prarfirfll 3P|ofograjp|g: 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY, DEVELOPED FOR 
 AMATEURS AND BEGINNERS. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED, 
 
 in cloth, price 3s., in leather, 3s. 6d., by post 2d. extra. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHERS' POCKET BOOK: 
 
 Containing Register for nearly 1000 Negatives. Compiled by O. E 
 Wheeler, author of " Practical Photography." 
 
 BY O. E. WHEELER. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 " THE BAZAAE" OFFICE, 170, STRAND, W.C. 
 
BEING 
 
 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY, DEVELOPED FOR 
 AMATEURS AND BEGINNERS. 
 
 I LLUSTRATED. 
 
 BY O. E. WHEELER. 
 
 London : 
 
 "THE BAZAAR OFFICE, 170, STRAND, W.C. 
 
LONDON: 
 
 PRINTED BY A. BRADLEY, 170, STRAND, W.C 
 
CHAPTEE I. 
 
 Introductory — What is Photography ? — Light and its 
 composition — Actinism or Eay Force — A simple experi- 
 ment- — A SENSITIVE MATERIAL — WET COLLODION. 
 
 In this and following chapters it is my intention to give in detail an 
 instructive and, as far as is absolutely possible, an exhaustive account of 
 practical photography in all its various branches. At the outset I must call 
 attention to the title of this book. I have used the term "practical" 
 advisedly. I disclaim all ideas of entering on any long historical preface, 
 however interesting that might be. I am sure that all intelligent readers 
 who study these " practical " instructions to their end will have at least 
 sufficient enthusiasm to supply such ornamental addenda for themselves. 
 Nor do I hold forth any hope of giving what is now-a-days the fashion to call 
 ' ' sesthetical commentary." To those who can really appreciate the 
 beauties of so fascinating an art and study as photography, such super- 
 fluities will be unnecessary; to those who cannot, they are useless. 
 After this curt and egotistical introduction, I shall at once enter into my 
 subject, and proceed to give practical and straightforward instructions, 
 by the careful observance of which an intelligent beginner may soon 
 attain, not to mediocrity, but to excellence, which is the true goal and 
 resting place of all the fair pursuits which we possess. 
 
 To begin, then, what is photography ? Photography is the art of 
 writing or producing pictures through the agency of light. The name is 
 derived from two Greek woi'ds, the one signifying " light," the other 
 ".writing" or " engraving." 
 
 A 2 
 
4 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Simple as this definition may seem, it is useless without some explana- 
 tion. This explanation is required by the word "light," which in this 
 case is a general rather than an accurate term. To show this I must 
 commence by a short preface on " light" and its composition. Light, as 
 every one knows, is a powerful element in Nature ; it is composed of rays 
 of different colours, each of which performs a distinct individual func- 
 tion. Thus the red or orange ray has a calorific or heating power ; the 
 yellow possesses an illuminating influence ; while the chemical power, 
 which is instrumental in producing light pictures lies in the blue or violet 
 ray. The thorough comprehension of these simple axioms is the key-note 
 to every branch of photography. The profit arising from it will be per- 
 ceived as the student penetrates deeper and deeper into the mysteries of 
 the art. For the present all that can be gathered is that the prime mover 
 in the so-called art of photography does not exist in light generally, nor 
 even in its illuminating power, but solely in its chemical influence ; this 
 chemical influence or property is technically known as " actinism," a term 
 which is derived from a Greek word signifying a "ray," and which may 
 be freely rendered into the English combination, ray-force. 
 
 Photography (more correctly actinismography) , then, is the art of pro- 
 ducing a picture through the agency of light, or, better, through that of 
 " ray force," which is the chemical or photographic element in light. 
 
 From this theoretical preface I will proceed to find a material on which 
 this " ray force" is to act, and so by the help of a camera and lens, and 
 a convenient medium, such as glass or iron, to produce a photographic 
 picture or image. If an ordinary plate of glass is exposed to any actinic 
 light, however strong, of course no change will take place. The object, 
 then, is to find a material which, when spread over the surface of the 
 glass, will be susceptible to the actinic element in ordinary day light. A 
 simple experiment, if carefully performed (for nothing is more simple, 
 and at the same time requires more care than photography) will give at 
 once a suitable material, and will, moreover, furnish an excellent illustra- 
 tion of what I said above on the composition of light. 
 
 Make a small box with a small hole in it, say about 2in. square; 
 besides this one hole there must be no aperture whatever capable 
 of admitting light. Next procure from any chemist a weak solution 
 (in distilled water, otherwise a milky precipitate will at once be formed, 
 which will detract from the distinctness of the experiment) of nitrate of 
 silver, and a weaker solution of iodide of potassium. Take the box 
 and the two bottles into a darkened room, and by the light of a candle 
 (for there is very little actinic power in a candle flame), pour the iodide 
 of potassium solution into that of nitrate of silver ; almost immediately a 
 dense formation will take place. This formation, chemically known as a 
 
EXPERIMENTS IN ACTINISM. 
 
 5 
 
 precipitate, which is produced by the coalescence, in a certain degree, of 
 a solution of iodide of potassium with one of nitrate of silver, partakes 
 of the nature of both its components, and is hence called iodide of silver. 
 
 Put the bottle containing the precipitate into the box, and cover the 
 aperture closely with a piece of orange or yellow glass, or even with silk or 
 paper of those colours. Sally forth from the darkened room, and place 
 the box, with the bottle inside, in the sun. After it has remained there 
 for a few minutes take it back to the darkened room. It will be found, if 
 the glass or paper has not been moved, that no change whatever will have 
 taken place in the colour of the precipitate. Now remove from the aperture 
 the covering which has thus been proved to be non-actinic (that is, im- 
 pervious to ray force), and sally forth once more. After a few seconds' 
 exposure in the sun the precipitate will turn a rich brown, and if longer 
 exposed to actinic light, will become almost black. This result will 
 establish three most important conclusions : 
 
 (1) That there exists in light an actinic element which is capable of 
 
 producing an impression on certain chemical substances ; 
 
 (2) That if this actinic element is impeded by, or absorbed in, an 
 
 orange or yellow medium, its photographic or chemical influ- 
 ence is rendered null and void ; 
 
 (3) That amongst the chemical substances on which actinic force has 
 
 power to act is iodide of silver. Hence that iodide of silver 
 is a susceptible or sensitive material. 
 
 It will, however, be perceived that although an important sta.ge in the 
 rudimentary principles has been mastered, the sensitive material cannot 
 be applied in this crude condition to the glass plate on which the image is 
 to be impressed. A careful preparation will have to be made, which, 
 from the vessel in which it is contained when in use, is called the sensitis- 
 ing bath. The principle on which it will be prepared has already 
 been laid down; the actual formula will be given in its proper place. 
 Again, granted even that the sensitising bath is already prepared, the 
 plate cannot be sensitised without the aid of a substratum to cause the 
 iodide of silver to adhere tenaciously to the plate. The substratum used 
 in the process which, while it is the first and simplest of all, is the one in 
 almost universal use, is a fluid called collodion. The glass plate is 
 coated with the collodion, which is allowed to set but not to dry. It is 
 then immersed in the bath, in which it is sensitised and made ready for 
 exposure in the camera. 
 
 From this summary of the process it will easily be seen what part 
 collodion plays in the preparation of the plate. The ordinary process, 
 to which I allude above, from the fact that the collodion is not allowed 
 
6 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 to dry before immersion in the sensitising bath, is called a "wet collodion" 
 one, in contradistinction to the various "dry plate " processes, which 
 will be fully discussed in future chapters. For the present " wet collo- 
 dion " will deservedly occupy the amateur's whole attention, and will 
 amply repay all care bestowed upon it by affording a wonderful certainty 
 of result and uniform facility of operation. 
 
 To begin with its manufacture : collodion is gun cotton (pyroxyline), 
 dissolved in nearly equal parts of ether and alcohol. In old manuals of 
 photography elaborate instructions were given relating to the manu- 
 facture of collodion by amateurs ; but the idea has of late been aban- 
 doned. Now that the collodion of the market is an article of real excel- 
 lence in the hands of makers such as Mawson, Thomas, Blanchard, 
 Huggon, and many others, it is worse than useless for an amateur to lay 
 himself open to all kinds of unpleasant contingencies in the manufacture 
 of what, in his hands, will be an inferior article at a very extravagant 
 price. Let him buy his collodion at any well-known repository, and he 
 will be on the safe side. He should not, however, make his purchase 
 even of the first few ounces without some knowledge of its qualities and 
 appearance. 
 
 The first lesson to be learnt is that photographic collodion has to be 
 iodised before it is ready for use. This gives it the pale amber colour 
 which good collodion ought always to have. The amateur can either 
 iodise it himself or purchase it already mixed. Perhaps the latter 
 course, being more convenient and only involving the expenditure of a 
 few extra pence in as many shillings, will recommend itself to the 
 luxurious unprofessional. If, however, he is resolved to be independent 
 even in this small matter, he must bear in mind that collodion newly 
 iodised never works half so well as that which has been mixed for some 
 time. 
 
 This is the last "practical" suggestion I shall offer my readers in 
 Chapter I. The way to coat the plate with collodion, which is the first 
 little difficulty which has to be encountered, will be described later on. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Apparatus, with Descriptive Commentary — Requisite 
 Chemicals and Formula. 
 
 In this chapter I shall give a descriptive list of the various apparatus 
 required by the amateur in photography, together with some brief 
 instructions as to the manner in which he should make his purchases 
 before commencing actual practice. I have striven to make my remarks, 
 especially those on the subject of purchase, acceptable to all classes of 
 readers alike. Moderation is the golden mean between extravagance 
 and parsimony. In photography the latter, as a rule, implies failure, 
 while the former does by no means insure success. Taking moderation 
 then as my general rule, I shall endeavour to show how, by a moderate, 
 but at the same time judicious expenditure, it is possible to procure a 
 complete apparatus which will not only i( do to learn upon," but will 
 also in the hands of a proficient produce results to satisfy the most 
 fastidious critic of the art. 
 
 In the first place, there are in photography certain fixed sizes, to the 
 gauge of which almost all photographic apparatus is manufactured. The 
 three principal of these sizes are : quarter-plate, which is 4iin. by 34in.; 
 half -plate, which is 6^in. by 4fin.; and whole-plate, which is 8^in. by 
 6iin. For these there are certain French symbols, which are as follow : 
 Quarter-plate is represented by i, half -plate by i, and whole-plate by h 
 As reference to these sizes is constant in things photographic, it will 
 be as well to inform the learner that a quarter-plate camera is one, 
 the dark slide of which is constructed to hold a quarter-plate glass, 
 and a quarter -plate lens is one that will produce an image on a sensitive 
 surface of quarter-plate size, and so on. Finally, it is to the gauge of 
 quarter-plate that the following instructions on the head of apparatus 
 will apply. 
 
 The first question to be dealt with is that of the Camera, or chamber, 
 into which the light is transmitted by the lens, before impressing itself 
 in the form of an image upon the plate inside. There are several kinds 
 
8 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 of camera, but they are all constructed on one of two principles, either 
 wholly of wood with a "sliding body " for the purpose of focussing, or 
 with an expanding" concertina-like body of leather. These latter, which 
 from their lightness, are especially adapted for outdoor work, are called 
 from their construction ' ' bellows body ' ' cameras. In most cameras the 
 expansion is effected simply with the hands ; in others which are more 
 finished, it is performed by a neat and handy screw adjustment. This, 
 however, is only necessary in cameras of very large size, and is hardly an 
 advantage in taking pictures below whole plate. A representation of an 
 ordinary bellows body camera, complete with its slides and lens, will be 
 found in Fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. 1. The Bellows Cameba. 
 
 The parts represented by A A and B B are occupied respectively by the 
 dark slide and the focussing screen. The latter is merely a sheet of finely- 
 ground glass, through which the operator scrutinises the object while ad- 
 justing the focus. When in use, it occupies the space marked as holding 
 the dark slide (A A) , for it is of the utmost importance that the sensitised 
 plate contained by the dark slide should be, during exposure, exactly the 
 same distance from the lens as the focussing screen was during the 
 adjustment of the focus. Otherwise the foci would be different and the 
 image on the sensitised plate would be as blurred and indistinct as it 
 was on the screen before the focus was what photographers term " sharp." 
 It must, moreover, be borne in mind, that the ground side of the focussing 
 screen represents the sensitive surface of the plate, and must therefore 
 be turned directly to face the object. 
 
THE DARK SLIDE — LENSES. 
 
 9 
 
 The dark slide is shown separately in Fig. 2. It possesses on one side 
 a hinged lid, kept, when down, in its place by metal checks ; to this is 
 affixed a spring, which keeps the plate rigid during exposure ; on the 
 other it has a sliding shutter moving in grooves, also provided with 
 a hinge and a piece of wood beneath it to prevent the shutter from 
 sliding out altogether. Inside the slide is placed a movable plate-carrier, 
 with corners of silver wire. After the pre- 
 paration of the plate in the dark room the 
 shutter is pushed down, the lid is opened, 
 the sensitised platens allowed to rest on the 
 wire corners of the plate carrier, and the lid 
 closed down to keep out the light ; when the 
 dark slide is in its place in the camera, the 
 cap is placed on the lens and the hinged 
 shutter is drawn up and allowed to lean for- 
 ward, as in Fig. 1. The cap is then removed, 
 and after due exposure replaced ; the shutter 
 is pushed down, and the slide is borne off to 
 the dark room to be developed. Such is the ^ 2 The Dark Slide< 
 construction and use of the dark slide. The 
 
 dark slide of an ordinary quarter-plate camera usually contains two 
 movable plate carriers, or, as they are sometimes called, inner frames, 
 one to hold a plate of \ size, the other to hold a smaller one, 3^in. by 
 2fin. (£). A new ^-plate bellows body camera of polished mahogany costs 
 at a good " repository " from 25s. to 30s. 
 
 In front of the camera is fixed a brass flange (Fig. 1, C C), into which 
 is screwed the body of the lens. The ordinary ' 4 combination ' ' lens 
 used for taking portraits consists of two compound achromatic lenses, 
 mounted in a brass tube, with rack and pinion adjustment. In most 
 modern portrait combinations there is a simple and ingenious device 
 by which the back lens can be taken out, and the front one, being 
 reversed and screwed into the place left vacant by its companion, 
 may be, used for copying or taking views. This is sometimes a 
 great advantage, as it secures an image of the same size at about half the 
 distance from, the object required by a portrait combination. In Fig. 1, 
 at the points D D, there is a slit cut in the tube containing the lenses, 
 into which is inserted a piece of thin metal with a round hole in the centre. 
 These little perforated pieces of metal are most important items in photo- 
 graphy, and from their inventor's name are called Waterhouse dia- 
 phragms or stops. They are made with the centre holes of different sizes, 
 and are employed to concentrate the rays of light in the course of their 
 transmission through the lens. They thus bring objects into focus which, 
 
10 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 without their assistance, would otherwise form a blurred and unsightly 
 foreground, or would spoil the picture by making the background hazy 
 and indistinct. The chief thing to be remembered in their use is that the 
 smaller the stop employed the sharper will be the picture, and the longer 
 must be the exposure of the plate. A good English quarter-plate lens, 
 complete, with rack and pinion adjustment, and a set of Waterhouse dia- 
 phragms of different sizes, can be purchased for from thirty-five to fifty 
 shillings. Fair lenses, it is true, can be bought for much less, especially 
 those of French manufacture ; but it is as well to stipulate for 
 * ' approval " before actual purchase in such cases. The same remark 
 applies to lenses procured promiscuously at low secondhand prices. 
 
 After disposing of the two most important questions, viz., those of 
 the camera and lens, I come to the tripod stand, which is used to support 
 the camera when in use. An ordinary ashen tripod with a solid round top 
 may be purchased for a very few shillings, and will serve the beginner, 
 for all practical purposes, quite as well as a more expensive one with 
 movable legs, &c. I shall take another opportunity for describing the 
 very ingenious tripod lately invented and patented by Mr. Kennett, as 
 its price, which is 26s., will hardly bring it within the reach of a beginner. 
 
 After this must be procured a focussing cloth of some dark stuff, which, 
 if it be not within the limits of home resources, can be purchased of good 
 quality for about half -a-cr own. 
 
 The next indispensable is a number of glass plates of a size to suit the 
 camera . There are several kinds of glass employed by photographers, of 
 which the best is " patent plate." A very good medium kind for 
 beginners is "best polished sheet," of which a gross of plates of quarter 
 size costs only 7s. or 8s. 
 
 The sensitising bath, with its case or stand and dipper, together with 
 dishes, cups, bottles, rods, leathers, cloths, &c, &c, I shall, for the sake 
 of convenience, consider as belonging to the " dark room and its 
 appurtenances/ ' a full description of which will form Chapter III. 
 
 From these I must turn in anticipation to the process of printing 
 from the negatives upon prepared sensitised paper. For this^ will be 
 required a few American pegs from which to suspend the paper while 
 drying from immersion in the sensitising solution ; also a pair of wooden 
 forceps to keep the paper evenly immersed, and to remove it without 
 using the fingers. 
 
 In the actual process of printing, a few teak printing frames will be 
 necessary. Quarter-plate frames without glass fronts, maybe bought for 
 about a shilling a-piece. 
 
 When their share in the printing is performed the negatives can be 
 conveniently stored in white wood boxes made for the purpose, with 
 
CHEMICALS. 
 
 11 
 
 grooved sides, to prevent the faces of the negatives from being scratched. 
 Those boxes, which are very cheap (one grooved to hold fifty negatives 
 costing but 2s), are handy also to keep the clean glass plates in before 
 sensitising. 
 
 A set of scales and weights completes the list of apparatus, which may 
 be enlarged, or, perhaps (but to no great extent) , cut down to suit the 
 taste and means of the beginner. 
 
 I shall now proceed to give a list of the necessary chemicals, together 
 with formulae, for the various requisite solutions. These last should be 
 carefully preserved, as they are easily forgotten, and from any unforeseen 
 accident may be required at any time. I also advise my readers to copy 
 out on an imposing card the table of Apothecaries' weight, and learn it 
 thoroughly, signs and all. This course will save them much trouble in 
 their future photographic career, and much waste of valuable time will 
 thereby be avoided. 
 
 In laying in a stock of chemicals for his photographic laboratory, there 
 is only one course open to the amateur, and that is to get every article 
 of the very best quality that the market will produce. There is seldom 
 any difference between the price of good and bad chemicals ; the 
 difference lies in the places at which they are to be purchased. On this 
 subject a word in season may save trouble and expense. Local chemists 
 should for the most part be eschewed, unless they are known to be in a 
 large way of business and to deal only in first-rate articles ; a small 
 chemist seldom keeps the more essentially photographic chemicals in 
 stock, and perhaps keeps you a week in utter helplessness for want of 
 two or three indispensable grains. The advice conveyed in this may, 
 of course, be overruled in the case of common every-day chemicals, such as 
 carbonate of soda and several others ; but the more important and 
 essential ones, such as recrystallised nitrate of silver, &c, should be 
 procured either at one of the many excellent photographic repositories, 
 or from some large manufacturing chemist in town. 
 
 The following is a list of the chemicals employed in the ordinary wet 
 collodion process, in the order in which they will be required, together 
 with most of the formulae for the proper composition of the various 
 solutions. 
 
 Collodion, and its nature, I have already explained (Chap. I.). I have, 
 however, omitted one point in connection with it, which deserves to be 
 mentioned. In producing pictures upon glass there are two distinct 
 features. One consists in simply obtaining an image on the glass without 
 any view of further utilising it except for the sake of ornament ; this, 
 as the glass is reversed, presents when framed a 'positive picture to the 
 eye, and is called the positive process. In the second process the 
 
12 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 operator's aim is to procure a negative picture on the glass, which, by 
 "printing," may be transferred positively to prepared paper. Though 
 the latter (since, from a good negative any number of photographs may 
 be printed) is naturally the more attractive process, the amateur, as a 
 rule, is supposed to confine himself for a short time to the taking of 
 positives, in order to get accustomed to the various preliminary opera- 
 tions, which require some little practice. In " positive " work a few of 
 the requisite chemicals are different to those used in the negative pro- 
 cess. The first discrepancy arises in the collodion. In former times the 
 same collodion was equally applicable to both ; but now that negative 
 collodion is frromo-iodized to gain additional density, it is necessary to 
 use for positives another and a special kind. "Positive " collodion can 
 be bought in any quantity at all the "shops." I would advise the 
 amateur to begin by purchasing a small bottle of "positive collodion, con- 
 taining, perhaps, five fluid ounces, and two bottles of the same size of 
 ready-prepared bromo-iodized negative collodion. The first will serve 
 him to waste in the mistakes of his apprenticeship, and the others with 
 due care ought to last for some time. An excellent all-round negative 
 collodion is manufactured by Messrs. Mawson and Swan, and can be 
 bought anywhere for about sixpence per fluid ounce. Many photographers 
 prefer to mix it in equal quantities with that manufactured by some other 
 well known maker, such as Thomas, but that is a point which lies 
 entirely within the operator's discretion. The collodion can either be 
 kept in a corked or stoppered bottle, but care must be taken not to leave 
 the bottle open for any length of time, as the ether is subject to rapid 
 evaporation, and the liquid shortly attains the consistency of luke-warm 
 glue. The operator must also remember before pouring the collodion on 
 to the plate to wipe off from the lip of the bottle all the refuse that from 
 the evaporation of the ether has coagulated or set around it. To obviate 
 this last difficulty a handy stoppered bottle is sold, having a kind of 
 second rim, which catches the refuse drops, and leaves the real mouth of 
 the bottle quite clean and free from any coagulation. 
 
 After the collodion I come to the Sensitising Bath, which is a question 
 of very great importance. The chief ingredient in its composition is, of 
 course, nitrate of silver. This should he bought " recrystallised, " as it 
 is in this state more fit tor photographic uses than that ordinarily sold 
 by local chemists. The beginner should buy about three ounces of this 
 somewhat expensive article, as it will be required frequently in future 
 operations, such as renewing the bath, intensification, and sensitising the 
 albumenised paper. An ounce of iodide of potassium, and the same 
 quantity of nitrate of baryta, should be purchased at the same time. Of 
 glacial acetic acid (solid at 50°) five fluid ounces had better be procured, 
 
SENSITISING BATHS. 
 
 13 
 
 as it is used also in the developer, and is sometimes handy to rescue the 
 bath from alkalinity. Finally, a large bottle of distilled water will be 
 required, which it is best to buy at the shops. Instead of distilled 
 water boiled rain water can be used with success. 
 
 In the sensitising bath, as well as in the collodion, there is some 
 difference in the formulae employed for positives and negatives. This it 
 is as well to lay a stress on, if the amateur is going to make the positives a 
 special study ; but if he only takes it up, say for a week, to get his hand 
 in, it is hardly worth while to prepare a separate bath, which will have 
 to be thrown aside and prepared anew when negatives are to be attempted ; 
 especially when the negative bath, if properly manipulated, produces 
 quite as good a picture as is required to show the beginner " how it is 
 done," and to make him anxious for higher nights. However, to please 
 everyone, I give the following formula (the best I know of) for the 
 
 Positive Sensitising Bath. 
 
 Eecrystallised nitrate of silver ioz. 
 
 Distilled water 8oz. 
 
 Positive collodion 1 drop. 
 
 Shake well and filter ; add two drops of nitric acid, and the bath is ready. 
 
 The sensitising bath is kept, when in use, in a porcelain vessel 
 specially made for the purpose. When not in use it may be kept in a 
 stoppered bottle. A quarter-plate bath contains generally about 8oz. 
 of the sensitising solution, which should be carefully made up according 
 to the above proportions. 
 
 The formula for the negative bath is somewhat more comprehensive, 
 and is as follows : 
 
 Negative Sensitising Bath. 
 
 Sol. I. Eecrystallised nitrate of silver ... loz. 
 
 Distilled water 2oz. 
 
 Sol. II. Iodide of potassium lgr. 
 
 Distilled water loz. 
 
 Mix the two solutions, and shake until the iodide precipitate disappears ; then 
 add a solution of 2grs. of nitrate of baryta in 9oz. of distilled water, and filter 
 carefully. 
 
 When the plate has left the sensitising bath an important stage of the 
 proceedings is completed. The plate is then exposed in the camera, 
 and after exposure is brought back to the dark room. Apparently it 
 has undergone no change whatever ; but a very great and mysterious 
 change indeed has in reality been effected. The plate, through the action 
 of light, has been impressed with an image which for the present is a 
 
14 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 latent one. This latent image requires to be developed, an operation 
 which, in the case of positives, is effected by the following solution : 
 
 Positive Developer. 
 
 Proto-sulphate of iron lOOgr. 
 
 Glacial acetic acid ^oz. 
 
 Spirits of wine ^oz. 
 
 Nitric acid . 4 drops. 
 
 Water lOoz. 
 
 In the case of negatives by 
 
 Negative Developer. 
 
 Proto-sulphate of iron „ |oz. 
 
 Glacial acetic acid |oz. 
 
 Spirits of wine £oz. 
 
 Water 8oz. 
 
 For the developing solution, as it is in constant requirement, about 
 £lb. of sulphate of iron, together with 5oz. or 6oz. of spirits of wine, 
 should be procured. In time the developer becomes quite brown, 
 assuming the colour of brandy, but this, if the developer is made up in 
 moderately small quantities, effects no deterioration of the slightest 
 consequence. 
 
 With the application of the developer, if the exposure has been correct, 
 the image gradually appears. But it not unfrequently happens in 
 negatives that the image after development is a weak one, lacking 
 gradation and contrast, and exhibiting insufficient difference between 
 light and shade. This is open to be remedied by a process called 
 intensification, for which a standard formula is — 
 Intensifying Solution. 
 
 Pyrogallic acid lOgr. 
 
 Citric acid 25gr. 
 
 Distilled water 5oz. 
 
 A portion of this is poured over the plate and allowed to drain back 
 into the glass ; it is then mixed with a few drops of a solution composed 
 of 
 
 Nitrate of silver 20gr. 
 
 Distilled water 2oz. 
 
 The amateur should buy English pyrogallic acid, as that manufactured 
 in France is of inferior quality. 
 
 After intensification comes what is virtually the last operation, and that 
 is to fix the image so as to render it unassailable by the further action of 
 light. This is done by either of the two following 
 Fixing Solutions. 
 
 I. Hyposulphite of soda ... 4oz. 
 
 Water 5oz. 
 
 Or 
 
 II. Cyanide of potassium |oz. 
 
 Water... lOoz. 
 
VARNISHING — PRINTING. 
 
 15 
 
 I myself prefer the latter, but it should be used with the greatest 
 caution ; it contains a large proportion of cyanogen (the chief component 
 of prussic acid), and is a most deadly poison. In positives it should be 
 used in preference to "hypo," but in negatives the amateur may take 
 his choice. 
 
 After fixing, the positive should be varnished to prevent its being 
 scratched. The negative should undergo the same operation if it is a 
 good one, and likely to be called on to furnish a large number of prints. 
 Spirit varnish, as adapted to photography, can be purchased anywhere at 
 a small cost. Five ounces will last for a very long time, as the surplus 
 can always be poured back into the bottle like collodion. 
 
 The above will be all that is necessary to take a good positive or 
 negative. When this is done all anxiety is over. The paper printing in 
 the negative process, though in itself important, is quite a secondary 
 matter. In fact, it is by far the best course for the amateur to send his 
 good negatives to a professional printer, who will produce prints far 
 better and cheaper than the unprofessional beginner. Nevertheless, I 
 should by all means advise the latter to familiarise himself with the 
 details of the process, and to this end will give a list of the few chemicals, 
 &c, he will require. The formulae I shall reserve for a further chapter, 
 which will be entirely devoted to the art of producing prints on paper 
 from negatives of all kinds. 
 
 Naturally, the first question in paper printing is the paper. This is to 
 be bought ready albumenised or coated with albumen, the most general 
 form of which is the white of an egg. A quire of albumenised paper 
 should be procured, and care should be taken to get it of good quality. 
 To sensitise it, nitrate of silver will be needed, together with an ounce of 
 kaolin. In toning the prints the chief agent is chloride of gold. This is 
 bought in little tubes containing 15grs. An ounce of acetate of soda and 
 the same quantity of carbonate of soda will be requisite. To fix the print, 
 hyposulphite of soda is used. The last necessary will be a small cake of 
 Indian ink, to touch up any spots in the finished print. 
 
 Now that the apparatus and chemicals are disposed of, there only 
 remains one more ' ' rudiment, ' ' and that is the equipment of the dark 
 room, which will form the subject of my next chapter. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Dark Eoom and its Appurtenances. 
 
 What the library is to the student or the laboratory to the chemist, 
 the dark room is to the photographer. In it his operations are begun 
 and ended ; it is his workshop and storeroom in one. For this reason 
 any imperfection in its construction or equipment may lay its possessor 
 open to an almost endless train of difficulties and vexatious failures ; 
 while, on the other hand, a little preliminary care and judgment will 
 insure a degree of comfort and success which any future additions or 
 alterations will seldom bring. 
 
 To define a dark room technically, it may be said to be a chamber 
 free from the ingress of actinic light, where certain operations in which 
 actinic light ceases to be a useful agent and begins to exercise a destructive 
 influence, may safely be performed. It will be necessary before selecting 
 or constructing a dark room, and especially before furnishing it with 
 suitable appurtenances, to enumerate what, in the ordinary wet collodion 
 process, these " dark " operations will be. They are performed in the 
 following order : (1) Sensitising the plate, and transferring it from the 
 sensitising bath to the dark slide ; (2) Development ; (3) Intensification. 
 And in the process of paper printing : (1) Storing the prints before 
 trimming and toning ; (2) Trimming, and toning them in the bath of 
 chloride of gold. Keeping these five ' £ powers of darkness ' ' in view, let 
 us consider in what kind of chamber, and with what appurtenances they 
 may successfully and conveniently be dealt with. 
 
 Naturally its shape and position are the first points for deliberation. 
 These for an amateur must nearly always be matters of circumstance. 
 A professional would have his dark room specially constructed to adjoin 
 his glass house or studio ; but as the amateur's dark room is generally 
 an ordinary chamber or outhouse adapted to a purpose for which it 
 was not originally intended, and his glass house nothing more than a 
 vision of the future, he must be content to waive the questions of shape 
 and situation, and compensate for all exterior imperfections by extra 
 attendance to interior comforts. If, however, he is fortunate enough 
 
THE DARK ROOM. 
 
 17 
 
 to be offered a choice, let him secure on the ground-floor (or, what is 
 more reasonable, among the outhouses) an oblong room not less than 
 12ft. long by 6ft. broad. I have purposely named a large size, because 
 it is my opinion that a beginner, especially in a delicate art like photo- 
 graphy, should be always allowed plenty of room. It will be a long 
 time before he can arrange his bottles and apparatus (to say nothing of 
 his ideas) with anything like method ; and by the time he has accom- 
 plished that, he will be seized with a frantic desire to attempt some- 
 thing new — dry-plate photography, the manufacture of emulsions, and 
 the like. All this will require extra space, and if the space is not ready 
 to his hand the impatient tyro will be plunged into confusion and despair. 
 The photographer should remember also that compounds like collodion 
 cannot fail to vitiate a too-confined atmosphere, and that a few square 
 feet gained in compactness are poor substitutes for the loss of comfort 
 and health. My own photographic sanctum comprises two rooms, one 
 opening into the other. In the inner one, which is of considerable size, I 
 collodionise and sensitise my plates ; in the outer there is a tap and sink 
 at which I develop, intensify, and fix. By this method I keep my 
 inner room almost entirely free from dust and impurities, and ready 
 at all times for any experiments I may wish to make. As a hint to 
 brother-amateurs, I may remark that these two rooms were originally 
 nothing more or less than the washhouse and ironing room of a laundry. 
 The scene of my first attempts was an unoccupied harness room ; this, 
 however, I was soon forced to leave, from the absence of a sufficient and 
 convenient supply of water, and from the presence of a most unnecessary 
 supply of dust. Talking of dust, the first thing to be thought of 
 after choosing a dark room is to render it as free as possible from this 
 inveterate foe to photography. Cobwebs and all such abominations 
 must be carefully removed, and never allowed to appear again. If 
 the floor seems likely to give trouble, it should be covered with some 
 smooth substance, such as ordinary oil cloth. 
 
 And now I come to the lighting of the dark room. This seems a 
 rank Hibernicism, but careful readers will have discovered that dark- 
 ness may certainly in this case be relieved by light, provided it be of 
 a non-actinic kind. Yellow and orange glass, cloth, or paper can easily 
 be obtained, according to the taste of the purchaser. The best place for 
 the window in the ideal room I am describing is one of the ends ; if the 
 door opens into one of these ends, the window should be inserted by 
 its side, about four feet from the floor. This, as will soon be shown, allows 
 an oblique light to be cast on the plate during development, a process in 
 which a good light is required to judge when it is complete, or whether 
 intensification will be necessary. A square foot of ruby glass makes a 
 
 B 
 
18 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 perfect window, which will give ample light, and, if procured of proper 
 quality, be completely impervious to actinic force. This glass should 
 be fixed in a sash, and the whole window should be made to open like 
 the port-holes of a ship. Thus, while the plate is being sensitised, the 
 fumes of the collodion can be allowed to escape ; the same course can 
 be adopted while fixing, if that operation be performed with cyanide of 
 potassium in preference to hyposulphite of soda. If yellow or orange 
 glass is not used, a good non-actinic light can be obtained by pasting 
 two or three thicknesses of orange paper over panes of ordinary glass. 
 
 An excellent suggestion concerning the light of the dark room is offered 
 in the Almanac of the British Journal of Photography for 1878, by 
 Mr. Werge, the proprietor of the well-known photographic repository in 
 Berners-street. His plan is to place over the orange or yellow light of 
 the window a piece of green glass, which, while neutralising the un- 
 pleasant ocular effect which yellow and orange possess, does not interfere 
 with their non-actinic property. Those who are eternally flitting in and 
 out of their dark room, as amateurs invariably do, will soon perceive the 
 value of this sound and practical suggestion. 
 
 Failing a window of any kind, a lamp or a candle may be employed, 
 but the light should be mitigated by a non-actinic shade, especially when 
 the plates are extra- sensitive. . 
 
 The furniture of the dark room is a very simple matter. It should con- 
 sist simply of a strong deal table, running, if possible, the whole length 
 of the wall. Underneath should be a common cupboard, in which stock 
 solutions, &c, may be kept. The stock solution of the developer may 
 be made up and kept in a Winchester or a Corbyn quart; and the 
 collodion either as it is purchased, or in tall bottles with narrow necks, 
 so as to allow all impurities to sink to the bottom, and to prevent 
 evaporation while decanting into the smaller bottle employed in every-day 
 practice. Hyposulphite of soda and other crystals should be kept in 
 saturated solutions, so as to be ready, by merely adding water, for 
 immediate use. Cyanide of potassium, for fear of accidents, whether in 
 solution or otherwise, should always be kept in a distinguishable bottle and 
 clearly labelled " Poison." 
 
 At the end of the table, directly under the window, there should be 
 fixed a sink, at which, after exposure, the plate can be developed and 
 washed. A good plan is to have this made of porcelain, with a plug 
 ground to fit the waste pipe. The sink can then be used for washing 
 prints and other incidental operations ; it will be especially useful, as 
 will be seen, in dry-plate and Autotype work. In the middle of it 
 should be placed a small basin, which will serve a double purpose: 
 first, to rest the plate on during washing and to afford relief to the 
 
APPURTENANCES OF THE DARK ROOM. 
 
 19 
 
 fingers ; secondly, to serve as a receptacle for the residues of silver in 
 the processes of development and intensification. These residues, to- 
 gether with odd slips of sensitised paper and other scraps contained silver 
 or gold, can be disposed of to professed assayers, and a marked saving 
 realised by the economical operator. Above the sink should be an ordi- 
 nary, gently-running tap. If water is not laid on, a jug can be employed, 
 or what is better, a filter placed on a strong shelf a little over the 
 sink. The waste can be led away to a tub or bucket, which, when full, 
 can be carried off and replaced empty. Around the sink should stand the 
 developing, intensifying, and fixing solutions, together with the measures 
 into which the first two are respectively poured before they are flowed over 
 the plate. For the developer a loz. measure and a funnel of the same 
 capacity will be required ; for the intensifier, a smaller measure to con- 
 tain, say, half a fluid ounce, will be necessary. If cyanide be used for 
 fixing, it can be poured on from the bottle ; if hyposulphite be preferred, 
 the solution should be prepared and administered in a dish. 
 
 At the dark end of the table should stand the prominent feature of the 
 operating room — the sensitising bath. This can be of glass, porcelain, or 
 ebonite. It may rest in an oblique position, either on a stand or in a 
 case with a cover to keep off the dust. A porcelain bath, with a lip, in 
 a plain deal case, is perhaps as well fitted for a beginner's room as a more 
 expensive air-tight one in a polished and brass-bound case of mahogany. 
 
 The plate is let down into the bath by means of an instrument called 
 a dipper. The best dippers are made of pure silver, but one of common 
 glass, fluted to prevent capillary attraction, will, for all practical pur- 
 poses, be amply sufficient. Near the bath should stand the collodion 
 bottle, and one or two sheets of blotting paper on which to drain the sen- 
 sitised plate before transferring it to the dark slide. 
 
 On the space between the bath and the sink may be placed the 
 chemical chest, together with a few incidental necessaries in the way of 
 apparatus, &c. Two or three porcelain dishes will be required in the 
 process of paper-printing, also a few glass rods for stirring. Filtering 
 papers ad lib., with a small pestle and mortar and a spirit lamp, are 
 always being wanted. Dusters the operator must please himself about, 
 but he must take care they are clean and always ready to his hand. He 
 must remember also to procure a soft chamois leather and a camel's 
 hair brush for cleaning the plates. 
 
 With these minor "appurtenances," which each person must regulate 
 according to his taste and requirement, I will end the present chapter. 
 
 B 2 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Commencement of Operations — Positives on Glass — Pouring 
 on Collodion — The Plate Sensitised — The Final 
 Focus — Exposure — Development — Fixing, &c. 
 
 The object of the instructions which have preceded this commencement 
 of operations has been to prepare my readers both mentally and materi- 
 ally for the results, to which it will henceforth be their object to attain. 
 These prefatory instructions are now complete, and the time has come 
 to put their reliability to the test of actual practice ; and suggestions 
 relating to the purchase of apparatus or chemicals will now be suc- 
 ceeded by a detailed account of their use and of the results which they 
 unite to procure. 
 
 I have already explained (Chapter II.) that photographic pictures are 
 of two general kinds, positive and negative. The former of these being, 
 as I remarked at the same time, the one on which the beginner usually 
 tries his " 'prentice" hand, my first object shall be to teach him how to 
 produce a positive picture. This again may be accomplished in two 
 ways : either with the help of a glass or a metal plate. Positives on 
 metal are called ferrotypes, and will receive special mention shortly. For 
 the present, I shall describe how to produce a positive image on a pre- 
 pared plate of glass. 
 
 Before attempting the operations, let the operator assure himself that 
 he is thoroughly prepared to carry them out without intermediate delay. 
 Let his dark room be neat and as free from dust as possible, his bottles 
 and apparatus methodically arranged and ready for use, and his solutions 
 carefully made up and distributed in their respective vessels. The 
 slightest speck of dust must not appear on his lens or be allowed to 
 hover in the inside of his camera. In fine, every implement he is about 
 to employ should be scrupulously clean and in its allotted place. 
 
 The photographer's next care should be the object on which he is 
 resolved to exercise his skill. His, her, or its position is a matter of 
 great importance, which will have a material effect on the finished 
 
POSING— FOCUSING. 
 
 21 
 
 picture. The question of "pose," however, depends so much upon the 
 appearance and firmness of the sitter, that I must leave it altogether 
 to the operator's discretion and artistic taste. Perhaps an occasional 
 look through an album of high-class portraits, and a comparison 
 between them and his own attempts in this line, may benefit the beginner 
 far more than any general rules. With regard to the "situation" of 
 the object, if the performance is to be conducted in the open air, I can 
 recommend no more useful "property" than a common garden seat, con- 
 structed of rough-hewn logs, which, from its unstudied appearance and 
 freedom from artificiality, has always a pleasing effect. The question 
 of "lighting" is not so important in the positive as in the negative 
 process, where the delicate paper-print is especially sensitive to effects of 
 light and shade. There is one mistake, however, that must particularly 
 be avoided, and that is working with the sun in front of the lens ; if not 
 at the operator's back, it should be at his side, but never shining in his 
 face. Windy days should be eschewed, as a disturbed ribbon, or even 
 lock of hair, may frequently spoil a picture. 
 
 I will suppose now that the object is gracefully, appropriately, and 
 conveniently posed, and that at as nearly a suitable distance as can be 
 guessed, the camera and lens, resting on their tripod stand, are directed 
 towards it. It is now time to obtain the general focus. Insert in the 
 groove shortly to be occupied by the dark slide (which should have 
 been left meanwhile in the dark room) the focusing screen, and throwing 
 the focusing-cloth over your head and shoulders, scrutinise the object 
 carefully through the ground-glass plate. If necessary, move the camera 
 and tripod backwards or forwards, as the case may be, until some sort 
 of image is apparent. To obviate the troublesome delay that this usually 
 causes the beginner, it is a good plan to focus the seat carefully before 
 the sitter is called upon to occupy it. When the image is about the 
 size required, complete the general focus by moving either the sliding or 
 bellows body of the camera until the object is as distinct as possible. 
 This will do for the present, and, cautioning the sitter to make no 
 material movement in the position you have determined upon, you can 
 now retire to the dark room to prepare the plate. 
 
 On reaching the dark room, you must take especial pains to clean 
 the glass plate which you are about to use for the picture. There 
 are innumerable formulae for plate -cleaning solutions, all more or less 
 efficacious, which the amateur can adopt or not as he pleases. For myself 
 I find that first a thorough rinsing under the tap, and then a little alcohol 
 or dry tripoli powder well rubbed on and off with a piece of chamois 
 leather, or a clean handkerchief, will brighten the most obstinate plate, 
 provided it be of good quality. After whisking off with a camel-hair 
 
22 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 brush any minute particles of dust that may have settled on the plate, it 
 will be ready to be collodionised. 
 
 A correspondent, an old amateur, sends me the following particulars 
 of his plan of plate cleaning, which, he says, he has, in a lengthened 
 experience, found to answer admirably : — " Take, say, a dozen or any 
 number of plates, and, after rinsing and washing them well in hot 
 water, rubbing them the while with a piece of rag, place them for a 
 few hours in a weak solution of hydro-chloric acid ; I usually leave 
 them in this a night. This done, mix some whitening with water, to the 
 consistency of Devonshire cream. Take a plate out of the acid solution, 
 just dip it in water to remove the acid ; then, with the finger or soft 
 brush, daub on the whitening, cover both sides of the plates and the 
 edges with this material. It should be laid on just thick enough to cover 
 the glass, but too much is better than too little. Now stand, or rather 
 lean, the plate against a wall on a shelf or any other convenient place, 
 out of the dust, to dry. All the plates are to be treated in the same way, 
 and laid aside to dry. When perfectly dry they may be put together and 
 wrapped in paper, where they are left till wanted. When a plate is 
 required for use, gently rub off the whitening with a clean soft rag, or a 
 piece of soft paper will do. Eub it off the edges the same way, being 
 careful to touch the plate no more than is necessary with the fingers. 
 The whitening is removed in half a minute, and when this is done you 
 have only to give the plate a little gentle polishing with a clean chamois 
 leather, or a piece of cotton wool. It will then be found that the plate 
 has a beautifully clean and highly polished surface. If a sprinkling of 
 the whitening be left on the plate, the gentle application of the chamois 
 or cotton wool will remove it. The advantages of cleaning the plates 
 thus may be summed up as follows : Any number of plates can be cleaned 
 and coated with the whitening days, weeks, or months before they are 
 wanted for use; when wanted they can be made ready at a minute's 
 notice, and when ready they are thoroughly clean. It is very 
 advantageous, too, not to have to moisten the plates just before 
 collodionising. ' ' 
 
 Pouring on the collodion is a difficulty which the beginner needs some 
 little practice to overcome, and as such requires some explanation. 
 Those who have never seen it properly performed will learn more readily 
 from the accompanying illustration (Fig. 3) than from any description, 
 which from its prolixity would be confusing. 
 
 Taking, then, the wood-cut as a reference, proceed as follows : — Hold 
 the plate level by the corner (A) between the finger and thumb of the left 
 hand ; from the bottle in the right hand pour a stream of collodion which 
 you judge to be of sufficient volume, when spread, to cover the plate 
 
THE PLATE SENSITISED. 23 
 
 with some small surplus. Let the stream fall on the plate between the 
 corners B and C, at a point inclined to the centre, E. Tilt the plate 
 slightly to allow the deposit to flow to B and C ; to prevent its running 
 over the edges, again tilt it, this time towards the hand which holds it, 
 and let the collodion flow down in a steady stream to the corner (A) ; then, 
 before it has time to touch the thumb, tilt the plate a third time and let 
 the surplus run off from the corner D into the mouth of the bottle held 
 to receive it in the right hand as before. As the surplus collodion flows 
 back into the bottle, rock the plate slightly to prevent the thin film 
 which remains from setting in ' ' crapy ' ' lines upon the plate. With a 
 very little practice the whole of this operation can be performed with 
 great dexterity, and without wasting a single drop of collodion, in a 
 fraction of the time it takes to describe it. 
 
 Fig. 3. Pouring on Collodion. 
 
 If the collodion be poured from any but a " cometless " bottle, before 
 pouring, the finger should be passed round the mouth to clear away the 
 refuse which has, from the speedy evaporation of the ether, set round it 
 either since the last pouring or during the decanting from the stock bottle 
 to the one in everyday use. 
 
 When the collodion is set (but not dry) in an even film all over the 
 plate it is ready to be sensitised in the sensitising bath. Holding the 
 plate still by the corner between the finger and thumb of the left hand, 
 remove with the right the cover from the case containing the bath and 
 dipper. Pull up the dipper and let the plate rest, collodion side up- 
 wards, upon the ledge at the bottom ; then plunge the dipper with the 
 plate resting upon it slowly and steadily to the bottom of the bath. Be 
 particularly careful not to hesitate for the tenth part of a second in the 
 downward movement of the hand which lets down the plate into the 
 bath. If you do, the plate will not be evenly sentitised, and a line will 
 be seen across the plate at the point where the movement was stopped. 
 
24 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 When the end of the dipper safely rests on the bottom of the bath, put 
 on the cover and rest from your exertions. If you find the fumes of the 
 collodion too powerful, open the window and take a good breath of fresh 
 air. When the plate has been in the bath about a minute, take off the 
 cover and gently move the dipper a few times up and down. This will 
 cause a disturbance of the solution and prevent greasy lines from forming 
 on the film. Again put on the cover and prepare the dark slide for the 
 reception of the sensitised plate. If the slide is not specially made with a 
 groove to allow the plate to drain, it is best to place small pads of 
 blotting paper over the two lower silver wire corners of the plate carrier. 
 When this is done, and the plate has been in the bath from two to four 
 minutes (according to the heat or coldness of the weather), lift up the 
 dipper, and taking the plate by the corner at which it was held before, lift 
 it off and allow it to drain on to a piece of blotting paper. The dipper 
 may be returned to the bath and the cover replaced to exclude all dust. 
 When the plate has been drained it should be transferred to the dark 
 slide, the corners of the plate resting upon the corresponding corners 
 of the plate-carrier. The lid of the slide, which is fitted with a spring 
 to keep the plate rigid and in its place, is now shut down, and the plate 
 is ready for exposure. 
 
 When the lid of the dark slide has been closed down and prevented 
 from suddenly opening by the adjustment of two metal checks, the 
 plate can be carried with impunity into the open light to await exposure in 
 the camera. If, however, the sun be very powerful, the slide should be 
 carried under the coat or wrapped up in the focusing cloth. The oper- 
 ator should also take care not to allow the shutter to slip, and so to give 
 entrance to a current of light. 
 
 When the spot where the camera stands i3 reached, the slide should be 
 set down, and the final focus secured. If the sitter has made no material 
 movement since the general focus was obtained, and the image is still 
 distinct, this can be done by manipulating the rack and pinion adjustment 
 of the lens until the image is perfectly defined and " sharp " in the part 
 or parts which are to be reproduced. If it is desired to obtain a full- 
 length portrait or the reproduction of any object the distances of which, 
 when viewed through the screen, are not equally "in focus,' ' a diaphragm 
 or ' c stop ' ' should be inserted between the lenses, to concentrate the light 
 and to render the foreground and background of an object as clear (in 
 reasonable proportion) as the object itself. If rapidity is required, and 
 perfect definition is of no greab consequence provided a good likeness of 
 any particular portion be obtained, a diaphragm (or at least one with a 
 very small perforation) need not be employed, as, while its use increases 
 the definition, at the same time it adds to the necessary length of the 
 
DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 25 
 
 exposure. The "stop " can also be dispensed with in taking vignettes or 
 head-and- shoulder pictures, but in full-leDgths, groups, and landscapes, 
 it will be found in the case of ordinary lenses, an invaluable addition. 
 
 When the focusing is fairly settled, the focusing screen can be drawn 
 out and set on one slide, and in the groove left vacant by it the dark slide 
 inserted. Now, supposing the cap to be still on the lens, steadily draw up 
 the shutter of the slide and allow it, when the hinge is reached, to lean 
 forward towards the lenses. If the light is strong, it is as well to per- 
 form this operation under cover of the focusing cloth, as the opened 
 hinge frequently forms a chink by which the outer light can freely enter. 
 Caution the sitter to remain quite motionless (except as to his or her 
 eyes, which should be blinked freely, otherwise a fixed and unpleasant 
 stare will be the result) and remove the cap as quietly as possible from 
 the lens. 
 
 On the question of exposure I can give no fixed instructions. Length 
 of exposure varies as the light varies at six o'clock in the morning and 
 six in the evening, in the murky fog of November and in the brilliancy of 
 July. It depends, moreover, on the kind of lens or lenses employed, 
 double combinations working with about twice (and often, as in the 
 case of quick, large aperture, ' ' baby'* lenses, with very much more 
 than twice) the rapidity of single ones. I can, however, offer one sug- 
 gestion, and that is for the operator to determine finally the time he 
 intends to expose his plate before he removes the cap from the lens, 
 and when it has expired, let him not be troubled with any misgiving 
 that the time has been too long, or be deluded by the idea that another 
 moment will make no difference, but as the last second is counted, let 
 the cap be replaced on the lens. When this is done the exposure is over, 
 and the shutter of the slide may be shut down. The dark slide itself 
 should now be drawn out and conveyed to the dark room to undergo 
 the process of development. 
 
 Before opening the slide in the dark room, the operator should assure 
 himself that there is in it no aperture or chink, however small, affording 
 entrance to white light. If such exists it should be promptly and 
 effectually covered up ; if it be allowed to remain, the plate will pro- 
 bably be covered with ' ' fog ' ' (a visitation which will be described and 
 discussed in a future chapter) and rendered utterly useless. Next 
 a small portion of the positive developing solution should be allowed 
 to filter through a funnel fitted with a filtering paper, into the measure 
 specially set apart for it. The lid of the dark slide can now be opened 
 and the plate removed. Care should be taken not to rend the film with 
 the fingers, but to hold it throughout this and succeeding operations in 
 one place, namely, at the corner at which it was held during the pouring 
 
26 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 on of the collodion. When the plate has been removed from the dark 
 slide, no change from its condition before exposure will be perceived. 
 The real change which has been effected is the impression of an image 
 now latent ; the object, then, is to make by development this latent imago 
 a visible one. To this end remove the funnel through which the solution 
 has been filtering from the measure, and pour from the latter enough of 
 the positive developer to cover the plate scantily without surplus. Do 
 not allow the solution to run over the edges, but, by gently rocking the 
 plate, allow it to flow to the corners, and by degrees to act upon the 
 whole surface of the film. In a few seconds, if the plate has been 
 properly exposed, and the operations have been throughout correct, the 
 image will begin gradually to appear, in the reverse tint to that which 
 they exhibit in nature. Thus a white collar will seem black and a black 
 coat white. Moreover, as those parts of the picture which are in nature 
 of a light tint, are those most powerfully acted upon by photographic 
 light, the first object developed on the plate will appear a deep shade, 
 and will represent what is light in the natural object. This reversion of 
 light and shade is, however, only apparent when the picture is held up 
 and looked through against a background of light. The reason for this 
 is that the film, though in colour a dirty creamy white, is opaque, and 
 as the natural whites are represented by those parts of the film which 
 have been most powerfully acted upon, and the natural blacks by those 
 which have been more or less thinned by the developer, when both are 
 held up to the light the opacity of the whites obscures the light and 
 makes them seem black ; while the light shining through the transparen- 
 cies representing the natural blacks causes them to appear white. But 
 if the picture is placed upon a background of shade, the results will be 
 exactly opposite, and the picture will appear as in nature, the white film 
 representing the natural lights, and the dark background apparent through 
 the transparencies representing the natural shades. The application of 
 these principles will be seen when the picture is completed, and only 
 requires to be made to represent nature as it is, instead of the reverse, by 
 treating it in the latter of the two ways above described and explained. 
 
 During the process of development the operator should strive to 
 equalise the action of the developer, and not let the solution remain 
 too long on one particular spot. He should also watch carefully to catch 
 the precise moment when the picture is fully "out" in every minute 
 detail, as from that moment the developer remaining on the film does 
 more harm than good. When he thinks the development completed, the 
 operator should allow the solution to drain away (if he is of a saving 
 turn of mind) into a little basin placed in the sink, whence it can be 
 afterwards transferred to some bottle or jar, in which it may finally be 
 
FRAMING. 
 
 27 
 
 put in the hands of any professional assayer. The plate then should 
 be thoroughly washed at the tap. 
 
 It is now ready for the process of 1 * fixing,' ' which is to render it 
 unassailable to the future action of light. This is a very simple matter, 
 but care should be taken to do it thoroughly, or those parts of the 
 picture which have not been acted upon by the fixing solution will, on 
 being afterwards exposed to light, turn perfectly black. The Fixing 
 Solution (Cyanide of Potassium, p. 14) should be poured on while the 
 plate is still wet, and allowed to thoroughly permeate the film. In a 
 very few seconds, if the solution be of proper strength, a great change 
 will take place in the colour of the film, the predominant tint losing 
 much of its whiteness. When all the parts of the image are uniformly 
 and completely fixed, the cyanide solution can be allowed to drain 
 back into the bottle, and the plate should again be thoroughly washed. 
 This done, the operations requisite in taking a positive picture are 
 virtually complete. But to render it more suitable both for use and 
 ornament a few further operations will be necessary, which are as fol- 
 low : — Allow the washed plate to dry either spontaneously or by the 
 aid of moderate heat. The latter is the most convenient course, as the 
 plate, when dry, is naturally rather warm and in a fit condition to 
 receive the coating of spirit varnish, which to some measure will protect 
 the film and render it less liable to scratches. The varnish can be 
 poured on in precisely the same way as collodion, but the plate before 
 varnishing should always be moderately warm. After the surplus varnish 
 is poured off, slight heat should again be applied for a few moments, 
 when the plate is cool the varnish is dry, and the film can be touched 
 without much of fear damage. 
 
 It now only remains to provide the picture with a permanent back- 
 ground of shade. This can be done in one or both of two ways. Either 
 the plate can be allowed to rest on a piece of black velvet in a little 
 frame, or the varnished side of the film can be coated again with varnish, 
 this time of a deep black colour. If the former course be adopted, the 
 plate should rest in the frame, film downwards. If the latter be pre- 
 ferred, there is obviously only one choice. When the positive picture is 
 fitted into a little frame, which can be bought of a pretty pattern at a 
 very low price indeed, it forms an attractive little ornament fit for any 
 mantelpiece or table. 
 
 In Chapter V. I shall suppose my readers to have become thoroughly 
 conversant with and proficient in the art of taking positives, and shall 
 try to render them equally so in the more useful and attractive negative 
 process, by which any number of copies on paper can, by a further appli- 
 cation of sun-printing, be multiplied. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Negative Process — Collodion — Sensitising Bath — 
 Developer — Intensifier — Sensitising — Light — Exposure 
 Developing — Intensifying — Fixing. 
 
 Before commencing the process of taking negatives, the learner should 
 set aside his "positive" chemicals, and carefully procure and prepare 
 those which it will now be necessary for him to employ. The first of 
 these will be collodion, the ordinary iodised collodion used for positives 
 being replaced by that specially bromo-iodised for the negative process. 
 The particulars relating to these two, and the difference between them, 
 I have already explained (Chap. II., p. 12). In the same chapter I 
 gave formulae for other preparations used exclusively in negative work. 
 Amongst these was a formula for the negative sensitising bath, as distin- 
 guished from that employed in producing positives. The most important 
 point of difference between them is, that while the latter ought to be 
 freely acid, the former, by which denser pictures are to be obtained, 
 should be but slightly so. The stereotyped test of acidity is blue litmus 
 paper, the colour of which, when it is immersed in a solution containing 
 acid, changes to different hues of red, according to the strength of the 
 acid in the solution. A positive sensitising bath should, therefore, turn a 
 litmus paper immersed in it to a fairly bright red ; while a litmus paper 
 dipped in a negative bath should only change to a faint pink ; a few rather 
 more comprehensive hints as to the management, under incidental 
 difficulties, of the sensitising bath will be found in Chapter VIII. 
 
 After the negative developer has been made up according to the given 
 formula, attention must be paid to the preparation of the intensifier, 
 which is one of the exclusive requisites of the negative process. Unless 
 it is to be used very frequently indeed, the " pyro " solution should not 
 be made up in large quantities, as it is subject to rapid discoloration and 
 diminution of strength. The silver solution, with which it is afterwards 
 mixed, is best administered in a "dropping" bottle, which can be bought 
 at any chemist's or photographic chemical vendor's for a shilling or 
 
NEGATIVE MANIPULATIONS. 
 
 2y 
 
 eighteen-pence. Many professionals and amateurs dispense with the 
 separate bottle by merely adding to the pyro solution a few drops from 
 the dipper of the sensitising bath ; beginners, however, should eschew this 
 in favour of the dropping bottle, which takes up very little space, and 
 can be re-filled when necessary from a larger stock bottle containing an 
 indefinite amount of the solution. 
 
 And now for the manipulation which these negative chemicals will 
 require. After the glass plate (best polished sheet still being suitable, at 
 any rate for a beginner) has been polished with great care, the collodion 
 can be poured on in precisely the same manner as this operation was 
 performed in the positive process. When the collodion is duly set, the 
 plate must be plunged by means of the dipper, as before explained, into 
 the negative sensitising bath and suffered to remain undisturbed for at 
 least a minute ; it can then be kept in vertical motion until the appearance 
 of greasiness, arising from the repulsion of the water in the bath by the 
 alcohol in the collodion, has completely disappeared. After remaining in 
 the bath for from one to two and a half minutes more, the plate can be 
 removed and transferred, as in dealing with positives, to the dark slide. 
 
 If the object of which it is desired to obtain a negative has, from want 
 of a "glass room" or studio, to be operated upon in the open air, the 
 photographer must make shift to control the light as best he can. If a 
 portrait is to be taken of a person sitting or standing against a wall, it 
 will be necessary to place a screen a little above the sitter's head; this 
 will serve to weaken the "top" light, which would otherwise, by its 
 directness, cause the representation of the hair, &c, to be in dispropor- 
 tionate advance of the other parts of the picture, and therefore out of proper 
 contrast. A useful implement in ' ' lighting " is a large hoop covered 
 with paper, like those employed in a circus, which can be held by a 
 friend, to screen abrupt light from any part, especially the face, of the 
 object. Finally the operator should always, if possible, work with a 
 northern light in preference to any other. 
 
 The exposure required in the negative process, is about double that re- 
 quired under similar circumstances in positive work. 
 
 When the exposure is completed and the shutter of the dark slide is 
 closed down, the latter may, as before, be borne away to the dark room 
 to be developed. After pouring a small quantity of the negative developer 
 into its proper cup, the plate can be treated, as in the positive process, 
 with the solution. If the plate has been properly exposed, the image will 
 probably take from twenty to thirty seconds to appear in full detail ; if 
 under-exposed, the picture will take a long time to bring out, while 
 over-exposure will cause the image to flash out all at once. In the latter 
 case, which is the lesser of the two evils arising from incorrect exposure, 
 
30 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 the developer should be washed off at once ; in other instances this can 
 be done when the lights and shades of the picture are fully attained. The 
 washing should be performed thoroughly, as the developer, in order that it 
 may flow freely, contains a considerable portion of alcohol, which, as it 
 is not contained in the intensifier, should be completely removed before 
 intensification takes place. 
 
 It is advisable to have, besides the ordinary every-day developer, a 
 slightly stronger sample (made by adding two or three additional grains 
 of the proto- sulphate of iron to every ounce of the water prescribed by the 
 given formula), to be used when the image is more than usually reluctant, 
 or in cases where the lights have been extraordinarily bright and the con- 
 trasts with the shadows very great. When the developer becomes sluggish 
 in cold weather, it can soon be brought to work well and rapidly by 
 slightly heating it in a flask immediately before use. 
 
 When the developer has been well washed away, it will be more easy 
 to see whether the image requires intensification. Experience alone can 
 determine this, but, for a beginner, there can be no more useful help than 
 a standard negative, which has been properly exposed, developed, and 
 intensified ; these are supplied by Frederick Cox, of 26, Ludgate-hill, at 
 a shilling apiece — a moderate and really profitable investment. 
 
 If, as is usually the case, the negative requires intensification, the plate 
 can be allowed to drain while the operator pours into a small measure 
 about quarter of an ounce of the pyro solution. When this has been 
 flowed over the film, it can be returned to the measure and receive the 
 addition of a few drops of the solution of silver, and when this has, by 
 the help of the dropping bottle, been accomplished, the mixed solution can 
 be returned to the plate, and the intensification can be proceeded with 
 until it is complete ; if the intensifier become brown, it should be poured 
 away and a fresh mixture substituted. 
 
 When the intensification is completed (this, again can be determined 
 with moderate certainty, even by a beginner, by a second reference to the 
 standard negative mentioned above), the intensifying solution can be 
 washed off and the image fixed, if desired, in the open light. 
 
 If the operator has determined upon cyanide of potassium as his fixing 
 agent, he can fix his negative as he would a positive, by merely pouring 
 the solution over the film, letting it remain there until the yellowy- white 
 iodide of silver of the shadows has been dissolved, and, finally, returning 
 it to the bottle. I must not, however, leave this portion of the subject 
 without again cautioning my readers against the reckless use of cyanide 
 and other dangerous poisons, when substitutes can be procured, almost, 
 if not quite, as effective, and having the merit of being harmless. If, 
 however, in spite of warning, a beginner chooses to play with this particular 
 
FIXING. 
 
 31 
 
 " edged tool," he must be especially careful not to let it come in contact 
 with any acid, for, if this is allowed to happen, hydrocyanic acid vapour 
 (prussic acid) is given off, a consequence which I hope few if any will fail 
 to comprehend. 
 
 When hyposulphite of soda is used, it can either be applied like the 
 cyanide, or, what is better, poured into a shallow dish, into which the 
 plate can be put until the fixing* is completed. 
 
 When the image is thoroughly fixed, whether by cyanide or hypo, the 
 plate should be thoroughly well washed under the tap ; if this is not done, 
 the picture, from the undue corrosion of the fixing agent, will be 
 utterly spoilt. 
 
 The plate being dry and slightly heated, the varnish can be applied 
 exactly as in the positive process, and when this is accomplished, the 
 negative is really completed and ready for the further process of paper 
 printing, which, as I have said, will shortly occupy a separate chapter. 
 
 Having now explained all the operations leading up to the production of 
 a negative image upon glass, I shall, in my next chapter, try to give my 
 readers some idea as to how a good negative may be known, and how a 
 poor one may occasionally be improved. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 How to Tell a Good Negative, and how (occasionally) 
 to Improve a Poor One. 
 
 As the production of good negatives is, or ought to be, the first and 
 chiefest aim of the photographer, it is highly necessary for him to be able 
 both readily and certainly to tell whether, after due care and attention 
 on his part, his attempts have or have not been crowned with success. 
 In acquiring this knowledge he will find another use for the standard 
 negative, the purchase of which I advocated in my last chapter. The 
 beginner should study this negative carefully, observing how every detail 
 of the picture is represented, and, above all, strive to work up to its level 
 in his own productions. If he wishes to try his hand at all the three 
 genera of portraiture — groups, full-lengths, and vignettes or head-and- 
 shoulder pictures — he should procure specimen negatives of all three, so 
 as to facilitate reference to their several points of recommendation. 
 
 For the benefit of those who from inexperience cannot criticise the 
 faults of a bad negative, or, what is more difficult, appreciate the merits 
 of a good one, I will do my best to describe, with as little technicality 
 as possible, a picture of a group (taken in the open air) which I have 
 before me. It must not be thought that I am speaking of a perfect nega- 
 tive, as the production of such an one in the case of a group of human 
 figures in the open air is, for many reasons, almost an impossibility. The 
 chief defect which, owing to care in lighting and manipulation, is ren- 
 dered as little noticeable as possible, is a want of the delicate roundness 
 in the delineation of the features, which is only to be met with in nature 
 and in the highest class of studio pictures. But passing this over as 
 inevitable, it is a good specimen of open-air portraiture, and will yield 
 very creditable prints. I may add, emphatically, that the apparatus, 
 &c, with which it was produced corresponds minutely with the instruc- 
 tions given on that head in my commencing chapters. 
 
 But to proceed with my description. The picture itself represents three 
 ladies grouped on a rustic bench, which stands in a corner, formed by 
 
POINTS OF GOOD NEGATIVES. 
 
 33 
 
 the meeting at right angles of two garden walls. Two of the ladies are 
 sitting slightly apart on the seat itself ; jnst behind, in the space between 
 them, comes the figure of the third, who is seated npon one of the 
 upright logs which form the back of the bench. In the foreground, 
 which is very slight, is a plant about 2ft. high. The walls, serving as a 
 background, are covered with the leaves of a trailing vine, which have a 
 singularly graceful effect. Now, by laying the negative upon some dark 
 body, say a piece of black cloth, which will serve as a background of 
 shade, the picture seems to be a correctly outlined but unreasonably 
 dense positive ; on holding it, however, up to the light, and looking 
 through and not at it (that is by transmitted instead of reflected light), 
 the image appears brilliant and full of the minutest detail, both in its 
 lights and shades, which are now, of course (see Chap. IV.) reversed. 
 The lights and shades, too, are in perfect gradation of ' 1 tone," and 
 exhibit abundance of a sort of mean of gradation between the "high" 
 lights and deep shades, which is technically termed half-tone, and is a 
 prominent qualification in a well-printing negative. This correctness 
 in the gradation of tone is a consummation devoutly to be wished by the 
 beginner, who usually fails to attain it by faulty exposure, or from some 
 other cause denoting want of experience rather than want of care. 
 
 Another striking point in the picture is its exquisite clearness of 
 definition throughout. As there is little or no distance, the veinings of 
 the vine leaves on the wall are almost as distinct as the straw plaiting 
 of the garden hat which one of the sitters on the bench holds in her 
 hand, or the flowers of the plant in the immediate foreground. Of course 
 such clear definition would not have been attainable without the help 
 of a rather small diaphragm, but the light being good, and the operations 
 taking place in free atmosphere, the exposure was by no means uncom- 
 fortably long. 
 
 A third characteristic of the negative is the evenness of its lighting 
 and its perfect freedom from the abrupt patches of light which so often 
 ruin the otherwise pleasing effect of an open-air portrait or group. These 
 patches are caused, as I have explained before, by the falling of a direct 
 ray of light upon some undefended portion of the object or objects. 
 Their effect is apt to be underrated by beginners, who can often 
 hardly discern their presence on the dull coloured film of the negative ; but 
 when the time comes for " pulling 53 a print, they will speedily be un- 
 deceived. For instance, I am the possessor of a negative, which to an> 
 unpractised eye seems faultlessly lighted, but in the print from it one 
 of the sitters has a bar of shade running straight across his nose, while 
 the rest of the picture is lighted up in the most fantastic manner* 
 
 Abropt pafcohea oi light caa easily h$ obviate^ either bv using tha 
 
 c 
 
34 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 paper covered hoop, or by working when the snn is invisible and the 
 light equably diffused. These courses are to be adopted with advantage 
 to the character of the shades as well as to that of the lights of the picture. 
 Thus in the negative before me there is no absolute transparency , which 
 in printing would give a hard unyielding black. 
 
 Above all my negative is practically as well as theoretically good, and 
 produces in the printing frame natural and harmonious little pictures. 
 
 Of course there can exist no surer criterion of the quality of a negative 
 than the quality of a print from it, but by experience and a system of 
 careful and minute observation, such as I have endeavoured to describe, 
 the photographer may be able not only to weigh accurately the quality 
 of his finished negative, but even, from the moment the intensifier has 
 left the plate, to foretell the character of a resultant print. 
 
 And now that some idea has, let me hope, been formed as to how the 
 merits of a good negative may be duly recognised, I will proceed to the 
 more uncongenial task of striving to remedy in some measure the defects 
 of a bad one. In nine cases out of ten this would involve a hopeless waste 
 of time, and it is far better to wipe off the defaulter, sensitise afresh, 
 and secure a second and perhaps satisfactory picture. But it now and then 
 happens that on looking out negatives for printing, you meet with one 
 of some favourite object, of which you possess but this one souvenir, and 
 are unable to procure another. And it not unfrequently occurs that this 
 particular negative, from some oversight or carelessness in manipulation 
 is a worthless one, and unfit for printing purposes. Hence it is desirable 
 to have it in one's power occasionally to utilise a failing negative, by re- 
 moving or lessening those defects in it which prevent it from producing 
 decent prints. 
 
 To begin with, before any steps are taken, the negative should be 
 strictly and closely examined. This course will probably lead to the 
 adoption of one of the three following conclusions : (1) that the mistakes 
 to which the faultiness of the negative is due are utterly irremediable ; 
 (2) that the negative presents an air of general incapability, but that 
 there is no absolute reason why it should not ultimately be brought to the 
 ' 'sticking point ;" (3) that there are certain slight defects in the 
 picture which, if removed, would leave the negative in perfect printing 
 order, or something so nearly like it that the success of an attempt 
 would justify the trouble spent in making it. 
 
 In the first of these three cases, when the negative is | ruined by some 
 irremediable defect, such as faulty focus or a bad attack of "fog," a 
 farewell must be taken of the object, and no time lost in setting about 
 other and more satisfactory work. 
 
 With regard to No. 2, there is a decided gleam of hope. The ie general 
 
CORRECTING FAULTY NEGATIVES. 
 
 35 
 
 air of incapability ' ' more often than not results from insufficient 
 intensification, a mistake to which beginners are particularly liable. An 
 obvious remedy for this is to intensify over again, but this is to be 
 accomplished in a peculiar way, and not with the ordinary " acid pyro " 
 and silver. Suppose the negative to have been varnished in the ordinary 
 manner, proceed as follows : Flow over the film a little alcohol or strong 
 spirits of wine, which will have the effect of softening the set and 
 hardened varnish. Then add a few drops of tincture of iodine to loz. 
 of fresh varnish in a measure. When the colour begins to resemble that 
 of light port wine, flood the film with the iodised varnish. In a very 
 short time the film will absorb the non-actinic colour of the varnish, and 
 the reintensification is accomplished. When this is done wash off what 
 remains of the iodised varnish with a little alcohol, rinse under the tap, 
 allow the film to dry, and revarnish it in the ordinary manner. The mis- 
 take usually arising in this operation is a scepticism as to the extent 
 of the change which has been effected. This will soon be removed 
 when a comparison is made between the prints from the negative before and 
 after reintensification. 
 
 Conclusion No. 3 includes rather a wide range of contingencies. The 
 •chief of these are pronounced transparencies on the film, which yield 
 unreasonably deep shades in the print. These defects can often be 
 almost completely removed by an operation called retouching. This is 
 performed by means of a black-lead pencil, a paint brush and water colour, 
 or black lead powder and a paper stump. The successful practice of 
 retouching rises to the dignity of an art, and as such takes a high place 
 in photographic commerce. Many professional photographers send their 
 really good negatives to be retouched by professional retouchers, a 
 course which the amateur is welcome to adopt or not, when he has 
 negatives worthy of this honour ; for the present, if he has any skill at 
 all with the pencil or brush, he should be content to have the power of 
 obtaining creditable prints from poor negatives, which he would other- 
 wise be compelled to cast aside. 
 
 Let me suppose, then, that a print has been " pulled " from the nega- 
 tive which shows shadows too heavy for the other parts of the picture. 
 What is obviously required is to block up to a certain degree the trans- 
 parencies in the negative to which these dense "blacks" in the print 
 are due. Laying aside the powdered black-lead, and even the water 
 colour, unless the transparencies to be blocked out are of considerable size, 
 sharpen a good B pencil to a fine point and try its effect upon the sur- 
 face of the film. If, as is usually the case, the pencil refuses to " bite" 
 on the smooth varnish, a little very finely powdered resin should be taken 
 on the point of the forefinger, and gently rubbed, with a circular motion, 
 
 C 2 
 
36 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 over the parts to be retouched. The negative can then be placed on a 
 retouching desk or frame, such as may be bought, of ordinary quality, 
 at any of the shops, for about 15s. Failing a desk, a beginner can 
 effect great improvements in his negatives, even by working against a 
 "window pane. 
 
 Besides, by retouching and reintensification, a faulty negative can 
 often, by skilful printing, be made to yield decent pictures.' A few 
 hints as to various little " dodges" in printing will be found in another 
 chapter. 
 
 The addition, by artificial means, of clouds to landscapes, will be dis- 
 cussed in a chapter entirely devoted to that branch of photography. 
 
OHAPTEE VII. 
 
 Defects and Failures — Seasons and Eemedies — Spots — 
 Comets — Slipping Films — Lines — Crape, Pinhole, and Foa 
 — Stains — Defects in Film Dissolved by Varnish. 
 
 Although up to the present moment the continuity of my descriptions 
 relating to manipulations, &c, either in positive or negative work, has 
 been little, if at all, interrupted by any mention of defects or failures, 
 I trust I shall be far from discouraging any of my readers when I ask 
 them to pay especial attention to the present chapter, on the ground that 
 it will probably be the one to which they will have, hereafter, most 
 frequently to refer. It is hardly to be expected that an art, capable of 
 such exceedingly delicate results as photography, can be successfully 
 practised without some slight drawbacks, or even an occasional failure. 
 If the beginner is really disheartened by such contretemps he simply 
 does not deserve to succeed. Moreover, in photography, failure is so 
 comparatively rare, and so often owing to wanton neglect of simple and 
 easily-followed instruction, that, in nine cases out of ten, the operator 
 has himself alone to blame for any defect in his finished picture or 
 mishap in preceding operations. There are, however, certain little 
 troubles to be met with in photography, as in everything else, which 
 are only to be overcome by experience or by turning to account a timely 
 word of warning ; it is to such that the present and two succeeding 
 chapters will be devoted. There is a well-known saying of a Latin poet, 
 which I will freely translate : ' ' Happy is he who has acquired the power 
 of knowing the reasons of things." This maxim I wish to be the key- 
 note of any remarks applying on which it may be found necessary to make 
 defects or failures. It is not enough to know that a picture is defective, 
 nor even to be able to describe its failings in the most accurate and 
 technical style ; the knowledge which every photographer should seek, 
 above all other, to acquire is that of probing, like a skilful physician, 
 straight to the root of a difficulty ; hence, to discover the nature of the 
 source from which it springs, and, by removing or modifying this source, 
 
38 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 to prevent the recurrence of the failure, defect, or mishap. After this 
 necessary preface I will proceed to review the annoyances themselves. 
 
 The first and perhaps most frequently met with defect, both in the 
 positive and negatives of beginners, is the presence upon the film of a host 
 of minute spots, either transparent or opaque, or both. A common cause 
 of these is dust in the dark room, dark slide, or camera. The tiny 
 particles settle with peculiar tenacity upon the moist film, and usually 
 remain invisible until development, when they are either washed off, 
 taking with them a corresponding particle of the film and leaving a 
 transparency in its place, or remain, forming an opaque spot which 
 (in the case of negatives) will produce a white spot on the paper-print. 
 With regard to removing the source of this vexation, I can only reiterate 
 my advice concerning dust, expressed in former chapters. Possessors 
 of dust-spotted negatives, doubtful as to their capabilities for producing 
 respectable prints, will find that a transparent spot on any part of the 
 negative representing deep shade can be left alone with impunity ; while, 
 if one occur in a sky or other ' ' high ' ' light, it can be readily removed by 
 a stroke of the retouching pencil or brush. Opaque spots can be dealt 
 with vice versa. If a transparent spot occurs in a half tone, the beginner 
 will perhaps find it best to block it (the transparency) completely out, 
 and to work it into the paper-print with Indian ink. 
 
 Another fertile source of spotty films is collodion. Spots and streaks 
 caused by collodion are brought about in one of two ways : either by 
 the fall on to the film from the mouth of the pouring bottle, of particles 
 of collodion from which the ether has evaporated, or by the sediment or 
 " bottoms" being shaken into suspension, and flowing along with the 
 collodion when the latter is poured over the plate. Imperfections arising 
 from the first of these two causes are designated by the expressive name 
 of <£ comets," and can, as I have before explained, be obviated by the use 
 of a " cometless " bottle. The remedy usually prescribed for spots 
 caused by particles floating in the collodion itself is filtration through one 
 of the ingenious collodion-filters now sold at all the principal shops ; but 
 I perceive in the Photographic News Almanac for 1878 such a reasonable 
 protest by M. Piquepe against this practice that the least I can do is to 
 give my readers the benefit of his valuable opinion. His argument is 
 decidedly against filtering as a means of removing impurities in suspension, 
 and as decidedly in favour of decantation. He observes most justly that 
 filtration cannot fail, in some way or another, to destroy the proportion 
 in which delicate preparations such as collodion are made up ; moreover, 
 as M. Piquepe continues, "it frequently happens that the cotton-wool 
 which is generally used for filtering (even when previously washed with 
 alcohol) will let slip in the collodion a great many particles, which, 
 
SPOTS, COMETS, SLIPPERY FILM, LINES. 39 
 
 perhaps, imperceptible to our eyes, will not fail to make their apparition 
 under the influence of the developer, and to each particle will correspond 
 on the negative a deep transparent pinhole, or long thin line, which 
 produces a deplorable effect." But by decantation, i.e., by allowing the 
 liquid to settle and all impurities to sink to the bottom, and then carefully 
 decanting it into some other vessel, the collodi@n is kept in its original 
 proportions and in a state of brilliant clearness. The process is, moreover, 
 as simple as it is efficient. Those who are unwilling to be convinced by 
 the summarised argument to which I must necessarily limit myself, will 
 find M. Piquepe's able little paper on pp. 112-114 of the Almanac. His 
 r emarks on the destruction of original proportions apply also to the 
 remedy often suggested for thinning collodion, which, by evaporation of 
 the ether, has become thick, and flows with difficulty, by adding more 
 ether to replace that which has been lost. Although an experienced 
 operator may occasionally avail himself of this convenient remedy, a 
 beginner should attempt nothing of the sort. It is to these slipshod 
 atonements for mistakes, due solely to utter carelessness, that a great 
 portion of the eccentricities so often attributed to the really excellent 
 collodions and other photographic preparations of commerce, is really 
 due. If he keeps his collodion bottles (large and small) thoroughly well 
 stoppered, the operator will find that he loses very little collodion by 
 evaporation ; and if an ounce or so at the bottom of a bottle does get a 
 little thick, it is a far better plan to use it up in some other way, such as 
 cleaning glass, plates, &c, than to attempt promiscuous doctoring with 
 ether. 
 
 Besides "comets," streaks, and spots, there is another little trouble 
 which the beginner will probably encounter in connection with the 
 collodion. It sometimes occurs that when subjecting a positive or 
 negative to a stream of waier, after development, the film suddenly 
 peels off the plate, and disappears down the sink. To remedy this annoy- 
 ance he must go back to the pouring of the collodion on to the plate. 
 The most frequent cause of "slipping films" is undue haste in sensitising 
 the collodionised plate. The collodion should be allowed to set thoroughly, 
 and until it does so should not be allowed to enter the sensitising bath. 
 If allowed to dry the film will be of a horny character, and its sensitive- 
 ness materially impaired. The exact time between collodionising and 
 sensitising is a matter which a very little experience will decide. 
 
 Lines on the film can generally be traced either to a stoppage in 
 the motion of the hand which let the plate down into the sensitising 
 bath, or by the imperfect flow of the developer over the plate. The 
 cautious addition of a little alcohol will usually remedy this last defect. 
 " Crape " has been already mentioned, see Chapter IV., p. 22. 
 
40 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The sensitising bath is snch an universal scapegoat for all kinds of 
 defects and failures, from "pinhole" to "fog," that, to save repetition, 
 " the sensitising bath under difficulties " will be treated at considerable 
 length in a separate chapter. 
 
 Stains on the film are to be traced almost always to the dark slide. 
 They are defects which ought never to be allowed to appear, and are the 
 direct product of carelessness. They are caused by the refuse silver 
 solution flowing downwards from the wet plate and contaminating the 
 silver wire corners of the plate carriers. The remedy for this nuisance is 
 the employment of small pads of blotting paper to catch the refuse drops. 
 After the removal of every plate the wet pads should be thrown away and 
 replaced by dry ones. The operator should make a point also of con- 
 tinually wiping out both dark slide and camera with a wet cloth to prevent 
 accumulation of dust. 
 
 The chief defects in intensification are such as I have described, with 
 some hints as to their removal, in Chapter VI. In fixing, if the iodide is 
 not sufficiently dissolved out by the fixing agent, a dense yellowy bluish 
 veil is left on the portions undissolved, which produces, from the absence 
 of any gradation of tone, a corresponding want of contrast in the paper 
 proof. The cure for this defect is obvious. 
 
 In varnishing, the most unpleasant contingency (fortunately of not 
 very frequent occurrence) is the evanescence, by dissolution, of the film 
 the moment the varnish is flowed over the plate. This is owing to the 
 spirit solvent in the varnish being stronger than the spirit solvent in the 
 collodion ; sometimes the addition of a little water to the former removes 
 this annoyance. , 
 
 Besides the above defects and failures, there are, it is true, several 
 others of more or less importance ; these, however, are so obviously 
 due to neglect in following given instructions, that any mention of them 
 would necessitate a complete recapitulation of the preliminary chapters 
 of this series. If the beginner follows the instructions given him with 
 proper care and attention he will be amply rewarded by having to con- 
 tend against none of the difficulties which neglect of them entails ; while 
 he who wantonly passes over important points of instruction, because they 
 happen to be "a wee bit dry," fully deserves the pleasure of having to 
 turn back and master them. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 The Sensitising Bath under Difficulties — Fog, its Causes 
 
 and Cube. 
 
 As the sensitising bath is the most important element of the wet collodion 
 process, it is only natural that from it more numerous and more perplex- 
 ing difficulties should arise than from any of its fellow operations. It is 
 for this reason that I have postponed any mention of such difficulties until 
 the list of defects and failures, for which other stages of the process 
 are responsible, was complete. In this chapter, too, I shall make 
 mention of "fog," as, although it is occasionally due to other causes, 
 its appearance is so often connected with the state of the sensitising bath 
 that any account of one apart from the other would involve much un- 
 necessary prolixity and repetition. 
 
 It must not be thought that it is a law of photographic nature that the 
 sensitising bath should be in a constant state of ill behaviour — quite the 
 contrary. A bath, fairly used and fairly cared for, will often produce 
 as good negatives at the end of three or four months as it did on the 
 first day that it was tried. On the other hand, in spite of all possible 
 precautions, it may begin to show the cloven-foot in a few weeks or even 
 days. What is to be done with it under such trying circumstances as 
 these is always a source of much vexation of spirit to the beginner. The 
 usual advice given to all amateurs is that the moment the sensitising 
 bath gets out of order it should be promptly discarded and take its 
 place among the residues in the waste tub. This is a highly convenient 
 system, and those may adopt it who choose, especially in the case or a 
 well worn and aged bath that has done good work for two or three 
 months, and is beginning to show signs of serious indisposition ; but, 
 unfortunately, the beginner is frequently under the delusion that his bath 
 is at fault, when it is nothing of the kind. In a case like this to throw 
 away a carefully prepared bath, which has, perhaps, only been in use for a 
 few days, for the mere reason that the owner imagines something is 
 wrong with it, and is unwilling to take the trouble of going to the 
 
42 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 real root of his misfortune, is more often than not sheer lazy folly. To 
 lessen the possibility of my readers falling- into habits like this, I will 
 now endeavour to give some idea as to the bona fide difficulties arising 1 
 from the use of the sensitising bath, how they may be traced, and how 
 sometimes avoided ; a course, to say the least, more satisfactory than 
 that of merely treating the (presumably) faulty bath as practically useless 
 rubbish, for which a certain price will be given by the assayer, whose 
 industry is only too often employed in repairing the effects of his 
 customer's indolence. 
 
 The causes of the defects for which the sensitising bath is responsible 
 may be conveniently distributed under two heads : The mechanical, or 
 those which arise from carelessness in manipulation, miscarriage of 
 apparatus, &c. ; and the chemical, or those due to the imperfect or 
 too vigorous action of the chemical compounds with which the use of the 
 bath is connected. Of the former kind of defects the chief are the 
 tiny opaque or transparent spots, of whose appearance in connection 
 with other stages of the wet collodion process, I warned my readers in my 
 last chapter. As they are due to precisely the same cause, I trust the 
 repetition of my warning will be all but needless. But, simple as the 
 remedy may seem to prevent dust and other impurities from entering 
 the bath, they frequently make their way into it, in spite of all fancied 
 precautions, and promptly manifest their presence by attaching them- 
 selves to the collodion film while the latter is being sensitised. As in 
 the case of dust- spots contracted both before and after sensitising, the 
 particles either remain imbedded or are dissolved out, thus producing, 
 as the case may be, transparencies or opacities. The dust can be to a 
 great measure driven away from the bath solution by keeping the bath 
 in a case with a hinged cover, such as I recommended in Chap. III. This 
 cover should be kept rigorously closed down, except when the plate is 
 being plunged into or drawn out from the bath. It should not be shut 
 down with a bang, as the slightest jar will often displace an in- 
 credible amount of dust. If, after all, the solution does become full of 
 "mechanical" impurities, the directest remedy is to pour the solution 
 into a measure, filter, or, what is better (see Chap. VII.), allow to settle, 
 and carefully decant back into the bath, which should have been 
 previously washed out with distilled water to remove impurities adhering 
 to its sides. If filtration or decantation be inconvenient, a pretty certain 
 method of obviating dust-spots arising from the sensitising bath is to 
 have, in addition to the hinged support on which the case mainly rests, 
 another similar support on the other side of the case, so that the bath 
 can either lean towards or away from the operator. Of course the former 
 will be its position whilst the plate is being plunged into it, but when the 
 
PINHOLE, SUNNING. 43 
 
 plate reaches the bottom the case can be safely turned over so as to lean 
 the other way, until the plate requires agitation or removal. By tins 
 means the chance of particles of dust settling on the film during sensi- 
 tising is materially reduced ; but though a safe, it is a somewhat in- 
 convenient remedy. 
 
 A source of impurity in the bath, often overlooked by beginners, is 
 want of care in cleaning the glass plates, the evils arising from which 
 are a continued source of trouble to the slovenly operator. 
 
 And now for a specimen of the class of " chemical " defects. Trans- 
 parent spots on the film are not alone due to dust or ' £ mechanical ' ' 
 impurities. An even commoner cause is excess of iodide in the bath 
 solution. The transparent spots thus produced are known as " pin- 
 holes," and can generally be distinguished from those due to dust by 
 their minuteness and total occupation of the whole surface of the film. 
 
 The usual cure recommended for pinhole is to dilute the bath solution 
 with its own bulk of water, filter, and add fresh crystals of nitrate of 
 silver to make the new solution up to its proper strength. Thus, if a 35 
 grain bath of 8oz. shows signs of pinhole, another 8oz. of distilled 
 water should be added, the whole 16oz. filtered, and 280 grains of 
 nitrate of silver dropped into it. Another cure now very frequently 
 adopted for the removal of pinholes, and one which does not necessitate 
 doubling the quantity of the bath solution, is to add to the latter 
 about 2 grains to the ounce of nitrate of baryta, agitating and filtering. 
 This often proves a certain and lasting remedy, but frequently misleads 
 beginners from the appearance on the plate, during development, of a 
 bluish veil, which does not disappear after fixing. This is due to the 
 sulphate of iron in the developer precipitating the baryta as an insoluble 
 sulphate ; the bluish colour, however, almost entirely departs on the 
 application of the varnish. 
 
 When the bath has become contaminated by some foreign chemical sub- 
 stance, as, for instance, ether, which enters through the medium of the 
 collodion, an almost unfailing remedy is to sun the solution. This is done 
 in the following manner : The bath is poured into a clean glass measure, 
 and carbonate of soda is added until a litmus-paper immersed in it no 
 longer turns pink ; this is called neutralisation. The bath is then left 
 in the sun for a day or two. When the sunning is completed, it will be 
 found that all the impurities have sunk to the bottom of the measure 
 in the form of a black sediment. The solution can now be either filtered 
 or carefully decanted ; it must finally be acidulated by cautiously adding 
 glacial acetic acid until the faint pink tinge in the litmus-paper is once 
 more given. 
 
 Many photographers are in the habit of constantly sunning their bath 
 
44 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 solutions, even though no trace of pinhole has appeared in the negatives 
 produced by them ; this, doubtless, reduces the chance of pinhole to a 
 minimum. 
 
 Besides ether, the collodion film introduces alcohol into the bath. A 
 solution which has been used for a very long time will necessarily become 
 strongly impregnated with alcohol, a common cause of lines on the film. 
 To get rid of the alcohol, the solution must be boiled, so as to allow the 
 spirit to evaporate. This can be clone by setting a large evaporating 
 dish containing the solution to be boiled on a stand, and introducing 
 below it a Bunsen gas-flame. When, however, matters come to the 
 boiling point, I advise my readers to desist. Sunning and doctoring baths 
 are all very well, but boiling is another thing. A bath does not want 
 boiling until a great many negatives have been produced from it, as the 
 quantity of alcohol which remains to contaminate the bath after the im- 
 mersion of a collodion film is, if the collodion has been given fair time to 
 set before immersion, exceedingly small. Hence it is quite worth while 
 for the amateur to turn out his alcoholic old veteran into the waste-tub, 
 and let the assayer have the trouble of rejuvenating him. 
 
 There is yet another difficulty connected with the sensitising bath, 
 which, although it is not of very frequent occurrence, should be included 
 in a list of " defects and failures." It is a repetition of those transparent 
 spots on the film, two reasons for the appearance of which (dust and excess 
 of iodide) I have already given. But the manner of their appearance is 
 different : instead of showing themselves on the application of the developer, 
 they reserve their energies until after the image has been fixed. The 
 reason for this is exactly the reverse of that to which " chemical" pin- 
 hole is due — instead of excess, there is insufficiency of iodide in the sensi- 
 tising bath. This is brought about as follows : whether by the number 
 of plates which have been sensitised in it, or to accidental waste by 
 spilling, &c, the bath solution becoming thus, in the course of time, 
 decreased in quantity. To bring it up to its necessary volume a solution 
 of nitrate of silver, about thirty-five or forty grains (according to fche 
 original strength of the bath) to the ounce of distilled water, may be 
 added. If the decrease is owing to the natural absorption of the solution 
 by a great number of films, there is seldom need for any further addition 
 to the simple silver solution employed to replace it, as the iodide 
 imparted during the immersion of the plates, coated as they were with 
 iodised collodion, will probably have been sufficient to keep the bath in 
 order. If, on the contrary, the bath is comparatively new and the dimi- 
 nution in its quantity is owing to some portion having been spilt, or 
 otherwise used up in circumstances where the necessary loss of iodide is 
 not compensated for in the replenished solution, the case will be different, 
 
IODISING A BATH, POG. 45 
 
 and the results will be the post-fixation pinhole previously mentioned. 
 Insufficiency of iodide arises also frequently from extensive sunning and 
 nitration. The obvious remedy is to add as many grains of iodide of 
 potassium as may be found necessary to bring the iodide of silver up to 
 its proper strength ; or, if there is not any iodide of potassium handy to 
 add to the under-iodised bath, another course, quite as simple and 
 effectual may be adopted — a glass plate with ordinary bromo-iodised 
 collodion, and leave it immersed in the bath for about an hour. On the 
 removal of the plate it will be found that the iodide of the collodion 
 has been completely eaten up by and absorbed into the former. 
 
 Some photographers iodise their baths in the first instance by leaving 
 a collodionised plate immersed in an acidulated silver solution for a 
 lengthened period ; but, as the long immersion involves the liberation (in 
 infinitesimal quantities, it is true) of alcohol and ether as well as of 
 iodide, it is as well, when iodide of potassium is handy, to use it. The 
 other course, however, has always the merit of being convenient, and the 
 knowledge of its efficacy will often be found a useful "wrinkle." 
 
 And now for my long-promised account of "fog." This terrible 
 apparition may be simply described as a dense veil-like formation on 
 the film, which appears during development, and which, by producing 
 from its non-actinic colour irregular patches of white in the print, more 
 often than not renders the negative useless. It3 causes may be dis- 
 tributed under four heads — over-exposure; admission of promiscuous 
 white light into the dark slide, camera, or dark room ; alkalinity of the 
 sensitising bath ; and deficiency of acetic acid in the developer. In 
 order to give a clearer idea of the manner in which fog may arise from 
 any of the above sources, I will once more adopt the plan I have already 
 found so convenient — I mean of placing myself in the same predicament 
 as that from which it is my object to teach my readers to extricate 
 themselves, and of detailing my mode of procedure under the influence 
 of an imaginary attack of fog. 
 
 Before commencing, however, I wish to remind all that the steady and 
 methodical patience essential in tracing with success the causes of fog 
 is only a type of the temper in which other little photographic mishaps 
 should be encountered. It is far better, if a hitch occurs, to come 
 voluntarily to a dead stop, and to render oneself familiar with its raison 
 d' 6tre, and the course to adopt in the event of its recurrence, than to lose 
 " nine stitchea " hereafter from lazy neglect of the " one in time." 
 
 But to proceed. Let me suppose that, on pouring on the developer my 
 plate discovers unmistakable signs of fog. To begin with, instead 
 getting out of humour, I calmly, after a few more sweeps of the developer 
 to see if more fog is in eteo, wash and fis the film. I then inspect it. 
 
46 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 carefully, in order to determine, if possible, my basis of operations. I 
 shall find that the film is either partially or wholly covered by the foggy 
 veil. In the former case, especially when the patch is sharp and 
 angular, the fog is usually due to the " admission of a promiscuous ray of 
 white light." Under an impression like this, I should immediately take 
 a cursory view of my dark room, striving to discover an accidental chink 
 in the woodwork or a tear in the orange paper with which the window is 
 rendered non-actinic ; the dark slide would next be subjected to the same 
 scrutiny, and finally the camera itself. If any defect capable of pro- 
 ducing fog were met with, I should promptly rectify it and try another 
 plate. If, however, my general search were unrewarded with success I 
 should test the room, slide, and camera separately, in a way I shall pre- 
 sently describe. Failing these, I should proceed as if in the first 
 instance I had taken no notice of the film being partially or wholly 
 fogged. 
 
 If the fog flashes out at once all over the plate, I know there is some 
 serious fault in the apparatus, the chemicals, or the manipulation. My 
 first step is to sensitise a fresh plate and expose it for a considerably less 
 time than I did the first and faulty one. If after this the plate developes 
 cleanly, it is evident that the fog was due to over-exposure ; this is often 
 the case with beginners, whose only idea is "to make sure" of a speedy 
 development. 
 
 Having satisfied myself, however, that over-exposure is not the error 
 into which I have fallen, I have recourse to another experiment. I develop 
 the next plate with a portion of developer into which has been dropped 
 about a minim of glacial acetic acid. If the weather is hot, or if the 
 developer has been carelessly mixed, it is very possible that the insuffi- 
 ciency of acetic acid is the real cause of my trouble. 
 
 After, or even before (to save the trouble, perhaps, of having to prepare 
 an extra plate) the condition of the developer has been called to account, 
 a simple and important test should be put to the sensitising bath. 
 Thinking, with good reason, perhaps, that I have got at last to the root 
 of the evil, I pour a little of the bath solution into a small measure. 
 I immerse a blue litmus paper in the solution for a few seconds ; if the 
 colour changes to a faint pink, I know that the bath is duly acidulated, and 
 that I must turn my researches in another direction. If, on the con- 
 trary, the litmus paper does not change its colour, I see that the fog on 
 my negatives is due to the alkalinity of the bath. Pouring the whole of 
 the bath into a large measure, I cautiously add drops of glacial acetic 
 acid until the blue litmus paper changes on immersion to its proper 
 pinkish hue. 
 
 In the event of the litmus paper showing on its first immersion that the 
 
DETECTING CAUSES OF FOG. 
 
 47 
 
 bath is in good order, it is necessary to retrace one's steps a little. I 
 have proved conclusively that there is nothing in the exposure, nothing in 
 the developer, and, finally, nothing in the bath conducive to fog. The one 
 point on which I have not thoroughly satisfied myself is the question of 
 "promiscuous light." I therefore prepare a plate with the view of 
 testing the non-actinic qualities of my dark room. When removed from 
 the sensitising bath, I simply lay the plate down on the table and leave it 
 for a few minutes untouched. I then treat it with the developing 
 solution as I would an exposed film. If the fog appears, my dark room 
 has pleaded " guilty " quite as plainly as in words, and I do not rest until 
 the defect is discovered and set right. 
 
 When the dark room is at fault the blame can generally be laid to the 
 window. Operators should take especial care to render this incapable of 
 fogging even the most sensitive plate, but at the same time there is no 
 need to resort helplessly to the plan of blocking up the window altogether, 
 and working by the dingy light of a candle. It is far easier a,nd (photo- 
 graphically speaking) more workmanlike to paste over the panes two or 
 three thicknesses of orange paper than to spend boards, nails, and time 
 in shutting out altogether the light of day. 
 
 To test the dark slide, a sensitised plate should be inserted exactly as 
 if for exposure in the camera. Instead, however, of taking its place in 
 the camera, it should be placed by itself in the open light for perhaps 
 a minute. Development will quickly decide whether its construction or 
 condition is at fault. 
 
 The camera I should prove by inserting the dark slide and pulling up 
 its shutter without removing the cap from the lens. The proof will lie, 
 as before, in the result of the development. 
 
 If none of the above te researches " succeed in unearthing the causes 
 of fog (a contingency highly improbable), the sensitising bath should be 
 sunned as directed at the commencement of this chapter. This will serve 
 to eliminate all particles of foreign matter which occasionally have a 
 foggy tendency. 
 
 It will be understood that, although I have given the above system for 
 tracing the causes of fog as the one practised by myself, I do not mean to 
 say that I personally never depart from it. For instance, to waste a 
 plate on testing for over-exposure is the last resource on which I, as one 
 whom experience has taught to regulate exposure by fixed and seldom 
 erring rules, would care to fall back. It is in instances like these that a 
 practised hand may bend a system to suit himself, and I hope this fact 
 will lend additional weight to the caution I give to beginners — on no 
 account to take any liberties whatever with prescribed systems or 
 methods, of the very elements of which they are all but ignorant. 
 
CHAPTEE IX. 
 
 Wet Collodion in the Field. 
 
 Before commencing any detailed description of the apparatus necessary 
 for taking landscape negatives, it will be as well to sketch briefly the 
 nature of the distinction which it is necessary in this point to draw 
 between photography at home and photography abroad. The first 
 uestion which arises is an obvious one. It is quite possible to convey to 
 any given place the camera with its fittings and tripod. But suppose the 
 spot which it is required to photograph is some miles away from home, 
 and even one negative, not to mention five or six different ones, are 
 wanted, how is the dark room to be dispensed with ? Now, this problem 
 can be solved in two distinct ways. The first method is to prepare in a 
 peculiar manner the plates at home previously to starting on an expedi- 
 tion, and to take them out, expose them, and bring them back in a dry 
 state. This is called dry-plate photography, and, from the facility it 
 affords to tourists and others to whom the smallest burden is of conse- 
 quence, is daily growing into favour with many photographers, both 
 amateur and professional. But in spite of the improvements which, from 
 time to time are being made in " dry" processes, they are always 
 subject to one great drawback — the operator is never certain of success, 
 for it is impossible to tell whether a good picture has been secured until 
 home is reached and development performed. This difficulty is com- 
 pletely overcome by a second method of landscape photography, to which 
 the present chapter will have especial reference. In it wet collodion is still 
 the jprimuwb mobile, and the dark room is represented by a portable box 
 or tent, or combination of the two, which the operator carries with him, 
 and in which he prepares and subsequently developes as many plates as 
 he may chance to require. That such a portable dark room is a pos- 
 sibility I shall show hereafter, when I come to give a separate description 
 of a dark tent with its complement of bottles, tank, sink, &c. But if the 
 operator is to carry his dark room bodily for a distance perhaps of five or 
 six miles, it is absolutely necessary for the rest of Ms apparatus to b 
 •eminently portable likewise:, As some guidance is necessary in choosing 
 
LANDSCAPE APPARATUS. 
 
 49 
 
 a portable and at the same time efficient outfit for the practice of wet 
 collodion in the field, I will now proceed to give a few instructions, by 
 following" which an intending landscape artist will profit not only in the 
 point of comfort but in successful results. 
 
 The first point which (putting aside the question of the dark tent) 
 demands attention is the size which the operator wishes to make his 
 standard in taking landscapes, and the consequent size of the camera in 
 which his pictures are to be produced. Now, if my readers will take my 
 advice on this point, they will go to some well-known dealer, and procure 
 of him what is known as a Stereoscopic folding camera. There is no 
 necessity at all to use these instruments exclusively for stereoscopic 
 pictures. They are almost invariably sold with an extra front, which 
 enables the operator to take landscapes on the fall size of the plate,, 
 usually about 7iin. by 5in. They should be fitted with a <£ double swing- 
 back " and a " winch screw," which is highly convenient for focussing. 
 They have always a central movable partition, which is used in taking* 
 stereoscopic pictures, or two carte-de-visite portraits on one plate. A 
 camera such as one of these costs from <£4 to «£5, and is always a 
 thoroughly reliable and generally useful piece of apparatus. 
 
 We must now turn to the lens, which is a most important point. The 
 ordinary landscape lens is a single combination, formed of two or three- 
 lenses joined together with transparent cement. But this single combina- 
 tion is subject to a fault, which at times is most inconvenient, namely, that 
 of distortion. This is not noticeable in taking ordinary landscapes, but it 
 is most annoying when photographing a house, or any other such object, to- 
 find all the marginal lines completely " out of the straight." There are 
 certain classes of lens, doublet and triplet, which correct this distortion. 
 Of these the most noted are Dallmeyer's "Rapid Rectilinears," one of 
 which every landscape photographer should, if he can afford it, procure. 
 Their rapidity makes these lenses especially useful in cases where animate 
 objects form part of the picture. They can even be employed with suc- 
 cess in taking portraits. Ross's Portable and Rapid i 1 Symmetrical " 
 are also fine and justly celebrated anti-distortion lenses. In confined 
 situations, where the angle of the ordinary single or doublet lens (usually 
 from 60 to 70 degrees) is not wide enough to take in the whole of the 
 picture, a "wide-angle "lens is necessary. These can be bought if 
 wished to cover the whole plate without stops ; but a simpler and cheaper 
 plan is to buy a lens covering the size below the one in ordinary use, and 
 to increase its angle as well as its definition by the use of stops. Thus, 
 a 1 'n. by 4in. rectilinear or symmetrical can, by the use of a small stop, 
 bt, made to take very wide-angle pictures up to 7in. by 5in. If the 
 operator can only afford to buy one good lens, he should by all means. 
 
£0 
 
 PIIACTICAL PHOTOG11APIIY. 
 
 get a doublet of some maker of undoubted reputation. I may remind 
 my readers that there are several most respectable shops at which 
 genuine lenses of such makers as Dallmeyer, Ross, Grubb, Stenheil, and 
 others may be procured secondhand at a great reduction, considering the 
 little or no deterioration to which lenses, however rough, may have been 
 their usage, are subject. Although it is very pleasant to have one's 
 lenses direct from the manufactory, still, for those to whom expenditure 
 is a serious consideration, it is a far better plan to have a lens with a good 
 maker's name on its tube, however tarnished and dented the latter may 
 be, so long as the former is clear and brilliant, than to have a wretched 
 piece of bad flint set in fittings of resplendent brass, which was bought 
 "because it was as cheap as it was new. 
 
 From the camera and lens to the tripod is but a step. There are many 
 Mnds of portable tripods on all sorts of principles. One that can be 
 thoroughly recommended is that for which Mr. Kennett, of Maddox- street, 
 has obtained a patent. Its chief peculiarity lies in sliding ferrules, by 
 which the legs of the stand are adjusted. These legs are removable from 
 the slab on which the camera rests, and can be easily carried under an 
 arm or in a disengaged hand. 
 
 A good kind of glass plate to use for small landscapes is flatted crown. 
 Many photographers also employ Forrest's patent plate substitute, which 
 is a glass of good quality, and is sold at a moderate price. The glass 
 plates should always be thoroughly cleaned before starting on a photo- 
 graphic expedition. This done, they can, until they are wanted, be kept 
 in any common white wood box, grooved to prevent scratching. Only as 
 many glasses should be taken out as will be required for the day, as glass 
 is very heavy, and plate boxes with a great number of grooves very 
 clumsy. If the operator prefers before leaving any spot to varnish the 
 negative he has just taken of it, these finished negatives can be brought 
 home along with what remains of the clean plates. If, however, he 
 desires to store them away the moment they are washed after fixation, 
 with a view to varnishing them at some future period, he should procure 
 a metal box specially adapted for the purpose of receiving wet negatives. 
 These are sold by the dealers for about six or seven shillings apiece. 
 
 When the operator has procured the above indispensable apparatus for 
 the comfortable and successful practice of outdoor photography of any 
 kind, he can turn his attention to the construction and furniture of the 
 dark tent, which I shall now proceed to describe. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 Dark Tents and their Construction. 
 
 Of all the so-called "dark tents" the simplest in construction and 
 design is that which is known, from the inventor's name, as the 
 "Howard." This " unique and portable little dark room," as the 
 advertisement very fairly calls it, is made of indiarubber lined cloth, 
 and is so constructed as to have for its supports the upper part of the legs 
 of an ordinary camera-tripod. It is fitted with eye-holes and armholes, 
 and also with a "window" of non-actinic cloth, capable of admitting 
 quite as much light as is needed. To sensitise and develop, the 
 operator sits down on the box in which he carries his chemicals, &c. 
 The whole concern is a convenient and easily adjustable little 
 apparatus, and for working small wet collodion plates in the field 
 nothing handier can be desired. The tent will also be found useful 
 in changing dry plates when double dark slides or a changing box 
 are not accessible. Its price, exclusive of the stand, which is not 
 required, any good camera tripod being suitable, is £1. It can be 
 procured of most photographic dealers, but the sole manufacturers 
 are Lee Brothers, 27, Watling- street, E.C. The accompanying woodcut 
 shows at a glance the nature and principle of the Howard tent. 
 
 But it will be seen that, ingenious and efficient as the above explained 
 apparatus indisputably is for pictures up to, say, 5in. by 4in., when 
 plates of larger sizes, such as whole plate or even 7^in. by 5in. ; are 
 o be manipulated, something more substantial will be required. The 
 form usually employed in such cases is the " Box " tent, of which there 
 are many varieties, both commercial and otherwise. Of the former, the 
 best known are the " model " tents of W. W. Eouch, 180, Strand, which 
 are very perfect and convenient. A tent for working plates up 8|in. by 
 6|in., complete with fittings, cos£s between £6 and £7 ; and the outlay 
 once afforded will never be regretted by the true photographer. To those 
 who are either not in a position to purchase a tent ready made and fitted, 
 or who prefer to make their apparatus to suit their individual convenience, 
 I will give a few hints on the construction of a fairly portable box tent, 
 
 D 2 
 
Fig. 5. The Box Dale Tent. 
 
THE BOX DAHK. TENT. 53 
 
 which, though of course unequal in completeness and finish to the many 
 varieties in the photographic market, will still be found workable and, 
 comparatively speaking, inexpensive. Annexed are two illustrations on 
 which my hints will be based. 
 
 Fig. 5 represents the box tent without fittings. It is a plain box 
 (preferably of deal, for the sake o: lightness), with two doors like 
 those of a cupboard turned on its side. The upper door opens on a 
 -slant rather higher than the top side of the box itself, and forms a 
 
 Fig. 6. The Box Dark Tent, complete. 
 
 mooi ; the lower door opens " flush " with the bottom of the box, and is 
 used as a support for the sink. The two doors shut down on a rabbet ; 
 one must be secured to the inside of the box with a bolt, and the 
 other fastened to its companion with a lock. In most, if not all, 
 commercial box tents there is but one lid, which falls down altogether 
 to form the bottom board. The roof is formed by a curtain sup- 
 ported by two iron rods. When this plan is adopted the box can be very 
 shallow, and the camera, &c, has to be carried apart from the tent. My 
 tent, on the contrary, is made a little deeper, so as to carry all 
 the apparatus except the tripods for the camera and tent, when travelling, 
 
PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 in itself, an arrangement which I am perhaps heterodox in preferring,- 
 but which my readers can modify or not as they please. The 
 measurements for a tent as shown in the engraving may be — length 
 2ft., height 18in., depth 6in. or 7 in. For a tent with one door or 
 lid, the depth need not be more than 4in. To proceed with my de- 
 scription : in the bottom of the box, at A a, is cut a slot, about 6in. long 
 and l^in. broad, according to the size of the bath it is required to hold. 
 The window is represented at b. The sash should either be hinged or 
 made to slide in grooves, as in the illustration. Let us now turn to Fig. 
 6, which represents the tent with its fittings in action. The first point 
 which attracts notice is the curtain. This should be made of black 
 " jeanette " lined with yellow. It should be carefully tacked, so as to 
 admit no ray of white light. It need not be too voluminous, but only 
 sufficient to shield the operator without cramping his manipulation. It 
 is a good plan to have the whole curtain converging like a bag to 
 one point, where it can be drawn together by a tape, the ends of which 
 can, during operations, be tied round the operator's waist. At A A in its 
 receptacle is seen the bath. 
 
 An ordinary porcelain or glass bath can be used, and can rest 
 obliquely in a cradle of non-actinic cloth; but as this necessitates 
 double decantation and the inconvenience of an extra bottle, it is 
 advisable to carry the solution in a " travelling " bath with water-tight 
 and screwed top. If the operator can afford it, he should also procure a 
 dipper of pure silver wire. The cost is about 12s., and, of course, 
 breakage is next to impossible. At b is the sliding window again, 
 which should be opened as soon as the collodionised plate is safely in 
 the bath, to let out the fumes of the collodion. A case to hold bottles is 
 shown at c c. The necks of the bottles should be secured by inter- 
 mediate wires to prevent contact with one another and consequent 
 fracture. The case should be rendered compact by a slide at its 
 top, to prevent the bottles falling out while travelling, and to serve 
 as a support for odd bottles, &c, during operations. It is best per- 
 haps to use corked in preference to stoppered bottles. Stoppers are 
 liable to drop out unless very well ground, and are always subject 
 to breakage. To render the bottles in the case of an uniform height, 
 blocks of wood of proportionate sizes should be placed at their 
 bases, d represents the sink, which should be, if possible, of ebonite. 
 In one corner it should have a waste pipe, which penetrates the 
 bottom of the tent and leads the water by means of a tube to the 
 ground. At e is another tube, with a tap (an ordinary gas tap is 
 serviceable), communicating with a tank or indiarubber bag, which 
 rests on the top of the tent. 
 
OUTDOOR APPARATUS. 
 
 55 
 
 Besides these fittings a plate box or two (see Chap IX.) will be 
 necessary. 
 
 I recommend my readers at the end of a day's work, before packing 
 up the tent, to heat their negatives over a spirit lamp, and to varnish 
 them there and then. This course does away with the necessity for 
 an extra plate box ; and it is always satisfactory to think on 
 returning home that one's work is virtually finished, and that nothing 
 remains to be done but the printing. If, however, the operator objects 
 to this plan, he can use whichever of the plate boxes happens to be 
 empty, to carry his measures, funnels, &c. In some tents the 
 receptacle for these is a fixture, but space is gained by having it mov- 
 able, as, during operations, it can be laid on the ground or on the top of 
 the tent. If an indiarubber bag is not used for water, the zinc tank 
 can be made with a lid, and the odds and ends of apparatus packed 
 into it. 
 
 Besides the usual complement of measures and funnels for large 
 plates a pneumatic plateholder is required, to relieve the fingers of 
 the weight, enhanced by the leverage attendant on holding it by the 
 extreme corner, of a large sheet of glass. Pneumatic plate holders are 
 made of two different kinds, one in which the pneumatic attraction of 
 the plate to a piece of indiarubber is caused by lowering a small lever, 
 and which is known by the name of the "lever" form; the other in 
 which the same result of attraction is obtained by merely squeezing the 
 indiarubber ball which forms the lower part of the holder. This is 
 known as the " globe " holder, and is very handy for home use. In the 
 field the lever is perhaps more generally convenient. 
 
 The legs of the tent-tripod should be removable from the slab or 
 iron frame on to which the tent itself is screwed ; the latter can then 
 be carried in the tent, while the former may be strapped into one 
 parcel along with the legs of the camera- tripod. 
 
 If the operator finds his tent with all its appurtenances likely 
 to tax his strength, especially when long journeys are attempted, he 
 should devise a light "trolly" on wheels, which, while greatly 
 facilitating carriage, is by no means difficult to construct or trouble- 
 some to put in action. If the operator is lucky enough to possess 
 a friend or attendant to help him with the tripods, and, if water be not 
 within reach of the spot where the tent is pitched, with the water bag, 
 such a convenience as the above mentioned may generally be dispensed 
 with. 
 
 I shall now conclude this chapter with a few hints which may prove 
 useful in several ways to those, especially the beginners, who are 
 taking up the study of landscape photography. 
 
PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 One of the great secrets of success in landscape photography is to study 
 a subject thoroughly before attempting to reproduce it with the 
 camera and lens. If possible, the photographer should visit the future 
 scene of his operations some time before doing actual work there. He 
 should then carefully select such points of the surrounding landscape 
 as he considers would make really satisfactory pictures, and study 
 these individually and with the utmost care. His motto should be that 
 if a picture is worth taking at all, it is worth taking well. Above all he 
 should strive to make his productions not only evidences of manipulative 
 skill, but witnesses to his artistic taste. This is a point where ninety 
 out of a hundred landscapists fail egregiously, and one to which the 
 great artist photographers of the day are drawing the particular attention 
 of their less successful brethren. It is not enough to seize indiscrimi" 
 nately on every object which you think "will make a tidy picture," 
 and then without more thought to prepare a plate, insert a tiny diaphragm 
 in your lens so as to have the whole picture, distances and all, uniformly 
 sharp, and finally to produce a tolerable printing negative. This is photo- 
 graphy in one sense, but certainly not in its most elevated and elevating 
 sense. The photographer may be indignant if his performance of certain 
 manipulations in connection with certain chemical agencies, is not freely 
 admitted to be a form of "art;" yet the truth is that "merely this 
 and nothing more" is not art at all, any more than the man who pro- 
 duces a cast from a mould is an artist. But more words would be 
 superfluous. If you watch the artist photographer at his work and try to 
 catch the spirit in which he works, or minutely analyse his finished pictures 
 and place them side by side with the productions of the every- day land- 
 scapist, you will learn far more about the application of art to photography 
 in an hour than you will gather from volumes of dissertation. But do 
 not suppose that because you are, or imagine you are, endowed with 
 artistic perception and taste, you can be altogether independent of 
 mechanical knowledge. This is a great and often met with error. The 
 true path to excellence is to learn your manipulation thoroughly at 
 home ; to render yourself by careful and constant practice familiar with 
 every article of apparatus in your employ ; to acquaint yourself with the 
 action of all the chemical compounds in your laboratory, and, above all, 
 to acquire patience and determination. This done, you may with some 
 conscience take the field, and learn your first lesson in the art-practice of 
 landscape photography. 
 
 Having made up your mind to photograph on some fixed day, it will 
 be well, as I said above, to begin by a previous visit to the spot 
 where you think there is a prospect of obtaining satisfactory pictures. 
 After selecting such points of interest as you consider likely to make 
 
LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 5 
 
 good photographs (in doing which care must be taken to bear in mind the 
 distinction between the polychromatic hues of nature and the monochrome 
 of the silver print on which nature is to be reproduced), it is a good plan 
 to mark with sticks or stones the spots from which you roughly compute 
 that each landscape will have to be focussed. Now take the views sepa- 
 rately, and map out as nearly as possible your plan of action. Especial 
 attention must first be paid to the disposition of light and shade through- 
 out the pictures. Having settled on such effects as your artistic taste, 
 innate or acquired, suggests, note these carefully down, together with 
 the time of day at which they maybe secured, in a pocket-book kept for this 
 particular purpose. Note down also such alterations in the normal state 
 of the landscapes as you may deem desirable ; the addition of inanimate 
 •objects, such as branches of trees, the presence of a flock of sheep, a 
 herd of oxen, a group of human beings, &c. Remember that these three 
 last require very delicate and skilful handling. Their chief use is to 
 relieve a meaningless expanse of foreground ; but, to accomplish this 
 properly you must never lose sight of nature or natural posture. It is 
 the preservation of the harmony of nature, and the total absence of any 
 trace of artificial aid, that is the real criterion of success in an attempt to 
 make what is inartistic accord with the principles of art. 
 
 When such points as the above, in reference to your future landscapes, 
 have been disposed of, attention should be turned to the mechanical 
 arrangements which the production of the negatives will necessitate. A 
 primary consideration is the position of the tent. This should obviously 
 be as central as possible to the focussing stations of the various views. 
 If a running stream is at hand the tent should be pitched upon its banks. 
 The question of a handy and abundant water supply is a very important 
 •one in outdoor photography, and the operator should take especial care 
 in making all previous arrangements with regard to it. If a stream be 
 not accessible, water may be obtained in pailsful from a neighbouring 
 •dwelling. Should this source fail, the photographer must fall back upon 
 himself and bring his water on his shoulders in an indiarubber bottle or bag. 
 
 Before actually starting on your photographic expedition, make a point 
 of going over your whole equipment to make sure that nothing is missing. 
 To facilitate this, a list may be made of the articles required in one day's 
 work, and be used as a muster-roll both for apparatus and chemicals. 
 Another plan is to go through mentally the operation of producing a 
 negative away from home. It is as well to carry along with one an extra 
 measure, funnel, and so on, as the slight addition to the weight of the 
 equipment is nothing compared with the pleasurable sensation of being on 
 the safe side which' the endurance of it gives. 
 
 The sensitising bath should be tried before starting. Nothing is 
 
58 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 more vexatious than to find, after a toilsome march of perhaps several 
 miles, that a picture cannot possibly be taken without pinhole, fog-, or 
 other similar abominations. New collodion should also be tested, 
 especially if it is some prepared by another maker to the one usually 
 patronised. I may here remark that nothing is more conducive to failure 
 in landscape photography than the constant alteration of formula} and 
 chemical preparations. "What is one man's meat is another man's 
 poison " is a proverb the truth of which photographers are amongst the 
 slowest of mortals to comprehend. The only piece of advice to be given 
 on this point may be summed up laconically into — find out the formulae 
 which lead you to excellence, and, as the Americans say, "freeze" to 
 them. 
 
 Let the glass plates be thoroughly clean and bright, requiring 
 only a touch of the camel's hair brush to render them fit to receive 
 the collodion. This exhortation to cleanliness applies to all parts of out- 
 door apparatus, in which, from the necessarily small space available for 
 manipulation, the smallest speck of dirt is almost felt. 
 
 Let us suppose, however, that all difficulties have been overcome, and 
 that everything is clean and in working order, and finally that the scene 
 of operations is fairly reached. The first task will be to pitch the tent 
 upon the spot previously determined. This perhaps occupies but ten 
 minutes, but still it is better, if possible, not to move the tent until the 
 day's work is completed, even though some of the focussing stations are 
 rather remote. The chances are that not only will the tent and appara- 
 tus have to be moved, but water will have to be fetched from the same 
 place after all, or loss of time will be experienced in a variety of other 
 ways. 
 
 When the tent is duly pitched and the apparatus unpacked and made 
 ready for action, the landscape, for taking which the present is a favour- 
 able moment, may be focussed. This is an operation which, apart 
 from artistic considerations, would require some little practice to render 
 the operator proficient. In the first place he should remember to base 
 his focus upon some point half way between the centre and the edge 
 of the view as it appears on the focussing screen. When this is perfectly 
 sharp he can proceed to insert a diaphragm to impart a certain degree of 
 sharpness to other points of the picture, which with the full aperture of 
 the lens appear hazy and wanting in clearness of outline. But I must 
 caution my readers against the indiscriminate use of stops. They are 
 most valuable little instruments, it is true, but an undue employment of 
 them often leads to inartistic effects. Look, for example, at the production 
 of some ordinary landscape photographer. Your first 'thought is one of 
 admiration, and you exclaim " How exquisitely clear !" But after a 
 
LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 59- 
 
 moment's reflection you find that this very clearness is a real disfigure- 
 ment. You look again, you see that the mountains miles away in the 
 background are as bright and sharply outlined as objects which were not 
 more than fifty yards from the lens. You know well enough that this is 
 not nature, and so did the photographer, but either the idea failed at the 
 time to strike him, or , as is occasionally the case, he chose to ignore the 
 fact altogether. But this last is a habit I trust my readers will not be 
 guilty of falling into. Although a disregard for distances may be a 
 widespread error, it is certainly not conducive to its removal to humour 
 it, nor creditable in him who has the knowledge of what is artistically 
 right to do violence to his opinions and those of the better informed 
 among his critics, by producing pictures untrue to nature, and to the 
 natural law that as an object recedes from view the distinctness of its 
 outline is lessened to the eye. Then, before yielding to the temptation of 
 using the smallest of the stops, so as to make all sure, think of the 
 gradation of distance you wish to reproduce, and you will find that to 
 obtain your object, and at the same time to gratify your wish for 
 sharpness, the largest, rather than the smallest, stop will be your 
 choice. 
 
 After focussing comes the preparation of the plate. If some distance 
 is to be traversed between the camera and the tent, it is advisable to- 
 lay a strip of blotting paper the whole length of the bottom side of the 
 plate carrier. A sheet of the same may also be laid at the back of the 
 plate itself. If a pneumatic plate holder be used in collodionising, 
 the back of the plate should be wiped clean before it is allowed to 
 enter the bath. If this is not done, impurities will be constantly carried 
 into the bath, which, from their minuteness, it will be difficult to 
 eliminate. 
 
 About the exposure in landscape, as in portrait photography, no fixed 
 rule can be given. The stereotyped general rule is to expose for the 
 shades and let the lights take care of themselves. Among the former, 
 trees hold a prominent position. Their colour is highly non-actinic, and 
 so requires a lengthened exposure. 
 
 If, during exposure, a sudden gust of wind threatens to tear the whole 
 landscape to rags, the cap can be at once put on the lens and removed to 
 complete the exposure when the squall is over. 
 
 Never work, if you can by any means help it, with the sun in your face. 
 Either at your side or at your back is its most manageable position. If, 
 however, facing the sun is unavoidable, a cap or hat should be held so as 
 to screen it from flashing directly into the lens. 
 
 With this I shall conclude my " hints " to those of my readers to whom 
 landscape photography is either a present or a future study. In develop- 
 
GO 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 ment and succeeding operations there is nothing which calls for special 
 remark. With good formulas and plenty of practice failure in these is 
 almost impossible. But in the artistic treatment of a picture this is not 
 the case. No amount of formulas will make a man an artist, but the 
 simple explanation of the simplest of art rules will go far to give him a 
 slight glimmering of artistic truth, and when this has once dawned upon 
 him the daybreak is not so very far behind. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 Papeii-Pmnting, Washing, Toning, &c. 
 
 The present chapter is based upon an important assumption. Hitherto 
 my instructions have tended, I trust, consistently to the realisation of 
 one fixed object, the production, namely, of satisfactory negatives. 
 From the hypothesis that these instructions have been accurately and 
 successfully carried out, the rationale of the process I am about to 
 describe will be deduced. I have said elsewhere that from a negative by 
 a process of sun-printing upon prepared paper, copies of a given subject 
 can be indefinitely multiplied. I will now proceed to justify this remark 
 by giving in detail an account of the various operations which, combined 
 with the possession of a decent negative or negatives, will procure the 
 above-mentioned results. 
 
 The subject will require but little scientific preface. The discussion of 
 two points only will be sufficient to give the learner a grasp of the 
 principles on which the theory and practice of paper-printing are 
 founded. These points are, firstly, the discrepancy ; secondly, the analogy 
 between the production of prints and that of negatives. The dis- 
 crepancy arises in the nature of the sensitive materials on the action of 
 which both processes are respectively based. In taking negatives the 
 most ordinary agent is iodide of silver, in producing paper prints from 
 them chloride of silver. The action of light upon the former of these I 
 have fully exemplified. To illustrate its effect upon the latter, and to 
 show how this effect is to be obtained, is the object of the present, 
 chapter. But while this discrepancy exists in the nature of the sensitive 
 materials themselves, there is a direct analogy in the manner in which, 
 the sensitive film or surface is in either case prepared. Looking back 
 to the wet collodion process for obtaining negatives, we shall find that a 
 plate was coated with a substance (collodion) containing an iodide ; this 
 on immersion in the sensitising bath became impregnated with iodide of 
 silver. In paper-printing the paper is treated with a substance containing 
 a chloride and afterwards floated upon a bath of silver nitrate. This. 
 
'62 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 produces a film of silver chloride which possesses the necessary property 
 -of darkening when exposed to actinic light. 
 
 The most ordinary method of imparting the chloride to the paper is to 
 coat it with albumen. This gives an exquisite evenness of surface, and 
 if carefully applied is a sure basis for successful prints. Albumenised 
 paper is an article of extensive commerce, and can almost invariably be 
 procured of excellent quality. The paper itself is usually sold of two 
 different qualities, Rive or 8 axe. The former is, on account of its 
 brilliant gloss, more suitable for small pictures, the latter from its 
 strength for prints of a larger size. 
 
 Having the paper at hand, and having fixed upon to-day or to-morrow 
 for taking a turn in the printing department, the first question to be 
 decided is the selection of the negatives to be printed from ; the next, 
 •the number of prints required from each negative. When the latter is 
 settled and the quantity of paper which the total number of prints will 
 •consume has been calculated, the sheets can be cut into convenient sizes 
 prior to their being floated upon the sensitising bath. These sizes should 
 be somewhat smaller than that of the dish in which the bath is to be 
 contained, and at the same time must obviously be multiples of the size 
 of the prints required. If desired to print from nearly the whole surface 
 of a quarter-plate, the albumenised paper can be cut into whole-plate 
 sizes for sensitising, and afterwards sub-divided when required for the 
 printing frame. Four whole-plates will be found in every half sheet of 
 commercial paper. When cutting out paper for printing it will be found 
 necessary to allow a slight space all round for trimming off the rough 
 edges previous to mounting. 
 
 [j ( The bath in which the paper is to be sensitised should be made up in 
 any quantity to the following proportions : 
 
 Sensitising Bath for Paper. 
 
 Nitrate of Silver 50gr. 
 
 Distilled Water loz. 
 
 It should be used in a porcelain dish, and when done with for the time 
 can be filtered off into an ordinary bottle. When the solution becomes 
 discoloured a little kaolin can be dropped into the bottle, and the whole 
 well shaken ; the kaolin having settled, the solution can be decanted or 
 filtered off as required into the dish for ordinary use. 
 
 As the strength of the solution becomes by use diminished, it is neces- 
 sary to test it from time to time by an instrument called an argentometer. 
 This is a bulbed tube containing quicksilver, which shows by index 
 figures on its stem the number of grains of silver to the ounce of water 
 in any solution in which it is immersed. When the argentometer shows 
 & deficit of silver in the sensitising bath, all that is required is to drop 
 
ALBUMENISED PAPER. 
 
 63 
 
 silver nitrate into the bath until the necessary number of grains to the 
 ounce is once more indicated by the figure on the stem of the testing 
 instrument appearing just over the surface of the solution. The price of 
 an argentometer is about half-a-crown. 
 
 Having prepared the sensitising bath according to the given formula 
 and made ready the paper in flat pieces of a convenient size, the 
 operator can now proceed to the task of making the paper sensitive to 
 light. This is done as follows : Pour the bath into a porcelain dish so 
 as to allow a depth of not less than half an inch. Now take one of the 
 pieces of paper, albumen side downwards, by the extreme ends, between 
 the finger and thumb of each hand ; bring the hands together as if 
 about to fold the paper; lower the paper until the centre of the albumen - 
 ised surface just touches the solution ; finally, bring down the ends 
 gradually until the whole albumenised surface floats on the bath. If this 
 is done with care and due attention to the golden mean between hesitation 
 and hurry, all air bubbles (which, if allowed to exist, will produce sharp 
 round spots of white in the print) will be easily expelled. When the 
 paper has floated on (but not in any way immersed in) the solution for 
 from three to four minutes, according to heat or coldness of the season, 
 a pair of boxwood or ebonite forceps can be applied to a corner and the 
 paper removed from the bath. The pieces can now be fastened to 
 American clips, and hung up away from dust to dry. It is obvious 
 that all operations connected with the sensitising of the paper and the 
 subsequent drying should be performed in the dark room, or at least in 
 non-actinic light. When the paper is dry it can be cut down to the 
 sizes (leaving, as I have said above, some space for trimming) of the 
 prints required. This done the pieces can be stowed away for the time 
 being in a light-tight box of any kind. 
 
 With paper prepared as above, it will be necessary to proceed almost 
 immediately to the printing, as the paper itself becomes discoloured even 
 in the course of a few days. If desired to preserve it in its original 
 whiteness for some weeks or even months, some special method of 
 making it durable must be adopted. The best formulas to produce this 
 result are trade secrets ; but the following, suggested by Mr. Hopkins in 
 the Photographic News, may be employed with success : Take any 
 number of sheets of blotting paper and immerse them in a solution of 
 carbonate of soda, about 30 grains to the ounce of water. When these 
 have been dried insert between alternate sheets of blotting paper sheets 
 of newly sensitised paper which have been almost thoroughly dried. Put 
 the pile under pressure and withdraw the sheets as from time to time 
 required. 
 
 Another plan which can always be relied upon is to buy the paper 
 
64 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 ready sensitised of some standard dealer. It is, of course, compulsory 
 that the sensitised paper of commerce should be very durable, and there 
 are in the trade several secret processes by which this result is most suc- 
 cessfully obtained. A commercial paper which, while it keeps almost 
 indefinitely, gives most brilliant prints, is that sent out in a sensitive 
 state by C. Durand, No. 3, The Grove, New Wimbledon, S.W. That 
 supplied by J. Fallowfield, of 36, Lower Marsh, Lambeth, S.E., is also 
 of standard quality. Ready sensitised paper can be purchased at about 
 15s. the quire. 
 
 Let me now turn to the printing frame in which the sensitised paper is 
 to be brought into contact with the negative. The ordinary teak wood 
 frames, such as I have recommended for quarter-plate work, have merely 
 rebates, on which the negative rests, and a jointed back, the pressure of 
 which is accomplished by a couple of brass springs. The frames for 
 larger sizes have a front of plate glass, which allows any sized negative 
 from the full size of the glass front downwards to be printed in the 
 frame. These have cross bars, and the pressure is given either with 
 springs or screws. The jointed back is on the same principle as that 
 fitted to the little teak wood frames. Its object is to allow the operator 
 to watch the progress of the printing without disturbing the position of 
 the paper. How this is effected will be presently described. 
 
 The construction of the printing frame having been discussed, I can 
 now proceed to describe its practical application. Place the frames face 
 downwards, and clearing away the pressure springs or cross bars, remove 
 the jointed back ; in the rebates, or in the centre of the glass front, 
 lay a negative, film side upwards ; in immediate contact with the film 
 place the sensitive surface of the prepared paper ; at the back of the 
 paper lay a strip of felt or blotting paper, and over this introduce the 
 jointed back of the frame ; finally, close the springs if the frame is a 
 teak wood one ; if one with cross bars and screws, shut down the former 
 and give the pressure with the latter. The preparations for printing 
 are now complete, and all that remains is to carry out the frames 
 containing the negatives, &c, and expose them face upwards to actinic 
 light. 
 
 When the frames have once been taken out from the dark room into the 
 open light, the operator, especially if the number of negatives printed 
 be large, must be prepared to give them his undivided attention until the 
 work he requires of them is completed. In the first place, he should 
 exercise some judgment in assigning to the different frames their respec- 
 tive positions as regards the light in which they are to be exposed. All 
 the dense negatives may be printed in bright light, the thinner ones in 
 the shade. When the printer imagines the light to be taking effect on the 
 
PRINTING. 
 
 65 
 
 sensitised paper he can examine the progress of the print in the following 
 manner : Take the frame into the shade and unfasten one of the two 
 springs or bars which keep down the jointed back. This will allow one 
 half of the back to be pulled open, and half of the print can also be seen 
 without disturbing the position of the other half, by pulling it back with 
 the finger. When the progress of one half of the print has been ascer- 
 tained, the corresponding half of the jointed back can be shut down and 
 the rest of the print viewed in exactly the same manner. This course can 
 be adopted with all the frames until the requisite degree of darkness 
 has been attained by each individual print. 
 
 With regard to the amount of exposure requisite for a vigorous and 
 brilliant print, it is only necessary to say that the print (which at this stage 
 is a dull red colour) should be allowed to remain in the frame until it is a 
 few degrees darker in tone than that which it is wished for the finished 
 picture to exhibit. When this point is reached, the prints can be removed 
 from the frame by undoing both the springs and lifting out the back entire j 
 another piece of sensitised paper can then be laid over the face of the 
 negative and the fastenings closed, as in the first instance. The prints 
 as they are removed from the frames must either be carried into the dark 
 room or thrown into a light-tight box. As soon as the number of prints 
 required from a negative is complete, the negative itself should be stored 
 away for fear of accidents, which, if the glass plates are allowed to lie 
 carelessly strewed about, are at this stage very liable to occur. 
 
 From the actual process of printing I will now proceed to the opera- 
 tions which unite to produce certain effects more prominently visible in 
 the finished picture. There are two principal points in which the print 
 in its present stage is deficient : (1) it is of a most crude and unpleasant 
 " tone (2) it is sensitive to actinic light, and if not kept away from 
 its influence will turn uniformly black. To remedy the first of these 
 difficulties, the prints must be treated with the gold toning solution in the 
 following manner : Take a batch of the prints and wash them face down- 
 wards in two changes of ordinary water. The washing, which must be- 
 done very thoroughly, will occupy about five minutes ; the last change of 
 water must be free from any trace of milkiness. When by this washing 
 the " free nitrate " has been removed from the prints, the latter are ready 
 for immersion in the toning bath. This is to be prepared according to one 
 of the following standard formulae : — 
 
 Toning Bath (1). 
 
 Chloride of gold „. ... Igr. 
 
 Acetate of soda „ „ 30gr. 
 
 Water 8oz. 
 
 This must be mixed at least a day before use. It will keep for almost 
 
 any length of time, but occasionally requires strengthening ; this may be 
 
 E 
 
06 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 accomplished by adding as much gold as is necessary to start the toning 
 action afresh. It is best to keep the stock of chloride of gold in solution, 
 as in its original state it is very deliquescent, and is highly inconvenient 
 for measuring off. A good plan to adopt is to break open the small tube 
 in which chloride of gold is usually to be obtained, and immediately to 
 dissolve the gold in a certain proportion of water. The proportion gene- 
 rally followed is 15gr. of gold to 3}oz. of water, that is, lgr. of gold to 
 every 2dr. of water. To make up a toning bath according to the above 
 formula, the acetate of soda (30gr.) may be dissolved in 7oz. 6dr. of 
 water, and 2dr. of the gold solution added. 
 
 The following is also a standard bath, which gives beautifully rich 
 purple tones : — 
 
 Toning Bath (2). 
 
 Chloride of gold lgr. 
 
 Phosphate of soda 20gr. 
 
 Water 8oz. 
 
 A drawback to the use of this bath is the fact that it must be used 
 shortly after preparation. 
 
 A third toning bath is the following, which keeps its power of giving 
 
 excellent results for a very lengthened period : 
 
 Toning Bath (3). 
 
 Chloride of gold lgr. 
 
 Chloride of lime lgr. 
 
 Prepared chalk i teaspoonful. 
 
 Water _ 8oz. 
 
 The prints to be toned in this bath do not require a thorough pre- 
 liminary washing, as the presence of a small quantity of free nitrate is 
 desirable. 
 
 During the immersion of the prints the bath containing the toning 
 solution should be gently rocked, so as to allow the latter to have free 
 access to all the prints. The operator will also find it bad economy of 
 time to attempt to tone more pictures at once than the bath will con- 
 veniently hold. If the toning does not go on satisfactorily with the 
 prints floating face upwards, they can be turned over on their faces, 
 which is perhaps the preferable course of the two. 
 
 When the prints have lost their originally brick-red hue, and have 
 acquired a suitable tone, they can be removed from the bath with the 
 forceps and plunged into a dish of cold water to await the process of fixing. 
 If some time is to elapse before this takes place, the precaution may be 
 taken of dropping into the water a few grains of common salt to retard 
 the toning action, which would otherwise, though very slightly, be continued. 
 
 The strength of the fixing solution may be as follows : 
 
 Fixing Bath for Prints. 
 
 Hypo-sulphite of soda 5oz. 
 
 Water 20oz. 
 
FIXING — TRIMMING — MOUNTING. 
 
 67 
 
 The prints should remain immersed in this bath for about a quarter of an 
 hour. They should be kept in pretty constant motion, and all air bubbles 
 removed. As hypo-sulphite of soda is extremely cheap, the amateur will 
 find it best, and almost necessary, to throw away the bath when done with, 
 and prepare a new one every printing day. After fixing, it is requisite 
 to remove by very thorough washing all the hypo-sulphite of soda from 
 the prints themselves. If this is not done' the prints will rapidly fade 
 away and become valueless. The washing may be done in the following 
 manner : After a slight preliminary immersion they should be subjected, 
 if possible, to a running stream of water for at least five hours. If run- 
 ning water is not to be had, the time of washing should be increased to 
 •eight hours, and the water changed frequently. 
 
 When the soda has been thoroughly removed, the prints can be dried 
 between blotting paper and made ready for mounting. The trimming 
 can either be accomplished at this stage or immediately after the prints 
 have been taken from the frame. Perhaps the former is the more satis- 
 factory course, as, during the long immersions the print has to go through, 
 some papers are liable to distension, which, though slight, necessitates 
 a second trimming, or materially detracts from the appearance of the 
 mounted picture. Glass shapes of different sizes for trimming are sold 
 at the shops for from about 6d. upwards, according to the size. The 
 cutting should be done with a knife, a special form of which adapted 
 to this purpose can be bought for 9d. or Is. In trimming large prints, 
 or those with rounded corners, a most useful and handy little instrument 
 is the Woodbury trimmer. This has a cutting wheel mounted on a pivot, 
 which will easily follow almost any curve. 
 
 And now comes the operation of mounting, which, simple as it may 
 seem to the inexperienced beginner, really requires some little care to 
 render it successful. In the first place, it is necessary to fix upon a stan- 
 dard mounting solution. Perhaps that most generally used, particularly 
 for small prints, is one compounded of starch and hot water. The starch 
 should be dissolved in water and used whilst warm, of a tolerably 
 stiff consistency. It can be applied to the back of the picture with a 
 brush or with a sponge. Care should be taken to apply an even surface 
 of paste, and to pick out or remove by application of a piece of blotting 
 paper, all lumps or grit, which would, if they were allowed to remain, 
 impart a very poor and unworkmanlike appearance to the print when 
 mounted on the card. When the whole of the back of the print has been 
 thoroughly well rubbed with paste, it can be gently laid on the card or 
 mount, the two top corners having been adjusted to their respective 
 positions, and the rest of the print lowered into contact with the card 
 surface. This done, and the print being exactly placed on the mount, a 
 
 E 2 
 
68 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 piece of blotting paper can be laid over the former and the hand passed: 
 two or three times smartly over it. This will expel the superfluous 
 solution and give an even surface to the mounted picture. 
 
 Amongst other mounting media, besides starch paste, are dextrine 
 and gelatine, both of which require, like starch, the addition of water. 
 The latter requires a preliminary swelling with cold, and a final dissolu- 
 tion in warm water. Ready made-up mounting solutions can be procured 
 of any photographic dealer ; that with the widest reputation is perhaps 
 the " mounting medium " manufactured by Messrs. Marion and Co., 22 
 and 23, Soho-square, W. 
 
 The choice of card mounts must be left to the taste of the photo- 
 grapher himself. A buff-coloured card with a gold or red line to show 
 off the picture, answers admirably, and is moreover cheap. A packet, 
 containing a hundred of these to take cartes de visite, costs about two- 
 shillings, and from the neat appearance it gives to a print is an outlay 
 where a slight saving need hardly be considered. 
 
 When the print is firmly mounted upon its card it should be put under 
 pressure for some little time, after which its production is virtually 
 complete. To confer, however, a highly finished appearance, the course 
 is often adopted of burnishing the print by passing it under a heated 
 or cold roller of steel. Amongst the more pretentious class of rolling 
 machines, suitable for pictures of large size, are Weston's Rotary 
 Burnisher (to be had of J. J. Atkinson, 33 and 37, Manchester-street,. 
 Liverpool), and Entrekin's Oscillating Enameller (sold by Edwin Oborne, 
 Red Lion-square, W.C.). J. Solomon, of 22, Red Lion-square > also 
 sells a strong well made machine, which is known as his 44 hot rolling 
 press," complete with gas burner or spirit lamp for £3 (carte-de-visite 
 size), or <£4 for a press to take cabinet pictures. An amateur, however,, 
 working in small sizes, will probably find a small double-geared rolling 
 machine amply sufficient to meet his wants in every way. These can 
 be bought with two bright steel rollers and a screw for adjustment 
 of the pressure for about 30s. apiece. To obviate the trouble attendant 
 upon keeping the rollers bright and free from rust, these] can be bought 
 nickel-plated for a few shillings extra. This is a great advantage, as the 
 nickel does not even tarnish, and can be cleaned with water alone. 
 
 In the larger machines there is generally a bed of steel, or thick glass, 
 between which and the roller is passed the mounted print. In smaller 
 burnishers the card is introduced between two rollers, a suitable pressure 
 adjusted, and a turn given with the handle. This forces the whole 
 length of the card between the rollers, and, according to the extent 
 of the pressure, imparts a brilliant and burnished appearance to the. 
 surface of the print. 
 
ENCAUSTIC PASTE — SIZES. 
 
 69 
 
 Subsequently to rolling', or, as a partial substitute for it, many pho- 
 tographers are in the habit of applying a waxy substance, known as 
 Encaustic paste, to the face of the picture. This can be bought in pots 
 at the shops, or made up according" to the following formula given in 
 the British Journal Photographic Almanac : 
 
 Encaustic Paste. 
 
 Pure Wax _ 500 parts. 
 
 Gum Elemi 10 „ 
 
 Benzole . 200 „ 
 
 Essence of Lavender 300 „ 
 
 Oil of Spike 15 „ 
 
 This paste is to be rubbed into the print with a tuft of cotton wool 
 until a glossy and even surface is secured. 
 
 I have now completed my description of the manner in which prints 
 are to be in an ordinary way produced. For the sake of brevity and 
 directness I have reserved some few additional instructions as to 
 producing peculiar varieties of pictures, such as vignettes, medallions, 
 &c, together with some few hints observable in printing generally, 
 for a subsequent chapter. For the present the beginner will find plenty 
 of occupation in practising printing even from a standard negative 
 procured from a friend or shop. Undignified as this may seem, it is 
 a really capital course for the beginner to adopt, and far more reason- 
 able than for him to waste good materials on producing prints, the faults 
 Of which he is slow to refer to the worthlessness of his first few 
 negatives. 
 
 I must again remind my readers of the opportunity (alluded to in 
 Chap. II.) afforded to amateurs and others of having their negatives 
 printed from by professional printers. To those who have barely time 
 to produce the negatives themselves, it is a great boon to be able to 
 reap the palpable fruits of the contents of the plate box they have 
 laboured to fill, at a moderate expense, and with a far more 
 satisfactory result than nine times out of ten they could themselves 
 obtain. 
 
 It will be a fit conclusion to this chapter to say a word about the two 
 new sizes which the practice of printing has brought to light. The first 
 of these is carte de visite, which is the size of a print measuring when 
 trimmed 3fin. by 2|in., and the second is called a cabinet or album 
 picture, which is a trimmed print, measuring 5^in. by 4in. In order to 
 produce in the negative a picture suitable for reproduction in a certain 
 printing size, it is a good plan to lay the glass trimming shape in the 
 centre of the ground side of the focussing screen, and to draw a pencil 
 round it. This is obviously as correct a guide of size in focussing as 
 «can possibly be followed. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Varieties of Silver Prints— Hints on Printing. 
 
 In my last chapter I gave an account "pure and simple" of the 
 operations requisite to produce an ordinary print from an ordinary 
 negative. In many instances tho instructions there given would bo 
 sufficient to carry out the process with success, but there are certain 
 cases in which, either from necessity or from a desire to add to the 
 appearance of the print, some points in it must either be enlarged upon 
 or modified. For example, in the case of a negative of a bad landscape, or 
 perhaps of a group, or even of a full-length portrait, it will be only 
 necessary to follow out the line of instruction prescribed in Chap. XI. 
 But in the case, say, of the kind of picture which is familiar to all under 
 the name of vignette, it is obvious that some modification must be 
 adopted. It is a common error to suppose that the vignetted appearance 
 is given to a picture by some peculiar method of taking] the negative > 
 but this, except that the negative should only comprise the head and 
 shoulders instead of the whole figure of the sitter, is not in any way the 
 case. Vignettes, in common with medallions, domes, cushions, &c, 
 are all produced in the course of printing, and as cases are constantly 
 occurring where the addition of some such ornament has a materia 
 effect on the appearance of the finished picture, it is important that 
 the amateur printer should be familiar with the modes of producing it. 
 
 I shall begin with the simplest kind of what I may almost call 
 ornamental prints — those, namely, in which a clean white margin is 
 shown in the print itself, giving to the latter a " domed " or" cushioned ' ' 
 shape. This effect is produced by the use of cut-out "masks" of 
 black or non-actinic paper, which are either pasted on to the negative 
 or used loosely. In the first case care should be taken to adjust the mask 
 in exact truth with the objects shown in the negative; otherwise a 
 permanent distortion will take place in all the prints. The mask must 
 also be pasted on the collodion side of the plate. In the latter case, 
 which involves a little inconvenience, but which has the advantage 
 
MEDALLIONS. 
 
 71 
 
 that one mask can be used for any number of different negatives, the 
 mask is laid loosely but accurately as before on the film side of the 
 glass negative (for if the contact of a mask both with the film and the 
 sensitised paper be not perfect, it is obvious that a " fuzzy " margin 
 will result), and the sensitised paper is placed behind. The frame 
 is closed down and exposed, and the print appears with a clean 
 white margin of the shape exhibited by the cut-out portion of the 
 mask. 
 
 From these I will proceed to medallions, which, though of the 
 same nature as domes and cushions, and produced in the same way, are 
 liable to certain modifications which are either unsuitable or impossible 
 of application to those classes of pictures. Medallions are commonly of 
 an oval shape, and are used, like vignettes, principally for showing up 
 a head-and- shoulder portrait. The background for a medallion ought 
 not to be too dark, as the resulting contrast is then disagreeably 
 pronounced. Again, a simple medallion, where the picture is merely a 
 clean oval set in a white ' ' mounting," is rarely effective; it lacks relief? 
 and its unnaturalness is too prominent to be pleasing. This, however, 
 can be to a great extent removed by adopting a course like the 
 following : Procure a cut-out medallion mask, and with it the paper 
 oval corresponding to the inside of the cut-out. Paste the latter upon 
 a piece of glass of a size corresponding to that you are employing for 
 your negatives. Print from the negative with the cut-out mask, so as 
 to produce an ordinary medallion picture. Now take the frame into the 
 dark room and release the print. Lay the latter upon a handy flat 
 surface, and over it superpose the plate with the paper oval. The 
 oval must be in contact with the print, and must exactly coincide with 
 the medallion produced by the cut-out mask. The glass plate will keep 
 the print flat, and insure contact between it and the paper oval. 
 The support, the print, and the oval can now be taken out into the 
 open light, and exposed until the margin around the oval has been 
 slightly darkened. On returning to the dark room the print can be 
 released, and it will be found that the new mounting, which by toning 
 can be made to assume almost any hue, has advantageously replaced the 
 original white one. The above operation is called double-printing, and 
 often proves of great service. Masks for the production of dome, 
 cushion, and medallion pictures are obtainable of any photographic 
 dealer. The amateur should procure, if possible, those manufactured for 
 the trade by Mann and Fursman, as they are cut of very true and 
 symmetrical forms and up to almost any dimensions. 
 
 The photographer should be careful to use his masks with judgment 
 and taste, as, while the employment of them often leads to a most satis- 
 
72 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 factory and pleasing result, their abuse is the cause of many feeble 
 and inartistic effects. 
 
 The course is often adopted of giving relief to a medallion, and 
 occasionally to a vignette with darkened ground, in a very simple and 
 decided manner. After the picture has been mounted, the card is 
 passed through a screw embossing press. This is fitted with dies of 
 suitable sizes, which, under pressure, produce corresponding reliefs in the 
 mounted prints. Pictures embossed in this manner are called " cameos," 
 and are often a great improvement on the flat surface of the ordinary 
 card. A "cameo" press, with dies, can be bought for about 10s. or 12s. 
 
 "Vignettes" require a separate explanation, as they are produced 
 in a somewhat different manner from medallions and other ornamental 
 prints where the masking is effected by paper with clean-cut edges. 
 The chief feature in a vignette is the delicate softness of its edges, 
 which adds peculiar effect to a comparatively large-sized reproduction 
 of the head and shoulders. The instrument usually employed in making 
 vignettes is that known as the vignetting -glass. This is a glass plate of 
 any of the photographic sizes, the centre of the surface of which is trans- 
 parent, but the edges of a deep ruby colour, which is very non-actinic. 
 This vignette -glass is laid over the glass side of the negative, either inside 
 or outside the printing frame, in such a manner that the light will 
 only be admitted to the sensitised paper through the oval or pear- 
 shaped transparency in the centre of the plate. As the contact is 
 not perfect, the edges of the oval-shaped image on the print are not 
 " clean," as in a medallion, and at the same time the edges of the 
 transparency in the vignette-glass are so toned down with a due 
 gradation of non-actinic colour, that the print is not irregularly "fuzzy," 
 but rather exhibits a pleasing and regular softness. 
 
 The vignette-glass is sometimes replaced in printing by vignette- 
 papers, which can be procured of J. D. Waymouth, Nailsea, near 
 Bristol, and of most dealers. Mr. Waymouth sells a packet of twelve 
 assorted for cartes at 2s. The price of vignette-glasses of carte size 
 is about 6d. apiece. It is necessary when printing vignettes with 
 vignette glasses or papers to confine the exposure of the printing frames 
 to the shade. 
 
 In taking the negatives for medallions and vignettes, of course only 
 the head and shoulders of the sitter need be reproduced. The sitter 
 should be so focussed that his or her mouth will appear as nearly as 
 possible in the centre of the negative. Unless this is done, the negative 
 will not tally well with the vignetting-glass, and much difiiculty in 
 adjusting the latter will be experienced. 
 
 And now for some few hints as to the practice of paper printing 
 
HINTS ON PRINTING. 
 
 73 
 
 generally. The common error incidental to beginners in this branch of 
 photography is the idea that it is wholly comprised by a few purely 
 mechanical operations. In some cases, it is true, the process of printing 
 does not seem capable of admitting the assistance of artistic treatment, 
 but a very limited experience will show what a cramped view this is to 
 take of the subject. The only time when a printer can hardly help 
 producing standard pictures is when he is working with negatives of the 
 very highest order. And even then improvement can almost always be 
 wrought, if the printer really knows his work, in a hundred little ways, 
 the effect of which may scarcely be missed if absent, but cannot 
 when present fail to be appreciated. To take a practical instance, let 
 us consider the treatment of a standard portrait negative. The every- 
 day printer merely lays it in a frame and exposes, tones, and fixes as 
 many pieces of paper as he deems necessary to convert into what he 
 calls pictures ; if they turn out well, it is no credit to him. The due 
 gradation of light and shade, the harmonious modelling of the features, 
 are no witnesses to his judgment or taste. All that is good in the 
 picture comes from the negative, but there is no trace of improvement 
 effected or ornament added during the time it has been in the printer's 
 hands. But give the negative into the charge of the man who knows 
 his work, and is what he professes to be, an artist, and, little room 
 though there be for improvement, he will fill it up. If he can find nothing 
 else, he will operate on the face. He will make nature's work more 
 natural by making her almost paint as well as draw in monochrome. A 
 brunette's face, instead of cc coming out " an expressionless grey, will 
 be coaxed by toning into a suggestion of its real colour. A fair-haired, 
 white-clad figure will be watched with the minutest attention, so that 
 it does not transgress by a minute's excess of exposure the light airiness 
 which is its prominent charm. At the same time no feebleness from 
 under-printing will be visible, but the whole picture will stand out 
 rounded, harmonious, and natural to the eye, and toned down into a 
 perfect study of black, or rather grey, and white. In a word, the 
 printer will do justice to the taker of the negative, and the two combined 
 will do justice to their common model, Nature. 
 
 In the case of printing from good negatives I have only been able to 
 give examples ; it is impossible, in such circumstances, to dole out 
 instruction in cut-and-dried rules and stereotyped formulae. But it will 
 readily be imagined that if improvement can be effected by judicious 
 printing in pictures from good negatives, a fortiori the printer's power 
 is proportionally widened when he has to deal with bad ones. Let us 
 take the case of a negative where the lights and shades are harshly 
 contrasted. Taking the use of masks as a precedent, we shall find a 
 
74 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 layer of cotton-wool or tissue-paper, spread judiciously on the glass 
 face of the negative, will bring down the density of a shade in a most 
 satisfactory manner. A white face, which instinctively reminds one of 
 a clean napkin with a few holes in it, can be wondrously improved by 
 pasting over the glass side of the negative a piece of tissue-paper with 
 a hole just over the ghostly features in question. The face is thus printed 
 slightly in advance of the rest of the picture, and begins to assume 
 some show of expression. In a like manner masks can be applied 
 to any part which shows a disposition to print down into a deep 
 unyielding black. 
 
 I have already hinted at the advisability of printing weak negatives 
 in the shade and strong ones in the sun. The printer will sometimes find 
 it beneficial to employ a slightly stronger sensitising bath than the 
 ordinary one for paper that is to be used for prints from thin negatives, 
 and, vice versa, a weaker one in the case of negatives where great density 
 is apparent. 
 
 The question of toning, although it exercises a powerful influence for 
 good or evil over the finished picture, must be left altogether to the 
 good taste of the printer. There are two extremes, however, which he 
 should learn from the first to avoid. The first of these is mealiness, 
 that is, when a print looks as if it had been operated on with a 
 scrubbing-brush and soft soap. The other is harshness or crudity. In 
 this case the tone is hard and possesses no flexibility ; the whole picture 
 is a mass of rugged whites and blacks or browns. " Whoever loves 
 the golden mean " will produce no prints of this stamp, or at least, if 
 he does, will hesitate to declare his incapacity by showing them. 
 
 In some instances very pleasing effects can be obtained by using 
 delicately tinted paper for the prints. This can be procured of almost 
 any dealer in albumenised papers ; the most usual colours are pink 
 and light mauve. Their employment with thin negatives is often 
 productive of good results. Another method of giving a colour effect 
 to a print is to dip it in a weak solution of some aniline dye, such 
 as that manufactured by Judson. By immersion in a weak solution 
 of blue dye, an effect something approaching moonlight may be 
 obtained. 
 
 Finally, let me advise the amateur silver printer never to rest 
 satisfied with himself. Let him always be ready to appreciate excellence 
 in others, and to draw hints therefrom to adapt to his own practice. 
 There is a lesson for the beginner to learn in every picture sent out 
 by a really good photographer. Let the former be proud to buy the 
 productions of the latter, and to pick out and analyse each little dodge 
 or cleverness which leads to some dainty effect, or adds another link in 
 
HINTS ON PRINTING. 
 
 the chain of harmony which composes a real picture. Let the portraits 
 from some well-known gallery be examined for the sake of hints on 
 suppression of harsh contrasts and perfect adaptation of tone. Let 
 the landscapes of some great photographic artist be made to show 
 how careful printing can be superadded to careful lighting and manipula- 
 tion of the negative. Let the printer first perfect himself in obtaining 
 creditable prints from standard negatives, and lastly complete his 
 education by seeing how good a print a poor negative in his hands may be 
 made to yield. The latter is a crucial test which many who think 
 themselves good printers would be at a loss to stand. The greater 
 credit therefore remains to him who can do so, and with it the 
 consciousness that he is a master of his art, and, so far as is possible, is 
 prepared to withstand any accident its practice may entail. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Enamelling Silver Prints. 
 
 In Chapter XI. it will be remembered that instruction was given con- 
 cerning a species of glaze communicated to the surface of a print by means 
 of a roller or rollers of steel, combined with powerful pressure. This 
 glaze was not very pronounced ; it was rather of the nature of polish or 
 of the burnish applied to metal. I am now about to describe the process 
 of applying to a print a glaze of a different nature, and produced in a 
 different manner. My instructions will teach readers how to give their 
 prints a brilliant and mirror like surface, not unlike that exhibited by 
 enamel ; hence " enamelling' ' is the name that has been given to the 
 process by which this end is to be gained. I must preface any practical 
 intr action by a few remarks upon the use and abuse of enamelling. With 
 regard to the latter, the printer must reflect, before applying such a 
 powerful addition to the effect of a picture as the mere fact of changing 
 a " matt " surface into a most brilliantly glassy one implies, whether this 
 addition is in every case a beneficial one. Take, for instance, a perfect 
 vignette where the whole charm of the picture lies in its tranquil softness ; 
 the effect of this is lost by turning it into an enamel. But, on the 
 other hand, there are many cases where the enamelled surface, one of the 
 chief uses of which is to heighten the detail of a picture, adds a lustre 
 and brilliancy to the minor surroundings of a print, which are instinc- 
 tively seen to be wanting in an ordinary matt surface. Again, it is a 
 powerful argument in favour of enamelling, that the film of glaze un- 
 doubtedly affords decided protection to the print itself from the deteriora- 
 ting influences of the outer air. On the understanding, then, that enamel- 
 ing prints, like most artificial additions to the normal condition of any- 
 thing, has its good and its bad side, and that the printer must not hope to 
 successfully invoke its aid without being fully prepared to exercise those 
 well-worn attributes of the photographer, judgment and taste, we will 
 proceed to the details of our process and their practical application. 
 The necessary apparatus and chemicals for enamelling are very simple. 
 
ENAMELLING. 
 
 77 
 
 The following is a full list of those required in the ordinary process ; one 
 or two extras may be needed in modifications or improvements, which will 
 be mentioned and explained under their respective heads. The first 
 indispensable is a bottle of uniodised or enamel collodion. It will be 
 best for the young- printer to buy this ready prepared, which he can do 
 at any of the shops. An ounce of gelatine will also be requisite. That 
 manufactured by Nelson is perfectly adapted to the purpose, and can be 
 procured of any chemist. The only piece of real apparatus needful is a 
 " squeegee,' ' which is a band of thick indiarubber set in a slip of wood ; 
 it costs from 2s. 6d. to 4s. Besides this, a certain quantity of glass plates 
 of good quality and free from scratches will be needful to form a basis for 
 the enamel film. 
 
 I may mention before entering upon the details of my subject that the 
 standard work on enamelling is that of M. Piquepe, entitled " Enamelling 
 and Retouching in Photography. " The publishers are Messrs. Piper and 
 Carter, of Gough-square, Fleet-street, E.C. ; the price is half-a-crown. 
 On this work is based the present chapter. The printer should also consult 
 the able and practical paper on enamelling by Mr. Henry Cooper, in the 
 "Year Book of Photography for 1877, " from which I have also derived 
 many very valuable hints. 
 
 To begin work, as many glass plates as you require enamels must be 
 carefully selected. These should be cut of rather larger dimensions than 
 the print itself ; thus, for cartes de visite, quarter-plate glasses will be 
 just the thing; for cabinets, half-plates, and so on. With a little 
 practice the printer will find that he can enamel two cartes on one half- 
 plate glass, but he should begin by working them singly. 
 
 The glass plates can now be coated with the enamel collodion and 
 allowed to dry ; this may take half an hour. While the drying is going 
 on, it is well to prepare the necessary solution of gelatine in the following 
 manner. Take as much gelatine as is likely, when dissolved in the pro- 
 portion of one drachm to three ounces of water, to be sufficient for a given 
 number of plates, and put it into a strong bottle with as much cold water 
 as will just cover it. In a short time the gelatine will become swelled. If 
 boiling water is added, the whole will rapidly dissolve and be ready for 
 use. 
 
 The dry collodionised plates must now be coated with the gelatine- 
 solution. If the latter is not clear, it can be filtered through fine muslin 
 into another bottle. From this it can be poured, while warm, over the 
 collodionised plate. This may not be found quite easy at first, but will 
 become so after one or two trials, and a little of the solution spilt is a 
 matter of very trivial importance. 
 
 The gelatine film, like the collodion one, must be left to dry, and may 
 
78 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 either be used directly it becomes so, or be reserved, by storing away the 
 plates in an ordinary plate box, until further use. This is very convenient, 
 as any number of plates can be prepared at one time and be ready to 
 hand at a moment's notice — perhaps several months hereafter. 
 
 Supposing then an adequate number of collodio-gelatinised plates to 
 have been prepared, let us proceed to the process of enamelling the prints, 
 or, in other words, of transferring the gelatine pellicle to the face of 
 the print. The most simple method of accomplishing this is to take the 
 plate in one hand, the untrimmed print in the other, plunge them both 
 into clean cold water, bring the face of the print into contact with the 
 gelatine film on the plate, and remove both print and plate simultaneously 
 from the water. Now pass the squeegee over the back of the print to 
 exclude all air-bubbles and to render the contact perfect. 
 
 Mr. Cooper recommends the precaution of rendering the gelatine pellicle 
 insoluble by immersing the dried gelatinised plate before transferring it 
 with the print to the cold water, in a solution of chrome-alum, one grain 
 to the ounce of water. 
 
 M. Piquepe coats the plates a second time with gelatine, and, moreover, 
 dips the print into a solution of gelatine before laying it over the face 
 of the plate. In this process the immersion into cold water is dispensed 
 with. M. Piquepe avers that the greater number of gelatinous films the 
 plate receives " the greater will be the depth, strength, brilliancy, and 
 delicacy of the enamel.' ' The cold-water transference, however, while 
 perhaps not losing in efficacy, gains very much in ease and simplicity. 
 
 A third plan, mentioned by Mr. Cooper is not to coat the collodionised 
 plates with gelatine, but to dip the print in the gelatine solution, and 
 to lay it down on the mere collodion surface. Contact is then rendered 
 perfect as before with the squeegee. 
 
 When the print has been by any of the above methods caused by the 
 pressure of the squeegee to adhere firmly to the collodio-gelatinised plate, 
 it will be necessary to apply the card support to the back of the print. 
 To accomplish this, take a card and cut it to a size smaller all round than 
 the print. The card itself should be a thin one, and neither toned nor 
 gilded. Immerse it in hot water to soften it, and afterwards in a solution 
 of gelatine in water (prepared in the manner described above), about 
 two drachms of the former to every three ounces of the latter. Lay the 
 gelatinised card on the back of the print and apply the squeegee. The 
 plate with the print and cardboard support can now be laid aside in some 
 moderately warm room to dry. 
 
 When the drying has been thoroughly concluded, which may take 
 from eight to twenty-four hours (overdrying being impossible), the point of 
 a penknife may be run round the print, which can then be detached from 
 
EMBOSSING AND SPOTTING OUT. 
 
 79 
 
 the glass, bringing away the collodio- gelatine pellicle along with it. The 
 print will thus exhibit a brilliant enamel-like surface, which, as observed 
 before, will not only heighten in a material degree the details of the 
 picture, but will be highly conducive to its permanence. 
 
 When the enamelled cards have reached this stage, they may be simply 
 trimmed round, and in one sense considered finished. But as M. Piqupee 
 says, the work in this state, owing to the probable dirtiness of the backs 
 of the cards, and the fact that as the print is enamelled all over it cannot 
 be handled with impunity, hardly presents a sufficiently neat appearance. 
 And so the following method of operation recommends itself as productive 
 of more satisfactory and artistic results. In the first place it is necessary 
 to trim the enamelled cards to the size of an ordinary print. This is 
 best done by laying the cutting shape upon the card, adjusting it to a 
 correct position, holding the card and shape between the thumb and 
 fingers of the left hand, and cutting round the card with a pair of scissors 
 in the right. Some strong mounting cards of double thickness should now 
 be procured, and the enamels, after receiving a coating of hot glue, can 
 be applied to them. When a piece of tissue paper has been pasted 
 at one end of the mount so as to overlap and protect the face of the 
 enamel, the operations connected with the production of the latter are 
 complete. 
 
 If it be desired to emboss an enamel, this should be done before mounting. 
 The enamel card is passed through the press, a piece of paper laid in 
 the centre of the mount to keep up the relief, and only the edges of the 
 enamel card treated with the glue. 
 
 In some cases it is requisite to ' 1 spot out ' ' the prints before enamelling. 
 Owing to the subsequent immersion, &c, of the print, it is obviously 
 impossible to employ Indian ink or the ordinary pigments which are soluble 
 in water. The following method of procuring an insoluble pigment is that 
 employed by Mr. Henry Cooper, and described by him in the article 
 referred to previously. Mr. Cooper's own words are so practical and so 
 straightforwardly clear that I should wrong them and him by attempting 
 to torture them into mine : " The plan," he says, " is based upon the well- 
 known fact that gelatine in the presence of a minute quantity of chrome 
 alum becomes quite insoluble in even hot water. 
 
 ' 6 I make two solutions : 
 
 No. 1. Chrome alum lOgrs. 
 
 Water lOoz. 
 
 No. 2. Nelson's gelatine £oz. 
 
 Carbolic acid 10 drops. 
 
 Alcohol , ioz. 
 
 Water 6oz. 
 
 4 1 When about to touch some prints, solution No. 2 is warmed, and a 
 
80 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 small quantity is mixed with the pigment on the palette, which must be 
 kept gently warm. A little of the alum solution is now added, and with 
 this mixture the prints are worked up as much as may be required. To 
 prevent the gelatinising of the pigment at the point of the brush, 
 the print must be kept slightly warm, which is easily managed by laying 
 it down on a thick sheet of glass previously heated, or in many other 
 ways which will readily suggest themselves. After a little practice no 
 more difficulty will be found in working with this gelatinous mixture 
 than with ordinary water-colour paint, and when once dry every touch will 
 be immovable by washing either in hot or cold water. 
 
 " One or two little details are of some importance. The first is that 
 the mixture of gelatine, pigment, and alum must on no account be allowed 
 to set or dry whilst in use ; as, once dry, it is insoluble, and, once set to 
 a jelly, it is not liquefied again by heat. The second is that the same 
 precaution must be taken with the brush used. I find the best plan 
 is to use a palette of the saucer or watch glass form, and to stand it in a 
 vessel of warm water, and always to use hot water for diluting the paint 
 and rinsing the brush.' , 
 
 Instead of the pigment, in combination with solution No. 2, Mr. Cooper 
 remarks that a small fragment of Autotype tissue can be employed as a 
 convenient substitute. What Autotype or carbon tissue is will be 
 explained farther on. As regards the practical adaptation of Mr. Cooper's 
 remark to enamelling, " the bit of tissue is soaked in cold water for a 
 few minutes, and then placed in the little saucer palette, and heat applied, 
 when the coating (consisting of pigment, gelatine, sugar, &c.) will melt 
 and the alum solution can be added." 
 
 The following is a simple method, recommended some little time ago 
 in the " Photographic News," by Mr. Henry Knight, of enamelling 
 prints with ordinary negative collodion. Make up the following : 
 
 Wax Solution. 
 
 White wax ... lOgr. 
 
 Methylated ether loz. 
 
 Cut the wax up fine, and after the addition of the ether, shake until 
 solution takes place. The solution will be milky, but does not require' 
 filtering. Pour a few drops of it on to a glass plate and rub bright with 
 a chamois leather. Coat with ordinary negative collodion, and when the 
 film is set hard (which will be in about five minutes), immerse or wash 
 it under a tap until the greasiness has disappeared. It is then allowed 
 to dry spontaneously, or by the aid of heat. A solution is now made in 
 the ordinary way of gelatine, thirty grains to the ounce of water, which, 
 after straining through fine muslin, is poured while warm over the dried 
 collodionised plate. If the solution does not flow evenly, it can be 
 
SIMPLE METHOD OF ENAMELLING. 
 
 81 
 
 guided over the surface of the glass with a camel's hair brush or a strip 
 of paper. The plate is rested on a level surface until the gelatine is set 
 (i.e., in about ten minutes' time), and then plunged, as in the ordinary 
 enamelling process, along with the print, into a dish of cold water. The 
 face of the print, is brought, while under water, into contact with the 
 gelatinous film, and on their simultaneous withdrawal from the water, 
 the palm of the hand, or, better, the squegee, is applied to insure the 
 perfect contact. This done, it is treated as if it were an ordinary enamel 
 produced with special enamel collodion. 
 
 F 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 collodio-chloride of sllver plain salted paper 
 
 Ferro-prussiate Paper. 
 
 Having described at some length the process of printing in silver on 
 albnmenized paper, I will now proceed to discuss other methods of print- 
 ing, in which the application of a substratum of albumen to the paper 
 ceases to be a necessity. Foremost amongst these comes the process 
 of printing with Collodio-chloride of silver, which was introduced to the 
 photographic public about seven years ago, by Mr. G. Wharton Simpson, 
 the editor of the Photographic News. The following formula? and method 
 of operation are taken from the account of the process, as published by 
 the inventor himself and described in the Year Booh of Photography for 
 1871, and in the American publication, The Silver Sunbeam, published by 
 Messrs. Anthony and Co., of New York, and Messrs. Trubner and Co., 
 of 59, Ludgate Hill, London, E.C. The first requisite in the process 
 of producing the collodio-chloride, or, rather, of impregnating a certain 
 quantity of collodion with chloride of silver, is the collodion itself. This 
 must be plain, and can either be purchased or made up in a stock solution, 
 according to the following formula : — 
 
 Plain Collodion. 
 
 Alcohol 5oz. 
 
 Ether 5oz. 
 
 Pyroxyline (gun-cotton) 60grs. 
 
 Shake the mixture until the gun-cotton is dissolved, and set aside for 
 a few days to settle. The clear collodion can then be decanted off into 
 another bottle for use. Now prepare three further solutions as below : — 
 
 No. 1. Nitrate of Silver Solution. 
 
 Nitrate of silver ldr. 
 
 Distilled water ldr. 
 
 No 2. Chloride of Strontium Solution. 
 
 Chloride of strontium C4gr. 
 
 Alcohol 2oz. 
 
 No. 3. Citric Acid Solution. 
 
 Citric acid 64gr 
 
 Alcohol 2oz. 
 
COLLODIO-CHLORIDE OF SILVER. 
 
 83 
 
 Thirty drops of No. 1 solution are now mixed with one drachm of alcohol, 
 and added to every 2oz.of collodion required to be converted into collodio- 
 chloride. Next ldr. of No. 2 solution is poured in gradually, accompanied 
 by constant agitation ; lastly, half a drachm of No. 3 is added, and in 
 ;a quarter of an hour the whole is fit for use. 
 
 The paper to which the collodio-chloride is to be applied must be well 
 sized in order to prevent the absorbence into its fibres of the coating 
 solution. A sizing of gum tragacanth is recommended by Mr. Wharton 
 -Simpson. 
 
 Before coating, the paper, which should be cut in sizes rather larger 
 -all round than the cutting- shape, must be made into a kind of little tray, 
 in order to facilitate the application of the collodio-chloride solution. 
 This is done by turning up the edges all round for an eighth of an inch, 
 and leaving a corner from which to pour away the refuse solution. 
 The paper is then attached by pins at the corners to a flat board, and 
 coated just as an ordinary glass plate is coated with ordinary collodion. 
 When thoroughly dried it may be brought into contact with the negative 
 in an ordinary printing frame. 
 
 When the printing, which should be carried rather farther than with 
 ;albumenized paper, is accomplished, the print can be removed from the 
 frame, subjected to a slight washing, and immersed in a toning solution 
 such as the one for which the first formula was given in Chap. XI. An 
 old and weakened sample of this gives preferable results to a newly-mixed 
 -one. When toned, the print may be fixed in a hypo bath as follows : 
 
 Fixing Bath. 
 
 Hyposulphite of soda 3oz. 
 
 Water 20oz. (1 pint). 
 
 After an immersion of five or six minutes in this solution, the print can be 
 
 ^finally subjected to a stream of water from the tap for the same duration 
 
 of time, and then needs but drying and trimming to complete the process 
 
 of its production. 
 
 Apart from its power of giving brilliant prints upon paper, collodio- 
 chloride of silver is often used for producing in a similar manner prints 
 upon glass. The kind of glass usually employed is opal, and has 
 the appearance of fine white porcelain. The process of producing prints 
 upon this surface is called opalotype, and gives very beautiful results. 
 An edging of dilute albumen is run with a brush all round the ground side 
 of the plate, and when this is dry the plate is coated exactly as if with 
 collodion, with the collodio-chloride of silver. This film is in turn dried 
 before a bright fire, and subsequently allowed to cool. It is then ready 
 lor transference to the printing-frame. 
 
 The printing-frames employed in opalotype are generally of a different 
 
 F 2 
 
84 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 kind from those used in ordinary printing 1 . The reason for this is that in the 1 
 latter the progress of the print cannot (unless indeed the simple method 
 proposed by Captain Abney, of connecting negative and sensitised 
 plate by a strip of paper pasted along the corresponding edges of both, 
 is adopted) be satisfactorily watched. The special frames for opalotypo- 
 are very ingenious and convenient. Cox, of 26, Ludgate Hill, sells one of 
 quarter-plate size for 7s. 
 
 The operations of toning, fixing, &c, an opal plate sensitised with 
 collodio-chloride of silver are conducted in the same manner as in the case- 
 of a print in the same sensitive material on paper. 
 
 To those who are unable or unwilling to prepare the collodio-chloride 
 for themselves, it may be gratifying to know that they can purchase it 
 ready prepared of any photographic chemist, at the rate of about lOoz. 
 for 5s. 
 
 Besides collodio-chloride of silver there are other methods of printing in 
 which the albumen substratum is dispensed with. Amongst these is the 
 process of printing upon plain salted paper, which is prepared as follows. 
 A salting solution is made up according to the proportions given 
 below : — 
 
 Salting Solution. 
 
 Chloride of ammonium lOOgr. 
 
 Gelatine lOgr. 
 
 Water • lOoz. 
 
 The gelatine is allowed to swell in cold water, which is poured off. The 
 water prescribed in the formula is now heated and the swollen gelatine 
 dissolved in it. After filtration it is poured into a tray, and the paper 
 required to be salted floated upon its surface for about three minutes. It 
 is a good plan to use for the purpose the %vrong side of ordinary albumen- 
 ised paper. 
 
 Positive ferro-prussiate paper for copying drawings, maps, plans, &c.,. 
 can be procured of Marion and Co., 22, Soho-square. It is sold in rolls 
 measuring a little more than 2ft. wide by nearly 11 yards long, at 10s. 
 per roll. It simply requires exposure in the frame under the drawing or 
 other object which it is desired to copy, and washing in cold water. It 
 shows the copy in white lines on a blue ground. Ferro-prussiate paper 
 is also sold by the Sciopticon Company, 157a, Great Portland-street, W., 
 who advertise a manual on the subject. 
 
 I shall not enter at present into " printing by development," as it is 
 not very extensively practised in ordinary printing from negatives, and 
 will come in more apropos of a subject, the discussion of which must 
 necessarily be postponed. Readers will find it under the head of 
 "Enlarging Processes." 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Clouds in Landscapes. 
 
 Tew who have indulged in the most fleeting glimpse at the contents of 
 a picture gallery have failed to recognise the prominence given by the 
 artist in almost every landscape to the representation of the sky. None 
 ^gifted with the most ordinary powers of observation can deny the effect 
 of natural clouds upon the most humble picture : and yet in the face of 
 'these facts it i3 only of late that photography, which in almost every 
 other sense may be fairly looked upon as Nature's most faithful pencil, 
 has attempted anything more than skies composed of an expanse of 
 glaring white. To an outsider this seemed ridiculous. " If you 
 reproduce objects of view on the land, why can't you do the same for 
 'those in the sky ? ' ' seemed a highly reasonable question. The 
 photographer rejoins that he can, and now does reproduce clouds by his 
 art, but that in many cases he finds it impossible to reproduce them 
 simultaneously with objects on the land. A simple explanation will set 
 -this right. If you direct a camera and lens towards a group of fleecy 
 clouds, and expose a sensitive wet plate for a minute or more, the 
 ^result will be one mass of uniform shade in the negative, which will pro- 
 duce in the print nothing. In other words, you will obtain a sky (?) 
 the exact counterpart of those glaring unprinted portions of the paper 
 which a few years ago ruined the effect of almost every landscape 
 photograph. You are quite ready with the obvious reason for this : the 
 plate, you say, was exposed far too long for the highly actinic colour of 
 the clouds, and the detail of the latter was merged by the over-exposure 
 into uniformity. A result precisely analogous to this is obtained by 
 leaving a thin negative superposed upon a piece of sensitised paper, 
 exposed to actinic light for a lengthened period. The thin negative 
 corresponds to the delicate actinic tracery of the clouds, the sensitised 
 paper to the sensitive plate. In either case the result is unnatural 
 ^uniformity of tone. To continue your investigation, lower your camera 
 
86 
 
 PltACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 a little so as to include in your picture some part of the landscape 1 
 proper, such as a clump of trees, for instance, which, as I have explained 
 elsewhere, have an essentially won-actinic colour. With a minute's 
 exposure your sky will come out in the negative exactly as before — 
 uniformly black — but your trees will probably be full of the minutest 
 detail, showing", as far as they are concerned, a correctly timed exposure. 
 Finally, direct your camera once more to the clouds alone, and expose- 
 almost instantaneously. By this you will doubtless secure a delightful 
 piece of sky (or "cloud-negative," as you will, when you have learnt 
 its use, prefer to call it), full of airy softness, yet with the same fulness- 
 and roundness which correct exposure and good lighting give to more 
 ordinary and substantial objects. With the lesson which the production 
 of these three negatives have taught you, you are now thoroughly 
 competent to grapple with the subject of clouds in photographic land- 
 scapes. In a word, you have found the colour of clouds is so highly 
 actinic that, photographically speaking, it is unmanageably in advance 
 of almost all the rest of the picture ; hence that the simultaneous 
 production of the two by the every- day appliances of photography is at 
 present unattainable. As, however, the presence of clouds in the 
 majority of landscapes is, from an artistic point of view, a sine qua non y 
 the photographer must learn to produce them, if not in conjunction 
 with the original negative, by the aid of supplementary contrivances, 
 the nature of which I will explain. 
 
 Let us suppose, then, for the sake of convenient reference, that we 
 have before us a landscape negative, perfect in all respects, with the 
 exception of its so-called sky. It is into this sky we are desirous of 
 infusing a little of that fulness and variety which we admire in natural 
 skies and even in those of good drawings, but which are in our 
 negatives conspicuous only by their absence. 
 
 The first on the list of cloud-making processes is one which does not 
 require very lengthy mention, as, so far as its principle goes, it is 
 commendably simple. In one word, its object is to produce clouds that 
 are essentially artificial. Whether they are artistic depends entirely 
 upon the talent of the operator. The process consists in putting the 
 clouds into the negative by hand. To admit of this the original sky in 
 the negative should not be completely opaque ; otherwise no alteration, 
 except that effected by the reduction of its intensity in different parts, 
 would affect the sky of the print. The sky should, on the contrary, 
 be of a modified opacity, producing rather slight shade than otherwise. 
 It is obvious that if a dab of really non-actinic colour be applied to the 
 middle of such a sky as this, the result, in the print, would be a rough 
 imitation of the sun in the midst of a thunderstorm. Without attempting 
 
CLOUD — NEGATIVES. 
 
 87 
 
 such an ambitious effect at present, it will be seen that an artist has it 
 in his power to convert this crude dab of white into a beautifully fleecy 
 bank of clouds in the midst of a sky a shade darker in tone than them- 
 selves. And so, with a brush, charged with non-actinic colour, he roughly 
 sketches out those portions which he wishes to be absolutely white, and 
 softens down the edges with colour, the non-actinic properties of which 
 are not so powerful. Wherever he wishes the sky in the print to be a 
 trifle shaded he leaves the original sky of the negative untouched. What 
 retouching he does give, is given to the glass side of the negative for 
 obvious reasons. The operation requires considerable artistic skill to 
 produce really satisfactory and natural results, but has the advantage 
 of being conclusive — once done it is done for ever, and with one printing 
 the landscape is complete, with its clouds more or less successfully adding 
 to its general effect. 
 
 We now come to processes where the clouds are inserted into the 
 landscape by what is known as double-printing. For this the chief 
 requisite is a cloud-negative such as that mentioned above. The photo- 
 grapher can either make this himself or purchase it ready made. The 
 cloud-negatives with perhaps the greatest reputation in the market are 
 prepared by Sergeant W. Perry, of Hythe, Kent. The operation of 
 printing-in a sky with a cloud-negative is very simple. The original 
 landscape is printed in the ordinary way, with its sky uniformly white, or 
 nearly so. The print is then taken from the frame and laid upon a level 
 surface, such as a piece of glass. A clo ad-negative of a character 
 suitable to the landscape is selected, and laid on the face of the print 
 in such a manner that the clouds are properly disposed over the amount 
 of sky at the printer's disposal. Mr. Perry's cloud-negatives are not on 
 glass but on fine textureless transparent paper, and thus will require 
 the superposition of a glass plate to keep them and the print in proper 
 contact. The outline of the landscape can now be roughly masked out 
 with a handkerchief or duster, so as to allow only the sky to be exposed 
 to the light. The support, the print, and the cloud-negative with the 
 mask are now taken out into direct sunlight for perhaps twenty seconds. 
 On removing the cloud-negative it will be seen that the clouds have 
 been printed-in on the original landscape in the most effective, and, 
 if the cloud-negative has been suitably selected, in the most natural 
 manner. The chief drawback to this process is the fact that each print 
 requires a separate clouding ; but the results in the hands of a skilful 
 and artistic operator are such as will well justify the slight amount of 
 extra trouble spent in their production. 
 
 Another plan of operation in working with a cloud-negative is that 
 proposed by Mr. E. V. Harman. This gentleman describes in the British 
 
88 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Photographic Journal Almanac his mode of procedure in the following* 
 words : " Having adjusted the print to the most suitable portion of the 
 cloud-negative by holding them up to the light 3 I hold both negative 
 and print in my left hand, thumb on the negative, and fingers extending 
 over the back of the print. With a camel's hair brush charged with 
 dilute moist colour I roughly trace the outline of the landscape on the 
 negative, and place the same with the print attached in a pressure frame 
 with plate glass, a size larger than the negative itself. Having fixed 
 the back of the frame, turn it up, and the water colour line will be 
 distinctly seen through the plate glass. Now lay a sheet of glass over 
 the face of the frame, sufficiently large to rest on the woodwork, and 
 on this arrange a cloth or duster so as just to cover the water colour 
 line, taking care, at the same time, to cover the landscape portion of the 
 print. The frame may now be put out to print in the usual way, and 
 can be looked at as often as necessary while printing, and the cloth 
 
 instantly readjusted without the least trouble By breathing on 
 
 the glass the water colour line can be instantly wiped off and another 
 substituted for a different subject. The frame must, of course, lie in 
 a horizontal position during printing, and may be placed in any light, 
 either feeble or strong, hut not in the sun." 
 
 It is advisable, when using a cloth or a duster as a mask in cloud 
 printing, to move it slightly during the exposure of the negative, as 
 otherwise a sharp line will frequently separate the landscape from the 
 clouded sky. 
 
 A final method of obtaining clouds for landscapes is, when taking 
 the original negatives for the latter, to take second negatives for the 
 former from exactly the same point of view. It is very little extra 
 trouble, after securing a landscape the natural sky of which is really its 
 prominent feature, to rapidly expose another plate for the clouds. To 
 make use of this of course double-printing will have to be resorted to. 
 A cloud-negative obtained by these means is obviously more easy to 
 work with, and, above all, productive of far more natural results than, 
 nine times out of ten, accrue to one whose affinity with the landscape 
 in question is only determined by the number of cloud- subjects at the 
 printer's disposal, and his artistic taste in making a selection. 
 
 Talking of artistic taste in reference to clouds, it is curious to note 
 how limited popular ideas on this subject only too frequently are. 
 Beginners cannot be too strongly warned against decorating their skies 
 with abnormal ornaments which are no more in keeping with the subject 
 of their picture than dabs of black paint on the features of an 
 Englishman. What can be more absurd than a landscape basking in 
 a delicious glow of sunlight and surmounted with heavy banks of 
 
CLOUD — NEGATIVES. 
 
 89 
 
 lowering thunder clouds ? And yet this is a mild type of the errors 
 into which the cloud-printer who has not his brains as well as his 
 fingers in his work is liable to fall. White skies are unnatural enough, 
 but they can hardly be worse than unnaturally clouded ones. Without, 
 however, going further into the subject of the artistic treatment of 
 clouds, I should like to offer a practical hint which may prove useful to 
 the beginner. Cloud-negatives to an unpractised eye are very deceptive 
 objects, and frequently it is very hard to determine the manner in which 
 the clouds will "come out." Hereby the hasty tyro is led to make an 
 equally hasty choice, and the result is one of the inartistic combinations 
 mentioned above. This is completely obviated by pulling prints from 
 each cloud-negative at one's disposal. These toned and fixed often form 
 a far more satisfactory and reliable criterion of the qualifications of a 
 cloud-negative than the negative itself. 
 
CHAPTEE 
 
 XVI. 
 
 AppENrix to the Wet Collodion Process. 
 
 In the production of a work like the present there are two points of 
 especial importance which not only require to be carefully considered 
 but also to be considered simultaneously. The first of these, of course, 
 is the amount of information conveyed; the second is the manner in 
 which the conveyance is accomplished. Scanty information, however well 
 arranged, is of scanty use, but copious information, combined with 
 ill-arrangement, is downright injury. In the case of " Practical 
 Photography" information has been forthcoming in plenty, but the 
 projection of it into a form at once readable and affording convenient 
 reference has not been attempted without some trouble and care. The 
 outlines of the plan which we have adopted are as follows. In the first 
 place, it seemed advisable to divide the work into, say, three separate 
 parts. The first of these was to comprise the Wet Collodion process, 
 together with that of printing in silver. These two processes include 
 the operations requisite in producing the ordinary pictures which we 
 meet with in albums and elsewhere. The second part contains full 
 instructions for producing negatives from dried films, and the preparation 
 of the latter — processes which may be grouped under the collective 
 designation of "Dry Plate Photography." The contents of the third 
 part are a little diversified, as will be seen. To return to Part I., it 
 will be observed on glancing back at the foregoing fifteen chapters 
 that its object is now virtually fulfilled. There are, however, some 
 points of interest which have been as yet passed by. These were, for 
 the most part, represented by operations, the description of which, 
 while affecting the continuity of the current work, could not with 
 any honesty be stretched out to form even the short chapters into 
 which, for the sake of speedy reference, our subject-matter has been 
 advisedly divided. And so it has been resolved to group these items 
 into an Appendix, not necessarily of great length, but sufficiently 
 comprehensive as not to lose sight of any omission or rather postpone- 
 
INTERIORS — I 
 
 ■COPYING- 
 
 \ — FERROTYPES. 
 
 91 
 
 ment hitherto made in carrying out our plan of giving an exhaustive- 
 account of Practical Photography. To introduce the various items of 
 information no preface will be needed beyond the few words already 
 written and the headings of the respective paragraphs. 
 
 Interiors. — Most beginners in photography are anxious to try their 
 hand at interiors, and are not unfrequently disgusted to find their 
 efforts unattended with success. The truth is that the reproduction of 
 interiors, as a rule, requires not only care but practice in that particular 
 branch. The beginner may profit by learning that the collodion used 
 should be a sample which has been iodised some little time and has 
 acquired a dark tinge of yellow. When the plate has been transferred to 
 the dark slide it should be backed with damp blotting paper, and allowed 
 to drain upon a strip of the same material. The chief point in photo- 
 graphing interiors is the exposure, which should by no means be hurried. 
 Two or three hours are frequently necessary to produce an adequate 
 representation of a shady room. The light in an interior, too, i& 
 often troublesome. A window through which the sun has been pouring 
 during the exposure of the plate will come out a mass of blurred 
 white. This blurring or halation can sometimes be prevented by 
 screening the window or source of light until the exposure is nearly 
 completed. 
 
 Copying. — In copying by the wet process, as in photographing 
 interiors, a ripe collodion should be employed. An important feature 
 in successful copying is the lens. Portrait lenses stopped down, so as 
 to render the margin of equally sharp definition with the centre of the 
 picture, answer fairly well ; but the finest copying lenses are the doublet 
 symmetricals and rectilinears of Ross and Dallmeyer respectively. 
 Single lenses should not be used systematically for copying, as they 
 give highly distorted marginal lines, and so destroy effect. Copying 
 should be carried on in bright light, and the lens should be pointed 
 straight to the centre of the subject to be reproduced. Pictures behind 
 glass should by reason of the reflecting surface of the latter be removed 
 from their frames. For myself I greatly prefer taking copies and pho- 
 tographing interiors with dry plates prepared by any standard method, 
 to employing wet collodion for these particular purposes. 
 
 Ferrotypes. — Amongst the variations of the wet process, the taking of 
 ferrotypes holds a conspicuous and not unpopular position. A ferrotype, 
 as the name implies, is a picture upon a thin plate of iron, which takes 
 the place of glass as a support for the collodion film. These plates can 
 be procured of two qualities, ' ' egg-shell " and ' 6 glossy," from (among 
 others) J. Fallowfield, 36, Lower Marsh, Lambeth, S.E. That dealer 
 also supplies ferrotype collodion (as approved by Mr. Estabrooke, the 
 
92 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 great American ferrotyper), ferrotype varnish, envelopes, mats, &c. I 
 give from his catalogue the formulae for ferrotype pictures as used by 
 American photographers. 
 
 Sensitising Bath. 
 
 Recrystallised nitrate of silver 2oz. 
 
 Distilled water 20oz. 
 
 Mix, and then add ldr. of the ferro-collodion, shake and filter, and 
 add two or three drops of nitric acid. The bath should be nearly 
 neutral. If the shadows are muddy, add a little more acid. 
 
 Developing Solution. 
 
 Protosulphate of iron loz. 
 
 Water 20oz. 
 
 Glacial acetic acid loz. 
 
 Alcohol loz. 
 
 Filter, and it is ready for use. For fixing cyanide of potassium is 
 preferred. If in taking ferrotypes it be desired to avoid the yellow 
 tinge, which that class of pictures are apt to exhibit, a course recom- 
 mended is, after development, to flow the plate thoroughly with a 
 strong solution of gallic acid, and to wash well again before fixation. 
 To take a medallion ferrotype, a sheet of white cardboard, with an oval 
 opening in the centre, is placed upon an easel and interposed between 
 the camera and sitter. The background should be dark. Pictures thus 
 produced are especially suitable for embossing. Vignettes are secured 
 in the same manner, with the exception that the opening in the card- 
 board should be serrated (i.e., toothed like a saw), and that the latter, 
 "during exposure, should be quite out of focus. A neat way of 
 preserving ferrotypes is to slip each picture into a specially designed 
 ''envelope" with dome or arch opening, and a flap to protect the 
 portrait from injury. 
 
 Albumenising Glasses. — Many good photographers make a practice 
 before coating a plate with collodion of giving it a prior substratum 
 with a solution of albumen. This last is prepared according to the 
 following formula : 
 
 Albuminising Solution. 
 
 White of one egg. 
 
 Water 20oz. 
 
 Ammonia 6dr. 
 
 Beat up the white of egg (having separated the yolk) into a froth, and 
 allow to settle for a few hours ; add the water, shake well, and finally 
 add the ammonia prescribed above. This solution after being kept a 
 few days may be filtered and used forthwith. While pouring it on to 
 the plate care must be taken to avoid air bubbles on the film, and the 
 solution must not be allowed to flow over the edges or the back of the 
 
ALBUMENISING — DEVELOPERS. 
 
 93 
 
 glass. If attention is not paid to this latter item, the superfluous 
 albumen will contaminate the sensitising bath. After coating, the albu- 
 menised plates can be allowed to dry away from the dust and stored for 
 future use. A more convenient method than pouring is to apply the 
 albumen with what is known, from its inventor's name, as the Blanchard 
 brush. This is made in the following manner : A strip of glass is 
 procured about 6in. long, and 2in. broad ; also a strip of swansdown 
 calico the same width as the glass, but only 4in. long. The latter is 
 folded in the middle and bound at its ends to one end of the strip 
 of glass, leaving, as it were, a broad loop of the swansdown calico* 
 about lin. long. This forms a wide brush (not unlike, except for its 
 being formed of a fold, the brushes employed for damping copying 
 tissue) to be dipped in the albumen solution, the excess of which should 
 be squeezed out against the edges of the vessel in which it is contained* 
 The surface of the plate can then be brushed up and down, and a 
 smooth layer of albumen easily imparted to it. The glass plate should 
 be chemically clean, and may be coated either in a dry state or, perhaps 
 preferably — especially when pouring is resorted to — after being moistened 
 with pure water. After pouring on like collodion, the surplus solution 
 should be returned, not to the pouring but the stock bottle. This 
 prevents both the accumulation of dust in the pouring bottle and the 
 formation of air bubbles in subsequent coatings. The great advantages 
 of albumenising plates are that it forms an effective cure for splitting and 
 slipping films, and that it has the merit, when a plate has once been made 
 clean, of keeping it so for many months. I may as well mention here, 
 that the white of egg in all photographic operations may be replaced by 
 dried albumen, to be procured of most photographic chemists ; loz. of 
 that prepared by E. W. Thomas, of 10, Pall-mall, is equal to the whites 
 of seven eggs. To make liquid albumen of the natural strength 70gr* 
 of the dried substance are dissolved in loz. of water and strained 
 through fine cambric. 
 
 Developers. — Besides the common developer, the formula for which was 
 given in the latter part of Chap. II, there are various others, the employ- 
 ment of which is attended with successful results. The double sulphate 
 of iron and ammonia is noticeable for its power of keeping without 
 deterioration. A standard formula for a stock solution is as follows 
 
 Ammonio-sulphate of Iron Developer. 
 
 Amnion io-sulphate of iron ... 
 
 Glacial acetic acid 
 
 Spirits of wine 
 
 Water 
 
 ... ioz. 
 ... 20oz. 
 
 ... Hoz. 
 ... loz. 
 
 It is sometimes satisfactory to add organic substances, such as sugar 
 
$4 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 or gelatine to the developing' solutions, in order to procure additional 
 ■density. Here are two formulae for 
 
 Organified Developers. 
 
 (1) Saccharo- sulphate of Iron, 
 
 Protosulphate of iron Sdr. 
 
 Lump sugar „ ldr. 
 
 Glacial acetic acid ldr. 
 
 Spirits of wine ldr. 
 
 Water 8oz. 
 
 (2) Gelatine Sulphate of Iron. 
 
 Protosulphate of iron 
 Glacial acetic acid ... 
 
 Gelatine 
 
 Spirits of wine 
 
 Water 
 
 3dr. 
 Hdr. 
 8gr. 
 ldr. 
 8oz, 
 
 The presence of organic substances, such as the above, acts as a 
 erestrainer and keeps away fog. If gelatine be used, the exposure should 
 be slightly longer than usual. Talking of restrainers, the well-known 
 *Collocine of Mr. Carey Lea must not by any means be passed over. This 
 preparation possesses great restraining power and the additional valuable 
 property of reducing the exposure to a considerable extent. It is pre- 
 pared commercially by Wratten and Wainwright, of 36, Great Queen- 
 street, W.C., at the rate of 2oz. for Is. Only a drop or two need be used 
 ^at a time. 
 
 Intensifiers. — Instead of "acid pyro," in combination with a solution of 
 nitrate of silver solution, the following formula, recommended by Mr. 
 Valentine Blanchard, has been adopted by many photographers : 
 
 Iron Intensifier. 
 
 Protosulphate of iron ... „ „ ldr. 
 
 Citric acid 2dr. 
 
 Water lOoz. 
 
 This, of course, must be mixed, like "acid pyro,'' with a solution of 
 silver nitrate. The same strength of the latter is applicable to both pyro 
 and iron. A prominent feature in this intensifier are its keeping 
 qualities. It works better after the lapse of a month or two than when 
 freshly prepared. 
 
 Stereoscopic Pictures. — A stereoscopic picture is a representation of 
 an object from two slightly different points of view. There are few to 
 whom the drawing room stereoscope with its accompaniment of photo- 
 graphic pictures is not familiar ; but it must be said at the same time 
 that about these scientific toys, as folks are wont to call them, there is 
 existing a great amount of needless miscomprehension. To begin with, 
 let us take one of these stereoscopic pictures and examine it. We shall 
 
STEREOSCOPIC PICTURES. 
 
 95 
 
 find, as I said before, that it is a representation of some scene or object 
 from two slightly different points of view. We put the slide, as a 
 mounted stereo is sometimes called, into the stereoscope, and a curious 
 metamorphosis in its appearance at once takes place. Instead of two 
 pictures we see but one, and that one is distinguished by a marvellous 
 fulness and relief which strikingly represents the manner in which we 
 view natural objects with our own eyes. It is not my intention to go 
 further into the scientific principles on which the effects of stereoscopicity 
 are based, as there are various scientific works in which the subject is 
 •discussed far more fully and more satisfactorily than I could hope to 
 discuss it in a manual of practical instruction. But as stereoscopic 
 pictures undoubtedly constitute an important branch of photography, it 
 will be necessary to give an account of the very simple ways and means 
 •connected with their production. In the first place, it is obvious that, to 
 avoid inconvenience, if not pseudo-scopicity, the two pictures comprising 
 the stereogram should be taken almost, if not quite, simultaneously. 
 This result can be achieved in either one of two ways. The first is to 
 employ a camera mounted upon a lath or bar of wood, upon which it 
 slides from right to left. The bar or lath is screwed on to the tripod, 
 and the camera stationed at the right end. A picture is now taken with 
 the apparatus in its present position, after which the camera is slid to 
 the other end of the lath, and the other component of the stereogram 
 secured. In mounting the prints from the negatives obtained in this 
 apparatus great care should be taken to preserve the proper position of 
 the two pictures. . If they are taken from two separate negatives it is 
 necessary to transpose the latter, then to cement the two corresponding 
 sides together, and finally to bind them by a strip of paper round the 
 •edges to a single plate of glass of a size equal to that of the two 
 negatives. If cut out masks, preferably of dome or cushion shape, are 
 accurately pasted on to the two negatives so as to allow of no interstice 
 through which the light may penetrate to the sensitised paper, the 
 stereogram can be secured at a single printing. Another plan in working 
 with a lath stereoscopic camera is to have a dark slide capable of taking 
 the whole stereogram on one plate and arranged so as to bring succes- 
 sively both halves of the latter behind the lens. This is adjusted so as 
 to obviate the necessity of transposition and subsequent cementing and 
 binding to another plate. The great defect of the lath camera is its 
 inability to secure negatives of moving objects, which are peculiarly fitted 
 for subsequent scrutiny with the help of the stereoscope. Thus, for 
 general use, it is recommended to produce stereos with what is called a 
 twin lens or binocular camera. This instrument, as its name implies, 
 lias two lenses fixed on its front, by which the two pictures are taken 
 
96 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 simultaneously. In Chapter IX. I recommended my readers to procure 
 such a camera for general use, as by removing' the partition employed in 
 taking a stereogram, in order to prevent the light from one lens affecting 
 the half of the plate on which that from the other is intended to act, the 
 camera can be used for taking single pictures on the full size of the 
 plate. In working stereos with a binocular camera the two pictures 
 must be transposed on the mounting card — that is, the print from the 
 stereographic negative must be cut in half, and the original right-hand 
 picture pasted on the left hand of the card. Another course to adopt is 
 to cut the negative in half and transpose the halves, as in working with 
 two separate negatives in the lath camera. With regard to the lenses 
 specially applicable to stereoscopic photography, I may mention Dall- 
 meyer's " New Stereoscopic," "Patent Stereographic," and "Quick- 
 acting Stereoscopic" lenses, together with Ross's "Instantaneous 
 Stereographic," as exhibiting the highest possible type of excellence 
 in this peculiar branch. All these lenses are applicable to portraiture, 
 and can be used for simple landscapes of half-plate size by unscrewing 
 and dispensing with the back, and then replacing it by the front com- 
 bination. A pair of rapid rectilinear s or symmetricals also answer- 
 admirably for stereoscopic work. It may be added in connection with 
 stereoscopic photography, that an even finer effect than that exhibited by 
 the ordinary paper " slides " is to be obtained by producing the stereo- 
 gram in the form of a transparency, instructions for preparing which 
 will be found further on. 
 
 The Dark Boom Windoiv. — The question of a convenient and at the 
 same time effective means of providing a non-actinic light for the dark 
 room is one so important to the beginner, and, for the matter of that, to 
 the proficient, that perhaps a few words beyond those already given 
 in the body of this work will be acceptable. Of late, two preparations 
 connected with non-actinic light have been started, both of which 
 promise to be widely popular. The first is in the form of a varnish 
 called Chrysoidine, which is said to be used with great success in 
 cutting off the actinic rays. The second is a species of muslin, prepared, 
 I believe, with this very varnish, or with a dye containing an identical 
 colouring matter. The chrysoidine varnish can be obtained from, 
 amongst others, Messrs. Mawson and Swan, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The 
 non-actinic muslin is manufactured and sold by J. Solomon, of 22, Red 
 Lion-square. The colour of the latter is a most beautiful orange, and 
 two thicknesses of it are sufficient to cut off the effects of the most 
 powerful actinic light from the most sensitive plate. A few feet of this 
 material hastily tacked round the sash of a window of moderate size at 
 once converts even a bed chamber into a dark room, quite impenetrable 
 
non^actinically lighting Dark room. 9?' 
 
 by a direct sunlight. The muslin is rather expensive, being 7s. per yard 
 of 32in. width, but when its utility is considered, the price can hardly be 
 cried out against. A third method of n on- actinically lighting the dark 
 room I clip from a letter to the Photographic News in which this recipe 
 is given : — " Get the following tubes of oil colours from an artists' 
 colour man : burnt sienna, raw sienna, megilp. Mix the three together 
 in equal proportions with a palette knife, and with a soft hog's hair brush 
 paint both sides of the window. When dry a second coat may be given on 
 the outside if needed. Chrome yellow is useless, for not only is it too 
 granular and opaque, but it has a tendency to bleach. A window 3ft. 
 or 4ft. square can be painted for 2s., the tubes costing 4d. each. For 
 dark tents a single piece of yellow cloth painted on one or both sides 
 makes a capital window." The author of the above recipe has used a 
 window prepared according to it for ten years, and states that in the 
 light produced by it, even though the window be a yard square, the 
 most sensitive plate can be developed without fear of fogging. As a 
 basis for the non-actinic pigment no coloured or flashed glass is needed, 
 ordinary sheet glass, such as is commonly used for window panes, being 
 sufficient. For those who are not fortunate enough to secure a dark 
 room with a window, and who are thus precluded from turning the day- 
 light to account, it will be necessary to employ a lamp or candle with 
 some kind of non-actinic shade. Various methods of manufacturing such 
 shades will readily- suggest themselves to the ingenious student ; but I 
 will briefly notice two which are not within the limits of home resources. 
 The first of these is the candle reflector, which is constructed for adjust- 
 ment on a candle, and which reflects the flame very strongly on to any 
 desired spot. A piece of orange paper or cloth tied over the open face 
 of the reflector at once gives a most satisfactory light, than which 
 hardly anything better can be desired. Other ingenious contrivances 
 have been lately introduced in the shape of globes and chimneys for lamp3 
 or gas of ruby glass. The utility of these is too obvious to need expla- 
 nation. 
 
 Stains from, Photographic Chemicals.— There are several methods of 
 obviating or removing the highly unpleasant stains arising from the 
 employment of certain of the chemicals used in photography. One 
 method, following the rule, that "prevention is better than cure," is 
 to sheath the hands in gloves of soft indiarubber, which can be procured 
 at the various establishments devoted to the manufacture of that material. 
 There are also several courses which can be adopted for removing the 
 stains which have actually appeared. Cyanide of potassium is effective, 
 but too dangerous for general use. The following is an excellent and 
 harmless recipe: — "Put lib. glauber salts, ilb. chloride of lime (the 
 
 G 
 
08 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 sanitary disinfectant), and 8oz. of water into a email wide-mouthed 
 bottle, and when required for use pour some of the thick sediment 
 into a saucer, and rub it well over the hands with pumice-stone or 
 a nail brush, and it will clean the hands quite equal to cyanide, but 
 without any danger. This will do to use over again until exhausted, 
 and should be kept corked up." The disagreeable smell arising from 
 the use of this mixture may, it is said, be entirely avoided by the 
 liberal application of lemon juice, which not only removes the smell, but 
 whitens the hands. F. S. Cleaver, the well-known soap manufacturer, 
 makes a 1 ' photographic soap," specially prepared for the removal of 
 photographic stains. 
 
 Photographic Varnish Making. — Although amateur varnish making is 
 by no means to be recommended as a general thing, there are occasions 
 when the ability to perform it are decidedly convenient. For this reason 
 I give the following recipe by Mr. Nelson Cherrill, a well-known and 
 practical photographer, for making up a simple and good varnish, in 
 quantity sufficient to last an amateur many a long year. There is no 
 object whatever in preparing varnish in small quantities. Mr. Cherrill' s 
 own words are as follow: "Take three-quarters of a pound of gum 
 sandarach and 2oz. of gum shellac (the brown I used), and place them in 
 a bottle, and cover them with very strong alcohol. Stir up frequently, 
 and keep in a warm place ; in about two days pour off the liquor into a 
 Winchester bottle, and put again some more strong alcohol ; let it digest 
 two or three days longer, stirring often, and keepingthe bottle in a warm 
 place. This will dissolve all the residue. Add the liquor to that already 
 in the Winchester, pour in an ounce of castor oil, and shake it well up. 
 Now dilute the whole with common methylated spirit till the Winchester 
 is full, and, after fining, which will happen in a week by itself, you will 
 have as go 3d a sample of varnish as anyone need want. The point in 
 this preparation is that the pure alcohol, being used as a solvent, only 
 seems to take up all the good properties of the gums, and, when the 
 dilution comes, all the gum is still held in solution ; whereas, in my 
 hands at least, any attempt to dissolve the gums direct in the methylated 
 spirit is a failure, as far as the quality of the varnish is concerned. This 
 varnish will dry half bright, and will take the pencil very readily, if 
 it be wanted to add to the tooth. The surface will rub with perfect ease 
 by the finger being just touched with powdered pumice or resin," &c. 
 
 With the above few hints I conclude the first part of " Practical 
 Photography." 
 
PART II. 
 DRY -PLATE PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Introductory — Necessary Apparatus — Preparing a Plate — 
 Sensitising — Drying — Backing — Exposure — Developing 
 — Intensifying. 
 
 In commencing' an account of a subject possessing so many individual and 
 general aspects of both scientific and practical interest as dry-plate photo- 
 graphy, some slight introduction will be really needful. The universal 
 practice of dry-plate photography involves an acquaintance with a certain 
 number of processes, all more or less connected with certain fixed scientific 
 principles. That the tendency of these principles, as well as the results 
 of their practical application, may be generally understood, it will be 
 necessary, as stated above, to preface any detailed account of the various 
 dry-plate processes with some sort of comprehensive introduction. 
 
 To begin with, for the benefit of those to whom the first part of this 
 work is unknown, a slight recapitulation must be made of a few remarks 
 which have already been thrown out relative to the nature and functions 
 of dry-plate photography. As its name very clearly implies, a " dry-plate' ' 
 is a plate coated with a dessicated or dried sensitive film. The use 
 of this dry film will be readily understood by those to whom the practice 
 of wet collodion is familiar, the great drawback to this latter process 
 being that unless the photographer carries his dark room, apparatus and 
 all, like a snail, upon his back, he is unable to practise his art upon 
 objects more than a mile or two distant from home. It is here that dry- 
 plate photography comes to the rescue by providing a means whereby 
 even the most portable dark tent is dispensed with. Indeed to such 
 perfection has this branch been brought that a dry plate which has taken 
 
 H 
 
100 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 perhaps but a few minutes to prepare may be kept for years before 
 exposure, and as long between exposure and development. The immense 
 advantages which such qualities as these confer need not be descanted 
 upon. 
 
 And now for an outline of the various processes by which the preparation 
 of dry plates is accomplished. These processes may be ranged under two 
 heads, e< Bath-plate " and ( 6 Emulsion." By the first a plate is sensitised in 
 the ordinary dipping bath such as is used in wet collodion, then washed to 
 free it from the nitrate of silver, and finally flowed over with some sort of 
 preservative, the use of which will be fully and separately discussed 
 hereafter. The plate is then allowed to dry, and may be exposed at the 
 convenience of the operator. By the Emulsion processes, a preparation is 
 made in which the sensitive salts are held in suspension, and which is 
 poured on to the plate like collodion. The film, as in the Bath-plate 
 process, is left to dry, and may in many cases, as before stated, be stored 
 away for an indefinite period without losing its sensitive properties. 
 
 Both Emulsion and other ready-prepared dry plates can be easily pro- 
 cured of photographic dealers, many of whom make this branch of commerce 
 a speciality. It is even a possible, and, indeed, a not unfrequent resource 
 for amateurs who have more money than industry, to send their exposed 
 plates to be developed, and subsequently printed from, by professionals, 
 thus reducing their own share in the production of a photograph to the 
 mere uncapping and recapping of the lens. For such as indulge in this 
 practice, the present instructions are in no way written. It is all very 
 well from want of time or other reasons to buy ready-prepared plates ; 
 indeed, in some cases it is absolutely a saving, not only of time, but 
 of money to do so ; but to send one's exposed plates away to be developed, 
 an operation which, by the way, is one of the most prominent and 
 important in the whole practice of photography, is simply a fair 
 avowal of utter helplessness on the part of any soi-disant operator. It 
 is to be hoped that the present series will inculcate very different prin- 
 ciples from these, by laying down a straightforward course of instruction, 
 which shall have reference, not only to results, but to causes as well. To 
 carry out this intention, the various processes will be discussed separately, 
 and the utmost care will be taken to prevent failure arising from 
 ignorance even of the minutest point of detail. 
 
 Without going further into this question at present, let us imagine that 
 we have before us a stock of dry plates, either prepared with the aid of 
 the bath or coated with an emulsion, of home or shop manufacture, it 
 does not matter which. Here are the plates ; the question is what to do 
 with them. In the first place, it will be necessary to find some convenient 
 means of storing them away from the light and the damp. To this end 
 
DOUBLE DARK SLIDES — CHANGING BOX. 
 
 101 
 
 plate boxes may be used, but not those of the ordinary kind employed for 
 storing negatives, as the rough grooves would tear the edges of the dry 
 but often tender film. Hence, in plate boxes for dry plates, the grooves 
 should be V shaped and cleanly cut. The addition to the price is in- 
 significant. Again, if the plates are to be stored away for any length of 
 time, the plate box should be of some hard close-grained wood, such as 
 mahogany or walnut ; or, if of deal, should be lined with tinfoil, to 
 prevent the exudation of moisture given out by that kind of " stuff." 
 The plates should also be inserted with the films of every couple opposite 
 to another, so that no one plate may absorb any incidental moisture 
 which may be existing on the back of its neighbour. 
 
 When the time for exposure comes another slight modification of the 
 apparatus requisite in the Wet Collodion process will be necessary. Of 
 course the plates may be taken out singly and exposed in the ordinary 
 dark slide, or in a number of ordinary dark slides, but this would either 
 limit the operator to one negative or add considerably to his encum- 
 brances. To avoid both of these drawbacks, either one or two courses 
 are open to the dry plate photographer. One is to employ double dark 
 slides, which, as their name implies, are capable of holding two plates at 
 once. These are provided with two shutters, one for each plate, so 
 that when one plate has been exposed all that is necessary is to take out 
 the slide and reverse it for another picture. The better class of double 
 dark slides are hinged at the bottom, so as to open out as it were into 
 two separate halves. Into each of these a dry plate is dropped with the 
 fingers, or with the aid of a pneumatic plate-holder, and the slide, after 
 a central partition with a spring on both sides to keep both plates in 
 position has been adjusted, is closed up and fastened by means of hooks. 
 The price of one of these double slides or backs for a half plate or 7in. by 
 5in. camera is about 18s., but the price varies according to the dealer 
 from whom it is procured. I think I am right in saying that the 
 quotation made by J. J. Shew, of 28, War dour- street, Oxford-street, 
 of 15s. 9d. for a hinged double back, is the lowest at present in the 
 market. Solomon, of 22, Eed Lion-square, Holborn, sells a cheap double 
 back in which the hinge is dispensed with, both in the frame of the slide 
 and in the shutters, at the following low prices : quarter plate, 8s. ; 5in. 
 by 4in., 9s. ; half plate, lis.; and whole plate, 12s. This back is adver- 
 tised as the " Universal.' ' 
 
 The number of double backs to be procured entirely depends upon 
 the amount of daily work performed by the operator. Three backs to 
 contain six plates will be found quite sufficient for all ordinary occasions, 
 as well as forming a perfectly portable burden. This number may easily 
 be carried in a leather case, a strap attached to which can pass after the 
 
 H 2 
 
102 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 fashion of that of a courier bag, round the shoulder of the travelling 
 photographer. 
 
 In the place of double backs it is preferred by some to employ a 
 changing -box, the best form of which is that manufactured and patented 
 by G. Hare, 26, Calthorpe-street, London. In manipulating plates in a 
 changing-box, it is necessary to have a special form of dark slide into 
 which, by inverting the box the plates slide as required. These changing- 
 boxes are usually made to hold one dozen plates, and in certain cases 
 as, for instance, when it is required to take a large number of negatives 
 in one day, are even preferable in point of portability to double backs. 
 Mr. Hare's Automatic Changing-box is distinguished not only by the 
 facility with which it can be worked, but also by the fine finish of 
 workmanship which it, in common with other productions of the same 
 maker, exhibits. The prices are as follow : changing box and special 
 dark slide for plates up to 5in. by 4in., £3 15s. ; 7 Jin. by 4 Jin. £4> 4s ; 
 whole plate, £5. 
 
 The camera used for the wet process is applicable, if of sufficient 
 portability, to dry plates as well. To those desiring to purchase a fairly 
 portable camera at a low price, I may mention the 4 'folding" pattern, 
 manufactured by J. Fallowfield, 36, Lower Marsh, Lambeth, S.E. This 
 is a most reliable instrument, and is equally adapted for use in the studio 
 or the field. It is suitable for lenses of both long and short focus, and 
 when set is of great rigidity. There are no loose screws (a great advantage 
 in outdoor work), and, by an ingenious arrangement, the focussing can be 
 accomplished with great accuracy without the help of a winch screw, or 
 rackwork adjustment. The price for a square half plate camera is £2 5s. 
 
 While on the subject of cameras in connection with dry-plate photo- 
 graphy, it would be a pity to omit mention of the ingenious and pretty 
 little pocket cameras now sold by so many dealers. These tiny instru- 
 ments are made to take in the smallest possible spaces plates 3in. by 
 3in., 4iin. by 3-jin., and 5in. by 4in. They are almost exact models of the 
 larger folding cameras, but their workmanship has necessarily to be 
 of an excessively delicate and accurate nature. They are mostly fitted 
 with rackwork focussing adjustment, and sold with three little double dark 
 slides for about <£4 15s. This price is for a pocket camera and slides 
 of very superior workmanship, but Shew, of Wardour-street, sells one 
 which is perfectly workable and convenient in every respect, with rack- 
 work adjustment, for £2 17s., and without it for £2 2s. Handy portable 
 tripods are sold by different makers to accompany their respective 
 cameras, amongst which the " Alpenstock " and "Umbrella" forms 
 deserve notice. 
 
 These little dry-plate cameras are really worthy of serious notice even 
 
APPARATUS — SUBSTRATUM — EDGING. 
 
 103 
 
 from the most ambitious photographer, as from the negatives taken in 
 them either transparencies may be produced for the magic lantern, or 
 enlargements up to almost incredible dimensions, losing but little in 
 comparison with photographs taken direct. The method of producing both 
 transparencies and enlargements will be fully discussed in a future 
 chapter. 
 
 To sum up the above remarks upon apparatus, it may be said that 
 every necessary in this line for the practice of dry-plate photography 
 (excepting, of course, such incidental apparatus as may be required for 
 preparing the dry plates themselves, of which mention will be made 
 under the heads of the respective processes) is comprised by the following 
 list : A good lens, portable camera and tripod, and three double backs 
 or a changing-box. To these may be added as accessories, a plate box 
 with V-shaped grooves, a pneumatic plate-holder, and a broad camel's hair 
 brush to dust the plates before transferring them from the plate box to 
 the slide or changing box. 
 
 And now let us turn our attention to the differences, in a chemical 
 point of view, between wet and dry processes of photography. 
 
 Perhaps the best way to thoroughly familiarise the intending dry-plate 
 photographer with the nature of the chemical preparations which he 
 will be called on to employ, will be to enlarge the outline given at the 
 commencement of this chapter, so that each stage in the production of a 
 dry-plate negative may be separately considered and explained. To begin 
 with, let the reader imagine that he has before him a plain glass plate, 
 to which he wishes to apply, either by a bath plate or emulsion process, 
 a film for exposure in a desiccated state. In the first place, it will be 
 necessary to furnish the bare glass plate with a substratum or edging 
 which will cause the future film to adhere tenaciously to it. Unless this 
 is done, it will be found that the film during development is liable to slip 
 off the plate, as it does in the wet process when the collodionised plate 
 is immersed in the bath before the collodion is duly set. For a 
 substratum the same formula may be used as that given in Chap. XVI., 
 p. 92, under the head of " Albumenising Glasses," namely : — 
 
 Substratum (1). 
 
 White of one egg. 
 
 Water 20oz. 
 
 Ammonia 6dr. 
 
 This may be applied as before directed, either by pouring the solution 
 over the plate or by the aid of the Blanchard brush. Another substratum 
 which may be applied in the same manner, is a solution of gelatine, as 
 follows : 
 
104 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Substratum (2). 
 
 Gelatine 40gr. 
 
 Water 30oz. 
 
 Ammonia Idr. 
 
 The formula for an edging, which many prefer to a substratum, is : 
 
 Edging. 
 
 Indiarubber 5gr. 
 
 Chloroform or Benzole loz. 
 
 This is applied with a brush which is charged with the solution, and 
 run round the edges of the surface of the plate to the depth of about 
 iin. The chloroform or benzole, whichever it may be, that is employed 
 as a solvent of the indiarubber, evaporates almost instantaneously, 
 leaving a viscid edging, which effectually prevents slipping films. It is 
 obvious that care must be taken to keep the stock bottle of the 
 solution tightly corked up, except when in use, to prevent unnecessary 
 loss by evaporation. If the quantity of the solvent in the above solution 
 be multiplied five times, that is to say, five grains of indiarubber to 
 five ounces of either chloroform or benzole, it may be poured over the 
 cleaned glass plate like collodion to form a very useful substratum. 
 
 A curious method of preventing slipping films, which is applicable to 
 some of the emulsion processes where the plate is not subjected to immer- 
 sion, is, the use of steotite, or French chalk. A little of this substance 
 is sprinkled over the plate and lightly rubbed till it has touched every 
 part of the surface of the latter. The plate is then rubbed finally with 
 a chamois leather until every trace of the French chalk is removed. 
 Although this may seem a strange proceeding, it is, nevertheless, wonder- 
 fully efficacious, as the operator will find out by experiment. 
 
 Having applied a substratum or edging to the plate, the next step is to 
 sensitise it. Assuming that a bath-plate process is being practised, the 
 plate is now collodionised and immersed in the dipping bath. A collodion 
 which gives thoroughly good results in the wet process may ordinarily 
 be used, and the bath solution may be of the usual strength. In cases 
 where this rule may be departed from with advantage, due notice will be 
 given of the fact under the heading of the respective processes. 
 
 After the sensitised plate has remained in the bath for some minutes 
 it is withdrawn and carefully washed in order to remove all the free 
 nitrate from the film. To accomplish this, the plate is first transferred 
 to a dish filled with distilled water. The covering of the surface of the 
 film should take place without stoppage ; otherwise markings, as in the 
 case of a stoppage while transferring the collodionised plate to the sen- 
 sitising bath, will result. When the greasy appearance due to the 
 
PRESERVATIVES. 
 
 105 
 
 repellent action of the ether and alcohol in the film towards the water 
 in which the latter is immersed has disappeared, the plate maybe removed 
 from the dish of distilled water and washed for from one to three minutes 
 under the tap. The washing is completed by a final rinse with distilled 
 water. 
 
 At this stage, if a preservative is to be employed, it should be applied 
 to the plate. The latter is drained, and the former may either be flowed 
 over it or administered in certain cases, as will be seen, in a dish. Amongst 
 preservatives in common use may be mentioned tea, coffee, albumen, 
 gum, and many other substances. It will be well to quote here what 
 Captain Abney, to whom both the science and literature of photography 
 are perhaps more greatly indebted than to anyone living, says concerning 
 the ends to be obtained by the use of a preservative, in his ' ' Treatise on 
 Photography.' ' This work has been published by Messrs. Longmans in 
 the Text Books of Science series, at the price of 3s. 6d., and, as a most 
 comprehensive, lucid, and trustworthy manual of scientific reference, 
 ought to take a prominent place on every photographer's shelves. As 
 Captain Abney' s important remarks on preservatives are too concise to 
 admit of abbreviation, and too good altogether to allow of any portion 
 being lost, the liberty is taken of extracting them in full. " A preserva- 
 tive," he observes, " must be (1) an iodine or bromine absorbent, for, 
 without this quality, the film manifestly might be insensitive. (2) It must 
 be capable of filling up the minute pores of the collodion, so that on re- 
 wetting after drying it may give access to the developing solution. (3) 
 It must act as a protective varnish against the atmospheric influences. 
 Regarding the first point there is not much difficulty, as nearly every 
 organic animal or vegetable compound is capable of combining with iodine* 
 Under the head of absorbents we may rank tannin, pyrogallol, gallic 
 acid, gums, gelatine, albumen, caffeine, theine, and other like bodies. The 
 second requirement may be met by the employment of some of the above, 
 or by the addition to them of sugar in various forms. The last require- 
 ment is more difficult to meet, and is very often neglected, as it entails 
 that the body should not be hygroscopic. The drawback to any pro- 
 cesses, for instance, in which the preservatives contain gum arabic, is 
 that moisture is attracted, and the sensitiveness of various parts of 
 the plates is affected. No better varnish is known than albumen, though 
 this has its disadvantages as regards rapidity, unless the greater portion 
 of it be removed previous to desiccation, or unless it itself becomes a 
 vehicle for holding the sensitive salts, as in the collodio-albumen process." 
 In Captain Abney' s opinion an unexceptionable preservative has yet to 
 be found. He thinks it doubtful whether it will not be found advantageous 
 to dispense with it altogether, when the balance between the pyroxyline 
 
106 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 (gun-cotton) of the collodion and the sensitive salts is properly adjusted, 
 as in the case of certain emulsions. " It must then be borne in mind," 
 he concludes, " that the word ' preservative' is only employed for want of 
 a better." 
 
 In working with emulsions, the course of operations is essentially 
 different from that adopted in the various bath plate processes. The 
 discrepancy consists, as before stated, in the substitution for the collo- 
 dionising and subsequent immersion in the bath, usually of a sensitive 
 collodion, that is to say, one which holds the sensitive salts in suspension, 
 and which is poured direct upon the plate after the latter has received a 
 preliminary substratum or edging. By some it is pieferred to enclose 
 the sensitive salts, not in the pyroxyline of a collodion, but in gelatine. 
 This point will be fully discussed, together with various others connected 
 with emulsions, when the bath-plate processes have been treated of. In 
 some cases plates prepared by emulsion processes require washing, and 
 the subsequent application of a preservative, but these points will also 
 profit by receiving individual notice when necessary. 
 
 In any case, whether a preservative be used or not, the plate will, of 
 course, in order to carry out its name, have to be allowed to dry. This 
 it may generally be suffered to do spontaneously away from the dust. For 
 gelatine plates a special kind of drying box is necessary, the construction 
 of which will receive due explanation. For ordinary dry plates a zinc 
 plate box, with V shaped grooves, which may be set on a stove with its lid 
 slightly ajar in order to allow the moisture of the films to escape, will 
 often be found useful. A strip of blotting paper should be laid at the 
 bottom of the box, and the plates should be inserted with their films face 
 to face. Messrs. Wratten and Wainwright, of 38, Great Queen-street, 
 sell drying boxes, which will be found very useful by those who are in 
 the habit of preparing dry plates in the day time, and who have not two 
 doors to their dark room. Mr. Woodbury advises emulsion plates to be 
 dried in the following manner : On a small iron tripod he adjusts a piece 
 of sheet iron, and introduces beneath it a spirit lamp or Bunsen burner. 
 On the sheet of iron a few thicknesses of blotting paper are laid, and on 
 these again the plate to be dried. By this means the latter is desiccated 
 with great readiness and uniformity. 
 
 Some dry plates are liable to a fault, at times very inconvenient, which 
 is known by the name of " blurring," and which is the result of neces- 
 sarily long exposures. To obviate this, it is frequently needful to furnish 
 the plate with a non-actinic backing, which has the effect of preventing 
 the appearance of blurring or irradiation as it may, perhaps, more rightly 
 be called. There are various ways of applying this backing. Some use 
 a non-actinic pigment, applying it with a brush ; others prefer the handier 
 
DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 107 
 
 method of applying to the back of the plate a gummed piece of non-actinic 
 paper. The expedient is sometimes resorted to of staining the emulsion 
 with non-actinic dye, such as aurine, but this has the effect of materially 
 diminishing the sensitiveness of the plate. 
 
 The exposure necessary for dry plates is very varied indeed. In some 
 cases when using bath plates, an exposure of ten or even twenty times 
 that suitable for a wet plate is not too much ; while in others, as for 
 instance in the cases of instantaneous gelatine plates, vigorous negatives 
 can often be secured in a fraction of a second. Some hints as to exposure 
 will accompany the account of each process. Attention must now 
 be paid to the methods of development applicable to dry-plate 
 photography. 
 
 There are three distinct methods of developing dry plates. The first of 
 these is to employ a developer varying but slightly from that used in the 
 ordinary wet collodion process, the chief components of which are 
 sulphate of iron and glacial acetic acid. This iron developer is only 
 applicable to dry plates, when the latter are produced with the aid of 
 the bath, and even then is frequently disadvantageous in cases where the 
 plates have been kept some time since exposure. The process in which it 
 produces under favourable circumstances the best results, is the gum 
 gallic of Mr. Manners-Gordon, under the head of which a formula for an 
 iron developer will be duly given. 
 
 But by far the most important as well as most successful means of 
 producing from a desiccated film the latent image, is by what is known 
 as Alkaline development. This can be adapted to dry plates, produced 
 by either bath or emulsion processes, in every case where the film contains 
 even the smallest amount of bromide of silver. As this last qualification 
 exists without exception in every one of the real " dry " plate processes, 
 the use of the alkaline method of development is very extended indeed* 
 and, as will be seen, possesses peculiar advantages as regards latitude of 
 exposure, and so forth. Alkaline development is based upon the employ- 
 ment notably of alkaline pyrogallates formed of pyrogallic acid, the 
 developing power of which has been greatly accelerated by the addition 
 of an alkali, such as ammonia. In practice it is found that in a developer 
 of this kind it is needful to employ a restraining power in order to 
 prevent the unduly rapid action of the alkaline pyrogallol, and consequent 
 fogging of the plate. The restrainer employed is bromide of potassium, 
 which, for convenience, is kept and subsequently added to the alkaline 
 pyrogallol in an aqueous solution of varying strength. 
 
 To develop a dry plate by alkaline development there are several 
 formulas, any of which can be adopted often at the will of the operator. 
 But, before actually proceeding to the development of the latent image, 
 
108 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 there are usually one or two necessary operations to be performed, such 
 as removing the backing and washing off the preservative, if either have 
 been previously applied. If the backing has been merely painted on with 
 a brush, it can be easily removed with the aid of a sponge. If a strip 
 of non-actinic paper has been used, the back of it is damped, and it 
 peels off without difficulty. If the photographer is in the habit of using 
 plates subject to halation, he will find a vice a very useful addition 
 to his dark room. If this is screwed out to the proper width, and 
 the plate laid face downwards with a little care upon the rebates, 
 the backing can be applied and removed with the utmost facility. 
 Supposing that, in lieu of backing on the plate, an emulsion has been 
 stained with aurine or any other dye, it will probably be found necessary 
 to flood the plate with a solution of methylated spirit in water previous 
 to development. This solution of spirit is also useful in many cases to 
 remove such preservatives as are soluble in alcohol, and to open up the 
 pores of the collodion in such a manner as to allow free access to the 
 developer. Occasionally the preliminary wash of spirit and water may be 
 replaced by one of water alone ; in any case the matter will receive special 
 mention in connection with each of the various processes. 
 
 When the backing (if any) has been removed, and while the plate is 
 still damp from the wash of dilute spirit or water, which should be drained 
 off as much as possible, the developer is poured on. Although they will 
 probably have to be repeated hereafter, two standard formulae for alkaline 
 developers are here given in outline in order to familiarise the beginner 
 with the principles on which they are based, and in some degree to give 
 him timely warning of the nature of one of the principal preparations 
 which he will be called upon to make up and employ. The first is as 
 follows : 
 
 Alkaline Developer. 
 
 No. 1.— Pyrogallic acid 12gr. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 No. 2.— Liquor ammonia loz. 
 
 Water ^ 4oz. 
 
 No. 3— Citric acid 60gr. 
 
 Acetic acid 30min. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 No. 4.— Nitrate of silver 20gr. 
 
 Distilled water loz. 
 
 Details as to proportions and mixing will be given elsewhere. This 
 developer is peculiarly adapted to plates containing gelatine or albumen. 
 Another developer, even more typical of the principles of alkaline develop- 
 ment than the one already given, is that the bare formula of which is 
 given below. It is known as the " Strong Alkaline Developer" of Colonel 
 Stuart Wortley, by whom it was introduced. Colonel Stuart Wortley is 
 
ALKALINE DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 109 
 
 a distinguished photographic amateur, and is well known for his excellent 
 rapid Uranium process, which will be commented upon and explained in 
 the course of the present work. The strong alkaline developer, as it 
 name implies, is of great power, and images are produced by its aid with 
 the minimum of exposure in the camera. Here is the formula : 
 
 Strong Alkaline Developer. 
 
 No. 1.— Carbonate of ammonia 80gr. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 (or) 
 
 Liquor ammonia loz. 
 
 Water 16oz. 
 
 No. 2 —Bromide of potassium 12gr. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 No. 3.— Pjrogallic acid 96gr. 
 
 Alcohol loz. 
 
 Of this four parts of No. 1 are mixed with two parts (in cold weather one 
 part) of No. 2, and one part of No. 3 ; the mixture is flowed at once over 
 the plate, and the image, if the exposure has been correct, and other 
 conditions fulfilled, will almost immediately start out. It must be care- 
 fully kept in mind that in this and other alkaline developers, as above 
 stated, the pyrogallic acid is the real developing agent, the ammonia is 
 the accelerator, and the bromide of potassium the restrainer. These 
 facts are of peculiar importance, and a due recognition of them will 
 enable the photographer to draw from his knowledge several very useful 
 conclusions. Suppose, for instance, he is about to develop a plate, 
 which, by accident or otherwise, has received an over long exposure, by 
 reducing the ammonia or adding more bromide he weakens the powe r 
 of the developer, and produces perhaps a negative which can hardly be 
 distinguished from one to which exactly correct exposure has been given. 
 On the other hand, if it transpires even in the course of development 
 itself, that the exposure has not been of sufficient duration, the obvious 
 remedy is to bring up the image by the addition of more of the accelerating 
 ammonia. It must be borne in mind, however, that although by 
 experience and skill the alkaline developer can often be so manipulated 
 as to counterbalance in a great degree the effects of faulty exposure, it 
 can never do so completely. 
 
 There is nothing to compare in evenness and truth of gradation of tone 
 with a plate produced by any process to which correct exposure has been 
 given. Failing this, it will be found that of the two evils of under and 
 over-exposure the latter is the lesser, and that while from an over-exposed 
 plate, with care and skill, an almost perfect image can often be developed, 
 an under-exposed plate is generally, from its weakness and absence of 
 
110 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 contrast, fairly useless. Another " wrinkle " may be borne in mind in 
 connection with the reproduction, by dry plate photography, of objects 
 where the lights and shades exhibit very strong contrast indeed, and 
 result, ordinarily speaking, in an inharmonious and apparently under- 
 exposed picture. In such cases as this it has been advised to lessen as 
 much as possible the quantity of pyrogallic acid in the developing solution 
 This can be done either by keeping a separate solution of pyro, of a 
 strength half as weak as that mentioned in the formula, or by adding 
 water to the mixed developer before applying the latter to the plate. 
 
 It will often be found advantageous, especially to the fingers of the 
 operator, to apply the developer in a dish of a little greater length and 
 breadth than the plate. The dish should be preferably of glass or ebonite, 
 and can be purchased of almost any photographic dealer. In using it, 
 care must be taken to apply the developing solution, especially if the 
 plates be rapid and fully exposed and the developer strong, in an even 
 sweep, as otherwise the development will be unequal, and unpleasantly 
 pronounced markings will result. 
 
 Although with the alkaline system of development it is perfectly 
 possible to obtain full printing density by merely adding a little of the 
 ammonia solution without any restraining bromide to the developer 
 already in the measure, and re-applying the latter with the added accelerat- 
 ing power, still this course is not to be recommended. It is far better 
 in every case to wash off the alkaline pyrogallol as soon as the detail of 
 the picture is completely out. The plate should then be allowed to dry, 
 after drying be remoistened under the tap or from a jug, and finally 
 treated with the ordinary acid pyro intensifier, as used in the wet collodion 
 process, for which the formula is : 
 
 Acid Pyro Intensifier. 
 
 No. 1.— Pyrogallic acid 3gr. 
 
 Citric acid 2gr. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 No 2.— Nitrate of silver 2ogr. 
 
 Distilled water 2oz. 
 
 This is applied in the usual manner by flowing No. 1 over the plate 
 once or twice to allow it to combine with the water with which the 
 film has been moistened, and after draining it back into *he measure, 
 adding a few drops of No. 2 and re-applying to the plate. If the plate 
 is not allowed to dry, as directed, between the washing off of the 
 developer and the application of the intensifier, it should be flooded 
 witk a 1 per cent, solution of acetic acid in water. By intensifying 
 with acid pyro and silver it is noticeable that the negatives produced 
 
DEVELOPING. 
 
 Ill 
 
 by dry processes acquire much of the character of those produced on 
 wet plates. 
 
 I now come to the third system of development in dry plate photo- 
 graphy, which is the fruit of a late discovery, and due, so far as its 
 popular introduction is concerned, to Mr. W. Willis, jun. The chief 
 component in this system of development is ferrous oxalate, which is 
 mixed in the following" manner : 4oz. of neutral oxalate of potash are 
 dissolved in 16oz. of water ; when dissolved, about loz. of ferrous 
 oxalate is added. The formula therefore runs thus : 
 
 Ferrous Oxalate Developer. 
 
 Neutral oxalate of potash 4oz. 
 
 Water 16oz. 
 
 Ferrous oxalate about loz. 
 
 The ferrous oxalate developer is administered in a dish, or preferably in 
 a dipping bath. The plate is moved slowly up and down during develop- 
 ment, which may take from five to ten minutes, and even a quarter of an 
 hour to perform. If the resulting image is weak, it is probably owing to 
 the fact that the developer, from exposure, has become inert. A pinch 
 or two of the ferrous oxalate will quickly restore its vigour. To keep the 
 ferrous oxalate solution for any length of time, it is necessary to keep 
 a skein of bright iron wire in the bottle or a slight excess of ferrous 
 oxalate in powder beyond that which the solution takes up. The great 
 beauty of this developer is the absolute cleanliness with which it can be 
 manipulated and the simplicity of its operation. It is especially appli- 
 cable to transparencies, as it produces a picture which requires no further 
 toning. The price of ferrous oxalate is 6d. per oz., of neutral potassium 
 oxalate 4d. per oz. Messrs. Maws on and Swan, Newcastle- on -Tyne, sell 
 the solution ready made up in pint bottles for Is. 6d. ; four pints, 5s. 
 This is a cheaper method of purchase for the amateur than to buy the 
 ferrous oxalate and potassium oxalate in powder. Messrs. Mawson and 
 Swan are enabled to sell the solution at low rates, from the fact that they 
 do not have to reduce the ferrous oxalate to a dry powder and again 
 dissolve it, but make up the solution direct. 
 
 Captain Abney recommends the addition of a few grains of bromide to 
 the developer immediately before use ; this restrains all tendency to fog 
 and produces brilliant pictures. 
 
 The operations of fixing, varnishing, &c, in dry plate photography are 
 identical with those requisite in the wet collodion process, and so will not 
 need recapitulatory comment. I will turn, then, without more delay to 
 the discussion of the various processes by which negatives may be obtained 
 from desiccated films. 
 
GH APTEE II. 
 
 Bath-plate Processes — Washed Plate — Coffee — Albumen 
 and Beer — Collodio-albumen — Tannin — Gum-gallic. 
 
 The Washed-plate Process. — This is par excellence the simplest of all 
 dry processes in vogue. Its introduction is due to Mr. Jabez Hughes, an 
 eminent photographer, known alike for his professional skill and for his 
 capital little work entitled, " The Principles and Practice of Photography 
 Familiarly Explained.' ' The washed-plate process is as follows: A 
 plate is collodionised and sensitised in an ordinary negative bath, exactly 
 as for the wet collodion process. The sensitised plate, however, instead 
 of being transferred immediately to the dark slide, is well washed with 
 distilled water from a bottle or jug. This operation removes all the 
 superficial silver nitrate solution in the film. The washed plate can now 
 be reared up to dry in a dark place away from dust. When the film 
 is desiccated the plate may be transferred to the dark slide and ex- 
 posed for half as long again, or even twice as long, as an ordinary wet 
 plate under similar circumstances. Prior to development, which should 
 take place as soon as possible after exposure, the plate must be im- 
 mersed for a second time in the sensitising bath. On its withdrawal 
 it may be treated with the ordinary developing solution of sulphate of 
 iron and acid. The whole process is laudably simple, and by its means, 
 provided the collodion and bath are in good order, creditable negatives 
 can be obtained with ease and a fair degree of certainty. It has one 
 drawback — namely, that the dried plates will not keep for any length of 
 time without deterioration. To insure success, the plates should be 
 prepared overnight, exposed the next day, and developed as recommended 
 above, within a few hours of exposure. Washed plates are useful when 
 it is required to reproduce objects within walking or driving distance 
 from home ; but they are disheartening when, after a batch, say, of a 
 dozen or even six, have been carefully prepared overnight, it rains so 
 persistently the next day that photography is out of the question, and 
 the plates, from lacking the power to remain uninjured by time, are 
 rendered useless. 
 
THE COFFEE PROCESS. 
 
 113 
 
 The Coffee Process. — This process, though perhaps not quite so simple 
 as the foregoing", is still very far from being complicated, and is, moreover, 
 entirely free from the drawbacks which characterise dry plates prepared 
 by the washed-plate method. Coffee plates, while giving most exquisitely 
 delicate results, are quite rapid enough for ordinary purposes, and possess 
 the additional advantage of keeping their properties unimpaired for 
 almost indefinite periods. The coffee process will be described at some 
 length, not only for its intrinsic merits, but also for the reason that it 
 may fairly be looked upon as a representative of all the dry processes 
 in which the use of the bath and of a preservative are prominent features- 
 The instructions here given are collated from two articles, one by Mr. J. 
 H. Whitehouse, in "The Year-Book of Photography of 1877," the other 
 by Mr. H. Mansfield, in "The Year-Book for 1878." Mr. Whitehouse, 
 upon whose paper the supplementary views of Mr. Mansfield are based, 
 derived his original formulae, in which he has made but slight alterations, 
 from Mr. A. Bauernhertz, the associate of M. de Constant, with whose 
 name the coffee process is very prominently connected. The process, as 
 ventilated by Mr. Whitehouse, and supplemented by Mr. Mansfield, is 
 as follows : A clean dry plate is coated with a substratum of albumen (the 
 white of one egg to about 35oz. of water) or edged with indiarubber, as 
 described in Chap. I., p. 103. When the albumen coating is dry, or, sup- 
 posing the indiarubber edging to have been used, the benzole or chloroform 
 solvent has evaporated, the plate is ready for collodionising. Any good 
 collodion is applicable, but the addition of two grains of bromide of 
 cadmium to the ounce will be found advantageous. The sensitising bath 
 should be of an average strength (that is, 35gr. to 40gr. of silver nitrate 
 to the ounce) and in good working order. The collodionised plate should 
 remain in the bath for at least five minutes. When the sensitising is 
 complete the plate is immersed in a dish of rain water, containing a few 
 drops of glacial acetic acid. The greasy lines formed by the re- 
 pellence of the washing water by the alcohol in the collodion film having 
 disappeared, the plate may be removed from the dish and rinsed under 
 a tap of ordinary water. After a slight draining the following preserva- 
 tive solution of coffee and sugar should be flowed over the still moist 
 film: 
 
 Coffee Preservative. 
 
 Pure coffee (finely ground) Uoz. 
 
 White loaf sugar (finely ground) joz. 
 
 Boiling water 12 0 z. 
 
 This is filtered and used cold. It will keep a few days, but quickly 
 deteriorates. The plates having been flowed over (preferably, perhaps, 
 a second time) with this preservative, are allowed to dry spontaneously. 
 
114 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 This may be accomplished by rearing them up against the side of a com- 
 mon box, at the bottom of which a sheet or two of blotting paper, to 
 absorb the drippings, has been laid, and excluding dust by the help of a 
 piece of yellow cloth. 
 
 When the plates are dry they are either ready for exposure or for 
 storing away in batches, as may be required. For the latter purpose, 
 either plate-boxes with V-shaped grooves may be employed, or, if space 
 be an object, and it be desirable to carry the plates for long distances 
 before opening the parcel containing them, a method in which the box 
 is dispensed with may be adopted. The following system of package is 
 recommended by Mr. Henry Cooper, one of the best living workers in 
 dry-plate photography, whom I have already had, and shall again have, 
 the pleasure of quoting in these pages. Mr. Cooper's directions, which 
 come in very appropriately here, are these : 8 ' Cut some strips of cardboard 
 a little more than iin. wide, and glue them down on a piece of silk, 
 strong muslin, or other flexible material, about fin. apart. When dry, 
 cut with a sharp knife along the centre of each strip of cardboard, thus 
 making a number of strips of flexible material with a strip of card fin. 
 wide glued on each edge. For large plates the card may be wider. The 
 space between the strips should be equal to the thickness of two plates 
 Cut the strips to the length of one side of the plates. To pack a dozen 
 plates, lay one on the table face upwards, and, taking two others in 
 the hand, place them back to back (without anything between), and 
 put one of the card and linen guards over each end ; lay these on the 
 single one, and then on them place two others back to back as before, 
 without any guards ; then two others with guards, and so on until enough 
 are thus laid in a heap, when we finish with a single plate, face down- 
 wards. It will be seen from this that two guards will suffice for four plates, 
 and, although the faces are kept away from one another by the strips of 
 card, the backs of the plates have nothing between them." To protect 
 the parcel of plates, Mr. Cooper wraps it first in very fchin sheet 
 gutta percha, then in tinfoil, and finally in good brown paper. Mr. 
 Cooper adds, with reason, that although, perhaps for commercial 
 purposes, where the packing materials are lost to the seller, this 
 method is too expensive, for amateurs who can use their cardboard 
 guards and gutta percha, &c, over and over again, it is simply 
 perfect. 
 
 The keeping qualities of coffee plates are excellent. Mr. Whitehous 
 mentions that he has kept them wrapped up in American cloth or 
 macintosh in perfect condition for fourteen months, during which time 
 they have journeyed twice across the Atlantic. 
 
 Coffee plates, being subject to halation, require backing either with 
 
COFFEE PROCESS. 
 
 115 
 
 pigment or non-actinic paper, which can be applied as directed in 
 Chapter L, Part II. 
 
 The exposure of plates prepared by the coffee process, though rather 
 long, is not inconveniently so.. Mr. Whitehouse finds that in no case must 
 the exposure be quite double that necessary for a wet plate. Mr. Mans- 
 field is on the safe side in saying that his experience does not bear out 
 this assertion. At least twice the exposure necessary for wet plates, and 
 in ^dull light, the action of which is disproportionately slow in starting 
 the image, three times, four times, and even five times the exposure 
 incident to wet collodion under similar circumstances, will not be 
 found excessive. 
 
 The development of coffee dry plates may be effected in either one of 
 two special ways, both of which will now be given. The difference 
 between the two is slight, but in spite of this the results obtained may 
 be widely different in the hands of operators employing one or the other 
 of the respective methods. For this reason both the formula used by Mr. 
 Whitehouse and that recommended by Mr. Manfield will be given in 
 full, and those who fail with the first will, it is to be hoped, achieve with 
 the second that success which coffee plates ought always to command. 
 
 Mr. Whitehouse gives, as the method of development practised by him- 
 self, the following : Take the exposed negative from the dark slide, and, 
 after removing with a sponge the backing, immerse in a dish contain- 
 ing sufficient depth of water to cover it easily. The plate should lie 
 with its film side upwards. During the immersion of the plates, attention 
 should be paid to the developing solutions, which are as below : 
 
 Developer (1). 
 
 No. 1. Alcohol 15dr. 
 
 Pyrogallic acid 2dr. 
 
 No. 2. Distilled water 15dr. 
 
 Carbonate of ammonia 2dr. 
 
 No. 3. Distilled water 6ioz. 
 
 Pyrogallic acid 15gr. 
 
 Citric acid 22igr 
 
 No. 4 Distilled water 3gOz. 
 
 Silver nitrate 45gr. 
 
 These solutions do not deteriorate by keeping. To develop a plate by 
 their aid the immersed plate is taken from the dish and the following 
 mixture applied : 
 
 No. 1 ~ 20 drops. 
 
 No. 2 20 drops. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 This will bring out the detail if the plate has been properly exposed, 
 and the latter should now be well and carefully washed. Next flow 
 
 I 
 
116 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 with an adequate amount of No. 3, and after allowing it to remain 
 
 on the film for a few moments, return it to the developing" cup and add 
 
 No. 4 in the proportion of ten or twelve drops to the ounce. This in- 
 
 tensifier is poured on and off until sufficient density is obtained, when 
 
 the plate is thoroughly washed, fixed with strong hypo, and finally 
 
 washed again in the ordinary manner. 
 
 Mr. Manfield, instead of the No. 1 and No. 2 of Mr. Whitehouse's 
 
 solutions, uses : g 
 
 Developer (2). 
 
 No. 1. Pyrogallic acid 3grs. 
 
 Distilled water loz. 
 
 No. 2. Carbonate of ammonia ldr. 
 
 Hot water loz. 
 
 These must be prepared shortly before use. No. 1 is applied sepa- 
 rately, and with its application alone, if the exposure has been correct, 
 the sky and high lights will appear. A few drops of No. 2 are then 
 poured into a clean developing cup, into which the pyro solution on the 
 plate is also returned. The mixture is stirred up with a glass rod and 
 flowed with an even sweep over the film. When the detail is thoroughly 
 out density can be obtained as before by the application of an intensifier 
 formed by Nos. 1 and 2 of Mr. Whitehouse's solutions. 
 
 Attention should be paid to the second of Mr. Manfield' s solutions, 
 one drachm, namely, of carbonate of ammonia to the ounce of hot water. 
 This is a solution very commonly met with in the development of dry 
 plates, and one the preparation of which in the ordinary way is attended 
 with some inconvenience. The following is an ingenious and most simple 
 method by which the use of hot water and other drawbacks are entirely 
 dispensed with. 4 4 Take a bottle of any size, and half fill it with 
 fragments of carbonate of ammonia ; fill the bottle with common water, 
 cork tightly, and shake occasionally. When developer is wanted, take 
 any quantity of this saturated solution and dilute with half its bulk of 
 water, and as one ounce of water will dissolve about ninety grains of 
 ammonia, this solution will, of course, contain one drachm to the 
 ounce." 
 
 The Albumen-Beer Process, — This very excellent and trustworthy process 
 was introduced by Captain Abney, to whom and to whose works reference 
 has been made in previous chapters. The following account of the 
 process is taken, with additions, from that given in the inventor's 
 * c Instruction in Photography" (London: Piper and Carter), and if it 
 be carefully followed through every detail, the operator need have no fear 
 of failure. The exposure of albumen-beer plates is hardly rapid enough 
 for purposes of portraiture, but for ordinary landscape and scientific 
 work they answer admirably, while their certainty of result is an additional 
 
ALBUMEN BEER PROCESS. 
 
 117 
 
 recommendation in their favour. The albumen-and-beer process is simply 
 a bath-plate process, with a very excellent and fairly simple preservative. 
 To attain, however, complete success in its practice, it is necessary to 
 follow Captain Abney carefully through all his modifications of the 
 formulae employed both prior and subsequent to the application of the 
 preservative itself. Beginners will very soon find that such modifica- 
 tions, slight as they may appear, are not introdu ced for nothing by one 
 who has so complete a mastery over his subject as Captain Abney. With 
 this caution we will commence our, or rather the inventor's, account of 
 the method of producing bath plates with a preservative of albumen 
 and beer. 
 
 Some care is necessary in selecting a suitable collodion. There are two 
 courses, either of which may be adopted with favourable results. The 
 first is very simple, and has been found to increase the sensitiveness of 
 bath plates generally, whether prepared by the albumen, beer or any other 
 process. This is as follows : If it be desired to put aside a bottle of 
 collodion for dry-plate work, take one half of it and " drop into it 
 distilled water to such an amount that on coating a plate the film appears 
 slightly reticulated. The remaining half should then be mixed with it, 
 and, as far as the physical nature of the collodion is concerned, it will be 
 found in good condition ; the addition of a quarter to half a grain of 
 nitro-glucose to each ounce will be found to secure density." 
 
 If it be required to manufacture nitro-glucose, this can be done in the 
 following manner : Add loz. of powdered sugar to a mixture of 2 fluid 
 ounces of sulphuric acid and one of nitric acid. Stir the mixture for a 
 few minutes with a glass rod ; a tenacious mass may thus be collected 
 from the fluid, and washed in warm water by kneading it until every trace 
 of acid is removed. 
 
 Plates coated with collodion, to which water has been added, should 
 remain for ten minutes in an ordinary 40gr. sensitising bath. The 
 addition of lOgr. of nitrate of uranium to the ounce of the sensitising 
 solution is conducive to rapidity, but not indispensable. 
 
 If the greatest possible rapidity be desired, a special collodion can be 
 made up according to the following formula : 
 
 Alcohol „ 4idr.to5dr. 
 
 Ether 3idr.to5dr. 
 
 Pyroxyline 7grs. 
 
 Ammonium io 1 k 1 e 2grs. 
 
 Cadmium bromide 5grs. 
 
 The relative proportions of ether and alcohol depend upon the tem- 
 perature at which the plates have to be prepared. The warmer the 
 weather the greater must be the proportion of the alcohol to the ether, 
 
 I 2 
 
118 
 
 PKACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 and vice versa. The reason for this is that the additional alcohol makes 
 the collodion set more slowly. With the above collodion a 60gr. sensi- 
 tising bath should be used. As with the 40gr. bath employed with the 
 watered collodion, the addition of lOgr. of uranium nitrate to the ounce 
 will be found advantageous to the sensitising solution. 
 
 It has been found a good plan after applying the special collodion, to 
 sensitise first for two minutes in the 40gr. bath, and then in the 60gr. 
 bath for ten minutes more. 
 
 When the sensitising is completed the plate should be washed (see 
 Chap. I., p. 104), and attention paid to the application of the 
 preservative, which should be prepared as follows : Beat up into a froth 
 a mixture of 
 
 Preservative. 
 
 Albumen 1 fluid oz. 
 
 "Water loz. 
 
 t Ammonia ldr. 
 
 Allow this to settle, and decant off the clear part. On the morning of the 
 day on which you intend preparing a batch of plates, uncork a bottle of 
 Bass's ale, and allow it to remain open. Ordinary beer or stout will 
 sometimes do, but Bass is more uniform in quality, and consequently 
 safer. After the plate has been washed, an adequate amount, say Joz. for 
 a 7^in. by 5in. plate of the albumen and water is poured into a clean 
 measure. To this is added ^oz. of the beer, which should have been 
 previously filtered. The mixture having been stirred, the plate is now 
 taken from the dish in which it has been lying immersed, and flowed 
 over with half the compound of albumen and beer in the measure. The 
 excess having been drained off, the flowing is repeated with the other 
 half of the preservative. The plate is now washed under the tap for two 
 minutes, and finally covered with 
 
 Pvrogallic acid 2gr. 
 
 Beer loz. 
 
 The drying of the plate may proceed spontaneously. 
 
 The exposure of albumen-beer plates admits of great latitude. Under 
 favourable conditions a plate that has been carefully prepared with a 
 special collodion will yield a good negative with as short an exposure as 
 that necessary for an ordinary wet plate. It is advisable, however, for a 
 beginner who is not fully acquainted with the characteristics imparted by 
 albumen and beer to rest content with less rapid results than this. One 
 and a half times or twice the exposure necessary for wet plates under 
 similar circumstances will generally be found to insure a satisfactory 
 result from plates prepared as above. Going into the other extreme, it 
 
ALBUMEN-BEER PROCESS. 
 
 119 
 
 is interesting and indeed useful to note Captain Abney's remark, that a 
 good negative can be obtained from a plate that has received twenty 
 times the minimum exposure necessary ! 
 
 The keeping qualities of albumen-beer plates are excellent. They will 
 remain "good" indefinitely before and at least a month after exposure. 
 
 The operations of edging the plate before applying the collodion and 
 backing it in order to prevent halation must be conducted in accordance 
 with the instructions given in Chap. I., Part II. 
 
 Before development the backing should be removed and the plate 
 slightly washed in water of a temperature not less than 60° Fahrenheit. 
 This done the development is achieved by the help of the following 
 solutions : 
 
 Developer. 
 
 No. 1. Pyrogallic acid 12gr. 
 
 "Water loz. 
 
 No. 2. Liquor ammonia ('830) 1 part. 
 
 Water 4 parts. 
 
 No. 3. Citric acid 60gr, 
 
 Acetic acid 30 minims. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 No. 4. Silver nitrate 20gr. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 The following instructions for development are given in the inventor's 
 own words : — " To each ^oz. of No. 1 are added three drops of No. 2, 
 and after well mixing with a stirring-rod the solution is flowed over the 
 plate. Almost immediately the image begins to appear, and after a few 
 seconds' interval the detail can be seen by reflected light to gradually 
 develop. Another two drops of No. 2 are again added to the solution, 
 which is once more flowed over the plate. Six drops of No. 3 are next 
 dropped into the developing cup, and the solution from the plate poured 
 on to it. Again the plate is rinsed, this time by the acid solution, and 
 intensification is given by the use of it with a few drops of No. 4. It is 
 advisable not to allow too much detail to come out with the alkaline 
 solution, but to allow a portion of it to be brought out by the subsequent 
 treatment with the pyrogallic acid and silver (see Chap. I., Part II). The 
 alkaline developer reduces the bromide salt, and leaves the iodide to be 
 attacked by the silver solution. It will be remarked that no restrainer 
 such as bromide is employed; the albumen dissolved by the ammonia 
 plays the part of a retarder, but not as a destroyer of the latent 
 image." 
 
 The fixation of albumen-beer plates may be accomplished either with 
 hyposulphite of soda or cyanide of potassium. 
 
 The C olio dio- Albumen Process. — This process was originally introduced 
 by Taupenot, and by some is generally connected with his name. 
 
120 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Taupenot's actual formulae, however, have undergone many and im- 
 portant modifications, and may almost be said to be obsolete. Hence the 
 original collodio-albumen process will not have a place in these pages, but 
 will be represented by the modified processes, notably that of Mr. James 
 Mudd, of Manchester, by which it has been superseded. Mr. Mudd 
 has proved the capacities of his process by the production of pictures, 
 the very mention of which is even now a household word amongst photo- 
 graphers. The following account is derived, so far as Mr. Mudd's formulae 
 are concerned, from the " Silver Sunbeam" (eighth edition), which again 
 derives its information, we believe, if not from Mr. Mudd himself, from 
 his ' ' Collodio- Albumen Process and other Papers," originally published 
 so far back as 1866. The operations described are as follow : — After 
 applying the substratum (this may not be alsolutely necessary in every 
 case, but is a wise and by no means troublesome precaution), the plate 
 is coated with a collodion which, by preference, should be thin, and 
 containing little or no bromide. If it give a thick, creamy film, Mr. 
 Mudd recommends dilution with ether, until an adequate degree of 
 thinness is attained. When the film has set, the plate is sensitised as 
 usual in an ordinary thirty-five or forty grain sensitising bath. The 
 sensitising is succeeded by a thorough washing and immersion for two or 
 three minutes in a solution of iodide of potassium, one grain to the ounce 
 of water. The plate should be rocked gently during the immersion, the 
 result of which is the absolute removal of the free nitrate from the film. 
 After rinsing with water and draining for one minute, the plate is flowed 
 over with the following : — 
 
 Iodised Solution of Albumen. 
 
 Albumen lOoz. 
 
 Iodide of potassium 50grs. 
 
 Bromide of potassium lOgrs. 
 
 Ammonia 100 minims. 
 
 Water ... 2ioz. 
 
 To prepare the above solution, the iodide and bromide of potassium 
 are first dissolved in the water, and the ammonia added. This solution 
 is then mixed with the albumen, and the whole is beaten up into a 
 froth, and finally allowed to settle for at least twenty-four hours. 
 Before use an adequate quantity of the clear portion is decanted into a 
 convenient vessel. The plate is taken while still wet from the rinsing 
 water, and flowed over twice on and off with the iodised solution of 
 albumen. After being allowed to drain for a few minutes the film is 
 dried rapidly before a quick fire, until it is quite hot, as hot, say, as the 
 hand can bear when applied to the back of the plate. If it be requisite 
 to keep these plates for any length of time, they can now be stored away 
 
COLLODIO- ALBUMEN PROCESS. 
 
 121 
 
 for future use. In any case, however, the plates must be resensitised, 
 an operation which should be carried out in accordance with following 
 formula : — 
 
 Resensitising Solution. 
 
 Nitrate of silver 40grs. 
 
 Glacial acetic acid idr. 
 
 Distilled water loz. 
 
 The plate while still warm is immersed in this solution, drained and 
 washed in different dishes of distilled water, and finally under the tap. 
 The plates may be dried either by heat or spontaneously. 
 
 The resensitised plates keep before exposure fairly well in winter, 
 but not more than a fortnight or so in summer. Between exposure and 
 development they will keep almost indefinitely. 
 
 The exposure of collodio- albumen plates should be very much protracted 
 indeed. From six to twenty, or even thirty, times that necessary for a wet 
 plate, will be found suitable according to circumstances. About ten 
 times is a safe exposure in most cases. Over exposure is almost im- 
 possible. 
 
 For development will be required a solution made up according to this 
 proportion : — 
 
 Developer. 
 
 Pyrogallic acid 3grs. 
 
 Water ... loz. 
 
 The exposed plate is well moistened, and the pyro solution poured over 
 it. The image will soon appear, and should be allowed to attain detail 
 before the developer is cast aside. It will be found, however, that a great 
 lack of density is apparent, and that subsequent intensification is needful. 
 This is accomplished by the application of an 
 
 Intensifying Solution. 
 
 Pyrogallic acid 2grs. 
 
 Citric acid ^ 2grs. 
 
 Nitrate of silver solution (20grs. to oz.) 2 or 3 drops. 
 
 While this is poured over the plate the latter should be kept in motion. 
 When the intensification is complete, the film should be washed and the 
 image fixed in hypo-sulphite of soda solution. Cyanide of potassium must 
 not be used. Re-washing and varnishing should take place as usual. 
 
 If the plate has been under-exposed, it will sometimes be found that the 
 image may be forced out by using either the pyro-solution or the intensifier, 
 or both, in a warm state. The addition of drops from a 20gr. solution of 
 silver to the intensifier will confer additional intensity. 
 
 If the sky of a collodio-albumen negative be not sufficiently opaque to 
 
122 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 yield a clear print (as is often the case), it may be rendered so by the 
 application of a non-actinic pigment or varnish. Semi- opaque skies in the 
 negatives may, however, frequently be utilised when printing in clouds by 
 double-printing with a cloud-negative, as described in Chapter XV., 
 Part I. 
 
 The Fothergill Process. —This, like Mr. Mudd's process, is a modification 
 of the Taupenot process, but it is a modification with a very important 
 difference. This is that the plate does not require resensitising, the first 
 immersion in the ordinary sensitising bath being sufficient. The plate 
 is flowed over with a ripe collodion and sensitised as usual. After 
 sensitising, the plate is carefully washed to remove all but a trace of 
 the free nitrate in the film. When the greasy appearance has vanished, 
 the water is poured off and the plate allowed to drain for a moment. 
 It is then flowed over with the following preservative solution of albumen : 
 
 Preservative. 
 
 Albumen 2oz. 
 
 Ammonia 20 minims. 
 
 Water 6oz. 
 
 This should be mixed in a large bottle, shaken into a froth, and the clear 
 portion decanted before use. It is poured on the plate while the latter is 
 still moist from the washing, and, as in Mr. Mudd's process, is flowed 
 on and off twice. A final washing succeeds, and the plate is dried either 
 spontaneously or by the application of heat. 
 
 To develop a Fothergill plate, the film should first be moistened with 
 distilled water, and then flowed over with the following 
 
 Developer. 
 
 Pyrogallic acid 8grs. 
 
 Citric acid Igr. 
 
 Water 2oz. 
 
 Alcohol 10 minims. 
 
 In order to secure density, half a drachm of a fifteen grain solution of 
 nitrate of silver should be added to the above solution. The perfect 
 image is washed and fixed in a solution of hypo-sulphite of soda. 
 
 England's C olio olio -Albumen Process. — Mr. England's modification of 
 Mr. Mudd's process is a useful and popular one. Unlike the Fothergill, 
 it necessitates resensitising, but in other respects it is simpler than the 
 method advo ated by Mr. Mudd. After being collodionised, sensitised, 
 and washed, the plate is flowed over with a 
 
 Preservative. 
 
 Albumen ... - ~ White of 1 egg. 
 
 Water (in summer) 2oz « 
 
 „ (in winter) • loz « 
 
 This is prepared as in the Fothergill process, by shaking up in a bottle 
 
COLLODIO-ALBUMEN . 
 
 123 
 
 capable of holding at least twice as much solution as that requiring 
 agitation. Filtration through clean sponge is recommended. "When the 
 plate has been flowed over with the albumen preservative, it should be 
 washed to remove the superfluous albumen, and then treated with the 
 resensitising solution according to the formula given under that head in 
 the account of Mr. Mudd's process. In the present case the resensitising 
 bath may be flowed over the plate without any stoppage (see Chap. I., 
 Part II.), and allowed to remain on the film for one minute. Washing and 
 spontaneous desiccation follow. The exposure extends, as in the case of 
 Mr. Mudd's plates, from six to twenty times that requisite in 
 working under similar circumstances with wet collodion. The mode 
 of development may be identical with that recommended by Mr. 
 Mudd. 
 
 There are other modifications of the Taupenot collodio -albumen process, 
 more or less productive of good results, but little or nothing would be 
 gained by mentioning them here. Indeed, the space already devoted to 
 different methods of working with collodio-albumen is considerable. 
 Mr. Mudd's process, Mr. England's modification, and the Fothergill 
 method are, however, so representative of the operations requisite in and 
 the results procurable from employing an albumen preservative for the 
 sensitive film, that the accounts given of them respectively are expected 
 to induce operators to strike out modifications for themselves. Albumen 
 is a very valuable aid to photography, and is productive of very delicate 
 and exquisite pictures ; and it is to be hoped that readers, whilst recog- 
 nising this fact, will contribute their quota towards increasing the 
 practical value of albumen to the photographer. Albumen has already 
 been introduced into the albumen-beer and collodio-albumen bath 
 processes ; in a very short time I shall come to the emulsion processes, 
 in which it will again take an honourable if not very prominent place. 
 Finally, I shall refer to it in a photo-mechanical process, by which, it 
 is said, most satisfactory results can be obtained. Why should not, then, 
 the use of albumen be extended, at any rate, beyond the somewhat 
 narrow limits of its present employment ? If the stress which I have 
 laid upon the three processes in which albumen plays a principal part 
 be at all conducive to making our readers think for themselves how 
 photography may be benefited by the further use of a substance of well- 
 recognised value in other branches of science, I shall have reproduced to 
 some purpose the labours of Fothergill, England, and Mudd. 
 
 To those desirous of practising the collodio-albumen process without 
 experiencing the trouble incident to preparing the plates, it may be of 
 interest to learn that the latter can be purchased ready prepared of 
 J. Pollitt and Co., Barlow-court, Market-street, Manchester. 
 
124 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The Gum-gallic Process. — This process is the invention of Mr. R. 
 Manners-Gordon, a gentleman well known by the many and beautiful 
 pictures which he has produced, to the admiration and instruction of the 
 photographic community. His name alone would be sufficient recom- 
 mendation of the process, the present account of which follows in detail 
 the inventor's own directions, as collated in Captain Abney's " Treatise 
 on Photography" (London: Longmans and Co.). The collodion to be 
 used may be any ordinary sample of standard quality, with the addition 
 of every ounce of collodion of two grains of bromide of cadmium. 
 A substratum or edging will be found necessary. The plate should 
 remain in the sensitising bath for from seven to ten minutes, according 
 to the heat or coldness of the weather. After very thorough washing 
 (especially if the plates are to be kept for any length of time), the 
 following preservative is flowed over the film : 
 
 Gum-gallic Preservative. 
 
 No. 1.— Gum arabic (picked) 20gr. 
 
 Sugar-candy 5gr. 
 
 Water 6dr. 
 
 No. 2.— Gallic acid 8gr. 
 
 Water ., 2ar. 
 
 No. 1 is mixed with the aid of heat, and when No. 2 has been added to 
 it, the whole must be filtered through thin filter paper of the best and, 
 chemically, purest quality. The presence of iron turns the filtered 
 solution to an inky colour. The preservative should remain on the film 
 for a minute, after which the plate may be drained and allowed to dry. 
 The exposure of gum.gallic plates is extremely variable. With the strong 
 alkaline developer, when the plate is developed almost immediately after 
 exposure, the same exposure as that necessary for a wet plate will, under 
 favourable circumstances, be found sufficient. Under other circum- 
 stances, an exposure varying from four to twenty times that which wet 
 collodion would require, should be given. Development can be carried 
 out either by the alkaline method or by some such modification of the 
 acid iron as the following, the use of which will be found attended 
 by the best possible results : 
 
 Gum-gallic Developer. 
 
 No. 1.— Gelatine 64gr. 
 
 Glacial acetic acid oz. 
 
 Water 14oz. 
 
 No. 2 — Proto-sulphafce of iron _ 30gr. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 The gelatine should first be swelled in half the quantity of water given ; 
 the remainder of the water should then be added, boiling. When 
 solution has taken place and the requisite amount of acetic acid 
 
THE TANNIN PROCESS. 
 
 125 
 
 poured in, the whole is ready for decantation into a stock bottle for 
 future use. A short time before use (say> a day or two, but not more) 
 one part of No. 1 should be added to three parts of No. 2. Immediately 
 before application, with every drachm of this developer should be mixed 
 one minim of a 30 grain solution of nitrate of silver. To develop, the 
 plate is plunged into water of about 70deg. Fahrenheit for two or three 
 minutes, and afterwards rinsed with cold water from the tap or jug. The 
 developer is now flowed over the film, and additional detail is gained by 
 the further admixture of the nitrate of silver solution. Density may be 
 obtained by washing off the developer and applying the ordinary 
 intensifier of acid pyro. If the plate be over-exposed, the addition of 
 No, 1 solution will be found to act as a restrainer. Gum-gallic plates 
 are capable of producing very beautiful results, but are unsatisfactory in 
 moist temperatures, the damp producing a fungoid growth on the film, 
 which renders the negative unfit for printing purposes. 
 
 The Tannin Process. — The following process was popularly introduced 
 by Major Russell, with whose name is also associated the application to 
 dry plates of the alkaline method of development. The tannin process 
 has in its time enjoyed a wide popularity, and even now there are 
 many so wedded to its practice as to prefer it to more modern develop- 
 ments of dry -plate photography. "Russell" dry plates are still 
 produced commercially by Mr. W. W. Rouch, of 180, Strand, but 
 though the tannin preservative is presumably a prominent feature in 
 their preparation, the plates, I am informed, are coated with an 
 emulsion, and the sensitising bath is no longer employed in connection 
 with their manufacture. The following is an account of the method of 
 making bath plates by the tannin process. The plate, after being treated 
 with a substratum or an edging, is coated with any good sample of 
 ordinary bromo-iodized collodion. If a special collodion be desired, the 
 operator will do well to follow Major Russell' s own formula, which runs 
 thus : 
 
 Bromized Collodion. 
 
 Alcohol 5oz. 
 
 Ether 5oz. 
 
 Pyroxyline 50gr. 
 
 Bromide of cadmium 150gr. 
 
 This collodion, it will be remarked, contains only bromide. After 
 thoroughly sensitising until the film attains an uniformly creamy 
 appearance, the plate is well washed in two changes of water. It may 
 then be transferred to the following solution of tannin and sugar : 
 
 Tannin 
 Loaf sugar 
 Water 
 
 Tannin Preservative. 
 
 300gr. 
 300gr. 
 20oz. 
 
126 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 This is placed in a large bottle and shaken nntil complete solution 
 
 takes place. After filtration an ounce of alcohol is added. The 
 
 bottle should be kept carefully stoppered when the solution is not in 
 
 use, and the latter may be used, with occasional filtration, over and over 
 
 again. The plates may remain in the tannin preservative solution for 
 
 two or three minutes. Major Russell suggests, as an improvement on 
 
 the original tannin process, that, previous to the immersion in the tannin 
 
 preservative solution, the plates should be immersed in — 
 
 Albumen 24min. 
 
 Distilled water , 12oz. 
 
 Iodide of cadmium 8gr. 
 
 Bromide of cadmium ldr. 
 
 Camphor ldr. 
 
 The plate may remain in this bath for one or two minutes. Its object 
 is said to be twofold : " Firstly, the albumen acts like sizing to paper, 
 by rendering: the collodion film less porous or permeable to fluids than 
 it was before ; secondly, the cadmium salts remove every trace of 
 unaltered iodide of silver. The iodide of cadmium, too, is intended to 
 introduce a trace of iodide of silver into the film," which is in some 
 way regarded by Major Russell as beneficial. In spite, however, of these 
 advantages, there are many operators who do not use this preliminary 
 bath, but prefer the simpler method of transferring the plate at once 
 from the washing to the tannin preservative solution. Those who employ 
 Major Russell's preliminary bath, wash the plate a second time before 
 immersion in the tannin preservative. After the latter has taken place 
 the plate is washed a third time and allowed to dry. The exposure of 
 tannin plates may be roughly stated to be about equal to that of gum- 
 gallic plates, but everything depends upon the mode of development 
 employed. The developer may be an alkaline one. The following is the 
 formula sent out by Mr. Rouch with the " Russell " plates, and may 
 be recommended as lessening the exposure to a considerable extent : 
 
 Alkaline Developer. 
 
 No. 1.— Bromide of potassium ... 15gr. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 No. 2.— Liquor ammonia fortis loz. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 No. 3.— Pyrogallic acid 3gr. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 No. 3 should be made up freshly as required. To develop a half-plate, 
 flow over the film and return to the bottle a mixture in equal parts of 
 methylated spirit and water. Now take loz. of No. 3 and add to it five 
 or six drops of No. 1. Pour over the plate and return to the developing 
 cup. Add a drop or two of No. 2, and again flow over the film. If 
 the exposure has been correct, the image will now speedily appear. In 
 
BATH-PLATES CONCLUDED. 
 
 127 
 
 cases of under-exposure, and to secure density, add further drops of the 
 ammonia solution. If the plate has been over-exposed, the addition of 
 the bromide solution will have a restraining influence. If desired, 
 intensification can be accomplished with acid pyro and silver. 
 
 With the tannin I conclude my account of the bath-plate dry 
 processes in vogue. There are others, it is true — indeed, there are many 
 others — but all of these are either obsolete, or unimportant modifications 
 which have failed to supersede the original processes upon which they 
 were founded. I might have mentioned a tea process, where the 
 preservative is constituted by a strong infusion of black tea, a process 
 which rejoices in a preservative decoction of poppy seeds, a tannin and 
 honey process, a resin process, a gelatine process, a raisin process, and a 
 host of others. But I have given a full account of all the most 
 important bath-plate processes, and if the intelligent operator wishes for 
 any more, he has but to create modifications for himself. I will now 
 bid a last farewell to the sensitising bath, with all the ills, annoyances, 
 impurities, provocations to anger, and other unseemly attributes apper- 
 taining thereunto, and turn to the processes grouped under the common 
 heading of Emulsions. 
 
CHAPTEE III. 
 
 Emulsions. 
 
 The word emulsion is a derivative of the Latin emulsus, the participle 
 past of emulgere, to milk out. It signifies a milk -like mixture, and the 
 first sight of such emulsions as those we are shortly about to describe 
 will convince our readers that, at any rate so far as appearance goes, 
 the name is a very appropriate one. In photography the term emulsion 
 is applied to a mixture compounded of sensitive salts, such as bromide of 
 silver, held in suspension in some such substance as collodion, or, as 
 will be shown in a future chapter, gelatine. It is proposed to discuss 
 first the different forms of emulsion which are based upon the employment 
 of collodion, and are hence known as collodion emulsions. 
 
 The learner must commence by distinguishing between the two primary 
 kinds of collodion emulsion. In order to make this distinction thoroughly 
 and unmistakably clear, it will be necessary to give a slight outline of 
 the methods by which they are variously manufactured. Roughly 
 speaking, a collodion emulsion is a compound of pyroxyline (gun cotton), 
 alcohol, ether, nitrate of silver, and a bromide, such as that of cadmium 
 or zinc. The pyroxyline, alcohol, and ether form a plain collodion ; the 
 fusion of the bromide with the nitrate of silver produces a bromide of 
 silver. Thus we have exactly what we require — a sensitive salt held in 
 suspension in a collodion. But the crux is that there is something else 
 besides this, which we do not require. The mixture of the bromide 
 with the nitrate of silver produces not only a bromide of silver, but also 
 a superfluous nitrate of zinc or cadmium, as the case may be. The 
 point, then, is to get rid of this unnecessary and, indeed, injurious 
 nitrate, and upon the different methods of accomplishing this end are 
 based the two names by which collodion emulsion is generally known. 
 For example, by one method the sensitive collodion when prepared is 
 merely allowed to ripen, and then, after filtration, is poured direct upon 
 the plate. The free nitrate in this case is got rid of by washing the 
 plate. This process, inasmuch as the collodion itself previous to coating 
 
EMULSIONS. 
 
 129 
 
 undergoes no washing whatever, is called an unwashed emulsion pro- 
 cess. In a washed emulsion process, on the other hand, the sensitive 
 collodion after ripening is poured out to set. Evaporation of the ether 
 and alcohol shortly takes place, and a mass of pellicle remains. This 
 pellicle is now rid of the free nitrate by simply soaking it in several 
 changes of water. After this the pellicle is dried and then redissolved in 
 the proper proportions of ether and alcohol. As the free nitrate has 
 already been disposed of, it is obviously unnecessary, when using a 
 washed emulsion, to wash the plates subsequently coated by it. 
 
 A third method of removing the fre3 nitrate is by precipitation, and 
 is based upon the experiments of M. Chardon. The process consists 
 in pouring the collodion from a height in a thin stream into a basin of 
 water. This method, however, is not in very general use, and as the 
 results accruing to it may hardly be said to surpass those obtained by 
 the ordinary modes of washing, we shall not enter into any details of 
 the process. 
 
 I should hardly care to embark fairly upon the subject of emulsion 
 without making some allusion to Captain Abney's lately published little 
 work on "The Emulsion Processes in Photography," which forms No. 2 
 of Messrs. Piper and Carter's series of Photographic Handy Books. This 
 is a comprehensive manual of everything relating to emulsion work, for 
 Captain Abney goes fully into scientific principles as well as practical 
 details. In a word, the book is one which ought to be on the shelves of 
 every worker in dry-plate photography. 
 
 And now let me turn the attention of my readers to the actual 
 working of the emulsion processes. As usual, it will be necessary to 
 introductorily enumerate and discuss the various preparations and appli- 
 ances incident to their practice. To this end, although I shall com- 
 mence with unwashed emulsion, and shall relegate the washed emulsions 
 to a separate chapter, I will for the present consider collodion emulsion 
 as a general subject, and, to save repetition, will at once proceed to give 
 all, or nearly all, the necessaries required in its more usual forms of 
 practice. 
 
 To begin with, of course the basis of an emulsion process is the 
 emulsion itself. This can be made at home, or can be purchased ready- 
 made and washed from various photographic establishments. Informa- 
 tion as to the commercial emulsions in vogue will be given in the course 
 of the present series. For those who desire to make their own emulsion 
 an undertaking by no means formidable, and very strongly to be 
 recommended), a first care will be to prepare a plain collodion. The 
 ingredients of this are pyroxyline, ether, and alcohol ; the proportions 
 will be given hereafter, as they vary according to the process followed. 
 
130 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Taking the ingredients themselves, we have first to consider the pyroxy- 
 line, where it is to be obtained, and what quality is suitable to an 
 individual process. In reply to the first question, it may be said that 
 pyroxyline can be procured with ease through any local chemist. At 
 the same time it should be added that, as a rule, it is the wiser and 
 better plan to procure it from a photographic dealer, whose pyroxyline 
 is sure to have been prepared at a known temperature, with a known 
 strength of acids, and with a special view to photographic requirements. 
 Of course it is possible for the operator to manufacture his own 
 pyroxyline, but photographers are almost unanimous in looking upon 
 this as a procedure ninety-nine times out of a hundred unsatisfactory 
 and even dangerous. The quality of the pyroxyline requires special 
 consideration. As a general, perhaps indeed, infallible rule, it may be 
 said that for an unwashed emulsion the pyroxyline prepared at high 
 temperature is best suitable, while the ordinary quality, as recommended 
 by the dealers themselves, will be found in washed emulsion to yield 
 the best possible results. Mr. W. W. Rouch, of 180, Strand (at the 
 corner of Norfolk- street), sells pyroxyline, both ordinary and high tem- 
 perature, of standard quality, at 2s. 6d. an oz. The beginner will find 
 it useful to keep both qualities in stock for experimentation and 
 emergencies. A good plan is to use up nearly all the pyroxyline 
 purchased in making stock plain collodion according to any adopted 
 formula. With regard to the alcohol and ether, it will be found neces- 
 sary to keep in stock at least a pound of absolute alcohol, the same 
 quantity of rectified spirit (*830 sp. gr.), and perhaps half a gallon of 
 methylated spirit. A pound of absolute ether (sp. gr. *725) and a pound 
 of methylated ("720 sp. gr.) will also be required. Absolute alcohol 
 costs about 5s. 6d. a pound, methylated 5s. a gallon ; absolute ether is 
 sold at about 6s. a pound, the methylated at about half-a-crown. 
 
 The collodion having been disposed of, it remains to discuss the 
 additions to it which form the emulsion. The nitrate of silver, of course, 
 is the principal of these, and can be procured in accordance with sugges- 
 tions offered in a former part of this work. For a bromide, Canon 
 Beechey uses that of cadmium in his unwashed process, whilst in making 
 washed emulsion it is usual to employ bromide of zinc. The cadmium 
 bromide should be anhydrous (that is, free from water) , and should cost 
 about half-a-crown an ounce. Bromide of zinc is about sixpence less. 
 
 The dry-plate worker's laboratory should contain lib. of hydrochloric, 
 and the same quantity of nitric acid. These will cost about 6d. and 
 Is. a pound respectively. 
 
 Before coating the plates, a substratum will be found necessary in 
 every case where collodion emulsion is employed. This substratum may 
 
EMULSION REQUISITES. 131 
 
 be applied by any of the methods recommended for bath-plates. In 
 using washed emulsion, a preliminary rubbing with French chalk will 
 often be found sufficient, but with unwashed emulsion, or in other cases, 
 where the plates themselves will be subjected to much immersion, it will 
 be needful to employ a substratum of albumen, or, in our opinion, pre- 
 ferably, an edging of indiarubber. Mr. Cooper's new gelatine substratum 
 will be given under the heading of that gentleman's excellent new process 
 of washed emulsion. 
 
 The chemicals required in the development of emulsion plates by the 
 alkaline method are, in addition to the methylated alcohol already 
 mentioned, pyrogallic acid, of which an ounce or two should always be 
 kept in stock, if only for the reason that in conjunction with beer it 
 forms an excellent preservative ; liquor ammonia fortis, which should be 
 bought by the pound of the strength known as *880 ; carbonate of 
 ammonia, which is often used in preference to the liquid, as giving less 
 inky pictures ; bromide of potassium, to act as a restrainer ; citric acid, 
 to be used in conjunction with pyro and silver for intensification ; and, 
 lastly, hyposulphite of soda or cyanide of potassium for fixing. The 
 beginner is strongly recommended to have a case specially made to hold 
 bottles, &c, containing small quantities of these chemicals. This will 
 allow him to carry on operations with ease at any distance from home, 
 and, if the plates are prepared and developed at night, will practically 
 obviate the necessity of a dark room. 
 
 The above is a complete list of the principal preparations connected 
 with the washed and unwashed emulsion processes. Any further ones 
 that may be requisite are only so under exceptional circumstances, or are 
 employed in processes considered either wholly obsolete or superseded. 
 
 In the way of apparatus little will be needful beyond the few appli- 
 ances already mentioned in Chap. I., Part II. In making the emulsion a 
 few Florence flasks and test tubes will be found convenient, while the same 
 may be said of an ebonite dish for development, and a porcelain or glass 
 one for intensification. The size of these dishes may be 5in. by 4in. for 
 quarter-plates, 8in. by 6in. for half-plates, and so on in proportion. 
 
 If it be wished to dry the coated plates rapidly, a useful course to adopt 
 is that recommended by Mr. Woodbury. That gentleman, who is a 
 clever practical operator, as well as a skilled scientist, uses a simple 
 apparatus compounded of a little iron tripod and a small piece of sheet 
 iron. The latter is levelled upon the former, a spirit lamp is introduced 
 beneath, and the plate is desiccated by the heat equably radiated from 
 the iron. If a doubled piece of blotting paper be laid upon the iron the 
 plate may rest upon that with impunity. 
 
 Some emulsion plates being extremely sensitive, and moreover requiring 
 
 K 
 
PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 development with a very powerful developer, necessitate the employment 
 of a highly non-actinic light. A paraffin lamp with a ruby chimney, or 
 an ordinary candle with a ruby or even yellow shade, may be used with 
 safety and comfort. 
 
 I will now bring before my readers a type of unwashed emulsion 
 processes in the shape of that which is familiarly known by the name of 
 Canon Beechey, by whom it was introduced to the notice of the photo- 
 graphic world at large. 
 
 Qanon Beechey' s Unwashed Emulsion Process, — This simple and most 
 admirable process was published by the inventor in the British Journal 
 of Photography of 1st October, 1875. It has had many followers, 
 especially among amateurs, and deserves particular recommendation, 
 not only for its general simplicity and freedom from perplexing eccen- 
 tricities, but also for the really beautiful results which are obtainable 
 by its aid. In a word, the "Beechey" process, as it is familiarly 
 called, is easy, fairly rapid, and gives in good hands pictures which 
 the most skilful artist in wet collodion would be proud to have pro- 
 duced. Technically speaking, the process consists, firstly, of a bromised 
 collodion emulsified with nitrate of silver ; secondly, of plates coated 
 with this emulsion ; thirdly, of films out of which the superfluous nitrate 
 has been washed by immersion ; fourthly, of washed films treated with 
 a preservative, endowing them with the quality of remaining uninjured 
 by time for an indefinite period between preparation and exposure, and 
 for some few days at least between exposure and development. The 
 directions laid down by Canon Beechey are substantially as follow. 
 The requisite number of glass plates are carefully cleaned and treated 
 with a substratum by any of the methods in vogue. Canon Beechey 
 originally recommended albumenising ; others prefer the edging of india- 
 rubber immediately previous to coating. A writer in the "Year Book 
 of Photography " for 1877 makes a solution of gelatine, one grain to 
 the ounce of water, and having dipped the clean plates bodily in, takes 
 them out immediately and sets them to drain. The advantage of this 
 plan is that the plate can subsequently be coated on the side freest 
 from imperfections. The next step is to prepare a stock solution as 
 below : 
 
 Bromised Solution. 
 
 Bromide of cadmium drs. 
 
 Absolute alcohol oz. 
 
 Hydrochloric acid ldr. 
 
 The bromide is first dissolved in the alcohol and allowed to settle for 
 at least twenty-four hours. It will deposit a white powder. After 
 standing, the clear part is carefully decanted into a fresh bottle and the 
 
CANON BEECHEY'S PROCESS. 
 
 133 
 
 hydrochloric acid added. The quantity of bromised solution prescribed 
 will, as Canon Beechey says, last the beginner two or three years, it 
 being sufficient for nearly 40oz. of emulsion, or, in other words, for 
 about thirty dozen half plates. When it is desired to prepare a batch 
 of plates, say a couple of dozen of 6|in. by 4fin., the following operations 
 will be all that are necessary. Having entered the dark room, an 
 ounce of the rectified spirit ('820 sp. gr.) is poured into a test-tube or 
 small Florence flask, and 40grs. of nitrate of silver dropped into it. The 
 silver is now dissolved by the aid of heat, the flask being rested on a 
 retort stand over a spirit lamp or placed in a saucepan of hot water. 
 It should be remembered by the beginner that alcohol has the property 
 of boiling at a much lower temperature than water. Whilst the alcoholic 
 solution of silver is being heated, the operator may prepare as follows a 
 
 Bromised Collodion. 
 
 Bromised solution (as above) £oz. 
 
 Absolute ether loz. 
 
 Pyroxyline 12grs. 
 
 The pyroxyline should be that prepared at high temperature, and 
 should dissolve at once in the bromised alcohol and ether on a shake 
 being given to the bottle. And now comes an important part in the 
 carrying out of the Beechey process, namely, the emulsification. The 
 bromised collodion is poured out into a clean four ounce measure, and 
 a clean strip or rod of glass held ready for stirring in the right hand. 
 With the left hand is grasped the test tube, or flask, containing the hot 
 solution of silver, and the latter is poured in a continuous stream into 
 the measure containing the collodion. During the pouring the emulsion 
 is briskly stirred in order to obviate all lumps or deposit. The emulsi- 
 fication having so far been accomplished, the emulsion is poured into a 
 small bottle of four or five ounce capacity, and allowed to ripen in a 
 dark place with an occasional shaking for twenty-four hours. At the 
 expiration of this time the emulsion will no longer be milky as it was 
 when in the measure, but creamy and opaque to transmitted light. 
 
 It may be remarked, for the benefit of beginners, that in making 
 the bromised collodion it is by no means necessary to add the bromised 
 solution immediately before emulsification. Indeed, it is a good plan 
 to make a stock, say lOoz. or 20oz. of the bromised collodion, and decant 
 off any given quantity as required. It may well be added here that the 
 bromised collodion, according to Canon Beechey' s formula, is obtainable 
 in commerce. Mr. W. W. B»ouch, who makes a speciality of the Beechey 
 process, sells bromised collodion prepared according to this or any other 
 formula at 3s. 9d. for lOoz. There are many, perhaps, to whom this 
 information will be new, and at the same time welcome, as affording 
 
 k 2 
 
134 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 almost without increase of expense a means of saving trouble, space, 
 and time. 
 
 A most convenient plan of practising the Beechey process, especially 
 for those whose dark-room accommodation is limited, is to emulsify a 
 given quantity of collodion one evening, allow it to ripen through the 
 night and the following day, and on the next evening coat the plates. 
 If the bottle containing the emulsion to ripen be placed in a box, or in a 
 turned light-tight bottle case, the emulsion may of course be agitated by 
 merely shaking the box or the case, and there will practically be no need 
 for the dark room at all. 
 
 After the emulsion has ripened, the actual coating of the plates can 
 thus be proceeded with. The allotted number of plates is prepared, and 
 laid ready to hand side by side with a pneumatic plate-holder, preferably 
 of the lever form, or, if of the " globe" kind, constructed so as to stand 
 without rolling over. If the plates have not already been gelatinised or 
 albumenised, the bottle of indiarubber dissolved in chloroform must 
 also be on the spot with its attendant brush. The emulsion is now 
 thoroughly well shaken, and filtered through cotton -wool into a perfectly 
 clean pouring bottle. Care should be taken to avoid all air bubbles, 
 and those formed by the shaking previous to filtration should be 
 allowed to subside before the filtration takes place. 
 
 At this point it will be well to allude to a slight t( trick " of practice 
 which the emulsion worker will always find of the highest convenience 
 and even value. This refers to the funnel employed for filtering the 
 emulsion. Beginners especially will find that filtering emulsion through 
 the ordinary glass funnels is productive of much difficulty in cleaning, 
 and is attended, moreover, by a constant liability to breakage and other 
 unpleasant contingencies. The practised emulsion worker generally 
 eschews glass funnels and substitutes for them a contrivance quite as 
 effectual and very much more convenient. He takes a small piece of note 
 paper, say about 2in. square, and twists it up with his fingers into a 
 shape identical with that in which silkworms are so often set to spin 
 their cocoons. This is the emulsion worker's funnel, and a very useful 
 little piece of apparatus it is. If required the twist may be secured with 
 a black enamelled pin, but not with a white one, as that would cause 
 black streaks of reduced silver on the plates. The cotton wool should 
 not be stuffed too heavily into the funnel, and the latter, if of paper, 
 should be cut level at the top, and a piece of thin cork lightly super- 
 posed, to prevent evaporation of the ether. When the coating of the 
 plates is completed the funnel may be thrown behind the fire. 
 
 And now for the actual coating of the plates. One of the latter is 
 attached to the plate-holder and held by it in the left hand. If not 
 
PREPARING BEECHEY PLATES. 
 
 135 
 
 already treated with a substratum, a brush charged with the india- 
 rubber solution is run lightly round the edges of the plate to the depth 
 of about lin. The chloroform evaporates almost instantaneously, and 
 leaves a viscous edge of indiarubber, which will cause the collodion film to 
 adhere to the plate with extraordinary tenacity. The pouring bottle is 
 now taken in the right hand, and the lip held so low as almost to touch 
 the plate. This will allow the emulsion to flow smoothly over the plate 
 without air bubbles. The plate having been coated, the excess is poured 
 off, not into the pouring bottle, but into the stock bottle, in which the 
 emulsion has been ripening. This is a most important point, which, if 
 neglected, will be attended by most unpleasant consequences in the way 
 of spots, the emulsion worker's most terrible bugbear. 
 
 It now remains, the emulsion having set, to wash the films thoroughly 
 until all trace of greasiness disappears, and then to apply the pre- 
 servative. The latter is prepared as follows : — A pint and a half of table 
 beer is procured, and with it is mixed thirty grains of pyrogallic acid. 
 The beer should not be quite flat, and not acid. Canon Beechey uses 
 ordinary bitter beer, but Captain Abney, commenting upon the process, 
 recommends sweet beer in preference, the saccharine matter possessing 
 superior preservative qualities. The preservative should be filtered before 
 use, and care should be taken, as with the emulsion, to avoid all bubbles. 
 
 Canon Beechey adopts a very simple and excellent plan for washing 
 and applying the preservative. He has two porcelain dishes, each large 
 enough to hold six, or four, at least, of the plates about to be coated. 
 One of these is nearly filled with clean filtered rain or distilled water, the 
 other with the preservative. Operations now go on as follow : The 
 first six plates (if the dishes will each hold six) are coated in succession, 
 and, as coated, laid in the dish containing the washing water. By the 
 time the sixth is in the first will be ready to be taken out. Having 
 taken it out, a look must be given to see if the greasiness has quite 
 disappeared. If so, the plate is dropped into the second dish containing 
 the preservative. Canon Beechey continues: " Coat another plate and 
 put it in the water where the first came out. Remove your second plate 
 from the water into the preservative, and in its place lay another 
 freshly-coated plate, and so on, until the first six are all in the 
 preservative, and six more in the water. You now take the first plate 
 out of the preservative into your drying box, and again remove the 
 first out of the water into the vacant place in the preservative. Coat 
 another and put it into the vacant place in the water. Take your 
 second plate out of the preservative into the drying box, and the second 
 out of the water into the preservative, and so on till all your plates 
 are through the process and locked up safely in the drying box. By 
 
136 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 proceeding as above not a moment of time is lost, and yet each plate 
 soaks sufficiently in the water and in the preservative. You will find 
 an hour, if you are dexterous, sufficient time for two dozen plates." 
 
 Those who do not possess a drying box will find it convenient, after 
 taking the plates out of the preservative, to range them one by one 
 against a wall or the side of a box. When the batch of plates is com- 
 pleted a spirit lamp may be lit, and each plate dried separately by Mr. 
 Woodbury's plan, mentioned in the earlier part of this chapter. When 
 dried the plates may, of course, be stored away in dark slides, plate 
 boxes, or in a changing box, or all three, as may suit the operator's con- 
 venience, and the means at his disposal. 
 
 The exposure required by Beechey plates is fairly rapid. In a good 
 light thirty seconds will be found sufficient when using the ordinary 
 developer ; from forty to sixty seconds will be necessary when the light 
 is wanting in strong actinic quality. Canon Beechey mentions that he 
 does not " back " his plates, as he finds they will not blur with any 
 light that will not also blur backed plates. This is doubtless owing to 
 the great opacity of the film. 
 
 The formula for developing Beechey plates is that originally introduced 
 by Colonel Stuart Wortley, and known as the 
 
 Strong Alkaline Developer. 
 
 A. Pyrogallic acid 96grs. 
 
 Alcohol ~ loz. 
 
 B. Bromide of potash 12grs. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 C. Carbonate of ammonia 4grs. 
 
 Hot water loz. 
 
 It is recommended not to use liquid ammonia in preference to the 
 carbonate unless the picture be fully exposed. Canon Beechey' s own 
 directions for development are as follow: "For a half- plate, take of 
 A thirty drops, of B sixty drops, of C two drachms, or even three if 
 the exposure be short. I never use any alcohol, but simply wet the 
 plates well under the tap, thereby washing off the beer, and pour on the 
 developer. The picture will come out in a few seconds. On its first 
 appearance, pour back the developer into the measure, and let the 
 picture come out of itself. You will be surprised to see how it will 
 come out. You can then judge as to exposure and proceed accordingly, 
 adding bromide if too rapid, or pouring on the developer as it was if 
 all right, or with an extra thirty drops of C if under exposed. These 
 plates seldom require to be intensified. If they do, the ordinary acid 
 silver and pyro-redeveloper will bring them up easily and at once. 
 Clear with either hypo or cyanide as you please, and, if you intensify, 
 do it after clearing; but the beer gives these plates a bottle-green tint, 
 
BEECHEY PROCESS CONTINUED. 
 
 137 
 
 which is more impervious to actinic light than from its transparency 
 you would suppose. These plates are more rapid if placed at once in 
 the preservative without washing ; but they require to stay till all 
 greasiness has disappeared, and I doubt if they keep so well or are so 
 certain. To wash first is safest for amateurs." 
 
 "Beechey" plates will keep almost indefinitely between preparation 
 and exposure, but, once exposed, the sooner they are developed the 
 better. If left undeveloped for more than three or four weeks the latent 
 image seems to lose its proper vigour. 
 
 Both plates and emulsion (washed), prepared according to Canon 
 Beechey' s formulae, are obtainable of Mr. W. W. Eouch. We are indebted 
 to Mr. Eouch for the suggestion that when working with Beechey plates 
 the exposure may be greatly curtailed by using no bromide at all in the 
 developer. Beechey plates may also be developed by the aid of ferrous 
 oxalate, for which a formula has already been given. 
 
OHAPTEE IV. 
 
 Washed Collodion Emulsions — A Standard Process — Prepara- 
 tion of the Plate — Coating — Drying, &c. 
 
 The system of "washing" emulsions was first published in the 
 British Journal of Photography, for 16th Jan., 1864, by its present 
 editor-in-chief, Mr. W. B. Bolton. Since that time, by the strenuous 
 exertions not only of Mr. Bolton, but also of many another ardent yet 
 careful experimentalist, the process has reached a pitch of perfection 
 which literally seems incapable of advancement. Upon the various steps 
 which have led to this happy result neither space nor the scheme of the 
 present work permit us to expatiate. I can, however, refer my readers 
 to the British Journal of Photography Almanac for 1879, which contains 
 an article by its then editor, Mr. J. Traill Taylor, on " The B-ise and 
 Progress of Collodion Emulsion," combining lucidity of expression and 
 grasp of the subject in a manner beyond my ability to improve upon. It 
 only remains for me to lay down a clear, concise, and definite course 
 of instruction as to the manufacture and employment of washed emulsion 
 by methods which are results rather than examples of varied experi- 
 mentation. The numberless formulae which have already been published 
 with a view to the furtherance of this branch of photography are of much 
 historical interest as showing the gradual stages of development, and 
 as affording reliable data for further successful research ; but with some 
 few exceptions their merit, from a practical point of view, is of a purely 
 individual nature. For any peculiar process to become really popular it 
 must not only be capable of producing standard, and even excellent, 
 results, but, above all else, it must be simple. A formula swelled out by 
 never so few unfamiliar components — a system of work necessitating but 
 one additional and difficult manipulation — may be patronised by ten, but 
 not by a thousand. In introducing the subject of washed emulsion to 
 the readers of his excellent "Treatise on Photography," Capt. Abney 
 strikes the keynote of success, when he remarks, " There are almost 
 endless varieties of preparation, but experience seems to show that the 
 simpler the formulae are kept, the more certain are the results." As an 
 
WASHED COLLODION EMULSION. 
 
 139 
 
 acknowledgment of our practical appreciation of this remark, we should 
 add that the first of the following processes may almost be assigned to 
 Captain Abney himself, so far as the simplicity and efficacy of most of the 
 actual formulae are concerned. The details of the intervening operations 
 in all the various processes are nearly identical, and are the common pro- 
 perty by right of usage of all who, in the capacity of either tutor or 
 disciple, may have need to refer to them. 
 
 Before plunging at once into the practical details of the subject, it will 
 be necessary to understand clearly the ends at which we are aiming. In 
 the first place, it has already been hinted at that the general object 
 in preparing a washed emulsion is to provide a sensitive collodion, 
 which, when poured upon a glass plate or other convenient medium, will, 
 without further washing, produce a sensitive film equivalent to that 
 obtained by the use of ordinary collodion in combination with a 
 sensitising bath. In the second place, the process by which this sensitive 
 collodion is to be prepared, must be simple. In reference to this require- 
 ment, we can only remark that there is nothing in any of the processes 
 about to be detailed that ought to puzzle even the humblest of amateur 
 photographers. So far as is possible, the operations have been reduced 
 to mere mechanical efforts ; all else that is wanting is, firstly, good 
 chemicals, which are easily and cheaply to be procured ; secondly a 
 trifling amount of care, neatness, and, above all, strict undeviating 
 attention to the rules laid down in every case, however insignificant. The 
 third qualification of a good washed emulsion is that it should present 
 every facility in its after- working. It should be fairly rapid, as rapid, 
 say, as wet collodion under favourable circumstances. For all ordinary 
 cases this will be found amply sufficient. Personally I use washed 
 collodion emulsion for every class of work where a moderate degree of 
 rapidity is required. In cases where extreme rapidity is necessary, it is 
 found convenient to employ plates prepared with an emulsion of gelatine, 
 which will be fully described hereafter. The following collodion emulsions 
 will all give results nearly, if not quite, as rapid as wet plates. A great 
 advantage to be derived in working with dry collodion is ease and latitude 
 of development. This point will be more fully apparent later on. With 
 regard to the excellence of results obtainable in the following processes, 
 I must leave my readers to judge for themselves. If they fail to meet 
 with success, they may rest assured that it is solely their own fault, and 
 not that of the process. This is a fact which the mere mention of the 
 names of Captain Abney, Mr. Henry Cooper, and Mr. William Bedford? 
 as the actual foster-fathers of the respective processes themselves, places 
 beyond all manner of dispute or doubt. After these few introductory 
 remarks, the gist and purpose of which have, I trust, been fully com- 
 
140 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 prehended and laid to heart by my readers, I will proceed to the details 
 of preparation of a washed emulsion by three different processes which 
 are eminently representative, and from which can doubtless be evolved a 
 sufficient number of modifications and ramifications to amuse or distract 
 any number of experimentalists to the end of time. I shall call the 
 first of these a "standard process," partly because it is so, and partly 
 from the fact that from the number of fingers which from time to time 
 have contributed to the manufacture of this particular "pie," it 
 cannot, without committing injustice, be assigned as the entire production 
 of any one mind or any separate course of experimental research. 
 
 Bromised Collodion. — The first step is to prepare a stock of bromised 
 collodion which may be made up in any quantity according to the follow- 
 ing formula : 
 
 Bromised Collodion. 
 
 Pyroxyline 24grs. 
 
 Bromide of zinc 40grs. 
 
 Alcohol *820 „ loz. 
 
 Ether, methylated loz. 
 
 For the rectified spirit a good sample of methylated may be used if 
 desired. The collodion may advantageously be made up in quantity and 
 kept in tall graduated bottles, in order to allow any given number of 
 ounces to be measured off at any time with ease and exactitude. The 
 pyroxyline, it may be repeated (see preceding chapter), should be of the 
 kind known as ordinary by photographic dealers. 
 
 Emulsification. — To make 5oz. of emulsion, proceed as follows : Take 
 2|oz. of the above bromised collodion and set it aside in a good-sized 
 glass measure, or other similar vessel. A glass stirring rod, such as can 
 be procured of any chemist at about 2d. per foot length, is also placed 
 ready for use ; 83grs. of silver nitrate are now to be weighed out and 
 powdered. It will be found that this quantity will be sufficient to com- 
 bine with the zinc bromide so as to form silver bromide, and at the same 
 time to allow an excess of 3grs. of silver nitrate to each ounce of the 
 collodion. The powdered nitrate of silver is transferred to a Florence 
 flask, a test tube, or to one of the little decanter-shaped bottles, made of 
 test-tube glass, which should be procurable of any dealer, and which are 
 of constant use in the laboratory or dark room. To the silver is added 
 l^dr. of water ; the vessel is placed on one of the rings of a retort 
 stand, and a lighted spirit lamp introduced at some distance beneath it. 
 When perfect solution has taken place, seventeen drops of nitric acid 
 should be added. In a second test tube or bottle loz. of alcohol ("820) is 
 heated over the lamp or by merely dipping the vessel into warm water. 
 The alcohol is now poured upon the nitrate of silver solution and the 
 mixture slightly agitated in order to facilitate combination. While still 
 
A STANDARD PROCESS. 
 
 141 
 
 hot, and before the silver has had time to recrystallise, the solution is 
 poured in a thin continuous stream into the vessel containing the collo- 
 dion. The collodion should be stirred vigorously during the emulsifica- 
 tion. The pouring bottle should be held in one hand and the stirring rod 
 in the other. When the latter is complete, the emulsion, for so the 
 sensitised collodion may now be called, should be transferred to a 
 bottle capable of holding at least lOoz. (a " reputed " pint beer or 
 champagne bottle, for instance), and either weir wrapped up in paper 
 or otherwise protected from the ingress of actinic light. 
 
 Ripening. — The next step is the "ripening" of the emulsion. This 
 is allowed to continue for from sixteen to twenty-four hours. The 
 longer period will conduce to a little extra sensitiveness in the finished 
 emulsion. The emulsion may advantageously be shaken once or twice 
 during the time allowed for ripening, but this is not imperative. 
 
 Washing. — After ripening comes the representative operation of the 
 process, namely, the washing. This is performed in the following man- 
 ner : A porcelain dish of whole plate or, preferably, of 12in. by lOin. size, 
 is taken into the dark room. Into this the emulsion is poured direct, 
 so as to form a shallow pool. Almost immediately the alcohol and ether 
 begin to evaporate, and a skin is formed on the surface of the pool of 
 emulsion. This is broken up with the glass rod in order to accelerate the 
 evaporation. This breaking up should be continued at intervals until the 
 emulsion is transformed into fairly consistent lumps of pellicle, from 
 which the ether and the alcohol have as far as possible evaporated. 
 These lumps are now scraped together, transferred to a glass vessel, and 
 the latter filled up with distilled water. The lumps of pellicle, if the 
 evaporation has been properly carried out, should sink to the bottom. 
 After soaking a few minutes, the first wash water may be drained off 
 and a fresh quantum substituted for it. The water may be changed 
 every quarter of an hour, until it shows only a slight milkiness when 
 treated with a drop or two of hydrochloric acid. This result being 
 obtained, the water is finally drained, and the washed pellicle laid on 
 a piece of calico and wrung until as much moisture as possible is 
 extracted. If preferred the calico can be also used as a strainer, by being 
 stretched over the mouth of the glass jar in which the pellicle is washed. 
 
 Drying the Pellicle. — The pellicle can now be farther desiccated either 
 with the aid of gentle, not excessive, heat or spontaneously upon blotting 
 paper. Captain Abney recommends that after as much water as possible 
 has been squeezed out of it, the pellicle should be covered with rectified 
 spirit, *820. " In an hour's time the excess is drained off, and the pellicle 
 is squeezed in the cotton rag as before. It is then once more covered 
 with the spirit and left for half an hour, when, after draining away the- 
 
142 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 superfluous spirit, it is ready for re-emulsifying. If it be desired to keep 
 the pellicle in a solid state, it will only be necessary to expose it to the 
 air for a few hours, when it will be found quite dry." 
 
 It may here be mentioned that the pellicle will keep indefinitely, a 
 quality which sometimes is very convenient. To those who wish to keep 
 miscellaneous quantities of pellicle always by them, it will be useful to 
 remember that the proportion of pellicle to solvents is about 6grs. of the 
 former to an ounce of the latter. 
 
 In order to prevent the waste of the first solvents they may be pre- 
 served by the employment of a still. The method is, however, somewhat 
 tedious, and, looking at the low price of methylated spirit and ether, 
 can only be recommended when the emulsion is made up in large 
 quantities ; as, for instance, in commerce. For the amateur who only 
 makes up 5oz. or lOoz. at a time it is doubtful whether the saving in 
 solvents would compensate for the trouble of the operation and the 
 cost of the still. Those who see their way to effect a marked saving in 
 this respect will find the subject practically discussed in pp. 38, 39 of 
 Captain Abney's " Emulsion Processes in Photography," or in an article 
 by Professor Stebbing on pp. 60, 61 of the British Journal of Photography 
 Almanac for 1878. 
 
 Tie-emulsifying . — To convert the amount of dried pellicle obtained by 
 the formulae and proportions above indicated into emulsion, it is only 
 necessary to place it in a bottle and add to it 2^oz. of absolute alcohol 
 and the same quantity of good methylated ether. In order to effect 
 perfect combination, the emulsion should be shaken violently for, say, 
 ten minutes at a stretch. This done, the photographer has in his hands 
 a washed emulsion which will keep indefinitely, and which will produce 
 good pictures with ease and rapidity to the last drop. 
 
 Before proceeding to coat a batch of plates, it is as well to coat a few 
 trial ones, in order to see if the emulsion flows easily and works cleanly 
 with the ordinary developer. If it flows thickly and with difficulty, more 
 solvents should be added. If, on the contrary, the emulsion from some 
 accident be too thin, the solvents may be allowed to slightly evaporate 
 until the requisite consistency is obtained. If any fault is to be found 
 in the working of the emulsion, a drop or two of tincture of iodine 
 (made up by dissolving three or four grains of iodine in loz. of alcohol) 
 may be added to it. None of these after remedies ought, however, to be 
 needed. They are only given here in order that my readers may feel 
 secure in the thought that the remedies, if needed, are at hand, and are, 
 at the same time, neither tedious nor difficult of immediate application. 
 
 Preparation of the Plate. — Having brought the manufacture of the 
 washed emulsion, it is hoped, to a satisfactory conclusion, it is now 
 
PKEPARING- AND COATING PLATES. 
 
 143 
 
 time to turn our attention to the preparation of the plate to which the 
 emulsion is to be applied. The preliminary operations are nearly, if not 
 quite, the same as those previously explained in connection with the 
 Beechey and other processes. In the first place, the plate should be 
 perfectly clean and of good quality. In the second place, it should have 
 a- substratum of albumen, gelatine, or of very dilute indiarubber, a polish 
 with French chalk, or, failing these, an indiarubber edging, as described in 
 previous chapters. The worker in washed emulsion, where a preservative 
 is not used, will find French chalk, steotite, or soapstone, as it is vari- 
 ously called, a most convenient substitute for a substratum. All that is 
 necessary is to sprinkle a small quantity over the surface of the plate 
 and literally to rub it off again with a duster until no speck remains. A 
 final polish with a handkerchief or clean leather may be given, and the 
 plate is ready to receive its coating of emulsion. French chalk should, if 
 possible, be procured from leather stores, or from a dealer in direct com- 
 munication with them, in order to avoid adulteration, accidental or other- 
 wise, with substances injurious to photographic success. I may here 
 remark that in preparing a batch of dry plates with an emulsion, it is very 
 convenient to have an assistant, even though he or she be utterly igno- 
 rant of photography itself. Cleaning the glass plates, rubbing them over 
 with French chalk, and rearing them up to dry when coated, can all be 
 managed almost by a child, while if the operator does everything himself, 
 he will find the continuity of his operations seriously affected without any 
 increase of satisfaction or success. To those who are not blessed with a 
 spacious dark room, we recommend the evening as a capital time for 
 preparing a batch of dry plates. A plain deal table, a chair or two, and a 
 lamp or candle with a ruby shade or chimney, are all the furniture re- 
 quired. Upon the table is placed a plate box with the requisite number 
 of plates (cleaned preferably beforehand), the French chalk, a duster, and 
 a pneumatic plate holder. The stock emulsion bottle, a clean bottle for 
 pouring, a funnel of glass or paper, and some cotton wool previously dipped 
 in alcohol, must also be at hand. I will now describe the actual process 
 of coating the plates. 
 
 Coating the Plates.— Commence by shaking the emulsion thoroughly for, 
 say, three minutes, and allow it to subside for ten minutes more. This 
 done, filter two or three ounces through cotton wool into the pour- 
 ing bottle, taking care not to allow air bubbles to remain so as to form 
 subsequently on the plate. Lay aside the filter, and place the pouring and 
 stock bottles in juxtaposition. Now take one of the cleaned plates, and 
 apply the French chalk or the indiarubber edging. If a substratum of 
 albumen or gelatine be preferred, it should have been applied previously. 
 Attach the plate to the pneumatic plate holder, and pour on the emulsion 
 
144 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 exactly as if it were collodion. Hold the lip of the pouring bottle near to 
 the surface of the plate, in order to avoid air bubbles, and drain off the 
 surplus emulsion into the stock bottle. Rock the plate gently to obviate 
 crapiness, and when the film is set, rear the plate up against the wall 
 or the side of a box to dry. Proceed as above with all the plates, 
 always returning the surplus emulsion to the stock bottle, and not to the 
 pourer, and filtering more emulsion as required. It is difficult to say the 
 exact number of films which a given quantity of emulsion will produce. 
 Perhaps twenty to twenty-four films of half -plate size from every 2^oz. of 
 emulsion is not very far from the mark. If the emulsion grows thick and 
 flows with difficulty, a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and ether 
 may be added at discretion. Before rearing up the plate to dry, the 
 back should be wiped with a cloth, so as to remove the moist circular mark 
 caused by the pneumatic plate holder. 
 
 Drying the Plates. — The final desiccation may be accomplished 
 spontaneously, in a drying box, or by the aid of the contrivance suggested 
 by Woodbury, and described in a previous chapter. We recommend the 
 last of the three methods, from its simplicity and directness. Nothing 
 can be easier than to lay a piece of sheet iron upon a support, to introduce 
 beneath it a spirit lamp, to cover the surface with blotting paper of two 
 thicknesses, and on this to lay the plates. The films dry rapidly and 
 evenly, and may then be transferred direct to the plate box for future 
 use. 
 
 Keeping the Plates. — Dry plates prepared as above will keep capitally 
 for about a month. Theoretically speaking, they ought, perhaps, to 
 keep for ever, but in practice this is found to be a delusion and a snare. 
 When the plates are to be kept a month or more before exposure, the 
 films should be treated with a preservative, in a manner to be explained in 
 a future chapter. For the present, it is enough to know that by simply 
 pouring a filtered washed emulsion over a plate a film can be formed, 
 which will keep at any rate long enough for all ordinary purposes. To those 
 who can find it convenient to prepare a batch of plates at the beginning 
 of a week, to expose them during it, and to develop them at the end of 
 it, it is particularly recommended to follow the above process in all its 
 simplicity. 
 
 Exposure. — Rules for the exposure of plates prepared with washed 
 emulsion as above can hardly be laid down with any exactitude. Per- 
 haps from one quarter to a half as long again as wet collodion under 
 similar circumstances may more often than not be found correct. It is 
 recommended to the operator, after preparing an emulsion and a batch of 
 plates according to any given formula, to adopt the following mode of 
 procedure, in order to gain reliable data with reference to the correct time 
 
DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 145 
 
 of exposure. Take one plate in the dark slide and expose one quarter 
 of it upon any given object. This can be done by drawing up the shutter 
 of the slide to a quarter of its full length. Expose, say, for ten seconds, 
 now draw up the shutter another quarter, and expose for a further ten 
 seconds. Do the same with the remaining two quarters and develope. 
 Of course, the quarter of the plate which was exposed first will have been 
 so for forty seconds, and the remaining quarters for thirty, twenty, 
 and ten seconds respectively. On development, it will easily be seen 
 which has been the correct exposure, from the density or want of it apparent 
 in the successive quarters. This method can always be relied upon as 
 providing a highly easy and speedy method of calculating the correct ex- 
 posure for any batch of plate3, provided, of course, that the latter 
 are of uniform quality and sensitiveness. 
 
 Development. — The development of emulsion dry plates can be effected 
 in a variety of ways (see Chap. I.). The formula for making up, and 
 the method of applying, the strong alkaline developer has already been 
 described and explained. Prior to its application the plate should be 
 flowed with equal parts of methylated spirit and water, and then washed 
 until all greasiness has disappeared. A dish of glass or ebonite may be 
 used with advantage to hold the plate during development. A very satis- 
 factory developer is the following : 
 
 Alkaline Developer (1). 
 
 No. 1. Pyrogallic acid 3grs. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 No. 2. Bromide of potassium 15grs. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 No. 3. Carbonate of Ammonia Idr. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 The plate is first moistened with the solution of methylated spirit and 
 thoroughly washed. An ounce of No. 1 is then taken in the developing 
 cup, and flowed once or twice over the film. Before returning the pyro 
 solution finally to the cup, drop into the latter one drop each of Nos. 2 
 aud 3. On returning the pyro to the cup, a perfect admixture will result. 
 Now pour the mixture over the film and allow it to work for a few seconds. 
 If the picture appears rapidly, the operator may be sure that it has been 
 over-exposed, and he should not hesitate to add more bromide before 
 re-applying the developer. If the picture, on the other hand, comes out re- 
 luctantly or not at all, more ammonia may be added at discretion until 
 adequate density be obtained. The advantage of the above developer is the 
 latitude conferred by its employment. Its production of excellent results 
 will be furthered by using the pyro solution very weak at first, and 
 increasing its strength afterwards if necessary. One grain to two grains 
 
146 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 of pyro to the ounce of water will generally be found sufficient to begin 
 with, and the diminution in strength is certainly conducive to an improve- 
 ment in the quality of the resultant negatives. 
 
 For the carbonate of ammonia some operators prefer to employ liquor 
 ammonia fortis (*880), in the proportion of about twenty minims of the 
 latter to thirty grains of the former. Those who use carbonate of ammonia 
 will find the plan recommended in Chap. II., Part II.. convenient and 
 efficacious. 
 
 The pyrogallic acid solution should be freshly mixed, as it loses its 
 strength by exposure to the air. To lessen, however, the inconvenience 
 of making up an aqueous solution almost every other day, some have 
 adopted the plan of keeping a concentrated solution of the pyrogallic acid 
 in alcohol (as in Col. Stuart Wortley's strong alkaline developer), 
 and mixing it with water in the due proportions as desired. The best 
 proportions of the pyrogallic acid to the alcohol are, perhaps, 96grs. of the 
 former to one ounce of the latter. Methylated spirit may be used as 
 the solvent. It will be seen that the above is the precise proportion 
 laid down in the formula for the strong alkaline developer. To make up 
 almost any other proportion, very slight calculation is necessary. Ninety- 
 six grains to the ounce are equal to twelve grains to the drachm, or one 
 grain to every five minims. Suppose at the beginning of a working 
 day it be required to make up six ounces of pyro solution, in the 
 proportion of two grains to the ounce, all that is necessary is to pour 
 out one drachm of the alcoholic solution and add it to five ounces and 
 seven drachms of water. Give the mixture a shake, and it is ready 
 for use. 
 
 Here is another developer in which common soda plays an important 
 part. It follows the formula recommended by Mr. Inskipp for his ex- 
 cellent rapid dry plates, which are prepared, I believe, by a method not 
 very widely different to that detailed in the present chapter. I can 
 recommend the following developer to my readers as charmingly simple, 
 inexpensive, and easy of manipulation. Using it with Mr. Inskipp' s 
 plates, I have found it, when coupled with acid pyro intensification, to 
 give excellent results : 
 
 Alkaline Developer (2). 
 
 Common washing' soda loz. 
 
 Bromide of ammonium 25grs. 
 
 Strong liquor ammonia ioz. 
 
 Water lOoz. 
 
 After the preliminary application of the spirit and water, take enough 
 in the developing cup to cover the plate, flow over two or three times and 
 back into the cup ; " then, with a strip of thin glass or card about iin. 
 
DEVELOPMENT — INTENSIFICATION. 
 
 147 
 
 wide, take up a little dry pyrogallic acid on the tip, about the bulk of a 
 pea for a half plate, stir into the developer and apply again ; the image 
 will speedily appear and gradually gain strength. Should the detail be 
 slow in coming out or lack density, add a little more pyro. As soon as the 
 detail is all out, wash off and fix in weak hypo. After well washing let it 
 dry. If not then intense enough, moisten it again (with water only this 
 time), and proceed to intensify with the ordinary pyro and silver in- 
 tensifier, when any amount of density can be easily obtained. 
 
 ' ' The quantity of dry pyrogallic acid may seem rather indefinite, but 
 considerable latitude is allowable. Increasing the quantity quickens 
 the development and produces density, and vice versa. Except for in- 
 stantaneous exposures, it is better to add it gradually. 
 
 "Do not attempt to get much density with the first developer. The 
 negatives are much better in quality if finished with the silver intensifier." 
 The details of development with the aid of ferrous oxalate have already 
 
 been given (see Part II., Chap. I., p. Ill), and need not be repeated. 
 
 From its simplicity and the cleanness and brilliancy of the resultant 
 
 images, his developer will doubtless be a great favourite amongst our 
 
 readers. 
 
 Intensification. — Although in alkaline development sufficient density 
 can almost always be secured by the addition of ammonia, this plan 
 is not always conducive to obtaining negatives of the highest quality. 
 Although in many cases the simpler method may be found perfectly 
 satisfactory, it is better, as Mr. Inskipp, whom we quote above, observes, 
 to give the finishing touch of density to the image by means of acid 
 pyro and silver. The alkaline developer should be used only to bring 
 out the details. When this is fully accomplished the plate may be 
 washed and allowed to dry, or flooded with a one per cent, aqueous 
 solution of acetic acid. The acid pyro intensifier may then proceed (in 
 the former case after a second washing, in the latter directly) as in the 
 wet collodion process. 
 
 I will now proceed to give an account of two important and successful 
 modifications of the above standard washed emulsion process, owing 
 their existence to the respective efforts of Mr. William Bedford and 
 Mr. Henry Cooper. 
 
 L 
 
OHAPTEE V. 
 
 Further Washed Collodion Emulsions — Mr. W. Bedford's 
 Process — Mr. Henry Cooper's Process. 
 
 Mr. W. Bedford' s Process. — The following process, remarkable alike for its 
 simplicity, freedom from spots, and general excellence, was described by 
 the eminent landscape photographer, William Bedford, in the British 
 Journal of Photography Almanac for 1878, from which we take the liberty 
 of borrowing it in detail. Mr. Bedford takes as a basis for his process the 
 recognised fact that in order to obtain plates as rapidly as possible, the 
 emulsion should contain an excess of silver. It is this principle which 
 underlies the preparation of the washed emulsion described in the preced- 
 ing chapter. But the divergence of Mr. Bedford's process from the 
 beaten track is expressed in the following words, which are his own : 
 "It is generally recommended," he says, " to restrain the effect of this 
 excess of free silver (which would otherwise inevitably produce a fogged 
 and thin image) by adding acids to the emulsion before pouring it out to 
 set ; but it is often impossible, owing to the uncertain constitution of 
 the various bromides used, to accurately determine beforehand the actual 
 amount of silver nitrate which will be left in solution, and this leads to 
 uncertainty in the composition of the resulting emulsion. Another 
 practical disadvantage of the presence of mineral acids during the forma- 
 tion of an emulsion is that they have the effect of producing the silver 
 bromide in a state of division coarser than is the case if they are absent.'' 
 Mr. Bedford has, therefore, adopted the plan of omitting all acid from the 
 collodion, simply taking care to have an excess of silver nitrate present. 
 The formula used may be identical (the nitric acid being quite excepted) 
 with that prescribed in Chap. IV., p. 140. When the emulsion is properly 
 formed, it is poured out to set in the ordinary way, and washed for two 
 hours in two changes of distilled water. Mr. Bedford next pours on 
 e< water containing 1 per cent, of hydrochloric acid, which is allowed to 
 act for four or five hours, by which time the whole of the remaining free 
 silver will have been converted into chloride, and a trace of nitric acid 
 
WASHED EMULSIONS. 
 
 149 
 
 liberated, insuring perfect immunity from any disposition to fog, which will 
 undoubtedly exist in the original emulsion. The action of the acid will, 
 in all probability, have loosened the pellicle from the dish, so that, after 
 being well washed, it may be doubled up and squeezed between folds 
 of linen in a screw press, and finally dried on a water bath and re-dissolved 
 as usual. A washed emulsion is thus produced which contains neither free 
 silver nitrate nor soluble bromide (an excess of which is recommended by 
 some emulsion workers), and after a comparatively short exposure in the 
 camera, an image quickly appears under the action of plain pyrogallic acid, 
 which may be easily developed to any requisite degree of density by the 
 alkaline developer without the addition of organic matter of any kind.' ' 
 
 Mr. Bedford has made some experiments in the substitution of a 2 per 
 cent, solution of calcium chloride for the dilute acid, with very encourag- 
 ing results, promising increased rapidity. Mr. Bedford coincides with 
 Captain Abney in the theory that silver chloride in an emulsion does not 
 necessarily need acid as a restrainer. I leave Mr. Bedford's experi- 
 ments to be continued by my readers, in the hope that they will thus mark 
 their appreciation of the excellent process which he has presented with 
 such lucidity and generosity to the photographic world. 
 
 Mr. Henry Cooper's Process. — In the photographic exhibition of 1878 
 a conspicuous object of attention was a frame of exquisite landscapes 
 contributed by Mr. Henry Cooper. When it became known that these 
 pictures were produced by a washed emulsion process embodying certain 
 distinct departures from the modus operandi of the emulsions generally 
 in vogue, a great desire was evinced to possess Mr. Cooper's formulae 
 and method of work. These Mr. Cooper most liberally and completely 
 made public in a paper read before the Photographic Society of Great 
 Britain, and subsequently re-published in both the Photographic News 
 and the British Journal of Photography. From the two last sources I 
 extract the following account of Mr. Cooper's process. I print the 
 extracts in their integrity for reasons which I have given in previous 
 quotations from Mr. Cooper's contributions to photographic literature, 
 namely, that that gentleman's own words are so clear and to the point 
 that I should wrong them and him by attempting to twist them into 
 my own : — 
 
 4 c Prepare a stock collodion by dissolving 160gr. of pyroxyline (ordinary) 
 in lOoz. of ether sp. gr. *730 and 6oz. of good methylated alcohol. Also 
 make a solution of zinc bromide, in strong alcohol, lOgr. to ldr., and 
 allow it to stand to settle for some time. Much subsequent trouble is 
 avoided by using only the clear portion of these two stock solutions. 
 
 " To prepare lOoz. of the emulsion, take 5oz. of the above plain 
 collodion, place it in a 20oz. or 30oz. bottle, and add loz. of the zinc 
 
 L 2 
 
150 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 bromide solution and 20 minims of syrupy lactate of ammonia (to be 
 obtained of Messrs. Hopkin and Williams, of 16, Cross-street, Hatton- 
 garden, E.C., at Is. 4d. per ounce. Mr. Cooper also procures his 
 pyroxyline from the same dealers). Sensitise with 150gr. of silver 
 nitrate dissolved first in 80 minims of water, and then in 3oz. of alcohol. 
 Add this in a boiling state to the bromised collodion, and wrap the bottle 
 containing the emulsion in a cloth, to retain the heat as long as possible. 
 In twenty-four hours the mixture is sufficiently ripe, but a little extra 
 sensitiveness may be gained by keeping it longer — say up to three days. 
 At the expiration of the maturing time add 20 minims of strong nitric 
 acid, shake well, and pour out the emulsion to set. As the evaporation 
 of the solvents is to be carried further than usual, it is well, for this and 
 other reasons, to spread it out sufficiently. 5oz. is quite enough for a 
 12in. by lOin. dish." 
 
 Mi. Cooper lends the weight of his authority to the opinion that 
 although precipitation of the emulsion to remove the superfluous nitrate 
 salts has some advantages, it is only to be recommended when the finished 
 emulsion can be rapidly used up. His experience coincides with that of 
 other workers in attributing bad keeping qualities to precipitated emul- 
 sions. In connection with his formula, Mr. Cooper goes on to remark 
 that he attaches some importance to the extra percentage of alcohol 
 which it contains, as, amongst other qualifications, it possesses that of 
 facilitating the washing. This last may be carried out in the ordinary 
 way, and the pellicle when dry is to be dissolved in 5oz. of absolute 
 alcohol and 5oz. of ether (*720). If the emulsion does not flow properly, 
 it may be improved by the addition of a little plain collodion, such as 
 that of Thomas or E-ouch. 
 
 Mr. Cooper adds as an appendix to the above method of preparing the 
 emulsion that further experiments, made in consequence of suggestions 
 in the British Journal of Photography, show that a marked increase of 
 sensitiveness is obtained by reducing the proportion of plain collodion to 
 one-half, the other quantities remaining the same. If the finished 
 emulsion flow too thinly, less than lOoz. of the mixed solvents should 
 be used. 
 
 Into the operations subsequent to the manufacture of the emulsion, 
 Mr. Cooper enters with some detail, and, as in these he introduces 
 several points of novelty, we will give our readers the benefit of his 
 experience. In the first place, he recommends for the plates prepared 
 by his process the substratum which was originally introduced by him 
 some time previous to the reading of his paper before the Photographic 
 Society of Great Britain, and which we have already promised to 
 reproduce for our readers. The formula is as follows : 
 
cooper's process. 
 
 151 
 
 " Dissolve 60gr. of Nelson's clear photographic gelatine in lOoz. water, 
 and add 2|gr. chrome alum dissolved in a little water. Stir well and 
 filter, and keep warm. Coat the plates whilst wet after cleaning, and 
 rear up to dry in a light wooden box, the lower end of the plates resting 
 on clean filtering paper, and only one top corner touching the side of the 
 box. To coat a dozen plates takes far less time than to wipe and polish 
 them. Before use they must be made thoroughly dry. A good plan is 
 to heat them and coat them as soon as cold." 
 
 Mr. Cooper calls the above substratum the "insoluble gelatine," from 
 the insolubility conferred on the gelatine by the addition of the chrome 
 alum. For the latter reason the solution must not be allowed to set and 
 dry upon the measure or the funnel, as in that state it cannot be 
 re-dissolved. To the ease with which the substratum can be applied and 
 to its efficiency I can bear personal testimony. Mr. Cooper proceeds : 
 
 " When coated with the filtered emulsion, the plates must be immersed 
 in water, and then treated with a strongly alkaline solution of albumen, 
 either in a tray or on a levelling stand. The albumen must remain in 
 contact with the film for not less than a minute, when the plate is to be 
 thoroughly washed, flowed with a 2gr. solution of gallic acid, and dried in 
 the usual manner. 
 
 " A stock of the albumen may be prepared, as it will keep any length 
 of time. If Thomas's dried albumen be used, dissolve 20gr. to each 
 ounce of water, and add 20 minims of liquor ammonias fortis *880. If 
 whites of eggs be used, add a few minims of acetic acid to them ; in an 
 hour or two strain, and to each ounce add 2oz. of water and the above 
 proportion of ammonia — that is, Idr. to loz. of albumen and two of 
 water. 
 
 " Commence the development with very weak pyro — ^gr. to lgr. to 
 the ounce — with one drop of a lOgr. solution of ammonium bromide, and 
 one drop of saturated solution of ammonia carbonate. When all the 
 details are out the negative may be finished with stronger pyro ; but of 
 all things beware of getting too much intensity. Nothing is easier. 
 Thousands of plates have been spoiled by using too much pyro at the 
 commencement of the development, and sometimes I wish it was very 
 much more expensive to check its lavish use. Of course, in coaxing 
 out detail on an under-exposed film, ammonia and bromide must be added 
 at discretion. 
 
 " Use patience, and give the plate time, carefully screening it mean- 
 while from even the light of the dark room, and you will be rewarded by 
 the possession of a tender, delicate image, brimful of details both in 
 lights and shadows, having all the character of a first-rate albumen 
 negative, and giving brilliant and artistic prints." 
 
152 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 In the pleasurable enjoyment of this happy consummation, I leave 
 Mr. Cooper's process to my readers, merely repeating his caution that 
 success can only be courted by a strict adhesion to the formulas which it 
 has taken him countless experiments to arrive at, and in which each step 
 has been adopted as the result of his own experience or that of other 
 leaders in the art of working emulsions. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Preservatives. 
 
 Before commencing a study of the following remarks on the preserva- 
 tives in general use with collodion emulsions, I advise my readers to 
 turn back and master, if they have not done so already, the judgment 
 delivered respecting preservatives by Captain Abney, and given in 
 Chap. I. of this book, p. 105. This will teach the operator what a 
 preservative ought to be. I will now proceed to comment upon cer- 
 tain preservatives which experience has proved to be, if not perfect, at 
 any rate effective, and which the reader may adopt without hesitation 
 to his own practice until he shall have succeeded in discovering a better. 
 I have already found it necessary to give some formulae for preserTa- 
 tives ; for example, in the case of the bath plate processes, of Canon 
 Beechey's unwashed emulsion process, and in the preceding chapter, in 
 describing the washed emulsion process of Mr. Henry Cooper. I shall now 
 be able, by giving the subject of preservatives the individual notice which 
 it well deserves, to supplement these by one or two further formulae, 
 and at the same time to place the use and the practical management 
 of preservatives upon a satisfactory and comprehensible footing even for 
 the least quick-witted of my readers. 
 
 In the first place a preservative can be applied to any washed emulsion. 
 It has already been noticed that plates coated with washed emulsion with- 
 out a preservative will keep perfectly well for perhaps a month, but that 
 after the lapse of that time their original qualities become sensibly 
 impaired. It is here, as in dealing with bath plates, that the preservative 
 comes to the rescue, and confers on the plate keeping powers that may 
 literally be said to be indefinite. Besides this, the preservative almost, 
 if not quite, invariably imparts a distinct quality upon the film treated 
 with it at the proper period. Let the operator prepare two plates by a 
 washed emulsion process, exposing one without further treatment after the 
 coating and drying, and the other after the application of any of the 
 preservatives here or elsewhere formulated. The difference in the results 
 will be peculiarly apparent in the case of preservatives containing albumen, 
 
154 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 the latter substance giving a minute delicacy of detail in the shadows 
 which is by no means invariably to be observed in films guileless of 
 its presence. 
 
 The presence of a preservative also is a powerful preventive against 
 " spots." The value of this qualification will be, if it has not already 
 been, perceived by the operator when he encounters the phenomenon of 
 " spots " in all its completeness. I shall not now delay to examine the 
 question of spots on emulsion plates, but will reserve it for future and more 
 convenient discussion. Uniformity of sensitiveness is another advantage 
 conferred by the employment of preservatives, and one which will be 
 greatly appreciated by those who get through a large number of plates 
 in a short time. 
 
 And now for some formulae. To begin with, I will repeat the formula, 
 simple and excellent as it is, recommended by Canon Beechey in con- 
 nection with his unwashed emulsion process. Here it is : 
 
 Canon Beechey's Preservative. 
 
 Beer 1 pint 
 
 Pyrogalhc acid „ 20grs. 
 
 The beer should be fairly flat, not brisk. The preservative should be 
 filtered before use into a dish of porcelain, glass, or ebonite, and the plate 
 immersed for one minute, as described in Chap. IV. of this Part. A 
 preliminary washing in water, until all greasiness has disappeared, should 
 take place before the preservative is administered. The latter operation 
 can be performed either by flowing on or by immersion. The plan 
 suggested by Canon Beechey of having two dishes, one for water, the 
 other for the preservative, and transferring the plates as coated, is strongly 
 to be recommended, especially if the one who coats has an assistant. 
 
 With the above preservative a substratum should be used — not French 
 chalk, as it is hardly proof against the protracted washing or immersion, 
 as the case may be. The operator will find a solution of gelatine, lgr. to 
 the ounce efficacious, or, perhaps better still, the substratum of insoluble 
 gelatine, recommended by Mr. Henry Cooper, and given in Chap. V. 
 
 Another preservative, reminding us of a bath-plate process described in 
 Chap. II., p. 125, is the 
 
 Tannin Preservative. 
 
 Tannin 15gr. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 This can be applied like the beer and pyro, and for absolute simplicity is 
 even to be preferred to it, though, perhaps, not for the fineness of colour 
 and quality imparted to the negative. 
 
 The coffee preservative, as described in Chap. II., p. 113, in connection 
 
PRESERVATIVES. 
 
 155 
 
 with the coffee bath plate process, will also be found efficacious in dealing 1 
 with emulsion plates. 
 
 I shall not repeat Mr. Cooper's preservative of alkaline albumen and 
 gallic acid, as it is to be found in detail at the end of the preceding 
 chapter. 
 
 A very capital preservative indeed is the following, suggested by 
 Colonel Stuart- Wortley, the inventor of the " Uranium" rapid process. 
 It requires the preliminary application of a substratum, and also pre- 
 liminary washing. It may be used over and over again with occasional 
 filtering, and the plates are preferably immersed in it : 
 
 Col. Stuart-Wortley's Preservative. 
 Stock Solutions. 
 No. 1. Salicine and water, a saturated solution. 
 
 No. 2. Tannin 60grs. 
 
 Distilled water loz. 
 
 No. 3. Gallic acid 48grs. 
 
 Alcohol loz. 
 
 To make up the preservative, the following proportions are observable : 
 
 Proportions. 
 
 No. 1. ... 2 oz. 
 
 No. 2 1 oz. 
 
 No. 3 ioz. 
 
 Sugar 40 grs. 
 
 "Water 7 oz. 
 
 Captain Abney, in an article in the British Journal of Photography 
 Almanac for 1878, described a preservative of albumen and beer, which, 
 he stated, gives excellent results as regards rapidity and delicacy of the 
 image. The emulsion is prepared in a manner similar to that prescribed 
 in Chap. IV., p. 140, under the heading of a " Standard Washed Emulsion 
 Process." For the preservative the following are prepared : 
 
 Captain Abney's Preservative. 
 
 No. 1. Dried albumen 25grs. 
 
 "Water loz. 
 
 Liquor ammonia Jdr. 
 
 Note. — Instead of the dried albumen the white of one egg may be used. 
 
 No. 2. Ordinary bitter beer loz. 
 
 No. 3. Ordinary bitter beer loz. 
 
 Pyrogallic acid lgr. 
 
 The plate, after washing, is flowed over with equal parts of Nos. 1 and 2, 
 which are allowed to be in contact with the film for one minute. It is then 
 thoroughly washed, flowed over with No. 3, and set up to dry. 
 
 To develop these plates it is recommended to reduce the usual amount 
 of pyrogallic acid to one third. By this means a thin negative is 
 
156 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 obtained, which can readily be intensified by the ordinary intensifier of 
 acid pyro and silver. In working plates treated with the above preserva- 
 tive, if the former are of large size, a substratum is required. 
 
 Of the above preservatives it is difficult to say whether any single one 
 is to be preferred to others. One thing may be said, and that is that all 
 the formulae given are in the highest degree efficient. Perhaps selection 
 may advantageously be left to individual choice. Beginners will pro- 
 bably become enamoured of the beer and pyrogallic acid preservative, and 
 many will doubtless become so wedded to its simplicity and the charming 
 quality it confers on the negatives that nothing will induce them to desert 
 it in favour of more recent introductions. Experience, on the other hand, 
 not unfrequently has the result of making a favourite of a preservative in 
 which albumen takes a prominent and representative part. Detail in the 
 shadows is a very desirable consummation, and this is exactly the quality 
 that albumen is noted for conferring. Again, tannin is not without its 
 advantages, amongst which simplicity is not the least. Lastly, if the 
 operator suddenly discovers his chemical chest or laboratory to be wanting 
 in any ingredient necessary to the composition of the more pretentious 
 preservatives, he has but to make his way to the kitchen and to call in the 
 humbler aid of coffee — aye, or of tea. 
 
 Captain Abney, Mr. Cooper, and other distinguished emulsion workers 
 are agreed in the opinion that the practical value of emulsions is much 
 enhanced by the use of a preservative. A washed emulsion used without 
 a preservative produces films which beyond a week or two are untrust- 
 worthy, besides being amenable to variety of sensitiveness and to " spots." 
 
 The preservative, as I have already noticed, obviates these imperfec- 
 tions, and surely the advantage thereby gained amply compensates the 
 slight extra trouble of preparation and application. Some day, perhaps, 
 preservatives will be rendered wholly unnecessary by some startling 
 innovation in emulsion work ; indeed this consummation has already been 
 reached in the gelatine processes shortly about to be described. Until, 
 however, the same immunity can be extended to collodion as to gelatine 
 dry plates, the operator must be content to use preservatives and to be 
 thankful. Perhaps if in the present meteoric progress of photography we 
 were content to exercise a little of the patience that so nobly distinguished 
 Fox Talbot, Niepce, and Daguerre, we should hear a little less of 
 "bogus " processes, of inventions which are but old friends decked out 
 in questionably new-fashioned garb, and of failures which are but the 
 natural outcome of ignorance, haste, and conceit. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Appendix to Dry Collodion Processes. 
 
 Before leaving the subject of dry plates prepared by the various dry 
 collodion processes, and passing on to the processes in which the collodion 
 is replaced by a solution of gelatine, there remain a few words still to be 
 said. These will relate partly to some few practical facts which the 
 collodion emulsion worker may advantageously keep in mind, supplying his 
 own conclusions where necessary or suitable, and partly to the defects 
 and failures incident to the various operations of the respective processes. 
 In reviewing the latter it will be instructive for the reader to compare 
 the difficulties of the dry collodion with those accruing to the " wet." It 
 will be seen that in the first place the difficulties themselves have grown less 
 numerous and less formidable ; secondly that, while some of the old wet- 
 plate defects are still apparent, there are in the dry collodion processes 
 several novel eccentricities which require peculiar attention. These will 
 obtain brief, but it is hoped adequate, notice, at a later stage in the present 
 chapter. 
 
 About the difficulties attending the bath-plate processes little or nothing 
 need be said. It is not that the difficulties do not exist, but because they 
 are identical either with those already mentioned in connection with wet 
 collodion (see Part. I. Chaps. VII. and VIII.) or with those occurring 
 in emulsion work. A good sample of collodion, a good sensitising bath, a 
 good preservative — these are the cruces of the bath-plate processes. Any- 
 one who has succeeded with wet plates ought" to achieve the same result 
 with bath plates. The great qualification required by both is patience — 
 patience in preparation, patience in exposure, and patience in development. 
 
 Emulsion work is altogether different from wet and plate work. The 
 operator has to do everything for himself, even to prepare his own 
 collodion, but it is easier nevertheless. Apart from the convenience 
 attached to collodion dry plates their preparation itself is really the easiest 
 thing imaginable — that is to say, if it is entered upon properly and with 
 the proper spirit. One of the secrets of this facility is that in the dry 
 
158 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 processes almost all the successive operations are entirely individual and 
 distinct from one another. In the wet process a plate is no sooner collodion- 
 ised than it requires to be sensitised, no sooner sensitised than it requires 
 to be exposed, no sooner exposed than it must be developed, and so on, 
 while the quick continuity of operation has the further drawback that 
 the slightest slip in the first step has a marked effect upon the last. In 
 dry collodion work each step may be separated by any length of time 
 from its successor, and ample opportunity is allowed not only to render the 
 respective steps secure, but to direct them in the right course if any of 
 them — for accidents will occur — chance to stray. The collodion can be 
 made separately, and if it is faulty, can be doctored separately ; so can 
 the emulsion, the plates, and the developer. These facts have the obvious 
 and practical moral that with attention and care, the emulsion worker can 
 do almost anything he likes with his tools, and if to these qualities 
 he adds some deftness in manipulation, some thought, and some artistic 
 skill, he need have no doubt but that photography will be to him literally 
 " a thing of beauty and a joy for ever." 
 
 In emulsion work above all buy the best of chemicals. Inferior alcohol, 
 inferior ammOnia both carbonate and liquor, and especially inferior 
 pyrogallic acid, are much more easily procurable than the unsuspecting 
 amateur would imagine. But where the emulsion worker oftenest fails 
 in the chemical line is in the pyroxyline. There are all sorts of pyroxyline 
 in the market at all sorts of prices ranging from Is. to 4s. an ounce. The 
 price, by the way, must not by any means be always taken as a criterion 
 of quality. Mr. Henry Cooper in his original account of his washed 
 emulsion process with lactate of ammonia, remarks that the price of the 
 pyroxyline used by him is only Is. the ounce. Again, just as any special 
 collodion is best when used with a sensitising bath prepared to a special 
 formula, so special emulsion processes give the best results when in their 
 preparation a special sample of pyroxyline has been employed. This last 
 fact has been noticed before in the instructions given as to the purchase of 
 pyroxyline for the washed and unwashed emulsions respectively (see 
 Chap. II.) The importance, however, of procuring a sample of cotton 
 which, if not specially adapted to, is at any rate suitable for any given 
 process does not lose by being insisted upon. For instance, a horny and 
 contractile pyroxyline will give a film which will peel, or do its best to peel, 
 from the surface of the plate — a defect only to be remedied by the trouble- 
 some operation of preparing an emulsion with a powdery pyroxyline and 
 adding it to the contractile defaulter in order to produce the required 
 mean. 
 
 In emulsification (see Chap. IV., Part II.) a smoother and finer grained 
 emulsion, according to Captain Abney, is sometimes obtained by adding 
 
DRY-PLATE DIFFICULTIES. 
 
 159 
 
 the silver to half the given quantity of bromised collodion, and pouring 
 in the other half subsequently. 
 
 Instead of the turned bottle-case suggested in Chap. IV. as a satisfactory 
 means of preserving emulsions from actinic light, a stone bottle — a ginger 
 beer bottle, for instance — may be used with advantage. Another plan, 
 recommended for its simplicity, is to emulsify, ripen, and after pouring out 
 to set, to wash, in a common jam pot. 
 
 And now I will turn to the consideration of the defects of the dry 
 collodion processes. I will take first the old difficulty of fog, which I 
 noticed at length in my treatment of the wet collodion process. I may 
 refer my readers to Part I., Chap. VIII., for some of the idiosyncracies 
 of fog, but the practice of the emulsion processes necessarily brings 
 forward fog — to use an Irishism — in several new lights. For an excellent 
 scientific disquisition on fog, reference may be made to pp. 5-18 of Captain 
 Abney's "Emulsion Processes in Photography.'' 
 
 Fog in the emulsion itself may be eliminated by adding, if the emulsion 
 be an unwashed one, some drops of nitric acid ; if a washed one, an 
 adequate quantity of tincture of iodine. The exact quantity can only be 
 determined by experiment. Plates which have been accidentally exposed 
 to light " may be rendered ready for exposure by washing off any preserva- 
 tive they may have on them, and immersing them in a hock-coloured 
 solution of potassium bichromate, or by water faintly tinged with potassium 
 permanganate, or with a one-tenth per cent, solution of hydroxyl in 
 water. After washing, a preservative may again be applied." (Captain 
 Abney.) 
 
 Another method of deactinising exposed plates is described by Mr. W. 
 Sherman, of Milwaukie, in the British Journal of 'Photography Almanac 
 for 1877, pp. 112-113. 
 
 Plates are sometimes fogged during development by the use of too 
 powerful a developer. The diminution of ammonia, or the increase of 
 bromide, ought to cure this difficulty. 
 
 Crapiness in the film is generally due to the fact either that the solvents 
 used in the emulsion are too aqueous, or that the emulsion has not 
 been shaken up as directed before coating. 
 
 Round insensitive patches are to be met with in hot weather, when the 
 mark left on the back of the plate by the pneumatic plate holder is not 
 removed. 
 
 Blisters occur when too much gummy matter is present in the 
 preservative. 
 
 Drying marks are sometimes due to impure water having been used for 
 washing the plate (in the bath plate and unwashed emulsion processes), 
 or to the temperature used for desiccation having been too high. 
 
160 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Most of the other defects in dry collodion may be classed under the 
 general head of " spots." Of these some may be easily explained, as for 
 instance the thick specks caused by particles of dried emulsion which have 
 coagulated round the mouth of the pouring bottle, slipping off on to the 
 plate while coating. About other kinds of spots, however, a vast amount 
 of controversy has raged and the most ingenious theories have been 
 advanced. Probably the best explanation is to be found in the following 
 words, which we extract in extenso from an article by Messrs. Wratten and 
 Wainwright in the British Journal of Photography Almanac for 1879. The 
 long and successful experience which these gentlemen have had in connec- 
 tion with emulsion photography entitles their opinions to particular atten- 
 tion : 
 
 ' ' Undoubtedly there are more ways than one in which organic or other 
 matter may come in contact with the film during the operation of coating 
 and setting the film. Particles of dyed material may drop from one's coat 
 sleeve, for few think to give themselves a brush down before they go into 
 the coating room ; and dust may be raised by the careless manner of 
 moving about the room, especially if it has not been laid with a wet mop. 
 Shelves, too, should be wiped down with a wet brush or clean wet cloth. 
 And the water used for ' swabbing ' the floor should be clean, otherwise 
 it will leave behind it a crop of dust for the future. In fact, one eannot 
 be too careful. A blouse of unbleached holland is the best overall to wear 
 in making plates, and not clothing of dyed material. There is no doubt 
 that what is termed ' unwashed ' or crude emulsion would be equally 
 liable to give spots of similar kind to the washed emulsion did not the 
 action of the washing water immediately set the film in hard pellicle, and 
 thus envelope the bromide of silver in an impenetrable casing.' ' 
 
 This may, perhaps, account for the absence of spots in plates prepared 
 with a washed emulsion and a preservative. 
 
 "It must be borne in mind that until the ether and alcohol have 
 evaporated from a plate coated with a washed emulsion, the film is in a 
 soft and permeable state, and the feeble affinity which binds the bromine 
 to the silver is insufficient to prevent a partial reaction when in that 
 state it comes in contract with a suitable re-agent." 
 
CHAPTEE VIII. 
 
 The Gelatino-Bromide Process — Introductory — Necessary 
 Apparatus, &c. 
 
 The essential difference between the gelatino-bromide process and the 
 various collodio-bromide processes detailed in the preceding chapter, 
 is, as has already been pointed out, that in the former a solution of 
 gelatine takes the place of collodion as a medium of suspension for 
 the sensitive salts. Upon this fact hinge several important conclusions. 
 The drawback of collodion emulsion is that, owing to its peculiar 
 structure, the salts of silver can only with difficulty be introduced in a 
 sufficiently minute state of division for practical purposes. This is a 
 difficulty which the beginner in emulsion work will probably take some 
 little time to completely master. In gelatine emulsion, on the contrary, 
 this drawback almost entirely disappears. The peculiar feature of 
 gelatine emulsion is that it holds the silver salts suspended in a very fine 
 state of division indeed. In the first place this qualification should imply 
 images of an extremely delicate character. A glance at a gelatine nega- 
 tive, or at a print from a gelatine negative, is amply sufficient to show 
 what exquisite detail, even in the shadows, is obtainable by a process in 
 which gelatine replaces gun-cotton, and water is an efficient substitute for 
 the more expensive and volatile alcohol and ether. Again, it may reason- 
 ably be inferred that the minute state of division, in which the sensitive 
 salts are suspended, conduces to increased rapidity of action. At any 
 rate this theory is supported by facts. Gelatine plates have been and 
 are being manufactured which are four, five, six, and under certain 
 circumstances, ten and fifteen times as rapid as the best wet. A set of 
 instantaneous views of the Oxford and Cambridge boat-race has been 
 secured on such plates, while such objects as a train moving at fair 
 speed, and races of all descriptions, are being taken on all sides with a by 
 no means inordinate expenditure of labour or of time. 
 
 The extreme rapidity attainable by the employment of gelatine emul- 
 sions, renders it necessary to use the utmost precaution with reference 
 to the light by which the plates are prepared and subsequently developed. 
 
162 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 In most cases gelatine plates are sensitive to the yellow rays, and con- 
 sequently a common yellow light would be worse than useless. Perhaps 
 it is best for the gelatine worker to begin by having recourse to the 
 most non-actinic media possible. Two thicknesses of the deepest ruby, 
 or, better still, one thickness of ruby in conjunction with one thickness 
 of deep orange, ought to be sufficient. Messrs. Wratten and Wain- 
 wright, of 38, Great Queen-street, Long Acre, sell a deep orange paper, 
 which, when steeped in boiled oil, gives a splendid light. Two thick- 
 nesses of this will be found to screen the most sensitive plates from 
 actinic light. Some operators prefer to prepare and develop their plates 
 at night, using a screened lamp or candle. A candle shaded by ruby 
 glass, provided there are no white reflections from the ceiling or else- 
 where, may almost be said to be absolutely ' 'safe." Before giving any 
 formulae let me sketch for the benefit of my readers a slight outline of the 
 gelatino -bromide process in the form in which I shall first introduce it. 
 They will thus be able to gain a fair idea of the facility or difficulty of the 
 process, and, moreover, to compare the various operations incident to it 
 with those met with in processes already attempted. 
 
 To begin with, I produce an emulsion by adding nitrate of silver to a 
 bromised solution of gelatine. In this emulsion there will consequently be 
 formed bromide of silver and nitrate of ammonium, bromide of ammonium 
 having been used to bromise the gelatine. Just as in the collodion 
 emulsion process it was necessary to eliminate the superfluous nitrate 
 of zinc, it is now necessary to eliminate the superfluous nitrate of 
 ammonium. This is accomplished by allowing the emulsion to set, and 
 afterwards washing the pellicle in a manner to be described in a future 
 chapter. But the point of the process lies in the period that ought to 
 elapse between the formation of the emulsion and the allowing it to set 
 into a pellicular mass. The following words, borrowed from an authority 
 in everything connected with gelatine, simply and tersely explain all on 
 this point that needs explanation : ' ' By the addition of the nitrate of 
 silver to the bromised gelatine an action termed ' double decomposition ' 
 is originated; in other words, an interchange of elements takes place 
 between the two salts. If nitrate of silver were added to water con- 
 taining bromide of ammonium in solution, an interchange of elements 
 would instantly take place ; insoluble bromide of silver would subside, 
 and nitrate of ammonium would remain in solution. But gelatine, being 
 a viscid medium, retards this chemical interchange, and therefore time 
 must be given to bring it completely about. In order, therefore to keep 
 the gelatine in a liquid condition we place the bottle in water of 100° 
 temperature, and it is found in practice that a period of from four to six 
 hours will complete the double decomposition." 
 
GELATINE. 
 
 163 
 
 This prolonged " cooking " or ' 1 stewing," as it is familiarly called, is 
 a point of very great importance, especially in reference to increased 
 sensitiveness. In some of the processes lately brought forward, and 
 soon to be mentioned in these pages, the cooking is carried on for 
 five or six days. In these instances a very highly increased rapidity 
 results from the prolongation of the cooking time, while by coating 
 batches of plates at intervals during the number of days set apart for 
 this purpose, plates can be obtained of varying degrees of sensitiveness. 
 It is advisable, however, in cases of very protracted cooking, to prevent 
 undue decomposition of the gelatine by the addition to the emulsion of a 
 small quantum of phenic, or, as it is more commonly called, carbolic acid. 
 
 I will not enter at this moment into the preparation of plates, since 
 that point will receive individual description, as in the case of plates 
 prepared with collodion emulsions. 
 
 I will now give a list of the articles necessary to the would-be 
 worker in gelatine. At the top of the list stands the gelatine itself. Of 
 gelatine there are many different kinds, manufactured by firms both 
 English and foreign, and sold at a variety of prices. I believe I am 
 really benefiting my readers in recommending them to buy gelatine of 
 some one approved manufacture, and to stick to it. Most English 
 operators use Nelson's No. 1 photographic gelatine, which is a special 
 make of very superior quality indeed. This is sold at 6d. the ounce, but 
 readers are recommended to buy it by the half pound, which quantity 
 should be purchaseable at 3s. or 3s. 6d. The merit of Nelson's gelatine 
 is that not only is it of standard quality, and sold at a moderate price, 
 but also that it is obtainable through any chemist in any locality, however 
 remote. 
 
 The beginner should not be deluded into the idea that any sample of 
 gelatine is applicable to photographic purposes. This is a most decided 
 fallacy. For instance, Nelson's ordinary opaque gelatine, as sold by 
 chemists and grocers, is worse than useless, for its employment involves 
 both " red fog " and "frilling," two little difficulties which the gelatine 
 worker soon learns to avoid by every means in his power. 
 
 In addition to gelatine, one or two ounces of bromide of ammonium 
 should be procured, and an adequate amount of silver nitrate. These, 
 with distilled water, comprise every necessary in the chemical line for the 
 preparation of plates by the ordinary gelatine-bromide processes. Some 
 few others will be required in carrying out certain modifications lately 
 introduced, but these will be reserved for separate notice. 
 
 The development of gelatine plates may be carried on either by the 
 alkaline or by the ferrous oxalate developer. Both of these have already 
 received mention, and nothing further remains to be submitted in con- 
 
 M 
 
164 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 nection with them beyond the actual formulae, which will be given in 
 their proper place. 
 
 In the way of apparatus but little will be required beyond bottles and 
 a test tube or two in which to dissolve the silver prior to emulsification. 
 In washing there is a certain excellent method which was introduced to 
 the public in 1878 by Messrs. Wratten and Wainwright, and which 
 requires some simple and easily manufactured apparatus ; but this is 
 another point which must be relegated to a succeeding chapter. In 
 preparing plates, a good sized sheet of plate glass and a levelling stand 
 will be required. Of course the size of the sheet of glass depends on the 
 size and number of the plates to be coated. Two or three small sheets 
 of glass answer just as well as one big one, but they will each require a 
 levelling stand unless some simpler contrivance be devised to replace it. 
 Levelling stands range in price from about 3s. to 5s. 
 
 In development, two or three ebonite trays, of one size larger than 
 that of the plates to be developed, will be found of the utmost use 
 and convenience. Care should be taken to use these trays only for one 
 specific purpose, such as development, fixing, and so on. On no account 
 should these operations be carried on indiscriminately in one and the 
 same tray. 
 
 I think I can hardly conclude the present chapter more satisfac- 
 torily than by summing up the various advantages of gelatino -bromide. 
 In the first place comes its undoubted excellence as regards results. A 
 comparison between a gelatine negative and a collodion negative is not by 
 any means encouraging, for the colour and general appearance of the 
 former is very much against it. But a comparison between the prints 
 taken from the two negatives respectively is quite another thing, and, in 
 some cases, gelatine has been actually known to carry away the palm 
 from a standard specimen of wet plate work. The delicacy of details is a 
 most important qualification, and, moreover, renders the gelatine process 
 a peculiarly apt one for the production of transparencies both for en- 
 larging and other purposes. Then again the sensitiveness of gelatino- 
 bromide is simply unrivalled. Thirdly, its simplicity. Under this head 
 comes the fact of the fewness of chemicals required. Fourthly, its 
 cheapness. Fifthly, it requires no substratum. Sixthly, it needs no 
 preservative. All these are very palpable advantages, and not difficult 
 to be appreciated, especially by beginners. Of course there are counter- 
 balancing disadvantages, but upon these I need not descant, at any rate 
 at present. We must be content to regard gelatino-bromide as an 
 acceptable and serviceable gift horse, and the least we can do is to 
 refrain from looking it in the mouth. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 A Standard Gelatino-Bromide Process. 
 
 This process, which may well be called a standard one, follows substan- 
 tially the formula and directions of Messrs. Wratten and Wainwright, 
 who themselves are extensive manufacturers of gelatino-bromide dry 
 plates for the photographic market. The process is a simple one ; 
 its excellence as regards results I will leave to my readers to demon- 
 strate. The following is the bare formula for what constitutes the first 
 stage or stepping-stone in the process : 
 
 Gelatino-Bromide of Silver Emulsion. 
 
 Gelatine (Nelson's No. 1 Photographic) 90grs. 
 
 Ammonium bromide 45grs. 
 
 Silver nitrate 75grs. 
 
 Water (distilled) 5oz. 
 
 The above are the proportions for 5oz. of emulsion. I would advise 
 the beginner to commence by preparing, say, half the quantity, since 
 2^oz. will coat a considerable number even of half plates ; and, moreover, 
 it is a pity to risk a waste of material in a first attempt. For the sake 
 of convenience, however, I will adhere to the quantity given. If the 
 reader wishes to prepare 2^oz. instead of 5oz., he has but to halve all 
 the proportions given. 
 
 The operator should next choose a 20oz. bottle, with a well-fitting 
 stopper, for the obvious reason that unless the stopper be accurately 
 ground, the loss of the bromide salt, which is the first of the constituents 
 to be dissolved, will overthrow the balance of the proportion. A wine 
 bottle with a new and tightly fitting cork may be used, but a stoppered 
 bottle is more convenient. 
 
 Now pour into the bottle 4oz. of water, and dissolve therein the 
 ammonium bromide. This done, add the gelatine, and leave it to soak 
 for one hour. After this interval, dissolve in a bottle or test-tube the 
 
 M 2 
 
166 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 silver nitrate in the ounce of water still remaining unused. Retire to 
 the dark room, and place both the bottle containing the swollen bromised 
 gelatine and the vessel containing the silver nitrate solution into a bowl 
 filled with water at 100° Fahrenheit. 
 
 It may here be mentioned that a most useful, if not indispensable, 
 piece of apparatus connected with the practice of gelatine processes is a 
 thermometer for determining the temperature of water. These can be 
 bought of different sizes, and at prices ranging from about 2s. 6d. to 5s. 
 
 The immersion of the two vessels in the hot water will have the 
 double result of causing a rapid and thorough solution of the gelatine, 
 and of equalising the temperature both of it and of the solution of 
 silver nitrate. Now mix the two in the larger vessel, either by slowly 
 stirring the silver into the bromised gelatine or by adding it in small 
 quantities, with a thorough shaking between each. " Either method,'* 
 say Messrs. Wratten and Wainwright, "if well done, is efficient.' ' 
 
 We have now a gelatino -bromide emulsion, such as it is, but something 
 still remains to be done which is not only important but essential. In 
 the first place, it is necessary that the " double decomposition," or inter- 
 change of elements between the two salts of silver and ammonium 
 respectively, which was alluded to in the last chapter, should be com- 
 pleted. But gelatine, as before stated, being a viscid and 'not a limpid 
 medium, the chemical interchange will take some litble while. At the 
 same time, it is requisite to keep the gelatine in a liquid condition, and 
 so — I am quoting freely, but not without conscience and good reason 
 combined — "we place the bottle (containing the emulsion) in water of 
 100° temperature, and it is found in practice that a period of from four 
 to six hours will complete the double decomposition. 
 
 "If water of a higher temperature than 100° be employed, the inter- 
 change will be completed in a shorter space of time, as the gelatine, being 
 thereby rendered more limpid, presents less obstacle. But we must bear 
 in mind that 100° is a safe temperature, and that a higher temperature 
 can only be employed at a risk of decomposing the gelatine, the results 
 of which would be inconvenient at the final stage of development — these 
 results being blisters and frilling. " 
 
 It may seem difficult to the uninitiated to keep the water in which the 
 bottle of emulsion is placed at an even temperature of 100° for so long 
 a period as six hours at a stretch ; but this can be managed in a variety 
 of ways, even when the period of digestion is extended to such apparently 
 impossible limits as half a dozen days, instead of hours. Some operators 
 place the emulsion bottle in a fish-kettle or saucepan with a lid, and 
 introduce beneath the latter a faint gas jet, adjusted so as to keep the 
 water at the required temperature. But this plan has its drawbacks. 
 
" STEWING " — WASHING. 
 
 167 
 
 In the first place, it is difficult to keep the gas burning at an even jet. 
 At night, for instance, when all the other burners in the house are at 
 work, that upon which the fate of the emulsion depends, naturally 
 dwindles down perceptibly until the moment when all the burners are 
 turned off for the night, when it springs up and burns away perhaps 
 even too merrily to be useful. A second — and decidedly practical — 
 objection to the adoption of gas is that in many houses, from choice or 
 chance, it is not laid on. A much better plan, and one which combines 
 facility, inexpensiveness, and certainty, is the following. Everyone has 
 seen in many a shop window a species of toy paraffin lamp, which is 
 supposed to be used instead of a night light. They are, I believe, of 
 American invention, and are known by the name of 1 ' Little Harry's 
 Night Lamp." They will burn for about twelve or fourteen hours at a 
 stretch, and, while producing a small illumination, give off for such 
 tiny generators a considerable amount of heat. One of these " Little 
 Harry's Night Lamps," then, is procured, and it is found by experiment 
 at what height from the flame an even temperature of any required 
 number of degrees can be sustained. Probably water could be kept at 
 an even temperature of 100° at a height of about 7in. or 8in. from 
 the flame. In "cooking" gelatine emulsion, the water may be any 
 temperature above 100° when it is first poured into the "cooking kettle." 
 It can then be cooled down to 100 p , the bottle of emulsion introduced, 
 the lamp lit, and the kettle raised to the necessary height above the 
 flame. As regards the outlay necessary for this operation, it may be 
 mentioned that the lamp burns a hundred hours at the cost of one penny, 
 and can be bought for sixpence or eightpence, while the kettle may be 
 borrowed from the kitchen, and the support to keep it at any given 
 height from the flame may be home-made of thick wire, or bought for a 
 few pence more. 
 
 The digestion having been continued for a period of six hours, it now 
 remains, prior to the actual coating of the plates, to eliminate from the 
 emulsion the superfluous nitrate of ammonium. This may be done in 
 four different ways. The first method is simply to decant the emulsion 
 into a large bottle (say, a Winchester quart), and to revolve the bottle 
 in the hands until the gelatine has set all round the sides. A thin 
 stream of water is now allowed to trickle into the bottle from a tap, or, 
 preferably, from an indiarubber tube fastened to the tap and going 
 down quite to the bottom of the bottle. The dribble of the water should 
 continue for at least eight hours. 
 
 The second method, due to Mr. King, is dialysis as practised by 
 chemists. The plan is efficient and scientific, but, as an authority very 
 rightly remarks, tedious, and unlikely to come into general favour. 
 
168 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The third method is one proposed a year or two back by Messrs. 
 Wratten and Wainwright, and consists in adding to the emulsion, for 
 each ounce of water used, two ounces of alcohol (methylated spirit not 
 containing gum may be used), and well shaking up the mixture. " The 
 gelatine rapidly assumes a pasty appearance and subsides to the bottom. 
 The bottle is then inverted, and the fluid, which contains the soluble 
 nitrates and excess of water, is poured off, and preserved for distillation. 
 The explanation of the efficacy of this method is that the alcohol has 
 a greater affinity for water than has the gelatine, and that in extracting 
 
 the water the soluble salts are extracted with it The 
 
 emulsion thus freed from soluble salts may be treated with warm water 
 to cause it to re-dissolve, or it may be dried to the state of pellicle." 
 
 The fourth method is also due to Messrs. Wratten and Wainwright, 
 and may fairly be said to have superseded the others, at any rate, so 
 far as general practicability goes. Here are Messrs. Wratten and Wain- 
 wright's own directions : "Apparatus required : (1) A bag made of that 
 ' napless 1 canvas which ladies employ as a basis for Berlin wool-work ; 
 (2) a trough, say, 12in. by 10in., and lOin. deep, and fitted with tap 
 to draw off the water, with a ledge around the inside, about 2in. 
 from the top, to support (3) a tray with wood sides and calico bottom. 
 
 " Scrape up the gelatine with a strip of glass, and transfer it to the 
 canvas bag ; close the aperture of the bag, and, by the pressure of the 
 thumb and fingers, force the gelatine through the meshes of the canvas 
 into a basin of water. We now have the gelatine in extremely fine 
 division, but it is also mixed with a vast excess of water. Now we pour 
 the whole on to the tray with the calico bottom, and the water will pass 
 off, leaving the gelatine high and dry. In order that we may be sure 
 that the proper amount of work is done, it is well to fill up the trough 
 with a fresh supply of water and let the tray float upon it for ten 
 minutes. 
 
 " When the water has been finally drained off, we transfer the gelatine 
 to a bottle, stand it in hot water, and when dissolved and filtered it is 
 ready for coating the plates." 
 
 When the gelatinous pellicle has resumed its liquid condition the coating 
 of the plates may forthwith be proceeded with. If it is desirable to 
 postpone this operation for any time, the bottle containing the emulsion 
 may be placed neck downwards in a dilute solution of carbolic acid. This 
 is a plan proposed and successfully carried out by Captain Roger Laurent. 
 Another method is one introduced and patented by Mr. Kennett, of 
 Maddox-street, himself an extensive manufacturer of gelatine plates. It 
 consists in not allowing the set gelatinous mass to re-dissolve, but, on 
 the contrary, spreading it on some such surface as canvas, and completely 
 
COATING. 
 
 169 
 
 desiccating it by the aid of heat. When required for use, it is necessary 
 to replace the water in the proportion, about loz. to 50gr., of the dried 
 pellicle. Operators are free to adopt this method if they please, as the 
 patent restriction no longer exists. 
 
 Supposing the emulsion at last to be ready, and supposing it to be 
 the operator's wish to proceed with the coating of the plates, the fol- 
 lowing precautions must be observed. In the first place, of course, there 
 must be a good non-actinic light ; in the second, the coating room must, 
 as already pointed out, be as free as possible from all suspicion of dust. 
 A stock of clean plates and a pneumatic plate holder also follow as a 
 matter of course. Besides these a sheet or sheets of accurately levelled 
 plate glass must be at hand (see p. 164). A spirit lamp, or, better 
 still, a hot-water can or some kindred contrivance, will be necessary in 
 order to warm the plates before coating. Mr. Woodbury's arrangement 
 of a piece of sheet-iron covered with blotting-paper, and superposed over 
 a spirit lamp, answers admirably. 
 
 A glass plate is now taken on the pneumatic plate holder, and very 
 slightly warmed to a temperature which the back of the hand can bear 
 very comfortably. An ounce or so of the warm emulsion is supposed to 
 have been filtered through fine cambric into a clean glass measure, which 
 should have previously been warmed by immersion in hot water or other- 
 wise. The filtered emulsion may now be poured in a round pool on to 
 the middle of the plate, the latter being slightly rocked to allow the 
 emulsion to spread to the edges. The surplus liquid is allowed to drain 
 back into the measure, and the plate is laid carefully down upon the 
 levelled surface to set and subsequently to dry. 
 
 The chief point in coating is to remember the great difference between 
 an emulsion in which the silver salt is suspended in collodion and one in 
 which the place of the collodion is taken by an aqueous solution of gelatine. 
 In the former the solvents are extremely volatile, and sufficient evapora- 
 tion to leave a suitable film on draining takes place almost immediately. 
 On the other hand, in the actual process of coating this great volatility 
 is inconvenient, for, as the collodion emulsion is exposed to air, it naturally 
 loses some part of its solvents by evaporation, and unless further dilution 
 is resorted to, eventually becomes too thick to be properly made use of. 
 Gelatine emulsion, whilst obviating this last inconvenience, is still liable 
 to the one from which collodion emulsion is free. It is extremely conve- 
 nient to be able to retain the emulsion during coating in an open vessel by 
 simply keeping the latter standing, when not in use, in hot water. At 
 the same time it is troublesome not to be able to dry the plates offhand, 
 as can be easily accomplished with dry collodion processes. Again, the 
 insufficient volatility of water necessitates an important precaution to be 
 
170 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 observed in coating gelatine dry plates. It would be of no use whatever 
 to simply flow the emulsion over the plate, and, after draining, to stand 
 the latter up to dry. It is necessary, on the contrary, to drain only par- 
 tially, and to allow about three times as much emulsion to remain on the 
 plate as would be left if the latter were drained in the same manner as in 
 dry collodion processes. The plate is now laid upon the levelled glass 
 surface, in order that the chill may cause the liquid gelatine emulsion to 
 set. When this is done, the necessity for an accurately levelled surface 
 is removed, and the plates may be allowed to rest, until desiccation is 
 complete, upon a table or shelves in any darkened room. 
 
 If it be imperative to dry the plates with the utmost possible rapidity, 
 the following convenient plan, recommended by Mr. E. W. Foxlee, may be 
 adopted. When the films have been thoroughly set the plates may be 
 immersed in a dish containing strong methylated spirit. The alcohol in 
 the course of four or five minutes will be found to have absorbed the 
 water, and the plate, being removed, will consequently be completely 
 desiccated in a few minutes, owing to the rapid evaporation of the alcohol 
 now left on the film. 
 
 The exposure of gelatine dry plates prepared by the above method will 
 probably, in ordinary circumstances, be about the same as that requisite 
 for wet plates. It is advisable, however, to make a preliminary experi- 
 ment, as advised in a previous chapter, by exposing separately four 
 different portions of one plate upon the same object and under the same 
 conditions of light, and developing as though only one exposure had been 
 given. 
 
 At this juncture I may well fall back again on Messrs. Wratten and 
 Wainwright's published instructions, which apply to the development, 
 &c, of the exposed plates. These are quoted in full, because they are 
 lucid, practical, and, at the same time, very well worded and concise. To 
 begin with, the following is the formula for the 
 
 Developer. 
 
 A. Pyrogallic acid 2grs.| Freshly 
 
 Water (ordinary) loz. ' mixed. 
 
 B. Bromide of potassium 15grs. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 C. Liquor ammonia ldr. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 " Lay the exposed plate in a dish in cold water {hard, not soft, water) 
 for one minute, during which time pour into the developing cup loz. of 
 A. Pour off the water and apply the A, leaving it also on the film for 
 about one minute. Now drop into the cup, say, three minims or drops 
 each of B and C ; return A from the plate to the cup, and perfect ad- 
 
DEVELOPMENT, ETC. 
 
 171 
 
 mixture will result. Re-apply, and in about thirty seconds or so the 
 image will begin to appear, and will gradually progress until the power 
 of the developer is exhausted. 
 
 "If it should come up rapidly with this small quantity of C, it is a sign 
 of over-exposure, and more B must be added as quickly as possible. If, 
 on the other hand, no sign of the picture becomes manifest under its in- 
 fluence, the plate will have been undoubtedly under-exposed, and it will 
 be advisable to add more C without any B. In any case, more C should 
 be required to complete development, or no density will be obtained. 
 From the foregoing, the learner will comprehend that A is the true 
 developer, B the restrainer, and C the accelerator ; and it must be his 
 study so to employ them as to obtain the result he desires. When the 
 whole of the detail has been brought out, wash well, and then fix in a 
 solution of 
 
 Hyposulphite of soda 4oz. 
 
 Water 20oz. 
 
 and wash again most thoroughly. Should any tendency to frilling of edges 
 be seen during development, it will be well to flood the film with a 
 saturated solution of common alum in water before fixing, but the film 
 must be well washed between the application of the alum and the fixing 
 solution. It cannot be too strongly urged that washing should be as 
 copious as possible between each operation. 
 
 "In cases where, from unavoidable over-exposure, it has been im- 
 possible to obtain density with the alkaline developer, a most careful 
 washing should be given after fixing, with a view to remove the last trace 
 of the alkali (ammonia). 
 
 " Intensification can then be effected with acid pyro and nitrate of 
 silver, or with protosulphate of iron and nitrate of silver. We have a 
 decided preference for the latter, and we use the following formula, 
 viz. : 
 
 A. Protosulphate of iron 15gr. 
 
 Gelatino-acetic acid solution (as described below) 40 drops. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 The gelatino-acetic acid solution is compounded as under : — 
 
 B. Gelatine 15gr. 
 
 Acetic acid, glacial, 50° 3dr. 
 
 Water 5dr. 
 
 and it is well to prepare a stock of this, and also of A, as they are both 
 better for keeping. 
 
 " To proceed. First flood the plate with water, and then with a solu- 
 tion of iodine and iodide of potassium, of the colour of pale sherry, for 
 
172 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 one minute; rinse it off, and apply enough of A to cover the plate 
 for about the same time. Now drop into the cup a drachm of B, and 
 bring the A back from the plate to the cup to mix them together. 
 Re-apply, and keep moving over the surface until density is sufficient. 
 If any air bells should occur, they must be kept moving, and then they 
 will do no harm. 
 
 " Both development and intensification are best performed in a dish, 
 the former in an ebonite, the latter in a porcelain. 
 
 " When the plate has again become dry, warm and varnish it as usual." 
 
OHAPTEE X. 
 
 Miscellaneous Gelatino-Bromide Processes. 
 
 Mr. 0. Bennett's Process. — The following is an account of an extremely 
 rapid process introduced by Mr. Charles Bennett, and described by him in 
 the British Journal of Photography '. In it Mr. Bennett has introduced 
 various important deviations from the ordinary method of working the 
 gelatine process, as detailed in the preceding chapter. These deviations 
 will be easily understood from the perusal of Mr. Bennett's lucid in- 
 structions, and, it is to be hoped, adequately appreciated when from 
 perusal the operator proceeds to practice. The stringent insistance upon 
 the necessity of an absolutely non-actinic light, the prolonged emulsifica- 
 tion, and the unrestrained developer, are points which Mr. Bennett, if 
 he has not originated, at least deserves praise for having brought 
 too forcibly before public consideration to permit of their further 
 neglect. 
 
 With regard to the light, Mr. Bennett says he has tried " warranted 
 
 non-actinic," and " tested by spectrum analysis " glass, and that he can 
 
 print transparencies through two thicknesses of such in about 30min. He 
 
 therefore advises those who wish to follow out his process, to procure 
 
 direct from a glass merchant some of the darkest shade of ruby, using 
 
 two thicknesses for daylight and one for lantern. By adopting this 
 
 precaution, in spite of the extreme sensitiveness of the plate and the 
 
 great power of the developer, operations may be carried on without any 
 
 danger of fog. By way of adding to the security given by the non-actinic 
 
 screen, Mr. Bennett employs a ruby-coloured hock bottle to hold the 
 
 emulsion during the " cooking " period. With this at hand, supplemented 
 
 by two 8oz. decanter-shaped bottles, made of test-tube glass to stand 
 
 heat, the following formula for lOoz. of emulsion may be followed : — 
 
 Ammonium bromide 70grs. 
 
 Silver nitrate llOgrs. 
 
 Gelatine 200grs. 
 
 Distilled Water 6oz. 
 
174 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The following instructions, upon the close adhesion to which Mr. 
 Bennett very correctly insists, are in that gentleman's own words: 
 " Use Nelson's No. 1 photographic gelatine, for with the opaque sixpenny 
 packets you have irregularity, red fog, and frilling. Place aside 4oz. of 
 water for the bromide, and 2oz. for the silver ; dissolve the bromide 
 with heat in one of the test bottles in l^oz. of water ; pour into the hock 
 bottle ; swill out the test tube with the remainder of the 4oz. set aside 
 for the bromide, and also pour in. I do it by heat, to insure all being 
 dissolved, as it does so very slowly after the gelatine is inserted. The 
 4oz. of solution being now almost cold, add the gelatine, shake up well, 
 and place in two or three gallons of water at 90°. I use a fish kettle 
 with lid. In two hours the bromised gelatine will, after well shaking, be 
 quite liquid, and also nearly at 90°. Now dissolve the silver in the other 
 test bottle by heat in loz. of water ; cool to 90°, and pour in ; use the 
 remainder of the 2oz. set aside for the silver to swill out ; heat to 90°, 
 and pour in. By being so particular, we get regularity, and are able to 
 mix the plates of different batches, which is a great boon. Shake the 
 emulsion very briskly, and replace in the kettle for two, four, or seven 
 days, according to rapidity required. The temperature should never 
 be over 90S. If you do not let it exceed that you will not have red fog. 
 ' Cosy ' it up with flannel, and it will not lower many degrees during the 
 night." 
 
 Mr. Bennett " cooks" his emulsion over a gas stove, but that this 
 plan has its disadvantages has already been mentioned in the previous 
 chapter. The operator will find it difficult to beat the " Little Harry's 
 Night Lamp " for convenience, cheapness, and efficiency. 
 
 The emulsion may be shaken up every twelve hours. The longer it 
 is "cooked" the more rapid and less dense it will be. From two to 
 four days' cooking will give very satisfactory results. Beyond that time 
 the exposure becomes almost unmanageable, except on dull days, and it- 
 further becomes necessary to resort to intensification, if anything approach- 
 ing density be desired. 
 
 Mr. Bennett washes the emulsion by allowing it to set in a bottle not 
 smaller than a Winchester quart, and washing for twelve hours by a dribble 
 from a tap. The bottle is wholly, with the exception of the lip, wrapped 
 up in brown paper to exclude all light, and the water is conveyed to the 
 pellicle by an indiarubber tube going quite to the bottom of the bottle. 
 This is intended to stir away the layers of water, the specific gravity 
 of which is greater than usual, owing to the salts with which they 
 are now charged. Some may prefer to adopt, in preference to this method* 
 that advocated by Messrs. Wratten and Wainwright, and previously 
 described. In either case, upon melting, you have eight or nine ounces 
 
COATING — DEVELOPMENT. 175 
 
 of emulsion ; to this should be added Joz. of pure alcohol heated to 90°. 
 The emulsion should be filled up to ten ounces with water, also heated. 
 The coating may proceed as described in the previous chapter. 
 
 The following remarks relative to coating are valuable : 1 1 The plates 
 should only be lukewarm, or you will have red fog. For beginners it 
 much helps the coating to double the quantity of alcohol, leaving out 
 water to that extent. The operator should not be alarmed at the 
 peculiar mottling of the film (due to the alcohol) directly after coating ; 
 this subsides, in a few seconds, to an even surface. The extra alcohol 
 does not appear to alter the sensitiveness, and is a great help ; but with 
 experienced workers it is not necessary, and the quantity mentioned above 
 is sufficient to draw the emulsion up to the edges, which is the sole object 
 of introducing it. When no alcohol is used you always have thin edges, 
 which is very objectionable, as the negative, of course, will print dark at 
 those parts, and this small addition of alcohol totally rectifies this fault. 
 It is difficult to measure the exact quantity of emulsion required for each 
 plate ; one ounce would probably cover eight plates 6^in. by 4fin. size." 
 
 No absolute limits for exposure can possibly be given. As has already 
 been mentioned, this depends greatly on the time allowed for emulsifi- 
 cation ; the actual sensitiveness of any particular batch must be determined 
 by experiment. 
 
 The development is best accomplished in a dish. The plate is first 
 soaked for a minute in ordinary cold water (not distilled), and is then 
 treated with a developer compounded according to the following formula : 
 
 Developer. 
 
 Pyrogallic acid lgr. 
 
 Bromide none. 
 
 Liquor ammoniae fortis 1 to 10 drops. 
 
 Water loz. 
 
 This is poured quickly along that side of the tray which is not occupied 
 by the plate, and, by rocking the dish suddenly, is sent sweeping over the 
 film. The image is developed in from five to twenty seconds. 
 
 The above developer, if applied exactly as laid down in the instructions 
 given, ought to produce, providing the exposure has been correct, a dense 
 negative with bare glass, representing the shadows, almost as soon as 
 it has covered the film. The quantity of ammonia should vary according 
 to the light in which the picture is secured. If the light be good, 
 two, three, or four drops will be sufficient, if poor, a larger quantity 
 will be requisite. If much ammonia be used, and the plate be not 
 developed in half a minute, the plate should be washed, and a fresh 
 developer made up and applied. 
 
176 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Mr. Bennett concludes the account of his process with some good 
 hints as to ascertaining whether the light admitted to the dark room is of 
 proper quality. " Being now in possession of some extra-sensitive plates, 
 put one in a thick book, and having placed it five or six inches from your 
 ruby glass window or lantern, draw out the plate one-third for a few 
 minutes ; again draw it out further one-third more for a short period. 
 You will then have the film in three divisions, as it were — one portion not 
 having been exposed to the red light, and the other two portions having 
 had different exposures. Now develop, and use, say three drops of 
 ammonia. If your light be still at fault, the exposed portions of the 
 plate will fog ; in that case use another thickness of ruby glass." A 
 variation of this plan, the dark slide taking the place of the book, has 
 been recommended for ascertaining the requisite exposure of plates of 
 uncertain sensitiveness. 
 
 Plates, ready prepared according to Mr. Bennett's formulae, may be 
 purchased of either the Liverpool Dry Plate Company, or of Messrs. 
 Samuel Fry and Co., Kingston-on-Thames, S.W. 
 
 Captain Ahney's Process. — In the British Journal of Photography for 
 30th May, 1879, Captain Abney described the following process under the 
 head of " A modified method of preparing gelatino -bromide emulsions. " 
 His account was prefaced by a few words, stating the object he had 
 held in view, and the principles by which he had been guided whilst 
 conducting his experiments. His instructions, so far as the practical 
 working of the process is concerned, are as follow : " Let us suppose we 
 want to prepare about lOoz. of an emulsion with excess of silver, and 
 that Bennett's formula is to be used. Weigh out 70grs. of (say) 
 ammonium bromide, and add to it ldr. of nitric acid. To fully convert 
 the 70grs. of bromide, we should require about 117grs. of silver nitrate . 
 so weigh out 130grs., and dissolve it in another lOoz. of water. Pour 
 the former into the latter gradually ; whilst so doing stir well, and then 
 allow the precipitate to settle. Pour off the supernatant fluid, fill up 
 the vessel (a glass one by preference) containing the solution, stir well 
 and again pour off. Repeat this half a dozen times, or so long as blue 
 litmus paper reddens in the decanted water. When the paper remains 
 unchanged, drain off as close as possible, and wait for the next operation 9 
 "Whilst this washing takes place the 200gr. of gelatine can be put 
 in to soak in a bottle containing 9oz. of water, and, when swollen, a 
 gentle heat is applied until it is dissolved. The precipitated bromide 
 is next spooned out into the gelatine solution, all particles being rinsed 
 out with the warm solution. The bottle is next shaken up vigorously, 
 and the would-be emulsion will look perfectly hopeless, coarse particles 
 of the silver compound being distributed throughout the liquid. Place 
 
abney's process. 
 
 177 
 
 the bottle for a quarter of an hour in a pan of water heated up to 90°, 
 shake again, and pour out a drop on a glass plate. It will be found that 
 a perfect emulsion is formed — smooth and not very creamy. Coat a plate 
 with this for trial, and keep the emulsion stewing as in Bennett's process. 
 At the end of a day coat another plate, and stew again for another day ; 
 coat another plate, and so on as long as may be desired. It will be found 
 that each day's stewing improves the sensitiveness, and that the colour 
 of the emulsion dropped on a plate, when examined by transmitted light, 
 changes from a dirty yellow colour, when first prepared, to a grey 
 violet after several days' emulsification. Expose the trial plates, and note 
 their increased rapidity as the cooking is prolonged. One day's cooking 
 or stewing will give one a decently rapid plate — as rapid, indeed, as a wet 
 plate — and plenty of density." 
 
 Subsequently to the publication of the above instructions, Capt. Abney 
 recommended the addition of a little gelatine to the bromide solution, to 
 remove granularity or grittiness of the film. 
 
 Capt. Abney states that in his experience of his process, a marked 
 absence from "spots" has been noticeable. He further adds that an 
 emulsion free from all soluble salts can be prepared in a couple of hours, 
 since, by increasing the temperature to 150°, an adequate creaminess and 
 sensitiveness can be produced even in that short space of time. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Appendix to Gelatino-Bbomide Processes. 
 
 There remains but little to be said in connection with the various gela- 
 tine processes beyond what has already been put forward in the three 
 preceding chapters. This little, however, although composed for the most 
 part of seemingly unpretentious and fragmentary scraps of information, 
 is actually of extreme importance to anyone desiring to become a really 
 intelligent operator in gelatine. It is given to few to acquire a sufficiently 
 wide experience of any given subject, not only to render them thoroughly 
 familiar with all possible contingencies, but also to place them in a posi- 
 tion to build up new theories which time shall establish into practice. 
 One man at first meets with comparatively no difficulties at all ; he is 
 flattered at his perspicacity in choosing a process which suits him, and he 
 resolves, perhaps wisely, to stick to it. Another finds obstacles at every 
 step, and throws up the whole concern in despair. Both of these will 
 profit even by running through the small talk of the present chapter. 
 The first will learn that difficulties do exist, which must be encountered, 
 and will perhaps be secured against the dangerous habit of over- con- 
 fidence, that slippery virtue which so often at the approach of a possible 
 failure melts away into cowardice. The second, it is hoped, will undergo 
 an exactly reverse operation. He will, if he be wise, get it firmly fixed in 
 his mind that failures are not really necessary, but for the most part, at 
 any rate if due care and attention be given, as purely accidental as they 
 were in the more elementary branches of the art. If this is not enough 
 to make him <c turn to" once more with renewed vigilance and applica- 
 tion, the sooner he bids farewell to all that is photographic the better 
 for photography. 
 
 In the first place, it may create surprise that we have not made the 
 
GELATINE EMULSION, ETC. 179 
 
 list of gelatino-bromide processes a great deal larger than it appears in 
 the present work. But this has been done advisedly. If the account given 
 in the present work is not long, it is comprehensive, and really includes 
 about as much as can at present be safely put forward to the public by 
 way of practical instruction. There are other processes, it is true, which 
 are at the moment being ventilated, but they are either in principle iden- 
 tical with those already discussed, while they do not supersede them 
 in practical utility, or else they are hardly sufficiently established to be 
 called existing processes. Those who care to see the various methods of 
 and modifications in working gelatine emulsions from time to time pro- 
 posed by eager experimentalists, cannot do better than study the 
 instructive pages of the two photographic journals, namely, the Photo- 
 graphic News and the British Journal of Photography. Both of these 
 journals publish yearly " almanacs," which teem with general information 
 and accounts of new processes evolved from the brains of the best living 
 photographers, as well as with concise and interesting resume's of photo- 
 graphic progress during the past year. 
 
 As regards the operations incident to the manufacture of an emulsion, 
 it need hardly be said that they should be kept as simple and as system- 
 atic as possible. There are countless little dodges by which trouble may 
 be saved in this respect without incurring the slightest risk of detriment 
 to the result. The dark room, as it is the centre or rather basis of 
 operations, should be especially cared for, and the operator should take 
 a reasonable pride in keeping everything in its proper place. The reader 
 may wonder why this trite injunction is once more urged upon him at so 
 late a stage in the present work ; but the fact is that it applies perhaps 
 more accurately to the gelatine processes than to any others. Simple and 
 straightforward as he will find most of his work to be, the gelatine 
 operator will be greatly at a loss if he does not give peculiar care to 
 points of apparently minor importance. In proportion as a gelatine film 
 produces an image remarkable for its exquisitely delicate tracery and 
 minuteness of detail, so is it affected by contretemps which, compara- 
 tively speaking, would have little or no effect on a film of robuster nature. 
 If not possessed of a drying box, the operator should take especial pains 
 to avoid even a particle of dust in the room where the plates are drying, 
 which is, perhaps, the period of all others when the work of preparation 
 and coating is undone. A " swabbing " with a wet cloth is a very good 
 method of laying the dust previously to commencing work. 
 
 It is advantageous for the beginner not to make up large quantities of 
 emulsion at a time. I would suggest 2^oz. as a useful quantity to 
 begin with, and for all experimental purposes. It is true that the 
 formulae given are for larger quantities ; but this, I confess, is only for 
 
 N 
 
180 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 personal convenience. A very simple application of the rule of division 
 will enable calculations for any quantity to be readily made up from 
 the data given. It may be added that, owing to the absence of evapora- 
 tion, it is easier to make up small quantities of an emulsion the basis 
 of which is an aqueous solution of gelatine than of one in which the vola- 
 tile alcohol and ether are employed. 
 
 In coating, if the plates are large and the emulsion cannot be brought 
 to cover their surfaces readily, a glass rod may be used to assist the 
 emulsion to the edges. 
 
 As regards exposure, it has been already recommended that this be 
 determined by experiment, by which means alone real accuracy can be 
 obtained. There is hardly anyone so rash, we venture to think, as to 
 assert that accurate exposure is not productive of the best possible 
 negatives, although we may not care to lay down the law that good, 
 if not perfect negatives, may be obtained in cases where the exposure 
 has not been exactly accurate. At any rate, accurate exposure is the 
 best of all bases for future operations, and the development of a well- 
 timed negative is too good a treat to be constantly and carelessly for- 
 feited. 
 
 Beginners in gelatine will probably be surprised at the infinitesimal 
 exposure in which, when using really rapid plates, a fully exposed 
 negative is easily procured. Practice alone will remedy the mistakes into 
 which this extreme rapidity will beguile the unwary. In cases where a 
 second would be twice too long, and quarter of a second twice too short, 
 the operator must look to the development to put him right. 
 
 Relative to exposure, it is a curious fact that the rapidity of gelatine 
 plates is by no means so greatly affected by inferiority of light as are 
 plates prepared by collodion processes, wet or dry. Gelatine plates are 
 sensitive in no inconsiderable degree to yellow light, and on a day when, 
 owing to preponderance of yellowness in the light available, a negative 
 could not be taken by other means, one can be secured on a gelatine film 
 with comparative ease. One can see at a glance how the value of gela- 
 tine plates is enhanced by this fact, especially during the dull yellowy 
 light of winter. As a matter of fact, it may be said that gelatine plates, 
 which in good light are three or four times as rapid as wet plates, are 
 about twelve or fifteen times as rapid in light which is apparently bad 
 for all plates alike. 
 
 In respect of development, little can be said in supplement to the 
 instructions already laid down, and the formulae already given. There 
 are other formulae, it is true, but none in my opinion which, for general 
 simplicity, thorough reliability, and great latitude in use, are equal to the 
 ordinary method of development with alkaline pyro. The same remark 
 
PECULIARITIES — DEFECTS. 
 
 181 
 
 applies to the intensification with silver and pyro, or with silver and 
 iron. When it can be managed without inconvenience to the operator, 
 it is recommended to develop very rapid plates at night, as then the 
 light used can be rendered as non-actinic as possible. It requires no 
 ordinary precautions to shield a really rapid gelatine plate from the bright 
 light of a summer day, while it would be extremely difficult to fog one 
 under ordinary circumstances with the light of a candle thoroughly 
 screened by deep ruby glass. 
 
 A strange fact in regard to fixation, brought before my notice by 
 Mr. Wratten, is that the weaker the fixing solution is the quicker the 
 image seem3 to undergo fixation. I confess I cannot account for this ; 
 but it is certainly to be regarded as a convenient freak of nature, for it 
 materially diminishes the amount of washing necessitated by a fixing 
 solution heavily charged with the hypo salt. 
 
 Unless many proofs be required, the operator will not find immediate 
 varnishing necessary before printing from gelatine plates. The film is 
 generally so smooth and hard that it may scarcely be scratched by the 
 finger-nail. 
 
 As regards one or two little difficulties connected with the use of 
 gelatine plates. Of spots I have already spoken ; with such difficulties 
 as fog and want of density I trust my readers are quite capable of 
 grasping themselves. If they have read and taken to mind the pre- 
 ceding chapters of this work, I think I may say that they have small 
 excuse for being at a loss in this respect. But there is one little 
 annoyance connected with gelatine processes which cannot be dismissed 
 so easily. This is frilling. Frilling is extremely easy to recognise 
 when it does occur in practice, but it is not so easy to describe theo- 
 retically. A well-frilled plate presents a most fantastic appearance. 
 Possibly there is a big blister in the middle of the film, or may be a 
 variety of little blisters ; but these are trifles compared to the edges, 
 which are neatly puckered up in the quaintest and most exasperating 
 manner imaginable. It is in the summer months that frilling reigns 
 especially rampant. If soft or distilled water be used in soaking 
 and development, frilling may be expected almost as a matter of course ; 
 a good deterrent, and one which is often effectual, is to drop into the 
 water used for soaking and development a few grains of Epsom salts. 
 Sometimes a soaking in methylated spirit will allay the disturbed surface 
 of a frilled plate. But probably the best preventive is the following, 
 which I quote in the words of a well-known operator and manufacturer 
 of dry plates, both collodion and gelatine : " The plan which I have 
 myself adopted, and which I recommend to others, possesses the advan- 
 tage of adding little or nothing to the trouble involved in developing 
 
 N 2 
 
182 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 and finishing a plate, and may therefore be regularly adopted as a 
 safeguard, even when frilling is not expected. The method consists in 
 immersing the plate, previous to development, in a solution of chrome 
 alum of the strength of two grains to the ounce, instead of in plain 
 water, and washing before the application of the developer. Plates so 
 treated lose nothing in sensitiveness, and show no trace of frilling and 
 blistering, even under the most trying circumstances. The applica- 
 tion being made before development, the film is, of course, in a more 
 favourable state to resist the action of an elevated temperature during 
 the operation." 
 
 With this I leave the gelatine processes in my readers' hands, con- 
 fident that, if due care and attention be given by the latter, the former 
 will repay their efforts at least as well as any of the processes here or 
 elsewhere noticed and described. 
 
CHAPTEE XII. 
 
 Instantaneous Photogkaphy. 
 
 The study of instantaneous photography is one which ought at some 
 time or another to occupy the serious and, indeed, undivided attention 
 of every photographer. The general end and aim of photography is 
 the reproduction of nature, and one of the most marked characteristics of 
 nature is motion. In some cases this motion is comparatively imper- 
 ceptible ; in others it is, to use an Irishism, about the only visible sign 
 of presence exhibited. A child may make a reproduction of a post, but 
 the difficulty of the task is sensibly increased when the post becomes a 
 waving tree, a rippling stream, a tossing vessel, or any other of the 
 thousand moving objects which daily meet our vision. The difficulty is 
 a natural as well as a technical one. And it is this fact which leads us 
 into an important and perhaps not over often indulged reflection con- 
 cerning instantaneous effects. Let my readers imagine two pictures, both 
 representations of the same subject, to be hanging before their eyes. 
 Let us suppose the subject to be, say, a hunter or a racehorse in full 
 career, and the representations of it to be respectively from the studio 
 of a painter and from that of a photographer. Which of the two artists 
 has, to use a vulgar expression, the "pull" over the other? As a 
 matter of fact, unless the painter be one of no ordinary merit, the 
 photographer may claim a decided advantage. By a timely loosening of 
 a spring, or by some other kindred contrivance, he has secured an exact 
 representation of a natural object not in an attitude of repose, but 
 instinct with motion. The painter has, perhaps, produced a more artistic 
 likeness, but the danger is great that, in the fleeting glimpse of his 
 object, he has caught but a general impression, not unfrequently a faulty 
 one, of postures and aspects in which minute detail and delicate accuracy 
 are of even more importance than artistic distances, surroundings, tones, 
 and what-not else besides. Instructive examples might be multiplied by 
 thousands. A mother may take her baby to a painter, and expect, with 
 a fair show of reason, to be furnished with a pleasing and generally 
 
184 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 accurate likeness. But to accomplish this not only takes much time and 
 labour, but, owing to the natural fact that a baby's countenance rarely, 
 except in sleep, retains the same expression for sixty seconds together, 
 is fidgetty, uncertain work. But take the baby to a good photographer, 
 and after half an hour, by dint of coaxing the restless infant into a natural 
 expression, and with the assistance of rapid plates and some method of 
 instantaneous exposure, a real likeness is secured in a fraction of a 
 second. These random, and perhaps ill-chosen illustrations, are not in 
 any way meant to convey an argument as to the invariable superiority 
 of photography over, say, painting, as a means of reproducing instanta- 
 neous effects. They are rather intended to hint that the distance between 
 the two arts is less when dealing with motion than with repose. In 
 the latter case the painter has little trouble in attaining accuracy of 
 reproduction as well as artistic effect, but when repose gives way to 
 motion, there ensue natural changes, at any rate in living objects, which 
 the surface of the "instantaneous " plate arrests with far greater promp- 
 titude and far less chance of error than the slow working pencil or tedious 
 brush. 
 
 Having thus briefly reviewed one feature of general utility which may 
 well tempt the photographer to try his hand at instantaneous work, let 
 me proceed to particularise a few cases where the force of circumstances 
 not only limits but actually cripples the power imparted to an operator 
 by the invariable adoption of a slow, however certain, process. If the 
 photographer be a portraitist, how often is he tortured by the apparition 
 of the infallible and ever-recurring baby ? If he has a predilection for 
 taking groups, has he never been pestered with the " fidget," who is 
 always spoiling a picture and solemnly asseverating that he sat like a 
 statue ? Turning from portraits to landscapes, how many of the latter, 
 it may well be asked, have lost all artistic effect by reason of moving 
 trees, waves, clouds, and the like ? And in how many days of our 
 English year can these faults be rendered impossible of occurrence 
 when a slow process is used ? The mention of clouds is in itself a 
 strong argument in favour of instantaneous photography, and one which 
 should be obvious to a reader of Part I., Chapter XV., of the present 
 work. 
 
 Having demonstrated the utility if not the necessity of a means of 
 instantaneously reproducing the semblance of moving objects, let me 
 consider how the practical application of these means is to be managed. 
 The first thought will naturally be for the process. A short time ago 
 this would have been a far more serious matter for consideration than 
 at the present. When wet collodion was almost alone in the field it is 
 true that instantaneous photographs of great merit were frequently 
 
INSTANTANEOUS PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 185 
 
 secured, but the task was one of difficulty and delicacy combined. The 
 process, never one of great simplicity, was further complicated by the 
 necessity for extreme cleanliness, and for conditions of working which, 
 to say the least, were tedious if not downright troublesome of attainment. 
 The chemical preparations had to be regulated to a certain pitch, and used 
 after a certain period of preservation, while unless the light was par- 
 ticularly favourable, not even the utmost precautions, the most delicate 
 skill, the most seasoned experience could guarantee a success. Happily 
 we may now congratulate ourselves that we have come to order things 
 better in respect to instantaneous pictures, and that the latter are at last 
 within the easy reach of operators, who, in the old days, would be looked 
 upon as raw recruits, unskilled in the very goose-steps of the art. The 
 wet process has yielded, at any rate in this respect, to its many dry 
 successors ; we can even, so to speak, take instantaneous pictures by 
 proxy, by the simple expedient of buying instantaneous plates ready 
 prepared, of such startling sensitiveness and striking facility of manipu- 
 lation, that photographs of the Oxford and Cambridge boats in full 
 career, of a trotting horse, of an athlete jumping, of trains at almost 
 full speed, of jostling crowds, and of nearly every other moving object, 
 have almost ceased to be the envy of the unskilful and the marvel of 
 the ignorant. 
 
 As regards the actual choice of a process little need be said. 
 Instantaneous pictures can be taken both by the collodio-bromide and 
 gelatino-bromide processes, but the facilities respectively afforded by 
 them for this purpose can hardly be said to be equal. To reproduce 
 instantaneous effects by dry collodion requires nearly the same favourable 
 conditions as those essential to the use of wet plates, for, as has been 
 already pointed out, the dry plate worker must rest well satisfied with 
 a batch of collodion dry plates, if their rapidity be even no greater 
 than wet. But with gelatine plates the matter stands very differently. 
 Instructions have been given in the previous chapters, by following 
 which the humblest amateur can prepare for himself plates of almost 
 indefinite sensitiveness. Perhaps the beginner, if he desire to turn his 
 attention to preparing instantaneous plates by the gelatine process may 
 be well advised to call to his aid the formulae and instructions of Mr. 
 Charles Bennett, or the modification of these introduced by Capt. Abney, 
 all of which are given in full in Chap. X. If, however, the photo- 
 grapher objects to preparing his own plates, he will find every facility 
 thrown in his way for purchasing them both of standard quality and at 
 moderate expense. 
 
 As regards the working of instantaneous dry plates nothing need be 
 added to the instructions given for the treatment of plates of ordinary 
 
186 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 rapidity, and in connection with the Bennett process, which has been 
 chosen as the type of instantaneous methods suited to the means of 
 amateurs and beginners. It need hardly be said that in special cir- 
 cumstances instantaneous pictures can be taken by ordinary processes 
 by forcing the development, the quantity of bromide restrainer being 
 diminished, or that of the ammonia being increased ; but this is an 
 expedient which should not be rashly or needlessly resorted to. In the 
 case of commercial instantaneous plates, full instructions are always sent 
 out by the dealers supplying them, with the plates themselves. 
 
 The means for instantaneous exposure usually consist of what are 
 known as instantaneous shutters, which are manufactured in almost 
 every conceivable form. Their purpose is to leave the aperture of the 
 lens uncovered for a fraction of a second, and to make sure that, except 
 for this brief period, the lens is as well shielded as if an ordinary cap 
 were used. Means of effecting this purpose will readily suggest them- 
 selves to my readers after a very little thought. If it be found that a 
 shutter will not drop of its own weight with sufficient rapidity — supposing 
 a "drop" shutter to be chosen for its simplicity — the help of india- 
 rubber, or even watch springs, may be called in with advantage. As 
 regards commercial instantaneous shutters, the following remarks by an 
 authority may be read with interest and attention: "In reply to your 
 question respecting the several instantaneous shutters in vogue, there 
 can be no doubt that Mr. England's form of shutter, viz., a guillotine 
 drop immediately in front of the sensitive plate, is the best possible 
 form of shutter, but it is cumbersome, somewhat difficult to apply, and 
 requires great care in use to avoid dust, &c. All instantaneous shutters 
 applied in front of the lens act more or less as diaphragms. Of those 
 for very rapid exposures, perhaps the guillotine or drop shutter is the 
 best. The next, and what I believe to be the best shutter for quick 
 exposures, is Mann's patent shutter, which opens and closes from the 
 centre, but I must inform you that the slides being actuated by india- 
 rubber springs, they are apt to get out of order. The next best shutter 
 I know of — perhaps the best, but not so rapid as the former — is Window's 
 roller shutter. The only objection to this form is its bulk. After that I 
 would class flap shutters of various descriptions." In spite of the con- 
 cluding dictum, I would recommend the pattern of flap shutter intro- 
 duced and sold by Mr. Eouch, of Norfolk- street, Strand, as being neat, 
 effective, and as serving, moreover, as a sunshade for the lens. A shutter 
 introduced by Mr. Weaver is being advertised by Werge, of Berners- 
 street, the low price of which (7s. 6d.) is a recommendation. 
 
 Messrs. Wratten and Wainwright have introduced a new instantaneous 
 camera. This is a double camera, one of which serves as a finder of 
 
INSTANTANEOUS PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 187 
 
 means of ascertaining the moment when a moving object is most satis- 
 factorily posed and placed. When this is ascertained a string is pulled 
 actuating a shutter, which instantaneously exposes the plate in the other 
 camera. 
 
 As regards the lenses suitable for instantaneous work, this is a point 
 which, in these days of extremely rapid plates, is not of anything like 
 such importance as in the old times of wet collodion. For portraiture 
 any decent portrait lens answers ; for groups and landscapes the rapid 
 rectilinear, rapid symmetrical, portable symmetrical, and stereoscopic 
 lenses of Dallmeyer and Ross, respectively, will be found quite equal to 
 any occasion when using really instantaneous plates. 
 
 In conclusion, I would wish it to be understood that the stress laid 
 upon the desirability of instantaneous work implies any advice as to the 
 invariable employment of instantaneous plates. At the same time I 
 think that they might be used far oftener than they are with good 
 results, and I am sure that the trifling extra trouble involved would 
 be amply compensated by the sense of ability to catch that poetry of 
 motion which lives, and breathes, and has its being in every fibre and 
 vein of natural life. 
 
 o 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Dealers in Dey Plates. 
 
 In closing that portion of the present series which is devoted to the 
 exposition and illustration of dry-plate photography, I think I cannot 
 do better than give a list of the manufacturers of dry plates. The 
 demand for commercial, or "ready-made," dry plates is something 
 enormous, one firm alone turning out from six to nine thousand dozen of 
 plates of all sizes in a week, and even this supply is inadequate to meet 
 the demands of customers. 
 
 The names of most of these firms, their addresses, and their speciali- 
 ties, together with their prices, are given categorically. I do not enter 
 upon the relative merits of these makers, for that would be a task alike 
 invidious and impracticable. All may be recommended for doing their 
 best to send out plates which may be relied upon as possessing the 
 various qualifications claimed in the advertisements of the makers them- 
 selves. As regards the advisability of amateurs procuring their plates, 
 &c, from commercial sources, this must be left to their own discretion. 
 If the photographer can turn out a good emulsion and a good batch of 
 plates, let him by all means depend upon himself. He will find home 
 made plates, if really well prepared, quite as good as and necessarily 
 cheaper than commercial ones. The processes thrown open to the public 
 will be found in every way as certain, as simple, and as productive of 
 good results as those in which "trade secrets" are involved. Above all, 
 the satisfaction attached to a picture obtained by the aid of an emulsion 
 prepared by the operator himself from the beginning is hardly to be 
 equalled with that accruing to pictures in the excellence of which a 
 commercial dry-plate manufacturer can claim to have the least share. 
 But apart from all this, if the operator, by force of circumstances, by 
 want of skill, or from any other reason finds himself unable to produce 
 reliable plates at home, by all means let him consult the following, or 
 any other list, and if he finds his choice of any particular make a really 
 satisfactory one, let him adhere to it. 
 
COMMERCIAL DRY PLATES. 
 
 189 
 
 The following list is merely a catalogue collated from various sources 
 for the benefit of intending purchasers, and that the names of the 
 various firms and dealers are arranged indiscriminately and with no bias 
 or preference : 
 
 The Liverpool Dry-plate Company, St. John's Hill, Clapham Junction 
 (manager, Mr. Peter Mawdsley), dealers in collodion emulsion and in 
 gelatine dry plates. Prices : Emulsion, ordinary or instantaneous, 
 5s. 6d. per 5oz. ; gelatine dry plates, i size, 3s. 6d. per dozen ; larger 
 sizes at proportionate prices. 
 
 Mawson and Swan, Mosley-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne, dealers in 
 " Swan's " plates, ten times as sensitive as wet. Prices : i size, 3s. per 
 dozen. London agent, J. Werge, 11a, Berners- street, W. 
 
 Murray and Heath, 69, Jermyn-street, London, S.W., dealers in Ritchie's 
 Patent Arabin Bromide of Silver Emulsion. Prices : 2oz. bottles, 4s. 3d. ; 
 5oz., 10s. 
 
 Marion and Co., 22 and 23, Soho-square, London, W., dealers in 
 " Britannia" dry plates. List and particulars on application. 
 
 W. W. Rouch and Co., 180, Strand, W.C., dealers in collodion, emul- 
 sion, and dry plates, " Beechey" process; also in rapid gelatine dry 
 plates. Prices : Beechey emulsion, 5s. per 5oz. ; Beechey plates, J size, 
 4s. per dozen ; gelatine plates, i size, 3s. per dozen. 
 
 Wratten and Wainwright, 38, Great Queen-street, Long Acre, W.C., 
 dealers in collodion emulsion and " London " gelatine dry plates. Prices : 
 Collodion emulsion, ordinary and instantaneous, 5s. 6d. per 5oz. ; 
 gelatine plates, instantaneous, i size, 3s. per dozen ; ordinary, 2s. 6d. 
 per dozen. 
 
 Samuel Fry and Co., Kingston-on-Thames, S.W., dealers in " Kingston " 
 gelatine dry plates. Prices : J size, 3s. per dozen. 
 
 R. Kennett, Maddox-street, Regent-street, W., maker of gelatine, 
 pellicle, and dry plates. Prices : Pellicle sufficient for 5oz., 3s. 6d. ; plates, 
 instantaneous, ordinary, slow, and slowed, J size, 3s. 6d. per dozen. 
 
 W. H. and J. Nelson, Fielding House, Holly-road, Twickenham, S.W., 
 dealers in rapid gelatine plates. Prices : i size, 3s. per dozen. 
 
 Fallowfield and Thomson, 15, Jelf-road, Brixton, S.W., dealers in 
 " Eclipse " dry plates. Prices : i size, 2s. 6d. per dozen. 
 
 Smith, Boffinger, and Co., 222, Old Kent-road, London, S.E., dealers in 
 "Berlin" instantaneous gelatine bromide dry plates. Prices: i size, 
 2s. 6d. per dozen. 
 
 D. H. Cussons and Co., 6, Gloucester-road, Southport, dealers in rapid 
 and extra rapid Bromo-gelatine plates. Prices : J size, 3s. per dozen. 
 
 C. E. Elliott, 36, Jewin-street, London, E.C., dealer in "Victoria" 
 gelatine plates. Prices : i size, 3s. per dozen. 
 
190 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 W. J. Wilson, 2, Westwick Gardens, Hammersmith, W., dealer in extra 
 rapid gelatine emulsion. Prices : 5oz., 4s. 6d. ; 10oz., 8s. 6d. ; pint, 16s. 
 
 John Bishop and Co., 24, High Holborn, W.C., dealers in " Holborn" 
 and other gelatino-bromide dry plates. 
 
 J. F. Shew and Co., 89, Newman-street, London, dealers in " Standard " 
 gelatine plates. Sample packet, containing four J plates and directions, 
 post free for 12 stamps. 
 
 H. J. Inskipp, photographer, Tunbridge Wells, dealer in collodio- 
 bromide of zinc emulsion and pellicle. Prices : Pellicle, 3s. 6d. per packet 
 post free, sufficient for 5oz. ; emulsion, 4s. for 5oz., 15s. per pint. 
 
 E. Clennett, Sunderland-street, West Hartlepool, dealer in improved 
 rapid and instantaneous gelatine plates. Prices : J size, 2s. 6d. per 
 dozen. 
 
 J. M. Turnbull, 2, Hanover- street, Edinburgh, dealer in gelatine and 
 collodion emulsion, also in " Waverley " gelatine plates. Prices : Gelatine 
 emulsion, 5oz., free to any address, 3s. 3d. ; collodion emulsion, 5oz., 
 free, 4s. ; plates, £ size, 3s. per dozen. 
 
 A. J. Jarman, 41, Queen-street, Ramsgate, Kent, dealer in gelatine 
 dry plates. Prices : i size, 2s. 6d. per dozen. 
 
 W. Carsley, 18, Bartholomew-close, London, E.C., agent for Leethem's 
 gelatino-bromide dry plates and emulsion. Prices : Emulsion, 6s. 6d. 
 per half pint, 10s. per pint ; plates, i size, 2s. 3d. 
 
 With this list I conclude the second part of " Practical Photography." 
 
PART III. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC MISCELLANEA. 
 
 CHAPTEB I. 
 Introductory. 
 
 The present chapter, the first of the Third Part of "Practical Photo- 
 graphy," is also the first of a series relating to the art-science in 
 entirely novel aspects. It presupposes that the reader has taken to 
 mind the lessons which the two previous parts were intended to convey ; 
 in other words, that he has arrived at that most important of stages in 
 the study and practice of photography, namely, the ability to produce a 
 negative. What I am now about to teach him is a distinct advance 
 upon this. In this and following chapters I purpose showing both what 
 may be done with a negative, and how the taking of a negative may be 
 accomplished without the aid of those conditions which, to the beginner, 
 would reasonably seem indispensable. In the First Part of "Practical 
 Photography," I gave instructions for printing from the negative upon 
 paper sensitised with silver. This process, delicate and excellent so far 
 as immediate results were concerned, was still attended with one grave 
 defect. The results were fugitive, liable to fade away by lapse of time 
 into mere shadows of their former selves. I am now about to intro- 
 duce my readers to printing processes which are permanent, and which 
 in point of results bear favourable comparison with the best of silver 
 printing. Nay, more, I shall give an account of photo-mechanical 
 processes by which prints can be produced without even the aid of light, 
 and with a rapidity by the side of which sun printing falls into the 
 shade. Again, I have still further attractions to add to my pro- 
 gramme. I have reserved until now the various means by which 
 photographic transparencies are obtained, and by which the tiny minia- 
 
 P 
 
192 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 ture may be enlarged to the most imposing and effective dimensions. 
 I have also in store for the attentive and intelligent reader an account 
 of several most feasible methods for producing negatives by artificial 
 light. But I must not forestall too much. Tn a word, the present part 
 of the series is to be a compendium of photographic miscellanies, such a 
 compendium as I believe does not exist elsewhere in a form at once 
 comprehensive, collected, and concise. With this brief introduction, I 
 will now proceed to the actual task which I have set before myself, 
 merely premising that I shall not repeat the instructions given in the 
 former parts of the series in reference to such points as preparing or 
 procuring emulsions, dry-plates, and the like. As I have already 
 remarked, it will be assumed that the reader has at least read the first 
 two parts of " Practical Photography/ ' or else some work containing 
 similar information. If he has not, the following chapters may be 
 interesting to him, but can be of little practical use. I may mention 
 that "Practical Photography," Parts I. and II., have been reprinted 
 separately, and may be procured at The Bazaar office, price Is. each. 
 Part I. contains a full account of the wet collodion process, together with 
 printing in silver on albumenised paper ; Part II. is a manual — I 
 believe the fullest and most practical j ever published — of dry-plate 
 photography. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Carbon Process. 
 
 The first miscellaneous photographic operation of which I shall speak to 
 my readers is what is called the carbon process, for producing photo- 
 graphic prints in permanent colour. This process is also known by the 
 name of Autotype, and is, on account of the permanence of its results 
 much practised commercially, both in Great Britain and on the Continent. 
 There are several patents connected with its practice, which have been, 
 or are at this moment, in the hands of the Autotype Company, of 36, 
 Eathbone-place, London, W. The patents now in force govern what is 
 known as the autotype or carbon process by double transfer, and the 
 position of the public with regard to them will be fully explained when 
 dealing with that portion of our subject. Before, however, entering upon 
 any practical details, a few words must be said in reference to the Auto- 
 type Company itself. This is a great commercial establishment, which is 
 devoted both to the production of autotype prints for illustrated works, 
 &c, and to the supply of all kinds of materials connected with the work- 
 ing of the process by others. Up to the expiry, which took place a short 
 time ago, of the patent governing that part of the autotype process 
 known as single transfer, and also the manufacture of the carbon tissue, 
 the Autotype Company possessed the monopoly of supplying the tissue, 
 which is the most important element of autotype printing. On the expiry 
 of this patent, however, they threw open to the public the option of 
 buying their tissue wherever they pleased. Whilst this disinterested 
 action on their part has given an undoubted impulse to the progress of 
 carbon printing, at the same time the experience of the Autotype Com- 
 pany, and the facilities acd improvements which they have introduced in 
 the manufacture of tissue, are such as to cause little doubt that their 
 circle of customers will remain undiminished by the ceding of their 
 monopoly. As a fit pendant to the above few words, which I considered 
 necessary, if only to explain the position of the Autotype Company with 
 reference to [the process of which they are the fountain-head, I am 
 
 P 2 
 
194 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 pleased to be able, unhesitatingly and without reservation, to recom- 
 mend my readers to procure all their materials for the carbon process 
 from the Autotype Company direct. T feel certain that they will as little 
 regret having followed my unusually strong recommendation as I, on my 
 part, shall regret having made it. 
 
 It is not my intention to go at all into the history of carbon printing, 
 as that does not lie within the scope of the present work. Those who 
 wish to learn the steps by which the process has arrived at its present 
 perfection may be referred to the "Autotype Manual,' ' published by the 
 Autotype Company, price Is. This excellent and practical little work is 
 due to Mr. J. E. Sawyer, the manager of the Autotype Company, and the 
 patentee of the flexible support, which will be spoken of hereafter in 
 connection with the double transfer process. To its admirable arrange- 
 ment and lucid explanation I am indebted for much of the present 
 account. There is another work on carbon printing which is published 
 by Messrs. Low, Marston, and Co., of 188, Fleet-street, E.C. This is 
 written by a well-known German photographer, Dr. Paul Liesegang, and 
 translated into English by Mr. E. B. Marston. It is copiously illustrated 
 with woodcuts, and may be had post free from the publishers for 4s. 
 
 And now let me show my readers what carbon printing really is. I 
 have already described it as a process of printing in permanent colours, 
 but this gives little idea either of its capacities or operation. It is 
 founded on the action of light upon bichromates, particularly those of 
 potass and ammonia, in conjunction with organic matter — such as, for 
 instance, gelatine. As this may seem a little unintelligible to some of 
 my readers, I will illustrate my meaning with an example. If I take 
 a sheet of gelatine and steep it in a bichromate of potass solution and 
 then expose it to the light, what will be the result ? The sheet of gelatine 
 which before exposure to the light was soluble is now the reverse. It 
 follows that if, in exposing the sensitive gelatine sheet to the light, I 
 superpose an ordinary negative, the dense portions in the negative will 
 be represented in the gelatine sheet by portions which, not having been 
 acted on by the light, are still soluble, while the transparent or semi- 
 transparent parts are represented by corresponding insoluble portions of 
 gelatine. If I now place the exposed sheet of gelatine in hot water the 
 soluble portions will be washed out, and the insoluble will remain, 
 forming, in other words, a species of engraved sheet, in which the 
 densities of the negative, that is to say, the high lights in nature, are 
 represented by the reliefs, and vice versa. These results form the general 
 foundation of both the autotype and the photo-mechanical processes 
 which will be noticed in due course. In carbon printing the gelatine is 
 mixed with some pigment of the desired colour ground to a powder, and 
 
CUTTING UP TISSUE. 
 
 195 
 
 spread upon paper of suitable texture. This is called in England tissue. 
 The pigmented tissue is sensitised with bichromate of potass, and 
 exposed to light under the negative. The latent image is then developed 
 with hot water and finally transferred to a white or tinted paper, which 
 serves as its support. There are two methods of transference which I 
 have already alluded to under their respective names of single and double 
 transfer. These will be explained separately ; for the present it is enough 
 to say that the preliminary operations up to the exposure of the tissue 
 under the negative are identical. 
 
 The Tissue. — I shall not discuss the manufacture of pigmented 
 tissue, as in my opinion it would be a waste of space to do so. Pig- 
 mented tissue is an article of very extensive commerce, and is sold of 
 standard quality, and of almost every conceivable shade, by the Autotype 
 Company and other firms. It is sold by the Autotype Company in bands, 
 30in. wide, and 15ft. long, the price being 7s. 6d. per band. Different 
 shades are used for different subjects, and as the beginner in all proba- 
 bility is unaware of the latitude possible in this respect, I give the 
 following list of shades from the Autotype Company's "Manual." 
 
 For enlargements and large pictures generally — the Autotype Purple 
 or Autotype Brown. — These colours have for their basis a pure black 
 pigment, modified to a brown or purple tone by permanent blue or red. 
 
 For engravings — Engraving Black. — A pure black tissue. 
 
 For monochromes — Warm Black. — The black pigment of the preceding 
 colour modified with permanent red. 
 
 For sepia drawings — Sepia Tissue. — A preparation exactly resembling 
 the colour of a warm sepia drawing. 
 
 For red chalk drawings — Red Chalk Tissue. — As its name implies, a 
 tissue matching a red chalk drawing. 
 
 For portraits — Portrait Brown or Portrait Purple. 
 
 For transparencies, especially intended for the reproduction of nega- 
 tives — the Autotype Transparency Tissue. — This is made with filtered 
 colour, shows no grain or texture even when enlarged to 10 or 12 
 diameters, and is perfect for the production of enlarged negatives. 
 
 The printer having procured, say, half a band of tissue of a suitable 
 shade for his purpose, should then proceed to cut it up into conveniently 
 sized pieces. Many methods of accomplishing this simple operation will 
 readily present themselves. The tissue when cut should be stored away 
 in such a manner that when about to be sensitised it should be tolerably 
 flat. This result may be secured by keeping the sheets between metal 
 plates and superposing a sufficiently heavy weight. 
 
 And now I come to the actual operations by which carbon prints are 
 produced. These are : (1) sensitising the tissue ; (2) exposure of the 
 
196 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 tissue under the negative ; (3) development of the latent image ; (4) 
 transference of the image to the final support ; (5) concluding opera- 
 tions. In describing these I shall adopt the following arrangements. 
 To begin with, the two preliminary operations of sensitising and printing 
 will be described consecutively. Then will come " Development, &c, 
 Single Transfer;" "Development, &c, Double Transfer;" and lastly 
 the concluding operations which are common to both single and double 
 transfer. To these will be added a few lines of supplement, describing 
 some of the miscellaneous applications of autotype printing. 
 
 Sensitising. — To sensitise carbon tissue it is necessary in the first place 
 to have, as in sensitising albumenised paper with silver, a room adequately 
 screened from the ingress of actinic light. As the tissue when sensitised 
 is not much more sensitive than good silvered paper, this requirement will 
 be amply met by a yellow blind. It is advisable to have as large a window 
 as possible, for the successive operations in the carbon process require 
 considerable attention, and there is nothing whatever to be gained by 
 cooping oneself up in a really dark room. It is as well, if possible, to set 
 aside a room exclusively for the practice of the carbon process, in which 
 not only the operation of sensitising but also that of development may be 
 carried on. It need not be very large, but it should most certainly be 
 dry, having an ordinary stove, a tap and a sink for development, and a 
 common deal table for cutting up the tissue and transfer paper, sensi- 
 tising, &c. There are a variety of ways by which an ordinary room may 
 be adapted to this purpose, which will readily suggest themselves. 
 
 As regards the apparatus requisite for the operation at present under 
 review, namely, that of sensitising, it will be as well to give a list of the 
 indispensable articles before proceeding to describe their application. In 
 the first place there is the dish to contain the sensitising solution. This 
 may be of tin or zinc ; and should be about 2in. larger each way than the 
 largest piece of paper to be sensitised. As it will have to contain about 
 2in. of the solution, it may be made about 3in. deep. Besides this, the 
 operator should procure another dish or tray of the same material, only 
 2in. larger each way than the first. Accompanying this should be a wooden 
 stool or table to stand about an inch out over the top of it ; the dimen- 
 sions of this may be about 12in. by lOin. In addition to the two trays 
 and the stool, a squeegee must be procured; also a broad camel's hair 
 brush, an egg boiler, a glass plate of the same superficial dimensions 
 as the larger tray, some sheets of common cardboard larger than the 
 sheets of tissue to be sensitised, and finally some red blotting paper. 
 
 A squeegee, as applied to the carbon process, is a strip of indiarubber 
 let into a piece of wood, which serves for a handle. One to answer the 
 purpose of an amateur, who does not, as a rule, sensitise pieces of tissue 
 
SENSITISING TISSUE. 
 
 197 
 
 of very large dimensions, can be bought for half-a-crown. The amateur 
 is advised to spend this sum in preference to making the squeegee himself, 
 as he can save but little by the latter course, and the squeegee is in such 
 constant need that, unless well made, it soon becomes practically useless. 
 
 The formula for the sensitising bath is charnrngly simple. Here it 
 is : — 
 
 Bichromate Sensitising Bath. 
 
 Pure granulated bichromate of potash 15oz. 
 
 Water 2gals. 
 
 Mr. Sawyer, in the " Autotype Manual,' ' directs this to be made up in a 
 two-gallon earthenware jug, with a piece of muslin tied loosely over the 
 mouth, so as to form a shallow bag. The bichromate of potash is put 
 into this, and as much hot water as the jug will hold, or as much as will 
 reach the bichromate salt if it should not all happen to dissolve when 
 you pour hot water over it ; the whole is allowed to cool, and, when per- 
 fectly cold, is ready for use. 
 
 Bichromate of potash is very cheap, costing about 2d per oz. The 
 Autotype Company, we believe, send it out in small bottles, of guaranteed 
 purity, for the special use of those practising their process. 
 
 Before beginning to sensitise, it is a needful precaution to put an india- 
 rubber finger-stall on the first finger and thumb of each hand. The reason 
 for this is, that many, if not most people, are subject to what is known 
 as bichromate poisoning ; that is to say, the bichromate solution makes 
 its way through the pores of the skin, and causes considerable pain, 
 besides being productive of other disagreeable results. Another method 
 besides the finger-stalls, which has been suggested as a preventive of this 
 bichromate poisoning, is to dip the first finger and thumb of each hand 
 into a solution of indiarubber in benzole, and allow them to dry. 
 Personally I prefer the finger-stalls. 
 
 And now for the actual sensitising. Place the smaller of the zinc 
 dishes on the table, and fill it to the depth of 2in. with the sensitising 
 solution. In close juxtaposition to this place the larger dish with the 
 wooden stool standing inside it. On the wooden stool lay the sheet of 
 glass. Have the squeegee ready to hand, and the egg boiler immediately 
 in front of you. 
 
 Now take one of the pieces of tissue, pigmented side downwards, by 
 the extreme ends, between the finger and thumb of each hand; bring the 
 hands together as if about to fold the tissue j lower the tissue until the 
 centre of the pigmented surface just touches the solution ; bring down 
 the ends gradually, until the whole pigmented surface floats on the bath ; 
 and push the piece of tissue bodily into the bath with the camel's hair 
 brush. Carefully remove, with the brush, all air-bubbles from the back 
 
198 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 of the tissue, and then, turning the tissue over, do the same for the pig- 
 mented surface. By this time the sand in the egg boiler, which should 
 have been set going on the immersion of the tissue, will have nearly, if 
 not quite, run out. When it has done so, lift the tissue slowly out of 
 the bath by the finger and thumb of each hand. After draining for a 
 few seconds hold it over the glass plate, and allow a few drops of the 
 solution to fall on the latter. Then carefully lay the piece of tissue 
 upon the plate downwards, and allow it to remain while another 
 piece is immersed in the bath, and the air-bubbles removed from it. 
 This done, the operator should return to the tissue on the glass plate, 
 and, placing two fingers on one edge, pass the squeegee with mode- 
 rate firmness slowly and evenly over the back of the tissue. By this 
 means it is made surface dry. One application of the squeegee should be 
 sufficient. The piece of tissue is then raised slowly from the glass plate, 
 and laid face uppermost on a sheet of blotting paper. If it comes from 
 the glass plate with difficulty it may be taken for granted that it has 
 remained there too long. The remedy is obvious. 
 
 When the sensitised tissue has been laid on the blotting paper it is 
 ready to be hung up to dry. It may be either suspended by wood clips 
 or hung over the cardboards mentioned as one of the necessary para- 
 phernalia for the process. These cards are recommended in the Autotype 
 Manual to be prepared in the following manner : ' ' Tie a piece of fine 
 twine, about 12in. long, to the middle of one end of each piece of card- 
 board, at the other end cut a slit about |in. long exactly opposite, then 
 make a knot in the twine, bend the card into the shape of a bow, slip 
 the twine into the slit, the knot being on the outside, and you have an 
 arch of cardboard to support the blotting paper on which the tissue is to 
 be dried. These cardboards can be suspended by passing a cord through 
 them, or arranging splines to stick out from a wall or shelf.'' 
 
 The drying may be carried on in the sensitising room, provided that the 
 latter is warm and dry. Mr. Sawyer declares that an ordinary fireplace 
 gives the necessary minimum heat and maximum of ventilation, adding 
 that the fulfilment of these conditions is the characteristic of ordinary 
 English stoves. If the sensitising is carried on in the evening, and there 
 has been a fire in the room all day, the tissue ought to be dry the next 
 morning. It can then be taken down, cut up into the sizes required, and 
 stored away in a tin box between boards, being kept flat by weights. 
 Another plan is to have ' ' tin trays fitted with heavy lids just to drop 
 inside them ; the lids should be made of wood, with stout sheet lead of the 
 same size as the wood screwed to the bottom. By this means the tissue 
 is kept flat in the most convenient form for the pressure frame, and the 
 light and atmosphere perfectly excluded." 
 
SENSITISING — EXPOSURE . 
 
 199 
 
 I think I cannot do better than incorporate in the present portion 
 of this work the following quotation from Dr. Liesegang, the well-known 
 German authority on carbon printing. It refers to the sensitising bath, 
 and gives data only obtainable after long and intelligent research : — 
 
 " After repeated use the bichromate becomes darker in colour, and is 
 then useless. For this reason the solution should not be used too spar- 
 ingly; as soon as the bath loses its golden yellow it should be replaced 
 by- fresh solution. The tissue will then keep longer, which is always an 
 advantage. A five-pint bichromate bath will sensitise one roll of carbon 
 tissue in summer, two rolls in spring, and three rolls in winter. 
 
 " In summer the bath should be kept as cold as possible, as in a warm 
 bath, especially if it contains much bichromate of potassium, the gelatine 
 will dissolve. If necessary the vessel containing the bath should be 
 placed in ice. 
 
 " The stronger the bath is, the softer will the prints be ; the weaker the 
 bath the harder will be the prints. Therefore, to print from a hard nega- 
 tive a stronger bath should be used, and to print from a very weak 
 negative a very weak bath is necessary. It must be remembered that 
 tissue sensitised in a weak bath is less sensitive, and, therefore, requires 
 longer exposure. Too weak a bath yields no half tones ; too strong a one 
 produces reticulation (a net work structure) in the print." 
 
 It only remains to add that tissue can be obtained ready sensitised from 
 the Autotype Company, at 8s. 6d. per band. This is only Is. more than 
 the band costs unsensitised. Sensitised half bands may also be obtained. 
 The sensitised tissue keeps good about a fortnight or three weeks. 
 
 Exposure of the Tissue. — In exposing sensitive carbon tissue under a 
 negative it is obvious that one very important deviation must be made 
 from the course adopted in printing with paper sensitised with silver. 
 Silvered paper is white and the action of light upon it is clearly per- 
 ceptible to the eye ; but this is not the case with the black pigmented 
 tissue. For this reason it is necessary in carbon printing to have some 
 additional guide to correct exposure, and it has been found that this 
 desideratum is supplied by the ordinary silvered paper prepared as 
 directed in the first part of the present work. The silvered paper is 
 exposed in a contrivance usually called an actinometer, or measurer o^ 
 ray force, and, due consideration being had to the quality of the negative 
 or negatives being printed from, and to the relative sensitiveness of silver 
 paper and carbon tissue, it is found that the correct exposure can be 
 judged with great accuracy. There are various actinometers in vogue, 
 but, for neatness and handiness, the one represented in the cut (Fig. 7) 
 is unsurpassed. To quote the words of the inventor (written before it 
 became an article of commerce), the Woodbury photometer is a cross 
 
200 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 between Vogel's actinometer, where a series of layers of transparent paper 
 forms a gentle gradation to opacity, and the instrument sold by the 
 Autotype Company, in which, when the colour of the silvered paper 
 arrives at one tint, the paper is again moved and another tint registered. 
 The first has the disadvantage of having to be opened to see to what 
 stage the exposure has arrived, and the other that of requiring to be 
 
 constantly watched for the moment 
 when one tint is complete, so that 
 a fresh piece of paper may take 
 its place. The Woodbury photo- 
 meter remedies both these defects, 
 and is, moreover, so handy and 
 neatly arranged that to use it is 
 almost a pleasure. In shape it is 
 a small disc like a watch, with 
 brass back and glass front. The 
 latter protects the face, which is a 
 paper disc, upon which are printed 
 various depths of shade. In the 
 centre of the face is a small round 
 orifice. The "works" of the in- 
 strument consist of a tiny roll 
 of sensitised paper, which passes 
 under the orifice of the face and out through the side, as shown in 
 the illustration. The application of the photometer to carbon printing 
 ought to be pretty obvious. By preliminary test it is found what tint on 
 the face registers the correct exposure of the tissue required by any par- 
 ticular negative, or, in other words, to what depth silver paper must be 
 printed in order to show that the tissue has been fully exposed. After 
 very limited experience the preliminary test will be rendered almost if not 
 quite unnecessary, a glance at the density of the negative to be printed 
 from being quite sufficient. It is obvious that if the negative is a 
 particularly dense one the carbon print will not be finished until one of 
 the deep tints has been reached by the sensitised paper, and vice versa. 
 The necessary feint being settled upon, the frame containing the negative 
 and the sensitive tissue is carried out into the light, the photometer being 
 held in the hand. When the tint has been reached by the silvered paper 
 the printing frame is withdrawn, the print being, so far as exposure is 
 concerned, an accomplished fact. If there are other and denser negatives 
 being printed from, the photometer remains untouched until the tints 
 required by them are respectively reached. The piece of sensitised paper, 
 which has already done its work and hangs out at the side of the instru- 
 
EXPOSURE OF THE TISSUE. 
 
 201 
 
 ment, is given a pull, so that a fresh piece of paper may be released from 
 the roller to pass under the orifice in the face. It only remains, in 
 connection with the Woodbury photometer, to add that it is obtainable of 
 the Sciopticon Company, 157a and 157b, Great Portland-street, London, 
 W. It costs 5s., and is sent by post for 5s. 3d. The illustration, 
 which represents the actual size of the instrument, does not show the 
 discs of non-actinic gelatine, which are used in order to lessen the rapidity 
 by which the light darkens the sensitised paper. Without these the 
 photometer may be used to ascertain the correct exposure for plates in the 
 camera, provided that the films are not over-sensitive. 
 
 The remainder of the necessary appurtenances for exposing carbon tissue 
 are not sufficiently distinctive to need separate mention. They will obtain 
 notice in the following brief account of the successive operations to be 
 undergone in the actual course of printing. 
 
 When the relation between the negative and the actinometer or photo- 
 meter has been established, the fact should be duly entered either in a 
 book or upon the negative itself. This prevents any confusion or 
 necessity for future preliminary tests. The next operation is to provide 
 the negative with what is technically known as a " safe edge." This is 
 done either by pasting round the edge four strips of paper, or by running 
 round a line of Bates's black varnish to the depth of about iin. The 
 negative is now laid film side upwards in a printing frame, the back of 
 which, by the way, need not be hinged as in silver printing, for the tissue 
 will remain untouched until the printing is completed. A piece of tissue 
 of suitable size is now selected and the surface gently rubbed down with 
 fine muslin or wash-leather. It is then laid on the negative and backed 
 with dry bibulous paper and a piece of American cloth. The frame is 
 closed and carried out into the light, the exposure being judged by means 
 of the actinometer or photometer, as explained above. When the printing 
 is concluded the frame is carried in, and the tissue removed for development. 
 The development should follow the printing as shortly as possible, for the 
 curious reason that light has, upon carbon tissue, a continuating action, 
 causing the image, as it were, to go on printing even in a dark room. 
 This extraordinary phenomenon was discovered by Captain Abney, and 
 may sometimes be turned to good account. For instance, a picture which, 
 through insufficiency of the light, has been only partially printed, can be 
 completed by merely leaving it on a table in a dark room until the next 
 day. Of course this would involve certain calculations, but these need by 
 no means be complicated; and, as Mr. Sawyer says in the "Autotype 
 Manual," it would be perfectly possible to organise a system having 
 these data as a basis. It has been found, moreover, that the know- 
 ledge of the continuating action has been proved of practical value in 
 
202 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 preventing most successfully the washing-up of the half tones of the 
 picture. 
 
 Development hy Single Transfer. — The principal item in the requisites for 
 the development of prints by single transfer is the single transfer paper, 
 or support to which the image is transferred from the tissue. This, to use 
 the words of the " Autotype Manual," cc is a fine paper prepared with a 
 gelatinous or colloid substance, which, although insoluble in water, swells 
 upon immersion, and acquires sufficient adhesive power to hold the 
 picture both during development and finally.' ' The Autotype Company 
 send out the single transfer paper, in bands 12ft. long and 30in.wide, of 
 either thick or thin texture. For portraits a very fine paper in sheets 
 is specially prepared, having a surface to imitate closely that of silver 
 prints on albumenised paper. The remaining necessary adjuncts for 
 developing a carbon print by single transfer have been enumerated at the 
 commencement of the present chapter. 
 
 "When the exposed pigmented tissue has been removed from the 
 printing frame, it becomes necessary to cause it to adhere for some 
 minutes to the transfer paper in order to effect the due transference 
 of the latent image. This is accomplished as follows. We will 
 suppose that, say, a dozen pieces of exposed tissue have just been 
 removed from their respective frames, and that it is desired to proceed 
 immediately with development. To begin with, the operator must have 
 at hand a corresponding number of pieces of single transfer paper cut to 
 a size somewhat larger all round than the pieces of tissue. A dish or 
 pan of cold water, the squeegee, and some blotting paper will also come 
 into requisition. One of the pieces of exposed tissue is then immersed 
 with one of the pieces of transfer paper in the cold water. Directly the 
 tissue becomes limp, its surface is brought into contact with that of the 
 transfer paper, and the two, being brought out of the water, are laid 
 upon a piece of zinc or any other level surface, the tissue being upper- 
 most. The squeegee is now passed over the back of the tissue two or 
 three times, to squeeze out the water from between it and the transfer 
 paper. This done, the operation is repeated, the squeegee being used in 
 the opposite direction, in order to expel the intervening air as well as the 
 water. The tissue and the transfer paper being now in contact, are laid 
 between blotting paper, and the preceding operations are repeated with 
 the remaining eleven pieces of exposed tissue. This done, the first of the 
 adherent pieces is ready for the next important operation, which con- 
 sists in developing the latent image upon the transfer paper serving as 
 a support. For thi3 will be required a tray filled with water in temperature 
 from 90deg. to llOdeg. Fahr. Almost immediately the coloured gelatine 
 of the tissue will be seen oozing out from the edges. The tissue is now 
 
DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 203 
 
 taken at one of the corners between the forefinger and the thumb, and 
 drawn gently from the transfer paper. The tissue, which is now useless, 
 may be thrown on one side. The transfer paper, which now supports the 
 image, presents a slimy appearance, of the colour of the tissue to which 
 it has been lately attached. The development of the image is effected by 
 simply splashing the warm water on to the surface of the transfer paper. 
 This clears away by degrees the superfluous pigmented gelatine, leaving, 
 after a minute or two of douching, a permanent picture, complete in 
 detail and perfect in tone. 
 
 It will be understood that the above results, attainable by so easy 
 a method of working as that described, can hardly be expected except 
 when the exposure of the tissue, in the first instance, has been accurately 
 timed. For the benefit of my readers, I borrow from Mr. Sawyer and 
 the Autotype Company the following words, descriptive of the results of 
 incorrect exposure and explanatory of the accommodating character of 
 the process of which the authority quoted is the representative and 
 referee : — 
 
 "If the exposure has been too long, the gelatine compound will 
 dissolve with some difficulty, and the resulting picture will be heavy in 
 the shadows, and the lighter tones will be wanting in clearness. If, on 
 the other hand, the exposure has been insufficient, the compound will 
 dissolve away quickly, leaving the developed picture bare and chalky 
 in the high lights and lacking vigour in the shadows. Of course, a 
 proper exposure insures the most perfect result, but there is an advan- 
 tage attending this process, that an under or an over exposed picture 
 may be made fairly presentable by modifying the development — using* 
 hotter water than usual in the case of an over-exposed print, and 
 which may be further reduced by soaking for a time in water at a higher 
 temperature ; and, on the other hand, an under-exposed print may often 
 be saved by removing it when partially developed from the warm water, 
 and continuing the development in cooler water." 
 
 As the picture becomes a shade or two darker when dry, the operator 
 need not be alarmed at finding it immediately after development a 
 little too light. 
 
 Directly after development the picture should be plunged into 
 cold water to arrest any further action on the gelatine. This done, it 
 should be immersed in a solution of common alum (one part to thirty 
 parts of water) until the yellow colour caused by the bichromate of potash 
 has entirely disappeared. Finally, the picture is freed from all trace of 
 the alum by transference to a dish of clean cold water, rinsed, and hung 
 up to dry. 
 
 Pictures by single transfer, unless from reversed negatives, are 
 
204 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 necessarily inverted. This is of little account in the case of portraits, 
 but renders reversed negatives absolutely necessary in the case of land- 
 scapes. Methods of securing a reversed negative will be described 
 hereafter. 
 
 Double Transfer. — There are three methods of double transfer applicable 
 to the carbon process. In the first, the temporary support (the meaning 
 of which term will be more fully understood when I come to the 
 actual description of the process) is afforded by indiarubber paper ; in 
 the second, the double transfer takes place from surfaces impermeable 
 to air or fluid, of which collodionised glass is the usual representative ; 
 in the third, the indiarubber paper of the first process is supplanted by 
 a <e flexible support." The first process, namely, that of double transfer 
 from indiarubber paper, is practically obsolete. The second, particularly 
 as represented by the use of collodionised glass, is greatly in vogue, 
 especially for small work up to, say, 12in. by lOin. The flexible support 
 is also in considerable use, but more for larger work, in which, from its 
 simplicity and certainty, it is of unquestionable value. 
 
 Before proceeding to details, there is an important point which 
 I find it necessary to put plainly and simply before my readers. 
 This relates to the position of the public towards the Autotype Com- 
 pany, and vice versa, in respect to patent rights. Briefly, the matter 
 stands thus : On the 28th of February, 1878, expired the first of the 
 series of patents acquired by the Autotype Company, and by its expiry 
 the public were set free to practise (1) the preparation of coloured gela- 
 tinous tissues ; (2) the production of photographs by what is known 
 as the single transfer ; (3) the production of photographs by the double 
 transfer process, indiarubber paper being used as the temporary support. 
 
 But besides this expired patent there are in the hands of the company 
 five further patents, the earliest of which does not apparently expire until 
 1883. These are fully given in the Autotype Manual, and their application 
 explained, but their recapitulation here would be unnecessary waste of 
 space. It will be better for us to explain the action of the Autotype 
 Company with regard to these patents as affecting the public, amateur and 
 professional. In the first place, the right of employing these patents is 
 granted through licences, which are of two kinds — chromotype and 
 autotype. The fee for the chromotype licence is £20 to professional 
 photographers, but we believe a very great reduction indeed is made to 
 amateurs. A chromotype licensee may practise double transfer from 
 collodionised glass, &c, and from the flexible support. He is also free to 
 adopt certain improvements in photographic printing frames, and in the 
 production of enlargements, &c, introduced by M. Lambert, a great 
 authority on carbon work ; finally, he is entitled (1) to the exclusive use 
 
AUTOTYPE PATENTS. 
 
 205 
 
 of three tissues approved by Lambert, as well as all the other tissues 
 made by the Company ; (2) to full instruction at the Autotype Works in 
 chromotype printing and production of enlargements ; (3) to the right to 
 use the Company's registered trade mark, " Chromotype ; " (4) to a 
 discount of 10 percent, from the market price of the Company's tissues. 
 The autotype licence, for which the fee is for professional photographers 
 <£5, and for amateurs only 5s., empowers the licensee to practise 
 double transfer from surfaces impermeable to air or fluid (collodionised 
 and plain glass, porcelain, opal, metal plates, &c), and from Sawyer's 
 patented flexible support, which is described as a simple means of pro- 
 ducing double transfer prints for transference to paper, ivory, opal, 
 canvas, wood, &c. 
 
 Now, all this about patent rights may seem very wearisome and 
 unnecessary, but it is in reality important. There is no end to the 
 mistakes and complications which may arise out of ignorance, even though 
 it be unstudied and genuine, of patent restrictions, and surely it is only 
 fair and honourable towards legitimate commercial enterprise to respect 
 the few barriers it temporarily erects for its own defence. In the present 
 instance, although the system of licences adopted by the Autotype 
 Company be deprecated by some and chafed at by others, it is undoubtedly 
 fair and above-board, while all accidental confusion and error with regard 
 to them is rendered as far as possible remote by the elaborate explanation 
 published by the Company itself with regard to its position. 
 
 The exposure of the tissue in the double transfer processes is carried 
 out in identically the same manner as that already described in connec- 
 tion with single transfer. The process may thus be said to begin at the 
 point when the exposed tissue is removed from the frames preparatory 
 to development, which is carried out as follows : — 
 
 Development, tyc, by double transfer. — The first requisite for develop- 
 ment is a number of glass plates to serve as the temporary support. 
 Opal glass is decidedly preferable to ordinary glass, as the developed 
 image is much more easily watched upon it. Ordinary glass, however, 
 will serve if held during development in front of a piece of white 
 paper. The plates, which should be a little larger all round than the 
 pieces of exposed tissue, must now be waxed, which is accomplished 
 with the aid of a compound made up by dissolving lOOgrs. of pure 
 beeswax in 20oz. of pure benzole. This is first rubbed into the plate 
 with a pad of " papier Joseph," and then polished off lightly with a 
 long clean pad of the same material. If the polishing is done too 
 thoroughly the picture is liable to stick. I believe that French 
 chalk, used as in preparing plates for the reception of a coating of 
 emulsion, may be employed with success instead of the wax solution 
 
206 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 in benzole. If waxed, the plates may be stored away for future use, 
 all dust on their surfaces being removed with a camel's hair brush. 
 
 The collodionising of the plates is the next step towards rendering 
 them fit to serve as the temporary support during development. This 
 is done just as in the case of coating a plate with collodion for the nega- 
 tive processes. The collodion should be plain and thin ; the following 
 formula will serve : — 
 
 Plain Collodion. 
 
 Pyroxyline 12grs. 
 
 Ether (methylated) 2oz. 
 
 Alcohol (methylated) , 2oz. 
 
 When the collodion is well set, the plate is washed in clean cold water 
 until the greasiness has disappeared. Then take a piece of the exposed 
 tissue, and placing it in a dish filled with clean cold water, allow it to 
 remain there until it becomes limp. In the meantime lay the rinsed 
 collodionized plate in a position handy to the immersed tissue, allowing 
 the surface to remain covered with water, so that the tissue may be 
 subsequently adjusted before the squeegeing takes place. Take the 
 limp sheet from the water, and gently and gradually let it down middle 
 first and ends successively upon the plate. Superpose a piece of india- 
 rubber cloth, and gently, but firmly, squeege out the intervening water. 
 The plate may then be laid down on a flat table, covered with blotting 
 paper, and subjected to pressure for from five to fifteen minutes. The 
 easiest method of doing this is to cover the blotting paper with an ordinary 
 glass plate, and lay a weight on the top. The same process may be 
 repeated with say a dozen plates, the weight being removed as each new 
 plate, with its accompanying piece of tissue, requires to be subjected to 
 pressure. Vignettes or pictures with intended white margins should not 
 remain under pressure for more than five minutes, for fear of injuring the 
 purity of the whites. 
 
 The plate, after pressure, is laid in warm water of a temperature not 
 exceeding 100 deg., and (air bubbles being removed) is allowed to remain 
 there until, as in the single transfer process, the pigment begins to exude 
 at the edges of the tissue. A corner of the latter is now raised and the 
 whole skinned gently off. The water is now dashed on to the plate, and 
 the picture allowed gently and gradually to develop. When the develop- 
 ment is complete the plate is rinsed in cold water, flowed with an aqueous 
 solution of alum — one part to twenty — rinsed again, and reared up to dry. 
 If no retouching be required the drying may be dispensed with, and the 
 transfer paper applied while the plate is still wet from the last rinsing. 
 
 The Autotype Company recommend for development a plan suggested 
 many years ago by Mr. Johnson, which was "to have a vertical grooved 
 
DOUBLE TRANSFER. 
 
 207 
 
 box in which the plates, after being skinned and the water well dashed 
 over them, were placed to develope by themselves, the vertical position 
 of the box giving, of course, every facility for the unfixed pigment to 
 disengage itself, and leave the picture perfectly developed. If the plan 
 of the vertical box be adopted, one made to hold a dozen plates will be 
 sufficient, and by the time the last one is put in the first will probably be 
 completely developed, requiring, perhaps, only a little rinsing with warm 
 water to make it complete.' ' 
 
 In double transfer from collodionised glass any retouching or spotting 
 must be done before the final transfer takes place, to prevent detriment 
 to the brilliant gloss which is characteristic of these pictures. We have 
 seen no neater means of accomplishing this than the following method 
 proposed by Canon Beechey and extracted from the Almanac for 1877 of 
 the British Journal of Photography : — " Your prints on the glass being 
 quite dry, take them one by one to your retouching table, and examine 
 them well. If you find any transparent spots on them, or if in consequence 
 of undue exposure the detail in the high lights has not come out, you can 
 now remedy these defects in a very neat and simple manner. Have by 
 you a cup of hot water, and a very fine-pointed camel's hair brush. Take 
 a slip of plain tissue, give it a soak in the hot water, lay it on your 
 palette, and use it for colour; warm your plate; use hot water with 
 your brush, and you will soon be able to touch-in the missing parts so 
 that you will not be able to perceive that they were not printed. By this 
 means I have touched in many a distant mountain which had almost 
 mingled with the sky, and deepened many details in the dark shadows, 
 which have greatly strengthened the picture. As the colour you use is 
 exactly that of the print, and moreover it is gelatinous, you can work up 
 the drawing with unfailing equality." It will be remembered that a 
 similar method to the above was proposed by Mr. Henry Cooper for 
 spotting enamelled silver prints. 
 
 The Final Transfer. — It now remains to transfer the picture resting on 
 the glass, which is its temporary support, to the paper destined to be its 
 final one. This latter is of a special character, and, to distinguish it from 
 that used in the single transfer process, is called double transfer paper. 
 The following particulars relative to it are furnished by the Autotype 
 Company, who describe it as a paper coated with an enamel composition, 
 insoluble in celd water, but becoming soft and slimy in water heated to a 
 temperature of 120deg. or 130deg. The enamel hides the fibres of the 
 paper, and, containing opaque pigment, may be tinted or toned to any 
 shade. The paper itself is made in bands 12ft. long by 30in. wide, in 
 either thick or thin substance, and in three shades of colour — viz., opal, 
 azure, and rose. The azure being a very delicate blue tint has the 
 
 Q 
 
208 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 peculiar advantage of enhancing the brilliancy of the high lights. For 
 portrait work the transfer paper is made in sheets very carefully by hand 
 (also in the three tints named above), and coated with a dense pigment 
 which entirely hides the fibre of the paper. When required for use the 
 transfer paper is cut up into sizes a little larger each way than the plates 
 supporting the pictures ; as many pieces as are wanted are then immersed 
 in cold water for about half an hour until the gelatine is swelled. Now 
 take one of the glass plates supporting the pictures, rinse it under the 
 tap and lay it down with the water still on the surface. Pass a piece of 
 the transfer paper through water, warm to about llOdeg. (a few seconds' 
 immersion will produce the desired" sliminess "), and lay the gelatine 
 surface down on the plate, lightly forcing out the intervening water with 
 the squeegee. 
 
 If only unmounted pictures are desired, it merely remains to rear up the 
 plates and the accompanying pieces of transfer paper to dry. When 
 perfectly dry apply a penknife to the edges, and the pictures will peel 
 off, exhibiting a full and most brilliant gloss. They should now be 
 rolled collodion side outwards over something round of small dia- 
 meter, to prevent their curling, as they will do unless this plan be 
 resorted to. If it be desired to obtain mounted pictures with full 
 gloss, the directions given under the heading of mounting should be 
 followed. 
 
 Double Transfer from the Flexible Support. — In this process a flexible 
 support, invented and patented by Mr. Sawyer, takes the place of the 
 collodionised glass, the method of working with which is described in 
 the preceding section. In its use ib is substantially the same as the 
 collodionised glass, except in the case of the spotting or retouching, which 
 cannot, as with collodionised glass, take place on the support itself, 
 but must be reserved until the final transfer has been accomplished, when 
 the pictures are spotted or retouched like ordinary silver prints. Mr. 
 Sawyer gives the following particulars of the Flexible Support, which 
 should be noted by the operator. In the first place, as to its composi- 
 tion, it is a paper made specially for the purpose, "coated by steam 
 machinery very evenly with a solution of gelatine rendered insoluble by 
 means of chrome alum. When perfectly dry, this is again coated with a 
 solution made by dissolving button lac or bleached lac in an aqueous 
 solution of soda and borax ; this is then dried and rolled with powerful 
 pressure between polished plates. Before using it must be treated in 
 the following manner : Rub the glazed surface with a piece of soft flannel 
 moistened with a little of a waxing compound composed as follows, yellow 
 resin 6dr., pure bees' wax 2dr., turpentine 1 pint; having rubbed this well 
 into the surface coating, polish it off with a second piece of flannel, let it 
 
FLEXIBLE SUPPORT-MOUNTING. 209 
 
 remain for a few minutes for the turpentine to evaporate, and it will be 
 ready for use." 
 
 Recent improvements have been introduced which enable the Flexible 
 Support to be used twenty times over, but it requires rewaxing each time 
 before use. 
 
 Mounting. — All autotype prints may be mounted in exactly the same 
 way as silver prints, by the same mounting media, and finished by the 
 same subsequent burnishing, care being taken in the latter case that the 
 print is quite dry before submitting it to the roller. A preliminary warm- 
 ing is advisable. 
 
 Autotype prints by double transfer from collodionised glass may be 
 mounted with very thin starch and rolled ; this gives the appearance 
 of very brilliant albumenised paper. If it be desired to imitate the sur- 
 face of ordinary albumenised paper, the prints after stripping from the 
 glass plates may be laid for an hour or so between sheets of damp blot- 
 ting paper, and mounted while still damp. 
 
 The Autotype Company give the following directions for the benefit of 
 those who desire to mount double transfer prints from collodionised glass 
 with full gloss : " To accomplish mounting with full gloss some little 
 practice and care is necessary. Prepare some very thick dextrine 
 paste by stirring dextrine into water, adding it little by little till a very 
 thick mucilage is obtained. It should be quite stiff, and have no lumps 
 in it. Place the cards upon which you propose to mount between damp 
 blotting paper till they are quite limp and pliable; then, having the 
 transfer paper on the pictures only surface dry, rub the thick dextrine 
 well into the paper, and treat one side of the card in the same 
 manner ; lay the card down on the plate, and press every part into close 
 contact; put the plates under pressure, with alternate sheets of damp 
 blotting paper, for half an hour ; then take them out, and put thin splines 
 of wood round the edges, securing them with American clips ; this will 
 prevent their splitting off in the drying." 
 
 In mounting cartes, cabinets, &c, on the various cards designed 
 peculiarly for these sizes, it will be necessary to mark on the transfer 
 paper two corners (diagonals) of each picture as a guide where to lay the 
 cards. This can be done by holding up the plate to the window, 
 where the paper can be seen through and the position of the corners 
 determined. 
 
 "When thoroughly dry the cards may be easily stripped off the plate. 
 
 Carbon Prints on Opal. — One of the most charming, if not the most 
 charming, of all the many applications of carbon printing is the pro- 
 duction by its means of pictures on opal glass. Happily, moreover, 
 this process is by no means a difficult one ; in fact, anyone who can 
 
 Q 2 
 
210 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 print decently in carbon by either single or double transfer on paper 
 ought to meet with similar success in working with opal. Perhaps the 
 only point where the beginner is liable to be led astray lies in the 
 selection of the kind of glass to be used and the nature of its surface. 
 There are two general classes of opal glass in the market, one of which, 
 " pot metal," as it is called, is, if we may coin a word, opalined through- 
 out, while the other, known as "flashed," has only a thin stratum of 
 opal, the remainder of the glass being transparent. Of these two the 
 " pot metal " is distinctly to be preferred. Again, as to the surface and 
 " grain " of the glass. The opal plate should be polished on one side 
 and ground on the other. The grain should not be produced either 
 by fluoric acid or by what is known as the sand-blast process in which 
 a blast of fine sand is directed against the glass, causing numerous little 
 cavities which are the source of endless vexation of spirit to the carbon 
 worker. In a word, to quote the Photographic News, ' ' The only proper 
 kind of opal to use is hand smoothed opal, medium grain, neither too fine 
 nor too coarse; the former not affording sufficient tooth to hold the 
 picture safely, the latter giving a disagreeable coarse appearance to 
 the finished work." It may be added that glass of this kind should 
 be obtainable at the rate of a dozen whole plates for about 10s. 
 James Phillips and Co., 180, Bishopsgate-street Without, London, E.C., 
 may be mentioned as a firm well known for the supply of photographic 
 glass. 
 
 As regards the colour suitable for the production of carbon pictures 
 upon opal, the standard Portrait Brown tissue, as supplied by the Auto- 
 type Company, may be recommended for general purposes. In particular 
 cases, of course, other tints may be used with advantage, but the warm 
 brown is a good all round colour, and may always be relied on. Our 
 readers may, perhaps, have seen Mr. Faulkner's well-known portraits 
 of children printed in a red tint ; in these the Autotype Company's " red 
 chalk" tissue has been used with extreme skilfulness and corresponding 
 success. 
 
 To turn to the actual operations of carbon printing on opal, it is first 
 necessary to see if the negatives to be printed on are reversed or other- 
 wise, as upon these conditions depends, to a great extent, the future 
 manipulation. If the negative be one taken in the ordinary way — that 
 is, non-reversed — the double transfer process must be resorted to ; if 
 reversed, a single transfer will be sufficient. 
 
 To take the case of a reversed negative, first let us suppose that the 
 tissue has been already printed to the requisite depth and removed from 
 the frame. All that remains is to lay down the opal plate, which should 
 have previously undergone a thorough cleaning, and, after plunging the 
 
CARBON PRINTS ON OPAL. 
 
 211 
 
 exposed tissue in water, to squeegee it on to the opal exactly as the ex- 
 posed tissue is squeegeed on to the transfer paper in the single transfer 
 process. The development, washing, fixing in the alum solution, and 
 final drying are substantially the same as in the single transfer pro- 
 cess, the opal plate throughout representing the single transfer paper. 
 
 In working with a non-reversed or ordinary negative, the image on 
 exposed tissue is transferred to the flexible support, and there developed 
 and dried. The next operation is to assimilate the surface of the opal to 
 that of double transfer paper, which is accomplished in the following 
 manner. A solution of chrome alum, 12gr. to the ounce of warm water, 
 is rapidly stirred into a solution of Nelson's No. 1 gelatine, loz; to 9oz. 
 water, the solution being brought about by first swelling the gelatine in 
 cold water and subsequently increasing heat until the gelatine is dis- 
 solved. The opal plate is treated with as much of the above warm 
 mixture as it will hold (either by the help of a tray or a levelling stand), 
 and the flexible support, having been immersed in cold water, is squeegeed 
 gently on to the opal. When perfectly dry the support may be peeled 
 off, the picture remaining on the surface of the opal. 
 
 Pictures on opal may be easily worked up either in monochrome or 
 colours, so as to present a very finished and artistic appearance. 
 
 For further information on the subject of carbon pictures on opal, I 
 have great pleasure in referring my readers to an exhaustive account of 
 the process given by Mr. T. E. Sawyer, under the heading of " Topics of 
 the Day," in the Photographic News for 5th March, 1880. 
 
 Miscellaneous Applications of Carbon Printing. — Much as I should 
 enjoy doing so, I fear I can hardly detail here all the various uses to 
 which carbon printing may be most satisfactorily applied. I will, 
 however, give a bare mention of some of these, as even the mere know- 
 ledge of what a process can do is often instructive. For all further 
 details I must refer my readers to the Autotype Manual. In the first 
 place, carbon printing can be turned to account in providing a permanent 
 basis for miniature painting on ivory. For this the directions given 
 under the head of carbon pictures on opal may be substantially followed, 
 with the exception that, to avoid staining the ivory, the double transfer 
 process should in all cases be resorted to. 
 
 Carbon printing provides a basis for work in crayon, water-colour, &c, 
 upon ordinary drawing paper ; also for oil colour on canvas and panel. 
 Furthermore, it is used for reproducing drawings on wood, to serve 
 as a guide for the engraver. Lastly, it is of peculiar utility for the pro- 
 duction of transparencies of great excellence for decorative purposes, for 
 lantern slides, and especially for enlargements. The use of carbon print- 
 ing in the manufacture of transparencies will be illustrated in dealing 
 
212 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 with that particular branch of photographic production, and also with 
 the hardly less important subject of enlarging. 
 
 Defects and Failures. — As there is nothing perfect under the sun, so 
 carbon printing, with all its beauties and its comparative facility of 
 manipulation, has various little backslidings, which occasionally recur 
 to plague its devotees and shake their faith. It is only fair to state 
 that these defects and failures — I hope my readers will understand the 
 delicate distinction between the two words — are, considering the number 
 and the nature of the operations involved in the process, remarkably few 
 and far between. Moreover, they may be said to be due, as I shall 
 endeavour to point out, more to the operator than to any inherent 
 shortcoming in the process. It would be most satisfactory, indeed, if 
 this chapter were consequently unnecessary, that is to say, if operators 
 were so intelligent as to dis cover and rectify their errors without exterior 
 assistance ; but this, it is to be feared, is hardly the general rule. Never- 
 theless, the operator may render the following list of defects and failures 
 even more complete — in fact, exhaustive — by charitably bearing in mind 
 the warning which needs such frequent repetition, to look to their own 
 want of care and skill before blaming the tools and materials which wiser 
 and more practised brains have placed at their disposal. 
 
 Probably the most formidable and troublesome failure to be met with 
 in carbon printing is one known as reticulation, or a network structure 
 of fine lines covering the whole surface of the plate in the double transfer 
 process with collodionised glass, to which process it is peculiar. The 
 origin of this is over-rapid drying after sensitising. 
 
 Insolubility of the tissue, that is to say, when the tissue refuses to 
 adhere to the transfer paper or the image refuses to develope, is due 
 (1) to the presence of excessive free acid in the bichromate bath, (2) to 
 exactly the reverse cause to which reticulation is due, namely, too 
 protracted desiccation, (3) to the action of white light during drying or 
 any period (except, of course, the exposure) of the operations, and (4) 
 to the fact that the tissue has been kept too long after sensitising. 
 
 The washing up of portions of the picture in single transfer, and in 
 the first transfer of double transfer, is generally due to over-long immer- 
 sion of the exposed tissue before squeegeeing it on the temporary support. 
 Occasionally it occurs when there are deep shadows quite at the edges of 
 a picture, these being liable to wash up from the margin of the negative 
 having been masked. This may be remedied by only partially masking 
 the margin of the negative by using a thin margin of paper or paint, 
 which allows a tint or two in advance of absolute whiteness to be 
 printed. 
 
 The washing away of the half tones is usually due to the same cause 
 
DEFECTS AND FAILURES. 
 
 213 
 
 as that already assigned for reticulation, namely, undue haste in drying 
 the tissue after sensitising. 
 
 The washing up of the picture bodily in double transfer from collo- 
 dionised glass is occasionally due to the fact that the collodion before 
 immersion in water is not properly set. Sometimes, moreover, when the 
 surface of the collodion has been broken, water is imprisoned between it 
 and transferred tissue, thus injuring the development. 
 
 When the picture in the double transfer process refuses to leave 
 the glass, the defect is owing to the plate not having been properly waxed. 
 This contretemps is usually met with in working with new glass plates, 
 whioh must not be polished too closely after waxing. 
 
 An unpleasant grain or texture in the picture after development may 
 usually be attributed to a defective sample of transfer paper. 
 
 Shining lines and specks occurring where deep shadows are in close 
 proximity to high lights arise from the transfer paper not having been 
 sufficiently soaked to render it pliable. 
 
 Besides the above defects and failures, there are bubbles and froth- 
 like marking due to the intervention of air, the bubbles of which should 
 always be most carefully excluded. 
 
 Lastly, there are defects, principally represented by over-readiness of 
 the picture to develope and consequent weakness in tone, arising from 
 the bichromate bath not having been made of sufficient strength, or 
 having lost its strength by use. 
 
 General Hints. — Keep the sensitising bath cool, if necessary, with the 
 aid of ice. 
 
 Practice squeegeeing carefully, as by a wrong method air-bubbles and 
 water are not sufficiently expelled. 
 
 Do not use the tissue for a day or two after sensitising. 
 
 After skinning the tissue off the temporary support, do not be chary 
 of the warm water, but dash it on vigorously. 
 
 Double transfer paper hardens by long keeping. When newly made, 
 water of 80deg. or 90deg. will soften its surface, but after a time 
 120deg. or 130deg. will be necessary. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Platinotype Process. 
 
 The process we are about to describe is one introduced and patented by 
 Mr. W. Willis, jun. As its name suggests, it is a process for producing 
 prints in platinum, and it is based upon the discovery that when a 
 solution of ferrous oxalate in oxalate of potash is added to a salt of 
 platinum — chloride, for instance — metallic platinum is immediately pre- 
 cipitated. It is not necessary in the present case to go into the scientific 
 details governing the preparation of sensitised paper for platinotype, as 
 — if for no other reason — the sole right of preparation is in the hands of 
 a company holding Mr. Willis's patent, and acting as general agents for 
 all articles connected with the process. It will be enough to say that on 
 exposing a piece of paper sensitised with salts of iron and platinum 
 under a negative, a brown image of ferrous oxalate is produced, which, 
 on being subjected to a " developer ' ' of oxalate of potash, is reduced, 
 and replaced by a black image of metallic platinum. The chief merits 
 of the process consist in permanency of results, great ease of manipula- 
 tion, and high artistic value in point of colour. 
 
 On the first introduction of the process there were various defects 
 attached to it, which militated considerably against its popularity. By 
 recent improvements these defects have been happily removed, and the 
 process now stands forward as a candidate for popular favour, backed up 
 by such strong recommendation that it has been determined to afford my 
 readers every chance of at least giving a fair trial to the new power put 
 into their hands. 
 
 Like the carbon process, platinotype is, as regards the supply of 
 materials and the licence to work the process, in the hands of a company. 
 Their address is the Platinotype Company, 2, St. Mildred' s-terrace, Lee, 
 London, S.E., and to them application for licences must be made. These 
 last are granted for the whole term of the patent, and will be kept in 
 force by an annual payment on the part of a professional photographer 
 of £2 2s. To amateurs licences will be granted on payment of 2s. 6d. 
 
PLATINOT YPE . 
 
 215 
 
 for expenses. A trial, however, is allowed with a small quantity of 
 materials procurable at the usual price, without a licence. All licences 
 will be subject to the condition that the sensitised paper and the chemi- 
 cals used for developing be purchased from the company. 
 
 And now let us turn to consider the apparatus and chemicals requisite 
 for the practice of platinotype. As regards the former, there is little 
 enough to be said. First will come what is called a " calcium tube," in 
 which to keep the sensitised paper. It is a sine qua, non in platinotype 
 that the sensitised paper should be free from any suspicion of damp, and 
 for this reason it is considered necessary to keep it in the continual 
 presence — both before and after exposure — of calcium chloride, which has 
 the well-known property of absorbing the most imperceptible amount 
 of moisture. To facilitate the accomplishment of this object, tin tubes 
 are constructed having a perforated receptacle to hold a sufficient 
 quantity of calcium chloride, and called, therefore, calcium tubes. A 
 calcium tube 3in. in diameter costs 3s. ; tubes of 4in. and 6in. in 
 diameter may be had for 4s. and 5s. respectively. The smallest of these 
 sizes holds a quarter of a quire of sensitised paper comfortably. When 
 the calcium chloride in the perforated receptacle has become damp it 
 should be removed, and not replaced until perfectly dry. It may be 
 dried over a fire on a shovel. 
 
 For actual printing the ordinary frames are employed. Great care 
 should be taken to render both the frames and pads as free as possible 
 from moisture. The Platinotype Company, in their circular of instruc- 
 tions for working the process, recommend the employment of sheets of 
 thin vulcanised indiarubber, which may with great advantage be placed 
 between the sensitised paper and the back of the frame. 
 
 In development some sort of dish is required which will allow, as will 
 be shown, the developing solution to be heated in it to about 180deg. 
 A porcelain tray may be used if care be taken to screen it from the 
 direct action of the source of heat, but by far the best article for the 
 purpose is a dish of enamelled iron. These are purchasable from tha 
 Platinotype Company, one measuring about lOin. by 7in. (this is 
 sufficiently large for whole-plate prints) costing but Is. 7d. The heating 
 agent for raising the temperature may be a Bunsen burner, with rose 
 burner to spread the flame, or any other kindred contrivance. We find an 
 oil stove answers admirably. Besides the iron dish used for developing, 
 a tray or basin will be required for clearing. This may be of porcelain 
 or glass. 
 
 The sensitised paper is sold in sheets, like albumenised paper, and of 
 the same dimensions. Before exposure to light it is of a lemon yellow 
 colour. It is recommended for the beginner to purchase, say, a quarter 
 
21b' 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 of a quire of this paper, which is sold at the rate of 22s. per quire. 
 On receiving it from the company it should at once be transferred to the 
 calcium tube, care, of course, being, moreover, taken that all actinic 
 light be rigorously excluded when handling it during the process of 
 printing. 
 
 The developing agent, oxalate of potash, is obtainable from the 
 Platinotype Company at the rate of Is. 6d. per lb. Sufficient to develope 
 prints from a quire of paper costs 9d. 
 
 The hydrochloric acid, used in very weak solution for clearing, is 
 procurable of any chemist, photographic or otherwise, and ought not to 
 cost more than Is. 6d. per lb. 
 
 Altogether, the photographer wishing to make a trial of the platinotype 
 process may do so in a very thorough manner for the following amount : 
 Quarter of a quire of sensitised paper, 5s. 2d. ; 3in. calcium tube, 3s. ; 
 enamelled iron dish, Is. 7d. ; oxalate of potash, say, 3d. ; hydrochloric 
 acid, say, Id. ; licence, 2s. 6d. ; total, 13s. 7d. For this outlay about 200 
 carte de visite prints may be secured, while, of course, in the event of 
 the trial being satisfactory, as it is sure to be, the cost of the tube, the 
 iron tray, and the licence will not have to be repeated. The price of a 
 porcelain tray for clearing is not taken into account, as, although it is 
 insignificant, the tray may be dispensed with, and a common hand-basin 
 used instead. 
 
 And now let us consider the actual modus operandi of the platinotype 
 process. Let us imagine that the sensitised paper has already been cut 
 up into suitable sizes, and that a piece of it has been placed along with a 
 negative in the printing frame. * There now remain three principal 
 operations to be performed, namely, exposure, development, and clearing, 
 which will now be detailed under their respective heads. 
 
 Exposure. — A significant fact in connection with platinotype is that, 
 whether the exposure takes place in direct sunlight or in shade, the 
 results are precisely the same. This property is frequently of considerable 
 value, as is also the uniformity of tone obtainable in platinotypes. As 
 regards the length of the exposure, a very limited experience will enable 
 the operator to decide when the paper has been sufficiently occupied. As 
 already mentioned, the paper before exposure is of a lemon yellow colour, 
 but, after being acted upon by the light, it becomes a pale greyish brown. 
 If there be too much plain glass about a negative with strong contrasts, 
 the deep shadows of a platinotype print from it assume a dingy orange 
 tint, which is lighter than less heavy parts of the picture. This means 
 that complete deoxidation of the iron salt has taken place, and that the 
 action of light will produce no further effect. Solarisation is the name 
 given the process by which this change is brought about. The inspection 
 
PLATINOTYPE. 
 
 217 
 
 of the print is managed in precisely the same manner as that adopted 
 in silver printing, and the print, when the exposure is completed, if 
 development does not follow immediately, should be protected from damp 
 by being placed in a tin containing a little dry calcium chloride, or by 
 being returned to the calcium tube. 
 
 Development. — As the sensitised paper is extremely durable, the 
 development may or may not immediately follow the exposure, according 
 to the convenience of the operator. The following is the formula for 
 the developer : 
 
 Developer for Platinotypes. 
 
 Oxalate of potash 130gr. 
 
 Water . loz. 
 
 This, as it will keep indefinitely, may be made up in quantity. To 
 develope a print the developer is poured into the iron dish and heated to 
 a temperature of about 1 70deg. ; if the print has been over-exposed, a 
 lower temperature may save it, and, vice versa, a higher temperature 
 may improve an under-exposed one. The print is now floated on the 
 surface of the developer for a few seconds. Almost instantaneously 
 the yellow tint disappears, and the greyish-brown image gives way 
 to one of a beautiful warm black, the high lights exhibiting ex- 
 treme purity and the half-tones being rendered in exquisite delicacy 
 and detail. 
 
 Clearing. — To clear the developed prints it is necessary to wash them 
 in two baths of hydrochloric acid and water, one part of the former to 
 eighty parts of the latter. The prints should remain for eight or ten 
 minutes face downwards in each of the two baths, the solution being 
 agitated in order to give it free access to the surface of the print. 
 The second bath should be thrown away as soon as it becomes discoloured 
 and a fresh one prepared in its stead. To finish the prints they are 
 rinsed and well washed for about half an hour, and dried preferably 
 across glass rods or tubes. 
 
 General Hints. — Failures, which are singularly uncommon, are usually 
 to be attributed to the sensitised paper having been affected by damp, 
 causing it to print slowly, and producing weak, muddy tones. Granu- 
 larity is occasionally caused by the use of a developer at too low a 
 temperature. 
 
 Great latitude is allowable in the temperature of the developer, from 
 lOOdeg. to 180deg. not making any greatly appreciable difference. At 
 the same time, a standard temperature of 170deg. or more is recom- 
 mended, and exposures should be timed accordingly. 
 
 When using the developer a second or subsequent time, the green 
 crystals which may have formed should be left behind and thrown away, 
 
218 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 the solution being- decanted from them and replenished from an unused 
 solution of the same composition. 
 
 Prints of large size may be slowly pulled over a narrow trough con- 
 taining the developer, it not being absolutely necessary to actually float 
 them on the surface of the solution. # 
 
 Developed prints should never be transferred immediately to plain 
 water before clearing. 
 
 Such few residues as may be left over may be treated in the manner 
 described in the circular sent out by the Platinotype Company. 
 
 Concluding Remarks. — Considering the comparative novelty of the 
 platinotype process — at any rate, in its lately improved form — it will be 
 well to give a few words to the claims it puts forward to popular 
 adoption. In the first place, it may be looked upon as permanent, 
 owing to the undoubted stability of the metallic platinum forming the 
 image. The quality of permanence is, as we have already seen, shared 
 by the carbon process, but then, again, platinotype is decidedly the 
 superior of autotype in ease of manipulation. Indeed, the facility, cer- 
 tainty, and rapidity of the process combine to render it an excellent 
 means of securing proofs from a negative before sending it to be printed. 
 It is a curious fact that if you show anyone a really good platinotype, 
 printed, say, with a mask, and abounding in delicate half-tones and 
 brilliant lights, he or she will admire it immensely, and declare it to 
 be better than any " photograph.' ' But show the same person a silver 
 print from the same negative, and judgment will at once be given in 
 its favour. Why ? Simply because there is a deep-rooted prejudice 
 (for the most part utterly unreasonable) in favour of the tones and gloss 
 of a silver print on albumenised paper. No one will deny that the 
 platinotype is far more artistic; and possibly some day the prejudice 
 which does so much to render this most prominent merit invalid will 
 disappear ; at any rate, the day has come when platinotype can afford 
 to stand on its own ground, since photographers of high standing have 
 definitely acknowledged it by their own action to be the best of all means 
 for printing landscape studies of any considerable dimensions. 
 
* 
 
 OHAPTEE IV. 
 
 Photo-mechanical Processes — Introductory and 
 Explanatory. 
 
 Before going into the particulars connected with the various processes 
 which this chapter is intended to elucidate, the attention of my readers 
 must be drawn to what may be called the esoteric, or more than surface- 
 deep, importance of the subject. When an art or science has reached 
 that point at which the necessity, or, at any rate, the desirability, of 
 mechanical aid becomes apparent, it may be assumed that the art or 
 science in question has made considerable progress since its earliest 
 development. But when the subsequent adaptation of machinery or 
 mechanical appliances has been successfully accomplished, the fact 
 becomes not only interesting, but noteworthy. It is this stage which 
 photography has reached, and it is in this aspect that it claims the close 
 attention of those to whom its advancement is a matter of interest or 
 concern. For it is hardly too much to say that in the development of 
 mechanical appliances the future of photography chiefly lies. 
 
 Indeed, it may almost be said that the progress made by photography, 
 as a science, will be insignificant compared to the strides it will make at 
 no distant period towards becoming one of the most useful of the every- 
 day arts by which our common comforts, as well as our gBsthetic tastes, 
 are studied. In other words, to use an isolated illustration, the result 
 of a year added to its history may find photography not only more 
 popular, as being endued with greater facility and so forth of manipula- 
 tion, but as being capable even of supplanting such time-honoured arts 
 as engraving oh copper, steel, and wood. Indeed, the advances made 
 in this direction are already considerable, as will presently be shown 
 and proved. That these advances will ultimately lead to results which 
 perhaps few of us can even imagine, must be left to time, and to the fair 
 development of the exertions made, if silently, still surely, by the triple 
 alliance of genius, experiment, and hard work. 
 
 The majority of the photo-mechanical processes in vogue are based 
 upon a principle identical with that underlying the carbon processes 
 
220. 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 already described, that is to say, the insolubility imparted to organic 
 matter in combination with a bichromate, by exposure to actinic light. 
 An illustration of this will be found in1 Chap. I., where the production 
 of a relief on a sheet of gelatine, sensitised in bichromate of potassium, 
 exposed under a negative and then washed, is explained, as far as such 
 results admit of general explanation. The principles involved are 
 applied in various ways to the production of reliefs on various surfaces, 
 glass and stone being the most usual. The subsequent inking in of the 
 relief, or of a cast from the relief, and the " pulling " of proofs, will be 
 explained under the headings of the different processes. 
 
 Before going further, I may mention that the reader will profit greatly 
 by reference on the subject of photo-mechanical processes to a most 
 charming work, called " A History and Handbook of Photography,'' and 
 written by M. Gaston Tissandier. This book has been translated from 
 the French by Mr. J. Thomson, and for the sake of those who may not 
 have seen it mentioned in other parts of this work, I may remark that it 
 is published by Messrs. Low and Marston, of 188, Fleet-street, E.C. In 
 my opinion, the chapters on photomechanical processes are the best in 
 the whole book, not so much for details of practical working and so on, 
 as for the most interesting and instructive sketch given of the various 
 stages by which mechanism applied to photography has arrived at its 
 present position. Practical details will be found in the present chapter, 
 but historical sketches are not comprised within the limits necessarily 
 imposed upon a work like "Practical Photography." Nevertheless, I 
 am pleased to be in a position to recommend to my readers a most 
 reliable and attractive book, where all my unavoidable deficiencies on 
 this score will be found amply supplied and made good. I may add, 
 that I think it more than probable that some of the bygone processes to 
 which M. Tissandier as an historian gives a place, although years ago 
 they may have proved comparatively unsuccessful, are in these days of 
 increased knowledge susceptible of such improvement as may place them 
 on a level with the best of existing methods. 
 
 Photo-mechanical processes may be classed under two broad headings, 
 namely, those which are instrumental in producing a relief, like that of a 
 wood block, and those in which the print is obtained from a surface 
 where the sunken portions represent shades, as in an engraved copper 
 or steel plate. Technically speaking, they may be subdivided into 
 "Photo-collotype," "Photo-engraving," "Photo-typography," "Photo- 
 lithography," and " Woodbury type." 
 
 Photo-collotype is the reproduction of prints from a colloid surface, 
 such as gelatine, the relief on which, caused by admixture of a bi- 
 chromate and exposure to light, is inked in with a fatty ink ; a piece 
 
PHOTO-MECHANICAL PROCESSES. 
 
 221 
 
 of paper is then superposed, the whole passed through the press, and 
 the paper now impressed with the picture withdrawn. The results of 
 this process are in many cases extremely beautiful, possessing a dead 
 black or other tone, and resembling prints produced by the process 
 lately described under the heading of platinotype. They do not re- 
 quire mounting, as with the aid of a mask they may be printed with 
 clean margins, but they have the obvious disadvantage of not being able 
 to be printed from along with ordinary type in a typographic press. Like 
 all other photo-mechanical prints, photo-collotypes are permanent. 
 
 Photo-engraving may be briefly described as a means of producing, 
 with the aid of photography, relief plates suitable for being printed from 
 in a steel or copper-plate press. 
 
 Photo-typography embraces all the processes by which a relief is 
 obtained that can be printed from along with type. It is in this direction 
 that mechanical photography requires the greatest advancement, for the 
 desirability of producing a photographic reproduction, which in a short 
 space of time can be made to serve as a wood block, is one which few 
 will care to repudiate. 
 
 Photo-lithography is, as its name implies, merely a means of supplant- 
 ing the image produced on stone in the ordinary method of lithography 
 by one which owes its origin to photography. It is used principally for 
 the reproduction of maps, plans, MSS., &c. 
 
 Woodburytype is a most extraordinary process, invented by the great 
 photographic savant, Mr. Walter Woodbury. By its means prints are 
 produced at remarkable speed, which are indistinguishable, except by a 
 practised eye, from the most brilliant silver prints. Woodbury types have 
 the one disadvantage of requiring to be mounted. The method of 
 producing them, in common with photo-collotypes, photo-typographs, 
 and photo-lithographs will be described separately and practically. 
 
 Photo-collotype. — There are various collotype processes in vogue, all of 
 which, while founded on identical principles and only differing in the 
 details of their formulae, doubtless possess distinctive merits. The 
 " Lichtdruck," or light printing, as practised in Germany; the collotype 
 process, as introduced by Mr. J. R. Sawyer, and extensively worked by 
 the Autotype Company ; the xjollographic process of Mr. A. Pumphrey, of 
 Birmingham, and the photo-collotype process of Major Waterhouse, are 
 all more or less the same, and all more or less connected with the 
 original French processes practised by Tessie du Mothay, Marechal, and 
 later by Geymet and others ; and this fact materially increases the 
 difficulty one experiences in choosing a process which shall be suited to 
 the scope of articles like the present, and shall, moreover, possess the 
 three necessary qualifications of thorough practicability, simplicity, and 
 
222 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 power of yielding work of standard quality. After careful consideration 
 I have determined to place before my readers the outlines of the process 
 already mentioned as due to Major Waterhouse, of the Bengal Staff 
 Corps. It is more than possible that my readers will find that their own 
 convenience will be studied by the acceptance of any modifications that 
 may occur to them in choosing a press, in the adoption of any par- 
 ticular form of roller, in changing the nature of the supports, and other 
 points upon which the following instructions need hardly be considered 
 imperative. 
 
 Major Waterhouse, who, as Assistant Surveyor-General of India, has 
 had peculiar advantages for studying the applications of photo -collotype 
 to the production, in particular, of maps and plans, describes his pro- 
 cess in pp. 30, 31, of the "Year Book of Photography ' ' for 1877, 
 to which we are indebted for the following extract : — "It is the result 
 of an attempt to find a simple method which should be comparatively 
 independent of changes of weather and temperature. It possesses the 
 additional advantage that the sensitive surface may be easily prepared 
 with a minimum of material, evenly and rapidly desiccated, whilst pos- 
 sessing great sensitiveness lasting for some days, good adhesion to the 
 support, and finally sufficient strength to resist the wear and tear of 
 printing.' ' 
 
 As supports for the sensitive films, Major Waterhouse used flat sheets 
 of copper, "grained" on one side as for engraving. A glance at a card 
 plate will illustrate what is meant by this. These copper plates can be 
 easily obtained through the nearest stationer, or, if economy be studied 
 and large numbers be required, from any wholesale firm supplying such 
 articles. Such firms may be found enumerated in the Stationers 1 Register 
 or other similar works of reference. It is, by the way, in connection 
 with these copper-plates that perhaps the only disadvantage of Major 
 Waterhouse' s process is to be found. The plates are liable to lose their 
 flatness, and, by consequence, it becomes difficult to insure their perfect 
 contact with the negative under which, as will be shown, they are subse- 
 quently exposed. If the plates are thin, a strong pressure will overcome 
 this difficulty, but, if otherwise, it is necessary to resort to other means, 
 such as transferring the film of the negative to the sensitive surface in a 
 bath of alcohol, or, to use a simpler method, by employing a negative 
 transferred to or existing upon some flexible surface. This point will 
 be alluded to in discussing the various means for producing reversed 
 negatives, which, it must be mentioned, are necessary in photo-collotype 
 to produce a true reproduction of the original object. 
 
 These plates are washed with warm water, accurately levelled on the 
 shelves of some sort of drying apparatus (that used in the preparation 
 
COLLOTYPY. 
 
 223 
 
 of gelatine plates would answer), and coated with the following mixture, 
 which is poured on like collodion, the excess being drained off so as to 
 leave a thin even coating on the plates. Major Waterhouse, by way of 
 evidence and example, cites the fact that half an ounce of gelatine is 
 more than sufficient to coat four hundred and fifty square inches of 
 surface. Here is the formula for the sensitive compound : 
 
 Gelatine (Nelson's Opaque) 15 parts 
 
 Water 100 „ 
 
 Bichromate of Potash 4 M 
 
 Formic Acid 4 „ 
 
 The gelatine is first dissolved in the water, the bichromate added, andj 
 when dissolved, the formic acid. 
 
 The plates whilst drying should be kept protected from dust. If the 
 coating has been well applied, and the plates are flat, the film should, in 
 a temperature of, say, 120deg. Fahrenheit, dry in the course of an hour 
 or two with an even and glossy surface. 
 
 Major Waterhouse recommends that the plates should not be used 
 quite fresh, but allowed a day or two to harden. He gives as a reason 
 for this that, owing to the weak reducing action exerted by the formic 
 acid upon the bichromate, the film would otherwise be tender and adhere 
 to the paper during printing in the press. 
 
 Exposure of the sensitive plate under the negative is accomplished in 
 the ordinary way, an actinometer being conveniently used to determine 
 with accuracy its duration. The plates being, comparatively speaking, of 
 great sensitiveness, from ten to twenty minutes in the shade is sufficient 
 for negatives of ordinary density. The exposed plates should be plunged 
 into a trough of water for about five minutes, and will then be ready for 
 the press. 
 
 Major Waterhouse recommends the vertical pressure, similar to that 
 obtained from the Albion printing press, as being less wearing to the 
 surface and preserving the flatness of the copper plates. Full and illus- 
 trated descriptions of several kinds of printing presses may be found by 
 the reader in " Printing for Amateurs, " published at The Bazaar office, 
 price Is. 
 
 The ink may be that used in lithography, thinned down with a little 
 olive oil. The roller should be preferably of glue, although ordinary 
 lithographic rollers, or those composed of catechu as sometimes employed 
 in typographic printing, may be used with success. 
 
 When the plate is taken from the washing water, the superfluous 
 moisture is removed with a sponge, and the ink rolled in vigorously 
 until all the details of the picture are distinct. Owing to the slightness 
 
 R 
 
224 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 of the relief this is an operation easily and readily performed. A piece 
 of paper is adjusted on the surface of the relief, the tympan lowered, the 
 pressure applied, and a proof " pulled " in the ordinary way. Damping 
 and re-inking must intervene between each print. 
 
 The full operation of the process will be readily understood by anyone 
 who has dabbled in either type printing or lithography, or, if this 
 qualification is not forthcoming, by a short visit to the nearest printing 
 office. 
 
 Another collotypic process is that practised by Mr. A. Pumphrey, of 
 the Camp Hill Works, Emily-street, Birmingham, in the production of 
 his so-called ink photographs. In this a mixture of 
 
 Gelatine 1 J parts by weight 
 
 Bichromate of Potash (pure) £ part „ 
 
 Water 25 parts „ 
 
 is spread upon a smooth surface such as glass or slate. The remainder 
 of the operations are almost identical with those given above. Mr. 
 Pumphrey uses a roller either of the lithographic pattern or composed of 
 gelatine, with a mechanical admixture of some fibrous or inert body, 
 which reduces the "lug" or "suck" necessary in typographic printing. 
 All apparatus connected with his process may be procured from Mr. 
 Pumphrey, it being identical with his well-known autographic process for 
 the reproduction of plans and drawings after the manner of lithography, 
 A paper free from glaze, and yet of close surface, serves as a fitting 
 support for the picture ; a medium cartridge is used, for instance, with 
 success. 
 
 Concerning the heliotype process, which is patented and worked by 
 Messrs. Edwards and Wright, of 61, Fleet-street, the collotype process 
 of Mr. Sawyer, the process of Albert of Munich, and a host of others, 
 plentiful information may be gained by reference to the almanacs of the 
 Photographic News and the British Journal of Photography, and else- 
 where. It is to be hoped, however, that the sketch given of Major 
 Waterhouse's most excellent process will amply satisfy the requirements 
 even of the most exacting or most backward of my readers. 
 
 Photo-Engraving. — I regret to say that the details which it will be in 
 my power to give of photo-engraving will hardly bear comparison, as 
 regards completeness, with those which I have happily been in a position 
 to lay before my readers in reference to other branches of " mechanical " 
 photography. The reason for this is that although photo-engraving, 
 or the art of producing with the aid of photography plates similar 
 to steel and copper plates, has attained a considerable degree of per- 
 fection, this is only met with at the cost of a great deal of labour and 
 
PHOTO-ENGRAVING. 
 
 225 
 
 skill; moreover, in those cases where photo -engraving has been most 
 successful, the ways and means adopted have remained trade secrets. In 
 spite of these unfortunate facts, I will do my best to help my readers 
 by giving them the outlines of the practical working of, at least, one 
 process of photo-engraving, in the hope that should any one of them feel 
 an inclination to adopt this most charming, though difficult, branch of the 
 art, they will have something to begin upon by way of a foundation 
 and encouragement for success. 
 
 The process about to be described is due to one of the earliest pioneers 
 of photography, the late Mr. H. Fox Talbot. The inventor took out two 
 patents for it, the first in 1852, the second in 1858, After his death an 
 account of the process was contributed by his son, Mr. C. H. Talbot, to 
 the English edition of Tissandier's " History and Handbook of Photo- 
 graphy," before referred to, to which we are indebted for the following 
 details. Those desirous of having ocular demonstration of the capa- 
 bilities of the process will find two specimen plates in the translation 
 of Tissandier's book, one illustrating the reproduction of an ordinary 
 photograph possessing half tones ; the other that of a subject only made 
 up of lines — namely, a piece of the Ordnance Survey Map of Scotland. 
 It may be said that without doubt photo-engraving lends itself more 
 readily to the reproduction of lines than to that of half tones, although 
 considerable success has been attained in the latter direction. 
 
 The plates used for the engraving may be either of copper or of steel. 
 The former is the more easily worked, but the latter is more durable and 
 allows a greater number of impressions to be pulled from its surface. 
 The method of using copper plates for the etching, and of subsequently 
 coating the surface with steel, was ultimately adopted by Mr. Fox Talbot. 
 
 The photograph to be reproduced should be a positive, preferably a 
 transparency on glass, but good results have been obtained from paper 
 photographs rendered transparent by waxing. 
 
 The copper or steel plate is first well cleaned and then treated with 
 a mixed solution of gelatine and bichromate of potash prepared according 
 to the following directions, as given in Mr. Talbot's specification of his 
 second patent : About ioz. of gelatine is dissolved in 8oz. or lOoz. of water 
 by the aid of heat. To this solution is added about loz. by measure 
 of a saturated solution of bichromate of potash in water, and the mixture 
 strained through a linen cloth. The proportions are variable. The 
 mixture should be kept in a dark place, where it remains good for several 
 months, requiring only to be warmed in cold weather, when the gelatine 
 sets to a jelly. 
 
 A little of the bichromated gelatine solution is now poured on the 
 levelled copper or steel plate and allowed to dry, either spontaneously or 
 
 E 2 
 
226 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 by the aid of heat, as in Major Waterhouse's collotype process. The 
 exposure is accomplished, as usual, by laying the photograph to be copied 
 and the sensitised plate in an ordinary printing frame. On exposure to 
 light a negative image of a brown tint is produced. 
 
 If the photograph to be copied be merely a line subject, the etching may 
 now be proceeded with, but if it be necessary to reproduce half tones, fche 
 exigencies of practical working require a certain additional treatment of 
 the broad shadows, which would otherwise print palely in the middle, 
 owing to the fact that a considerable portion of the ink resting on them 
 would be unavoidably cleaned off along with the superfluous ink which 
 must be removed by the printer. This defect is remedied by the pro- 
 vision of a number of minute nonprinting points (called by the inventor 
 an "aquatint ground"), which is effected as follows: A solution is 
 made of common resin and chloroform in varying proportions. A little 
 of this is poured on the exposed plate, the result being that the solvent 
 evaporates, and a thin film of resin and camphor forms on the gelatine 
 surface. Subsequent warming over a spirit lamp causes the camphor 
 also to evaporate, leaving tiny particles of resin adhering to the surface 
 of the film. 
 
 The etching is accomplished as follows : A saturated solution is made 
 with the aid of heat, of peroxide of iron in muriatic or hydrochloric 
 acid, which is strained and evaporated until considerably reduced in 
 volume. It is now stored away in conveniently sized bottles, where, 
 as it cools, it solidifies into a brown semi-crystalline mass. This pre- 
 paration is called by Mr. Talbot in his specification perchloride of iron. 
 When required for use three bottles are made up — No. 1 of a saturated 
 solution of this perchloride of iron in water ; No. 2 of a mixture of five 
 or six parts of No. 1 to one part of water ; No. 3 of equal parts of 
 No. 1 and water. The etching is commenced by pouring a little of 
 No. 2 on the exposed plate and working the liquid over the surface 
 with a camel's hair brush. The etching should begin in about a minute, 
 the parts etched turning dark brown or black. The etching should not 
 be allowed to proceed too rapidly, as the action requires some minutes' 
 duration in order to give sufficient depth to the relief. If the rapidity 
 be too great, some of the No. 1 saturated solution should be added, if not 
 great enough, a little water to soften the gelatine. When all the details 
 are apparent, the operator having busily stirred the liquid the whole time 
 with the camel's hair brush, it is wiped off with cotton, a stream of 
 water directed on the plate, the latter wiped, and rubbed with soft 
 whiting and water to remove the gelatine. The plate is now ready for 
 the press. 
 
 The above process of etching is modified by commencing with a small 
 
PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY. 
 
 227 
 
 quantity of No. 1, which is poured on the plate and allowed to remain 
 for one or two minutes. It does not produce any apparent effect, but 
 hardens the gelatine. When poured off it is superseded by a small 
 quantity of No. 2, which effects the etching. Local faintness is remedied 
 by application of No. 3 with a camel' s hair brush without removing the 
 No. 2. 
 
 The rest is merely a question of steel or copper-plate printing, about 
 which I cannot enter in detail here. There are many excellent works 
 where the subject is fully treated ; a useful, though brief account is 
 to be found in a small pamphlet published by Mr. D. Berri, of Holborn, 
 in connection with his People's Printing Presses. 
 
 Besides the above, there are several most excellent photo-engraving 
 processes, the details of which are secret. Amongst the best known 
 are bhose of Messrs. J. Leitch and Co., Manning and Son, Dallas, Goupil 
 and Co., and Herr Warnerke. 
 
 Photo-Lithography. — The process known and extensively practised 
 under the name of photo -lithography comprises at least three distinct 
 operations. Of these the first, and, so far as photography is con- 
 cerned, the most prominent one, is the preparation of a print in fatty 
 ink which can be transferred to a lithographic stone. This print is 
 technically called a transfer. Secondly comes the process of actually 
 "laying down," as it is called, the transfer upon the stone, and, thirdly, 
 that of producing the final prints with the aid of a press. Before going 
 further I should inform my readers that the above operations are also to 
 be met with in the process known as photo -zincography, which, like 
 photo-lithography, is used for the reproduction of maps, plans, and 
 line drawings. Indeed, the method of preparing the transfer is identi- 
 cally the same in both processes, so for the present it is hardly necessary 
 to particularise them. Points wherein the practice of photo-zincography 
 differs from that of photo -lithography will be noted separately. 
 
 There are various methods of preparing transfers, the best known of 
 which is that termed the Southampton method, from the fact that it is 
 extensively used by the Government at their establishment there, where 
 the Ordnance Survey maps and other work of great importance are 
 produced on a large scale. 
 
 A point of primary importance in all the photo -lithographic methods 
 of working is the negative. To obtain anything like good results a 
 means of intensification should be adopted which will give perfect trans- 
 parency for the lines of the map, plan, or drawing to be reproduced, and 
 perfect opacity to represent the whites of the paper. The negative 
 should be on glass having a very level surface, owing to the great pressure 
 which it will have to undergo in the printing frame. 
 
228 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The transfer paper is prepared as follows : — A good sample of thin 
 paper ("bank-post" is recommended) is selected and cut into pieces a 
 little larger all round than the negative to be employed. These are 
 floated over a warm solution of Nelson's fine cut gelatine, one part to 
 seventeen parts of water, for three minutes, after which they are hung 
 up to dry away from all dust. When dry, they are again floated over 
 the warm solution and hung up by different corners than those by which 
 they were first suspended. When dry a second time, they may be sen- 
 sitised for one minute in a cold solution of bichromate of potash, one 
 part to fifteen parts of water. Finally, they are passed through a litho- 
 graphic or copper-plate press to level their surfaces. When sensitised 
 the paper will keep a day in hot weather, a week in cold. 
 
 Exposure is carried on until the picture appears as one made up of dark 
 reddish brown lines on a yellow ground. 
 
 The next step is to apply the necessary coating of fatty ink. The 
 following formula, as used at Southampton, is given by Captain Abney 
 in his " Instruction in Photography " : 
 
 Lithographic printing ink ..." 8oz. 
 
 Middle varnish 4oz. 
 
 Burgundy pitch _ ... 3oz. 
 
 Palm oil ioz. 
 
 Wax ioz. 
 
 Bitumen loz. 
 
 The ink is first ground with the varnish on a stone slab. The Bur- 
 gundy pitch is melted over a clear fire to rid it of the water, the wax 
 added in small pieces, and lastly the oil. When properly melted these 
 should ignite ; the bitumen may now be added, and the whole ignited 
 again. The ink and varnish are now stirred in, the pot removed, and the 
 contents, when cooled, poured into tins. If the ink is too hard more 
 palm oil should be added. 
 
 To coat the exposed paper with this ink, a small quantity of the 
 latter is worked into a very fine layer on a lithographic stone, sufficient 
 turpentine being added to give it the consistency of honey. A print is 
 laid face downwards on the inked stone, and the whole passed once or 
 twice through the press. 
 
 The print being removed from the stone, and found to have been pro- 
 perly inked, is floated face upwards on water at about 90deg., until the 
 lines are in distinct relief. It is next transferred to a glass plate, which 
 must be placed in a sloping position to receive a gentle, but constant 
 stream of water at about 150degs. Whilst this stream is going on the 
 soluble gelatine is tenderly removed with a very soft sponge. If it refuses 
 to part it is recommended that the prints be soaked in warmer water for 
 
PHOTO-LITHOGUAPHY. 
 
 229 
 
 about an hour and the sponge again applied. When the sponging is 
 complete the prints must be well washed in cold water and hung up to 
 dry. They should be preferably, but not necessarily, left a day before 
 being actually transferred to zinc or stone. 
 
 Besides the above there are two other methods of preparing transfers 
 which deserve notice, and for particulars of which we can at least refer 
 our readers to the best of all sources, namely, the inventors' own de- 
 scriptions. The first of these is one called papyrotype, and patented by 
 Captain Abney, R.E., who gives full working details in his "Instruction 
 in Photography." Another method is advocated by Mr. A. Pumphrey, 
 of Birmingham, already mentioned in connection with his collographic 
 process, who contributed a paper on the subject to the Photographic 
 News Almanac of 1879. Readers will also find a valuable paper on 
 modern photo-lithography in the Photographic Neivs for 12th March, 
 1880. 
 
 The transfer having been satisfactorily prepared, it next remains to 
 make ready the stone for its reception. Doubtless most of my readers 
 are familiar with the appearance of lithographic stones ; it will be enough 
 to mention that they are of a calcareous nature, very fine and compact, 
 and that although they are to be found in various other parts of the 
 world, the best qualities are imported from the quarries of Bavaria, They 
 may be easily obtained at low prices from any manufacturer of printing 
 materials, as, for instance, Messrs. Reed and Fox, of the Fann-street 
 Foundry, Aldersgate-street, London, E.C. As imported, the stones have 
 but a rough surface, which requires further grinding and polishing before 
 use, and, in the case of small stones, such as those to which my readers 
 will probably be limited, is effected by the simple plan of rubbing 
 together by hand the faces of two stones, with silver sand and water 
 between them. The sand should be sifted and the water perfectly clean. 
 During the grinding the stones should be transposed, the top one taking 
 the place of the lower, and grinding should be continued until the surface 
 has been proved by a metal straight edge to be exactly level. To polish 
 the stone all grit is removed with a sponge, and the grain caused by the 
 sand destroyed by passing over the surface a piece of soft pumice stone 
 with plenty of water. After a second washing a similar operation is gone 
 through with water Ayr-stone (snake-stone), which is applied until great 
 smoothness of surface is obtained. The whole operation of polishing 
 will take half an hour or less. For erasing an old subject the same 
 system of grinding and polishing as described above may be adopted. 
 
 Before proceeding to the actual transfer to the stone, it must be 
 premised that the operator has possessed himself of a suitable press. A 
 new lithographic press, with side lever action, and a bed of 14in. by 21in., 
 
230 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 costs at Reed and Fox's 11 guineas. This price does not include tympan, 
 leather, and boxwood scrapers, which involve a comparatively trifling 
 extra expenditure. It will be understood that this machine is one of first- 
 class make, capable of producing any kind of work. Cheaper presses 
 can be procured, such as Waterlow's or Berri's People's Printing Press? 
 the latter of which is particularly recommended to photo-mechanical 
 workers as being adapted to type, copper plate, and lithographic printing 
 alike. Mr. D. G. Berri's press is made entirely of metal, and the 
 pressure is obtained by means of a roller which can be altered to suit 
 the impression. The following are the first three sizes of the People's 
 Printing Press, which with all materials can be obtained of the maker, 
 36, High Holborn : No. 1, prints a surface 4|in. by 5in., <£1 15s. ; No. 
 2, prints 7in. by 5iin., £2 18s. ; No. 3, prints 9^in. by 6fin., .£3 18s. 6d. 
 
 To effect the transfer, a well polished, dry stone is slightly warmed 
 (either by holding it before the fire or by pouring boiling water over the 
 surface and allowing the moisture to evaporate), dusted, and adjusted 
 in the bed of the press. A clean piece of paper is laid on the surface, 
 the tympan lowered, and the whole passed under the press or roller to 
 adjust the pressure, or, as it is technically called, the " pinch." This 
 must be ascertained to be correct all over the stone, and, if necessary, 
 rectified by inserting pieces of paper between it and the bed. Now pass 
 the stone two or three times through the press from end to end, so as to 
 cause a still more perfect equalisation of pressure. The transfer is now 
 laid face downwards on a piece of blotting paper, and the back carefully 
 damped with a moist sponge. It is then taken up by two corners and laid 
 on the stone, a sheet or two of clean paper superposed, the tympan gently 
 lowered, and the whole passed through the press three or four times? 
 the pressure being very slightly increased each time. The tympan is now 
 raised, and the condition of the transfer inspected. If it adheres closely 
 and evenly to the stone, it is again slightly damped on the back and 
 passed through the press as before. This done the tympan may be 
 raised, and the transfer soaked to remove it from the stone. The picture 
 should now be found perfectly transferred in all its details. When dry it 
 should be gummed all over its surface with dilute gum arabic. 
 
 At this point the functions of photography end, and what remains 
 is simple lithography. Concomitantly my detailed instructions must end, 
 as this does not happen to be a manual of lithography. At the same 
 time I think a slight resume of the succeeding operations may lend 
 completeness to the present sketch of photo-lithography, and cause it to 
 be more intelligible to those who are not technically familiar with 
 lithography pure and simple. The following, then, is a skeleton sketch 
 of what a lithographer would do with a stone to which, by the aid of 
 
PHOTO-ZINCOGRAPHY. 
 
 231 
 
 photography, a picture had been transferred as above described and 
 explained. To begin with, the gum is washed off the stone, and the 
 picture a second time inked in with ordinary lithographic ink, just as it 
 was before the transfer was effected. This is done whilst the stone 
 is still damp, as the action of lithography throughout depends on the 
 repellence of water by the greasy ink, and, secondly, on the affinity of 
 the greasy ink on the roller with that already on the picture. To prevent 
 the lines spreading the stone is now etched with very dilute nitric acid. 
 Damping and slight gumming again follow, then damping and inking. 
 An impression may now be pulled and the work proceeded with, damp- 
 ing and inking intervening between each impression. 
 
 To those wishing to study the practice of lithography through the 
 medium of a full and reliable manual, I may recommend "Instructions 
 in the Art of Lithography," by C. Straker, price 7s. 6d. (London : 
 Benjamin Winstone, 100, Shoe-lane, E.C.), or D. G. Berri's " Book on 
 the Art of Lithography," price Is. 6d. 
 
 Photo-Zincography. — Before receiving a transfer, a zinc plate, which 
 can be obtained ready planished, should be grained by working brass 
 founders' moulding sand (sifted) over the surface with a piece of zinc, 
 the edges of which should be bent round a block or cork to prevent 
 scratches. The " mulling," as it is called, should be continued until 
 the surface of the zinc plate is of a dull grey colour, and it should be 
 performed immediately before the transfer is effected. To accomplish 
 this latter operation the zinc plate is screwed on to a planed block of 
 wood to give it a height suitable for working in the press. The transfer 
 being effected, the zinc plate is well washed and fanned dry. Captain 
 Abney gives the following details for the succeeding operations. A 
 decoction of galls is made by soaking 4oz. of bruised Aleppo galls in three 
 quarts of cold water for twenty-four hours ; the mixture is then boiled 
 and strained. A small quantity of phosphoric acid is also prepared by 
 placing sticks of phosphorus in a bottle of water, the ends of the sticks 
 being exposed to the air. The following formula is then followed : 
 
 Etching Solution. 
 
 Decoction of galls lqt. 
 
 Gum water 3qts. 
 
 Phosphoric acid 3oz. 
 
 This is brushed over the plate with a broad brush and allowed to act for 
 a few seconds ; the plate is now wiped and again fanned dry. Washing 
 and inking follow as in photo-lithography. 
 
 Photo -Typography. — I have already remarked, in alluding to photo- 
 typography, that in all probability such progress as yet remains in 
 
232 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 store, at any rate for mechanical photography, will tend to the 
 improvement of this most important and useful branch of the art. 
 Unfortunately, this theory implies, what is indisputably the fact, that 
 photo-typography is at present in by no means a very advanced state. 
 Still, I venture to think I can see my way to furnishing my readers 
 with particulars and hints which, at any rate, will be sufficiently prac- 
 tical to show what photo-typography really is, and possibly to indicate 
 the direction in which some advance on existing methods may be made by 
 some intelligent reader with time, brains, and perseverance at his 
 disposal. 
 
 To begin with, let us consider the object of photo -typography and 
 the appearance of a photo-typographic block. Probably most of my 
 readers are familiar with the appearance of the wood blocks ordinarily 
 printed with letterpress. They are doubtless aware that a woodcut is 
 made up of lines of various thicknesses in relief ; that by the action of 
 the inking roller these lines in relief are inked in, and that a proof is 
 obtained by superposing a piece of paper and passing it with the block 
 through the press. By this it will be understood that in relief blocks, 
 such as those used in wood engraving and photo -typography, the reliefs 
 represent the shades of the picture, the sunken portions the lights. 
 Hence the object of photo-typography is to provide a block in relief in 
 exact reverse to photo-engraving, where the sunken portions of the plate 
 represent the pictorial lights. 
 
 And this leads us to another and most prominent stage in our work. 
 This is the variety in the class of reproduction which photo-typography 
 may be called upon to execute. Broadly speaking, the variety consists 
 of two kinds, namely, the reproduction of drawings in line, and the re- 
 production of nature in half tone. Of these the first is in a comparatively 
 advanced stage in spite of the difficulties attendant on its practice, but 
 photo-typographic blocks of subjects in half tone are absolutely rarely 
 met with in any degree of excellence, while such as have been 
 produced are the result of operations which are trade secrets, and so 
 more objects of admiration than of intelligent and practical interest. 
 The reason for this is the difficulty experienced in adapting the large 
 expanses of comparatively unbroken relief which are met with in half 
 tone blocks to the exigencies of letterpress printing, which requires 
 something all over the block to hold the ink, as in an ordinary woodcut. 
 Before discussing the question of surmounting this difficulty it will be 
 well to give some slight sketch of the reproduction of subjects in line by 
 photo-typography, as, though this falls short of the other, it is still a 
 step in the right direction, and may be looked on as a safe basis to begin 
 upon. 
 
PHOTO-TYPOGRAPHY. 
 
 233 
 
 One plan of making relief blocks, which may be found mentioned in 
 Captain Abney's "Treatise on Photography," is to coat a steel, copper, 
 or zinc plate (preferably one of the two former) with a thin coating of 
 asphaltum or bitumen of Judaea. This is exposed under a negative, 
 and the remaining soluble portions of the film removed by a solvent. The 
 relief is now produced by the action of a mordant. The whole process 
 is a difficult one, and the results often unsatisfactory, by reason of the 
 fact that the help of the saw or graver has to be called in to make the 
 plate workable. 
 
 A simpler, and what seems to me a more practicable, method is the 
 following, which was published two or three years back in an American 
 journal, the St. Louis Practical Photographer. I give it as it was there 
 given under the impression that it contains, at any rate, a correct 
 principle, and one which is as simple as it is ingenious. The process, 
 which is called photo-stereotyping, is as follows : A sheet of plate glass 
 is coated with a solution made by dissolving loz. of bichromate of 
 potash in 15oz. of water, warming gradually, then adding two ounces 
 of fine gelatine, and filtering through linen at boiling heat. The 
 sensitised plate is exposed under a positive in diffused light for from 
 ten to thirty minutes. It is then taken into the dark room and washed 
 with water for five or ten minutes, till the relief is wholly developed, 
 after which it is dried with filtered paper and coated with glycerine 
 by means of a camel's hair pencil, the excess of liquid being removed 
 with filter paper. From the relief plate thus prepared a cast is made 
 in plaster of Paris of the thickness or consistency of oil, and from the 
 plaster cast thus made a metal one may be taken in the same manner 
 as that in common use among stereotypers of letterpress. 
 
 I believe I am right in stating that at least one firm in London employs 
 a process similar to the above, and obtains very good results, as may be 
 seen in some illustrations which have appeared in The Bazaar and other 
 serial publications and books. 
 
 I am sorry not to be in a position to supplement the above details 
 with any practical information concerning the production of half-tone 
 blocks ; but I should like to record my conviction that the above process 
 of photo-stereotyping seems to me to be more likely a step in the right 
 direction than the more complicated method first alluded to. What is 
 wanted is to give a grain or some other means of holding the ink to the 
 surface of the reliefs. Possibly some modification of an idea utilised by 
 Woodbury in kindred circumstances will be eventually found successful. 
 This was to mix with the gelatine a fine powder, such as emery, which to 
 some extent caught and held the ink as it was spread by the roller over 
 the surface of the plate. I am myself much interested in the solution of 
 
234 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 the problem, and trust one day to be in a position to make public the 
 result of experiments which theoretically, at any rate, are distinctly 
 promising. 
 
 Woodbury type. — Of all photo-mechanical processes, perhaps Woodbury- 
 type may be looked on as the most remarkable, and, in some respects, 
 the most successful. Although the actual operation of printing is quite 
 mechanical, and completely independent of such consideration as light 
 and such supplementary aid as the toning bath, the results of the process 
 are undistinguishable, except by an expert, from the best of silver prints. 
 In fact, in many cases a "Woodbury type possesses a delicacy of detail 
 unrivalled by the more unstable (for the Woodburytype is permanent) 
 print in silver. It may be mentioned that the process has been largely 
 used for illustrating newspapers and books ; indeed, a great number of 
 the portraits sold in shops are produced by its aid. 
 
 The working of the process has very recently undergone a distinct 
 and important change. Mr'. Woodbury's patent, which was, and is, 
 worked by the Woodburytype Company under the able management of Mr. 
 Fry, has expired, and the process is now free to the public. Again, 
 important modifications have been introduced, enabling it to be practised 
 conveniently by almost anyone, which was certainly not the case formerly. 
 But the novelty of these modifications unfortunately precludes the possi- 
 bility of giving such full and detailed instructions as might be desired. 
 The fact is that Mr. Woodbury, to whom the first, if not the second, 
 step in these modifications is due, went over to France, and there, we 
 understand, entered into some arrangement not to give instructions in 
 relief printing in this country. However, the following ought to be 
 sufficient for the intelligent photographer who has studied the preceding 
 sections, while he will probably, at no distant period, have a complete 
 manual of reference in * ' Woodburytype : the Old and the New," a work 
 which has been promised us by M. Leon Vidal, the French photographer 
 and correspondent of the Photographic News. 
 
 To begin with, I must give a rSsume of the process as it was worked 
 until a few weeks ago. The first stage was the preparation of a fairly 
 substantial pellicle of gelatine very slightly tinted, but still transparent. 
 This was sensitised with bichromate of potash, exposed under a negative, 
 and washed to remove the soluble gelatine, as in the collotype processes. 
 The result was, of course, an intaglio or image represented by hollows 
 more or less deep. This intaglio was now pressed into a sheet of lead by 
 being laid on a perfectly flat and true steel tray, the walls of which were 
 knife edges, superposed with the leaden sheet, and then subjected to the 
 pressure of a hydraulic engine. The result of this pressure (which was 
 truly enormous — something like a strain of 150 tons being required for a 
 
WOODBURYTYPE. 
 
 235 
 
 carte-de-visite picture) was the production of a mould in lead, the knife 
 edges allowing the latter to fill up the tray precisely, and thus preventing 
 injury to the gelatine mould, which could, strange to say, be used over 
 and over again. 
 
 This formed what may be termed the first portion of the process. But 
 the old order, which has yielded place to a new, had considerable draw- 
 backs, centred around the use of the hydraulic press. This was a formid- 
 able piece of machinery, particularly as regards the first cost, whilst the 
 exigencies of pressure were so great that Woodburytypes of dimensions 
 greater than 14in. were seldom if ever produced. But recent modifica. 
 tions have entirely done away with the necessity for this troublesome 
 machinery. All that is now required is a rolling press and a supply of 
 tinfoil. The intaglio is prepared as before, the composition of the pellicle 
 being, I believe, 
 
 Nelson's Gelatine 200 parts 
 
 Water 100 „ 
 
 Glycerine 20 „ 
 
 White Sugar 30 „ 
 
 to which is added a little Indian ink to give it a tinge of colour. This, 
 being sensitised, is exposed not under a negative, but a positive. It is 
 attached to patent plate glass, and developed as before. Now comes 
 the real improvement, which consists simply in placing a sheet of tinfoil 
 upon the gelatine mould, and passing both through a rolling press. The 
 result is that the tinfoil is forced into every hollow of the gelatine, thus, 
 in fact, lining it with thin sheet lead, and rendering it equivalent to the 
 leaden mould as produced with the expensive and troublesome aid of the 
 hydraulic press. 
 
 The remainder of the process is equally simple and ingenious. The 
 intaglio is slightly greased and placed in position on the bed of a press. 
 A pool of warm ink, formed by adding a fine pigment or permanent dye to 
 a solution of gelatine in hot water, is poured on to the mould. A piece of 
 paper, strongly sized and of close even texture, is placed on the inked 
 mould, and the top plate of the press, which is hinged, is brought down 
 and secured by a catch. The result of this is to squeeze out the super- 
 fluous gelatine, and when time has been given for the ink to set on the 
 paper, which it does in gradations corresponding to that of the mould, the 
 top plate is unlocked and raised, and the print removed. Another pool 
 of ink is poured on to the mould, and the operations repeated, each print 
 being treated with a solution of alum to render the image insoluble. 
 
 It is an important point that the top plate, which in the pattern press 
 used for producing this class of work is of glass, should be perfectly level. 
 
236 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 It may be easily understood that this press may be dispensed with by 
 merely super-posing a thick piece of plate upon the back of the paper 
 laid upon the inked mould ; and by this means the ink would be properly 
 squeezed out, supposing the picture to be of small dimensions. It has 
 been said that, in later modifications of the process, the mould has a level 
 support in the shape of a glass plate to which the pellicle adheres, and 
 which obviates the necessity for any bed for it to rest upon. 
 
 Excepting that it is difficult to reproduce any large expanse of pure 
 white, and that the prints require mounts and cannot be produced along 
 with type in any ordinary typography, Woodburytype, particularly as 
 regards excellence of results, may be looked upon as the most successful 
 of existing photo-mechanical processes. 
 
0 HAP TEE V. 
 
 Reversed Negatives. 
 
 More than once, in connection with the single transfer carbon and the 
 collotype process, for example, the necessity for a reversed negative has 
 been alluded to. As any interpolated account of the methods employed 
 in securing reversed negatives would have injured the continuity of my 
 descriptions of the processes named, I have preferred to postpone such 
 account until I could give it a distinct chapter to itself. With this 
 apology, I will now proceed, first, to explain what a reversed negative 
 really is, and, secondly, its mode of production. To use a simple 
 metaphor, a reversed negative is to an ordinary negative what the image 
 of an object in a mirror is to the object itself. It is a reversal of the 
 composition of an ordinary negative, by which the left becomes the right, 
 and so on. 
 
 There are several ways of securing a reversed negative all more or 
 less efficacious, but not equally convenient. The oldest method is that 
 of providing the negative (which should be unvarnished) with a layer of 
 gelatine, collodion, or gutta percha, and then stripping the film bodily 
 off the plate. By printing from the side which formerly adhered to the 
 plate, the results accruing from the use of a reversed negative are mani- 
 festly obtained. The following modus operandi is said to be the best 
 of those which are based upon the above principle. The unvarnished 
 negative is first coated with a solution of indiarubber in benzole, one to 
 two grains to the ounce, which is allowed to dry. It is then flowed with 
 a transfer collodion, for which this formula is recommended : 
 
 Transfer Collodion. 
 
 xj uiier 
 
 Alcohol '805 ... 
 Castor oil ... 
 Pyroxyline ... 
 
 Ether 
 
 ... 5oz. 
 ... lOoz. 
 ... ioz. 
 
 This is allowed to dry. The plate is then immersed in cold water, and 
 if the film does not begin to appear loose in a few minutes an ounce of 
 
238 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 sulphuric acid to a gallon of water should be added to hasten this result. 
 Whilst still immersed, the edges of the film are run round with a penknife 
 and the film itself gently detached from the glass. The film may now be 
 reversed, laid on a clean plate, and, on withdrawal from the water, gently 
 squeezed on to it. The above method, which is suitable for collodion 
 negatives, has the disadvantage that the thin film is rather a tender 
 object which, unless the manipulation is very delicate, stands a good 
 chance of being rent in the operation of transfer. 
 
 Another method consists in the employment of an instrument known as 
 the reversing mirror. An improved form of this is one manufactured 
 by the Autotype Company, who use a surface of perfectly level plate 
 glass, upon which has been deposited a coating of pure silver. This is 
 set at an angle of 45deg. in a box fitting on to the front of the camera, 
 the method of arrangement and fitting adopted by the Autotype Com" 
 pany being such that a mirror for any given size of lens may be adapted 
 for use with any lenses of smaller calibre. In taking views, portraits, 
 &c, the camera is turned sideways to the object, the resulting negative 
 thus fulfilling, through the intermediate reflection of the sloped mirror, 
 the necessary conditions of reversal. The advantages claimed for the 
 reversing mirror may be said to rest chiefly upon its employment for 
 copying purposes, where the engraving, drawing, or other object to be 
 copied may be simply laid on the floor instead of being necessarily 
 placed in a vertical position. Of course the mirror has in these cases to 
 be placed so as to look down on the object. A happy result of this is 
 that the illumination being vertical there is a remarkable absence of 
 texture or grain. Again, great relief may be obtained with medallions 
 or other objects requiring strong light and shade by covering over the 
 top of the camera and using only a side light. 
 
 A third plan, known as the f( nitric acid process, " is a very neat and, 
 if properly carried out, a successful one. Under any negative of which 
 it is desired to have a reversed representative is exposed a plate con- 
 taining preferably only silver bromide (chloride being admissable, but 
 not iodide), as, for instance, a collodio-bromide dry plate. This is 
 developed with alkaline pyro or ferrous oxalate, and well washed. The 
 plate is now fastened on to a pneumatic holder, and a little of the best 
 and purest nitric acid flowed over it. The result is a picture in which 
 clear glass represents the deepest shadows, and so on. This is now 
 exposed for a second or two to daylight, or for a longer period to the 
 light of a lamp, and on returning to the dark room is again treated 
 with the developer, alkaline pyro, or ferrous oxalate, as the case may 
 be. This causes the image to darken until a negative (reversed) of the 
 ordinary description is obtained. The disadvantage of the above method 
 
REVERSED NEGATIVES. 
 
 239 
 
 consists in the difficulty experienced in keeping the film on the plate 
 after the application of the nitric acid. A simple cure has been suggested 
 by Mr. Edward Viles, whose article on the subject of making trans- 
 parencies by this process is well worth reading. That gentleman simply 
 draws a tallow candle all round the edges of the dry plate before it has 
 been wetted in any way, so as to leave a greasy margin of about xVin. 
 This water-repelling edge is recommended to all who are troubled with 
 slipping films. 
 
 For an account of two processes of more recent introduction than those 
 already enumerated, I am indebted to the British Journal of Photo- 
 graphy. The first of these is due to Mr. Thomas Bolas, F.C.S., whose 
 Cantor lecture on photo-mechanical processes, published in the British 
 Journal, is entitled to all possible respect. His method consists in 
 treating an ordinary gelatino-bromide dry plate with a solution of 
 bichromate of potash, and exposing it under a negative for the same 
 period as that required for a carbon print. On developement by 
 alkaline pyro or ferrous oxalate, a reverse negative results. An advan- 
 tage of this method is that dry plates which have been accidentally 
 exposed to the light may be used ; even those which have been developed 
 need not be discarded, the image being removed by means of a solution 
 of bromine in water and the plate washed before the application of the 
 bichromate of potash. 
 
 The last method I shall mention is one introduced by Mr. W. Brooks, 
 of which a favourable opinion has been recorded. In operation it re- 
 sembles the nitric acid process, a film containing only bromide of silver 
 (collodion by preference, although gelatine may be used with careful 
 treatment) is exposed under a negative and developed. The image is now 
 treated with a solution of iodine in alcohol (the ordinary tincture of iodine 
 of the Pharmacopseia diluted with half its bulk of water may be used) 
 until, so far as reflected light is concerned, the image quite disappears. 
 An exposure of a second or two to the light now follows, then a second 
 application of the developer, which produces the desired result of a 
 reversed image of standard quality. 
 
 s 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Transparencies. 
 
 The ability to produce at will a good transparency is of no small im- 
 portance to the photographer. In the first place transparencies are of 
 great practical utility, of which the multiplication of negatives, and, 
 above all, the production of enlargements, are prominent instances. 
 Again, they may be looked on as important additions to what may be 
 termed the ornamental side of photography. There are a thousand and 
 one pretty uses to which they can be applied. To begin with, a simple 
 transparency, backed with some translucent substance, such as ground 
 glass, or coated on its silver side with a saturated solution of white 
 wax in ether, to each ounce of which after filtration another ounce of ether 
 has been added, forms in itself no unattractive ornament. But a very 
 limited ingenuity will rapidly enlarge upon this, and <c storied windows 
 richly dight," not to mention lamp shades, and screens of many descrip- 
 tions may easily become accomplished facts in the house of the tasteful 
 photographer. Lastly, there is a use for transparencies which is both of 
 a practical nature and furnishes considerable amusement at no great 
 expense of trouble, money, or time. I am alluding to the production of 
 photographic slides for what has been for many years known by the 
 unfortunate name of the magic lantern. 
 
 Amongst the various methods of making transparencies, perhaps the 
 first to be mentioned is that in which a special copying camera or some 
 kindred contrivance is required. Into this I shall not go in detail, as, 
 in my opinion, the method is quite superseded by others more new, which 
 are less complicated and quite as efficient. The processes which I shall 
 describe are so simple that they may be practised by anyone ; moreover, 
 they require little, if any, special apparatus, while giving the best 
 possible results. 
 
 To begin with, I will again revert to the nitric acid method, which 
 I alluded to in the preceding chapter on Reversed Negatives. In the 
 case of transparencies, the mode of procedure is naturally different. 
 
TRANSPARENCIES. 
 
 241 
 
 Instead of recourse being had to a negative, the transparency is a direct 
 one, that is to say, taken from the object at one operation. A collodio- 
 bromide plate is used, and exposed about one-third longer than would be 
 necessary for a good negative. Developement (which must be pushed 
 much further than in the case of an ordinary negative) follows, then the 
 washing, the application of the nitric acid, and the other operations as 
 previously detailed. The most important point is, perhaps, the correct- 
 ness of the exposure, which, while full, should not be overdone. In the 
 second application of the developer, the latter can be weakened and 
 rendered more under control, if desired, by the addition of a little water. 
 If, after all, density is wanting, the plate may be floated with a saturated 
 solution of copper chloride, to which an equal bulk of water has been 
 added. This causes the transparency first to assume a brown tone (which 
 may be preserved, if the picture is already dense enough, by simply 
 washing off the solution), next to whiten until the image almost dis- 
 appears, when the alkaline developer may again be applied to bring out 
 the picture. The advantages of the nitric acid method are that the 
 operation is direct, and that, partly from this reason, partly from the 
 merits of the process, the pictures possess extreme delicacy, rendering 
 them of peculiar utility for the production of enlargements and for em- 
 ployment as slides in the optical lantern. Perhaps the only apparent 
 disadvantage is but an advantage looked at from a different point of 
 view. The process being a direct one, it is not possible to utilise old 
 negatives. Again, in cases of transparencies of large dimensions, the 
 manipulation would become difficult to a prohibitory extent. 
 
 The next means of making transparencies is a very simple one, and will 
 especially commend itself to dry plate workers, both in collodion and 
 gelatine. A dry plate is placed under an ordinary negative in a common 
 printing frame. The exposure to daylight in the case of a moderately 
 sensitive plate should hardly exceed a second, but it is preferable to 
 expose it for a proportionately longer period to the light of a lamp con" 
 structed on any of the better known principles. After a few trials the 
 exposure may be ascertained with extreme accuracy, and a great number 
 of transparencies obtained in the course of a single evening. Develope- 
 ment naturally follows, and if ferrous oxalate be used, no toning will 
 be necessary ; otherwise, the picture may be toned by immersion in the 
 following 
 
 Toning Solution. 
 
 Chloride of gold lgr. 
 
 Hydrochloric acid 6 drops 
 
 Water lOoz. 
 
 A third transparency process is taken from carbon printing, and is, 
 perhaps, the simplest and most likely to be adopted of all. A glance at 
 
 s2 
 
242 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 that portion of the chapter on carbon printing where double transfer cornea 
 under notice, will explain the method fully and perfectly. A piece of 
 sensitive tissue is exposed under a negative, and transferred to a waxed 
 or chalked glass plate. Developement in hot water follows, the tissue 
 being stripped off, and the transparency all ready toned remaining. The 
 fixation in alum may be carried out us a precaution. 
 
 Lastly, most exquisite transparencies may be secured by Woodbury- 
 type, glass being used instead of paper as the final support. Amateurs 
 may, perhaps, not incline to this method, but a glance at the magnificent 
 series of slides produced by it, and published by the Sciopticon Company, 
 of 157b, Great Portland-street, W., will convince them of the capabilities 
 of the process for this branch of work. 
 
 The consideration of transparencies leads to the very simple means 
 by which a negative may be reproduced almost to infinity. The method 
 should be obvious : from the original negative is taken a transparency. 
 The exposure of a dry plate under this of course results in a negative. 
 
GHAPTEE VII. 
 
 Photography by Artificial Light. 
 
 Few will deny that a peculiar interest is attached to the question of 
 photography by artificial light. Be it midday or midnight, a portrait 
 can always be taken by its aid, provided the appliances are correctly 
 adjusted and administered, and what is even more important, the expo- 
 sure is small beside the exposures often rendered necessary by the use of 
 the wet collodion under ordinary circumstances, while the results are all 
 that can be desired. Witness the pictures turned out with the aid of 
 the electric light by Van der Weyde and the Stereoscopic Company, both 
 of Eegent-street. Moreover, the quality of light being uniform, it needs 
 but a few experimental trials to arrive at uniform correctness of exposure, 
 one of the secrets of success in portraiture as in every other branch of 
 photography. 
 
 The Electric Light. — Amongst the various kinds of artificial light that 
 may be used in connection with photography, the most prominent is that 
 obtained by means of electricity, which will, perhaps, be best understood 
 by an inspection of some such pattern establishments as the two before 
 referred to, where the electric light lends its aid to the production 
 of portraits rivalling the best work done in ordinary daylight. In one of 
 these the light is produced by two of Siemens' dynamo-electric machines, 
 one capable of producing a light equal to 6000 candles, the other a light 
 «qual to 2000 candles. These are worked by an eight horse power silent 
 gas engine, costing about .£250. The dynamo -electric machines may be 
 put down at about ,£200. The above are in the cellar, while connected 
 with them, by large conducting wires of copper, is an electric lamp with 
 the usual carbon pencils, which stands in the studio upstairs, and the 
 light from which is reflected on to the sitter by a large concave reflector 
 lined with enamelled paper. The total cost of the whole apparatus may 
 be put down at about .£700. Of course such a price as this is, except in 
 rare cases, prohibitory, but the above details are quoted to give a general 
 idea of arrangements which, perhaps, as nearly approximate to perfection 
 
244 
 
 PKACTICAL PHOTOGKAPHY. 
 
 in this particular branch as any in existence. It must be understood that 
 by far the best, if by far the most expensive, method of producing the 
 electric light is that in which, as in the studios cited, the dynamo -electric 
 machine is brought into use ; and when the quality of the light, and the 
 ease with which the whole apparatus can be started at a moment's 
 notice, are brought into consideration, cases will be readily imagined 
 when a price quite prohibitory to the ordinary amateur might be profit- 
 ably approached by the enterprising professional. 
 
 But, as every reader to whom electricity has been ever so limited a 
 study should know, there is another, and, so far as expense is concerned, 
 a vastly less formidable means of producing the electric light besides that 
 of which an outline has been given. This is the voltaic battery, familiar 
 to many through the toy electric lamps sold for a shilling or two, in 
 which a light is obtained with a tiny battery contained in a jampot or 
 other kindred contrivance. I will assume it to be a well-known fact that 
 the light may be increased in power by multiplying the elements of a 
 battery, that is to say, by using forty or fifty " Bunsen's " or " Grove's" 
 cells instead of one. I do not think, moreover, that I need enter into the 
 detailed construction of the separate elements of a battery, as that is a 
 point which belongs to the department of electricity, and does not lie 
 within the scope of the present work. But I should like to recommend 
 my readers to a quarter in which, perhaps, more reliable and practical 
 information can be obtained concerning the application of electric light to 
 the specific purposes of photography than can be found in any existing 
 manual. I speak of a series of articles contributed during January, 
 February, and March, 1879, by Mr. G. F. Williams, a practical elec- 
 trician of many years' standing, to the British Journal of Photography. 
 Again, I think that, perhaps, even to readers who are acquainted 
 with the subject, a few words " by the way" may not be unaccept- 
 able. Firstly, I cannot do better than illustrate the principles involved 
 m voltaic electricity by the following simple explanation given by the 
 writer mentioned above. In a battery jar (for which one of the jars 
 used for table salt may well be employed) is placed a plate of amal- 
 gamated zinc in diluted sulphuric acid ; little or no action is visible. 
 In the same jar is placed a " porous cell," containing either a piece of 
 platinum foil or a plate of gas carbon, and nearly filled with the strongest 
 nitric acid. If the platinum foil be used, we have Grove's battery; if 
 carbon, Bunsen's modification of it. Now connect the zinc with the 
 carbon or platinum by a wire, and a brisk chemical action ensues. If a 
 short wire be attached to the zinc and another to the carbon, and their 
 ends rubbed together, a spark will be seen every time the contact is made 
 or broken. This is current electricity. 
 
THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 245 
 
 To pass on to the actual provision of a battery capable of producing 
 sufficient light for purposes of portraiture, I am indebted again to Mr. 
 Williams for the following very practical information relative to the 
 materials necessary for the construction of a battery, and their cost. In 
 his series Mr. Williams describes six types of battery which should be 
 suitable to the requirements of every photographer. Of these the most 
 expensive is one consisting of fifty cells, square form, Grove's, 7iin. by 
 4fin. by 2^in. inside, platinum being used instead of carbon. This costs- 
 about <£20, while to charge it costs 12s. The cheapest on the other hand 
 is one consisting of fifty cells, square form, Bunsen's, 5fin. by 3fin. by 
 2in. inside, costing but little over £6, the charge coming to 6s. 3d. 
 extra. It may also be useful for the inexperienced to know that battery 
 jars and porous cells can be obtained advantageously from Messrs. Stiff, 
 Lambeth, S.E. ; zinc from Braby and Co., or Treggon and Co., London ; 
 Carbon blocks and plates from Thorpe and Hancock, Howard- street, 
 Wandsworth-road, S.W. (wholesale) ; brass clamps, from Davis and Tim- 
 mens, Bowling Green-lane, Farringdon-road, E.C. (wholesale) ; platinum, 
 from Johnson, Matthey, and Co., Hatton-garden, E.C. ; acids, from Pass 
 and Boome, Weston-street, Bow Common, E. 
 
 As regards the lamp, the photographer must be left to his own discre- 
 tion. It may be mentioned that Siemens' automatic lamp costs <£15, 
 Serrin's, <£14 ; but these are very perfect instruments indeed. Strictly 
 speaking, the photographer does not absolutely need a lamp, as the 
 light only being required for a few seconds, any simple contrivance for 
 holding the carbon pencils will be sufficient. 
 
 It is recommended that, if possible, the battery should be kept in an 
 out-house by itself, to facilitate the renewal of its charge, and to lessen 
 the annoyance of the fumes arising from the acid. Connection may be 
 made between the cells and the lamp by strong gutta percha-covered 
 copper wire. 
 
 As regards the lighting of the object, good results have been obtained 
 by placing the lamp about 5ft. from the floor and somewhat in advance 
 of the sitter. A screen of papier mineral is interposed, and a reflector 
 used on the shaded side. 
 
 In conclusion it should be remarked that to avoid the unpleasantness 
 of the nitric acid fumes it has been suggested by Mr. J. W. Swan to 
 employ an acidified bichromate of potash solution instead of the zinc 
 and carbon combination. This, with various arrangements calculated to 
 lessen the trouble of constantly attending to the battery, will be found 
 entered into at length by Mr. Swan in pp. 129—132 of the "Year Book 
 Photography" for 1879. 
 
 Pyrotechnic Lights. — It has long been a well-known fact that consider- 
 
246 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 able actinic properties may be found to exist in the light obtained by 
 igniting compounds similar to those commonly used in the manufacture 
 of fireworks. But the employment of these pyrotechnic compounds is 
 attended with much inconvenience by reason of the fumes arising on 
 their ignition. Again, it would hardly be possible to secure a satisfactory 
 portrait by merely lighting a certain quantity of an actinic fire in the 
 neighbourhood of the sitter. Some system of reflection must be used 
 to concentrate the rays, and so to harmonise the lighting. Hence it 
 becomes necessary in working with a pyrotechnic compound to do so in 
 connection with some sort of special apparatus calculated to show the 
 light off to its greatest possible advantage, and furthermore to carry 
 away the obnoxious fumes. Various patterns of apparatus have been 
 devised with these ends in view, all more or less successful. The earliest 
 of these was the Photogen of Mr. John Moule, which we believe can still 
 be obtained from Solomon, of 22, Eed Lion-square, for £b 10s. The 
 Photogen consists simply of a huge white-lined reflector, in the centre of 
 which is an arrangement for supporting the compound, which is fired 
 by hand, the smoke being carried away by a chimney. A more pretentious 
 instrument, constructed on a not very different principle, is the modern 
 Luxograph. In this the light is softened by being transmitted through 
 some such medium as tissue paper. The Luxograph has been patented by 
 Messrs. Alder and Clarke, from whom all particulars can be obtained, at 
 9, West Strand, S.W. The total cost of the apparatus complete, with 
 every fitting needful to take any sized portrait from carte de visite up to 
 24in. by 18in., either bust, head, or half length, is .£35. If it be required 
 to take full length or three-quarter figures, a larger apparatus, costing 
 d850, is recommended. With these sums is included the licence to work 
 under the patent. The cost for exposure, with a rapid gelatine plate, is 
 under a penny. The instrument can be viewed at the studio, 9, West 
 Strand, and special demonstrations are occasionally given for the benefit 
 of photographers generally. 
 
 An apparatus which, I think, is destined to enjoy far greater popularity 
 than the foregoing, while hardly, if at all, inferior to them in the 
 character of its results, is one the introduction of which is due to Mr. E. 
 V. Harman, of Bromley, Kent. From the following simple description 
 any person of average intelligence should be able to construct one for 
 himself, which will suit every purpose of ordinary portraiture, but it 
 should be mentioned that a well-made instrument of metal, complete with 
 trivet and saucer, may be obtained from Mr. Harman himself at the 
 extremely moderate cost of 25s. The construction of the apparatus is 
 essentially as follows. Imagine an ordinary deal case of cubical form, 
 measuring about 2ft. 6in. every way. Now, suppose this cut in halves, 
 
PYROTECHNIC LIGHTS- 
 
 247 
 
 diagonally. Take one half and rear it up on end, cutting a hole in the 
 top for the chimney, and covering over the open front with tissue paper, 
 excepting a space of about six inches from the bottom, which serves the 
 double purpose of allowing the composition to be easily fired, and of 
 creating the necessary draught. The piping for the chimney may be 
 made of cardboard bent round, and pasted paper, and may be let out 
 into the open air through a window, roof, or chimney breast. The 
 instrument itself may be placed about three feet from the floor, and a 
 little in advance of the sitter, a screen covered with white paper serving 
 as a reflector on the shaded side. A trivet stands on the floor of the 
 instrument, and supports a saucer filled with dry sand. A sufficient 
 quantity of the compound (which will necessarily depend on the rapidity 
 of the plates used) is taken in a wineglass and emptied in a pyramidal 
 heap on the sand. When ready to expose, a vesuvian or pipe-light is 
 dropped into the centre of the mixture. 
 
 The following is the formula for a pyrotechnic compound, given me by 
 Mr. Harman, with directions for its preparation : 
 
 Pyrotechnic Compound. 
 
 Nitrate of Potass Hlb. 
 
 Flour Sulphur *lb. 
 
 Sulphide of Antimony (black) loz. 
 
 Ground Charcoal hoz. 
 
 Camphor loz. 
 
 Break the camphor up small and dissolve it in about 3oz. or 4oz. of 
 methylated spirit in a basin. When dissolved, stir into it some of the 
 powder, a small quantity at a time, until it becomes stiff, and then 
 thoroughly mix the whole together. 
 
 Keep the above, when not in use, in a tin or box in a dry place, as 
 damp will considerably affect it. 
 
 I give a second formula, proposed by Mr. J. Barker, in the " Year 
 Book of Photography " for 1880 : 
 
 Nitrate of Potass 20 parts. 
 
 Sulphur 8 
 
 Sulphide of Antimony 4 „ 
 
 Loaf sugar _ 4 „ 
 
 If extra rapidity of exposure be desired, add about half a part of mag- 
 nesium. The ingredients should all be powdered separately, then mixed 
 and strained through a hair sieve, as care is necessary when mixing 
 sulphur with potass. 
 
 Magnesium Ribbon. — At first sight the employment of magnesium 
 ribbon in portraiture by artificial light seems to offer no practical obstacle 
 whatever. The light itself obtained from this source, as everyone knows, 
 
248 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 is of surpassing brilliancy and whiteness, while the ribbon seems so 
 cleanly and so handy that by its side the electric light with its trouble- 
 some paraphernalia and pyrotechnic compounds, with all the nuisances 
 attendant on their preparation and combustion, seems to have no chance. 
 Moreover, the ribbon can hardly be said to be expensive when we consider 
 that its present price is about 12s. the ounce, and looking at the number of 
 yards contained in that quantity, a number which must be seen to be 
 believed. But magnesium ribbon has the drawback of being not quite so 
 easily combusted as some would imagine. It is all very well to break off 
 an inch and deliberately expose it to the action of flame until it fires ; but 
 it is quite another thing to manipulate it in such a way as to render it 
 efficacious in portraiture. To begin with, one single strand of ribbon 
 hardly gives sufficient light except with a prolonged exposure, and to keep 
 a single strand equally alight for even a few seconds, the necessary 
 reflector being taken into consideration, requires, if not an assistant, at 
 least much dexterity and care. Several contrivances have been suggested, 
 whereby as many as twenty strands of magnesium ribbon could be 
 ignited at once, but they are hardly so simple and practicable as might 
 be wished. Perhaps the only way of working the ribbon with any success, 
 combined with comfort, is to employ one, or, better, two of the well- 
 known magnesium lamps. These have in their interior a roll of the ribbon 
 which is paid out by a neat clock-work arrangement, as it is gradually 
 combusted. The speed is regulated by two small fans enclosed in a cap 
 at the top of the clock-work, the general rate of burning being about 
 one foot per minute. Magnesium lamps can be obtained from the 
 patentee, Mr. J. Solomon, of 22, Red Lion-square. A No. 1 lamp, with 
 silver reflector, costs £2, the rollers, with adjustment, 10s. 
 
 Gas Light. — That ordinary gaslight may be successfully adapted to 
 purposes of portraiture has been proved by Mr. P. E. Laws, of Newcastle- 
 on-Tyne. Much credit is due to this gentleman, not only for the originality 
 of his idea and the painstaking thoroughness with which he has worked it 
 out, but particularly for the liberality with which he has placed the 
 result of his experiences at the disposal of photographers generally 
 through the medium of the Photographic News. Like most happy ideas, 
 that of taking portraits by gaslight is strangely simple. The key to it 
 lies in the employment of a burner of extraordinary capacity. Mr. 
 Laws uses one of Wigham's, consisting of sixty-eight jets, capable of 
 yielding an illuminating power of 1250 standard candles, and costing <£5. 
 The large flame produced by this is backed by a reflector, lined through- 
 out with strips of silvered glass ; a shape akin to that of a Dutch oven, 
 only domed instead of being angular, is employed by Mr. Laws, who also> 
 places a screen of violet glass between the flame and the sitter. With 
 
PHOTOGRAPHY BY GAS-LIGHT. 
 
 249 
 
 extra sensitive gelatine plates, such as those prepared by Messrs. Mawson 
 and Swan, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, the exposure has been reduced to as 
 low as eight seconds for cartes-de-visite. It may be added that Messrs. 
 Mawson and Swan have undertaken the agency for the supply of 
 apparatus similar to that employed by Mr. Laws, and that from the latter 
 gentleman specimen photographs can be obtained at a low cost, proving 
 that the practical results of his process, as well as its theoretical advan- 
 tages, are all that can be desired. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Enlarging Processes. 
 
 Before detailing the various existing processes of enlargement, there 
 is one little technical expression connected with this branch of 
 photography which deserves explanation. This is the expression 
 " diameters," which is generally used to convey the degree of an 
 enlargement with reference to the size of the original negative or 
 print from which it was taken. The following simple explanation, 
 borrowed from a neat writer and good photographer, shows what is 
 meant at a glance. If the original negative or print measures lin. 
 by lin. and the enlargement 2in. by 2in., the former is said to 
 be enlarged two .diameters, or, to use another expression, four times 
 superficially, from the fact that while the original contains but lin. 
 superficial the enlargement contains 4in. To find the superficial 
 enlargement, multiply the number of the diameters by itself. 
 
 There are various methods of enlargement, some slightly complicated, 
 and requiring large and expensive apparatus, others quite simple, 
 and calling for but little additional apparatus to those usually 
 employed in everyday work. I hardly think my readers will quarrel 
 with me if I give preference to the latter class. At the same time 
 I trust to be able to give at least an outline of the less simple 
 processes, if only as illustrations of the principles on which their 
 practice is based. 
 
 Direct Printing with the Solar Camera. — The first method of 
 enlarging that I shall describe is that in which a " solar camera/ ' 
 such as that figured in the accompanying illustration, is employed 
 to produce an enlarged image on ordinary paper or carbon tissue. 
 The principle is as follows : A large plano-convex lens, say, of 9in. 
 diameter, condenses the rays of the sun (which are, of course, parallel), 
 and in the cone of rays formed by this condenser is placed the 
 negative to be enlarged. The objective or enlarging lens is situated in 
 or near the focus of these rays, and at a distance suitable to the size 
 
SOLAR CAMERAS. 
 
 251 
 
 of enlargement required is fixed the frame to receive the sensitive 
 paper or tissue. In the apparatus shown in the illustration (kindly- 
 supplied by Mr. J. J. Atkinson, of Manchester-street, Liverpool, who 
 manufactures these cameras, together with every other good variety of 
 enlarging apparatus) these desiderata are all very neatly fulfilled. 
 The camera, moreover, is mounted on an axis which permits it to be 
 pointed at the sun, and enables the operator to follow the earth's 
 rotation with an accuracy sufficient for all practical purposes. A 
 more imposing form of this apparatus is one in which the camera 
 with its condenser remains quite stationary, while the image of the 
 sun is reflected on to the latter by a reflector, fitted with a clockwork 
 
 Fig. 8. Atkinson's Solar Camera. 
 
 arrangement called a heliostat, which causes it to follow the sun 
 automatically. 
 
 It must be remarked that in these cameras the size of the condenser 
 is an important element. The larger its diameter, the greater the 
 rapidity of exposure. A diameter of 9in. is about the least that can be 
 employed with any success, but one of 14in. is decidedly preferable. 
 
 With the solar camera it will be found a great advantage to use 
 carbon tissue in preference to silvered paper. To understand this the 
 reader should look back to the chapter on carbon printing, to the 
 paragraph where the continuating action of light upon the exposed 
 tissue is noticed. As a matter of fact, a picture has been obtained 
 by an exposure of two minutes, followed by a delay of two or three 
 
252 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 days between the exposure and developement of the print, which would 
 have required six times as long an exposure if the developement had 
 been proceeded with immediately. 
 
 I have not entered at any great length into the above system of 
 enlargement by direct printing with the solar camera for two reasons : 
 partly because the principles involved, both optical and mechanical, 
 are, generally speaking, so simple that little explanation is required ; 
 partly because, in spite of this fact, the apparatus necessary is so 
 expensive that, practically, it is quite beyond the reach of all except 
 wealthy amateurs or very large firms where this class of work is made 
 a speciality and carried on systematically to a very great extent 
 indeed. 
 
 One point, by the way, in favour of the solar camera is that, in bad 
 weather, when direct printing on paper or tissue becomes impracticable, 
 it may well be adapted to a method of enlarging from small negatives 
 by developement, which I will now describe. At the same time, it must 
 not be thought that this latter system cannot be practised without 
 a solar camera. As will be shown, a much simpler and less costly 
 apparatus can be devised to suit the purpose. Still, it is as well to 
 mention the fact that the solar camera is not restricted in its usefulness. 
 
 By way of a small practical hint, it should be remembered that the 
 frame to hold the negative should be made in such a manner as not to 
 be affected by the great heat of the condensed rays ; also that care be 
 taken in removing the negative after an exposure, for reasons which the 
 operator will best appreciate if he lays a negligent finger on the hot 
 glass by way of experiment. 
 
 Printing by Developement. — There are two methods of printing by 
 developement, which, while about equally suited to the operations of 
 enlarging, are at once simple L and popular. The essential difference is 
 that in one the support of the sensitive surface is paper, in the other, 
 glass. I will take the method of enlarging upon negative paper first. 
 To begin with, an apparatus — adapted, by the way, to either process 
 — will have to be constructed in the following simple manner. A 
 small room is selected and darkened, with the exception of a small open 
 frame capable of receiving the negative or negatives to be enlarged. 
 With a very moderate ingenuity an arrangement may be made in such 
 a manner that negatives of different sizes may be framed at will. 
 We now have a room which is practically a gigantic camera, and into 
 which the light only passes through the negative to be enlarged. Outside 
 the frame or window a radiating surface, such as a sheet of white 
 cardboard or opal glass, is arranged in such a manner as to radiate the 
 pure light from the upper sky through the negative. If my readers 
 
ENLARGING PROCESSES. 
 
 253 
 
 will imagine the negative holder or frame to be a straight line, and 
 will then draw another straight line from the lower end of the first, 
 and making an angle of about 45 deg. with it, they will easily understand 
 my meaning. Of course the second line represents the radiator, which 
 may advantageously be hinged so as to fold up flush with the wall. 
 If cardboard be used as the radiator, it should be covered with glass to 
 protect it from inclement weather. Now let us turn to the inside of the 
 room. The first thing necessary is a table pushed up close to the wall in 
 which is the negative holder. On this the frame containing the lens 
 will have to be worked. The back of the lens, which may be an 
 ordinary portrait combination (a quarter-plate lens being used for quarter- 
 plate negatives, and so on), is pointed to the middle of the negative to 
 be enlarged. An arrangement must be made to allow the lens frame 
 to be moved farther from or nearer to the negative, as required. The 
 construction of ordiuary cameras will afford a guide. Lastly, it is 
 necessary to provide a third frame to hold the sensitive plate or paper 
 during exposure. A rough imitation of some form of a fire screen 
 answers the purpose simply and satisfactorily. The ff apparatus " then 
 comes to this : there are three frames in a line, one, the negative frame, 
 a stationary one ; the other two movable. Furthermore, there is an 
 arrangement by which the light is radiated through two of the frames 
 on to the third. 
 
 The above being assumed to be in existence, we can now commence 
 operations. The negative to be enlarged is fixed in its frame, while on 
 the frame shortly to hold the sensitive surface is pinned a piece of 
 paper if negative paper is to be used, or a sheet of cardboard in the case 
 of a sensitive glass plate. To focus the enlargement, the lens frame 
 and the frame supporting the surface are moved until the requisite 
 degrees of sharpness and amplification (or reduction, by the way, for the 
 apparatus fulfils either purpose) is secured. There is a regular table for 
 enlargement and reduction to be found at the end of the almanac 
 published annually in connection with the British Journal of Photography. 
 All that is necessary is to know the number of times which it is desired 
 to enlarge the original negative and the focal length of the lens. On 
 reference to the table it can be discovered at a glance what is the correct 
 distance the sensitive plate must be from the centre of the lens, as well 
 as the correct distance of the picture to be copied. To borrow the stock 
 example of the British Journal of Photography, let it be supposed that 
 a photographer has a carte to enlarge to four times its size, and the lens 
 he intends employing is one of 6in., equivalent focus. He must, therefore, 
 look for four on the upper horizontal line of the table, and for six in the 
 first vertical column, and carry his eye to where the line and the column 
 
254 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 meet, which will be at a square space containing the figures, 30 — 7i- 
 The greater of these indicates the distance the sensitive plate must 
 be from the centre of the lens ; the lesser, the distance of the picture to 
 be copied. To reduce a picture any given number of times, the same 
 method must be followed, but in this case the greater number will re- 
 present the distance between the lens and the picture to be copied ; the 
 lesser that between the lens and the sensitive plate. 
 
 As regards the preparation of negative paper this, we believe, is 
 obtainable ready salted from Mr. J. Solomon, of 23, Eed Lion-square, 
 at the rate of about 13s. per quire. If, however, the operator prefers 
 to salt his own, he should select a stout sample of paper and sponge- 
 it with, or float it over, the following compound : 
 
 Salting Solution. 
 
 Iodide of potassium _ 80grs. 
 
 Bromide of ammonium 35grs. 
 
 Chloride of ammonium lOgrs. 
 
 Gelatine 60grp. 
 
 Albumen loz. 
 
 Water lOoz. 
 
 In the foregoing formula, which is that used by Mr. J. Solomon himself , 
 the gelatine is, as usual, dissolved by heat. To sensitise the above salted: 
 paper, a flat board is covered with blotting paper, the salted paper 
 superposed on the latter and treated with the following solution, a. 
 pool of which is poured out into the middle of the surface, and spread 
 over it by means of a tuft of wool : 
 
 Sensitising Solution. 
 
 Nitrate of silver loz. 
 
 Glacial acetic acid ioz. 
 
 Water „ 12oz. 
 
 To effect the exposure, the focussing paper is unpinned and replaced 
 by the sensitised paper, still wet ; the cap, in the meantime, having been 
 put upon the lens. When everything is ready, the cap is removed, 
 and, after a few seconds' exposure, replaced. Then follows developement 
 of the enlarged image, which is accomplished by the aid of the following 
 solution, best used while warm, and advantageously supplemented by a 
 few drops of the sensitising solution to impart vigour. 
 
 Developer. 
 
 Gallic acid 60gr. 
 
 Acetate of lead lOgr. 
 
 Water lOoz. 
 
 I now turn to the method of producing enlargements upon a sensitised 
 glass plate, known generally as collodion transfers, from the fact that, 
 on developement and fixation of the image upon glass, it is transferred 
 to a more convenient support in the shape of paper. 
 
ENLAKGING PROCESSES. 255 
 
 It may be premised that while, as before mentioned, the same- 
 apparatus may be used as in dealing with negatives, the successive 
 operations, with some slight exceptions, are essentially identical. The 
 first difference occurs, in fact, in the actual preparation of the plate. 
 This is coated with a tough, horny, and extra bromised collodion. It is 
 then sensitised in a negative bath, the receptacle being, in cases of 
 enlargements of good size, preferably one of the "wave" pattern, as- 
 catalogued and sold by almost every photographic dealer. The image 
 may be either developed with iron and subsequently blackened by a 
 toning solution of chloride of gold, mercury, or platinum; or, to save 
 the latter supplementary operation, developed simply with the following 
 
 Developer. 
 
 Pyrogallic acid lOOgrs. 
 
 Citric acid 60grs. 
 
 Acetic acid 2oz. 
 
 Water 20oz. 
 
 Fixation with hyposulphite of soda follows. 
 
 If a toning solution is used, its action should be ascertained by 
 reference to the back of the plate and by inspecting the image by 
 transmitted light. 
 
 The transfer paper is prepared by floating a suitable sample upon a 
 warm solution of 
 
 Gelatine 4oz. 
 
 Water 40oz. 
 
 Chrome alum 4oz. 
 
 The last ingredient is added separately, being previously dissolved in 
 a little warm water. The gelatine solution will not keep, but the 
 paper floated on it will do so well. 
 
 To transfer the picture, which is supposed to be still wet after the 
 washing out of the fixing salt, a piece of the dry transfer paper is soaked 
 for about ten minutes in cold water until it is slimy to the touch. It 
 is now laid gelatine face downwards on to the collodion film and lightly 
 pressed into contact therewith. When dry it may be easily stripped 
 from the glass, when the enlarged image will be found supported on 
 the paper, and possessing a highly glossy surface. This can be finished 
 in oils without further preparation. If a matt surface be desired the 
 paper is stripped off the glass before it is quite dry, or if it has been 
 allowed to dry, the same result may be obtained by leaving both glass 
 and paper in water a short time before stripping. 
 
 For much assistance in placing the above methods fully and clearly 
 before my readers I am indebted to an exhaustive article in the British 
 
 T 
 
256 
 
 PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Journal of Photography Almanac for 1878, on the " Modern Practice 
 of Enlarging," by Mr. J. Traill Taylor. 
 
 Enlargement by Artificial Light. — This method may be described as 
 being extremely simple and convenient, while giving results which, if 
 adequate care is taken, should rival those procurable by any other process 
 of enlarging. It may be practised in two different ways with two different 
 ends in view : First, when an extremely powerful light is used and it 
 is desired to produce but one copy of the enlargement ; secondly, when 
 a less powerful and more easily accessible and manageable light is adopted 
 with the object of producing an enlarged negative, from which, of course, 
 any number of copies can be made at will. 
 
 The best type of apparatus applicable to the first case is Solomon's 
 Magnesium Light Enlarging Apparatus, which is certainly a most 
 admirably contrived and efficacious machine. It consists of a lantern 
 resembling the ordinary optical or magic lanterns in vogue, and fitted 
 with one of Solomon's clockwork magnesium lamps already alluded to in 
 connection with photography by artificial light. A chimney is also added 
 to carry away the fumes of the combusted ribbon. All that is necessary 
 in using the apparatus is to place the lantern on a table or other suitable 
 support, having at hand, meanwhile, a stand or frame to hold the plate or 
 paper on which the enlargement can be projected. Either of the two 
 processes of negative paper or collodion transfer as just described under 
 the heading of printing by developement may be used. Now wind up the 
 clockwork of the lamp, open the door of the lantern, set the clockwork 
 in motion, and when the ribbon is about lin. beyond the conductor stop 
 the motion. Place the negative in the orifice in front of the condenser, 
 and pin the focussing screen of paper or card upon the stand or frame, 
 Light the lamp, close the door, and focus the picture. Then stop the 
 clockwork, place the cap on the lens, remove the focussing screen, and 
 replace it by the sensitised giass or paper. Eelight the lamp, remove the 
 cap from the lens, and expose according to the density of the negative. 
 Erom thirty to forty seconds will probably be about correct. Develope- 
 ment proceeds as explained in the preceding section. At the bottom of 
 the lantern chimney is a removable tin cup, which should be kept nearly 
 full of water. Into it fall the ashes of the burnt ribbon. 
 
 The cost of an exposure at the present price of magnesium (about 
 12s. per oz.) is about 2d. 
 
 An apparatus (without lens, which can be of the ordinary portrait 
 combination pattern) having 3£in. condenser, No. 1 magnesium lamp, 
 with roller, smoke tubes, elbows, semicircles, &c, is <£5 10s. This is 
 suitable for enlarging vignettes and most portrait negatives. With 
 4|in. condensers the apparatus cost £7 15s., with 6in., d£10 10s. 
 
ENLARGING PROCESSES. 
 
 257 
 
 Fig. 9. Sciopticon Lantern. 
 
 In the second general method of producing enlargements by artificial 
 light, the ordinary Sciopticon lantern is used. This is fitted -with a double 
 or triple wicked paraffin lamp. It is 
 placed on a table or stand like the mag- 
 nesium light apparatus, the frame to 
 support the plate being also required as 
 before. Into the orifice in front of the 
 condenser is slid a transparency from 
 the negative to be enlarged. After 
 focussing, the cap is replaced on the 
 lens, and a dry or wet plate, preferably 
 the former, is substituted for the focus- 
 sing screen. Exposure, varying accord- 
 ing to the density of the transparency 
 and the kind of sensitive plate employed, 
 follows, then developement and fixation 
 in due course. 
 
 By turning the transparency round, a reverse enlarged negative can be 
 obtained. 
 
 An advantage of the above method is that there are three distinct 
 opportunities for contributing improvement to the ultimate result. The 
 original negative may be retouched, then the transparency, and lastly the 
 enlarged negative. 
 
 The transparency may be produced by any of the methods described in 
 the chapter devoted to that subject. Perhaps the carbon process, the 
 special tissue being adopted, is to be recommended in preference to the 
 others. 
 
 Enlarging Apparatus. — There are various kinds of complete enlarging 
 apparatus in the market, by which enlargements may be secured with 
 the least possible trouble and of great excellence. Amongst these may 
 be mentioned Edwards' Enlarging and Copying Apparatus, which has 
 been made the subject of a patent. The price of one to enlarge from £ to 
 i plate is <£10. An extremely neat and efficient little machine, costing 
 only 30s., is Hunter and Sand's (Cranbourne- street, Leicester-square) 
 Copying and Enlarging Cone, which can be easily fitted to the front of 
 almost any camera. For neatness, efficiency, portability, and cheapness 
 it deserves every recommendation. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Photo-Micrography. 
 
 Before concluding this series, let me say just a very few words on the- 
 subject of photo-micrography, or the art of photographing the enlarged 
 images obtained by the microscope. I shall not stop long over this, for 
 the thing is so simple and so easily managed in every way. At the same 
 time, I wish all my readers to understand that I do not any the less on 
 this account encourage them to practise this most interesting branch of 
 photography. Indeed, I can recommend to them few better occupations 
 for their evenings than to unite in this one study the benefits to be gained 
 by the use of the microscope combined with the scientific wonders 
 involved in that of the sensitive plate. 
 
 All the apparatus required consists of a simple camera and a micro- 
 scope, preferably one which will allow the tube to be turned back so as 
 to be horizontal. Otherwise some sort of framework must be made so as 
 to facilitate the union of the microscope with the camera, which is 
 managed by simply withdrawing the eye-piece of the former and intro- 
 ducing the tube into the camera front. A temporary front may easily be 
 screwed on to the camera so as to permit the junction of the microscope 
 to it to be effected without any entrance of actinic light. 
 
 A low powered object glass is adapted, and an ordinary paraffin lamp 
 arranged so as to duly light the object which may now be placed on the 
 stage. The reflector being adjusted, the image of the object may be 
 carefully f ocussed on the screen, dimensions being regulated by increasing 
 
PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY. 259 
 distance between lens and focussing screen, and decreasing distance 
 between lens and object. 
 
 The focussing being accomplished, the screen is replaced by the dark 
 slide containing a dry plate, which is exposed by drawing up the shutter, 
 developed, &c, in the ordinary manner, and that is all. 
 
 With the above I conclude the third and last part of " Practical 
 Photography.' ' 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 OUCH'S NEW PATENT CAMERA. 
 
 PRIZE MEDAL Awarded at the International Photographic Exhibition, 
 Bristol, 1880—81. 
 
 This Camera is acknowledged by all who have used it to be the lightest 
 and most convenient for landscape purposes that has been produced, and 
 is undoubtedly the best instrument for every description of Dry-Plate 
 Work. The double swing back renders it also peculiarly useful in portrai- 
 ture. These advantages are gained by an entirely new arrangement of the 
 various parts, and without in any way impairing the efficiency or strength 
 of the instrument. Full particulars on application. 
 
 SENSITIZED ALBUMEN IZED PAPER, 
 
 The continuous orders we are receiving from Photographers of the 
 highest standing in all parts of the country, sufficiently testify to the high 
 character of this paper. Per Quire, 14s.; Half-quire, 7s. 6d.; Sheet, Is. 
 
 COMPLETE SETS OF APPARATUS FOR 
 DRY PLATE WORK. 
 
 TOURISTS' POCKET SETS. 
 
 Improved Folding-tail Camera for plates 4i by 3|, and three 
 double backs, with rack and pinion adjustment and 
 bellows body, folding or alpenstock tripod stand, Ross's 
 view and group lens, a chemical laboratory fitted; im- 
 proved non- actinic lantern, focussing cloth, sling case to 
 hold camera, backs, lens, &c. ; light-tight walnut-wood 
 box, ebonite developing and porcelain trays, three printing 
 frames, ready sensitized paper, and printing materials, 
 one dozen dry plates, and every other requisite <£11 5 0 
 
 The above set for pictures 5 by 4 13 5 0 
 
 Complete set as above for plates 7^ by 5, with new patent 
 camera, double swing back, and Eoss's portable sym- 
 metrical lens 17 10 0 
 
 Ditto, ditto for plates 81 by 6i 21 10 0 
 
 Rouch's New Collodion, price 6s, per pint ; Winchester Quarts, 5s. 6d. per lb. 
 
 ROUCH'S RAPID GELATINE PLATES 
 
 Will be found to possess the greatest Rapidity, and are unequalled for 
 
 Instantaneous Landscape and Studio work. 
 
 From Mons. A. BOUCHER, Photographer, King's Road, Brighton. 
 
 "Uth November, 1880. 
 
 *' We are without dry plates. We require dozens a day, and we like yours best. 
 
 Please forward what you can, and of the same rapidity." 
 
 From J. H. WHITEHOUSE, Esq., Ouchy Lausanne, Switzerland. 
 
 " VSth November, 1880. 
 
 I have been so pleased and successful with your rapid gelatine plates, purchased last 
 month, that I wish a treble supply forwarded at once." 
 
 For Tents, Cameras, Lenses, Glass, Chemicals, &c„ see Catalogue, 1881, Price 6cL 
 
 W. W. ROUGH & Co., 
 
 WHOLESALE MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC CHEMICALS AND APPARATUS* 
 
 180, STRAND, LONDON, W.O. 
 
I 2sT ZD IE . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Abney's, Captain, gelatino- 
 
 bromide process 176 
 
 Acetic acid 12 
 
 Actimometer, the 199 
 
 Actinism, or ray force 4 
 
 Autotype patents 205 
 
 Process Ig3 
 
 Albumen, beer process, the ... 116 
 
 Albumenised paper 15 
 
 Dealers in ... 64 
 
 Sensitising ... 15 
 
 Albumenising glasses 92 
 
 Solution 92 
 
 Apparatus, enlarging 257 
 
 Gelatine process 164 
 
 Landscapes 49 
 
 Ordinary 7 
 
 Outdoor 54 
 
 Travelling 54 
 
 Artificial light for photogra- 
 phy 243 
 
 B. 
 
 Baths, bichromate sensitising 197 
 
 Iodising a 44 
 
 Negative sensitising, for- 
 mula of 13 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Baths, printing toning 65 
 
 Sensitising 10, 12 
 
 Defects in 41 
 
 Negative 13 
 
 Paper 62 
 
 Positive 10, 13 
 
 Sunning 43 
 
 Bedford 's,W., washed collodion 
 
 process 148 
 
 Bennett's, Mr. C, gelatino- 
 
 bromide process 173 
 
 Bichromate sensitising bath... 197 
 
 Cabinets, size of 69 
 
 Cameras 7 
 
 Bellows 8 
 
 Solar 250 
 
 Canon Beechey's preservative 154 
 Unwashed emulsion 
 
 process 132 
 
 Captain Abney's preservative 155 
 Carbon printing, miscellaneous 
 
 applications of ... 211 
 
 On opal 209 
 
 Prints, sensitising 199 
 
 Process 193 
 
 Carte-de-visite, size of 69 
 
 Chemicals 11 
 
262 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chemical defects 43 
 
 Stains, removing 97 
 
 Chloride of strontium solution, 
 
 collodio-chloride process 82 
 Citric acid solution, collodio- 
 chloride process 82 
 
 Clouds in landscapes 85 
 
 Coating, gelatine process 169 
 
 Coffee process, the 113 
 
 Collodio-albumen, the Fother- 
 
 gill process 122 
 
 Process, the 119 
 
 Collodio-chloride of silver pro- 
 cess 82 
 
 Collodion 6, 11 
 
 Bromised 140 
 
 For collodio-chloride pro- 
 cess 82 
 
 Negative 12 
 
 Plain carbon process 206 j 
 
 Positive 12 
 
 Pouring on 22 
 
 The part played in photo- 
 graphy 5 
 
 Transfer, for reversed ne- 
 gatives 237 
 
 Wet, in the field 48 
 
 Colonel Stuart Wortley's pre- 
 servative 155 
 
 Comets on negatives 38 
 
 Copying 91 
 
 D. 
 
 Darkroom 16 
 
 Furniture of 18 
 
 Lighting of 17 
 
 Window 96 
 
 Slide, the 9 
 
 Tents and their construc- 
 tion 51 
 
 Dealers in dry plates 180 
 
 Defects and failures, remedy 
 
 for 40 
 
 In sensitising bath 41 
 
 Developers 93 
 
 Enlarging process 254 
 
 For platinotypes 217 
 
 Gelatine process, formula 170 
 Positive 14 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Developing dry plates 107 
 
 Developement, gelatine pro- 
 cess 171 
 
 Positive process 25 
 
 Distilled water 13 
 
 Dry collodion processes, ap- 
 pendix to ... 157 
 
 Difficulties of 159 
 
 Dry plates, dealers in 180 
 
 Process 99 
 
 Dust spots on negatives 38 
 
 E. 
 
 Electric light, the 243 
 
 Emulsions 128 
 
 Requisites 131 
 
 Washed collodion 138 
 
 Enamelling, apparatus for 76 
 
 Chemicals for 77 
 
 Embossing 79 
 
 Silver prints 76 
 
 Encaustic paste 69 
 
 England's collodion, albumen 
 
 process 122 
 
 Enlarging apparatus 257 
 
 Processes 250 
 
 Enlargement by artificial light 256 
 
 Exposure, length of 25 
 
 Positive process 25 
 
 F. 
 
 Ferrotypes 91 
 
 Films slipping off negatives, 
 
 remedy for 39 
 
 Fixing 27 
 
 Bath for prints 66 
 
 Positive process 27 
 
 Solution, formula 14 
 
 Flexible support 208 
 
 Focussing 21, 24 
 
 Fog, causes of 45 
 
 Treatment of 46 
 
INDEX. 
 
 263 
 
 formulae : 
 
 Acid pyro intensifier 110 
 
 Albumenising solution ... 92 
 Alkaline developer 
 
 108, 126, 145 
 
 Strong 109 
 
 Ammonio-sulphate of iron 
 
 developer 93 
 
 Bromide solution 132 
 
 Chloride of strontium so- 
 lution, collodio- 
 chloride process 82 
 Citric acid solution, col- 
 lodio - chloride 
 
 process 82 
 
 Coffee preservative 113 
 
 Collodion bromised... 125, 133 
 For albumen beer 
 
 process . 117 
 
 Collodio-chloride process 82 
 Developer, albumen beer 
 
 process 119 
 
 Alkaline ... 108, 126, 145 
 Bennett's gelatine 
 
 process 175 
 
 Coffee process 115 
 
 Collodio - albumen 
 
 process 121 
 
 Ferrous oxalate Ill 
 
 For gum gallic pro- 
 cess 124 
 
 Fothergill's process 122 
 Gelatine bromide pro- 
 cess 170 
 
 Strong alkaline 136 
 
 Developing solution for 
 
 ferrotypes 92 
 
 Edging 104 
 
 Encaustic paste 69 
 
 Ferrous oxalate de- 
 veloper Ill 
 
 Fixing bath, collodio-chlo- 
 ride process 83 
 
 For prints 66 
 
 Solution 14 
 
 Gelatine-bromide of silver 
 
 emulsion 165 
 
 Intensifier, acid pyro 110 
 
 Intensifying solution 14, 121 
 Iodised solution of albu- 
 men 120 
 
 Iron intensifier 94 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Formulae (continued) : 
 
 Negative sensitising bath 13 
 Nitrate of silver solu- 
 tion, collodio - chloride 
 
 process 82 
 
 Organic developers 94 
 
 Positive sensitising bath 13 
 Preservative, albumen 
 
 beer process ... 118 
 
 Canon Beechey's ... 150 
 
 Captain Abney's 155 
 
 Col. Stuart Wortley's 155 
 
 England's process ... 122 
 
 Fothergill's process 122 
 
 Gum gallic process . . . 124 
 
 Tannin 125, 154 
 
 Printing, toning bath 65 
 
 Re- sensitising solution ... 121 
 
 Salting solution 84 
 
 Sensitising baths 12 
 
 For ferro- 
 types .„ 92 
 For paper... 62 
 Strong alkaline developer 109 
 
 Substratum 103, 104 
 
 Wax solution 80 
 
 Fothergill process, the 122 
 
 Framing, positive process 27 
 
 Frames, printing, construction 
 
 of 64 
 
 G. 
 
 Gaslight 248 
 
 Gelatine 163 
 
 Process, apparatus for ... 164 
 Gelatino - bromide, miscella- 
 neous processes 173 
 
 Appendix to 178 
 
 Process, the 161 
 
 coating 169 
 
 Defects in 181 
 
 Peculiarities in 181 
 
 Captain Abney's process 176 
 Mr. C. Bennett's process 173 
 Of silver emulsion, 
 
 formula for 165 
 
 Glass plates 10 
 
 Gum gallic process, the 124 
 
264 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 H. 
 
 Heliotype process 224 
 
 Instantaneous photography ... 182 
 
 Interiors 91 
 
 Intensifies 94 
 
 Intensifying solution, formula 14 
 
 of 14 
 
 Introductory 3 
 
 Iodising a bath 44 
 
 Iodide of potassium 12 
 
 L. 
 
 Landscape apparatus 49 
 
 Clouds in 85 
 
 Glass plate for 50 
 
 Lens 49 
 
 Photography 49, 56 
 
 Length of exposure 25 
 
 Lens, the 10 
 
 Landscape 49 
 
 Lights, artificial, for photo- 
 graphy 243 
 
 Electric, the 243 
 
 Gas 248 
 
 Pyrotechnic 245 
 
 Lines on film, remedy for 39 
 
 M. 
 
 Machines, rolling, firms sup- 
 plying 68 
 
 Magnesium ribbon 274 
 
 Mounting prints 67 
 
 Medallions 70 
 
 N. 
 
 Negatives, boxes for holding 11 
 correcting faulty 35 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Negatives, how to improve ... 32 
 
 How to tell a good 32 
 
 Points of good 33 
 
 Negative sensitising bath 13 
 
 Nitrate of Baryta 12: 
 
 Of silver 12 
 
 Of silver solution, collo- 
 
 dio-chloride process ... 82 
 
 0. 
 
 Opalotype printing 83 
 
 Operating, rules for positive 
 
 process 20 
 
 Outdoor apparatus 55 
 
 Paper, printing 61 
 
 Patents, autotype 205 
 
 Photography abroad 48 
 
 What is 3 
 
 Photo-collotype process... 220, 221 
 Engraving process... 221,224 
 Lithography process 221, 227 
 
 Mechanical process 219 
 
 Micrography 258 
 
 Typography process... 221, 231 
 
 Zincography process 231 
 
 Photometer, the Woodbury ... 200 
 
 Pin holes, remedy for 43 
 
 Plain collodion 206 
 
 Plates, cleaning 22 
 
 Glass, for landscapes 50 
 
 Sensitising positive 23 
 
 Platinotype process, the 214 
 
 Pose of object 20 
 
 Posing, positive process 21 
 
 Positive developer 14 
 
 Process, developement ... 25 
 
 Fixing 27 
 
 Posing 21 
 
 Rules for operating 20 
 Sensitising bath... 10, 13 
 
 Positives on glass 20 
 
 Preservatives 105, 153 
 
 Printing 15, 65 
 
 Fixing 15 
 
INDEX. 
 
 265 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Printing frames, construction 
 
 of 64 
 
 Hints on 72 
 
 Materials required for ... 10 
 
 Paper 61 
 
 Toning 15 
 
 Toning bath 65 
 
 Prints, filing bath for 66 
 
 Mounting 67 
 
 Trimming 67 
 
 Pyrogallic acid 14 
 
 Pyrotechnic compound 247 
 
 Lights 245 
 
 R. 
 
 Ray force, or actinism 5 
 
 Requisites for emulsion 131 
 
 Reversed negatives 237 
 
 Rolling machines 68 
 
 S. 
 
 Salting solution 84 
 
 Enlarging process 254 
 
 Scales and weights , 11 
 
 Sensitising albumenised paper 15 
 
 Baths 10 
 
 Defects in 41 
 
 Ferrotypes 92 
 
 Formula 12 
 
 Negative 13 
 
 Positive 10, 13 
 
 Remedy for defective 41 
 
 Carbon prints 199 
 
 Positive plate 23 
 
 Solution, enlarging process 254 
 Sensitive compound for collo- 
 type process 223 
 
 Silver prints, enamelling 76 
 
 Varieties of 70 
 
 Size of cabinets 69 
 
 Carte de visite 69 
 
 Solar camera 250 
 
 Solarisation 216 
 
 Solutions, fixing 14 
 
 Formulae 14 
 
 Intensifying 14 
 
 Spots, dust 38 
 
 On negatives 38 
 
 Opaque, on negatives 38 
 
 Stains from chemicals 97 
 
 On the film, remedy for... 40 
 Standard gelatino - bromide 
 
 process, a 165 
 
 Stereoscopic pictures 95 
 
 Streaks on negatives 38 
 
 Sunning a bath 43 
 
 T. 
 
 Tannin preservative 154 
 
 Process, the 125 
 
 Tents dark, their construction 51 
 
 Tissue for carbon process 195 
 
 Toning solution for trans- 
 parencies 241 
 
 Transparencies 240 
 
 Travelling apparatus 54 
 
 Tripod, portable 50 
 
 Stand, the 10 
 
 U. 
 
 Unwashed emulsion, Canon 
 
 Beechey's process 132 
 
 V. 
 
 Varnishing 15 
 
 Varnish making 98 
 
 Vignettes 70 
 
 W. 
 
 Washed collodion, emulsions 138 
 Process, coating the plates 143 
 
 Developement 145 
 
 Drying the pellicle 141 
 
 Drying the plates 144 
 
266 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Washed collodion process (con- 
 
 tinued) : 
 
 Emulsification , 140 
 
 Exposure 144 
 
 Intensification 147 
 
 Keeping the plates 144 
 
 Re-emulsifying 142 
 
 Ripening 141 
 
 Preparation of the plate . . . 142 
 
 Washing 141 
 
 Washed emulsions, W. Bed- 
 ford's process 148 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Washed emulsions, Henry 
 
 Cooper's process 149 
 
 Washed-plate process 112 
 
 Waterhouse diaphragm 9 
 
 Wax solution 80 
 
 Wet collodion process, appen- 
 dix to 90 
 
 Window of dark room 96 
 
 Woodbury photometer, the ... 200 
 Type process 221, 234 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 MAWSON & SWAN, 
 
 LABORATORY FURNISHERS, 
 
 IMPORTERS ANDD MAKERS OF 
 
 Philosophical Instruments, 
 Chemical Apparatus, 
 
 ETC., 
 
 INCLUDING 
 
 Electrical Machines and Apparatus, 
 Galvanic Batteries, Electric Bells, Telegraphic 
 and Signalling apparatus, &c. 
 
 microscopes, microscopic apparatus, 
 
 And Objects for the Microscope, 
 
 BALANCES, STANDARD, METRICAL, AND OTHER WEIGHTS 
 AND MEASURES, 
 
 HYDROMETERS, THERMOMETERS, ETC. 
 
 PNEUMATIC APPARATUS, AIR PUMPS, ANEMOMETERS, ETG. 
 
 PURE CHEMICALS AND RE-AGENTS. 
 
 COMPLETE SETS OF 
 
 Apparatus for General Chemical Analyses, Agricultural Analyses, 
 Alkalimetry, Acidimetry, Chlorimetry, &c. 
 
 Mawson & Swan 
 
 Supply every requisite used in the practice of Photography, either by the 
 Professional or Amateur Artist, including — 
 
 CAMEEAS, LENSES, CAMERA STANDS, HEADRESTS, 
 BACKGROUNDS, PLATE BOXES, BATHS. 
 DISHES, FUNNELS, PRINTING FRAMES, CARD 
 MOUNTS, ALBUMENIZED PAPER, 
 
 ETC., ETC. 
 
 MAWSOIT Sc SWA3ST 
 
 Mosley Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 WRATTEN & WAINWRIGHT'S 
 
 "London" Gelatine Dry Plates 
 
 INSTANTANEOUS AND ORDINARY. 
 
 PERFECT MODEL TENT, 
 
 Adapted for Changing or Developing Dry Plates in the Field. 
 
 Tourists' Pocket Camera and Slides. 
 SENSITISED ALBUMEinSED PAPEK, 
 
 MAUVE, PISTK, WHITE, OK BLUE. 
 
 Tsrou-^OTiisria lautei?,its, 
 
 For Home Use or Travelling. 
 
 CHEMICALS OF THE PUREST QUALITY. 
 Apparatus of Best Workmanship and Design. 
 
 For Prices and Particulars of above, see NEW ILLUSTRATED 
 CATALOGUE for 1881, with Notes on various Processes. 
 
 38, Great Queen Street, 
 
 LONDON, W.O. 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 The "ARCHER" Gelatine Bromide Plate 
 
 Is confidently recommended to the profession as a thoroughly trustworthy Plate, and 
 which will always maintain the five good qualities of Great Sensitiveness, Certainty of 
 Action, Reliability, and Perfect Freedom from filling, and last, but not least, Cheapness. 
 
 These Plates are now made entirely with the specially prepared Bromide of Silver, 
 thus securing perfect uniformity of sensitiveness. 
 Prices, per dozen — Rapid for Studio, or Slower for Landscape Work. 
 4\in. by 3£in., 2s.; 6%in. by 4fm., 4s. 6d. ; 8|m. by 6£m., 8s. 
 Other sizes in proportion. 
 To enable Photographers to give these Plates a practical trial, four will be forwarded, 
 with full instructions for development, together with Price List, post free on receipt of 12 
 penny stamps. Free Studio Demonstrations will be given any morning before 1 o'clock, 
 to purchasers of Plates to the amount of 2s. and upwards. 
 
 zBi^onvnizDiE o:f silver. 
 
 Specially prepared Bromide of Silver, highly sensitive, as hitherto prepared by Mr* 
 A. J. Jarman, is now to be obtained only from Mr. W. H. Prestwich. 
 
 The advantages of this prepared Bromide are, that the usual practices of long cooking 
 and washing the emulsion are entirely dispensed with, thus avoiding decomposition of the 
 Gelatine, consequently frilling and all other defects are entirely overcome. 
 
 The Bromide is simply mixed with Gelatine and water ; when dissolved and filtered, 
 nothing remains but to coat the Plates. 
 
 This Bromide being now exclusively used in making the " Archer " Plates, is a sufficient 
 guarantee and recommendation to those who wish to coat their own Plates. The above 
 qualities make it admirably suitable for exportation. 
 Prices — per oz., 12s.; \oz., 6s. 6d., post free. loz. will make 32oz. of 
 
 Emulsion. 
 
 GELATINE EMULSION 
 
 Of the best quality, and highly sensitive, ready for immediate use, the same as used in 
 
 making the "Archer" Plates. 
 20o3., 12s. 6d.; 10oz. f 7s. 6d.; hoz., 4s. Sample of 2oz.,post free, 2s. 6d. 
 
 "THE DESIDERATUM," a Dark Room Lantern. 
 
 A thoroughly non-actinic Lamp, very economical, burning ten hours at the cost of one 
 
 farthing. 
 
 Price of Lamp and Lantern, complete, 2s. 6d. ; Qd. extra for packing. 
 
 MATT VARNISH. 
 
 This Varnish is of a very superior quality ; it is applied cold, and will dry without the 
 aid of heat, producing a most exquisite, ground glass like surface, for application to the 
 backs of Negatives, improving their printing qualities, and enabling delicate touches to 
 be put in where required. Sample bottle, free by post, 4d. 
 
 DAMP-RESISTING VARNISH 
 
 For Gelatine Plates. This is an entirely new Varnish, prepared from such gums that 
 effectually resist damp. It is applied cold, and finished by warming the plate. ' It is confi- 
 dently recommended as the best Varnish yet made for Gelatine Plates. Sample, free by 
 post, 4d. 
 
 THE "ARCHER" READY SENSITISED PAPER. 
 
 Keeps well, tones easily, and produces most brilliant prints. It is confidently offered as 
 tfCSf one of the best of ready Sensitised Papers. 
 
 Persons desirous of being instructed "in Gelatine Emulsion Making and Plate 
 Coating may do so by arrangement. 
 
 AG-EUTS. 
 
 Birmingham— Harris & Co. Bolton— P. Greenhalgh. Bradford— Harrison, Parkin- 
 son, & Co. Edinburgh— Kemp & Co. Glasgow— Messrs. Mason. London— The Photo- 
 graphic Artists' Co-Operative Supply Association, E.C. ; Messrs. Burgoyne, Burbidges, 
 Cyriax, and Farries, Coleman-street, E.C. Leeds— Harvey, Reynolds, & Co. Liverpool 
 —Atkinson & Co. Manchester— J. F. Craig. Sheffield— Cubley and Preston. 
 
 All communications to be made to 
 
 W. H. PRESTWICH, 155, City-road, E.C. 
 
 Cash with Order. P. O. Orders payable at 219, City-road, E.C. 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 J. FALLOWFIELD & CO.'S 
 
 Wholesale and Export Warehouse for 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC CHEMICALS AND MATERIALS, 
 
 36, Lower Marsh, Lambeth, London, S.B. 
 
 Manufacturers and 
 Contractors 
 
 To Her Majesty's 
 Government. 
 
 ALBUMENISED PAPEES, white and tinted. These papers are 
 carefully selected and prepared with the purest materials. Price 5s. 
 and 6s. per quire ; «£4 and <£5 per ream. 
 
 SENSITISED PAPEES in various tints. Price 13s. 6d. per quire ; 
 7s. per half quire ; 3s. 6d. per quarter quire ; lOd. per sheet, exclusive 
 of postage. 
 
 Dry Plates by Swan and all the lest makers kept in Stock. 
 
 New Illustrated Catalogue on Application. 
 
 Prices : In cloth, 3s. ; in leather, 3s. 6d. ; by post, 2d. extra. 
 THE 
 
 Photographers Pocket Book: 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 EEGISTER FOR NEARLY 1000 NEGATIVES. 
 
 COMPILED BY 
 
 O. IE. WHEELEB. 
 
 (AUTHOR OF " PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY.") 
 
 LONDON: "THE BAZAAE " OFFICE, 170, STEAND, W.C. 
 
ATALOGUE 
 
 OF 
 
 New and Practical 
 
 BOOKS. 
 
 LONDON: 170, STRAND, W.C. 
 
 No. i.—- i88c» 
 
CATALOGUE. 
 
 ANIMALS, BIRDS, &c. 
 
 Breaking and Training Dogs: 
 
 Being Concise Directions for the proper Education, both for the Field and as Com- 
 panions, of Retrievers, Pointers, Setters, Spaniels, Terriers, &c. By " Pathfinder." 
 In cloth gilt, 5s., by post, 5s. 4d. 
 
 Diseases of Dogs : 
 
 Their Pathology, Diagnosis, and Treatment ; to which is added a complete 
 Dictionary of Canine Materia Medica. For the Use of Amateurs. By Hugh 
 Dalziel (Author of " British Dogs," &c). 
 
 In paper, price Is., by post Is. Id. ; in cloth gilt 2s„ by post 2s. 2d. 
 
 British Dogs: 
 
 Their Varieties, History, Characteristics, Breeding, Management, and Exhibi- 
 tion. Illustrated with 52 Portraits of the Chief Dogs of the Day. By Hugh 
 Dalziel (" Corsincon," Author of " The Diseases of Dogs," V The Diseases of 
 Horses," &c), assisted by Eminent Fanciers. [May also be had in Divisions, as 
 under] : 
 
 Bevelled boards, extra gilt, gilt edges, price 10s., by post, 10s. 6d. 
 
 Dogs Used in Field Sports: 
 
 Their History, Varieties, Characteristics, &c. With nineteen full page Portraits 
 of celebrated Dogs of the Day. (Forming Division I. of M British Dogs") 
 Price 3s., by post, 3s. 3d. 
 
 Dogs Useful to Man 
 
 In other Work than Field Sports. Their History, Varieties, Characteristics, &c. 
 With twenty-four full ipage Portraits of Leading Dogs of the Day. (Forming 
 Division II. of " British Dog*.") 
 
 Price 3s„ by post, 3s. 3d. 
 
 House and Toy Dogs : 
 
 Their History, Varieties, Characteristics, &c, Also the General Management of 
 Dogs, and Breeding and Rearing. Illustrated with nine Portraits of Celebrated 
 Dogs of the Day. (Forming Division III. of " British Dogs") 
 Price 2s., by post, 2s. 2d. 
 
 Of Englishe Dogges : 
 
 The Diuersities, the names, the natures, and the properties. A Short Treatise 
 written in la cine by Iohannes Caius of late memorie, Doctor of Phisicke in the 
 Uniuersitie of Cambridge. And newly drawne into Englishe by Abraham Fleming, 
 Student. Natura etiam in brutis vim ostendit suam. Seene and allowed. Imprinted 
 at London by Rychard Johnes, and are to be solde ouer against S. Sepulchres 
 Church without Newgate. 1576. Reprinted verbatim. [ Note.— This is the earliest 
 book in the English language on the subject, and should be in the hands of all 
 who take an interest in Dogs.] 
 
 In boards, price 2s. 6d., by post, 2s. 8d. 
 
 Diseases of Horses : 
 
 Their Pathology, Diagnosis, and Treatment; to which is added a complete 
 Dictionary of Equine Materia Medica. For the Use of Amateurs. By Hugh 
 Dalziel. In paper, price Is. 6d., by post, Is. 8d. 
 
 Praetieal Dairy Farming: 
 
 A short Treatise on the Profitable Management of a Dairy Farm. Illustrated. 
 By G. Seaward Witcombe. 
 
 In paper, price Is. 6d., by post, Is. 7d. 
 
 Book of the Goat : 
 
 Containing Practical Directions for the Management of the Milch Goat in Health 
 and Disease. Illustrated. By H. Stephen Holmes Pegler. 
 
 Cheap edition, in paper, price Is., by po3t, Is. Id. 
 
Practical Handbooks. — Animals, Birds > &c. {continued). 
 
 Pig Keeping for Amateurs : 
 
 A Practical Guide to the Profitable Management of Pigs. By " Gurth." 
 In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 Stock Keeping for Amateurs: 
 
 A Manual on the Varieties, Breeding, and Management of Pigs, Sheep, Horses, 
 Cows, Oxen, Asses, Mules, and Goats, and the Treatment of their Diseases. 
 Designed for the use of Young Farmers and Amateurs. By W. H. Ablett (Author 
 of "Farming for Pleasure and Profit," "Arboriculture for Amateurs," "English 
 Trees and Tree Planting"). 
 
 Post 8vo., cloth gilt, price 5s., by post, 5s. 4d. 
 
 Rabbits for Prizes and Profit : 
 
 Containing Full Directions for the proper Management of Fancy Babbits in 
 Health and Disease, for Pets or the Market; and Descriptions of every known 
 Variety, with Instructions for Breeding good specimens. Illustrated. By the late 
 Charles Rayson. Edited by Leonard U. Gill. [May a 7 so be had in two Parts, as 
 under] : In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post, 2s. 9d. 
 
 General Management of Rabbits ; 
 
 Including Hutches, Breeding, Feeding, Diseases and their Treatment, Rabbit 
 Coverts, &c. Fully illustrated. {Forming Part I. of "Rabbits for Prizes and 
 Profit ") In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 Exhibition Rabbits: 
 
 Being Descriptions of all Varieties of Fancy Rabbits, their Points of Excellence, 
 and bow to obtain them. Illustrated. (Forming Part II. of "Rabbits for Prizes 
 and Profit") In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 The Book of the Rabbit: 
 
 A complete work on Breeding and Rearing all varieties of Fancy Babbits, giving 
 their History, Variations, Uses, Points, Selection, Mating, Management, and 
 every other information. Illustrated with facsimiles of water-colour drawings 
 specially prepared for this work, and numerous wood engravings. By Various 
 Breeders and Exhibitors. Edited by Leonard U. Gill, (Editor of " Rabbits for 
 Prizes and Profit"). 
 
 In monthly parts (commenced in August), price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 Ferrets and Ferreting: 
 
 Containing Instructions for the Breeding, Management, and Working of Ferrets 
 In paper, price 6d„ by post, 7d, 
 
 Fancy Mice: 
 
 Their Varieties, Management, and Breeding. Illustrated. 
 
 In paper, price 6d., by post, 6id. 
 
 Foreign Cage Birds: 
 
 Containing Full Directions for Successfully Breeding, Rearing, and Managing the 
 various Beautiful Cage Birds imported into this country. Beautifully Illustrated. 
 By C. W. Gedney. 
 
 In cloth gilt, in two vols., price 8s. 6d., by post, 9s. ; in extra cloth gilt, gilt edges, in one 
 vol., price 9s. 6d., by post, 9s. lOd. 
 
 Parrakeets, Parrots, Cockatoos, Lories, & Macaws: 
 
 Their Varieties, Breeding and Management. {Forming Vol. I. of "Foreign Cage 
 Birds") In cloth gilt, price 3s. 6d., by post, 3s. 9d. 
 
 Waxbills, Finches, Weavers, Orioles, and other 
 
 small Foreign Aviary Birds: 
 
 Their Varieties, Breeding, and Management. Beautifully illustrated. (Forming 
 Vol. II. of "Foreign Cage Birds") 
 
 In cloth gilt, price 5s., by post, 5s. 4d. 
 
 Canary Booh: 
 
 Containing Full Directions for the Breeding, Rearing, and Management of 
 Canaries and Canary Mules ; Formation of Canary Societies ; Exhibition Canaries, 
 their points and breedine ; and all other matters connected with this fancy. Illus- 
 trated. By Robert L. Wallace. [May also be had in two Parts, as follows] : 
 In cloth gilt, price 5s., by post 5s. 4d. ; in extra cloth gilt, gilt edges, price 6s., 
 bypjst, 6s. 4d, 
 
Practical Handbooks ', Published at 170, Strand, TV.C. 
 
 General Management of Canaries: 
 
 Including Cages and Cige Making, Breeding, Managing, Mule Breeding, Diseases 
 and their Treatment. Moulting, Rats and Mice, &c. Illustrated. (Forming Part T. 
 of the *' Canary Book.*') 
 
 In paper, price 2s„ by post, 2s, 2d, 
 
 Exhibition Canaries: 
 
 Containing Full Particulars of all the different Varieties, their Points of Excellence, 
 Preparing Birds for Exhibition, Formation and Management of Canary Societies 
 and Exhibitions. Illustrated. {Forming Part II. of the " Canary Book*') 
 In paper, price 2s., by post, 2s. 2d. 
 
 Fancy Pigeons: 
 
 Containing Full Directions for the Breeding and Management of Fancy Pigeons * 
 and Descriptions of every known variety, together with all other information of 
 interest or use to Pigeon Fanciers. Handsomely illustrated. By J. C. Lyell. 
 In extra cloth gilt, gilt edges, price 7s. 6d., by post, 8s. Also in eleven monthly parts 
 price 6d., by post, 6id. 
 
 Poultry for Prizes and Profit : 
 
 Contains Breeding IPoultry for Prizes, Exhibition Poultry, and Management of 
 the Poultry Yard. Handsomely Illustrated. By James Long. [May also be 
 had in parts as under] : 
 
 In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post, 2s. 9d. 
 
 Breeding Poultry for Prizes, 
 
 Containing full instructions for Mating Poultry to obtain the best results in each 
 breed. Illustrated. (Forming Part I. of " Poultry for Prizes and Profit.'* 
 Price 6d., by post, 6id. 
 
 Exhibition Poultry ; 
 
 Their Varieties, Characteristics, and Points of Excellence. Illustrated. (Forming 
 Part II. of "Poultry for Prizes and Profit.") 
 
 Price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 Management of the Poultry Yard 
 
 Including Hatching of Eggs, Rearing and Feeding, Houses and Runs, General 
 Management, Diseases and their Treatment, Fattening, Poultry Farming, &c. 
 Illustrated. (Forming Part III. of "Poultry for Prizes and Profit,") 
 In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 Dueks and Geese, 
 
 Their Characteristics, Points, and Management. By Various Breeders. 
 Splendidly illustrated. 
 
 In paper, price Is. 6d„ by post, Is. 7d. 
 
 Practical Bee-keeping 
 
 Being Plain Instructions to the Amateur for the Successful Management of the 
 Honey Bee. Illustrated. Re-written and Enlarged. By Frank Cheshire. 
 In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post, 2s. 9d. 
 
 Bee-keeping for Amateurs : 
 
 Being a Short Treatise on Apiculture on Humane and Successful Principle By 
 Thomas Addey (the Lincolnshire Apiarian). 
 
 Now ready, price 6d„ by post, 6£d. 
 
 PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 
 
 Patents, Trade Marks, and Designs: 
 
 A Practical Guide to Inventors and Manufacturers for Securing Protection under 
 each of these heads. By Archibald Craig. 
 
 In cloth gilt, price Is. 6d„ by post, Is. 8d. ; in paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
Practical Handbooks, — Mechanics {continued), ' 
 
 Practical Architecture: 
 
 As applied to Farm Buildings of every description (Cow, Cattle and Calf Houses, 
 Stables, Piggeries, Sheep Shelter Sheds, Root and other Stores, Poultry Houses), 
 Dairies, and Country Houses and Cottages. Profusely Illustrated with Diagrams 
 and Plans. By Robert Scott Burn. 
 
 In cloth gilt, price 5s., by post, 5s. 4d. 
 
 Practical Boat Building for Amateurs: 
 
 Containing full Instructions for Designing and Building Punts, Skiffs, Canoes. 
 Sailing Boats, &c. Fully illustrated with working diagrams. By Adrian 
 Neison, C.E. New Edition, revised and enlarged by Dixon Kemp (Author of 
 " Yacht Designing," "A Manual of Yacht and Boat Sailing," &c). 
 
 In cloth gilt, price 2s, 6d., by post, 2s. 8d. 
 
 Art of Pyrotechny: 
 
 Being Comprehensive and Practical instructions for the Manufacture of Fire- 
 works, specially designed for the use of Amateurs. Profusely Illustrated. By 
 W. H. Browne, Ph.D, M.A., L.R.C.P.. &c. Second Edition. 
 
 In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post, 2s. lOd. 
 
 Minor Fireworks : 
 
 Containing Instructions for the Manufacture of the Common and Simple Varieties 
 of Fireworks. For the Use of Amateurs. Illustrated. By W. H. Browne, Ph.D., 
 M.A., &c. (Author of " The Art of Pyrotechny"). 
 
 In paper, price Is., by post. Is. Id. 
 
 Practical Firework Making for Amateurs : 
 
 Being complete and explicit Directions in the Art of Pyrotechny, as applied to 
 both the Major and Minor Fireworks, for the use of Amateurs and Beginners. 
 By W. H. Browne, Ph.D., M.A., L.R.C.e^, &c, author of " Gun Cotton and other 
 Explosive Compounds," •'The Chemistry of Warfare," &c. Illustrated. 
 In cloth gilt, price 3s. 6d; t by post 3s. 9d. 
 
 Printing for Amateurs: 
 
 A Practical Guide to the Art of Printing : containing Descriptions of Presses and 
 Materials, together with Details of the Processes employed, to whicn is added a 
 Glossary of Technical Terms. Illustrated. By P. E. Raynor. 
 
 In paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d. 
 
 Turning for Amateurs: 
 
 Containing full Description of the Lathe, with all its working parts and attach- 
 ments, and minute instructions for the effective use of them on wood, metal, and 
 ivory. Illustrated with 130 first class wood engravings. Second Edition. 
 In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d„ by post, 2s. 9d. 
 
 Carpentry and Joinery for Amateurs: 
 
 Contains full Descriptions of the various Tools required in the above Arts, 
 together with Practical Instructions for their use. By the Author of " Turning 
 for Amateurs," " Working in Sheet Metal." &c. 
 
 In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post, 2s. 9d. 
 
 Working in Sheet Metal: 
 
 Being Practical Instructions for Making and Mending small Articles in Tin, 
 Copper, Iron, Zinc, and Brass. Illustrated. Third Edition. By the Author or 
 " Turning for Amateurs," &c. 
 
 In paper, price 6d., by post, 6£d. 
 
 Wood Carving for Amateurs: 
 
 Containing Descriptions of all the requisite Tools, and full Instructions for their 
 use in producing different varieties of Carvings. Illustrated. 
 
 In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 Practical Mechanics for Amateurs : 
 
 A Series of Treatises on Turning, Carpentry and Joinery, Working in Sheet Metal, 
 Wood Carving, Firework Making, and Printing. Illustrated. 
 
 In Cloth gilt, price 10s. 6d., by post, lis. 2d. 
 
 Organs and Organ Building: 
 
 Giving the History and Construction of the Modern Organ, and Descriptions of the 
 most remarkaole Instruments. With Important Specifications of celebrated 
 Organs. Illustrated. By C. A. Edwards. 
 
 In cloth gilt, price 5s., by post, 5s. 4d. 
 
Practical Handbooks, Published at 170, Strand, W.t. 
 
 POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 Practical Taxidermy : 
 
 A Manual of Instruction to the Amateur in Collecting, Preserving, and Setting-up 
 Natural History Specimens of all kinds. Illustrated. By Montagu Browne.. 
 In cloth gilt, price 3s. 6d., by post, 3s. 9d. 
 
 Collecting Butterflies and Moths : 
 
 Being Directions for Capturing, Killing, and Preserving Lepidopt era and their 
 Larvae. Illustrated. Reprinted, with additions, from " Practical Taxidermy." 
 By Montagu Browne (Author of " Practical Taxidermy "). 
 
 In paper, price Is., by post Is, Id. 
 
 Popular British Fungi: 
 
 Containing Descriptions and Histories of the Principal Fungi, both Edible and 
 Poisonous, of our Country. Illustrated. By James Britten, F.L.S., &c. 
 In cloth gilt, price 3s. 6d., by post, 3s. 9d. 
 
 British Marine Algce : 
 
 Being a Popular Account of the Seaweeds of Great Britain, their Collection 
 and Preservation. Magnificently illustrated with 205 engravings. By W. H. 
 Grattan. In cloth gilt, price 5s. 6d.. by post, 5s. lOd. 
 
 Zoological Notes; 
 
 On the Structure, Affinities, Habits, and Faculties of Animals ; with Adventures 
 among and Anecdotes of thfm. By Arthur Nicols, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. (author 
 of *' The Puzzle of Life, and How it Has Been Put Together," " Chapters from the- 
 Physical History of the Earth [In the press. 
 
 GUIDES TO GARDENING. 
 
 The Hardy Fruit Book (Vol I.) ; 
 
 Consisting or a Series of Exhaustive Treatises on various Hardy Fruits grown 
 in this country ; giving the History, the most desirable Sorts, and the best Methods 
 of Cultivation of each. Illustrated. By D. T. Fish (Author of •* Pruning, Graf t- 
 ing, and Budding Fruit Trees," ** Bulbs and Bulb Culture," &c). Vol. I. includes 
 the Apple, the Pear, Peach and Nectarine, mentioned below. Vol. II. will includa 
 the Apricot, the Plum, &c. [May also be had in Parts as follow] : 
 In cloth gilt, price 5s., by post, 5s. 5d. 
 
 The Apple; 
 
 Its History, Varieties, Cultivation, Fruning, Training, Cropping, &c. 
 
 In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 The Pear: 
 
 Its History, Varieties, Cultivation, Pruning, Training, Cropping, &c. 
 
 In paper, price Is. 6d., by post, Is. 7d. 
 
 The Peach and Nectarine: 
 
 Their History, Varieties, Cultivation, Pruning, Training, Cropping, &c. 
 In paper, price Is. 6d., by post, Is. 7d. 
 
 The Apricot: 
 
 Its History, Varieties, Cultivation, Pruning, Training, Cropping, Diseases, &c~ 
 In paper, price Is., oy post Is. Id. 
 
 The Plum: 
 
 Its History, Varieties, Cultivation, PruniDg, Training, Cropping, &c. 
 In paper, price Is., by post, Is. id. 
 
Practical Handbooks. — Guides to Gardening {continued). 
 
 Orchids for Amateurs : 
 
 Containing Descriptions of Orchids suited to the requirements of the Amateur, with 
 full Instructions for their successful Cultivation. With numerous beautiful Illustra- 
 tions. By James Britten, F.L.S. (of the British Museum), and W. H. Gower. 
 In cloth gilt, price 7s. 6d., by post, 7s. lOd. 
 
 Rose Growing for Amateurs: 
 
 Being Practical Instructions for the successful Culture of Roses, with selections 
 of the best varieties adapted to the lequirements of the Amateur in Town or 
 Country. By W. D. Prior. 
 
 In paper, price Is. 6d., by post, Is. 8d. 
 
 Bulbs and Bulb Culture {Vol, L) : 
 
 Being Descriptions, both historical and botanical, of the principal Bulbs and 
 Bulbous Plants grown in this country, and their chief Vadaties ; with full and 
 practical instructions for their successful Cultivation, both in and out of doors. 
 Illustrated. By D. T. Fish. Vol. I. includes Parts I. and II., as named balow. 
 In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d„ by post, 2s. 9d. 
 
 The Snowdrop, Bulbocodium, Sternbergia, Crocus, 
 
 Colchicum, Tulip, and Hyaeinth : 
 
 The best sorts, and their cultivation, indoors, under glass, and in the open border. 
 Illustrated. (Forming Part I. of "Bulbs and Bulb Culture") 
 In paper, price is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 The Anemone or Wind Flower, the Narcissus, the 
 
 Lily : 
 
 The best sorts, and their cultivation, indoors, under glass, and in the open border. 
 Illustrated. {Forming Bart II. o/ "Bulbs and Bulb Culture") 
 in paper, price Is., by post, Is. 2d. 
 
 The Gladiolus or Corn Flag, Laehenalia, Cycla- 
 men, Ranunculus, and Scilla or Squill (Star 
 Hyacinth) : 
 
 The best sorts, and their cultivation, indoors, under glass, and in the open border. 
 Illustrated. [Forming Part III. of " Bulbs and Bulb Culture *'') 
 In paper, price Is., by post, la. ljd. 
 
 Vine Culture for Amateurs : 
 
 Being Plain Directions for the successful growing of Grapes, with the means 
 and appliances usually at the command of amateurs. Illustrated. By 
 W. J. Mav (Author of "Greenhouse Management for Amateurs," "Cucumber 
 Culture for Amateurs," &c). 
 
 In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 Pruning, Grafting, and Budding Fruit Trees: 
 
 Illustrated with ninety-three Diagrams. By D. T. Fish, 
 In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 Villa Gardening : 
 
 Being plain instructions for the Proper Laying-out, Planting, and Management 
 of Small Gardens ; with lists of Trees, Shrubs, and PJants most suitable, and 
 thirteen Designs for small gardens. By W. J. May. 
 
 Cheap edition, in paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 Rose Budding: 
 
 Containing full Instructions for the successful performance of this interesting 
 operation. Illustrated. By D. T. Fish (Author of "Bulbs and Bulb Culture," 
 "The Hardy Fruit Book," "Pruning. Grafting, and Budding Fruit Trees," &c). 
 In paper, price 6d., by post, 7d. 
 
 Greenhouse Management for Amateurs : 
 
 Descriptions of the best Greenhouses and Frames, with Instructions for Building 
 them ; Particulars of the various Methods of Heating ; lists of the most suitable 
 plants, with general and special cultural directions ; and all necessary information 
 lor the Guidance of the Amateur. Illustrated. By W. J. May (Author of "Vine 
 Culture for Amateurs," " Cucumber Culture for Amateurs," &c). 
 In cloth gilt, price 3s. 6d., by post, 3s. 9d. In extra gilt, gilt edges, price 4s., by post, 4s. 3d. 
 
Practical Handbooks, Published at 170, Strand, W. C. 
 
 Arboriculture for Amateurs: 
 
 Being Instructions for the Planting and Cultivation of Trees for Ornament 
 2 r M Us g.. and selections and descriptions of those suited to special requirements as to 
 boil, Situation, &c. By William H. Ablett (Author of M English Trees and 
 Tree Planting," &c). 
 
 In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post, 2s. 8d. 
 
 Cucumber Culture for Amateurs: 
 
 Including also Melons, Vegetable Marrows, and Gourds. Illustrate*. By W. J. 
 May (Author of " Vine Culture for Amateurs," " Greenhouse Management f or 
 Amateurs"). 
 
 In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 
 
 Country Pocket Book and Diary {1881) : 
 
 For Reference and Registration. Full of facts and forms of the greatest value 
 and interest to Country Gentlemen and Sportsmen. Contents: Diaries and 
 Information on Snooting, FiBhing, Hunting, Athletics, Football, Bicycling, 
 Coursing. Racing, Doge, foultr.v Exhibitions, Rowing. Swimming, Meteorology, 
 Cricket, Parliamentary Pap rs, &o, &c, with Pockets, Pencil, &c, complete. 
 Prices : In russia leather, 5s. 6d. ; roan, 3s. 6d. ; postage, 2d. 
 
 Bieyelist's Pocket Book and Diary (1880-81) : 
 
 For Reference and Registration. Full of facts and forms of interest to Bicyclists. 
 Price, roan, 2s. 6d., postage, 2d. 
 
 Bicycles and Tricycles of the Year 1880 : 
 
 Being a Chronicle of the New Inventions and Improvements for the present 
 Season, and forming a P^ rmanect Record of the progress in the manufacture of 
 BicycleB and Tricycles. Designed also to assist intending purchasers in the choice 
 of a machine. Illustrated. By Harry Hewitt Griffin. 
 
 In paper, price Is., by spost, Is. Id. 
 
 The Bicyclist's Guide to Machines and Makers : 
 
 Shewing at a glance the construction and price of every machine in the market. 
 By Robert Edward Phillips D.B.C., C.S.B.C., B.T.C. 
 
 Price 6d., by post, 6|d. 
 
 Practical Trapping : 
 
 Being some Paper* on Traps and Trapping for Vermin, with a chapter on general 
 bird trapping and snaring. By W. Carnegie (" Moorman"). 
 
 Price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 Practical Fisherman : 
 
 Dealing with the Natural History, the Legendary Lore, the Capture of British 
 Freshwater Fish, and Tackle and Tackle Making. Beautifully illustrated. By 
 J. H. Keene. 
 
 In cloth gilt, gilt edges, price 10s. 6d„ by post, lis. ; also in 16 monthly parts, 
 price 6d., by post 6£d. 
 
 Notes on Game and Game Shooting: 
 
 Miscellaneous observation* on Birds and Animals, and on the Sport they afford 
 for the Gun in Great Britain, including Grouse, Partridges, Pheasants, Hares, 
 Rabbits, Quails, Woodcocks, Snipe, and Rooks. By J. Manley, M.A. (Author of 
 *' Notes on Fish and Fishing"). Illustrated with Sporting Sketches by J. Temple. 
 In cloth gilt, 400 pp., price 7s. 6d., by post 7s. lOd. 
 
 Practical Boat Sailing for Amateurs: 
 
 Containing Particulars of the most Suitable Sailing Boats and Yachts for Amateurs, 
 and Instructions for their Proper Handling, &c. Illustrated with numerous Dia- 
 grams. By G. Christopher Davies (Author of " The Swan and her Crew," &c). 
 In cloth gilo, price 5s„ by post 5s. 8d. 
 
Practical Handbooks. — Sports and Pastimes {continued). 
 
 Practical Photography , 
 
 Being the Science and Art of Photography, Developed for Amateurs and Beginners. 
 Illustrated, By O. E. Wheeler. [May also be had in parts as under] : 
 In cloth gilt, price 4s„ by post, 4s. 4d. 
 
 Wet Collodion Process, 
 
 The Art of Photography by this process, developed for Amateurs and Beginners 
 {Being Part I. of "Practical Photography .") 
 
 In paper, price Is., by post, Is. 2d. 
 
 Dry Plate Photography ; 
 
 The Art of Photography by this Process developed for Amateurs and Beginners. 
 {Being Part II. of "Practical Photography.") 
 
 In paper, price Is., by post, Is. 2d. 
 
 Photographic Miscellanea : 
 
 {Being Part III. of " Practical Photography ") 
 
 In paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d; 
 
 The Photographer's Pocket Book: 
 
 Containing Register for nearly lnOO Negatives. Compiled by O. E Wheeler 
 (Author of " Practical Pnotography "). 
 
 Prices : In cloth, 3s. ; in leather 3s. 6d. ; by post, 2d. extra. 
 
 Leather Work Book: 
 
 Containing Full Instructions for Making and Ornamenting articles so as to 
 successfully imitate Carved Oat ; specially written for the use of Amateurs. By 
 Rosa Baughan. Illustrated. 
 
 In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post, 2s. 9d. 
 
 Cards and Card Tricks: 
 
 Containing a brief History of Playing Cards : Full Instructions, with Illustrated 
 Hands, for playing nearly all known games of chance or skill, from Whist to 
 Napoleon and Patience, and directions for performing a number of amusing Tricks. 
 Illustrated. By H. E. Heather. 
 
 In eloth gilt, price 5s. , by post, 5s. 4d. 
 
 Sleight of Hand : 
 
 Being Minute Instructions by the Aid of which, with proper practice, the Neatest 
 and most Intricate Tricks of Legerdemain can be successfully performed. Illus- 
 trated. By Edwin Sachs. [May also be had Jn two p*rts as under] : 
 In cloth gilt, price 5s., by post, 5s. 4d. 
 
 Drawing Room Magic: 
 
 Being Conjuring Tricks suited to Beginners, and for display in drawing rooms. 
 Illu.-trated. {Forming Part I. of '* Sleight of Hand") 
 
 in paper, price 2s., by post, 2s. 2d. 
 
 Grand or Stage Magic: 
 
 Being Instructions for the Performance of more intricate and showy conjuring 
 tricks, and suited to public display. Illustrated. {Forming Part II. of "Sleight of 
 Hand") In paper, price 2s., by post, 2s. 2d. 
 
 Artistic Amusements: 
 
 Being Instructions for a variety of Art Work for Home Employment, and Sugges- 
 tions for a number of Novel and Saleable Articles for Fancy Bazaars. Illustrated. 
 Contents are given in Series I. and II. following. 
 
 In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post, 2s. 8d. 
 
 Series L of "Artistic Amusements 93 : 
 
 Colouring Photographs, Imitation Stained Glass, Decalcomanie, Queen Shell Work, 
 Painting on China, Japanese Lacquer Work, Stenci'ling. 
 
 In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 Series IL of " Artistic Amusements" ; 
 
 Painting Magic Lantern Slides, Menu and Guest Cards, Spatter Work, Picture 
 and Scrap Screens, Frosted Silver Work, Picture Cleaning and Restoring, Illumi- 
 nating and Symbolical Colouring. 
 
 In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
Practical Handbooks, Published at 170, Strand, JV.C. 
 
 MISCELLANEO US. 
 
 English Pottery and Porcelain; 
 
 A Manual for Collectors. Being a Concise Account of the Development of the 
 Potter's Art in England. Proiusely Illustrated with Marks, Monograms, and 
 Engravings of characteristic Specimens. New Edition. [May also be had in Parts, 
 as under] : In cloth gilt, price 3s. 6d., by post, 3s. 8d. 
 
 English Pottery; 
 
 Giving the History of the most famous and valued descriptions of English Pottery, 
 with illustrations of specimens, marks, and monograms, &c, {Forming Part I. of 
 ** English Pottery and Porcelain") 
 
 In paper, price Is. 6d. t by post, Is. 7d. 
 
 English Porcelain; 
 
 Giving the History of the most famous and valued descriptions of English Porcelain, 
 with illustrations of specimens, marks, and monograms, &c, {Forming Part II. of 
 "English Pottery and Porcelain.") 
 
 In paper, price Is. 6d., by post, Is. 7d. 
 
 English, Scotch, and Irish Coins 
 
 A Manual for Collectors ; being a History and Description of the Coinage of 
 Great Britain, from the Earliest Ages to the Present Time, with Tables of 
 Approximate Values of Good Specimens. Profusely Illustrated. 
 
 In cloth gilt, price 5s., by post, 5s. 4d. 
 
 Value of British Coins 
 
 A Manual for Buyers, Sellers, and Exchangers, as giving the Approximate Values 
 of good Specimens of English and Scotch Coins. 
 
 In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 Character Indicated by Handwriting ; 
 
 With Illustrations in support of the Theories advanced, taken from Autograph 
 Letters of Statesmen, Lawyers, Soldiers, Ecclesiastics, Authors, Poets, Musicians, 
 Actors, and other persons. By R. Bauohan. 
 
 In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post 2s. 9d. 
 
 Winter Havens in the Sunny South: 
 
 A complete Handbook to the Eiviera, with a notice of the new station, Alassio, 
 Splendidly Illustrated. By Rosa Batjghan (Author of " Indications of Character 
 in Handwriting," *■ The Northern Watering Places of France"). 
 
 In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post, 2s. 8d. 
 
 Seaside Watering Places, 
 
 Being a Guide to Persons in Search of a Suitable Place in which to Spend their 
 Holidays, on the English and Welsh Coasts. New and Revised Edition, with 
 Descriptions of over 130 Places. 
 
 In paper, price 2s., by post, 2s. 8d. 
 
 The Northern Watering Places of France : 
 
 A Guide for English People to the Holiday Resorts on the Coasts of the French 
 Netherlands, Picardy, Normandy, and Brittany. By Rosa Batjghan (Author of 
 ** Winter Havens in the Sunnv South," &c). 
 
 In paper, price 2s., by post 2s. 2d. 
 
 Church Festival Decorations: 
 
 Comprising Directions and Designs for the Suitable Decoration of Churches for 
 Christmas, Easter, Whitsuntide, and Harvest. Illustrated. 
 
 In paper, price Is., by post Is. Id. 
 
 Artistic Flower Decorations: 
 
 For Ball Rooms, Halls, Passages, Dinner and Supper Tables ; with Directions for 
 making Bouquets, Buttonholes, Hair Sprays, &c. Illustrated. By B, C. Saward. 
 In paper, price 2s., by post, 2s. 2d. 
 
 Tuning and Repairing Pianofortes : 
 
 The Amateur's Guide to the Practical Managfmertof a Piano without the inter- 
 vention of a Professional. By Charles Babbington. 
 
 In paper, price 6d., by post6£d. 
 
Practical Handbooks — Miscellaneous (continued). 
 
 Honiton Lace Book: 
 
 Containing Full and Practical Instructions for Making Honiton Lace. With 
 numerous illustrations. 
 
 In cloth gilt, price 3s. 6d., by post, 3s. 9d. 
 
 Practical Dressmaking : 
 
 Being Plain Directions for Taking Patterns, Fitting on, Cutting out, Making up 9 . 
 and Trimming Ladies' and Children's Dresses. By R. Munroe. 
 
 In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 Sick Nursing at Home; 
 
 Being Plain Directions and Hints for the Proper Nursing of Sick Persons, and the 
 Home Treatment of Diseases and Accidents in case of sudden emergencies. By 
 S. F. A. Caulfeild. 
 
 Price Is., by post, Is. Id. In cloth, price Is. 6d., by post Is. 8d. 
 
 Hints to Untrained Teachers: 
 
 Being Directions and Suggestions for the Assistance of Parents and others engaged 
 in Home Education. By Jane Ascham. 
 
 In paper, price 6d., by post 7d. 
 
 Stock and Share Investments : 
 
 Being Explanations for the General Reader of the Nature and Quality of the 
 different Classes of Securities dealt in on the Stock Exchange. By Albert 
 Sharwood. In paper, price Is., by post, Is. Id. 
 
 Catalogue of Ladies' and Children's Dress Patterns 
 (Illustrated) : 
 
 Comprising Ladies' Dresses, Mantles, Underlinen, Girls' and Boys' Costumes, 
 Children's Underlinen, Ladies' Caps, Dressing Jackets, &c. This list is added to 
 week by week, and at present contains nearly four hundred of the newest and 
 most seasonable designs. 
 
 Post free on application. 
 
 And Jouenal of the Household. 
 PUBLISHED EVERY MONDAY, WEDNESDAY & FRIDAY. 
 
 PRICE TWOPENCE (ILLUSTRATED). 
 
 Classified Advertisements of Thousands of Articles of every description for 
 Exchange, or Sale, or Wanted, by private persons. Through this department all kinds 
 of property may be procured or disposed of without publicity, with marvellous cheapness, 
 and PERFECT SECURITY FROM DISHONEST PERSONS, Full particulars are 
 given in each issue. 
 
 "Like all grand conceptions the process is remarkable for its simplicity." — The Globe. 
 
 The Literary Portion consists of Art, Dramatic, Scientific, and Musical News of 
 the Week; Critiques on Music, &c. ; Articles and Notes upon Canaries and Foreign 
 and British Cage Birds ; Places at Home and Abroad ; Toys and Toymaking ; Pro- 
 vincial and Copper Coins and Tokens : Noteworthy Books recently published ; Various 
 Literary Subjects ; Cookery lor Amateurs ; Magic Lanterns ; Painting on Porcelain ; 
 Various Branches of Amateur Mechanics; Domestic Matters; Recipes of all kinds; 
 Present Fashions, with original illustrations ; » ew Materials ; Fancy Work of different 
 kinds ; Cultivation of Flowers Fruit, and Vegetables ; Garden Operations ; Dogs ; 
 Rabbits ; Horses ; Goats ; Kennel ; Farming ; Poultry ; Pigeons ; Reports of Poultry, 
 Pigeon, and Rabbit Shows, &c, &c. 
 
 EXTRA SUPPLEMENTS on the Boudoir, Garden, |&c, are given Monthly during 
 the Season without charge. 
 
 Terms of Subscription. Quarterly. Half-yearly, Yearly. 
 
 One issue weekly 2s. 8d. ... 5s. 4d. ... 10s. 8d. 
 
 Two issues weekly 5s. 4d. ... 10s. 8d. ... 21s. 4d. 
 
 Three issues weekly 8s. Od. ... 16s. Od. ... 32s. Od. 
 
 These prices include postage from the Head Office to the subscriber, but if preferred 
 the Agent will supply tbe copies, making a reduction for the cost of postage which would 
 be saved. 
 
 London: "THE BAZAAR" OFFICE, 170, STB AND, W.C. 
 
WASH ING DAY RE FORM. 
 
 Banish the antiquated, absurd, and destructive process of rubbing and boiling the 
 clothes, and adopt the easy, common-sense plan with 
 
 HARPER TWELVE TREES' 
 
 VILLA WASHING MACHINE, £2 15s. 
 
 (Cash Price £2 10s.), 
 
 OR WITH 
 
 WRINGER AND MANGLER 
 COMBINED, £5 5S. 
 
 (CASH PRICE, £1 ISO, 
 
 which is the gem of all washing 
 machines, and does the 
 
 FORTH IGHT'S FAMILY WASH 
 IN FOUR HOURS. 
 
 without rubbing or boiling, saving 
 five hours of copper firing every wash- 
 ing day, as 
 
 Certified by Thousands of 
 delighted Purchasers. 
 
 LETTERS OP APPROVAL. 
 
 Mrs. WHITE WELL, Railway Cottage, Willesden, writes: "Your Villa Washer and 
 Mangier is a wonderful machine. My daughter, aged fifteen, now does the washing for our 
 family of twelve in five hours, without any woman to help. We always used to have a 
 woman two days." 
 
 Mrs. JONES, 16, Belgrave-gardens, Dover : " By following your printed directions in 
 every detail, our washing, which formerly occupied a whole day, is now easily done m two 
 hours." . 
 
 Mrs. TURNER, Frant, Maidstone : " I never thought anything could be half so use- 
 ful. We have no trouble, and get our washing done in three hours, which before took a 
 woman a whole day ; and now we do without the washerwoman." 
 
 Mrs. BOURNE, Clifton Cottage, Wood-street, Sheerness : " The Villa Washer is a 
 thorough success. I never did a quarter of an hour's washing in my life until I had it, 
 lor the simple reason that I did not know how to wash. The machine is invaluable tome, 
 as I have not employed a woman since I have had it : the servant (a girl of fifteen) and 
 ^myself doing it ourselves ; so that I find it a perfect treasure, and shall always recom- 
 mend it." 
 
 Mr. J. HAYMAN, Glen Vue-road, East Grinstead : " You should have seen my wife's 
 eyes sparkle as she saw her week's wash turned out without a rub or a boil, looking 
 better than common ; she did it herself in two and a half hours, and the baby hardly 
 knew it was washing day." 
 
 Mr. CHARLES H. CAPON. Elm House, Thorpe-street, Norwich: "My wife says she 
 should be sorry to be without the Villa Washer. We seem now to have no washing-day, 
 although all our things are washed at home with the machine. I ha^e been paying on an 
 average about 10s. to i2s. per week, making about £30 per annum. From our calculations, 
 I believe we shall save much more than half that amount, besides having our things 
 
 Mrs. COOPER, 38, Pease-street, Anlaby-road, Hull : " The more 1 use the Villa Washer 
 the more I like it ; our clothes are a much better colour tha i they ever were. We do 
 without a washerwoman, and get a fortnight's wash done by dinner time. My daughter 
 says she will never get married unless she can have one of your Villa Washing 
 Machines." 
 
 Carriage paid; free trial; easy instalment payments, or 10 per cent, cash 
 discount from 
 
 HARPER TWELVBTRBES, 
 
 /LAUNDRY MACHINIST, 80, FINSBURY-PAVEMENT, LONDON, E.G. WORKS 
 BURDETT-ROAD, B0W, E. 
 
Rowland's Toilet Articles, 
 
 20, HATTON GARDEN, LONDON. 
 
 ROWLAND'S ODONTO 
 
 Or PEARL DENTIFRICE is of inestimable value in preserving and beautifying* 
 the teeth, strengthening the gums, and giving a pleasant fragrance to the breath ; 
 it eradicates tartar from the teeth, prevents and arrests decay, and polishes and 
 preserves the enamel, to which it imparts a pearl-like whiteness. Its unprecedented 
 success for more than half a century shows the universal favour in which it is held, 
 while the fact of its being entirely free from any acid or mineral ingredients 
 constitutes it the safest and purest tooth powder ever used. To prevent fraud the 
 genuine Odonto has a 3d. Government stamp on the box. Ask for Rowland's 
 Odonto. 
 
 ROWLAND'S MACASSAR OIL 
 
 Is universally in high repute for its unprecedented success during the last 80 years 
 in promoting the growth, restoring, improving, and beautifying the human hair. 
 It prevents hair from falling off or turning grey, strengthens weak hair, cleanses it 
 from scurf and dandriff, and makes it beautifully soft, pliable, and glossy. For 
 children it is especially recommended, as forming the basis of a beautiful head of 
 hair, while its introduction into the nursery of Royalty is a sufficient proof of its 
 merits. Sold in usual four sizes. 
 
 ROWLAND'S KALYDOR, 
 
 An Eastern botanical preparation, perfectly free from all mineral or metallic 
 admixture. It is distinguished for its extremely bland, purifying, and soothing 
 effects on the skin ; while by its action on the pores and minute secretory vessels, it 
 promotes a healthy tone, allays every tendency to inflammation, and thus effectually 
 dissipates all redness, tan, pimples, spots, freckles, discolourations, and other 
 cutaneous visitations. The radiant bloom it imparts to the cheek, the softness and 
 delicacy which it induces of the hands and arms, its capability of soothing irrita- 
 tion, and removing cutaneous defects, render it indispensable to every toilet. 
 Gentlemen after shaving will find it renders the skin soft, smooth, and pleasant. 
 Of all Chemists, at 4s. 6d. Avoid cheap spurious imitations. Sold by all dealers 
 in perfumery. 
 
PIANOFORTES, £19 10s. 
 
 AMERICAN ORGANS, £9 5s. 
 
 HARMONIUMS, £b 15s. 
 
 Perfect in Tone and Touch. Elegant Walnut Cases. Every instrument warranted to 
 stand any extreme climate. Shippers and Dealers supplied. 
 
 Before deciding on purchasing, write for a descriptive Price List and Testimonials to 
 G. Linstead, Manager, 
 
 COBDEH PIANOFORTE COMPANY, 
 
 18, EVERSHOLT STREET, CAMDEN TOWN, LONDON. 
 
 Read the following Testimonials, selected from many hundreds :— 
 
 Darley Ripley, Leeds, 25 Jan., 1878.— Dear Sir,— The American Organ is to hand, and 
 is a really good instrument. The tone is all that can be desired, and the appearance is 
 far beyond my expectation. I am a teacher of music, and will, recommend them.— Yours 
 truly, J. C. BEADBURY. 
 
 British and Foreign Bible and Book and Tract Depot, 23, Church-street, Sheffield, 
 26 Oct., 1877.— Dear Sir,— The Piano came safely. I am very much pleased with it as a 
 sweet and brilliant-toned instrument, and beautifully polished. My friends who have 
 tried it like it very much. It is also handsome in appearance. I shall reccommend you 
 wherever I can.— I am, yours, &c. E. RHODES. 
 
 S7iielcls Daily News Office, 11, Howard-street, North Shields, 7 March, 1878.— Dear Sir. 
 —The Harmonium has arrived, and gives great satisfaction. Your guarantee as regards 
 quality is quite fulfilled. We are glad that we can speak so favourably respecting it, and 
 "it speaks very well in your favour when being used.— Yours respectfully, 
 
 WHITECROSS and YORKE. 
 
 64, Union-street, Maidstone, 27 Oct., 1879 —Dear Sir,— About a year since I purchased 
 one of your American Organs. My family and friends are delighted with its superior 
 finish and brilliant tone : in a word it is a " Gem." I could bear similar testimony of 
 your Pianofortes, and temperance friends requiring an instrument for the family circle 
 will do well to give your establishment a trial.— Most respectfully yours, 
 
 G. H. GRAHAM. 
 
 LUXURIANT AND BEAUTIFUL HAIR, 
 
 "Look on this picture." 
 
 1 And on this." 
 
 LATREI LLE'S EXCELSIOR LOTION. 
 
 Celebrated among all classes of society all over the world as the only real producer of 
 
 WHISKERS AND MOUSTAOHIOS, 
 
 AND CURER OP BALDNESS. 
 
 Price 2s. 6d. per bottle. Can be had of any chemist, through Barclay, Sanger, Newbery, 
 Edwards, Sutton, Thompson, Hovenden, Maw and Co., or any other Wholesale Chemist, or direct 
 from the proprietors, Latreille and Co., Walworth, London, on remitting Post-office Order 
 or Stamps. 
 
 CAUTION. — Be careful to ask for Latreille's Excelsior Lotion, and refuse anything" 
 else that may be offered, as the enormous success, extending over twenty years, has led to many 
 useless imitations, which can only disappoint. The title " EXCELSIOR LOTION" is a 
 registered Trade Mark, to copy which will incur criminal prosecution. 
 
G. REES' Pictures 
 
 For Furnishing, 
 For Presents, 
 For Trading. 
 
 G. E. has always a large Selection of First Class 
 
 ENGRAVINGS by the Best Masters, 
 
 CHROMOS by Popular Artists, 
 
 OLEOGRAPHS after the Old and 
 
 Modern Painters. 
 
 At Prices which place " ART " within the reach of all Classes. 
 
 Sporting Pictures of 
 
 CELEBRATED WINNERS, 15s. each, Coloured by Hand, JOCKEYS UP, 
 Size, 34in. by 24in. POX HUNTS, STEEPLECHASING, 
 and PICTURES of every Description. 
 ♦ 
 
 <CL R. has always for Sale and Exportation, SPECIAL PAECELS of Pictures 
 bought at Great Reduction, which he offers exceptionally cheap. 
 
 ENGRAVINGS in Parcels, 
 
 From 4 to 10 for 21s. 
 
 CHROMOS in Sets, 
 
 From 4 to 12 for 21s. 
 
 OLEOGRAPHS in Series 
 
 Of 6 to 8 for 21s. 
 
 ALL NEW. Executed in the best manner, suitable for Drawing Room, Dining Eoom, Sitting 
 Room, Parlour, Study, Bed Room, Nursery, &c, &c. All persons remitting any amounts, 
 say £5 or £10, will receive full value, and an extra cash discount will be added. In orders, 
 please state what kind of subject is preferred, whether Historical, Religious, or Landscapes. 
 
 Savoy House, GEORGE REES. 115, Strand. 
 
 WHOLESALE DEPOT — 
 
 41, 42, & 43, EUSSELL ST., COYENT GAEDEN. LONDON. 
 
Why Does Hair 
 Fall Off? 
 
 From many causes. Sometimes 
 from local disturbing agencies, 
 such as sickness ; sometimes from 
 neglect in cleansing; but more 
 frequently from decay in the saps 
 and tissues which supply each 
 individual hair. In such case, 
 
 OLDRIDGE'S 
 
 BALM OF COLUMBIA 
 
 Is an excellent corrective of the many insidious sources of decay which 
 ruin nature's chief ornament. 
 
 It stimulates, strengthens, and increases the growth of Hair ; softens 
 and nourishes it when grown ; and arrests its decline. Besides this, it 
 acts on those pigments the constant supply of which is essential to the 
 Hair retaining its colour. 
 
 The Hair of the Head and the Whiskers and 
 Moustachios 
 
 Are alike benefited. For children it is invaluable, as it forms the basis 
 of a magnificent Head of Hair, prevents Baldness in mature age, and 
 obviates the use of dyes and poisonous restoratives. 
 
 ESTABLISHED UPWARDS OF SIXTY YEARS. 
 
 (A sufficient guarantee of its efficacy). 
 
 Sold by all Perfumers and Chemists at 3s. 6d., 6s., and lis. only. 
 Wholesale and Eetail by the Proprietors, 
 
 C. & A. OLDRIDGE, 
 
 22, Wellington St., Strand, London, W.C. 
 
 BALM OF COLUMBIA. 
 
 Established Upwards of Sixty Years. 
 
GETTY RESEARCH INSTITUTE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 3125 01 
 
 311 7649