^ /MAY 15 189C THE ART OF PAPER-MAKING WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. Just ready. Fourth Edition, Eevised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 78. 6d. cloth. THE ART OF SOAP-MAKING : A Practical Hand- book of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilet Soaps, &c. Including many New Processes, and a Chapter on the Eecovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. "With numerous Illustrations. "Really an excellent example of a technical manual, entering as it does, thoroughly and exhaustively, both into the theory and practice of soap manufacture. The book is well and honestly done, and deserves the con- siderable cii'culation with which it will doubtless meet."— Knowledge. Second Edition. Crovra 8vo, 9s. cloth. THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE : Being a Practical Handbook, in which the Operations of Tanning, Currying, and Leather Dressing are fully Described, and the Principles of Tan- ning Explained, and many Recent Processes Introduced. With numerous Illustrations. " A sound, comprehensive treatise on tanning and its accessories The book is an eminently valuable production." — Chemical Review. Just Published. Third Edition, revised and much enlarged. 600 pp., crown 8vo, 98. cloth. ELECTRO-DEPOSITION: A Practical Treatise on the Electrolysis of Gold, Silver, Copper, Nickel, and other Metals and Alloys. With descriptions of Voltaic Batteries, Magneto and Dynamo- Electric Machines, Thermopiles, and of the Materials and Processes used in every Department of the Art, and several Chapters on ELEC- TRO-METALLURGY. With numerous Illustrations. " Eminently a book for the practical worker in electro-deposition. It contains minute and practical descriptions of methods, processes and ma- terials, as actually pursued and used in the workshop. Mr. Watt's book recommends itself to all interested in its subjects." — Engineer. Just Published. Ninth Edition, enlarged and revised, 12mo, 4s. cloth. ELECTRO -METALLURGY: Practically Treated. Ninth Edition, Enlarged and Revised, with Additional Matter and Illustrations, including the mobt recent Processes. " Ei om this book both amateur and artisan may learn everything neces- sary for the successful prosecution of electro-plating." — Iron. CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON, 7, Stationers' Hall Court, London, E.C. THE AET OF PAPER-MAKING A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER FROM RAGS, ESPARTO, STRAW, AND OTHER FIBROUS MATERIALS, INCLUDING THE MANUFACTURE OF PULP FROM WOOD FIBRE mUh a ^tscxiption oi the Jttarhinets ani Jli^pXianass xtsth TO WHICH ABE ADDED DETAILS OF PROCESSES FOR RECOVERING SODA FROM WASTE LIQUORS By ALEXANDER WATT AUTHOR OF "the ART OP SOAP-MAKING," "LEATHER MANUFACTURE," "bLECTRO METALLURGY," " BLECTfiO-DEPOSITION," ETC., ETC. LONDON CEOSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON 7, STATIONEES' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL 1890 [All riff /its 7~eserved'\ PEEFACE. In the present volume, while describing the various opera- tions involved in the manufacture of paper, the Author has endeavoured to render the work serviceable as a book of reference in respect to the processes and improvements which have from time to time been introduced, and many of which have been more or less practically applied either at tome or abroad. The recovery of soda from waste liquors has been fully dealt with, and the details of several applied processes explained. Special attention has also been directed to some of the more important methods of producing pulp from wood fibre, since it is highly probable that from this inexhaus- tible source the paper-maker will ultimately derive much of the cellulose used in his manufacture. Indeed it may be deemed equally probable, when the processes for dis- integrating wood fibre, so largely applied in America and on the Continent, become better understood in this country, that their adoption here will become more ex- tensive than has hitherto been the case. S^8I VI PREFACE. To render the work more readily understood alike by the practical operator and the student, care has been taken to avoid, as far as possible, the introduction of unexplained technicalities ; at the same time it has been the writer's aim to furnish the reader with a variety of information which, it is hoped, will prove both useful and instructive. . It is with much pleasure that the Author tenders his sincere thanks to Mr. Sydney Spalding, of the Horton Kirby Mills, South Darenth, for his kind courtesy in conducting him through the various departments of the mill, and for explaining to him the operations performed therein. To Mr, Frank Lloyd he also acknowledges his indebtedness for the generous readiness with which he accompanied him over the Daily Chronicle Mill at Sitting- bourne, and for the pains he took to supply information as to certain details at the Author's request. His best thanks are also due to those manufacturers of paper- making machinery who supplied him with many of the blocks which illustrate the pages of the book. BaIiHAH, StTEEEY, January, 1890. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. CELLULOSE. /-I 11 1 • PAGE Cellulose — Action of Acids on Cellulose— Physical Characteristics of Cellulose — Micrographic Examination of Vegetable Fibres — Determination of Cellulose— Recognition of Vegetable Fibres by the Microscope . . . . . . . . . . l CHAPTER 11. MATERIALS USED JiV PAPER-MAKING. Eaw Materials— Rags— Disinfecting Machine— Straw— Esparto Grass — Wood— Bamboo — Paper Mulberry 9 CHAPTER III. TREATMENT OF RAGS. Preliminary Operations— Sorting— Cutting— Bertrams' Rag-cutting Machine— Nuttall's Rag-cutter— Willo wing— Bertrams' Willow and Duster— Dusting — Bryan Donkin's Duster or Willow — Donkin's Devil . ......... 19 CHAPTER IV. TREA TMENT OF RA GS {continued) . Boiling Rags— Bertrams' Rag-boiler— Donkin's Rag-boiler— Washing and Breaking— Bertrams' Rag-engine — Beniley and Jackson's Eag-engiiie— Draining— Torrance's Drainer . . . .29 viii CONTENTS. CHAPTEE V. TREATMENT OF ESPARTO. PACK Preliminary Treatment— Picking — Willowing Esparto — Boiling Esparto— Sinclair's Esparto Boiler— Eoeckner's Boiler— Mallary's Process — Carbonell's Process — Washing Boiled Esparto — Young's Process — BleacliiDg the Esparto 40 CHAPTER VI. TREATMENT OF WOOD. 1. Chemical Processes— Watt and Burgess's Process— Sinclair's Process— Keegan's Process— American Wood-pulp System— Aussedat's Process— Acid Treatment of Wood— Pictet and Brelaz's Process— Barre and Blondel's Process— Poncharac's Process— Young and Pettigrew's Process— Fridet and Matus- siere's Process • • CHAPTER VII. TREATMENT OF WOOD [continuecJ). Sulphite Processes— Francke's Process— Ekman's Process— Dr. Mit- scherlich's Process — Bitter and Kellner's Boiler— Partington's Process — Blitz's Process— M'Dougall's Boiler for Acid Pro- cesses—Graham's Process— Objections to the Acid or Sulphite Processes— Sulphite Fibre and Resin— Adamson's Process- Sulphide. Processes— II. Mechanical Peocesses— Voelter's Process for preparing Wood-pulp — Thune's Process . CHAPTER VIII. TREATMENT OF VARIOUS FIBRES. Treatment of Straw- Bentley and Jackson's Boiler— Boiling the Straw— Bertrams' Edge-runner— M. A. C. Mellier's Process- Manilla, Jute, &c. — Waste Paper — Boiling Waste Paper — Eyan's Process for Treating Waste Paper CONTENTS. IX CHAPTER IX. BLEACHING. PAGK Bleaching Operations — Sour Bleaching — Bleaching with Chloride of Lime — Donkin's Bleach Mixer — Bleaching with Chlorine Gas (Grlaser's Process) — Electrolytic Bleaching (C. Watt's Process) — Hermite's Process — Andreoli's Process — Thompson's Process — Lunge's Process — Zinc Bleach Liquor — Alum Bleach Liquor —New Method of Bleaching 89 CHAPTER X. BEATING OR REFINING. Beating — Mr. Dunhar's Observations on Beating — Mr. Amot on Beating Engines— Mr. Wyatt on American Eefining Engines — The Beating Engine — Forhes' Beating Engine — Umpherston's Beating Engine — Operation of Beating — Test for Chlorine — Blending 101 CHAPTER XL LOADING.— SIZING.— COLO URING. Loading — Sizing — French Method of preparing Engine Size — Zinc Soaps in Sizing — Colouring — Animal or Tub Sizing — Prepara- tion of Animal Size — American Method of Sizing — Machine Sizing — Double-sized Paper — Mr. Wyatt's Eemarks on Sizing . ] 14 CHAPTER Xn. MAKING FAFER BY SAND. The Vat and Mould — Making the Paper — Sizing and Finishing . 129 CHAPTER Xin. MAKING FAFEE BY MACHINEET. The Fourdrinier Machine — Bertrams' Large Paper Machine — StuflF Chests — Strainers — Ee-volving Strainer and Knotter — Self- CONTENTS. cleansing Strainer— Koeckner's Pulp Strainers— The Machine AVire and its Accessories — Conical Pulp-Saver — The Dandy- Roll — Water-Marking— De la Rue's Improvements in Water- Marks — Suction Boxes— Couch Rolls — Press Rolls — Drying Cylinders — Smoothing Rolls — Single Cylinder Machines . .133 CHAPTER XIV. CALENDERING, CUTTING, AND FINISHING. Web-Glazing — Glazing Calender — Damping Rolls — Finishing- Plate Glazing — Donkin's Glazing Press — Mr. Wyatt on Ame- rican Super-Calendering — Mr. Arnot on Finishing — Cutting — Revolving Knife Catter — Bertrams' Single-sheet Cutter — Packing the finished Paper — Sizes of Paper .... 154 CHAPTER XV. COLOURED PAPERS. Coloured Papers — Colouring Matters used in Paper-making — American Combinations for Colouring — Mixing Colouring Ma- terials with Pulp — Colouring Paper for Artificial Flowers — Stains for Glazed Papers — Stains for Morocco Papers — Stains for Satin Papers 1G5 CHAPTER XVI. MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. Waterproof Paper — Scofi"ern and Tidcombe's Process — Dr. Wright's Process for preparing Cupro-Ammonium — Jouglet's Process — Waterproof Composition for Paper — Toughening Paper — Mor- fit's Process — Transparent Paper — Tracing Paper — Varnished Paper — Oiled Paper — Lithographic Paper — Cork Paper — New • Japanese Paper — Blotting Paper — Parchment Paper — Mill and Cardboard — Making Paper or Cardboard with two Faces by ordinary Machine — Test Papers . . . . . .174 CONTENTS. xi CHAPTER XVII. MACEINERY USED IN PAFER-MAKING. Bentley and Jackson's Drum Washer— Drying Cylinders— Self- acting Dry Felt Regulator-Paper Cutting Machine-Single- web Winding Machine— Cooling and Damping Rolls-Reverring or Plate-glazing Calender— Plate-planing Machine— Roll-bar Planing Machine— Washing Cylinder for Rag Engine— Bleach Pump— Three-roll Smoothing Presses— Back-water Pump— Web-glazing Calender— Reeling Machine— Web -ripping Ma- chine— Roeckner's Clarifier— Marshall's Perfecting Engine CHAPTER XVIII. RECOVERY OF SOFA FROM SPENT LIQUORS. Recovery of Soda— Evaporating Apparatus— Roeckner's Evaporator — Porion's Evaporator— Yary an' s Evaporator— American Sys- tem of Soda Recovery CHAPTER XIX. BETERMINING THE REAL VALUE OR FERCENTAGE OF COMMERCIAL SOFAS, CELORIFE OF LIME, ETC. Examination of Commercial Sodas— Mohr's Alljalimeter- Prepara- tion of the Test Acid- Sampling Alkalies— The Assay— Estima- tion of Chlorine in Bleaching Powder— Fresenius' Method— Gay-Lussac's Method— The Test Liquor— Testing the Sample- Estimation of Alumina in Alum Cake, &c CHAPTER XX. USEFUL NOTES AND TABLES. Preparation of Lakes— Brazil-wood Lake— Cochineal Lake— Lac Lake— Madder Lake-Orange Lake— Yellow Lake— Artificial Ultramarine— Twaddell's Hydrometer— Imitation Manilla from Wood-pulp— Testing Ultramarines— Strength of Paper xii CONTENTS. 1 Tables.— Balton's Table showing the Proportion of Dry Soda in Leys of different Densities— Table of Strength of Caustic Soda Solutions at 59" F. = 150° C. (Tiinnerman)— Table showing the Specific Gravity corresponding with the Degrees of Baume's Hydrometer— Table of Boiling Points of Alkaline Leys— Table showing the Quantity of Caustic Soda in Leys of different Densities— Table showing the Quantity of Bleaching Liquid at 6° Twaddell (specific gravity 1-030) required to be added to Weaker Liquor to raise it to the given Strengths— Compara- tive French and English Thermometer Scales— Weights and Measures of the Metrical System— Table of French Weights and Measures List of Works relating to Paper Mantjfacturb 246 THE ART OP PAPER-MAKING. CHAPTER I. CELLULOSE. Cellulose. — Action of Acids on Cellulose. — Physical Characteristics of Cellulose. — Micrographic Examination of Vegetable Fibres. — Deter- mination of Cellulose. — Kecognition of Vegetable Fibres by the Microscope. Cellulose. — Vegetable fibre, when deprived of all incrust- ing or cementing matters of a resinous or gummy nature, presents to us the true fibre, or cellulose, which constitutes the essential basis of all manufactured paper. Fine linen and cotton are almost pure cellulose, from the fact that the associated vegetable substances have been removed by the treatment the fibres were subjected to in the process of their manufacture ; pure white, unsized, and unloaded paper may also be considered as pure cellulose from the same cause. Viewed as a chemical substance, cellulose is white, translucent, and somewhat heavier than water. It is tasteless, inodorous, absolutely innutritions, and is in- soluble in water, alcohol, and oils. Dilute acids and alkalies, even when hot, scarcely affect it. By prolonged boiling in dilute acids, however, cellulose undergoes a gradual change, being converted into hydro-cellulose. It is also aifected by boiling water alone, especially under high pressure, if boiled for a lengthened period. Without going deeply into the chemical properties of cellulose, B CELLULOSE. whicli would be more interesting to the chemist than to the paper manufacturer, a few data respecting the action of certain chemical substances upon cellulose will, it is hoped, be found useful from a practical point of view, especially at the present day, when so many new methods of treating vegetable fibres are being introduced. Action of Acids on Cellulose. — When concentrated sulphuric acid is added very gradually to about half its weight of linen rags cut into small shreds, or strips of un- sized paper, and contained in a glass vessel, with constant stirring, the fibres gradually swell up and disappear, with- out the evolution of any gas, and a tenacious mucilage is formed which is entirely soluble in water. If, after a few hours, the mixture be diluted with water, the acid neu- tralised with chalk, and after filtration, any excess of lime thrown down by cautiously adding a solution of oxalic acid, the liquid yields, after a second filtration and the addition of alcohol in considerable excess, a gummy mass which possesses all the characters of dextrin. If instead of at once saturating the diluted acid with chalk, we boil it for four or five hours, the dextrin is entirely converted into grape sugar {glucose), which, by the addition of chalk and iiltration, as before, and evaporation at a gentle heat to the consistence of a syrup, will, after repose for a few days, furnish a concrete mass of crystallised sugar. Cotton, linen, or unsized paper, thus treated, yield fully their own weight of gum and one-sixth of their weight of grape sugar. Pure cellulose is readily attacked by, and soon becomes dissolved in, a solution of oxide of copper m ammonia [cupr ammonium), and may again be precipitated in colourless flakes by the addition of an excess of hydro- chloric acid, and afterwards filtering and washing the precipitate. Concentrated boiling hydrochloric acid con- verts cellulose into a fine powder, without, however, alter- ing its composition, while strong nitric acid forms nitro- substitution products of various degrees, according to the strength of the acid employed. "Chlorine gas passed into water in which cellulose is suspended rapidly oxidises PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CELLULOSE. and destroys it, and the same effect takes place when hypochlorites, such as hypochlorite of calcium, or hleach- mg liquors, are gently treated with it. It is not, there- fore, the cellulose itself which we want the bleaching liquor to operate upon, but only the colouring matters associated with it, and care must be taken to secure that the action intended for the extraneous substances alone does not extend to the fibre itself. Caustic potash affects but slightly cellulose in the form in which we have to do it, but in certain less compact conditions these agents decompose or destroy it." — Arnot* Physical Characteristics of Cellulose " The physical condition of cellulose," says Mr. Arnot, " after it has been freed froni extraneous matters by boiling, bleaching, and washing, is of great importance to the manufacturer. Some fibres are short, hard, and of polished exterior, while others are long, flexible, and barbed, the former, it is scarcely necessary to say, yielding but indifferent papers, easily broken and torn, while the papers produced from the latter class of fibres are possessed of a great degree of strength and flexibility. Fibres from straw, and from many varieties of wood, may be taken as repre- sentatives of the former class, those from hemp and flax affording good illustrations of the latter. There are, of course, between these extremes all degrees and combina- tions of the various characteristics indicated. It will be readily understood that hard, acicular t fibres do not felt well, there being no intertwining or adhesion of the vari- ous particles, and the paper produced is friable. On the other hand, long, flexible, elastic fibres, even though com- paratively smooth in their exterior, intertwine readily, and felt into a strong tough sheet Cotton fibre is long and tubular, and has this peculiarity, that when dry the tubes collapse and twist on their axes, this property greatly assisting the adhesion of the particles in the pro- cess of paper-making. In the , process of dyeing cotton, * Ciintor Lectures, Journal of Society of Arts, vol. xxvi. p. 74. t Needle-shaped, slender and sharp-pointed. 4 CELLULOSE. the colouring matter is absorbed into the tubes, and is, as will be readily appreciated, diiiicult of removal therefrom. Papers made exclusively of cotton fibre are strong and flexible, but have a certain sponginess about them which papers made from linen do not possess." Linen— the cellulose of the flax-plant— before it reaches the hands of the paper-maker has been subjected to cer- tain processes of steeping or retting, and also subsequent boilings and bleachings, by which the extraneous matters have been removed, and it therefore requires but little chemical treatment at his hands. " Linen fibre," Arnot further observes, " is like cotton, tubular, but the walls ot the tubes are somewhat thicker, and are jointed or notched like a cane or rush ; the notches assist greatly in the adhe- sion of the fibres one to another. This fibre possesses the other valuable properties of length, strength, and flexibility, and the latter property is increased when the walls of the tubes are crushed together under the action of the beatmg- engine." From this fibre a very strong, compactly felted paper is made ; indeed, no better material than this can be had for the production of a first-class paper. Ropes, coarse bags, and suchlike are made from hemp, the cellulose or fibre of which is not unlike that of flax, only it is of a stronger, coarser nature. Manilla * yields the strongest of all fibres. Jute, which is the fibre or inside bark of an Indian plant {Corchorus capsularis), yields a strong fibre, but is very difficult to bleach white. Esparto fibre holds an interme- diate place between the fibres just described and those of wood and straw. ... The fibre of straw is short, pointed, and polished, and cannot of itself make a strong paper. The nature of wood fibre depends, as may readily be sup- posed, upon the nature of the wood itself. Yellow pme, for example, yields a fibre long, soft, and flexible, m fact very like cotton ; while oak and many other woods yield short circular fibres which, unless perfectly free from extraneous matters, possess no flexibility, and in any case are not elastic. * Manilla hemp. DETERMINATION OF CEILULOSE. 5 Micrographic Examination of Vegetable Fibres. — The importance of the microscope in the examination of the various fibres that are employed in paper manufacture will be readily evident from the delicate nature of the cellulose to be obtained therefrom.* Amongst others M. Girard has determined, by this method of examination, the quali- ties which fibres ought to possess to suit the requirements of the manufacturer. He states that absolute length is not of much importance, but that the fibre should be slender and elastic, and possess the property of turning upon itself with facility. Tenacity is of but secondary importance, for when paper is torn the fibres scarcely ever break. The principal fibres employed in paper-making are divided into the following classes : — 1. Round, ribbed fibres, as hemp and flax. 2. Smooth, ov feebly-ribbed fibres, as esparto, jute, phor- mium (New Zealand flax), dwarf palm, hop, and sugar-cane. 3. Fibro-cellular substances, as the pulp obtained from the straw of wheat and rye by the action of caustic ley. 4. Flat fibres, as cotton, and those obtained by the action of caustic ley upon wood. 5. Imperfect substances, as the pulp obtained from saw- dust. In this class may also be included the fibre of the so-called " mechanical wood pulp." Determination of Cellulose. For the determination of cellulose in wood and other vegetable fibres to be used in paper-making Miiller recommends the following pro- cesses : t 5 grammes weight of the finely-divided sub- stance is boiled four or five times in water, using 100 cubic centimetres % each time. The residue is then dried at 100° C. (212° Fahr.), weighed, and exhausted with a mix- ture of equal measures of benzine and strong alcohol, to * For this purpose, a microscope having a magnifying power of 120 to ISO diameters will be found efficient, t " Commercial Organic Analysis." By A. H. Allen, F. C.S., vol. i. p. 316. X For Table of French Measures see end of this work. CELLULOSE. remove fat, wax, resin, &c. The residue is again dried and boiled several times in water, to every 100 c.c. of which 1 c.c. of strong ammonia has been added. This treatment removes colouring matter and pectous * substances. The residue is further bruised in a mortar if necessary, and is then treated in a closed bottle with 250 c.c. of water, and 20 c.c. of bromine water containing 4 c.c. of bromine to the litre. t In the case of the purer bark-fibres, such as flax and hemp, the yellow colour of the liquid only slowly disappears, but with straw and woods decolorisation occurs in a few minutes, and when this takes place more bromine water is added, this being repeated until the yellow colour remains, and bromine can be detected in the liquid after twelve hours. The liquid is then filtered, and the residue washed with water and heated to boiling with a litre of water containing 5 c.c. of strong ammonia. The liquid and tissue are usually coloured brown by this treatment. The undissolved matter is filtered olf, washed, and again treated with bromine water. When the action seems com- plete the residue is again heated with ammoniacal water. This second treatment is sufiicient with the purer fibres, but the operation must be repeated as often as the residue imparts a brownish tint to the alkaline liquid. The cellulose is thus obtained as a pure white body ; it is washed with water, and then with boiling alcohol, after which it may be dried at 100° C. (212° Fahr.) and weighed. Recognition of Vegetable Fibres by the Microscope. — From Mr. Allen's admirable and useful work on " Com- mercial Organic Analysis " + we make the following ex- tracts, but must refer the reader to the work named for fuller information upon this important consideration of the subject. In examining fibres under the microscope, * FectoHS, pertaining to or consisting of pectose or pectin. _ Pectose is a substance contained in the pulp of unripe fle.-hy fruit, also in fleshy roots and other vegetable organs. It is insoluble in water, but under the influence of acids is transformed into pectin. t A litre equals 34 fluid ounces nearly. X " Commercial Organic Analysis." By A. H. Allen, F.C.S., vol. i. RECOGNITION OF VEGETABLE FIBRES. 7 it is recommended tliat the tissues should be cut up with sharp scissors, placed on a glass slide, moistened with water, and covered with a piece of thin glass. Under these conditions : — Filaments of Cotton appear as transparent tubes, flat- tened and twisted round their axes, and tapering off to a closed point at each end. A section of the filament some- what resembles the figure 8, the tube, originally cylindri cal, having collapsed most in the middle, forming semi tubes on each side, which give the fibre, when viewed in certain lights, the appearance of a flat ribbon, with the hem of the border at each edge. The twisted, or corkscrew form of the dried filament of cotton distinguishes it from all other vegetable fibres, and is characteristic of the ma- tured pod, M. Bauer having found that the fibres of the unripe seed are simply untwisted cylindrical tubes, which never twist afterwards if separated from the plant. The matured fibres always collapse in the middle as described, and undergo no change in this respect when passing through all the various operations to which cotton is sub- ject, from spinning to its conversion into pulp for paper- making. Linen, or Flax Fibre, under the microscope, appears as hollow tubes, open at both ends, the fibres being smooth, and the inner tube very narrow, and joints, or septa,* appear at intervals, but are not furnished with hairy appendages as is the case with hemp. When flax fibre is immersed in a boiling solution of equal parts of caustic potash and water for about a minute, then removed and pressed between folds of filter-paper, it assumes a dark yellow colour, whilst cotton under the same treatment remains white or becomes very bright yellow. When flax, or a tissue made from it, is immersed in oil, and then well pressed to remove excess of the liquid, it remains translu- cent, while cotton, under the same conditions, becomes opaque. * Sepia, plural of septum, a partition, as the partitions of an orange, for example. 8 CELLULOSE. New Zealand Flax [Phormium tenax) may be distin- guislied from ordinary flax or hemp by a reddish colour produced on immersing it first in a strong chlorine water, and then in ammonia. In machine- dressed New Zealand flax the bundles are translucent and irregularly coyered with tissue ; spiral fibres can be detected in the bundles, but less numerous than in Sizal. In Maori-prepared phormium the bundles are almost wholly free from tissue, while there are no spiral fibres. Hemp Fibre resembles flax, and exhibits small hairy appendages at the joints. In Manilla hemp the bundles are oval, nearly opaque, and surrounded by a considerable quantity of dried-up cellular tissue composed of rectan- gular cells. The bimdles are smooth, very few detached ultimate fibres are seen, and no spiral tissue. Sizal, or Sisal Hemp [Agave Americana), forms oval fibrous bundles surrounded by cellular tissue, a few smooth ultimate fibres projecting from the bundles ; is more trans- lucent than Manilla, and a large quantity of spiral fibres are mixed up in the bundles. Jute Fibre appears under the microscope as bundles of tendrils, each being a cylinder, with irregular thickened ■ walls. The bundles offer a smooth cylindrical surface, to which the silky lustre of jute is due, and which is much increased by bleaching. By the action of hypochlorite of soda the bundles of fibres can be disintegrated, so that the single fibres can be readily distinguished under the micro- scope. Jute is coloured a deeper yellow by sulphate of aniline than is any other fibre. CHAPTER II. MATERIALS USED IN PAPER-MAKING. Eaw Materials. — Rags. — Disinfecting Machine. — Straw. — Esparto Grass. — Wood. —Bamboo. — Paper Mulberi y . In former days the only materials employed for the manufacture of paper were linen and cotton rags, flax and hemp waste, and some few other fibre-yielding materials. The reduction of the excise duty, however, from 3d. to l|d. per lb., which took effect in the first year of Her Majesty's reign — namely, in 1837 — created a greatly in- creased demand for paper, and caused much anxiety amongst manufacturers lest the supply of rags should provi^ inadequate to their requirements. Again, in the year 1^61 the excise duty was totally abolished, from which period an enormously increased demand for paper, and consequently paper material, was created by the esta- blishment of a vast number of daily and weekly papers and journals in all parts of the kingdom, besides reprints of standard and other works in a cheap form, the copy- right of which had expired. It is not too much to say, that unless other materials than those employed before the repeal of the paper duty had been discovered, the abolition of the impost would have proved but of little service to the public at large. Beneficent Nature, however, has gradually, but surely and amply, supplied our needs through the instrumentality of man's restless activity and perseverance. The following list comprises many of the substances from which cellulose, or vegetable fibre, can be separated for the purposes of paper-making with advantage ; but the MATERIALS USED IN PAFER-MAKING. vegetable kingdom furnislies in addition a vast number of plants and vegetables which may also be used with the same object. We have seen voluminous lists of fibre-yielding materials which have been suggested as suitable for paper- making, but since the greater portion of them are never likely to be applied to such a purpose, we consider the time wasted in proposing them. It is true that the stalks of the cabbage tribe, for example, would be available for the sake of their fibre, but we should imagine that no grower of ordinary intelligence would deprive his ground of the nourishment such waste is capable of returning to the s >il, by its employment as manure, to furnish a mate- rial for paper-making. Again, we have seen blackberries, ' and even the pollen (!) of plants included in a list of paper materials, but fortunately the manufacturer is never likely to be reduced to such extremities as to be compelled to use materials of this nature. Raw Materials. Cotton rags. Cotton wool. Cotton waste. Cotion-seed waste. Linen rags. Linen waste. Hemp wHste. Manilla hemp. Flax waste, etc. Jute waste, etc. China grass. Bamboo cane. Rattan cane. Biinana fibre. Straw of wheat, etc. Rushes of various kinds. New Zealand flax. Maize stems, husks, etc. Esparto grass. Reed-. Woods of various kinds, espe- cially white non-resinous woods, as poplar, willow, etc. Wood shavings, sawdust, and chips. Barks of various trees, espe- cially of the paper mulberry. Peat. Twigs of common broom and heather. Mustard stems after threshing. Buckwheat straw. Tobacco stalks. Beetroot refuse from sugar works. Megass, or "cane trash" — re- fuse of the sugar cane after the juice has been extracted. Fern leaves. Tan waste. Dyers' wood waste. Old bagging. Old bast matting. Hop-bines. Bean-stalks. . Old canvas. Old rope. Gunny bags. Waste paper. Binders' clippings, etc. J^ATV MATERIALS — RAGS. II Old netting. Sailcloth. Sea grass {Zostera marina). Fibrous waste resulting from pharm aceutical preparations. Potato stalks. Stable manure. Silk cocoon waste. Oakum. Flax tow. Kag bagging. Leather waste. Tarpaulin. Etc., etc. Rags — Linen and cotton rags are imported into Great Britain from almost all the countries of Europe, and even from the distant states of South America, British South Africa, and Australasia. The greater proportion, how- ever, come from Germany. The rags collected in England chiefly pass through the hands of wholesale merchants established in London, Liverpool, Manchester, and Bristol, and these are sorted to a certain extent before they are sent to the paper-mills. By this rough sorting, which does not include either cleansing or disinfecting, certain kinds of rags which would be useless to the paper-maker are. separated and sold as manure. Woollen rags are not usually mixed with cotton rags, but are generally kept apart to be converted into " shoddy." The importance of disinfecting rags before they pass through the hands of the workpeople employed at the paper-mills cannot be over-estimated, and it is the duty of every Government to see that this is effectually carried out, not only at such times when cholera and other epidemics are known to be rife in certain countries from which rags may be imported, but at all times, since there is no greater source of danger to the health of communities than in the diffusion of old linen and cotton garments, or pieces, which are largely contributed by the dwellers in the slums of crowded cities. Respecting the disinfecting of rags, Davis * thus ex- plains the precautions taken in the United States to guard against the dangers of infection from rags coming from foreign or other sources. " When cholera, or other in- fectious or contagious diseases exist in foreign countries, or in portions of the United States, the health officers in charge of the various quarantines in this country require * "Manufacture of Paper." By C. T. Davis, Philadelphia, 1887. 12 MATERIALS USED IN PAPER-MAKING. that rags from countries and districts in wliicli such diseases are prevalent shall be thoroughly disinfected before they are allowed to pass their stations. Rags shipped to London, Hull, Liverpool, Italian, or other ports, and re- shipped from such ports to the United States, are usually subjected to the same rule as if shipped direct from the ports of the country in which such diseases prevail. It is usually requisite that the disinfec- tion shall be made at the storehouse in the port of ship- ment, by boiling the rags several hours under a proper degree of pressure, or in a tightly-closed vessel, or disin- fected with sulphurous acid, which is evolved by burning at least two pounds of roll sulphur to every ten cubic feet of room space, the apartment being kept closed for several hours after the rags are thus treated. Disinfection by boiling the rags is usually considered to be the best method. In the case of rags imported from India, Egypt, Spain, and other foreign countries where cholera is liable to become epidemic, it is especially desirable that some efficient, rapid, and thorough process of disinfecting should be devised. In order to meet the quarantine requirements, it must be thorough and certain in its action, and in order that the lives of the workmen and of others in the vicinity may not be endangered by the liberating of active disease-germs, or exposure of decay- ing and deleterious matters, and that the delay, trouble, and exposure of unbaling and rebaling may be avoided, it must be capable of use upon the rags while in the bale, and of doing its work rapidly when so used." Disinfecting Machine. — To facilitate the disinfecting of rags while in the bale, Messrs. Parker and Blackraan devised a machine, for which they obtained a patent in 1884, from which the following abstract is taken. Formerly rags and other fibrous materials were dis- infected by being subjected to germ-destroying gases or liquids in enclosed chambers, but in order to render the disinfecting process effectual, it was found necessary to treat the material in a loose or separated state, no sue- DISINFECTING MACHINE. 13 cessful method having been adopted for disinfecting the materials while in the bale. " This unbaling and loosen-"^ ing or spreading of the undisinfected material is abso- lutely unsafe and dangerous to the workmen, or to those in the vicinity, because of the consequent setting free of the disease germs, and the exposing of any decaying or deleterious matters which may be held in the material while it is compressed in the bale. The unbaling and neces- sary rebaling of the material for transportation also in- volves much trouble and expense and loss of time. Large and cumbrous apparatus is also necessary to treat large H Fig. 1. quantities of material loosened or opened out as hereto'^ fore." It is specially necessary that rags coming from Egypt and other foreign countries should be thoroughly disin- fected by some rapid and effectual means, which, while not endangering the health of workmen employed in this some- what hazardous task, will fully meet all quarantine re- quirements. The apparatus devised by Messrs. Parker and Blackman,* an abridged description of which is given below, will probably accomplish this much-desired object. * Patent dated 16tli Decemter, 1884, No. 539. MATERIALS USED IN PAPER-MAKING. In the illustration, Fig. 1, a is the disinfecting cham- ber. At one end is an opening a\ and a door b, hinged at its lower edge and adapted to be swung up, so as to close tlie opening tightly. Tor supporting and carrying the bale c of material to be placed in the chamber is a carriage consisting of a platform supported upon wheels or castors c c. While the carriage is wholly within the chamber a, as shown in Fig. 2, these wheels rest upon the false bottom b'^ ; when the carriage is rolled back and out of the chamber, as shown in Fig. 1, they roll upon the upper face of door b swung down. The carriage is provided with a clamping device d to hold the bale firmly and immovably. To cause the carriage to move into and out of the chamber, the inventors provide upon Fig. 2. the under side of the platform a fixed sleeve e, interiorly threaded to fit the screw e\ journalled at one end near the opening in the chamber end in a stationary block fixed upon the false bottom b^. From this end the screw ex- tends along under the carriage through the screw sleeve and to the other end of the chamber. A collar on the screw bears against the inner end of this journal-bearing, and upon the end of the shank e bearing against the other end of the journal is fixed a pinion r, which is to be DISINFECTING MACHINE. 15 driven in either direction as desired. Above this joiirnal- bearing is a series of similar bearings (five being shown), G G, passing through the wall of the chamber. Of these the middle one is in a line with the centre of the bale, supported and held on the carriage. The others are arranged at the corners of a square. Journalled in these bearings are the hollow shanks h h of the hollow screws I I pointed at Each screw is perforated, i i, between the threads from the fixed collar k k. Upon the tubular shanks h h of the screws are fixed the gear- wheels L L. At a short distance from the end of the chamber a is the hollow chamber or receptacle m, into which is to be forced the disinfectant liquid or gas. The tubular shanks h h of the screws project through the wall M, passing through stuffing-boxes m m, and their bores communicate with the interior of the chamber, the shank of the middle screw being continued through the opposite wall and a stuffing-box, its solid or projecting end being provided with two fixed pulleys, n n, and a loose pulley o. When a gaseous disinfectant is used, it can be forced by any desired means through the pipe s into the chamber. Where a liquid disinfectant is used, an elevated tank r containing the fluid may be used. As most fibrous materials, and especially rags, are baled so as to be in layers, it is preferable so to place the bale upon the carriage that the perforated screws may penetrate the material at right angles to the layers by which the gas or liquid issuing through the holes in the screws passes in all directions throughout the mass within the bale. In the upper part of chamber a are perforated shelves V V, upon which, if desired, the material can be spread out and subjected to disinfecting gas or vapour. On the top of the chamber is a tank w nearly filled with disin- fecting liquid. A passage extends from upper part of the chamber up into the tank above the level of the liquid therein, and is then carried at its end down below the sur- face of the liquid. At its other end the tank is provided at its top with a discharge opening x and a suitable pipe i6 MATERIALS USED IN PAPER-MAKING. x\ forming a continuation of tlie opening ; by this means all foul and deleterious vapours or gases passing out of the closed chamber a through the passage w must pass through the disinfecting liquid in the tank before escap- ing through the opening x and stack into the air, and are thus rendered harmless. When a sufficient amount of the disinfectant has been forced into and through the bale, the disinfectant is turned off, and cold dry air can be forced through chamber m, and out through the nozzles and bale, whereby the material within the bale becomes cooled and dried, and all the foul air from the chamber a driven out, so that it may be opened and entered with safety. Any suitable disin- fectant may be used with this apparatus, as, for example, sulphurous acid, in gas or solution, superheated steam, carbolic acid, or any solution or vapour containing chlorine. Straw. — ^Yery large quantities of this material are used in the manufacture of paper, but more especially for news- papers, the straw from wheat and oats being mostly ena- ployed. Although the percentage of cellulose in straw is about equal to that of esparto, the severe treatment it re- quires to effectually remove the silicious coating by which the fibre is protected, and to render the knots amenable to the action of the bleach, greatly reduces the yield of finished pulp. Many processes have been introduced for the treatment of straw for paper-making, but the most successful of them appear to be modifications of a process introduced in 1853 by MM. Coupler and Mellier. . . Esparto Grass. — This important fibrous material is largely imported from Algeria, Spain, and other countries, and constitutes one of the most valuable fibre-yieldmg materials with which the manufacturer has to deal. Some idea of the amount of esparto and other fibres which find their way to our shores may be gleaned from the fact that while the import of cotton and Hnen rags in the year 1884 was 36,233 tons, of the value of £487,866, that of esparto ORIGIN OF THE WOOD PULP PROCESS. 17 and other fibres amounted to 184,005 tons, of the value of £1,125,653. Wood.— As a paper-making material, the fibre obtained from various kinds of wood now holds an important posi- tion, since the sources of supply are practically inex- haustible. The first practical process for manufacturing pulp from wood fibre was perfected and introduced by the author's father, the late Mr. Charles Watt, who, in con- junction with Mr. H. Burgess, obtained a patent for the invention on August 19th, 1853. The process was after- wards publicly exhibited at a small works on the .Regent's Canal, when the Earl of Derby (then Lord Stanley), many scientific men and representatives of the press, were present, and expressed themselves well satisfied with its success. Specimens of the wood paper, including a copy of the Weekly Times printed thereon, were exhibited, as also some water-colour drawings which had been produced upon paper made from wood pulp. Failing to get the process taken up in England, an American patent wa^ appHed for and obtained in 1854, which was subsequently purchased ; but with the exception of an instalment, the purchase-money was never paid to the inventor ! Thus the process " got " into other hands, the original inventor alone being unbenefited by it. It has been repeatedly stated,* no doubt unwittingly, that a person named Houghton first introduced the wood paper process into this country ; but considering that his patent was not obtained until 1857, or four years after the process above referred to was patented and publicly ex- hibited in England, it will be seen that the statement is absolutely without foundation. The first knowledge Mr. Houghton received concerning wood as a paper-makino- material was from the author's father, and he (Mr. Hough- ton), in conjunction with Mr. Burgess, introduced the Watt and Burgess process into America in the year 1854. These are the facts. * "Forestry and Forest Products," p. 501^ and Cross and Bevan's " Text Book of Paper-making," p. 65. C i8 MATERIALS USED IN PAPER-MAKING. Bamboo {Bambiim vulgaris).— The leaves and fresh-cut stems of this plant are used for paper material, but require to pass tlirougli a preliminary process of crushing, which is effected by suitable rolls, the second series of crushing rolls being grooved or channelled to split or divide the material, after which the stems are cut to suitable lengths for boiling. Paper Mulberry {Broussonetia papyrifera). — The inner bark of this tree, and also some other basts, have long been used by the Japanese and Chinese in the manufacture of paper of great strength, but of extreme delicacy. CHAPTER III. TREATMENT OF RAGS. Preliminary Operations. — Sorting.— Cutting. — Bertrams' Rag-cutting Machine.— Nuttall's Eag-cutter.—Willowing.— Bertrams' Willow and Duster.— Dusting.— Bryan Donkin's Duster or Willow.— Donkin's " Devil." Preliminary Operations.— Before the rags are submitted to the various processes which constitute the art of paper- raaking, they are subjected to certain preliminary opera- tions to free them from dirty matters, dust, and even sand, which is sometimes fraudulently introduced into rags to increase their weight. This preliminary treatment may be classified under the following heads, namely : — Sorting ; Cutting ; Willowing ; Dusting. Sorting.— The rags .being removed from the bags or bales in which they are packed, require first to be sorted according to the nature and quality of the fabrics of which they are composed ; thus linen^ cotton, hemp, wool, &c., must be carefully separated from each other; the thickness of the substance, its condition" as to the wear it has undergone, and the colour of the material, all these considerations are taken into account by the women and girls who are employed in the operation of sorting. The finer qualities are set aside for writing-paper, inferior sorts being used separately, or mixed, according to the requirements of the manufacturer. Blue rags are gene- rally separated from the rest and kept for the manufacture of blue paper, but most of the other coloured rags require bleaching. In sorting rags, a good deal of judgment and skill are required to avoid mixing the better qualities with those of an inferior class, which would occasion loss in the 20 TREATMENT OF RAGS. manufacture. It is also important that those of inferior colour should not be mixed with the finer qualities, which would be liable to affect the colour and deteriorate the quality of the paper. Paper manufacturers generally classify the rags obtained from home sources, that is, from different parts of .the United Kingdom, under the following heads : — Home Rags. New cuttings. * Linen pieces. Cotton pieces. Fines (whites). Superfines (whites). Outshots (whites). Seconds (whites). Thirds (whites). Colours or prints. Blues. Gunny, clenn. Gunny, dirty. Eope (white). Eope (hard), Eope, bagging, etc. Foreign rags are distinguished as below : — Belgian Eags. White linens. Mixed fines (linens and cot- tons^. Grey linens. Si.vong linens. Extra fine linens Blue linens. Superfine white cottons. Outshot cotions. Seconds. Half jute and linen. Light prints. Mixed prints. Bine cottons. Fustians. Black calicoes. White hemp, strings, and rope. Tarred hemp, strings, and rope. Jute spinners' waste. Jute waste. New. White linens. Grey linens. Blue linens. Unbleached cottons. White linens and cottons. Print cuttings (free from hlack). Blacks. Fustians. French linens. White cotton. Knitted cotton. Blue cotton. Coloured co.ton. •French Eags. Black cotton. Marseilles whites. Light prints. Mixed prints. New white cuttings. SORTING RAGS. 21 German Rags. 8. P. F. F. F. S. P. F. P. P. "white linen (first), p. while ILaen (second). Trieste. Leghorn. L. F. B. blue. C. 8. p. F. F. F. c. F. B. blue, c. F. X. coloured. s. fine greys. X. coloured cottons. p. L. linens, p. c. cottons. Whites. F. B. G. Turkey and Beyrout. Bright reds. Alexandria. Blues. Baltic and Russian. Colours. F. F. B. G. L. F. : Woollen rags are only used to a very moderate extent in blotting and filtering papers and also in coarse papers and wrappers. Many attempts have been made to bleach, woollen rags, but the severity of the treatment required invariably ended in a destruction of the fibrous substances mingled with them. It is customary' to dispose of such material for re-making into common cloths, and for shoddy. Eags collected in large cities, in consequence of the frequent bleachings they have been subjected to, are considerably weakened in fibre, tearing easily, and are therefore subject to loss in process of manufacture into pulp. Country rags, being coarser and greyer because less bleached, are stronger in fibre and give a better body to the paper. In sampling .rags it is necessary to take pre- cautions against the fraudulent " tricks of the trade," which are often resorted to to cheat the manufacturer. Samples should be taken from the interior of . the bags 22 TREATMENT OF RAGS, or bales, to ascertain if the material in tlie interior is equal in quality with that at the outside — that is to say, that the quality is fairly averaged throughout. It may also be found that the rags have been purposely wetted to increase their weight. . If such is found to be the case, a few handf uls should be weighed, and then dried in a warm room, and afterwards re- weighed, when if the loss exceeds 5 to 7 per cent, it may be assumed that the rags have been fraudulently wetted. It is gene- rally found, however, that the merchants in. the principal towns transact their business honourably and are therefore reliable. The sorting is generally performed by women, who not only separate the various qualities of the rags, which they place in separate receptacles, but also remove all buttons, hooks and eyes, india-rubber, pins and needles, &c., and loosen all seams, hems and knots. The rags are next carefully looked over by women called, over- haulers, or over-lookers,, whose duty it is to see that the previous operations have been fully carried out in all respects. Usually there is one over-hauler to every eight or ten cutters. Cutting. — In some mills it is preferred to have the rags cut into pieces from 2 to 4 inches square, but the actual size is not considered of much importance. The chief object is to have them in such a condition that they may be thoroughly cleansed in subsequent operations, and able to float throughout the water in the rag-engine, without twisting round the roller. If the rag pieces are smaller than is required to effect this it tends to create a loss of fibre in the operations of willowing and dusting. The process of cutting is performed by hand or by machinery. "When the rags are cut by hand, the operation, which is accomplished by women, is conducted as follows: — The cutter takes her place in front of an oblong box, as in Fig. 3, covered witli coarse wire netting, containing three threads per inch, through which dust, &c., passes to a receptacle beneath ; in the centre is fixed, CUTTING. 23 in a slanting position, a large-bladed knife of peculiar form, with its back towards the operator, who is sur- rounded by a number of boxes, corresponding with the number of the dif- ferent qualities of rags ; these are lined at the bot- tom with coarse wire gauze. In the operation of cutting, if any foreign substances, such as but- tons, hooks, &c., which may have escaped the sorters are found, these are at once removed. The rags as they are 'cut are Fig. 3. put into baskets to be conveyed to the rag-engine room. In some mills rags are cut by machinery, but hand cutting is usually adopted for the better kinds of paper, as it is obvious that the machine would not be able to reject, as is the case in hand cutting, unpicked seams and other irregularities which may have escaped observation by the sorters and overhaulers. Machine cutting is, therefore, generally adopted for the materials which are to be used for the coarser papers.. There are several rag-cutting machines in use, of which one or two examples are given below. Bertrams' Bag-Cutting Machine. — The engraving. Fig. 4, represents a machine manufactured by Messrs. Bertrams, Limited, of St. Katherine's Works, Edin- burgh, to whose courtesy we are indebted for this and other illustrations of their machinery, which have been reproduced in outline from their illustrated cata- logue. The machine, which is suitable either for rags or ropes, has three revolving knives, and one dead knife, which is rendered reversible to four edges, and has self- acting feed gear, side frames, drum, and other connec- tions of substantial construction ; it is wood covered, and 24 TREATMEN'l OF RAGS. furnislied with sheet-iron delivery spout. The material ]3asses into the machine along the table at a, where it Fig. 4. IDasses between the dead knife c and the knives h fixed to the revolving drum d. The cut rags fall into a receptacle beneath the drum. Nuttall's Rag Cutter.— Another type of rag cutter, and which is also suitable for cutting bagging, sailcloth, tarpaulin, Manilla and other fibres, is Nuttall's Rag Cut- ter, a drawing of which is shown in Eig. 5. This machine is manufactured by Messrs. Bentley and Jackson, of Bury, near Manchester, and is generally known as the "Guillotine Rag Cutter," from the principle of its action, which is that of chopping the material. The machine is adopted at many mills, and a large-sized machine has recently been put down at the Baihj Telc- graioli mills, Dartford. A medium-sized machine will cut about one ton of rags in an hour, Willowing. — In some^ mills the cut rags are conveyed to a machine called the " willow," which in one form of machine consists of two cast-iron cylinders, in dia- WILLOWING. 25 meter and 3| feet wide, provided witli numerous iron teeth, whicli project about 4 inches. These cylinders are placed one behind the other, and beneath them is a semi- Fig. 5. circular screw, and above them a cover of the same form. This cover is also furnished with teeth, and is so adjusted that the teeth in the cylinders pass those in the cover at a distance of 5 to f of an inch. In front are a pair of rollers and revolving apron, which carry the rags into the cylinders, which rotate rapidly ; and the rags, which are thrown by the first into the second cylinder, are allowed to remain in them for about 20 seconds, when a sliding door, which rises three times per minute, allows the' rags to be discharged into a duster. Each time the sliding door opens the revolving apron moves forward and re- charges the willow with a fresh supply. The rags, after being beaten and teazed in the willow, are considerably loosened in texture, and a good deal of dust and gritty matters fall through the screen beneath. Fig. 6 represents a combined willow and duster, speci- ally useful for waste rags and jute, but may be used for all fibres, manufactured by Bertrams, Limited, the main features of which are thus described : — " There are two drums, which have malleable-iron cross-bars and teeth, and malleable-iron harp motion below for escape of dust. 26 TREATMENT OF RAGS. The framework of the willow is of cast iron, and the sides are filled in with cast-iron panel doors, the top being covered in with sheet iron. The gear is arranged so that the willow will deliver to the duster or otherwise by self- acting motion continuously or intermittently. The feed to the willow can also be made continuous or intermittent. The drums, framework, panels, and casing being made of iron, th€ chance of fire from the friction of its working is reduced to a minimum. The duster, as a rule, is 12 feet Fig. 6. long, about 5 feet in diameter, and has eight longitudinal bars of cast iron fitted between the front and end revolving rings. These bars are fitted with malleable-iron spikes, pitched and so arl-anged that the rags or fibres are delivered at the exit end automatically. The outside of the duster can be lined with wire-cloth, perforated zinc, iron, etc. It is driven by outside shafts and friction gear, so that there is no internal shaft to interfere with the delivery of the fibres." Dusting. — In Fig. 7 is shown a rag-dusting machine, manufactured by Messrs. Bryan Donkin and Co., of Ber- mondsey, London. The cylinder of this machine, which is conical in form, to enable the rags to travel from one end to the other, whence they are ejected, revolves, as also does a second cylinder of a skeleton form, but in the opposite direction. Each cylinder is fitted "with knives, or spikes — those of the outer cylinder projecting DUSTING. 27 towards the centre; the knives of the centre cylinder being attached to its exterior surface : when the machine is in motion the two sets of blades pass each other so that' when the rags come between them the action is that Fig. 7. of scissors. When the rags are ejected at the end. of the cylinder, they pass into another cylinder of wire, through which the dust falls and leaves them in a fairly clean condition, when they are lowered through a trap-door to the boiling room below. Donkiu's " Devil." — For removing the dust and dirt from coarse and very dirty rags, oakum, rope, etc., the Fifr. 8. presence of which would seriously injure the quality of the paper, a still more powerful machine has been in- 28- TREATMENT OF RAGS. troduced, called tlie " devil," which is constructed on the same principle as the willow, but revolves at a lower speed. The revolving axle of this machine is conical, and is provided with teeth, arranged in a spiral form. The case in which it rotates is fed continuouslj^, instead of intermittently ; and although it facilitates the subsequent treatment of the fibre, it is said to be wasteful, while also consuming a considerable amount of power. A machine, or "devil," for cleaning rags or half stuff is manufactured by Messrs, Donkin and Co., a representation of which is shown in Fig. 8. CHAPTER IV. TREATMENT OF RAGS {continued). Boiling Ea^s.— Bertrams' Rag Boiler. — Donkin's Eag Boiler. — "Washing and Breaking. — Bertrams' Eag Engine. — Beutley and Jackson's Eag Engine. — Draining.— Torrance's Drainer. Boiling Rags. — To remove greasy matters, and also to dissolve out tlie cementing substances from the stems of flax and shell of the cotton, the rags are next boiled in a solution of caustic soda, caustic lime, or a mixture of car- bonate of soda and lime. The boiling has also the elfect of loosening the dirt contained in the rags, whereby the colour of the material is greatly improved, while at the same time it is rendered more susceptible to the action of the bleaching agent. Strong linen rags will sometimes lose from one-third to one-fifth of their weight by the process of boiling. The vessels for boiling rags are of various construction, and have been the subject of nume- rous ingenious patents. These boilers are either cylin- drical or spherical, and are also stationary or rotary — the latter form being devised for the purpose of keeping the caustic alkali solution freely diffused throughout the mass of fibre during the boiling. Bertrams' Rag Boiler.— An illustration of a spherical boiler, as manufactured by Bertrams, Limited, of Edin- burgh, is given in Fig. 9. The shell of this boiler is made from malleable iron* is 8 feet in diameter and 9 feet deep. The boiler is constructed on what is termed the " vomiting " principle, by which a free circulation of the alkaline liquor is constantly maintained. These boilers are made to withstand any pressure of steam, but the size 30 TREATMENT OF RAGS. given is usually worked at from 35 to 45 lbs. pressure, and carries about 30 cwt. of dry esj)arto. Fig. 9. Donkin's Rag Boiler. — The spherical boiler of Messrs. Bryan Donkin and Co. is shown in Fig. 10. Eeing of a spherical form, it is twice as strong as a cylindrical boiler of the same diameter and thickness. The plates used are, notwithstanding, of the usual substance, thus rendering it perfectly safe, durable, and suitable for high- pressure steam. The spherical shape also allows the rags to fall out by themselves when the boiler is revolving with the cover olf. Within the boiler are strainers to carry off the dirt, and lifters to agitate the rags during the process of either boiling or washing. To avoid cement, or even lead joints, the gudgeons and the boiler are turned true- in the lathe to fit each other, the joints being simply made with red lead. These boilers are usually about 8 feet in diameter, and are capable of boil- ing from 20 cwt. to 25 cwt. of rags. The idea of giving motion to the boiler, so as to insure a perfect mixture of the rags and the caustic liquor, is of American origiu, and was first introduced into this country by Messrs. DONKIN'S RAG BOILER. 31 Bryan Bonkin and Co. It is usual to fix the boiler so that it can be fed with rags through a trap in the floor above, while the boiler is in a vertical position and the lid removed. The trunnions are hollow, to admit the intro- duction of steam, alkaline ley, or water, and its rotary Fig. 10. motion, which is about three times in two minutes, is given by the gearing on the left of the illustration. The alkalies used for boiling rags are either caustic soda, soda ash, slaked lime, made into a cream and sifted, or a mixture of slaked lime and carbonate of soda. A description of the preparation of caustic soda ley will be 32 TREATMENT OF RAGS. found in another chapter. It has been . customary at most of the larger paper-mills to purchase their caustic soda direct from the alkali manufacturers, who supply it in a solid form enclosed in iron drums, hermetically closed, which are broken and the contents removed and dissolved when required for use. As to the strength of caustic soda liquor to be used for boihng rags, this is regulated according to the nature and condition of the material, and the quality of the paper it is intended for (see p. 34). For the finest papers the caustic soda should be perfectly pure, and as there are various grades of this chemical substance sold by the alkali makers, only the purer qualities are used for the better kinds of paper. The proportion of caustic soda per cwt. of rags varies to the extent of from 5 to 10 per cent, of the former to each cwt. of the latter, the coarser mate- rials, of course, requiring more alkali than those of finer quality. In cases where rags are boiled in an open boiler— as was formerly the case — a much larger propor- tion of caustic soda would be required than when the boiling, is conducted, under high pressures, as is now very generally the custom. In boiling the finer qualities of rags, less pressure of steam is required than for the coarser qualities, and the heat being proportionately lower, there is less destruction of the fibre. Some paper-makers prefer to boil the rags with caustic lime only, in which case the • lime, after being slaked in the usual way, is mixed with water until it attains a milky consistence, when it is passed through a sieve to separate any solid particles which may be present. About the same percentage of lime may be used as in the former case. When a mixture of lime and carbonate of soda is used, a method much adopted on the Continent, the lime should be well screened from lumps before being mixed with the soda. The usual method of preparing this mixture is as fol- Iq-^s : — A wooden tank, 15 feet long, 5 feet wide, and 4 feet deep is divided into three compartments, each of which has a false bottom perforated with ^-inch holes to keep BOILING RAGS. 33 back lumps, stones, pieces of coal, etc., which frequently . abound in the lime. . The fresh lime is put into the first compartment, where it is slaked with water in the usual way ; the resulting powder is then put into the next com- partment together with sufiicient water, where it is agitated until converted into what is technically tei-med " milk of lime." In the partition which separates the second from the third division is a movable sluice, through which the milk of lime flows into the third compartment ; in this is fitted a revolving drum, similar to the drum-wj^sher of the breaking-engine, through which the milk of lime which flows from the sluice becomes strained, and is. lifted in the same way as water is lifted by the drum-washer of the breaking- engine, and is thence discharged through a pipe into the rag boilers ; an additional straining can be effected by placing a fine wire strainer over the mouth of this pipe leading to the boiler, which will prevent obj.ec- tionable particles .frqm entering the boiler. Each com- partment is provided with a large waste pipe, through which, by the aid. of a sufficient supply of water, all im- purities which have been rejected by the drum are carried awa}^ The soda solution is prepared by dissolving the required proportion in water, and the resulting liquor, after careful straining, is introduced into the boiler to which the charge of rags has been given ; the head of the boiler is then fixed in its position and steam turned on, until a pressure of about 20 to 30 lbs. to the square inch is attained, and the boiling kept up for two to six hours, according to the quality of the rags. By the Continentai system of boiling rags, for No. 1 stuffs, 216 lbs. of lime and 114 lbs., of 48 per cent., soda ash are used for every 4,000 lbs. of rags; for Nos. 3 and 5 stuffs, 324 lbs. of lime and 152 lbs. of soda ash are used ; and for No. 4 stuff 378 lbs. of lime and 190 lbs. of soda ash, and the boiling in each case is kept up for twelve hours, under a pressure of 30 lbs., the operation being conducted in boilers which revolve horizontally. In boiling the finest qualities of rags, it is considered T) 34 TREATMENT OF RAGS. preferable to boil witb lime alone, wbich is believed to be less injurious to delicate fibres than caustic soda. Dunbar * gives the following proportions of 70 per cent, caustic soda per cwt. of rags : — • s. p. r. F. F. is boiled with lime alone, then washed in the boiler, and again boiled with 2 per cent, of soda ash. s. p. F. F. is boiled with 12 lbs. of (70 per cent.) caustic soda per cwt. „ 7 Fines Seconds L. F. X. C. L. F. X. C. C. L. F. X F. F. 6 20 27 30 15 These are all boiled at a pressure of from 20 to 25 lbs. foi' 10 hours, in stationary boilers without vomit, and also in boilers revolving horizontally. In some mills, where the best qualities of paper are made, iron boilers are objected tOj as small particles of oxide of iron are apt to become dislodged from the interior of the boiler, and produce dis- colouration of the paper. In such cases wooden vats, with mechanical stirrers, are employed ; sometimes a jacketed boiler is used. Washing . and Breaking. — The removal of the dirty water resulting from the boiling is effected in the washing and breaking engine, or " rag engine," as it is commonly called, which is constructed on the same principle as the beating engine, but is provided with an extra drum, called the drum-icasher, which, being covered with wire gauze, allows the washing waters to escape without permitting the fibrous stuff to pass' through. The rag engine, having been invented by a Dutchman, acquired, and still retains, the name of the Hollander, and although it has been con- siderably improved upon, its principle is still retained in the modern engines, of which thei-e are many different forms. The ordinary rag engine, Figs. 11 and 12, consists * "Practical Paper Maker," by James Dunbar. Mackenzie and Storrie, Leitli, 1887. RAG ENGINE. 35 of a cast-iron trough a, about 10 feet long, 4^ feet wide, and 2 1 feet deep, and rounded at the ends, and is firmly bolted to a wooden foundation. It is provided with a partition termed the midfeather b, of such a length as to have the trough of uniform width round it. A cylinder, or roll, c, furnished with a series of steel knives, rotates in one of the divisions formed by the midfeather, and the floor of the trough in this division is inclined in such a manner as Figs. 11 and 12. • to cause the pulp, as it travels, to pass under the roll. Beneath the roll is the hed-plate, which is fitted with a series of steel knives c c similar to those on the exterior of the roll. The distance between the knives of the roll and the bed-plate is regulated by levelling screws, which are so adjusted that both ends of the roll are raised at the same time, which is a great improvement upon the older types of breaking engines in which only one end of the roll was raised, whereby the knives became unequally worn. Ey 36 TREATMENT OF RAGS. the present method of regulating the distance between the respective sets of kni^^es, any required degree of fineness can be given to the fibrous substances treated. The roll is generally caused to rotate at a speed of about 230 revolutions per minute, causing the water and rags to cir- culate in the engine and to be constantly under the action of the knives. In the other division f f of the trojigh is the drum-washer h, which, being covered with fine gauze wire, allows the water to enter, but keeps back the fibrous material. The ends of the drum are formed of two discs of wood, generally mahogany, upon which the coarse gauze is fastened as a backing, and this is covered with the fine wire gauze. The interior of the drum is sometimes furnished with a series of buckets, which con- duct the water to a trough in the axis of the drum, by which it is led away. This is also accomplished by dividing the interior of the cylinder into compartments by means of a partition. The drum- washer is so arranged that it can be wholly raised out of the trough, which is necessary in certain parts of the operation, when the removal of the liquid is not required ; qr it can be partially raised, or otherwise, according to requirement. The floor of the compartment containing the roll c is inclined at d, so as. to cause the pulp to pass directly imder the roll, and at ])' is the hackfaU, over which the pulp travels to the oppo- site side of the midfeather. ^ In working the rag engine, it is first partly filled with water, and then set in motion ; the boiled stuff is then gradually put in, and a constant supply of clean water is run in from a cistern provided with means of preventing sand or other impurities from finding their way into the engine. It is of the utmost importance that • the water should be abundant and of good quality, more especially as the material (rags) is mostly required for making the finer qualities of paper. In this respect the county of Kent and a few other localities on the chalk formation are considered specially suitable for this par- ticular manufacture. I ■ ■ BERTRAMS' RAG ENGINE. 37 With respect to the driving of the engines, this was formerly effected by what is called toothed gearimj, but cog-wheels were afterwards replaced by iron spur-wheel gearing, which enabled manufacturers to: drive four or more engines from one source of power, by continuing the line of shafting and spur-wheels; but even with small rolls the wear and tear on this system was considerable, while it was quite inadequate to the driving of a number of large rolls of 30 inches in diameter, such as are now used. The introduction of belt-gearing, by Messrs. Gr. and W. Bertram, proved to be a great improvement on the older system, and it is found that the rags are broken not only more uniformly, but in less time, as the rolls work more steadily on the plates than with any system of wheel- gearing, whilq the various working parts of the engine last longer than when subjected to the vibrating action of wheel- gearing. Bertriams' Rag Engine. — This engine, of which a • drawing is shown in Fig. 13, may be used either as a Fig. 13. washing and breaking ' engine, potcher, or beater. It is provided with double lifting gear, and has " all sweeps, curves, and angles " of the most improved design to save 38 TREATMENT OF RAGS. lodgments and ensure steady and thorougli travelling of the pulp. The drum- washer is shown lifted by rack and pinion and worm gear, and empties down the midfeather direct to mouthpiece. The emptying can be done by spout and pipe, or by a chamber cast on the engine, down back or front side, as well as through the midfeather ; but it is not advisable that it should be emptied down the midfeather if the rag engine is to be used as a beater. Bentley and Jackson's Rag Engine. — This form of engine is shown in Fig. 14. The trough is of cast-iron, and made whole, and the engine can be obtained of any Fig. 14. required dimensions. The trough is provided with a sand- well, cast-iron grate, and cook in front of the roll, and a sand- well, cast-iron grate, and brass valve on. the back of the midfeather, a brass let-off valve and a brass waste- water valve. The bottoni of the trough is " dished," to prevent the stuff from lodging. There are two movable bridge trees, fitted with pedestals and brass steps, and wrought -iron lifting links and screws, worm -wheels, worms, cross-shaft and hand-wheel for simultaneously lifting the roll on both sides. The roll is covered by a polished pitch-pine cover. The drum-washer may have either iron or wooden ends, has strong copper brackets, and is covered with brass backing and covering wires, mounted on a wrought-iron shaft, and carried by cast- BREAKING HALF-STUFF — DRAINING. 39 iron stands, fittevi with' improved lifting gear, driving- wheels, and pulley. When the engine is set in motion by the revolving shaft or spindle, the combined action of the knives of the roll and bed- plate causes the rags, which circulate in the water, to be gradually cut into small fragments, and the operation is kept up until the rags are converted into what is technically termed half'-stiiff. While this process is going on, fresh water is constantly supplied by a pipe at the end of the washing-engine ; and when it is found that nothing but clear water escapes from the drum- washer, this is raised, and the spindle bearing the roll is lowered, so as to bring the respective knives closer together, to enable them to. cut the reduced material still finer. Draining. — When the material is sufiiciently broken, as it is termed, the engine is then emptied by means of its valves, and the contents run into large vats or drainers, furnished with perforated zinc floors, in which it is allowed to drain thoroughly ; and in order to remove the water more effectually, the pulp is afterwards pressed, either by an extractor or a centrifugal drainer, which dries it sufficiently for gas-bleaching, or for treatment in the potcher or' poacher. This is a larger engine than the washer, and instead of. the cylinder and bars, has a hollow drum which carries on its periphery a number of cast- iron paddles, which thoroughly agitate the pulp, and thus render it more susceptible of being freely and uniformly acted upon by the bleaching agent. The drum- washer of this engine should have a finer wire than is used for the breaker. Torrance's Drainer.— This machine, which has been extensively used, is manufactured by Messrs. J. Bertram and Son, of Edinburgh. It consists of a perforated cylin- drical box, enclosed in a fixed case, which revolves at about two hundred and fifty revolutions per minute. The machine is capable of treating about 4 cwt. of pulp per hour. CHAPTER y. TREATMENT OF ESPARTO. Pieliminary Treatment. — Picking. — Willowing Esparto. —Boiling Es- parto. — ; Sinclair's Esparto Boiler. — Roeckner's Boiler. — Mallary's Process. — Carbonell's Process.— Washing. Boiled Esparto. — Young's Process. — Bleaching the Esparto. Preliminary Treatment : Picking. — Esparto is im- ported in bales or trusses, tightly compressed by bydraulic presses, and bound with twisted bands of tbe ' same material, much in the same manner as hay, except that which comes from Tripoli, which is bound with iron bands. The bands being cut, the loosened material is then spread out upon tables, partly covered with iron, or galvanised-iron, netting, to allow earthy matter or sand to pass through to a receptacle beneath. Here it is care- fully picked by women and girls, who remove all roots, other kinds of grass, weeds, "and heather. The material ihus cleansed from impurities is transferred to the boiling- room. This careful preliminary treatment has been found necessary, since pieces of root and other vegetable matters which may be present are liable to resist the action of the bleaching liquor to a greater extent than the grass itself,- and therefore produce specks, or " sheave" as they are termed at the mill, in the manufactured paper. At some mills, however j as at the Horton Kirby Mills of Messrs. Spalding and Hodge, at South Darenth, for example, the cleaning of esparto is admirably eifeeted by means of a willow, or esj^arto-cleaner, constructed by Messrs. Masson, Scott, and Bertram, which entirely supersedes the system of hand-picking. Having recently visited the mill referred to, we were enabled, through the BOILING ESPARTO. 41 courtesy of Mr. Sydney Spaldmg, to witness tlie action of this willow, which, appeared to perform its functions with perfec.t uniformity, and to clean the grass most effectually. The rationale of the operation of willowing esparto may be thus described : — Willowing Esparto. — A bale of the grass is unbound at a short distance from the machine, and the grass, which is in the form of small bundles or sheaves, tied with bands of the same material, is thrown by a woman, on to a table or platform placed by the side of the willow, and a second woman, standing near the hopper of the machine, takes the bimdles, a few at a time, and drops them into the hopper. The machine being in motion, in a few moments the grass, freed from its bands and dirty matters, appears in a perfectly loose con- dition at the wider end of the drum, and passes upward along a travelling-table to a room above, in the floor of which are the man-holes of a series of esparto boilers. During the passage of the loosened fibre, women standing on steps or platforpas at the sides of the travelling-table are enabled to examine the material, and to remove any objec- tionable matters that may be present. Beneath the drum of the- machine is a pipe, through which the dust and dirty matters are drawn away by means of a fan. Boiling Esparto. — In the boiling-room at the mill referred to is a series of vertical stationary boilers, each about twenty feet high, and capable of holding about three tons of grass. The man-holes of tbese boilers pass through the floor of a room above, being nearly level with it, into which the cleaned esparto is conveyed, as described, by the travelling- table of the willowing machine. In this room is a series of compartments in which the willowed esparto is. stored until required for boiling, when it is fed into the boilers by means of two-pronged forks provided for the purpose. The boiler being partially charged with caustic ley at 14° Twad., the esparto is introduced, and steam also, by which the esparto becomes softened, and thus a larger quantity of the fibre can be charged into the vessel. When the 42 TREATMENT OF ESPARTO. full charge of ley and esparto have been introduced the head of the boiler is securely fixed by means of its bolts, and steam then turned on until a j.ressure of about 20 lbs. to the square inch has been reached, which pressure is kept up for about three hours, when the steam is shut off and the blow-off tap opened. When the steam is blown off", the spent liquor is run off, and hot water then run into the boiler, steam again turned on, and the boiling kept up for about twenty minutes to half an hour, at the end of which time the steam is shut off and the blow-pipe opened. As soon as the steam has blown off', the washing water is run off by the bottom pipe, and the grass allowed SINCLAIR'S BOILER. 43 to drain as thoroughly as possible. A door at the lower end of the boiler is then opened, and the gras^ emptied into trucks and conveyed to the washing-engines. Sinclair's Esparto Boiler. — Another form of boiler, known as Sinclair's boiler, of the vertical cylindrical type, is skown in Pigs. 15 and 16. It is constructed on what is termed the vomiting'.' principle, but without the central vomiting-pipes generally used, and is fitted with, one or o o o o 0 o o o 0 o o « o 0 0 0 0 o o o o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o o o o o • o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ■0 o o o 0 o o o 0 o 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o 0 o o o o o o • o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o oso o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o 0 o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 \ o o o o 0 "A 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 J OtO 0« 0 »o o»o o»o fo] o o 0 o 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 oS o o o o o 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 J o o o 0 o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 o o 0 o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o o o o o o • o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o 0 o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o 0 o o o o • o 070 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o 0 o o • o 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 00 Fig. 16. more vomitings-pipes close to the side, two diametrically opposite pipes being used by preference. Steam jet pipes, with upwardly- directed nozzles, are fitted into the vomit- ing-pipes at points a little above the bends, between the vertical and horizontal parts. The liquid or ley thrown up the vomiting-pipes by the action of tbe steam is deli- vered from the upper ends of the pipes over a diaphragm or plate fixed near the top of the boiler, and the liquid is 44 TREATMENT OF ESPARTO. retained at a certain deptli on tlie diaphragm hy a number of small tubes fixed in it, and the liquid becomes well heated by the steam before overflowing down the tubes, which tubes also serve to distribute it uniformly over the fibrous materials in the boiler. A casing is formed at the bottom of the boiler, and in some cases extended more or less up the sides, and is supplied with steam, which should be superheated, or of high pressure. With this arrange- ment the heat in the boiler is maintained without the excessive condensation of steam and consequent dilution and weakening of the liquors which occurs in ordinary boilers. Figs. 15 and 16 are horizontal and vertical sec- tions of one form of this boiler. The boiler is made with a vertical cylindrical shell, 1 ; with a flat top, 2 ; and flat bottom, 3 ; and there is an inner or second bottom, 4 ; the space between it and the bottom, 3, being for steam to assist in heating the contents of the boiler. At a little distance above the inner bottom, 4, there is the usual per- forated horizontal diaphragm, 5, down through which the liquid or ley drains from the fibre. Two diametrically opposite vertical vomiting-pipes, 6, are formed by the attachment of curved plates to the cylindrical shell, 1, and these vomiting-pipes, 6, have their upper ends above a horizontal diaphragm, 7, attached b}' stays to the boiler top, 2. This diaphragm is perforated, and short tubes, 8, are fixed in the perforations so as to project upwards, by which arrangement the liquid, rising up the vomiting- ■ pipes, 6, lies on the diaphragm to the depth of the tubes, 8, and overflows down through them all equally, so as to be uniformly distributed over, the materials in the boiler. Steam jet nozzles, 9, are fitted in the lower parts of the vomiting-pipes, being supplied with steam by pipes, 10, from one of which a branch, 11, supplies steam to the double bottom, 3, 4. The steam jets cause the liqidd to be drawn from under the perforated diaphragm, 5, and thrown up the pipes, 6, whereby a constant circulation of the liquid through the fibre is maintained. The liquors are drawn off by the pipe, 15. In another form of boiler ROECKNER'S BOILER. 45 Mr. Sinclair employs vomit-pipes formed of tliin steel plates riveted to opposite sides of the boiler, and tL.e liquid wliic;li drains through, the perforated double bottora is forced upward through the vomit-pipes to the perforated plates above, through which it distributes over the mate- rial iin fine jets. The boiler is capable of holding from 2 to 3 tons of esparto, and under a pressure of from 40 to 50 libs, the boiling occupies about two hours. Rtoeckner's Boiler. — This boiler, of which an illustra- tion of two in series is given in Fig. 17, has been exten- Fij?. 17. siveUy adopted by paper manufacturers. It will be noticed that the vomit-pipe a is placed outside the boiler, and the steaim enters at the cock b, forcing the liquor up the vomiit-pipe a' and distributing it over the esparto. A pipe; c is used for heating the liquor by means of waste steaim at the commencement of the operation. The grass is feed into the boiler at the opening d. At e e are gauges for fshowing the height of the liquor in the boiler, f f f are pipes for the supply of steam, strong ley, and water, and the door g is for the discharge of the boiled grass. Eaclh boiler is capable of holding 3 tons of esparto, and the Iboiling is completed in about two and a half hours, at 46 TREATMENT OF ESPARTO. a pressure of from 35 to 40 lbs. per square incli. It is said that tlie boiler effects a saving both, in time and the amount of soda used. Mallary's Process. — By this process the inventor says that ho obtains the fibre in greater length, and gets rid of the gummy and resinous matters in a more economical vt^ay than by the present system. The materials used form a species of soap, vs^ith which and with the addition of water, the esparto is boiled. To carry out his process, he places in a boiler a suitable quantity of water, to which caustic soda, or a ley of the required strength to suit the nature of the fibre, is added ; magnesite, or carbonate of magnesia, in the proportion of about 2 per cent, of the fibrous material, or a solution of sulphate of magnesia, is then added and mixed with the ley. He next adds " an improved saponaceous compound " to produce the required result, and when the boiling is completed, the stuff is treated as ordinary stock, to be applied for paper-making or other uses. The proportions are as follows : — 2 gallons of petroleum or its products, 1 gallon of mustard oil, 10 to 15 lbs. of caustic soda, and 1 per cent, of boracic acid. These are placed in a copper and heated for 1 to 2 hours, until properly saponified. From 3 to 6 gallons of the " saponaceous compound " are added to the ley and mag- nesite, previously placed in the boiler with the fibre, and the boiling is kept up for the usual length of time, when the fibre will be found " beautifully soft, and the greater portion of the gum, silica, and resinous matters removed, or so softened as to be no hindrance to the perfect separa- . tion of the fibres, whilst the strength, silkiness, and soft- ness are preserved in all their natural integrity." Con- sidering that caustic soda ley " of the required strength. " forms an essential part of this process, we should imagine that the auxiliaries mentioned would scarcely be necessary. Carbonell's Process. — In this process, devised by M. Carbonell, of Paris, 200 lbs. of raw esparto are placed in a wooden vat furnished with a perforated steam-pipe, 20 lbs. of soda and 30 lbs. of quicklime being mixed with it : CARBONELUS PROCESS. 47 the vat is then supplied with cold water until the esparto is completely covered. Steam is then turned on, and the materials boiled for 4 hours. The spent liquor is then drained otf, and the esparto submitted to hydraulic pres- sure. It is afterwards washed and broken in a rag engine, and in about 15 minutes is reduced to half-stuff. 20 lbs. of chloride of lime dissolved in water are then introduced, and the cylinder kept in motion as usual. In another vessel, lined with lead, 1^ lb. of sulphuric acid is dissolved' in 3 lbs. of water, and this gradually added to the pulp, which immediately assumes a reddish colour ; but in the course of about three quarters of an hour it becomes perfectly white, when the pulp is ready for the paper- maker. In the boiling of esparto, several important points have to be considered. The kind of esparto to be treated is the first consideration, since this grass differs materially in character in the different countries from which it is im- ported. Spanish esparto is considered the best for paper- making, as it is stronger in fibre and yields a whiter pulp than other varieties. Of the African espartos there are several varieties, which are known respectively as Oran, Tripoli, Sfax, Gabes, and Susa. Of these, the first-named (Algerian esparto) is held in highest estimation amongst paper-makers, since it more closely resembles Spanish esparto than the other varieties, though not so hard and stiff as the latter. These grasses usually have a length of about 10 to 12 inches. Tripoli esparto has an entirely different growth, being sometimes as long as 2^ or 3 feet, and proportionately stouter, and is also softer than Oran esparto, which is not so hard as the Spanish variety. Tripoli esparto does not yield a strong paper by itself, but in conjunction with Oran esparto gives more favourable results. Sfax and Gabes espartos have a closer resem- blance to Oran than Tripoli, but are not' so strong as Oran, being green and spongy, and not so dry as the latter variety. Susa esparto of good quality is said to equal Oran, but not to yield so high a percentage of fibre. 48 TREA TMENT OE ESPAR TO. The next important consideration is to determine the percentage of. caustic alkali which should be used per hundredweight of the particular variety of esparto to be treated, and we cannot do better than give the following proportions recommended by Mr. Dunbar. Fine Spanish . 18 to 20 lbs. of 70 per cent, caustic soda per cwt. Medium Spanish 16'to 18 ,, ,, t, Fine Oran . . 18 ,, >> >> Medium Oran . 16 to 17 ,, ■ )> >; Susa .... 18 ,, ,, i> Tripoli . . . 19 to 20 Sfax . .■ . . 20 to 21 Mr. Dunbar says that the above figures " insure a first- class boil, with the steam pressure of 25 lbs. and nx)t exceeding 30 lbs., but are liable to alteration according to circumstances — such as the form of boilers, quality of the water for boiling purposes, and steam facilities, which ought at all times to be steady and uniform to get the absolute regularity required." Respecting the strength of caustic ley used 'for boiling esparto, as indicated by Twaddell's hydrometer, this appears to range from 7° to 15°, some preferring to boil with stronger liquors than others. The time occupied in boiling also varies at different mills, and depends greatly upon the character of the boiler used. We are informed that a Sinclair boiler will turn out, on an average, three boils in twenty-four hours, including filling, boiling, dis- charging, &c., the boiling occupying about four hours for each batch of grass. ■ The boiling being completed, the liquor is run off into tanks, to be afterwards treated for the recovery of the soda, and the esparto is then subjected to a second boiling with water only for about 20 minutes. The liquor from the second boiling is sometimes thrown away, even when the soda from the first liquor is recovered ; but a more economical method is to use this liquor, in lieu of water, strengthened with soda for a first boiling ; or to mix it with the first liquors and evaporate the whole together.. WASHING BOILED ESPARTO. 49 The second boiling being finished, the steam is turned off, and water then run in and steam again turned on for a short time, and the water then run off and the esparto allowed to drain thoroughly. The boiled grass is then discharged into trucks which convey it to the washing engines. The liquor resulting from the boiling of esparto, which is of a dark brown colour, contains nearly all the soda originally used, but it also contains silicious, resinous, and other vegetable matters which it has dissolved out of the grass, the silica taking the form of silicate of soda. The esparto liquor, which was formerly allowed to run to waste, polluting our rivers to a serious extent, is now treated by several ingenious methods for the recovery of the soda with considerable advantage alike to the manu- facturer and the public. The process consists essentially in boiling down the liquor to drjmess, and incinerating the residue. During the process of incineration the car- bonaceous matter extracted from the grass is converted into carbonic acid, which, combining with the soda, re- converts it into carbonate of soda, which is afterwards causticised with lime in the usual way, and the caustic soda thus obtained is again used in the boiling of esparto. Although one or other of the "recovery" processes is adopted at a good many of our paper-mills, the recovery of the soda is by no means universal as yet, but the time will doubtless soon arrive when the economical advan- tages of the process will be fully recognised. Indeed, we know ^ it to be the fact that some manufacturers are watching, with keen interest, the progress of some of the newer systems of soda recovery, with the full intention I eventually of adopting one or other of them, i Washing Boiled Esparto.— This operation is usually I performed _ in engines similar to those used in washino- rags, but in some mills the boiled grass is washed in a series of tanks, so .arranged that water flows in at one end of the series, thence passing in succession through each batch of grass in the other tanks, and finally issues E TREATMENT OF ESPARTO. at the farthest end of the series as a very concentrated liquor. By this arrangement there is great economy of water, while at the same time no loss of fibre occurs. The concentrated washing liquors thus obtained may be evaporated, and the alkali recovered, which would be an undoubted saving, since these liquors obtained in the ordinary way by washiag in the boilers are geneially run off as waste. The engines used for washing esparto and converting it into half-stuff are generally of large size, and capable of treating a ton of boiled esparto. In this engine, however, there is no bed-plate, as the action of the roll alone is sufficient to reduce the boiled and softened esparto to half- stuff. A drum-washer is also furnished to the engine, which carries off the dirty wash- ing water, while an equivalent proportion of clean water is kept constantly running into the engine from an elbowed pipe at its end. In charging the washing- engine, it is first about three parts filled with water, when the washing cylinder is lowered, and the esparto is then put in, care being taken not to introduce more of the material than will work freely under the action of the roll ; if the mass be too stiff, portions of the material may be imper- fectly washed. While the washing is in progress, the workman, armed with a wooden paddle, constantly stirs the esparto, clearing it away from the sides of the engine, so that none of the material may escape a perfect washing. At the bottom of the engine "is a " sand-trap," covered with perforated zinc, through which any sand or other solid particles which may be present escape. _When the washing is complete, the fresh water supply is shut off, and the drum-washer allowed to run until enough water has been removed to make room f &r the bleaching liquor. Young's Process. — By this process the boiled and strained esparto is passed through elastic covered rollers, so adjusted as to split up and squeeze out the dissolved matters or liquid from the fibres, thus leaving them clean and open for the access of the bleaching liquor. Bleaching the Esparto. — It is usual to bleach esparto BLEACHING ESPARTO. 51 in the washing engine, for which purpose a tank of bleach- ing liquor of the required strength (about 6° T. for Spanish)^ is placed close to the engine, which is provided with a pipe leading to the engine and another pipe pro- ceeding from, the tank in which the bleaching liquor is stored. The supply tank is furnished inside with a gauge, divided into inches — each inch representing so many gallons of liquor— by means of which the workman is enabled to regulate the quantity of bleaching liquor he is instructed by the manager or foreman to introduce into the engine. About half an hour after the bleach has become well incorporated with the fibre, sulphuric acid m the proportion of six ounces of the acid (which must be well diluted with water) to each hundredweight of the fibre. The dilute acid should be added gradually, and the proportions given must not be exceeded. The bleach- ing being completed, the half-stuff is next treated in a machine termed the presse-pdte, which not only cleanses the material from sand and dirt, but also separates all knots and other imperfections from the fibre in a most effectual and economical manner. Indeed, we were much struck with the excellent working of this machine at Messrs. Spalding and Hodge's mill, at South Darenth, and the remarkably fine quality of the finished pulp obtained through its agency. The presse-p^te was formerly used m the preparation of pulp from straw, but its advantages in the treatment of esparto are now fully recognised. The apparatus and method of workino- it may be thus briefly described : — * The machine is on the principle of the wet end of a paper machine, and consists of several stone chests for holding the bleached half- stuff, in which are fitted ao-ita- tors to keep the stuff in suitable condition. From these chests the stuff is pumped into a mixing box, and from thence over a series of sand traps made of wood, and with slips of wood fixed in the bottom, in which any sand present is retained. The stuff then passes into a series of strainers, which, while allowing the clean fibre to pass 52 TREATMENT OF ESPARTO. tlirough, retain all impurities, sucli as knots, &c., and the clean stuff is allowed to flow on to the wire-cloth in such a quantity as to form a thick web of pulp. A greater portion of the water escapes through the wire-cloth, but a further portion is removed by the passage of the pulp across two vacuum boxes, connected with four powerful vacuum pumps, which renders the half-stuff sufficiently dry to handle ; but to render it still more so, it now passes between couch rolls, and is either run into webs, or, as is sometimes the case, it is discharged into boxe«, the web of pulp thus treated being about an inch in thick- ness. CHAPTEE yi. TREATMENT OF WOOD. Chemical Processes. — Watt and Burgess's Process. — Sinclair's Process. — Keegan's Process. — American Wood Pulp System. — Aussedat's Pro- cess. — Acid Treatment of Wood. — Pictet and Brelaz's Process. — Barre and Blondel's Process. — Poncharac's Process. — Young and ■ Pettigrew's Process. — Fridet and Matussiere's Process. The advantages of wood fibre as a paper material have been fully recognised in the United States and in many Continental countries, but more especially in Norway, Sweden, and Germany, from whence large quantities of wood pulp are imported into this country. There is no doubt that our home manufacturers have recently paid much attention to this material, and it is highly probable that wood, as an inexhaustible source of useful fibre, will at no distant date hold a foremost rank. Indeed, the very numerous processes which have been patented since the Watt process was first made known, indicate that from this unlimited source of fibre the requirements of the paper- maker may be to a large extent satisfied, provided, of course, that the processes for reducing the various suitable woods to the condition of pulp can be economically and satisfactorily effected. The great attention which this material has received at the hands of the experimentalist and chemist — the terms not being always synonymous — shows that the field is considered an important one, as in- deed it is, and if successfully explored will, it is to be hoped, yield commensurate advantages both to inventors and the trade. The object of the numerous inventors who have devised processes for the disintegration of wood fibre — that is, the 54 TREATMENT OF WOOD. separation of cellulose from tlie intercellular matters in which the fibres are enveloped — has necessarily been to dissolve out the latter without injury to the cellulose itself, but it may be said that as yet the object has not been fully attained by either of the processes which have been intro- duced. To remove the cellular matter from the true fibre or cellulose, without degrading or sacrificing a portion of the latter, is by no means easy of accomplishment when practised on an extensive scale, and many processes which present fipparent advantages in one direction are often found to exhibit contrary results in another. The field, however, is still an open one, and human ingenuity may yet discover methods of separating wood fibre from its surrounding tissues in a still more perfect manner than hitherto. The various processes for treating wood for the extraction of its fibre have been classified into : (1) chemical processes ; and (2) mechanical processes. We will give precedence to the former in describing the various wood pulp processes, since the pulp produced by the latter, although extensively used, is chiefly employed, in combination with other pulps, for common kinds of paper. In reference to this part of our subject Davis says : — " Experience Jias dictated certain improvements in some of the details of ■ those earlier methods, by which so-called ' chemical wood pulp ' is manufactured very largely on the Continent of Europe. .... It is possible to obtain a pulp of good quality, suit- able for some classes of paper, by boiling the chipped wood in caustic soda, but when it is desired to use the pulp so prepared for papers having a perfectly white colour it has been demonstrated in practice that the action of the caustic soda solution at the high temperature which is required develops results to a certain degree in weakening and browning the fibres, and during the past five years much labour has been expended in the endeavour to overcome the obj actions named, 'i he outcome of these efforts bias been a number of patents, having for their object to pre- vent oxidation and subsequeDt weakening of the fibres." WATT AND BURGESS'S WOOD-PULP PROCESS. 55 In several of these patents, to wliicli we shall refer here- after, bisulphite of lime is employed as the agent to pre- vent oxidation and consequent degradation of the fibres, and in other processes bisulphite of magnesia has been used for the same purpose. Davis further remarks : "Although a common principle runs through all these methods of preparing cellulose from wood, they diifer in detail, as in the construction of the digesters employed, methods of treating the wood stock before boiling it in the sulphurous acid solution, and also as regards pressure, blowing off the sulphurous acid gas, etc., but all these pro- cesses present a striking similarity to the method patented by Tilghmann in 1867." There can be no doubt that the action of caustic soda, under high pressures, is highly in- jurious both to the colour and strength of the fibres, and any process that will check this destructive action in a thoroughly practical way will effect an important desi- deratum. I. Chemical Processes : Watt and Burgess's Process. — This process, which, with some modifications, is extensively worked in America, consists in boiling wood shavings, or other similar vegetable matter, in caustic soda ley, and then washing to remove the alkali ; the wood is next treated with chlorine gas, or an oxygeneous compound of chlorine, in a suitable vessel, and it is afterwards washed to free it from the hydrochloric acid formed. It is now treated with a small quantity of caustic soda in solution, which instantly converts it into pulp, which only requires to be washed and bleached, and beaten for an hour and a half in the beating engine, when the pulp is ready for the machine. The wood-paper process as carried out in America has been described by Hofmann, from whose work* we have abridged the following : — The wood, mostly poplar, is brought to the works in 5-feet lengths. The bark having been stripped off by hand, it is cut into |-inch slices by a cutter which consists * "Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Paper." By Carl Hof- mann, Philadelphia, 1873. 56 TREATMENT -OF WOOD. of four steel knives, from 8 to 10 inclies wide by 12 to 15 inches long, whicli are fastened in a slightly inclined posi- tion to a solid cast-iron disc of about 5 to 7 feet diameter, which revolves at a high speed, chopping the wood— which is fed to the blades through a trough — into thin slices across the grain. The trough must be large enough to receive the logs, usually 10 or 12 inches thick, and it is set at such an angle that the logs may slide down towards the revolving cutters ; this slanting position only assists the movement of the logs, while a piston, which is pro- pelled by a rack, pushes them steadily forward until they are entirely cut up. The piston, or pusher, then returns to its original position, fresh wood is put into the trough, and the operation repeated. In this way many tons of wood can be chopped up by one of these cutters in a day. The sliced wood is conveyed by trucks to an elevator by which it is hoisted up two storeys to a floor from which the boilers are filled. The boilers are upright cylinders, about 5 feet in diameter and 16 feet high, with semi- spherical ends, provided inside with straight perforated diaphragms, be- tween which the chips from one cord of wood are confined. A solution of caustic soda, at 12° B., is introduced with the chips, and fires are started in a furnace under- neath. At other works the boilers are heated by steam circulating through a jacket which covers the bottom and sides of the boiler. The boiling is continued for about six hours, when the digestion is complete, and the contents of the boilers are emptied with violence, under the pressure of at least 65 lbs. of steam, which had been maintained inside. A large slide valve is attached to the side of each boiler for this purpose close to the perforated diaphragm, and connected by a capacious pipe with a sheet-iron cylinder of about 12 feet diameter and 10 feet high, which receives the contents — pulp, liquor, and steam. The object of these large cham- bers — one of which serves for two boilers — is to break the force of the discharging mass. The steam passes throughi a pipe on the top of each, and from thence through a WATT AND BURGESS'S PROCESS. 57 water reservoir, while tlie liquid containing the pulp flows through a side opening and short pipe into movable boxes, or drainers, mounted on wheels, and each capable of hold- ing the contents of one boiler ; these boxes are pushed along a traniway up to the collecting chambers, where the pulp is received. In a building 132 feet long and 75 feet wide, ten digesting boilers are arranged in one straight line, and parallel with the boilers runs the main line of rails, side tracks extending from it to each of the chambers, and a turn-table is supplied at every junction. By this arrangement the drainer waggons can be pushed from the side tracks on to the main line, which leads to the washing- engines in an adjoining room. A system of drainage is established below the tramways, by which all the liquid which drains from the waggons is carried away and col- lected for treatment by evaporation ; these carriers remain on the side tracks imtil the pulp is ready for the washing- engine. When the greater portion of the liquor has drained off, warm water is sprinkled over the pulp from a hose for the purpose of extracting all the liquid which is suffi- ciently concentrated to repay the cost of evaporation — the most advantageous method of recovering the soda. The contents of the waggons — from the same number of boilers— are then placed in two washing-engines, each capable of holding 1,000 lbs. of pulp. After being sufii- ciently worked in these engines the pulp is transferred to two stuff- chests, and from thence conveyed by pumps to two wet-machines. The screens (strainers) of the wet- machines retain all impurities derived from knots, bark, and other sources, and the pulp, or half- stuff, obtained is perfectly clean and of a light grey colour. The pulp is bleached with solution of bleaching powder like rags, then emptied into drainers and allowed to remain therein with the liquid for twenty-four to forty-eight hours, or long enough to render the use of vitriol in the bleaching un- necessary. The portion of the white pulp which is to be worked up into paper in the adjoining mill is taken from 58 TREATMENT OF WOOD. the drainers into boxes running on tramways in the moist state, biit all the pulp which has to be shipped to a dis- tance is made into rolls on a large cylinder paper-machine with many dryers. The object being merely to dry the pulp, a very heavy web can be obtained, since the water leaves this pulp very freely. The wood pulp thus obtained is perfectly clean, of a soft, white spongy fibre, and a greater portion of it is mixed with a small proportion of rag pulp and worked into book and fine printing papers. Sometimes the wood pulp is used alone or mixed with white paper shavings .for book paper. The fibres are rather deficient in strength, but as a material for blotting paper they are said to be unsurpassed, while the wood paper is much liked by printers. The wood from poplar, which is generally preferred, furnishes a very white fibre, and is easily digested, but since the fibres are short it is sometimes found advan- tageous to mix them with longer fibres, as those of the spruce or pine, although the latter wood requires a mucn more severe treatment in boiling with alkali than the former. In reference to this process the following re- marks appeared in. The Chemist,'^ 1855:— "The process occupies only a few hours ; in fact, a piece of wood may be converted into paper and printed uipon within twenty- four hours." An interesting verification of this was published a few years since in an American paper, the Southern Trade Gazette, of Kentucky, which runs as fol- lows : — " At a wood-pulp mill at Augusta, Ga., a tree was cut down in the forest at six o'clock a.m., was made into pulp, and then into paper, at six o'clock in the evening, and distributed amongst the people as a newspaper by six o'clock the next morning. From a tree to a newspaper, being read by thousands, in the brief round of twenty-four hours ! " The wood-paper process referred to has given rise to many subsequent modifications, some of which we will briefly describe. Sinclair's Process. — The wood is first cut into pieces * 2-he Chemist. Edited by Charles and John Watt, p. 552 ; 1855. SINCLAIR'S PROCESS. 59 about 1 inch broad, ^tb incbi tbick, and from 2 to 3 incbes long. It is tben placed in a boiler and a solution of caus- tic soda, in the proportions of 600 gallons to 10 cwts. of dry wood, is poured over it. Tbe boiler baving been se- curely closed, tbe beat is raised till a pressure of 180 to 200 lbs. on tbe square inch is obtained, wben tbe fire is withdrawn and tbe boiler allowed to cool, after wbicb tbe ley is blown off, tbe top door removed, and tbe contents scalded, Tbe discbarge door is now opened and tbe pulp transferred to a poacbing-engine to be washed with pure water, when tbe resin, &c., are easily removed and the clean fibres ob- tained, wbicb, it is said, are longer and firmer than those obtained by other methods. Keegan's Process. — By this method soft deal or pine is sawn up into pieces from 6 to 12 inches long and | inch thick, it being preferable that all the pieces should be of an equal size, but the -smaller they are the more rapid, of course, will be the operation. The pieces of timber are placed in a cylindrical boiler, turning upon a horizontal axis while the digestion is progressing. In a second boiler is prepared a solution of caustic soda of about 20° B. (specific gravity l-lGl), which is introduced through a pipe into tbe first boiler, this being afterwards hermetically closed, and the soda is forced into the pores of the wood by means of a pump. When the wood is not more than half an inch in thickness a pressure of 50 lbs. on the square inch is sufiicient, and the injection of tbe caustic soda solution is completed in half an hour. The superabimdant liquor is pumped back into tbe second boiler for the next operation. Tbe excess of liquor baving been removed from the wood as stated, steam is introduced between the double sides of the first boiler, and the temperature of the wood raised from 150° to 190° C. (334° to 438° F.). Tbe wood is next washed in the usual way until the liquor runs off perfectly limpid, and the half- stuff thus produced may be converted into pulp either before or after bleaching, according to the quality and colour of the paper to be produced. 6o TREATMENT OF WOOD. American Wood-Pulp System. — Another method of carrying out the wood-pulp process has recently been de- scribed by Mr. E. A. Oongdon, Ph.B.,* from which we extract the following : — " Poplar, pine, spruce, and occa- sionally birch, are used in the manufacture of chemical fibre. Pine and spruce give a longer and tougher fibre than poplar and birch, but are somewhat harder to treat, requiring more soda and bleach. Sticks of poplar, freed from bark, and cleansed from incrusting matter and dirt, are reduced to chips by a special machine having a heavy iron revolving disc set with knives, and are then blown by means of a Sturtevant blower into large stove chambers after passing over a set of sieves having Ij-inch for the coarse and 1 1 -inch mesh for the fine sieves, from whence they pass to the digesters-, which are upright boilers 7 'by 27 feet, with a manhole at the top for charging the chips and liquor, and a blow-valve at the bottom for the exit of the boiled wood. , A steam-pipe enters at the bottom, be- neath a perforated diaphragm, and keeps the liquor in per- fect circulation during the boiling of the wood by means of a steam-ejector of special construction." Boiling. — The average charge of wood for each digester is 4"33 cords, t giving an average yield of 4,140 lbs. of finished fibre per digester. A charge of 3,400 gallons of caustic soda solution of 11° B. is given to each digester charged with chips, and the manhead is then placed in position and steam turned on. Charging the digester occupies from thirty to forty-five minutes, and steam is introduced until the gauge indicates a pressure of 110 lbs., which occupies about three hours. This pres- sure is kept up for seven hours, when it is reduced by allowing the steam to escape into a large iron tank which acts as a separating chamber for the spent liquor it carries, the steam entering in at one end and passing out at the other through -a large pipe, the liquor remaining in the * School of Mines Quarterly, a Journal of Applied Science. Jan., 1889. t The cord is a pile containing 128 cubic feet, or a pile 8 feet long, 4 feet high, and 4 f«et broad. AMERICAN WOOD-PULP SYSTEM. 6i tank. Tlie steam is allowed to escape until the pressure is reduced to 45 lbs., when the digester is blown. The blow-cap being removed, the blow- valve is raised and the contents of the digester are discharged into a pan of iron covered with a suitable hood. The contents strike against a dash-plate placed midway in the pan, which thoroughly separates the fibres of the wood. The time occupied in the foregoing operations is from eleven to eleven and a half hours. It takes from nine to ten hours to free the pan.s from alkali, when they are removed to washing-tanks with perforated metal bottoms, where the material receives a final washing before being bleached. Washing. — Each of the three digesters has a pan into which its contents are discharged, and there are also four iron tanks used for holding the liquors of various strengths obtained from the cleansing of the pulp and a fifth tank is kept as the separating-tank before mentioned. When the digester is blown, the pulp is levelled down with a shovel, and the liquor from the separating-tank is allowed to flow into it. The contents of the next strongest pan are pumped upon it, while at the same time the strongest store tank flows into this pan. This flowing from the tank to the pan, pumping from here to the pan just blown, and from there to the evaporators, is kept up until the liquor is not weaker than 6°B. hot (130° F.). The second pan is now down to 4° B. hot, and the process of " pumping back " is commenced. The two weakest" tanks are put upon this pan and pumped out of the bottom of it into the two tanks in which are kept the strongest liquors. The two weak tanks have been filled in the process of complet- ing the cleansing of the third pan (the weakest) on which water was pumped until the last weak tank stood at only i° B. This pan, now cleaned, is hosed and pumped over to the washing tanks. A fresh blow is now made in this pan, and the same treatment kept up as with the first pan. The foregoing system is thixs illustrated by Mr. Congdon : — 62 TREATMENT OF WOOD. Pan A. — Just blown. ,, B. — Partly cleaned. , C. — Almost cleaned. Tank 1.-3^ B. hot. „ 2.-2° „ „ „ 3.-1° „ „ „ 4.-r „ „ Separating tank, strong. A is levelled down ; contents of separating- tank allowed to flow upon it ; b is pumped on to a ; at the same time liquor from the two strong store tanks is put on it (b), and this continued to be sent from a to the evaporator until it is now weaker than 4° B. hot ; the process of " pumping back " is then commenced. The two weakest are allowed in succession to flow on to it, and the liquor purified from the bottom of b into the two strong tanks, filling No. 1, the stronger, before No. 2. The weakest are filled in the process of completing the cleansing of c, on which water is pumped until the last tank from it tests only ^° B. c is now hosed and pumped over to the washing tanks. A fresh digester is blown in c, and the process repeated as with A. The above system has been modified by having an extra pan into which the liquor from the last pan blown (after sending to the evaporators until down to 6° hot, and bringing down to 4° hot, by the stored liquor) is pumped. When the strength is reduced to 4° the pumping is stopped. The liquor from this pan is put in the next pan blown, after the liquor from the separating-tank has been put upon it, whereby an economy in time is effected. The pulp, after being partially cleaned in the pans, still contains an appreciable quantity of soda. It is hosed over to the washing-tanks and receives a final washing with hot water. When the pulp is thoroughly free from alkali, and the water flowing from under the tank is colourless, the contents are hosed down by hot water into the bleaching-tanks. The superfluous water is removed by revolving washers, and about 1,000 gallons of a solu- \ AUSSEDAT'S PROCESS. 63 tion of chloride of lime at 4° B, are then introduced, and the contents agitated as usual. The bleaching occupies about six or seven hours, when the pulp is pumped into draining tanks, where it is left to drain down hard, the spent bleach flowing away. The stock is then hosed and pumped into a washing-tank, where it acquires the proper consistency for the machine. From here it is pumped into the stufii" chest, whence it goes over a set of screens and on to the machine, from which the finished fibre is run off on spindles. The rolls are made of a convenient size to handle, averaging about 100 lbs. each. The fibre is dried on the machine by passing over a series of iron cylinders heated by steam. The finished product is a heavy white sheet; somewhat resembling blotting paper. The whole of the foregoing operations are stated to occupy forty-five hours. Aussedat's Process. — By this method the wood is dis- integrated by the action of jets of vajDour. In one end of a cylindrical high-pressure boiler, about 4| feet in diame- ter and 10 feet high, is fixed a false bottom, whereby the wood placed upon it may be removed from the liquor result- ing from steam condensed in the chamber, the whole being mounted on lateral bearings which serve for the introduc- tion of the vapour, and the wood is fed through a manhole at the upper end of the boiler. Taps are fixed at the upper and lower ends for the liquid and uncondensed vapour. The wood having been placed in the boiler, the jet is gradually turned on in such a way that at the end of three or four hours the temperature becomes about 150"^ C, the pressure being about five atmospheres, which point is maintained for an hour. As the slightest contact between the wood and the condensed water would at once discolour the former, it is essential that the liquid be removed from time to time by one of the outlets provided for the pur- pose. The treatment above described is said to be suitable for all kinds of wood, and although it is the usual practice to introduce it in logs about a yard long, any waste wood, as 64 TREATMENT OF WOOD. chips, shavings, etc., maybe used. It is preferable, though not necessary, to remove the bark, but all rotten wood may be left, as it becomes removed in the condensed water. The logs, after the above treatment, by which the fibre is disintegrated and the sap and all matters of a gummy or resinous nature are removed, are afterwards cut up by any suitable means into discs of about an inch, according to the nature of the fibre required. These are then intro- duced into a breaker, in which they become converted into half-stuff, which, after being mixed with a suitable quan- tity of water is . passed through mills provided with conical stones, in which it becomes reduced to whole- stuff. The pulp thus prepared is principally used in the manufacture of the best kinds of cardboard, but more particularly such as is used by artists, since its light brownish shade is said to improve the tone of the colours. Bourdillat says that in the above process the vapour has a chemical as well as a mechanical, action, for in addition to the vapour travers- ing the cellular tissues of the wood and dissolving a con- siderable portion of the cell-constituents, acetic acid is liberated by the heat, which assists the vapour in its action on the internal substance of the wood. Acid Treatment of "Wood.— A series of processes have been introduced from time to time, the object of which is to effect the disintegration of wood fibre by the action of acids. The first of these " acid processes" was devised by Tilghmann in 1866, in which he employed a solution of sulphurous acid ; the process does not appear to have been successful, however, and was subsequently abandoned, the same inventor having found that certain acid sulphites could be used more advantageously. Other processes have since been introduced, in which wood is treated in a direct way by the action of strong oxidising acids, as nitric and nitro-hydrochloric acids, by which the intercellular matters of the wood become dissolved and the cellulose left in a fibrous condition. Pictet and Br6laz's Process. — By this process wood is subjected to the action of a vacuum, and also to that of a PICTETS PROCESS. 65 supersaturated solution of sulphurous acid at a tempera- ture not exceeding 212° In carrying out the process a solution of sulphurous acid is used, consisting of, say from ^ to ^ lb. avoirdupois of sulphurous acid to each, quart of water, and employed under a pressure of from three to six atmospheres ' at 212° F. Under these conditions the cementing substances of the wood " retain their chemical character without a trace of decomposition of a nature to show carbonisation, while the liquor completely permeates the wood and dissolves out all the cementing constituents that envelop the fibres." In carrying out the process practically, the wood is first cut into small pieces as usual and charged into a digester of such strength as will resist the necessary pressure, the interior of which must be lined with lead. Water is then admitted into the vessel and afterwards sulphurous acid, from a suitable receiver in which it is stored in a liquid form until the proportion of acid has reached that before named, that is, from 100 to 150 quarts of the acid to 1,000 quarts of water. The volume of the bath will be determined by the absorbing capacity of the wood, and is preferably so regulated as not to mate- rially exceed that capacity. In practice it is preferable to form a partial vacuum in the digester, by which the pores of the wood are opened, when it will be in a condition to more readily absorb the solution and thereby accelerate the process of disintegration. When disintegration is effected, which generally occurs in from twelve to twenty-four hours, according to the nature of the wood under treat- ment, the liquor, which is usually not quite spent in one operation, is transferred to another digester, a sufficient quantity of water and acid being added to complete the charge. In order to remove the liquor absorbed by the wood, the latter is compressed, the digester being connec- ted with a gas-receiver, into which the free gas escapes and in which it is collected for use again in subsequent opera- tions. The bath is heated and kept at- a temperature of from 177° to 194° F. by means of a coil in the digester supplied with steam from a suitable generator. The wood, r 66 TREATMENT OF WOOD. after disintegration, undergoes tlie usual treatment to eon- vert it into paper pulp, and may thus be readily bleacted by means of chloride of lime. The unaltered by-products contained in the bath may be recovered and treated for use in the arts by well-known methods. Barre and Blondel's Process consists in digesting the wood for twenty-four hours in 50 per cent, nitric acid, used cold, by which it is converted into a soft fibrous mass. This is next boiled for some hours in water and afterwards in a solution of carbonate of soda ; it is then bleached in the usual way. Poncharac's Process. — In this process cold nitro-hydro- chloric acid (aqua regia) is employed for disintegratmg wood i-n the proportions of 94 parts of the latter to 6 parts of nitric acid, the mixture being made in earthen vessels capable of holding 175 gallons. The wood is allowed to soak in the acid mixture for six to twelve hours. 132 lbs, of aqua regia are required for 220 lbs. of wood. When it is desired to operate with a hot liquid, 6 parts of hydro- chloric acid, 4 parts of nitric acid, and 240 parts of water are used in granite tubs provided with a double bottom, and it is heated by steam for twelve hours and then washed and crushed. Young and Pettigrew's Process. — These inventors use either nitric or nitrous acids, and the acid fumes which are liberated are condensed and reconverted into nitric acid. Fridet and Matussiere's Process. — This process, which was patented in France in 1865, consists in treating wood with nitro -hydrochloric acid, for which purpose a mixture of 5 to 40 per cent, of nitric acid and 60 to 95 per cent, of hydrochloric acid is used, which destroys all the ligne- ous or intercellular matter without attacking the cellulose. After the wood (or straw) has been steeped in the acid mixture, the superfluity is drawn off, and the remaining solid portion is ground under vertically revolving mill- stones. The brownish- coloured pulp thus obtained is afterwards washed and bleached in the usual way. FRIDET'S PROCESS. 67 It is quite true that cellulose can be obtained from wood and other vegetable substances by treatment with nitric acid alone, or with a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, but it will be readily seen that the employment of such large quantities of these acids as would be required to effect the object in view on a practical scale, would be fraught with incalculable difficulties, amongst which may be mentioned the insuperable difficulty of obtaining ves- sels that would resist the powerful corrosive action of the acids, _ Moreover, since nitric acid forms with cellulose an explosive substance {xyloidin) of the gun cotton series, the risk involved in the drying of the cellulose obtained would be quite sufficient to forbid the use of processes of this nature. CHAPTEE YII. TREATMENT OF WO OB {continued). Sulphite Processes.— Francke's Process.— Ekman's Process.— Dr. Mii- scherlich's Prucess.— Kitter and Kellner's Boiler.— Partington s Pro- • cess.— Blitz's Process.— McDbugall's Boiler for Acid Processes.— Graham's Process — Objections to the Acid or Sulphite Processes.— Salphite Fibre and Uesin.— Adamson's Process.— Sulphide Pro- cesses.— Mechanical Processes.— Voelter' 8 Process.— Thune's Process. Sulphite Processes. — An important and successful method of treating wood has "been found in employing sulphurous acid, combined in certain proportions with soda, lime, or magnesia, whereby a bisulphite of the alka- line or earthy base is obtained. One of the principal attributes of these agents is that in boiling wood at high pressures oxidation and consequent browning of the fibres is prevented. Of these sulphite, or more properly bisul- phite, processes, several of those referred to below have been very extensively adopted, and vast quantities of so- called "sulphite pulp" are imported into this country from Norway, Germany, Scandinavia, &c., the product from the latter source being considered specially suited for the English market. Some of these processes are also being worked in this country, but more particularly those of Partington, McDougall, and Ekman. Francke's Process.— In this process, which is known as the "bisulphite process," the active agent employed for the disintegration of wood is an acid sulphite of an alkaline or earthy base, as soda or potassa, lime, &c., but it is scarcely necessary to say that the process has since been modified by others. The invention is applicable to the treatment of wood, esparto, straw, etc., and may FRANCKE'S PROCESS. 69 be tlius briefly described: — A solvent is first prepared, which is an acid sulphite of an alkali or earth, that is, a solution of such sulphite with an excess of sulphurous acid. As the cheapest and most accessible base the inventor prefers lime. It has long been known that a solution of sulphite of lime, combined with free sulphurous acid, would, at a high temperature, dissolve the intercellular portions of vegetable fibres, leaving the fibres in a suitable condition for paper manufacture ; but Mr. Francke claims to have determined the conditions under which this can be effected with rapidity, and in such a way as to preserve the strength of the fibres, and to have obtained a practical method of preparing pulp by his process. For his purpose he employs a moderately strong solution of the solvent at a high temperature, with gentle but constant agitation. The acid sulphite is produced by this process at small cost and at a temperature nearly high enough for use in the following way : — A tower or column is charged with frag- ments of limestone, which are kept wetted with a shower of water; fumes of sulphurous acid, produced b}^ burning sulphur, or by roasting pyrites, etc., are then passed through the tower. The liquid which collects at the bottom of the tower is the desired solvent, which should have a strength of 4° to 5° B. It is not essential that the limestone should be pure, as magnesian limestone, etc., will answer equally well. The soluble alkalies, as soda and potassa, may also be used when their greater cost is not an objection. But for these alkalies the treatnient is modified, as follows : — The tower is charged with inert porous material, such as coke, bricks, etc., and these are kept wetted by a shower of caustic alkali at 1° to 2° B., while the sulphurous acid fumes are passed through the tower. In like manner car- bonate of soda or potassa may be used, but in this case the solution showered on the porous material should be stronger than that of the caustic alkali, so that it may contain ap- proximately the same amount of real alkali. Whichever alkaline base be employed, the liquid collected at the bot- tom of the tower should have a strength of 4° to 5° B. ; 70 TREATMENT OF WOOD. this being the acid sulphite of the base is used as the sol- vent employed for the manufacture of pulp. When wood is to be treated, it is freed as much as possible from resin- ous knots by boring and cutting them out, and is then cut — by preference obliquely — into chips of a-^^ to f of an inch thick. Esparto, straw, and analogous fibres are cut into fragments. The fibrous material and solvent are charged into a digester heated by steam at a pressure of four or five atmospheres, and consequently capable of rais- ing the temperature of the contents to about 300° F. As agitation greatly promotes the pulping of the materials, Mr. Francke employs a revolving cylindrical boiler, which is allowed to revolve while the charge is under treatment. Ekman's Process. — In this process, which in some respects bears a resemblance to the preceding, native car- bonate of magnesia (magnesite) is first calcined to convert it into magnesia ; it is then placed in towers lined with lead, and sulphurous acid gas, obtained by the burning of sulphur in suitable furnaces, is passed through the mass, a stream of water being allowed to trickle down from the top of the towers. The supply of gas is so regulated that a continual formation of a solution of bisulphite of mag- nesium, of an uniform strength, is obtained ; great care, however, is necessary to avoid excess and consequent loss of sulphurous acid by its conversion into sulphuric acid. In boiling, the fragments of wood, previously crushed by heavy rollers, are placed in a jacketed, lead-lined, cylin- drical boiler, suspended on trunnions, so that it can be inverted to remove the charge. The pressure in the outer jacket is 70. lbs. per square inch, and that within the boiler is 90 lbs. per square inch. The boiling occupies twelve hours. This process has been extensively worked by the Bergvik and Ala Company, of Sweden, for many years with great success, and we understand that the com- pany has been turned over to an English company — the Bergvik Company, Limited. The Ilford Mill and Xorth- fleet Works have been largely supplied with sulphite pulp from the Swedish works. EKMAN'S PROCESS. 71 One great drawback to tlie bisulphite processes is that the boiling cannot be effected in iron boilers unless these be lined with some material which will protect the iron from the destructive action of the bisulphite, which, being an acid salt, would exert more action upon the iron than upon the fibre itself, and the solution of iron thus formed would inevitably prove injurious to the colour of the fibre. In several of the systems adopted iron boilers lined with lead have been used, but the heavy cost of this material and its liability to expand unequally with the iron, especially at the high temperatures which the solvent necessarily attains under pressure, causes the lead to separate from the iron, while it is apt to bulge out in places, and thus becomes liable to crack and allow the acid liquor to find its way to the interior of the iron boiler which it was destined to protect. To overcome this objection to the simple lead lining, Dr. Mitscherlich patented a process which has been extensively adopted in Germany, and is now being carried out by several companies in different parts of America. This process is briefly described below. Dr. Mitscherlich's Process. — The digester employed in this process is lined with thin sheet lead, which is cemented to the inner surface of the boiler by a cement composed of common tar and pitch, and the lead lining is then faced with glazed porcelain bricks. In this process a weaker bisulphite of lime is used than in Francke's, and the time of boiling is consequently considerably prolonged. Hitter and Eellner have proposed to unite the inner surface of the boiler to its lead lining by interposing a soft metal alloy, fusible at a temperature lower than that of either metal, and it is claimed that the iron and lead are thus securely united, while the alloy being fusible under the normal working temperature of the digester, the lead lining can slide freely on a boiler shell. Partington's Process. — This process, which has been for some time at work at Barrow, and for the further de- velopment of which a private company, entitled the Hull Chemical Wood Pulp Company, Limited, has been formed, 72 TREATMENT OF WOOD. consists in the employment of sulphite of lime as the dis- integrating agent. The process consists in passing gaseous sulphurous acid — formed by .burning sulphur in a retort, into which is forced a current of air at a pressure of 5 lbs. to the square inch — through a series of three vessels, con- nected by pipes, the vessels being charged with milk of lime. The first two of these vessels are closed air-tight, and the gas is then introduced, while the third vessel remains open ; from this latter a continuous stream of nitrogen escapes, due to the removal of the oxygen by the burning sulphur from the air passed into the retort. This process is said to be a very economical one, so far as relates to the cost of materials used. Blitz's Process. — This process consists of employing a mixture composed of bisulphite of soda 2 parts, caustic soda 1 part ; and vanadate of ammonia 1 gramme, in hy- drochloric acid 4 grammes to every 6 kilogrammes of the bisulphite. The wood, after being cut up in the ordinary Avay, is submitted to the action of the above mixture, under a pressure of three or four atmospheres, for from four to eight hours, and the pulp is then ground ; it is said to possess some of the qualities of rag pulp and to look much like it. McDougall's Boiler for Acid Processes. — This in- vention is intended to obviate the difficulties which arise in using lead-lined boilers, owing to the unequal expansion and contraction of the lead and the iron on their being alternately heated by steam and cooled, on the discharge of each successive batch of pulp. This invention consists in constructing the boilers with an intermediate packing of felt, or other compressible and elastic material, so that when the interior leaden vessel is heated, and thereby enlarged and pressed outwards by the steam, the com- pressible and elastic packing yields to the j^ressure and expansion. Also in the cooling of the vessels the packing responds to the contraction, and approximates to its origi- nal bulk and pressure between the two vessels, and so prevents the rupture or tearing of the lead and consequent MC DOUG ALUS BOILER. 7} leakage and other inconveniences. Another part of this invention consists in the construction of the outer iron or steel vessel in flanged sections, which are fitted to incase the interior leaden vessel with a space between the two vessels, into which the compressible and elastic materials are packed. In the; construction of these vessels the iron or steel flanged sections are placed on to the leaden vessel and packed with the compressible and elastic lining in succession. As each section is packed it is screwed close up to the adjoining section by the screw bolts, fitted into corresponding holes in the flanges of the contiguous sec- tion until completed. This method of construction secures economy by the retention of the heat, which is effected by the packing between the two vessels. The materials used for the packing are caoutchouc, felt, flocks, asbestos, etc., and a space of about two inches between the vessels is pre- ferred, into which the packing is filled. Graham's Process. — This process consists in boiling fibrous substances in a solution of sulphurous acid, or a sulphite or bisulphite of soda, potash, magnesia, or lime, or other suitable base and water. The boiling is preferable conducted in a closed boiler, lined with lead, to protect it from the action of the chemical substances used, and is fitted with a valVe which can be opened to allow the gases and volatile hydrocarbons contained in and around the fibres to escape. The method of carrying out the process has been thus described : — " In carrying out the process there is a constant loss of sulphurous acid gas going on, and consequently a continual weakening of the solution employed, to avoid which it is preferable to employ mono- sulphite of potash, soda, magnesia, lime, or other suitable base, and water. Either of these substances, or a suitable combination of them, and water are placed in the boiler with the fibrous substances to be treated, and the tempera- ture raised to the boiling point. After the hydrocarbons, air, and gases natural to the fibrous substances have been driven out by the heat and allowed to escape, sulphurous acid, in its gaseous or liquid state, or in combination with 74 TREATMENT OF WOOD. either of the bases referred, to, is puraped or injected into the boiler. There is thus forming in the closed boiler a solution containing an excess of sulphurous acid above that required to form, in combination with the base, a mono- sulphite. The operation of injecting sulphurous acids, or the sulphites, may be repeated from time to time during the boiling, so as to fully maintain, and if necessary in- crease, the strength and efficiency of the chemical solu- tion. It is said that by this process a saving of the chemicals employed is effected, as little or no sulphurous acid gas is lost during the time the gaseous hydrocarbons, air, and other gaseous matters are being . expelled from the fibrous materials. If an open vessel is used instead of a closed boiler, it will be necessary to keep the solu- tion at a fairly uniform strength, and if necessary to increase the strength, but the result will be substan- tially the same ; but as it is evident that, when using an open boiler, the excess of sulphurous acid supplied during the boiling will be constantly driven off as gas, it must be replaced by further injections, while the acid fumes may be conveyed away and condensed, so as to be available for further use. When the fibrous substances are boiled as above, with the addition of potash, soda, etc., during the boiling, the result will be equally beneficial. The inventor prefers to inject the sulphurous acid or its combinations into the boiler at the bottom, and to cause it to come in contact with the solution therein before reaching the fibrous materials. For this purpose there is formed a kind of chamber beneath the boiler, but separated from it by a perforated disc or diaphragm of lead or other suitable material not acted upon by the solution, so as to allow the latter to fill the chamber, to which is connected a pipe, through which the sulphurous acid or solutions of the sul- phites is forced by any suitable apparatus. Objections to the Acid or Bisulphite Processes. — While the various methods of boiling wood in caustic soda at high temperatures are well known to be open to serious objections, the acid treatment of wood also presents OBJECTIONS TO ACID PROCESSES. 75 many disadvantages, which, it is to be hoped may be yet overcome. In reference to this, Davis makes the follow- ing observations : — " In the acid treatment of wood for the purpose of converting the fibres into pulp for use in paper manufacture, the general practice has been to use alkaline solutions of soda, combined in various proportions with certain acids, such, for instance, as sulphurous acid, hydrochloric acid, etc. These solutions have been heated in digesting vessels, and the high temperature resulting from this process of heating developing a pressure of from six to seven atmospheres, the wood being disin- tegrated by the action of the boiling solutions, the gum, resinous constituents, and other incrustating or cementing substances that bind the fibres together are decomposed, destroyed, or dissolved, while pure cellulose, which con- stitutes the essential element of the ligneous fibres, is separated therefrom. To this end high temperatures had to be employed, otherwise the disintegration was found to be only partial, the. wood remaining in a condition unfit for further treatment. The high temperature not unfrequently converts a large proportion of the resinous and gummy constituents of the wood into tar and pitch — that is to say, carbonaceous bodies that penetrate into the fibre and render its bleaching difiicult, laborious, and costly, while the frequent washing and lixiviation neces- sary to bleach such products seriously affect the strength of the fibre and its whiteness, and also materially reduce the percentage of the product, in some instances to the extent of 18 per cent. These difficulties and detrimental results materially enhance the cost of production, while the fibre itself suffel-s considerably in strength from the repeated action of the chloride of lime. . . . The difficulties are chiefly due to the carbonisation of certain constituent parts of the fibres under temperatures exceeding 212° F., such carbonised matters being insoluble and in- capable of being bleached, and as they permeate the fibre, cannot be entirely removed. "To overcome these difficulties, the wood should be 76 TREATMENT OF WOOD. cliemically treated at' a temperature sufficiently low to ensure that the decomposition .of the connecting substances of the fibres will remain chemically combined with the other elements, such as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, in order to obtain ' an increased product of superior quality and render the process more economical." Sulphite Fibre and Resin — A German manufacturer sent the following communication to the Papier Zeitung, which may be interesting to the users of sulphite pulp : — " In making [disintegrating] cellulose by the soda or sul- phite process, the object in boiling is to loosen the incrust- ing particles in the wood, resin included, and to liberate the fibres. The resin is dissolved both in the soda and sulphite prQcesses, but in the former it is at the same time saponified, and is consequently very easily washed out. In the case of sulphite fibre, however, the resin attaches itself by its own adhesiveness to the fibres, but can also be removed by as hot washing as possible, and adding a little hydrochloric acid, which produces a very great effect. At the same time, however, sulphite fibre loses in whiteness by thorough washing, and assumes a reddish-grey shade. As the paper manufacturer insists upon white fibre, the manufacturer of sulphite fibre not only often omits washing, but adds some sulphite solu- tion (bisulphite of lime). This not only enables him to give his customers white fibre, but he also sells a quantity of the incrusting particles and sulphite residuum as cellulose. " So long as the manufacturer looks more to white than to well-washed cellulose, or does not wash it well before working up the fibre, these annoyances cannot be avoided. Not only this, but other disadvantages will be added in the course of time, as the action of the sulphurous acid in the pulp will have very injurious consequences on metals — [and on the fibre itself?] especially iron — coming in contact with it. This should be the more avoided, as the whiteness of the unwashed cellulose is of very short duration. The paper made from it soon turns yellow and becomes brittle. . Well-washed sulphite fibre, on the other SULPHIDE PROCESSES. 77 band — provided no mistakes have been made in the boil- ing process — makes' a strong, grippy paper, which can withstand both air and sunlight. I have made no special studies as to resin, but believe that pine and fir act dif- ferently, especially with solvents." Adamsou's Process. — Mr. W. Adamson, of Phila- delphia, obtained a patent in 1871 for the use of hydro- carbons in the treatment of wood. His process consisted in treating the wood with benzine in closed vessels, under a pressure of 5 to 10 lbs., according to the nature of the wood. His digester consisted of an upright cylinder, in which the wood-shavings were placed between two per- forated diaphragms. The mass was heated beneath the lower diaphragm by a coil through which steam was passed. The vapours which were given off were allowed to escape through a pipe on the top of the digester, to which was connected a coil immersed in a vessel of cold water, and the condensed liquid then returned to the lower part of the digester. The remaining portion of the benzine in the digester, which was still liquid but saturated with, the extracted matters, was drawn off through a faucet at the bottom. Benzine being a very cheap article in America, a similar process w'as recom- mended in another patent by the same author for extrac- tion of pitch and tar from rags [tarpaulin, ropes, &c. ?], and for removing oil' from rags and cotton waste. Sulphide Processes. — Many attempts were made about thirty years ago, and in subsequent years, to employ the soluble sulphides as a substitute for caustic soda in boiling wood and other fibres, but these processes do not appear to have been very successful. Later improvements in the construction of boilers or digesters, however, seem to have induced further experiments in this direction, and we understand that several sulphide processes are being worked on the Continent, the processes of MM. Dahl and Blitz being amongst them. One of the supposed advan- tages of these sulphides over caustic soda is that by evaporation and calcination of the liquors, or leys, by which the organic matters become destroyed, the original 78 TREATMENT OF WOOD. product would be recovered, which, merely requires to be dissolved out for further use. There are, however, several important objections to the use of sulphides in this way, amongst which may be mentioned the deleterious vapours which they emit ; and this alone would doubtless prevent their employment — at all events in this country. II. Mechanical Processes. — Besides the various chemi- cal methods of separating cellulose from woody fibres, before described, certain processes have been devised for reducing wood to the condition of pulp directly by mecha- nical means without the aid of any chemical substance whatsoever. In this direction Heinrich Yoelter, of Wur- temburg, appears to have been the first to introduce a really practical process for the conversion of wood into pulp for paper-making, although, as far back as 1756, Dr. Schaefier, of Bavaria, proposed to make paper from saw- dust and shavings mechanically formed into pulp : the pro- cess was not successful, however, with the machinery then at his command. Voelter's Process for Preparing Mechanical Wood Pulp. — In 1860-65 and 1873 Voelter obtained patents in this country for his methods of treating wood mecha- nically, and the process may be thus briefly described : — Blocks of wood, after the knots have been cut out by suitable tools, are pressed against a revolving grindstone, which reduces the material to a more or less fine condi- tion, but not in a powdery form, and the disintegrated fibre is caused to press against a wire screen, which allows the finer particles to pass through, retaining the coarser particles for further treatment. The apparatus employed, which is shown in Fig. 17a, consists of a pulping apparatus a, with vat k, in which the revolving stone s is placed ; the blocks of wood are held against the stone at jpp, and water is' introduced at g, and the revolving stone carries the pulp against the screen e, which admits the passage of the finer particles of the wood, while the coarser particles are led by the trough r to the first refining cylinder b, after passing through an oscillating basket, Fig. 17a. — Voelter' a. Wood-pulping Itlaoliiiie. {To face page 78. MECHANICAL PROCESS. 79 wbicli retains tlie coarser particles. From thence it is led -through a distributing apparatus and hopper c, to be uni- formly supplied to the refining cylinder d, these cylinders being of the ordinary construction, and, as usual, covered with fine gauze wire sieves. The ground material which fails to pass through the sieves is transferred by an elevator to the millstones e, which are of ordinary construction, and after leaving these unites with the finer fibres which pass through e, the whole now entering a mixing reservoir F, whence it is thrown on to the cylinder g, and the pulp which passes into this is distributed on to a similar cylinder" H, the contents of which then passes through the last cylinder i, which is differently constructed to the others, inasmuch as its lower part is surrounded by an imper- vious leather jacket, so that the pulp ascends in order to enter it. The disintegrated fibres that are retained by the wires of the cylinders pass into the refiners, which con- sist of a pair of horizontal cylinders of sandstone, one of which (the upper one) only revolves, and by the action of these the coarser fibres become further reduced, the finer particles, as before, passing through the wire gauze of the cylinders, the operation being repeated in the same order until the whole of the fibres have passed through the sieves. Thune's Process. — Mr. A. L. Thune, of Christiana, U.S.A., has recently patented an apparatus for disinte- grating wood, which consists of a grinding apparatus connected to a turbine. In this arrangement the grind- stone, fixed on a shaft, is worked by a turbine, and the wood, which is used in small blocks, is pressed against the stone by means of a series of hydraulic presses. The fine pulp is afterwards made into thick sheets by means of a board-machine, the pulp, mixed with water, passing down a shoot into a vat beneath, in which _ is^ a revolving cylinder covered with wire-cloth, which in its revolution carries with it a certain quantity of pulp in a continuous sheet ; this is taken on to an endless travelling belt by means of a small couch-roll, and passes on to a pair of rolls, round the upper one of which the sheet be- comes wound, and is removed when sufficiently thick. CHAPTEE VIII, tu:eatment of various fibres. Treatment of Straw. — Bentley and Jackson's Boiler. — Boilin» the Straw. — Bertrams' Edgre-nmner. — M. A. C. Mtdlifr's Process. — Manilla, Jute, etc. — Waste Paper.— Builing- Waste Paper. — Eyan's Process for reatirig Waste Paper. Treatment of Straw — As a paper-making material, the employment of straw is of very early date, a patent for producing paper from straw having been taken out by Matthias Koops as far back as 1801. The material, how- ever, was used in its unbleached state, and formed a very ugly paper. White paper was not obtained from straw until 1841, but no really practical method of treating this material was devised until about ten years later, in France, when MM. Coupier and Mellier introduced a process which, with siibsequent modifications, has been exten- sively adopted. " A great advance in the manufacture of paper from straw has since been effected by the introduc- tion of various boilers, specially constructed for boiling the material at high pressures, and for keeping the alka- line liquors freely circulated amongst the fibre during the progress of the boiling. These boilers are of different forms — being either cylindrical or spherical — and are pre- ferably of the revolving type, which causes the caustic ley employed in the boiling to become uniformly mixed with the fibre. Sometimes the vomiting boilers described elsewhere are used by paper-makers in preference to those referred to. Bentley and Jackson's Boiler. — This boiler, a repre- sentation of which is shown in Fig. 18, is 7 feet in BENT LEY AND JACKSON'S BOILER. Si diameter, 18 feet long on the cylindrical surface, with hemispherical ends of Martin- Siemens steel plate /-g inch thick in the shell, and \ inch thick in the ends. It is double riveted in the longitudinal seams, has two man- holes 3x2, forged out of solid steel plate. Inside are two perforated lifting plates or shelves, each 1 foot wide, \ inch thick, the fuU length of the shell, and secured to the ends by strong angle-irons ; it is supported on two turned cast-iron trunnions. These boilers are tested by hydraulic pressure to 120 lbs. per square inch. The varieties of straw generally used for paper-making in this country are wheat and oats, though rye and barley straws are also used, but in a lesser degree. The treat- Fig. 18. ment of straw differs greatly at different mills, some makers using strong liquors and boiling at a lower pres- sure, while others prefer to use less caustic soda and boil at a higher pressure. There can be little doubt, however, that the high temperatures resulting from boiling at very high steam pressure must deteriorate the fibre consider- ably, causing subsequent loss of fibre in the processes of washing and bleaching. Boiling the Straw. — The straw is first cut into short lengths of one or two inches by means of a chaff-cutter, or by a machine similar to a rag-cutter, and the cut material is then driven by an air-blast through a wooden tube into a chamber having coarse wire-gauze sides : a G 82 TREATMENT OF VARIOUS FIBRES. second chamber surrounds this, in which the dust from the straw collects as it passes through the wire gauze. The winnowed straw, freed from dust and dirt, is then conveyed in sacks to the boilers. In charging the boilers, a certain quantity of ley is first introduced, and steam also, and the cut straw then added, which soon becomes r.oftened, and sinks to the bottom of, the boiler, when further quantities of the material are added, until the full charge has been given. The requisite proportion of ley and water is then run in and the head of the boiler secured in its place. Steam is now turned on, until a pressure of 20 to 40 lbs., or even more, has been reached, when the boiling is kept up for 3^ to 8 " hours, according to the pressure used and the strength of the alkaline liquor, which varies from 9° to 16° Tw. From 10 to 20 lbs. of caustic soda per cwt. of straw are generally required to boil the material thoroughly. The boiling being complete, steam is turned off, and when the boiler has somewhat cooled, the material, which is in the form of a pulp, is discharged by the pipes beneath into a large tank or strainer, the bottom of which is fitted with a series of plates having long narrow openings or slits, through which the liquor drains. The pulp is then washed with water, and again allowed to drain thoroughly, after which it is dug out and transferred to the potcher to be again washed and bleached. At some mills the straw is boiled whole and not subjected to any preliminary cut- ting. In such cases the boiled straw, not being so fully pulped as when cut into short lengths, is emptied from the boiler through the manholes used for charging the material into the boiler. Bertrams' Edge-runner. — For the purpose of crush- ing the knots of the straw, and other hard particles de- rived from weeds, etc., a machine termed the "koller- gang " or " edge-runner " is sometimes employed. This machine, which is manufactured by Bertrams, Limited, and of which an illustration is given in Fig. 19, con- sists of two large millstones, made from hard red BERTRAMS' EDGE-RUNNER. 83 granite, the surfaces of which are sometimes grooved with Y-shaped equidistant grooves. These stones are worked by a horizontal spindle, and are caused to re- volve very rapidly in an iron basin, in which the washed pulp is placed, and by this means the knots and harder portions of the fibre not fully acted upon by the caustic alkali, become so reduced as to be more readily accessible to the action of the bleach, and thus a very superior straw pulp is produced. In using this machine in the way indicated, the washed pulp is mixed in a chest pro- 84 TREATMENT OF VARIOUS FIBRES. vided with agitators, with water, is then pumped into a second chest above it, from whence it flows into the basin shown in the engraving, while the stones are revolving. TSL. A. C. Mellier's Process. — By this method the straw is first cut into small lengths as usual ; it is then steeped for a few hours in hot water, and afterwards placed by preference in a jacketed boiler, the object being to heat the materials without weakening the ley by the direct introduction of steam into the body of the material. The boiler is to be heated to a pressure of 70 lbs. to the square inch, or to a temperature of about 310° F., by which means, it is said, a considerable saving of alkali is effected, as also time and fuel, as compared with the ordinary prac- tice of boiling. The alkaline ley which M. Mellier prefers to use is from 2° to 3° B,, or of the specific gravity of from 1'013 to 1-020, and in the proportion of about 70 gallons of such solution to each cwt. of straw. The boiler should revolve very slowly, making about 1 or 2 revo- lutions per minute. The boiling occupies about 3 hours, at the pressure named, when the steam is turned off and cold water passed through the jacket of the boiler, which assists in cooling the pulp, the water thus used .being afterwards employed in washing the pulp. The pulp is then thoroughly washed until the last water runs oft* quite clear, when it is next steeped for about an hour in hot water acidulated with sulphuric acid, in the proportion of about 2 per cent, of the weight of' the fibre. The pulp is then washed with cold water, when it is ready for bleach- ing in the usual way. Manilla, Jute, etc. — Previous to boiling these fibres it is usual to cut them into short pieces by a machine such as is used for cutting straw, after which they are cleaned in a willowing and dusting machine. The boiling is then conducted in the same way as for esparto. Manilla fibre is not so much used in this country as in the United States, where its employment forms an important feature in the manufacture of certain kinds of paper. Some idea of the extent to which it is used by the paper -makers of MANILLA, JUTE, ETC. 85 America may be gleaned from tlie following statement of Mr. "Wyatt : — " Another large and important branch of the American paper trade are the mills running on news and Manilla paper. Many of these mills turn out a vast quantity of paper, running up to two hundred tons per week, besides making their own ground wood pulp. The American news is composed mainly of ground wood pulp, with an admixture of about 15 to 25 per cent, of sulphite wood or jute fibre, and not much loading, and the machines are run at high speed. "What is termed Manilla paper is very largely used in the States, and much more so than with us for common writings, envelopes, and wrapping papers. The paper is composed of Manilla, jute fibre, old papers, etc., and is highly finished at the machine. I was told of one mill belonging to a large company running altogether six mills on news and Manilla, turning out, with one 9 6 -inch machine and beater capacity of 1,800 lbs., and one Jordan, 10 to 12 tons of 2,000 lbs., of Manilla paper per day at an average speed of 200 feet per minute." Jute is seldom reduced to the condition of a fine white pulp since the treatment necessary to obtain that condi- tion would result in a weak fibre ; it is usual, therefore, to only partially reduce the material, when a strong fibre is obtained, which, lacking in whiteness, is used for coarse papers. This also applies to Adamoonia, or Baobab, another description of bast obtained from the West Coast of Africa. These fibres are chiefly used for papers which require strength rather than whiteness of colour, such as wrapping papers, &c. "Broke" paper is a term applied to paper which has been imperfectly formed on the paper machine or damaged while passing over the drying cylinders. Imperfect sheets when they are not sold as retree, and clean waste paper, also come under this designation and are re-converted into pulp after undergoing the treatment described below. Waste Paper. — In treating waste paper for conversion into pulp for paper-making, it is doubtless advisable to 86 TREATMENT OF VARIOUS FIBRES. separate, as far as can be done economically, papers whicli have been written upon with common ink, as old letters, documents, &c., from printed papers, since ' the latter require a more severe treatment than the former. While simple boiling in water containing a little soda-ash will discharge ordinary writing ink, printer's ink can only be extracted by using rather strong solutions of soda-ash or caustic soda ; and even with this treatment it can only be rendered serviceable for an inferior paper, owing to the grey colour of the resulting pulp, due to the carbon of the printer's ink, upon which the alkali has no solvent effect. Boiling Waste Paper. — This is sometimes effected in iron vats, about 8 feet deep and 8 feet in diameter at the bottom, and about 6 inches wider at the top. At the bottom of each vat is a false bottom, closely perforated with small holes. Steam is introduced by a pipe below the false bottom, which passes through the perforations and thus becomes uniformly distributed to all parts of the vat. To facilitate the emptying of the vats, the false bottoms have connected to them three or four iron rods, to the tops of which iron chains are hooked, and by this means the false bottom, carrying the mass of boiled paper can be raised by a steam hoisting engine or crane and deposited where desired. When the boiling is commenced, the vat should first be about one-fourth filled with a solu- tion of soda-ash, and the steam then turned on. When the liquor boils, the papers having been previously dusted, are introduced gradually, and well distributed through the liquor ; if they are thrown into the vat in large quan- tities at a time, and especially if they are in a compact state, the portions in contact may not be reached by the liquor, and an imperfect boiling will be the result. To en- sure a uniform distribution of the boiling liquor over the surface of the material, an iron pipe extends from the centre of the false bottom to nearly the top of the vat, and this pipe is covered with a hood, which causes the soda liquor to be evenly spread over the whole mass. The vats are either cased with wood or coated with asbestos to prevent BOILING WASTE PAPER. 87 the escape of heat, and the vessel is covered with a flat iron cover, which is generally in two halves. The steam enters the tubs at the side, below the false bottom, and the exhausted liquor is drawn off through a valve con- nected to the bottom of the vat. In some mills the liquor is not dra^^Ti off after each boiling, but the boiled paper is hoisted from the vat as before described, and the liquor strengthened by the addition of from 10 to 20 lbs. of soda-ash for each 100 lbs. of the paper to be next boiled. Paper that is thickly coated with printing ink requires an extra dose of soda-ash. The boiling is continued for twelve to twenty-four hours according to the nature and condi- tion of the waste paper under treatment. Waste papers are frequently boiled, after dusting, in revolving boilers, in a solution of soda-ash or caustic soda, but it not unf requently happens that some portions of the material become so agglomerated or half pulped during the boiling that the alkali fails to reach all the ink, and as this cannot be removed by the after processes of washing and breaking, it remains in the body of the pulp and necessarily forms a constituent part of the paper to be produced from it. The mass, when discharged from the boiler and drained is then conveyed to the washing- engine, in which it becomes broken and freed from alkali and so much of the ink as may have been dissolved or loosened, and it is afterwards treated in the beater and naixed with varying portions of other paper stock, according to the quality of paper to be produced. In some mills the boiled waste paper is disintegrated after boiling, by means of the edge-runner (Fig. 19). Ryan's Process for Treating Waste Paper.— The fol- lowing process for treating waste paper so as to produce a " first-class clean paper" therefrom, was patented by Mr. J. T. Ryan, of Ohio. The waste paper is first passed through a duster in the usual way, all thick old books being previously torn apart to separate the leaves. _ The papers are then boiled in a hot alkaline liquor without pulping them, whereby the alkali acts on the surfaces of 88 TREATMENT OF VARIOUS FIBRES. the papers, and dissolves off, carrying away all the ink into the liquor. The papers, which are still in sheet form, are then drained as free as convenient from the alkaline liquor, and are next washed in the washing-engine, which leaves the material perfectly clean. It is. then pulped in the beating-engine ; and it is claimed that it can be formed into first-class paper without the addition of any new or expensive paper stock. The details of the process are thus given by the patentee : "Into a bucking-keir put a soda-ash solution having a density of 5° B., at 160° F., put in the stock, and showor for eight hours at a temperature of 160° F., without pulping the paper, then lift and drain, and cleanse well in the washing- engine ; then pulp and form into paper. As the draining will always be imperfect, each charge removed will carry away some of the soda-ash solution, and leave the re- mainder of impaired strength. After each drainage add water to make up for loss in quantity of the solution, and add enough soda-ash solution at a density of 13° B., to bring all the liquor up to 5° B. at 160° F. In about eighteen working days the liquor will have accumu- lated considerable ink and other matter. Then blow one half of the liquor, and restore the quantity for proper working. None of the soda-ash solution is wasted, except such as falls to drain and what is blown out as last mentioned." In carrying out this process every care must be taken to guard against pulping before the alkali is washed out. CHAPTEE IX. BLEACHING. Bleaching Operation.— Sour Bleaching.— Bleaching with Chloride of L,ime. — Donkin's Bleach Mixer. —Bleaching with Chlorine Gas (Glaser's Process).— Electrolytic Bleaching (C. Watt's- Process).— IJermite's Process.— Andreoli's Process.— Thompson's Process. — Lunge's Process.— Zinc Bleach Liquor.— Alum Bleach Liquor.— New Method of Bleaching. Bleaching Operation. — The half -stuff treated in the breaking-engine is run into the potcher, and the water it contains is lifted out as far as practicable by the washer ; the spent liquor from the presses or drainers is then run in in lieu of water, and as much fresh -bleaching-liquor as may be required is then measured in, and in from two to sis: hours the pulp becomes perfectly white. " However well managed a mill may be," says Mr. Arnot, "it is scarcely possible to avoid having a small residue of unused chlorine in the liquid which drains from the bleaching stuff." The rule, therefore, is to use this liquor in the way above indicated, by which the unexhausted chlorine, operating upon fresh half-stuff, becomes available, and is, therefore, not wasted. "That as little of this residual chlorine as possible may remain in the stuff," Mr. Arnot further observes, "when put into the beating-engine, powerful hydraulic presses are employed to compress the stuff and squeeze out the liquid. These presses should be large enough to contain easily the whole contents of a poaching-engine, and of unexceptional workmanship. The perforated lining especially should be carefully prepared and properly secured. I have seen much trouble from negligent workmanship in this respect. Eecently I ex- 90 BLEACHING. amined a number of samples of press drainings, and found tlie unexhausted chlorine to vary very much — from a few grains of bleaching powder per gallon to about one ounce." Sometimes it is the practice to partly fill the potcher with water, and the engine being set in motion, the half- stuff is gradually introduced until the full charge has been given, and the stuff is then washed for some time, after which the drum-washer is raised, and the bleaching liquor then run in, care being taken that the necessary quantity is not exceeded, otherwise the fibre will suffer injury froni the chemical action of the bleaching agent. When vitriol is employed to liberate the hypochlorous acid, the vitriol, previously diluted with water, should be placed in a small lead-lined tank in such a position that the acid liquor may slowly trickle into the engine at the rate of 1 lb. of sulphuric acid in twenty minutes. As soon as the bleaching is complete the stufi" is emptied into large stone chests, each of which will hold the contents of two engines. On the bottom of these chests are perforated zinc drainers, while a similar drainer runs up the back of each chest. The bleached stuff" is allowed to remain as long as may be convenient in these chests, after which it is removed to the beating or refining engines. In some mills the bleaching is effected in the breaking-engine, while at other mills the operation is performed in the beating-engine. In bleaching it is considered to be more advantageous to employ moderately strong liquors rather than weaker ones, inasmuch as the object is effected in less time than when weaker liquors are employed. An extreme in the opposite direction, however, must be avoided, since a very strong bleach will inevitably cause injury to the fibre. Sometimes the potchers are fitted with steam-pipes, in order that the diluted bleaching liquor may be heated, if required, to facilitate the operation. If the temperature be raised too high, however, the effect upon the fibre will be at least as injurious as if too strong a bleach were BLEACHING. 91 employed. It must also be borne in mind that in either case, after the pulp has been bleached and the liquor allowed to run off, the mass has to remain some time — even if pressed to remove as much of the liquor as possible — in direct contact with the products resulting from the decomposition, and probably some undecomposed hypo- chlorite also, which will continue their chemical action upon the fibre until removed by washing, or neutralised by one or other of the agents employed for the purpose. Sour Bleaching. — When the bleaching liquor, after acting upon the half-stuflf for some time, has become partially exhausted, dilute sulphuric acid — about one part acid to fifteen parts of water — is added, which, by liberating hypochlorous acid, hastens the bleaching considerably, and when the chemical action resulting from this treatment is nearly complete, the spent liquor is allowed to drain away, and fresh bleaching liquor is introduced, the strength being regulated by the progress made in the first case, which will depend upon the character of the fibre treated. In the second application of the bleach no acid is used. When sulphuric acid is added to the bleaching liquor, as above, the process is termed 80ur bleaching. Sometimes hydrochloric acid is used for this purpose, but in either case it is necessary to avoid employing the acid in too concentrated a state, or in too great a quantity, otherwise free chlorine will be liberated, which, besides being in- jurious to the health of the workmen and the surrounding machinery, also involves loss, while the colour and strength of the fibre itself will also be impaired. In some mills the bleaching is effected in the beating-engine, the bleach- ing liquor being pumped in while the machine is in motion. Respecting the time which the bleaching operation should occupy, there appears to be some difference of opinion, or, at all events, the practice seems to vary in different mills, but there is, no doubt, an advantage, so far as ultimate yield is concerned, in moderately slow bleaching at a moderate temperature, inasmuch as there 92 BLEACHING. is less risk of chemical action upon tlie cellulose itself tlian when strong liquors are used, at a higher tempera- ture, with a view to hasten the operation and economise the bleaching powder. Bleaching with Chloride of Lime {^reparation of the Bleaching Liquor). — Chloride of lime, or hypochlorite of lime, commonly called bleaching powder, when well pre- pared, contains from 33 to 35 per cent, of active chlorine. Being readily decomposed by the air, and also by heat, this substance should always be stored in a cool and dry place until required for use. A solution of bleaching powder is generally prepared in large tanks lined with lead, which are provided with agitators or stirrers, so that the powder, when added to the water, may be freely diffused, and its active material dissolved in the liquid, A machine, or " bleach-mixer," manufactured. by Messrs. Bryan Donkin and Co., of Bermondsey, is shown in Fig. 20, which is so constructed that the strong bleach liquor does not destroy it. The device for agitating the contents, of the tank explains the principle of the machine. To prepare the bleaching liquor, about | lb. BLEACHING WITH CHLORINE. 93 of chloride of lime to eacli gallon of water is used, which yields a liquor at about 6° T. When the re- quired quantity of bleaching powder and water have been introduced into the mixer and sufficiently agitated, the vessel is allowed to rest until the residue, which chiefly .consists of free lime and its carbonate, has subsided, when the clear liquor may be run off for use. When all the clear liquor has been drawn off the residue shoiild be washed with water, and after again settling, the wash- ing water run off, and fresh water added, these wash- ings being repeated as often as necessary to remove the last traces of the "bleach," as it is technically called. The washing waters may be used in lieu of water in the preparation of fresh bleaching liquors. In some mills the bleaching powder is mixed with from 2 to 3 times its weight of water ; the mixture is then well agitated and the residue afterwards allowed to settle, the clear solution being afterwards drawn off and the residue then washed as before. In either case the residual matter is afterwards well drained and then cast aside. The bleaching liquor is stored in large tanks ready for use, from which it is with- drawn as required by means of a syphon or otherwise. Bleaching with Chlorine Gas [Glaser'is Process). — This method of bleaching is not so much adopted in England as formerly, but has found much favour in Germany ; in- deed, within the past few years, namely, in March 3rd, 1880, a process was introduced by Mr. F. CarhGlaser for treating straw, in which, after boiling with caustic soda as usual, the pulp is bleached by the action of chlorine gas. The straw, after being separated from weeds by a slight or superficial picking, is cut into pieces of from ^ to ■§ of an inch in length. The cut straw is then placed in a rotary boiler for about four hours, at a pressure of about 4 to 4^ atmospheres, in a solution composed of 29 lbs. of caustic soda at 71°, and 48 lbs. of calcined soda at 90°, rendered caustic, for every 220 lbs. of straw. After boil- ing, the dirty ley is drawn off, and the boiled straw sub- jected to two washings with water. It is then conveyed 94 BLEACHING. to the washing-engine, where it is washed for an hour ; the drum of the machine should have a sieve or sifter, the apertures of which are about 60 to the square inch. The washed straw is next dried by centrifugal force in a hydro- extractor, until it contains about 70 per cent, of water, which is necessary for the action of the chlorine gas. To effect this, so as to obtain not very solid or close cakes of straw, the holes of the wire of the hydro-extractor should not be more than 50 to the square inch. The cakes of straw thus formed are then exposed to the action of chlorine in leaden chambers of the ordinary kind, in which they are placed in layers upon hurdles, or upon shelves. If the chlorine is produced by hydrochloric acid, for every 220 lbs. of unboiled straw, lbs. of the acid at 20° B., and a corresponding quantity of 70 per cent, peroxide of manganese are used. After the bleaching operation, the acid formed is removed by washing in a washing-engine. If a complete reduction of the fibres has not been effected by the bleaching, this may be completed by the aid of well-known machines, and either before or subsequent to the after-bleaching there is used for 220 lbs. of straw about 4| lbs. of chloride of lime, at 35° [per cent. The patentee then gives the following explanation : — "As pine wood or fir is chemically freed from its colouring principle and transformed into fibres as well as cellulose, the object of the intense action of the chlorine is to destroy the mu- cilage of the straw, as well as the incrusting matters which have not been destroyed by the boiling with caustic soda, and consequently to strip or expose and open the fibres." It will be readily seen that this process bears a close resemblance to Mr. C. Watt's wood-pulp process. Electrolytic Bleaching ((7. Watt, jun.'s, Process). — At the present time, when the means of obtaining the electric current for practical purposes in the arts have so far exceeded that which would have been deemed probable some forty years since, we find that many ingenious processes, which were found to be unpractical at that time from the want of cheap electrical power, ELECTR OL YTIC BLEA CHING. 95 have since reappeared in the form of patented inven- tions, which would seem to possess every merit — but originality. So long ago as September 25th, 1851, the author's bro- ther, Mr. Charles Watt, obtained a patent for, amongst other claims, decomposing chlorides of sodium and potas- sium, and of the metals of the alkaline earths into hypo- chlorites by electricity. It may be well to make a few extracts here from his specification in order that some of the subsequent patents, to which we shall refer, may be traced to what may, perhaps, be considered their true origin. In the specification in question, the inventor says : — " The third part of my invention consists of a mode of converting chlorides of potassium and sodium, and of the metals of the alkaline earths, into hypochlorites and chlorates, by means of a succession of decompositions in the solution of the salt operated upon, when induced by the agency of electricity Electricity first decom- poses the chloride, the chlorine being eliminated at one of the electrodes, and the alkaline or earthy metallic base at the other electrode The liberated chlorine will, when it is set free, combine with a portion of alkali or alkaline earth in the solution, and a hypochlorite will be formed. The hypochlorite thus formed will, by the con- tinued action of heat, be resolved partly into a chlorate of the alkali or alkaline earth, and partly into a chloride of the metallic base, and the chloride will again be subjected to decomposition, and a hypochlorite formed. ... If I desire to produce a hypochlorite of the alkali or earth, I merely keep the vessel warm . . . and continue the pro- cess until as much of the saline matter has been converted into a hypochlorite as may be required for the purpose to which the solution is to be applied. This mode of form- ing a hypochlorite of the alkalies and alkaline earths may be used for preparing a bath for the purpose of bleaching various kinds of goods, and the bath may be strengthened [recuperated] from time to time by the action of the electric current." 96 BLEACHING. Thus it will be seen that this specification clearly de- scribed a process by which the chlorides of sodium and potassium, and of the metals of the alkaline earths (chlo- ride of magnesium, for example), may be converted into hypochlorites by electrolysis, and the hypochlorite solu- tion obtained used for the purposes of bleaching. It would appear difiicult to conceive how any subsequent patent for accomplishing the same thing, and using essentially the same means, can claim originality in the face of such " prior publication " as was effected by the usual " Blue- book," which any person can buy for eightpeuce. Hermite's Process. — The following description of this process has been furnished by the engineers engaged in connection with the process to the Paper Trade Hevietv : — "Briefly described, the Hermite process consists in manu- facturing a solution of high bleaching power by electro- lysing an aqueous solution of magnesium chloride. The salt is decomposed by the current at the same time as the water. The nascent chlorine, liberated from the magne- sium chloride, and the nascent oxygen, liberated from the water, unite at the positive pole, and produce an unstable oxygen compound of chloiine of very high bleaching power. The hydrogen and magnesium go to the negative pole ; this last decomposes the water and forms magne- sium oxide, whilst the hydrogen is disengaged. If in this liquid coloured vegetable fibre is introduced, the oxygen compound acts on the colouring matter, oxidising it. Chlorine combines with the hydrogen to foim hydrochloric acid, which finding itself in the presence of magnesium in the liquid combines with it, and forms the initial chloride of magnesium." Andreoli's Process. — This process consists, avowedlj^, in bleaching pulps " by means of hypochlorite of sodium, produced by electrolytical decomposition of a solution of chloride of sodium." In carrying out his process, M. An- dreoli uses as an electrolyte " concentrated or non-coiicen- trated sea- water, or a solution of chloride of sodium, the specific gravity of which varies according to the quality THOMPSON'S PROCESS. 97 and nature of tlie materials to be treated. Generally the solution to be electrolysed works better with, a density of 8° to 12" B., but although salt is cheap, and the solution when exhausted may be regenerated by passing an electric current, I always endeavour to have when possible {uc) a weak solution, and with some kinds of pulp an electrolyte having the density of sea-water (3° B.) is sufficiently strong to bleach." The foregoing are the only electrolytic processes for bleaching fibre's that need recording, and we fancy there will be little difficulty in tracing the resemblance between the two latter and the process of Mr. C. W^att. Thompson's Process. — This process, for which a patent was obtained on February 3rd, 1883, may be thus briefly described: — In bleaching linen fabrics the material is boiled for about three hours in a solution of cyanide of potassium or sodium — about half an ounce of the salt to each gallon of water — to remove the resinous matter from the fibre, so that the cellulose may be exposed to the action of the bleach. The fabric is then washed, and again boiled for three hours more in a similar solution, and after being again washed is ready for bleaching. With cotton the preliminary boiling is not necessary, unless the material is greasy, in which case a solution of half the strength and two hours' boiling is sufficient. In ordinary cases cotton is not boiled at all, but is simply washed in cold water and squeezed. In bleaching, all vegetable fibres are treated in the same way, the only difference being in point of time. The cotton or linen, after being treated as described, is then piled somewhat loosely in an air-tight vessel, 9 lbs. of cloth to the cubic foot of space being con- sidered sufficient. The vessel is then filled with a weak solution of bleaching liquor, consisting of about one ounce of dry bleaching powder to each gallon of water. " After the vessel has been filled, the liquor is immediately run out, and is replaced by an atmosphere of carbonic acid, which quickly liberates the chlorine on the fibre, and thus decomposes the water, uniting with the hydrogen and H 98 BLEACHING. liberating the oxygen, tlie result of whicli is to bleacli the fibre or fabric. In about an hour the whole of the bleach- ing liquor in the fibre will have been thus decomposed, and this operation must be repeated until the material is of the proper whiteness to be withdrawn from the action of the chlorine. The material is then washed and squeezed. Chlorine, however, always leaves these materials of a yellowish white," To remove this tint, the material is passed through a solution of oxalic acid — about 2 oz. to the gallon — squeezed as it passes out of this solution, and then passed through another solution made by dissolving \ grain of triethyl rose aniline to the gallon of water, or 20 grains of indigo, as may be preferred. To this solution oxalic acid is added until it becomes of an opaque but bright turquoise blue. The material, after washing, is then white. The patent describes and illustrates xhe apparatus to be used in conjunction with certain parts of existing appara- tus used in bleaching. Lunge's Process. — In this process acetic acid is used in place of hydrochloric or sulphuric acids, etc., to set free the chlorine or hypochlorous acid, in the ordinary method of bleaching with hypochlorite of lime, or bleaching powder, which, the inventor says, " combines all the ad- vantages of the materials formerly employed, without any of their drawbacks The price is no impediment, for a minimal quantity is sufiicient, the same being re- generated over and over again. At first acetic acid and chloride of lime decompose into calcium acetate and free hypochlorous acid. In the bleaching process the latter yields its oxygen, hydrochloric acid being formed. The latter instantly acts upon the calcium acetate ; calcium chloride is formed and acetic acid is regenerated, which decomposes a fresh quantity of chloride of lime, and so forth. Consequently the smallest quantity of acetic acid sufiices for splitting up any amount of chloride of lime. .... The hydrochloric acid formed is never present in the free state, as it instantly acts upon the calcium acetate. This is very important, since hydrochloric acid weakens LUNGE'S PROCESS. 99 the fibre by prolonged contact, whilst acetic acid is quite harmless. Since there are no insoluble calcium salts pre- sent, the operation of ' souring ' after bleaching is quite unnecessary ; this not merely saves the expense of acid, and of the subsequent washing of the fabrics, but it also avoids the danger, especially present in the case of stout fabrics, of leaving some of the acid in the stuff, which concentrates on drying and weakens the fibre ; it may also prove injurious in subsequent dyeing operations. But in the new process no free acid is present except acetic acid, which has no action upon fibre, even in its concentrated state and at a high temperature." The acetic acid may be employed in various ways, in- cluding the following : — A small quantity of the acid may be added from the first to the bleaching liquor ; or the fabric, after being treated in the ordinary way with a solution of the bleaching powder, may be steeped, without previous washing, in water containing a little acetic acid ; or the fabric may be steeped in water acidulated with acetic acid, and bleaching liquor afterwards run in slowly and gradually, with continuous agitation in the usual way. In the case of hard water, or of impure bleaching liquors, a good deal of the acetic acid would be consumed in neutralising the lime ; in this case, some hydrochloric or sulphuric acid may be added, but only sufficient for the purpose, so that no acid but hypochlorous or acetic acid exists in the free state. The process is applicable to the bleaching of vegetable fibres, whether spun or in the un- spun state, and for bleaching paper pulp made from rags, wood, straw, esparto, etc. Besides acetic acid, any other weak organic acid of an analogous nature may be used. Zinc Bleach Liquor — Strong acids are often objection- able for liberating chlorine from bleaching powder, and especially in bleaching some classes of paper pulp. If a solution of sulphate of zinc be added to one of bleaching powder, sulphate of lime is precipitated, and the zinc hypochlorite formed at once splits up into zinc oxide and a solution of free hypochlorous acid. Chloride of zinc lOO BLEACHING. acts similarly ; for a' saturated solution of zinc in hydro- chloric acid decomposes as much bleaching powder as. half its weight of concentrated oil of vitriol. — Varrentrapp. Consequently zinc salts can be employed in place of sulphuric acid, and thus bleach the paper pulp very quickly. When this mixture is employed in bleaching pulp, the precipitated sulphate of lime resulting from the reaction and also the oxide of zinc formed, remain in the pulp, and serve as loading materials. Alum Bleach Liquor. — Orioli * recommended for use, in "paper-mills especially, a bleach liquor made by decom- posing equivalent quantities of a solution of chloride of lime and sulphate of alumina, formerly known as Wilson's Bleach Liquor. Sulphate of lime is precipitated, and hypochlorite of aluminium remains in solution ; this being a very unstable salt can be applied for bleaching without the addition of an acid, splitting up into alu- minium chloride and active oxygen. Consequently the liquid always, remains neutral, and the difficulty caused by the obstinate retention of free acid in the fibre, by which it is strongly acted upon in drying, in this case does not exist. The aluminium chloride also acts as an antiseptic, so that the paper stock may be kept for many months without undergoing fermentation or other decom- position. The solution is allowed to act for about ten minutes in the engine. — Lunge. New Method of Bleaching. — Young's Paraffin Oil Company have recently introduced what they term an "intermediate oil for paper-making," to be used with alkali in the boiling of rags and esparto, for the purpose of increasing the bleaching power of the powder, and pro- ducing a softer pulp, at the same time having no smell. Several well-known paper-makers have tried, and speak favourably of it. The quantity of oil to be added to the caustic varies for different stock, but may be said to average about 1-^ gallon per ton.f * Wagner's " Jahresb." 1860, p. 188. t Faper-Mukers Monthly Journal, March 15th, 1889. CHAPTER X. BEATING OR REFINING. Beating.— Mr. Dunbar's Observations on Beating.— Mr. Arnot on Beat- ing Engines.— ]Mr. Wyatt on American Refining-Engines.— The Beating Engine.— Forbes' Beating-Engine.— Umpherstoa's Beating Engine.— Operation of Beating.— Test for Oliloritie.— Blending. Beating. — One of the most important operations in the manufacture of first-class paper is that of heating, by which the half-stuff becomes reduced to a fine state of division, and the fibres which, in the condition of half- stuff, are more or less loosely held together in a clotted state, become separated, and are thus put into a condition in which they will intertwine with each other, or felt, as it is termed, when submitted to the vibratory motion of the wire-cloth of the paper machine. The beating-engine, or beater, as it is commonly called, much resembles in con- struction the washing- and breaking-engine, but since it is required to still further reduce the pulp to a condition suitable for paper-making, the knives of this engine^ are more numerous and are made to revolve more rapidly. In this engine the half-stuff is cleansed from bleach, hydrochloric or sulphuric acid— whichever acid may have been used in the bleaching — chloride of calcium, and the various products resulting from the' decomposition of the chloride of lime. In this engine, also, the loading,, sizing, and colouring materials are worked up with the pulp, and the stuff fully prepared for its final transfer direct to the paper-machine. Before describing the various forms of beating-engines which have been from time to time introduced, including some of the most recent types, 102 BEATING OR REFINING. to which special attention will be drawn, we purpse quoting some observations of well-known experts in paper manufacture wbicb will be read with interest, since tley fully explain the importance that attaches to the proper manipulation of the beating-engine for the production of paper of high quality. Mr. Dunbar's Observations on Beating.— There is no operation of the paper-mill that requires more careful attention and experienced judgment than that of beating, or refining, to bring the pulp to the finest possible con- dition for paper- making ; in this department, Mr. Dunbar urges, "none but thoroughly efiicient men should be employed, for it is here that the paper is really made — that is, the quality of the paper produced at the paper- machine will be in proportion to the treatment the ma- terial has received; and if the half -stuff sent to the beating-engines is not subjected to judicious manipulation and careful preparation for the special paper to be made, all future doctoring will prove unsatisfactory." Mr. Arnot on Beating Engines — On this subject Mr. Arnot says : — "Upon the management of the beating-engine the character of the paper produced largely depends. What is wanted is not a mincing or grinding of the fibre, but a drawing out or separation of the fibres one from another ; in fact, the name of the machine indicates pretty accu- rately the nature of the action required — beating. Long, fine fibres can only be produced [obtained] by keeping the roll slightly up off the bed-plate, and giving it time to do the work. Sharp action between the roll and the bed- plate will, no doubt, make speedy work of the fibre, but the result will be short particles of fibre only, which will not interlace to make a strong felt. Indeed, the action I refer to will reduce the long, strong fibre of linen to little better than that of wood or straw. Practice and careful observation can alone make a good beater-man, and for the finer classes of paper none but careful, experienced men should be entrusted with the management of the beating-engine. Sometimes the operation is conducted in THE BEATING ENGINE. 103 two successive engines, the first being called the inter- mediate beater, but I have hitherto failed to see wherein the advantage of this system lies. The time usually occu- pied in beating esparto tor printing-paper is about four hours, while for rags the time may vary from four to twelve hours, or even more." This, however, depends upon the nature of the rags themselves, and the purposes to which they are to be applied. Mr. Wyatt on American Refining-Engines — Eefer- ring to the engines adopted in America, Mr. Wyatt says : — " There are various modifications of the original J ordan, the principal ones being the Marshall, Jeffers, and im- proved Jordan ; but I gathered that experience proves the Jordan type to be the most practical and efficient in the end, and is one of the most generally used. One Jordan is required for each machine, refining all the stuff supplied to it. The roll, or plug, runs from 350 to 400 revolutions per minute, the horse-power consumed varying from 25 to 40 horse-power according to the work done, and an engine will do up to 1,000 lbs. of pulp per hour. The time saved in the beating-engine by the use of the Jordan is just about one-third of what would otherwise be necessary, that is to say, pulp requiring otherwise six hours beating only takes four hours if finished in the Jordan. The half -beaten pulp is emptied, into a stufi-chest, and the J ordan is furnished with a small stuff -pump and service-box, just as at the paper-machine what the Jordan does not take flows back again into the chest : the pulp from the Jordan is run into the ordi- nary machine stuff-chests. The finished pulp can be taken from the Jordan at three different levels from the circumference of the roll, or plug. If the pulp is wanted ' free,' it is drawn from the bottom of the engine ; if wanted ' wet,' or well greased, it is drawn from the top ; and if medium from the centre." The Beating-Engine. — The ordinary form of beater consists of a cast-iron trough 13 feet 6 inches long X 6 feet 6 inches wide, and the bottom is dish-shaped, so as to beating ' OR REFINING. prevent the pulp from lodging, which would inevitably be the case if the bottom weie flat, as the pulp would be apt to lodge in the angles formed by the junction of the bottom with the vertical walls of the trough. The iron trough is fitted with a cast-iron roll, 3 feet 6 inches x 3 feet 6 inches, which is provided with 69 " roll- bars," or knives, arranged in 23 groups of 3 bars each ; this roll is suspended upon a malleable iron shaft 5 inches in diameter, resting upon side levers ; suitable gearing is attached by which the roll can be lifted or lowered at will, the action being uniformly equal on both sides, by which the knives of the roll are kept uniform with those of the bed-plate beneath. The bed-plate, fur- nished with 20 steel knives, of the same length as the roll, is placed immediately beneath the roll. When the knives of the bed-plate are straight they are fitted into the plate-box at an angle, but in some cases they are bent at a slight angle, when they are termed elbow plates. There have been, however, many improvements in the beating-engine introduced of late years, some of which are of considerable importance, and to some of these we wjII now direct attention. Although our own manufacturers have introduced improvements in beaters which have been fully recognised by the trade, the American engineers have not been behindhand in devising modifications which appear to have some important advantages. The Jordan beater, which has been extensively adopted in the States, consists of a roll in the form of a truncated cone, furnished with knives in the usual way ; this revolves in a box of a similar form, fitted with knives in the direc- tion of its length, but at slightly difi'erent angles. In this engine the stuff enters at the narrow end through a box having an arrangement which regulates its flow, and the pulp is discharged by several openings in the coyer at the wider end. In an engine invented by Mr. Kingsland there is a circular chamber furnished with knives covering its sides ; between this is a circular plate, also fitted with knives, which revolves. The stuff enters FORBES' BEATING ENGINE. 105 tlirough. a pipe in the centre of one of the sides of the chamber, and flows out through an opening in the oppo- site side. Forbes' Beating Engine. — This engine, an illustration of which is given in Fig. 21, is manufactured by Ber- trams, Limited, of St. Katherine's Works, Edinburgh. The engine has three chambers, two rolls, and a mixing wheel ; the rolls, only one of which is uncovered in the Fig. 21. engraving, are fixed in the outer channels, and the mixing wheel is placed in the middle channel. By this arrange- ment the pulp flows alternately into the two outer chan- nels, and after passing through the rolls again it enters the centre channel at the opposite end, Umpherston's Beating Engine, — This engine, for which a patent was granted in 1880, has been successfully adopted at the Daily Chronicle and other mills, and pre- sents several important advantages, one of the chief being io6 BEATING OR REFINING. that it occupies mucli less ground space than ordinary beating-engines. Indeed, we have heard it remarked of this engine that it will do double the amount of work in the same ground space as the ordinary engine, and this, in some mills, would be a decided advantage. The con- struction of this beater, a drawing of which is shown in Fig. 22, is thus described by the patentee : — " In the common and almost universal form of engines used for preparing pulp for paper-making, the pulp travels hori- zontally in a trough with semi-circular ends, and straight Fig. 22. sides, partly divided longitudinally by a partition called the midfeather, aroimd which the pulp flows from the back of the roll to its front, where it passes under the roll and over the bottom working-plate, and is again delivered over the back fall to pass again round the midfeather to the front of the roll. In the course of these repeated revolutions part of the pulp near the circumference of the tub has much farther to travel than the part near the mid- feather, and consequently is not so often operated upon, and the pulp is thus unequally treated. As an improve- ment upon this form of tub, I make it so that the pulp umpherston's beating engine. 107 passes from the back of the roll to its front through a longitudinal passage under the back fall, the pulp thus moving as through an inverted syphon, the superincum- bent weight of the semi-fluid pulp, as delivered over the back fall of the roll, pressing it along this passage and upwards, to enter again in front of the roll. The roll a, bottom plate b, and the form of the back fall c, are similar to those of ordinary engines, but the trough is formed with the passage d under the bottom plate b, so that the semi-fluid contents of the engine, in travelling from the back fall c to the front of the roll a, pass by means of the passage d under the bottom plate b in the direction indi- cated by the arrows, the superincumbent weight of the semi- fluid pulp, as it is delivered over the back fall c at the back of the roll a, pressing it along the under passage d and up- wards to the front of the roll a. The position of a drum- washer is shown at e, and at r is seen a section of the cross shaft for raising or lowering both ends of the roll a simultaneously ; g is the roll cover, which may be of any usual form. By this invention the semi-fluid pulp is acted upon in a more efi^ective manner, and its particles are also more equally treated than has hitherto been the case." The beating-engines are usually driven from a separate engine, but Messrs. Bertrams have introduced a system of direct driving for these engines by which, it is said, there is a considerable saving in power. The accompanying engravings. Figs. 23 and 24, show a series of eight beaters, each carrying 300 lbs. of pulp, driven by one of their com- pound direct-driving steam-engines, and now being worked at the Forth Paper Mills. Operation of Beating. — Having referred to some of the more important improvements connected with the beating-engines, we will proceed to explain the opera- tion of beating as briefly as possible. The bleached half-stu£E is removed from .the tray of the press in caked masses, and in this condition is conveyed in trucks or boxes to th-e beating-engine. The first thing to be attended to is the removal of the last traces of chlorine io8 BEATING OR REFINING. from tlie pulp, whicTi, if not effectually done, would cause injury to the size, and also corrode the strainer plates Fig. 23. and wire- gauze of the paper-machine. It is possible to wash out the chlorine by an abundant application of Fig. 24. pure water, but this method of removing the chlorine is very tedious and occupies a long time, while i t also involves the use of enormous quantities of water — a serious consi- MR. ARNOT ON ANTICHLORS." 109 deration .in some mills ; to this may be added the still more important fact that by the method of washing out the chlorine a considerable loss of fibre takes place. The plan most usually adopted is to neutralise the chlorine left in the pulp by the application of suitable chemical agents, whereby the chlorine is rendered inert. These agents, technically termed " antichlors," are sometimes objected to, however, although they are in themselves practically harmless so far as their action upon cellulose is concerned. Mr. Arnot, who has considered this subject very thoroughly, says : — " I do not think there is much in this objection, as those agents that are soluble pass through the wire of the machine almost completely, while those that are insoluble are in the finest possible state of division and pearly white. The chemical agent most largely used is hyposulphite of soda, but hyposulphite of lime is also employed, and those agents, known by the name of ' antichlor,' are put into, the engine in such a quantity as will ensure the neutralisation of the whole of the chlorine. The pro- ducts of the reaction, when the soda salts are used, are chloride of sodium (common salt) and sulphate of soda (Glauber's salt), and, when the lime salt is used, chloride of calcium and sulphate of lime, the latter identical with the pearl hardening so well known as a loading agent." From this it will be seen that little or no harm can possibly occur either to the fibre or the metal work of the machine by the employment of the neutralising agents named, and when it is borne in mind that the simple washing of the pulp would occupy the beating-engine for a lengthened period and exhaust a considerable quantity of water — which, as we have said, would in some mills be a serious matter — the adoption of the neutralising method would undoubtedly have the preference. The engine, being partly filled with water, is set in motion, and the bleached half- stuff introduced in small quantities at a time, each portion being allowed to become thoroughly mixed with the water before the next batch is added. The charging of the beater with half-stiifi' is kept 110 BEATING OR REFINING. up until the mass becomes so thick that it will only just move in the trough under the action of the revolving roll. If the beater is of the older type, portions of the pulp are liable to lodge in corners, to remove which the " beater- man " uses a wooden paddle, with which tool he also pushes the slowly moving pulp in the direction of the roll, espe- cially when the stiii mass appears to move too slowly. At this stage the neutralisation of the chlorine in the pulp is effected, which is done by adding a solution of hyposulphite of soda, a little at a time, until the liquor ceases to redden blue litmus paper, strips of which should be dipped into the pulp every few minutes until the paper persistently retains its blue colour. This operation should be conducted with great care, so as to exactly neutralise the traces of chlorine without adding an excess of the hyposulphite of soda. Besides this salt, other substances are used as " antichlors," as, for example, hyposulphite of lime, which is prepared by boiling milk of lime (slacked lime made into a thin mixture with water) and flour of sulphur in an iron vessel until the latter is dissolved, when, after cooling and settling, the resulting solution, which is of an orange -yellow colour, is ready for use. One great objection to the use of hyposulphite of lime, however, is that when decomposed by the chloride of lime remaining in the ^ulp sulphur is set free, which, mingling with pulp, will impart to it a yellow tint ; be- sides this, in passing over the drying cylinders of the machine the sulphur present in the paper may attract oxygen from the air, converting it into sulphuric acid, which must inevitably prove injurious to the manufactured paper. Sulphite of soda has also been used as an antichlor, and -is said to be preferable to hyposulphite of soda,* inas- much as the latter salt is liable to decompose with the liberation of free acid, which is not the case with the sulphite of soda. Test for Chlorine — ^Instead of relying solely upon the litmus paper test when applying the antichlor, the follow- * Sometimes also called thiosulphite of soda. TEST FOR CHLORINE. Ill ing test for chlorine may also be used with advantage : — Take 2 drachms (120 grains) of white starch, and make it into a paste with a little cold water ; then pour over it about half a pint of boiling water, stirring briskly ; to this add 1 drachm of iodide of potassium, and stir until dis- solved and well incorporated with the starch solution. The mixture is then to be allowed to cool, when it is ready for use. A few drops of this mixture dropped upon a small sample of the pulp will indicate if any chlorine be present by the spot assuming a blue colour ; if such be not the case, the pulp may be considered free from chlorine. During the beating, the roll, which should make not less than 220 revolutions per minute, is lowered, a little at a time, so that the cutting edges of the bars and plate may be brought together gradually and equally until the pulp is reduced to the desired condition. The pulp is made long or short according to the quality of paper to be pro- duced ; news papers, which require strength, are made of long-fibred pulp, while writing paper, or paper of fine texture, is made of shorter pulp. The stuff should be what is called " mellowed " in the engine, which is eifected by a judicious working of the roll, not lowering it sud- denly but gradually, and not much at one time, on the plate, until the pulp attains the fineness required. This is generally arrived at in about three and a half to four hours, though sometimes the beating of pulp from rags is continued for more than double that time. It should be added that if the cutting edges of the roll and plate are brought together suddenly and too closely, the fibre will be cut, and as a consequence the paper produced will be tender. Esparto, which, in the process of boiling becomes re- duced to such a soft condition that the fibres may be readily separated by the fingers, does not require such excessive beating as rags ; indeed, the perfect disintegration of the fibres of esparto is practically accomplished in about half the time occupied by rags, and often much less, but this of 112 BEATING OR REFINING. course depends upon the nature of the esparto itself and upon the thoroughness of the boiling. Wood pulps also require but moderate beating, since the process of disin- tegration is generally pretty effectually accomplished by the processes to which the raw material is subjected in the course of manufacture into half-stuff, which is the condi- tion in which this paper material is furnished to the manufacturer. Blending.— To produce papers of the different qualities required by the trade, a system of blending is adopted, which may be effected— (1) by mixing the materials in the raw state, or the rags, previous to boiling ; and (2) blend- ing the half-stuff in the beating-engine. Th6 latter method, however, is generally preferred. Sometimes, also, pulps of different character are beaten separately and then mixed in the stuff-chests, where they are mixed as thoroughly as possible before passing on to the machine, but this method would be less likely to ensure a perfect mixture of the respective pulps than would be effected with proper care in the beater. The proportions of the several materials to be blended is also a matter of important consideration. In blending esparto with rag stuff, if the former be in excess it becomes reduced to the proper condition before the latter is sufficiently fine, which causes the rag fibre to appear in " knots and threads " in the manufactured paper. But if the rag stuff be allowed to predominate, the beating is conducted as though no esparto w.ere present, by which, while the rag stuff' becomes reduced to the proper length of fibre, the esparto, which is still further reduced, in mingling with the longer fibre of the rags forms what is called a " close " paper. Mr. Dunbar, in his useful little work, " The Practical Paper-maker," furnishes a series of receipts for blending for high-class papers, as also the pro- portions of colouring matter to be used, which the reader will do well to consult. For news papers, esparto and straw pulps are generally used, in varying proportions accordino- to the nature and quality of the esparto ; these proportions have to be regulated according to the judgment of the BLENDING. "3 paper-maker, aiid vary greatly at different mills. A large quantity of sulphite and other wood pulps are also used, those coming from Scandinavia and Germany being espe- cially suited to the requirements of the English manufac- turer. Mechanical wood pulp is also used in a moderate degree — sometimes up to 15 per cent., in some English mills, but it is said that in Germany this paper stock is sometimes used to the extent of 90 per cent. CHAPTER XI. Z OADING.— SIZING.— COL 0 URING. Loading. — Sizing. — French Method of Preparing Engine Size. — Zinc Soaps in Sizing. — Colouring. — Animal or Tub-Sizmg. — Preparation of Animal Size — American Method of Sizing. — Machine-Sizing. — • Double-sized Paper. — Mr. Wyatt's Remarks on Sizing. Loading. — The very finest qualities of paper are usually made without the addition oi any loading, as it is called, but for most other papers more or less loading material is added, according to the quality of paper to be produced. The loading material used for ordinary qualities is kaolin, or china clay, and for the better qualities sulphate of lime or pearl hardening, as it is termed in the trade. China clay, as it occurs in commerce, is in the form of soft lumps and powder, is nearly white, and when rubbed between the finger and thumb should present no hard particles of gritty matter. To prepare it for mixing with the pulp it is first worked up into a thin cream with water, which is usually done in a vessel furnished with an agitating arrangement by which the clay becomes intimately mixed with tlie water. The cream is then strained through a fine sieve to separate any im23urities present, and is then allowed to flow into the beating-engine containing the stuff while in motion, by which it soon becomes mingled with the pulp. The proportion of china clay or other loading material which is to be introduced into the pulp depends upon the quality of the fibre and the requirements of the manufac- turer, some makers using less of the material than others. From 3 per cent, to 10 or 15 per cent, appears to be about the extreme range for employing the material as a neces- L OA DING. — SIZING. sary ingredient in tlie production of various classes of paper, above which figures the addition of loading material may be considered as an adulteration. Sometimes nearly twice the largest amount named is employed, no doubt to meet the exigences of keen competition — from foreign sources especially. One effect of the loading, whether it be china clay or sulphate of lime, is to close the pores of the paper, whereby a smoother surface is obtained, while at the same time, if the material has been used in proportions suited to the quality of the fibre, and not in immoderate excess, a stronger paper is produced. A species of asbestos termed agalite has been introduced as a loading material, and since it has a fibrous texture, it blends with the fibres of the pulp, forming, as it were, a vegeto-mineral paper. It is stated that as much as 90 per cent, of the agalite used in the beating- engine enters into the manufactured paper, while not much more than half the china clay used is held by the pulp. Sizing. — " Engine sizing," as it is termed, consists in adding certain ingredients to the pulp while in the beating- engine. The materials generally used are alum and resin soap, in proportions suitable to the paper to be produced. Hesin soap is formed by boiling ordinary resin in a jacketed pan such as is used by soapmakers for preparing small quantities of fancy or other soaps, with a solution of soda crystals in the following proportions : Resin, 16 lbs. ; soda crystals dissolved in water, 8 lbs. ; and the boiling is kept up for about two hours, or imtil a soap is produced which is perfectly soluble in water. The method of pre- paring this soap as conducted at the soapworks has been described in the author's work on soap-making,* p. 64, from which the following abstract is taken : " Put into a pan capable of holding about 12 gallons, 2\ gallons of fresh caustic soda ley at 30° B. Apply gentle heat, and when * " The Art of Soap-making." Alexander Watt. London, Crosby Lockwood aud Son, 4th edition, 1890. ii6 LOADING. — SIZING.— COLOURING. the ley begins to boil throw in, every few minutes, in small quantities at a, time, linely powdered and sifted resin until 37 lbs. have been introduced. The mixture must bo well stirred the whole time to prevent the resin from * clogging ' and adhering to the pan. It is important to moderate the heat, as the resin soap has a great tendency to expand and an excess of heat would cause it to boil over. The heat, however, must be kept to near the boil- ing point, otherwise the mass will become thick and of u very dark colour. When kept at near the boiling point it is always clear and its colour of a reddish yellow. If, during the boiling, the resin soap rises and threatens to overflow, the heat must be checked by throwing in a little cold water, only using sufiicient to effect this object. It is absolutely necessary to stir the mass continually, other- wise the resin will agglomerate in masses and thus prevent the alkali from acting freely upon it. The boiling takes about two hours, when the soap is run into an iron frame and allowed to cool. It is very important that the resin used is freed from particles of wood, straw, etc., for which purpose it should be passed through a tolerably fine sieve." Respecting the preparation of resin soap, Davis says : — " The proportion of resin used to each pound of soda ash varies in different mills, 3, 4, or even 5 lbs. of resin being used to each pound of soda ash. The proportion of resin, soda ash, and water, can be best determined by practical experience, as no prescription could be devised which would be suitable to every case. M. d'Arcet, who modi- fied the proportions recommended by M. Bracconot, recommends for the preparation of resin soap — Powdered resin 4-80 parts. ISoda crystals at 80° (French alkalimeler) . . 2-22 ,, Water 100 Theoretically speaking, only 2*45 parts of alum would be required to precipitate the resin ; but the waters, which are almost always calcareous, neutralise part of the alum. ENGINE SIZING. 117 Crj^stals of soda are much more expensive than soda ash, but on account of their greater purity they are sometimes preferred to the latter. At the present day the resin soap is preferably made by dissolving ordinary resin with a solution of carbonate of soda under boiling heat in a steam- jacketed boiler, the class of paper to be made governing the quantity of resin to be employed. The boiling usually requires from two to eight hours, according to the rela- ' tive proportions of soda ash and resin used — the greater the proportion of soda used the less time is required for boiling — the process being completed when a sample of the soap formed is completely soluble in water. . . . About 3 lbs. of resin to 1 lb. of soda is the usual proportion. The resin soap is cooled after boiling by running it into iron tanks, where it is allowed to settle, the soap forming a dense syrup-like mass, and the colouring matters and other admixtures of the resin rising to the top are easily removed. It is important to run off the mother liquor (ley) containing the excess of alkali, for when the soap is used it consumes the alum to neutralise it." When the impurities and ley have been removed the soap is dissolved in water, and if, from imperfect boiling, a portion of the resin is found not to have been saponified, a small quantity of a strong solution of soda crystals is added to the water used for dissolving the soap. Where starch is used for stiffening purposes, the soap is mixed with a quantity of starch paste in the proportion of \ \ part of starch to 1 part of resin soap. Some manufac- turers, Mr. Davis states, mix the starch paste with the kaolin in lieu of mixing it with the resin soap. In either case the materials should be thoroughly strained before being added to the pulp. From 3 to 4 lbs. of the mixture of resin soap and starch paste to each lUO lbs. of dry pulp are about the proportions in which the size is generally used, but the quantity added to the pulp in the beater de- pends upon whether the paper is to be soft-sized or hard- sized. Sizing is chiefly applied to papers which are to be writ- 1 1 8 L OA DING. — SIZING. — COL O URING. ten ujaon with ordinary inks, and also, with a feiv excep- tions, to printing papers, the object being to close the pores of the paper and render it non-absorbent, by which ihe spreading or running of the ink is eifectually pre- vented. While the finest lines may be written upon a well-sized paper (as ordinary writing paper, for example) without spreading in the least degree, a similar stroke of the pen upon blotting paper, tissue, or unsized printing paper would spread in all directions, owing to the highly absorptive property of the cellulose. The sizing of the pulp is conducted as follows : — After the loading material has been introduced and well mixed, the resin soap, previously dissolved in water, a little carbonate of soda being sometimes added, is mixed with a paste of starch prepared by dissolving starch in boiling water, and the mixture of soap and starch is then passed through a fine sieve to keep back any particles or lumps that may be present. The proportion of the materials used in sizing vary at the different mills, each manufacturer having formulee of his own ; about 1 part of resin size to 3 of starch paste, and, say, from 9 to 12 lbs. of the mix- ture, may be used for 300 lbs. of pulp ; and, if preferred, the resjDective ingredients may be put into the engine separately, a method adopted at some mills. Some manu- facturers of the finest papers, instead of dissolving the starch in hot water, make it into a thin paste with cold water, in which condition it is introduced into the pulp, the object being to impart to the paper a particular feeling to the touch which is not obtainable by other means. The mixture of resin size and starch paste, with or without the addition of water, is added to the pulp in the beater, in which the pulp is circulating, and the engine allowed to run until the materials are well incorporated in the pulp. At this stage a solution of alum (about 28 to 30 lbs. for 300 lbs. of pulp), or of sulphate of alumina,^ is introduced, which causes the resin soap to become " sepa- * Sometimes called " concentrated alum," "pearl alum," etc. ENGINE SIZING. 119 rated," the sulphuric acid of the alum uniting with the alkali of the soap and setting the resin and alumina free in the form of minute particles ; the resin in the subse- quent drying on the calenders becomes fused, as it were, and thus cements the fibres and alumina together, at the same time rendering them non-absorbent and improved in whiteness by the precipitated alumina. Sometimes ordi- nary soap IS added to the resin soap, which is said to impart a higher finish to the paper in the operation of calendering. The so-called " concentrated .alum," which contains a higher percentage of sulphate of alumina than the crystallised alum, is considered the most economical in use, being proportionately cheaper, and the variety known as "pearl alum" is specially recommended. "Aluminous cake " is another preparation which has found favour in many mills, but since it sometimes contains a large excess of free sulphuric acid it requires to be used with caution, since this acid, although it will brighten the colour of some aniline dyes, will discharge the colour from others, while at the same time it may injuriously affect the brass- wire cloths of the paper machine. The alum solution should be prepared in a lead-lined tank, fitted with a steam pipe for heating the contents when required. The proportions of the materials used in sizing differ considerably in different mills, but the following niay be taken as an average for common writing and printing papers : — Per 100 parts of dried pulp 10 to VI parts of resin, ,, ,, 20 „ 30 ,, starch. ,, ,, ,, 10 „ 12 ,, alum. To the sizing solution is generally added from 30 to 50 parts of kaolm. When a colour is present on which alum would have a prejudicial effect this is usually replaced by about one-third of its weight of sulphate of zinc. Many mineral substances have from time to time been added to paper stock, principally to increase its weight, and in 1858 Sholl took out a patent for adding carbonate of lime, 120 Z OA DING. — SIZING. — COL O URING. a substance which, however, had long been fraudulently used in order to increase the weight, but he found it to have the property of fixing the ink in the pores of the paper, thus rendering it immovable. The only useful addition is kaolin, or some similar aluminous compound, as it attaches itself to the fibre, and, while giving the required opacity and a good surface, takes both printing and writing ink well, and has the advantage, from a manufacturer's point of view, of increasing the weight. It has been proposed that small quantities of glycerine be added to the pulp, in order to give the paper greater flexibility, and especially to give copying-paper the quality of taking up colour readily.* • French Method of Preparing Engine Size. — Thirteen pails of water are boiled in a copper- jacketed pan capable of holding about 150 gallons ; 90 lbs. of soda crystals are then introduced and allowed to dissolve, when 200 lbs. of finely-powdered resin are gradually introduced, with con- stant stirring, and the boiling is sustained for about two hours after the last portion of resin has been added. A further addition of water is now made by putting in five pails of cold water, and the water is then boiled for an hour and a half longer. The resin soap is then transferred to stock-chests, in which it is allowed to remain for ten days or longer, fresh batches being prepared in rotation, to meet the requirements of the mill. To determine whether an excess of resin soap or of alum has been added to the pulp, red and blue litmus papers should be employed, the former turning blue if an excess of resin soap be present, and the latter red when alum or sulphate of alumina is in excess. For uncoloured papers the aluminous material should be added until the pulp becomes faintly acid, which will be indicated by the blue litmus paper turning slightly red when immersed in the pulp. Besides resin soap, various substances have been pro- posed as sizing materials, including wax dissolved in a * Muspratt's " Chemistry Applied to the Arts." ZINC SOAPS IN SIZING. 121 strong solution of caustic soda and precipitated with alum, but the cost would be an objection to the use of this mate- rial except for the highest classes of paper. It is stated that 12 lbs. of gum tragacanth to each 500 lbs. of resin has been used in preparing some kinds of engine- sized papers, and is said to impart to them an appearance equal to that of tub-sized papers. Zinc Soaps in Sizing. — According to a paragraph in the Papermakers' Monthly Journal, a somewhat novel method of sizing is employed in Germany, which consists in the pre- cipitation in the stock of zinc soaps. Ciattonseed oil soap or Castillo soap is worked up in the engine with the stuff, and after it has become well mixed with the pulp a solu- tion of sulphate of zinc is added, which results in the formation of a white and heavy zinc soap, which is inso- luble, and adheres well to the fibres. The weight and whiteness of the zinc soap are the main points in favour of this method, which is said to jaeld good results. Colouring. — The pulp, after passing through the various .processes described, although apparently white, invariably presents a yellow tinge when converted into paper. To obviate this it is usual to " kill " the yellow tint by adding to the pulp small quantities of blue and pink colouring matters. The blue colours generally used are ultramarine, smalts, and various aniline blues, and the pinks are usually prepared from cochineal, either in a liquid form or as "lakes" (compounds of cochineal and alumina) or aniline dyes, the former being preferable, as it is not injuriously affected by the alum used in sizing. The ultramarine should be of good quality, otherwise it will become decom- posed, and its colouring property destroyed by the action of the al\im, but more especially so if the alum contains an excess of free acid. Smalts blue, which is a kind of coloured glass, is not affected by acids. In preparing the colouring matters for mixing with the pulp they must first be mixed with water, and the liquid should then be strained, to keep back any solid particles that may be pre- sent in the material. Aniline blues should be dissolved 122 L OA DING. — SIZING. — CO I O URING. in hot water, or alcoliol, and tlien diluted. Samples of the pulp are examined from time to time until the denired effect is produced, which the practised eye of the beater- man can readily determine. Animal or Tub-sizing. — Another process of sizing, termed "animal-sizing," "tub-sizing," or " surface-sizing," is also adopted in the manufacture of certain classes of paper, and is either accomplished by hand or on the ma- chine. The former method having been elsewhere described (p. 132) we will now describe the operation of sizing on the machine, to which the term tub-sizing is also applied. The size employed, which is prepared from what are called "glue pieces," or clippings of "Imied" and unhaijed skins of animals, requires to be as colourless as possible, in order that the colour of the paper may not be injuriously affected by it. Preparation of Animal Size.-^This operation is gener- ally conducted at the mill, the materials from which the size is produced being the cuttings or parings of animal skins and hides, or pelts, which have undergone the pro- cesses of "liming" and unhairing preparatory to being tanned. The cuttings, or pates, commonly called " glue pieces," are hrst soaked in a mixture of lime and water, placed in large tubs for several days, after which they are put into a wooden cylinder, or drum, five or six feet in diameter, and about ten feet in length, which revolves upon a horizontal shaft, which, being hollow, admits the passage of water to the interior of the drum. The drum is per- forated, and revolves in a large tank, -while a continuous stream of water is allowed to pass through it, and the dirty water escapes through the perforations in the drum. When the cuttings are sufficiently cleansed in this way, "they are transferred to an iron copper, furnished with a false bottom and steam-pipe, or a jacketed pan. The cuttings are next covered with water ; steam is then turned on, and the liquid brought to a temperature below boiling . point, or say, about 180° to 190° F,, it being very im- portant that the liquid should not actually boil. This ANIMAL SIZE. operation is carefully kept up for twelve to sixteen hours, according to the nature of the cuttings, by which time all the material excepting any membranous or fatty matters that may be present, will have become dissolved and a solution of gelatine obtained. The liquor is then allowed to settle for a short time to allow fatty matters to rise to the surface and membranous substances to deposit, and the fatty matters must afterwards be carefully removed by skimming. The liquor should next be strained to separate any floating particles of a membranous character. Some- tiines the gelatine solution is clarified by adding a small quantity 'of powdered lime, which is thoroughly mixed by stirring, after which it is allowed to rest. When it is found that the impurities and lime deposit too slowly, a little weak sulphuric acid is added, which, forming an insoluble sulphate of lime, the solid matters quickly sub- side, leaving the liquor quite clear. The solution is next filtered through felt, and is afterwards treated with a solution of alum, which at first causes the liquid to thicken and become nearly solid, but it becomes fluid again, how^- ever, on the addition of more alum solution. When this condition is finally attained, the liquid is ready for use in the process of sizing. The addition of the alum (which should not contain any free acid) to the gelatine greatly improves its sizing property, besides preserving it from decomposition. The treatment of the glue pieces for the purpose of obtaining gelatine solutions is fully de- scribed in the author's work on " Leather Manufacture," p. 401.* h merican Method of Sizing.^Another method of pre- paring size, and which is adopted in America, is the follow- ing : — In large paper mills the size is generally prepared in a room devoted to the purpose, and is commonly situated near the machine. The finest grades of light hide and skin clip- pings are used for No. 1 letter papers, but less costly stock is employed for the lower grades of animal-sized papers. * " kxi of Leather Manufacture." By Alexander Watt. Crosby ■ Lockwood and Son, 1885. 124 Z OADING. — SIZING. — COLOURING. To preserve the glue pieces the tanners and tawers macerate the clippings in milk of lime and afterwards dry them. As the clippings require to be freed from the lime, the tirst treatment they receive at the paper-mill is to put them in large wooden tubs partly filled with water, in which they are allowed to soak for several days. They are afterwards more perfectly cleansed by means of a drum- washer, such as we have before described. Fresh hide and skin clippings, that is, those which have not been limed and dried at the tanneries, and which are occasionally purchased by the paper manufacturers, require to be used as soon as possible after they arrive at the mill as they readily decom- pose, and are placed in tubs partly filled with water, in which 2 per cent, by weight of caustic lime has been dis- solved. The pieces, if from calfskins, are' allowed to remain in the lime bath for ten to fifteen days, clippings of sheepskins fifteen to twenty days, and trimmings from lieavy hides, as ox, etc., twenty-five to thirty days, the milk of lime being renewed once or twice a week, and the material well stirred from time to time. The glue-stock, as it is sometimes termed, is afterwards thoroughly washed in the .drum- washer, and when this operation is complete the material is spread out in the yard to drain, and when sufficiently dried is ready for boiling, or may be stored until required for use. To prepare size from the material treated as described, it is placed in a boiler of cast or wrought-iron or copper, furnished with a ^ perforated false bottom, and capable of holding from 100 to 400 lbs. of the raw material, accord- ing to the requirements of the mill. Several such boilers may be placed close to each other. At the bottom of the boiler is a stop-cock for drawing off the gelatine solution when required. When the requisite charge of glue-stock has been introduced into the boiler, water is poured over it and steam turned on, which passes through a pipe fixed beneath the false bottom, and care is taken that the tem- perature of the contents of the boiler should not exceed 200° F., which heat is kept up for ten to eighteen hours, ANIMAL SIZE. 125 according to tlie nature of the materials treated. The gelatine solution is drawn off from the boiler as it is formed, into wooden tubs, and at the same time carefully strained to remove membranous matters and suchlike impurities. Several boilings are made from the same batch of glue-stock, and all the solutions are afterwards mixed together in the receiving tubs, and a solution of alum is added in such proportions as to be recognised by- tasting the liquor. One object in adding the alum being to prevent the gelatine from decomposing, more of this substance should be added in warm than in cold weather. When the solutions are cool they are ready for use, and the gelatine is removed from the receiving tubs and dis- solved in a separate tub as required for use, the dissolving tub being provided with a steam-pipe. The proportion of water — which should only be lukewarm — used in dissolving the gelatine varies from a quarter to half the bulk of the latter, the nature of the fibre and thick- ness of the paper regulating the proportion of water to gelatine, the strength of the size liquors being greater for thin papers and weak fibres than for thick papers and strong fibres. The operation of sizing is considered one ' of the most difficult and uncertain with which the paper-maker has to deal, since the material (gelatine) is greatly influenced by the conditions of the atmosphere, both as regards its tem- perature and humidity, while the temperature of the liquid size itself has also an important influence on the success of the operation. The condition of the paper, again, also affects the result, for if it be highly porous it will probably be weak, and consequently there may be considerable waste during the process of sizing from the necessary handling it is subjected to ; moreover, should the paper have been blued with ultramarine, a strongly offen- sive odour is often imparted to it ; this, however, may be obviated by employing fresh size and drying the paper as completely as possible. There are two systems of animal- sizing employed at the mill, namely, hand-sizing and 126 L OA DING. — SIZING. — COL O URING. machine-sizing, wliicli is also called tub-sizing, the former being applied to papers of the finest quality. Papers that have been made by the machine, after being cut into sheets, are hand-sized, as described in the next chapter. Machine- Sizing. — The lower-priced papers, to be ma- chine-sized, are first partly dried over a few cyKnders, after which the paper passes through a tank containing liquid size, from whence it passes between two rollers, which squeeze out the superfluous size ; it is then wound on to a reel on which it remains some time to enable the size to thoroughly permeate the paper, after which it is wound on to another reel, and from thence it passes over a series of wooden drums or cylinders, each of which is furnished with a revolving fan ; by this means the paper becomes dried slowly, whereby a more perfect sizing of the material is effected. Double-Sized Paper. —This term is applied to paper which, after being sized in the engine in the usual way, is afterwards " surface sized," as it is called, with animal size in the manner described. Respecting the drying of paper after it has been tub- sized there seems to be some difference of opinion as to whether it is best to hang it in a loft to dry or to dry it over the cylinders of a drying machine. Upon this point the New York Paper Trade Journal makes the following remarks : — " When the paper is passed through the size- tub, it is again wet ; the fibres expand, and their hold on each other is relaxed. Now it must make a difference to the subsequent strength and quality of this paper whether it be hung up in a loft to dry or run over a drying ma- chine. If it is hung in the loft no strain is put upon it and the fibres are at liberty to shrink, or slowly contract, in all directions ; whereas if it is run over a drying machine, consisting of from 50 to 100 reels, the longitudinal strain prevents the fibres from shrinking and reassuming their normal position in that direction. Attempts have been made to obviate this defect by regulating the speed of each section of the machine in such a manner as to MR. WYATT ON SIZING. 127 allow for tlie shrinking, but this only remedies the evil by preventing the paper from breaking as it travels over the machine. Everything else being equal, it would seem that loft-dried paper must be superior to that dried over the drying machine. Our home manufacturers endorse this view, inasmuch as they continue to prefer the system of loft-drying to the less expensive machine methods." Mr. Wyatt's Remarks oh Sizing. — Mr James W. Wyatt, in a paper on the "Art of Paper-making,"* makes the following observations on engine-sizing and ani- mal-sizing which will be read with interest : — "Engine- sizing renders the paper fully as non-absorbent as animal size. The latter penetrates the sheets only slightly and forms a coating or skin on each surface, whereas the engine size surrounds each fibre and impregnates the whole mass. Surface- sizing, however, produces a stronger, firmer sheet, and is smoother for the pen to travel over ; the manufacturer also gets the benefit in the price of the paper of the additional weight of the size, amounting to 7 per cent, on the average. On the other hand, as the animal size is mostly a skin on the surface, if the coating be broken anywhere by the use of a knife in scratching, the paper will only imperfectly resist ink in that place, a great disadvantage for account and ofiice-books and ledgers. Engine-sized paper is much cheaper to produce than animal sized, and is therefore used principally for the lower qualities of writings and for almost all kinds of . printings where firmness and smoothness is not so much a desidera- tum. Most tub- sized papers have a certain portion of engine size mixed with the pulp. This not only ensures the thorough sizing of the sheet, but also is a measure of economy in reducing the absorbing power of the paper for the animal size. Papers for ledgers and office- work are best given an extra proportion of engine size to ensure their ink-resisting properties, and they are also sized by hand in animal size and loft dried." The following rough estimate of the comparative cost in materials and wages * "Proceedings of the Societj' of Civil Engineers," vol. Ixxix. p. 245. CHAPTER XII. MAKING PAPER BY HAND. The Vat and Mould. — Making the Paper. — Sizing and Finishing. Under tlie old system of making paper by hand, the rags were reduced to a fine state of division by a process of retting, or slow putrefaction. The rags were first washed in water, and then piled in heaps, in which condition they were allowed to remain until they became tender, that is, readily pulled asunder by the fingers. During the decom- position the rags not unfrequently became rotten in some portions of the heaps, thus involving considerable loss of fibre. The rags were next placed in a strong chest, in which iron-shod stamping rods were fitted, and these by their continued action gradually reduced them to a pulp. The stampers were eventually superseded by the beating-engine, the invention of a Dutchman, which received and still retains the name of the "Hollander." Other machines, as the duster, washing and breaking engines, and the beating engine, have entirely taken the place of the older system, which required the work of forty pairs of stamps for twenty-four hours to produce one hundredweight of paper. The Vat and Mould. — The pulp being prepared, is conveyed from the beaters to the working vat, where it is diluted with water. The vat is a wooden or stone vessel about 5 feet square and 4 feet deep, being somewhat wider at the top than at the bottom. A steam-pipe is supplied to the vat, so that the pulp and water may be heated to a convenient temperature for working, and an agitator is K 130 MAKING PAPER BY HAND. also furnislied to keep the pulp and water tiniforinly mixed. The mould in which the pulp is raised from the vat to form a sheet of paper, consists of a wooden frame, neatly joined at the corners, with wooden bars running across, about 1^ inch apart, and flush with the top edge of the frame. Across these again, in the length of the frame, wires are laid, about fifteen or twenty in an inch, which are placed parallel to each other. A series of stronger wires are laid along the cross-bars, to which the other wires are fastened ; these give to what is termed " laid " paper, the ribbed or " water-marked lines noticeable in hand-made paper. Upon the mould is fitted a movable frame, called the deckle or deckel, which must fit very neatly or the edges of the paper will be rough. The mould and deckle form together a kind of shallow tray of wire. Sometimes the mould is divided by narrow ribs of wood, so that two or four sheets of paper may be made in one operation. Connected with the vat is a slant- ing board, called the bridge, with copper fillets attached lengthwise upon it, so that the mould may slide easily along the bridge. Making the Paper. — When preparing for work, the vat- man stands on one side of the vat, and has on his left hand a smaller board, one end of which is fastened to the bridge, while the other rests on the side of the vat. An assistant, called the coucher, is at hand, whose duty it is to handle the frames or moulds containing the pulp after they have passed through the hands of the vat-man or maker. The latter now takes in his hand a mould, and lays it upon the deckle ; he then dips the mould, with its deckle in its proper place, into the vat of agitated pulp, and lifts up as much of the pulp as will form a sheet of paper. This, as will be readily seen, requires the greatest dex- terity, since the workman has nothing but his sense of feeling to guide him. It is said, however, that practice gives him such a nicety of feeling in this respect that he can make sheet after sheet of the largest-sized drawing papers with a difference in weight of not more than one MAKING THE PAPER. or two grains in any two of them. Great skill is also required to liold the mould in a perfectly horizontal posi- tion, otherwise during the felting and settling of the pulp the sheet of paper would be thicker on one part than another. The mould being held lengthwise, that is, with the long parallel wires running from right to left hand, he gives the mould a gentle shake from his chest forward and back again, which is called the fore-right shake ; this shake takes place across the wires, not in the direction of their length. He next gives a shake from right to left, and back again, the respective movements thus propelling the pulp in four directions. The vat-man now pushes the mould along the small board on his left, and removes the deckle, which he connects to another mould and proceeds to form another sheet of paper, and so on. The coucher, taking the first mould in hand, turns it upside, down upon a piece of woollen felt-cloth, then removing the mould, he takes another piece of felt and lays it over the sheet and returns the mould by pushing it along the bridge to the vat-man, when he receives in return a second mould to be treated as before. In the above way felts and paper are laid alternately until a pile of six or eight quires is produced, which is afterwards submitted to pressure in a very powerful press. When sufficiently compressed, the machine is relaxed, and the felts are then drawn out, on the opposite side, by an operative, called a layer, who places the felts one by one upon a board, and the sheets of paper upon another board. The coucher then uses the felts again for fur- ther operations. Two men and a boy only are employed in this part of the work. In the evening all the paper made during the day is put into another press, and sub- jected to moderate pressure to obliterate the felt marks and expel a further portion of the water. On the fol- lowing day the paper is all separated, which is called parting, again pressed, and is then transferred to the drying-loft. The drying is effected by suspending the sheets of paper upon a series of ropes, attached to wooden 132 MAKING PAPER BY HAND. supports ; ropes of cow-tair are used for tlie purpose, as this material does not stain the paper. Sizing and Finishing. — ^When the paper is dry, it is taken down and laid carefully in heaps ready for sizing, which is the next operation to which the paper is sub- jected. The preparation of the size from animal skins, etc., is described in Chapter XI. When preparing to size the paper, the workman takes several quires of the paper, and carefully spreads the sheets out in the liquid size, which is placed in a large tub, taking care that each sheet is uniformly moistened before introducing the next. The superfluous size is afterwards pressed out, and the paper then "parted" into separate sheets, which are again subjected to pressure, and finally transferred to the drying-room, where they are allowed to dry slowly. AVhen dry, the paper is conveyed to the finishing-house, to be again pressed and looked over by women, who, being furnished with small knives, pick out knots and other imperfections and separate the perfect from the imperfect sheets. The paper is now again pressed, and then handed to the finisher, to be counted into reams and packed, the reams being afterwards pressed and finally tied up and conveyed to the warehouse for sale. When the paper is required to be hot -pressed, this is done by placing each sheet of paper alternately between two smoothed sheets of pasteboard, and between each group of fifty pasteboards is placed a hot plate of iron, and the pile then submitted to heavy pressure, whereby the surface of writing paper acquires a fine, smooth surface. CHAPTER XIII. MAKING PAPER BY MACHINERY. The Fourdrinier Machine. — Bertrams' Large Paper Machine. — Stuff Chests. — Strainers. — Eevolving Strainer and Knotter. — Self-clean- sing Strainer. — Roeckner's Pulp Strainers. — The Machine Wire and its Accessories. — Conical Pulp Saver. — The Dandy Roll. — Water Marking. — De la Rue's Improvements in Water-marks. — Suction Boxes. — Couch Rolls. — Press Rolls. — Drying Cylinders. — Smoothing RcUs.— Single Cylinder Machine. The Fourdrinier Machine.— It is just ninety years since Louis Robert, a Frenchman, devised a machine for making a continuous web of paper on an endless wire- cloth, to which rotary motion was applied, thus producing a sheet of paper of indefinite length. The idea was subsequently improved upon by Messrs. Fourdrinier, who adopted and improved upon M. Robert's machine, and with the valuable aid of Mr. Bryan Donkin, a young and gifted machinist, in the employ of Mr. Hall, engineer, of Hartford, con- structed a self-acting machine, or working model, in 1803, which, from its effectiveness and general excellency of workmanship, created at the time a profound sensation. This machine was erected at Frogmore, Hertfordshire ; and ill 1804 a second machine was made and put up at Two- Waters, Herts, which was completely successful, and the manufacture of continuous paper became one of the most useful and important inventions of the age. From that period the " Fourdrinier," with some important im- provements introduced by Mr. Donkin, gradually, but surely, became established as an absolutely indispensable machine in every paper-mill all over the world. Although the machine has been still further improved from time to 134 MAKING PAPER BY MACHINERY. time, those of recent construction differ but little in prin- ciple from the original machine. An illustration of the machine is shown in Fig. 25, the detailed parts of which are expressed on the engraving. Bertrams' Large Paper Machine. — The principal aim in the construction of the paper-making machine has been to imitate, and in some particulars to improve, the operations involved in the art of making paper by hand, but apart from the greater width and length of paper which can be produced by the machine, the increased rapidity of its powers of production are so great that one machine can turn out as much paper in three minutes as could be accomplished by the older system in as many weeks. The drawing represents the modern paper-machine as manu- factured by Bertrams, Limited, who supplied one of these machines to Mr. Edward Lloyd, for the Daily Chronicle Mill, at Sittingbourne, which runs a wire 40 feet long by 126 inches wide, this being, we believe, the largest and widest paper-machine in the world. It is provided with 20 cylinders, chilled calenders, double-drum reeling motion, with slitting appliance for preparing webs to go direct to the printer's office without the assistance of a re-reeling machine, and is driven by a pair of coupled condensing steam-engines. On our recent visit to Mr. Lloyd's mill we were much struck with the excellent working of this splendid machine. In the illustration, as will be seen, there are two sets of drying cylinders, while small cylinders, or felt drying-rolls, from 16 to 24 inches in diameter, are introduced to the felts of the cylinders, before the smoothing- rolls, which discharge the moisture with which the felts are impreg- nated from the damp paper, whereby a considerable saving in felts is effected. Messrs. Bertram state that the highest speed yet attained has been by their own machinery, and is 270 feet of paper per minute. The progress of the pulp after it leaves the beating- engines for conversion into paper may be described as follows : — The valve at the bottom of the beating-engine 136 MAKING PAPER BY MACHINERY. is opened, when the pulp flows th-rough a pipe into the stuff-chests, which are generally situated below the level of the engines. The beaters are then rinsed with clean water to remove any pulp that may still cling to them, the rinsing water passing also into the stuff-chests. Stuff-chests — These are large vessels of a cylindrical form, so that the pulp may have no corners to lodge in, and are generally made of wood, though sometimes they are made of cast-iron plates bolted together. The chests are of various dimensions, according to the requirements of the mill, being usually about 12 feet in diameter and 6 feet deep, having a capacity for 1,000 to 1,200 lbs. of stuff. To keep the pulp well mixed in the stuff-chest, of which two are usually employed for each machine, a ver- tical shaft, carrying two horizontal arms, each extending nearly across the interior of the chest, are provided, which are only allowed to revolve at a moderate speed, that is, about two or three revolutions per minute, otherwise the pulp would be liable to work up into knots, and thus form a defective paper. Motion being given to the shaft, the rotating arms keep the pulp and water uniformly mixed, at the same time preventing the pulp from sinking to the bottom of the stuff- chest. The pulp is next transferred to a regulating box, or " supply box," by means of a pump called the stuff-pump. The regulating-box, which has the effect of keeping a regular supply of pulp in the machine, is provided with two overflow pipes, which carry back to the stuff-chests any superfluous pulp that may have entered them, by which the stuff in the regulating-box is kept at a uni- form level, while the machine is supplied with a regular and uniform quantity of the diluted pulp. The stuff- pump conveys the pulp through a valve in the bottom of the regulating-box in a greater quantity than is actually required, the superfluity returning to the stuff-chests by the overflow pipes ; thus the supply-box, being always kept full, furnishes a regular and uniform supply of pulp to the sand-tables, or sand-traps as they are sometimes STRAINERS. 137 called. Sand-tables are large wooden troughs, vary- ing in size at difPerent mills, but Mr. Dunbar gives the following proportions for a first-class sand-trap ; namely, 14 feet long by 8 feet wide, and 8 inches deep. The bottom of the trap is covered with felt, sometimes old first- press felt being used, and is divided into several compart- •ments by thin bars of lead or iron, or strips of wood, which keep the felt in position, and also retain any par- ticles of sand or other heavy solid matter that may be accidentally present in the pulp. For the purpose of diluting the pulp for the machine, there is, attached to the inlet of the sand-traps, a box with two supply-taps, one for the delivery of pulp, and the other for water ; and these being turned on, the pulp and water flow over the sand-traps, and the diluted pulp then falls into the strainers, which, while allowing the fine pulp to pass freely, keep back all lumps of twisted fibre, and particles of unlDoiled fibre, which latter, if not removed, would appear as specks on the surface of the finished paper. The Strainers are formed of brass or bronze plates, in which are cut a very large number of narrow slits, which gradually widen downward, so as to prevent the pulp from lodging. Each plate has about 510 slits, and several plates, connected together by bolts, constitutes the com- plete strainer. When in use, the strainer receives a jogging motion, which is communicated to it by means of small ratchet wheels keyed on shafts passing be- neath the machine; this causes the fibres to pass more freely through the slits. There are many different forms of strainers, which have been the subject of numerous patents. It will be sufficient, however, to give one or two examples of improved strainers which have been more recently adopted by manufacturers. Revolving Strainer and Knotter. — The revolving strainer, which was invented by the late senior partner in the firm of Messrs. Gr. and W. Bertram (now Bertrams, Limited), has since been extensively adopted, and the present firm have introduced a patent knotter in conjunc- 138 MAKING PAPER BY MACHINERY. tion with the apparatus, the complete arrangement of which is shown in Fig. 26. The standard size for these revolv- ing strainers is 7 feet long by 18| inches wide on each eide of the four surfaces. The vats are of cast iron, and Fig. 26. the apparatus is supplied with driving gear, bellows, regu- lating boxes and spouts, as necessary. The firm also supply these strainers with White's patent discs, and Annandale and Watson's arrangement. a a are two revolving strainers, as applied to the paper-machine, showing gear- SELF-CLEANSING STRAINER. i39 ing for strainers and bellows, b is the patent knotter as used for two strainers, c is the counter- shaft overhead. D D is the back shaft of the machine, and e e the wire of the paper-machine. Self-cleansiug Strainer. — The same firm also intro- HO MAKING PAPER BY MACHINERY. duced this form of strainer, an illustration of which is given in Fig. 27. The action of the strainer is described as follows : — The pulp flows on to the strainer at a, and passes away- through the pipes b b. At c is a valve for the discharge of waste pulp. The strainer plates have an inclination of about 1 inch in the direction of their length, and in those which are nearest to a, where the pulp enters, the slits are wider, the knots being pushed forward by the energy of the flow. The vacuum pumps, d d, are worked from the shaft E. The tubes r f are for supplying water to the plates, by which the coarser particles of the pulp are pushed forward, and the slits are thus kept clean. The strainer will pass from 18 to 20 tons of the finest paper per week. Roeckner's Pulp Strainers. — This invention consists in constructing boxes, with one or both ends open, forming the strainers, fixed, or to slide in or out, so as to be readily Fig. 28. cleaned. One or more fans are fitted in these boxes, and are put in motion from the outside, so as to cause what is called " suction " through the strainers. One or a num- ber of such boxes are fixed into a vat, the open ends dis- charging the'pulp which has passed through the strainers ROECKNER'S PULP STRAINERS. 14^ to the paper-machine, and can be so arranged that all the fans are worked on one shaft. The vat may be divided into compartments, so that the stuff flows from one to the other. Instead of boxes, the strainers may be formed of tubes, in which suitable slits or perforations have been provided. The tubes will be perfectly closed at one end, and the strained pulp, after passing through them, will be dehvered to the paper-machine from their open ends, which may fit into a ring, so that when cleaning is re- quired they may be easily lifted out or in. The suction is provided inside these tubes by the fans, which are oscillated by suitable gear from the outside of the vat. The strainers may, instead of being stationary, be attached to the fans and oscillate with them, in which case the open ends Fig. 29. would have to be attached to the vat by an indiarubber or cloth ring, or the strainers may oscillate whilst the fans are stationary. Any number of these strainers may be fixed into vats, disposed vertically or otherwise. In the vat A, Fig. 28, which receives the pulp to be stramed, are several tubes, ppp, with one end open, having slits in them similar to strainer plates. Inside of these are two, three, or more plates,/// Fig. 29, running the full length of the tube fixed to the shafts, s s s, and to the sides of the tubes, which serve as fans, besides giving strength to the tubes. The shafts s s s are carried in bearings at each end, and have each one end projecting through, upon which are keyed levers, h h h, which, being connected to a rod r, worked by an eccentric, e, at the end, gives an oscillating motion to the tubes and fans. Any number of tubes may 142 • MAKING PAPER BY MACHINERY. be in tlie vat, and may either work separately or divided. Witli several tubes it is preferable to have them arranged as shown in the drawing by division plate d, so that the accumulated "knots," &o., may flow finally into the end compartment (which will form an auxiliary strainer), and may be mixed with more water, so that the fine pulp still contained in the stuff can flow away through the slits and the knots, &c., be taken out when necessary. The tubes should be placed so far apart that a workman can get his hand between. The closed ends work free in the stuff, while the open ends run through indiarubber sheet or SECTION AT A.B. Fiar. 30. other material, fitted so well to the tube that the fibre can only get through the slits of the tube to flow on to the paper-machine through the channel at side by the sluice v. The arrows indicate the direction of the flow of pulp. Mr. Dunbar says, "the straining power necessary to pass and clean pulp in an efficient manner for 25 tons of finished paper per week is two revolving strainers, con- sisting of four rows of plates, or 7 feet by 18 inches of straining surface on each of the four sides, the plates being cut No. 2^ Watson's gauge." After passing through the strainers the pulp should be absolutely free from knots or objectionable particles of any kind, and in a proper condition for conversion into paper. The MacMne Wire and its Accessories. — On leaving the strainers the pulp passes into a vat, in which is a horizontal agitator, which causes the pulp and water to become well mixed, and ready to flow on to the endless wire-cloth of the machine. The wire-cloth is made CONICAL PULP-SAVER. 143 of exceedingly fine wire, tlie meshes ranging from 60 threads and upwards to the inch, there being some- times as many as 1,900 holes per square inch, but the meshes usually employed run from 2,000 to 6,000 per square inch. The ends of the cloth are united by being sewn with very fine wire. The width of the wire-cloth varies considerably, the greatest width being, we believe, that supplied for the large machine at Mr. Edward Lloyd's mill at Sittingbourne, which is 126 inches. The length of the wire-cloth is generally from 35 to 40 feet, the latter being considered preferable. Beneath the wire is placed a shallow box called the " save-all," which receives the water as it flows through the wire cloth from the pulp. In order to effect a further saving of pulj) which escapes through the meshes of the wire-cloth, a machine called a " pulp-saver " is used at some mills, through which the backwater, as it leaves the box or save-all referred to, is passed. The wire-cloth is supported by a series of brass tube rolls, which are so placed as to render the layer of pulp on the wire absolutely uniform, by which a regular thick- ness of the finished paper is ensured. The wire is attached to a malleable iron frame, having a sole-plate of cast iron, and carries a brass or copper breast-roll, 18 inches in diameter, a guide-roll 7 inches in diameter, and four brass or copper rolls 5 inches in diameter under the wire, with shafts extending through the rolls, and furnished with brass bushes and brackets, and a self-acting guide upon the 7-inch guide- roll. The tube- rolls or " carrying tubes " are carried upon brass bearings. Attached to the sole- plate of the wire framing are three cast-iron stands on each side for supporting the save-all beneath the wire. To regulate the width of the paper there is on the top of the wire a set of brass " deckles," carried on a brass frame passing over the first suction box, of which there are two, and supported on the wire frame by iron studs fixed in the frame. At each end of the deckle-frame is a pulley for carrying the deckle-strap, with three similar pulleys 144 MAKING PAPER BY MACHINERY. for expanding it. The deckle-frame is furnished with two endless straps of india-rubber, these straps keeping the pulp to the width required for forming ledges at the sides of the web. The Conical Pulp-saver, which is shown in Fig. 31, was invented by the late Mr. Greorge Bertram and ]Mr. Paisley, and is manufactured by Bertrams, Limited. Its use is to extract fibres from the washing water before going into the river or otherwise. For the water from the drum- washer, washing and beating engines, and for the water from the paper-making machine, save-all, &c., it has A A Fig. 31. proved itself of great utility. It is simple in construc- tion, small in cost, takes up little room, and is easily repaired. When placed to receive the washings from the beaters or paper-machine, the pulp saved, if kept clean, can always be re-used, a is a conical drum which is covered with wire-cloth, and it is made to revolve slowly by suitable gearing. The water enters by the pipe b, which is perforated, as shown, and passes through the meshes of the gauze, while the pulp gradually finds its way to the wider end of the drum, where it escapes into the box c, and can be conveyed again to the beating- engines. The Dandy-roll. — When it is required to produce a design or name, termed a water-mark, upon the paper, this is done by means of a roll called the dandy-roll, which DANDY ROLLS. 145 consists of a skeleton roll covered with wire-clotli, upon which the design is worked by means of very fine wire. If the paper is required to be alike on . both sides, without any specific pattern or name upon it, the roll is simply covered with wire-cloth, the impressions from which upon •NZTH OrK LENGTH OF BODY ^ I I BETWEZN SHOULDERS ^ Fig. 32. the moist pulp correspond with those of the machine-wire on the under surface. By this means paper known as "wove" paper is produced. A dandy-roll of this cha- racter is shown in Fig. 32. "Laid" paper, as it is Fig. 33. termed, is distinguished by a dandy-roll having a series of equidistant transverse wires on the upper surface of the wire cylinder, as shown in Fig. 33, the effect of which is to produce parallel lines on the paper, caused by the pulp being thinner where the moist paper is impressed by the raised wires, which renders the lines more transparent than the rest of the paper. The dandy-roll, which is usually about 7 inches in diameter, corresponds in length 146 'making paper by machinery. to tKe width of wire on whicli it rests, and is placed over the wire-cloth between the suction-boxes. The journals of the roll turn in slits in two vertical stands, one behind the machine frame and the other in front of it. The roll, however, rests with its whole weight on the wire, and revolves by the progressive motion of the wire. The stands which support the roll prevent it from being influenced by the lateral motion of the wire. By thus running over the surface of the pulp when the wire is in motion, this roll presses out a considerable quantity of water, at the same time rendering the paper closer and finer in texture. Dandy-rolls of various lengths, and bearing different designs or patterns, are kept at the paper- mills, and great care is exercised to preserve them from injury. Water-Marking. — Dr. Ure describes the following pro- cesses for producing a design for a line water-mark: — 1. The design is engraved on some yielding surface in the same way as on a copper-plate, and afterwards, by im- mersing the plate in a solution of copper sulphate, and producing an electrotype in the usual way, by which all the interstices become so filled up as to give a casting of pure copper. This casting, on being removed from the sulphate bath, is ready for attaching to the wire gauze of the dandy-roll. 2. The design is first engraved on a steel die, the parts required to give the greatest effect being cut deepest ; the die, after being hardened, is forced by a steam hammer into some yielding material, such as copper, and all of this metal which remains above the plain surface of the steel is subsequently removed by suitable means ; the portion representing the design being left untouched would then be attached to the wire-gauze as before. Light and shade can be communicated to the mark by a modification of the above process, for which purpose an electrotype of the raised surface of a design is first taken, and afterwards a second electrotype from this latter, which consequently will be identical with WA TER-MARKING. 147 tlie original surface. These two are then mounted on lead or gutta-percha^ and employed as dies to give impres- sion to fine copper-wire gauze, which is then employed as a mould. Thus absolute uniformity, such as could not be attained by the old system of stitching wires together, is now attained in bank-notes by the adoption of the above method. It may be mentioned that when the moulds were formed by stitching the fine wires together to form a design, no less than 1,056 wires, with 67,584 twists, and involving some hundreds of thousands of stitches, were required to form a pair of £5 note moulds, and it was obviously impossible that the designs should remain absolutely identical. Sometimes water-marks are produced by depressing the surface of the dandy-roll in the form of a design, which causes the paper to be thicker where the design is than in the rest of the sheet of paper. This modification was invented by Dr. De la E,ue. De La Rue's Improvements in Water-marks By one method, patented in 1869, dandy-rolls, having a sur- face of embossed wire-gauze, are used ; the indentations in the gauze are inwards, causing a thickening of the paper where they are brought in contact with it. These thickenings correspond in form to the configuration of the design or water-mark. The inventor has also afiixed wire to the surface of such dandy- rolls so as to form projec- tions, in order to thin the paper where the projections come in contact with it, by which means light lines are obtained in the water-mark, strengthening the effect of the thickened opaque design. Ey another patent, dated May, 1884, No. 8348, the inventor forms the surface of the dandy-roll of wire- gauze embossed in such a manner that parts of the surface of the gauze, corresponding to the configura- tion of the design of the water- mark, are raised, and project out from the general surface, and other parts corresponding to the line shading of the design are de- 148 MAKING PAPER BY MACHINERY. pressed below the level of tlie general surface. The accom- panying drawing, Fig. 34, shows diagrammatically, and greatly enlarged, a section of a portion of the surface of a dandy-roll made in accordance with this invention, a Fig. S4. I'epresents the section of a ridge or projection raised on the surface of the gauze ; h represents the section of a groove or depression in the wire- gauze, which, with other similar grooves, serves to produce an opaque shading to the design, c is an auxiliary ridge or projection, serving to define the shading line, and to intensify it by driving the pulp into the groove or depression h. Further effects may be obtained by attaching wires to the dandy-roll, either in the usual way, where the surface is unembossed, or upon the raised parts «, which give the configuration to the water-mark. In place of forming -4he ridges or projections a, which produce the configuration of the water-mark, by raising portions of the wire- gauze above the general surface, they may be formed by sewing on suitably shaped slips of wire-gauze, or of sheet metal perfo- rated all over with fine holes, on to the surface of the gauze which is embossed with the grooves h, but it is much to be preferred that both the ridges a and the grooves h should be produced by embossing the gauze. Water-marks may also be produced by placing sheets of finished paper in contact with plates of copper or zinc, bearing a design in relief, and submitting them to heavy pressure. Sucticn-Boxes. — These boxes, which are fitted under the wire, are made of wood, and are open at the top, the edffes being: lined with vulcanite. The ends of the boxes are movable, so that they may be adjusted to suit the width of the paper required ; they are also provided with VACUUM PUMPS. 149 air-cocks for regulating the vacuum, wMcli is obtained by means of two sets of vacuum pumps, having three 6-inch barrels to each set : a vacuum pump of this form is shoAvn in Fig. 35. As the wire travels over these boxes, the ac- tion of the pumps draws the wire upon them with sufficient pressure to render them air-tight ; by this means a large portion of the water which the pulp still retains at this point becomes extracted, thereby giving to it such a degree of consistency that it can stand the pres- sure of the couch- rolls without in- jury. The back- water extracted by the suction-boxes, as also that col- lected in the save- all, is added to a fresh supply of pulp before it flows on to the sand-tables. Couch-KoUs. — At the extreme end of the wire- cloth from the breast-roll, and inside the wire, is the under couch-roll, from which the wire receives its motion. This roll, which is of brass, is usually about 14 inches in dia- meter, is carried upon a cast-iron framing with brass bearings, and is ground to a working joint with the top Fig. 35. I50 MAKING PAPER BY MACHINERY. roll, whicli is also of brass, and 20 inches in diameter. Both these rolls are covered with a seamless coating of woollen felt. The upper roll rests upon the lower one, and the wire-cloth, and the web of paper upon it, pass between the rolls, receiving gentle pressure, by which the paper be- comes deprived of more water, rendering it still more com- pact. It is at this stage that the web of paper leaves the wire-cloth, and passes on to a continuously revolving and endless web of woollen felt, termed the " wet felt," from the moist condition of the paper. This felt, which is car- ried on wooden rollers, is about 20 feet long, and is manu- factured with considerable care. The Fress-BioUs. — The paper now passes on to the first press-rolls, which deprive it of a still further quantity of water, and put it in a condition to bear gentle handling without injury. The upper roll is fitted with a contrivance termed the " doctor," which keeps the roll clean by remov- ing fragments of paper that may have become attached to it. The doctor is furnished with a knife which passes along the entire length of the roll, pressing against it from end to end. These rolls are generally of iron, jacketed with brass, the imder one being 14 inches in diameter, and the top roll 16 inches. Sometimes this roll is made of fine- grained cast-iron. When the roll is of iron the doctor blade is steel ; but when this roll is brass the knife is of the same material. The under surface of the paper, which has been in contact with the felt, and necessarily being in a moist condition, receives more or less an impression from the felt over which it travelled, while the upper sur- face, on the other hand, wall have been rendered smooth by the pressure of the top roll of the first press. To modify this, and to render both surfaces of the paper as nearly uniform as possible, the paper passes through another set of rolls, termed the second press-rolls, in which the paper becomes reversed, which is effected by causing it to enter at the back of the rolls, which rotate in a reverse direction to those of the first press, by which the under or wire side of the paper comes in contact with DRYING CYLINDERS. the top roll of the press. By this arrangement the under- side of the paper is rendered equally smooth with the upper surface. The second set of press-rolls is provided with an endless felt of its own, which is usually both stronger and thicker than that used in connection with the first press-rolls. In some mills each set of press-rolls is provided with a doctor, to prevent the web of paper from adhering to the metal. Sometimes the doctor knives are made from vulcanite, a material which would seem specially suited for a purpose of this kind. From this point the paper passes to the first set of drying cylinders. The Drying Cylinders. — The invention of the steam drying cylinder is due to Mr. T. B. Crompton, who, in the year 1821, obtained a patent for this useful addition to the paper-machine. Since that period, however, the system of drying the paper by steam-heat has been brought to a high state of perfection ; not only this, but the number of cylinders has gradually increased, while the heat to which they are raised has proportionately decreased, and as a con- sequence the size, which is injuriously affected by rapid dry- ing, is gradually deprived of its moisture, and thus renders the paper closer and stronger, while at the same time a very rapid speed can be maintained. The drying cylinders in the machine shown in the engraving are 4 feet in dia- meter and 12 in number, being arranged in two groups of j» 17 . 5 23 6 35 7 >) 71 Water 6 0 12 11 1 ) J 13i 2 ) > 17 3 5 > 23 4 5> 35 5 71 Water A° 17 1 >J 23 2 > J 35 3 ) ) 71 Water 3 o 12 ) ) 23 1 35 2 ) 1 71 VII. — Comparative French and English Thermometer Scales. Trench or Centigrade. English or Fahrenheit, 0 Cent, or C. eq uals 32 Tahr. or F. 5 » 41 )» 10 „ 50 15 „ 59 >j 20 „ „ ■ '68 j» 25 „ 77 )) 30 „ 86 35 „ 95 )> 40 „ i, 104 >) 45 „ 113 ?5 60 „ „ 122 J> 55 „ „ 131 7> USEFUL TABLES. 245 Comparative French and English Thermometer Scales — continued. French or Centigrade. 60 Cent, or 0. 65 English or Fahrenheit, equals 140 Fahr. or F. 149 „ „ 158 „ 167 176 „ 185 „ „ . 194 „ 203 „ 212 „ (Water boils) 392 „ 572 (Mercury boils) ,, 662 ,, (Mercury boils) ("Water boils) Vill. — "Weights and Measures of the Metrical System. (From the British. Pharmacopoeia.) WEIGHTS. 1 Milligramme — the thousandth part of one gramme, or 0"001 gramme. 1 Centigramme =: the hundredth „ „ O'Ol „ 1 Decigramme — the tenth „ „ 0"1 „ 1 Gramme =: weight of a cubic centimetre of water at 4° C. 1*0 „ 1 Decagramme =: ten grammes . . . '. 10 -Q ,, 1 Hectogramme = one hundred grammes * . . lOO'O „ 1 Kilogramme = one thousand grammes . . . 1,000*0 „ MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 1 MUlilitre = 1 cubic centimetre, or the measure of 1 gramme of water. 1 Centilitres 10 „ 10 „ 1 Decilitre = 100 ,, „ lOQ 1 Litres 1,000 „ ,, 1,000 „ MEASURES OF LENGTH. 1 Millimetre s the thousandth part of one metre, or O'OOl metre. 1 Centimetre = the hundredth „ „ O'Ol ,, 1 Decimetre = the tenth „ ,, 0-1 ,, 1 Metre — the ten-millionth part of a quarter of the meridian of the earth. IX. — Table op French "Weights and. Measures. Kilogramme, 1,000 grammes, equals 2 lbs. 3| oza. nearly. Gramme (the unit) equals 15-432 grains. ■ FRENCH MEASURE OF VOLUME. 1 Litre (the unit) equals 34 fluid ozs. nearly. 246 USEFUL NOTES AND TABLES. LONG MEASURE. Metre (the unit) ' equals 39-371 inches. Decimetre (10th of a metre) „ 3-9371 Centimetre (100th of a metre) 0-3937 MUlimetre (1,000th of a metre) 0-0393 „ List of Works relating to Paper Manufacture. "Practical Kemarks on Modem Paper." J. Murray. Edinhurgh, 1829, " Manuel du Fabricant des Papiers." L. S. Le Normand. Paris, 1834. " L'lndustrie de la Papetrie." G. Planche. Paris, 1853. " Die Fahrikation des Papiers." L. Miiller. Berlin, 1855. "Manufacture of Paper and Boards." A. Proteaux. Philadelphia, ■ 1866. " Manufacture of Paper." C. Hofmann. Phibdelphia, 1873. " Pflanzenfasir." Hugo Miiller. lieipzig, 1873. " Bamboo Considered as a Paper-making Material." London, 1875. " Etudes sur les Fibres Vesetales." Yetillart. Paris, 1876. ' ' Technology of the Paper Trade " (Cantor Lectures) . Arnot. J curnal , Society of Arts, 1877. "The Practical Paper-maker." J. Dunbar. London, 1881. " Forestry and Forest Products." Edinburgh, 1884. " A Treatise on Paper." R. Parkinson. Preston, 1886. "Manufacture of Paper." C. T. Davis. Philadelphia, 1887. " Manufacture of Paper." Tomlinson. " Text Book of Paper-making." C. F. Cross and E. J. Bevan. Articles on paper-making will also be found in the following encyclo- pasdias, journals, etc : — " Encyclopa3dia Britannica," vol. xvii. ; " Encyclopsedia Metropoli- tana," 1845; " Tomlinson' s Cyclopedia;" "New American Cyclopae- dia;" "British Manufacturing Industries;" "English Cyclopaedia;" "Encyclopsedia Americana;" "Penny Cyclopaedia;" Faper Makers' Monthly Journal ; Paper Makers'' Circular ; Faper Trade Journal ; Ameri- can Paper Trade Journal. INDEX. A CETIC acid, 64, 98 Acid, arsenious, process, 231 or bisulphite processes, ob- jections to, 74 boracic, 46 carbonic, 97 fiuo-silicic, 175 hydrochloric, 55, 232 hypoehlorous, 98 nitric, 66 nitrous, 66 nitro-hydrochloric, 64 oxalic, 98 processes, McDougall's boiler for, 72 sulphuric, 47, 99 anhydrous, 225 sulphurous, 55, 175 test, 224 test, preparation of, 225 treatment of wood, 64 Acids, action of, on cellulose, 2 Acicular fibres, 3 Action of acids on cellulose, 2 Adamsonia, 85 Adamson's process, 77 African esparto, 47 Agalite, 115 Agar-agar, 178 Agave Americana, 8 Alexandria rags, 21 Algerian esparto, 47 • Alkali, caustic, 48 testing, 224 Alkalimeter,- Mohr's, 223 Alkalimeters, 222 Alkalimetry, 221 Alkaline leys, boiling points of, 243 Alkalis, sampling, 227 Alum, 116 Alum, bleach liquor, 100 cake, estimation of alumina in 233 concentrated, 119 crystallised, 119 liquor, 240 pearl, 119 porous, 167 Alumina, estimation of, in alum, &c. ■ 233 sulphate of, 100 Aluminium, chloride of, 100 hypochlorite of, 100 Aluminous cake, 119 American combinations for colourin6 azure, 170 Berlin, 168 Bremen, 170 cottons, 20 dark, 170 indigo, 166 linens, 20 mineral, 171 pale, 170 paper, 19 Paris, 169 Brussian, 165 rags, 19 smalts, 165 Blues, 20 aniline, 166 Boiler, Bentley and Jackson's, 80 Roeckner's, 45 Boiling, American, 60 esparto, 41 rags, 29 straw, 81 waste paper, 86 Boracic acid, 46 Borax, 169 Boxes, suction, 148 Brazil wood, 166 lake, 236 Breaking half-stui¥, 39 points of paper, method of deter- mining, 240 Breaking and washing, 34 lireast-roll, 149 Bremen blue, 170 " lU-oke " paper, 85 Bromine, 6 water, 6 Broom, 10 Bruussonetia papyrifera, 18 Brown, 167 Brown, dark, 170 reddish, 172 Bucking-keir, 88 Buckwheat straw, 10 Buff envelope, 167 Bunsen burner, 225 Burettes, 222 pALCINED soda, 93 V Calciner, 206 Calcium, acetate of, 98 chloride of, 109, 230 hypochlorite of, 3 salts, 99 Calender, glazing, 154 Calendering, 154 super, Mr. Wyatt on, 158 Calicoes, black, 20 Canada balsam, 179 Cane, bamboo, 10 . rattan, 10 Caoutchouc, 73 Carbonate of lime, 119 magnesia, 46 potassa, 235, 236 soda, 31 Carbonell's esparto process, 46 Carbonic acid, 97 Carbonisation, 75 Cardboard, 182 with two faces by ordinary ma- chinery, 182 work, 179 Carminated lake, 237 Carrageen moss, 178 Carrying tubes, 143 Castile soap, 121 Caustic alkali, 48 potash, 3, 7 soda, 31 ley, 31 table showing quantities of in leys of different den- sities, 243 Cauticising soda, 32, 205 tanks, 218 Cellulose, 1 ■ action of acids on. 2 determination of, 5 of flax, 4 physical characteristics of, 3 white, 76 Chemical combination, 224 processes, 55 25" INDEX. Chemical wood pulp, 54 Chilled-iron glazing-rolls, 156 China clay, 114 grass, 10 Chloride of aluminium, 100 calcium, 101, 230 lime, 47, 230 bleaching with, 92 testing samples of, 232 magnesium, 96 potassium, 95 sodium, 95, 109 zinc, 99 Chlorimeter, 232 Chlorimetry, 231 Chlorine, 2, 90, 232 gas, bleaching with, 93 in bleaching powder, estimation of, 230 test for, 110 Chrome, lemon, 170 orange, 166 j'ellow, 166 Cinnabar, 171 Citrate of tin, 169 Clarifier, Roeckner's, 199 Clay, China, 114 Clogging, 116 " Close" paper, 112 Cobalt, oxide of, 165 Cochineal, 121, 166 lake, 236 Colcothar, 170 Coloured cotton, 20 papers, 165 Colouring, 121 American combinations for, 167 materials, mixing, with pulp, 168 matters used in paper making, 166 paper for artificial flowers, 168 Commercial sodas, examination of, 221 Comparative cost of animal and engine sizing, estimate of, 128 French and English thermometer scales, 244 Composition for waterproof paper, 177 Concentrated alum, 119 Conical pulp-saver, 144 Cooling and damping rolls, Bentley and Jackson's, 189 Copal, white, 179 Copper, green, 170 Copper, hydrated oxide of, 175 sulphate^ 146 Copperas, 165 Copying-paper, 120 Corchorus capsularis, 4 Cork, 180 paper, 180 Cost of animal and engine sizing, com- parative estimate of, 128 Cotton fibre, 3 filaments of, 7 pieces, 20 rags, 10 seed waste, 10 oil soap, 121 superfine whites, 20 waste, 10 wool, 10 Cottons, blue, 20 outshot, 20 unbleached, 20 Coucher, 130 Couch-rolls, 149 Coupler and Mellier's process, 80, 84 Crop madder, 237 •Crystallised alum, 119 Cupro-ammonium, 2, 174 Wright's process of preparing, 175 Cutting, 22, 161 machine, 23 Verny's, 187 Cutter, single-sheet, 162 Cutters, 22 Cylinder, drying, 185 machine, single, 152 washing, 193 Cylinders, drying, 151 D ALTON'S table showing proportion of dry soda in leys of different densities, 241 Damping-rolls, Bertrams', .155 Dandv-roU, 144 Deckle, 130 frame, 143 strap, 143 De la Rue's improvements in water- . marlis, 147 Determination of cellulose, 5 Determining the real value or per- centage of commercial sodas, chloride of lime, &c., 221 Devil, Donkin's, 27 Dextrin, 2 INDEX. Diana's prnceiss for making paper or cardboard with two faces by ordinary machinery, 182 Digester, 65 Disinfecting machine, 12 Disintegrating apparatus, 79 Doctor, the, 150 Donkin's bleach -mixer, 92 pump, 193 glazing machine, 157 press, 157 plate-planing machine, 191 rag boiler, 30 dusting machine, 26 washing cylinder for rag-engine, 193 Double crown, 164 demy, 164 royal, 164 Double-sized paper, 126 Drab, 167 Drainers, 39 Draining, 39 Dr. Mitscherlich's process, 71 Drum-washer, 34 Bentley and Jackson's, 185 Dry-felt regulator, self-acting, 186 Drving cylinder, 185 cylinders, 151 Dunbar's method of treating esparto, 48 observations on beating, 102 Duster, 26 Du&ting, 26 Dutch grappe madder, 237 Dyers' wood waste, 10 I^DGE-RUNNEE, Bertrams', S2 Ekman's process, 70 Elastic fibres, 3 packing, 72 Electrolytic bleaching process, An- dreoli's, 96 Hermite's, 96 C. Watt's, 94 Electrotypes for water-marking, 146 Engine, beating, 103 Bertrams', 105 Forbes', 105 Umpherston's, 105 Marshall's perfecting, 201 size, French method of prepar- ing, 120 sizing, 115 Engines, healing. Mr. Arnot on, 102 refining-, American, Mr. "S\^att on, i03 English green, 172 pink, 172 Envelope, buff, 167 orange-red gold, 167 yellow gold, 167 Eosine, 166 Equivalents, chemical, 224 Esparto, African, 47 Algerian, 47 bleaching, 50 boiler, Sinclair's, 42, 43 boiling, 41 cleaner,- Bertrams', 40 Dunbar's treatment of, 48 fibre, 4 Gabes, 47 grass, 10, 16 Mallarv's process for, 46 Oran, 47 picking, 40 preliminary treatment of, 40 Carbonell's process for, 46 Sfax, 47 Spanish, 47 Susa, 47 Tripoli, 47 washing boiled, 49 willowing, 41 Young's process for boiling, 50 Estimation of alumina in alum cake, &c., 233 of chlorine in bleaching powder, 230 of commercial sodas, 221 Eucalyptus, oil of, 178 Evaporating apparatus, 2C5 Evaporator, esparto, 206 Porion's, 208 Roeckner's, 206 Yaryan's, 208 Evaporators, American, 61, 208 Examination of commercial sodas, 221 FEEBLY-RIBBED, or smooth fibres, 5 . Felt, 72, 101 Felting, 131 Fern leaves, 10 Ferrocyanide of potassium, 165 Fibre, banana, 10 cotton, 3 INDEX. Fibre,-esparto, 4 flax, 7 hemp, 8 jute, 4, 8 linen, 4 Manilla, 4 sulphite, and resin, 76 yellow pine, 4 Fibres, acicular, 3 bark, 6 elastic, 3 round-ribbed, 5 smooth, or feebly-ribbed, 5 spiral, 8 straw, 4 various, treatment of, 80 vegetable, micrographic exami- nation of, 5 vegetable, recognition of, by the microscope, 6 Fibrous waste, 11 Finished paper, packing the, 163 Finishing, 157 Arnot on, 160 house, 163 and sizing, 132 First press-roll, 150 Flask, 227 Flax, cellulose of, 4 fibre, or linen, 7 New Zealand, 8, 10 ■ tow, 11 waste, 10 Flocks, 73 Florence lake, 237 Foolscap, 164 Forbes' beating-engine, 105 Foreign rags, 20 Fourdrinier machine, 133 Francke's bisulphite process, 68 Frankfort black, 169 J'"rench and English thermometer scales, comparative, 244 measure of volume, 245 rags, 20 weights and measures, table of, 245 Fresenius' method of estimating bleach- ing powder, 231 Friction-glazing, 157 Fridet and Matussiere's process, 66 P'urnace, incinerating, 208 Fustians, 20 Fustic, 169 rtABES esparto, 47 ^ Gaine's process for making parch- ment paper, 182 Gamboge, 169 Gas, chlorine, bleaching with, 93 receiver, 65 Gay-Lussac's method of estimating bleaching-powder, 231 German rags, 21 Glaser's process for bleaching with "chlorine gas, 93 Glauber's salt, 109 Glazing calender, 154 press, Donkin's, 157 rolls, chilled-iron, 156 web, 154 Glucose, 2 Glue pieces, 122 stock, 124 Glycerin, 120 Graham's process, 73 Grass, China, 10 esparto, 10, 16 sea, 11 Green, copper, 170 English, 172 pale, 170 Schweinfurth, 171 Grey linens, 20 Ground madder, 237 wood pulp, 85 Guillotine rag-cutter, 24 Gum arable, 169 sandarac, 179 tragacanth, 168 Gunny, 20 bags, 10 Gutta-percha, 147 HALF jute and linen, 20 stuff, 39, 101 breaking, 39' Hemp fibre, 8 Manilla, 4, 10 sizal, 8 tarred, 20 waste, 10 white, 20 Hermite's electrolytic bleaching pro- cess, 96 High- pressure boiler, 63 Hollander, or rag-engine, 34, 129 Home rags, 20 Hop-bines, 10 INDEX. 253 Hydrate of soda, 2?5 Hydrated oxide of copper, 175 Hvdro-cellulose, 1 Hydrochloric acid, 55, 232 Hydro-extractor, 94 Hydrometer, Baume's, 242 Twaddell's, 238 Hypochlorite of aluminium, 100 calcium, 3 lime, 92, 98, 230 soda, 8 ■ • sodium, 96 Hypochlorous acid, 98 Hyposulphite of soda, 110 TODIDE of potassium, 111 -»- Imitation Manilla pulp from wood, 239 Imperial, 164 Incinerating furnace,'208 Indiarubber, vulcanised, 223 Indigo, 98, 166 sulphate of, 232 Ink, lithographic, 180 Introduction of wood pulp, 17 Irish moss, 178 Iron, oxide of, 34 Iron, pernitrate of, 165 sulphate of, 170 Isinglass, 179 JAPANESE paper, new, ISO " Jordan's beating engine, 103, 104 Jouglet's process for waterproof paper, 177 Jute fibre, 4, 8 Manilla, &c., 84 spinners' waste, 20 waste, 10, 20 KAOLIN, 114, 182 Keegan's process, 59 Killing the colour, 121 Kingsland beating-engine, 104 Knife, revolving, 161 Knotter and strainer, revolving, 137 Kollergang, or edge- runner, 8 J T AC lake, 237 -Li Laid paper, 130 Lake, Brazil-wood, 236 carminated, 237 cochineal, 236 Florence, 237 Lake, lac, 237 madder, 237 orange, 238 scarlet, 171 Lakes, preparation of, 235 Lamp-black, 166, 1(j9 Leaching, 218 tanks, 218 Lead, nitrate of, 167 white, 171 Leather waste, 11 Leghorn rags, 21 Lemon chrome, 170 Leys, alkaline, boiling point of, 243 of different densities, table sh'ow- ing quantities of caustic soda in, 243 Lime, bisulphite of, 71 carbonate of, 119 chloride of, 23, 47, 110 bleaching with, 92 testing, 232 hvpochlorite of, 92, 98, 230 niilk of, 33, 72, 110 sulphate of, 100 Limed skins, 122 Linen, 4 fibre, 4 or flax fibre, 7 pieces, 20 rags, 10 waste, 10 Linens, blue, 20 extra fine, 20 grey, 20 strong, 20 white, 20 Liquor, bleaching, preparation of, 92 Liquors, bleaching, 3 spent, recovery of soda- from, 218 Lithographic ink, 180 paper, 180 Litmus paper, 183 Lixiviation, 75 Loading, 114 Logwood, 166 Long measure, French, 246 Lunge's bleaching ptocess, 9 MACHINE, Bentley and Jackson's perfecting, 201 web-ripping, 198 Bertrams' large paper, 13 rag-cutting, 23 reeling, 197 2d4 INDEX. Machine, Bertrams' web-glazing, 196 willowing and dusting, 26 disinfecting, 12 Donkin's plate-planing, 191 rag-dusting, 26 Fourdrinier, 133 rag-cutting, 23 roll-bar planing, 191 single-cylinder, 152 web-winding, 188 .sizing, 126 Verny's paper-cutting, 187 wire and its accessories, 142 Yankee, 152 _ Machinery, making paper by, 133 used in paper-making, 184 Machines, wet, 57 Madder, Dutch, 237 ground, 237 lake, 237 Magnesia, carbonate of, 46 sulphate of, 46 Magnesian limestone, 69 Magnesite, 46, 70 Magnesium, bisulphite of, 70 chloride of, 96 Maize husks and stems, 10 Making the paper, 130 paper or cardboard with two faces by ordinary machinery, 182 paper by hand, 12? machinery, 133 Mallary's process for esparto, 46 Manganese, peroxide of, 94 Manilla fibre, 4 hemp, 4, 10 jute, &c., 84 paper, 85 . Manilla, imitation, from wood pulp, :i39 Manning winder, 159 Maori-prepared phormium, 8 Materials, raw, 10 used in paper-making. 9 Marking, water, 146 Marshall's perfecting engine, 201 McDougall's boiler for acid processes, 72 _ . Mechanical processes, 78 wood pnlp, 113 Voelter's process of pre- paring, 78 Megass, or cane trash, 10 Meliier's process, 8t Method of sizing, American, 123 Metrical system, weights and measures of, 245 Micrographic examination of vegetable fibres, 5 Microscope, recognition of vegetable fibres by, 6 Midfeather, 35 Milk of lime, 33, 72, 110 Millboard, 175, 182 Mincing the fibre, 102 Mineral blue, 171 orange, 166 Miscellaneous papers, 174 Mixed fines, 20 prints, 20 Mixing colouring materials with pulp, 168 , Mohr's alkaiimeter, 223 Molasses, 180 Morftt's process for toughening p:iper, 178 Morocco papers, stains for, 171 Mucilage, 94 Mustard oil, 46 stems, 10 NASCENT chlorine, 96 Netting, old, 11 New Japanese paper, 180 method of bleaching, 100 New rags, 20 New Zealand flax, 8, 10 Nitric acid, 66 Nitro-hydrochloric acid, 64 Nitrous acid, 66 Notes and tables, 235 Nutgalls, 166 Nuttall's rag-cutter, 24 AAK-BAKK, 166 ^ Oakum, 11 Objections to the acid or bisulphite process, 74 Ochre, American, 167 yellow, 165, 166 Oil, boiled, 179 cotton-seed, soap, 121 of eucalyptus, 178 linseed, 179 mustard, 46 resin, 178 of turpentine, 179 of vitriol, 100 Oiled paper, 180 INDEX. 255 Old bagging, 10 bast bagging, 10 canvas, 10 netting, 11 rope, 10 style, 157 Operation of beating, 107 Oran esparto, 47 Orange chrome, 166 lake, 238 mineral, 166 red gold envelope, 167 yellow, 171 Organic acid, 99 Outshot cottons, 20 Outshots (whites), 20 Overhaulers, 22 Oxalic acid, 98 Oxide of cobalt, 165 iron, 34 zinc, 99 PACKING the finished paper, 163 ^ Pale blue, 170 Panels, millboard, 175 Pasteboard, 179 Paper, animal sized, 123 antique, 157 blotting, 21, 181 blue, 19 breaking points of, method of determining, 240 " broke," 85 or cardboard with two faces made by ordinary machinery, 182 colouring, for artificial flowers,168 copying, 120 cork, 180 cutting machine, Verny's, 187 double sized, 126 . hand-made, 129 new Japanese, 180 machine, Bertrams' large, 134 Fourdrinier's, 133 Yankee, 152 . making by hand, 129 by machinery, 133 machinery used in, 184 materials used in, 9 manilla, 85 imitation manilla, from wood,239 Morfit's process for toughening, 178 mulberry, 18 bark, 10 Paper, oiled, 180 old style, 157 parchment, 181 shavings, 58 sizes of, 164 strength of, 240 Parkinson's contrivance for determining, 240 toned, 165 toughening, 178 tracing, 179 transparent. 179 turmeric, 183 varnished, 179 vegeto-mineral, 115 waste, 85 boiling, 86 Rwn's process for treating, water-marked, 130 waterproof, 174 Jouglet's process, 177 for windows, Isl coloured, 165 miscellaneous, 174 Morocco, stains for, 171 printing, 164 satin, stains for, 172 test, 183 wrapping, 178 writing, 164 Parchment liquor, 171 paper, 181 shavings, 171 Paris blue, 169 Parker and Blackman's disinfecting machine, 12 Parting, 131 Partington's process, 71 Pearl alum, 119 Pearlash, 238 Pearl hardening, 114 Peat, 10 Pectin, 6 Pectose, 6 Perchloride of tin, 236 Perfecting engine,- Marshall's, 201 Pernitrate of iron, I60 Peroxide of manganese, 94 Petroleum, 178 Phormium tenax, 8 Physical characteristics of cellulose, 3 Picking esparto, 40 Pictet and Brelaz's process, 64 Pieces, cotton, 20 256 INDEX. Pieces, linen, 20 Finis, 166 English, 172 Plate-glazing, 157 calender, reversing, 191 planing machine, 190 Poplar, 10, 60 Porion's evaporator, 208 Porous alum, 167 Potash, 74 carbonate of, 235 caustic, 3, 7 yellow prussiat^ of, 165 Potassa, carbonate of, 235 Potassium, chloride of, 95 iodide of. 111 ferrocyanide of, 165 , Potcher, 37 Poucher, 39 Poumarede and Figuier's process for parchment paper, 181 Preliminary operations, 19 treatment of esparto, 40 Preparation of animal size, 122 bleaching liquor, 92 lakes, 236 test acid, 225 Press, glazing, Donliin's, 157 Press-rolls, 150 Presse-pate, 51 Printing-paper, 103 papers, 164 Prints, light, iiO mixed, 20 Process, Adamson's, 77 American wood pulp, 60 Andreoli's electrolvtic bleaching, • 96 arsenious acid, 231 Aussedat's, 63 Barre and Blondel's, 66 Blitz's, 72 Carbonell's esparto, 46 Coupier and Mellier's, 80 C. Watt's electrolytic bleaching, 94 Diana's, for making paper with two faces by ordinary ma- chinery, 182 Dr. Mitscherlich's, 71 Eckman's, 70 Francke's bisulphite, 68 Fridet and Matussiere's, 66 Gaine's, for making p..rchment paper, 182 Process, Graham s, 73 Hermite's electrolytic bleaching, 96 ^ Jouglet's, for preparing water- proof paper, 177 Keegan's, 59 Lunge's bleaching, 98 Mallarv's esparto, 46 • Mellier's, 84 Morfit's, 178 Partington's, 71 Pictet and Brelaz's, 64 Poumarede and Figuier's, 181. retting, 129 Ritter and Kellner's, 71 Ryan's, 87 Scoff ern and Tidcombe's, 174 Sinclair's, 58 Thompson's, 97 Thune's, 79 Voelter's, 78 Watt and Burgess's, 55 Wright's, 175 Young's, 50 Young and PettigreVs, 66 Processes, acid or bisulphite, objec- tions to, 74 McDougall's boiler for, 72 chemical, 55 mechanical, 78 sulphide, 77 sulphite, 68 Prussian blue, 165 Prussiate of potasli, 1(;5 Pulp, ground wood, 85 long-fibred, 111 mechanical wood, 113 mixing colouring matter with, 168 rag, 72 Pulp saver, 143 conical, 144 strainers, 137 Bertrams' revolving, 137 I^oeckner's, 140 Pulp, sulphite, 68, 160 wood, American, 60 tirst introduced by Mr. C. Watt, 17 imitation Manilla from, 239 Pump, vacuum, 149 QUERCITRON, 166 INDEX. 257 EAG bagging, 11 boiler, Bertrams', 29 Donlcin's, 30 cutter, Nuttall's, 24 cutting-machine, Bertrams', 23 Donliin's, 26 engine, 34 Bentley and Jackson's, 38 Bertrams', 37 pulp, 72 Rags, 11 Alexandria, 21 Baltic, 21 Belgian, 20 Bevrout. 21 blue, 19 ■ boiling, 29 cotton, 10 country, 21 disinfecting, 12 foreign, 20 French, 20 German, 21 home, 20 Leghorn, 21 linen, 10 new, 20 Russian, 21 sorting, 19 treatment of, 19 Trieste, 21 Turiiey, 21 woollen, 21 Rattan cane, 10 Raw materials, 10 Recognition of vegetable fibres by the microscope, 6 Recovery of soda, American system, 218 from spent liquor, 20'! Red, cherry, 170 darl{, 170 litmus paper, 183 ochre, 172 pale, 171 Turkey, 170 Venetian, 166 Reds, aniline, 166 Reeds, 10 Reeling machine, Bertrams', 197 Refining or beating, 101 engine, 159 Jordan's, 103 engines, American, Mr. Wyatt oil, 1U3 Regulating box, 136 Resin, 6, 115 oil, 178 size, 118 soap, 116 Resinous soaps, 179 Retree, 85, 164 Retting, 4 process of, 129 Reversing or plate-glazing calender, • 190 Revolving knife, 161 cutter, 162 strainer and knotter, 137 Rhamnus catharticus, 169 Ritter and Kellner's process, 71 Roeckner's boiler, 45 • clarifier, 199 evaporator, 206 pulp strainers, 140 Roll-bar planing machine, 191 Rolls, couch, 149 press, 150 smoothing, 151, 152 Rope, 20 bagging, 20 hard, 20 tarred, 20 . . white, 20 Round-ribbed fibres, 5 Royal, 164 Russian rags, 21 Ryan's process for treating waste paper, 87 OAILCLOTH, 11 Salt of tartar, 235 . Sampling alkalies, 227 Sandarac, gum, 179 Sand-table, 136 tables, 149 trap, 50, 136 Sap green, 169 Satin papers, stains for, 172 Save-all, 143 , Sawdust, 10 Scarlet lake, 171 Schweinfurth green, 171 Scoffern and Tidcom'be's process for waterproof paper, 174 Sea grass, 11 Seaweeds, 178 Second press-roll, 150 Seconds rags, 20 Seconds, whites, 20 S INDEX. Self-acting dry felt regulator, 186 cleansing strainer, 139 • Separating tank, 61 letting, 174 i-ettling of the pulp, 131 Sfax esparto, 47 Shavings, paper, 58 parchment, 171 wood, 10, 55 Shoddy, 11 !>ilk cocoon waste, 11 Silver white, 173 £ inclair's esparto boiler, 42, 43 process, 58 Single-cylinder machine, 152 Single-sheet cutter, 162 web-winding machine, 188 Sizal, or sisal hemp, 8 Size,' animal, preparation of, 122 engine, French method of pre- paring, 120 resin, 118 'Sizes of paper, 164 Sizing, 115 American method of, 123 and finishing, 132 machine, 126 tub or animal, 122 Mr. "Wyatt's remarks on, 127 zinc soaos in, 121 Skip, 153 Small post, 164 Smalls blue, 121, 165 Smoothing presses, three-roll, 194 rolls, 151, 152 Soap, Castile, 121 cotton-seed oil, 121 resin, 116 Soaps, zinc, in sizing, 121 Soda, anhvdrous, 225 ash, '31, 227 calcined, 93 carbonate, 31 caustic, 31 table showing the quan- tities of leys of different densities, 243 dry, Dalton's table, showing the proportion of, in leys of diffe- rent densities, 241 hydrate of, 225 hypochlorite of, 8 hyposulphite of, 110 ley, caustic. 31 recovery of, 104 Soda, recovery of, American system of, 218 solutions, caustic, table showing strength of, 241 sulphite of, 110 thiosulphite of, 110, 233 _ Sodas, commercial, examination of, '■lil Sodium, chloride of, 95, 109 hypochlorite of, 96 thiosulphite of, 233 Sorting rags, 19, 22 Sour bleaching, 91 ■ Souring, 99 Spanish annotta, 238 esparto, 47 Spent liquors, recovery of soda from, 204 liquors, 218 Spiral fibres, 8 Spruce, 60 Stable manure, 11 Staining power of ultramarines, 240 Stains for Morocco papers, 171 satin papers, 172 Standard test-acid solution, 225 Starch paste, 117 Strainer and knotter, Bertrams' re- volving, 137 self-cleansing, 139 Strainers, 57, 137 Eoeckner's pulp, 140 Straw, 16 boiling, 81 buckwheat, 10 fibres, 4 wheat, 10 Strength of paper, determination of 240 Strings, 20 Strong linens, 20 Stuff-chests, 57, 112, 136 pump, 136 Sturtevant blower, 60 Suction boxes, 148. Sulphate of alumina, 100 aniline, 8 copper, 146 indigo, 232 iron, 170 lime, 100 magnesia, 46 zinc, 99, 119 Sulphide processes, 77 Sulphite fibre, 76 INDEX. 259 Sulphite fibre &ncl"resin,« 76 •* * *. I . • J , processes, (j8 ' pulp, 68 of soda, 110 wood pulp, 160 Sulphur, 72, 225 Sulphuric acid, 47, 91, 99 anhydrous, Ll5 Sulphurous acid, 175 gas, 55 Super-calendering, 157 American, Mr. Wyatt on, 157 Superfine white cotton, 20 Supertines, white, 20 Supply-box, 136 Surface-sizing, 122 Susa esparto, 47 TABLE of boiling points of alkaline leys, 243 French and English thermometer scales, 244 Frehch weights and measures, 245 showing proportion of dry soda in leys of different densities, 241 showing the quantity of bleach- ing liquid to be used, 244 showing the quantity of bleach liquor required to be added to weaker liquors, 244 showing the quantity of caustic sodas in leys of different den- sities, 243 showing the specitic gravity cor- responding with the degrees of . Baume's hydrometer, 242 of strength of caustic soda solu- tions, 241 of weights and measures of the metrical system, 245 Tables and notes, 235 sand, 149 Tan waste, 10 Tarpaulin, 11, 77 Tarred hemp, 20 rope, 20 string, 20 Tartar, salts of, 235 Tea colour, 167 Test acid, preparation of, 224, 225 for chlorine, 110 liquor, 232 papers, 183 ; J^iJtinj'cJiJoMii'e of lime, 232 ■ ultramarines, 239 Thermometer scales, comparative French and English, 244 Thiosulphite of soda, 110 sndium, 233 Thirds, whites, 20 Thompson's bleaching process, 97 Three-roll smoothing process, 194 Thune's process, 79 Tiles, paper, 175 Tin, citrate of, 169 perchloride of, 236 Tobacco stalks, 10 Toned paper, 165 . Torrance's drainer, 39 Toughening paper, 178 Tracing paper, 179 Tragacanth, gum, 168 Transparent paper, 179 Treatment of esparto, 40 rags, 19, 29 various fibres, 80 wood, 53, 68 Triethyl rose aniline, 98 Tripoli esparto, 47 Tub-sizing, 122 Turmeric paper, 183 Turkish minium, 170 Turkey rags, 21 red, 170 Turpentine, oil of, 179 Venice, 179 Twaddell's hydriDmeter, 238 TTLTEAMAEINE, 121, 165 ^ artificial, preparation of, 238 Ultramarines, staining power of, 240 testing, 239 Umpherston's beating-engine, 105 Unbleached cottons, 20 yACUUM pumps, 149 ' Vanadate of ammonia, 72 Various fibres, treatment of, SO Varnished paper, 179 Varrentrapp's zinc bleach liquor, 100 Vat for hand paper-making, 129 Vegetable fibres, micrograpic examina- tion of, 5 Vegetable fibres, recognition of, by the microscope, 6 Vegeto-mineral paper, 115 Venetian red, 166 Venice turpentine, 179 26o INDEX. Verdigris, 169 .*.*».-- . Verny's paper-cutting*ma5Kiae* 18? Violet, 171 dark, 172 light, 171 Vitriol, oil of, 57, 90, 106 Voelter's process for preparing mecha- nical wood pulp, 78 Volumetric assaying, 224 Vulcanised india-rubber, 223 Vulcanite, 148 WASHING, American, 61 boiled esparto, 49 and breaking, 34 engine, 37 cylinder for rag-engine, 193 Waste, cotton, 10 cotton seed, 10 flax, 10 hemp, 10 jute, 10 linen, 10 liquors, recovery of soda from, 204 paper, 10, 85 boiling, 86 Ryan's process for, 87 tan, 10 Water-marked paper, 130 Water-marking, 146 Water-marks, De la Rue's improve- ments in, 147 Waterproof composition for paper, 177 paper, 174 for flooring, 177 Jouglet's process, 177 for roofing, 177 Watt and Burgess's wood-paper process, 55 Watt's electrolytic bleaching process, 94 Wax, 6, 120 soap, 169 Web-glazing, 154 calender, Bertrams', 196 Web-ripping machine, 198 Weights and measures, French table of, 245 ■ Weights and measures of the metrical system, 245 Wet machines, 57 White cellulose, 76 copal, 179 hemp, 20 lead, 171 l}W\ite.'li\i*8iWi:2&' ' * Willow and duster, Bertrams', 25 Masson, Scott, and Co.'s, 40 Willowing, 24 esparto, 41 Wilson's bleach liquor, 100 Winding machine, single-web, 188 Wood, acid treatment of, 64 fibre, 53 paper, Watt's patent for, 17 pulp, American method of pre- paring, 60 pulp, chemical, 54 mechanical, 113 shavings, 10, 55, 77 pulp, sulphite, 160 treatment of, 53, 68 pulp, Voelter's mechanical pro- cess for preparing, 78 waste, dyers', 10 Woollen rags, 21 Wrapping papers, 178 Wright's process for preparing cupro- ainmonium, 175 Writing papers, 164 Wyatt, Mr., on American refining en- gines, 103 on American super-calendering, 157 Wyatt, Mr., on sizing, 127 JYLOIDIN, 67 YANKEE machine, 152 Yaryan evaporator, 208 Yellow chrome, 166 gold envelope, 167 lake, 238 ochre, 165, 166 pale, 172, 173 pine, fibre, 4 Young's method of bleaching, 100 Young and Pettigrew's process, 66 Young's process for cleaning esparto, 50 • ZINC bleach liquor, 99 chloride of, 99 oxide of, 99, 100 salts, 100 soaps in sizing, 121 sulphate of, 99, 119 Zostera marina, 11 PRIN'TEU BT J. 8. VIBTUB AND CO., LIMITED, CITY ROAD, LONDON 7> Stationers' Hall Court, London, E.G. January, 1888. A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS INCLUDING MANY NEW AND STANDARD WORKS IN ENGINEERING, MECHANICS, ARCHITECTURE, NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCE, INDUSTRIAL ARTS, TRADE AND COMMERCE, AGRICULTURE, GARDENING, LAND MANAGEMENT, LAW, dc. PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON. MECHANICS, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, etc. New Manual for Practical Engineers, THE PRACTICAL ENGINEER'S HAND-BOOK. Comprising a Treatise on Modern Engines and Boilers, Marine, Locomotive and Sta- tionary. And containing a large collection of Rules and Practical Data relating to recent Practice in Designing and Constructing all kinds of Engines, Boilers, and other Engineering work. The whole constituting a comprehensive Key to the Board of Trade and other Examinations for Certi- ficates of Competency in Modern Mechanical Engineering. By Walter S. HuTTON, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of "The Works' Manager's Hand-book for Engineers," &c. With upwards of 370 Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised with Additions, Medium 8vo, nearly 500 pp., price i8s. Strongly bound. [just published. IS- This work is designed as a companion to the Author's "Works' Manager's Hand-book." It possesses many new and original features, and con- tains, like its predecessor, a quantity of matter not originally intended for publica- tion, but collected by the author for his own use in the construction of a great variety of modern engineering work. The information is given in a condensed and concise form, and is illustrated by upwards 0/370 Woodcuts ; and comprises a quantity of tabulated matter of great value to all engaged in designing, constructing, or estimating for Engines, Boilers and OTHER Engineering Work. \* Opinions of the Press. " We have kept it at hand for several weeks, referring to it as occasion arose, and we have not on a single occasion consulted its pages without finding the information of which we were in quest." — Athencenm. " A thoroughly good practical handbook, which no engineer can go through without learning- something that wiU be of service to hira."~MariHe Enguieer. " An excellent book of reference for engineers, and a valuable text-book for students of engineering." — Scotsman. " This valuable manual embodies the results and experience of the leading authorities on mechanical engineering." — Building News, " The author has collected together a surprising quantity of rules and practical data, and has shown much judgment in the selections he has made. . . . There is no doubt that this book is one of the most useful of its kind published, and will be a very popular compeadmm."— Engineer . "A mass of information, set down in simple language, and in such a form that it can be easily referred to at any time. The matter is uniformly tood and well chosen, and is greatly elucidated by the illustrations. The book will find its way on to most engineers' shelves, where it will rank as one of the most useful books of reference." — Practical Engineer. " Full of useful information, and should be found on the office shelf of all practical engineers. —English Mechanic. B 2 CROSBY LOCK WOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE. Handbook for Works' Managers. THE WORKS' MANAGER'S HANDBOOK OF MODERN RULES, TABLES, AND DATA. For Engineers, Millwrights, and Boiler Makers; Tool Makers, Machinists, and Metal Workers; Iron and Brass Founders, &c. By W. S. Hutton, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of "The Practical Engineer's Handbook." Third Edition, carefully Revised, witn Additions. In One handsome Vol. , medium 8vo, price 155. strongly bound. [3* The Author having compiled Rules and Data for his own use in a great variety of modern engineering work, and having found his notes extremely usefiil, decided to publish them — revised to date — believing that a practical work, suited to i/ie DAILY REQUIREMENTS OF MODERN ENGINEERS, would be favourably received. In the Third Edition, the following among other additions have been made, viz.: Rules for the Proportions of Riveted Joints in Soft Steel Plates, the Results of Experi- ments by Professor Kennedy for the Institution of Mechanical Engineers — Rules for the Proportions of Ttirbines— Rules for the Strength of Hollow Shafts of Whit- worth's Compressed Steel, &c, \* Opinions of the Press. "The author treats every subject from the point of view of one who has collected workshop notes for appUcation in workshop practice, rather than from tlie tlieoretical or literary aspect. The volume contains a great deal of that kind of information which is gained only by practical experi- ence, and is seldom written in books." — E'}ig'ineer. "The volume is an exceedingly useful one, brimful with engineers' notes, memoranda, and rules, and well worthy of being on every mechanical engineer's bookshelf." — Mechanical IVorld. "A formidable mass of facts and figures, readily accessible through an elaborate index . . . . Such a volume will be found absolutely necessary as a book of reference in all .sorts of 'works ' connected with the metal trades." — Rylaiid^s Iron Trades Circular, " Brimful of useful information, stated in a concise form, Mr. Hutton's books have met a press- ing want among engineers. The book must prove extremely useful to every practical man possessing a copy."— Praciical Enffincer. The 3Iodernised " Templeton." THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP COM- PANION, Comprising a great variety of the most useful Rules and Formulae in Mechanical Science, with numerous Tables of Practical Data and Calcu- lated Results for Facilitating Mechanical Operations. By William Temple- ton, Author of "The Engineer's Practical Assistant," &c. &c. Fifteenth Edition, Revised, Modernised, and considerably Enlarged by Walter S. Hutton, C.E., Author of "The Works' Manager's Handbook," "The Practical Engineer's Handbook," &c. Fcap, 8vo, nearly 500 pp., with Eight Plates and upwards of 250 Illustrative Diagrams, 6s., strongly bound for workshop or pocket wear and tear, fee" Templeton's " Mechanic's Workshop Companion " has been for more than a quarter of a century deservedly popular, and, as a recognised Text-Book and well-worn and thumb-marked vade mecum of several generations of intelligent and aspiring workmen, it has had the reputation of having been the means of raising many of them in their position in life. In consequence of the lapse of time since the Author's death, and the great advances in Mechanical Science, the Publishers have thought it advisable to have it entirely Reconstructed and Modernised ; and in its present greatly Enlarged and Improved form, they are sure that it will commend itself to the English workmen of the present day all the world over, and become, like its predecessors, their indispens- able friend and referee. A smaller type having been adopted, and the page increased in size, while the number of pages has advanced from about 330 to nearly 500, the book practically con- tains double the amount of matter that was comprised in the original work. \* Opinions of the Press. " In its modernised form Hutton's ' Templeton ' should have a wide sale, for it contains much valuable information which the mechanic will often find of use, and not a few tables and notes which he might look for in vain in other works. This modernised edition will be appreciated by all who have learned to value the original editions of Templeton.' " — English Mechanic. " It has met with great success in the engineermg workshop, as we can testify ; and there are a great many men who. in a great measure, owe their rise in life to this little hook.."— Building JVe7us. " This familiar text-book— well known to all mechanics and engineers— is of essential service to the cverj'-day requirements of en.gineers, niiliwrights and the various trades connected with engineermg and building. The new modernised edition is worth its weight in gold."— Building News. (Second Notice.) " The publishers wisely entrusted the task of revision of this popular, valuable and useful bDok to Mr. Hutton, than whom a more competent man they could not have found."— MEC HANICS, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, etc. 3 Stone-tvorMng Machinery. STONE-WORKING MACHINERY, and the Rapid and Economt- cal Conversion of Stone. With Hints on the Arrangement and Management of Stone Works. By M. Powis Bale, M.I.M.E., A.M.I.C.E. With numerous Illustrations. Large crown 8vo, gs. cloth. "•The book should be in the hands of every mason or student of stone-work."— Co//«rv Guaydian. " It is in every sense of the word a standard work upon a subject which the author is fully competent to deal exhaustively vi\Vn."—BuUdar's Weekly Reporter. -'A capital handbook for all who manipulate stone for building- or ornamental purposes.'— Machinery Market. ' Turning. LATHE-WORK : A Practical Treatise on the Tools, Appliances, and Processes employed in the Art of Turning. By Paul N. Hasluck, Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 5s. cloth. " Written by a man who knows, not only how work ought to be done, but who also knows how to do It, and how to convey his knowledge to others. To aU turners this book would be valuable. — hnziJteeriiig-. " We can safely recommend the work to young engineers. To the amateur it will simply be invaluable. To the student it will convey a great deal of useful \Tdoxms&o-a.."— Engineer, jj 1" 1 '^°'"P^'='^' succinct, and handy guide to lathe-work did not exist in our language un'il Mr. l-lasluck, by the publication of this treatise, gave the turner a true vade-mecu»i:'—Hause Decorator Screw- Cu t tin g. SCREW THREADS : And Methods of Producing Them. With Numerous Tables, and complete directions for using Screw-Cutting Lathes By Paul N. Hasluck, Author of " Lathe- Work," " The Metal Turner's Handybook," &c. Waistcoat-pocket size, price is. [yust published. " Full of useful information, hints and practical criticism. Taps, dies and sc ewing-tools gene- rally are illustrated and their action Asscribitd."— Mechanical World. " It IS a complete compendium of all the details of the screw-cutting lathe ; in fact, a mtiltiim in par-do on all the subjects it treats \i^on,"— Carpenter and Builder. Engineer's and MacMnisVs Assistant. THE ENGINEER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, and MACHINIST'S PRACTICAL ASSISTANT. A collection of Useful Tables, Rules and Data. By William Templeton. Seventh Edition, with Additions. i8mo, as. 6d. cloth. " Templeton's handbook occupies a foremost place among books of this kind. A more suitable present to an apprentice to any of the mechanical trades could not possibly be made."— Building "A deservedly appreciated work, which should bo in the 'drawer' of every mechanic"— English Mechanic. Iron and Steel. "IRON AND STEEL " ; A Work for the Forge, Foundry, Factory, and Office. Containing ready, useful, and trustworthy Information for Iron- masters and their Stock-takers ; Managers of Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheet Rolling Mills ; Iron and Metal Founders ; Iron Ship and Bridge Builders ; Mechanical, Mining, and Consulting Engineers ; Architects, 'Contractors, Builders, and Professional Draughtsmen. By Charles Hoare, Author of " The Slide Rule," &c. Eighth Edition, Revised throughout and considerably Enlarged. With folding Scales of "Foreign Measures compared with the English Foot," and " Fixed Scales of Squares, Cubes, and Roots, Areas Decimal Equivalents," &c. Oblong samo, leather, elastic band, 6s. " For comprehensiveness the book has not its equal."— Iron. " One of the best of the pocket books, and a useful companion in other branches of work than {ron and steel." — English Mechanic. " We cordially recommend this book to those engaged in considering the details of all kinds of iron and ■iteeWioxVs."— Naval Science. Jligh-JPressure Steam Engines. THE HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM-ENGINE : An Exposition of its Comparative Merits and an Essay towards an Improved System of Construc- tion. By Dr. Ernst Alban. Translated from the German, with Notes by Dr. Pole, M. Inst. C.E., &c. With 28 Plates. 8vo, i6s. 6d. cloth. ' " Goes thoroughly into the examination of the high-pressure engine, the boiler, and its append- ages and deserves a place in every scientific library."— 5fea« Shipting Chronicle. CROSBY LOCKWOOD S- SON'S CATALOGUE. Engineering Construction. PATTERN -MAKING : A Practical Treatise, embracing the Main Types of Engineering Construction, and including Gearing, both Hand and Machine made. Engine Work, Sheaves and Pulleys, Pipes and Cohimns, Screws, Machine Parts, Pumps and Cocks, the Moulding of Patterns in Loam and Greensand, &c., together with the methods of Estimating the weight of Castings; to which is added an Appendix of Tables for Workshop Reference. By a Foreman Pattern Maker. With upwards of Three Hundred and Seventy Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. cloth. " A well- written technical gruide, evidentlj' written by a man who understands and has prac- tised what he has written about. We cordially recommend it to engineering students, young journeymen, and others desirous of being initiated into the mysteries of pattern-making."— A'^i/rfe?-. " Likely to prove a welcome euide to many workmen, especially to draughtsmen who have lacked a training in the shops, pupils pursuing their practical studies in our factories, and to em- ployers and managers in engineering ■Kor\iS,."— Hardware Trade Journal. "More than 370 illustrations help to explain the text, which is, however, always clear and ex- plicit, thus rendering the work an excellent vade mecum for the apprentice who desires 10 become master of his trade." — English Mechanic. Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering Terms. LOCKWOOD' S DICTIONARY OF TERMS USED IN THE PRACTICE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, embracing those current in the Drawing Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turning, Smith's and Boiler Shops, &c. &c. Comprising upwards of 6,000 Definitions. Edited by A Foreman Pattern-Maker, Author of " Pattern Making." Crown 8vo, 7S. 6d. cloth. [Jusi published. "Just the sort of handy dictionary required by the various trades engaged m mechanical en- gineer ng. The practical engineering pupil will find the book of great value in his studies, anci every foreman engineer and mechanic should have a copy."— 5;«7ii'w;.?-/V<;7M. " .•Vlter a careful examination of the book, and trying all manner of words, we thmk that the engineer will here find all he is likely to require. It will be largely used."— Praclical Jmgnieer. "This admirable dictionary, although primarily intended for tlie use of dr.iushtsmen and other technical craftsmen, is of much larger value as a book of reference, and will find a ready welcome in many libraries." — Glasgoiu Herald. SmitJi's Tables for MecJianics, etc. TABLES, MEMORANDA, AND CALCULATED RESUL'IS, FOR MECHANICS, ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, etc. Selected and Arranged by Francis Smith. Fourth Edition, Revised and En- larged, 250 pp., waistcoat-pocket size, is. 6d. limp leather. [Just published. •' It would, perhaps, be as difficult to make a small pocket-book selection of notes and forinuL-ie to suit ALL engineers as it would be to make a universal medicine ; but Mr. Smith's waistcoat- pocket collection may be looked upon as a successful Mempt."— Engineer. "The best example we have ever seen of 250 pages of useful matter packed into the dimen- sions of a card-case." — Buildhig Neios. "A veritable pocket treasury of knowledge.' — Iron. Steam Boilers, A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS: Their Strength, Con- struction, and Economical Working. By Robert Wilson, C.E. Fifth Edition. i2mo, 6s. cloth. " The best treatise that has ever been published on steam hoWers."— Engineer. "The author shows himself perfect master of his subject, and we heartily recommend all eiT> ploying steam power to possess themselves of the vioiV."—Ryland' s Iron Trade Circular. Boiler Chimneys. BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEYS ; Their Draught-Power and Stability. With a Chapter on Lightning Conductors. By Robert Wilson, A.I.C.E., Author of "A Treatise on Steam Boilers," &c. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 3J. 6d. cloth. [Jttst published. Boiler Making, THE BOILER.MAKER'S READY RECKONER. With Ex- amples of Practical Geometry and Templating, for the Use of Platers, Smiths and Riveters. By John Courtney, Edited by D. K. Clark, M.I.C.E. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions, i2mo, 5s. half-bound. . , , , " A most useful work No workman or apprentice should be without this book. — Iron Trade Circular. " A reliable guide to the working boiler-maker."— />-o«. ~.t 11 " Boiler-makers will readily recognise the value of this volume. . . . The tables are clearly - - - ■ ' •• •■• ■' reatest facility, so that It cannot be printed, and so arranged that they can be referred to with the greatest facil doubted that they will be generally appreciated and much used."— Mining yournal. MECHANICS, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, etc. 5 Steam Engine. TEXT-BOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. With a Sup- plement on Gas Engines. By T. M. Goodeve, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, Author of "The Elements of Mechanism," &c. Tenth Edition, With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6s. cloth. ' ' Professor Goodeve has gfiven us a treatise on the steam engine which will bear comparison Tfitli anythlngf written by Huxley or Maxwell, and we can award it no hig-lier praise." — Mtigineer. " Professor Goodeve's boolc is ably and clearly written. It is a sound work." — Athsnczitni. *' Mr. Goodeve's text-book is a work of which every young engineer should possess himself.'' —Mining Joicrnal. ^ " Essentially practical in its aims. The manner of exposition leaves nothing to be desired." — ' ' A valuable -vade meacm for the student of engineering and should be in the possession of every scientific reader." — Colliery Guardian, das Engines. ON GAS-ENGINES. Being a Reprint, ■with some Additions, of the Supplement to the Text-book on the Steam Engine, by T. M. Goodeve, M.A. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth. " Like all Mr. Goodeve's writings, the present is no exception in point of general excellence It is a valuable Jittle volume."— Mec7tanical ll'orld. "This little book will be useful to those who desire to understand how the gas-engine works. —English Mechanic. Steam, THE SAFE USE OF STEAM. Containing Rules for Un- professional Steam-users. By an Engineer. Sixth Edition. Sewed, 6d. " If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart boiler explosions would became tensations by their rarity." — E-nglish Mechatiic, Coal and Speed Tables. A POCKET BOOK OF COAL AND SPEED TABLES, or Engineers and Steam-users. By Nelson Foley, Author of " Boiler Con- struction." Pocket-size, 3s. 6d. cloth ; 4s. leather. "This is a very useful book, containing very useful tables. The results given are well chosen, and the volume contains evidence tliat the author really understands his subject. "We can recom- mend the work with pleasure." — Mechanical IVorld. " These tables are designed to meet the requirements of every-day use ; they are of sufficient scope for most practical purposes, and may be commended to engineers and users of steam."— " This pocket-book well merits the attention of the practical engineer. Mr. Foley has com- piled a very useful set of tables, the information contained in which is frequently required by engineers, coal consumers and users of steam." — Jraii and Coal Trades Review, Fire Engineering. FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE-BRIGADES. With a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Management; Re- marks on Fire-Proof Buildings, and the Preservation of Life from Fire; Statistics of the Fire Appliances in English Towns; Foreign Fire Systems ; Hints on Fire Brigades, &c. &c. By Charles F. T. Young, C.E. With numerous Illustrations, 544 pp., demy 8vo, £1 4s. cloth. " To such of our readers as arc interested in the subject of fires and fire apparatus, we can most heartily commend this book. It is really the only English work we now have upon the subject." — /in£ineering. " It displays much evidence of careful research ; and Mr. Young has put his facts neatly together. It is evident enough that his acquaintance with the practical details of the construction of steam fire engines, old and new, and the conditions with wliich it is necessary they should comply, is accurate and full." — Ilngineer, Gas Lighting. COMMON SENSE FOR GAS-USERS: A Catechism of Gas- Lighting for Householders, Gasfitters, Millowners, Architects, Engineers, etc. By Robert Wilson, C.E., Author of "A Treatise on Steam Boilers." Second Edition, with Folding Plates and Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, price IS. in wrapper. " All gas-users will decidedly benefit, both in pocket and comfort, if they will avail themselves <3f Mr. Wilson's counsels." — Engineerins^, CROSBY LOCKWOOD &■ SON'S CATALOGUE. THE POPULAR WORKS OF MICHAEL REYNOLDS (" The Engine Driver's Friend "). Locomotive-Engine Driving, LOCOMOTIVE-ENGINE DRIVING : A Practical Manual for Engineers in charge of LocomoHve Engines. By Michael Reynolds, Meniber of the Society of Engineers, formerly Locomotive Inspector L. B. and S. C. R. Eighth Edition. Including a Key to the Locomotive Engine. With Illus- trations and Portrait of Author. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6d. cloth. "Mr. Reynolds has supplied a want, and has supplied it well. AVe can confidently recommend the book, not only to the practical driver, but to everyone who takes an interest in the performance of locomotive engines."' — The Engineer. " Mr. Reynolds has opened a new chapter in the literature of the day. This admirable practiciJ treatise, of the practical utility of which we have to speak in terms of warm commendation." Athcn-M BritisliMail. ^ "Anyone who wishes to get a real insight into railway life cannot do better than read ' Engine- Driving Life ' for himself ; and if he once take it up he will find that the author's enthusiasm and rea* ove of the engine-driving profession will carry him on till he has read every page." — Saturday Re-siew. Pocket Companion for Enginemen. THE ENGINEMAN'S POCKET COMPANION AND PRAC- TICAL EDUCATOR FOR ENGINEMEN, BOILER ATTENDANTS, AND MECHANICS. By Michael Reynolds. With Forty-five Illustra- tions and numerous Diagrams. Second Edition, Revised. Royal i8mo, 3s. 6rf., strongly bound for pocket wear. Ijfust published. " This admirable work is well suited to accomplish its object, being the honest workmanship of a competent engineer."— -G/a^^ow Herald. " A most meritorious work, giving in a succinct and practical form all the information an cngine- muider desirous of mastering the scientific principles of^ his daily calling would require."— jl/jVA-r. " A boon to those who are striving to become efficient mechanics."— Z?«z7j( Chro>iic!e. CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. 7 FrencJi- English Glossary for Engineers, etc. A PiOCKET GLOSSARY of TECHNICAL TERMS: ENGLISH- FRENCH, FRENCH-ENGLISH ; with Tables suitable for the Architectural, Engiineering, Manufacturing and Nautical Professions. By John James Fle'tcher, Engineer and Surveyor ; 200 pp. Waistcoat-pocket size, is. 6.-/., limpi leather. " It ouight certainly to be in the waistcoat-pocket of every professional man. —Iroti. **It is .a very gfreat advantage for readers and correspondents in France and England to ha\ c so large a mumber of the words relating to engineering and manufacturers collected in a liliputian volume. 'The little book will be useful both to students and travellers." — Architect. " The glossary of terms is very complete, and many of the tables are new and well arranged. We cordiailly commend the book." — Mechanical World, JPortcihle Engines. THE PORTABLE ENGINE; ITS CONSTRUCTION AND MA:NAGEMENT. a Practical Manual for Owners and Users of Steam Engines generally. By William Dyson Wansbrough. With 90 Illustra- tions. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. published. *' This; is a work of value to those who use steam machinery. . . . Should be read by every- one who h.as a steam engine, on a farm or elsewhere." — Mark La7ie Express. " We cordially commend this work to buyers and owners of steam engines, and to those who have to do with their construction or use." — Timber Trades jfournal. " .Sucla a general knowledge of the steam engin? as Mr. Wansbrough furnishes to the reader should be acquired by all intelligent owners and others who use the steam engine.'' — Building News. CIVIL ENGIN EERING, SUR VEYING, etc. MR. H UMBER'S IMPORTANT ENGINEERING BOOKS. The Water Supply of Cities and Towns. A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE on the WATER-SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS. By William Humder, A-M. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E., Author of "Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction," &c. &c. Illustrated with 50 Double Plates, i Single Plate, Coloured Frontispiece, and upwards of 250 Woodcuts, and containing 400 pages of Text, Imp. 4to, £6 6s. elegantly and substantially half-bound in morocco. List of Contents. Conduits.— XIII. Distribution of Water.--XI'V. Meters, Service Pipes, and House Fittings. — ■ XV. The Law and Economy of Water Works. XVI. Constant and Intermittent Supply. — XVII. Description of Plates. — Appendices, giving Tables of Rates of Supply, "Velocities, &c. &c., together with Specifications of several Works illustrated, among which will be found : Aberdeen, Bideford, Canterbury, Dundee, Halifax, Lambeth, Rotherham, Dublin, and others. I. Historical Sketch of some of the means that have been adopted for the Supply of Water to Cities and Towns. — II. Water and the Fo- reign Matter usually associated vv'ith it. — III. Rainfall amd Evaporation. — IV. Springs and the water-bearing formations of various dis- tricts. — V. Measurement and Estimation of the flow of Water — VI. On the Selection of the Source of Supply.— VII. WeUs.— VIII. Reser- voirs. — IX. The Purification of Water. — X. Pumps. — XI. Pumping Machinery. — XII. " The most systematic and valuable work upon water supply hitherto produced in English, or in any otSier language. . . . Mr. Humber's work is characterised almost throughout by an exhaustiveness much more distinctive of French and German than of English technical treatises." — Engineer. " We can congratulate Mr. Humber on having been able to give so large an amount of infor- mation on a subject so important as the water supply of cities and towns. The plates, fifty in number, are mostly drawings of executed works, and alone would have commanded the attention of every engineer whose practice may lie in this branch of the profession." — Builder. Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction. A COMPLETE AND PRACTICAL TREATISE ON CAST AND WROUGHT IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION, including Iron Foundations. In Three Parts — Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive. By William Humber, A-M. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E. Third Edition, Re- vised and much improved, with 115 Double Plates (20 of which now first appear in this edition), and numerous Additions to the Text. In Two Vols., imp. 4to, £6 i6s. 6d. half-bound in morocco. "A very valuable contribution to the standard literature of civil engineering. In addition to elevations, plans and sections, large scale details are given which very much enhance the instruc- tive worth of these illustrations." — Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal. "Mr. Humber's stately volumes, lately issued— in which the most important bridges erected during the last five years, under the direction of the late Mr. Brunei, Sir W. Cubitt, Mr. Hawk- shaw, Mr. Page, Mr. Fowler, Mr. Plemans, and others among our most eminent engineers, are drawn and specified in great &eX^\\."— Engineer. CROSBY LOCK WOOD cS- SON'S CATALOGUE. MR. H UMBER'S GREAT WORK ON MODERN ENGINEERING. Complete in Four Volumes, imperial 4to, price £12 12s., half-morocco. Each Volume sold separately as follows : — A RECORD OF THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEER- ING. First Series. Comprising Civil, Mechanical, Marine, Hydraulic, Railway, Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c. By William Humber, A-M. Inst. C.E., &c. Imp. 4to, with 36 Douhle Plates, drawn to a large scale, Photographic Portrait of John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., &c., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c., £3 3s. half-morocco. List of the Plates and Diagrams. Victoria Station and Roof, L. B. & S. C. R. Thames, West London Extension Railway (5 (8 plates) ; Southport Pier (2 plates) ; Victoria plates) ; Armour Plates : Suspension Bridg-c, Station and Roof, L. C. & 13. and G. W. R. (6 Thames (4 plates) ; The Allen Engine ; Sus- «>Iates) ; Roof of Cremorne Music Hall ; Bridge pension Bridge, Avon (3 plates) ; Underground over G. N. Railway ; Roof of Station, Dutch Railway (3 plates). Rhenish Rail (2 plates) ; Bridge over the " Handsomely lithographed and printed. It will find favour with many who desire to preserve In a permanent form copies of the plans and specifications prepared for the guidance of the con- tractors for many important engineering works."— ISji^ineer. NUMBER'S RECORD OF MODERN ENGINEERING. Second Series. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of Robert Stephenson, C.E., M.P., F.R.S., &c., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c., £3 3s. half-morocco. List of the Plates and Diagrams. Birkenhead Docks, Low Water Basin (15 plates) ; Charing Cross Station Roof, C. C. Railway (3 plates) ; Digswell Viaduct, Great Northern Railway ; Robbery Wood Viaduct, Great Northern Railway ; Iron Permanent Way; Clydach Viaduct, Merthyr, Tredegar, and Abergavenny Railway ; Ebbw Viaduct, Merthyr, Tredesfar, and Abergavenny Rail- way ; College Wood Viaduct, Cornwall Rail- way ; Dublin Winter Palace Roof (3 plates) ; Bridge over the Thames, L. C. & D. Railway (6 plates) ; Albert Harbour, Greenock (4 plates). " Mr. Humber has done the profession good and true service, by the fine collection of examples he has here brought before the profession and the public."— Practicai Mechanic's Journal. NUMBER'S RECORD OF MODERN ENGINEERING. Third Series. Imp. 4to, with 40 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of J. R. M'Clean, late Pres. Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Speci- fications, &c., £3 3s. half-morocco. List of the Plates and Diagrams. main Drainage, metropolis.— A^f>-Wj Side.— Map shoiving Interception of Sewers ; Middle Level Sewer (2 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Sewer, Reservoir and Outlet (4 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Filth Hoist ; Sections of Sewers (North and South Sides). THAMES EMBANKMENT.— Section of River Wall ; Steamboat Pier, Westminster (2 plates) ; Landing Stairs between Charing Cross and Waterloo Bridges ; York Gate (2 plates) ; Over- flow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer (3 plates) ; Steamboat Pier, Waterloo Bridge (3 plates) ; Junction of Sewers, Plans and Sections ; Gullies, Plans and Sections; Rolling Stock; Granite and Iron Forts, liridge over River Lea (3 plates); Outfall Sewer, Bridge over Marsh Lane, North Woolwich Railway, and Bow and Barking Railway Junc- tion ; Outfall Sewer, Bridge over Bow and Barking Railway (3 plates); Outfall Sewer, Bridge over East London Waterworks' Feeder (2 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Reservoir (2 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Tumbling Bay and Outlet ; Out- fall Sewer, Penstocks. Soiiih 5!*.— Outfall Sewer, Bermondscy Branch (2 plates) ; Outfall '• The drawings have a constantly increasing value, and whoever desires to possess clear repre- sentations of tlie two great works carried out by our Metropolitan Board will obtain Mr. Humber's volume." — Engineer. NUMBER'S RECORD OF MODERN ENGINEERING. Fourth Series. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of John Fowler, late Pres. Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Speci- fications, &c., £3 3s. half-morocco. List of the Plates and Diagrams. Abbey Mills Pumping Station, Main Drain- age, Metropolis (4 plates); Barrow Docks (5 plates) ; Manquis Viaduct, Santiago and Val- paraiso Railway (2 plates) ; Adam's Locomo- tive, St. Helen's Canal Railway (2 plates) ; Cannon Street Station Roof, Charing Cross Railway (3 plates) ; Road Bridge over the River Moka (2 plates) ; Telegraphic Apparatus for "We gladly welcome another year's issue of this valuable publication from the able pen of Mr. Humber. The accuracy and general excellence of this work are well known, while its useful- ness in giving the measurements and details of some of the latest examples of engineering, as carried out by the most eminent men in the profession, cannot be too highly prized."— Ariizan. Mesopotamia ; Viaduct over the River Wye, Midland Railway (3 plates) ; St. Germans \'ia- duct, Cornwall Railway (2 plates) ; Wrougln- Iron Cylinder for Diving Bell ; Millwall Docks (6 plates); Milroy's Patent Excavator; Metro- politan iDistrict Railway (6 plates) ; Harbours, Ports, and Breakwaters (3 plates). CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. 9 MR. NUMBER'S ENGINEERING BOOKS— continued. Strains, Calculation of. A HANDY BOOK FOR THE CALCULATION OF STRAINS IN GIRDERS AND SIMILAR STRUCTURES, AND THEIR STRENGTH. Consisting of Formute and Corresponding Diagrams, with numerous details for Practical Application, &c. By William Humber, A-M. Inst. C.E., &c. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, nearly 100 Woodcuts and 3 Plates, 7s. 6d. cloth. " The formulje are neatly expressed, and the diagrams ^ooi."—Athenaum. " We heartily commend this really handy book to our engineer and architect readers." — Eng- Hsh Mechaitic. Ba7'lotv's Strengthof Materials, enlarged by Humber A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ; with Rules for Application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension Bridges, Railways, &c. By Peter Barlow, F.R.S. A New Edition, revised by his Sons, P. W. Barlow, F.R.S., and W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. ; to which are added. Experiments by Hodgkinson, Fairbairn, and Kirkaldy ; and Formulas for Calculating Girders, &c. Arranged and Edited by W. Humber, A-M. Inst. C.E. Demy 8vo, 400 pp., with 19 large Plates and numerous Woodcuts, i8s. cloth. " Valuable alike to the student, tyro, and the experienced practitioner, it will always rank in titure, as it has hitherto done, as the standard treatise on that particular subject." — Engineer. " There is no greater authority than Barlow." — Buildi^ig News. " Deserves a foremost place on the bookshelves of every civil engineer."— Eiighsh Mechanic. Trigonometrical Surveying. AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, for the Formation of Geographical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Military Reconnaissance, Levelling, &c., with Useful Problems, Formulae, and Tables. By Lieut. -General Frome, R.E. Fourth Edition, Revised and partly Re- written by Major General Sir Charles Warren, G.C.M.G., R.E. With 19 Plates and 115 Woodcuts, royal Bvo, 16s. cloth. " The simple fact that a fourth edition has been called for is the best testimony to its merits. No words of praise from us can strengthen the position so well and so steadily maintained by this work. Sir Charles Warren has revised the entire work, and made such additions as were necessary to bring every portion of the contents up to the present date."— Broad Arrow. Oblique Bridges. A PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL ESSAY ON OBLIQUE BRIDGES. With 13 large Plates. By the late George Watson Buck, M.I. C.E. Third Edition, revised by his Son, J. H. Watson Buck, M.I.C.E, ; and with the addition of Description to Diagrams for Facilitating the Con- struction of Oblique Bridges, by W. H. Barlow, M.I.C.E. Royal Bvo, 12s. cloth. " The standard text-book for all engineers regarding skew arches is Mr. Buck's treatise, and it would be impossible to consult a better." — Etigineer. "Mr. Buck's treatise is recognised as a standard text-book, and his treatment has divested the SJibject of many of the intricacies supposed to belong to it. As a guide to the engineer and archi- tect, on a confessedly difficult subject, Mr. Buck's work is unsurpassed." — Building News. Bridge Construction. EXAMPLES OF BRIDGE AND VIADUCT CONSTRUC- TION OF MASONRY, TIMBER, AND IRON. Consisting of 46 Plates from the Contract Drawings or Admeasurement of Select Works. By W. D. Haskoll C.E. Second Edition, with the addition of 554 Estimates, and the Practice of Setting out Works. Illustrated with 6 pages of Diagrams. Imp. 4to, £2 I2S. 6d. halt-morocco. "A work of the present nature by a man of Mr. HaskoU's experience must prove invaluable. The tables of estimates will considerably enhance its value."— Engineering. EarthivorJc. EARTHWORK TABLES. Showing the Contents in Cubic Yards of Embankments, Cuttings, &c,, of Heights or Depths up to an average of 80 feet. By Joseph Broadbent, C.E., and Francis Campin, C.E. Crown 8vo, 5s. cloth. " The way in which accuracy is attained, by a simple division of each cross section Into three elements, two in which are constant and one variable, is ingenious."— Athcnaum, 10 CROSBY LOCK WOOD &. SON'S CATALOGUE. Statics, Graphic and Analytic. GRAPHIC AND ANALYTIC STATICS, in their Practical Appii. cation to the Treatment of Stresses in Roofs, Solid Girders, Lattice, Boiiisti in" and Suspension Bridges, Braced Iron A rches and Piers, and other Frameworks. By R. Hudson Graham, C.E. Containing Diagrams and Plates to Scale. With numerous Examples, many taken from existing Structures. Specially arranged for Class-work in Colleges and Universities. Second Edition, Re- vised and Enlarged. 8vo, i6s. cloth. "Mr. Graham's book will find a place wherever graphic and analytic statics are used or =tudied " " This exhaustive treatise is admirably adapted for the architect and engineer, and will tend towean tlie profession from a tedious and laboured mode of calculation." ~S;«7rf«;^ A'm's. " The work is excellent from a practical point of view, and has evidently been prepared with much care. The directions for working are ample, and are illustrated by an abundance of well- selected examples. It is an excellent text-book for the practical draughtsman."— ^;/j<:»«. Survey Practice. AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE, for Reference in Surveying, Level- hng, Setting-out and in Route Surveys of Travellers by Land and Sea. With Tables, Illustrations, and Records. By Lowis D'A. Jackson, A.M.I.C.E., Author of " Hydraulic Manual," " Modern Metrology," &c. Large crown 8v0j 12S, 6d. cloth. , . ',' Jackson has produced a valuable ■vade-mecum for the surveyor. We cnn recommend tins book as containing an admirable supplement to the teaching of the accomplished surveyor "— AtheuiFum. " As a text-book we should advise all surveyors to place it in their libraries, and study well the matured mstructions afforded in its pages."— Co//zery Guardian. ■ jT'^" author brings to his work a fortunate union of theory and practical experience which, aided by a clear and lucid style of writing, renders the book a very useful one."— JiiiUder. Surveying, Land and Marine. LAND AND MARINE 5C7i?7£F/iVG, in Reference to the Pre- paration of Plans for Roads and Railways ; Canals, Rivers, Towns' Water Supplies; Docks and Harbours. With Description and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E., Author of " Bridge and Viaduct Construction," &c. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. Large crown 8vo, gs. cloth. " A most useful and well arranged book for the aid of a student. We can strongly recommend a^^ifefuUy written and valuable text-book. It enjoys a well-deserved repute among surveyors." " Tiiis volume cannot fail to prove of the utmost practical utility. It may be safely recommendeci to all students who aspire to become clean and expert surveyors."— journal. Levelling, A TREATISE ON THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF LEVELLING. Showing its Application to purposes of Railway and CiviJ Engineering, in the Construction of Roads ; with Mr. Telford's Rulesfor the same. By Frederick W. Simms, F.G.S., M. Inst. C.E. Seventh Edition, with the addition of Law's Practical Examples for Setting-out Railway Curves, and Trautwine's Field Practice of Laying-out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts, 8vo, 8s. 6d. cloth. *.^* Trautwine on Curves may be had separate, 55. " The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and co]lege%."—EHS-i>ieer. " The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, especially to the youngei members, by bringing out the present edition of Mr. Simms's useful v/oik."—£fi£i>ieer£n^. Tunnelling. PRACTICAL TUNNELLING. Explaining in detail the Setting. out of the works. Shaft-sinking and Heading-driving, Ranging the Lines and Levelling underground, Sub-Excavating, Timbering, and the Construction ol the Brickwork of Tunnels, with the amount of Labour required for, and the Cost of, the various portions of the work. By Frederick W. Simms, F.G.S., M. Inst. C.E. Third Edition, Revised and Extended by D. Kinnear Clark, M. Inst.C.E. Imperial 8vo, with 21 Folding Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, 30s. cloth. "The estimation in which Mr. Simms's book has been held for over thirty years cannot be moro truly expressed than in the words of tlie late Prof. Rankinc :— ' The best source of information on the subject of tunnels is Mr. F. W. Simms's work on Practical Tunnelling.' "— Architect. " Mr. Clark has added immensely to the value of the hook."— Engineer. " The additional chapters by Mr. Clark, containing as they do numerous examples of modern practice, bring the book well up to date. '—EngineeriHZ. CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. Section VI. Mechanical Force op Heat. Section VII. Work of Expansion AND Contraction. Section VIII. Suspension Bridges. Section IX. Masonry Structures. IIea/,t, Expansion bij. E.XPANSION OF STRUCTURES BY HEAT. By John Ke;ily, C.E., late of the Indian Public Works and Victorian Railway Depart- me;nts. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6rf. cloth. IJust published. Summary of Contents. Sectiom I. Formulas and Data, Sectiom II. Metal Bars. Sectiom III. Simple Frames. Sectiora IV. Complex Frames ] and Plates. Sectiom V. Thermal Conductivity. " Tine aim the autlior has set before him, viz., to show the effects of heat upon metallic and other strructures, is a laudable one, for this is a branch of physics upon which the engineer or archi- tect can find but little reliable and comprehensive data in books."— Buiider. " Wlhoever is concerned to know the effect of changes of temperature on such structures as suspensiion bridges and the like, could not do better than consult Mr. Keily's valuable and handy exposition of the geometrical prmciples involved in these changes."—ScolsmaH. Prafctical Mathematics. MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN: Being a Common- plaice Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly for the use of Civil Engineers, Architects and Surveyors. By Olinthus Gregory, LL.D., F.R.A.S., Enlarged by Henry Law, C.E. 4th Edition, carefully Revised by J. R.Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics, Belfast College. Wiith 13 Plates, 8vo, £1 is., cloth. " Thie engineer or architect will here find ready to his hand rules for solving nearly every mathe. matical difficulty that may arise in his practice. The rules are in all cases explained by means of examples, in which every step of the process is clearly worked ovA."— Builder. " On.e of the most serviceable books for practical mechanics. . . . It is an instructive book for the sttudcnt, and a text-book for him who, having once mastered the subjects it treats of, needs occasion,ally to refresh his memory upon them." — Building News. Mydraulic Tables. HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO-EFFICIENTS, and FORMULM for finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers. With New Formute, Tables, and General Information on Rainfall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water Supply for Towns and MiO Power. By John Neville, Civil Engineer, M.R.I.A. Third Edition, care- fully revised, with considerable Additions. Numerous Illustrations. Crown 8va, 14s. cloth. " It Ss, of all English books on the subject, the one nearest to completeness. , . . From the good arrangement of the matter, the clear explanations, and abundance of formute, the carefully calculated tables, and, above all, the thorough acquaintance with both theory and construction, which is displayed from first to last, the book will be found to be an dicqmsitioa."— Architect. Miver Engineering. RIVER BARS : The Causes of their Formation, and their Treatmeni by "Induced Tidal Scour. " With a Description of the Successful Reduction by this Method of the Bar at Dublin. By I. J. Mann, Assist. Eng. to the Dublin Port and Docks Board. Royal Svo, ys. 6d. cloth. "We recommend all interested in harbour works— and, indeed, those concerned in the improve- ments of rivers generally— to read Mr. Mann's interesting work."— Engineer. " A most valuable contribution to the history of this branch of engmtenns."—£>igitieerin^ and Mining Journal. Hydraulics. HYDRA ULIC MANUAL. Consisting of Working Tables and Explanatory Text. Intended as a Guide in Hydraulic Calculations and Field Operations. By Lowis D'A. Jackson, Author of " Aid to Survey Practice," "Modern Metrology," &c. Fourth Edition. Rewritten and Enlarged. Large crown Svo, i6s. cloth. "The author has been a careful observer of the facts which have come under his notice, as well as a painstaking collector and critic of the results of the experiments of others, and from the great mass of material at his command he has constructed a manual which may be accepted as a trustworthy guide to this branch of the engineer's pio[cssion."—JIngineering. " The standard work in this department of mechanics. The present edition has been brought abreast of the most recent practice." — Scotsjnan. " The most useful feature of this work is its freedom from what is superannuated, and its thorough adoption of recent experiments ; the text is, in fact, in great part a short account of the great modem experiments." — Nature, 52 CROSBY LOCK WOOD S- SON'S CATALOGUE. Drainage. ON THE DRAINAGE OF LANDS, TOWNS AND BUILD- INGS. By G. D. Dempsey, C.E., Author of " The Practical Railway En- ■gineer," &c. Revised, with large Additions on Recent Practice in Drainage Engineering, by D. Kinnear Clark, M.Inst. C.E. Author of "Tramways: their Construction and Working," " A Manual of Rules, Tables, and Data for Mechanical Engineers," &c. &c. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. cloth. [Just Published. ^' The new matter added to Mr. Dempsey's excellent work is characterised hy the comprehen- sive grasp and accuracy of detail for which the name of Mr. D. K. Clark is a sufficient voucher." — " As a work on recent practice in drainage engineering, the book is to be commended to all who are making that branch of engineering science their special study." — /roji. ■ A comprehensive manual on drainage engineering, and a useful introduction to the stud mt.' Suildinf: News. Tramways and their WorMng. TRAMWAYS : THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System ; with an exhaustive Analysis of the various Modes of Traction, including Horse-Power, Steam, Heated Water, and Compressed Air ; a Description of the Varieties of Rolling Stock ; and ample Details of Cost and Working Expenses : the Progress recently made in Tramway Construction, &c. &c. By D. Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C.E. With over 200 Wood Engravings, and 13 Folding Plates. Two Vols., large crown 8vo, 30s. cloth. " All interested in tramways must refer to it, as all railway engineers have turned to the author's work ' Railway Machinery.' " — Etigineer. " An exhaustive and practical work on tramways, in which the history of this kind of locomo- tion, and a description and cost of the various modes of laying tramways, are to be found. " — Building Nnvs. " The best form of rails, the best mode of construction, and the best mechanical appUances tre so fairly indicated in the work under review, that any engineer about to construct a tramway will be enabled at once to obtain the practical information which will be of most service to him." — AthencEnm. Oblique ArcJies. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF OBLIQUE ARCHES. By John Hart. Third Edition, with Plates. Im- perial 8vo, 8s. cloth. Curves, TaMei for Setting-out. TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES AND MULTIPLES for Setting-out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By Alexander Beazeley, M. Inst. C.E. Third Edition. Printed on 48 Cards, and sold in a cloth box, waistcoat-pocket size, 3s. 6d. " Each table is printed on a small card, which, being placed on tlie theodolite, leaves the hands €ree to manipulate the instrument — no small advantage as regards the rapidity of work." — Etigineer. "Very handy ; a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two of these cards, which fee puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest behind." — Athe7uetmi, Engineering Fieldtvork. THE PRACTICE OF ENGINEERING FIELDWORK, applied to Land and Hydraulic, Hydrographic, and Submarine Surveying andLevelling. Second Edition, Revised, with considerable Additions, and a Supplement on Waterworks, Sewers, Sewage, and Irrigation. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. Numerous Folding Plates. In One Volume, demy 8vo, £1 5s. cloth. Tunnel Shafts. THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE TUNNEL SHAFTS : A Practical and Theoretical Essay. By J. H. Watson Buck, M. Inst. C.E., Resident Engineer, London and North- Western Railway. Illustrated with Folding Plates, royal 8vo, 12s. cloth. " Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the mason ; and the observations on the form of arch, the rules for ordering tlie stone, and the construction of the templates will be found of considerable use. We commend the book to tile engineering profession."— i>';«7rfi«^ News. " Will be regarded by civil engineers as of the utmost value, and calculated to save much time end obviate many mistakes." — Colliery Guardian. Girders, Strength of. GRAPHIC TABLE FOR FACILITATING THE COM PUT A- TION OF THE WEIGHTS OF WROUGHT IRON AND STEEL GIRDERS, etc., for Parliamentary and other Estimates. By J. H. Watson Buck, M. Inst. C.E, On a Sheet, 2s.6d. CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. Trusises, TRUSSES OF WOOD AND IRON. Practical Applications of ScifHce in Determining the Stresses, Breaking Weights, Safe Loads, Scantlings, and Details of Construction, with Complete Working Drawings. By William Griiffiths, Surveyor, Assistant Master, Tranmere School of Science andf Art.. Oblong 8vo, 4s. 6d. cloth. " Thiis handy little book enters so niiniitely into every detail connected with the construction ot roof trusses, that no student need bo ignorant of these matters for want of an easy source to come, at the kmowledge." — Practical Engineer. " From the manner of treating- the subject, Mr. GiifRths' book is clear enough to enable a student tio be his own teacher. It will be useful in the science school and in worlcahopi."— ^ rchitect. Railway Worhing. SAFE RAILWAY WORKING. A Treatise on Railway Acci- denits : Their Cause and Prevention ; with a Description of Modern Appliances and! Systems. By Clement E. Stretton, C.E., Vice-President and Con- sulting Engineer, Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants. With Illus- trations and Coloured Plates, crown 8vo, 4s. 6d. strongly bound. Outline of Contents. Chapter I. Summary of Accidents, 1885.— II Permanent Way. — III. Sig- nalling; Block System. — IV. Continuous Brakes. — V. Breaking of Rail- way Axles. — VI. Railway Couplings. — VII. Railway Servants and the Law OF Manslaughter. — Appendix I. Railway Traffic Returns. — II. Railway Signal Returns. — III. Continuous Brakes Returns. — IV. Mixed Trains. Opinions oe the Press. " A hook for the eng-ineer, the directors the managers ; and, in short, all who wish for informa- tion on r ailway matters will iind a perfect encyclopcedia in ' Safe Railway Working.' " — Railway Review. " Mr. Clement E. Stretton, the energetic Vice-President of the Amalgamated Society of Rail- way Serv ants, may be congratulated on having collected, in a very convenient form, much valuable information on the principal questionsaffecting the safe working of railways." — Railway Engine, r. " We commend the remarks on railway signalling to all railway managers, especially where £ti uniform code and practice is acivocated." — Herepath's Railway Journal. F'ielilSook for Engineers. THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, AND CON- TRA CTOR 'S FIELD-BOOK. Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Systems, and use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and Plotting the Work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only ; Levelling with the Theodolite, Casting-out and Reducing Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections in the ordinary manner ; setting-out Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential Angles and Multiples, with Right and Left-hand Readings of the Instrument: Setting-out Curves without Theodolite, on the System of Tangential Angles by sets of Tangents and Off- sets : and Earthwork Tables to 80 feet deep, calculated for every 6 inches in depth. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. With numerous Woodcuts. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 12s. cloth. "The book is very handy, and the author might have added that the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make it useful for many other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existing all the same." — Athentzian. "Every person engaged in engineering field operations will estimate the importance of such a work and the amount of valuable time which will be saved by reference to a set of reliable tables prepared with the accuracy and fulness of those given in this volume." — Railway News. EarthivorJc, Measurement of. A MANUAL ON EARTHWORK. By Alex. J. S. Graham-, C.E. With numerous Diagrams. i8mo, 2s. 6d. cloth. " A great amount of practical information, very admirably arranged, and available for rough estunates, as well as for tlie more exact calculations required in the engineer's and contractor's offices."— .Ariizan. Strains in IronivorJc, THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK; with Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. Sheilds, M. Inst, C.E, Second Edition, with 5 Plates. Royal 8vo, 5s. cloth. "The student cannot find a better little book on this subject." — Engineer. Cast Iron and other Metals , Strength of. A PRACTICAL ESSAY ON THE STRENGTH OF CAST IRON AND OTHER METALS. By Thomas Tredgold, C.E. Fifth Edition, iacluding Hodgkinson's Experimental Researches. 8vo, 12s. cloth. 14 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE. ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, etc. Construction. THE SCIENCE OF BUILDING : An Elementary Treatise on the Principles of Construction. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., Architect. Second Edition, Revised, with 58 Engravings. Crown 8vo, ys. 6d. cloth. " A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all students."— Builder. " No architectural student should be without this handbook of constructional knowledge "— Architect. ' Villa Architecture. A HANDY BOOK OF VILLA ARCHITECTURE : Bein^ a Senes of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With Outline Specifications and Estimates. By C. Wickes, Architect, Author of "The Spires and Towers of England," &c. 61 Plates, 4to, £1 iis. 6d. half-morocco, gut edges. " ■<*'hole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic architect, and cney wul prove very valuable and suggestive."— Binldin^ News. Text-Boolc for Architects. THE ARCHITECTS GUIDE: Being a Text-Book of Useful Information for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors, Contractors, Clerks of Works, &c. &c. By Frederick Rogers, Architect, Author of " Specifica- tions for Practical Architecture," &c. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, With numerous Illustrations. Crown Bvo, 6s, cloth. "As a text-book of useful information for architects, engineers, surveyors &c it would be ftard to find a handier or more complete httle volume." — Standard. "A young architect could hardly have a better guide-book."— rz>«i«r Trades yonrnal. Taylor and Cresy's Home. THE ARCHITECTURAL ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. By the late G. L. Taylor, Esq., F,R.I.B,A., and Edward Cresy, Esq. New Edition, thoroughly revised by the Rev. Alexander Taylor, M.A. (son of the late G. L. Taylor, Esq.), Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, and Chap- lain of Gray's Inn. Large folio, with 130 Plates, half-bound, £3 3s. N.B.—This is the only book nihich gives on a large scale, and with the precision of architectural measurement, the principal Momments of Ancient Rotne in plan elevation, and detail. ' "Taylor and Cresy's work has from its first publication been ranked among those professional books which cannot be bettered. ... It would be difficult to find examples of drawings, even among those of the most pamstaking students of Gothic, more thoroughly worked out thanare th<" one hundred and thirty platss in this volume."— Architect. Architectural Draiving. PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING, for the Operative Builder and Young Student in Architecture. By George Pyne. With 14 Plates 4to 7s. 6d. boards. > t • Civil Architecture. THE DECORATIVE PART OF CIVIL ARCHITECTURE By Sir William Chambers, F.R.S. With Illustrations, Notes, and an Examination of Grecian Architecture, by Joseph Gwilt, F.S A Edited bv W.H.Leeds. 66 Plates, 4to, 21s. cloth. ' Mouse Building and Me2)airing. THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR ; or, What will it Cost to Build, Alter, or Repair? A Price Book adapted to the Use of Unpro- fessional People, as well as for the Architectural Surveyor and Builder By the late James D. Simon, A.R.I.B.A. Edited and Revised by Francis f. W Miller, A.R.I.B.A. With numerous Illustrations. Third Edition, Revised" Crown Bvo, 3s. 6d. cloth. "In two years it will repay its cost a hundred times over"— Field, " A very handy hook."— En£-lis/t Mechanic. ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, etc. 15 Desigtning, Measuring, and Valuing. THE STUDENT'S GUIDE to the PRACTICE of MEASUR- ING' AND VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORKS. Containing Directions for takiaig Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill,, with Tables of Constants, and copious Memoranda for the Valuation of Labiour and Materials in the respective Trades of Bricklayer and Slater, Carjpenter and Joiner, Painter and Glazier, Paperhanger, &c. With 8 Plates and 63 Woodcuts. Originally edited by Edward Doeson, Architect. Fifth Edition, Revised, with considerable Additions on Mensuration and Construc- tion., and a New Chapter on Dilapidations, Repairs, and Contracts, by E. WyisfDHAM Tarn, M.A. Crown 8vo, gs. cloth. " Weill fulfils the promise of its title-page, and we can thoroughly recommend it to the class for whose use it has been compiled. Mr. Tarn's additions and revisions have much increased the usefulness of the work, and have especially augmented its value to students."— £n^ii!eering. "The work has been carefully revised and edited by Mr. E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., and com- prises several valuable additions on construction, mensuration, dilapidations and repairs, and other matters. . . . This edition wiU be found the most complete treatise on the principles of measur- Sng and valuing artificers' work that has yet been published."— Buiiditigr -News. JPocTcet Estimator and Technical Guide, THE POCKET TECHNICAL GUIDE, MEASURER AND ESTIMATOR FOR BUILDERS AND SURVEYORS. Containing Tech- nical Directions for Measuring Work in all the Building Trades, with a Treatise on the Measurement of Timber and Complete Specifications for Houses, Roads, and Drains, and an easy Method of Estimating the various parts of a Building collectively. By A. C. Beaton, Author of " Quantities and Measurements," &c. Fourth Edition, carefully Revised and Priced according to the Present Value of Materials and Labour, with 53 Woodcuts, leather, waistcoat-pocket size, is. 6d, gilt edges. "No builder, architect, surveyor, or valuer should be without his' Beaton's Guide." — Buildings News. " Contains an extraordinary amount of information in daily requisition in measuring and sstimating. Its presence in the pocket will save valuable time and trouble."— Building' JVorlci. " An exceedingly handy pocket companion, thoroughly reliable."— Builder's IFeeily Repoft;;: " This neat little compendium contains all that is requisite in carrying out contracts fo excavating, tiling, bricklaying, paving, &c." — British Trade Journal. Donaldson on Specifications, THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS ; or, Practical Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder, in drawing up Specifications and Contracts for Works and Constructions. Illustrated by Precedents of Buildings actually executed by eminent Architects and En- gineers. By Professor T. L. Donaldson, P.R.I.B.A., &c. New Edition, in One large Vol., 8vo, with upwards of 1,000 pagee of Test, and 33 Plates, £1 IIS. 5d. cloth. " In this work forty-four specifications of executed works are given. Including the specifica- tions for parts of the new Houses of Parhament, by Sir Charles Barry, and for the new Royal Exchange, by Mr. Tite, M.P. The latter, in particular, is a very complete and remarkable document. It embodies, to a great extent, as Mr. Donaldson mentions, 'the bill of quantities with the description of the works.' ... It is valuable as a record, and more valuable still as a book of precedents. . . . Suffice it to say tliat Donaldson's ' Handbook of Specifications ' must be bought by all 3Lrdriteots,"— Builder. Bartholomew and Rogers' Specifications, SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE. A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder. With an Essay on the Structure and Science of Modern Buildings. Upon the Basis of the Work by Alfred Bartholomew, thoroughly Revised, Corrected, and greatly added to by Frederick Rogers, Architect. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. With numerous lUusts., medium 8vo, iss. cloth. " The collection of specifications prepared by Mr. Rogers on the basis of Bartholomew's work ts too well known to need any recommendation from us. It is one of the books with which every younrf architect must be equipped ; for time has shown that the specifications cannot be set aside through any defect in them." — Architect. " Good forms for specifications are of considerable value, and it was an excellent Idea to com- pile a work on the subject upon the basis of the late Alfred Bartholomew's valuable work. The second edition of Mr. Rogers's book is evidence of the want of a book dealing with modern re- quire:nents and materials." — Binldins News. i6 CROSBY LOCK WOOD S- SON'S CATALOGUE. Geometry for the Architect, Engineer, etc. PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the Architect, Engineer and Mechanic. Giving Rules for the Delineation and Application oi various Geometrical Lines, Figures and Curves. By E. W. Tarn, M.A., Architect, Author of "The Science of Building," &c. Second Edition. With Appen- dices on Diagrams of Strains and Isometrical Projection. With 172 Illus- trations, demy 8vo, 9s. cloth. " No book with the same objects in view has ever been published in which the clearness of the rules laid down and the illustrative diagrams have been so satisfactory." — Scotsman. " This is a manual for the practical man, whether architect, engineer, or mechanic. . . .The object of the author being to avoid all abstruse formulas or complicated methods, and to enable persons with but a moderate knowledge of geometry to work out the problems required." — lingluh Mechanic. *" The Science of Geometry. THE GEOMETRY OF COMPASSES; or, Problems Resolved by the mere Description of Circles, and the use of Coloured Diagrams and Symbols. By Oliver Byrne. Coloured Plates. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. " The treatise is a good one, and remarkable— like all Mr. Byrne's contributions to the science of geometry — for the lucid character of its teaching." — Building News. DECORATIVE ARTP-, etc. Woods and Marbles (Imitation of). SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF WOODS AND MARBLES, as Taught and Practised by A. R. Van der Burg and P. Van der Burg, Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institution. Royal folio, iSi by izi in.. Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured Plates; also 12 plain Plates, comprising 154 Figures. Second and Cheaper Edition. Price £i iis.Cd. List of Plates. I. Various Too^s required for Wood Painting Finished Specimen— ig. Mahogany : Specimens ' " ' ' of various Grains and Methods of Manipulation — 20, 21. Mahogany : Earlier Stages and Finished Specimen — 22, 23, 24. Sienna Marble : Varieties of Grain, PreHminary Stages and Finished Specimen — 25, 26, 27. Juniper Wood : Methods of producing Grain, &c. : Preliminary Stages and Finished Specimen — 28, 29, 30. Vert de Mer Marble : Varieties of Grain and Methods of Working Unfinished and Finished Speci- mens — 31. 32. 33. Oak: Varieties of Grain, Tools Employed, and Methods of Manipulation, Pre- hminary Stages and Finished Specimen — 34, 35, 36. Waulsort Marble : Varieties of Grain, Un- finished and Finished Specimens. - -2, 3. Walnut: Preliminary Stages of Graining and Finished Specimen — 4. Tools iLsed for Marble Painting and Method of Manipulation — 5, 6. St. Remi Marble: Earlier Operations and Finished Specimen — 7. Methods of Sketching different Grains, Knots, &c. — 8, 9. Ash: Pre- liminary Stages and Finished Specimen — 10. Methods of Sketching Marble Grains — 11, 12. Breche Marble : Preliminary Stages of Working and Finished Specimen — 13. Maple : Methods of Producing the different Grains — r4, 15. Bird's- eye Maple: Preliminary Stages and Finished Specimen — 16. Methods of Sketching the dif- ferent Species of White Marble— 17, 18. White Marble : Preliminary Stages of Process and *^* Opinions of the Press. " Those who desire to attain skill in the art of painting woods and marbles will find advantage In consulting this book. . . . Some of the Working Men's Clubs should give their young men the opportunity to study it." — Builder. " A comprehensive guide to the art. The explanations of the processes, the manipulation and management of the colours, and the beautifully executed plates will not be the least valuable to the student who aims at making his work a faithful transcript of nature." — Building News. "Students and novices are fortunate who are able to become the possessors of so tiohle a •work. "—Architect. Mouse Decoration. ELEMENTARY DECORATION. A Guide to the Simpler Forms of Everyday Art, as applied to the Interior and Exterior Decoration oJ Dwelling Houses, &c. By James W, Facey, Jun. With 68 Cuts. i2mo, zs. cloth limp. " As a technical guide-book to the decorative painter it will be found reliable." — Building News. PRACTICAL HOUSE DECORATION : A Guide to the Art o£ Ornamental Painting, the Arrangement of Colours in Apartments, and the principles of Decorative Design. With some Remarks upon the Nature and Properties of Pigments. By James William Facey, Author of " Elementary Decoration," &c. With numerous Illustrations, izmo, 2S. 6d. cloth limp. N.B. — The above Two Works together in One Vol., strongly half-bound, 5s. DECORATIVE ARTS, etc. 17 4Joloti7\ A GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. Applied to Decorative Painting and the Arts. By George Field. New Edition, Revised, Enlarged, .md adapted to the use of the Ornamental Painter and Designer. By Ellis A. Davidson, With New Coloured Diagrams and Engravings. lamo, 3s. 6d. cloth boards. "The book is a most useful resume of the properties of pigmtnis."— Builder. Mouse Fainting, Graining, etc. HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND SIGN WRITING, A Practical Manual of. By Ellis A. Davidson. Fifth Edition. With Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings. lamo, 6s. cloth boards. " A mass of information, of use to the amateur and of value to the practical man." — English MecJta^tic. "Simply invaluable to the youngster enterinsf upon this particular calling, and highly service- able to the man who is practising it."— Furniture Gazelle. Decorators, Meceipfs for. THE DECORATOR'S ASSISTANT: A Modern Guide to De- corative Artists and Amateurs, Painters, Writers, Gilders, &c. Containing upwards of 600 Receipts, Rules and Instructions ; with a variety of Informa- tion for General Work connected with every Class of Interior and Exterior Decorations, &c. 153 pp., crown 8vo, is. in wrapper. " Full of receipts of value to decorators, painters, gilders, &c. The book contains the gist o " iarger treatises on colour and technical processes. It would be difficult to meet with a work so full •of varied information on the painter's art." -■■■Buildin.g- A'e-ws. ' ' We recommend the work to all who, whether for pleasure or profit, require a guide to decora- tion." — Plumber and Decorator. 3Ioyr Smith on Interior Decoration. ORNAMENTAL INTERIORS, ANCIENT AND MODERN. By J. MoYR Smith. Super-royal 8vo, with 32 full-page Plates and numerous smaller lUusts., handsomely bound in cloth, gilt top, price i8s. IJtist published. USs" /«" Ornamental Interiors" the designs of more than thirty artist- (decorators and architects of high standing have been illustrated. The book may therefore fairly claim to give a good general view of the works of the viodern school of decoration, besides giving characteristic examples of earlier decorative arrange- ments. "Ornamental Interiors" gives a short account of the styles of Interior Decoration as practised by the Ancients in Egypt, Greece, Assyria, Rome and Byzan- Hum. This part is illustrated by characteristic designs. The main body of the sciork, however, is devoted to the illustration of the modern styles of Decorative A rt, and many examples are given of decorative designs suitable for modern Dining- ■'Roonis, Drawing-Rooms, Libraries, Staircases and Halls, Parlours, Studies and Smoki-tg-Rooms. The Decoration of Public Buildings is illustrated by views of the chief .State Apartments in Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle, the Salle de Tieys at Antwerp, the Salle de Mariages at Brussels, and of other works which have ■distinctive features suitable for the purpose, *^* Opinions of the Press. "Tie book is well illustrated and handsomely got up, and contains some true eriticism and a £oofi miuy good examples of decorative treatment." — T/ie Builder. " y^ e can greatl.y commend Mr. Moyr Smith's book, for it is the production of one professedly capable in decorative work, and abounds with useful hints and descriptions of executed modern work, together with a well-put resume of ancient styles. ... As much a book for the drawing- pjoni as for the manufacturer." — The British Architect. " V eil fitted for the dilettante, amateur, and professional designer." —Decoration. " Tiis is the most elaborate, and beautiful work on the artistic decoration of interiors that we have se-n. . . . The scrolls, panels and other designs from the author's own pen are very buautifU and chaste ; but he takes care that the designs of other men shall figure even more than bis own" — Liverpool Albion. "T) all who take an interest in elaborate domestic ornament this handsome volume will be ■welcom!. "—Graphic. " Kr. Moyr Smith deserves the thanks of art workers for having placed within their reach a book thxt seems eminently adapted to aflford, by example and precept, that guidance of which most criftsmen stand in need."— Furniture Gazette. Dritish and Foreign Marbles. MARBLE DECORATION and the Terminology of British and Fireign Marbles. A Handbook for Students. By George H. Blagrove, Aithor of " Shoring and its Application," &c. With 28 Illustrations. Crovyn fi-vo, 3S. 6rf. cloth. [Just published c CROSBY LOCK WOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE. DELAMOTTE'S WORKS ON ILLUMINATION AND ALPHABETS. A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION, for the Use of Beginners : with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Practical Directions for Its exercise, and Examples taken from Illuminated MSS., printed in Gold and Colours. By F. Delamotte. New and Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, 6s. orna- mental boards, »u " examples of ancient MSS. recommended to the student, which, with much Rood sense, the author chooses from collections accessible to all, are selected with judgment and kiiowledee, as well as taste, —^(/lenaum. j <. s > ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, Ancient and, MedicBval, from the Eighth Century, with Numerals; including Gothic, Church-Text, large and small, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials for Illumination, Monograms, Crosses, &c. &c., for the use of Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen, Missal Painters, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. &c. Collected and Engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours, New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, as. 6d. ornamental boards, ' 'For those who Insert enamelled sentences round gilded chalices, who blazon shop legends ovej shop-doors, who letter church walls with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, this book will be use- ful. — AtnejKsuyn, EXAMPLES OF MODERN ALPHABETS, Plain and Ornamental; including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Perspective, Greek, Hebrew, Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque - with several Original Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English Alphabets, large and small, and Numerals, for the use of Draughtsmen, Sur- veyors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. Collected and Engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, 2S. 6d. ornamental boards. " There is comprised in it every possible shape into which the letters of the alphabet and numerals can be formed, and the talent which has been expended in the conception of the various plam and ornamental letters IS wonderful."— 5to>;rfar;:^.trj|ir^^«tr^'^.^!^ ""^'^'^ °' '-des should omit f!oT^ "An exhaustive treatise and a valuable work of reference. "-Ar.«;«^ Journal. Prospecting for Gold and other Metals. THE PROSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK: A Guide for the Pro specter and Traveller in Search of Metal-Bearing or other Valuable Minerak r=?;i'.^- J^-^- (Camb.), F.R.G.S., Author of "Fiji and New Caledonia.'- Third Edition, Revised, with Additions. Small crown Sv^ w-1, , . , , P-iblishccl. mnnv m nerSnJ^i.^f c ■ ' ^'If' "^''^ ^-nong Colonists, in whose way are so often thrown dlte™?ne Th? =1 "'^ T^'"? "'V<:h it is difficult for anyone, not a specialist? to ttr~dhi?book1s'?L'bls?offts.^nd."^^^^^^^ '^'^ '"^ P'^'"-' P-^'l^'e leadin^DoinK^tn'lw'^^'^ff'''^*' minerals, and how to identify them when they are found, are the deta i fnFo J= attention is directed. The author has managed to pack as much practicaf •' Those Jn"^]/? "^""'^ '"PP'y •n^'terial for a book three times its s\zL"-Mimns- Jorn^^l much s;°t?s j?t°hemt\iJ^ bo';r-i::^%r Lt?'^" '"'^''^ °^ MINING AND MINING INDUSTRIES. 23 Minimg Notes and Formulce. NOTES AND FORMULA FOR MINING STUDENTS. By John Herman Merivale, M.A., Certificated Colliery Manager, Professor of Mini ng in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Second Editiion, carefully Revised. Small crown 8vo, cloth, price 2s. 6d. ' ■' [Just pttbhsheci. IS- Tfiis book consists of a collection of notes and formulce drawn from various tcurces, t.he authority being quoted in most instances. It is hoped that the worit wiu be useful not only to students but to the profession. The principal sources of information upon mining matters are the Transactions of the va.rious Engineering Societies to which the student, in most of our Urge towns, has access. A great many references to the most familiar of them are given, so tliat the student who wishes to follow up a subject may be in a position to acquaint himself with details which could not be included in a work like this. The examples of the use of the formula, at the end of the book, are merely given to assist .students working without a teacher. '• Invailuable to anyone who is working up for an examination on mining subjects. "-Cm/ and iron Traales Review. " The author has done his work in an exceedingly creditable manner, and has produced a book that will b.e of service to students, and those who are practicaUy engaged m mmmg operations. Engineer.. "A v:ast amount of technical matter of the utmost value to mining engineers, and of consider- Eble interest to i\.v.i.-nal. " Ttie volume is one which no student of mineralogy should be viXthout."— Colliery Guardian, •• We are domg our readers a service in caUing their attention to this valuable vioA."-Mintn£^ ^'^'"'^A book that will not only be useful to the geologist, the practical miner, and the metallurgist, but also very interesting to the general pubhc."— /to;;. • "Asa history of the present state of mining throughout the world this book has a real value, jnd it supplies an actual want, for no such information has hitherto been brought together within ■i uch Umited space." — Athenaum. Earth}) Minerals and Mining. A TREATISE ON EARTHY AND OTHER MINERALS A ND MINING. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S. Uniform with, and forming a Companion Volume to, the same Author's "Metalliferous Minerals and Mining." With 76 Wood Engravings. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth. .. " It is essentially a practical work, intended primarily for the use of practical men • • • " ° do not remember to have met with a.iy English work on^ mining matters that contains the same iinount of information packed in equally convenient form. —Academy. . ,^ , " The book is clearly the result of many years' careful work and thought inclined to rank it as among the very bestlof the handy technical and trade, manuals which have iczanXy d^-p-pQaxnA."— British Quarterly Revuju. ,. , j "The volume contains a great mass of practical information carefully methodised and pre- sented in a very intelligible ■Aa.pc."— Scotsman. •• The subject matter of the volume will be found of high value by aU-and they are a numei ous class— who trade in earthy minerals."— 24 CROSBY LOCK WO OD SON'S CATALOGUE. Underground Pumping Machinery. ^ MINE DRAINAGE. Being a Complete and Practical Tre-^ti.^ peneraJ[y"wt J'i^ulfe fo boTcqu^aLt'ed"v^I?f, thTSt ml,^ "f^' -?-eers, and students ^os™ .0... and stands i^:^^^ '^"^^r^Sl'^^^^^^^i^, ..^ Mining Tools. A MANUAL OF MINING TOOLS. For the Use of Min^ Coci? 3Iining. COAL AND COAL MINING: A Rudimentary Treatise on Rv Sir Warington W Smyth MA vrc «„ ■"^'"^'"ie yw. ijy Subterraneotis Surveying. SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING, Elementary and Practica:l boards. -tnuMAb jsaker, c .ii,. Illustrated, lamo, 3s. cloth NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCE. Text Boole of Electricity. l^^ ^JZ^^^^'^ T^EXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY Bv t^ns'^CroTn^':^^^^^^^ With 470 Illustra'- edition of Dr. Noad's valuable textbook is laL^^hfd fnr^^^^^^^^ of these that this fresfi P^-^K, fij-^.. '^"ncned forth. —Extractfrom Introduction by TV. 1{ has added all the practical results of recent invo,?Hnn =.ni ' ,'^«"iPf ^nd Mr. I. P. Edwards, expositions of the author so that the book L ^hnM^^^^ research to the admirable theoretica any book to be within the llmli'of a texttook. ^ P°=^^'« Electricity. iZ^Biaitn?tln ff-^^l^^^'^^-' ^"^^''^"-^ Galvanism, Ma^. With 500 Woodcuts. 8vo, ;f I 4s cloth ' * ""'"^ but, '^^^"^"&"STJ^^s?irZ^^^^^^^ only complete in a scientific sens. "It is worthy of a plfce in NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCE. 25 Electric lAght, ELECTRIC LIGHT : Its Production and Use. Embodying Plain Directions for the Treatment of Voltaic Batteries, Electric Lamps, and Dynamo-Electric Machines. By J. W. Urquhart. C.E., Author of Electro- plating." Second Edition, with large Additions and 128 lUusts. 7s. 6d. cloth, " The book is bv far the best that we have yet met with on the subiect."—^ thcna^nm. •qt is the only work at present available which gives, in language intelligible for the most part to the ordinary reader, a general but concise history of the means which have been adopted up to the rrosent time in producing the electric light."— jl/c^?-a/e/zto«. - The boSc contains a gineral account of the means adopted in prodncng tlie electric liglif, not only L obtained froin foltaic or galvanic batteries, but treats at length of the dynamo-electric macliine in several of its forms.''— Colliery Guardian. Electric Lighting, THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC LIGHT- ING. By Alan A. Campbell Swinton, Associate S.T.E. Crown 8vo, IS. 6d. cloth. . "Anyone who desires a short and thoroughly clear exposition of the elementary principles 0? electric-lighting cannot do better tlian read this little work.' —hradford Observer. Dr. Lardner's School Handboolcs. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Lardner. 328 Illustrations. Sixth Edition. One Vol., 3s. 6rf. cloth. " A very convenient class-book for junior students in private schools. It is intended to convey, In clear and precise terms, general notions of all the principal divisions of Physical Science. - British Quarterly Review. ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Lardned. With 190 Illustrations. Second Edition. One Vol., 3s. 6d. cloth. " Clearly written, weU arranged, and exceUently Ulustrated."— Ga;rrf6-;«>-'i ChroiUde. Dr. Lardner's Electric Telegraph. THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. By Dr. Lardner. Re- vised and Re-written by E. B. Bright, F.R.A.S. 140 Illustrations. Small 8vo, IS. 6d. cloth. " One of the most readable books extant on the Electric TeIegraph."-i?;/^/«/! J/eeliaiuc. Storms. STORMS : Their Nature, Classification, and Laws; with the Means of Predicting them by their Embodiments, the Clouds. By Wm. Blasius. With Coloured Plates and Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, los. 6rf. cloth. "A very readable book. . . . The fresh facts contained in its pages, collected with evident care form a useful repository for meteorologists in the study of atmosplierical disturbances. . . - ?he book will pay perusal as being the production of one who gives evidence of acute obscrva- tioii." — Nature. The Blowpipe, THE BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, AND GEOLOGY. Containing all known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Working Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut.- Colonel W. A. Ross, R.A. With 120 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, 3s. 6rf. cloth. "The student who goes conscientiously through the course of experimentation here laid dOT will gain a better insight into inorganic chemistry and mineralogy than if he had SOt i,P ?i Ae best text-books ot the day, and passed any number 01 examinations m their contents. -Chemi- cal jVc-.vs. The Military Sciences. AIDE-MEMOIRE TO THE MILITARY SCIENCES. Framed from Contributions of Officers and others connected with the different Sei>- vices. Originally edited by a Committee of the Corps of Royal Engineers. Second Edition, most carefully revised by an Officer of the Corps, with mar/y Additions; containing nearly 350 Engravings and many hundred Woodcuts. Three Vols., royal 8vo, extra cloth boards, aud lettered, £4 los. "A compendious encyclopcedia of military knowledge, to which we are greatly indebted."— Edi7iburrh Rcvicuj. Field Fortification. A TREATISE ON FIELD FORTIFICATION, THE ATTACK OF FORTRESSES, MILITARY MINING, AND RECONNOITRING. By Colonel I. S. Macaulay, late Professor of Fortification m the R.M.A., Wool- wich. Sixth Edition, crown 8vo, cloth, with separate Atlas ot 12 Plates, I2S. 26 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &- SON' S CATALOGUE. Temp eram ents. %^frJr^r^¥^^F^'^^' ^T^U^^ THEIR FHin Tn. .1^ P°P'^'^\Ouaine By Alexander Stewart, F.R.C.S. ^^nm 't oH„r. < ^"'""^e, with 30 Illustrations, including A Selection pTe^5° lloth, Slftop?"' C^-^ F"-^-^ Faces. thropJloCT°°''''^o'ihn'^i"wl^n?v'f^l"^' ^''^"f" those who are not systematic students of an- tiZr-Sl'il'y TcUgra^u ''""^^ °^ mankind is man, it will be full of attrac work 7s weirIdanldHn'';t= l°nH"'''''il'' *? ''^^''^ ^ temperament in his aspect. The ScoismaJ!: ^ ^"'^^ " " worthy of the attention of students of human nature."- exhaLItivX'rtrit^l^^'nn'n V' h"^^' '° '^^^ ^as treated his subject ceader."-!"«;'<^^^^^^^^ "'^t '^^"ders it attractive to the general Pneumatics anil Acoustics, PNEUMATICS : including Acoustics and the Phenomena of Wind Currents for the Use of Beginners. By Charles Tomlinson, F.R.S.? f.mo!-i.t?.dotr'^ ^^'^ • • • [Just ptibltshed. -ScofstnaT!''^ m the study of this important application of science could not have a better manual. ' ' Currents:"-tLw";n'''' ^'"'^^"'^ of Acoustics and the Phenomena of Wind ConcJiology. A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA : Being a Treatise on Recent mid Fossil Shells By S. P. Woodward, A.L.S., F.G.S.. late Assistant on R7cl?l°f:yV^^-^^''^^, P'f'h Edition. With an AppendL m Recent and Fossil Conchological Discoveries, by Ralph Tate A.L S . W^if;, I^^f^ated by A. N. Waterhouse and Joseph Wilson Lovvry boards upwards of 300 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, ys. 6d. cloth " A most valuable storehouse of conchological and geological information. "-S^V^r^ Gossi*. Astronomy. ASTRONOMY. By the late Rev. Robert Main, M.A., F.R S rPr'i^H' ^^"^ R^^^^r'.."^^ Third Edition, Revised and Coi'- of thf Rnii^Ahf °' '^'^'by William Thynne Lynn, B.a!, F.R.A.S.. formerly ot the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. i2mo, 2s. cloth limp KnoJledi^r^ ^""^ "'""P'" "^'^ carefuUy edited, and a capital book for beginners."- cationaTr^f/. '° requirements of the present time by Mr. Lynn.."-7?^„- Geology, RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON GEOLOGY, PHYSICAL il^l Consisting of "Physical Geology," which sets forth the leading Prmcip es of the Science ; and " Historica Geology," which innrh ^^'''f^ ^"'^ ^iSanic Conditions of the Earth at each successive epoch especial reference being made to the British Series of Rocks. By do^h boS' ' • "^''^ Illustrations, izmo. sl Geology and Genesis. THE TWIN RECORDS OF CREATION; or, Geology ani Genesis: their Perfect Harmony and Wonderful Concord. By George W. Victor le Vaux. Numerous Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo, 55. doth. "A valuable contribution to the evidences of Revelation, and disposes verv conr-lnsivpiv »v» is^.t^yifi^jrur^^^^^^^ NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCE. 27 DR. LARDNER'S HANDBOOKS OF NATURA L PHILOSOPHY. THE HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. Enlarged and almost re- wTititen by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S. With 378 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 6s. cloth. LJi . ^ lUL.il. The perspicuity of the original has been retained, and chapters which had become obsolete t,av.< been replaced by others of more modern character. The explanations throughout are stuVliouX popiSar au^ care has been taken to show the applicat on of the various branches of Ijliysics to the industrial arts, and to the practical business of hle.^ — Mining- Journal. _ •Ml Nature. J me mausiritii ana, aiiu lh^; ij.ti^>..v.«. — - - o ^ Loe^vy has carefuUy revised the book, and brought it up to modern requirements. — i\a!ure. . ^ r "Natural phUosophyhas had few exponents more able or better sk.Ued *e of po^^^^^ [arising the subject tlian Dr. Lardner ; and Mr. Loewy is doing good service m fittmgthis treatise, and the others of the series, for use at the present time.' —Scotsman. TFIE HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS. New Edition, Revised and Enlarged, by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S. With 236 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 5s. cloth. "For those 'who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science without the pro- found methods of matheaatical investigation,' this work is not merely intended, but weU adapted. — Chemical News. The volume before us has been carefully edited, au^ented to nearly twice the bu^ of the former edition, and aU the most recent matter has been added. . . . It is a valuable text-book. — Nature. . , " Candidates for pass examinations wUl find it, we think, specially suited to their requirements. Eng^lisk Mechanic. THE HANDBOOK OF HEAT. Edited and almost entirely re- written by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S., &c. 117 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 6s. cloth. " The style is always clear and precise, and conveys instruction without leaving any cloudiness or lurking doubts he\unA."—E}igineerinz. '• A most exhaustive book on the subject on which it treats, and is so arranged that it can be understood by all who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science.^^ . . . . Mr. Loewy has included all the latest discoveries in the varied laws and effects of heat. —Standard. "A complete and handy text-book for the use of students and general iea.Afsxs."— English Mechanic. THE HANDBOOK OF OPTICS. By Dionysius Lardner,D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London. New Edition. Edited by T. Olver Harding, B.A. Lond., of University College, London. With 298 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 448 pages, 5s. cloth. "Written by one of the ablest English scientific writers, beautifully and elaborately illustrated." Mechanic s Magazine. THE HANDBOOK OF ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND ACOUSTICS. By Dr. Lardner. Ninth Thousand. Edit, by George Carey Foster, B.A., F.C.S. With 400 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 5s. cloth. " The book could not have been entrusted to anyone better calculated to preserve the terse and tucid style of Lardner, while correcting his errors and brmging up his work to the present state of scientific knowledge." — Popular Science Review. The. above. Five Volumes, though each is Complete in itself, form A Com- plete Course of Natural Philosophy. Dr. Lardner's HandbooJc of Astronomy. THE HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY. Forming a Companion to the " Handbook of Natural Philosophy.'' By Dionysius Lardner, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London. Fourth Edition. Revised and Edited by Edwin Dunkin, F.R.A.S., Royal Observatory, Greenwich. With 38 Plates and upwards of 100 Woodcuts. In One Vol., small 8vo, 550 pages, gs. 6d. cloth. " Probably no other book contains the same amount of information in so compendious and well- arranged a form— certainly none at the price at which this is offered to the public"— Athentsmn. "We can do no other than pronounce this work a most valuable manual of astronomy, and we strongly recommend it to all who wisli to acquire a general— but at the same time correct— acquaint- ance with this sublime sdewce."— Quarterly Journal of Science. "One of the most deservedly popular books on the subject ... We would recommend not only the student of the elementary principles of the science, but he who aims at mastering the higher and mathematical branches of astronomy, not to be without this work beside him. —Practv cal Maga zine. 28 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE. DR. LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. Edited by DiONYSius Lardner, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London. With upwards of 1,200 Engrav- ings on Wood. In 6 Double Volumes, is., in a new and elegant cloth bind- ing ; or nandsomely bound in half-morocco, 31s. 6d. Contents : The Planets : Are they Inhabited Worlds ?— Weather Promiostics — Popular Fallacies in Questions of Pliysical Science— Latitudes and Longitudes — Lunar Influences — Meteoric tjtones and Shooting Stars— Railway Accidents —Light— Common Things: Air— Locomotion m the United States— Cometary Influences- Common Things : Water— The Potter's Art- Common Things: Fire — Locomotion and I ransport, their Influence and Progress— The Moon — Common Things: The Earth — The tlectric Telegraph — Terrestrial Heat — The bun— Earthquakes and Volcanoes— Barometer, Safety Lamp, and Wliitworth's Micrometric Apparatus— Steam— The Steam Engine— The JrV? — The Atmosphere — Time — Common 1 hings: Pumps-Common Things : Spectacles, Vi? Kaleidoscope — Clocks and Watches — Microscopic Drawing and Engraving— Loco- motive — Thertnom.eter — New Planets ■ Le- verrier and Adams's Planet— Magnitude and Mmuteness— Common Things : The Almanack —Optical Images— How to observe the Heavens — Common Things : The Looking-glass — Stellar Universe— The Tides— Coloiir— Com- mon Things: Man— Magnifying Glasses— In- stinct and Intelligence— The Solar Microscope —The Camera Lucida— The Magic Lantern— The Camera Obscura— The Microscope— The White Ants : Their Manners and Habits— The Surface of the Earth, or First Notions oi Geography— Science and Poetry— The Bee- Steam Navigation — Electro-Motive Power — Thunder, Lightning, and the Aurora Borealis —The Prmting Press— The Crust of the Earth —Comets— The Stereoscope— The Pre-Adam- ite Earth— Eclipses— Sound. *** Opinions of the Press. H,,. il' ''"'I'f '!^®^' 'P^s^es affording popular but sound instruction on scientific subjects with whirS the humblest man m the country ought to be acquainted, also undertakes that tSn^ or Co,T mon Things ' which every well-wisher of his kind is anxious to promote. Many thousani conies of this serviceable pub .cation have been printed, in the belief and hope that the ded?e for ins?™ct inn • '^'^ ^"^'^ enligh'tened'fSh '^i'l^rtw'i^tS .inhil'rt^iTP interesting publication, alike informing and attractive. The papers combine roX%tyIe'Z%a^rent"iS considerable inductive ^p^^^^rsTnd 2 manl.'Tn'l^^Q^^T-i''' Science and Art' is the most valuable contribution that has ever been T^VVuliT^lf^. °' ''''' of society."-Sir David BREw'sxErin tS or th;l^t£lYi^t^errtffThl^^d'^;l^^^^^ *** Separate books formed from the above, suitable for Workmen's Libraries, Science Classes, etc. ' Common TJiings Explained. Containing Air, Earth, Fire, Water Time Man, the Eye, Locomotion, Colour, Clocks and Watches, &c. aqq Illueign Commercial Correspondence. THE FOREIGN COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT : Being Aiids to Commercial Correspondence in Five Languages— English, French, Gierman, Italian and Spanish. By Charles E. Baker. Crown 8vo, price about ss. 1:^" *>rsparaUon. Intnitive Calculations. THE COMPENDIOUS CALCULATOR ; or. Easy and Con- ci'sa Methods of Performing the various Arithmetical Operations required in C.ommercial and Business Transactions, together with Useful Tables. By Damiel O'Gorman. Corrected and Extended by J. R. Young, formerly Pr-ofessor of Mathematics at Belfast College. Twenty-sixth Edition, care- fiiUy Revised by C. NoRRis. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d. strongly half-bound in leather. " It would be difficult to exaggerate the usefulness of a book like this to everyone engaged in commeu-ce or manufacturing industry. It is crammed full of rules and formulce for shortening and employ ing calculations."— A'«07f/erff?. , , , . ^ ^ " Siuppiies special and rapid methods for all kinds of calculations. Of great ULility to persons ■engaged in any kind of commercial transactions." — Scotsman. Modern Metrical Units and Systems. MODERN METROLOGY : A Manual of the Metvical Units arid Systems of the Present Century. With an Appendix containing a proposed English System. By Lowis D'A. Jackson, A.M. Inst. C.E., Author of " Aid to Survey Practice," &c. Large crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth. '•The author has brought together much valuable and interesting information. . . . We cannot but recommend the work to the consideration of all interested in the practical re.orm of our weights and measures." — Nature. „ ^ j r , j i " For exhaustive tables of equivalent weights and measures of all sorts, and for clear demonstra- tions of the effects of the various systems that have been proposed or adopted, Mr. Jackson s treatise is without a rival." — Academy. The Metric System and the British Standards. A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British Stand- ard MeasV'Tes and Weights are compared with those of the Metric System at present in Use on the Continent. By C. H. Dowling, C.E. 8vo, ios. 6d. strongly bound. "Their accuracy has been certified by Professor Airy, the Astronomer-Royal."— 5i( ilder. "Mr. Dowling's Tables are well put together as a ready -reckoner for the conversion of one system into the oi\\(ir."—Athenaum. Iron and Metal Trades" Calculator. THE IRON AND METAL TRADES' COMPANION. For expeditiously ascertaining the Value of any Goods bought or sold by Weight, from IS per cwt. to 112s. per cwt., and from one farthing per pound to one shilling" per pound. Each Table extends from one pound to 100 tons. To which are appended Rules on Decimals, Square and Cube Root, Mensuration of Superficies and Solids, &c. ; Tables of Weights of Materials, and other Useful Memoranda. By Thos. Downie. 396 pp., QS. Strongly bound in leather. "A most useful set of tables, and will supply a want, for nothing Uke them before ejusted. — ^"'^AlfhoS^'speciaUy adapted to the iron and metal trades, the tables will be found useful in «very other business m which merchandise is bought and sold by weight. -Railway Ne-ws. 30 CROSBY LOCKWOOD S- SON'S CATALOGUE. Calculator for Numbers and Weights Combined. THE COMBINED NUMBER AND WEIGHT CALCU- LATOR. Containing upwards of 250,000 Separate Calculations, showing at a glance the value at 421 diflerent rates, ranging from ^^th of a Penny to 20s. each, or per cwt., and ^20 per ton, of any number of articles consecutively, from I to 470.— Any number of cwts., qrs., and lbs., from i cwt. to 470 cwts — Any number of tons, cwts., qrs., and lbs., from i to 23^ tons. By William Chadwick, Public Accountant. Imp. 8vo, 30s. strongly bound for Office wear and tear. fP" ■^'"^ comprehensive and entirely unique and original Calculator is adapted for the use of Accountants and Auditors, Railway Companies, Canal Companies Shippers, Shipping Agents, General Carriers, etc. Ironfounders, Brassfounders' Metal Merchants, Iron Manufacturers, Ironmongers, Engineers, Machinists, Boiler Makers, Millwrights, Roofing, Bridge and Girder Makers, Colliery Proprietors, etc. rimber Merchants, Builders, Contractors, Architects, Surveyors, Auctioneers Valuers, Brokers, Mill Owners and Manufacturers, Mill Furnishers, Merchants and General Wholesale Tradesmen. *»* Opinions of the Press. ..u'^'^^,.''""'^ contains the answers to questions, and not simply a set of ins-enious nuzzle methods of arriving at results. It is as easy of reference for any answer or any nuinber of answers ab a dictionary and the references are even more quiclcly made. For making up accounts or esti- mates, the Ijoolc must prove invaluable to all who have any considerable quantity of calculations mvolving price and measure in any combination to Ao."— Engineer. T> • "J^^ complete and practical ready reckoner which it has been our fortune vet to see It is diHicult to imagine a trade or occupation in which it could not be of the greatest use eithej in saving human labour or in checking work."— TAe Miller. " The most perfect work of the kind yet prepared."— G/a^jj-o?:/ Herald. Comprehensive Weight Calculator. THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR. Being a Series of Tables upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at One Reference the exact Value of any Weight from i lb. to 15 tons, at 300 Progressive Rates, from id. to i68s. per cwt., and containing 186,000 Direct Answers, which, with their Combmations, consisting of a single addition (mostly to be performed at sight), will afiord an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers; the whole being calcu- lated and designed to ensure correctness and promote despatch. By Henry Harden, Accountant. Fourth Edition, carefully Corrected. Royal 8vo strongly half-bound, £1 5s. published. A practical and useful work of reference for men of business generally ; it is the best of the kind we have seen, —/rowwiwif^r. " Of priceless value to business men. Its accuracy and completeness have secured for it a reputation winch renders it quite unnecessary for us to say one word in its praise. It is a necessary book m all mercantile of&ccs: —Sheffield Independent. ' Comprehensive Discount Guide. THE DISCOUNT GUIDE. Comprising several Series of Tables for ths use of Merchants, Manufacturers, Ironmongers, and others by which may be ascertained the exact Profit arising from any mode of using Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and the method of either Altering a Rate of Discount or Advancing a Price, so as to produce, by one operation, a sum that will realise any required profit after allowing one or more Discounts : to which are added Tables of Profit or Advance from li to go per cent., Tables of Discount from li to gSf per cent., and Tables of Com- mission, &c., from i to 10 per cent. By Henry Harben, Accountant, Author of The Weight Calculator." New Edition, carefully Revised and Corrected Demy 8vo, 544 pp. half-bound, £1 55. " A book such as this can only be appreciated by business men, to whom the saving of time ineans saving of money. We have the high authority of Professor J. R. Young that the tables throughout the work are constructed upon strictly accurate principles. The work must prove of great value to merchants, manufacturers, and general traders."— .SW/zj/z Trade Journal. Iron Shipbuilders' and Merchants' Weight Tables. IRON. PLATE WEIGHT TABLES: For Iron Shiphiiilders, Engineers and Iron Merchants. Containing the Calculated Weights of up- wards of 150,000 different sizes of Iron Plates, from i foot by 6 in. bv i in to 10 feet by 5 feet by i in. Worked out on the basis of 40 lbs. to the square foot of Iron of i inch in thickness. Carefully compiled and thorou-'hly Re- vised by H. BuRLiNSON and W. H. Simpson. Oblong 4to, 25s. half-bound "This work will be found of great utility. The authors have had much practical experience of what IS wanting m making estimates; and the use of the book wiU save much time ai making elaborate calculations. —Efiglisk Mechanic. ^ INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 31 INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. Soap-fnaMng. THE ART OF SOAP-MAKING : A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilet Soaps, etc. Including many New Processes, and a Chapter on the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys, By Alexander Watt, Author of " Electro-Metallurgy Practically Treated," &c. With numerous Illustrations, Third Edition, Revised. Crowrn 8vo, 7s. 6d. cloth. "The work will prove very useful, not merely to the technological student, but to the practical soap-boiler who wishes to understand the theory of his art." — Chemical Neuus. "Really an excellent example of a technical manual, entering, as it does, thoroughly and exhaustively both into the theory and practice of soap manufacture. The book is well and honestly done, and deserves the considerable circulation with which it will doubtless meet.'' — Knowledge. " Mr. Watt's book is a thoroughly practical treatise on an art which has almost no literature in our language. We congratulate the author on the success of his endeavour to fill a void in English technical literature." — Nature. Zieather Manufacture, THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE. Being a Practical Handbook, in which the Operations ot Tanning, Currying, and Leather Dressing are fully Described, and the Principles of Tanning Ex- plained, and many Recent Processes introduced; as also Methods for the Estimation of Tannin, and a Description of the Arts of Glue Boiling, Gu4 Dressing, &c. By Alexander Watt, Author of " Soap-Making," " Electro- Metallurgy," &c. With numerous Illustrations, Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 9s. cloth. [Just pubhshed. "A sound, comprehensive treatise on tanning and its accessories. The book is an eminently valuable production, which redounds to the credit ol both author and publishers." — Chemical neview. "This volume is technical without being tedious, comprehensive and complete without being prosy, and it bears on every page the impress of a master hand. We have never come across a better trade treatise, nor one that so thoroughly supplied an absolute want." — Shoe atid Leather Trades' Chronicle, Boot and Shoe MaJcing. THE ART OF BOOT AND SHOE-MAKING. A Practical Handbook, including Measurement, Last-Fitting, Cutting-Out, Closing and Making, with a Description of the most approved Machinery employed. By John B. Leno, late Editor of St. Crispin, and The Boot and Shoe-Maker. With numerous Illustrations, Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s, 6d. cloth. [Just published. "This excellent treatise is by far the best work ever written on the subject. A new work, embracing aU modern improvements, was much wanted. This want is now satisfied. The chaptei on clicking, which shows how waste may be prevented, will save fifty times the price of the book." — Scottish Leather Trader. "This volume is replete with matter well worthy the perusal of boot and shoe manufacturers and experienced craftsmen, and instructive and valuable in the highest degree to all young laeginners and craftsmen in the trade of which it treats." — Leather Trades' Circular. Dentistry. MECHANICAL DENTISTRY : A Practical Treatise on the Construction of the various kinds of Artificial Dentures. Comprising also Use- ful Formulas, Tables and Receipts for Gold Plate, Clasps, Solders, &c. &c, By Charles Hunter. Third Edition, Revised, With upwards of 100 Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. [Just published. "The work is very practicvi}."— Monthly Review of Dental Surgery. ' ' We can strongly recommend Mr. Hunter's treatise to all students preparing for the profession of dentistry, as well as to every mechanical dentist." — Dublin Journal of Medical Science, Wood Engraving, A PRACTICAL MANUAL OF WOOD ENGRAVING. With a Brief Account of the History of the Art. By William Norman Brown. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2S. cloth. •' The author deals with the subject in a thoroughly practical and easy series of representative lessons." — Pafier and Printitig Trades Journal. " The book is clear and complete, and will be useful to anyone wanting to understand the firsl elements of the beautiful art of wood engraving."— Gra/>A»V. Paper Making. A TREATISE ON PAPER; with an Outline of its Manufacture, Complete Tables of Sizes, etc. For Printers and Stationers, By Richardson Parkinson. 8vo, sj. cloth ; 2s. 6rf. paper wrapper. An admirable handbook by a man who understands his subject." — Printers' Register, 32 CROSBY LOCK WOOD &■ SON'S CATALOGUE. LOCKWOOD'S HANDYBOOKS FOR HAND/CRAFTS. tS" These Handybooks are written to supply Handicraftsmen with informa- tion on workshop practice, and are intended to convey, in plain langtiai^e, technical knowledge of the several crafts. Workshop terms are used, and workshop practice described, the text being freely ilhtstrated with drawings of modern tools, appliances and processes, useful alike to the young beginner and to the old hand, whose range of experience has been narrowed wider a system of divided labour, «s well as to amateurs. I-S* The following Volumes are already published. Metal Turning. THE MET A L TURNER'S HA ND YBOOK. A Practical Manual for Workers at the Foot-Lathe : Embracing Information on tlie Tools, Appliances and Processes employed in Metal Turning. By Paul N. Has- LUCK, A.I.M.E., Author of " Lathe- Work." With upwards of One Hundred Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Cr. 8vo, zs. cloth. [Just published. " Altogether admirably adapted to initiate students into the art oC turning."~Leicester Post. " Clearly and concisely written, excellent in every way, we heartily commend it to all interested *n metal turning."— Mcc/ianica! U'orld. " With the assistance of a clever master, a clear and vivid expounder, and an abundance of illustrations, the work lets handicraftsmen know what are the resources of the turning-lathe and how these may be AeveXopaA." —Dundee Advertiser. Wood Turning. THE WOOD TURNER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual for Workers at the Lathe : Embracing Information on the Tools, Appliances and Processes Employed in Wood Turning. By Paul N. Hasluck, A.I.M.E., Author of " Lathe- Work," " The Metal Turner's Handybook," &c. With upwards of One Hundred Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2S. cloth. [Just published. " The volume is well and clearly written in a lucid style, and all the instructions are fully given. It will be found of great value to workmen and amateurs, and forms a safe and reliable guide to every branch of the lathe manipulation."— Car/fK/c?- and Buildey. " An excellent manual for workers at the \3X\\e.."—Glas)roiu Herald. "We rerominend the book to young turners and amateurs. A multitude of workmen have liitherto sought in vain for a manual of this special mA\x%'iX'i."— Mechanical U 'orld. Watch Mepairing. THE WATCH JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual on Cleaning, Repairing and Adjusting. Embracing Information on the Tools, Materials, Appliances and Processes Employed in Watchwork. By Paul N. Hasluck, A.I.M.E., Author of " Lathe- Work," "The Metal Turner's Handy- Book," "The Wood Turner's Handybook," &c. With upwards of One Hundred Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2S. cloth, LJust published. "Written in a clear style exactly suited to beginners and amateurs. We heartily recommend IX." — Practical Engifteer. " We recommend it to craftsmen in watchmaking as a useful and well- written grammar of their art." — Scotsman. " All young persons connected with the trade should acquire and study this excellent, and at the same time, inexpensive work." — Clsntenwell Chronicle. Pattern Making. THE PATTERN MAKER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual, embracing Information on the Tools, Materials and Appliances em- ployed in Constructing Patterns for Founders. By Paul N. Hasluck, A.I.M.E. With One Hundred Illustrations. Cr. Svo, as. cloth, ljust published'. " Mr. Hasluck's ' Lathe Work ' and kindred productions have acquired a high reputation. His new volume, ' Pattern Making,' contains invaluable advice, and furnishes the studious workman vith a very large amount of practical information." — Lloyds Ne7vs. " Especially useful to the beginner. We commend it to all who are interested in the counsels it so ably gives." — Colliery Guardian. " This handy volume contains sound information of considerable value to students and artificers." — Hardwa>-e Trade Journal. Meclianical Manipulation. THE ME CHA NIC'S WORKSHOP HA ND YBOOK. A Practical Manual on Mechanical Manipulation. Embracing Information on various Handicraft Processes, with Useful Notes and Miscellaneous Memoranda. By Paul N, Hasluck, A.I.M.E. Author of " Lathe- Work," "The Metal Turner's Handybook," "The Wood Turner's Handybook," &c. Crown Svo, 2s. cloth. ijust ready INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 33 Electrolysis of Gold, Silver, Copper, etc, ELECTRO-DEPOSITION : A Practical Treatise on the Electrolysis of Gold, Silver, Copper, Nickel, and, other Metals and A Hoys. With descrip- tions of Voltaic Batteries, Magnet and Dynamo-Electric Machines, Ther- mopiles, and of the Materials and Processes used in every Department of the Art, and several Chapters on ELECTRO-METALLURGY. By Alex- ander Watt, Author of " Electro-Metallurgy," &c. With numerous Illus- trations. Second Edition, Revised and Corrected. Crown 8vo, gs. cloth. [Just published. ' ' Evidently written by a practical man who has sjjent a longf period of time in electro-plate '.vorksliops. The information given respecting the details of workshop manipulation is remarkably complete. . . . Mr. Watt's book will prove of great value to electro.depositors, jewellers, eind various other workers in metal." — Nature. " Eminently a book for the practical worker in electro-deposition. It contains minute and practical descriptions of methods, processes and materials as actually pursued and used in the workshop. Mr. Watt's book recommends itself to eill interested in its sutuects."— £«^-iK«>-. Electro-Metallurgy, ELECTRO-METALLURGY : Practically Treated. By Alexander Watt, F.R.S.S.A. Eighth Edition, Revised, with Additional Matter and Illustrations, including the most recent Processes. i2mo, 3s. 6d. cloth boards. "From this book both amateur and artisan may learn everything necessary for the successful iprosecution of electroplating."— Electroplating, ELECTROPLATING : A Practical Handbook. By J. W. Urqu- HART, C.E. With numerous Illustrations. Crov?n 8vo, 5s. cloth. " The information given appears to be based on direct personal knowledge. . , , Its science "is sound and the style is always clear." — Atheticeum, Electrotyping, ELECTROTYPING : The Reproduction and Multiplication of Print- ing Surfaces and Works of Art by the Electro-deposition of Metals. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. Crown 8vo, 5s. cloth. "The book is thoroughly practical. The reader is, therefore, conducted through the leading laws of electricity, then through the metals used by electrotypers, the apparatus, and the depositing processes, up to the final preparation of the work." — Art your7ial. "We can recommend this treatise, not merely to amateurs, but to those actually engaged in the trade." — Chemical News. Goldsmiths' WorJc. THE GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK. By George E. Gee, eweller, &c. Third Edition, considerably Enlarged, lamo, 3s, 6d. cloth cards. "A good, sound, technical educator, and will be generally accepted as an authority. It exactly fulfils the purpose intended." — Horological Journal. "Will speedily become a standard book which few will care to t)e without." — Jeweller and Metalworker. Silversmiths' WorJc, THE SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK. By George E. Gee, Jeweller, &c. Second Edition, Revised, with numerous Illustrations. lamo, 3s. 6d. cloth boards. " The chief merit of the work is its practical character. . . . The workers m the trade will speedily discover its merits when they sit down to study it." — English Mechanic. " This work forms a valuable sequel to the aulhor's 'Goldsmith's Handbook.'"— Sitoerx»8t^Aj ' Trade JOHrnal. The above two works together, strongly half-bound, price 75, Textile Manufacturers' Tables. UNIVERSAL TABLES OF TEXTILE STRUCTURE. For the use of Manufacturers in every branch of Textile Trade. By Joseph Edmondson. Oblong folio, strongly bound in cloth, price 7s. 6d. The principle on which the tables are founded is well known, and much used in the muslin manufacture, but the intricacy of the calculations hitherto required (especially where warp and weft differ in counts and in the closeness of the threads) has prevented its general application. By these tables a II the adjustments way be made without calculation. Mere references to the proptr places bring out the required information. " Immense labour has been bestowed on the work by the author. The tables are adapted to every mode of numbering yarns and setts, and dpply to all the branches of textile manufacture." Textile Recorder. D CROSBY LOCKWOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE. Horology, A TREATISE ON MODERN HOROLOGY, in Theory and Prac- tice. Translated from the French of Claudius Saunier, ex-Director of the School of Horology at Macon, by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., Besancon Watch Manufacturer, and Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. With Seventy-eight Woodcuts and Twenty-two Coloured Copper Plates Second Edition. Super-royal 8vo, £2 as. cloth, £z 10s. half-calt. " There is no horological work in the English lang^uage at all to be compared to this produc- tion oi M. Saunier's for clearness and completeness. It is alike good as a guide for the student and' as a reference for the experienced horologist and skilled workman." — Horological journal. " The latest, the most complete, and the most reliable of those literary productions to which continental watchmakers are indebted for the mechanical superiority over their English brethreiv —in fact, the Book of Books, is M. Saunier's 'Treatise.'"— //'a^c/jwja/tsr, jfewellei- and Sih ci-sntiih. " This magnificent treatise is one of the most valuable and comprehensive contributions to the literature of horological art and science ever produced, and cannot be too highly commended. It is a perfect cyclopaedia of watch and clockmaking." — The Coventry Watch and Clockmakcr. Watclimaking. THE WA TCHMA KER 'S HA NDBOO K. Intended as a Work- shop Companion for those engaged in Watchmaking and the Allied Mechani- cal Arts. Translated from the French of Claudius Saunier, and consider- ably Enlarged by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., Vice-President of the Horologi- cal Institute, and Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. With Numerous Woodcuts and Fourteen Copper Plates. Second Edition, Revised. With Appendix. Crown 8vo, gs. cloth. \_Jiist published. " Each i^art is truly a treatise in itself. The arrangement is good and the language is clear and concise. It is an admirable guide for the young vtatcianaiier."— Engineering-. " It is impossible to speak too highly of its excellence. It fultils every requirement in a hand- book intended for the use of a workman. Should be found in every workshop." — IVatch and Clockmaker. "This book contains an immense number of practical details bearing on the daily occupation of a v/atchmaker, and it will be found of great use to an army of workers." — Watchmaker and Metalworker (Chicago). CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES & COMMERCE. The Alkali Trade, Sulphuric Acid, etc. A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE, including the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching Powder. By John Lomas, Alkali Manufacturer, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and London. With 232 Illustrations and Working Drawings, and containing 390 pages of Text. Second Edition, with Additions. Super-royal 8vo, £i los. cloth. " This book is written by a manufacturer for manufacturers. The working details of the most approved forms of apparatus are given, and these are accompanied by no less than 232 wood en- gravings, all of which may be used for the purposes of construction. Every step in the manufac j ture is very fully described in this manual, and each improvement explained." — Athencezc^n. " The author is not one of those clever compilers who, on short notice, will 'read up 'any conceiv- able subject, but a practical man in the best sense or the word. We find here not merely a sound and lunimous explanation of the chemical principles of the trade, but a notice of numerous matters which have a most important bearing on the successful conduct of alkali works, but which are generally overlooked by even the most experienced technological authors." — Chemical Review. Brewing. A HANDBOOK FOR YOUNG BREWERS. By Herbert Edwards Wright, B.A. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. " This little volume, containing such a large amount of good sense in so small a compass, ought to recommend itself to every brewery pupil." — Brewers' Guardian. Commercial Chemical Analysis. THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL ANA- L YSIS ; or, Practical Instructions for the determination of the Intrinsic or Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, and in the Arts. By A. Normandy, Editor of Rose's "Treatise on Chemical Analysis." New Edition, to a great extent Re-written by Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth. We strongly recommend this book to our readers as aguide, eilike indispensable to th« house- wife as to the pharmaceutical practitioner." — Medical Times. " Essential to the analysts appointed under the new Act. The most recent results are given, and the work is well edited and carefully vix'Mea."— Nature. AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, etc. 35 Dye- 'i-Wares and Colours, THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE-WARES : Their Properties, Applications, Valuation, Impurities, and Sophistications. For the use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c. By J. W. Slater, Second Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. Crown 8vq, 7s. 6d. cloth. ' ' A complete encyclopaedia of the materia tinctoria. The information gi^" respecting each article is full and precise, and the methods of determining the value of articles such as these, so liable to sophistication, are given with clearness, and are practical as well as valuable."— CAewM' a7id Druggist. •• There is no other work which covers precisely the same ground. To students preparing for examinations in dyeing and printing it will prove exceedingly usetul."— Chemical News. Pigments. THE ARTIST'S MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. Showing their Composition, Conditions of Permanency, Non- Permanency, and Adul- terations ; Effects in Combination with Each Other and with Vehicles ; and the most Reliable Tests ot Purity. Together with the Science and Arts Department's Examination Questions on Painting. By H. C. Standage. Second Edition, Revised. Small crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth. [Just published. " This work is indeed multum-in-pan/o, and we can, with good conscience, recommend it to all who come in contact with pigments, whether as makers, dealers or users."— C/temical Review. "This manual cannot fail to be a very valuable aid to all painters who wish their work to endure and be of a sound character ; it is complete and comprehensive." — Stectator. "The author supplies a great deal of very valuable information and memoranda as to the chemical qualities and artistic effect of the principal pigments used by painters." — Builder. Ganging. Tables and Bides for Revenue Officers, JBreivers, etc. A POCKET BOOK OF MENSURATION AND GAUGING: Containing Tables, Rules and Memoranda for Revenue Officers, Brewers, Spirit Merchants, &c. By J. B. Manx (Inland Revenue). Oblong i8mo, 4s. leather, with elastic band. IJust published. " This handy and useful book is adapted to the requirements of the Inland Revenue Depart- •ment, and will be a favourite book of r^iference. The range of subjects is comprehensive, and tha .arrangement simple and clear," — Ci'vilian. " A most useful book. It should be in the hands of every practical hxevfei."— Brewers' jfOHr7ial. AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, etc. .Agricidtural Facts and Figures. NOTE-BOOK OF AGRICULTURAL FACTS AND FIGURES FOR FARMERS AND FARM STUDENTS. By Primrose McConnell, Fellow of the Highland and Agricultural Society ; late Professor of Agricul- ture, Glasgow Veterinary College. Third Edition. Royal 32mo, full roan, gilt edges, with elastic band, 4s. " Th most complete and comprehensive Note-book for Farmers and Farm Students that we 'have seen. It literally teems with mformation, and we can cordially recommend it to all connected with agriculture."— A^ariA British Azriailturist. Touatt and Burn's Complete Grazier. THE COMPLETE GRAZIER, and FARMER'S and CATTLE- BREEDER'S ASSISTANT. A Compendium of Husbandry; especially in the departments connected with the Breeding, Rearing, Feeding, and General Management of Stock ; the Management of the Dairy, &c. With Directions for the Culture and Management of Grass Land, of Grain and Root Crops, the Arrangement of Farm Offices, the use of Implements and Machines, and on Draining, Irrigation, Warping, &c. ; and the Application and Relative Value of Manures. By William Youatt, Esq., V.S. Twelfth Edition,^ En- larged by Robert Scott Burn, Author of " Outlines of Modern Farming, " Systematic Small Farming," &c. One large »vo volume, 860 pp., with 244 Illustrations, £1 is. half-bound. " The standard and text-book with the farmer and graaet."—Far»zers Magazine. "A treatise which will remain a standard work on the subject as long as British agriculture endures."— Afa?-* Lane Express (First Notice). _ _ "The book deals with all departments of agriculture, and contains an immense amount oi valuable information. It is, in fact, an encyclopjedia of agriculture put into readable form, and it 5s the onlv work equally comprehensive brought down to present date. It is excellently printed on thick paper, and strongly bound, and deserves a place in the Ubrary of every agriculturist. —Mark Lane Express (Second Notice). 36 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &' SON'S CATALOGUE. Mour Manufacture, 3Iilling, etc. FLOUR MANUFACTURE: A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By Friedrich Kick, Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in the Imperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from the Second Enlarged and Revised Edition with bupplement. By H. H. P. Powles, Assoc. Memb. Institution of Civil En- gineers. Nearly 400 pp. Illustrated with 28 Folding Plates, and 167 Wood- cuts. Royal 8vo, 255. cloth. [just pttblished. _. "TJj'^ valuable work is, and will remain, the standard authority on the science of milling-. . The miUer who has read and digested this work will have laid the foundation, so to speak, of a suc- cessful career ; he will have acquired a number of general principles which he can proceed to apply. In this handsome volume we at last have the accepted text-book of modern miUing in i-ood, soundEnghsh, which has httle, if any, trace of the German idiom. "—rA«Aj?z7/c)- " Professor Kick treats the subject so thoroughly both on its theoretical and practical sides that his work IS well suited to be a text-book of technical education any where." —Sci>tsma7! Theappearanceof this celebrated work in English is very opportune, and British millers wu, we are sure, not be slow in availing themselves of its pages."— MiUers' Gazelle. Small Farming, SYSTEMATIC SMALL FARMING; or, The Lessons of my Farm. Being an Introduction to Modern Farm Practice for Small Farmers in the Culture of Crops ; The Feeding of Cattle ; The Management of the Dairy, Poultry and Pigs ; The Keeping of Farm Work Records ; The Ensilage System, Construction of Silos, and other Farm Buildings ; The Improve- ment of Neglected Farms, &c. By Robert Scott Burn, Author of " Out- lines of Landed Estates' Management," and " Outlines of Farm Manage- ment, and Editor of " The Complete Grazier," With numerous Illustrations, crown Bvo, 6s. cloth. "This is the completest book of its class we have seen, and one which every amateur farmer will read with pleasure and accept as a guide."— Field. .1, "^I""' P^S*= severely practical, and the tone of the practical man is felt tnroughout. The book can only prove a treasure of aid and suggestion to the smaU farmer of Intelligence and energy."— British Quarterly Review, "The volume contains a vast amount of useful information. No branch of farming is left untouched, from the labour to be done to the results achieved."— G/aj^oa/ Herald. Modern Farming. OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. By R. Scott Burn. Soils, Manures, and Crops— Farming and Farming Economy— Cattle, Sheep', and Horses-Management of the Dairy, Pigs and Poultry— Utilisation of Town-Sewage, Irrigation, &c. Sixth Edition. In One Vol., i.zKo pp., half- bound, profusely Illustrated, 12s. . . o i-i- 1 ■* * '"^'^^ his work at once comprehensive and trustworthy. ^dvertilfr^^^ succeeded to. a degree which entitles him to much credit."-Morning calculated to enlighten the agricultural community on the varied subjects of which It treats, and hence it should find a place in every farmer's library.' —Cj/v Press. No farmer should be without this hod\^:'— Banbury Guardian. Agricultural Engineering. FARM ENGINEERING, THE COMPLETE TEXT-BOOK OF. Comprising Draining and Embanking; Irrigation and Water Supply; Farm Roads, Fences, and Gates ; Farm Buildings, their Arrangement and Con- struction, with Plans and Estimates; Barn Implements and Machines ; Field Implements and Machines ; Agricultural Surveying, Levelling, &c. By Prof John ScoTT, Editor of the Farmers' Gazette, late Professor 01 Agriculture and Rural Economy at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, &c. &c, In.One Vol., 1,150 pages, half-bound, with over 600 Illustrations, 12s, "Written with great care, as well as with knowledge and abUity. The author has done his work weU ; we have found him a very trustworthy guide wherever we have tested his statements. 1 he volume wiU be of great value to agricultural students,"— Lane Express. T,",«,?r yp,"°fr agriculturist we know of no handy volume to likely to be more usefuUv studied " — Bell s Weekly Messenger. English Agriculture. THE FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN : A Text-Book of Agriculture, adapted to the Syllabus of the Science and Art Demrtment For Elementary and Advanced Students. By Hugh Clements (Board of Trade). iSmo, 2s. 6cl. cloth. " A most comprehensive volume, giving a mass of information. "—Agriadtural Ecommist. .,..1, ,llf=f, 15^ '^Vf"''^^,''''^'^, ¥^°„^ ^'''<='* 'I'^s pleased us more, or whici contains such a vast and useful fund of knowledge."— £rfKOT«o«a/ Times AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, etc. 37 Farm, and Estate Book-keeping. ■ BOOK-KEEPING FOR FARMERS & ESTATE OWNERS. A Practical Treatise, presenting, in Three Plans, a System adapted to all Classes of Farms. By Johnson M. Woodman, Chartered Accountant, Crown 8vo, 3.S. 6d. cloth. , ^ , , " Will b.e found of great assistance by those who intend to commence a system of book-keep- ing, the author's examples being clear and explicit.'and his explanations, while full and accurate, being to a large extent free from technicalities."— Stock journal. Farm Account Book, WOODMAN'S YEARLY FARM ACCOUNT BOOK. Giving a Weekly Labour Account and Diary, and showing the Income and Expen- diture under each Department of Crops, Live Stock, Dairy, &c. &c. With Valuation, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet at the end of the Year, and an Appendix of Forms. Ruled and Headed for Entering a Com- plete Record of the Farming Operations. By Johnson M. Woodman, Chartered Accountant, Author of "Book-keeping for Farmers." Folio, ys. 6d. half-bound. , „ ^ . "Conta.ins every requisite orm for keeping farm accounts readily and accurately. — .rs^rt- culttire. Early Fruits, Flowers and Vegetables. THE FORCING GARDEN ; or, How to Grow Early Fruits, Flowers, and Vegetables. With Plans, and Estimates for Building Glass- houses, Pits and Frames. Containing also Original Plansfor Double Glazing, a New Method of Growing the Gooseberry under Glass, &c. &c., and on Venti- lation, Protecting Vine Borders, &c. With Illustrations. By Samuel Wood. Crown 8vo, 3s. erf. cloth. . „ tt i " Mr. Wood's book is an original and exhaustive answer to tne question How to Grow tarly Fruits, Flowers and Vegetables J ' "—Land and Water, Good Gardening. A PLAIN GUIDE TO GOOD GARDENING ; or, How to Grow Vegetables, Fruits, and Flowers. With Practical Notes on Soils, Manures, Seeds, Planting, Laying-out of Gardens and Grounds, &c. By S. Wood. Third Edition, with considerable Additions, &c., and numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 5s. cloth. "A very good book, and one to be highly recommended as a practical guide. —Athenautn.^ •• May be recommended to young gardeners, cottagers, and specially to amateurs, for the plain and trustworthy information it gives on common maXiea."— Gardeners' Chronicle. Gainful Gardening. MULTUM-IN-PARVO GARDENING; or, How to make One Acre of Land produce £620 a-year by the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables ; also, How to Grow Flowers in Three Glass Houses, so as to realise £176 per annum clear Profit. By Samuel Wood, Author of " Good Gardening," &c. Fourth and cheaper Edition, Revised, with Additions. Crown 8vo, is. sewed. "We are bound to recommend it as not only suited to the case of the amateur and gentleman's gardener, but to the market giov/er."— Gardeners' Magazine. Gardening for Ladies. THE LADIES' MULTUM-IN-PARVO FLOWER GARDEN, and Amateurs' Complete Guide, With Illustrations. By Samuel Wood. Crown Bvo, 3s. 6d. cloth. "Full of shrewd hints and useful instructions, based on a lifetime of experience. —Scotsman, jReceipts for Gardeners. GARDEN RECEIPTS. Edited by Charles W. QuiN. i2mo, IS. 6d. cloth limp. , "A useful and handy book, containing a good deal of valuable information.' —Athefiaum. Kitchen Gardening. THE KITCHEN A ND MA RKET GA RDEN. By Contributors to " The Garden." Compiled by C. W. Shaw. lamo, 3s. td. cloth boards. "The most valuable compendium of kitchen and market-garden work published."— Farmer. Cottage Gardening. COTTAGE GARDENING : or. Flowers, Fruits, and Vegetables fot Small Gardens. By E. Hobday. i2mo, is. 6d. cloth limp, "Contains much useful information at a small tias.ige."— Glasgow Herald. 38 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE. ESTATE MANAGEMENT, AUCTIONEERING, LAW, etc. Hudson's Land Valuer's JPocket-BooJc. THE LAND VALUER'S BEST ASSISTANT: Being Tables on a very much Improved Plan, for Calculating the Value of Estates. With Tables for reducing Scotch, Irish, and Provincial Customary Acres to Statute Measure, &c. By R. Hudson, C.E. New Edition. Royal 32mo, leather, elastic band, 4s. "This new edition includes tables for ascertaining the value of leases for any term of years; and for show?ng how to lay out plots of ground of certain acres in forms, square, round, &c., with valuable rules for ascertanimg: tlie probable worth of standing timber to any amount; and is of incalculable value to the country gentleman and professional ma.n."— Farmers yournal. Ewart's Land Improver's Pocket-Book. THE LAND IMPROVER'S POCKET-BOOK OF FORMULJE, TABLES and MEMORANDA required in any Computation relating to the Permanent Improvement of Landed Property. By John Ewart, Land Surveyor and Agricultural Engineer. Second Edition, Revised. Royal 32mo, oblong, leather, gilt edges, with elastic band, 4s. "A compendious and handy little volume." — Siectator. Complete Agricultural Surveyor's Pocket-Book. THE LAND VALUER'S AND LAND IMPROVER'S COM- PLETE POCKET-BOOK. Consisting of the above Two Works bound to- gether. Leather, gilt edges, with strap, 7s. 6d. " Huds9n's book is the best ready-reckoner on matters relating to the valuation of land and crops, and its combmation with Mr. Ewart's work greatly enhances the value and usefulness of the latter-mentioned. . . . It is most useful as a manual for reference."— A^orCA .jr^w^/aKo! Farswen Auctioneer's Assistant. THE APPRAISER, A UCTIONEER, BROKER, HOUSE AND EST A TE A GENT AND VALUER'S POCKET A SSISTA NT, for the Valua- tion for Purchase, Sale, or Renewal of Leases, Annuities and Reversions, and of property generally; with Prices for Inventories, &c. By John Wheeler, Valuer, &c. Fifth Edition, re- written and greatly extended by C. N orris Surveyor, Valuer, &c. Royal 32mo, 5s. cloth. _ ■■ A neat and concise book of reference, containing an admirable and clearly-arranged list of prices formventories, and a very practical guide to determine the value of tnimture,Ssc."—Staniiard. " Contains a large quantity of varied and useful information as to the valuation for purchase sale, or renewal of leases, annuities and reversions, and of property generally with prices for inventories, and a guide to determine the value of interior fittings and other efCects."— Builder. Auctioneering, AUCTIONEERS : Their Duties and Liabilities. By Robert Squibbs, Auctioneer. Demy 8vo, los. 6d. cloth. "The position and duties of auctioneers treated compendiously and clearly."— Builder. "Every auctioneer ought to possess a copy of this excellent -xotV."— Ironmonger. " Of great value to the profession. ... We readily welcome this book from the fact that it -treats the subject m a manner somewhat new to the profession."— Gazette. Legal Guide for Pawnbrokers, THE PAWNBROKERS', FACTORS' AND MERCHANTS' GUIDE TO THE LAW OF LOANS AND PLEDGES. With the Statutes and a Digest of Cases on Rights and Liabilities, Civil and Criminal as to Loans and Pledges of Goods, Debentures, Mercantile and other Se- curities. By H. C. FoLKARD, Esq., Barrister-at-Law, Author of " The Law of Slander and Libel," &c. With Additions and Corrections to 1876. Fcao 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. ^* ," T**'^ work contains simply everything that requires to be known concerning the department •of^the law of which it treats. We can safely commend the book as unique and very nearly perfect." " The task undertaken by Mr. Folkard has been very satisfactorily performed. . Such ex- planations as are needful have been supplied with great clearness and with due regard to brevitv • •City Press. ■'■ ESTATE MANAGEMENT, AUCTIONEERING, LAW, etc. 39 Sow to Invest, HINTS FOR INVESTORS : Being an Explanation of the Mode of Transacting Business on the Stock Exchange. To which are added Com- ments on the Fluctuations and Table of Quarterly Average prices of Consols since 1759. Also a Copy oi the London Daily Stock and Share List. By Walter M. Playford, Sworn Broker. Crown 8vo, 2S. cloth. " An invaluable guide to investors and speculators." — Bullionist. Metropolitan Hating Appeals. REPORTS OF APPEALS HEARD BEFORE THE COURT OF GENERAL ASSESSMENT SESSIONS, from the Year 1871 to 1885 By Edward Ryde and Arthur Lyon Ryde. Fourth Edition, brought down to the Present Date, with an Introduction to the Valuation (Metropolis) Act, 1869, and an Appendix by Walter C. Ryde, oi the Inner Temple, Barrister- at-Law. 8vo, i6s. cloth. " A useful work, occupying a place mid-way between a handbook for a lawyer and a guide to- the surveyor. It is compiled by a gentleman eminent in his profession as a land agent, whose spe- cialty, it is acknowledged, lies in the direction of assessing property for rating purposes."— ia?i(^ Agents' Record. Souse Property, HANDBOOK OF HOUSE PROPERTY. A Popular and Practical Guide to the Purchase, Mortgage, Tenancy, and Compulsory Sale of Houses and Land, including the Law of Dilapidations and Fixtures ; with Examples of all kinds of Valuations, Useful Information on Buildings, and Suggestive Elucidations of Fine Art. By E. L. Tarbuck, Architect and Surveyor, Fourth Edition, lamo, 5s. cloth, [_Jusi published. " The advice is thoroughly practical."— £aa/ journal. "This is a well-written and thoughtful work. We commend the work to the careful study of alJ' Interested in questions affecting houses and land."— ia«o? Agettts' Record (First Notice). " Carefully brought up to date, and much improved by the addition of a division on fine art." —Land Agents' Record (Second Notice) Inwood's Estate Tables, TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING OF ESTATES, Freehold^ Copyhold, or Leasehold; Annuities, Advowsons, etc., a.nd for the Renewing of Leases held under Cathedral Churches, Colleges, or other Corporate bodieSj for Terms oi Years certain, and for Lives ; also for Valuing Reversionary Estates, Deferred Annuities, Next Presentations, &c. ; together with Smart's Five Tables of Compound Interest, and an Extension of the same to Lower and Intermediate Rates. By W. Inwood. 22nd Edition, with considerable Additions, and new and valuable Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of the Interest oi Money, Discount, Annuities, &c., by M. Fedor Thoman, oi the Societe Credit Mobilier of Paris. i2mo, 8s. cloth. "Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of compensation cases, as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c., will find the present edition of eminent service." — Engineermg: " ' Inwood's Tables ' still maintain a most enviable reputation. The new issue has been enriched by large additional contributions by M. Fedor Thomeui, whose carefully arranged Tables cannot fail to be of the utmost utility."— Mining Journal. Agricultural and Tenant-Right Valuation. THE AGRICULTURAL AND TEN ANT-RIGHT -VALUER'S ASSISTANT. A Practical Handbook on Measuring and Estimating the Contents, Weights and Values of Agricultural Produce and Timber, the Values of Estates and Agricultural Labour, Forms of Tenant-Right- Valua- tions, Scales of Compensation under the Agricultural Holdings Act, 1883, &c. &c. By Tom Bright, Agricultural Surveyor, Author of " The Live Stock of North Devon," &c. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. [^Just published. "Full of tables and examples in connection with the valuation of tenant-right, estates, labour. contecits, and weiglits of timber, and farm produce of all kinds. The book is well calculated to assist the valuer in the discharge of his Auty."— Agricultural Gazette. "An eminently practical handbook, full of practical tables and data of undoubted interest and value to surveyors and auctioneers in preparing valuations ot all kinds." — Farmer. "Shows at a glance the value of land, crops, and the cost of seeding, harvesting, &c. &c. It is a rtally practical and useful handbook, for which we anticipate a very large ssie."— Reading Merary. 40 CROSBY LOCK WOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE. A. Complete Epitome of the Laws of this Country, EVERY MAN'S OWN LAWYER: A Handy-book of the Principles of Law and Equity. By A Barrister. Tvyenty-iifth Edition. Reconstructed, Thoroughly Revised, and much Enlarged, Brought down to the end of last Session, and including careful Digests of — Coroners Act, 1887; Probation of First Offenders Act,iSS7; Margarine Act, 1887; Agricultural Holdings {England) Act, 1883 ; Cottage Gardens (Compensation for Crops) Act, 1887; Bankruptcy Act, 1883; Allotments Act, 1887; Merchandise Trade Marks Act, 1887; Truck Amendment Act, 1887; Water Companies {Regulation of Powers) Act, i88y ; Registration of Deeds of Arrangements Act, iS8y. Crown 8vo, 684 pp., price 6s. 8d. (saved at every consultation 1), strongly bound in cloth. [Just published. THE BOOK WILL BE FOUND TO COMPRISE (AMONGST OTHER MATTER)— The Rights and Wrongs of iNDrviouALs— Mercantile and Commercial Law —Partnerships, Contracts and agreements — Guarantees, Principals and Agents— Criminal Law— Parish Law— County Court Law— game and Fishmry Laws— Poor Men's Lawsuits— Laws of Bankruptcy— Wagers— Cheques, Bills AND NOTES— Copyright— Elections and Registration— Insurance— Libel and Slander— Marriage and divorce— Merchant Shipping— Mortgages — Settle- ments— Stock Exchange Practice— Trade Marks and Patents— Trespass— Nui- sances— Transfer of Land— Wills, &c. &c. Also Law for Landlord and Tenant —Master and Servant— heirs— Devisees and Legatees— Husband and Wife— JExecutors and Trustees— Guardian and Ward— Married Women and Infants —Lender, Borrower and Sureties— Debtor and Creditor— Purchaser and Vendor— Companies— Friendly Societies— Clergymen— churchwardens— Medi- cal Practitioners— Bankers— Farmers— Contractors— Stock Brokers— Sports- men— Gamekeepers— Farriers-Horse Dealers— Auctioneers— House Agents- Innkeepers -bakers— Millers— Pawnbrokers— Surveyors— Railways AND Car- riers—Constables—Seamen—Soldiers, &c. &c. KS" The following subjects may be mentioned as some of those which have re- ceived special attention during the present revision : — Marriage of British Subjects Abroad ; Police Constables ; Pawnbrokers ; Intoxicating Liquors Licensing ; Domestic Servants; Landlord and Tenant; Vendors and Purchasers; Parlia- mentary Elections ; Municipal Elections; Local Elections ; Corrupt Practices at all Elections ; Public Health and Local Government and Nuisances ; Highways ; Churchwardens ; Vestry Meetings ; Rates. It is beheved that the extensions and amplifications of the present edition, while intended to meet the requirements of the ordinary Englishman, will also have the effect of rendering the book useful to the legal practitioner in the country. One result of the reconstruction and revision, with the extensive additions thereby necessitated, has been the enlargement of the book by nearly a hundred and fifty pages, while the price remains as before. *** Opinions of the Press. "It is a complete code of English Law, written in plain langfuage, which all can understand. . . . Should be in the hands of every business man, and all who wish to abolish lawyers' bills."—. IVee/cly Times. "A useful and concise epitome of the law, compiled with considerable care. — Law Magazine. " A concise, cheap and complete epitome of the English law. So plainly written that he who runs may read, and he who reads may understand.''— /^j^arc. " A dictionary of legal facts well put together. The book is a very useful one." -Spectator. " A work which has long been wanted, which is thoroughly well done, and which we most cordially xecoxaxaead."— Sunday Times. JPrivate Bill Legislation and Provisional Orders, HANDBOOK FOR THE USE OF SOLICITORS AND EN- GINEERS Engaged in Promoting Private Acts of Parliament and Provi- sional Orders, for the Authorization of Railways, Tramways, Works for the Supply of Gas and Water, and other undertakings of a like character. By L. Livingston Macassey, of the Middle Temple, Barrister- at-Law, and Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers; Author of " Hints on Water Supply." Demy 8vo, 950 pp., price 25s. cloth. ljust published. " The volume is a desideratum on a subject which can be only acquired by practical experi- ence, and the order of procedure in Private Bill Legislation and Provisional Orders is followed. The author's suggestions and notes will be found of great value to engineers and others profession! ally engaged in ihis class of ptacWce."— Building Ne^us. " The author's double experience as an engineer and barrister has eminently qualified him for the task, and enabled him to approach the subject alike from an engineering and legal point of view. The volume will be found a great help both to engineers and lawyers engaged in promoting Private Acts of Parliament and Provisional Orders." — Local Goveittment Chronicle. J. OGDEN AND CO. LIMITED, PRINTERS, GREAT SAFFRON HILL, E.G. ^nUmmUv^ Series. LONDON, 1862. THE PRIZE MEDAL Was awarded to the Publishers of "WEALE'S SERIES." A NEW LIST OF WEALE'S SERIES RUDIMENTARY SCIENTIFIC,EDUGATIONAL, AND CLASSICAL. Comprisins nearly Three Hundred and Fifiy disiinci works in almost every depariment of Science, Art, and Education, recommended to ihe noiice o f E ng-ineers, Architects , Builders, Artisans, and Students generally, as well as to those interested in Workmen's Libraries, Literary and Scientific Instittitions, Collefres, Schools, Science Classes, &r'C., 6fc.j fS' " WEALE'S SERIES includes Text-Books on almost every branch of Science and Industry, comprising such subjects as Agriculture, Architecture and Building, Civil Engineering, Fine Arts, Mechanics and Mechanical Engireering, Physical and Chemical Science, and many miscellaneous Treatises. The whole are constantly undergoing revision, and new editions, brought up to the latest discoveries in scientific research, are constantly issued. The prices at which they are sold are as low as their excellence is assured." — American Literary Gazette. " Amongst the literature of technical education, Weale's Series has ever enjoysd a high reputation, and the additions being made by Messrs. Crosby LOCKWOOD & Son render the series even more complete, and bring the mfor- maticn upon the several subjects down to the present time."— Mmiw^ yourr.al. " It is not too much to say that no books have ever proved more popular with, or more useful to, young engineers and others than the excellent treatises comprised in Weale's SERms."— Engineer. "The excellence of Weale's Series is now so well appreciated, that it would be wasting our space to enlarge upon their general usefulness and value "—B«i/rfer. " VEALE'S SERIES has become a standard as well as an unrivalled collection of treatises in all branches of art and science."— Public Opinion. PHILADELPHIA, 1876. THE PRIZE MEDAL Was awarded to the Publishers for Books : Eudimentary, Scientific, "WEALE'S SERIES," ETC. CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON, 7, stationers' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, LONDON, E.C. 2 WEALE'S RUDIMENTARY SERIES. WEALE'S RUDIMENTARY SCIENTIFIC SERIES. (apiol Jri * The volumes of this Series are freely Illustrated with Woodcuts, or otherwise, where requisite. Throughout the fol- lowing List it must be understood that the books are bound in limp cloth, unless otherwise stated; but the volumes marked ■with a % may also be had strongly bound in cloth boards for 6d. extra. N.B.—In ordering from this List it is recommended, as a means of facilitating business and obviating error, to quote the numbers affixea to the volumes, as -well as the titles and prices. CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC. No. ' 31. WELLS AND WELL-SINKING. By John Geo. Swindell, A.R.I.B.A., and G. R. Burnell, C.E. Revised Edition. With a New Appendix on the Qualities of Water. Illustrated. 2s. ^5- THE BLASTING AND QUARRYING OF STONE, for Building and other Purposes. With Remarks on the Blowing up of Bride-es. , J?y ^fe?; Sir John BuRGOYNE, Bart., K.C.B. Illustrated, is. 6d. 43. TUBULAR, AND OTHER IRON GIRDER BRIDGES,^^x- ticularly describing the Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges. Bv G Drysdale Dempsey, C.E. Fourth Edition. 2s. 44. FOUNDATIONS AND CONCRETE WORKS, with Practical Remarks' on Footings, Sand, Concrete, Beton, Pile-driving, Caissons, and c r i'f??^^'"^' DoBSON. Fifth Edition, is. 6d. 60. LAND AND ENGINEERING SURVEYING. By T. Baker c«* ztjJd /»°.H-I^ff?i!? Edition, revised by Professor J. R. Young. 2s.t 80*. EMBANKING LANDS FROM THE SEA. With examples rl?j^l'''D'^"rrJ^°,^l5'r,"*l^'",''^"^"«"'''*^'^- By J- Wiggins, F.G.S. 2s. 81. WATER WORKS, for the Supply of Cities and Towns. With a Description of the Principal Geological Formations of England as in- tiuencing Supplies of Water ; and Details of Engines and Pumping Machinerv .tS /^?y'7r'°l;JX^V^A^2r'ly,?rx."^^¥"°"^^'^-G S-'C-E. New Edition. 4s.t 118. CIVIL ENGINEERING IN NORTH AMERICA, a Sketch ,f.^ ?hr^^ ^^^ji^r^T^^^^°^' F.R.S.E., &c. Plates and Diagrams. 3s. 167. IRON BRIDGES, GIRDERS, ROOFS, AND OTHER WORKS. By Francis Campin, C.E. 2s. 6d.t 197- ROADS AND STREETS {THE CONSTRUCTION OF) By Henry Law C.E., revised and enlarged by D. K. Clark, C.E., including pavements of Stone, Wood, Asphalte, &c. 4s. 6d.t 203. SANITARY WORK IN THE SMALLER TOWNS AND IN ^io^45^^'^^V^?y A-^-l^-C-E. Revised Edition. 3s.i 212. gas-works, their CONSTRUCTION and arrange- ment- and the Manufacture and Distribution of Coal Gas. Originally written by Samuel Hughes, C.E. Re-written and enlarged by William VT^\^^l'S- r^^P^\^^^^ Edition, with important additions. 5s. 6d.t 213. PIONEER ENGINEERING. 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