, 114. Amadou, 239. Ammonia, 42. Ammonium chloride, 43. ,, „ detection of in chloride of zinc, 171 „ oxalate, 44. „ sulphide, 44, Analysis of carnallite, 147. „ „ china clay, 121. „ „ chloride of magnesium,pure 146. „ „ commercial chloride of mag¬ nesium, 148. „ „ flour, 70. „ „ grey cloth, 226. „ „ liquors from fermented flour 93. . „ soaps, 164. ,, softening soap-mixtures, 165 solutions of chloride of magnesium, 150. Aniline blue, 204. „ effects of the vapour of, on cloth, 235. » * 99 99 )> tissue paper, 237. insoluble, 205. „ method of using, 205. Antiseptics, in fermented flour, experi¬ ments to show the presence of, 99. „ mode of using, 178. „ produced by fermentation,98. Apparatus for testing strength of yarn, 192. . „ used for chemical tests, 22. Arsenic, oxides and salts of, 178. Asci, 244. Ash of flour, 69. Aspergillus glaucus, 245, 248. 99 » 99 99 99 99 11. INDEX. Atmosphere, effects of the conditions of, on weaving, 180. „ hygrometric, state of, 191. Avoir a dais, 139. B. Bacteria ,, 95. Baerlein’s air-drying sizing machine,214. „ method of drying warp, 215 „ „ „ sizing, 214. „ sow-box, 214. Balance and weights, 23. Bales, making up goods into, 231. „ sizes of, 232. „ unopened, examination of damaged goods contained in, 255. Ball-sizing, 216. „ irregularities produced by. Capsule, platinum, 31. „ porcelain, 35. Carbolic acid, 174. Carnallite, 147. “ Carmine of Indigo,” 204 Carrageen moss, 110. Casein, 66. Castor oil, 142. Cellulose, 58, 65. Cerealin, 69. „ action of on flour, 98. Chilian flour, 69. China clay, 114. „ composition of, 121. ,, manufacture of, 116. „ properties of, 114. „ tests for adaptability of, 119. 217. Barium chloride, 45. Baryta, sulphate of, 122. Basin, enamelled iron, 35, „ porcelain, 35. Bassia parkii, 141. Beakers, thin glass, 36. Beam, 2. „ in sizing machines, 206. Bees wax composition, 143. Black mildew, 248. „ ,, in yarn, 250. Bleached palm oil, 139. Blue, alkali-, 205. ,, colours used for size-tinting. „ Nicolson’s, 205. „ No. 1 spirit, 205. Blues, aniline, 204. „ Prussian, 204. Bran in flour, 69. Brick-red miHew, 252. „ „ spores of, 254. British gum. 111. „ brown, 111. „ preparation of, 111. „ properties of, 112. „ white, 111. „ yellow, 111. Brush arrangement on Baerlein’s sizing machine, 215. Bunt, 242. Burner, Bunsen’s, 28. „ chimney, 28. Butter, shea, 141. „ vegetable, 141. Butyric acid, 95. C. Calamine, 166. Calcium, chloride of, 154. „ treatment of, in preparing size, 121. ,, drills, 225. „ sheetings, 225. Chondrus crispus, 110. Chloride of ammonium, detection of, in chloride of zinc, 171. 91 11 barium, 45, 131. 17 „ preparation and properties of, 131. 19 11 calcium, 153. 11 79 „ preparation and properties of, 154. 11 11 „ in chloride of zinc, 170. 11 11 „ test for in chloride of zinc, 170. 11 11 iron in chloride of zinc, 172. 11 71 magnesium, 146. „ analysis of, 148. 11 11 11 11 „ and zinc, action of on soap, 161. 11 11 „ composition of, 146, 147. ,, effect of heat on, 251. 11 11 T> 77 „ effect on weav¬ ing, 145, 152. 11 „ impurities of, 149. 11 17 „ m chloride of zinc, 171. 99 19 ,, objectionable pro¬ perties of, 148. 11 19 „ preparation of, 146. 17 79 „ solution of, 150, 11 11 n test for in chlo¬ ride of zinc, 171. INDEX ill. Chloride of magnesium, test for common salt in, 149. „ „ „ „ „ sulphates in, 149. „ „ sodium, 154. „ ,, zinc, 166. „ „ „ analysis of different samples of, 173. „ „ „ detection of chloride of ammonium in, 171. 99 99 99 99 # 5 ) 99 99 calcium in, 170. >) >) ;> » iron in, 172. 99 99 99 99 magnesium in, 171. „ „ common salt in, 169. „ „ sulphates in, 171. free acid in, 172 iron salts in, 167. purification of, 168. manufacture of, 167. Chlorides, test for, 128. Cloth, analysis of six samples of, 230. „ conditions favourable to mildew in, 229 „ “ count ” of, 10. „ Dacca, 19. ,, domestics, 225. „ effects of the vapours from coal and Stockholm tar on, 235. ,, free acid in, 228. „ „ alkali in, 228. „ grey, 9. „ „ analysis of, 226. „ „ uses of, 3. „ hooking of, 231. „ Mexican, 224. „ microscopic examinations of, 258. „ mode of packing into bales, 232. ,, packing of, 231. „ printing, 225. „ qualitative analysis of, 228. ,, quantitative analysis of, 227. „ sizing, or filling of, 222. „ „ machine, 222. „ sized, grey, 224. „ tests for chlorides in, 228. „ „ chloride of calcium in,228 „ „ „ „ magnesium in, 229. „ „ dextrine in, 228. „ „ starchy matters in, 229. „ „ sulphate of magnesia in, 229. „ „ sulphates in, 228. 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 9 9 Cloth, “ T,” 225. „ weaving of, 3. Coal tar, effects of the vapour of, on cloth, 235. „ „ pink stains produced by, 19. Cocoa nut oil, 140. „ palm, 140. Cocos nucifera, 40. Cold air, effect on weaving, 184. Colours used for size-tinting, 202. Colouring matter in the case, Provand v. Langton, 236. Common salt as an ingredient of size, 154. „ „ detection of, in chloride of magnesium, 149. ,, „ „ in chloride of zinc, 169. Conidia, 242. Cop, 5. Corrosive sublimate, 177. Cotton adapted for heavy sizing, 63. 99 American, 50. 99 average per centage of mineral matter in, 63, 227. 99 „ „ „ „ water in, 63. 99 Barbadoes shrubby, 51. 99 black seed, 50. 9* Boweds, 50. 99 Broach, 50. 99 chemical composition of, 58. 99 Dharwar, 50. 99 Dhollerah, 50. 99 fatty matters contained in, 61. 5 ? green seed, 50. 99 hairs diameter of, 53. 99 „ strength of, 58. 99 „ „ mode of deter¬ mining, 54. 99 hairy, 51. 99 herbaceous, 51. 99 Hiugunghat, 50. 99 length of staple of, 51. 99 „ „ mode of measuring, 51. 99 Nankin, 50. 99 New Orleans, 50. 99 Oomrawuttee, 50. 99 pectine and pectic acid in, 62. 99 physical appearance of, 51. 99 ,, characters and chemical composition of, 49. plants, varieties of, 49. 99 99 Sea Island, 51. 99 Surats, 50. 11 wax, 61. “ Count” of cloth, 10. INDEX. IV. “ Cracklings,” 133. Cresylic acid, 175. Crucible porcelain, 32. „ tongs, 33. D. Dacca cloth, stains produced by coal tar vapour on, 19. Damaged goods, mode of examination of, 256. Damage to cloth in the case, Provand v. Langton, 236. » _ » i) » proof of its being caused by a fungoid growth, 236. Damage, varieties of, to which sized goods are liable, 238. „ caused by cotton seed oil pitch, 237. Dashers compound action, 91. De Bary, on the potatoe disease fungus, 242. „ researches on Aspergillus glaucus and Eurotium her- bariorum, 246. „ researches on Puccinia and jEcidium, 245. Deliquescent salts, effect of in producing mildew, 166. „ substances, 145. Density of liquids, mode of finding, 40. Dents, 3. Dextrine, 111. „ from tapioca, 110. „ in flour, 67. „ preparation of, 111. „ test for in cloth, 228. Domestics, 225. Double twist, 200 Dressing, process of, 206. Drying closet, 27. „ cylinders, Locke’s reducing valve for, 211. „ ,, Mather and Platt’s patent for ball-sizing, 217. „ power of air, 189. „ warp, Baerlein’s method of, 215. „ „ Howard and Bullough’s method of, 213. „ „ tape-sizing method of, 210 . Dry substances, mode of weighing, 38. E. “Ear cockle” or “purples,” 97. East winds, effects of, on weaving, 181. Eastwood’s coil for boiling size, 208. “Egyptian Union Scrym,” 201. „ wheaten flour, 69. English 69. Epsom salts, 123. ,, composition of 124. „ containing chloride of magnesium, 125, ,, damage produced in cloth by, 126. ,, impurities in, 125. ,, preparation of, 124, ,, test for chlorides in, 128. Ergot, 243. Eurotium herbariorum, 246. T. Farina, 105. Farinaceous matter, use of in sizing, 196. Fats, melting points of, 134. Fats and oils, composition of, 159. Fatty matters of flour, 67. Felspar, 114. Fermentation, action of, on gluten, 98. ,, cause of, 93, ,, of flour 90. ,, ,, method of con¬ ducting, 91. ,, „ softening sub¬ stances produced by, 101, ,, „ test for indicat¬ ing end of, 99. ,, ,, use of, 90. ,, organic antiseptic pro¬ duced by, 98. ,, products of, 95. ,, putrid, 96. Fermented flour, free acid in, 101. ,, method of washing, 201. Fermenting vats, 91. Ferments, 93. ,, action of on flour, 98. Fibrin of flour, 66. Filtering funnels, 35. ,, operation of, 34. ,, paper, 34, ,. ,, folding of, 34. ,, stand, 35. Flasks, glass, 36. Floating roller for size box, 207. Flour, 64. ,, adulteration in, 81, ,, adulteration with other flours and starches, 83. ,, albumen of, 67. INDEX. v, Flour, analyses of, 70. ash of, 69. bran in, 69. casein, or legumin of, 66. cellulose of, 65. cerealin of, 69. Chilian, 69. colour of, 71. „ mode of testing, 71. composition of, 64. detection of mineral matters in, 81. dextrine in, 67. Egyptian, 69. English, 69. estimation of ash in, 81. „ gluten in, 76. „ moisture in, 76. fatty matters of, 67. fermentation of, 90. fibrin of, 66. gluten of, 66, 78, 80. glutin of, 66. insects found in, 87. Irish, 69. mode of testing, 71. nitric acid test for, 74. pastes, consistency of, 73. physical tests of, 72. 99 99 99 99 99' 99 99' 99 99 99 99 99 >> 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 5 » rice, 101. and uses of, properties 102 . separation of starch from, 83. specific gravities of thin pastes of, 74. starch of, 68. sugar of, 68. use of in sizing, 196. water in, 69. wheaten, 69. Fork of the loom, 7. Free acid in chloride of zinc, 172. „ ,, „ fermented flour, 101. „ „ mode of detecting, 47. Funnels, glass, 35. Fungi, higher class of, 238. „ lower class of, 240. Fungus, brick-red, 252. bright pink, 252. brown, 254. green, 248. on cloth in the case Provand v. Langton, 250. „ „ action of heat on, 252. purple, 251. white, 245. yellow, 247. 99 99 99 99 99 99 G Gall-nut solution, 45. „ test for iron, 172. Glaisher’s method of finding the dew¬ point of air, 191. Glass precipitating jars, 38. „ soluble, 130. „ stirring rods, 36. „ tubes, stoppered, 38. „ tubing, 37. „ „ bending of, 37. Glasses, long, 37. „ small test, 38. „ watch and clip, 39. Glauber’s salt, 128. Gluten, 66. „ action of fermentation on, 98. „ estimation of in flour, 76. „ properties of, 66. „ testing quality of, 71, 79. Glutin, 66. Glycerine, 155. „ impurities and adulteration of, 156. ,, preparation of, 155. „ properties of, 157. „ produced by fermentation, Gossypium religiosum, 50. Grape sugar, 157. „ properties and preparation of, 157, Gregson ats. Mody, law case, 17. Green mildew, 248. Grey cloths, 224. Guepes Vegetantes, 243. “ Gutta-shea,” 141. Gypsum, 123. H Hank-sizing, 218. „ „ by hand, 218. „ „ „ machinery, 219. „ „ Mason and Conlong’s ap¬ pliance for, 220. „ „ size for, 219. Hard spelter, 167. Healds, or heddles, 2. Heavy sizing, 201. „ „ mixtures, 199-202. Hooking of cloth, 231. Howard & Bullough’s air-drying sizing machine, 213. Humidifier, Lacy’s, 185. Hydrochloric acid, 46. Hydrometer, 40. „ Twaddell’s, 41. Hygrometer, 190. VI. INDEX. I. M. Indian corn starch, 108. „ „ microscopic appear¬ ance of granules of, 108. „ „ properties of, 108. Indigo, 203. „ “ carmine ” of, 204. Iodine, solution of, 47. Insects in flour, 87. Insoluble aniline blue, 205. Irish flour, 69. „ moss, 110. „ use of, 110. Iron, chloride of, gall-nut solution test for, 172. „ „ in zinc chloride, 172. „ „ logwood test for, 172. „ „ nitric acid test for, 172. “ Iron-mould,” test for, 257. Isaria, 242. J. Jacconets, 225. Japan wax, 143. Jars, glass precipitating, 38. Jeans, 226. Jelly, vegetable, 110. K. Kaolin, 114. lvieserit, 124. L. Lacy’s humidifier and air-distributor, 185. Langton and Riley ats. Provand, law case, 18. Law of implied warranty, 16. „ „ „ _ „ justice of, 20. „ case—mildewed cloth, 17. Lay, 4. Leas of yarn, experiments on strengths of, 183. Legal bearings of mildew damage, 17. Legumin, 66. Lime, sulphate of, 123. Liquids, density of, 40. Liquors from fermenting flour, 93. Litmus paper, 47. Locke's reducing valve, 211. Logwood, test for iron, 172. „ tincture of, 46. Loom, 2. „ speed of, 8. Magnesia, silicate of, 130. ,, sulphate of, 123. Magnesium, chloride of, 147. „ „ „ as an impurity in Epsom salts, 125. ,, „ „ damages produced by, 126. „ „ „ effects of heat on, 125. Maize, 108. Manihot, 110. Mason and Coulong’s hank-sizing machine, 222. Mather and Platt’s cloth-sizing machine, 222 . Measures, graduated, 37. Melting point of fats, 134. Mercury, perchloride of, 177. Mexican cloth, 224. Microscope, 82. Mildew, 239. „ action of deliquescent salts in producing, 258. black, 249. „ in yarn, 250. brick-red, 253. bright pink, 252. brown, 255. conditions necessary for its development, 247. development in grey cloth, 247. distribution of in the bale, 258. effects of free acid in pro¬ ducing, 101. green, 248. in wheat produced by barberry bushes, 243. law case connected with, 17. legal bearings of, 16. microscopic examination of cloth for, 257. preservative effect of fermenta¬ tion against, 98. purple, 251. spores, 246. „ „ effect of heat on, 253. „ „ mode of separating from air, 96. „ yellow, 247. Mildewed cloth, microscopical examina¬ tion of, 257. Mineral matters, estimation of, in cloth, 227. in flour, 69. in flour, estimation of, 81. yy yy yy yy yy yy yy yy yy yy yy yy yy yy INDEX. Vll. Mineral matters in flour, chloroform test for, 81. “ Mineral white,” 123. Mitchell’s measurements of diameter of cotton hairs, 53. Mixings, 195. „ for hank sizing, 219. „ „ heavy „ 200. „ » light „ 197. „ „ medium „ 199. Mody v. Gregson, law case, 17. Moisture, determination of, 39. „ in cloth, 227. „ its effect in strengthening yarn, 183. Moral bearings of sizing, 12. Mortar, wedgwood, 30. Morchella crassipes, Moss, carrageen, 110. „ Irish, 110. „ pearl, 110. Mule twist, 200. Mulls, 225. Muriatic acid, 46. Mushrooms, edible, 239. My coderma aceti, 95. „ lactis, 95. „ vi/ri, 94. N. Neutralisation of acid in fermented flour, 197. Nicolson’s blue, 205. Nitrate of silver, 45. Nitric acid, 46. „ test for flour, 74. „ „ iron, 172. Nitrogenous bodies, 65. O. Oidium oranteacum, 218. Oil, castor, 142. „ cocoa-nut, 140. ,, olive, 142. ,, palm, 139. Oils and fats, composition of, 159. „ examination of, 142. O’Neill’s mode of measuring length of cotton hairs, 52. „ „ „ measuring strength of cotton hairs, 52. Orthoclase, 115. Oryza sativa, 101. Oxford shirtings, cause of injury to, 126. P. 99 99 Packing of grey cloth, 231. Palm oil, 139. bleaching of, 140. manufacture of, 139. „ melting point of, 140. Palma christi, 142. Paper, “adulteration” of, 15. „ for filtering, 34. „ litmus, 47. „ used in packing, 234. Paraffin wax, 144. „ „ preparation and properties of, 144. Pastes, flour or starch, method of test¬ ing, 107. Pasteur, M., on ferments, 94. Pearl moss, 110. Pectin, 110. Penicillium glaucum, 248. „ „ action of spores in producing alcohol, 255. Peronospora infestans, 242. „ gangliformis, 242. „ effusa, 242. Percentage of size in cloth, 200. Picks, 8. Picker, 5. Picking stick, 5. „ strap, 5. Picks, glass for counting, 10. Pink, bright, mildew, 252. Pitch, oil, tarpaulin, 232. „ „ „ damage produced by, 237. Pityriasis versicolor, 243. Polariscope, 85. Polyporus fomentarius, 239. „ avellanus, 240. Porcelain basin, 35. „ crucible, 32. Potato, analysis of, 104. „ disease, 242. starch, 105. „ microscopical appearance of, 106. „ „ paste produced by boiling with water, 106. „ „ „ method of testing, 107. „ „ preparation and proper¬ ties of, 104. Printing cloths, 225. Provand v. Langton law case, 18. Psychromoter, 190. Puccinia graminie, 244. „ „ De Bary’s researches on, 244, 245. 99 99 Vlll. INDEX. Purple mildew, 251. Putrid fermentation, 96. Q. Qualitative analysis of cloth, 228.. Quantitative analysis of cloth, 227- R. Rancidity, 137. Reagents, 42. „ mode of preserving, . 42- Red, brick-, coloured, mildew, 252-. Reed, 4. Retort stand, 30. Rhus succeclanea, M3- Rice flour, 101. „ „ analysis of, 1021 „ starch, 103- „ „ granules of, 104.. „ „ preparation of, 103* Ricinus communis, 142. Ringworm, Rods, glass, 36. Russian tallow, 134. S- Safety-valve for size-boiling coil,. 20SL> Sago, 109. Salicylic acid, 175*. Salts, deposits of Stassfurt, 124. Schunck’s, Dr. E., chemical analysis of cotton, 59. Scleroderma , 240;. Shea butter, 141. „ manufacture of, etc.,.141. “ Shed” in warp, 6. Shirtings, 224. Shuttle, 5. „ box, 5. „ race, 4. Silicate of alumina, I'M. ,, magnesia, 130. ,, soda, 130- Silver Ditrate, 45. Size boiling coil, safety valve for,. 208.. „ Eastwood’s coil for boiling; 208. „ estimation of, in cloth, 226. „ for hank sizing, 219.. „ ,, heavy sizing, 200-201.. „ „ light sizing, 197-199. „ „ medium sizing, 199. ,, mixtures, 195. „ „ strength of, 198. 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 Size mixtures, mode of taking specific gravity of, 198. ,, „. used i by a i native Indian manufacturer, 202. „ mode of applying to warp, 206. „ preparing, 196. Sized grey cloth, 224. „ „ „ analysis of, 226. Sizing, ancient oriental, 9. ball, 216. heavy, 1. „ cotton best adapted for, 63. list of substances used in, 11. machines, air-drying, 213. „ for cloth. 221. moral bearings of, 12. original method of, 9. tape, 206. use of, 8, 13. “Slashing,” 206. „ frame, objections to use of, 213. Smalt, 203. Soap, 159. „ action of chlorides of magnesium and zinc upon, 162. „ composition of, 164. ,, estimation of fat in, 162. hard, 159- manufacture of, 159. properties of, 161. resin, 160. silicate of soda, 160. soft,. 160. stone, 130. use of in sizing, 159- Soda, caustic, 44- silicate of, 128- sulphate of, 128. „ „ composition of,.etc., 129. Sodium phosphate, 45. “ Softening ” mixtures, 151. „ substances produced by fermentation off flour, 101. Solanum> tuberosum, 103. Soluble glass, 130- „ soap mixtures, 165. “ Sow ” or size-box, Baerlein’s, 214- Specifio gravity of liquids, 40;. „ „ size mixtures, mode o£ taking, 198. „ „ „ thin flour paste, 74. Spelter hard, 167. Spirit blue, No. It. Sporendonema muscce, 243. Spores mildew, 246. „ of brick-red fungus, 254. 99 99-> 99 99 99 9T 99 99 99 99 INDEX. ix. Stains, fresh water on cloth, 256. „ iron, on cloth, 257. ,, mildew, on cloth, 258. „ on goods, produced by oil pitch tarpaulin, 237. „ produced by coal tar, 19. „ salt water on cloth, 257. Staple of cotton, 51. Starch, 68. „ general properties of, 68. „ Indian corn, 108. ,, ,, preparation and properties of, 108. „ potato, 103. „ rice, 103. „ sago, 109. „ „ granules of, 109. „ „ manufacture of, 109. „ „ properties of, 109. ,, tapioca, 110. „ test for, 68. „ wheaten, 84. Starches, estimation of proportion of adulteration with other starches, 86. „ microscopical examination of, 83. „ ,, by polarized light, 85. „ mixture of wheaten and rice, 86. Steatite, 130. Stirring rods, 36. Stockholm tar, 234. Strain-testing apparatus, 192. Strength of yarn, apparatus for testing, 192. „ „ modes of testing, 192.. Sugar, grape, 157. „ in flour, 68. Sulphates, test for in chloride of mag¬ nesium, 149. Sulphate of baryta, 122. , „ properties of, 123. , lime, 123. , ,, properties of, 123. , magnesia, 123. , soda, 128. /} „ impurities in, 129. Sulphates, detection of, 171. Sulphindigotic acid, 203. >> T. Tallow, 132. „ action of air on, 136. „ composition of, 132. „ manufacture of, 133. Tallow, melting point of, 134. „ mineral adulteration of, 139. „ rancidity of, 137. „ tests of suitability of, 136. „ water contained in, 138. Tape-sizing, 206. „ machine, 206. „ objections to, 213. Tapioca, 110. „ microscopic appearance of its starch granules, 110. „ preparation of dextrine from, 110 . Tar, coal, effects of the vapour of on cloth, 235. „ heavy oils of, 177. „ pink stains produced on bleached cloth by, 19. ,, Stockholm, 234. „ „ effects of the vapour of on cloth, 235. Tarpaulin, manufacture of, 234. „ made from oil pitch, 232. „ „ „ „ stains pro¬ duced by, 237. „ stains alleged to have been caused by, 234. “ T ” cloths, 225. “ Tea mays,” 108. Temperature of drying-cylinders, regu¬ lation of, 211. Test glass, 38. „ tubes, 33. „ „ holder, 34. Thermometer, 31. Throstle twist, 200. Thymol, 176. „ preparation and properties of, 176. Tilghman’s patent for treatment of oils and fats, 156. Tilletia caries, 249, 242. Tinea circinata, 243. Tincture of logwood, 46. Tinting of size, 202. „ colours used for, 202. “Toad stools,” 240. Tongs, crucible, 33. Treadles, 3. Triangles, iron wire, 32. Triticum vulgare, 69. Truffles, 240. Tubes, glass stoppered, 38. ,, ,, test, 33. Tubing glass, 37. „ „ bending of, 37. Tulostoma mammosum, 241. INDEX. Twist, double, 200. ,, mule, 200. ,, throstle, 200. U. Ultramarine, 202. Vegetable jelly, 110. Vibrio tritici , 97. Vibriones, 95. W. Warp, 1. „ drying of, by fans, 213, 215. „ drying cylinders, 211, 217. Watch glasses and clip, 39. Water, contained in air, 180. ,, distilled, 42. „ „ preparation of, 42. „ fresh, stains produced by, 256. in flour, 69. salt, stains produced by, 256. or moisture, effects in weaving, 182. Wax of cotton, 61. „ Carnauba, 61. ,, cerosine, 61. „ Japan, 143. „ paraffin, 144. Weather, cold, effect on weaving, 184. W eaving, 4, „ effects of the condition of the atmosphere on, 180. „ sheds, 181. Weaving shed, effects of its surround¬ ings on, 183. „ use of chloride of magnesium in, 152. Weft, 1. Weighing, operation of, 25. „ perfectly dry substances, 38. Wheat, structure of grain of, 64. Wheaten flour, 69. Woof, 1. “ Wraiths,” 210. Y. Yarn, apparatus for testing strength of, 192. count of, 10. double twist, 200. effects of dry ah' on strength of, 182. methods of applying size to, 206. mule twist, 200. throstle „ 200. » 5 ) Yellow mildew, 247. Z. Zinc, chloride of, 166. „ ,, adulteration of, 169. „ „ analysis of different samples of, 173. „ „ detection of adultera¬ tions in, 169, 172. „ ,, free acid in, 172, „ „ manufacture of, 167. „ „ properties of, 168. „ „ specific gravity of, 196. C):. 5 \ l 4 V. f V r CH Jolm Heywood, Excelsior Printing and Stationery Works, Hulme Hall Koad, Manchester. ERRATA. Pages 59, 61, and 63. In the headings of these pages, for “ physical characters ” read chemical com¬ position. Page 116. Under the drawing, for “ 39 ” read 41. „ 121. Ninth line from top, for “ sizer ” read sizers. ,, 136. First line, and under the drawing, for “40” read 42. ,, 185 and 187. In the headings of these pages, and fourth line from top in page 185, for “ distributor” read distributer. „ 214. Under the drawing, for “ 50 ” read 51. ,, 221. In the heading, for “ cloth ” read hank. „ 224. For Chapter XI. read Chapter XII. XII. XIII. XIII. XIV. 55 * ' ' . HI. ADVERTISEMENTS. THE PATENT HIGH-PRESSURE SELF-CLEANSING FILTERS. The efficiency of these SINGLE-CYLINDER FILTER. Filters is acknowledged by all who have seen them to be most remarkable. sole makers- JOS. HALLIDAY & 00. LIMITED, Hydraulic Engineers. Office-38, FENNEL ST. Works-WATER ST., NEWTOWN, Manchester. The following are some of the Advantages possessed by these Filters:— 1st. They give a continuous supply of thoroughly filtered water. 2nd. They remove from water all organic impurities and other matters held in suspension, and some of the mineral bases held in solution. 3rd. They can be instantly cleaned without cost or loss of time. 4tli. Their use will prevent the Scaling of Steam Boilers. Water can be taken from the hot well of a condensing engine, and filtered before entering the boiler. 5th. They are the only filters that are adapted for hot or cold water, and will filter water as rapidly as supplied by the water mains or pumps. 6th. They occupy little space, and may be attached to pipes in any part of the building. An Inspection invited at the Company's Office, 38, FENNEL STREET, Manchester. ESTABLISHED 1823. HIGHEST PRIZE MEDAL, PARIS, 1878. WILSON BROTHERS, Bobbin Manufacturers, Timber Merchants, dc., WORKS: Cornholme Mi/ls, T0DM0RDEN; Beevor Works, BARNSLEY; Shannon Saw Mills, ATHLONE; Stores and Mercantile Offices, 14, Market Place, MANCHESTER. Every description of BOBBINS, TUBES, SKEWERS, &c., for Spinning COTTON and ether FIBRES. RING-SPINNING Botbins of all kinds and of superior quality. NEW PATENT Tube and Bobbin STRENGTHENERS applied. Orders for HOME and EXPORT. Every description of BRITISH TIMBER in the TREE and SCANTLING. Sycamore and Beech BOWLS and ROLLERS. Oak, Ash, Elm, and other PLANK. Beech FALLERS. LAPPING BOARDS. Felloes, Sh afts, &c. _ JAMES EASTWOOD, CASTLETON, near MANCHESTER, OIL .^UNTID TALLOW EEFILTER, &;o_ Dealer in Farina, Sago, Antiseptic Chloride of Zinc, Paraffin, Wax, Starch, and all other Sizing Ingredients, J. E. begs to draw special attention to his Sizing Tallow Substitute, which is used by many of the largest manufacturing firms in Lancashire, and highly recommended by them for its tendency to keep all size in the yarn, giving a better colour and cover to the cloth, its entire freedom from smell and prevention of mildew. Prices and testimonials on application. THE ABOVE IS SUITABLE FOR ALL CLASSES OF SIZING. ADVERTISEMENTS. IV. E. J. SCOTT, AINSWORTH STREET, BLACKBURN. SOLE AGENT FOR “THE LANCASHIRE SIZE.” This i3 a highly concentrated form of the Size used for several years by a most successful East Lancashire Sizer and Manufacturer, and is prepared at his own Mill, and under his own personal supervision, chiefly for Shipment. IT NEEDS NO PREPARATION beyond simply boiling up and agitating. Used alone it will put from 160 TO 180 PER CENT ON TO (say) 30’s TWIST, and by the addition of Water it will yield lessening percentages down to 20, with equally satisfactory working in every grade. The action of its various ingredients render it A COMPENSATING MEDIUM, that enables the Yarn TO WORK EQUALLY WELL IN EITHER A HOT, COLD, DRY, OR MOIST CLIMATE ; and in all cases, besides improving the weaving, it gives an increased production of Cloth, with a better “feel.” It is IMPOSSIBLE for Cloth, sized with Lancashire Size, to MILDEW under any ordinary circumstances. The moderate price of The Lancashire Size will render its use very economical. Also for TO O TIE LL &o CO.’S (LIVERPOOL) SIZING SPE Cl ALITIE S. t. Registered Trade Marks. Prepared Sizing Farinas. “T. & CO.” and /^ F Prepared Sizing Wax. “ P.S.W.” and Prepared Sizing Wheat Flours, pure and mixed. Rice, Sago, and Tapioca Flours. Starches. Pure Home Rendered Tallow. Glycerine, Castor Oil, Prepared Softenings, &c. China Clay. ^Chloride of Magnesium (“Antiseptic”). ^Chloride of Calcium. ^Chloride of Zinc. * Either in liquid, or specially for export in the Solid. Packed in tin-lined casks. V. ADVERTISEMENTS. SIZING INGREDIENTS, OF ALL KINDS AND FOR EVERY CLASS OF WORK. Importers of Paraffin Wax, Glycerine, &c. China Clay Merchants. Sole Agents for 0. W. Farina. “ Haitra,” the New Sizing and Finishing Material. SIZE MIXING & BOILING APPARATUS Of every description, and on the most approved principles, and arranged to suit the different classes of work, for Manufacturers, Calico Printers, &c. EASTWOOD’S TUBULAR BOILER. KENYON’S SELF-FEEDER. SOLE -Z^G-ZEUSTTS EOR s — CHALK’S LOOM PATENT t For renewing, by covering with an unwearable Metal, worn-out Loom Cranks, Tappet Shafts, Rocking Rails, and for making unwearable Studs and Bowls of every description. 10 years guarantee given against any perceptible wear. IsTEW OIR^lSr-KIS, STUDS, «fec . 3 SUPPLIED. PuRTER AND THOMPSON’S SELF-MEASURING STOP MOTION For Weaving exact lengths of from 1 inch to 10 yards. BOOTH’S PATENT HEALD SHAFT REST For saving Healds and making the Shedding more gradual. Ptrah’s Loom Spindle, Requiring no oil, thus preventing Injury to Cloth by oil specks and black dirt from the Pickers. LACY’S PATENT “HUMIDIFIER.” By means of this Apparatus the prejudicial action of East Winds, Frost, or Extreme Heat, upon any Textile may be prevented, and any desirable degree of moisture, either hot or cold, be obtained, at the same time affording means for the greatest regularity in temperature whilst thoroughly ventilating. SAMPLES, PLANS, ESTIMATES, &c., ON APPLICATION. GELD ART, GRAYSON, & Co., 35, FENNEL STREET, MANCHESTER. (Next Cathedral) ADVERTISEMENTS. VI. ESTABLISHED 1858. By Special Appointment to the Royal Commission, Paris Exhibition, 1878. Awarded Forty-Eight Gold and Silver Medals and Diplomas. MEDAL FOR MERIT, PARIS, 1878. JAMES HOWORTH’S PATENT Revolving Archimedean Screw VENTILATORS (Self-Acting or Driven by Motive Power) Are universally acknowledged to be the Best and Cheapest for Securing EFFEGTIVE VENTILATION IN Public Buildings, Residences, Sewers, Works and Manufactories of every description, and the Cure of SMOKY CHIMNEYS. Fifty Thousand Testimonials and References for the Successful Ventila¬ tion of Houses,Public Buildings, Sewers; the Abstraction of Hot and Vitiated Air, Sulphurous Gases, Dust, Steam, and Smoke from all descrip¬ tions of Manufactories and Works; and for the Cure of Smoky Chimneys. For a Scientific and Successful Application of the Revolving Archimedean Screw Ventilators, qualified by 20 years’ study and practical experience in their appli¬ cation to every kind of Buildings, Works, and Sewers, apply' to the SOLE MAKER, JAMES HO WORTH, M.S.A., Consulting & Ventilating Engineer, VICTORIA WORKS, FARNWORTH, Near BOLTON and MANCHESTER, ENGLAND. o CTRAOtT*—“‘^MARK’* , No Gooch Genuine, without Trade Mark affixed. ADVERTISEMENTS. Vll. Manchester Exchange, No. 6 Pillar. On Tuesdays and Fridays. Gr IR, IE _A. T IMPROVEMENTS. PROCTOR'S PATENT MECHANICAL STOKER, AND SELF-CLEANSING MOVABLE BAR. THE WHOLE MACHINE BEING DRIVEN BY ONE UPRIGHT SHAFT ONE-HALF OF THE WORKING PARTS DISPENSED WITH, INDIARUBBER BUFFER DISPENSED WITH. THE NEW ARRANGEMENT CAN BE APPLIED TO THE OLD STOKER AT A SMALL COST. This Stoker consists of a tappet, spring and shovel, which shovel is supplied with coal by a ram which pushes the coal alternately to each tire. It possesses many Advantages, amongst which may be enumerated the following The tappet having three different lifts or throws, varies the tension upon the springs, the largest lift giving the most tension, throws the Coal to the back, the next to the middle, and the least to the front of the fire, thereby ensuring a uniform covering and regular supply of coal to the fire. By this machine the coal can be varied from 200 to 400 indicated horse power. The durability of the boiler is greatly increased, and the power increased 20 per cent. Has only one hopper to supply two fires, or one boiler. It is applied without the least interfering with the boiler, as it is simply fixed by the bolts of the ordinary front and can be applied in a few hours. If ever required the boiler can be fired by hand with the stoker applied, as well as without it. Prices and Particulars on Application to the Inventor, JAMES PROCTOR, OR TO THU MAKERS, BUTTERWORTH AND DICKINSON, GLOBE AND SAUNDER BANK IRON WORKS, BURNLEY. Continental Agents: Messrs. ADERS, PREYER & Co., Manchester, (except Holland). For Holland: Mr. E. LOOMAN, Enschede., ADVERTISEMENTS. Vlll. THOMAS GADD, REGENT IRON WORKS. MANCHESTER. MACHINES for Paper Stainers, Engravers, Bleachers, Dj^ers, Calico Printers, Finishers, Millers, Brewers, Floorcloth Manufacturers, India-Rubber Manufac¬ turers, &c. STEAM ENGINES: Horizontal, Vertical, and Diagonal; High and Low Pressure and Compound. HYDRAULIC MACHINERY: Pumps, Presses, &c., for Packers, Finishers, Brewers, &c. CRANES: Stationary, Independent, Overhead, and Jib Travelling; to work with rope, &c., by hand or power. Engineer in General to Ordnance Factories, Railway Companies, &c. ETTYC ENT ER LI BRARY II II 1 II II ii II 3 3 1125 00 141 : 3 D43