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THE 
 
 • ANATOMY or P A I N TI N G: 
 
 ORA 
 
 SHORT AND EASY INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY : 
 
 BEING A NEW EDITION, ON A SMALLER SCALE, 
 
 OF SIX TABLES OF AlBISUS, WITH THEIR LINEAR FIGURES: 
 ALSO, A NEW TRANSLATION OF AlBINUs’s HISTORY OF THAT WORK, 
 AND OF HIS INDEX TO THE SIX TABLES 
 
 TO WHICH ARE ADDED THE ANATOMY OF CELSUS, WITH NOTES, 
 AND THE PHYSIOLOGY OF ClCERO : 
 
 WITH AN INTRODUCTION, GIVING A SHORT VIEW 
 OF PICTURESQUE ANATOMY. 
 
 By JOHN BRISBANE, M. .D. 
 
 SIC ECO NUNC, QUONIAM H«C RATIO F1ERU.M Q_U E VIDETUR 
 TRISTIOR ESSE, QUIBUS NON EST TRACTATA, RETRO QU E 
 VOLGUS ABHORRET AB HAC: VOLUI TIBI S U A VILO QU E N TI 
 CARMINE PIERIO RATIONEM EXPONERE NOSTRAM, 
 
 ET QUASI MUSEO DULCI CONTINGERE MELEE, 
 
 SI TIBI FORTE ANIMUM TALI RATIONE TENERE 
 VERSIBUS IN NO ST RI S POSSEM, DUM PERSPICIS OMNEM 
 NATURAM RERUM, QUA CONSTET COMPTA FIGURA. 
 
 Lucret. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 Printed by George Scott, 
 
 And sold by T. Cadell bookseller, successor to Mr. Millar, in the Strand 
 
 M DCC LXIX. 
 
THE GENERAL PREFACE. 
 
 I T is doing fervice to mankind, to extend the knowledge of 
 any ufeful art, and to render it more eafy and delightful. 
 Many M ould incline to have fomc knowledge of the ftructure 
 of the human frame, who cannot bear dead bodies, and actual 
 diflection, and who cannot relifh the common dry and tedious 
 method of treating anatomy. Diffedtions of the human body, 
 in fthools of anatomy, are by far too frequent, and often to 
 very little purpofe ; on the contrary, it would be an eafy mat¬ 
 ter to teach the mod ufeful part of anatomy, by models and 
 figures alone, properly explained ; Purely fo far as to fiitisfy e- 
 very one, except thole who lludied it as a preparation for the 
 practice of phyfic and furgery ; and even in that cafe, anatomy 
 might be taught in a much lliorter and more agreeable man¬ 
 ner than is commonly done. Many writers upon arts and Ici- 
 ences, and particularly on anatomy, feem to have no juft idea 
 of the nature and utility el figures, and moft anatomifts confine 
 that art, almoft entirely, to the purpofes of phyfic and fiirgery ; 
 whereas it is neceflary in a particular manner, to thofe who ftu- 
 dy and piactife the arts ut .UcL— i, ^ nnd ought to be taught and 
 wrote upon vv-ith that view, by men fkilful in thefe arts. p or 
 tho’ phyficians and fiirgeons have, for a long time, in a manner 
 engrafted the whole bufinefi of teaching anatomy; yet painters 
 ftatuaries, and engravers, Ihould affert their rights, and teach, 
 and write upon this fcience, in a picturefque manner, fuited to 
 their own art ; in which it is as immediately and eflentially 
 ufeful, as even in phyfic or furgery ; for no one can poflibly 
 treat of anatomy for the ufe of painters, fo as to fatisfy and be 
 agreeable to true judges and lovers of the arts of defign, unlefs 
 he himfelf is iltilled in thefe arts, and in the true application of 
 anatomy to painting. Let none however imagine, becaufe 
 from experience of their great utility, 1 fo much recommend 
 models and figures, as a good introduction to anatomy, that I 
 
 a do 
 
 4h' i 
 
I 
 
 t ;• i 
 
 do not fee the ufe and necefiity of adhxal diffection, to thofe 
 who would be complete matters of this feience ; and efpecially 
 in the art of medicine, in order to difeover the feats and caufes 
 of difeafes. I want only to control the manifeft abufes ot dife 
 lection, as the ufeful part of the ftruclure of the human body 
 is now fully afeertained, and to fhow, that good figures are on 
 many occafions much more proper, ufeful, and inftrudtive, as 
 an introduction to anatomy, tho’ little underftood or recom¬ 
 mended by moft teachers of that art, who are feldom judges 
 of good or bad figures, tho’ dime have given pompous ones, 
 wherein they have been totally milled by artifts unlkilful in 
 tliefe matters. The greateft men of antiquity, looked upon it 
 as part of a liberal education, to have feme idea of every im¬ 
 portant feience, and among the reft of anatomy ; accordingly 
 We find a lllort but elegant fyltem of the animal oeconomy, in 
 Cicero’s fecond book of the Nature of the Gods ; and the like of 
 anatomy in the works of Celfus, comprehended in the compafs 
 of a few pages, in fiich a manner, as mult give the greateft 
 pleafure to every lover of that art. How different from the te¬ 
 dious manner of moft anatomical authors i For it is to be la¬ 
 mented, that not only the common herd, but even feme great 
 anatomifts, carried away by the irrefiftible torrent of cuftom, 
 have often defeendfJ great minutenefs ; but what is to¬ 
 
 lerable, and femetimes ufeful and agreeable, in tliefe firfl rate 
 men, in a vulgar anatomift, who has minutenels alone to re¬ 
 commend him, is in the higheft degree tirefeme and difguftful; 
 as he is not capable to adorn his fubjcct with any thing either 
 ufeful or elegant. As to anatomical figures, tho’ at prefent too 
 much neglected, they were not only ufed by the ancients, and 
 early introduced by the great reltorers of modern anatomy, but 
 are purfued and improved to this day, with great judgment and 
 fkill, by the moft learned and elegant anatomifts ; and their 
 conftruction and ufe ought in a particular manner to he un¬ 
 derftood, by thofe who teach or who ftudy anatomy with a 
 view to the arts of defign, tho’ they are moft worthy of the 
 ftudy and attention of anatomifts of every kind. Accordingly 
 
 Vefalius. 
 
L v ] 
 
 Vefalius, phyfician to the emperor Charles V. the great reflor- 
 er of anatomy and furgery among the moderns, in his immor¬ 
 tal work bn the fabrick of the human body, gave admirable fi¬ 
 gures of the bones and mufcles, cfpecially the external orders: 
 he lived at a time, when painting flourilhed in Italy to a very 
 high degree ; and many of his figures, not only give the greateft 
 delight and inftrudtion to an anatomift, but allb to a painter. 
 His great rival Euftachius purlued a different plan, more accu¬ 
 rate in anatomical truth, diligent in the liiglieft degree, learn¬ 
 ed and ingenious; but without the noble fire, and manly free¬ 
 dom of Vefalius. The figures of Euftachius are the molt valu¬ 
 able part of his remains, and, tho’ as to the painter’s art Am¬ 
 ple and unadorned, are mofl clear and inftructivc to an anato¬ 
 mift, and executed with great judgment; fo that even in om- 
 days, they are held in the higheft efteern ; and indeed neither 
 the particulars they contain (and they may be laid to contain 
 ahnoft an entire fyftem of the anatomy that was then known) 
 nor the fkilful manner in which they were conitructcd, were 
 underftood, till pointed out and explained by the great Albi- 
 ntts ; who, together with the utmofl judgment and accuracy, 
 has added true elegance to every part of anatomy, but in a 
 particular manner to anatomical figures, and has even in a 
 manner accomodated them to the art of painting. And if I 
 may judge from the labour it coft me, to follow hlo footfteps, 
 in an exatl copy of forne part of his works, the labours he him- 
 felf has undergone, mull have exhaufted the utmoft extent of 
 human patience; efpecially in one fo eminent for elegance of 
 genius, a character generally fo impatient of tedious and labo¬ 
 rious purfuits. 
 
 The fix tables of Albinus, which are now publifhed in a final- 
 ler form, tho’ they may ferve as an introduction to anatomy, 
 and as an ornament to hang up in the ftudies of fuch as love 
 that fcience, are chiefly intended for the ufe of thofe, who pur- 
 fue the arts of clefign, in order to awaken their attention to this 
 part of their profeflion, and as a fpecimen to form the tafte of 
 
 youth, 
 
C Vi ] 
 
 youth, early, to a love of elegance in anatomy, anti to blow 
 them how milch lliorter, more ealy, and agreeable it is, to be 
 introduced to that fcience by means of figures, than by tedious 
 lyftems, and lectures upon dead bodies alone. The work was 
 alio undertaken for the amufement of the editor at his leifiire 
 hours, who is a profefled lover of anatomy, and of the arts of 
 defigri. It was likewife undertaken from a veneration of the 
 great Albinus, in order Hill further to Ipread the knowledge 
 of his admirable works, fo juftly defer ving to be known ; but 
 particularly to recommend the regular ule of figures in ana¬ 
 tomy, and the true manner of applying that fcience to the ufes 
 of the arts of defign. The fmaller form was cliofen, to make 
 the tables more portable, more fit for ftudy, and at the fame 
 time to come at a lower price. Tho’ fin all, they are of fitch 
 a fizc as to contain, in the dillinctefi manner, whatever is ex- 
 prefi’ed in the large originals from which they were copied, 
 feme entirely, and others partly with my own hand ; and en¬ 
 graved, under my own eye and conftant direction, by a young 
 engraver, who I hope will one day be eminent in his profefe 
 lion. No time or expence was Ip axed to give them all the per¬ 
 fection, that copies of luch inimitable originals are capable of. 
 The back grounds were omitted, not only to lave labour and 
 expence, but as tables of fo ftnall a form did not fo much re¬ 
 quire theft: ornaments; and by want of them, the figures feern- 
 cd to appear with more diftinctnels and perfpicuity, and to be 
 fitter for the ufe of fcience. To the outlines or linear figures, 
 on account of the fize, I was obliged to add figures of parti¬ 
 cular parts as large as the originals; otherwife I could not 
 have found room for the letters or marks of reference ; this 
 I hope will be thought a good contrivance, and will not be 
 inconvenient to the reader, the feparate parts being placed all 
 around, near the correlponding members of the entire figure, 
 and as it were in the feme attitude and direction, fo that the 
 eye palfes eafily from the one to the other ; and what let¬ 
 ters are not found on the entire figure, mult always be looked 
 for on the feparate correlponding parts. And it is hoped that 
 
 very 
 
[ vii ] 
 
 very few errors will be found, even in the linear tables, and 
 letters or marks upon them, which were examined with the 
 fame attention as every other part of the work ; and indeed, in 
 my care of printing the tables, choice of the workmen, and of 
 the paper, and in every other particular, I followed, as nearly 
 as I was able, the excellent method purltied and defcribed by 
 Albinus bimfelf. 
 
 "file tranflation, both of the general preface of Albinus, con¬ 
 taining the liiltory of the work, and alio of his explication of 
 the tables, is entirely new; in which I have not only endea¬ 
 voured to exprefs the fenfe, but alfo the graces of Albinus ; and 
 in the index, or explication of the tables, his elegant brevity. 
 I had too much pleaffire in endeavouring to imitate that threat 
 anatomifl, and to try to exprefs the beauty and elegance of his 
 manner, to weary of the laborious talk of tranflating him 
 anew ; efpecially as the former Englifli tranflator, befides 
 miffing almoft every where the character and elegance of 
 the author, is erroneous in many places, and in lome 
 pages of the liiltory of the work hardly to be underflood; 
 chiefly becaufe the tranflator feems not to feel the beau¬ 
 ty of the Original, and to be totally ignorant of the pain¬ 
 ter’s art, fbme knowledge of which is 16 neceffioy to one th?r 
 undertakes a work of this kind. I have taken the liberty to 
 divide Albinus’s liiltory of the work into chapters and lections, 
 and alfo have added an epitome of it; for tho’ nothinsr can 
 be more methodical, and more worthy the ftudy both of 
 painters and anatomifts, than that hiftory, in order to judge of 
 the merit and defects of anatomical figures, and in what man¬ 
 ner they ought to be conftructed ; yet as the nature of the iiib- 
 ject, and the minutenefs of the author, require an attentive 
 reader, I thought tliefe fmaller helps, by rendering every thing 
 more clear and cafv, might be ufeful to young painters and ana¬ 
 tomifts. I confefi however, notwithftanding all the pains I have 
 beftowed, that my copies, both of the tables and of the words of 
 Albinus, are many degrees inferior to the originals ; but I flatter 
 
 k myfelf 
 
inyfelf they are lels unworthy of them, than foine former at* 
 tempts; tho’ perhaps others may difcover errors and defects in 
 my tranflation and copies, that I myfelf am inlenfible of. Such 
 errors I fliall ever he ready to own and to correct; and I fhall 
 proceed to give the remaining mulcular tables of Albinus, fo as 
 to complete the work ; likewile other anatomical tables and 
 treatiles, according as I find tliev w ill be agreeable to the 
 public. 
 
 As an ornament to this little work, I have added the anatomy 
 of Celfits, to lerve for a Ipecimen of that fine author ; with in* 
 tendon to fliow, in how fltort a compafs lo important and 
 difficult a (abject as anatomy may be treated, in a clear and 
 elegant manner; if my tranllation of this part of Celfus is ap* 
 proved, I fliall afterwards exhibit other parts of that accom* 
 plifhed author in an Englifli drels. 1 have likewile added a 
 tranflation of the anatomy and phyfiology of Cicero ; in order, 
 if poffible, by fo bright an example, to recommend the ftudy 
 of ufeful and elegant learning, to the great of our own 
 age and country, and thereby revive the manners of greater 
 and more virtuous times. Laftly, 1 have ventured to premile 
 a fliort introduction to anatomy, in a manner fuited to the ufe 
 of the lovers and practilers of the arts of defign ; and as the 
 attempt is fomewliat new, 1 hope its faults and imperfections, 
 with the others found in this work, w ill meet w ith the favour 
 and indulgence of learned and candid judges. 
 
 Great Titchfifld-Street, 
 January i. mdcclxix. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO THE 
 
 TABLES 
 
 GIVING 
 
 A SHORT VIEW OF PICTURESQUE ANATOMY. 
 
 A N A T O M Y, like many other parts of learning, has often been defcribed with too much 
 minutenels, fo as to make it tedious and difagreeable, even to the lovers of that art. Great 
 judgment and Ikill are required to rejeCt the ufelefs, and to retain, arrange, and adorn the ufeful 
 parts of fcience, and apply them to practice, fo as to be agreeable to men of genius, and fit. for the 
 generality of mankind, leaving the minute and lefs ufeful things to the ftudy of the curious. In 
 this method of treating every fubjedt, the works of the ancients afford the moft admirable models, 
 while the bulk of modern fyftems, tho’ rich in matter, too often confound us with a load of ill 
 digefted particulars, heaped together without tafte or judgment, and defcribed without perfpicuity or 
 elegance. A great reformation in this is therefore much required, and on no fubject more than ana¬ 
 tomy-, fo that notwithstanding the many large fyftems and abridgments already publifhed, a fhort 
 and elegant fyftem of anatomy is ftill greatly wanted, fitted for general ufe, and for men of liberal 
 education, and particularly for the pradtifers and lovers of the arts of defign : and indeed it would 
 appear, that a method chiefly by good figures and explications, would belt of all anfwer that pur- 
 pofe : for what more natural, fhort, and agreeable way can be devifed, to explain the mechanical 
 ftrudlure of any machine, than by prefenting it to the eye in a feries of proper figures ? nor could 
 the fabrick of the human body be fooner or more agreeably learned, or deeper fixed in the memory, 
 than by copying the beft anatomical figures, and indeed many other parts of knowledge might be 
 fooner and more agreeably taught by the afliftance of drawing, than by any other method ; for which 
 reafon, drawing ought to be an univerfal piece of education, and conftantly taught along with writing, 
 which is only a fpecies of it. On thefe accounts I have often wifhed, not only that anatomy were 
 commonly taught in a very different manner from that now in ufe, and tnai iig ur c» better under- 
 ftood, and more ufed, but alfo that fome learned, judicious, and elegant anatomift, would take the 
 trouble to compofe fuch a fhort fyftem as I have defcribed, attended with a complete fet of fi¬ 
 gures properly explained: by which means anatomy would be rendered eafy, and much more a- 
 greeable, and therefore become a more general ftudy, as a part of liberal education ; and not, as it 
 is at prefent, be in a manner totally confined to phyficians and furgeons, and even to them, too 
 often taught in a dull, tedious and difagreeable manner. I have alfo wifhed, that fome perfon 
 {killed both in anatomy and in the art of painting, would treat of anatomy in a manner particular¬ 
 ly fuited to the arts of defign; a thing much wanted by the profeffors and lovers of thefe arts, and 
 little underftood by the generality of anatomifts : and I confefs, I had once fome thoughts of trying 
 what I myfelf could perform in that way, but finding that it required more abilities than I was 
 matter of, to give a complete and regular treatife upon that fubjeCt, and alfo more time than I 
 could fpare from other avocations, I altered my defign, and inftead thereof, by way of introduction 
 to the following tables, before the particular explication is confulted, I thought it might be of 
 fome ufe to lay a few obfervations on that fubjeCt before the reader. 
 
 I 
 
 According 
 
{ 
 
 [ X ] 
 
 According to the views that thefe have who apply to the fludy of anatomy, their attention mui 
 be applied to different things, and in a different manner. Thus, according to the prefent fyflem o 
 medical education, a phyfician muff ftudy anatomy on an extenfive plan, and with very enlarge* 
 v.ews, fo as to underftand not only the larger parts, and grofs mechanifm of the animal, but M 
 to penetrate into its mod intimate ftrufture, fo as to difeover, if poffible, the mod minute veffels 
 cells, pores and fibres, upon which the various funftions of the animal depend, and which are thi 
 feats of particular difeafes, or by means of which, remedies may be applied to the whole body, 01 
 its particular parts : nor mud he underdand the folids only, but alfo the fluid parts, which nou’rid 
 the former, and are themfelves the feats of difeafes, and aft upon the folids fometimes as poifons ; 
 and fometimes as remedies; nor ought the finer parts by which the body is governed, and even the 
 mind itfelf, fo far as it afts upon and is conneSed with the body, to be lefs the fubjeft of medical 
 fludy than the body itfelf; otherwife, a phyfician mud have very imperfeft ideas of his profeffion, 
 and of the animal machine, and often fail in his cures, becaufe many difeafes are wholly, or partly 
 cured by the movements of the mind, or by applying the remedy firff to the mind, and thereby 
 producing the withed for effeft upon the body. And in like manner, the whole extent of nature, in 
 fo far as it can any way influence or affedl the animal machine, either to injure or reffore it, is alfo 
 the true and neceffary fubjeft of medical fludy ; from all which may be feen, the importance of 
 the medical profeffion, and the great extent and difficulty of it, efpecially as fo much judgment, 
 honour, humanity, and induflry, are conftantly required in the praftice of it; otherwife, opportu¬ 
 nities mud be lod, and the greated mifehief done; and an art dedined for the fafety and’proteftion 
 of mankind, be converted into the greated curfe to fociety. But to return to anatomy. 
 
 A furgeon on the other hand, tho’ he ought to have at lead a general idea of the animal ceco. 
 nomy, and indeed of every part of medicine, yet his chief anatomical dudy fhould be confined to 
 know exactly the bones, with their joints, and the mufcles, together with the large blood veffels 
 and nerves, and the fituations and mechanical druflure of thefe parts, which are to be the fubjeft 
 °’. or ought to be fhunned in performing operations, or are the feats of chirurgical difeafes, or to 
 which external remedies are moft properly applied. 
 
 But a painter or a I— or the arts of defign, mud fludy anatomy with other views. As th 
 reprefentation of the outf.de or furface of the human body, is the chief object of his art, h 
 ought to ftudy the ftrufture of the body and its inward parts, chiefly for the fake of or as the 
 
 affea or are referred to the external furface, and make their appearance there, or ’are afiiftan 
 
 m the better drawing and reprefentation of it. Hence the parts which (how themfelves upon 
 or affea the furface of the body, ought to be the foie or chief objed of the ftudy of a painter 
 The parts therefore that he neared to the furface or outfide of the body, and confequendy thai 
 are mod immediately concerned ,n forming its outline, are fird to be confidered by a painter vrf 
 the external layer of mufcles, efpecially the larger ones, and thefe that] are mod fleS 
 to appear m the movements and attitudes of the body: as to the fldn and fat under it thefe are 
 uniformly fpread over the whole body, and are to be confldered merely as a drapery ’or cover¬ 
 ing to the more inward parts, which appear every where more or lefs thro’ them at fome 
 times and places in a dronger, and at others in an obfeurer manner. But tho’ the parts neared 
 to the furface, ate the fird and mod obvious that belong to the dudy of a painter, yet nature 
 has fo contrived the human body, that the external parts cannot be well underdood, without a 
 jud idea of the internal ones, even of thofe which are as it were buried in the center of the body: 
 
 I mean 
 
[ ] 
 
 I mein the bones, or Ikeleton, which are the foundation and frame on which the whole fabrick is 
 built, and to which, as abafis, all the other parts are mediately or immediately referred, particularly 
 the mufcles, fo neceffary to be known by painters, which are chiefly inferted into the bones, and 
 make confiderable marks and imprelflons upon them; and confequently, without the knowledge of 
 the bones, the mufcles and other foft parts cannot be underftood : but there is another reafon why 
 the bones mull be ftudied by a painter, viz. becaule parts of the bones, tho covered by the integu¬ 
 ments, appear not oblcurely to the eye in many places of the body, and like the large mufcles, are 
 there the caufe of the outline, and of the charafter, proportion, beauty, and appearance of 
 many parts; and when properly confidered and underftood, the bones, by fo many fixed points, 
 give the fineft direftion to a painter, not only how to find and place the mufcles, but alfo how to 
 draw the human body ; nor can it be fo juftly or readily drawn by any painter, as by one that un- 
 derftands anatomy in a mafterly manner, and particularly the bones and external mufcles, and can 
 point them all out upon a living man, and by means of that knowledge, determines all his points, 
 and the forms and proportions of every part and member, adding one part to another as he knows 
 they lie upon the body: this is the true and natural method of drawing the human figure, and is 
 a much eafier and compleater way, to one that underftands anatomy, than any artificial or mechanical 
 method by fquares, or by dividing the body into fo many heads, or by trufting merely to praftice 
 and memory, or a fcrvile imitation of any mailer. But tho’ the bones and external mufcles are 
 the moll neceffary part of the anatomical ftudy of a painter, yet it mud be confeffed, that at leafc 
 a general knowledge of the whole fabrick is of great ufe, in order to a more complete and mafterly 
 reprefentation of the human body, and in order to be able to diverfify, and give a reafon for every 
 appearance; and not only the folids mull be known by a painter, but he ought likewife to have 
 fome idea of the fluids, as on thefe chiefly depend the various tints and colours of the (kin, that 
 appear in the different fexes and ages of life, in different charafters and occafions, climates and 
 nations, even to that of the Blacks or ^Ethiopians. And as nature has fo contrived the human 
 frame, that the movements and paffions of the mind affeft the body, and are evidently feen and 
 diftinvuiihed upon the countenance, and are expreffed there and in other parts of the body by 
 ftrong and certain charafters, and as this is the moll delicate and higheft part of the painter’s art, 
 by which he is capable to move, to delight, to inftrua mankind, and to recommend himfelf 
 and his nrr to their efteem and admiration; therefore, the ftudy of the mind, and its various charac¬ 
 ters, paflions, and movements, in fo far as they are marked upon, and expreffed by the body, 
 ouvht to be above all things the ftudy of a painter: for as the members of the human body, in a 
 ctood pifture, beautifully appear thro’ the drapery, and as the bones and mufcles appear thro’ the 
 fkin fo the mind itfelf in all its charafters and paflions appears upon the countenance, and in the 
 expreffive proportions, attitudes, and tints of various parts; by which, as in a pantomime or 
 dumb reprefentation, a painter can as it were fpeak to the beholders, and by lines and colours 
 alone, can perform the fame effefts with the mufician, the poet, the orator, or the after upon the 
 ftage of mimic, or of real life. 
 
 A lover of the arts of defign, or indeed any anatomift of true tafle, will look upon the human 
 body and all its parts with the eye of a painter, otherwife, he will fee and deferibe it in an ignorant 
 and ruftic manner : this pifturefque turn we obferve in few modern anatomifts, but rather a great 
 ianorance of it, the generality feldom rifing above mechanical ideas, and many of them have 
 even been ignorant of geometry, and every polite and liberal fcience, though abfolutely neceffary 
 to a true knowledge of anatomy. Obferving the human body with the eye of a painter, enables us 
 
 c to 
 
 } 
 
to fee it in ail its beauty and perfeftion, and raifes in our minds a thoufand ideas of the ufes and 
 propnety o the feverai parts, whereof one ignorant of painting will be totally infenfible : and in 
 defcninng the human body upon this plan, we naturally do it in the moft clear, tort and acree 
 able manner far different from the dull pedantic defctiptions and tedious trifling of vulgar anato- 
 nults. It,s from bad habits alone, and mere want of genius, that any noble fcience, or any def 
 cription of nature can become tedious or difagreeble, or be born and relitod by the hearers • 
 hence the works of the ancients, and of thofe who follow their footdeps, are read and feen with 
 delight and adm.rat.on, wh.le we are apt to fall alleep over the works of many accurate and la¬ 
 borious modern writers, and wonder how men can be fo blind and infenfible to true beauty when 
 nature and fuch admirable models are conftantly before their eyes. 
 
 Having premired theft few obfervations, I might remit the reader to the tables themfelves with 
 their explication ; by the careful perufal of which, a tolerable idea may be formed of the Ikeleton 
 and external mufcles, at leaft, for the ufes of painting, but the young anatomift and painter will 
 perhaps better underftand them, and with more eafe and pleafure, and be able more fully to 
 conneft the particulars, and apply them to the arts of def,gn, by means of the following tort 
 etch of pi&orefque anatomy, which, m its turn, will alfo be better underftood by confulting 
 all along the tables and the explication, this introduffion and the tables mutually tending to ex 
 plain and llluftrate each other. ° 
 
 j n c. 
 
 IV X, L, i u i\ . 
 
 The fyftem of the bones or Ikeleton, is as it were the folid frame that contains, defends, and gives 
 
 ftability to the fofter parts, and to which they are ultimately attached; and confequently this bonv 
 
 fabrick has of itfelt the general form, fize, and appearance of the entire body (Tab. I. II. III.). This 
 folid frame is moft artfully compofed of different parts jointed one to anodier, fo as to be capable of 
 every ufeful and graceful motion, in the whole and in all its parts ; and the various bones and pieces 
 ofwhichitis compofed, differ in fize, form and ftrength, in pofition, connexions and motionf ac 
 cording to the ufes and exigencies, and even the beauty of every part, to which they often add a 
 certain grace and charafter. hy oWi„„-I y appearing here and there throueh the to 
 even in the living body. The head, which the painters conf.der as an oval (Tab I n m , ? ’ 
 
 it were, the dome or cupola to the whole edifice. In this higheft part the fenfcs are placed "i d 
 the brain defended by folid bone ; the head, like the reft of the body, derives its fize for ’ 
 portions, and principal charafters firrt from the bones, but the foft parts that cover tom Zj 
 the life, the motions, and the finilhing beauty, in which Iaft, the hair alfo concurs ; and it i f 
 pnfing how fo few Ample organs, and fo thin a covering of foft parts, are capable offish infinite Z 
 riety of forms and expreffions as we fee in the human countenance, affording an endlefs field of 
 ftudy. In the head the bony part is a more complete fabrick, and comes nearer to the form J T 
 entire body than in any otor part of the Ikeleton ; and being the feat of fo many nobft “d 
 the chief part to be ftudied by a painter, it deferves the firft place, according to the common cuf 
 tom of anatomifts. Here veftiges of the fmooth policed bone fhew themfelves on the forehead 
 in the tilings all around the eye, in the hollow of the temples, on the nofe and cheek bones and’ 
 margin of the lower jaw giving great pleafure to a painter that underftands anatomy Ne xt 
 comes the elegantly bent pillar of the fpine, (Tab. III.) ft rong , yet flexible, b Q 
 parts firmly tied together. This bony column, at the fame time, gives fize, ftreng and 
 motion to the body, attachment to many furrounding parts, and being hollow through fts ^o 
 
C *iii ] 
 
 length, ferves to condu 6 t and fecure the fpinal marrow, and to tranfmit nerves to every part of 
 the trunk and extremities. The fpine confifts of four and twenty vertebras, (Tab. I. II. III.) generally 
 increafing in fize as they defcend, and gradually varying in their figure: feven of thefe vertebras belong 
 to the neck, which admit of peculiar and confiderable motions, and allow of many graceful movements 
 to the head and neck. The next twelve belong to the back, thefe are almoft rigid, and admit of 
 veiy little motion •, to thefe, as to a folid bafts, the twelve ribs of each fide are attached, which toge¬ 
 ther with the fternum, and their own cartilages, form a kind of yielding cage or balket, to contain, 
 the heart and lungs, (Tab. I. II. III.). This bony cage admits of a fmall motion when we breath ; 
 and to the lower margin of it all around, is fixed the diaphragm, a tranfverfe mufcular partition, 
 dividing the thorax from the abdomen, a main organ of refpiration and of other functions. The 
 five lower vertebra; belong to the loins, and admit of confiderable motion, of great ufe in the firm 
 and graceful attitudes and flexions of the trunk, and in many offices of common life. Between the 
 ribs and pelvis there is a great void in the fkeleton, efpecially before, (Tab. III.). In this fpace lie 
 many of the abdominal vifeera, with the parts that contain and cover them, making on the forepart 
 the beautiful fwell of the abdomen, elegantly marked by the containing parts (Tab. IV.). To the fupe- 
 rior part of the thorax, by means of the tranfverfe clavicles and of large and ftrong mufcles, are ap¬ 
 pended the upper extremities, which at the fhoulders give breadth to the thorax above, and ferve many 
 noble purpofes of flrength, of art, of defence, of exprellion, and o f beauty. Thefe are divided into 
 the fhoulder, confifting of the clavicle before, and the thin broad fcapula behind, which moving free 
 among the mufcles, by their means governs the motions of the whole arm •, and its triangular form 
 has a molt beautiful effeft,] feen floating among the foft parts in the naked figure (Tab. V.) : and 
 indeed the whole ffioulder is a molt noble part, and a fine exercife to a painter that underftands 
 anatomy, for befides many fine large mufcles, the bones themfelves alfo moll beautifully and dif- 
 tin&ly appear. Next comes the arm bone, capable of a large and free motion, whofe round head 
 at the fhoulder in lean perfons obfeurely appears, and at the lower end its condyles are evidently 
 feen, where it is joined to the forearm •, this confifts of the radius and ulna, which move upon the 
 arm bone with the more confined motion of flexion and extention, but for the fake of the hand 
 and its various and important ufes, the radius and ulna likewife revolve upon each other length¬ 
 ways, in a very curious and Angular manner, turning the hand alternately prone and lupine, as upon 
 an axis. Laftly comes the hand itlelf, the moft Ample and curious mudnno In nature ; it confifts 
 of the carpus, metacarpus, and five fingers, the thumb being as it were an antagonift to the 
 other four •, the whole by its general form, and different parts and motions, ferving almoft every 
 poffible ufe, and its various attitudes being capable of great beauty and variety, an infinite field 
 to painters, and moft worthy of their ftudy, and indeed, next to the countenance and the voice, the 
 moft beautiful and expYeffive part of the human body. 
 
 We come now to the'pelvis and lower extremities. The pelvis fupports and defends the lower vif¬ 
 eera. The back part or os facrum (with its coccyx) of a triangular form, is at it were the bafis and 
 continuation of the fpine, whofe vertebra; it obfeurely refembles, and performs its offices, by re¬ 
 ceiving the extremity of the fpinal marrow, and tranfmitting nerves to the lurrounding parts. The 
 lateral and foreparts of the pelvis, though fixed and immoveable, anfwer in fome refpeft to the 
 fcapula; and clavicles, as they afford lockets for the thigh bones, and alfo a feat to many ftrong 
 mufcles that belong to the trunk and extremities. The upper margins of the offa ilium appear 
 gracefully in the living body on the forepart, and form a kind of boundary between the belly 
 and the thighs. The fpines of the os facrum, as of the vertebra;, obfeurely appear in bodies not 
 loaded with fat, as alfo the great trochanter of the thigh, the reft of which bone, till you come to 
 
 the 
 

 [ xiv ] 
 
 the knee, is deeply immerfed among large and ftrong mufdes : but at the knee, the bones make a 
 very fine appearance, viz, the condyles of the thigh bone, the tops of the tibia and fibula, and the 
 round patella, (Tab. I. II.) a bone fo beautiful and fo ufeful in the government and defence of this 
 joint. Here fkilful painters and fculptorf- never fail to Ihew their art, not only in the entirely naked 
 figure, but in fome ancient roman habits, in which this beautiful joint appears, and indeed the ancient 
 dreffes, and even fome of the gothic ones, greatly excel the modern, as they not only cloath, but 
 adorn the human body, fhewing its feveral parts to advantage, and giving a noble field to painters 
 and fculptors, who, when they want to add dignity and beauty to their figures, are obliged to borrow 
 from the dreffes of the ancients, as we do from their languages, architedture, and the other arts 
 of antiquity. The bone of the tibia appears through the whole length of the leg, and at the lower 
 part of the tibia and fibula, the two ankles elegantly appear, and fix the bounds between the leg 
 and foot. The foot, a thick and folid part, ferves as a bafis and fupport to the whole body, and 
 therefore its parts are only capable of obfcure motion ; it confifts of the tarfus, metatarfus and toes : 
 in the whole, and in every part, it in fome fort rcfembles the hand ; and tho’ much inferior, comes 
 next to it in beauty, and therefore great artifts feldom cover this part, but like the hand, take 
 pleafure in Ihewing it naked in all its varieties. 
 
 The various conformation of certain parts, chiefly at the extremity of bones, is the principal 
 caufe of all the variety of the joints; which are compleated by means of ligaments that bind them 
 together, and of fmooth cartilages, and a certain lubricating moilture to enable the articulated 
 parts to Hide quickly, fmoothly, and gently upon each other. By means of the joints, 
 the human body becomes a moving fabrick, a thing neceffary in the common offices and 
 arts of life, alfo for health, defence, and amufement. By the joints, mod of which fo 
 elegantly appear to the eye, the body is not only fubdivided into a multitude of well pro¬ 
 portioned parts and members, compofing one harmonious whole, beautiful to the eye, but is thereby 
 capable of an infinite variety of ufeful, expreffive, and graceful attitudes and motions ; and 
 though every joint has its peculiar ufe and extent of mobility, determined by the nature and confor¬ 
 mation of the parts that compofe it ; yet the joints, as we Ihall fee afterwards of the mufcles, feldom 
 aft feparately and alone, but like thefe, beautifully co operate one with another, in all the princi¬ 
 pal attitudes and movements of the body ; fo that in many pofitions, almoft all the joints, as well 
 as principal*mufcles, are more or lefs concerned, and aft in harmony one wiiti another, havinn each 
 a certain fhare in thefe ufeful and beautiful movements. But a particular defeription of the diffe 
 rent joints, with fuch obfervations on them as properly belong to the painter’s art, thouo-h a moll 
 curious and ufeful part of anatomy, would be too tedious for a Ihort introduflion of this kind 
 
 Though there are only male and adult fkeletons reprefented in thefe figures, we may obferve, that 
 the difference of fexes and of ages is feen even in the (keleton, as well as in the entire body; not to 
 mention the difference of ftature, and of the fize, ftrength and form of particular bones, even to the 
 fingers, the different proportion of the Ihoulders and pelvis in the two fexes is remarkable. In the 
 male, the (houlders are broader and the pelvis more narrow; the contrary is the cafe in the 
 female (keleton : and befides, the whole has a more feminine appearance, the bones are fmoother 
 and more delicate, with much lefs roughnefs from the impreffions of the mufcles and furrounding 
 parts. The like may be obferved of the fkeletons of children, the whole of which have the famt 
 appearance, and the parts the fame proportions with the correfponding parts of the entire child. 
 The large globol'e head, the round face, the (hortened trunk and extremities, the bones thick, foft 
 
 and 
 
[ XV ] 
 
 and almoft every where imperfeft, the proceffes, protuberances, and marks or impreffions, left 
 evident, and the bones confining of many parts and diviiions, which are afterwards united in the 
 hard and perfedt bones of adults. 
 
 But the differences of age and fex are not the only ones we can perceive upon the Ikeleton-, a fkilful 
 perron can eafily diftinguilh the ikeleton of a well made delicate body from that of one of a more 
 rude or homely make, and all the different degrees of deformity : we may with Vefalius diftinguilh 
 the ikulls of different nations ; and in like manner, by a more nice and accurate attention, we may 
 go a great way to obferve almoft every charafter and diftinftion, that is perceivable in the entire 
 man ; for the impreffions of early habits, which from the mind, or from other quarters, affeft the 
 general appearance of the entire body, generally communicate themfelves even to the bones, which 
 being long in a foft and growing ftate, are evidently fufceptible of changes and impreffions of many 
 kinds, from the nature and adtion of the furrounding parts. 
 
 So much for the bones andtheir joints, in fo far as may fuffice to give a faint idea of thefe parts 
 for the ufes of painting and fculpture, and to ferve the lovers of thefe arts as an intrcduftion to the 
 explication of the following tables. We now proceed to give a like idea of the mufcles. 
 
 OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 The Ikeleton is one fimple fyftem of folid patts, feen as it were at one view, and ferving as a 
 jointed frame on which to build the reft of the body. But the mufcular or flelhy parts, that cloath 
 and move the Ikeleton, are foft, and form a more various and complicated fyftem, confifting of dif¬ 
 ferent ftata or layers, one covering another, and divided into numerous portions of different flze and 
 fio-ure, regularly difpofed over the whole body, compofing a great part of its bulk, and the 
 chief caufe of the fize and form of the members ; for when ftript of its uniform coverings, viz. the 
 fkin and cellular or fatty membrane, the external mufcular figure nearly refembles that of the entire 
 body. 
 
 The mufcles differ greatly in their fize, figure, and other particulars, according to the parts 
 where they are fituated, and the ufes to which they are applied. But in general they are compofed 
 of fibers- the middle part or belly being large, foft and red, ana ul«. ««n,mes or tendons, which 
 are generally inlerted in bones, being fmaller and harder, white and Ihining ; the red part is pro¬ 
 perly the moving power, and ads by contraflion, during which it fwells, becomes hard and ffiorter, 
 fometimes to a great degree, and thereby pulls the parts to which its extremities are affixed. The 
 mufcles are governed by the power of the will, except the fibers of the heart and of the inteftines, 
 which of all°others are moft irritable ; the mufcles of refpiration aft in both ways. The mufcles can 
 aft in the moft gentle and delicate manner, and alfo with great ftrength and velocity, though much 
 of their power is loft, by the places and manner in which they are often fituated and inferred on 
 the parts to be moved. The caufes of mufcular motion, are difficult to be accounted for from the 
 known ftruSure of mufcles -, great velocity communicated to the nervous fluid by the mind, fo as 
 to ftimulate the fibrils, feems the moft probable account. The mufcles are arranged in their 
 places, and allowed to Hide upon each other, by means of the cellular or fatty membrane, and 
 their fibres are lubricated every where by the oil it contains ; and in the fabnek of the body, and 
 of the mufcles themfelves, many contrivances are ufed to affift their aftions. The mufcles are in 
 fufficient number, and fo difpofed and contrived, as to be a warm covering and defence to the more 
 inward parts, as well as to move the joints in all the direflions they are capable of, to affift in many 
 
 d functions 
 
L XV1 J 
 
 funftions of the body, and to place and retain it in every poffible attitude; in doing which, the 
 particular mufcles feldom aft alone, but in the mod: various manner co-operate with or oppofe each 
 other: lb that the whole mufcular fyflem may be confidered as one mufcle, every fibre bein°- entirely 
 under the power of the will, at the pleafure of which, the whole body and all its parts are at once 
 or alternately moved and governed, as it were by fo many bridles. Befides this grand purpofe of 
 the mufcles, they l.kew.fe ferve the general ufes of the animal machine, being the chief caufe of 
 refpiration, and of the circulation of the blood and juices, alfo promoting digeftion, abforption 
 ecret’on excretion, nutrition and growth ; hence they likewife prevent and cure obftruftions and 
 other thfeafes, and by their inceflant aftion are one great caufe of the hardening and waftinv of 
 the body, and the decays of old age. ° 
 
 1 his is a general idea of the mufcular fyftem ; but a painter mud Ihidy it with particular 
 views to hts own art. He mud confider, that the mufcles chiefly form the five and outline of 
 the body; that many of the external mufcles have regular forms, and beautifully appear at all 
 times under the (kin, but efpecially when in violent aftion j that in that cafe, even deep feated 
 mufcles fomeumes appear, as alfo more clearly the bones and other parts, that the different parts 
 of the Ikeleton bearing obliquely upon each other, and upon the feet or common bafe, even in 
 the mod Ample attitudes, many mufcle, am therefore condantly in aftion, fuccelfively relievino- 
 
 furflce of'theb r d Crt ° P r ferVethe;£qUilibriUm ’ Cha " ging thdr “0 prances on the 
 
 face of body, as the various podures, attitudes, or exertions require. Thefe appearances he 
 
 ought diligently to obferve, even in different bodies, and compare them with his knowledge of 
 anatomy, ,n order to apply them judly on proper occafions to adorn his figures. In this the an¬ 
 cient amds far excelled the moderns; and indeed, not to mention their other advantages, they had 
 better opportunities of obferving the naked body in the gymnafia, when employed in the manly 
 exercilesofthepatedra. But why are not thefe inditutions revived along with the other noble 
 difcipline of antiquity, founded on nature and reafon, and aiming at the perfeftion of the human 
 kind . It this were done upon a proper plan, as our lights and opportunities are fuperior to theirs 
 we might in time not only equal, but even excel them. Is it not the difgrace of a nation that 
 fo much dud.es and admires, and above all others refembles the antients, and feems fond to rival 
 them, to be fo long funk i. partial, and felfilh ideas, thar retard its glory and progrefs to 
 
 true greatneis. Not only men of genius, but the people in general W fo, aic JL f 
 this defirable event, and wait only for leaders worthy of them. The ancients were perfeft m ft " 
 in applying anatomy to the arts of defign, they not only knew the general form and places of th 
 mufcles, but how to vary their appearance in every degree of aftion and of charafter Tl 
 cles of a Hercules, for example, differ from thefe of an Apollo, and of an Apollo from Thefcof 
 a Venus, in the fame charafter and ftile as the figures themfelves: the mufcles of tl • 
 gladiator feem to die along with him, and in the fighting one, and the wreftlers they are Lul'd 
 like the figures themfelves, and the parts to which they belong. In the Laocoon they feem 
 to be convulfed and trembling. In beautiful bodies they are beautiful, as they ought to be b 
 in the deformed, as in Silenus, the mufcles are deformed like his whole figure and fo ^ 
 
 varieties; whereas in many modem works, not only thefe judicious and delicate expreffions'am 
 unknown, but the greateft ignorance in anatomy often appears, either by falfe reprefentations or 
 by a dull and injudicious oftentation of anatomical knowledge, on every occafion; the fame mufcles 
 appearing, and almoft ,n the fame charafter in every figure, and either inanimated like the Ample 
 diffeftion of a dead body, or fwelled and contorted in an extravagant manner; while feme more 
 
 prudent 
 
[ xvii ] 
 
 prudent, and confcious of their ignorance of anatomy, reprefent the human body like a fkin ftufici! 
 with wool, without any marked diftinflion of bone or mufde: others are totally ignorant of the 
 co-operation of mufcles, and how to allow their general effects to appear, without bringing the 
 particular mufcles to view, as, in many fine expreflions about the eyes and mouth, and in other 
 parts of the body. So that after being perfeftly mailer of common anatomy, much (kill and judg¬ 
 ment is Hill required, in order to apply it properly to the arts of painting and fculpture, if an artift 
 has ambition to pleafe judges above the vulgar. 
 
 Many more oblervations might be made, with regard to the general fyltem and anatomy of the 
 bones and mufcles, and other parts of the human body, with the application thereof to the arts of 
 defio-n, did the bounds preferibed to this flrort introduftory (ketch allow of it. Referving thefe 
 therefore for fome other occafion, we (hall conclude what we have to fay of the mufcles, with a 
 flrort view of the external layers, as they appear in the three mufcular tables now publilhed; con¬ 
 fining ourfelves chiefly to the ufe of painters and fculptors. 
 
 In order to underftand thefe figures aright, the three mufcular tables muft beconfidered and com¬ 
 pared together.as one, under the idea of a folid figure,, which can be turned round and prefented to 
 the eye in different views ; efpecially the front and back, which are in the fame attitude, and contain in 
 themfelves the entire round of the body. And in the like manner may be compared the three views of 
 the fkeleton. This being done with care and attention, each (keleton mult be compared with its cor- 
 refponding mufcular figures and both the one and the other, with the entire living body placed in 
 the fame attitude 5 by which a tolerable knowledge will be acquired of the anatomy of the human 
 body, in fo far as it belongs to the arts of defign. 
 
 Though much might be faid for the ufe of painters, not only on thfc different ftrata or layers of 
 mufcles, but alfo upon particular mufcles s yet at prefent we (hall confine ourfelves chiefly to the 
 external layers that appear in thefe tables, and which lie immediately under the fkin and cellular 
 membrane, and retain fo much the entire figure or outline of the body, that painters generally in- 
 feribe thefe mufcles upon that outline as a bafis. However, as fome deep feated mufcles on- fome oc- 
 cafions more or lefs appear, at lead by their cSV.ru,, p,rtr„ilarly, the diaphragm that as an antagq- 
 nift fuftains the beautiful fwell of the abdomen, and the mufcles that fupport the trunk and govern 
 the fpine, alfo the mufcles concealed in the orbits of the eyes, fo ufcful in expreffing the paffions and 
 movements of the foul s I (hall only juft mention that fuch mufcles exift, and ought to be known 
 by painters, though they do not appear in thefe tables. But as to the layers or ftrata of mufcles, 
 and particularly the external one, we may obferve in general, that though they might have effeflually 
 ferved the purpofes of moving powers, and indeed all the other ufes of mufcles, by being formed 
 of lefs regular figures, and placed on the body with lefs exaft order and compofidon ; yet nature, 
 confulting grace and beauty as well as utility in all her works, has fo contrived the mufcular fyftem, 
 that while It effeftually performs its feveral funflions, not only the particular mufcles are formed 
 with great variety, into beautiful and regular figures, of a fize and appearance fijited and propor¬ 
 tioned to the feveral parts, but the whole together is fo difpofed, as to exhibit an agreeable compofi- 
 tion to a lover of anatomy ; and they are fo placed and fecured, that in their moil violent adtions, 
 they cannot ftart up fo far from their true places, as to hurt or deface the form of the body or of its 
 feveral parts; but rather by their gentle fwellings and depreffions, tend to encreafe its beauty; and to 
 gain this end, nature has made a great wafte of mufcular ftrength. Of the different ftrata of muf- 
 
 clcs. 
 
xviii ] 
 
 cles, the external one reprefented in thefe figures is more beautiful than the hidden and inter¬ 
 nal ones, becaufe it confifts of larger and more regular maffes than the internal ftrata, and 
 as the whole comes nearer to the form of the entire body. Again, of the three external views 
 that of the front is moll beautiful, not only on account of the face, and becaufe the limits of 
 the trunk are more exafily determined both above and below, and as the extremities feem more to be¬ 
 long to the foreparts, and are there more beautiful; but alfo, becaufe in the front there is more variety 
 and elegance in the mufcular appearances. The back view, though in fome refpeft more rude and Am¬ 
 ple, likewife has its beauty, efpecially about the neck and fhoulders; alfo about the hips and the whole 
 lower extremities, whofe bones and mufcles are larger and ftronger than thefe of the fuperior, fuited to 
 the fize and office of the parts. The profile or fide view, both in the fkeleton and mufcular figure 
 (hews many particulars that cannot be fo well perceived in the others; for example, the direftion and 
 bearing of the parts one upon another, and how far they projeft both before and behind; as the 
 head over the neck, the various curvatures of the fpine, and fo of other parts ; it alfo fhews fome 
 parts more fully, and others in a more pleafing attitude; and from the profile, you may likewife 
 
 compare the proportions of the narrow lateral view of the body, to thefe of the front and back._In this 
 
 lateral view, Ihould not the right arm have been more elevated backwards, (fee Tab. III. VI.) in order 
 to Ihew the internal parts of that arm, as fully in the mufcular figure as they are feen in the (keleton ? 
 
 By thefe figures we perceive, that the number and ftrength of the mufcles, are every where fuited 
 to the feveral parts they ferve, and the joints they move. Thus the mufcles on the trunk are few, 
 but generally large, broad and flat, ferving for walls and coverings as well as moving powers ; but 
 on the extremities the mufcles are numerous, and moftly oblong, fuited to the fize, form 
 and aftion of thefe parts, and the many joints to be moved. About the Ihoulders and hips,' 
 the mulcles are Ihort, large, thick and. ftrong, giving the idea of that ftrength necelTary for 
 ftrong and violent aftion, and to command large members that are fo conftantly in motion : whereas 
 about the fingers, which befides the ftrong, are alfo intended for arts and delicate movements, we 
 find many fmaller mufcles; and ftill more fo on the face, and about the organs of the fenfes and of the 
 voice. Laftly, the deep feared mufcles that command the fpine, run as it were parallel to that 
 bony pillar, and are beautifully fubdivided like the fpine itfelf, fo as equally to govern every part 
 of it. 7 ^ 
 
 As to the defcription and ufes of the particular mufcles, efpecially of thefe that afford the mod 
 ftrong and beaut,ful appearances, not only in thefe three views, but in every different attitude and 
 aftion of the body, we cannot enter into it in this Ihort introduftion; but the principal things may be 
 underftood by what has been already faid, and by examining thefe, and other good figures and com 
 paring them with nature and the works of the belt artifts: and in cafe this little effay is approved 
 filch particulars, attended with proper figures, may be added on a future occafion. In the mean 
 
 time we may obferve, that of the mufcles that are feen evidently in thefe figures, the moft remark¬ 
 able are ; on the head : the mufcles of the face that govern the features, the temporal and maffe 
 ter that move the lower jaw ; on the neck: the fternomaftoid of each fide before, covered by the latif 
 fimus colli, that fo beautifully Ihow themfelves in the motions of the head and neck ; on the Ihoul 
 ders: below the clavicles, the pefloral and deltoid; and behind, the large triangular cucullares that 
 chiefly fupport and govern the fcapute, reaching to the head; on the trunk: the abdominal 
 mufcles, and the beautiful indentations of the great ferrati; and behind, the latiffimus dorfi, and ftve- 
 ral mufcles that lie upon the fcapula, viz. the teres major, teres minor, and infrafpinatus; on 
 
 the 
 
 * 
 
[ xix ] 
 
 the thighs before, appear the redi and vafti that extend the knee, and chiefly fupport the thigh on 
 that joint when we ftand, the beautiful tranfverfe band of the fartorius, and on the upper part the tenfor 
 vaginae, and more internally, part of the internal iliacs, pfox’, pectinei, great and long adductors, that 
 chiefly govern the thigh and fupport the trunk upon it ■, on the hips and thighs behind . lie the 
 great glut®, and below thefe, befides part of feveral, mufcles juft now mentioned, appear the 
 mufcles that bend the knee, and likewife help to fupport the thigh and trunk when we ftand, viz. 
 on the outfide the bicipites, and internally the femitendinofi, on each fide of which are feen the femi- 
 membranofi, alio the graciles ; the infections of feveral of thefe mufcles aie more diftindly ieen 
 nearthe knee in the profile figure, and by comparing all the figures, we may form an idea of the 
 beautiful articulation of the knee and the other joints, the hollow of the ham and axilla, the various 
 depreflions between the mufcles, the mufcles that bend and extend the fore arm, and compofe the 
 calf of the leg, many mufcles that move the hands and feet, the fingers and toes, with their tendons 
 and ligamentary bands; laftly, the parts of the bones that make their appearance here and there 
 between all thefe parts. But for tile particular defcription, we (hall at prefent refer to Albinus’s 
 own explication of thefe tables, and other anatomical works. 
 
 The three Ample views of the fkeleton and mufcular figure prefented in thefe tables, though in 
 themfelves not ungraceful, are chofen chiefly for the ufes of elementary anatomy, to (hew 
 all the parts fucceffively in a plain and diftind manner, and the mufcles are reprefented as they appear 
 in the dead body, without the imitation of life and adion, yet from thefe figures, well underftood 
 and compared with nature, joined to obfervations and experiments on the naked living body, and on 
 the works of great artifts, a fkilful painter or fculptor will be able to reprefent the anatomical ap¬ 
 pearances of the human body in every other poficion, and alfo to add thefe fwellings and finkings, 
 and other marks that always accompany life and adion, efpecially in lean and athletic bodies; in do¬ 
 ing which, though the truth of nature ought to be the general rule, yet certain licences may often be 
 ufed here as in the other parts of painting, (provided they are conduded with judgment and (killj of 
 reprefenting thefe appearances rather ftronger on certain occafions than they adually are in nature; 
 whereby an artift may not only exercife his genius and invention, but give great pleafure and de¬ 
 light to the truly learned in anatomy and the arts of defign. However, ordinary artifts ihould be very 
 cautious not to abufe thefe liberties, as is but too often ihc c u r=, and fhould always take care to 
 have reafon, and ifpoffible the authority and example of fome great mailer on their fide. 
 
 Though the bones and mufcles are the chief objed of the ftudy of a painter, yet other parts muft 
 not be nevleded, particularly the tkin and the cellular or fatty membrane, and the large veins that 
 appear on the furface of the body. The ikin is not only die feat of thefe tints and colours that on 
 many occafions charaderife and adorn the outfide of the body, and efpecially the countenance, but 
 is alfo the feat of the folds and wrinkles of different ages, and that charaderife different parts, and 
 of thefe that exprefs the paflions and movements of the foul (for in the Ikin many fmall mufcles of 
 the face are fixed), and according as the ikin is looker or tighter on the parts, or more or lefs bound 
 down or fupported by the cellular or fatty membrane, the appearances of the parts below them alter 
 every where. 
 
 I may likewife add, that painters, but efpecially thefe whofe particular profeflion it is to paint the 
 brute animals, ought to be acquainted with atleaft the general principles of what is called compara¬ 
 tive anatomy, otherwife they never can completely exprefs the charaders, the beauties and varieties of 
 
 e thefe 
 
thefe animals, which is only to be done by comparing their fabrick with the outward appearance^ 
 prefented to the eyes; and indeed it is a general rule that no fubjedl whatever can be truly painted, 
 without underftanding as a philofopher the nature and properties of it: for which reafon, hiftorical, 
 and even portrait painters, fhould at leaft be acquainted with the anatomy of thefe animals which 
 are moft commonly introduced into their works, particularly of that noble and uleful animal, the 
 horfe, and of that faithful companion of mankind, the dog: as for other animals, as they more rarely 
 appear in pictures, and are lefs particularly known and attended to, a ilighter reprefentation may 
 generally fuffice, efpecially as nature having cloathed the brute animals with various coverings that 
 hide the inward parts, the anatomical appearances in them are not l'o vifible, nor indeed fo beautiful 
 as in the naked body of man. 
 
 And in general, as to the human body, tho’ its outward beauty in all its feveral parts and 
 members (which is of itfelf a large and ample field) is one great and neceffary part of the ftudy 
 of a painter, yet as thefe outward appearances can neither be perfectly underftood, nor exprelfed, 
 without a confiderable knowledge of all the internal parts of the body, and even of the foul , 
 therefore a general knowledge of anatomy, and of human nature, along with many other ufeful 
 ftudies, both in the fields of nature and of art (which I (hall not particularly enumerate in this 
 place) truly belong to the arts of defign, and fhould be known by every artift, who is ambitious 
 to underftand the true principles of his art, and to pradtife it according to thefe principles : nor is 
 this great field of ftudy fo tedious or difficult, as at firft fight it appears, if purlued upon a proper 
 plan, efpecially as a great part of it may be learned by drawing and modelling alone, and as the 
 pleafure and advantages it affords are a conftant fpur to the induftry of the artift, who fhould con- 
 fider, that by fuch methods alone, he can truly excel in his profeffion, and by fuch alone, the 
 great mailers of ancient and modern times, were able to arrive at the perfection fo much admired 
 by true judges. 
 
 As to the method of ftudy : The bed way to begin that of anatomy, or of any art, is by the help 
 of an able mailer, who perfectly underftands the fubject, and the art of teaching it in a fhort and 
 agreeable manner; after which, the ftudy of authors and figures will be eafy and delightful. In 
 anatomy, the befi: authors for a young painter, are Heifter’s Compend, Haller’s Outlines of Phyfio- 
 logy, the Tables of Vefalius and Eullachius publilhed and explained by Albinos; but above all, 
 Albinus’s original tables of the human fkeleton and mufcles to which may be added, the Anatomy 
 of Celfus, fome parts of Winfiow’s anatomical work, and of Albinus’s Hillory of the Mufcles, alfo 
 his Ofteology, which contains an exact defcription of the bones, written in an elegant and piturefque 
 manner. Many other works might be added, by thofe who have time and curiofity to apply to the 
 ftudy of this fcience, but for the generality, thefe I have mentioned may fuffice. 
 
 So much for elementary anatomy, but in order to apply it to the arts of painting and fculpture, 
 the works of the bell artifts mull be confulted and ftudied, both of thofe who have adtually applied 
 it in pradlice, and of thole who have written on this part of the principles of the arts of defign. 
 Tho’ the works of the ancients, as has been faid, excel all others in moft particulars, fo alfo in 
 the judicious and delicate application of anatomy to thefe arts; yet modern times have produced 
 many learned and accomplilhed artifts, who have lliown great genius and ikill in this as in other 
 parts of their profeffion. At the reftoration of painting, Da Vinci was fully fenfible of the ufe and 
 
 importance 
 
importance of anatomy •, the great Michael Angelo ufed anatomy even to excefs, but in a bold and 
 manly character, and in this refpeft may be looked upon as the Vefalius of painters; Raphael, his 
 frreat rival, like Euflachius, foftened anatomy more to the truth of nature, and to the beauty of the 
 antique, giving it at the fame time the graces peculiar to his own genius •, Hannibal Carrachi is juft 
 and mafterly in his anatomical expreffions, and knew thereby how to give both ftrength and beauty 
 to his figures. Many other great artifts might be named of different chara&ers, in refpeCt to ana¬ 
 tomy, as in other parts of their art: thus Rubens was fully matter of anatomy, as of every art that 
 could form an accompliflied painter, and gave it the richnefs and ftrength peculiar to his manner, 
 producing a new and riper jera of the painter’s art, which the tables and works of Albinus may be 
 faid to have done in anatomy. It were much to be defired, that two fuch noble arts as painting and 
 anatomy, were always in the hands of fuch artifts as I have mentioned, and like other liberal arts 
 were not too often difgraced by the men who profeffed them. However, notwithftanding all that 
 has been done by the great in thefe arts; it were ftill to be wiflied, for the fake of learners, as 
 I obferved at the beginning of this introduction, that a complete compend of anatomy with figures, 
 fitted to the ufe of the lovers of the arts of defign, was compofed by fome able anatomift, who at 
 the fame time underftood the principles of the art of painting, and the works of the great artifts 
 both ancient and modern, at leaft in fo far as concerns anatomy, and its ufe and application to the 
 arts of defign. , 
 
 Before I conclude, I cannot but congratulate our country, on the great efforts that have been 
 made of late years in this capital, to promote and encourage the arts of defign in all their bran¬ 
 ches which had been hitherto fo much negleCted in this nation—-Arts fo ufeful and ornamental to 
 every people, but efpecially to a commercial one—Arts which have been the delight of the great- 
 eft princes in all ages, and which have flourilhed along with politenefs, or funk in times of barbarity 
 
 _Arts which nature fo ftrongly recommends in all her works, by exhibiting to our eyes an endlefs 
 
 field of ftudy and delight—Arts by which the great nations of antiquity polifhed themfelves, adorned 
 their cities, and handed down their fame to diftant ages, by buildings, by ftatues, coins, and other 
 monuments—Arts by which modern Italy has attracted the attention and veneration of foreigners— 
 Arts that like eloquence and poetry may be univerfally applied to every purpofe, both of public and of 
 private life, to difplay and record the wonders and beauties of nature and arc, to inftruCt and to polifh 
 mankind, to recommend wifdom and virtue, to punifh and ridicule folly and vice, to enoble reli¬ 
 gion by adorning the temples of the Gods, to add dignity to the ftate, to record great aCtions, to 
 honour and reward private virtue, tJBujtrate fciences, to improve arts and manufactures of every 
 kind, from the greateft to the leaftWnd confequentlv to increafe wealth and commerce. In a 
 word, as vifible nature affords to the eyes an infinite field of inftruCtion and delight, in every fcene 
 of her works, fo art, by following her footfteps, may as it were rival her in ne\* and endlefs fcenes 
 of ufe and beauty. However, tho’ by the encouragement and patronage of the great, by the ex¬ 
 ertion of the artifts themfelves, by premiums, by exhibitions, by private fchools of defign in the 
 capital, and even in diftant parts of the .kingdom, and by other means, thefe arts have been of late 
 years greatly advanced, and the tafte am attention of the public awakened thereto, yet much is 
 ftill wanting to eftablifh them upon a complete and regular plan, fo as to produce their full effeCt, 
 fuited to the dignity and demands of a great and commercial nation : nor can this great end be 
 accompliflied, till education in thefe arts is conducted on new and more extenfive principles, fuited 
 to the prefent ftate of this age and nation ; a grand national academy Ihould therefore be ereCted in 
 
 the 
 
[ 
 
 ] 
 
 the capital, upon the mod extenfive and generous plan, not only for the arts of defign, but for the 
 improvement of every other art and fcience, and for finilhing the education of the noble youth, in 
 every ufeful and elegant art, that can ftrengthen and form the body or the mind either for war or 
 peace, for public or for private life ; on the model of which, our public fchools would loon be 
 obliged to reform themfelves: by which, in the next generation, we might expeft to fee a very dif¬ 
 ferent race of men from what we are likely to have, when things are left merely to chance, upon 
 the prefent fyftem of indolence and difiipation. 
 
 id P. S. Since this little work was fent to the prefs, we are informed, that his Majefty has been 
 pletfed to eredt an academy for the arts of defign, in their full extent; a thing long and ardently 
 wifhed for in this nation •, by which it is to be hoped, that'the above great and defirable ends, and 
 every other noble effedt that thefe arts are capable of, will in due time be attained by the artifts 
 and genius of the Britifli nation, united under the immediate influence of their Sovereign. 
 
SIX TABLES OF ALBINUS 
 
 WITH THEIR LINEAR FIGURES; 
 
 ALSO, 
 
 ALBINUS’S HISTORY OF THAT WORK, 
 
 AND HIS INDEX TO TFIE SIX TABLES. 
 
THE CONTENTS OF THE FOLLOWING HISTORY 
 OF THIS WORK. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 HP HE imperfeElion of the common methods of making anatomical figures, and by what Jleps the author 
 was led to the true methodviz. making the Jkeleton the rule and foundation of his figures. — Eufla- 
 chius ufed a like method. 
 
 Chap. I. Of the Skeleton and its Futures. 
 
 o 
 
 Sect. I. ExaCl figures of the Jkeleton firjl to be procured. — I'hefe can only be had by clearing a 
 Jkeleton of the foft parts, leaving only the natural ligaments, then placing it in a proper attitude, and fixing 
 it fo.—How this was done, by means of a tripod to fupport the pelvis below and by firetching ropes to 
 the ceiling and walls, from the head, trunk, and extremities, to fix the other parts ■, and afterwards 
 comparing and correcting the whole, by a naked man placed in the fame attitude. 
 
 Sect. II. ’The method contrived by the author, of drawing the general figures of the Jkeleton, thus 
 placed and fixed, with the articulations ■, fo as to be feen diflinClly by the artifi, and yet as at the difiance 
 of forty feet.—His precautions, and the accidents and difficulties that occurred,—Particular parts afterwards 
 added, from the Jingle bones when cleaned. 
 
 •Sect. III. Reafonjor the attitudes that were chofen.—An exaCl and beautiful defcription of the atti¬ 
 tudes, and of the pofition and bearing of each part and member, firjl of the front and back, and then 
 of the lateral view of the Jkeleton, mofl ufeful both to anatomifls and to painters. 
 
 Sect. IV. From what kind of body the Jkeleton was taken-, the precautions ufed to procure a complete 
 one, and even that corrected in the drawing. 
 
 Chap. II. Of the Mufcles and their Fi<mres. 
 
 Sect. I. the author’s method of infcribing the mufcles on the linear figures of the Jkckton, and the la¬ 
 borious preparations towards it.—Errors Jhunned, arifmg from the nature of reverfes, of engraving, and the 
 extenfion and contrabiion of the wetted paper. 
 
 Sect. II. the Mufcles, and fome other parts to which they refer, are annexed to the figures of the 
 Jkeleton, as they are feen in dead bodies.—to make the mufcles appear uniform, though taken from different 
 bodies, they are referred to an outline of one mufcular body, as-wetl as to that of the Jkeleton, every thing 
 being copied from nature.—to apply the mufcles exaSIly, the exterior orders are firjl drawn, and after¬ 
 wards corrected, as internal appearances required. 
 
 f 2 
 
 Sect. 
 
Sect. III. Great care taken, and various arts ufed, to exhibit the mufcles in their true fituation and 
 appearances ; as for example, in the diaphragm, the mufcles about the anus, the velum of the palate , 
 face, tfic. 
 
 Adult bodies were ufed, and thefe of the mofi perfett kind ; things of lefs moment, and rare varieties are 
 omitted, except a few •, as the fmatt pfoas, and the mufcle of the bladder.—The fituation, figure, fize, 
 origin, cohefion, flcjhy parts, and tendons, with the courfe of the mufcular fibres, were chiefly attended to. 
 
 Sect. IV. The mufcular tables are of two kinds. The firfi exhibit, in as few figures as pojfible, the 
 uniform fyftem of the whole by fuccefiive orders, in front and back views, and in one lateral afpett, in pro¬ 
 per attitudes ,, correfponding to the Jkeleton, of a commodious fize, and properly fhaded ; and to complete 
 the fyfiem, the orders on the neck, and under the head, are added in a fide view alfo thefe on the foie of 
 the foot, and in the eye focket. 
 
 The fecond kind explain, and ferve as a fupplement to the former, being the figures of the particular 
 mufcles, in a fize double to the others, and done in a morefimple manner, but thefe of the internal ear are 
 of the naturalfize.—The compofition and internal Jlrufture of mufcles are omitted. 
 
 Chap. III. The excellency of the tables. Of the linear 
 figures, marks of reference, prefi work, and index. 
 
 Sect. I. The merits of the artift Wandelaar, and the pains taken by him and the author, for ten years, 
 to render the work every way complete, the excellencies of the tables, both as to anatomy and the painter's 
 art, beautifully deferibed, and how to look at them. 
 
 Sect. II. The advantages of the author's method of adding linear figures, and putting the marks of 
 reference on them.—The figures of thefingle parts and mufcles did not require this, tho’ they are done with 
 equal Jkill and attention. 
 
 Sect. III. The care taken even in inferibing the marks of reference, alfo in the choice of the paper, 
 and in printing the tables.—The explication hfijuK in the manner of an index. 
 
 The difficulty, labour, and expence of the work vindicated, from the ufefulnefs and dignity of the 
 JubjeU.—The particular improvements to be found in it, are left to the difeernment of the reader. 
 
THE 
 
 HISTORY OF THIS WORK. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 T HAT the nature of thefe tables may be better underftood, it is proper to explain the plan 
 and method by which they were conftrufted : and I fliall narrate, not only the things 
 I approved, but alfo what I condemned, that we may be better able to judge in the 
 conduct of works of this kind. Firft then, I began with the mufcles ; defiring accurately to 
 reprefent in my figures, not only the fingle ones apart, but alfo the complete fyftem of the whole. 
 I began with the fyftem. This I was obliged to divide into different orders, as the mufcles 
 lie one behind another: the firft order containing thefe that lie immediately under the common in¬ 
 teguments : the fecond, thofe which appear when the firft are removed, and fo on of the reft. I 
 inclined, that not only the pofition of the members fhould be the fame in each of thefe orders, but 
 that they fhould be, in every refpe6t rightly connected, and following each other; fo that the whole 
 feries of the figures fhould plainly fhow every thing as it is in the body, in the pofture and afpedt 
 I had chofen. With this defign I let thele orders before my artift for imitation, in the manner 
 that moft other anatomifts had done, and he copied them with all the exadtnefs he was able •, but 
 found this great difficulty, that in drawing the firft orders, it was impoftble to exprefs thefe 
 mufcles and bones, that at that time only partly appeared, (and muft be drawn as they then ap¬ 
 peared, tho’ they were feen more fully afterwards when the exterior mufcles that covered them were 
 removed) fo as they might be continued without error in the fucceeding figures; and being fo 
 continued, would be found placed on the body as nature ffiowed they ought to be. For 
 tho’ afterwards, fuch amendments were made in the figures of the exterior orders, as the in¬ 
 terior orders ffiowed to be neceffary, and in this way we had a fet of tolerable figures, which 
 evidently ffiowed a fkilful artift, yet they by no means pleafed me, becaufe the parts did not 
 properly hang together, furely not in the manner I defired •, nor were they exprefied with 
 lufficient roundnefs and precifion : in a word, they were totally different from what I had conceived 
 in my mind. This method I had made trial of in feveral parts, viz. the belly, the breaft, the 
 arm the face; and I derived this advantage from it, that thereby I dilcovered the method 
 to accomplifh what I defired. For I had oblerved in the courfe of drawing, that as the 
 firft orders of mufcles, pretty nearly refembled in general, the figure of the feveral members 
 to which they belonged, they could be very well expreffed by the artift, ipferibing them 
 as it were, upon that figure of the body which he had in his mind : the drawing Lnitating 
 
 B every 
 
[ 6 ] 
 
 every where the figure of the feveral members; but as the more he advanced to the 
 interior parts, by removing the external nuifcles, the more this figure of the members was loft, 
 the artift was not equally affifted by this figure, in expreffing the interior orders, and was obliged to 
 accommodate all the fucceeding orders to the firft, as to a foundation, as therein this figure of the 
 members generally appeared : now, this did not anfwer in the bones and fyftem of the fkele- 
 ton, as it is of itfelf a peculiar compofition, correfponding on the whole to the figure of the 
 human body, but differing from it in many refpefts; yet the mufcles could never be truly ex- 
 preffed, unlefs the fyftem of the fkelcton to which they are affixed, was firft determined. Be- 
 lides, I was convinced, that all would be vague and uncertain, unlefs every part was reprefented ac¬ 
 cording to meafurement; if not with the utmoft precifion, at leaft, with confiderable care. But 
 here I likeways forefaw great difficulties : firft in the exaft meafuring itfelf, and laying down the 
 parts on the table according to that meafure ; and next, tho’ this were done entirely to my wifh, 
 I forefaw other difficulties hardly to be conquered. For it is evident, that the body and every 
 member, muft be exprefied in the table, in the fame attitude in which it was meafured : now, 
 tho’ l'ome members could be rightly placed for this purpofe; as the head, the arms, the hands, the 
 legs, the feet; yet others could not, as the trunk and the neck: therefore I forefaw, that thefe 
 
 members wlych could not be fo placed, muft either be reprefented in an aukward pofition, or I 
 muft leave it to the artift, to correfl it by his fkill in drawing : the firft was intolerable, and the 
 other I could never approve; becaufe there was great danger of miftakes, or even a certainty 
 of them. And if it was pofiible to put every part in a fit pofition, yet by raifing and handling the 
 mufcles, or on any other occafion, if the firft pofition was a little changed, it feemed fcarce 
 poffible to replace things fo, as exaftly to correfpond to what had been already drawn ; efpecially 
 as it was clear, that one and the fame body would not fuffice for the whole, and that different 
 bodies would not exaCtly agree; nor, if they did, could they be placed fo exaflly in the fame 
 pofitions, that the parts could be drawn by meafure, fo as to fit and agree with the former. All 
 thefe circumftances therefore clearly Ihowed, that what I aimed at, was a thing of greater moment, 
 than to be attained by the ordinary manner, even of the moft approved anatomifts ; who did no 
 more than copy in their figures, merely what was prefented to the eye, and fo produced vague 
 figures, in which no regard was had to order, nor exad meafures, nor to any feries and connection. 
 Such figures, tho’ they may be good in fome refpefts, and contain much, yea a great deal, yet 
 they are defective in many things much to be defined, and which are neceffary to tha“ moft difficult 
 point, adding perfection to a work. In a word, it was evident that a very different method 
 muft be purified, and that my purpofe was only to be gained, by fixing a certain rule by which 
 the figures muft be conftrufted. And as human bodies, tho’ they vary from each other in many 
 things, yet in many things in general agree, there muft be taken from the body itfelf a common 
 foundation, on which to form the figures, and this muft be the skeleton, which ought to be the 
 foundation of the figures, as it is of the body itfelf and of the mufcles, if we defireto produce 
 any thing certain, and anfwering to nature. The figures of the Ikeleton muft therefore be firft 
 formed, and to thefe the mufcles muft afterwards be referred: for the figures of the Ikeleton 
 being firft determined, as in moft men of whatever ftature and thicknefs, the mufcles adhere and 
 are contiguous to the ikeleton nearly in the fame manner, and in the fame places, it muft follow 
 that the mufcles will correfpond to thefe figures of the Ikeleton, tho’ they are taken from bodies the 
 moft different (provided they are not deformed) if they are painted on the figures with the fame re¬ 
 ference to the bones as they have in thefe bodies. I found likeways another ufe of this rule 
 that by making the figures of the mufcles in this manner, we could thereby find and know many of 
 
 them 
 
[ 7 3 
 
 them in the living animal, at lead the places of mod of them. For firft, by means of the figures 
 of the Ikeleton, it is no difficult matter to know moft of the bones in the live animal ; and of 
 thefe which do not fo openly appear, we can at lead difcover the places and pofition, or find rules 
 for doing it; and thefe being once known, we have the means of confidering and judging how 
 the mufcles, as they appear in the figures, are placed on the bones of a living animal. °And be- 
 fides, the figures of the Ikeleton, and the fyftem of the mufcles being once determined, the 
 figures of the bowels may be referred thereto, and thefe too being fixed, we can determine thefe 
 of the arteries, veins, nerves, and other parts. For as architefts having laid a fure foundation, 
 raife the building upon it with all its parts, fo we may on the Ikeleton, as a foundation, annex the 
 mufcles, apply the bowels, and other parts, and afterwards conduft the nerves, arteries, and veins 
 among them, and fuperadd whatever more belongs to the fabric of our bodies : and therefore we 
 will bell imitate by art, this method pointed out by nature. And this firft enabled me to difcover, 
 that a like plan was purfued by Eustachius in his tables. 
 
 chapter r. 
 
 OF THE SKELETON AND ITS FIGURES. 
 
 Sect. I. jgUT leaving thefe firft rudiments, which can only ferve to fliow us in what manner we 
 are to proceed, let us now folely confider how we are to form thefe figures of the 
 Ikeleton. In order to their being good, and a true foundation to the other parts, it is required that they 
 fliould be accurate, and truly exhibit the exaft figure of the Ikeleton, as it is in the living animal, 
 m the pollute which is chofen. Now that every part of the bones, which was to be reprefented 
 m the figures might appear, it was neceffary to clean them perfeftly, and confequemly to feperate 
 them one from another: but when once taken afunder, it would have been no eafy matter to re¬ 
 join them, nor could it be eafily difcerned whether they were rightly joined or not, if we did not 
 compare them with the natural compofition itfelf: and how was this to be found ? and even if it 
 could be found, it was eafy to forefee, that tho’ in general they might approach to this compofition 
 yet by no means with that accuracy I wiffied for, and which was requifite for the true application 
 of the other parts. Befides, the cartilaginous crufts with which the bones are covered in the 
 articulations, by exaft cleaning, are either fpoil’d or totally loft, and therefore if they were join'd 
 in that condition, the articulations would be imperfea: and the more that I was fenfible of 
 thefe defeas, in the figures of the Ikeleton that are already extant, the more I defined to find a 
 remedy. After long uncertainty in what manner to proceed, it came into my mind, to prepare 
 and clean a Ikeleton, in fuch a manner, that nothing Ihould remain but the ligaments that bind the 
 joints, and being fo placed, and afterwards drawn, as I intended, to cut open and remove the liga¬ 
 ments, that what was at firft covered by them might be added to the figure: and in this manner I 
 thought I could bell exprefs the true nature of the parts. But I forefaw how laborious a talk it would 
 be, to prepare fuch a Ikeleton, and how difficult to place it properly, after it was prepared ; and it 
 
 was 
 
[ 8 1 
 
 was to be feared, as the painting fuch a lkeleton mult require a confiderable time, left by the drying 
 of the cartilaginous crufts, and of the ligaments, and alfo by putrefaction, it might be greatly 
 fpoiled, and likeways become offenfive: wherefore I thought it beft, firft to try the experiment 
 in the feperate members of the fkeleton : in fome it fucceeded very well, as in the hands, the feet, 
 the joints of the thighs; in others it was much more difficult, as in the ribs and fpine ; but fo, that 
 there appeared hopes of overcoming the difficulties. Being therefore encouraged by the fuccefs 
 I had found, about the end of the year mdccxxv, having procured a proper fubjedl, I prepared 
 therefrom fuch a fkeleton as I have mentioned; which being of itfelf unftable, as the ligaments 
 were naturally foft and lax, I confidered in what manner I could place and fix it in a proper 
 attitude. To dry the ligaments, fo as to ftiffen the whole, was not proper, left the compofition of 
 many bones fhould thereby fuffer, and the cartilaginous crufts of the articulations be fpoiled ; and if 
 it had been proper, it could not be done, till the lkeleton was firft fixed, in the pofition in 
 which it was to be drawn. Therefore in order to place it, I took the following method. As the 
 feet could not fupport the trunk, becaufe they were neither rigid themfelves, nor could the pelvis 
 reft firmly upon the heads of the thigh bones, it was my firft care, to fupport the lower part of 
 the trunk upon a firm and ftable bafis ; but in fuch a way, that it might be at liberty to incline 
 a little on occafion, and in the manner that might be needful: for this purpofe I ordered a tripod 
 to be made, with the feet at a moderate diftance •, from the top of which, where the feet met to¬ 
 gether, a fulcrum of iron arofe, which foon was divided into three branches, moderately feperated j 
 of thefe one was fhorter, the two others were equal in length j and all of them were in the upper 
 part, to their extremity, firft bent outwards the length of a cubit, in order to fupport, and after- 
 terwards turned upwards, to retain whatever was placed thereon j the tripod being of fuch a 
 height, that while the lower part of the trunk refted on it, the feet of the lkeleton hanging down, 
 could not quite reach the bottom of the tripod, and confequently the table on which it was 
 placed. This tripod was placed upon a low table, that the lower parts of the lkeleton, and 
 efpecially the feet, might be more eafily drawn •, for had it been placed upon the ground, the art- 
 ift, in order to fee them aright, would have been obliged to ftoop. The bottom of the trunk was 
 fo placed on the tripod, that the fynchondrofis of the pubis refted on the extremity of the ihorter 
 branch, and the lower part of the ofla ilium, juft before the facrum, refted on the extremities of 
 the longer branches ; as 1 had taken care that the divarication of the branches, Ihould be fitted 
 for receiving and retaining thefe parts of the trunk; as alfo that the ffiorter branch, Ihould be 
 about fo much Ihorter than the other two, as I judged the lower part of the fynchondrofis of the 
 pubis, ought to be below the lower parts of the ofla ilium, which laft refted on the longer branches. 
 This firm foundation being laid, my firft care was to raife the trunk, with the neck and head, to an 
 eredt pofture •, and I began with the trunk, as it was firmer and more ftable than the neck and 
 head : for this purpofe I fixed a cord below the neck, to the fuperior part of the fpine, where it is 
 more firm and ftable, and I conduced it ftraight to the ceiling of the chamber, and having 
 pafled it through a ring fixed there, I conduft it to a hook in the neighbouring wall, round 
 which I tye and fatten it. By the ftretching of this cord I raifed the trunk, as well as I was 
 able, to an eredl pofture, but fo that its lower part fhould ftill reft upon the tripod. I next pafs 
 another cord behind both the zygomatic procefies, one end of it being under the right, and the 
 other under the left, and bringing the middle of the rope to the occiput near the neck, I tied its 
 two extremeties together like a handle above the head, and to this handle I fix another rope, 
 which I likeways convey to the ceiling, and there paffing it through another ring fixed near the 
 former, I in like manner convey and fallen it to a hook in the wall. This rope I ftretch as much 
 
 as 
 
C 9 ] 
 
 as I can, taking care at the fame time not to relax that rope, which was fattened to the fpine; by 
 this means the trunk was indeed ereft, as alfo the neck and head, but not fo completely, as to be 
 quite free from inclination ; for which reafon tying feveral cords to the trunk, 1 condufted them 
 in different direfiions to the walls, and fattened them to hooks fixed there; and by ftretchina thefe 
 cords, I fixed the trunk equally all around. Thefe laft ropes, like the two former by which I 
 erefled the trunk and head, I fattened to the more liable part of the trunk, viz. to the 
 fpine, being the foundation of the trunk, which the ribs mutt of courfe follow; and I tyed 
 them to the fuperior part of the fpine, that I might thereby govern the whole of it, and 
 I fatten them juft below the neck, becaufe in that part the fpine is liable; for had I tyed 
 them to the neck itfelf, I (hould have bent it in ftretching the ropes, on account of its flexibi¬ 
 lity. Having in this manner fixed the trunk, I proceeded to the arms. And firft I paffed a rope 
 and fixed it to the conjunffion of the clavicle with the fuperior procefs of the fcapula; and by means 
 of that rope, I was able to raife the whole Ihoulder to a proper height, and to fufpend the whole 
 arm from the ceiling ; and by tranfverfe ropes, I prevented the fcapula from declining to the fore or 
 back parts ; and in this manner, having in general fixed both arms, I fattened a rope to the inferi¬ 
 or part of the right radius, and thereby I removed that whole arm from the trunk. Another rope 
 I fattened to the inferior part of the left arm bone, and thereby I raffed that arm s another I fattened 
 to the left ulna, by which I governed the fore arm. The inferior extremities I fixed in the follow¬ 
 ing manner; the right one I extended to a ftraight line, and placed it direffiy under the trunk ■ and 
 as it did not quite reach the table, I placed a piece of board between the heel and table, 1b fitted, 
 that it fixed the heel as it were in a (landing pofture; neither was the limb fo preffed upwards, as 
 to raife the pelvis from the tripod ; and under the remaining part of the foot, I placed feveral boards 
 of fuch thicknefs, that the whole might reft in an equal manner. In the laft place, I fixed a ropl 
 to the lower part of the thigh, and conduffing it backwards to the wall, I thereby fixed the knee 
 Nearly in the fame manner I alfo fixed the left limb, bending the knee a little, and railin, the heel' 
 fo that the extremity of the foot retted gently, on that part that is near the root of tljgreat toe 
 The general pofitton of the (keleton being thus fixed, I afterwards brought it to perfeffion ; for partly 
 by bending and raffing the pelvis-, partly by ftretching or flackening the ropes, or by adding new 
 ones ; and partly at laft by little boards, papers, dod.s, or whatever elfe of the kind was readied 
 placed under, upon, or between certain parts, (the particulars of which is of no moment to relate'’ 
 I correfted whatever I found defeffive. After this I placed a naked man, of a like ftature and 
 lean, in the fame attitude, and with him compared the (keleton, efpecially the pelvis, the fpine 
 the thorax, the fcapula and clavicles; for thefe being once truly placed, the other parts would oive 
 no great trouble. And con-effing in the manner I have juft now narrated, what feemed to require 
 it ; I afterwards confidered the (keleton for a few days, and by a flight ftretching or relaxing of the 
 ropes, and other ways producing fmall changes, I tryed if I could (till bring.it nearer to perfeffion ■ 
 after which I again compared it with the naked man, left by the rigid feverity of my care, I might 
 have departed from nature. ’ b 
 
 Sect. II. The (keleton being placed according to my defire, my next care was to imitate it ex- 
 aflly in a p.fture. Now to draw after it merely by the eye, as painters commonly do, would have 
 rendered every thing vague and uncertain, and would by no means have anfwered my intention ■ 
 font was impoffible but the artift mutt have committed miftakes, and confequently I (hould no^ 
 h ave “ ^ of the (keleton as I wilhed for, fo that I might not only hope, but even be 
 
 certain, that it would ferve as a proper foundation on which to inferibe the mufcles. To meafure 
 
 C , 
 
 the 
 
[ 1° ] 
 
 the circumference of the whole in general, with the pofition, magnitude, and figure of each part, 
 would have been an endlefs work ; nor could it be done without the aid of fome unerring rule. It 
 would have been eafy to confine the fight by a wooden parallelogram, compofed of four ftraight 
 fides, at right angles, the fpace comprehended by which, being made at lead: equal to the furfaceof 
 the fkeleton, and the whole of it equally divided by ftretched cords, into fquare fpaces equal co each 
 other, this to be placed direflly before the fkeleton, and the tablet upon which the figure of the 
 Ikeleton was to be drawn, being divided by lines, in the fame manner as the fquare was by cords, 
 the artift looking through a l’mall determined hole, in the place from which he was to view the Ikele¬ 
 ton, would obferve what parts of the Ikeleton were oppofite to the different cords of the fquare, and, 
 to what parts of thefe cords, and accordingly draw them on the correfponding lines of his tablet. 
 But to this method there were objections, for in order that the artift might rightly and conveniently 
 fee every part of the fkeleton, it was neceffary that he fhould not be at too great a diftance from it 5 
 my inclination was, that he fhould fee it at a diftance, not much lefs than forty Rhineland feet, as 
 we call them, that thereby he might not fee many of its parts obliquely ; but as from this diftance, 
 the eye was not able to diftinguifh the fmaller parts, therefore that the artift might be fo near as to 
 fee the objefl diftinclly, and yet might fee every thing as at the diftance of forty feet, the obfeuri- 
 ty only excepted, I contrived in the following manner : fuch a fquare as I have mentioned, and 
 which I fliall call the larger one, I placed immediately before the fkeleton, fo that the cords touch¬ 
 ed the moll advanced parts of it. Four feet before this,-I placed another fquare, in every refpefl fimilar, 
 only the fpaces were fmaller; this therefore I call the leffer one: the fpaces were a tenth part fmal¬ 
 ler, as the diftance of four feet, was alfo the tenth part of the whole diftance I intended between 
 the objea and the eye. Thefe two fquares I fo placed, that the planes of the cords fhould be 
 parallel to each other, and in a perpendicular direfiion, and that the cords of the one, fhould ex- 
 aaiy correfpond to the other, the centre being placed direflly oppofite to the middle of the left 
 part of the breaft of the fkeleton. This being done, the artift placing himfelf -where he thought proper 
 near the fkeleton, at the moft convenient diftance for feeing it, contrived it fo, that he fhould plainly fee 
 feme point of decuffation of the cords of the fmaller fquare, exaflly fall upon tlje correfponding 
 point of the greater; and that part of the fkeleton which appeared direflly oppofite to thel'e 
 points, he inferibed upon the decuffation of the correfponding lines of his tablet, which was divided 
 by lines crofting at right angles, as the fpace of the greater fquare was by cords; and in like man¬ 
 ner pafting from one point of decuffation in the cords to another, the parts of the fkeleton, if 
 any feen direflly behind them, were inferibed on the correfponding points of decuffation on the 
 tablet; and the intermediate parts of the fkeleton, between thefe determined points, were eafily 
 drawn without any error worthy of notice, on account of the fmallnefs of the fpaces. In this man¬ 
 ner (fo as to anfwer my purpofe, tho’ it gave the artift no fmall trouble) was the fore part of the fke¬ 
 leton drawn as it ftood, and it was drawn with the ligaments tying the joints, which being after¬ 
 wards cut, and pulled back, as far as was neceffary to fee the joints of the bones, the artift added 
 thefe parts to the figure. This being done, all the cords were loofed that fixed the fkeleton, except 
 the two drawn to the ceiling that kept it erefl, viz. one from the head, and another from the upper 
 part of the fpine -, and the fkeleton with its tripod being turned, to exhibit the pofterior parts, it was 
 fixed, and its figure drawn as the fore part ; and I cut the ligaments of the joints in fuch a manner, 
 that tho’ they were likewife cut upon the fore part, yet a fufficient quantity ftill remained to fix the 
 joints, till the Ikeleton being again turned, the lateral view was likewife taken in the fame manner. 
 
 But 
 
[ 11 ] 
 
 But it being impoffible to Snifh all the three figures of the fkeleton, in lefs than nearly three 
 months, tho’the utmoft diligence was ufed, I was obliged during that time, to prevent the fpod.ng 
 of the fkeleton by drying, or by putrefadion, and alfo the inconvenience or mifchief that might 
 thereby arife to ourfelves •, fome times therefore to prevent drying, whilft I moiftened with water, 
 and poured it into the incifions of the joints, to preferve the cartilaginous crufts ; and fometimes to 
 check putrefaftion, whilft I fprinkled with vinegar, and covered the parts during the night with 
 papers and cloths moiftened therewith, and poured vinegar into all the parts I could ; it happened 
 that, while the firft figure was a-doing, a fmart froft coming on, froze the whole fkeleton, which 
 was the moft effedual thing, not only to fix its pofition, but alfo to prevent putrefad.on; and it 
 the froft had lafted, till the firft figure was finilhed, I could eafily have loofed the ligatures, and 
 turned it, while yet rigid by the froft, in order to draw the fecond ; but the thaw coming on looner 
 than I withed, haftened the putrefadion, and gave me a good deal of trouble. The fire was like- 
 wife hurtful, without which the naked man neither could, nor would Hand, till the weather be- 
 came milder. 
 
 By thefe three figures, the pofturc of the fkeleton; the pofition of all the bones, and the com- 
 poficion of the whole bony fabrick was accurately expreffed; but the figure and appearance of the 
 bones only in general, for the remains of the ligaments about the joints, and other things 
 flood in our way, from which the bones could not eafily be cleared; nor would it 
 have been proper, tho’ I could have cleaned them in the moft perfedt manner, to have fpent at 
 prefent the length of time neceffary thereto, efpecially as I could do it afterwards, and have the 
 figures completed at my leifure. Therefore taking the fkeleton to pieces, my next labor was ac¬ 
 curately to clean each bone, fo as to fpoil nothing ; yet when I had cleaned them, I delayed fim r- 
 ino- the figures of the fkeleton from them, till I had the figures of each bone, in the natural fize, 
 engraven upon copper ; and I delayed it for this reafon, becaufe as I intended to give attention to 
 each bone, the making thefe figures was a preparation to the artift for that end, and on that ac¬ 
 count I could not return to the figures of the fkeleton, till the year Moccxxx,.,. When I burned, 
 my firft care was to reduce them from their natural fize, to what you fee in thefe figures. Then the 
 artift, confidering each bone in the fame pofition it held in the figures, fuppl.ed what was wan ,ng 
 in the figures, and amended what feemed to require it; after which, I was confirmed in the defign 
 I had always had, of publiihing thefe figures, in cafe they anfwered my expedition; and I defined 
 they mould be engraven on copper, hoping that they would thereby be rendered ftlll more perfed ; 
 
 accordingly they were engraved, and from the bones themfelves, in order to a more complete ex- 
 
 prefiion. 
 
 Sect III They exhibit the fkeleton in an ered pollute, having regard likewife to the beauty 
 of the attitude. I have chofenfuch pofitions and attitudes of the members, by which the general 
 arrangement of the bones and mufcles might beft appear, and by which the vifcera, the arteries, 
 veins and nerves, and other parts might likewife appear, in cafe I fhould incline to proceed. 
 The pofition of the firft and fecond figure is exadly the fame, reprefenting the fore and back parts, 
 the one anfwering to the other, by which the continuation of the whole round of the figure may ap- 
 A third figure is added giving a more complete lateral view. The pofition of tins figure 
 ' differs from the other two, being perhaps more proper to fhow the lateral parts. Now as to the 
 pofition, the following things are to be obferved. The fkeleton of the firft and fecon gure 
 ftands firm upon the right foot, leaning only nightly upon the left; the right foot refts upon^the 
 
 \ 
 
 2 $ 
 
 '• I 
 
 
 * 
 
[ "2 ] 
 
 heel, and befides upon the anterior heads of all the metatarfal bones, efpecially that of the great toe 
 with the intervention however of the fefamoidal bones ; and the toes being bent downward, as it 
 were lay hold of the ground, and by that means the foot Hands firmer. The extremity of the foot is 
 turned outwards, in a natural manner, in that pofition that gives the greated firmnefs when we 
 Hand. The right knee is extended to a itraighc line, the patella lies upon the thigh bone higher 
 than that finus between the eondyles, upon which it commonly tells ; and it lies as when the knee 
 .s ftraight and fixed by the aftion of the reftus, valli, and crureus mufcles. The lev is inclined 
 a little outwards upon the foot, by the bending of the joint of the talus on the heel bone by which 
 the extremity of the foot reds fully upon the ground , and the heel is in the fame perpendicular 
 !,ne Wlththe head ’ whlch makes a firm Handing pofture. And this is affifted by a moderate incli¬ 
 nation ot the thigh to the fame fide, the thigh bone meeting the tibia fo as to make an angle, but 
 a very obtufe one, and making it towards the fide I have mentioned. The left foot is fomewhat 
 removed from the right, both to afide and forward, and it reds only, and that (lightly, upon the 
 anterior head of the metatarfal bone of the great toe, by the intervention of the fefamoidal bones 
 The left knee is moderately bent, and thereby the patella reds upon its finus between the condyles, 
 therefore the right extremity alone upon its vertex fuftains the pelvis, whofe pofition is oblique the 
 
 left fide being the lowed, becaufe as I faid, the left foot is removed from the right, and yet touches 
 
 the ground ; and becaufe the left foot is likeways advanced forward, the left part of the pelvis is 
 for that reafon forced fomewhat more forward than the right, and the red of the trunk above the 
 pelvis is inclined towards the right, as much as is required for equilibrium. Therefore the whole 
 fpine in general is bent towards the right, and it is likeways, except in the neck, inclined as it were 
 fomewhat to the left; that while the left part of the pelvis, is advanced fomewhat more forward 
 than the right, the bread may yet dand direftly forward. On the other hand the neck is bent to 
 wards the right, and the atlas with the head turned to the fame fide, as much as is neceffary to 
 direft the face fomewhat that way. Befides, the pelvis is fo fituated, that its whole fupenor edge 
 is placed obliquely, chiefly direfted upwards, but at the fame time remarkably forwards There 
 fore the os facrum, defeending from the loins, inclines fomewhat backwards, from which the coccyx 
 advances forwards, acthe fame time bending itfelf that way. The loins rifing from the os facrum are 
 at fird remarkably bent, then becoming more draight, are inclined moderately backwards ■’ and 
 and being concave behind, thereby better fupport the thorax. From thence, the dorfal part of the 
 fpine inclining likeways backwards, is gently bent from the top, but in a contrary way to that of the 
 loins; by which the thorax docs not incline too much forwards. From the back, the neck raifes itfelf 
 forwards, moderately bent, draining the head in fuch a manner, that the face may be thrown 
 diffidently forward. The thorax is moderately bent towards the right, along with the 
 
 fpme, by which the r.bs of the right fide approach nearer to each other ; the dperior 
 ones being drawn a little downwards, the inferior upwards. On the contrary the left ribs 
 are more feparated, the dperior being drawn upwards, the inferior downwards And 
 for tins reafon the external circumference of the thorax on the left fide is from above downwards 
 wholly convex, but on the right fide below the middle, is moderately concave- and 
 therefore the lower ribs of the right fide, being mote ereft upon the fpine, than thofe of the left 
 them anterior extremities are mote didant from it. The right atm is in a hanginv pofture b ’ 
 moderately railed , whereby the fcapulais uptight, and the clavicle aimed direftly ttanfverle But 
 the icapula is moderately thrud backwards, and along therewith, that part of the clavicle that 
 dppotts it, by which the bread is more open, the left atm is raifed higher, and therefore that 
 part of the clavicle, upon which the fuperior procefs of the fcapula reds, is raifed along therewith, 
 
 and 
 
and the fcapula undergoes fome rotation, fo that its lower angle is turned towards the left fide; 
 The right fore-arm is ftraight, andfo likewife are the radius and ulna ; and the right hand han^s 
 open. But the left fore-arm is fomewhat bent, and the radius is turned, as much as it is capable 
 of, round the ulna, and along with it the hand, So much for the pofture of the firft and fecond. 
 figures. 
 
 In the third table, the fkeleton is placed as it were in a walking pofture. Like the others it ftands 
 alfo on the right foot, the left only refting on the ground, upon the end of the great toe, which is there¬ 
 fore a little bent upwards, as in walking, when we are juft going to bring forward the foot that is 
 behind. The right foot ftands upon the heel, and the anterior extremity of the metatarfal bone of 
 the great toe, refting on the interveening fefamoi'dal bones, upon thefe it ftands chiefly, and alfo upon 
 the anterior extremity of the metatarfal bones of the fmall toes. The right knee is ftraight as in the 
 former figures, and in like manner from the fame caufe, the patella is drawn upwards, fo that it lies 
 upon the finus between the condyles of the thigh, only by its inferior part, its upper part refts upon 
 the thigh above that finus. The left knee is moderately bended, therefore the fuperior part of the 
 patella refts upon the finus, between the condyles; from whence its extremity is dire&ed towards the 
 eminence of the tibia, to which the ligament is affixed that proceeds from that extremity. The 
 pelvis, as in the firft and fecond figures, refts upon the right foot alone, and the left fide is the loweft ; 
 the fpine above it is fomewhat inclined to the right, whereby the fore part of the thorax is a little 
 inclined that way ; but the face ftill more, not only becaufe the neck is more twifted, but chiefly 
 becaufe the atlas and head are remarkably turned that way. The pelvis is likewife fo placed, that its 
 fuperior edge is directed upwards and forwards, as in the former figures, and the coccyx with the 
 inferior part of the facrum are bent forwards. The loins near the os facrum, are at firft confider- 
 ably bent, then becoming ftraighter, they incline moderately backwards, being concave behind; 
 from thefe the dorfal part of the fpine inclines backwards, and is gently bent from the top, con¬ 
 cave before ; from thence the neck ftretches forward, moderately bended. As the left arm is 
 raifed, the fcapula is fomewhat turned, fo that the upper part is dire&ed a little backwards, and the 
 inferior angle forwards. But as the right arm hangs down, and at the fame time is carried back¬ 
 wards, the bafe of the fcapula on this fide is fomewhat removed from the ribs, chiefly at the lower 
 angle. This is fufficient with regard to the pofition, what remains on that fubjc£t, in this or the 
 former figures, may be eafily perceived from the figures themfelves. All the joints appear full, 
 and exactly fitted, becaufe the cartilaginous crufts are not negle&ed. 
 
 Sect. IV. I muft now defcribe the nature of the fkeleton, which I made choice of for this re- 
 prefentation. As to the age, I choofed that, where the bones had come to their full growth and 
 perfe&ion, that is when the epiphyfes were plainly continued to their refpettive bones; for before 
 that time, the bones are incomplete. I made choice of the male fex, and of a middle ftature, where 
 at the fame time all the bones had their juft proportions and fymmetry; and I choofed fuch a fubjeft, 
 as I looked upon to be more perfect than common, and which had nothing faulty, either in the 
 bones themfelves, or in their compofition. But as fkeletons differ from each other, not only in age, 
 and fex, and ftature, and in the perfedlion of the bones, but likewife in the marks of ftrength, and 
 in the whole habit and appearance, I choofed one that exprefled both manly ftrength and agility, 
 where all the parts diftindtly appeared, and that in a moderate degree, fo as neither to have a youth¬ 
 ful and effeminate flendernefs and foftnefs, nor too much roughnefs and want of polifli; in a word, 
 fuch as had a beautiful and graceful appearance. For I wifhed to take my example of nature, from 
 
 D 
 
 nature 
 
nature in all her perfection. But as even the belt fkeletons differ one from another, and I wanted to 
 exhibit only a particular one, this I pitched upon as an example for the reft. And I confefs I was happy 
 in finding a body, which as it promifed to contain, fo it fupplied me with fuch a ikeleton as I wiftied 
 for; but it was not fo entirely complete, but that fome imperfections occured ; as painters therefore, 
 when they draw after a fine face, and finding fome defeCt, endeavour by fkilfully mending it, to 
 render the figure ftill more beautiful, fo I amended in the figures fuch things as could not be ap¬ 
 proved ; but I did it from the rnoft approved originals, taking care never to depart from the truth. 
 Such is the plan and hiftory of the figures of the Ikeleton. From which I think it will clearly ap¬ 
 pear, that in this way the truth of nature may be correCtly expreffed, but that no Ikeleton could 
 be aftually prefented to view, as thefe figures reprefent, at leaft it would be no eafy matter. For who 
 could undertake, after perfectly cleaning the bones, and confequently removing the ligaments, that 
 not only connected, but in part covered them, preferving at the fame time the cartilaginous crufts, I 
 fay who could undertake after this, to exhibit them, neatly joined together in every part, according 
 to the truth of nature. 
 
 CHAPTER IE 
 
 OF THE MUSCLES AND THEIR FIGURES. 
 
 Sect. I. O W thefe figures being drawn, I had more courage to infcribe the mufcles upon 
 
 them, after they were engraved on copper •, and both from my love of the 
 work in which I was engaged, and my defire to improve anatomy (as far as I was able) I refolved to 
 try, if I could accompliih what I had conceived in my mind. Nor did I attempt it altogether 
 unprepared. For as the number of mufcles fpread over the whole body is very great, as they run into 
 each other, and as many difficulties perpetually occur to one that defires to underftand them, 
 not in a carelefs, but in a full and accurate manner, as there are many and great diverfities among them 
 in different bodies, and as few fubjeCts are fit to ffiew us nature in her greateft perfection, and as 
 it was convenient to avoid delays in the drawing; for thefe reafons, it was neceffary to provide 
 before hand, as far as we were able. Wherefore from the time that I began to prepare the firll 
 figures of the Ikeleton, every year, while I was diffeCting the mufcles for my pupils, and likewile on 
 other occafions, I obferved their pofition, connexions, their figures, thicknefs, and their parts, and 
 either to confirm what I had remarked, or to add the variations that different bodies afforded ; and 
 this I continued to do every year. And becaufe things are better known from nature than from 
 deferiptions, and can thereby be prefented to the eyes, I kept fuch as could be preferved, that 
 they might be of ufe on future occafions j but efpecially bones, and other parts in which mufcles 
 are inferted, with their extremities, by which they are faid to arife or be inferted j thefe chofen 
 irom the molt perfeCt bodies, I preferved in a proper liquor, fo that they fuffered no 
 
 injury 
 
injury, and could be examined on every occalion, and &s I now was pofiefied of many fcattered ob- 
 fervations, I arranged them fo as to be fit for ufe. This being done, I compofed from thefe ma¬ 
 terials a hiftory of the mufcles, choofing what I found moll frequently to occur, and what I 
 thought moft confonant to the intention of nature. And tho’ it was my inclination to infert 
 nothing in this hiftory, but what I found in the book of nature, yet I thought it would be ufeful 
 to confult likewife the books of anatomifts, not only the moft reputable ones, but alfo fuch 
 others as I could procure, that I might know, if I had omitted any thing worthy of memory ob- 
 ferved by them; nor did I defift to add to this body of myology, tho’ publifhed, what further 
 difledtions afforded. 
 
 Thus prepared, in the year mdccxxxviii, I began to infcribe the mufcles upon the figures of the 
 fkeleton, with more certain knowledge, and greater hopes of fuccefs. For this purpofe I ufed the 
 outline figures of the fkeleton, the fhaded ones being lefs proper, by obfcuring what was drawn 
 upon them. And here I took care to fhun an error, which I had obferved in making the tables of 
 the fkeleton. When engravers transfer a drawing from paper upon the copper-plate, they firft rub 
 over the back fide of the paper with cerufs, next they fkilfully lay that fide upon the plate, fitting 
 it fo as the pofition of the figure requires, and then fix it there •, afterwards with a needle [lightly, but 
 with a fit degree of preffure, tracing the lines of the figure, they find when the paper is removed, 
 that thefe lines are marked upon the plate by means of the cerufs. The figure being engraved, 
 and printed off, what is on the right hand in the plate, is found on the left in the paper printed from 
 it, and viceverfa. If therefore the feries of the mufcles is inferibed on thefe printed papers, which 
 afterwards by the engraver are applied to the copper-plate, as I have juft now deferibed, in order 
 for engraving, in that cafe the right and left of the feries of the mufcles, would not anfwer to that 
 of the fkeleton. This inconvenience might eafily have been fhunned, if from an impreffion taken 
 upon paper, which I fhall call the architype, or firft impreffion, a fecond was immediately taken 
 upon another paper, which would produce a contrary impreffion, as to right and left, to the firft, 
 and therefore this might be ufed in order to incribe the mufcles (I fhall call it the antitype or re- 
 verfe), and then to be placed upon the copper, and the figure traced and engraved from it upon 
 the plate •, hence the impreffions from the plate will be contrary to the antitype or reverfe, and 
 confequently agree with the architype, which was the thing required. But here the following 
 difficulty occured j in order to have good impreffions, it is neceffary that the paper be firft 
 foftened by maceration ; and in this condition the two papers, the architype and the reverfe, being ex- 
 pofed to the rolling prefs, are extended to a larger fize, and confequently the figures upon them 
 rendered larger, nor by drying are they contradted to their former dimenfions, therefore fuch anti¬ 
 types or reverfes of the fkeleton being ufed for inferibing the mufcles, would have been larger than 
 the figures of the fkeleton. In order to prevent this, I ufed dry paper, in taking the impreffions 
 both of the architypes and reverfes, by which indeed the impreffions were bad, efpecially that of the 
 reverfes, but yet they fufficiently anfwered the purpofe. But before I obferved this defedt of the 
 moiftened reverfes, the mufcles were already inferibed upon fuch reverfe of the fecond lkeleton •, from 
 which it happens, that the outline figures, which reprefent the pofterior order of the mufcles, are 
 fomewhat too large. This I could overlook in thefe, being only intended to explain by their fim- 
 plicity and marks of reference the fhaded or finilhed figures, but I corredted it in the fhaded 
 fio-ures themfelves before they were engraved, for the fhaded figures were all engraved pofterior to 
 the linear ones, (each linear figure being transferred to the plates, upon which their correfponding 
 fnadedones were to be engraved), and I corredted the error in the following manner. . I ordered dry 
 
 paper 
 
paper to be ufed, in catling off the architypes or firft impreffions of the linear figures, that re- 
 prefent the pofterior orders of the mufcular fyftem, but wet paper for the antitypes or reverfes, by 
 which the former were not enlarged by the force of the prefs, and therefore the fize, and likewife the 
 fize of the reverie, when firft taken from it, was the fame as that of the figure upon the copper, 
 from which the architype or firft impreflion was taken. But as the paper of the reverfes was wet, 
 it contradled to a fmaller fize in drying, and confequently the figures printed on it ; and thus by 
 frequent trials, 1 fo ordered the maceration of the paper, that in drying, it was juft fo much di- 
 miniftted, as was required to make the figure of the proper fize ; and I ufed the reverfes, correfted 
 in this manner, for transferring upon the copper the pofterior orders of the mufcular fyftem, in 
 order to engrave the fhaded figures. From this however I perceived, that when the finilhed tables 
 came to be publiihed, tho’they were all of the fame fize upon the copper, yet it could hardly be 
 prevented, but the different copies muft fomewhat vary in their fize, according as the paper on 
 which they are printed, happens to be more lax or firm, or as the paper was more or lefs ma¬ 
 cerated ; for according to thele circumftances, the contraction in drying will be more or lefs. 
 
 Sect. II. Now the mufcles in the drawing were referred to thefe linear reverfes, in the fame manner 
 as they are fituated and fixed to the flceleton in a dead body; and the other members to which muf¬ 
 cles refer, as y/ell as to the fkeleton, fuch as the os hyodi'es, the larynx, the tongue, and othqrs, were 
 themfelves in like manner referred to the fkeleton, and the mufcles to them. I at the fame time 
 confulted the hiftory of the mufcles, and the annotations added to it after publication, and alfo 
 from time to time the preparations I formerly mentioned, yet every thing was taken from real bo¬ 
 dies ; and thefe things which manifeftly and remarkably differed from the more frequent appear¬ 
 ances, were alfo fupplied from other bodies; now tho’ this at firft fucceeded to my w.fh, but with 
 confiderable trouble, yet a new difficulty occurred. I could not poffibly take the figures of the 
 greateft part of the mufcles, much lefs the whole, from one body; yea it was clear that feme years 
 "'"ft be em P lo >' cd > and many bodies ufed, and tho 1 no doubt the mufcles could from any body be 
 referred to the figures of the flceleton, yet as fame bodies are much fuller than others, for I could 
 not expea to find them all nearly alike, it was difficult to contrive how, taking and arranging the 
 mufcles from bodies of different fulnefs, I could reduce the whole to an equality and proportion 
 one to another, for the fkeleton alone was not Efficient for this purpofe; therefore befides this, 
 feme other fixed thing muft be found, for to truft merely to opinion, was neither fafe nor pleafed 
 me ; now this was chiefly wanted for the great thick mufcles, efpecially for thefe fituated upon the 
 trunk and neck, and above all upon the extremities. I therefore took care from the firft body to have 
 an exaft drawing of the exterior circumference of the trunk, neck, and extremities, as it is made 
 by the mufcles, within which they were arranged, and alfo referred to the fkeleton, from whatever 
 kind of body they were taken, yet in drawing thefe mufcles, I ftill ufed bodies as like as poffible to one 
 another. But it being difficult, in drawing the exterior order of mufcles to difeover what pofition 
 they have with regard to the flceleton, becaufe it is almofl totally covered by them; therefore, 
 tho’ the greateft care was taken, we were afterwards obliged to correft the exterior orders, accord¬ 
 ing as the interior ones directed us, when the fkeleton was more expofed to view. To apply the 
 mufcles accurately to the figures of the fkeleton, each mufcle ought to be feparately applied, but 
 in this way it would have been no eafy matter to arrange them properly into a fyftem. In order to 
 give this arangement, we muft begin with the exterior mufcles, and in this way, as has been faid, it 
 was difficult to place the exterior ones aright in regard to the fkeleton, it being totally covered'by 
 them. It was likewife difficult to place thefe mufcles that were almoft totally covered by others; 
 
 both 
 
[ i7 ] 
 
 both difficulties were overcome by beginning with the exterior order, and proceeding gradually to 
 the moll interior, afterwards always correding the exterior as the more inward pointed out. 
 
 In diffefting the mufcles, and expofing them to the painter’s view, care was taken to hurt 
 nothing. In order to this, when it was needful, I ufed bodies that were rather fat, the fat fupporting 
 the mufcles, and I took no more of it away, than was neceffary to lliow what I wanted to expref's, 
 leaving the reft untouched, in order to fuftain. It was neceffary to diffed many mufcles, and to 
 draw them by parts, efpecially thefe which would have been fpoiled, or in great danger of it, had 
 I laid them bare and expofed the whole at once; and on occafion I was obliged to call various methods 
 to my aid ; thus, in order to give the figure of the caracohyo'ideus, which is the 35th of the 
 Xlth table, its exterior part was firft laid bare, and its figure taken, next the interior part of its 
 origin; to exhibit which I took away the fat with the greateft care, without hurting any thing, 
 leaving fo much as neither flood in our way, nor allowed that origin to fink. The concave and 
 convex parts of the diaphragm, as they are expreffed in the IVth and XIVth tables, cannot be 
 feen at one and the fame time in the body; for to fhow the concave part, the abdominal vifcera, 
 which conceal it, mull be removed; and to fliow the convex part, the thorax mull be opened. 
 But when both thefe cavities are open at the fame time, the diaphragm is relaxed, and exhibits a 
 falfe appearance, both above and below; therefore removing the abdominal vifcera, I firft expofed 
 the concave part, and after the figure of it was taken, I replaced the vifcera, to fupport it in its true 
 pofition ; then opening the thorax, I added the convex fide of the figure; and in order to render 
 it complete, I opened the thorax of another body, the abdomen being entire, and its vifcera fup¬ 
 porting the diaphragm. Many contrivances were neceffary to procure a proper view and figures of 
 the mufcles of the anus, and efpecially of the pharynx, the foft part of the palate, and the face ; 
 by which, if I am not miftaken, many things are truly reprefented, of which fome can with 
 difficulty be fully feen in the body, others by no means without thefe contrivances. But it would be 
 too tedious to narrate the methods I ufed, to fhun every falfe reprelentation. 
 
 Adult bodies were made ufe of, and of thefe fuch as feemed moil proper for our purpofe, and 
 the mufcles were exhibited according to their mol frequent appearances, and fuch were chofen, 
 that we had reafon to believe were moft perfedt and preferable. It would have been endlefs to 
 purfue all the varieties, that are obferved in them, as in the outlines of the body. And even palling 
 thefe {lighter ones, had I been difpofed to purfue the more finking and remarkable varieties, I 
 Ihould have found it a very tedious affair; nor was it proper, in this univerfal map or plan of the 
 mufcles to infert many varieties, even of thefe that were frequent and remarkable. Yet fome are 
 inferted even fome few that rarely occur, as the fmall pfoas, and the mufcle of the bladder, 
 which I have very rarely feen, and altho’ I took the utmoft pains, to diffcct and paint them all, 
 in the moft full, accurate, and fubtile manner, yet I omitted certain things of lefs moment; thus 
 fome that are a little tendinous at botli extremities, are not fo in the figures, and certain fiffures are 
 omitted, thro’ which fmaller arteries, veins, and nerves pafs ; and other things of the like kind, 
 becaufe they feemed of fmall moment, or would have rendered the figures and general courfe 
 of the mufcles obfcure, at leaft would have fpoiled that fimplicity which I aimed at. For it is fure- 
 ly proper to ufe moderation, and a certain judgment in thefe matters, as reafon and the nature of 
 the thiner require. The fituation, the figure, the magnitude, the origin, the infertion, the cohefion, 
 the flelhy and tendinous nature, the general courfe of the fibres, to which their direction may be 
 referred, were the chief things I aimed at in thefe figures. 
 
 E 
 
 Sect. IV. 
 
[ i8 ] 
 
 Sect. n. I comprehended the whole relating to the mufcles in two kinds of tables: the one 
 contains the fenes of the mulcts over the whole body; the other contains the figures of the particular 
 mufcles. The feries contains front, back, and fide views, as in thefe of the ficeleton ; and the 
 muicles are reprefented by orders; firft, the exterior, and afterwards the more interior, one after 
 another, and every fubfequent figure is a continuation of the preceding one. And becaufe the 
 fore and back parts of the body are of greateft extent, and fuller at lead in general, and as by 
 comparing thefe two, we may in a great meafure judge of the fide view, for thefe reafons the 
 enes ot the feveral orders have been exhibited from before and behind. But we have added a fide 
 yen or the exterior mufcles, that thefe might appear more fully, than by a mere comparifon of the 
 fore and back parts; this the pofition of the mufcles there feemed to require. And I thought this 
 firft fide vrew was fufficient, as the general nature of the feries was eafily feen from thence, efpecially 
 it t ic fore and back views be compared, and likewife when needful the figures of particular 
 mufcles. But certain orders of the mufcles, Unrated on the neck, and under the head, are re- 
 prefented in a fide view, as they could not be exprefied in a fore or back view, or indeed in any 
 or ier, lo well as in a lateral one; and lor the fame reafon the orders of mufcles on the foie of the 
 foot are reprefented, and alfo thefe in the eye-focket. Now, tho’ according to the varieties of 
 pofture and fituation of the members, as well as points of view, the fyftem of the mufcles fhows it- 
 felfm an infinity of different appearances ; fo that figures might have been multiplied without end 5 
 yet we have made choice of the mod convenient pofition, and as there is no pofition in which feme 
 part or other does not imperfedtly appear, I have chofen that, which fhows the fyftem in general in the 
 beft manner; and even in this way I could have made many more orders, but as the few which I exhibit 
 fuffice in my opinion, for giving ageneral view of the whole fyftem, and if any thing be wanting it may 
 e eafily lupphed by comparing the orders with the particular mufcles, for that reafon I kept within 
 certain bounds ; and was at pains to limit the number, left a multitude fhould produce confufion. 
 And I found it a more difficult task thus to reprefent the whole fyftem with propriety, in a few 
 orders, than merely to have multiplied the orders. But as none of the mufcles, except a few 
 can wholly appear ,n thefe orders, it became neceflary to add complete figures of the particular 
 mufcles ; and even tho' I had fo multiplied the orders, that every particular mufcle would have been 
 fomewhere ieen totally naked, yet all of them would nor have been fo rightly known, at left not fo 
 eafily and readily, from thefe, as from the particular figures, which are in no refpeft difturbed or 
 obfeured by neighbouring mufcles. Befides, the figures that reprefent the fyftem muft not be too 
 large, that they may be under the view at once, and eafily handled; fo that they could fcarce 
 be larger than they are in thefe tables, and even thefe may perhaps be thought too large However 
 the fize is a proper one, for expreffing moft, even of the fmall mufcles, in fo far as to Ihow their 
 connexion as a fyftem ; and ,t would alfo have been a fufficient fize, to give a fuller knowledge of 
 the larger mufcles by particular figures, and even for many of the fmaller ; but in others not a 
 ew either from their fmallnefs, or the manner of their compofition, it would not have anfwered- 
 befides the nature of the light and fhades could not, in the fyntaffic figures, be fo well exprefied’ 
 by that fimphety of lines, which is beft fitted to exprefs the courfe of the fibres, (and which for 
 
 that reafon we have chofen ,n the figures of the particular mufcles) as they are by the decufiated 
 
 manner there ufed. It was neceffary therefore, to reduce the fyntaaic figures to as few orders as 
 was able, and to fimffi them ,n their own manner, and befides to exhibit the particular mufcles in 
 
 In 
 
 ****»*“• 
 
 
In the figures of the particular mufcles, I have followed the fynta&ic ones, wherever I was able, 
 to the end that the former might ferve to illuftrate the latter, and to ffiow more fully and clearly, 
 what in thefe laft was, by reafon of incumbent or adjacent parts, hid and obfcure, or could not there 
 be fo well exprefled ; befides, in this manner, every thing was more coherent. But when the pofition 
 taken from the fyntadlic figures was not fufficient, I added another more convenient pofition of the fame 
 part. Some mufcles, whofe pofition was improper in the fyntadlic figures, and feme few, which could 
 not at all be feen there, I exhibited in the pofition that feemed molt proper. I could have greatly 
 multiplied the figures, had I inclined to ffiew the fame things in every pofition, as they appeared 
 on the exterior, interior, and lateral parts i but I rather choofed to proceed with a certain judg¬ 
 ment, and to exhibit only fuch views as were fufficient to the intention of this work. The figures 
 of the particular parts are double the fize of the fvntadlic ones, that they might be the fitter to exprefs 
 every thing, but efpecially the fmall parts, in a fuller and more perfpicuous manner-, and tho’ the 
 great mufcles did not demand this, yet for the fake of uniformity, the fame proportion is there re¬ 
 tained. The mufcular parts of the internal ear, as they are called, being themfelves fmall, are ex- 
 prefled in their natural fize •, and the figures are all of intire parts, unlefs that fome detruncated were 
 added, from the neceffity of expreffing certain remarkable things. But as to their compofition, and 
 internal ftrudture, they are omitted, not to fwell too much the fize of this work. 
 
 chapter hi. 
 
 THE EXCELLENCY OF THE TABLES. OF THE LINEAR FIGURES, 
 MARKS OF REFERENCE, PRESS WORK, AND INDEX. 
 
 S£CT. I. jy/J'OREOVER, I not only ftudied the accuracy of the figures, but likewife their 
 perfpicuity, and their beauty. Therefore I employed an artift, that excelled 
 both in drawing and engraving things of this kind, and who (which is very rare) had a remark- 
 able paflion for works of anatomy, and who was confirmed therein, by my never refufino- him the 
 price he demanded. This artift, who for many years paft, devoted his work to few befides myfelf, 
 and for the laft ten years (during which, except fome little intervals, he was wholly employed on 
 thefe tables) almoft to me alone; and he drew and engraved every thing under my conduft, 
 and I laboured, from time to time, that he might as much as pofiible underftand the 
 things he was to exprefs. I was afterwards prefent while he made the drawings, direfting 
 him how every thing was to be drawn, affifting him, and correfting what he had drawn: 
 and he was form’d, condufted, and even governed by me, as if I myfelf, - by his hand, had drawn 
 the figures; and afterwards when he came to engrave, much care was required, that he might com¬ 
 mit no error in imitating the figures on the copper; and we frequently confulted, what was the 
 
 beft 
 
[ 20 ] 
 
 bed manner to engrave each particular. And as even with thefe precautions, errors were 
 inevitable, I reviewed the figures after they were engraved, and he expunged the erroneous parts I 
 pointed out, and reftored them according to the truth. The principal care was to exprefs every 
 thing truly, and in the cleared manner ; but the artid likewife exerted his skill, not only in the 
 outlines, and the light and Ihade, but likewife in the fymmetry and proportion, and in the particular 
 appearances of every part. He aimed at dignity in the outlines, clearnefs and force and grace in the 
 light and fhades, and likewife a proper harmony, fo that every thing fhould be fully feen, and at the 
 fame time the whole figure, tho* confiding of many united parts, fhould feem no where interrupt¬ 
 ed, as far as the nature of the thing could bear. In the fymmetry he dudied a certain congruity and 
 equality, fo that all the parts agreed one to another; in the particular appearance of the parts, 
 that diflindtion and diffimilitude, that bone, flefh, tendon, cartilage, and other parts have to each 
 other ; and in the whole figures he dudied even a certain pleafing appearance. To the fyntadlic 
 figures he added back grounds, not only to fill up the blank of fo large a table, and that the ap¬ 
 pearance might be milder, but alfo, by means of the temperament of the light and fhades of thefe 
 back grounds, that the light and fhades of the figures themfelves might be preferved; fo that they 
 might feem to rife and dand out from the tables, and thereby all'o, tho’ the figures are as it were 
 broken, by confiding of fo many parts, yet they appear folid and entire. And this was a thing that 
 required no fmall art in all the tables, but chiefly in thefe of the skeleton; the effect whereof will be 
 bed perceived by viewing the tables at a proper didance, applying the hand to the eye, in fuch 
 a manner as to prevent didurbance from the furrounding light; nor do I imagine that the back 
 grounds can hinder any one that ufes the hand, and is not a very carelefs obferver, from readily 
 perceiving whatever is reprefented in the tables. 
 
 Sect. II. Not to diminifh thefe excellencies of art, we abdained from inferibing the marks re¬ 
 ferred to in the explication ; becaufe they would not only have appeared fo many blots upon the 
 figures, but would have rendered many things obfeure, and would have even entirely oblite¬ 
 rated not a Jew; as there are many parts fo fmall, that thefe marks would either have entirely 
 filled them, or nearly fo ; and the marks themfelves, when placed in the fhade, would either have 
 been obfeure, or even quite invifible. To all this a remedy was found, by adding the lineary 
 figures, and inferibing the marks upon them ; from which we have alfo this advantage, that the 
 extent and limits of every thing are readily and diftindtly feen, in thefe lineary figures ; whereby 
 all doubt is removed, caufed fometimes by the fmallnefs of parts, the nature of the fhades, or of 
 the engraving itfelf in the fliaded figures. But the marks are inferibed upon the figures themfelves 
 of the particular mufcles, for as they chiefly reprefent fingle mufcles, and in a larger fize, and are 
 engraved by one ftroke, in a fimple manner, thefe marks can eafily be inferibed upon them, and 
 can as eafily be feen and found ; nor could they at any rate fo much hurt thefe figures, where fo 
 many affiffances of art were not required. As to the bones, and other things exhibited with the 
 mufcles, in order to fhow the parts they touch, or are connected with, thefe are only exprefled by 
 outlines; not only becaufe it was fufficient, but alfo as in this way the outline, extent, and limits 
 of the mufcles, more clearly appear. However, the mufcles themfelves are exprefled with no lefs 
 fkill in thefe figures, whether you regard the exadtnefs of the outline, or the light and fhades, 
 or the diflindtion of the tendinous and flefhy parts* There is likewife a different maner of engrav¬ 
 ing, than in the fyntadlic figures, advantageous in exprefling the courfe of the fibres by fimple lines 
 inftead of decuflation. This fimple manner was preferred, in order more clearly to exprefs the 
 courfe of the fibres, which is only exprefled in a general manner, as I did not chufe to reprefent 
 
 the 
 
c 
 
 ] 
 
 the fibres, and the nature of mufcular compofition in a curious manner ; for befides the impoffibility 
 of giving a true reprefentation of it, I thought a general idea of the courfe of the fibres was fuffi- 
 cient, in this fyftem of general figures. 
 
 Sect. III. To engrave the marks, I made ufe of a fkilful engraver, who could execute it with 
 judgment, by infcribing them exadlly upon their true places, and by proportioning the fize and 
 fulnefs of the mark to the nature of the part •, by which the parts were accurately pointed out, the 
 marks themfelves were confpicuous, and did no harm, efpecially by not obfcuring fmall parts. I 
 afterwards took care, that the tables lhould be printed off in the beft manner, a thing (as artifts 
 well know) of great moment, not only for elegant neatnefs, but to exprefs the full force and grace- 
 fulnefs of art. Therefore I made ufe of the fittell paper, whereon much depends, and alfo I employed 
 an intelligent and experienced printer. As to the explications, I thought fhort ones in the manner 
 of an index might fuffice, but thefe belonging to the fingle figures are fomewhat more full: for the 
 reft I refer to my hiftory of the mufcles. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 r TPHE above I thought proper to fay relating to the nature of this work. But that perfon will 
 *“■ underftand it beft, and will feel the difficulty of the undertaking, who lhall heartily engage in 
 a work of the like kind. It may be thought I lhould have treated, in a particular manner, of the 
 advantages I have attained, and can promife myfelf, above the works of thefe excellent and praife- 
 worthy men, who have gone before me in this road, by all thefe efforts, this labour and expence I 
 have bellowed, which I mull confefs have been greater than any one would imagine. But fuch 
 as love and cultivate thefe ftudies, by confidering what I have faid of the nature of the w r ork, will 
 eafily fee, what I would wifh to have done for their advantage. And if any are defirous to know, 
 exclufive of the general plan I have followed, wherein I differ, in real things, in my figures and 
 writing, from thefe of former anatomifts, and what things are either amended, or added; as fuch 
 perfon may be fatisfied by comparifon, I thought I might be filent on that fubjedt; efpecially as the 
 labour I mull employ on it, may be better bellowed, as it mull needs be very great, in fo great 
 variety of things. But if any lhould be of opinion, that it is fuperfluous, with fo great efforts, to 
 feek after fuch accuracy and perfedlion, in a thing of no necelfary ufe, let fuch people confi- 
 der, befides the necelfary utility, what the greatnefs and dignity of the thing itfelf requires * and 
 then, I dare fay, their wonder will be lefs, that I efteem thefe tables the more worthy of praife, 
 not only on account of their fidelity and truth, but alfo in proportion as they are more excellent and 
 perfedt. 
 
 Leidew, MDCCXLVII. 
 
 
 THE 
 
 
 
it-JL'at- 
 
THE 
 
 EXPLICATION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 FIRST ANATOMICAL TABLE 
 
 THE HUMAN SKELETON. 
 
 This firft table contains chiefly a front view of the human 
 Ikeleton. Some ligaments and cartilages are added, without 
 which the lyftem of the bones would be interrupted. 
 
 IN THE HEAD AND SPINE. 
 
 A The frontal bone. 
 
 B B The fuperciliary holes; the left one is entire, the right is only a notch, and fo partly defe&ivc. 
 
 C D The coronal future, C here it is a true future, D here only fquamous. 
 
 E The left parietal bone. 
 
 F The fquamous future, made by the conjunftion of the parietal bone with the fquamous part of the 
 temporal. 
 
 G The fquamous future formed by the conjunction of the parietal with the great lateral proccfs of the mul¬ 
 tiform, fphenoidal, or wedge-lilce bone. 
 
 H The fquamous future, by the conjunction of the frontal with the fame procefs of the multiform bone. 
 
 I The great lateral procefs of the multiform bone. 
 
 K The future common to that procefs and the fquamous bone. 
 
 L The fquamous part of the temporal bone. 
 
 M The entry into the bonny parts which compofe the organ of hearing. 
 
 N The mammillary procefs of the temporal bone. 
 
 O The Zygomatic procefs of the temporal bone. 
 
 P The future common to the ckeek or jugal bone, with the zygomatic procefs of the temporal bone. 
 
 Q_ Q_ The cheek or jugal bones. 
 
 R R The futures common to the frontal and cheek bones near the tails of the eyebrows. 
 
 S S The futures which appear upon the cheeks by the conjunction of the check or jugal and fuperior 
 maxillary bones. 
 
 T T That part of the cheek bones, which aflifts in compofing the fockets of the eye. 
 
 Between T and W, the future which is formed in the focket of the eye, by the conjurtaion of the cheek 
 bone with the fuperior maxillary. 
 
 Between T and C : T and C, the future common to the cheek and frontal bones within the orbit. 
 
 Between T and Y : T and Y, the futures common to the cheek bones, with the great lateral procefs of the 
 multiform. 
 
 V V The Allures in the bottom of the fockets of the eyes. 
 
 W X The part of the fuperior maxillary bone, which compofes the bottom of the fockct of the eye. 
 
 Between 
 
 m 
 
 bV 
 
 
II 
 
 Between W and X, the future running along the canal, that is ftretched along the bottom of the eye-focket, 
 which future likewife palTes over the margin of that focket, and reaches to the exit of that canal, which 
 exit is on the cheek a little below that margin. 
 
 Between X and d, the future common to the fuperior maxillary bone and os planum (d). 
 
 Between X and e, the future common to the fuperior maxillary bone and os unguis (ef). 
 
 Y Y The parts of the great lateral procefles of the multiform bone which help to compofe the fockets of 
 the eyes. 
 
 Between Y and c: Y and <r, the futures common to the great lateral procefles of the multiform and frontal 
 bone in the eye-fockets. 
 
 Z The hole by which the third, fourth, fixth, and firft branch of the fifth pair of nerves, &c. enter the 
 eye-focket from the cavity of the flcull. 
 a The fmall procefs of the multiform bone. 
 
 b The hole by which the optic nerve, with a branch of the internal carotid artery, enters the eye-focket front 
 the cavity of the fkull. 
 
 Between a and c, the future common to the fmall procefs of the multiform and frontal bones, within the 
 cye-focket. 
 
 Between a and d, the future common to the fmall procefs of the muitiform bone and os planum, 
 within the eye-focket. 
 
 c c The parts of the frontal bone that help to compofe the fockets of the eyes. 
 
 Between c andrf, the future common to the frontal and plain bone. 
 
 Between c and ef the future common to the frontal and nail bone. 
 d The plain bone. 
 
 Between d and c, the future common to the plain and nail bone. 
 e f The nail bone, f the groove leading to the nafal canal. 
 
 Between f and g , the future common to the nail bone and nafal procefs of the fuperior maxillary. 
 g g The nafal procefles of the fuperior maxillary bones. 
 
 Between g and k: g and k , the futures common to the nafal procefles of the fuperior maxillary and nafal 
 bones. 
 
 b The future common to the nafa! procefs of the fuperior maxillary and frontal bones. 
 i i The futures common to the nafal bones and the frontal. 
 b k The nafal bones. 
 
 Between k and k , the future common to the nafal bones. 
 
 / The interior part of the nafal procefs of the fuperior maxillary bone, belonging to the nofe. 
 
 771 in The inferior fpongious bones. 
 
 Between / and m of the right fide, the future formed by the conjun&ion of the inferior fpongious bone with the 
 fuperior maxillary. 
 
 n o The plate of the cribriform or fieve-like bone, which helps to compofe the partition of the nofe ; e its ex¬ 
 tremity, to which is continued the cartilaginous part of that partition. 
 p The vomer or plow-lhare bone. 
 
 Between n and/>, a kind of future made by the connexion of the vomer with the lamina of the fieve-bone. 
 
 q The part of the fuperior maxillary bone that belongs to the inferior part of the nofe. 
 
 r The future common to the fuperior maxillary bones. 
 
 s s The fuperior maxillary bones where they form the cheeks. 
 
 t t The holes or exit of the canals that run along the inferior part of the eye-fockets. 
 
 u The aliform procefs of the multiform bone. 
 
 xu x y z The lower jaw, x the hole or exit of the nerve and veflels from the canal in the lower jaw; y the 
 coronoid or lharp procefs ; z the neck above which is the little head articulated with the temporal bone, 
 cc The cartilaginous lamella in the joint of the lower jaw with the temporal bone. 
 
 (3 j' J c £ Q ' ■ (3 y 2 £ £ 7i 0 i, The left te^th in each jaw, (3 (3 the firft incifors, y y the fecond incifors. 5 S 
 the canini or dog teeth, f £ the firft molares or grinders, £ £ the fecond, n n the third, 0 0 the fourth, i i the 
 fifth. The right teeth anfwering to thefe are eafily underftood. 
 
 I N 
 
 
 V 
 
 I: 
 
 
 ■-^8 
 
 —U, 
 
 
C 25 ] 
 
 IN THE SPINE. 
 
 sc The body of the atlas or firft vertebra, where it refts upon the epiftropheus and fupports the head. 
 
 A The body of the epiftropheus or fecond vertebra, where it fupports the atlas. 
 
 f * The inferior oblique procefs of the fifth vertebra of the neck. 
 
 *Jc7T The fourth vertebra of the neck, v the fuperior oblique procefs, £ the inferior oblique procefs, 
 o the tranfverfe procefs, 7r the body. 
 
 p The hole between the third and fourth. 
 
 <r <r, &c. The ligaments between the bodies of the vertebrae that tie them one to another. 
 
 t u u (p (p X, The third vef tebra of the neck, t the body, u u the tranfverfe proceffes, Q Q the fuperior oblique 
 proceffes, % the inferior oblique. 
 
 ^ xjy u u T The fecond vertebra of the neck, ^ ^ the fuperior oblique proceffes, u w the tranfverfe pro¬ 
 ceffes, T the body. 
 
 AA 00 AAH The firft vertebra of the neck, A A the fuperior oblique proceffes, 0 © the tranfverfe, 
 A A the inferior oblique, £ the body. 
 
 II n 2 <I> $ ¥ The twelfth vertebra of the back, II ri the fuperior oblique proceffes, 2 the tranfverfe, $ $ 
 the inferior oblique, ¥ the body. 
 
 IN 
 
 THE SPINE, THORAX, CLAVICLES, SCAPULA, SHOULDERS. 
 
 Ha abb The eleventh vertebra of the back, H the body, a a the fuperior oblique proceffes, b b the tranfverfe. 
 
 c The tranfverfe procefs of the fixth of the back. 
 
 J dee The third vertebra of the back, d d the body, e e the tranfverfe proceffes. 
 
 f g g The fecond vertebra of the back,/the body, g g the tranfverfe proceffes. 
 
 h The body of the firft vertebra of the back. 
 
 i k k The fifth vertebra of the loins, i the body, k k the tranfverfe proceffes. 
 
 / mm fi The fourth of the loins, l the body, m m the tranfverfe proceffes, n the fuperior oblique. 
 
 0 p p The third of the loins, 0 the body, p p the tranfverfe proceffes. 
 
 qqrrs The fecond of the loins, q q the fuperior oblique procefles, r t the tranfverfe, s the body. 
 
 ttuuvvw The firft of the loins, / / the fuperior oblique proceffes, u u the tranfverfe, v v the inferior ob¬ 
 lique, zv the body. 
 
 x xyy z z z z z z : A A A A The os facrum, * * the fuperior oblique proceffes of its firft vertebra, yy the 
 fides of the os facrum, z z z ; z z z the three firft holes on the fore fide right and left, A A A A 
 the four fuperior bodies, between which are the bony lines that were formerly ligaments. 
 
 B The fourth little bone of the coccyx. 
 
 C D E F the fternum or breaft bone, C the upper portion, D the middle one, E the inferior, or that con- 
 ne&ed with the fword-like cartilage, fo called, F the fword-like cartilage. 
 
 G H The ligaments by which the bones of the fternum are bound together, G by which the middle with the 
 inferior bone, H by which the middle with the fuperior. 
 
 IKLM: IKLM The firft pair of ribs, K the little head by which it is articulated with the tranf¬ 
 verfe procefs of the twelfth vertebra of the back, L the beginning by which it is articulated with the body 
 
 of the fame vertebra, M the cartilaginous extremity by which it is continued with the fternum. 
 
 NNOP: NNOP The fecond pair of ribs, O the beginning by which it is joined with the bodies of the 
 nth and 12th vertebrje of the back, P the griftly extremity. 
 
 Q_(LQ_ R : Q-Q-Q- R ^ ie third pair of ribs, R the griftly extremity. 
 
 SSST: SSST The fourth pair of ribs, T the griftly extremity. 
 
 VVVVWX: VVVVW The fifth pair of ribs, W the griftly extremity, X here it becomes 
 
 broad and is joined to the cartilage of the feventh rib to which it reaches. 
 
 YYYYZT: YYYYZT The fixth pair of ribs, Z the griftly extremity, T becoming broad at this 
 part and connefted to the cartilage of the feventh rib to which it reaches. 
 
 G 
 
A A A 0 A : A A A 0 A The feventh pair of ribs, 0 the griftly extremity, A here it becomes broad and is- 
 joined to the cartilage of the eighth rib. 
 
 E H H H II £ : ~ ~ ~ Yl The eighth pair of ribs, IT the griftly extremity, 2 at this part becoming 
 broad in fome fubje£ts, and reaching to the cartilage of the feventh rib and united to it. 
 
 <I> $ <1> $ <1> ¥ : <I> $ 3> ¥ The ninth pair of ribs, ¥ the griftly extremity. 
 
 X2 X2 X2 X2 X2 X2 a : X2 X2 X2 X2 X2 a The tenth pair of ribs, « the griftly extremity. 
 
 (3 (3 (3 (3 y : (3 (3 (3 (3 y The eleventh pair of ribs, y the griftly extremity, 
 
 f: S e The twelfth pair of ribs, t the griftly extremity. 
 
 £ « ‘: £ » ‘ The clavicles or collar-bones, n the head that refts upon the fternum, i the head that reaches 
 to the fuperior. proccfs of the fcapula. 
 
 9 9 The cartilages in the articulations of the clavicles with the fternum. 
 
 x x The cartilages in the articulations of the clavicles with the fuperior proceftes of the fcapulae or fhouldcr 
 blades. 
 
 XXXXXXXXX/xv£»7r: X X X X X X X X X X p v J o?r The fcapulte or fhoulder blades, fx the fpine, 
 » the coracoid or crow bill procefs, £ the acromion or fuperior procefs, o the neck, tt the cartilaginous cruft, 
 by which the neck is augmented. 
 
 IN THE ARMS, FORE ARMS AND HANDS. 
 
 pa-TvCpp^xpcaab: p ir t u<p % u a b The arm bones, p the head covered with a fmooth cartilage, 
 <r the larger unequable fwelling of the fuperior head, r the lefler unequable fwelling of the fame head 
 between thefe fwellings is the finus in which Aides the tendon of the longer head of the biceps mufcle, (p the 
 finus that receives the fuperior head of the radius when the fore arm is fully bent, % the finus that 
 receives the procefs of the ulna when the fore arm is fully bent, tp a rounded head incrufted with a fmooth 
 cartilage by which it is articulated to the ulna, u a tubercle incrufted with a fmooth cartilage by which it 
 is articulated to the radius, a the lefler condyle, b the greater. 
 
 cd ef g \ c df g The two ulns, d its fuperior head, with the unequable furface into which the brachialis in- 
 ternus mufcle is inferted, e f its little head which fupports the radius below, and there the furfacey covered 
 with a fmooth cartilage, g the ftyloid proccfs. 
 
 h i n o p q : h k l m The two radii, i the fuperior head, k the furface of that head covered with a fmooth carti¬ 
 lage, /the little head, at the pofterior part of which is inferted the tendon of the biceps mufcle, this is turned 
 forward in the pronation of the hand, m n op q the inferior heads, n the finus in which flide the tendons of the 
 long abdu&or, and the lefler extenfor of the thumb, o the finus for the tendon of the radialis externus 
 longior, p the finus for the tendon of the radialis externus brevior, q the finus for the tendon of the greater 
 extenfor of the thumb. 
 
 r s t: r s The ofla navicularia, or the navicular bones of the carpus, s the protuberance articulated to 
 the radius, covered with a fmooth cartilage, t the protuberance articulated with the multangular bones, 
 covered likewife with a fmooth cartilage. 
 
 u w: u The ofla lunata or lunated bones, iu the tubercle covered with a fmooth cartilage, whereby it is ar¬ 
 ticulated to the radius. 
 
 x x The ofla triquetra or triangular bones. In the right one a fmooth cartilaginous cruft whereby it is arti¬ 
 culated to the lunated bone and to the ulna. 
 
 y The os fubrotundum, or roundifh bone. 
 
 z A A B : z A The cuneiform or wedge-like bones of the carpus, A A the part covered with a fmooth car¬ 
 tilage, articulated to the trianglar and lunated bones, B the unciform or hook-like procefs. 
 
 C D : C D The ofla capitata, D the head covered with a fmooth cartilage, articulated to the lunated and 
 navicular bones. 
 
 E E The fmaller multangular bones. 
 
 F F The greater multangular bones. 
 
 G H : G H The metacarpal bones of the thumbs, H the inferior head covered with a fmooth cartilage, 
 where it is joined with the firft bone of the thumb, and with the fefamoidal bones. 
 
[ 27 i 
 
 l K The fefatfitndal bones placed at the joint of the thumb with its metacarpal bone. 
 
 L M : L M The firft bones of the thumb, M the inferior head covered with a fmooth cartilage; where it 
 is joined with the fecond and laft bone. 
 
 N The fefamiodal bone placed at the laft joint of the thumb. 
 
 O O The laft bones of the thumbs. 
 
 P Q_R S T : P Q_R S T The metacarpal bones of the hands, P the metacarpal bone of the index or fore 
 finger, Q_ the fame bone of the middle finger, R of the ring finger, S of the little finger, T the infe¬ 
 rior head covered with a fmooth cartilage by which it is articulated with the finger; and the fame in the reft. 
 
 V W Small fcfamoidal bones found in l'ome fubje&s. 
 
 X Y Z T A : XYYZZTA The firft phalanges of the fingers, X that of the index, Y of the mid-figure, 
 Z of the ring-finger, T of the little-finger, A the inferior head covered with a fmooth cartilage articulated 
 with the fecond phalanx, and fo in the other fingers. 
 
 0AHnS:0ASnX The fecond phalanges of the fingers, 0 that of the index, A of the mid-finger, 
 K of the ring-finger, IT of the little-finger, X the inferior head covered with a fmooth cartilage, articulated 
 with the third phalanx, and fo in the other fingers. 
 
 GY fl tz : $ Y fl a The third phalanges of the fingers, $ that of the index, ¥ of the mid-finger, D. of the 
 ring-finger, a. of the little finger. 
 
 IN THE HAUNCHES AND FEET. 
 
 f}yJcfgyQiix\y.: f3y^cc^v9iixX/j. The ofia coxarum or haunch bones, (3 y the os ilium, y its 
 crifta, J 1 the tubercle from which the re£lus cruris mufcle rifes, c t £ the ifehion, £ the finus through which 
 paftes the iliacus internus and great pfoas mufcles, r, the acute procefs of the ifehion, 0 the protuberance 
 of the ifehion, i » x X the os pubis or {hare bone, x the fpine of the os pubis, from which rifes the pe£lineus 
 inufcle, \ the tubercle in which is inferted the inferior and exterior tendon of the double aponeurofis of the 
 external oblique mufcle of the abdomen, p. the great foramen or hole, 
 v The cartilage inferted between the ofla pubis, and connecting them together. 
 
 £ o 7T p <r t u : %°*'p<rT v< P?CX'P l P The thigh bones, £ the head covered with a fmooth cartilage, 
 
 o the neck, i r the great trochanter, p the rough eminence to which the ligament is affixed which 
 fecurcs the joint of the haunch, <r the lefier trochanter, u the exterior condyle, ft the interior, % the finus 
 crufted with a fmooth cartilage belonging to the articulation of the patella, to this part reaches the fmooth 
 cartilaginous cruft which covers the condyles where they are articulated with the tibia;, 
 to u The pateilze or knee pans. 
 
 ab\ ah The interior femilunar cartilages of the joints of the knees, at b b they at laft become ligaments, 
 and are inferted in the tibia;. 
 
 c d\ c d The exterior femilunar cartilages, d d at laft they become ligaments and are inferted in the tibia;. 
 e f g hi kl\ e f g h i k l The tibise, e the upper head, f g the fmooth cartilaginous crufts covering the 
 tops of the tibiae at the joint of the knee, h the tubercle to which is affixed the ligament proceeding from the 
 patella and joining it to the tibia, i the fpine, k l the lower head, / the inner ancle. 
 m n o : mn o The fibulse, m the upper head, » the fpine, o the lower head which is the outer ancle. 
 p q r: p q r The bones called tali, q the fmooth cartilaginous cruft with which its protuberance is covered, 
 where it is articulated with the leg, r a like cruft with which its head is covered. 
 s t ; st The heel bones, t the part that fupports the neck of the talus. 
 u u The navicular bones of the tarfi. 
 v v The great cuneiform bones of the tarfus. 
 vj w The fmall cuneiform bones of the tarfus. 
 x x The middle-fized cuneiform bones of the tarfus. 
 y The cubiform bone. 
 
 zABCDE: zABCDE The bones of the metatarfus, z that of the fourth fmall toe, or little toe, 
 A that of the third, B of the fecond, G of the firft, D of the great toe, E the fmooth cartilaginous cruft 
 
 with 
 
[ 28 ] 
 
 with which the head is covered that is articulated with the firft bone of the great toe, and the like in the 
 other toes. 
 
 F G: F The fefamoidal bones placed at the joints of the great toe, with their metatarfal bones. 
 
 H H The firft bones of the great toes. 
 
 I I The laft bones of the great toes. 
 
 KLMN: KLMN The firft phalanges of the fmall toes, K that of the firft, L of the fecond, M ot the 
 third, N of the fourth. 
 
 OPQ.R: OPQ_R The fecond phalanges of the fmall toes, O that of the firft, P of the fecond, Q_ of 
 the third, R of the fourth. 
 
 STVW; S T V W The third phalanges of the fmall toes, S that of the firft, T of the fecond, V of the 
 third, W of the fourth. 
 
 
 

EXPLICATION 
 
 or THE 
 
 SECOND ANATOMICAL TABLE 
 
 X 
 
 THE HUMAN SKELETON. 
 
 |dl 
 
 A back view of the lame Ikeleton in the fame pofition. Some 
 ligaments and cartilages are added, in order to preferve the 
 connexion. 
 
 IN THE HEAD AND SPINE. 
 
 a a The parietal bones. 
 b b The holes in thefe bones. 
 c The fagittal future. 
 d d The lamdoid future. 
 e e The occipital bone. 
 
 f The fquamous future made by the conjunction of the fquamous bone with the parietal. 
 g g True futures made by the conjunction of the mammary bones with the parietal. 
 b The fquamous bone. 
 
 i i : i i The additamenta or fupplements to the lamdoid future. 
 
 k k The holes, thro’ which the branches of the internal jugular veins penetrate to the lateral finulTes of the 
 dura mater. 
 
 / / The mammillary procefl'es of the temporal bone. 
 tn The frontal bone. 
 
 n The future formed by the conjunction of the jugal or cheek bone with the frontal bone, near the extremity 
 of the eye-brow. 
 
 o The future formed by the conjunction of the zygomatic procefs of the temporal bone with the jugal or 
 cheek bone. 
 
 p p The jugal or cheek bone. 
 q The zygomatic procefs of the temporal bone. 
 r The fuperior maxillary bone. 
 
 Between r and the neareft p, is the future formed by the conjunction of the jugal with the fuperior max¬ 
 illary bone. 
 
 s s The cartilaginous lamella placed in the articulation between the lower jaw and temporal bone. 
 t u u u u The lower-jaw, t the little head, by which it is articulated with the temporal bone. 
 w w The parts of the fuperior maxillary bones, that belong to the palate. In both jaws’ the teeth appear. 
 x x The ftyliform procefl'es of the temporal bones. 
 
 jiyzABCDDE The atlas ; y y its tranfverfe procefl'es, z the hole of the tranfverfe procefs, A the arch 
 which is fometimes found : this with the finus by which the vertebral artery pafles behind the body of the 
 
 H atlas, 
 
 n 
 
 f! 
 
 d 
 
 I 
 
atlas, forms the hole B, by which that artery paflcs into the vertebral canal, as it does at other times by the 
 finus in the left fide C ; C the finus in the back part of the body of the atlas, where that body fupports the 
 head, thro’ which finus the artery pafles in its way to the vertebral canal; D D the inferior parts of the body, 
 where it refts upon the epiftropheus ; E the rough eminence inftead of a fpinal procefs, and from which arife 
 the re&i poftici minores mufcles of the head. 
 
 FGHHIIKKL The epiftropheus, F its axis, G the interior part of the body, H H the two upper parts 
 of the body that fupport the atlas, I I the tranfverfe procefles, K K the inferior oblique procefles, L the 
 fpinal procefs. 
 
 M N Two vertebra: of the neck, M the fifth, N the fourth. 
 
 O P P Q_ Q_R R The third vertebra of the neck, O the fpine, P P the fuperior oblique procefles, Q_ Q_the 
 inferior oblique procefles, R R the tranfverfe procefles. From this the parts of the reft of the neck may be 
 known* 
 
 ST Two vertebra: of the neck, S the fecond, T the firft. 
 
 V W X Y Vertebra: of the back, V the twelfth, W the eleventh, X the tenth, Y the ninth. 
 ZZ.«|3|3y The eighth vertebra of the back, Z Z the fuperior oblique procelTes, a * the tranfverfe procelTes, 
 (5 (3 the inferior oblique procefles, y the fpinal. From this the parts of the reft of the back may be known. 
 
 S ‘ ? « ® 1 Vertebra: of the back, 3 the feventh, t the fixth, £ the fifth. . the fourth, ( the third, , the fecond. 
 x A \ p. u. p The firft vertebra of the back, whofe tranfverfe procefles A A are, as it were, reflected behind the 
 articulation of the fuperior oblique procefles of this vertebra, with the inferior oblique of the fecond ; p p p 
 the body. 
 
 v The fifth vertebra of the loins. 
 
 £ 0 0 7T 7T p P <r <r <r The fourth vertebra of the loins, £ the fpine, o o the fuperior oblique procefles, it tt the 
 tranfverfe procefles, p p the inferior oblique, <r <r u the body. From this it will be eafy to know the parts of 
 the other lumbar vertebra:. 
 
 t atp Vertebrae of the loins, r the third, v the fecond, (p the firft. 
 
 PC, &c. The ligaments between the bodies of the vertebrae which join them to each other. 
 
 A A 0 a The os facrum, ip the fuperior oblique procefles, u w, &c, the 
 pofterior holes, r T T the fpines, A A the inferior oblique procefles which are joined to the fuperior oblique 
 of the firft little bone of the coccyx, 0 the body of the fourth vertebra, of which the os facrum Is Coinpofed. 
 Between 0 and A, is the bony part, interveening between, and continued with the bodies of the fourth and 
 and fifth, formerly a ligament, A the body of the fifth vertebra of the os facrum. 
 
 Between A and E, the ligament interveening between the os facrum and coccyx, and binding them togethcH 
 E II 2 The firft bone of the coccyx ; E the body, II the tranfverfe procefs : the like too on the other fide', 
 2 the fuperior oblique : the like alfo on the other fide. 
 
 Between E apd $, the ligament, by which the firft and fecond bones of the coccyx are bound together. 
 
 $ Y fl The little bones of the coccyx, $ the fecond, ¥ the third, XI the fourth. 
 
 IN THE THORAX, CLAVICLES, SCAPULA), ARMS, HANDS. 
 
 Cl a yf The fternum or breaft bone. 
 
 ccdd: ccdd The firft pair of ribs, d d the cartilaginous part. 
 t e ef\ e e ef The fecond pair of ribs, / the cartilaginous part. 
 g g b : g g g h The third pair of ribs, h the cartilaginous part. 
 i i k : i i k The fourth pair of ribs, k the cartilaginous part. 
 llm: llm The fifth pair of ribs, m the cartilaginous part. 
 
 9 nnnn o o : nnnnn o The fixth ribs, o the cartilaginous part. 
 pp p p p q q '■ p p p P q q feventh ribs, q the cartilaginous part. 
 
 r r r s : r r r r s The eighth ribs, s the cartilaginous part. 
 ttt u: 1 1 u The ninth ribs, u the cartilaginous part. 
 wx X ; w x* X The tenth ribs, ,v the cartilaginous part. 
 
y 2 : y z The eleventh ribs, z the cartilaginous part. 
 
 A B : A B The twelfth ribs, B the cartilaginous part. 
 
 C C C C : C C C The clavicles. 
 
 D D The cartilaginous lamella;, interveening between the articulations of the clavicles, with the fuperior 
 procefles of the fcapulae. 
 
 EEFGFII: EEFGPII The fcapulae, F the fpine, G the fuperior procefs, H the neck, I the car¬ 
 tilage that incrufts the fin us of the neck. 
 
 KLMNOP: ICLMNOP The arm bones, K the head covered with a fmooth cartilage, where it is 
 articulated with the finus of the fcapula, L the larger unequable tubercle of the fuperior head, M the finus, 
 along which are conveyed an artery, vein, and nerve, N the finus which receives the olecranon when the fore 
 arm is extended, O the lefter condyle, P tha greater. 
 
 Q_R S 1 : Q_R S T The ulna:, R the olecranon, S the little head by which it fupports the radius below, 
 T the ftylo'id procefs. 
 
 V V W X: v W X Y Z a, (3 The radii. W X the fuperior little head, X the circumference of this little 
 head covered with a fmooth cartilage, by which it is moved on the finus of the ulna, Y the finus that con¬ 
 tains the tendons of the obdueftor fongus and extenfor minor mufcles of the thumb, Z the finus that con¬ 
 tains the tendons of the radiales externi, a. the finus for the tendon of the extenfor major of the thumb, (3 the 
 finus for the tendons of the common extenfor of the fingers, of the proper extenfor of the little finger, and 
 of the indicator mucle. 
 
 y 5 s, y The navicular bones of the carpus, S the little head covered with a fmooth cartilage, by which 
 it is articulated to the radius, c the little head covered with a fmooth cartilage, by which it is articulated with 
 the multangular bones. 
 
 £ C The lunated bones j that of the right hand, where it is articulated with the radius, covered with a fmooth 
 cartilage. 
 
 v 6, 7i The triangular bones, 0 the furface covered with a fmooth cartilage, where it is articulated with 
 the cuneiform. 
 
 » i The roundifti bones. 
 
 A : x A The cuneiform bones of the carpus, A the furface covered with a fmooth cartilage, by which it is 
 articulated with the triangular. 
 
 t* p The ofla capitata, j, the head covered with a fmooth cartilage, by which it is articulated to the navicu¬ 
 lar and lunated bones. 
 
 £ £ The lefter multangular bones; 
 o o The greater multangular bones. 
 
 7 r p, 7 r The metacarpal bones of the thumbs, p the inferior head covered with a fmooth cartilage, where it 
 is articulated with the firft bone of the thumb, and with the felamoi'dal bones : the fame in the left thumb. 
 
 «r it The fefamoid bones placed at the articulation of the thumb with its metacarpus. 
 
 tu:tu The firft bones of the thumbs, u the fmooth cartilaginous cruft, which covers that part of the 
 inferior head that is articulated to the laft bone of the thumb. ■, 
 
 (p The laft bones of the thumb. 
 
 jj^rA The metacarpal bones, x of the index, xp of the middle finger, u of the ring finger, 
 
 T A of the little finger, A the cartilaginous cruft covering the inferior head, whereby it is articulated with 
 the firft phalanx : the fame in the reft. 
 
 0 A a II 2 : ® A a II The firft phalanges of the fingers, 0 of the little finger, A of the ring, E of the 
 
 middle, II 2 of the index, 2 the cartilaginous cruft covering the inferior head, by which it is articulated 
 with the fecond phalanx : the fame in the others. 
 
 $ ¥ n a b : <1 ' £1 a The fecond phalanges of the fingers, $ of the index, ¥ of the middle finger, £1 of 
 the ring, a b of the little finger, b the part of the inferior head covered with a fmooth cartilage to articulate 
 with the third phalanx : the like in the reft. 
 c d ef: c d ef The third phalanges of the fingers. 
 
HAUNCHES AND INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. 
 
 g h i k 1 tnm: ghtiklm The ofla coxarum or haunch bones, g b the os ilium, h the crifta, /' the ifchiorij 
 
 k the fharp procefs of the ifchion, / the tuberofity of the ifchion, m the os pubis or {hare bone. 
 
 ntpqrstuwx: epqrstuwx The thigh bones, n the head feated in the acetabulum and covered with 
 a fmooth cartilage, o the neck, p the greater trochanter, q the lefler, r the linea afpera or rough eminence 
 ftretched along the back part of the thigh bone, s t the outer condyle, of which the part /, belonging to the 
 joint of the knee, is covered with a fmooth cartilage, u w the inner condyle, w where it belongs to the joint 
 of the knee covered with a fmooth cartilage, x the finus between the condyles. 
 
 y y The exterior femilunar cartilages, which are inferred in the joints of the knees, and becoming ligaments 
 
 z z are at laft inferted in the interior condyles. 
 
 A A The interior femilunar cartilages inferted in the joints of the knees, B H their extremities becoming 
 ligaments are fixed in the tibia:. 
 
 CDEFG: CDEFG The tibiae, D E the parts of the fuperior head belonging to the joint of the knee 
 covered with a fmooth cartilage, F the internal ancle, G the finus thro’ which pafTes the tendon of the 
 tibialis pofticus, and long flexor of the toes. 
 
 H I K L : H I K L The fibula?, I the upper head, by which it is joined to the tibia, K the external ancle, 
 L the finus thro’ which pafs the tendons of the two peronei, the long and (hort, 
 
 MNOP: MNOP The tali. N O the fmooth cartilage, with which its tuberofity being covered is arti- 
 culated with the tibia N, and with the fibula O ; P the head. 
 
 Q_R : Q_R The heel bones, R the eminence, about which is flretched the tendon of the peroneus longus 
 
 S S The navicular bones of the tarfus. 
 
 T T The lefler cuneiform bones of the tarfus. 
 
 V V The middle cuneiform bones of the tarfus. 
 
 W W The cubiform bones. . , , , r? , f 
 
 XYZ.iXXYZ. The metatarfal bones, X that of the firft of the finall toes, Y of the fecond, Z 
 
 the third, a of the fourth. , r 
 
 , , r n Rni fin- fourth, y Ot me third, Jof the fecond, « or 
 P y $ £ ; (3 y i The firft phalanges of the fmall toes. (3 of the rourtn, y ui 
 
 the firft. 
 
 C n: C The fecond phalanges of the fmall toes, £ of the fourth, r, o t e t if . 
 
 9 t x . 9 The third phalanges of the fmall toes, 0 of the fourth, . of the third, x of the fecon . 
 
 A The firft bone of the great toe. 
 p The metatarfal bone of the great toe. 
 
 v The greater cuneiform bone of the tarfus. . , 
 
 e . The fefamoid bones placed at the articulation of the great toe with its metatarfus, S the internal one, 
 
 the externa). 
 

 THE 
 
 EXPLICATION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 THIRD ANATOMICAL TABLE 
 
 O F 
 
 THE HUMAN SKELETON. 
 
 This likewile reprefents the lame Ikeleton in a fide view, but 
 in a elide rent polition. To this are alfo added fome liga¬ 
 ments and cartilages necellary to prelerve the connexion. 
 
 IN THE HEAD AND SPINE. 
 
 A A The parietal bones. 
 
 B The fagittal future. 
 
 C C The holes in the parietal bones, 
 
 D D The lamdoid future. 
 
 E The occipital bone. 
 
 F G : G The mammillary procefles of the temporal bones, F the eminence from wtii ch the biventer mufcle 
 of the lower jaw rifes. 
 
 H The holes, one in the mammillary bone near the appendage of the lambdoid future, the other in that ap¬ 
 pendage itfelf; thro’ which hole a vein pafles to the lateral finus of the dura mater. 
 
 I The appendage of t'nc lamdoi'd future. 
 
 K A true future made by the conjunction of 1 the mammillary bone with the parietal. 
 
 L The mammillary bone. 
 
 M The bony entrance to the ear. 
 
 N The zygomatic procefs of the temporal bone. 
 
 O The fquamous bone. 
 
 P The fquamous future ; made by the conjunction of the fquamous bone with the parietal. 
 
 Q_R S The coronal future, Qtin this part it is a true future, R S here it is a fquamous one, where the 
 frontal bone rides at R upon the parietal, and at S upon the multiform bone. 
 
 T The frontal bone. 
 
 V The fquamous future, made by the conjunction of the multiform bone and the parietal. 
 
 W The future, formed by the conjunction of the great lateral procefs of the multiform and the fquamous bone. 
 X The great lateral procefs of the multiform. 
 
 Y The future, common to the frontal and jugal or cheek bone, near the extremity of the eye-brow. 
 
 Z That part of the jugal bone that lies in the hollow of the temples. 
 
 Below Z is the future common to the jugal and fuperior maxillary bone in the hollow of the temple. 
 
 Between Z and X is the future, common to the jugal bone and the great lateral procefs of the multiform. 
 a The fuperior maxillary bone. 
 
 Between a and X the Allure left between the fuperior maxillary bone, the jugal and the multiform. 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 f 
 
[ 54 ] 
 
 b The exterior part of the jugal bone. 
 
 c The future, common to the jugal bone and the zygomatic procefs of the temporal bone. 
 d The fuperior ma.xillary bone. 
 
 efgg The lower jaw, e the coronoid procefs, f the condyle by which it is articulated with the temporal 
 bone. 
 
 Dire&ly above f is the cartilaginous lamella, interpofed between thefe articulated parts of the lower jaw. 
 b i The concave part of the left pterygoid procefs of the multiform bone, i the little hook which fuftains and 
 holds the tendon of the circumflex mufcle of the palate. 
 k l The fuperior maxillary bone, k the part that belongs to the gums, / the part that belongs to the palate. 
 m in m The teeth in both jaws. 
 
 no o p p q The atlas, n the left part of the body where it receives the coronoid procefs of the occipital bone, 
 and fuftains the head by a moveable joint, 00 the two inferior parts of the body by which it refts upon the 
 epiftropheus by moveable joints, p p the tranfverfe proceflcs, q the inequality in place of a fpine, from which 
 arife the re<5ti poftici minores of the head. 
 
 rrstu The epiftropheus, r r two pa rts of the body, by which it fupports the atlas by moveable joints, s 
 the tranfverfe procefs, in which is the hole for the vertebral artery and vein, t the inferior oblique procefs, 
 u the fpine forked at the extremity. 
 
 viv xy z The fifth vertebra of the neck, v the body, w the tranfverfe procefs, the fuperior oblique pro¬ 
 cefs, y the inferior oblique, z the fpine. 
 
 a. a, &c. The ligaments between the bodies of the vertebrae which bind them together. 
 y $ c Vertebra; of the neck, (3 the fourth, y the third, 8 the fecond, £ the firft : their feveral parts may be 
 known by thefe of the fifth vertebra. 
 
 £ „ 0 The twelfth vertebra of the back, £ the body, n the tranfverfe procefs, 0 the fpine. 
 
 1 x A The eleventh vertebra of the back, i the tranfverfe procefs, X the fpine. 
 p The tranfverfe procefs of the tenth vertebra of the back. 
 u v, ts'e. The paflages between the vertebrae for the fpinal nerves, fcfr. 
 
 g 0 n p o- The fpines of the vertebrae of the back, £ of the tenth, oof the ninth, t of the eighth, p of the 
 feventh, <r of the fixth. 
 
 r u The fifth vertebra of the back, r the fpine, uthe body. 
 
 O X'P The fourth vertebra of the back, <p the body, vj> the fpine. 
 
 w T A The third vertebra of the back, u the body, T the inferior oblique procefs, A the fpine. 
 
 0 0 a S The fecond vertebra of the back, 0 0 the body, A the fuperior oblique procefs, 2 the fpine. 
 n E The firft vertebra of the back, n the body, $ the fpine, 
 
 T i 1 ' £1 The fifth vertebra of the loins, T T the body, D. the lpine. 
 
 IN THE SPINE. 
 
 AAiEBCCD The fourth vertebra of the loins, A A the body, SE the fuperior oblique procefs, B the 
 tranfverfe, C C the inferior oblique, D the fpine. 
 
 E F G H I The third vertebra of the loins, E the body, F the tranfverfe procefs, G the fuperior oblique, 
 H the fpine, I the inferior oblique. 
 
 K The fecond vertebra of the loins, its parts are known by the former. 
 
 L M The firft vertebra of the loins : L the fuperior oblique procefs, M the fpine. 
 
 NOP The os facrum, N the unequable lateral part below the os ilium, O the third fpine, P the inferior 
 oblique procefs, articulated with the fuperior oblique of the firft bone of the coccyx. 
 
 Q_R The firft bone of the coccyx, Q_the fuperior oblique procefs, R the body. 
 
 S T The little bones of the coccyx, S the fecond, T the third. 
 
[ 35 ] 
 
 
 IN THE THORAX, SCAPULA, CLAVICLES. 
 
 V W X The firft rib on the left fide, V its beginning where it is articulated to the body of the twelfth 
 vertebra of the back, W the little head articulated with the tranfverfe procefs of the fame vertebra, 
 
 Y Z a a b The fecond rib on the left fide, Y its beginning where it is articulated in the finus common 
 to the bodies of the eleventh and twelfth vertebrae of the back, Z the little head by which it is articulated 
 with the tranfverfe procefs of the eleventh, b its cartilaginous extremity. 
 
 c The fecond rib on the right fide. 
 
 d d c The third rib on the left fide, e its cartilaginous extremity. 
 f f The third rib on the right fide. 
 
 g b The fourth rib on the left fide, h its cartilaginous extremity. 
 i i k The fourth rib on the right fide, k its cartilaginous extremity; 
 
 / 77i The fifth rib on the left fide, m its cartilaginous extremity. 
 
 7i » o o The fifth rib on the right fide, o o its cartilaginous extremity. 
 
 p p q The fixth rib on the left fide, q its cartilaginous extremity. 
 
 r r s s The fixth rib on the right fide, s s its cartilaginous extremity. 
 
 t t u The feventh i ib on the left fide, u its cartilaginous extremity. 
 
 v v w w The feventh rib on the right fide, w w its cartilaginous extremity. 
 
 x y The eighth rib on the left fide, y its cartilaginous extremity. 
 
 z z z, i, i The eighth rib on the right fide, i, i its cartilaginous extremity. 
 
 2 , 3 The ninth rib on the left fide, 3 its cartilaginous extremity. 
 
 4 > 4 ) 4 > 5 ’ 5 The ninth rib on the right fide, 5 , 5 its cartilaginous extremity. 
 
 7 The tenth rib on the left fide, 7 its cartilaginous extremity. 
 
 6 , 6 , 
 
 8 , 8 , 9 The tenth rib on the right fide, 9 its cartilaginous extremity. 
 
 10 , 10 , 11 The eleventh rib on the left fide, 11 its cartilaginous extremity. 
 
 12 , 12 , l 3 The eleventh rib on the right fide, 13 its cartilaginous extremity. 
 
 J 4> r 5> *6 The twelfth rib on the left fide, 14 its beginning whereby it is articulated with the body of 
 
 the firft vertebra of the back, 16 its cartilaginous extremity. 
 
 17 The inner fide of the right fcapula; 
 
 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 The left fcapula, 19 the neck, 20 the cartilaginous part by which the neck is augmented and 
 the finus’is covered that is articulated with the head of the arm bone, 21 the fpine, xl the fuperior procefs. 
 
 23 The left clavicle. 
 
 24 , 24 , 24 The breaft bone. 
 
 IN THE ARMS AND HANDS. 
 
 A B C D E F : A F G H The arm bones. A in the left, the eminence where the deltoid mufcle ends 
 B C D the fuperior head, B the lelTer rough tubercle of the fuperior head, C the greater rough tubercle of 
 the fame head; between B and C, the finus in which is contained the tendon of the longer head of the 
 b.eeps mufcle, D the fmooth cartilaginous cruft, with which that part of the head is covered, that is arti 
 culated with the fmuofity of the fcapula, E the lefter condyle, F the head covered with a fmo’oth cartilage, 
 to which the radius is articulated! G the circumference covered with a fmooth cartilage, with which The 
 ulna is articulated ; H the greater condyle. 
 
 I K L : IKLM The ulme, I the olecranon, L the little head covered all round with a fmooth cartilage, 
 which is articulated with the radius ; M the ftyloi'd procefs. 
 
 N O P Q_Q_i N O P R S The radii, O the fuperior head, P the tubercle at the pofterior part of which is 
 inferted the tendon of the biceps mufcle : this tubercle is turned forward in the pronation of the hand. 
 Q.Q.: R S the inferior heads, R the finus, thro’ which pafs the tendons of the Idler extenfor and long 
 
 abdu&or 
 
 1 
 
abdu&or of the thumb, S the firms again divided into two, through which pafs the tendons of the radiale3 
 externi mufcles. 
 
 T V : T The navicular bones of the carpi, V the head covered with a fmooth cartilage, by which it is ar¬ 
 ticulated to the multanguli. 
 
 W W The lunated bones. 
 
 X Y The os triquetrum, X the part covered with a fmooth cartilage, where it is articulated with the ulna ; 
 a ligament interveening, which extends from the bottom of the little head of the ulna, to the bottom of the 
 radius, where that bone is joined to the ulna. 
 
 Z Z The roundifh bones. 
 a a The greater multangular bones. 
 b b The lefler multangular bones. 
 c c c The offa capitata. 
 
 dd e f The cuneiform bones of the wrifts, <?the part covered with a fmooth cartilage, where it is joined to 
 the triangular bone, f the unciform procefs. 
 
 g g h The metacarpal bones of the thumb, h the cartilaginous cruft that covers the inferior head where it is 
 articulated with the firft phalanx, and joined to the fefamoidal bones : the fame in the right thumb. 
 
 * ; The fefamoidal bones, placed at the joint of the thumb with its metacarpus. 
 
 k k l The firft bones of the thumb, /the cartilaginous cruft, covering the interior head where it is articu¬ 
 lated to the laft bone of the thumb. 
 m in The laft bones of the thumbs. 
 
 n n $ q r: n o p r The metacarpal bones of the hands ; n of the index, p of the middle finger, q of the ring 
 finger, r of the little one, o the fmooth cartilaginous cruft, covering the inferior part of the metacarpal bone 
 of the index, where it is articulated with the firft phalanx : and the fame of the reft in both hands. 
 s t u v : s t u v w The firft phalanges of the fingers, s of the little finger, t of the ring finger, u of the mid¬ 
 finger, v of index, u> the fmooth cartilaginous cruft, covering the inferior head, where it is articulated to 
 the fecond phalanx : the like in the reft. 
 
 X y z r : X y zTA The fecond phalanges of the fingers ; x the index, y of the middle fingfcr, z of the ring 
 finger, r of the little one, A the inferior head covered with a fmooth cartilage, where it is articulated with 
 the third phalanx : the fame in the reft. 
 
 © A H II : 0 AH The third phalanges of the fingers, 0 of the index, A of the middle finger, S of the ring 
 finger, n of the little one. 
 
 IN THE HAUNCHES AND LOWER EXTREMITIES. 
 
 Z ¥ D. a b The left os coxae or haunch bone, Z ¥ the os ilium, $ te crifta, Y the tubercle, from which 
 
 rifes the redtus cruris mufcle, II a the ifehion, a the acute procefs, b the os pubis. 
 
 c d e f f The right os coxa: or haunch bone, c the crifta of the ilium, d the tubercle, from which rifes the 
 redlus cruris, e the acute procefs of the ifehion, f f the os pubis. 
 gh i k l m The left thigh bone, g the head, covered with a fmooth cartilage, which is articulated with the 
 acetabulum, h the neck, i the greater trochanter, / the exterior condyle, m thus far extends the fmooth 
 cartilaginous cruft that covers the part of the condyle belonging to the joint of the knee. 
 
 n n o p p The right thigh bone, o the inner condyle, p p thus far extends the fmooth cartilaginous cruft that 
 
 covers that part of the condyle which is articulated with the tibia and patella. 
 q r : qr The patella:, r on this part, which belongs to the joint of the knee, covered with a fmooth cartila¬ 
 ginous cruft. 
 
 s s The exterior femilunar cartilages inferted between the joints of the knees. 
 t The interior femilunar cartilage inferted between the fame joint. 
 
 u v v u> x y z: uvwxyz The tibiae, u the fuperior head, v here where it belongs to the joint of the knee 
 covered with a fmooth cartilage, w the eminence where the ligament proceeding from the patella is inferted, 
 binding that bone to the tibia. 
 y z The inferior head, z the internal ancle, 
 
t 57 ] 
 
 ABC: ABC The fibulae, B the fuperior head, C the external ancle. 
 
 D E F G : DEG The tali, E here at the joint with the leg it is covered with a finooth cartilage, F the finus 
 through which pafTes the tendon of the long flexor of the great toe, G the cartilaginous cruft with 
 which the head of the talus is covered. 
 
 H : H I K The heel bones, I the knob by which it begins, at the lower and pofterior part of which are in- 
 ferted the tendo achillis and that of the plantaris. It is bent backwards and upwards when we bend the 
 joint of the leg with the extremity of the foot forwards, K the riling part that fupports the head of the 
 talus. 
 
 L L The cubiform bones. 
 
 M M The navicular bones of the tarfus. 
 
 N The middle-fiz’d cuneiform bone of the tarfus. 
 
 O O The lefler cuneiform bones of the tarfus. 
 
 P P The larger cuneiform bones of the tarfus. 
 
 Q_R S T V : Q_S T V W The metatarfal bones, Q_ of the great toe, R of the firftof the fmall toes, S of 
 the fccond, T of the third, V of the fourth, W the head of the metatarfal bone of the great toe, covered 
 with a fmooth cartilage where it is joined with the firft bone of that toe, and with the fefamoidal bones. 
 The fame in the others. 
 
 X The fefamoidal bones, placed at the joint of the great toe with its metatarfal bone. 
 
 YZ«: YZ.jlyi The firft phalanges of the great and fmall toes, Y of the great toe, Z of the firft of 
 the fmall toes, * of the fecond, |3 of the third, y of the fourth, A the head covered with a fmooth cartilage 
 where it belongs to the articulation with the next bone. The fame in the other toes. 
 
 S e ? i 8 The fecond phalanges of the fmall toes, t of the firft, { of the fecond, n of the fhird, 9 of the fourth. 
 
 i t The laft bones of the great toes. 
 
 x x : x x y v The third phalanges of the fmall toes, x of the firft, X of the fecond, y of the third, v of the 
 fourth, 
 
 K 
 
 
THE 
 
 EXP LICATION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 FIRST ANATOMICAL TABLE 
 
 0 F 
 
 THE HUMAN MUSCLES. 
 
 In this table I exhibit the external mulcles, as they appear 
 over the whole body in this pofition, after the common in- 
 teguments and tendinous vaointe are removed, together 
 with fome ligaments belonging to them; allb certain por¬ 
 tions of the Ikeleton, and of other parts, as the liole, ear, 
 and private parts, which are not covered with mulcles. 
 
 IN THE HEAD, NECK, AND TRUNK. 
 
 aaabbcdefgh: de f g b i k l The epicraniuc miifcle, a a a the middle aponeurofis between the occipital 
 and frontal mufcles, b b , &c. the frontal mufcles, b b the points by which they begin, c their conjunction 
 along the middle of the forehead, d-e d-e here the frontal mufcles end at the orbicular mufcles of the eye¬ 
 lids, e-f e-f here they are bent along the eye-brows to the greater angles of the eyes in the manner of the 
 orbiculares, g g the points which bend into the greater angles of the eyes, h h the portions that accede to 
 the levators of the upper lip and alas of the nofe, i the part that runs along the glabella and nofe, k l its 
 
 conjunction with the comprefTors of the nofe, with which it is interwoven at k, and is continued with them at /. 
 jn m n o o p q r : m o o p The orbicular mufcles of the eye-lids, m m the part that incircles the circumference 
 of the orbit, n the part that comes from the corrugator of the eye-brow, o o the part that covers the eye¬ 
 lids, p the implication of the fibres that come from the eye-lids and meet near the lefler angle, q r the origin 
 from the ligament by which the meeting of the eye-lids is joined to the nofe in the larger angle of the eye. 
 s The ligament by which the meeting of the eye-lids in the greater angle is joined to the nofe, and to that 
 part of it that is formed by the fuperior maxillary bone, 
 t u The compreflor of the nofe, t its flefhy portion, u the aponeurofis by which the right and left are joined 
 along the ridge of the nofe. 
 
 wxy\ y The levators of the upper lip and wings of the nofe, jr the part that proceeds to the ala along 
 the fide of the nofe, y the extremity which becoming thin is loft on the upper lip. 
 z : A z The levators of the upper lip, A its thin’d extremity by which it vanifhes along the upper lip. 
 
 B B The portions proceeding from the orbicular of the eye-lids to the upper lip. 
 
 C C The lefler zygomatic mufcles, which become thin and vanifh along the upper lip. 
 
 D D : D The levators of the angles of the mouth, D D it is in part continued with the depreflor of the an¬ 
 gle, and partly bends itfelf round the angle of the mouth to the under lip, and there makes the exterior 
 part of the orbicularis of the mouth. 
 
 E F G : E The greater zygomatic mufcle9, F their origin from the jugal or cheek bone, G their extremity 
 continued with the depreflor of the angle of the mouth. 
 

 ' 
 
 _ 
 
 
 [ 40 ] 
 
 H H The nafal mufcles of the upper lip. Their origin from the nofe appears and the manner they join them - 
 felves to the orbicular of the mouth. 
 
 1 The part of the orbicular of the mouth that is upon the upper lip, where it goes round the angle of the 
 mouth, it receives a portion from the levator of the angle going round along with it. 
 
 K R- The part of the orbicular of the mouth that is in the red margin of the lips. 
 
 LL Subtile fafcicuh, that proceed partly from the greater zygomatics extending hither; partly from the 
 deprelTors of the angles of the mouth as it were ftraying. They crofs or decuflate the falciculi of the de- 
 preflors of the lower lip that lie under them. 
 
 M: M N The deprelTors of the lower lip, N here they crofs each other. 
 
 O P The levators of the chin, P fafciculi which they mix with the fat of the chin. 
 
 Q_R R S : Q_ The deprelTors of the angles of the mouth, R R their origin from the lower jaw, S their con¬ 
 tinuation with the greater zygomatic. 
 
 T The buccinator. 
 
 V W x Y : V The mafleter mufcles, V the fore and exterior part, W the origin of that part from the 
 jugal bone, X the pofterior part where it is not covered by the other, Y the origin of this part from the 
 jugal bone, and from the zygomatic procefs of the temporal bone. 
 
 Zj The anterior mufcle of the external ear. 
 
 T A The raifer up of the ear, r its tendinous origin where it rifes from the epicranius, A its flelhy pare. 
 
 © The greater mufcle of the helix. 
 
 A The tragicus. 
 
 E The lefler mufcle of the helix, 
 
 II The antitragicu?. 
 
 2 The biventer mufcle of the lower jaw. 
 
 *I» The fternomaftoideus and cleidomaltoi’deus united together. 
 
 ¥ ¥ The cucullares mufcles. 
 
 flccoca.fiPP'yyJti^nQ: il x a u ^ r, 9 The latiflimi colli or platyfmo-myoides mufcles, a. x u its origin, 
 confifting of llender and chiefly of fcattered fafciculi, (3 j3 ft fafciculi, that fometimes accede from the fide of 
 the neck, y y fcattered fafciculi vanilhine on the cheek by which it ends, S a fafciculus ftreached along the 
 fore part of the depreflor of the angle of the mouth towards the angle of that fide, t c the lower jaw, appear¬ 
 ing under this thin mufcle, and in the fame manner £ the fternomaftoi'deus, n the cleidomaftoi'deus, 
 and S the claviculae appear. 
 
 * 1 The fternohyoidei. 
 
 x The afpera arteria, or wind-pipe. 
 
 ^ y : y. The fternoinaftoidei, y the tendinous origin riling from the fternum. 
 
 v m The fternothyroi'dei. 
 
 % go 7r p ( (: £ 0 0 7T p ? r The pe&oral mufcles, 0-0 the origin from the fternum, tt from the cartilage of 
 the fixth rib, p from that of the feventh rib by a (lender thin and for Tome time tendinous origin, j its cohe- 
 fion with the aponeurofis of the external oblique of the abdomen, r a portion acceding from the aponeurofis 
 of the external oblique; here tendinous and thin, in others flelhy and thicker, and in others otherways 
 varying. 
 
 c o" The teres major. 
 
 T»p:ru(f> The Iatiffimi dorfi, v (p the heads riling, e from the tenth rib, <f from the ninth. 
 
 IN THE TRUNK. 
 
 \ aabcccc The ferrati magni, x the head fifing from the fifth rib, from the 
 fixth, u from the feventh, a from the eighth, 4 from the ninth, c c c i the place of the origin of the 
 heads from the ribs. 
 
 d efg hikkkklllmmnoooppppqrrr r f s t u v v vj w x : defghkkkkllimmnoooppppqr 
 r r rfs t uvviuiu x The external oblique mufcles of the abdomen, d the flelhy part, e the head riling 
 from the fixth rib, f from the feventh, g from the eight, b from the ninth, i from the tenth, k the place of 
 
 the 
 
r r r the linea alba in which the 
 are continued into each other, and mix 
 be 
 and 
 
 [ 4i ] 
 
 the origin of the heads from the ribs, 111 m m* * ' ' p p t P 1 ' r r r/i t uv v 10 a x the aponenrofts, m »1 
 here ch: Befliy part of the internal oblique appears under it, n here under the fame, and likewife under the 
 aponeurofts of the obliquus internus appears the Hefhy part of the tranfverfe mufcle, . » » here 1.1 
 like manner appear the real mufcles, p p p p here through the aporyrurofis appear the tendinous lines 
 of the re&i, q here under the fame appears the pyramidalis. 
 aponeurofes of the external oblique mufcles crofs each other, 
 
 with the parts behind them, / the aponeurofts inferted into the breaft bone, s this part may 
 faid to belong either to the aponeurofts of the external oblique, or of the pedtoral mufcle. 
 therefore either to be inferted in the cartilage of the feventh rib, or to arife from it, t the hole in the linea 
 alba through which in the embryo palfed the umbilical arteries and vein, and the urachus, u the bottom ol 
 the tendinous margin extending from the crifta of the ilium, to the pubes, v v w w two parts into which 
 the aponeurofts is divided, thence diftinft all the way to the pubes with the appearance of tendons, whereby 
 the firture is formed through which partes the fpermatic cord with the cremafter mufcle, a: a thinner part 
 reaching from the one of thefe tendons to the other, and connecting them together; under which part runs 
 the fpermatic cord and appears faintly through it, and below it, near the pubes, the cord efcapes through 
 the ring of this oblique mufcle, which is fmall, and is formed between the part x , the tendons v v w w, and 
 the os pubis ; lileeways the libres of the aponeurofis that run in the manner of flefhy ones crofs other fine 
 fcattered tendinous fibres, which appears fufficicntly in the figure : and by thefe running from the one ten¬ 
 don through the other is formed the part x. 
 y y The naked cords of the fpermatic vefiels. 
 z z The cremafters. 
 
 THE THIGHS, LEGS, AND FEET. 
 
 A A The great glutsei. 
 
 B B The graciles. 
 
 C C The great addu£tors of the thighs. 
 
 D D The long addu&ors of the thighs. 
 
 E E The pe£tinaei. 
 
 F F The great pfoae. 
 
 G G The internal iliacs. 
 
 H I: H I The fartorii, I the beginning outwardly tendinous, rifing from the crifta of the ilium. 
 
 K L : K The middle glutaei, L the origin from the crifta of the ilium. 
 
 M N O : M N O The tenfors of the vaginae of the thighs, N their origin from the crifta of the ilium, O the 
 the extremity, from which is cut away the tendinous portion which it joins to the vaginae of the thighs. 
 
 P Q_R S : P Q_R S The vafti externi, Q_the tendinous part, R the tendinous extremity, S inferted in the patella. 
 T V W X : T V W X The re<fti mufcles, V the tendon inferted in the patella, W the place where it is 
 inferted there, X the aponeurofis which runs from the tendon of the redlus along the fore part of the patella, 
 and afterwards joins itfelf to the fore part of the ligament which extends from the patella to the tibia. 
 
 Y Z T : YZT The vafti interni, Z the extremity of its tendon, T inferted in the patella. 
 
 A 0 A: A 0 A The ligaments extending from the patella to the tibiae, 0 the place where it rifes from 
 the patella, A under this whole part it is inferted in the tibia. 
 
 : H n S The bicipites of the legs, II 2 the extreme tendon, n its principal part inferted in the 
 head of the fibula ; 2 the part that extends to the tibia. 
 
 O f fi: O f n The fartorii, Y the tendon, XI inferted in the tibia. 
 cc a The femitendinofi. 
 
 P y S : p y The gemelli, y the tendinous part, $ the tendon. 
 
 £ £ £ „ ; £ £ £ 7) The folei, £ £ their origin from the tibia, >) their tendinous furface. 
 
 The long flexors of the toes, » * their origin from the tibia, x the beginning of the tendon. 
 
 X \ The tendons of the tibiales poftici. 
 ix jix The tendons of the plantares. 
 
 L 
 
 • ft 
 
 V 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 I- 
 
 1 
 
 
 i i 
 
 A 
 
 1 * 
 
 Vv, 
 
 ;) I 
 
 i 
 
 1, 
 
 : it 
 
 X 
 
 x 
 
L 4- J 
 
 v v: v The tendons of achilles. 
 
 £ £ The folei mufcles. 
 
 ■ ' p : * ' ■' The per ° nei l0nEi> T thcir ori S in fr °“ *e head of the fibula, , the tendon rifing from the ex 
 tenor part of the flefh. 6 
 
 c <r The peronei breves. 
 
 1 T " The lon S extenfors of the toes “ niKd with the peronei tertii, a their origin from the tibia. 
 
 9 XX- 9 XX The peronei tertii, j; x the tendon in the leg and foot. 
 
 4- » a b c : 4 „ a b c The long extenfors of the toes, 4 the tendon, » a b e the four tendons into which it is 
 divided running along the foot and fmall toes. 
 
 d ef gh Thefe are only infcribed on the firft of the fmall toes of the right foot, the fmallnefs of the objefts 
 making it impoffible upon the reft ; but they may all be eafily underftood from thefe, to which they are 
 fimilar, i the common tendon of the long and (hurt extenfors of the toes, inferted in the bone of the fe¬ 
 cund phalanx, e the tendon running to the third phalanx proceeding from the (hurt extenfor of the toes ■ 
 there is none fuch belonging to the little toe, /the portion of the common tendon of the long and Ihort ex¬ 
 tenfor running to the third phalanx, g the common extremity of the two portions belonging to the third 
 phalanx inferred in it, h the aponeurofis acceding to the tendon d, and proceeding partly” from the capfu- 
 lar ligament of the joint of the toe with its metatarfus, partly from the interoffeus mufcle of that fide, partly 
 from the lumbricalis mufcle, and partly from the fide of the firft phalanx. 
 
 ' ' ' 1 [ ' '' 1 The ttndons of the P r °P er extenfors of the great toes, k the extremity inferted in the laft bone 
 of the great toe. 
 
 Ill: III Branches of the tendons of the proper extenfors of the great toes found fometimes. 
 m m Aponeurofes, which the tendons of the proper extenfors of the great toes receive from the capfular liga¬ 
 ments of the joints of thefe toes with their metatarfal bones. 
 no o p p p •. no oppp The tibiales antici, o o their origin from the tibia, p p p the tendon. 
 qr St: qr St The ligaments by which the tendons are covered in the confines of the leg and back of the foot, 
 r the fuperior extremity, .f fixed in thp tibia, t the inferior. 
 
 uw.uw The ligaments which bind down the tendons near the internal ancles, w their origin from the 
 ancle. 
 
 * * T he ligaments which bind down the tendons of the tibiales poftici. 
 
 yy. y The tendons of the tibiales poftici, partly inferted in the navicular bones, partly extending to the 
 greater cuneiform bones. 
 
 x x The heads which accede to the long flexors of the toes in the foie of the foot, rifing from the heel bones. 
 
 IN THE EXTREMITY OF THE FEET, THE SHOULDERS, 
 ARMS, &c. 
 
 ABC: ABC The abduaors of the great toes, B the origin from the fide of the heel bone, C the tendon. 
 D D The ihort flexors of the great toes. 
 
 EE The Ihort flexors of the fmall toes. 
 
 F F : F The tendons of the long flexors of the great toes. 
 
 G The tendon of the long flexor of the great toe, where it runs under the firft phalanx of that toe contained 
 in a (heath and bifurcated. 
 
 IK: HI The fhort extenfors of the toes, H the portion belonging to the great toe, I the portion run¬ 
 ning to the fide of the firft of the fmall toes next the great one, found only in fome fubjecis, K the portion 
 belonging to the firft of the fmall toes. 
 
 L L The firft interoflei mufcles of the firft fmall toes. 
 
 M N O P Q_: M N O Q_ The deltoid mufcles, M the firft portion of the firft order whereof they coafift, 
 N the firft of the fecond order, O P the third of the firft, P its origin from the fuperior proccfs of the fca- 
 pula, Q_ the middle portion of the fecond order. 
 
 R S : R S The coracobrachiales, R here united with the Ihort head of the bicep . 
 
 T T The long portions of the tricipites of the arm. 
 
V V The fhort parts of the fame. 
 
 W XYZT: WXYZr The bicipites of the arm, W the long head, X the fhort one, Y the com¬ 
 mon belly, Z the aponeurofis which it gives to the tendinous vaginas of the fore arm, cut off, r its tendon 
 that is inferted in the radius. 
 
 A 0 : A 0 The parts of the tricipites of the arm called brachiales externi, 0 the tendon that rifes from the 
 furface of the brachialis externus, and reaches to the pofterior condyle of the arm bone. 
 
 AAA : AAA The brachiales interni. 
 
 S The fupinator brevis. 
 
 II S: II I The fupinator longus of each arm, S the tendon. 
 
 ‘h The pronator teres of each arm. 
 
 Y XI The radiales interni, £1 the tendon. 
 
 a (3 y £ f £ £ c c e £: a 13 the palmares longi, (3 the tendon, y 5 £ t t c s c e i the aponeurofis firft flightly dif- 
 tinguifhed into four portions, afterwards more fo, and ftrengthned with tranfverfe tendinous fibres, S the 
 portion which it gives to the fhort abdu&or of the thumb, nmnc the extremities by which this aponeu¬ 
 rofis reaches to the roots of the fingers. 
 
 £7)0»xAAA|U. the fublimes, ri 0 the portion belonging to the middle finger, 0 the tendon, i x the 
 
 portion belonging to the third finger, x the tendon, AAA the portion belonging to the index, //, that of the 
 little finger. 
 
 v £ o The ulnaris internus, £ the tendon, o inferted in the roundifh bone of the carpus. 
 
 7 r p : 7T The long flexors of the thumbs, p the tendon. 
 
 <r The tendon of the profundus that goes to the index, 
 r The pronator quadratus. 
 
 u u The ligaments under which run the tendons of the long abductors and the lefler extenfors of the thumbs. 
 (p ip « b b: % u u a b b The long abdudtors of the thumbs, % the fuperior part, the inferior, eo u the 
 tendon of the fuperior part, a the portion it gives to the fhort abdudtor of the thumb, b b the tendon of the 
 inferior part. 
 
 c d: c d The lefler extenfors of the thumbs, d the tendon. 
 e The external armillary ligament. 
 
 / g g g g h The long radialis externus, g g g gh the tendon, h inferted in the metacarpal bone of the index. 
 i The tendon of the other and lefler long radialis externus. 
 k k ll 11 The fhorter radialis externus, 1111 the tendon. 
 
 m n o p q The common extenfor of the fingers, « o the portion belonging to the index, of which o is the 
 tendon, p the tendon belonging to the middle finger, q that belonging to the ring finger. 
 r s The proper extenfor of the little finger, s the tendon. 
 
 IN THE LEFT HAND. 
 
 / the aponeurofis by which the tendon of the index o , and of the middle finger p are united, and in like 
 manner are united the tendons of the middle and ring fingers, and of the ring and little one: but neither 
 upon thefe, nor upon the divifions and conjunctions of the tendons of the extenfor communis and proper 
 of the little finger are letters inferibed on account of their fmallnefs : and befides the whole of them will be 
 better underflood from the firft table of the back parts of the body, 
 a u The tendon of the indicator, 
 t v The firft interofleus mufcle of the index. 
 x The abdudtor of the index. 
 y The tendon of the greater extenfor of the thumb. 
 z The opponent mufcle of the thumb. 
 
 A B The common tendon of the greater and lefler extenfor of the thumb, inferted B in the laft bone of the 
 thumb. 
 
 C The aponeurofis furrounding the capfular ligament of the joint of the thumb with its metacarpal bone, 
 tied to that ligament, and joined to the common tendon of the extenfors of the thumb. 
 
The pofterior tail of the fhort flexor of the thumb. 
 
 The aponeurofis which the pofterior tail of the lhort flexor of the thumb gives to the common tendon of 
 the extenfors of the thumb. 
 
 F G 1 he addudtor of the thumb, G its tendinous extremity, inferted in the firft bone of the thumb. 
 
 H An aponeurofis, which rifing partly from the firft lumbricalis, partly from the abductor of the index, 
 joins itfelf to the common tendon of the extenfors of the index. 
 
 I The tendon of the firft lumbricalis. 
 
 K L The common tendon of the indicator and extenfor communis, running to the index, L its extremity 
 inferted in the fecond bone. 
 
 M The tendon of the firft lumbricalis, augmented by a portion received from the common tendon of the ex¬ 
 tenfors of the index, running to the third bone of the index. 
 
 N The tendon of the pofterior interofleus of the index which being augmented by a portion received from the 
 common tendon of the extenfors of the index, runs to the third bone of the index. 
 
 O The common tendinous extremity, inferted in the third bone of the index, this extremity is compofed of 
 the tendons M and N united into one. 
 
 P P The tendons of the common extenfors of the fingers where they run along the back of the fingers with 
 the aponeurofes which they receive. 
 
 Q_ The common tendon of the extenfors of the little finger, where it runs along the back of that finger. 
 
 R The tendon common to the firft interofleus of the middle finger and the fecond lumbricalis ; which ten¬ 
 don being augmented by a portion received from the tendon of the extenfor communis runs to the third bone. 
 
 S The tendon of the lublimis. 
 
 T The ligament that covers the tendon of the profundus, and alfo the extreme tails of the tendon of the fublimis. 
 
 Y A tendon of the profundus. 
 
 The fame S T V in the remaining three fingers : the letters are not inferibed on account of the fmallnefs of 
 the parts. 
 
 THE RIGHT HAND. 
 
 W W The ligament of the carpus, which together with the finus of the carpus forms a canal, that con¬ 
 tains and binds down the tendons of fublimis, profundus, and long flexnor of the thumb running from the 
 fore arm to the fingers. 
 
 X The opponens of the thumb. 
 
 Y Z r A The fhort abdu&or of the thumb, Z its origin from the ligament of the carpus, T part of its ten¬ 
 dinous extremity inferted in the firft bone of the thumb, A a thin tendinous part that mounts upon the back 
 of the thumb, and unites with the fore part of the tendons of the extenfors of the thumb ; and further is 
 continued, along the exterior part of thefe tendons, to a fimilar aponeurofis of the fhort flexor of the thumb. 
 
 © The common tendon of the extenfors of the thumb. 
 
 A Part of the fhort flexor of the thumb, which may be reckoned another fhort abdu&or of the thumb : its 
 tendinous extremity inferted in the firft bone of the thumb. 
 
 ~ £ Tl The tendon of the long flexor of the thumb, fplitas it were into two, n the extremity that reaches to 
 the laft bone of the thumb. 
 
 v The oblique ligament by which the tendon of the long flexor of the thumb is fixed to the firft bone of the 
 thumb ; at firft one and then fplit into two tails. 
 
 <I> The pofterior tail of the fhort flexor of the thumb. 
 
 Y The addu&or of the thumb. 
 
 X2 The firft lumbricalis. 
 
 a The firft interofleus of the index. 
 
 b The abdu&or of the index inferted by its tendinous extremity in the firft bone of the index. 
 
 c d e The abduftor of the little finger, d its origin from the ligament of the carpus, t from the roundifh bone 
 of the carpus. 
 
 f The adductor of the metacarpal bone of the little finger. 
 
f 45 ] 
 
 gg The palmaris brevis. 
 h The final! flexor of the little finger. 
 i The fourth lumbricalis. 
 k The third. 
 
 / The fecond. 
 
 m The firft interofleus of the middle finger. 
 n The firft of the ring finger. 
 o The firft of the little finger. 
 
 p The common tendon of the fmall flexor and the abdu&or of the little finger. 
 q The common tendon of the fourth lumbricalis and the firft interofleus of the little finger, 
 r The tendon of the pofterior interofleus of the ring finger. 
 
 s The tendon common to the third lumbricalis and the firft interofleus of the ring finger. 
 t The tendon of the pofterior interofleus of the middle finger. 
 
 u The common tendon of the fecond lumbricalis and the firft interofleus of the middle finger. 
 v The tendon of the pofterior interofleus of the index. 
 w The tendon of the firft lumbricalis. 
 
 x The tendon of the fublimis, on rite part of which next the thumb is the tendon of the profundus, whereon 
 no letter is put by reafon of the fmallnefs of the part. 
 y z The tendon of the profundus fplit as it were length-ways, z inferted in the third bone. 
 
 2 , 2 The horns of the tendon of the fublimis. 
 
 3 The ligament that covers the tendon of the fublimis and profundus, where they run along the firft phalanx, 
 fixed to both margins of the firft bone. 
 
 4 , 4 , 4 Three ligaments that retain the tendons of the fublimis and profundus at the joint of the finger with 
 the metacarpus. They are thick, and by their middle thinner parts they are not only continued to one ano¬ 
 ther, but alfo to the next ligament 3 of the fame finger. 
 
 5 The ligament that covers the tendon of the profundus and the extreme tails of the tendon of the fublimis, 
 about the middle of the fecond bone, fixed to both margins of the fecond bone. 
 
 The fame, x y z 2 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 4 , 4 , 5 alfo in the other fingers, which cafily appear tho’ no letters are inferibed. 
 To the parts of the fkeleton, that rife or are confpicuous between the mufcles, I have' put no marks j becaufe 
 they may be eafily known from the firft table of the fkeleton, which figure is intirely the fame, and the foun¬ 
 dation of this, lying as it were or hid under it; for in order to conftrudt this figure the mufcles and other 
 parts were placed upon that fkeleton. 
 
 M 
 
THE 
 
 explication 
 
 OF THE 
 
 SECOND ANATOMICAL TABLE 
 
 THE HUMAN MUSCLES 
 
 TL lie figui e of this table is the back part of what is reprefented 
 in the firft. It like wife exhibits the whole mufcular fyflem, 
 
 after the common integuments and tendinous vagina: are re¬ 
 
 moved: and moreover the ligaments belonging to the muf- 
 cles ; the ears, and part of the fcrotum, and the naked parts 
 of the fkeleton. 
 
 IN THE HEAD, NECK, BACK, HIPS, AND THIGHS. 
 
 ,a b C : a b c d d c Tho cpicnmiun or mufwlc of the fcalp, « i tho oceioitol t , . . 
 
 occ.p.tai mufrle, a its tendinous beginning, 
 h the flelhy part, edd the aponeurofis between the occipital and frontal mufcle, d d here the temporal muf- 
 
 clc a PP ears and rifes behind * the membranous part by which the occipitals and their aponeurofes are united 
 together; arifing above the origin of the cucullares from the os occipitis. 
 f g The raifer of the ear, /its tendinous beginning where it rifes from the epicranius, g its flefhy part. 
 h The frontalis. 
 i The orbicular of the eye-lids. 
 k The anterior of the ear. 
 
 / The letter of the helix. 
 m n o The three retractors of the ear. 
 
 pq The mafleter, p the pofterior part of the interior portion, which is naked from the exterior portion, q the 
 exterior portion. 
 r The greater zygomatic. 
 f The internal pterygoid. 
 s The mylohyoi'deus. 
 t The latiflimus colli. 
 
 UW -. u w X The fternomaftoi'd with tho cleidomafto'id united together, w the tendinous extremity, x inferted 
 in the occipital bone. 
 
 y y The biventers of the neck, inferted in the occipital bone. G 
 
 z z The fplenii of the head. 
 
 A The levator fcapulas. 
 
 BCDEFGHH: BCDEFGHH The cucullares, B the flelhy part, C D E F the tendinous origin, 
 C in this part riling from the occipital bone, D E F in this whole courfe it externally coheres with its fellow, 
 
 below 
 
j 
 
 if 
 
 ; 
 
 [ 48 ] 
 
 below riling from nil the fpines of the back, the two inferior of the neck, and the ligament of the neck be¬ 
 hind, E the large tendinous portion of the beginning at the lower part of the neck and upper part of the back, 
 F another of the fame kind in the lower angle, G the tendinous part of the extremity where it is inferted 
 in the fpine of the fcapula not far from its bafis, H FI the tendinous part of the extremity inferted in the 
 fpinc and l'uperiorprocefs of the fcapula. 
 
 I K : I K The infrafpinati, K the origin from the bafe of the fcapula. 
 
 L : L The greater rhomboidei, inferted in the bafes of the fcapulx. 
 
 M : M The facrolumbales. 
 
 N : N The teres minor right and left. 
 
 O : O The teres major right and left. 
 
 P Q_R RSTV: P Q_R R S T V The latiflimi dorfi, P the flelhy part, Q_ the broad tendon by which it 
 begins, R R its origin from the fpines of the loins and of the os facrum, S its origin from the oblique pro¬ 
 cess, which lie at the fide of the open of the os facrum, T its cohefion with the great glutaeus, V its origin 
 from the crifta of the ilium. 
 
 \y x ; W X The flelhy parts of the external oblique mufcles of the abdomen, X X inferted in the crifts of 
 the ilium. 
 
 Y Z : Y Z at The glutxi medii, Z their origin from the os ilium, a. the tendon. 
 
 {3 j3 The tenfors of the vaginse of the thighs. 
 
 ySS-.ySi The g]uea;i magni, J 1 here it arifes from the crifta ilium and the facrum, and coheres with th« 
 latifiimus dorfi. 
 
 , The levator of the anus. There is alfo a final! part of the right one upon the right fide. 
 
 Between £ and v the tranfverfe of the perinieum. 
 
 n The external fphincter of the anus. 
 
 6 6 The great addu&ors of the thighs. 
 
 in: ix The graciles, x the tendon. 
 
 X X The fartorii. 
 
 The vafti interni. . . 
 
 The femimembranofi, £ the origin of the tendon from the flelhy part, . the tendon. 
 
 
 P I 
 
 V V £ 0 : 
 
 r .. 7r . The femitendinnfi, t tho-tciiilvn. , , , 
 
 f ' m V- e T — offl v The bicipites of the legs, tr the longer head, r T the fhorter head, » V X *= 
 "■ \Zon , '» firft arifing from the furface of the flelhy part of the longer head, then augmented by the acceffion 
 of the fhorter (?, and by its extremity x inferted in the fuperiot head of the fibula. 
 
 The vafti externi, 4 the tendininous furface. 
 
 IN THE LEGS, 
 
 EXTREMITY OF THE FEET, AND SHOULDERS. 
 
 0 I. 
 
 n 
 
 : r c The plautares 
 A The poplitaei. 
 f.-f■ © /, &c The peronei lorrgi. 
 
 _nj £j] . ASSnSS® The gemelli, A 2 3 the exterior head, 2 2 the tendinous furfac , 
 
 ; £ the interior head, t S the tendinous furface, fc the tendon. 
 
 , J: *• n The tendons of achilles, SI SI inferted in the heel bones. 
 a a b'. aab The folei, b the tendinous furface. 
 
 C C The tendons of the plautares. 
 
 .... - *.™ - - *•—«*•—- - "• 
 , “C"- tr. tz. .. -——• ■«- - 
 
 ferted in the fifth metatarfal bone. 
 
 ff 
 
 
 rv *^ p V* 
 
[ 49 ] 
 
 tt 
 
 <11 
 
 I m m m : l m m m The peronei longi, m m m the tendon. 
 
 n n The ligaments that bind down the tendons of the peronei longi and breves at the external ancles. 
 o o The ligaments proper to the peronei breves. 
 
 The ligaments proper to the peronei longi. 
 
 The ligaments by which the tendons in the confines of the leg3 and infteps arc bound down, 
 r r The tendons of the long extenfors of the toes. 
 
 s s The tendons of the peronei tertii, inferted in the metatarfal bones of the little toes. 
 
 II The fhort extenfors of the toes. 
 
 u tv x y z: u tv x y z The abdudtors of the little toes, u here covered with an aponeurofis, vj the origin from the 
 heel, x the aponeurofis by which the part is covered that is inferted in the metatarfal bone of the little toe, 
 y the tendon of the abduiftor, inferted in the firft bone of the little toe, z the aponeurofis acceding to that 
 tendon of the long extenfor of the toes, that belongs to the little toe. 
 a (3: a The fliort flexors of the fmall toes, a the part inferted in the metatarfal bone of the little toe, f3 the 
 part inferted in the firft bone of the little toe by a tendinous extremity. 
 y y The tendon of the long flexor of the great toe, running between the fefamoi'dal bones. 
 
 J The abdu&or of the great toe. 
 
 £ The lhort flexor of the toes. 
 
 firft order whereof that mufcle confifts, n n arifing from the fpine and fuperior procefs of the fcapula, 9 i the 
 pofterior portion of the fecond order, i arifing from the fuperior procefs, x \ the fourth portion of the firft 
 order, X arifing from the turn of the arm of the fuperior procefs, y. v the middle portion of the fecond order, 
 v arifing from the fuperior procclsi 
 
 ^o7rp(TTolpp^: % 0 TTpiTTv(Px l The tricipites of the arms, £ the brevis, othe longus, i r the brachialis 
 externus, p the common tendon of thefe three heads, o- the tendinous part made by the longus, and which 
 is joined to the common tendon, r of the right arm, the tendinous part made by the brachialis externus and 
 joined to the common tendon : the t of the left arm is placed at the rife of the tendinous from the flefhy 
 part, uthe tendinous part arifing from the furface of the brachialis externus, and reaching to the greater con¬ 
 dyle of the us humeri, <p the common tendon inferted in the olecranon, % the moreflendor extremity of the 
 fame tendon, inferted in the fore part of the olecranon, and in the neighbouring part of the fpine of the ulna, 
 vp ij' The brachiales interni. 
 u u The fupinatores longi. 
 
 THE FORE ARMS, AND RIGHT HAND. 
 
 ABCDDDD: ABC The longer radiales externi, B the origin from the lefler condyle of the arm-bone, 
 C their conjun&ion and common origin with the common extenfor of the fingers and the ulnaris externus, 
 D D D D the tendon inferted in the metacarpal bone of the index. 
 
 E E The brachiales externi, arifing from the roots of the lefler condyles. 
 
 F G : F The anconei, G the tendon, arifing from the lefler condyle of the arm. 
 
 H : Hill The fhortcr radiales externi, III the tendon. 
 
 K K The profundi, rifing from the ulnae. " 
 
 L L The palmares longi. 
 
 M : MNOPQ. The fublimes, N the portion going to the middle finger, O the part going to the index, 
 P to the ring finger, Q_ to the little one. 
 
 RST V: RSTV The ulnares interni, S T their origin, S the one rifing from the greater condyle of 
 the arm, and cohering with the common tendinous head of the mufcles rifing from that condyle, T the other 
 rifing from the olecranum, V the tendon inferted in the roundifh bone of the carpus. 
 
 WXYY: WXYZ The ulnares externi, X the origin conjoined with that of the common extenfor of 
 the fingers, Y Z the tendon, Z reaching to the fourth bone of the metacarpus. Between the tendon Z and 
 the tendon”r, on the back of the right hand, is a fmall tendon from this ulnaris externus reaching to the little 
 finger. 
 
 N 
 
[ 
 
 ] 
 
 ' b ‘ ' 7 hC pr0p " CXtenforS of ,he ,ittIe i its origin conjoined with th.t of the common etc- 
 
 tcnfoi of the fingers, r c the tendon running along the back of the hand as it were /lightly fplit. 
 
 d: d '{/* The common extenfors of the fingers, , ff g hUl „ „ the portion: 
 
 reach,ng to the nog finger, //the tendon going to that finger along the bade of the hand havitm incifions 
 £ a ranch of tins tendon which is afterwards fplit into two, one of which b joins itfelf to the tendon I 
 “ finger, hut ,s not always found, the other / is again fplit into two, one of which t likewffe 
 accedes to the tendon e of the little finger, the other ( between i and the lower/) accedes to the trunk /of 
 the tendon of the rmg finger, l a portion going from the tendon/and acceding to the tendon r of the little 
 finger, * a tend,nous portion by which the trunk of the tendon /going to the ring finger is joined with the 
 
 7 b f finS ' r “ ‘ he beSinni " g ° f th= fi " gerSi "• |lfch of the portions i and 
 
 and below thefe of the aponenrofis going off from the tendon/, all united together, . the branch joined 
 the tendon p of the m.ddle finger, not always found, . the tendinous portion by which the trunk of the 
 tendon /going to the rmg finger, is joined with the tendon p of the middle finger near the roots of the fin 
 gets, and this port,™ ,s compofed of the tendon , united with the aponenrofis that comes off from the trunk 
 /of the tendon of the rmg finger near the root of that finger, p p the tendon that goes to the middle finger 
 
 “ ' S : herC “ rU " S al0, ' g the hand ’ * ' " p0rt!OT soins to the index, , r the tendon! r 
 
 the aponenrofis wh.ch nfing from the tendon p of the middle finger, accedes to the tendon , of the index 
 and connects them together near the roots of the fingers. ’ * 
 
 / The tendon of the indicator. 
 
 “ ThC Kndon aftcrwa,Js '“nning a I°ng the index, compofed of the tendon t of the indicator united with that 
 tendon r of the common extenfor that goes to the index. 
 
 lV Xy 2 2 Z Z fhe tendonS of the extenfor s of the fingers where they run along the fingers joined with the 
 tendons and aponeurofes of the imeroffei, lumbricales, &c. „ that of the index compofed of the tendon , of 
 the indicator conjoined with the tendon r from the extenfor communis, w that of the middle finger, x that of 
 the rmg finger; which two are from the common extenfor, y that of the little finger, which is”compofed of 
 the tendon c of the proper extenfor of the little finger, conjoined with the portions b and k / m acceding 
 from the common extenfor, and a portion from the ulnaris externus, aaaatht extremities of thefe ten- 
 dons inferted in the bones of the fecond order. 
 
 X The aponenrofis which reaches from the capfular ligament of the little finger with its metacarpus to the ex- 
 ten for tendon y. 
 
 (3 y The abdudtor of the little finger, y the tendon. 
 
 3 1 ThC C0mm0n K, ' don of the aMl,aor and fmal1 faor of the little finger, J conjoined with the tendon y 
 and augmented by a portion from it, i it runs to the third bone. 
 
 £ The aponenrofis whirl, accedes to the tendon y, its fuperior part coming from the capfular liaament of 
 the joint of thi, finger with its metacarpal bone, its inferior being produced from the tendon a of”the inte- 
 roffeus of the little finger, with which tendon is joined the tendon of the fourth Iumbricalis. 
 
 „ The tendon of the iuteroffeus of the little finger, to which is joined the tendon of the fourth lum- 
 bricahs. 
 
 I , The tendon common to thefe two muffles, 9 joined with the tendon , and being augmented by a portion 
 from it, i runs to the third bone. 
 
 x The common extremity of the united tendons s , reaching to the third bone. 
 
 * Thc a i’' meur ° r,s whkh acced ' s >° the ar, its fuperior part coming from the capfular ligament of 
 
 the joint of this finger with its metacarpus; its inferior produced from the tendon , of the pofterior into- 
 rofleus of the little finger. 
 
 Thc P° fteri ° r iuteroffeus of the ring finger, , the tendon that afterwards is joined J with the tendon, 
 x, and being augmented by a portion from it, o runs to the third bone. 
 
 T The “pou'urofo that accedes to the tendon x, its fuperior part coming from the capfular ligament of thc 
 
 joint of this finger with its metacarpus : the inferior being produced from the tendon , of the fore interoffeus 
 of the little finger, with which tendon is joined the tendon of the third Iumbricalis. 
 f The tendon of the fore interoffeus of the little finger, to which is joined the tendon of the third lum- 
 bricalis. 
 
[ 5 * ] 
 
 II united 
 
 » r The tendon common to the fore interolTeus of the little finger and the third Iumbricalis, .conjoined 
 with the tendon *, and being augmented by a portion from it, r it runs to the third bone. 
 
 ” The common extremity of the united tendons . t reaching to the third bone. 
 
 <t> The aponeurofis that accedes to the tendon », its fuperior part coming from the capfular ligament of the 
 joint of this finger with „s metacarpus : the inferior being produced from the tendon J, of the polfcrior in- 
 
 terofleus of this middle finger. F in 
 
 Zt “”h' P ° fte ™ r , im ' rofleUS ° f the middk + '»e tendon which is united „ with the tendon . 
 
 and being augmented by a portion from it, T runs to the third bone 
 
 A - The aponeurofis that aeeedes to the tendon to, its fuperior part coming from the capfular ligament of the 
 jo nt of this finger w„h its metacarpus : the inferior being produced from the tendon * of the L interop 
 o this middle finger, with which tendon is united that of the fecond Iumbricalis 
 ©00 AS The fore interofTeus of the middle finger, 0 0 0 A the heads arifing 000 f rom ths 
 metacarpal bone of the index, A from that of the middle finger, S the tendon with wlf b ■ • 7 u 
 
 of the fecond Iumbricalis. * h 15 umtcd that 
 
 n X The tendon common to the fore interolTeus of the middle finger and the fecond Iumbricalis 
 with the tendon to, and being augmented by a portion from it, X runs to the third bone. ’ 
 
 I he common extremity of the united tendons T I, reaching to the third bone 
 
 * . ~ thM aCCCdeS “ the " nd ° n * itS coming from the capfular ligament of this 
 
 index" " S metaClrP “ S: " S infai0r Pr ° dUCCd fr ° m "" d °" 2 ° f th = InterolTeus of the 
 
 — - - — 
 
 7 “ is united 8 with *■—- - 
 
 ” Th e T mity ° f thC UniKd KndMS «* 9 "““"8 to the third bone. 
 
 11 I he fore interoileus of the index. 
 
 12 The abdu&or of the index. 
 
 13 The tendon of the great extenfor of the thumb. 
 
 I 4 , IS The ligament that binds down the tendon of the ulnaris externus arifi™ f ,u a- 
 
 ulnaris and the extenfor of the little finger endin l ’ “ rom the radius between that 
 
 united with the ligament ,6. § ’ § “ 46 KnJ ° n ° f ^ ~. and here r s 
 
 16, .7, 18 . »9 The exterior armillary ligament, arifing ,y from the roundilh bone, ,g from the triannul 
 the r 2 le s 7*“ ° ‘ * ** “ "" *" P “ t " rminaKS the f ‘"“ s aI °"g run the tendons^ 
 
 20 The ligament by which are bound down the tendons of the lone ahdudW .J,, 
 in one part rifing from the fame eminence of the radius as J^ 
 
 21, 22, 23, 23 The long abdudtor of the thumb, 22 the tendon of the • 
 
 24, 2 S The leffcr extenfor of the thumb, 25 the tendon. ” Paf ’ ^ 23 ' ° f inferior - 
 
 26 The common extremity of the united tendons of the greater . 2 and the l.tr 
 
 reaching to the third bone. & ^ e er exten ^ ors 25 of the thumb 
 
 27,28 The aponeurofis that is joined to the common extremity 26 of the ten,! 
 thumb : part of which aponeurofis 2 7 furrounds the capfular ligament ofl , ' Xtenf ° rS ° f ^ 
 
 tacatpus, and is connedbed with that ligament. part o ! 0CC e f T n ^ itS “■ 
 
 flexor of the thumb. P P d ‘ fr ° m the 'a 1 ' of the ihort 
 
 Between 27 and 29 the pofterior tail of the Ihort flexor of the thumb. 
 
 29, 30- The addudlor of the thumb, 30 the tendinous extremity inferred in the firft bone of the thumb. 
 
. rT 
 
 IN THE EXTREME PART OF THE LEFT FORE ARM, AND 
 IN THE LEFT HAND. 
 
 a (3 The exterior armillary ligament, (3 inferted in theroundifh bone, and continued with the ligament y 3 . 
 y 3 The ligament that binds down the tendon of the ulnaris extcrnus, 3 ending at the tendon of the ulnaris 
 internus. 
 
 £ The pronator quadratus. 
 
 £ The ligament that makes a canal with the flnus of the carpus, by which the tendons are inclofed that pro¬ 
 ceed from the fore arm to the hand, viz thefe of the fublimis, profundus, and long flexor of the thumb, 
 n The portion of the tendon of the long abdudlor of the thumb, that it gives to the fhort abductor. 
 
 The fhort abdu&or of the thumb, i here it receives a portion from the aponeurofis of the palmaris lon- 
 gus, x the tendinous extremity, with the aponeurofis that it gives to the tendon of the extenfors of the thumb. 
 X The part of the fhort flexor of the thumb, which may be looked upon as a fecond fhort abdudlor of it: in- 
 ferted by its tendinous extremity in the firft bone of the thumb. 
 y. Two ligaments, by which is bound down the tendon of the long flexor of the thumb : one of them higher 
 at the joint of the thumb with its metacarpus: the other immediately below it, fixed to the margins of the 
 firft bone, at firft Angle, afterwards bifurcated, 
 v v The tendon of the long flexor of the thumb, inferted in the laft bone of the thumb. 
 
 £ The poftcrior tail of the fhort flexor of the thumb, inferted in the firft bone, and in the pofterior fefamoi'dal. 
 o The firft lumbricalis. 
 
 97* The addu&or of the thumb. 
 
 The aponeurofis of the palmaris longus. 
 cr <r The palmaris brevis. 
 
 t up The abduftor of the little finger, V <P riling v from the roundifh bone, P from the interior ligament 
 of the carpus. * 
 
 X The fmall flexor of the little finger. 
 
 p The tendon common to the fmall flexor of the little finger, and the abdu&or of the fame, united to the 
 cxtenfor tendon of that finger. 
 
 w The extremity of the extenfor tendon of the little finger reaching to the fecond bone. 
 
 r The tendon running to the third bone, compofed of the tendon p, and of a portion of the extenfor tendon 
 of the little finger added to it. 
 
 A A The fame tendons as o t u, 4, 9, 10 in the right hand. 
 
 0 The ligament that binds down the tendons of the fublimis and profundus, where they run along the firft 
 phalanx. 
 
 A Three ligaments that bind down the tendons of the fublimis and profundus at the joint of the finger with 
 its metacarpus. I have inLribed a letter only on the middle one, on each fide whereof lies one of the others. 
 H The tendons of the fublimis and profundus, 
 n The tendon of the profundus with one horn of the fublimis. 
 
 2 The tendon of the profundus. 
 
 The fame things arc pointed oat at 0 A : E : n : £ in the other fingers. 
 
 HI 
 
 

 THE 
 
 / 
 
 explication 
 
 ' '• o F T H E 
 
 THIRD’ANATOMICAL table 
 
 O F 
 
 THE HUMAN MUSCLES. 
 
 As in the Hi It table, lo in this, the flrlt order of the mulcles 
 is represented, after tlie common integuments and tendi¬ 
 nous vaginae are removed; together like will: with certain 
 ligaments belonging to them, and parts of the third fkele- 
 ton, which is the bails of this figure; alio portions of other 
 parts, to wit, of the nofe, ear, and genitals, which are not 
 covered with mulcles. 
 
 IN THE HEAD, NECK, AND TRUNK. 
 
 a be: abed,f The epicranius or mufcle of the iealp, o b the occipitalis, „ its tendinous beginning, l the 
 Selhjr part, r d the aponeurof.s between the frontal and occipital mulcles ; d thro’ which the "temporal muf- 
 cle' here rifing appears, , the membranous part, by which the occipitales and their aponcurofes are joined 
 together, rifing from the occipital bone above the origin of the cucullares, /the frontalis. 
 
 £ h The raifer of the car, g its tendinous beginning, where it goes off from the epicranius, li the flelhy part. 
 i The anterior of the ear. 
 k l m The three retra&ors of the ear. 
 n The greater of the helix. 
 o The lefier of the helix. 
 p The tragicuG. 
 q The antitragicus. 
 
 r stt The orbicular of the eye-lids, r the part that goes round the circumference of the orbit, r the part ad¬ 
 ded from the corrugator of the eye-brow, 11 the part that covers the eye-lids. 
 u The compreffor of the nofe. 
 v The nafal of the upper lip. 
 
 w x : w x The orbicular of the mouth, a- the part on the red margin of the lip. 
 y z The greater zygomatic, z its origin from the jugal or cheek bone, 
 a (3 The depreflor of the angle of the mouth, (3 its origin from the lower jaw, 
 y The buccinator. 
 
 J ! ? , 9 The maifeter, l, the fore and exterior part, s its origin from the jugal bone; from whence for a 
 good fpace it is tendinous externally, £ 1 8 the pofterior part not covered by the former; , 9 its origin, , 
 from the jugal bone, 0 from the zygomatic procefs of the temporal bone. 
 
 A x The internal pterygoid mufcle, x inferted in the lower jaw. 
 
 O 
 
j - 
 
 [ 54 ] 
 
 \ The ftylohyoi'deus. 
 
 Between z and x the ftylogloflus. Compare Tab. X. fig. 2 . m. 
 
 Immediately under the ftylogloflus the bafiogloflus. Compare "1 ab. X. fig. I. k. and fig. 2 . tf- 
 y, v „ g o 7 T The latiflimus colli, v v, &c. fafciculi or little bundles of fibres added to it in i'ome fubje£ts at 
 the fide of the neck, £ fcattered fafciculi vanifhing on the cheek by which it ends, o a fafcieulus running 
 along the fore part of the depreflor of the angle of the mouth towards that angle. 
 t r The lower jaw rifing under the latiflimus colli. 
 
 p o- The fternomaftoideus and cleidomafto'ideus united together, <r their tendinous extremity, 
 r The biventer of the neck inlerted by a tendinous extremity in the occipital bone, 
 u The fplenius of the head. 
 
 <p The fplenius of the neck. 
 
 % The fcalenus medius. 
 u <]/ The raifer of the fcapula. 
 
 wrAtwTOAAS The cucullares, T A the tendinous origin, T the part of it rifing from the occipital 
 bone, 0 a larger part of its tendinous origin near the lower part of the neck and upper of the back, A A the 
 tendinons part of the extremity, inferted in the fpine and fuperior procefs of the fcapula, and in the neigh¬ 
 bouring part of the clavicle, H the tendinous part of its extremity where it is inferted in the fpine of the 
 fcapula not far from its bafis. 
 
 n S n The infrafpinati, 2 their origin from the bafis of the fcapula. 
 
 O The teres minor. 
 
 ¥ The teres major. 
 
 X2X2ABCDEF The latiflimi dorfi, n the flefhy part, A the broad tendon by which it begins, B here 
 it coheres with the great glutteus, C its origin from the crifta of the ilium, D E F the heads which rife 
 from the ribs, D from the eleventh, E from the tenth, F from the ninth. 
 
 G The fprratuc antirus. 
 
 H I The pectoral is, I the portion coming from the aponeurofis of the external oblique of the abdomen. 
 
 K L M N O P Q.R, &c. The great ferratns, K the head that rifes from the third rib, L from the fourth, 
 M from the fifth, N from the fixth, O from the ferrenth, P from the eighth, Q_from the ninth, R, &c. 
 the place of the origin of the heads from the ribs. 
 
 S T U V W X Y Z a a a a a b b l b b b c c d i d d iffg h h h h i i i k The external oblique mufcle of the 
 abdomen, S the flelhy part, T U V W X Y Z the heads whereof T rifes from the fifth rib, U from 
 the fixth, V from the feventh, W from the eighth, X from the ninth, Y from the tenth, Z from the 
 eleventh, <r. He. the tendinous part of the origin of the heads, b, Uc. the place of the origin of the heads 
 from the ribs, r r the infertion of the flelhy part in the crifta of the ilium, ddddt ffg bhhh l i 1 k the 
 aponeurofis, t inferted in the crifta of the ilium, //here the flefhy part of the internal oblique rifes and ap¬ 
 pears under it, g here under the fame and alfo under the aponeurofis of the internal oblique rifes and appears 
 the flefhy part of the tranfverfe mufcle; b h b h and fo here the flefhy part of the redus mufcle, i li hero 
 through thefe aponeurofes appear the tendinous lines of the reftus, k here under the fame rifes and appears the 
 pyramidalis. 
 
 I The cremafter. 
 
 I N 
 
 THE LEFT HAUNCH AND FOOT. 
 
 jn The long addu£tor of the thigh. 
 n The peftineus. 
 o The great pfoas. 
 p The fartorius. 
 
 q r s The tenfor of the vagina of the thigh, r its origin from the crifta of the ilium, s the extremity fiom 
 ' which is cut the tendinous part that it gives to the vagina of the thigh. 
 tuuv The middle glutieus, a a its origin from the os ilium, v the tendon. 
 
'-gg* 0 .-^3?rv '*«•'-/ i ’ ' m * m r*Z'S ~ 
 
 [ 55 3 
 
 it, 2 ^ The great gluteus, * here it rifes from the crift of the ilium, and coheres with the latiflimus dorfi, 
 y the tendon. 
 
 2 ; The femitendinofus. 
 
 « (3 (3 y S t £ The biceps of the leg, a the longer head, (3 (3 the fliorter head, y $ i £ the tendon, y firft 
 rifing from the furface of the flefliy part of the longer head, then augmented by an acceflion from the fliorter 
 J 1 , and its principal extremity t inferted in the head of the fibula, and reaching to the tibia by a certain 
 portion £. 
 
 u 8 i * The vaftus externus, 8 the tendinous furface, . the tendon, x inferted m the patella. 
 
 >. p » £ „ The redtus of the leg, fa the tendinous part of the origin, v the tendon, £ the place where it is in¬ 
 ferted in the patella, s the aponeurofis from the tendon of the reflus that runs along the fore part of the 
 patella, and afterwards joins itfelf to the fore part of the 1 igament that reaches from the patella to the tibia. 
 tt p The vaftus internus, p the tendon. 
 
 IT T u The ligament going from the patella to the tibia, r the place where it rifes from the patella, u under all 
 this fpace it is inferted in the tibia. 
 
 <P X ^ The exterior head of the gemclli, x tendinous furface, ij' the tendon. 
 uTA The foleus, T rifing from the fuperior head of the fibula, A the tendinous furface. 
 
 0AH The tendon of achilles, A the interior part, H here inferted in the heel bone. 
 
 II The tendon of the plantaris. 
 
 2 $ Y 12 X2 12 The peroneus longus, its origin from the head of the fibula, f f2 Cl X2 the tendon, Y here 
 rifing from the flefliy part. 
 
 A The proper ligament of the peroneus longus. 
 
 BBCCDDE The peroneus brevis, C C the origin of the tendon from the flefliy part, D D the tendon, 
 E inferted in the fifth bone of the metatarfus. 
 
 F The ligament proper to the peroneus brevis. 
 
 GHIKLMNOP Q_R The long extenfor of the toes with the peroneus tertius, G the common flefliy 
 
 part of the extenfor and peroneuo, II its origin trom tne xlb««, nuep.^uo unlu., K L M its tendon, 
 K here rifing from the flefliy part, M here inferted in the metatarfal bone of the little toe, N the tendon of 
 the long extenfor of the toes which is divided into four tendons, O P Q_R running along the 
 inftep. 
 
 SS ST The tendon of the proper extenfor of the great toe, T inferted in the laft bone of that toe. 
 
 U V W W The tibialis anticus, V its origin from the tibia, W W the tendon. 
 
 X Y Z The ligament that covers the tendons in the confines of the leg and inftep before, Y the fuperior 
 horn, Z the inferior. 
 
 a a ab c d e The fhort extenfor of the toes, b c d e its tendons, b that going to the great toe, c to the firft of 
 the fin all toes, d to the fecond, e to the third. 
 
 f g h i k l The common tendon of the long and fhort extenfor of the toes,/ the part produced by the long, g the 
 part by the fhort: there is an intermediate mark of divifion, h the extremity inferted in the bone of the fecond 
 order, i the portion of the common tendon going to the third bone, k the tendon from the other fide running 
 to the third bone and proceeding from the tendon of the fhort extenfor, / the common extremity of the two 
 portions going to the third bone, inferted in the third bone. The fame in the other finall toes of this foot, 
 only the tendon of the long extenfor runs along the upper part of the little toe, and produces both por¬ 
 tions going to the third bone. 
 
 m The aponeurofis that is added from this fide to the tendon of the fhort extenfor of the toes. The fame in the 
 other toes : but in the fmall toe it is added to the tendon of the long extenfor : in the great toe to the tendon 
 of the proper extenfor. 
 
 n The firft interofleus mufcle of the fecond toe. 
 o The thicker head of the fecond interofleus of the fecond toe. 
 p The thicker head of the fecond interofleus of the third toe. 
 q The thicker head of the fecond interofleus of the fourth toe. 
 
 r $ tuv The abdudlor of the little toe, s here covered with an aponeurofis, t its origin from the heel bone, u part 
 
[ 5 ^ ] 
 
 of the aponeurofis with which it is covered inferted in the metatarfal bone of the little toe, u the tendon of 
 the abdudfor inferted in the firft bone of the little toe. 
 
 ■w a- The (hort flexor of the little toe, w the part inferted in the metatarfal bone of the little toe, x the part 
 inferted by a tendinous extremity in the firft bone of the little toe. 
 y z The tendons of the long and (hort flexors of the toes, feen alfo in the next toe. 
 
 IN THE RIGHT FOOT. ' 
 
 ABC The re3us of the leg, B the tendon inferted in the patella, C the aponeurofis from the tendon run¬ 
 ning over the patella, and joining itfelf to the fore part of the ligament that joins the patella to the tibia. 
 
 D E F G The ligament that joins the patella to the tibia, E the pare under which it rifes from the patella, 
 F under all this Apace it is inferted in the tibia, G its interior part. 
 
 H I The vaftus internus, I the extremity of its tendon inferted in the fide of the patella. 
 
 K L M The firtorius, L the tendon, M inferted in the tibia. 
 
 N O The gracilis, O its tendon. 
 
 P QR S The femimembranofus, Q_R the tendon, Q_rifing here from the flelhy part, S the anterior apo- 
 neurofis inferted in the internal margin of the tibia. 
 
 T U The femitendinofus, U the tendon. 
 
 V W X The interior head of the gemelli, W the tendinous furface. 
 
 X The tendon, it joins to the exterior part of the tendon of the foleus. 
 
 Y The tendon of achilles, Z inferted in the heel bone. 
 
 ri00 The foleus, A the tendinous furface, 0 0 rifing from the tibia. 
 
 AS The tendon of the plantaris, £ inferted in the heel bone. 
 
 II 2 The long flexor of the great toe, 2 the tendon. 
 
 *I J The ligament that binds down the tendon of the long flexor of the great toe. 
 
 * n n * The l0n S flexor or locs > « n origin from the tibia, * the tendon rifing from the flefliy 
 part. 
 
 0 0 y ^he tendon of the tibialis pofticus, y its extremity inferted in the tuberofity of the navicular bone. 
 
 S i £ The ligament that covers the tendon of the long flexor of the toes, and that of the tibialis pofticus, £ f here 
 fixed to the internal ancle. 
 
 £ The ligament that binds down the tendon of the tibialis pofticus. 
 n 0 9 0 The tibialis anticus, 0 0 9 its tendon. 
 
 i x The fuperior horn of the ligament inferted in the tibia by which the tendons are bound down, in the con¬ 
 fines of the leg and inftep, inferted in the tibia, x the inferior horn of the fame lio-ament. 
 
 [a. The tendon of the proper extenfor of the great toe, p inferted in the laft bone of the great toe. 
 v A branch of the tendon of the P ro P er extenfor of the great toe, inferted in the firft bone of that toe and 
 found in fome fubjc&s. 
 
 £ The aponeurofis added to the tendon of the proper extenfor of the great toe. 
 o Upon thefe toes the common tendons of the extenfors. 
 
 X X The two horns of the ligament, by which the tendon of the long flexor of the great toe is bound down 
 here. 
 
 p The tendon of the long flexor of the great toe running under that toe. 
 
 <r ? s- r The abduftor of the great toe, f its origin from the heel bone, r its tendon, r inferted in the firft 
 bone of"the great toe. % 
 
 v v p The fhort flexor of the great toe, (p here joining itfelf to the tendon of the abduftor. 
 
 X ^ The fhort flexor of the toes, x its origin from the heel bone. 
 
 " Thc head thi " is addcd t0 the Io "S fa ° r of the toes in the foie of the foot riling from the heel bone. 
 
[ 57 ] 
 
 IN THE LEFT ARM AND HAND. 
 
 ABBCDEFGHIKLMNO The deltoid mufcle, ABB the fecond and pofterior portion of the 
 firft order of which that mufcle confifts, B B rifing from the fpine and l'uperior procefs of the fcapula, C D 
 the pofterior portion of the fecond order, D rifing from the fuperior procefs, E F the fourth portion of the 
 fiift order, F rifing from the turn of the fuperior procefs, G H the middle portion of the fecond order, H 
 rifing from the fuperior procefs, I K the third portion of the firft order, K rifing from the fuperior procefs, 
 L M the firft portion of the fecond order, M rifing from the fuperior procefs, N O the firft and fore portion 
 of the firft order, O its origin from the fuperior procefs. 
 
 P Q_R The biceps, Qjts tendon, R the aponeurofis cut off. 
 
 S The brachialis internus. 
 
 T U V W X The triceps, T the part of it called longus, U the part called brevis, V the tendon, W in- 
 ferted in the olecranon, X the more flender end of the tendon inferted in the fore part of the olecranon, and in 
 the neighbouring part of the fpine of the ulna. 
 
 Y The ulnaris internus. 
 
 Z a The fupinator longus, a the tendon. 
 
 b The pronator teres. 
 
 c d The radialis internus, d the tendon. 
 
 ee The fublimis. 
 
 f f The long flexor of the thumb. 
 
 g The tendon of the fecond radialis externus longior. 
 
 h i i i k The radialis externus longior, i i i k the tendon, k inferted in the metacarpal bone of the index. 
 
 / ni 771 7n The radialis externus brevior, m m m the tendon. 
 
 7 i o The ulnaris externus, o the tendon. 
 
 p q r s t The common extenfor of the fingers, q the tendnn belonging to the index, r that belonging to the 
 middle finger : which two tendons not far from the fingers are joined by the portions, going from the tendon 
 of the middle finger to that of the index, t the tendon going to the third finger. 
 u The tendon of the indicator. 
 
 v w The proper extenfor of the little finger, w the tendon. 
 
 xyy zz The long abdudlor of the thumb, y y the tendon of the fuperior portion which being divided at the 
 extremity fends one part to the fhort abdudlor, and the other to the metacarpal bone of tire thumb, z z the 
 tendon of the inferior portion. 
 a. (3 The leffer extenfor of the thumb, (3 the tendon. 
 
 The tendon of the greater extenfor of the thumb. 
 
 e reaching to the laft bone of the 
 
 S e The common tendon of the greater and leffer extenfor of the thumb, 
 thumb. 
 
 £ £ The exterior armillary ligament. 
 
 7i The ligament that binds down the tendons of the long abdu&or and leffer extenfor of the thumb. 
 
 0 The interior ligament of the carpus. 
 
 i x The fhort abdudtor of the thumb, x the aponeurofis which it gives to the common tendon of the extenfor 
 of the thumb. 
 
 A The opponens of the thumb, inferted in the external margin of the metacarpal bone of the thumb, 
 ju The aponeurofis that joins itfelf to the tendon of the greater extenfor of the thumb, partly rifing from the 
 capfular ligament of the joint of the thumb with its metacarpus, partly from the fhort flexor of the thumb. 
 v £ The addudlor of the thumb, £ inferted by a tendinous extremity in the firft bone of the thumb, 
 o The fore interoffeus of the index, rifing from its metacarpal bone. 
 
 7r The abdu&or or the index, 
 p The firft lumbricalis. 
 
 <r The aponeurofis that partly rifes from the abdu&or of the index, partly from its lumbricalis, and is joined to 
 the tendon of the extenfors of the index. 
 
 5 r The common tendon of the extenfors of the index, r its extremity inferted in the fecond of the index. 
 
 P 
 
[ 58 ] 
 
 t u The tendon of the firft lumbricalis, which being augmented by a portion receded from the common tendon 
 of the extenfors, u runs to the third bone of the index. 
 
 (p The tendon of the fecond interofleus of the index, together with the portion it has received from the com¬ 
 mon tendon of the extenfors, running to the third bone of the index. 
 
 X The common extremity of the tendons uand (£>, belonging to the third bone of the index and inferted in it. 
 
 The tendon common to the fecond lumbricalis and the firft interofleus of the middle finger: which tendon 
 being augmented by a portion received from the tendon of the extenfor of the middle finger, runs to the third 
 bone of that finger, in the end joined into a common extremity with a like tendon coming from the other 
 fide of that finger, which is inferted in the third bone of the fame finger. 
 
 w The tendon common to the fourth lumbricalis and the firft interofleus of the little finger : which tendon be¬ 
 ing augmented by a portion received from the extenfor tendon of that finger, runs to the third bone of the 
 fame. 
 
 Along the internal parts of the fingers run the tendons of the fublimis and profundus, bound down by their 
 ligaments, but they are more clearly feen in the firft table of the mufcles. 
 
 IN THE RIGHT ARM. 
 
 « (3 y f i The triceps of the arm, a. the part called longus, (3 the part called brachialis externus, y the ten¬ 
 don of the triceps, d 1 inferted in the olecranon, t the thin tendon, rifing from the furface of the brachialis ex¬ 
 ternus, and reaching to the upper part of the greater condyle of the arm bone. 
 
 £ The brachialis internus. 
 
 »i 9 » The biceps of the arm, 9 the aponeurofis cut off", near » the tendon. 
 
 x The fupinator longus. 
 
 X The pronator teres. 
 
 ju The radialis internus. 
 
 v £ Thepalmaris longus, immediately below £ the beginning of the tendon. 
 
 o The fublimis. 
 
 7r p <r The ulnaris internus, p one of its origins, from the greater condyle of the arm bone, a- the other from 
 the olecranon. 
 
 r The ulnaris externus. 
 
 IN THE RIGHT HAND. 
 
 a b The fhort abdu&or of the thumb, b the aponeurofis, going off from its tendon and joining itfelf to the 
 common tendon of the extenfors of the thumb. 
 
 e Part of the fhort flexor of the thumb, which may be efteemed a fecond fhort abdu&or of it, inferted by its 
 tendinous extremity in the firft bone of the thumb. 
 
 d That part of the fhort flexor of the thumb that is inferted in the fcfamo'fdal bone next to the index, and to 
 the neighbouring part of firft bone of the thumb. 
 
 e The addudlor of the thumb. 
 
 yy The tendon of the long flexor of the thumb. 
 
 g Two ligaments that bind down the tendon of the long flexor of the thumb, y. in the left hand Tab. V. of 
 Albinus. 
 
 h The palmaris brevis. 
 
 i The fhort flexor of the little finger. 
 
 Jt The abduflor of the little finger. 
 
 / The addu£!or of the fourth metacarpal bone, inferted in that bone. 
 
 Letters are not inferibed upon the tendons and aponeurofes that run along the back of the hand and fingers, 
 as they may be eafily underftood from the fecond mufcular table, which is the fifth, as this third is the ninth 
 of Albinus. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 HE reafons for adding the following tranllations from 
 
 JL Celfiis and Cicero may be feen in the general preface ; 
 and it were to be wifhed that the modern writers on thefe fitb- 
 jefls, would endeavour to imitate fitch excellent models : for tho’ 
 the ancients were inferior to the moderns in the accurate know¬ 
 
 ledge of nature, in fit far as it depends on minute obfervation and 
 
 experiment, yet they were the original fountains of the great 
 principles in almoft all the arts and fciences, and treat of them, 
 not with obfeure diligence, but in a noble and maflerly manner, 
 adorned with all the charms of eloquence; and none more re¬ 
 markably than the two authors of which a fpecimen is here 
 given. The Grsecian philofophy was a favourite ftudy of 
 Ciceto, and he was the firft that introduced it to his country in 
 a Roman drefs ; for when banifhed from the forum and public 
 affairs, by the diforders of the commonwealth, philofophy, 
 the precepts of which he had made the rule of his life, was 
 his confolation in the calamities of the public, and in his pri¬ 
 vate diftrefles ; and in this treatife on the nature of the Gods, 
 the exiftence, attributes, and providence of the Supreme 
 Being are proved, from that belt and clearefl of all evidence, 
 the excellency of the works of nature ; and this he concludes 
 with the beautiful furvey of man here prefented to the reader. 
 Celfiis lived in the age pofterior to Cicero. He was a noble Ro¬ 
 man, as appears not only from his name, hut from the fpirit, 
 the manner, and generous fentiments of his writings: he wrote 
 in a maflerly ftrain upon many important fiibjedts, for which we 
 have not only the teftimony of his admirers, hut even that of 
 Quintilian, a writer feveral degrees inferior to Celfus, and who 
 teems to have envied the brightnefs of liis fame. Of the writ¬ 
 ings of Celfiis that upon medicine only remains ; a work full of 
 the genius of antiquity, and a complete model to medical writ¬ 
 ers, and above all others fittell to give the curious a true idea of 
 that art. He comprehends, in a finall volume, a complete fyftem 
 
 of 
 
t ] 
 
 of medicine, as it flood in tlie Auguftan age, with the utrnoil 
 judgment, pcrlpicuity, and elegance, and with a freedom and 
 eafc, hardly to be found in the moft diffule writers. Of anato¬ 
 my Celfus treats in a curfory way, and in lo far only as is need¬ 
 ful to illuftrate medicine. His moll complete part, upon this 
 fiibjeft, is the chapter upon the bones, before he comes to treat 
 of their dileafes; alfo his chapter on the vilcera of the thorax 
 and abdomen, before he treats of the dileafes that affect the 
 particular parts feated there. He has likewile two Ihort 
 chapters of the anatomy of the eye, and of the tellicles; 
 which are more oblcure and imperfect. To thele w hen w e 
 add the general maxims upon the ule of anatomy in me¬ 
 dicine, to be found in his general preface, w e then have a view 
 of the whole anatomy of Celfus; in which, if we except lorne 
 trivial errors, and allow r for the evident corruptions of the text, 
 a more malterly delcription in lo fmall a compafs is no w here to 
 be found; and I think, in general, evidently taken from the 
 human body. Nor can it be luppoled, that any man could de- 
 fcribe the bones, and even the vilcera, as he has done, without 
 having feen and ftudied them, not only with care, but, w hich 
 is much rarer, with tafle and judgment; and the fame may be 
 faid of the particulars contained in alrnoll every part of his 
 lyltem of medicine, in which he is fo far fuperior to moll me¬ 
 dical writers. A few notes and oblervations on the anatomical 
 part of Celfus are added at the end of the text, w hich, tlio’ I 
 have tranllated with all the care I w as able, I am afraid the ad¬ 
 mirers of this fine author w ill find but a very imperfect picture 
 of the original. 
 
THE 
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 O F 
 
 CEL 
 
 s u s. 
 
 Book IV. Chap. I. 
 
 Of the situation of the inward parts of the human 
 
 BODY. 
 
 H I T H E R T 0 we have treated of thofe kinds of difeafes which belong to the whole body, 
 fo that certain feats cannot be afTigned them ; now I lhall treat of thefe which belong to 
 particular parts. But the difeafes and cures of all the inward parts will be more eafily 
 known, if I firft mention their feats in a brief manner, giving a flight view of the parts, in fo far as 
 is necefiary to the healing art. 
 
 The head therefore, and thefe parts that are within the mouth, are not only bounded by the 
 tongue and palate, but alfo by all that our eyes can there difeover. In the right and left fides 
 about the throat, the large veins called fphagitides, and likewife the arteries which they call caro- 
 tides, proceeding upwards, reach beyond the ears. And on the neck itfelf are placed glands, which 
 fometimes fwell with pain. From thence two pafiages begin; the one they call afpera arteria or 
 wind pipe, the other ftomachus or gullet. The artery is exterior, and leads to the lungs •, the gul¬ 
 let is interior, and leads to the ftomach : the firft receives the breath, the other the food. As thefe 
 are diftindl pafiages, where they meet, there is a little tongue upon the artery, juft in the fauces, 
 which is raifed up when we breath, but when we eat or drink is deprefled, and fhuts the artery. 
 The artery itfelf, being hard and cartilaginous, is protuberant in the throat, but more funk in other 
 parts. It confifts of certain circles, made in the form of thefe vertebras which are in the back bone •, fo 
 that on the outfide they are unequal, on the infide they are fmooth, like the gullet ; and defeending 
 is joined to the lungs in the prascordia. The lungs are of a fpongv nature, and therefore fit to 
 contain air; they are conne&ed behind to the back bone, and are divided into two lobes like an ox’s 
 hoof. To thefe the heart is annexed, of a mufcular fubftance, placed in the breaft under the left 
 mamma, and has as it were two ventricles. Under the heart and lungs there is a tranfverfe divifion, 
 ednfifting of a ftrong membrane, which divides the prascordia or thorax from the lower belly ; it is 
 tendinous equally all over, and has many blood veffels running upon it, and divides not only the in- 
 teftines, but alfo the liver and fplern from the upper parts. Thefe bowels are placed near, but 
 under it, on the right and left fides. The liver on the right fide, under the prscordia, arifing from 
 the diaphragm itfelf, is concave on the infide, and on the outfide convex; and ftretching out, rides for 
 fome way upon the ftomach, and is divided into four lobes. Upon the inferior part of the liver, the gall¬ 
 bladder 
 
 
 
[ 62 ] 
 
 bladder is joined •, but the fpleen on the left fide is not attached to the feptum, but to 
 the inteftine ; it is of a foft and rare texture, and of a moderate length and thicknefs, and being 
 chiefly concealed under the ribs, ftretches fomewhat from thence into the abdomen : all tilde 
 parts are connected together : but the kidneys are divided ; they are feared in the loins, about the 
 lowed ribs, on one fide round, on the other hollowed; they are full of blood veffels, have ventricles, 
 and are covered with coats : luch is the fituation of the vifeera: but the ftomachus or gullet, which 
 is the beginning of the inteftines, takes its rife nervous from the feventh vertebra of the fpine, and 
 is joined with the ftomach about the pracordia. The ftomach; which is the receptacle of the food, 
 confifts of two coats, and is placed between the fpleen and the liver, both of thefe riding a little 
 over it; and there are alfo flender membranes, by which thefe three are joined together, and they are 
 connedted to that tranfverfe feptum, which I juft now deferibed : thence the lower part of the 
 ftomach, turned a little to the right fide, is contracted into the fize of the firfl inteftine; 
 this joining the Greeks call pylorus, becaufe like a door, it emits into the lower parts what we are ta 
 excrete. From this the inteftine called jejunum begins, which is not much involved; it isfo named 
 becaufe it never retains what it receives, but immediately tranfmits it into the lower parts: after this 
 follows the fmall inteftine, greatly convoluted into plaits, each convolution of which is connected 
 to the more inferior by little membranes, and the whole leaning towards the right fide, and 
 ending oppofite to the right haunch bone, fills chiefly the upper parts of the abdomen. Then 
 this inteftine is joined tranfverfly with the other thicker one, which beginning on the right 
 fide of the abdomen, is open and ftretched out towards the left, but not towards the right, 
 and is therefore called caecum; but that which is open and pervious, is fpread wide and in 
 arches; and being lefs nervous than the upper inteftines, folded here and there on each fide, 
 yet pofleffing chiefly the left and mfonor parts, tuuches ilic liver and ftomach, and there is connected 
 with certain membranes coming from the left kidney ; and from thence making a turn towards the 
 right fide, is directed downwards to where it fends out the excrements, and therefore it is called in 
 that place the ftraight gut. The omentum covers all thefe, on the under part fmooth and conftrifted, 
 on the upper part more foft; and on this fat grows, which is devoid of fenfe like the brain and 
 marrow. But from each kidney proceeds a vein of a white colour, the Greeks call them ureters 
 becaufe they imagine that the urine defeending thereby diftils into the bladder. This, in its great 
 cavity nervous and double, with a full and flefhy neck, is joined by veins with the inteftine, and with 
 that bone which is under the pubes ; itfelf is more loofe and free, placed differently in men and in 
 women : for in men it is next the ftraight gut, and rather inclining towards the left fide ; in wo¬ 
 men it is placed upon their genitals, and rifing above it, is fupported by the womb itfelf. Befides, 
 in males the paffage of the urine, being longer and narrower, defeends from the neck of the bladder 
 to the penis; in women it is fhorter and larger, and Ihows itfelf above the neck of the womb : the 
 womb in virgins is very fmall -, and even in women, if they are not pregnant, is not much larger 
 than may be comprehended in the hand. It begins with a ftraight and continued neck, which is 
 called the canal, oppofite to the middle of the abdomen ; from whence it is a little turned towards 
 the right coxa, and then ftretching itfelf upon the ftraight gut, conne&s its lateral parts to the ilia 
 of the woman. Thefe are fituated between the coxae and the pubes at the bottom of the abdomen, 
 from which and from the pubes the abdomen proceeds upwards to the praecordia, on the outfide 
 inclofed by the fkin which we fee, and on the infide by a fmooth membrane that lies next the omen¬ 
 tum, and is called peritoneum by the Greeks. 
 
 CELSUS 
 

 [ % 1 
 
 ( ELS OS is very full on the difeafes of the eyes, which he introduces with the following flsort but 
 elegant exordium : 
 
 What I have been treating of is of lefs importance j but our eyes are fubjeft to various and great 
 dilorders ; and as they contribute fo much to the ufes and pleafures of life, the greateft care 
 jfhould be bellowed on them. 
 
 Book VII. Chap. VII. Sect. 15. 
 
 Of the nature of the eyes. 
 
 J H A V E mentioned the fuffufion m another place, becaufe when recent it is often cured by 
 medicines ; but when it is of long Handing, it demands the afliftance of the hand, and it 
 may be reckoned among the niceft operations. But before I treat of this, I lhall firlt in a few 
 words Ihew the nature of the eye itfelf, the knowledge of which, tho' it belongs to many articles 
 yet is chiefly requifite in this place. The eye has two principal coats, of which the fuperior is 
 called by the Greeks the ceratoeides, or the horn-like; this is pretty thick in the white part of the 
 eye, but thinner near the pupil. To this is conjoined an inferior coat, pierced in the middle by a 
 hole of a moderate flze, which makes the pupil, and there it is thinner; but in the farther parts 
 this likewife becomes thicker, it is called choroeides by the Greeks. Thefe two coats having fur- 
 rounded the internal parts or contents of the eye, at laft unite behind them, and becoming thin and 
 gathered together, pafs thorough the hole ,k„ fn f k„ ,i, c Uaillj anc , are 
 
 attached to it. But at the pupil there is an empty fpace next thefe coats, and again below them 
 there is a very thin membrane, which Herophilus called arachnoeides; this hangs down in the mid¬ 
 dle, and in this cavity fomething is contained, which from its likenefs to glafs the Greeks called 
 naloides; this is neither liquid nor folid, but as it were a concreted humour, from the color of 
 which, that of the pupil is either black or blewilh, tho' the whole outer coat be white ; but a lit¬ 
 tle membrane covers it, coming from the interior parts ; near thefe is a drop of humour, like the 
 white of an egg, from which we have the power of vifion, the Greeks called it cryftalloides'. 
 
 CELSUS introduces the difeafes of the private parts with a fhort preface , that Jhews a fenfe of mode/h 
 not common even in the poli,eft authors of the Auguftan age, and for ,ha, reafon the more , L 
 admired: 
 
 The next in order, fays Celfts , are the difeafes of the private parts, the Greek names of which are 
 more decent, and already familiarized by ufe, as they occur in the common books and language 
 of Phyflcans: with us the terms are Blocking, n or are they recommended by the authority of 
 anyone that writes or fpeaks with modefly; fo that it ‘ is difficult t0 ^ theft / * 
 
 the rules of art and of modefly at the fame time demand. But this muft not deter me from 
 writing upon the fubjeefl, not only that I may complete my fyftem of the healing art, but b” 
 
 caufe the cures of thefe parts Ihould be more generally known which we are lefs willing to ex 
 pole to others. ° 
 
 R BOOK 
 
THE TESTICLES. 
 
 COME now to thefe difeafes which arile in the private parts about the tefticles; and in order 
 * the better to explain them, we mult firft in a few words defcribe the nature of the parts. The 
 tefticles therefore have fomething that refembles a medullary fubftance, for they do not emit blood, 
 and are quite infenftble ; but the coats that contain them are fubjeft to pain in ftrokes and infiama- 
 tions. They hang down from the groins by nerves or cords, which the Greeks call cremallers, 
 with each of which a vein and an artery defcends. They are covered by a thin nervous coat with¬ 
 out blood, and white, which the Greeks call elutroe'ides. Over this is a ftronger coat, which adheres 
 firmly on the lower part to the inner one ; the Greeks call it dartos. Then many little membranes 
 furround the veins, arteries, and thefe nerves, and the like are alfo found very thin and fmall on 
 the upper part between the two coats. Such are the coverings and defence proper to each tefticle. 
 But there is an outer vifible bag common to both, and to all the internal parts ; the Greeks call it 
 ofcheon, we the fcrotum. This is (lightly attatched to the middle of the coats on the lower part, 
 and above only furrounds them. 
 
 Book 
 
 Chap. 
 
 Of the position and figure of the bones of the 
 WHOLE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 r-p he part remains relating to the bones: to underftand which, it is neceffary to defcribe their 
 1 poGtion and figures. Hhall begin with the fkull, which is inwardly concave, outwardly 
 convex ; on each fide fmooth, both where it covers the membrane of the brain, and where it is 
 covered by the hairy fcalp. About the hind head and temples it confifts of one plate only, but 
 from the forehead to the vertex it confifts of two. The bones are harder outwardly, but fofter or 
 more fpungy in the inward parts by which they are connefted ; and fmall velfels run between them, 
 which probably fupply them with nourilhment. 
 
 It is rare to find a fkull folid without futures, except in very hot climates, and filch heads are 
 ftronver, and lefs fubjeft to pain : and in general, the fewer the futures are, lo much better health 
 does die head enjoy. Neither the number nor the places of the futures are fixed or certain. Yet 
 two above the ears almoft conftantly appear, and feparate the temples from the upper parts of the 
 head A third, (fetching to the ears from the vertex, divides the hind head from the upper part. 
 A fourth from the fame vertex, pafies along the middle of the head to the forehead, and there 
 fometimes ends where the hair begins ; at other times cutting the forehead, it lands between the 
 eye brows All thefe futures are indented into each other, except the tranfverfe ones above the 
 
 ears which are gradually thinned along their edges, and fo placed that the lower bones are gently 
 ’ B ' feated 
 
[ 65 ] 
 
 feated upon the upper ones. But the face has the larged future of all, beginning at one temple it 
 proceeds through the eyes and nofe, tranfverfely to the other, from which two Ihort futures point 
 downwards, from the inner angles of the eyes. The cheek bones too have each a tranfverfe future, 
 on the upper part; and from the middle of the nollrils, or roots of the upper teeth, a future pro¬ 
 ceeds along the middle of the palate, and another tranfverfe one cuts the fame palate : fuch are 
 the futures in moil fubjefts. 
 
 Of the holes belonging to the head, thefe of the eyes are largeft •, the next are thefe of the 
 nollrils; and laftly of the ears. Thefe of the eyes tend fimply and direftly towards the brain j 
 the two holes of the nofe are divided by a middle bone. The nofe begins with bone at the eye¬ 
 brows and angles of the eyes, for about a third part •, from thence it is changed into cartilage, 
 and as it approaches towards the mouth, - it is even foftened into flefh. But each hole of the nofe, 
 tho’ to a certain depth it is fimple and one, becomes at length divided into two palTages, one 
 ■whereof going to the fauces, receives and fends forth the breath the other tends to the brain, 
 the extremity of which is divided into fmall holes, whereby we have the fenfe of fmell. In the ear 
 alfo the pafiage is at firfl ftraight and fimple, but as it proceeds becomes winding, and near the 
 brain is divided into many fmall pafiages, by which we have the power of hearing. The thickeft 
 bone of the head is that behind the ear, for which reafon probably no hair grows on that part. 
 Under the temporal mufcles, the middle bone is placed inclining outwards. Near thefe are as it 
 were two fmall finuofities •, and above them that bone ends, which, tending tranfverfely from the 
 cheeks, is fupported by the bones below •, it may be called the yoke or jugal bone, from the fame 
 fimilitude that the Greeks called it zugodes. The lower jaw is a foft or cellular bone and fingle; 
 the middle and lower part of it forms the chin, from which it extends on each fide to the temples, 
 and this alone enjoys motion •, for the cheek bones, with the whole of that which contains the 
 upper teeth, are immoveable. The extremities of the lower jaw Hand up like two horns ; the one 
 procefs, thicker below, becomes thin at the top, and rifing higher than the other, goes under the 
 os jugale, and is there fixed to the mufcles of the temples. The other is (horter and more round, 
 and being fitted to that finuofity which is near the hole of the ear, by moving itfelf every way like 
 a hinge, is the caufe of all the motions of the lower jaw. 
 
 The tecdi are harder than bone. Of thefe, part belong to the lower jaw, and part to the fuperior 
 bone of the cheek. The firft four teeth, becaufe they cut, are called tomicoi by the Greeks ; next 
 thefe are the four canini j beyond which on each fide there are commonly five maxillares, except in 
 thefe perfons who have not got their genuini or lateft teeth. The fore teeth fpring from one fingle 
 root, the maxillary have two, and fometimes three or even four roots ; and the longeft roots com¬ 
 monly produce the Ihorteft teeth : the ftraight teeth have ftraight roots, the crooked have bent ones. 
 From this root in children a new tooth comes forth, which commonly expels the former, but fome-; 
 times appears above or below it. 
 
 After the head comes the fpine, which confides of four and twenty vertebrae ; feven in the neck,' 
 twelve at the ribs, and the other five below the ribs. The vertebrae are Ihort and rounded, and 
 fend out two proceffes from each fide ; they ate perforated in the middle, by which the fpinal mar¬ 
 row defcends from the brain: on the fides likewife, between the two proceffes, they are nightly 
 hollowed and pervious, by which are conveyed from the membranes of the brain fimilar little mem¬ 
 branes; and all the vertebrae, except the three higheft, have fmall finuffes funk in their proceffes above, 
 
 and 
 
[ 66 ] 
 
 and on the lower part fend other precedes downwards. Thus the higheft vertebra immediately fuftains 
 the head, whofe fmall process are received by the two finufles of the vertebra ; the head for this pur- 
 pofe being provided with two rough precedes inclined upwards and downwards. The fecond vertebra 
 “ '" fc . rtCd ' nt0 thC inferior P art ° f the and its circumference is finilhed above in a Idler circle • 
 therefore the firft vertebra comprehending the fecond, allows the head a motion towardseachf.de’ 
 e t it receives the fecond in the fame manner, by which the neck has a free and eafy motion 
 But the neck could not fuflain the head, if ftraight and ftrong ligaments did not affift it on 
 eac fide ; theie the Greeks call tenontes, and in every motion one ot thefe is always ftretched, 
 o as not to allow the parts above to give way. Now the third vertebra fends out tubercles which 
 are inferred in the one below, and all the reft are infmuated into thefe under them, by means of 
 precedes that pent downwards; and they receive the vertebra: above them into finuffes which they 
 have on each fide, and are bound together by means of ligaments and much cartilage ; and thus by 
 one moderate turn properly given, a man can at one time (land ereft, and at other times bend his 
 body in all the neceflary offices of life. 
 
 Below the neck, the firft rib is placed about the fame height with the fhoulders ; and after it 
 fix lower ribs extend to the bottom of the bread; thefe at their beginning are rounded as it were 
 with httle heads, which are inferred in the tranfverfe precedes of the vertebra:, nightly hollowed 
 for that purpofe; from thence they become broad, and being twilled outward they by degrees dege¬ 
 nerate into cartilage ; and at that part being again (lightly bent inward, they are joined to the pec¬ 
 toral bone. This begins ftrong and hard near the fauces, is lunated on each fide, and ends at the 
 priecordia, foften'd there into a cartilage. Under the former ribs are five, which the Greeks call 
 nothai being fhort and more (lender, and like the others gradually changed into cartilage; thefe 
 have their extremities in the abdominal parts, and the lowcft of them confifts chiefly of cartilage. 
 
 Again, immediately below the neck, two broad bones, one on each fide, tend to the fhoulders • 
 the Latins call them fcoptula aperta, the Greeks omoplata:; thefe have a finus at the upper 
 part, from thence are triangular, and fpreading gradually reach towards the fpine, the broadeft 
 parts being always the blunceft : thefe bones are cartilaginous at bottom, and hang as it were loofe 
 on the back parts, for except at the top they are joined to no bone, but are there fixed by ftrong 
 ligaments and mufcles. Near the firft rib, fomewhat more internally than its middle, this bone 
 has an excreflence, at that part thm, but proceeding nearer the broad bone of the fcapula it becomes 
 thicker and broader, and is bent a little outward; near which, fwelling fomewhat, on another 
 part of its fummit, it fupports the collar bone. 
 
 This is crooked, and may be reckoned among the hardeft bones, with one head refting on the 
 part I mentioned, and with the other on a little linuofity of the pefloral bone , and it yields fome¬ 
 what along with the motions of the arm, its head being connefted below with the fcapula by liga. 
 ments and cartilage. 
 
 Thence begins the arm bone, fwelling with heads at both extremities ; and there it is foft without 
 marrow, and covered with cartilage ; the middle or body is cylindrical, hard, and full of marrow, 
 gently convex on the fore and internal part, and outwardly concave: by the fore part I mean the 
 plain of the breaft; by the parts behind, that of the fcapulm : the internal is that which is next the fide, 
 and the external that which is removed from it. Thefe diftinflions I (hall all along apply to everji 
 
 member. 
 
[ 6 7 ] 
 
 member. The upper head of the arm is rounder than the other bones of which 1 have fpoken, and 
 is inferted in the broad bones of the fcapulae at the top thereof, and is tied outwardly in that fituation 
 chiefly by ligaments. Below it has two procefles, between which at the extreme parts there is a large 
 flnuofity. 
 
 Thefe afford a place to the fore-arm, which confifts of two bones, the radius, which the Greeks call 
 cercis, is the fuperior and (horteft it is more (lender at the upper part, and receives into its round and 
 flightly hollowed head a fmall tubercle of the humerus, which is fixed there by ligaments and carti¬ 
 lage. The cubit or ulna is inferior and longer, being thickeft at top, and there by two procefles is in¬ 
 ferted into the finuofity of the humerus, which I have mentioned between its two procefles. The two 
 bones of the fore arm are contiguous at the upper part, and after that are gradually feparated, and 
 again meet together at the hand, changing there the proportions of their thicknefs, for the radius is 
 fuller below, and the cubitus more (lender. Laftly the radius rifing into a cartilaginous head, is arti¬ 
 culated to the end of the other. The cubitus is round at that extremity, but on one fide has a 
 procefs that extends fomewhat further. And not to be always repeating the fame thing, we muff 
 take notice, that many bones end in cartilage, every joint is covered with it-, by this provifion they 
 move upon a fmooth furface, nor could they be joined together by ligaments or flefliy parts, with¬ 
 out the intervention of this middle fubflance. 
 
 In the hand, the firft part of the palm confifts of many fmall bones, the number of which is un¬ 
 certain, but they are all oblong and triangular, and connected in fuch a manner, that the angle of 
 one, and the plain furface of another are alternately fuperior, by which the whole together has the 
 appearance of one bone, fomewhar concave on tl»c itt&do , hot two fmall procetTeo from the hand 
 are inferted into the Gnus of the radius, and from the other fide five ftraight bones proceeding to the 
 fingers complete the palm, from which bones the fingers arife, each of which confifts of three bones, 
 and are all fimilar one to another. The bones neareft the palm are hollowed on the tops, and re¬ 
 ceive the fmall tubercles of thefe more remote • they are all faftened by ligaments, from which 
 the hardened nails arife, having their roots fixed rather to the foft parts and not to the bone; fuch 
 is the nature and arrangement of the upper parts. 
 
 The lower part of the fpine refts upon the bones of the coxas, which being tranfverle and exceed¬ 
 ing ftrong, defend the womb, the bladder, and the ftraight gut; they are gibbous on the external 
 fide, and hollow on the fide next the fpine; laterally, that is in the coxae themfelves, they have 
 round cavities, from which arifes the bone called pe&en, this ftrengthens the tranfverfe part of the 
 belly over the inteftines at the pubis it is ftraighter in men, but more bent outward in women, to 
 facilitate the birth. After thefe the thighs begin, the heads of which are more round even than thofe 
 of the arm bones, tho’ thefe laft are rounder than any other; below thofe heads are two procefles, 
 one before and another behind, then the bones become hard and full of marrow, and are gibbous 
 externally ; and they again fwell into heads at the inferior part. The fuperior heads are lodged in 
 the finuffes of the coxte, as thofe of the arms are in the bones of the fcapulae, thence they incline 
 gently inwards towards each other, by which they fupport the weight above in a more equal man¬ 
 ner -, and for the fame reafon the middle of the lower heads is hollowed, that they may be more eafily 
 fupported by the bones of the legs. This joint is covered with a fmall foft cartilaginous bone, called 
 the patella, which hanging loofe and adhering to no bone, is fixed only by mufcles and ligaments, 
 and inclining rather towards the thigh bone, defends the joint in all the flexions of the leg. 
 
 
 r, 
 
 The 
 
«5 
 
 [ ^8 ] 
 
 The leg confifts of two bones, for in all things the thigh refembles the arm, and the leg the fore¬ 
 arm, fo that the proportions, and even the beauty of the one may be known from that of the other; 
 which obfervation, as it begins in the bones, may be alfo extended to the foft parts. One of thefe 
 bones is placed on the outfide of the leg, and is properly called fura ; it is fhorter than the other, 
 and flender above, but fwells at the ancles. The other is placed forward, and is called tibia, it 
 is longer and thick in the upper part, and this bone only is articulated with the inferior part of the 
 femur, as the cubit is with the arm bone. The bones of the leg are alfo contiguous above and be¬ 
 low, but feperated in the middle as in the fore arm. 
 
 The leg is received below by the tranfverfe bone of the talus, which is placed above the heel 
 bone; this in fome parts is hollowed, and in others has procefies, and receives the procefies of the 
 talus, and is mutually received into its finus. The heel bone is hard, without marrow, and pro¬ 
 jects confiderably backwards, and there approaches towards a round figure. The other bones of 
 the foot are formed fimilar to thele of the hand, the foie correfponds to the palm, the fingers to the 
 toes, and the nails of the one to tliofe of the other. 
 
 J"0 conclude the anatomy of Celfus, it is proper to add what we find relating to that fubjedl in his general 
 preface , where after having given a Jhort bifiory of medicine, he narrates in a mofi: clear and beautiful 
 tnanner , the opinions and difputes of the principal fetts of the anticnt phyficians , upon the foundations 
 of medical knowledge, and among the refi of anatomy, of which the rational or philofophical feft fpeak 
 
 thus .- 
 
 T> ESIDES, as in the inward parts pains and various kinds of difeafes arife, they are of opinion that 
 no man can apply a remedy to parts he is ignorant of, and therefore that it is neceflary to cut 
 open dead bodies, and to examine their inward parts, and they extol Herophilus and Erafiflratus who. 
 differed criminals alive,given from prifons by the authority of kings,and while the breath yet remained, 
 examined parts that nature had concealed; their fituation, their colour, their figure, their fize, their ar¬ 
 rangement, their firmnefs, their ioftnefs, their fmoothnefs, their procefTes and their cavities, their con¬ 
 nexions, received by or receiving each other. Without this knowledge of the inward parts, how could 
 any one diftinguifh what bowel was affeCted in any inward pain ? and how could the cure be per¬ 
 formed by one ignorant of the part affefted ? and if a man’s bowels were expofed by a wound, how 
 could the found parts be otherwife diftinguilhed from the injured ones, and the proper remedies ap¬ 
 plied, than by an exaCt knowledge of the natural colour of each part ? Befides, by knowing the fitu¬ 
 ation, the figure, and the fize of the inward parts, external remedies can be more fitly applied -, and 
 the like reafons can be given for the other things that have been mentioned : nor can it be called 
 cruelty, as fome vainly fuppole, by the lufferings of a few criminals, to find remedies for the deferv- 
 ing people of all ages. 
 
 JN oppofition to the former, the empyrics, a fett equally refpeftable, who contended that experience in 
 the prattice of medicine was the only true foundation of the art , fpeak of anatomy in the following 
 
 r OW thefe things we have been talking of are only ufelefs; but to open men alive is not only ufe- 
 lefs, but the greateft cruelty, and to pervert an art that has the glory of protecting the health of 
 
 mankind. 
 
[ ] 
 
 mankind, to tormenting them, and that in the moft terrible manner ; efpecially when what is fought 
 for with fo much brutality, partly cannot be known at all, and partly may be learned without this 
 barbarity : for the colour, the fmoothnefs, the foftnefs, the hardnefs, and all fuch things are not 
 the fame in the body thus cut open as it was in the entire man, becaufe even without fuch violence, 
 athoufand accidents, even of a fmaller kind, make great changes upon the body; as fear, pain, 
 hunger, crudity and lalfitude, and it is much more probable that the inward parts are changed un¬ 
 der fuch terrible wounds and butchery, as they are of a fofter nature, and new even to the light; and 
 is it not abfurd to imagine that the itate of parts is the fame in life, as in a dying, yea even in a 
 dead man ? and allowing that while a man was yet breathing the abdomen could be opened, which 
 is not the principal part, yet as foon as the knife advances towards the breaft, and there cuts the 
 tranfverfe divifion [a membrane which divides the upper cavity of the trunk from the lower, the 
 Greeks call it diaphragm) the man immediately expires, and fo the butchering operator fees only the 
 bowels and thorax of a dead man, becaufe the parts mud neceffarily appear as in the ftate of death, 
 not as when the man was alive; fo the phyfician can only boaft of cruelly murdering a man, not of 
 knowing the ftate of the vicera during life : but if any thing ufeful can be feen while a man is 
 alive, chance often puts that in our way in the courfe of practice; for fometimes a gladiator on 
 the ftage, a foldier in the field, or a traveller attacked by robbers, is wounded in fuch a manner, 
 that in diffeient men various inward parts appear, and fhow to a prudent phyfician, their fituation, 
 their pofition, their arrangement, their figure, and the like, not performing a murder, but a cure ; 
 and fo he learns by humanity, what the others do by the utmoft cruelty. And for the like reafon, 
 mangling dead bodies is by no means neceffary, (which tho* it is not cruel, yet is loathfome) 
 as moft parts appear different after death, and what can be known from living bodies, we learn 
 while we are curing them. 
 
 lytST L T, Celfus delivers his own opinion in a few words , agreeable to the fentiments of humanity , and of 
 the greatejl wafers of the art: 
 
 A S thefe queftions have been often and keenly handled by phyficians in numerous volumes, and 
 ^ as the difpute ftill lubfifts, we muft here fubjoin what appears moft probable, without partiality 
 to either fide, but taking a middle way, which is eafy to be found, in this as in moft difputes, by 
 thofe that fearch after the truth in a fair and candid manner.- 
 
 '[VT OW to return, I am of opinion that medicine fhould ufe reafoning, butlhould be founded upon 
 ™ evident caufes ; the obfeure ones being removed, tho’ not from the thoughts of the artift, yet 
 from the practice of the art: but to cut open live bodies is both ufelefs and cruel, tho’ diffeftions of 
 dead ones are neceffary to learners ; for they ought to know the pofition and arrangement of the 
 parts,which dead bodies can better exhibit than living and wounded men ; but the other things which 
 can only be feen in living bodies, praftice in the cure of wounds will difeover, tho’ more flowly, yet 
 with more mildnefs and humanity. 
 
 NOTES 
 
 
C 70 ] 
 
 NOTES 
 
 ON TIIE ANATOMY 
 
 OF CELSUS. 
 
 B O O K IV. C H A P. I. 
 
 N. B. The pages and lines are cited as they are found in all the Latin editions of Celfus fwce that of 
 Vandcr Linden in 1657. 
 
 Page 182 , line 5 . J HA VE added the titles of the chapters, tho' it evidently appears by many of them, that 
 they are not from Celfus ; befides, the moll ancient manufeript of Celfus, of the feven 
 in the Medicean library at Florence , neither has thefe titles nor any pun&uation. There is no manufeript of 
 Celfus that 1 know of in any Britifh library. 
 
 Ibid. 1. 14 . I have taken the liberty to add here, at the end of the firft paragraph, a few words taken from the 
 beginning of the next chapter, as they fhow the intention and opinion of the author in this and the other ana- 
 mi cal parts of his work. 
 
 Ibid. 1. 15 — 18 . The Italian verfion, publifhed at Venice in 1747 , feems to favour the meaning I have given 
 this paflage. 
 
 Page 183 , l. ij Ctf’r. TUc the of ilic. afper* artcrl* tw the vertebrse of the fplne is natural and 
 
 beautiful, tho’ the refemblance is imperfect. Thefe kind of comparifons are common with the ancients and with 
 moll fine writers, particularly Celfus, and have their ufe and beauty in fcience; thus the lungs are after¬ 
 wards compared to an ox’s hoof, an idea that has been retained by future anatomifts. 
 
 As to the particulars of the anatomy of Celfus, contained in this chapter, befides the general beauty and ele¬ 
 gance of the whole, I might mention feveral deferiptions more juft than thofe commonly received ; for exam¬ 
 ple, his concluding inftead of beginning with the omentum, after having deferibed the parts it covers, his confi- 
 dering the cefophagus, or gullet, as the beginning of the inteflines, and his dividing the inteftines into three, 
 viz. the jejunum (commonly called the duodenum) the fmall, and the great inteftines ; a divifion which long ago 
 occurred to me from nature and the fimple view of the parts, when I was a very young anatomift, and before I 
 had read Celfus, therefore I had more pleafure to find it in that admired author, who deferibes like a painter, 
 as every true anatomift ought to do. 
 
 On the whole, how inftrudlivc and delightful is it to an anatomift, to fee all the vifeera of the thorax and ab¬ 
 domen thus prefented to the eyes as it were in one view, and deferibed in fofhort, clear, and natural a manner? 
 
 I am perfuaded that a good judge, who knows how difficult it is to deferibe in this mafterly way, will be more 
 pleafed with this manner of Celfus, than with many tedious, unconnefted, tho’ laborious deferiptions, which are 
 too common in anatomy. The ancients were ignorant of the minute ftru&ure of animals, and of many fmall, 
 tho’ fometimes important parts, known to the moderns; nor were they accuftomed to obferve and deferibe with 
 fo much minutenefs and accuracy, which indeed the moderns have carried to trifling and excefs; but for judi¬ 
 cious and elegant defeription, no modern can compare with the fine writers of antiquity. Education among them 
 was complete and univerfal ; eloquence was their peculiar ftudy, and defeription is one part of eloquence, 
 bringing things as it were before the eyes like the art of painting ; and as the ancients did not know engraving, 
 nor trufted fo much to figures to fupply the defe&s of their verbal deferiptions, they were obliged to labour thefe 
 to greater perfe&ion. 
 
 BOOK 
 
[ 7t ] 
 
 BOOK VIII. CHAP. L 
 
 Page 499. /. 3. and 4. Offaque ejus , £sV. Thefe words muft either be tranflated in the fenfe I have given 
 them, which I find is alfo the fenfe of the Italian verfion, fo as to underftand by ab interioribus quibus inter 
 fe connecluntur molliora funt , the foft fpungy diploe, or internal fubftance that connedts the two tables, or in the 
 fenfe exprelTed by the French verfion (Paris 1754), which no doubt the words will bear, but it is not confirm¬ 
 ed by anatomy, nor is it even fo agreeable to the natural meaning of the words : thus, <c les os font plus durs a 
 /’exterieur, & plus moux a Vinter ieur , vers les endroits ou Us s'uniffent. Entre les futures de ces differens os , s'infnuent 
 plufteurs vaiJJ'eaux , &c.” As to the words hard and soft, applied to bones by Celfus, tho’ he feems once or 
 twice to apply them improperly, which may be eafily excufed with other fmall errors t yet by hard he in ge¬ 
 neral means where the fibres are compared and fmooth, and by soft where they are fpungy and form a 
 cellular texture. 
 
 Ibid. 1 . 25—30. The words of thefe five lines arc partly corrupted, as the fenfe of the latter part is obfeure ; 
 they feem alfo to be tranfpofed, being inferted in the middle of the defeription of the futures, to which they no 
 way belong ; for after leniter inftdunt , l. 25. at facies , /. 31. very naturally follows ; if we could therefore find 
 the true place of thefe five lines, which feem really the words of Celfus, it might help to explain them : the 
 moft likely place feems to me, p. 500. /. 30. after audiendi ejl , where Celfus is deferibing the parts about the ear, 
 and therefore naturally mentions the maftoi'd procefs, and alfo the os medium in exteriorem partem inclinatum. 
 I had once tranflated thefe words as a defeription of the temporal part of the zygomatic procefs, and this my 
 conjecture of the tranfpofition of the words from where I have placed them, led me to; but as the whole 
 zygoma is immediately afterwards deferibed, I rather adopted the opinion of Kraufe, which is ingenious, and 
 not improbable, for we find Oribafius calls the fpheno’id, the middle bone, TO [UffOt CtfMpoTtput 05 T«», whidl 
 bone, fays he, fome make to belong to the head, and others to the upper jaw, as it is fituated in the middle 
 between them; but tho’ I have adopted the opinion of Kraufe, I by no means think my own 
 without foundation ; efpecially as I find the temporal bone, and its zygomatic and other proceffes deferibed 
 in the fame order in Oribafius, as here in Celfus; and yet immediately after, as in Celfus, is added alfo a full 
 defeription of the zygoma. See the end of Oribafius’s chapter on the bones of the head, and the Ihort one that 
 follows it on the zygoma. The lamdoid future, tho’ well known to the ancients, is omitted in Celfus or 
 more probably, is loft by the corruption of the text. 
 
 Page 502. /. ult. There is no need of putting una for uno , with Kraufe ; but for aliquid, page 503. / 2 
 I would read alioqui , with Linden, who fpoils this paflage by changing the ancient reading promptum , a 
 word on feveral occafions elegantly ufed by Celfus, into pronum. This kind of liberty Linden has too often 
 taken with Celfus, even in the cleareft paflages, a thing not to be excufed ; by which, under the pretence of 
 reftoring authors, they are mangled and corrupted in the grofleft manner. 
 
 Page 503. /. 34. At a fumna cofla. This paflage is furely much corrupted, and has given abundance of trouble 
 to the editors and commentators upon Celfus, even to thofe moft converfant in anatomy. The later editions I 
 mean thofe copied from Vander Linden, by departing from the old editions after that editor, have corrupted 
 many parts of this fine author, which have partly been reftored by Kraufe, merely by replacing the readings 
 found in the old editions ; but here Kraufe has retained the new paragraph of Linden, as if Celfus had been 
 treating of a new fubjeft, and a new bone, whereas he is only continuing the defeription of the fcapula : and 
 I am of opinion, that the words as they ftand in the firft edition of 1478, with a very fmall change, tho’ no 
 doubt fomewhat obfeure and corrupted, will appear to deferibe, firft the coracoid procefs, and then the 
 acromion of the fcapula, and in that fenfe I have tranflated them. 
 
 Page 504- l- 16. As in this part of the defeription of the os humeri , the editions differ greatly from each 
 other, and from anatomy; I have chofen to follow Nature alone, as fhe appeared to me, in my tranflation of 
 this paflage, having regard at the fame time to the manner of Celfus. 
 
 T p v . 
 
[ 7* 3 
 
 Page 504. /. 25. As parvo excejju is wanting in the firft and other editions, I would expunge it, and for 
 extranfitu in the firft edition, I would not read extra fitum, or extra id fitum , with Kraufe and Linden, but 
 extra in Jitu, which approaches nearer the original word, and bears a much more fimple, natural, and better 
 fenfe, than to fuppofe that Celfus enters into fo particular a defeription of the joint of the arm-bone with 
 the fcapula ; and this is confirmed by his fimple manner of deferring the joint of the thigh. Vertici lati , for 
 verticillati in one word, is an emendation that muft be received by every one; and tho’ obvious when difeover- 
 ed, by the ingenuity of the elegant Morgagni, was not thought of by any former editor; on the contrary, 
 the fpurious word verticillati , was not only explained and defended, but even inferted into dictionaries from 
 this fingle corrupted paflage. 
 
 GENERAL PREFACE OF CELSUS. 
 
 Page 7. /. 13. Much has been wrote and conjcCtured upon the word, cortaftum , contaRum, contraction^ 
 conft aRum, isle, all which words in this place are unworthy of Celfus : it would perhaps therefore be better 
 to expunge the word altogether, as an interpellation and repetition, and to oppofe lavorcm to proccffus deir.de 
 Jingulorum atque recejfus , which immediately follows it, efpecially as in page jj. line 13. where this very pafiage 
 is as it were recapitulated, no fuch word is added after lavorem. 
 
 Had it been proper in fo fmall a work, to expatiate on the beauties of this fine author, or to give the reafons 
 and authorities that induced me to tranflate every pafiage as I have done, thefe notes, perhaps too tedious al¬ 
 ready, would have been ftill more fo. I have no delight in verbal criticifm, and nothing but a love of Celfus 
 could have perfuaded me to labour in ftudies of this kind. I fhall therefore conclude thefe notes with 
 obferving, that as in this fine preface of Celfus, and in every other part of his work, we find the mod mafterly 
 defeription of medicine, fo we find in no garfcjnore ftrikine proofs of his veneration for that art, and for thofe 
 who were eminent therein ; and alfo of his freely delivering his own fentiments on the mod important quef- 
 tions in medicine : great arguments in favour of believing Celfus a phyfician, but a phyfician like a noble 
 Roman, and in the mod cultivated age of antiquity, with fentiments and ideas far above thefe that are too 
 often found in the generality of the phyficians of modern times, even in thofe who fliould be leaders and ex¬ 
 amples to the medical order. 
 
 / N 
 
[ 75 1 
 
 V Cicero's Jhort Jketch of the animal (economy, we are not to expert the accuracy of a profejfed anatomift, 
 much lefs the modern improvements •, but we will find the true genius of philofophy, oratory, and fome- 
 times almoft of poetry. The moderns, in the whole of natural philofophy, are fuperior in matter and 
 true dottrine, the ancients in the manner and art of writing, upon that and almoft every fubjecl. 
 What rich and beautiful fyftems would they have left, had they been poffeffed of our materials ! In my 
 tranflation, I followed chiefly the edition of Lyons, printed in MDLIX-, endeavouring , as much as 
 I was able, to exprefs the fenfe and beauty of the original. 
 
 CICERO OF THE NATURE OF THE GODS. 
 Book II. Page 128 —158. 
 
 may clearly fee ’ that tlie immortal g° ds have a peculiar regard to mankind, if we take 
 a furvey of his whole frame, of his outward form, and the perfedion of his nature. The 
 life of animals confifts in three things, food, drink, and breath ; the mouth is fitted to receive all 
 thefe, and the noftrils to affift in breathing. The teeth, arranged in the mouth, chew, break, and 
 grind the food; the (harp ones, oppofite to each other in the middle, divide the morfel by biting 
 it; but the inner ones (called genuini) grind it down ; this feems alfo to be affiled hy the to „g ue ° 
 at the roots of which lies the pharynx, or beginning of the cefophagus, here what we receive into 
 our mouth firft lands. This part is contiguous to the tonfils on each fide, and is bounded by the 
 extreme and inner parts of the palate, and by this is the food pufhed down, being conveyed hither 
 by the a&ion and motions of the tongue, the parts of the cefophagus below the food beino- relax¬ 
 ed, and thefe above contra&ing themfelves. But as the afpera arteria (for fo it is called by phyfi- 
 cians) has an entry contiguous to the roots of the tongue, -a little higher than where the cefophagus 
 is joined thereto, and as this paffage reaches to the fubftance of the lungs, and receives that air 
 which we breath, and fends it forth again from the lungs, this entry has a certain covering, to the 
 end that no food may enter into this paffage, and obftrud refpiration. The abdominal bowels 
 immediately under the cefophagus, are the receptacle of the food and drink, but the lungs and 
 heart attrad the air which we breath. In the lower belly, there are many parts wonderfully con 
 ftrufled, and made up chiefly of membranes; it confifts of many folds and windings, and holds 
 and contains whatever it receives, either of moift or dry, fo as eafily to change and dived it • thefe 
 parts are alternately relaxed and confirmed, and they colled and intimately mix whatever they 
 receive ; fo that by means of the confiderable heat they are poffeffed of, and by grinding the food 
 and the force of the air, all is eafily digefted, melted down, and diftributed over the whole body’ 
 The lungs are of a thin fubftance, and of a fpungy fofmefs, admirably fitted for fucking in air, they 
 contrad themfelves in expiration, and are dilated by reception of air, that this animal food the 
 greateft fupport of living creatures, may be frequently drawn in. But the alimentary juice in the 
 abdomen and inteft.nes, being feparated from the other parts of the food, is conveyed to the liver 
 by certain dired paffages, leading from the middle of the bowels to the port* of the liver, (for fo 
 they are called) to which they reach and adhere, and from thence there are other paffages reaching 
 to the kidneys, by which the food paffes that enters not the liver. After the bile and the liquors, 
 
 that 
 
T 74 ] 
 
 that come away by the kidneys, are thus fecreted from the alimentary juice, the remaining part is 
 converted into blood, and being collefted at the fame portae of the liver, where all its paffages 
 meet, it paffes into the vena cava, and is there blended ; and being now prepared and digefted, it 
 is conveyed to the heart, from whence it is diftributed over the whole body, by means of veins 
 reaching to every part; nor is it difficult to explain in what manner the remains of the food are 
 protruded by the contractions and relaxations of the inteftines, but we omit thefe things that this 
 difcourfe may contain nothing unpleafant. Let us rather explain that wondrous fabrick of nature, 
 how the air that is drawn into the lungs by breathing, is firft warmed by that very aCtion, and then 
 by the motion of the lungs; part of this air is fent forth by expiration, part is received by a cer¬ 
 tain portion of the heart, which they call its ventricle, adjoining to that other which receives the 
 blood that comes from the liver by the vena cava : and in this manner, from thefe parts, is the 
 blood diffufed thro’ the whole body by the veins, and the air by the arteries; both which kind of 
 veffels, being many, frequent, and intimately woven over the whole body, ffiow the incredible ex¬ 
 cellence of this wonderful and divine work. Need I mention the bones, which as a frame hid 
 tinder the other parts, are jointed in a wondrous manner, and fitted not only for the liability, and 
 to determine the form of the limbs, but alfo for motion and every bodily aClion: add to thefe the 
 ligaments by which the joints are bound together, and the mufcles interwoven and diftributed 
 over the whole body, in the fame manner as the veins and arteries which come from the heart. 
 
 Much might be added of this attentive and Ikilful provifion of nature, in order to ffiew what 
 great and excellent things were given by GOD to mankind. Firft by raffing them from the 
 ground ftately and ereCt, that by contemplating the heavens above, they might attain a know¬ 
 ledge of the gods. For men are not upon the earth fo much as mere inhabitants, but rather as 
 fpedators of things above and celeftial, which are obferved by no other animal. Then the fenfes 
 meftengers and interpreters of all things, are wonderfully formed for the neceftary ufes, and placed 
 in the head as in a citadel. The eyes like two centinels, obtain the higheft place, from whence 
 looking around they perform their office : and the ears for receiving founds, which naturally 
 mount upwards, are rightly placed on high : fo alfo the nofe for odours, which fly upward : and as 
 the fenfe of fuelling is a principal judge of meats and drinks, it is rightly placed near the mouth • 
 in which, as nature has opened a paflage for the aliment, the feat of tafte is therefore placed. As 
 to touch, it is equally diffufed over the whole body, that we may be fenfible of every impulfe, and 
 every change of heat and cold. And as architects turn away from the view fuch conduits as 
 would be offenfive to the inhabitants, fo nature has removed the like things far from the fenles. 
 Now what artift but nature could have ffiown fuch (kill, in contriving the organs of fenfe ? firft 
 the eyes are cloathed and furrounded with thin membranes, which are partly tranfparent, that we 
 might fee thro’ them ; and alfo firm, to fuftain the contained parts. The eyes are alfo flippery and 
 moveable, that they might give way to fhun danger, and be eaflly turned every way for the fake 
 of vifion ; and that fpot thro’ which we fee, called the pupil, is fo fmall, that it can eaflly ffiun 
 things that might hurt it; and the eye-lids, which like curtains cover the eyes, are of the fofteft 
 nature, fo as not to hurt that tender organ, and moft aptly made to fhur, and prevent any thing 
 from falling into the eyes, and alfo to open them, and this they can repeat with the utmoft cele¬ 
 rity ; they are alfo fortified all round with hairs, as with a rampart; thus are the eyes defended 
 when we are awake, and wrapt up under the fame eye-lids, they are fafely defended during fleep. 
 Befides, the eyes are moft ufefully funk, and defended all around with protuberant parts; above 
 by the eye-brows, which carry off the fweat falling from the head and brow, the cheeks gently 
 
 fvvelling, 
 
[ 75 ] 
 
 fwelling, protedl them on the lower part and fides; and the nofe is fo placed as to refemble a wall 
 between the two eyes. As to the ears, they are always open, for this fenfe is ufeful even in fleep, 
 as we can be awakened by any noife. The paflage to the ear is winding, for had it been ftraight, 
 things might have more eafily got in •, and if any animalcule Ihould attempt to enter, it is caught 
 in the wax as in birdlime. What are commonly called the ears hang outward, not only for a 
 defence to the organ, but alfo to catch the founds* and convey them inward •, they are formed of 
 many hard and as it were horny cavities, with numerous windings, thereby increafing the founds 
 received, in the fame manner as we add to the lute, fhell or horn, and as from hollow cavities 
 founds are always increafed. In the fame manner the noftrils, always open for neceflary ufes, have 
 a narrow entry to exclude noxious things, and they have a moifture ufeful to repel dull and the 
 like. The fenfe of tafte is well protedled, being placed in the mouth, both for ufe and for fafety. 
 Now every one of the human fenfes greatly excel thefe of the other animals. Firft the eyes fee 
 every thing moll exquifitly, in thefe arts of which they are the proper judges, as in painting, 
 fculpture, modelling, and in the attitude and movement of bodies-, the eyes likewife judge of the 
 beauty and arrangement of colours and figures, and of their propriety and decency; they 
 judge even of greater things, fuch as the virtues and the vices, they can diftinguifli a perfon angry 
 or appeafed, joyful or grieved, courageous or cowardly, rafli or timid. The ears alfo judge in an 
 admirable and fkilful manner, by diftinguiflung the variety of founds, both in the voice, and in 
 wind and (hinged inftruments *, the intervals, the diftindtions, and every fpecies of found ; the rich 
 and ftrong, the dull, the fmooth, the rough, the grave, the acute, the hard and the flexible; which 
 differences are only perceived by the human ear. And we can judge of many things by the fmell, 
 by the tafle, and by open touch ; to pleafe and fatisfy which fenfes, there are rpo many arts invent¬ 
 ed ; for we all fee with regret, to what lengths unguents and cookery, and the luxury of the body 
 have now arrived among us. Then with regard to the human mind and foul, he that does not clear¬ 
 ly fee a divine hand, in the reafon, council, and forethought of man, mult in my judgment be void 
 of thefe qualities. While I am on this fubjedl, I would wifh, my friend Cotta, for your eloquence ; 
 how nobly would you expatiate here ? firft how great is our difcernment, and then the power of 
 reafoning, viz. joining and comprehending the confequences with what went before, by which we 
 are able to conclude, with the greateft certaihty, what follows from each thing, and are able to form 
 definitions, comprehending them in a fmall compals; whereby we fee the nature and the 
 effcdl of the fciences, than which there is nothing more excellent, not even in the Deity. And how 
 great are thefe things, which you academics endeavour to weaken and deftroy, viz. our perceiving ex¬ 
 ternal things by the mind and fenfes, by collating and comparing which, we form all the arts for the 
 ufe and pleafure of life. Then that miftrefs of all things, as you are wont to call it, the power of 
 eloquence, how noble and divine! by which we learn things we are ignorant of, and teach others 
 what we know. By this we exhort, we perfuade, we confole the afflidted, we banifh fear, we check 
 immoderate joy, defires, and anger; by this we were united in commonwealths, by rights and 
 laws, and allured from a favage life. But without great attention, it is difficult to fee the pains 
 nature has taken in the organs of fpeech. Firft the windpipe reaches from the lungs to the bot¬ 
 tom of the mouth, thro’ this the voice pafles, and is formed under the diredtion of the mind ; then 
 the tongue is fituated in the mouth, bounded by the teeth, this ftops and forms the profufion of 
 the voice, producing clear and compreffed founds, by diredling them againft the teeth, or other 
 parts of the mouth. Therefore orators fay, the tongue refembles a pledtrum, the teeth the firings, 
 and the nofe thefe horns which refound with the firings in mufic. Next with hands how fitly has 
 nature provided us, and capable of fo many arts! how eafily can we ftretch and bend the fingers, 
 
 U fo 
 
f 76 ] 
 
 lb that we perform every motion with eafe, on account of tire flexibility of the joints 1 therefore the 
 hand and fingers are fitted for painting, for fculpture, for mufical inftruments of every kind But 
 what I have mentioned are chiefly for pleafure, the hands ferve alfo the neceflary purpofes of agri- 
 cu ture, building, manufaftures of clothing both weaved and fewed, and every work of brafs or 
 iron : from all which we fee, that by the invention of the mind, the perception of the fenfes, and 
 the labour of Ikilful hands, we are in pofieffion of every convenience. We ereft cities walls 
 habitations, temples; and alfo by the labour of man, that is, by the hands, we procure plenty and 
 variety of food, for the earth bears many things acquired by the labour of the hands, to be im¬ 
 mediately confumed, or laid up and preferved by art to prevent corruption ; befides, we feed upon 
 animals, both of the land, the water, and the air, partly by catching, and partly by rearing them. 
 
 " 7 tra,nm & we have the <=f ftrong quadrupeds, whofe ftrength and fwiftnefs, we as it were 
 
 convey to ourfelves, we put loads upon fome animals, and yokes upon others, we turn to our own 
 ufe the acute fenfes of elephants, and the fagacity of dogs , we dig iron from the caverns of the 
 earth, a thing neceflary for tilling the ground ; we difcover the hidden veins of copper filver 
 and gold metals both for ufe and for ornament. Then, by cutting trees, and wood of every 
 "! ’ 0tl W,U and P lanted > we procure firing for warmth and culinary ufes, and alfo timber for 
 building, to defend us from heat and cold j of great ufe alfo for fhipping, by which we 
 are fupplied with profufion of every earthly comfort; and the moft violent things in nature, viz. 
 t e feas and the winds, man alone is able to govern, by his Ikill in naval affairs, whereby we en¬ 
 joy many produftions of the fea. Man has likewife dominion over the produfts of the land; 
 we enjoy the fields, we enjoy the mountains; the rivers, the lakes are ours; we fow corn, we plant 
 trees we fertilize the earth by canals of water ; we direft, we conduft, we avert the courfe of rivers- 
 and by means of our hands, we as it were fuperadd a new nature to nature herfelf Yea the’ 
 reafon of man has it not penetrated even to the heavens ! for we alone of all animals, obferve the 
 nfing, retting, and courfe of the heavenly bodies; men have defined the day, the month, the year 
 the eclipfes of the fun and moon; the times and quantities of which, they can predift to all futuri’ 
 ty : from the contemplation whereof, men acquire a knowledge of the Gods ; thence piety arifes to 
 which is conjoined juftice and the other virtues, and form all together a life of happinefs equal ind 
 fimilar to that of the Gods, yielding in nothing to the coeleftials, except immortality, without which 
 life may be complete. From all which it is clear, how much mankind excel all the other animals 
 and that neither fuch a figure and compofition of bodily members, nor fuch powers of foul and 
 of genius, could ever have arifen from chance alone. 
 
 FINIS. 
 
 DIRECTIONS TO THE BOOKBINDER. 
 
 Each Pair of Prints are to be placed facing each other, firft the outline figure, and then 
 the lhaded one, in the following order : 
 
 The Pair marked Tab. I. between pages 22 and 23. 
 
 The Pair marked Tab. II. between pages 28-29. 
 
 The Pair marked Tab. III. between pages 32_33. 
 
 The Pair marked Tab. IV. between pages 38_39. 
 
 The Pair marked Tab. V. between pages 46_47. 
 
 The Pair marked Tab. VI. between pages 52_53. 
 
 The Binder is defired to cut off as little as poflible from the margin. 
 


 
 
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