/I 
 
 a 
 
 Y 
 
 
 
 AN ESSAY 
 
 THE EDUCATION OF THE EYE 
 
 VVnil REFERENCE TO 
 
 PAINTING. 
 

 
 AN ESSAY 
 
 ON 
 
 THE EDUCATION OF THE EYE 
 
 WITH RKFEKENCE TO 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 ILUUSTRATED BY COPPER PLATES AND WOOD CCTS. 
 
 BY JOHN BURNET, F. R. S. 
 
 AUTHOR OF PRACTICAL HINTS ON PAINTING. 
 
 “ \'isual impressions are those which in infancy furnish the principal means of developing the powers of the 
 understanding; it is to this class of principles that the philosopher resorts for the most apt and perspicuous 
 illustrations of his reasoning, and it is also from the same inexhaustible fountain that tlie poet draws his most 
 pleasing and grapiiic as well as his sublimest imagery.” dr. rogft's Bridgewater treatise. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 •TAMES CARPENTER, OLD BOND STREET. 
 
 1837. 
 
TO 
 
 WILLIAM ALLAN, R. A. 
 
 MEMBER OF THE SCOTTISH ACADEMY, 
 
 AND 
 
 MASTER OF THE TRUSTEES ACADEMY 
 FOR ENCOURAGING THE ARTS AND MANUFACTURES OF SCOTLAND, 
 
 THIS ESSAY 
 Is Inscrtitlt, 
 
 IN TESTIMONY OF THE 
 
 AUTHOR’S REGARD. 
 

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PREFACE. 
 
 In prefacing a work of this brief description, where so many branches 
 of the Art of Painting are introduced with little more than an 
 enumeration of their component parts, I ought to apologise, in the 
 first instance, for thus attempting to convey any information which 
 can be carried into practical usefulness in so small a compass : my 
 motive for so doing was to give, if possible, an insight into the 
 intricacies of the Art, without distracting the attention of the reader 
 by a multitude of examples, whose union often destroys the strong 
 impression of a single illustration. Though the varieties of painting 
 are endless, yet the properties of which these varieties are composed 
 are, as in music, few in number ; I have endeavoured, therefore, 
 to notice only the leading principles which must be known, and 
 which by reflection and observation can be extended to an infinite 
 series of ramifications. The same simple rules wdiich should regulate 
 the instruction of beginners, I have endeavoured to point out as 
 existing in the highest departments of the Art, communicating by 
 their presence that value which a vein of gold imparts to a mass of 
 inferior matter. To some it may appear that the subject is too 
 physically treated. I have been actuated so to do by the custom of 
 
Vlll 
 
 VKEFACE. 
 
 the present time, and surely every one ought to know something of 
 the construction of that instrument he is in possession of, and of its 
 operations on the mind. In what I have advanced, I have quoted 
 the opinions of the best authors to corroborate and strengthen my 
 own, thereby hoping to render an Art by which civilized society is so 
 highly embellished, more known and appreciated. 
 
 March 2 , 1837 . 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 I>4gl- 
 
 Measure.ment 3 
 
 Form 3 
 
 Perspective 4 
 
 Lines 0 
 
 Diminution 7 
 
 Angles 9 
 
 Circles 11 
 
 Aerial Perspective 22 
 
 Chiaro Oscuro 28 
 
 Invention 34 
 
 Composition 40 
 
 Arrangement 52 
 
 Harmony 56 
 
 Form 56 
 
 Chiaro Oscuro 60 
 
 Harmony oe Colour 63 
 
 Studying from Nature 66 
 
 b 
 
LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 Past 
 
 Plate I 
 
 Plate II 
 
 Plate III 
 
 Plate IV 
 
 Plate IV* 
 
 Plate V 00 
 
 Plate VI 
 
 Plate VII 
 
AN ESSAY 
 
 ON 
 
 THE EDUCATION OF THE EYE 
 
 WITH 
 
 REFERENCE TO PAINTING. 
 
 In a country so lai'gely connected with manufactures as this is, we cannot 
 but wonder why the education of the eye has not been more generally 
 cultivated; observing, as is also the case with the ear, that its education 
 in after life rarely gives the possessor those advantages which result from 
 a proper direction having been given in youth : nor do I see why drawing 
 should not accompany the elements of reading and writing, the complicated 
 forms of the letters in many languages presenting a more serious obstacle 
 than what is required in the rudiments of drawing ; and I have no doubt 
 but that a very short time would be sufficient to enable a scholar to draw 
 objects with tolerable correctness. Without this education, not only are 
 the most valuable advantages often lost', but the mind is deprived of one 
 
 * Locke, whose attention was turned to this branch of education, says, when he can write 
 well and quick, I think it may be convenient not only to continue the exercise of his hand in 
 writing, but also to improve the use of it further in drawing, a thing very useful to gentlemen on 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 of its chief sources of correct information, and the hand remains in a 
 manner paralyzed and unable to record what the eye takes cognizance of; 
 whereas when they advance in mutual contact through a course of early 
 instruction this difficulty is overcome. This ready execution of the hand 
 is to be acquired only by constant practice ; for however readily the eye 
 may perceive the form of an object, the power of delineating it on the 
 paper or canvass is where the apparent difficulty lies, it is here where its 
 correctness is put to the test; how much constant practice perfects this 
 chain of communication between the eye and the hand, may be proved by 
 the facility with which a person acquires the power of writing in the dark, 
 or with his eyes shut. This quick communication, however, is not to be 
 purchased at the expense of correctness, which ought to be the greatest 
 consideration; for if the eye, or ear, falls into a loose, imperfect method 
 of study, the student finds the greatest difficulty in getting rid of such 
 unprofitable groundwork. In advocating the advantages of this branch 
 of education, it is not my province to raise up chimeras, or what might 
 be considered sufficient reasons for deferring it. Those who have the 
 
 several occasions, but especially if he travel, as that which helps a man often to express in a few 
 lines w'ell put together what a whole sheet of paper in writing would not be able to represent and 
 make intelligible. How many buildings may a man see, hew many machines and habits meet 
 with, the ideas whereof would be easily retained and communicated by a little skill in drawing, 
 which being committed to words are in danger of being lost, or at best but ill retained in the most 
 exact descriptions ? I do not mean that I would have your son a perfect painter ; to be that to 
 any tolerable degree will require more time than a young gentleman can spare from his other 
 improvements of greater moment; but so much insight into perspective and skill in drawing as 
 will enable him to represent tolerably on paper any thing he sees, may, I think, be got in a little 
 time .” — Locke s Thoughts concerning Education. 
 
 “ With regard to the practice of drawing, it will be proper to incite the scholars to industry 
 by showing in other books the use of the art, and informing them how much it assists the 
 apprehension and relieves the memory, and if they are obliged sometimes to write descriptions of 
 engines, utensils, or any complex pieces of workmanship, they will more fully apprehend the 
 necessity of an expedient which so happily supplies the defects of language, and enables the eye to 
 receive what cannot be conveyed to the mind any other way.”— Preface to the Preceptor. 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 3 
 
 instruction of youth entrusted to them, I am confident would find it rather 
 an assistance, as it might be given either as an amusement or as a reward 
 of merit; and, in order to put it in the power of any master to instruct, I 
 shall endeavour to proceed in the simplest manner, and with as few 
 diagrams as the subject renders necessary. 
 
 MEASUREMENT. 
 
 To teach the eye to measure the distance between one object and another 
 ought to be the first proceeding ; the forms of the lines which bound these 
 spaces, the shapes contained or excluded by such lines ought to follow, 
 for as the eye must have something tangible to work upon, it ought to be 
 simple and evident. I should therefore commence by a series of dots or 
 points, first two, then tln-ee, four, and five ; also the angles made by- 
 drawing lines from each several point. A pair of compasses will enable 
 any one to compare their correctness with the original, for until a pupil 
 can accomplish pretty correctly these preliminaries, it is useless to hasten 
 to more complicated matters. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 All forms containing more or less portions of a triangle, square, or 
 circle, the eye must be taught to comprehend and imitate such objects in 
 their simple forms, in order to fit it for the purpose of seeing such 
 qualities when mixed and combined with more complicated figures. 
 
4 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 I would now recommend these forms to be cut out in paper, and 
 viewed in various situations, being set upright, and also viewed in a 
 horizontal position, that the eye may become thoroughly acquainted with 
 the figures in all their variety of shapes, and with the causes of their 
 alterations in form. 
 
 Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7 . 
 
 I would also recommend the pupil to draw from a cube and a ball, 
 that the eye may become early accustomed to draw from the real objects, 
 in place of flat surfaces, which will give him a power in drawing from 
 nature unattainable by any other method. 
 
 PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 Many have been deterred from attempting to learn Drawing from the 
 dread of encountering so formidable a department of the art as Perspec- 
 tive ; whereas, if it is stripped of its geometrical and mathematical 
 intricacies, it will be found a very simple matter, and easy of compre- 
 hension*. Perspective, as the word denotes (being a compound of the 
 
 2 “ Long calculations or complex diagrams alFriglit the timorous and unexperienced from a 
 second view, but if we have skill sufficient to analyse them into simple principles, it will be 
 discovered that our fear was groundless. Divide and conquer is a principle equally just in 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 5 
 
 Latin words per, through, and specto, to view), is the art of drawing the 
 several objects as they appear when traced upon a glass, or transparent 
 medium; the art of drawing in perspective, therefore, is nothing more 
 than representing the various objects subject to those laws which regulate 
 their appearance in nature ^ 
 
 science as in policy. Complication is a species of confederacy which, while it continues united, 
 bids defiance to the most active and vigorous intellect, but of which every member is separately 
 weak, and which may therefore be quickly subdued if it can be broken. The chief art of learning, 
 as Locke has observed, is to attempt but little at a time ; the widest excursions of the mind are 
 made by short flights frequently repeated.” — Dr. Johnson. 
 
 ^ “ It was in the sixteenth century that Perspective, a new branch of optics, was revived, or 
 rather invented; this is more a business of geometry than optics, and is indeed more an art than 
 a science ; but since it is derived from optical principles, and as the use of it is to give pleasure to 
 the eye by a just representation of natural objects, I would do wrong not to give a short account 
 of its rise and progress. The art of perspective owes its birth to painting, and particularly to that 
 branch of it which was employed in the decorations of the theatre, where landscapes were 
 principally introduced, and which would have looked unnatural and horrid if the size of the 
 objects had not been pretty nearly proportioned to their distance from the eye. We learn from 
 Vitruvius that Agatharchus, instructed by Eschylus, was the first who wrote upon the subject, and 
 that afterwards the principles of this art were more distinctly taught by Democritus and 
 Anaxagoras, the disciples of Agatharchus. Of the theory of this art, as described by them, we 
 know nothing, since none of their writings have escaped the general wreck that was made of 
 ancient literature in the dark ages of Europe. However, the revival of painting in Italy was 
 accompanied with a revival of this art. The first person who attempted to lay down the rules of 
 perspective was Pietro del Borgo, an Italian. He supposed objects to be placed beyond a 
 transparent tablet, and endeavoured to trace the images which rays of light emitted from them 
 would make upon it ; but we do not know what success he had in this attempt, because the book 
 which he wrote upon the subject is not now extant. It is, however, very much commended by 
 the famous Egnazio Dante ; and upon the principles of Borgo, Albert Durer constructed a 
 machine, by which he could trace the perspective appearance of objects. Balthazar Perussi 
 studied the writings of Borgo, and endeavoured to make them more intelligible ; to him we owe 
 the discovery of points of distance, to which all lines that make an angle of forty-five degrees with 
 the ground line are drawn. A little time after, Guido Ubaldi, another Italian, found that all lines 
 that are parallel to one another, if they be inclined to the ground line, converge to some point in 
 the horizontal line, and that through this point also a line drawn from the eye, parallel to them, 
 will pass. These principles put together enabled him to make out a pretty complete theory of 
 perspective.” — Priestley s Optics. 
 
 Since then the Jesuits Perspective, Brooh Taylor's, Maltons, and others, have rendered the 
 most difficult and intricate diagrams clear and comprehensjble. 
 
6 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 LINES. 
 
 All lines are subject to an alteration in their appearance, except two, a 
 perpendicular line and a horizontal one ; and lines are more or less 
 diminished in length according as they depart from the parallel of the 
 base line ; for example, if a person holds a pen or a stick parallel with the 
 eyes, and gradually turns it round, he will see it gradually become 
 shorter, until it assumes a mere spot when it is placed with the point 
 directly towards the eye, as it then covers what is termed the point of 
 sight, being a point immediately opposite the observer's eye, and upon the 
 horizontal line, which is always of the height of the eyes of the spectator; 
 and as it is turned round it will describe innumerable points along the 
 whole line ; these are termed accidental points, and vary according as the 
 lines run more or less at right angles from the base line. Lines also vary 
 according as they are situated above or below the observer’s eye ; for 
 instance, if a book is held up horizontally before the eye, the under cover 
 will be seen when held above, and the lines of its sides appear to run 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 Horizontal 
 
 — line. 
 
 down to a point on the horizontal line. When underneath the eye, the 
 upper cover will be seen, and the lines describing the sides appear to rise 
 
EDUCATION OP THE EYE. 
 
 7 
 
 up to the horizontal line \ Before proceeding further, for the better 
 understanding the several lines already mentioned, and showing how they 
 are affected, I shall give an explanatory figure. 
 
 The above represents a cupboard with folding doors: being placed imme- 
 diately before the eye, the sides appear to rise and descend to the point of 
 sight, A j also the door, b, from its being opened at right angles with the 
 base hue, while the lines of the door, c, appear to run to the accidental 
 point, D ; this point will vary its situation according as the door is more 
 or less opened, which explains what are termed accidental points. 
 
 All objects diminish in size as the spectator departs from them, hence two 
 parallel lines seem to approach each other as they recede from the eye ; 
 and this diminution wall appear more or less sudden, according as they 
 commence from a near point, or one more removed; for example, if the 
 
 •• The truth of this may be also clearly proved if a person holds up a piece of glass on which a 
 series of lines are drawn, radiating from the centre ; for by looking through it either up a 
 street, avenue, or long room, he will perceive those lines of the pavement, buildings, &c. which arc 
 at right angles with the base line, fall in with and cover many of the lines so drawn on the glass, 
 for as they all run to the point of sight, they will of necessity converge, since the spaces between 
 them diminish as they recede from the spectator. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 D .-.I 
 
 DIMINUTION, 
 
8 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 hand is lield near the eye, it will intercept a larger space than when held 
 out at arm’s length. 
 
 Objects diminish in an increased ratio until removed to a certain 
 distance, when the diminution appears less violent; this may be made 
 apparent by the following diagram. 
 
 Let the line a represent the spectator, and the line b represent a line oi 
 pavement, the circular line c, which cuts through the visual rays^ as they 
 approach the eye, will show the diminished ratio as the squares become 
 more distant. And as they have to be represented upon a plain surface, 
 their proportions will be as the divisions on n, they will therefore present 
 the following appearance to the eye. 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 Horizontal line. 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 When, therefore, objects are commenced too near, they appear out ot 
 * Imaginary lines reacliing from various objects to the eye. 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 9 
 
 proportion with the other objects in the work^ and though true according 
 to rule, appear false, with regard to their effect upon the eye of the 
 spectator. This is termed violent or sudden perspective, to avoid which 
 a point of distance is chosen that will look agreeable. The breadth of the 
 squares being determined by the diagonal line running to the point of 
 distance where it cuts through the lines of the pavement, which run to the 
 point of sight, the farther this point is removed the more level the ground 
 will appear; as represented in Fig. ]2. 
 
 ANGLES. 
 
 What we have hitherto said more immediately applies to parallel perspec- 
 tive; so named from all the lines which intersect those running to the point 
 of sight, being parallel with the base line. When, however, a square, or 
 any cubical form, is viewed at the angle, the two sides will not appear to 
 vanish in the point of sight, but run to two points on the horizontal line, 
 called vanishing points; and this mode of treating the subject is called 
 angular perspective. Now these two points are always at an equal distance 
 from each other, which is one-fourth of a circle, therefore if one is deter- 
 mined upon, the other is easily found ; for as one departs from the point 
 of sight, the othei appears to approach it, as any one may perceive by 
 turning lound a sheet of paper, or a book, from a situation where one side 
 IS paiallel with the base line, until it is view^ed upon the angle ■ the 
 
 c 
 
10 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 cause of this perhaps inaj^ be more clearly explained by the following- 
 figure. 
 
 Suppose the circle to represent the line of the horizon, which is the 
 true representation ot it when viewed out at sea, or where no obstruction 
 intercepts it, for then the water coming in contact with the sky, presents a 
 circular horizontal line. If a person, therefore, was placed at n, and 
 looking to the point a , the line c would be parallel with the base, being at 
 rigid angles with a , and consequently occupying one fourth of a circle ; 
 but if he turned in the direction of b , then a and c would become vanishing 
 points, though still at equal distances upon the horizontal line, and would 
 appear thins. 
 
 In a panorama, which is a circular canvass, viewed from the centre, 
 this mode of measuring the various points is found to agree perfectly 
 with the natural representation of objects. 
 
 Fig. 1-3 
 
 Fig. 14 . 
 
EDUCATION OP THE EYE. 
 
 11 
 
 CIRCLES. 
 
 If any one takes a drinking glass or cup in liis hand, with the mouth of it 
 towards him, and gradually turn it from him, carefully watching it passing 
 through all the elliptical forms, until the brim becomes a straight line in 
 appearance, he will have a correct idea how it is that columns, or other 
 circular objects, assume an oval shape at the top or bottom, according as 
 they are below or above the eye. Or if he holds the cup with the side 
 downwards, and turns the mouth gradually round towards him, he will per- 
 ceive the cause svhy arches, or circular gateways, appear elliptical in a side 
 view. It arises from parts of the circle being more foreshortened than 
 other parts ; that is to say, those parts which come more in the line of the 
 visual rays. For example, let a circle be divided into equal parts, and 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 .1 
 
 Fig. 16 . C 
 
 A 
 
 suppose the eye of the spectator placed at a, those parts which lie in the 
 
12 
 
 AN ESSAY ON TOE 
 
 direction of the rays of vision^ b, occupy less space on the line, c, which 
 cuts through them, and when drawn upon a flat surface would present an 
 appearance like d. Fig. 16. Or imagine a line drawn through the centre, 
 parallel with the base line, and which accordingly retains its exact length, 
 those poi tions of the circular line which lie in the same direction are 
 less diminished; while the other parts, lying in an opposite direction, 
 naturall}' become subject to the greatest degree of foreshortening, as in 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 Fig. 17 . 
 
 Having now gone through the several forms of a triangle, square, and 
 circle, I shall here recapitulate the influence of Perspective upon their 
 several lines. We have seen that lines are shortened according as they 
 fall in the direction of the visual rays, and retain their original length 
 only when they cut them at right angles ; now this takes place wherever 
 the objects are placed, whether near the foreground or in the distance ; 
 the eye of the spectator being a point from which imaginary lines radiate 
 in any direction, and which are termed rays of vision, and along which 
 imaginary lines all objects are received upon the retina*'; and though in 
 painting we are obliged to delineate every thing upon a flat surface, yet 
 properly speaking, the line w'hich cuts through these rays at equal 
 distance from the eye is circular. We have seen also, that all objects 
 diminish in size according to their distance from the spectator: and 
 that this diminution is more or less sudden according to the closeness 
 
 « Kepler, who in 1600 was the discoverer of the seat of vision on the retina, says, as to the 
 images of objects being inverted in the eye, it is the business of the mind to trace the progress of 
 them through the pupil, and refer them to those places of the objects themselves from which they 
 seem to have proceeded. 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 13 
 
 of the spectator to the object; upon this matter tlie taste and judgement 
 of the artist is shown^ because thougli true according to nature, yet it 
 may be represented with a very bad effect, and one figure of a group, or 
 one column of a row, may be rendered preposterously large, so as to 
 offend the eye, which, though at all times pleased with the truth, yet will 
 be more delighted when that truth is rendered agreeable'. When this 
 distortion takes place in reality, we naturally change our position, until 
 the eye is satisfied; but in painting, the whole being a flat surface, we 
 change our position in vain. 
 
 We have also seen that all horizontal surfaces of objects diminish in 
 breadth as they approach the horizontal line, and regain their true width 
 when they depart from it, either by being immediately above the eye, or 
 directly under it, as may be perceived by the following diagram. 
 
 
 ’ Reynolds, in a note upon Fresnoy’s Art of Painting, says, “ the rules of perspective, as well 
 as all other rules, may be injudiciously applied, and it must be acknowledged that a misapplication 
 of them is but too frequently found even in the works of the most considerable artists. It is not 
 uncommon to see a figure on the foreground represented near twice the size of another which is 
 
14 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 Now this rule applies to all flat surfaces, whether approaching the 
 horizontal line, in consequence of their distance from the spectator, or 
 from being placed at different degrees of height ; for if they reach the eye 
 in the direction of an angle of forty-five degrees, which is equidistant 
 between a perpendicular and a horizontal line, they will be diminished 
 in apparent width exactly one half; if they are viewed at a greater or 
 smaller angle, they will increase or diminish in the same degree. This is 
 also the cause why surfaces of objects whose lines are at right angles with 
 their base line increase in length as they depart from the point of sight, 
 either to the left hand or to the I'ight, as may be seen by turning the 
 diagram round, and making the line on which the eye of the spectator is 
 placed a horizontal line in place of a perpendicular. This may appear 
 too much a repetition of what has already been said respecting the cause 
 of objects becoming foreshortened ; but as it is the base on which all rules 
 for true drawing are founded, it must be viewed in every position, that the 
 student may thoroughly comprehend it. 
 
 When the mind of the student is informed of the various causes 
 operating upon lines so as to change their appearance to the eye, let him 
 look abroad upon natural objects, and contemplate the various changes 
 produced in their forms by their situation, so that his eye may become 
 familiar with those alterations in form, and his mind enriched by a variety 
 of examples; thus making nature furnish him with a thousand diagrams. 
 
 supposed to be removed but a few feet behind it; this, though true according to rule, will appear 
 monstrous. This error proceeds from placing the point of distance too near the point of sight, by 
 which means the diminution of objects is so sudden as to appear unnatural, unless you stand so 
 near the picture as the point of distance requires, which would be too near for the eye to 
 comprehend the whole picture ; whereas if the point of distance is removed so far as the spectator 
 may be supposed to stand in order to see commodiously, and take within his view the whole, the 
 figures behind would then suffer under no such violent diminution.” 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 15 
 
 which he ought to draw and write down his remarks upon ; he will by this 
 method not only educate his eye, but improve his mind at the same time: 
 the study of drawing being intimately connected with observation and 
 reflection. 
 
 Having now endeavoured to explain the leading principles of perspec- 
 tive, I shall proceed to put them into practical application ; but I must 
 premise, that it is an essential requisite before proceeding to delineate 
 any object, that we make ourselves thoroughly acquainted with its general 
 character, otherwise the eye cannot convey to us its image distinctly ; 
 neither can the hand render it with energy or precision. Let us take, for 
 example, the human face, the component parts of which every one is 
 acquainted with, yet the niceties of distinction in the several features few 
 eyes can perceive, or render with perfect accuracy. This oftener arises 
 from a want of due examination, so as to be able to guide the eye, than 
 from any deficiency in the eye itself ; hence we perceive in the drawings 
 of children and rude nations, a profile with the eye represented as if 
 viewed in front, or a full view of the face with the nose as if seen in 
 profile. To avoid such incongruities, therefore, the eye must be taught 
 to see the changes which take place, and the mind be made acquainted 
 wdth the causes of such change *. In illustration of which, if we take a 
 plaster cast, or mask of the face, such as is represented in Fig. 19, and 
 
 ® Mengs, speaking of design, which he defines as comprehending the outline, or the circum- 
 ference of things, including the proportion of their length, breadth, and form, says, “ this part is 
 composed of two principal divisions, the knowledge of the proper form of a thing, and the manner 
 of seeing it ; the one depending upon geometry, the other upon optics : the first implies a 
 knowledge of their optical appearance from the view presented to the sight; this pictorial geometry 
 is necessary to enable the student to delineate with correctness and feeling, and which can only be 
 acquired by careful habit of seeing and drawing with attention. This is the fundamental basis of 
 design, without which it will be impossible to render theoretic knowledge available : for, as in 
 painting, we must express the forms which we see in nature as they present themselves to our 
 sight, and as their beauty depends upon that little more or less which decides their character, so a 
 knowledge of that variation enables us to give a true representation.’' 
 
1(5 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 draw a line down the centre, from the forehead to the chin, we perceive, 
 wlien viewed directly in front, that it presents a straight perpendicular 
 line, as in No. 1, though actually full of undulations from passing over the 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. 
 
 entire profile, but as these projections and recedings of the line are 
 immediately under each other, they reach the eye in the same manner as 
 if a string was held up before the mask in a perpendicular direction; if, 
 however, the mask is viewed when turned round half way between a 
 profile and front face, as in No. 2, those parts of the line which recede or 
 project will assume exactly one half of their true character and projection; 
 while in the profile. No. 3, the line accjuires its exact similitude, from its 
 being undisturbed by those laws which regulate perspective. If we were 
 to proceed and examine every feature in the same manner, we should find 
 that the same laws lead us into a correct view of the alterations which take 
 place upon every alteration in position. To explain this more clearly, if 
 we take the mask and hold it with the chin towards us, so as to observe 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 17 
 
 the curve on which the mouth is placed, as in Fig. 20, we can easily 
 perceive that a person viewing it in the direction of the lines a b, which 
 
 Fig, 20. 
 
 would give him a view of the face between a front and profile (or what 
 is termed by artists a three quarter), would see one side of the lip of its 
 entire length, while the other side, lying in the direction of the visual 
 rays, would be reduced to a very small space, as may be perceived by its 
 breadth on the ideal line, c, which cuts such rays at right angles. Such, 
 also, is the case with the nose, in the same view of the face ; one side 
 remains undiminished, while the other side forms a mere outline, being 
 seen entirely under the influence of perspective. 
 
 In finishing this part of the Essay, I cannot conclude without reminding 
 the pupil of the extreme importance of the very first preliminaries of the 
 work, teaching the eye the power of measuring the distances between 
 several points, as it is the basis of correct drawing. In drawing a head, 
 if the points where the eyes, nose, and mouth ought to be placed can be 
 correctly put down, one of the greatest difficulties will be conquered, and 
 
 D 
 
18 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 the detail of which each feature is composed rendered easy and effective ", 
 and the same remark applies to the power of combining the several parts 
 of the largest assemblage of objects. The eye marks the distance of one 
 or two leading points, which serve as a station to start from, and by a 
 careful combination of exact dimensions moves over the whole space with 
 a species of ideal trigonometry. Being also educated to observe the 
 variations of the several lines according as they are moi'e or less under the 
 influence of perspective acting upon their form or size, a clear defined 
 outline will be the result ; not only unattainable by any other method, 
 but even if attained, unaccompanied by the power of judging of its 
 correctness. 
 
 The power of seeing objects correctly is gained by a careful exami- 
 nation of their general appearance, and of the component parts which 
 produce such general appearance; it is necessary, therefore, before 
 proceeding to delineate any object, to observe it attentively in the first 
 instance, to examine it as a whole, so as to be convinced of its great 
 leading features, the various shapes the principal lights take, also the 
 forms of the darks, what occasions them, and why they are darker at one 
 place than at another ; the size and shape of the smaller component parts, 
 where they are congregated most, and where the greatest vacuum is 
 situated, where portions are seen entire, and where they are intercepted. 
 Without the eye taking cognizance of all these before proceeding, it will 
 
 ^ Reynolds, speaking of Frank Hals, says, “ in his works the portrait painter may observe 
 the composition of a face, the features well put together, as the painters express it, from whence 
 that strong marked character of individual nature, which is so remarkable in his portraits, and is 
 not found in an equal degree in any other painter. If he had joined to this most difficult part of 
 the art a patience in finishing what he had so correctly planned, he might justly have claimed the 
 place which Vandyck, all things considered, so justly holds as the first of portrait painters.” In 
 another place he says, “ the likeness of a portrait consists more in the preserving the general 
 effect of the countenance than in the most minute finishing of the features, or any of the particular 
 parts .” — SLvth and Fourteenth Discourses. 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 19 
 
 be impossible to give a just representation, either in the detail or in the 
 general effect*"; it will, moreover, have a prejudicial influence, in as much 
 
 Fig. n. 
 
 as it will lead to a style of drawing without feeling, character, or decision. 
 One reason why the drawings of eminent artists are superior to all others 
 is the great intelligence every line indicates, the smallest touch being 
 expressive of the character; another advantage this previous contem- 
 plation of the subject has, is the storing of the mind with materials for future 
 occasions, when it is necessary to have recourse to the memory. Knowledge 
 in drawing, as well as in other sciences, is having ready a mass of materials. 
 
 To illustrate this, we may have recourse to Titian’s bunch of grapes, which we will suppose 
 placed so as to receive a broad light and shadow. Here, though each individual grape on the 
 light side has its light, and shadow, and reflection, yet altogether they make but one broad mass 
 of light : the slightest sketch, therefore, where this breadth is preserved, will have a better effect, 
 will have more the appearance of coming from a master hand, that is, in other words, will have 
 more the characteristic and generate of nature, than the most laborious finishing, where this 
 breadth is lost or neglected . — Reynolds on Rresjioy, note 40. 
 
20 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 which we can apply to the subject in hand. Drawing much improves us 
 as little as reading much, unless we contemplate and understand as we 
 proceed: those who have acquired a readiness of hand without correctness 
 and study, have but the shadow instead of the substance ; and though to 
 the unlearned their works have the appearance of excellence, yet to 
 educated eyes they seem in the light of forgeries, or like the language of 
 him who talks speciously of a subject he does not understand. After the 
 hand has once acquired this delusive dexterity, the student becomes con- 
 tented, and unable to execute any thing correctly in future. Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds remarks, that young men have not only this frivolous ambition 
 of being thought masters of execution inciting them on one hand, but also 
 their natural sloth tempting them on the other. They are terrified at 
 the prospect before them of the toil required to attain exactness. The 
 impetuosity of youth is disgusted at the slow approaches of a regular 
 siege, and desires, from mere impatience of labour, to take the citadel 
 by storm. They wish to find some shorter path to excellence, and hope 
 to obtain the reward of eminence by other means than those which the 
 indispensable rules of art have prescribed. They must, therefore, be told 
 again and again, that labour is the only price of solid fame, and that 
 whatever their force of genius may be, there is no easy method of 
 becoming a good painter.” In another place he justly observes, that 
 “ the first business of the student is to be able to give a true represen- 
 tation of whatever object presents itself, just as it appears to the eye, so 
 as to amount to a deception ; and the geometric rules of perspective are 
 included in this study. This is the language of the art; which appears 
 the more necessary to be taught early, from the natural repugnance which 
 the mind has to such mechanical labour, after it has acquired a relish for 
 its higher departments.” Also in his first Discourse he says, “ a lively 
 and what is called a masterly handling of the chalk or pencil, are, it must 
 be confessed, captivating qualities to young minds, and become of course 
 the objects of their ambition. They endeavour to imitate these dazzling- 
 excellencies, which they will find no great labour in attaining. After 
 
EDOCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 21 
 
 much time spent in these frivolous pursuits, the difficulty will be to 
 retreat, but it will be then too late; and there is scarce an instance of 
 return to scrupulous labour, after the mind has been debauched and 
 deceived by this fallacious mastery".” We find in many of the drawings 
 of Michael Angelo, Raffaelle, and even Rubens, some portions carefully 
 studied and finished with the greatest correctness from the model, some 
 difficult passage which required labour and finish to overcome, or some 
 portion of great beauty, which nothing but fidelity could represent. 
 From the contemplation of the works of the great painters, we perceive a 
 comparative dryness and stiffness in their earlier productions, compared 
 with their later pictures, we therefore are naturally led to conclude that 
 we can accomplish by a shorter method what they have shown us to have 
 been their aim ; breadth, grandeur, and freedom of execution : it will be 
 found, however, that though a few strokes by the hand of a master often 
 express in his later works as much as the most careful finishing of his 
 early pictures, yet that arises entirely from his having acquired, by long 
 practice, a mastery over his materials, and, by long contemplation, a 
 
 " Freedom of execution, or masterly handling, as it is termed, is often taught to pupils that 
 they may appear to be making great strides in the art. The master frequently finds his pupil too 
 dull, or too inattentive, to acquire a correct knowledge of his subject, therefore gives him the 
 power of displaying an appearance of dexterity. To an uneducated eye, a sketch of a tree, for 
 example, may be hit off by the pupil with sufficient resemblance to satisfy all parties ; the parents 
 see nothing in the original different from the copy, for that which appears to them but a scribbled 
 appearance, in the original indicates to the eye of an artist foliage, branches, and shadows ; 
 thus their education seems finished before it is in reality begun, and they leave school without the 
 power of drawing a line. In after life, when they wish to delineate objects correctly, they find this 
 dexterity rather an incumbrance ; the eye, previously debauched, is incapable of receiving a true 
 impression ; while the hand, necessarily confined to the several spaces allotted to the different 
 forms, feels cramped and awkward, and obliges them to throw down the pencil in despair. In other 
 branches of science we find this dexterity checked in its infancy. What would be thought of a 
 child who had been taught to run over the keys of a pianoforte without any definite meaning? or 
 of a master who encouraged the scribbling of a boy to imitate a free hand ? I remember an 
 artist who always took an opportunity of disconcerting the pretensions of such precocious geniuses 
 in drawing, by laying down a key or a pair of snuffers for them to delineate. 
 
22 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 perfect knowledge of what are the leading features and peculiar character 
 of every object. 
 
 Notwithstanding the foregoing remarks, careful drawing and minute 
 finishing are to be regulated in a great measure by the nature of the work 
 in hand, otherwise these qualities, excellent in themselves, are liable to be 
 caught at, as an e.vcuse for doing something which requires the least 
 exertion of the njind. Though it is absolutely necessary to be able to draw 
 correctly whatever may be placed before you, yet it does not follow that 
 the same labour is to be carried into the subordinate parts, otherwise a 
 long portion of life might be spent in delineating the intricate ramifications 
 of trees and plants, or in mapping out with painful fidelity the hedges and 
 ditches of a whole county. The correctness of which it is necessary 
 to be possessed is to be employed in rendering with accuracy the vital 
 portions of all works, frequently leaving the minor passages to be filled up 
 from our general knowledge and practice. How vexatious is it to see 
 young men attending Academies and Museums, month after month, 
 drawing from antique statues, in place of bestowing their whole care in 
 giving the outline and form correctly, waste their youth in industrious 
 idleness, in representing the Haws and excoriations of the mutilated 
 marble, or in smoothly stippling in a surrounding mass of background ! 
 
 AERIAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 Lineal Perspective being that part of drawing which is produced by the 
 means of lines only. Aerial Perspective is made use of to designate those 
 changes which take place in the appearance of objects, either as to their 
 receding or advancing, from the interposition of the atmosphere ; there- 
 fore to the application of this quality the artist is mainly indebted for the 
 power of giving his work the space and retiring character of nature : but 
 though the eye is at all times pleased and gratified with the power of 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 23 
 
 viewing distant prospects, yet objects require a certain definition to lead 
 the imagination, without perplexing and troubling the mind. Neither are 
 we pleased by sudden jumps from the foreground to the extreme distance. 
 The eye is more delighted, therefore, in being carried over a gradual 
 diminution of many intervening objects, or in searching for outlets 
 through screens of intervening trees or clumps of buildings ; such perfo- 
 rations assisting by their framework the distant tone of colour with which 
 the most remote objects are nevertheless sufficiently embodied out. Now 
 though the interposition of the atmosphere gives us the means of producing 
 the effect of distance in a picture, yet the mind requires a certain variety 
 to hold it in amusement, and a certain appearance of substance to give a 
 reality to the scene ; on the other hand, when the atmosphere is deprived 
 of the means of refraction, by reason of its clearness, a false representation 
 is produced, and objects appear nearer than they are in point of truth (as 
 may be perceived in many scenes in Switzerland), and the eye is deprived 
 of the gratification of viewing the outlines of objects through a variety of 
 strengths’’^. When we reflect that the art of painting is an attempt to 
 deceive the eye, in representing upon a perpendicular surface the variety 
 of planes upon which the several objects in nature are placed ; when we 
 reflect that the painter is deprived of many collateral means of assisting 
 the deception, it requires his whole knowledge to be employed in working 
 out the result, lines possessing distinctness of form, bulk, and minutiEe, 
 light and dark to give them their full force upon the eye, colours unasso- 
 ciated with atmospheric influence, with the reverses of all these assisting 
 by contrast. We must admit that a knowledge of aerial perspective 
 
 De la Hire enumerates five circumstances which assist us in judging of the distance of 
 objects, namely, their apparent magnitude, the strength of the colouring, the direction of the two 
 eyes, the parallax of the objects, and the distinctness of their small parts. Painters, he says, can 
 take advantage only of the two first mentioned circumstances, and therefore pictures can never 
 perfectly deceive the eye ; but in the decorations of theatres, they in some measure make use of 
 them all, different planes being made use of, and different degrees of distinctness . — Accidens de 
 la Vue, p. 3S8. 
 
24 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 embraces in its effects nearly the whole art of pourtraying the retiring and 
 advancing of objects. In the w'orks of Albert Cuyp and Claude Lorraine 
 we have many examples of this quality in perfection, where the interpo- 
 sition of the air, whether of a yellow or blue colour, imbues every object 
 w'ith its just proportion according to its relative distance from the fore- 
 ground, and the near objects are strengthened by black or red or other 
 colours less in unison with the general tone of the picture ; also in the 
 foreground of many of the works of Cuyp and others, the student may 
 perceive the shadows under the leaves and stones in the foreground 
 broad, black, and of large decided forms. Now, though this is the 
 general characteristic of this department, we see in many works of the 
 best artists objects very much diminished in size according to their true 
 perspective distance, yet possessing a force of colour little removed from 
 the tints of the objects in the foreground, neither does such harshness 
 prevent them keeping their situations ; this arises from the very small 
 space they occupy upon the retina, forming so diminished a picture in the 
 eye, even when painted of the size of nature In historical compositions, 
 the most distant objects form often a portion of the story ; they are, 
 therefore, to be pronounced with that strength which will enable them to 
 assist the painter in producing the desired effect on the mind of the 
 spectator, nor does truth appear at all violated, provided they are not 
 
 Speaking of the retina, Dr. Roget says, “ few spectacles are more calculated to raise our 
 admiration than this delicate picture, which nature has with such exquisite art, and with the finest 
 touches of her pencil, spread over the smooth canvass of this subtle nerve; a picture which, 
 though scarcely occupying a space of half an inch in diameter, contains the delineation of a 
 boundless scene of earth and sky, full of all kinds of objects, some at rest and others in motion, 
 yet all accurately represented as to their forms, colours, and positions, and followed in all their 
 changes without the least interference, irregularity, or confusion. Every one of those countless 
 and stupendous orbs of fire, whose light, after traversing immeasurable regions of space, at length 
 reaches our eye, is collected on its narrow curtain into a luminous focus of inconceivable minute- 
 ness, and yet this almost infinitismal point shall be sufficient to convey to the mind, through the 
 medium of the optic nerve and brain, a knowledge of the existence and position of the far distant 
 luminary from which that light has emanated. — Dr, Roget's Bridgewater Treatise. 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 25 
 
 made out with too great precision : in history and the higher walks of the 
 art, where the greatest liberties are allowed, it may be less necessary to 
 notice the conduct of the best artists in this particular, but we often find 
 it even in landscapes and connnon representations of natural effects : how 
 often have we observed wood scenes and others prevented from being- 
 heavy by the introduction of a few dark touches, and breadth of colour 
 and space produced by the small dark of a figure. When, however, the 
 effect of hazy sunshine (such as we see in the works of Cuyp) is to be 
 represented, the most distant objects ought to be rendered with the greatest 
 delicacy; for the whole atmosphere being then filled with the refraction of 
 light, the middle ground objects appear to be made out with a uniform 
 tone of half-tint. Aerial perspective, therefore, though understood to be 
 subject to rules, is more completely under the control of the painter than 
 lineal perspective. 
 
 I have noticed elsewhere “ how much in reality objects in motion 
 attract the eye of the spectator, with what intelligence the peculiar walk 
 of those we know is communicated even at great distances: this is one 
 reason out of many why we are allowed to pronounce parts of a picture 
 with more strength than other parts ; as the mind of the spectator must 
 be arrested with the same force it feels itself acted upon under natural 
 effects. 
 
 The application of aerial perspective, therefore, enables the artist to 
 keep the several objects in their respective situations, and give a natural 
 reality to the most complicated scene. A row of columns will diminish 
 according as they are drawn true to lineal perspective, but it is to this 
 quality of light and shade that they are indebted for their effect upon the 
 
 '* In Practical Hints upon Light and Shade. 
 
 E 
 
26 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 eye. Also two angles may occupy the same space on the retina, but by 
 
 this power one is made to approach and the other to recede, so that one 
 is diminished to the size of a tent, the other increased to a pyramid. 
 
 Fig. S,'i. 
 
 In Plate I. fig- 1, the Canal of Dort, by Cuyp, in the Bridgewater 
 collection, we not only find an excellent example of aerial perspective, 
 but also of that assemblage of lines produced by the repetition of forms, 
 which assists the receding of objects from their ditninution, the doubling 
 of the lines in producing 7-ichness of effect, and that harmony which arises 
 from one line counteracting another in its direction, giving thereby a 
 general balance to the whole. The effect of aerial perspective upon the 
 eye being mainly attributable to the application of shadow to the several 
 outlines, thereby giving them their approaching or receding character, such 
 arrangement is to be chosen which will give them this quality, and which 
 
cv' Als« fwojyiglfs iM) tv occupy tlic same space tm tiic i > ‘ li* ■<« 
 
 po^cr one^ -■ m ftpr^^iidi'nhd Uk^ ntBvf to 
 ift OiUpiTjijhc*^ qF iA €(#ui oOi# ( , ( to n pvr^fnoli 
 
 /•' • yv *.. '■' ;* 
 
 ■ >• -C .. • . ' 
 
 ii) Pi,AT(>;I. /ly. 1 , tW, yanal of IW» i . t h i . H r.dgetvalev 
 collcftbvuij' we. D<^ ojrtfy an cvccl!ci>i • x.i up.-' •>, li ^rinf /perspcclive, 
 litii .:ln6 ui tUat ^■'SemhIrljc« of lnfei» S^txluccd liy the rppeiitiflti td^forms, 
 wlikh t^; ; <>.e recttdjwg objects from their fJnt.inat:,. ., the doubting- 
 h.. •-■ ,n ptbrliming j-iobnesa yf c,T • i, aiu^l thjii i.uftt-eiT which arise* 
 wt.a ou' 'UiHit^jiclxi'g'utiother ui its tli t (ma, ^jfiving, thereby a 
 geipet'i) V-'lile whole. T4i»- vflect of iia! pergjier.tiTr ojujo Hi. 
 
 rtr K«iiig iiiu;.i ' .putable to 11^ ajipli^ialiop of shadow 'o tb^‘'M\- ^ 
 '■utl.iuee, there j.-.j-tii'cia their approtichiug or recediii,^ n 
 • TaagciiienCi* to 1 e v,^K»cli,xri!l give them thi.^ «ut, » • 
 
/'IcUe 1. 
 
 A-Ctcyp. 
 
 Fia. 3. 
 
 Etch<A by J.Biun-cl. 
 
 LonFo!^. Ft7‘lishe<Z Fcb3 IS37 by F. Cii/pen^f^. OlA Bend btr.-rf. 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 27 
 
 is to be afterwards repeated ia smaller portions throiigli the piece. In 
 accidental combinations in nature, we often perceive this arrangement, (as 
 in Fi<r. 2, Pl. I.) which ought to be sketched and reflected upon as one of 
 the great means we have of enabling us to cope with her under the 
 disadvantage of working upon a flat surface. We also find aerial 
 perspective indebted in its effect to the collection of many parts, whose 
 shadows form a mass of half tint, their distance bringing them in apparent 
 contact, owing to their diminutions ; while their softness gives them 
 apparent distance, owing to their want of minute parts, as in Fig. 3, 
 Pl. I. 
 
 To go through on every occasion with a variety of examples, would, I 
 feel persuaded, only perplex the student ; if he comprehends any rule, it 
 is easy to extend it ; to those who understand slowly, reflection on one 
 or two diagrams will be of more service than educating the eye without 
 impressing the mind. The real trouble in life, in all professions, is the 
 trouble of thinking; to escape which, the most laborious trifling is caught 
 at, but if fairly grappled with in the outset, every thing becomes clear, 
 and, in after life, that which is a continual annoyance to many becomes 
 one of the greatest gratifications. Why is it, that to the eye of an artist 
 the drawing of a complicated plan is rendered clear at a glance, while to 
 others it requires a multitude of figures of reference and a long explana- 
 tion? It is, that his mind has been educated in continual intercourse w’ith 
 the eye, and the constant habit of reflecting on cause and eflect has 
 rendered a numerous assemblage of lines intelligible to him, which to 
 others uneducated appear like a species of hieroglyphic. 
 
28 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 CHIARO OSCURO. 
 
 Chiaro OSCURO, or light and shade, when applied to the management of a 
 picture, takes a range too wide to be explained without the assistance of a 
 multitude of examples, and even then it would be very imperfect; so endless 
 and multifarious are the changes it assumes, being entirely at the caprice 
 of the painter. Paul Veronese, when questioned about the propriety of 
 accounting for a shadow, answered, “ a cloud is passing;” and Reynolds 
 says, “ the proprieties of a painter are superior to all other considerations,” 
 and “ he whose aim is to touch the passions must not be too fastidious in 
 pandering to an uneducated eye. The effect is to be produced at any 
 sacrifice; but the painter who accomplishes his purpose with the least 
 violation of truth shows the greatest command of his materials.” This it 
 IS which places the woiks oi the great painter.s beyond the comprehension 
 of the ignorant ; they only can judge of external matters, and are pleased 
 when the eye alone is gratified; whereas the aim is the homage of the 
 educated mind. “ Leonardo da Vinci,” Reynolds remarks, “recommends 
 the light side of a group to be brought off' a dark ground, and the dark 
 side opposed to a light ground; this, no doubt, w^as the practice when the 
 arts weie in their infancy, but had he lived to see what has been produced 
 by the contrary method, he would have altered his opinion.” If relief or 
 distinctness is the aim of the artist, it is certainly the best; but if breadth 
 of effect, he will best accomplish it by combining light with light, and 
 losing’ the darks of the group in a still darker background. 
 
 Light and shade, therefore, independent of its effects in rendering 
 objects more distinct and intelligible, has other properties, and those of a 
 higher quality, when painting has to take a station in the ranks along 
 with music and poetry, these properties are the means of giving breadth 
 and grandeur of form, the effects of bustle or repose, and that peculiar 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 29 
 
 emphasis which particular portions of a composition require. Now in 
 many situations, where such qualities are requisite, nature offers often 
 little more than a suggestion, and upon such hint the artist is obliged to 
 lay the foundation of his whole scheme, and work it out according to the 
 command he has of his materials, or the quantity he is in possession of. 
 Some compositions being entirely addressed to the mind, while others are 
 confined to a mere gratification of the eye, a greater or less liberty is 
 allowed to be taken with the arrangement of the light and shade, 
 according to the nature of the work in hand. Light and shade, or the 
 conduct of the chiaro oscuro of any work, is therefore entirely given up to 
 the control of the artist, to be used for the express purpose of rendering 
 his design complete; where he departs too much from the arrangements 
 observable in nature, it becomes capricious, and loses its effect upon the 
 eye of the spectator ; when, on the other hand, the every day occurrences 
 are adopted, his work becomes common and feeble. Reynolds says 
 justly, “ when we are required to paint broad, it is not understood that we 
 should paint broader than nature; but objects are to be so placed, that 
 there is scarcely any limit to their breadth of light and shade. In the 
 earlier stages of painting, relief and distinctness were the only requisites 
 sought after'". If a round object could be represented upon a flat surface. 
 
 In the early stages of the art, we find the outlines of the Egy[)tian and Grecian figures and 
 ornaments upon the walls marked with a broad, deep, sharp cut indentation, which, receiving a 
 strong shadow, gave great distinctness. In the next stage, we find that the figures were a little 
 raised, so as to form what is termed basso relievo; and that they were not rounded gradually 
 from the ground, but cut perpendicularly to the surface. In the more advanced state of the art, 
 when the figures assumed a greater projection, and became what is termed alto relievo^ where 
 some portions are entirely cut through from the surface, as may be seen in the Elgin marbles, the 
 outlines of those figures less advanced were rounded off, so as to receive less shadow, and thereby 
 give greater value to those in high relief : we also find an attention to the effects of light and shade 
 influence their management of single statues, in the construction of their buildings, and even in 
 the forms of the most trifling utensils. We thus see that the gratification of the eye is one of the 
 chief sources from which the taste of a country emanates, and its perpetuity is in proportion as it is 
 founded upon the great truths observed in the general character of nature, and its influence on 
 
30 
 
 AN ESSAY ON T[IE 
 
 or any substance so expressed as to induce the spectator to put foi-th his 
 hand to touch it^ as a test of the deception, the height of the artist’s 
 ambition was attained ; but as the art advanced, it was found that painting 
 could achieve more honourable results, the mind was to be acted upon, 
 without stopping to gratify the eye at the threshold of entrance. Coreggio 
 seems to have been one of the first who employed chiaro oscuro in its 
 greatest extent, to give to his compositions that dreamy character which 
 removes them fi-om the “ ignorant present,” and which is the result of 
 breadth, and melting of the outline in the tint which surrounds it. If we 
 examine, for example, a room filled with several objects, in open day, the 
 distinctness with which they all present theiViselves to the eye not only 
 perplexes it in finding a resting place, from each claiming attention, but 
 the quickness with which we are carried from one object to another (from 
 a single glance being sufficient to satisfy our curiosity) destroys that 
 pleasure the mind receives from contemplation ; whei-eas the same scene 
 viewed in the evening, by the light of a fire or candle, exhibits effects 
 more pleasing to the eye and gratifying to the mind, which are entirely 
 owing to the breadth of light and shade; fewer objects present themselves 
 to the eye, and these few acquiring novelty in their forms, from the 
 shadows floating about ; others entirely buried in obscurity, amuse the 
 imagination in tracing them into form; while the large blank spaces 
 present vacuums for the eye to rest and repose upon. Independent of 
 these results, we also know that objects acquire grandeur from their 
 
 succeeding ages, by its adoption by men of science capable of appreciating its value. Even in the 
 dark ages, when truth and simplicity were overlaid and hid by a mass of ornament and an 
 assemblage of minute parts, a combination of beautiful arrangement has arisen out of such 
 Gothic absurdities, which has given to painting, sculpture, and architecture a fulness of effect 
 unattainable by any other method. The endless and fatiguing portions of minutiae, which lay 
 scattered over the surface, have been collected, and arranged in masses of richness and repose ; 
 the spottiness of strong, harsh colours have been softened and subdued by harmony and opposition ; 
 while the dry and cold outline of individual form has been adapted to the gratification of the 
 educated eye, founded upon the great principles of truth and simplicity. 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 3i 
 
 breadth and simplicity of parts, the shadows being more of one strength, 
 and the lights more of one colour; two concomitants of greatness. 
 
 In entering upon this branch of the art, it will, however, be necessarv 
 to confine our remarks, in the first instance, to the effects of light and 
 shade upon the forms of objects, in altering their appearance to the eye of 
 the spectator, without reference to their acting upon the imagination. 
 
 All outlines, without the application of this quality, are deficient in 
 giving a true representation to the eye; for example, two circular outlines 
 without shadow have no distinct meaning, but by the application of this 
 property they either become convex or concave bodies 
 
 F‘g- ' Fig. 23. 
 
 We also find that objects either project or recede according to the 
 strength of their shadows, and become either solids or vacuums from their 
 shadows falling within or without the spaces marked by their outlines. 
 
 We judge of the figure and shape of bodies chiefly by the variations of light and shade, 
 und our associations taken thence are so strong, as ve are easily imposed upon by a just imitation 
 of the light and shade belonging to each shape and figure in their several situations with respect 
 to the quarter from which the illumination proceeds. It is from the associations considered under 
 
32 
 
 AN ESSAY ON TilE 
 
 We also find that it often indicates the peculiar character of objects, 
 when the outline is hid in consequence of the situation of the spectator, as 
 in Fig. 28, 
 
 Fig. 3R. 
 
 In drawings of machinery this is often of the utmost importance, as 
 information is the only point aimed at. We likewise often find shadow 
 
 Fig. S'9. 
 
 this proposition, and particularly in the last paragraph, that painting conveys such exact ideas of 
 shapes, figures, magnitudes, and distances, and the camera obscura of motion also, by means of 
 impressions that proceed from a plane surface .” — Hartley on Man, on the Sense of Sight. 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 33 
 
 made use of for the enriching of the subject, by making the siiadows of 
 complicated object, s fall upon a background of an uneven surface, as in 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 Any work, treating of the Education of the Eye, however short, must 
 necessarily touch upon points spreading over a large range of study, and 
 of course occupying a long space of time to become master of. It will, 
 therefore, be difficult to separate those parts which require a power in the 
 mind, from that portion which depends more upon the cultivation of the 
 eye, accompanied with very little effort of thinking. Nothing but early 
 practice can enable the eye to see, and the hand to put on paper, the 
 various objects necessary to painting with readiness and fidelity; as has 
 been remarked by Reynolds, who says, “ a degree of mechanical practice 
 must precede theory ; the reason is, that if we wait till we are able to 
 comprehend the theory of the art, too much of life will be passed to 
 permit us to acquire facility and power; something, therefore, must be 
 done on trust, by mere imitation of given patterns, before the theory of 
 the art can be felt;” yet, nevertheless, the attention should be gradually 
 awakened to observation, otherwise the power of the mind will lie too 
 long dormant to be easily called into action when judgement is acquired, 
 for, as he further observes, “ an artist ought to see clearlv enough to 
 enable him to point out to others the principle upon which he works, 
 otherwise he will be confined, and, what is worse, he will be uncertain.” 
 In the portion of this Essay, therefore, which is passed over, I have 
 endeavoured to confine myself merely to that extent of knowledge which 
 every. one ought to possess to enable him in after life to enjoy the beauties 
 of nature and art, and give him the power of communicating his ideas 
 usefully to others. I shall now endeavour to trace through the higher 
 departments of art those principles of design upon which painting depends 
 for its operation on the mind, and which places it in the same rank with 
 poetry and music. 
 
 F 
 
34 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 INVENTION. 
 
 Invention is the great soul of painting, without which the being in 
 possession of an accumulation of studies is of little avail ; we may collect 
 the materials, but we cannot build without a plan, nor can we construct 
 that plan without a perfect knowledge on what to raise the superstructure. 
 When Raffaelle was commissioned to paint the apartments of the Vatican 
 with representations of Theology, Philosophy, Poetry, &c. it was necessary, 
 in the first place, that he should know not only the origin and foundation 
 of each of them, but also the character and history of those personages 
 who ranked preeminent in the several departments of science, that by the 
 combination of such figures he might be enabled to illustrate the subjects 
 in hand; for it is by this method that the artist shows his imaginative 
 powers; for though this part of the work may belong to the poet and 
 historian in an equal degree, yet the mind of an artist, from his habits of 
 thinking and from a knowledge of what is within the power of his art, 
 gives the illustration of the subject a more graphic turn than either''; 
 
 It is the descriptions of poets and historians possessing this character which renders them 
 more striking to the imagination; such as the description of the Last Judgement by Peter Aretin, 
 which made Michael Angelo regret that he had composed the subject previous to receiving his 
 letter : “ ho would not tremble,” he writes, “ at taking up his pencil to trace so tremendous a 
 subject? I see, in the midst of innumerable beings, Antichrist, with features which you alone 
 could imagine ; I see terror imprinted upon the face of the living ; I see the faint traces of the 
 sun, the moon, and the stars, whose fires are perceptibly diminishing. The elements appear 
 dissolving. I see all Nature horror-struck, barren, and gathered up in its decrepitude ; I see Time 
 emaciated and trembling, who, arrived at his last stage, is reposing on the dried-up trunk of a 
 tree ; and while the trumpets of the angels resound through all hearts, I see Life and Death 
 overwhelmed with extraordinary confusion, the one is wearied with lifting up the dead, while the 
 other strikes dowm the living ; behind, I see Hope and Despair conducting troops of the good and 
 the bad. The sky is suffused with the brightest rays. Christ, seated on clouds, is environed with 
 splendour, and with the terrors inspired by the heavenly hosts, his face is resplendent with light, 
 and his eyes, shining with a soft yet terrible fire, fill the virtuous with lively joy, and the wicked 
 
EDUCATION OP THE EYE. 
 
 35 
 
 therefore, though the education of an artist’s mind is in many things 
 similar to the education of that of others, yet, in addition, lie requires a 
 knowledge of the various methods the great painters have employed to 
 explain and exemplify their ideas ; “ for it is only by knowing the 
 inventions of others, we learn to invent, as it is by knowing the 
 thoughts of others we learn to think.” Mengs observes, that it is 
 invention which makes noble the art of painting, and discovers the force 
 of the artist’s understanding, and that Ratfaelle obtained a rank with great 
 poets and orators from this source. Invention being the work of the mind 
 addressed to the mind, composition that of the eye addressed to the sight ; 
 yet though in many things the mind of the poet or historian is similar to 
 the painter’s, the power of the latter is much more limited; the historian 
 may have a hundred pages to convey his story, the painter has but one; 
 this circumstance has led mankind in all ages to allow him a greater 
 latitude and license in embodying any representation ; his invention, 
 therefore, takes a wide range through the whole features of the event, 
 whatever it may be, and enables him to combine in one focus every means 
 of rendering the story attractive, clear, and effective; he invents, there- 
 fore, those arrangements which awaken the mind, from their giving rise 
 to an association of ideas ; he selects also those points which bear the 
 strongest upon the character of the subject to be represented, and which 
 from their nature are most palpable to the eye, to heighten their effect by 
 the judicious introduction of images operating by means of contrast, and 
 endeavours to combine the whole by the most natural and unaflected 
 method. The powder of invention, therefore, in a painter, must depend 
 
 witli mortal fear. I see the ministers of hell, with horrible countenances, who, surrounded by the 
 glory of saints and martyrs, mock the Ca3sars and Alexanders of the world, and yet not knowing 
 how to get the better of themselves. 1 see Renown, with her crowns and palms trodden under 
 foot, thrown down under the wheels of her own triumphal chariots. I hear the Son of God 
 pronouncing the last judgement ; at his voice the good and the bad are separated; the world 
 crumbles to pieces at the peals of thunder. Darkness divides Paradise from the iurnaces of heil. 
 In retracing these terrible images, I said to myself, one would tremble as much at seeing the work 
 of Buonarotti as at the day of judgement itself .” — Peter Aretins Letters from Venice. 
 
36 
 
 AN ESSA Y ON THE 
 
 upon liis extent of information, his command of the materials applicable to 
 his art, and a felicitous choice of the particular incidents most striking to 
 the eye. If he invents from history, it will be necessary to take the most 
 current version of the story for Ids guide, and engraft upon it those 
 embellishments derived from costume, manners of the people, and local 
 scenery ; painting every thing from nature, which gives a wonderful 
 appearance of truth and force to the representation. From poetry or 
 allegory a greater liberty of enriching the design will be allowed, as 
 the whole range of ancient and modern fable lies open for his purpose 
 of illustration. At the head of this department of the art, by universal 
 consent, and especially by those who have most carefully examined 
 his works, stands Raffaelle ; not only do his inventions embrace the 
 most leading and most striking parts of the story, but he carries the 
 spectator back to its commencement by a chain of the most natural 
 circumstances, and shows also by the same felicitous extension of his 
 design, those results which followed its taking place; thus exhibiting in 
 one page the contents of a volume, such as we see in his Death of 
 Ananias, his Transfiguration, the School of Athens, the Sacrifice at 
 Lystra, and many others. Lanzi, speaking of this quality of Raflfaelle, 
 says, “ Various writers have mentioned the St. Paul at Lystra, one of the 
 Cartoons, as an example, (Plate ii.) The artist has there rejmesented the 
 sacrifice prepared for him and St. Barnabas as to two gods, for having 
 restored a lame man to the use of his limbs. The altar, the attendants, 
 the victims, the musicians, and the axe, sufficiently indicate the intentions 
 of the Lystrians ; St. Paul, who is in the act of tearing his robe, shows 
 that he rejects and abhors the sacrilegious honours, and is endeavouring 
 to dissuade the populace from persisting in them ; but all this were vain, 
 if it had not indicaterl the miracle which had just happened, and which 
 had given rise to the event. Raffaelle therefore added to the group the 
 lame man restored to the use of his limbs, now easily recognised by the 
 spectators : he stands before the apostles rejoicing in his restoration, and 
 raises his hands in transport towards his benefactors, while at his feet lie 
 
ijji## ^ i of bis cOrumand to 
 
 a Wi' itvMis fboic« of (lio particular iiicklontx i*k la - -kooif to 
 ir.e (W>m liistory, it *iil be oepes^rr tu t i‘.v rut iumsi 
 
 1 urgent, eersion of tlie atorj- for Mh guide, and • ellftalt upOu it »ok*» 
 >. !nhe!lisbiiietiO deriverti frtim -rnsttnuei lUaiiner.® of the people, and f.- • 
 
 ; painting evv^-y tliuy *•;>«■' sa!«rv, wliich gives a wonrlerit,^ 
 apV*; er&nc4’ of IniUi aii.i ‘ • •^sesitartoo. From poetry or 
 
 t*^g^ry "a greater filje>ny of emieiti'^ ^ >«rn trill ite allowf d, 
 tile whole range of’aiicient untl inodei^SWJr n t'or bis’ pnrp-we 
 
 of illnsiralion. At < lie head of this ih parttw^ai ■■ *hi. ->i Hi-.n, nr«i 
 ' ponsent, and espf^tallp hv rtjo*>e who have iio«t ■ . i«\ fii:ry 
 Vis 'Wort*; stnnds RalT-io*** : not only do his Kiv*Miioira V'.mVat*' the 
 most leading and most ^tnkinw:' pt'rts of the 'sfot}, but he cai*riea the 
 spectator bnck to ite coturneiir.ement by a chain of the ncjo uainrul 
 I. urostnnees, and shows also by the same felicitous extension of hi» 
 u-'V. i. 'lu\se results wKich followed its taking place; thus e.xhihitmg m 
 s- ihe ' ' ' iV* V ■■» volume, soch as we sto in hi< ?»^Di of 
 
 ' ^ ' ^ '* ' - , , t.f Vfheus, the Sacrihee at 
 
 f ' / , a.*-=. <wi : .'?5’' nking of this qmjlit}' of Rafiaelle, 
 
 ii *■ V \S. i : > ';ii lltioiri^d Ih'’ >>!, f .•?! •’* J.- st»». . OJc. «*' 4j»r 
 
 CHrto(*}Vs, i>.' SB example, P/,a,t; i I’W irtin* «*.. , 'ot ^ 
 
 sacritiOe pn pared f,ir hii'’ 4 '1 us ti’ < ao gcxls. !:>• having 
 
 restored a lame own fe i,.- :<f-of hw lin.hs. TIi- ukar, tli* attendants, 
 tiie virtiius, tlie musiewos. and tiie axe,. sofficienUy imlifaf* the loteotion.s 
 ' ' ■ •. J-y -i) hijis ; Sf. Paul, who is in the act of tearing liis robe, sbow> 
 tli ’ * ‘ • •'i .‘•’id abhors the sacrilegious honours^ arid is endeavouring 
 
 tO(!i^ -„.. . a — ipuUr.e from persisting in them ; but all this wer- vsui, 
 if it bail ' ,!sai ihi mirirte w iiieli' hod ^ist happened, and whi< ' 
 
 bad given risv l.’iffacllc Iherefore added to tin group '■ 
 
 lame nKUi resfon^i isf hh, limbs,’ now easily recugaised 1 
 
 spectators: he stamla , < , *j>ostles rejoicing in bi> restore; . I 
 
 raises bis hand i in traits • .wreis hi^, henefiictur^. wlule at ' y » , 
 
Flute 2. 
 
 Zoruitm, Published 1637. by J. C%zrpe/iter. Old FoneZ Suret 
 
EDUCATION OP THE EYE. 
 
 37 
 
 the crutches, now cast away as useless ; this had been sufficient for any 
 other artist, but Raffaelle, who wished to give a greater appearance of 
 reality, has added several people, who, in their eager curiosity, remove 
 the garment of the man to behold his limbs restored to their natural state.” 
 As the people called St. Paul, Mercury, from his being chief speaker, 
 Raffaelle has alluded to this by a statue of Mercury in the distance, and a 
 figure ill the foreground with a chaplet of ivy, bringing in a ram, both 
 indicative of the sacrifices to that god. By the uplifted hands of the 
 restored cripple, and the youth who stretches out his hand to arrest the 
 arm of the sacrificers, we perceive the effect of St. Paul’s persuasions, in 
 the same way as he indicates the conversion to Christianity of the woman 
 of Damaris and Dionysius in the Cartoon of Paul preaching at Athens. 
 In the inventions of Raffaelle we find the representation of any event 
 extending its effects on the several spectators in a variety of ways, 
 producing the most natural action and expression, and all conducive to 
 the illustration of the subject: his rich store of materials from the Greek 
 and Roman antique, with the inventions of those artists who preceded 
 him in the restoration of painting in Italy, enabled him to embellish his 
 design with an endless accumulation of incident, giving chasteness, sim- 
 plicity, and the power of carrying the mind back to times long gone by ; 
 no one has possessed so great a command over his materials, or greater 
 address in adapting them to his own purpose; the Greek gems and 
 statues, the Roman basso relievos, the primitive character of the works of 
 Giotto and Masaccio, the grand outline and foreshortening of the figures 
 of Michael Angelo and Leonardo da Vinci, may be all traced through his 
 works, but the inventive genius which has called them into new existence 
 with a more natural and a more powerful effect on the spectator, is 
 peculiarly his own. 
 
 Invention being more properly a combination of those qualities which 
 affect the mind and awaken sensations in the imagination of the spectator, 
 the inventions of Raffaelle affect different spectators according to their 
 
38 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 different degrees of taste or cultivation ; whereas the inventions of Paul 
 Veronese, Tintoret, and others of the Venetian school, being more 
 addressed to the eye, please and captivate all beholders, from their 
 harmony of light and shade, and their beautiful and gorgeous arrangement 
 of splendid colour. With Raffaelle, the leading point of the story is boldly 
 and nobly expressed, while its effects are diffused and spread over the 
 countenances and actions of the adjoining figures, and revived and 
 embellished by episodes and representations of the preceding and follow- 
 ing events, acting upon the more subordinate or more extended portions 
 of the composition, such as we see in the Ananias, the Heliodorus, the 
 Sacrifice at Lystra, the Attila, and the Transfiguration. Thus what is 
 effected in the one case by the diffusion of light and colour, is produced by 
 Raffaelle through the medium of the expression and action of his figures; 
 this it is that has gained for him the appellation of the painter of mind ; and 
 his making use of those materials from which the taste and cultivation of 
 the mind is derived, gives to his works that charm which increases by 
 contemplation, since they revive within us ideas of all the great and 
 beautiful works we have ever beheld. 
 
 Invention being more properly the province of the mind than the eye, 
 perhaps it is unnecessary to dwell longer upon it in this place ; but we 
 must always bear in recollection that the mind of an artist is formed from 
 a contemplation of those circumstances which it will be in his power to 
 make use of, and that is one reason, amongst others, why I dwell more 
 particularly upon the inventions of Raffaelle than upon those of Michael 
 Angelo'®; they are more practical, and can be adopted by those whose 
 
 Reynolds, drawing a comparison between Michael Angelo and Raffaelle, says, “ Raffaelle 
 had more taste and fancy, Michael Angelo more genius and imagination. The one excelled in 
 beauty, the other in energy. Michael Angelo has more of the poetical inspiration ; his ideas are 
 vast and sublime ; his people are a superior order of beings, there is nothing about them, nothing in 
 the air of their actions or their attitudes, or the st)'le and cast of their limbs or features, that reminds 
 us of their belonging to our own species. Raffaelle’s imagination is not so elevated ; his figures 
 
EDUCA.T10N OF THE EYE. 
 
 39 
 
 works are addressed to the feelings of all classes, or, as Lord Bacon says, 
 “ come home to the business and bosoms of most men.” The inventions 
 of Michael Angelo, on the other hand, elevate tlie feelings only of the 
 learned, while they appear extravagant and overcharged to the generality 
 of mankind ; notwithstanding which, this is the spirit which ought to 
 influence the taste and genius of other artists, and which made Rafl’aelle 
 exclaim, that “ he thanked God that he was born in the same age with 
 that great man'°!” We need not go further than refer to his great work 
 
 are not so much disjoined from our own diminutive race of beings, though his ideas are chaste, 
 noble, and of great conformity to their subjects. Michael Angelo’s works have a strong, peculiar, 
 and marked character ; they seem to proceed from his own mind entirely, and that mind so rich 
 and abundant, that he never needed, or seemed to disdain to look about for foreign help. RafFaelle’s 
 materials are generally borrowed, though the noble structure is his own. The excellency of this 
 extraordinary man lay in the propriety, beauty, and majesty of his characters, the judicious 
 contrivance of his composition, his correctness of drawing, purity of taste, and skilful accommo- 
 dation of other men’s conceptions to his own purpose. Nobody excelled him in that judgement 
 with which he united to his own observations on nature the energy of Michael Angelo, and the 
 beauty and simplicity of the antique. To the question, therefore, ‘ Which ought to hold the first 
 rank, Raffaelle or Michael Angelo ?’ it must be answered, that if it is to be given to him who 
 possessed a greater combination of the higher qualities of the art than any other man, there is no 
 doubt but Raffaelle is the first. But if, as Longinus thinks, the sublime, being the highest 
 excellence that human composition can attain to, abundantly compensates the absence of every 
 other beauty, and atones for all other deficiencies, then Michael Angelo demands the preference.” 
 — Fifth Discourse. 
 
 “ From time to time there arise upon the earth men who seem fonned to become the centre 
 of an intellectual system of their own ; they arc invested, like the prophet of old, with a heavenly 
 mantle, and speak with the voice of inspiration. Those that appear after them are but attendants 
 in their train, seem born only to revolve about them, warmed by their heat and shining by their 
 reflected glory. Their works derive not their strength from momentary passions or local associa- 
 tions, but speak to feelings common to mankind, and reach the innermost movements of the soul, 
 and hence it is that they have an immortal spirit, which carries them safe through the wreck of 
 empires and the changes of opinion. Works like these are formed by no rule, but become a 
 model and rule to other men. Few, however, among us are permitted to show this high excellence. 
 Ordinary minds must be content to learn by rule, and every good system must have reference to 
 the many and not to the few.” — Professor Sedgwick's Discourse on the Studies of the 
 University. 
 
40 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 of the Last Judgement, where he introduces Charon ferrying over the 
 souls of the damned, and other allusions to the heathen mythology, which 
 give to the Christian creed the adventitious character of learned fable. 
 On the other hand, Rafiaelle grasps his subject with the power of one who 
 relies upon truth and nature for the etfect; and, leaving the regions of 
 poetry and fiction, gives an identity to the scene, founded upon the 
 principle of simple facts being ennobled by the great powers of elevated 
 art. Besides, we must never forget that the public taste is already formed 
 from a contemplation of the many great works now in existence, and 
 which liave stood the test of ages, and that it is only by being in 
 some manner conformable to these we can ever hope for a favourable 
 reception. 
 
 COMPOSITION. 
 
 By Composition is generally meant the form and arrangement of the 
 several parts considered as a whole ; consequently, the form or plan of 
 any composition is the first process the painter practically commences 
 with. The nature of the subject having been settled, he weighs in his 
 mind the effect to be produced upon the spectator ; he therefore arranges 
 his figures and objects accordingly, and endeavours to distribute his 
 materials in that form which will best accord with his intention. The 
 illustration of his story, the distribution of his light and shade and colour, 
 the localities of the scene, all present their individual interests to his 
 notice; while his imagination embodies them into that congregated form 
 which seems best calculated for his purpose. Here it is, that the memory 
 is called into action; without precedents he cannot judge, without materials 
 he cannot compose. Having now laid down his plan of operations, he 
 applies to nature to furnish him with the means of giving variety and 
 originality to his work; but to bind her to his purpose, he must have a 
 settled knowledge of what he is seeking, he must have a quickness 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EVE. 
 
 41 
 
 of eye, to take advantage of accidental arrangements, and a plan of 
 methodizing his ideas, so as to be able to secure what he acquires, 
 without which it will be impossible to produce a composition upon which 
 he can calculate with any degree of certainty as to its effects or its 
 stability, and what he paints one day he may obliterate the next. Com- 
 position not being an inherent quality of the mind, but the result of long 
 acquaintance with the nature and arrangement of the compositions of 
 others, it generally follows, that all wayward and capricious compositions, 
 established neither upon natural grounds, nor upon the scientific arrange- 
 ments of those who have preceded us, seldom outlive their inventors, for 
 pleasing only by reason of their novelty, they gradually lose their interest 
 as that novelty vanishes; or, as Dr. Johnson expresses it, “ the irregular 
 combination of fanciful invention may delight awhile by that novelty, of 
 which the common satiety of life sends us all in quest; the pleasures of 
 sudden wonder are soon exhausted, and the mind can only repose upon the 
 stability of truth.” 
 
 Geometric forms in composition are found to give order and regularitv 
 to an assemblage of figures, for, in fact, we can have no idea of form 
 without a portion of distinct shape, which being arranged so as to make 
 one part of the composition dependent on another for its completion or 
 extension, produces an harmonious assemblage of lines, independent of 
 the aid of light and shade or colour. Groups of figures without some 
 appearance of geometrical form apparent to the eye, would produce a 
 confused effect upon the spectator, in whose mind their appearance would 
 indicate one subject as strongly as another, and look picturesque, when 
 such character might be destructive of the impression intended to be 
 produced. We have an excellent example of the influence of lines, or 
 arrangement of parts, in the composition of Attila, by Raffaelle ; we see 
 on one side the rude irregular descent into the Campania of Rome of the 
 congregated tribe of the Goths and Vandals, leaving fire and desolation 
 in their rear, and hurrying forward with savage wildness ; opposed to 
 
 G 
 
42 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 which^ enters the head of the Christian church, with the ministers of the 
 cross, calm, meek, dignified, and upright, secure in the protection of 
 Heaven, whose messengers are seen descending; those noble warriors, 
 St. Peter and St. Paul, spreading by their appearance terror and dismay 
 into the hearts of Attila and his followers : and thus it is that the painter 
 is enabled, by the assemblage of lines and forms, to produce upon the 
 mind those sensations which the poet efitects by a combination of words, 
 or the composer of music by an arrangement of expressive sounds. 
 
 To simplicity and regularity of form we are indebted for the foundation 
 of what is great and sublime, for, as Johnson expresses it, “ sublimity is 
 produced by aggregation, and littleness by dispersion.” In architecture 
 we find this a main cause of grandeur: Burke says, “ vastness in any 
 object, infinity, succession, and uniformity of parts in building, or any 
 object in nature, are all sources of the sublime, succession of uniform 
 parts creating a kind of artificial infinite, and this may be the cause 
 w h^^ a lotund has such a noble effect in building’^**.” Having observed 
 before that the architecture introduced into the works of Raffaelle 
 is of a simple and uniform character, it often seems to have been his 
 design to carry out and extend the perspective and general form of his 
 plan by the arrangement and position of his figures, such as we see in 
 his School of Athens; and De Piles says, “ he found in some of his 
 sketches, plans and scales of proportion.” One or two memorandums 
 
 “ Addison, noticing how much simplicity of parts and greatness of manner in architecture 
 affect the mind, quotes a passage of hi. Feart's Parallel of the Ancient and Modern Architecture. 
 
 I am observing, says he, “ a thing which in my opinion is very curious whence it proceeds, 
 that m the same quantity of superficies the one manner seems great and magnificent, and the 
 other poor and trifling ; the reason is flue and uncommon. I say, then, that to introduce into 
 architecture this grandeur of manner, we ought so to proceed, that the division of the principal 
 members of the order may consist but of few parts, that they be all great, and of a bold and ample 
 relievo and swelling ; and that the eye beholding nothing little and mean, the imagination may be 
 more vigorously touched and affected with the work that stands before it.” 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 43 
 
 which I found amongst the collections of drawings left to Christ Church, 
 Oxford, by General Guise, seem to confirm this observation. The 
 memorandums are written upon the side of sketches illustrative of the 
 remarks, one of which I have given in Plate nr. containing the ground 
 plan, also the figures seen under the influence of perspective ; the other, 
 showing a circular arrangement of figures, such as we see in the lower 
 part of the Transfiguration, and in the Death of Ananias ; viz. 
 
 Fig.,. 
 
 To Dr. Barnes, of Christ Church, I am indebted for the very great 
 interest he took in enabling me to procure copies of any of the drawings. 
 For the translation of the memorandums, and remarks upon the designs, I 
 
44 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 am indebted to the kindness of C. L. Eastlake, Esq. R. A., whose intimate 
 knowledge of the compositions of Ratfaelle must give his observations 
 additional weight 
 
 Independent of forms in composition most suitable to the subject, and 
 ai ranged in the most natural manner, it is of the first consequence that the 
 
 Translation of the memorandum on the side of the sketch representing circular compo- 
 sition : — 
 
 “ It is to be observed, that the first thing to be considered in an historical composition is 
 where the point ( id est, the spectator or spectator’s eye) is to be placed, whether in the middle of 
 the work or on one side, and so to determine its situation that the important figures be distinctly 
 visible, and not concealed by others, and then begin the design. It is my opinion, confirmed by 
 the practice of the most skilful men, that the mode explained by a drawing in the margin (is 
 generally fittest), viz. by contriving that those figures which are nearest to the point should present 
 their backs, those further removed their sides, and so on in perspective, as if a circle were drawn 
 and figures ranged round it, so should an historical composition be designed.” 
 
 In illustration of the above, supposing an action to be represented in a circle, which would be 
 quite natural if the object of attention were in the centre, the spectator might either view it so as 
 to be himself without the circle, or be supposed within it. In the latter case, the nearest figures 
 would have their sides towards him, in the former their backs. Thus, when the spectator sees a 
 semicircle, he completes the circle by his forming a part. This arrangement was adopted by the 
 early Italian painters in their sacred subjects, and from its fitness v/as never abandoned by 
 Raffaelle. The Madonna di Foligno and the Dresden Madonna are remarkable examples, as in 
 these pictures the St. Francis in the first, and the Pope Sixtus in the other, turn to the spectator 
 who contemplates the w'ork, and intercedes for them. The object, in short, by this semicircular 
 airangement was to mix up the spectator with the divine or sainted personages represented, and to 
 make him feel in their presence. 
 
 But in more dramatic representations, in which the spectator might be interested but not a 
 parfij concerned^ llaffaelle adopted the more picturesque arrangement, and after him this was 
 unfortunately applied to devotional subjects. The drawing by Raffaelle and the note recommend 
 the picturesque arrangement, but as the whole works of the master are the best commentaries on 
 his note, it may safely be affinned, that he could not have intended this principle to apply to votive 
 pictures ; at present, indeed, in this country, when altar pieces, and especially mere assemblages 
 of sacred personages, are rarely painted, the directions contained in Raffaelle’s note may be 
 considered of universal application ; it is only in the critical history of the art that they might lead 
 to false conclusions. — C. L. E. 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 45 
 
 spectator ought to have such a view of the representation as will be most 
 effective and uninterrupted : this obliges the artist to design those figures 
 in the near part of the composition either in kneeling or stooping 
 positions, that they may not intercept the figures behind, or to elevate 
 those background figures by a higher plane, such as we see in the School 
 of Athens, the Ananias, the Incendio del Borgo, Elymas the Sorcerer, 
 and others : or he may compose his piece upon the principle of the 
 Heliodorus, which, leaving the space vacant in the middle, allows the eye 
 of the spectator to range from the foreground to the distance without 
 interruption : but in whatever form his composition developes itself, it is 
 not more necessary to preserve such form in the strongest character than 
 it is to give the spectator the most pictorial and comprehensive view of 
 the subject; to enable him to judge of this quality, it will be necessary 
 not only to lay down a ground plan, but to model the groups and 
 individual figures, as we know to have been the practice of the best 
 artists, from Michael Angelo and Ralfaelle down to the present, which 
 will also, even though roughly executed, suggest the most natural effects 
 of the light and shade 
 
 Translation of the memorandum at the side of the drawing given in Plate hi. Fig. 1 : — 
 
 “ This is the mode the painter should observe in composing his histories, so that the disposition 
 of the masses should be unconstrained, as if the composition followed the advancing sight in order 
 that the history or picture may bo satisfactory to the spectator, and particularly to the experienced 
 spectator. For if arranged without this rule, the said history will be put together defectively, this 
 (viz. the mode alluded to) being the true practice adopted by the most skilled and intelligent in 
 the art. This will appear by consulting the works of those painters who are most famous ; it is 
 from their adherence to this rule that their works have been so much praised, and with the best 
 reason, for this is the true principle.” 
 
 The rule here alluded to, and which is sufficiently explained by the drawing which accompanies 
 it, relates to depth of composition, as opposed to superjicial or basso relievo composition ; the 
 mere surface is capable in variety, in height, and in width ; but these varieties may exist while 
 there is no variety whatever in the plan ; the figures should therefore occupy the extent of the 
 ground plan as completely as when brought to the surface they appear to occupy the height and 
 
40 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 Having decided upon his general form of composition, the several 
 portions of the design next claim his attention; those portions of most 
 consequence to the illustration of the story are to be brought into notice, 
 while other parts are made subservient, by being thrown into shade or 
 more intercepted by their situations; action and repose, masses convex 
 and concave, lines regular or picturesque, spaces diminishing or increas- 
 ing, are all to be combined in producing an harmonious result upon the 
 eye and mind of the spectator. 
 
 We have noticed the peculiar properties of objects under the influence 
 of pel spective ; viz. circular forms becoming elliptical, spaces diminishing 
 as they recede, objects intercepting those behind, while those on the 
 foreground possess more detail and minutice ; these qualities are therefore 
 to be engiafted upon the several portions of the composition, that it may 
 have the appearance of truth, and enable the artist to give his work the 
 firmness of nature. In selecting examples illustrative of these remarks, it 
 will be sufficient to give one or two of the most palpable, that the student 
 may be made aware of their character ; after which, the whole range of 
 composition, from the revival of painting down to our own time, will be 
 lendered subseivient to his investigation. As it is the character of spaces 
 
 breadth of the surface or face of the picture. Thus the three possible dimensions are occupied, 
 the art being generally concealed by avoiding too regular a variety, and by doubling the masses 
 somewhere. It only remains to be observed, that of the three applications of varied arrangement, 
 that of the depth is the most strictly picturesque, because it most effectually gets rid of the dat 
 surface, and suggests foreshortened limbs and figures, which are most to be met with in the latest 
 w'oiks of Titian, Raffaelle, and Michael Angelo; but Corregio, who was from the beginning 
 devoted to gradation in forms (perspective) as well as chiaroscuro, was also an early lover of 
 depth in composition, and often of foreshortening. C. L. E. 
 
 Fig. 2 is part of a Roman basso relievo, from which Raffaelle took the ceremony of the 
 Sacrifice at Lystra. 
 
 Fig. 3 shows his adaptation of the ideas of others to his own purpose, being a figure of 
 Masaccio’s, which is converted into his St. Paul preaching. Vide Reynolds’s Twelfth Discourse. 
 

 
 
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 'pn»T!«» ^ tber^sifjp oexidatm .big atteatJofc ; ^tbose potions, of b«>« 
 U-n».-qt»t>nc e to the itft is tratww of tb^ st^ afe', (» fae broi%lrt mtor Ootu^:. 
 otfier piirts are made MrihMrrrkDi,' by biing ««« i^e or 
 
 --wore-^rw^ptowi -Bjr tinHrkrwt?oi|iaT-aetm« rep^, in»g^ cooy« 
 ami wnrave, lines regular or pfctnir^^.Mi gp^isg dinjitwifi^ OT’inorea*- 
 irtg, ate all to be c.mfoijrcd s» iMrioooioas residt npoa Ue 
 
 eye and mind of th© ap^t^or.}''', ; j ■ 
 
 We'bavTi^oUc4SJ-4e pt-ealigr. preperiiea of pt^rii rw rt w ifce mfl«eoce 
 of perspective.; v«. ea^alar.fonaa becoming elliptical, »pmxi ulsmatkiRg- 
 la t^ey r<ced^ dl^eis mterceptiag titoae behind, nbite those' oo A* 
 
 ' fonegrhtind possess-tnore detail and awnatwe j tbeae qualities 'are tbereforS 
 ■ fe-fec.^Dgraltoi ap on t h e . several, p o i it .io n s of.ibe ctxtrposrtioH, that it may ' 
 . *pp*i*tanc e of tfut b, artist, to give bis work Ae 
 
 lira*a<ma of notare. Id selecting eiamples ill ustrqtSv^^ of these reibai^tl^ if 
 : *>a o»e <* two of the pn^pJttk, that. the atudetrf , 
 
 hr awW-e ef'tKur character; after jwtueb, the •hoIe^a^w'.aC, 
 
 I'Onipchitioia fronj theireviyai of painting down ^ 
 r.onde^d si^jMntdeal to l<ut in«c««^hoR. 
 
 A«^ 
 
 
 breadth of the surftce ur iace Of «i6.p.eo^ Thtu the thro* poMbh ma oew^i^' 
 
 Iho art hemir Ksaenilly connealed hy wowiiig W r5^a*c ~ A tf il ittilirn, UvT luuse* 
 
 aoBumtiima It only remaioK to be cb»ifrred, ttat of the titN* ^Wme.} arraagtotuait, 
 
 •tint of :-V i» dw iDoat slrictty pietoixt^ia, b»Mw q aam idb *f the 
 
 an.t Rjyrato *>re»hfirtcMd liiith* «u| witiah wt mw* toj'tr aaefcwth hi Ow ]*toiii 
 
 warhi of tirai. 8aC»tU>. aud .Micbarl Angelo; but- Conivgtn. »1 m j*a», fei^ the hee^tma. ' 
 dnyofad to ii, Intau. (ft-n^e«tpn)'3S: Wvll na cbiaroscuro. v«y*, r^b a, early f*e*r ' 
 
 depth nr a i«|il iim «_ and *a.t, 1 / t'^uatoarteufa^. — C. L-T^i. '• ' 
 
 Flg^ S » jpMv nt a thMi*. hhaw. «*die*u, which ttafloclicj t*ok thei«cr«a(iii*aag)hlf “ . ^ 
 
 Fig. 3 show* hto aiipwticw of «h* ,Hieai.ot_ai(at tochia oa»i'parpoa^rlWH* ^ gMltoJi 
 
Plate 3. 
 
 Zr/u/fn. AdlZs/ud /><?/ /j^' ' M J. d.. rpM.^ r {}/d £o/uZ S^a. 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 47 
 
 to diminish as they recede from the eye, we often find in the works of 
 Raftaelle and others this feature engrafted upon portions of their groups, 
 as in Fig. 2, part of the Cartoon of Ananias. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 As it is the character of objects to intercept others more or less, as 
 they recede from the foreground, and as it is tlieir character also to diminish 
 and possess less of detail by their receding, we perceive this principle 
 carried into the works of the great founders of the art in a variety of 
 ways ; we can trace it in the Greek and Roman basso relievos, in the 
 figures and heads of Michael Angelo and Rafiaelle, and in the works of 
 those who have collected from the great stores of nature and art. The 
 example. Fig. 3, is from Titian, part of a subject formerly in the church 
 of St. Nicola de Fiari at Venice, now in Rome. 
 
 This regularity of diminution imparts to a work a character of sim- 
 
48 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 plicity, and at the same time assists the artist in giving depth to his 
 composition^ one figure acting as a background to the otlier. 
 
 Fig. S. 
 
 This regularity of diminution not only assists in giving regularity and 
 simplicity to a work^ but enables the artist to carry the eye of the 
 spectator into the depths of his composition. We also find it often 
 employed in giving solidity and firmness to those heads or objects nearest 
 the eye; one portion acting as a background to the other, giving to the 
 whole that advantage which arises from the size, detail, and firmness of 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 49 
 
 foreground objects iu nature. Fig. 4 is a further illustration of the same 
 principle, being part of a design of Rubens, the picture of the Woman 
 taken in Adultery, in the collection of Mr. Miles. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 In following up the examination of Composition into its component 
 jjarts, we find it necessary that they should all combine to produce one 
 result upon the spectator. Raffaelle, in extending his composition into 
 the surrounding parts, employs his whole power in illustrating his story, 
 either by episodes, which embellish and enrich it, or by figures expressive 
 of the circumstances which have preceded it, or by conveying its effects 
 after completion : some we perceive engaged in relating the event to 
 those entering, or unable to view it from their situation in the picture ; 
 others of various ages and of different sexes, while they give variety to 
 the work, enable him to develope its effect by a variety of expression, 
 and action, by extending the lines productive of such sensations, or 
 lines by a union of several parts leading the eye by their direction 
 
 H 
 
50 
 
 an essay on the 
 
 to the principal point of the story, or giving bulk and strength to the 
 foreground figures. Add to these, figures repeating by their form the 
 principal points, so as to give those richness by extending their shape, 
 or productive of harmony by their action and expression, emanating from 
 those of the principal actors. These remarks more immediately apply to 
 the mental portion of the work, and of works of the higliest department 
 in the art; but many of them also may be made applicable to other 
 branches, such as the combining of several heads for the purpose of 
 preserving a mass of flesh colour, and to prevent spottiness in the effect; 
 or giving pleasure to the eye, by the forms taking pleasing shapes ; or 
 assisting deception, by lines combining to give strength and magnitude to 
 the foreground objects, or diminished delicacy to the more distant : in 
 short, a knowledge of the higher requisites of painting is of the greatest 
 importance in all the departments, whether in giving dignity to portraiture, 
 such as Titian’s, or to landscapes, such as his also, and those of Annibale 
 Caiiache, Salvator Rosa, or Nicolo Poussin. Towards gaining perfection 
 in poetry, we find writers recommending this course of investigation. 
 Addison say.s, “ a poet should be very well versed in every thing that is 
 noble and stately in the productions of art, whether it appears in painting 
 or statuary ; in the great works of architecture, which are in their present 
 glory, or in the ruins of those which flourished in former ages. Such 
 advantages as these help to open a man’s thoughts, and to enlarge his 
 imagination, and will therefore have their influence on all kinds of writing, 
 if the author knows how to make right use of them“.” Reynolds recom- 
 
 The same remarks which Dr. Johnson applies to poetry may be here made use of to 
 indicate the sources of mstruction for those who aspire to the higher walks of painting: « By the 
 general consent of critics, the first praise of genius is due to the writer of an epic poem as it 
 requires an assemblage of all the powers which are singly sufficient for other compositions. 
 Poetry is the art of uniting pleasure with truth, by calling imagination to the help of reason. 
 Epic poetry undertakes to teach the most important truths by the most pleasing precepts, and 
 therefore relates some great event in the most affecting manner. History must supply the writer 
 with the rudiments of narration, which he must improve and e.valt by a nobler art, must animate 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 51 
 
 mends, “ that all the inventions and thoughts of the ancients, whether 
 conveyed to us in statues, has reliefs, intaglios, cameos, or coins, are to 
 be sought after and carefully studied; the genius that hovers over these 
 venerable relics may be called the father of modern art. The collection 
 of the thoughts of the ancients which Ratfaelle made with so much trouble, 
 is a proof of his opinion on this subject; such collections may be now 
 made with much more ease, by means of an art scarce known in his time, 
 I mean that of engraving; by which, at an easy rate, every man may now 
 avail himself of the inventions of antiquity.” He also recommends taking 
 another view of the same figure, either by modelling it or setting a person 
 in the same attitude ; this will give the student a quick knowledge, 
 wherein consists the beauty and character of the different great masters ; 
 or by altering it to suit his subject, such as the figure of St. Paul, by 
 Masaccio, introduced in Paul preaching by Raffaelle, or the Sacrifice at 
 Lystra, Plate ii. To conclude, I can only repeat the words of Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds, “ study, therefore, the great works of the great masters 
 for ever, study as nearly as you can in the order, in the manner, and on the 
 principles on which they studied. Study nature attentively, but always 
 with those masters in your company; consider them as models which you 
 are to imitate, and at the same time as rivals, with whom you are to 
 contend.” 
 
 by dramatic energy, and diversify by retrospection and anticipation ; morality must teach him the 
 exact bounds and different shades of vice and virtue ; from policy, and the practice of life, he has 
 to learn the discrimination of character, and the tendency of the passions, either single or 
 combined; and physiology must supply him with illustrations and images. To put these materials 
 to poetical use, is required an imagination capable of painting nature and realizing fiction. Nor is 
 he yet a poet till he has attained the whole extension of his language, distinguished alt the 
 delicacies of phrase, and all the colours of words, and learned to adjust their different sounds to all 
 the varieties of metrical modulation .” — Johnsons Life of Milton. 
 
52 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 Arrangement, though not partaking of that liigh quality which distin- 
 guishes composition, yet nevertheless embraces a knowledge of those 
 characteristic features to be found pervading the general appearances of 
 nature, and to be employed in giving a truth and vigour to assemblages of 
 lines, shades, and colours. All objects whose images enter the eye are 
 subject to certain laws, which regulate their form, and assign to them situa- 
 tions in the picture which such forms indicate, and which having been often 
 observed, have obtained a general consent as to their truth and natural 
 character. To know, therefore, these arrangements observable in nature is 
 absolutely necessary, that we may employ such knowledge in producing 
 the same results in painting, especially as we find the works of those 
 artists who have thus combined their skill in arrangement give the greatest 
 pleasure to the eye of the spectator : this gratification arises from the 
 several images being depicted in their most characteristic features. In 
 looking abroad upon the face of nature, for example, in a wide extent of 
 country, where the eye can take a comprehensive observation, we notice 
 towards the horizon a multitude of parallel lines stretching across the 
 landscape, the lines crossing them being foreshortened lose their breadth, 
 while the perpendicular lines of objects lose their consequence owing to 
 their diminution from distance; but as these approach towards the fore- 
 ground, we perceive that they gain their ascendancy, and become more 
 rugged in the outline, and stronger in effect from their shadowed portions 
 being larger and darker, owing to their nearness to the eye. Being 
 acquainted with these facts, we can produce such an arrangement as shall 
 have the appearance of truth, and become enabled to heighten in effect 
 the arrangements of natural representation, and by the addition of colours, 
 whose properties belong to near objects, by the addition of light and 
 dark coming in contact, which gives distinctness and firmness, by the 
 
*» D83AY QW THB 
 
 AftaANGEMENT. 
 
 ’r ■ 
 
 ) ^VAWV.emrnt, tUoBgtj i^rUtfcing^. qf. tbat {wgli quality which dtati?' 
 )g(ri^es compositipn, yqt netvc^fe«lefuj enibraccs a' knowledge of tho*e 
 cbaihiCt^istift feattires ho b« foond perviKling Urn general appteBrancae of 
 and^oi emplejcti iq SSfViiig a truUi and vigour to aaneniblagea of 
 liiipej sit^esy aud coioHni.d AU. objetits whose tinuipMi' •.'uter- the eye are 
 tajsertahi regelate their tud uMign l» 'ihvni'.tittia~ 
 
 iioas Ml the picture tridpii iueh forms indicate, and which iwrwiK S«imV>^/ . 
 obsewcd, have obtebi^ a general wnscBt aa to their trutii e 
 
 charact^, know, therpfp^, these arrangcruenta ohserVabW in autw^ »• 
 
 absOldtely ,nece$sa^, that we may employ such. knowledge in prodiaiog 
 the iaoie nwtJta in-paintiugr»*tspeoially as we find' tlie works of those 
 ^tista wiM>^harq;Huia caraiiined their siul.l in arraagement^givr the ..awatest 
 Ifye ,if Spectator :. this grajiifiordioo wntaia 4rt»m for 
 
 eta«M|t iMsrn* htTt^ d«< acted w tfoir n%,are-». 
 
 fo'.lcitftr tUwoari upan.lit* &tm ..f •tetar*'. for cmesph'. m a «wte. 
 cptwlrj', wlwiir the q|M «4MN -ad'^ * 'Sdwqatrflste j 
 
 (owordf the horgM a <■« - s/rr^ itijea a»rrw>i^wM| dBriiu 'tLi 
 
 landscaj^ the linte erowtag tfo At h<aitg.foj:«it>fteawt turn rfoer heradth, 
 while the perpendicular lines of objects lose their oonsegnence uwitig to 
 tbei> dwtffoutio»y from distance; bet as these approhcH towards the forw- 
 grttnod. we ))gn:*iVe' 'thal they gain their ascendancy^ and becoibe mofT: 
 oigjgd jn the ouUintJi aiul/atrongec in. efleot from their shadowed portions 
 , being larger and darkcr,v owing to.- their Jieamess to the eye. Beiii# 
 ^^lainterl with those Ui»m, we ran produce speb an arrangprnent <s 
 .hare, the :vpp«»n«fc*. of f^lh. and become en^ed to heighten m wKsc^ 
 P4hd’arraiigei*eiitwof im(«itel rr}>i*te«itation,.and by th&additim. 01 .-^gt . 
 
 - whose properties beltaig to aeer p%cta, by the additioo r* . 
 dark doming jp coiithc^ which JjiTee distinctness and ttttiimw*r 
 
 *• . • 
 
 I 
 
 li 
 
 

 £cckcii fiy J. £ur/uA. 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 53 
 
 introduction of figures and other objects, we can assist the perspective, 
 by their assuming forms more or less under its influence, according to 
 their situation. 
 
 We know that quietness and regularity give dignity to part of a 
 composition while their lines contrast with others expressive of bustle, or 
 picturesque assemblage of forms ; we have noticed this exemplified in the 
 Attila, &c., we see it also in Fig. 5, part of the Heliodorus, where the 
 heads of the figures who bear the chair of the Pope surround him with 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 studied regularity, giving calmness by the arrangement, and firmness by 
 the perspective appearance of a column upon whose base he is elevated'^h 
 
 Lanzi, speaking of this work, says, “ in the course of this year, 1512, Ilaffaelle was 
 employed in the second chamber on the subject of Heliodorus driven from the temple by the 
 prayers of Onias the high priest, one of the most celebrated pictures of the place. In this painting 
 
54 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 This regularity of diminution and perspective effect has been noticed 
 principally in the arrangement of the heads; it is also to be observed in 
 the base lines of the several compositions of the figures, such as we 
 observe upon this side of the Heliodorus, where the Pope enters, marking 
 the line from the foreground to the distance, assisting the perspective by 
 such means as to lead the eye into the depths of the composition, while it 
 gives the appearance of truth and simplicity of natural diminution. See 
 Plate iv. I have given an additional Plate iv*, part of the Dispute of 
 the Sacrament, where this disposition is more evident. Independent of 
 this inode of arrangement being of use in giving uniformity to irregular 
 portions of a composition, it is of great advantage in directing the eye to 
 the principal parts of the picture by means of the perspective appearance 
 of the line; also by producing such arrangement either by the base of the 
 group or the introduction of accidental objects to assist such deceptive 
 diminution, we counteract the effects of false perspective, which the base 
 line of the group sometimes produces ; for in conducting the design, the 
 heads and upper portions only of the composition are attended to in the 
 
 the armed vision that appears to Heliodorus scatters lightning from his hand, while the neighing 
 steed is heard amidst the attendant thunder. In the numerous bands, some of which are 
 plundering the riches of the temple, and in others ignorant of the surprise and terror exhibited in 
 Heliodorus, consternation, amazement, joy, and abasement, and a host of passions are expressed. 
 In this work, and in others of these chambers, Raffaelle (says Mengs) gave to painting all the 
 augmentation it could receive after Michael Angelo. In this picture he introduced the portrait of 
 Julius the Second, whose zeal and authority is represented in Onias. He appears in a litter, 
 borne by his grooms, in the manner in which he was accustomed to repair to the Vatican to view 
 this work.” In these heads Raffaelle has given the portraits of his pupils M. Antonio and Julio 
 Romano, with the Pope’s secretary, &c. For this anachronism Raffaelle has been blamed by the 
 critics, without considering that it wns the only way the painter had of connecting the Jewish with 
 the Christian church, and exemplifying the temples of both as the sacred depositories for those 
 funds which were to be given out to the widow and the orphan poor. Without detracting from the 
 great merit of Raffaelle, we may rest assured that these works were of too much importance not to 
 be watched with the greatest vigilance, and assisted in their moral efficacy by all the learning 
 within the walls of the Vatican. Those who wish to see how close Raffaelle often kept to the 
 history, may examine the whole story in 2 Maccabees, chap. iii. 
 
f 
 
 54 
 
 an ESS<*if'«N TOH 
 
 _ t^^krity of dim!iiirtii>fl atid- pmptefnrt e6fect !ia$ bf"s» iwMbeerf 
 
 jw>»iK»I»ay in the srraqg«n«it' of tfie heads; it is also to be okier*^ ia 
 il«< Uub Ihtes of the ' cikiD^)usii(iGlu of tl)4fc^ures», such m 
 
 . .hasm opoa Oiis side orA^lVtiodtasw^ inhere the Pope enters, niaiiut^ 
 ' from the Ibregaound ta thtf dk^<r<e, andsting; the perspectiv* by 
 
 such means as to Icafl thd into the dupitbii 'of -the eompoaition, while it 
 the appearance tn truth and simpHHty'^ aatarai clioiination. See 
 8^’^f'»‘Wi4ionat of the IHspute of 
 
 8»crameat^ wt^ Mp. lii^sitioO i« more firkitat lmlrpMde»t of 
 thiavB>od&- ot* of, use, jj; toil wmity to irregatai' 
 
 portio’OS of'a c*«uipo<ittQD, 'Ujsi^ifi^at advantage In tfir-rfia^ the eye to 
 .tlip prinelpai parte of’Hiie plefare % dieans ai' ^ienpmtifr pppeanuice 
 o£i Ilf, line ; I&cV by pr-odiic?^ f^.h arraDgemeni «itl)Be by (h« Wae «f the 
 or tjJe introduction of acbidcntal objects ir> assist snch deceptive 
 Qjij We counteraCt tbc etfects of fixise perspective, which die base 
 yro*n> «<tn>etiine(i pridnre* ; for iti'eaudactilSig the desigo, the 
 *h< we atfexKW to in the 
 
 ■bis < 
 
 -”»r VAil > au < 
 
 j[' IkstesisttC 0i4' a tiak' at ' 
 
 l«r-. AtttueOa Hvigt) gara t» lU ih« 
 
 •W^to. Ibb pichurv he tatroducefl ibe pMUais of . 
 :iy i> fai tynitm. Us ippean ia a Utur, 
 
 I wbieh hh mu »n«oMQpui^ to repsiT to the Votieaa to kam 
 
 RxStotW ho ghen the p-utn^pf Ms pupils M. ^Votopio and Jstto 
 
 Hobuuus s W y,!- t‘^-b tocfetSTS'* for xhis aisuiihuiuni Ho&sfls has been blaas'ii hp *Js 
 •uiiics, wiiiK-.)* r -^e^-ia^Mwt Um< theesJy'irap lie paiat^ connertiiip; the 
 
 U»» ebrialJw 4s 't^ple* of hotfi^ the-asCTed depoaitorix. s^— 
 
 fUada whiah were to asiu’im* slut «s WHAoto drrrart-.-^*- . ■» 
 
 great ntsrit of KafiaeSe, f <sw assurait ifaeiil’ost workji.irere of too much lo^f^r^^ocs. :rcl ^ 
 be' watched with tho’ gWldMS Ta 0 kmnar aa4-na««ted' k dnir iborct hr sa b> toss to 
 
 •Itltia the .wa9a of |Ue T.ttitoB. i T!bnr who «dsh to teo how close BiUtoflt ebaii tow M -t* 
 MifcxT^r, Biay eXstuiiur tlMt wh^ m^ny m 2. Matfaboe*, thap> ut. 
 
4 * 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 55 
 
 first instance, without reflecting how the parts which come in contact 
 with the ground will appear when terminated according to their true 
 position in the picture. 
 
 A knowledge of arrangement enables us yet further to heighten 
 the gratification of the spectator, by engrafting upon the work those 
 forms found in the compositions of the most celebrated artists. This 
 knowledge it is which enables the poet to give so pleasing and vivid 
 descriptions of scenery, often gratifying the imagination more than an 
 actual survey of the scene he describes ; as Addison remarks, “ he takes 
 indeed the landscape after her, but gives it more vigorous touches, 
 heightens its beauty, and enlivens the whole piece, that the images which 
 flow from the objects themselves appear weak and faint, in comparison of 
 those that come from the expressions.” A knowledge of arrangement 
 enables the artist to follow up and extend lines and forms often only 
 hinted at in nature ; those parts which possess a strong local character, 
 he preserves as leading points to an harmonious assemblage of lines ; while 
 portions possessing beauty, he enshrines in masses of repose, or surrounds 
 them w'ith forms and colours, which add to their effect upon the spectator. 
 Even in the wild, rugged scenes of savage grandeur, where rocks, trees, 
 and clouds combine in awful magnificence, a knowledge of arrangement is 
 necessary to preserve this earthquake-like appearance. In the works ot 
 Salvator Rosa, the student will find many examples of this mode ot 
 arrangement, every part of the work uniting “in dreadful harmony.” To 
 acquire a knowledge of beautiful scenery, founded upon aerial perspective, 
 or an agreeable assemblage of lines and forms, he ought to study the 
 arrangements of Claude, Cuyp, and those of Turner, whose works are 
 filled with the various qualities which constitute the true poetry of painting, 
 and the power of giving extent and magnificence in the highest degree. 
 
56 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 HARMONY. 
 
 Harmony in painting is the connexion and agreement of one part with 
 another, either as regards form, light and shade, or colour : this agreement 
 proceeds either from a succession of the same forms in different degrees 
 of distinctness, such as arise when we cast a stone into water, producing 
 a succession of undulating circles, or by one form depending upon its 
 adjoining for its completion and unity, as is the case in poetry^*; or the 
 harshness of isolated forms may be broken down, and harmonised with the 
 whole, by their being hinted at, or faintly repeated in various portions of 
 the picture. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 Burke, speaking of beautiful forms, says, “as perfectly beautiful bodies 
 are not composed of angular parts, so those parts never continue long in 
 the same right line, they vary their direction every moment, and they 
 change under the eye, by a deviation continually carrying on, but for 
 whose beginning or end you will find it didicult to ascertain a point.” All 
 authors from Aristotle to De Quincy having treated of the affections of the 
 mind as if the avenues to each sensation were the same, it will perhaps 
 lead us to a more clear definition of the properties which belong to vision 
 exclusively, by confining the observations on form, shade, or colour to 
 
 Dr. Johnson says, “ As harmony is the end of poetical measures, no part of the verse ought 
 to be so separated from the rest as not to remain still more harmonious than prose, or to show, by 
 the disposition of the tones, that it is part of a verse.” Further on he remarks, “ when a single 
 syllable is cut off from the rest, it must either be united to the line with which the sense connects 
 it, or be found alone. If it be united to the other line, it corrupts its harmony ; if disjoined, it 
 must stand alone, and with regard to music be supei-fluous ; for there is no harmony in a single 
 sound, because it has no proportion to another.” — Ramhler, No. 90. 
 
EDUCATION OP THE EYE. 
 
 57 
 
 their effects upon the eye. As the forms of all objects enter the eye 
 through a circular aperture, those objects containing- a similar continuity 
 of form fall most agreeably upon the organ of vision, and are seen as it 
 were at a single glance; while objects possessing sharp angles seem less 
 in harmony with the flow of light which accompanies their entrance, and 
 require repeated examinations to gain a knowledge of their exact form ; 
 foi example, if a circle be presented to the eye, we are incontinently 
 carried round the whole circumference, whereas when we look upon a 
 square or cubical form, it requires four separate examinations, each 
 producing a separate effort. Now as the images of all objects are not 
 only viewed through a circular aperture, but are also received upon a 
 circular surface, and as the raj^s by which such images are couvey^ed fade 
 imperceptibly as they depart from the centre of vision, these may be 
 some of the causes why circular or undulating forms fall most agreeably 
 upon the eye ; especially if we consider that the organ itself moves as it 
 were in a circular motion, by means of its muscles, or as it is commonly 
 termed, the ball and socket“^ There are other reasons why circular forms 
 
 One of the mail)- points of superiority which the eye possesses over the ordinary camera 
 obscura is derived from its spherical shape adapting the retina to receive every portion of the 
 images produced by refraction, which are themselves curved : whereas, had they been received on 
 a plane surface, as they usually are in the camera obscura, a considerable portion of the image 
 would have been indistinct. This spherical form is preserved by means of the firm membranes 
 which protect the eye, and which are termed its coats ; and the transparent media which they 
 enclose, and which effect the convergence of the rays, are termed the humours of the eye. There 
 are in this organ three principal coats and three humours, composing altogether what is called the 
 globe of the eye. The outermost coat, which is termed the sclerotica, is exceedingly firm and 
 dense, and gives to the globe of the eye the mechanical support it requires for the performance of 
 Its delicate functions; it is perforated behind by the optic nerve, which passes onward to be 
 expanded into the retina. The sclerotica does not extend farther than about four-fifths of the 
 globe of the eye, its place m front being supplied by a transparent convex membrane, called the 
 cornea, which is more prominent than the rest of the eyeball; a line passing through the centre 
 of the cornea and the centre of the globe of the eye is called the axis of the eye. The sclerotica is 
 lined internally by the choroid coat, which is chiefly made up of a tissue of blood vessels for 
 supplying nourishment to the eye. It has on its inner surface a layer of a dark coloured viscid 
 
 I 
 
58 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 are most agreeable to the eye, arising from an association of ideas, such as 
 the soft circular forms of children and youth, compared with the rigid and 
 angular forms of age : or flowing undulating lines, conveying a greater 
 idea ot motion than lines crossing each other in abrupt opposite directions. 
 Harmony consisting of a certain proportion of one part with another, no 
 figure or shape can be harmonious or agreeable unless this arrangement is 
 complete, so as to produce a unity to the eye, or a balance of one portion 
 with another, such as the preponderance of perpendicular lines being 
 counteracted by those running in a horizontal direction, or oblique lines 
 antagonized by opposite obliquities, convex by the presence of concave. 
 
 secretion, known by the name of the pigmenlum nigrum^ or black pigment. Its use is to absorb 
 all the light which may happen to be irregularly scattered through the eye, in consequence of 
 reflection from different quarters ; and it serves, therefore, the same purpose as the black paint 
 with which the inside of optical instruments, such as telescopes, microscopes, and cameras obscurte, 
 are darkened. Within the pigmentum nigrum, and almost in immediate contact with it, the retina 
 is expanded, forming an exceedingly thin and delicate layer of nervous matter, supported by a fine 
 membrane. More than three-fourths of the globe of the eye are filled with the vitreous humour^ 
 which has the appearance of a pellucid and elastic jelly, contained in an exceedingly delicate 
 texture of cellular substance. The crystalline humour, which has the shape of a double convex 
 lens, is formed of a denser material than any of the other humours, and occupies the fore part of 
 the globe of the eye, immediately in front of the vitreous humour, which is there hollowed to 
 receive it. The space which intervenes between the lens and the cornea is filled with a watery 
 secretion, called the aijueous humour. This space is divided into an anterior and posterior 
 chamber by a flat circular partition, termed the iris. The iris has a central perforation, called the 
 pupil, and it is fixed to the edge of the choroid coat by a white elastic ring, called the ciliary 
 ligament. The posterior surface of the iris is called the uvea, and is lined with a dark brown 
 pigment. The structure of the iris is very peculiar, being composed of two layers of contractile 
 fibres ; the one forming concentric circles, the other disposed like radii, between the outer and 
 inner margin. When the former act, the pupil is contracted; when the latter act, the breadth of 
 the iris is diminished, and the pupil of course is dilated. By varying the size of the pupil, the 
 quantity of light admitted into the interior of the eye is regulated and accommodated to the 
 sensibility of the retina. WTien the intensity of the light would be injurious to that highly 
 delicate organ, the pupil is instantly contracted, so as to exclude the greater portion ; and on the 
 contrary, when the light is too feeble it is dilated, in order to admit as large a quantity as possible 
 The iris also serves to intercept such rays as would have fallen on parts of the crystalline lens less 
 fitted to produce their regular refraction.” — Dr. Itogefs Bridgewater Treatise. 
 
58 
 
 AN ES«AY. ON 1<H1! 
 
 
 
 y. 
 
 s»w w r*^>eable to th» eye, an'iiing from an awociaflou .•! >fi. ; • 
 tWi«A -cfrciilifr forms of rfiHdr^ahVl yonth, c<Mnp6rcff vvii -ter .itrid <o ! 
 
 forms «f age: or <n»>du1alinc ! iries^onveyin^ i» . r’jAtcT 
 
 Mioit ofmofioij than lines rrosTTn^jeAd) otfKr in abrupt opnastto'dirett^aftt. 
 HsruicmiAritnsiglrn^t of ii c< ’ Ulfh*J roj>orti>n of one p;lr^^rit!l anotfier, o»f 
 f/jpticr or^bfipe <j»t! be li«ri -’r-oia^or a^.-er-.ible. unfess lliis arrangefuejit j* 
 c;i'np}efi^-so »»“lo jifiKtuer' » <l»e eye, or ii l»1aiUT of one jwrtton^ 
 
 «rit}ifaftofb*r, siiijb !!•' !.• - ,Yc|j);»d' of ! j>erperi<JicaVar Hues beinj» 
 ■oy;’ ■ -.iyOrtr' inja horizoutfiH <iin,-«'ltOii, or oblique, lines 
 _A'nla<»noT»>d-^ tyonve* t*f 1 ’ ;>'i’seocc of eoBCaKlI^ 
 
 «WreHoo, known l.y the nnnw' of «2kp ni^yirm, or btAck : w> ^iaorb 
 
 &H thi» whirh m&v. happen' to be irr^^lerW through the rrr-. .>! «*r** ^ 
 
 reflection from differeijff Ajirmers; and jt Mrrve^, therefore» the $$mr p»trpo«e U .' liMk 
 >nth which the imide of optic^d mfftrnineote, such as t<4«cop«, and rainerx* okcciiNi*. 
 
 ft?»; darkerh/d. \VltMn the jngm^cum .ntiriim, ahd'almo^ in fTnmedMoe contact witit iti the 
 
 “■ Ti **^^**^'^^ 
 
 | 6 %C. ef ^ ^ ^ 
 
 ard 
 
 h-vamn, « 6 d - ‘ 
 
 • *-?r- ;iv..r 
 
 of 
 
 . A. 1 , « , \ " '-t 
 
 Ar.i«*t ^rvi* /te ^^>1 •: vl». 
 
 •iXe” 1 * •!:.’• »'c^ • ■•••%•*' , '.. ir-N^; 
 
 IWffJ'^'*' k't" i M *;' •^ • ’•* ■ '■ ■ /•' r. . i,.,. 
 
 dl[u.-s <• ' r . ..'J. . V- 
 
 ilNtrSer Uy Atrtsfe-’^s < i- • ,• > !»>»>+<■ W * " ti„, ' 
 
 ^hinl,,ni E .iA l!i»E to Uli.' . 1- -' ■ ■ ' '*■> !■**»■ V' -j-whiU ffr I 't < tho isiiory 
 
 ' '<'*se jonferiM IfiuXai « ' or tlw-. t * rt r>. i-,l tbs ii'rn, smi ir linod witli a iuHt Grotto 
 
 jJr* > t, ■* iiii ••I’lrturr wf tfie tr?*^iv yjreurwr, imtif oonipwod of two ikyers o<*ooiftra.qtii» 
 
 ijv . ' • -roojiAftrte 't'jrdH, »h<i >tbf, Uki b"fW>i«n'tbr AwimT yJiT?,' ’ 
 
 v'Tmef Mt, tfe pwjwf :» opnlrtirtrtl'; whnt thj-'^n.-twr irt, the br«e;b>> 
 
 -.< ' V.;<fr(&»9 4» .tilitsd. Py »»rji!i).' tb« ,4ze of tho 
 
 ■pt-?rlijt of ibo os-o ^ K'^tflstet) Mi-slcctanmit^M^ t ‘ 
 
 ‘ ,» liiwArby of Am ti/fit-,ijji«l(f bof tiiji^ont If 
 
 'i ■ .»TTiM«-ir^i JO ;ii. ro 9*ohlde tH* p^’Atut ■ ' - 2 *f 
 
 le"!' r. • rKi<ti)i! it n i'4»t"4. 'n ot4' rWadftfb m-jiii~|^£fa»iiio ■ ^ 
 
 »,j!»r*rtTw9 (f ij; — f atirfiillon hiry%r*‘. ^ „ 
 
 ^tieo t«»wn)3tu»'t^<^r rt^Hiosl' — ijr^ Vo^it Sruitrnc ‘-r . 
 
 !e» 
 
 tf»y 
 
 Ibiiitr', i 9 tUt"-. *, V- 
 : * (jf bjprt S' 
 
 • .43lsff)tS^ »•«' 
 
 f--?? U'xrft, >k wh 
 
 
 
 
EDUCATION OP THE EYE. 
 
 59 
 
 all mingling together in regular adjustment: as in music we find harmony 
 produced by a combination of sounds different in themselves, vet affecting 
 the mind, through the medium of the ear, with one result. Aristotle, in 
 his Treatise on Poetry, says, “ beauty consists in magnitude and order; 
 but no animal, or other thing, can be beautiful that is either too small or 
 too large for the eye to take cognizance of its several component parts at 
 once, as in that case the wliole, or unity, is lost to the spectator.” That 
 extension of form so conducive to harmony, and productive of an agree- 
 able effect upon the eye, is often taken advantage of in regulating the 
 boundary line to a composition ; thus vve often see a single head of a 
 child, or a group consisting of an assemblage of curved lines, reach the 
 eye more agreeably through a circular frame, as in that case the sensations 
 which arise from such a combination are not disturbed or interrupted ; so, 
 likewise, the sight may be conveyed with greater pleasure, and with an 
 increased perspective effect, through a square or oblong aperture, by 
 having the horizontal and perpendicular lines of the frame repeated as 
 they depart from the eye, in diminished lengths, and strengths, and 
 magnitude, as in Plate v, also in the curved and horizontal lines of the 
 architecture of the School of Athens, the Heliodorus, &c. This mixing 
 up the frame or opening with the work is often of the utmost importance, 
 even when extended to the effect of light and shade, and colour, as it 
 breaks down that harshness which otherwise attracts the eye, while 
 examining the work contained within it“. 
 
 This harmonious combination of the picture with its frame induces many artists to finish 
 their wmrks after being framed, thereby assisting them in giving a greater force and deceptive 
 appearance to the whole ; for though this deceptive appearance is argued against by some, as belong- 
 ing only to the infancy of the art, and not applicable to the higher walks of painting, yet the mind 
 cannot be reached through the medium of the eye unless this deception is carried out to a consider- 
 able extent ; neither, as others reason more subtly, is it to be regarded as a diminution of our 
 gratification. Dioramas and panoramas are both pleasing illusions, on this principle alone. 
 De Quincy says, “ When the painter includes within a narrow compass a vast extent of space, 
 when oh a flat surface he bears me through the far off regions of the infinite, and makes the air 
 
60 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 CHIARO OSCURO. 
 
 That harinouy which is produced by chiaro oscuro, or by the means of 
 black and wliite, independent of colour, depends upon the quantities of 
 light and dark employed, and the disposition of them ; sometimes meeting- 
 in extremes of opposition, in other portions gliding away with imper- 
 ceptible softness into undefined spaces, the light sometimes falling on 
 combined objects, giving out a faint halo round the group ; in some 
 instances darting out through the dark masses of shadow in sharp defined 
 shapes, creating by their whole arrangement that mixture of harsh and 
 tender gradations observable in nature. The power of producing a variety 
 of pleasing sensations upon the eye mainly rests on the conduct of the 
 chiaro oscuro ; objects are rendered either strong or delicate, according 
 as they advance or retire on the perspective plane of the picture ; parts 
 are forced upon the spectator’s attention, by tlieir clear defined character, 
 and assisted from contrast by groups of indistinct images imbued with the 
 properties of middle tint. The quantities of dark that are to be allowed 
 to interrupt or pass within the boundaries of the masses of light, or the 
 size of those portions of light which are found within the dominion of 
 shade, either giving depth to it by contrast, or destroying its preponder- 
 ance by producing a union with the light, are entirely at the guidance 
 of the artist, whose skill is shown in the management of this difficult 
 department, it being entirely under the influence of an educated eye : 
 neither am I aware that its beauty is felt, unless by those whose tastes 
 are refined by long contemplation of the finest works of those who have 
 
 and light appear to circulate around forms devoid of relief, I find delight in abandoning myself to 
 his illusions. But, nevertheless, I would not have the frame absent; I would wish to know that 
 what I see is in fact hut a piece of canvass on a perfectly plane surface.” — Essay on Imitation 
 in the Fine Arts-, chap. xiv. 
 
EDUCATION OF THE ETE. 
 
 G1 
 
 excelled in the different branches of painting. W e know, as is the case 
 in music, though the ear is capable of acquiring a knowledge of twenty 
 thousand simple sounds, all differing in tone and strength , yet this 
 power of distinction is not entirely in the construction ot the oigan, but 
 arises from long observation. Sir Charles Bell says, “ that this variety of 
 sensation does not entirely depend upon the structure, but is the opeiation 
 of the sense and intellect conjointly, appears from the long expeiience 
 which is requisite to give this perfection. Nature is bountiful in pioviding 
 the means of simple and acquired percejition, but the latter is the lesult of 
 long experience and continued effort, though we have lost the feeling ot 
 its being a voluntary effort.” We have already noticed some of the most 
 evident properties belonging to the application of shadow, by which we 
 can easily' perceive, that a mere outline of a group of figures, or a vaiiety 
 of objects, lies like a map under the eye; but by the judicious application 
 of shadow passing amongst the several forms, they rise up, and assume 
 their various situations according to their relative distances from the eye 
 of the spectator. We can easily carry our imagination further, and assign 
 a reason why some portions are to be subdued, and others brought into 
 notice; but the art of combining the whole, in an harmonious mass ot 
 chiaro oscuro, can be acquired only' by long investigation into the princi- 
 ples of those who have excelled in this captivating and imaginative art. 
 Before entering into an examination of this cjualityq so productive ot 
 pleasure, viewing its effects in painting, it will be necessary to examine 
 its cause, and where it exists in natural imagery, the only sure source on 
 which we can build with certainty. When we direct our eyes to any 
 particular object, we observe it distinctly defined, while the surrounding 
 objects produce a fainter impression on the retina; we also perceive, on 
 examination, that we often have been attending to the impression made 
 upon one eye only, either from its more favourable position, or from a 
 superior goodness in the organ itself; nevertheless, a number of lateral 
 
 Reid’s Inquiry into the Human Mind, p. 98. 
 
62 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 images are indistinctly hinted at upon the retina of the other, which, by 
 their softness, give a precision to the object of our attention, from contrast, 
 and amuse and assist the imagination from a variety of circumstances ; we 
 know, also, that there are two representations, one painted in each eye, 
 and though they form but one in the mind, yet we cannot shut out entirely 
 those hints which may be conveyed to the fancy from the faintest impres- 
 sions unconsciously attended to; add to which, the eye, from fatigue in 
 looking at any object attentively, naturally turns for repose to soft masses 
 of shadow and Indistinctness. Without following up this subject too 
 minutely, these may be some of the reasons why particular arrangements 
 of chiaro oscuro please the eye more than others^*. We also find, that 
 along with indistinctness, a repetition of form, and a completeness or 
 unity of shape, are very much under its influence, as may be observed by 
 trying an experiment as noticed in note 29''®’, which will suggest others to 
 the imagination. But whatever way the student takes to get an insight 
 into this great charm of painting, either in arranging his composition so as 
 to suit any particular effect of light and shade, or in trying various means of 
 
 This indistinctness also pleases the eye of the spectator, in the same way in which an 
 unfinished sketch gratifies his imagination ; for as every one has different notions of beauty of 
 form, he is left to fill up the images, and shape them to his own taste : it also pleases the mind, as 
 it gives a sort of creative power, such as is felt when looking upon a discoloured wall, or into the 
 dying embers of a fire. Burke even considers it conducive to sublimity ; he says, “ even in 
 painting, a judicious obscurity in some things contributes to the effect of the picture, because the 
 images in painting are exactly similar to those in nature ; and in nature, dark, confused, uncertain 
 images have a greater power on the fancy to form the grander passions than those have which are 
 more clear and determinate.”~£’w«?/ on the Sub/hne and Beautiful 
 
 ^ If we take a pen and sketch in a row of buildings, trees, &c. running from one side to a 
 point of sight in the centre, blotting in shadows broad and dark on the near objects, and while the 
 ink is wet fold the paper across the point of sight, so as to take off an impression on the opposite 
 side, the eye is not only gratified by a greater mixture of sharp and soft portions, but by a greater 
 unity, and balance of parts, one side with another, and a repetition of the sky line with the lines 
 of the ground ; or if we draw in a group of trees and fold the paper across at the base of their 
 stems, so as take off a faint impression, as if reflected in water, the same agreeable sensation will 
 be produced. 
 
EDUCATION OP THE EYE. 
 
 63 
 
 distributing light and shade over his design, let him carefully watch, both 
 in nature and in art, its various combinations, and endeavour to find out 
 the latent cause of its beauty. As the etchings of Rembrandt embrace 
 this quality in the highest degree, from a mere outline to the most extensive 
 depth of .shadow, they ought to be constantly before him when he has it in 
 Ids power ; they ought to be viewed in every direction, to enable the eye to 
 get acquainted with the proportions of light, dark, and half tint: he ought 
 also to engraft the scheme of chiaro oscuro on designs of his own, that the 
 harmony which exists in these wonderful productions may be transferred, 
 if possible, into new inventions, as in Plate vi. 
 
 HARMONY OF COLOUR. 
 
 The power of combining sounds whose united influence shall call into 
 existence, through the medium of the ear, those latent seeds by which the 
 violent or tender passions are excited, is too well understood to require 
 explanation. That there exists the same sources of enjoyment in the 
 human mind, which are capable of being awakened through the medium of 
 the eye, is equally certain ; otherwise, the painter could not produce, by 
 a combination of colour, those eflects which surpi'ise or deliglit the 
 spectator. Locke describes colours as only ideas of the mind appre- 
 hended by the imagination, and not qualities that have any existence in 
 matter. Newton says, colours have their origin in tlie different refrangi- 
 bility of the rays of light, and are not received from reflections or 
 refractions from natural bodies. Without, however, entering too minutely 
 into the philosophy of colours, it will be necessary to inquire what are the 
 colours which affect the eye most, or from what arrangement harmony 
 arises. We observe that children and rude nations*® are most attracted 
 
 It is evident that gay colours of all kinds are a principal source of pleasure to young 
 children, and they seem to strike them more particularly when mixed together in various ways. 
 Whether there be any thing in colours which corresponds to the harmony of sound may be doubted ; 
 
AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 f)4 
 
 by strong' colours, from the excitement which they produce. De la Hire 
 says, “ the different degrees of excitement produced by colours may be 
 observed by keeping the eye shut, after looking at the sun or any luminous 
 object, for the image left upon the retina will be first red, then yellow, then 
 green, and last of all blue.” We also perceive that the effect produced 
 by strong colours may be increased or diminished, by bringing them in 
 contact with others of an opposite hue; large portions of strong blue 
 coining in contact wdth red or white (for we find the ground colour often a 
 great cause of opposition) affect the eye in a different manner from what 
 the same colours produce when in smaller quantities; or on a ground of 
 a neutral tint, such as we see in the specimens found in the Egyptian 
 tombs, contrasted with the same colours distributed over a Persian shawl : 
 in the latter case, the rays coming to the eye from every separate colour, 
 cross each other, so as to produce an agreeable harmony^'. In the former 
 case, one colour makes too strong an impression on the eye to be 
 obliterated easily; impressions remaining of long or short duration, 
 
 if there be, it must however admit of much greater latitude than the harmony between sounds, 
 since all mixtures and degrees of colour, unless when the quantity of light overpowers the eye, are 
 pleasant : however one colour may be more so originally than another. Black appears to be 
 originally disagreeable to the eyes of children ; it becomes disagreeable also very early from 
 associated influences. In adults, the pleasures of mere colours are very languid, in comparison of 
 their present aggregates of pleasure formed by association. However, the original pleasures of 
 mere colours remain in a small degree to the last, and those transfused upon them by association 
 
 with other pleasures (for the influence is reciprocal without limits) is a considerable one, so that 
 
 our intellectual pleasures are not only at first generated, but afterwards supported and resuscitated 
 in part from the pleasures affecting the eye, which holds particularly in respect of the pleasures 
 afforded by the beauties of nature, and by the imitation of these which the arts of painting and 
 poetry furnish us with .” — Hartletj on Man, Sense of Sight. 
 
 ” Sir Isaac Newton remarks, that when the refrangibility of any particular ray produced a 
 certain colour, he found it impossible to change that colour, if sufficiently large ; he could subdue 
 Its intensity, by intercepting its rays by coloured mediums, but could not change it in specie. 
 (We find this, which is a kind of glazing, was even practised by the ancients.) He found a 
 transmutation of colours might be made by a mixture of different kinds of rays, but in such 
 mixtures the component colours themselves do not appear, but by their mutually allaying each 
 
VT!MAr'ON*|pt . : \r 
 
 ^1. excitf'mont vv|iM> 
 
 s of exdteni(^'^^''^.‘<iui^ •< . ' 
 
 Ahiit, af\ftr t1i|tf u/i'of '^i;^ i 
 
 Wtui f?i*> "fj.nj the retiim t’Hl ^ 
 
 5^. 
 
 'V»‘'kfKit the^a^ct prWH«<^ 
 
 ^ n e ; ly-5jt.. h«hgWlg^1J^7rt 
 
 '^'ih i»>h r Cl I 't '■ luj opponH 
 
 tf'V.irij’,^ - f tfrt' ;<r'^(«M’Ve4^r ,i:^V 
 
 iift^ : -i'l&IU vw> - ''‘-’•111- f, •■ ii|')r;tfiftc<t’ii"p:^-»?»ei‘'?r0[^i^S(u<.^^ 
 
 ■ Ilnurs produce »/?»“.. strwiujr qanijf li'.. iu^' ^ « £rroHnd"of 
 
 A ^li^^aV ^ see in the 
 
 
 tme coloors '■ Vh?!t;iajj :.skwh; 
 
 I HI oming to th(' '#^e iioiiiiwil^ 
 
 cross each I'fher, so as to pr^uce an agreeable harmony ’“• ih tm firmer 
 case, . qne .cpJoiir makes too drong an impression on the eye to be 
 oblifenitHtl easily; impresfiiona reniairiMig of 'long or short duration, 
 
 Ir vw?<art 
 
 {i|ii tb» j^'^i.itt<;it, affccflii j the'fTc. «• "'h 
 
 
 to l)« 
 
 ^ •■■ • ’> 'ory tirly from- 
 
 * 7l’ I ‘I’ - ■’Ht’Cnwt (i# 
 
 itSy^sm', th» or'igr ••; |ilr»>»>«» 
 
 =r n^hfru/inJ »^j^fe«:ii ly «^iN>CUi^9a 
 
 tSwiS!?) ii) .J,‘ on^ — <to tfnit. 
 
 Isgyif-.iiip* r ^«ijij)*rtj'd’.iud re^ulriiii. - f 
 
 ■» Wjpirt .# the yip^jijirs* 
 
 A^ll^Uu Vasstlpi of,;-itiin','sn<l by the iini:.. Ai.of tho^'Whb :» the arti ot jjMii; imt, 
 
 p if.if}- sith .'' — ffifriifv Vnh, Snff ■•/’ '-^y .. ■ .. ' 
 
 i^Wurle*. • M when tlie rbfniMiiltf^of tp.y,j|)yticti)i>r,T»y^yVi- '- ^ ‘ 
 
 ■ -Ii.i^.iil'’,!' '■■■nir' 'hin c«fc®, ir/iiSBdtjtliy ta^BVS^'t*-K''' 
 
 '■ ^SSt'5»««f 't» faN '’’lioMrtvi . 'iuui4''Boi' «•■*.’•'-. 
 
 K A«t.!il!f (ftsif'mjf, vni* (hr :.'(u, ••• 
 
 ^ ttysyyi.iflpr'wf wtoow ou^ )te n.uie by a miatiirB jof ibSetynt^ii|<» ,/ - » .jyt.:- 
 
 -'_u «,Bi^iSn/at et^feir» ftMn«elTe* do nty ip^»r,iW hv ■.■■■■ 3^ e*S- -i;. 
 
3 . 
 
 ,.7 
 
 london.TnUis/ied Ffir7jS37. J CarperUw'. 07<7 Bond Sire^7 
 
 /icvnl^rii/i/0 
 
educatio:n of the eye. 
 
 Go 
 
 according to tlie intensity of light or brightness of the object producing 
 tliem. Reynolds mentions three inodes of liarinony existing in the arrange- 
 ment of colours; one where the colours are of a full and strong bod}', such 
 as we find in the wmrks of Raffaelle, and which he denominates the 
 Roman manner ; another the Bologna style, which mixes several colours 
 together, so as to produce a general union in the whole, without reminding 
 you of the original colours of which they are composed, and which is 
 carried to the greatest perfection in the small w'orks of the Dutch school ; 
 the third is the Venetian, where the brightest colours are admitted, with 
 the two extremes of warm and cold hues, and the vidiole reconciled and 
 harmonised by being dispersed over the picture, presenting to the eye 
 that sensation arising from a bunch of flowers. Each method seems to 
 have its peculiar province allotted to it, corresponding to the subject or 
 style of composition, in the design, and chiaro oscuro, according as they 
 depart more or less from common representations of nature, or retain an 
 entireness or severity of outline : harmony arising from a corresponding 
 agreement of the several parts, we can easily imagine a suitableness 
 in the colouring to preserve such unity. In the early stages of painting, 
 W'hen the figures possessed a dry continuous outline, we find the colours 
 laid in strong and bright, so as to give relief unconnected with the effect 
 of aerial perspective. As the art advanced, we find colours made use of 
 in the character of chiaro oscuro ; and when foreshortening and perspective 
 effect occupied a large share in the conduct of the work, we perceive that 
 colour became more subordinate, and the outline, light and shade, and 
 colour, assimilated with each other in producing an effect upon the 
 spectator, arising from neither having a preponderance in claiming his 
 
 other, constitute a middle colour; and therefore if, by refraction, the different rays be separated, 
 colours will emerge different from that of the composition. Thus blue and yellow pow'ders finely 
 mixed appear green to the naked eye, and yet the colours of the component particles are not thereby 
 really changed, but only blended ; for when they are viewed with a microscope, they still appear 
 blue and yellow . — Priestley s Remarks on Newtons Optics. 
 
 K 
 
66 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 attention. In entering upon a diffuse examination of the foregoing 
 remarks, each separate division would require a lengthened essay to 
 particularise the way in which the eye receives delight from the various 
 modifications of colour: a work of this brief description can do little 
 more than point out where the various examples are to be met with, and 
 how they are modified and arranged to harmonise with those sensations 
 which exist in the mind, and cannot be altered or diverted into other 
 channels by the caprice or false taste of any one. I would fain hope I 
 have gone further : I have endeavoured to prove, that those sources of 
 enjoyment which lie dormant in the human mind, and which through the 
 sense of sight are vivified and called into operation, can only, by the 
 cultivation of that sense, be productive of pleasure “ I have also endea- 
 voured to prove the great utility of the education of the eye, as a means 
 of general instruction, giving employment to thousands, while it opens 
 those avenues to science, which even to the great power of language 
 remain as “ books sealed and fountains shut up.” 
 
 STUDYING FROM NATURE. 
 
 Objects drawn from nature possess a very characteristic difference from 
 those drawn from the combinations of fancy, or from those images 
 presented to the imagination. We find in sketches from nature many 
 minute circumstances, a truth and precision, a variety and beauty, that 
 
 Addison remarks, that a man of polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures that 
 the vulgar are not capable of receiving. He can converse with a picture, and find an agreeable 
 companion in a statue. He meets with a secret refreshment in a description, and often feels a 
 greater satisfaction in the prospect of fields and meadows than another does in the possession. It 
 gives him, indeed, a kind of property in every thing he sees, and makes the most rude uncultivated 
 parts of nature administer to his pleasures ; so that he looks upon the world as it were in another 
 light, and discovers in it a multitude of charms that conceal themselves from the generality of 
 mankind.- — Spectator, No. 411. 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 67 
 
 objects drawn from memory, or those images under the guidance of the 
 mind only, have no pretension to ; tlie latter possess the general appearance 
 merely like the confused character of nature presented to indistinct vision ; 
 or if made ont with detail, the minutise contain a select set of touches or 
 forms, become agreeable from habit, which constitutes mannerism; such 
 imperfections can be avoided only by having accustomed the eye in the 
 first instance to a scrupulous exactness in delineating objects from nature, 
 as one or two parts left out may destroy the richness and variety of lines, 
 and an unequal proportion of the forms may deprive the copy of the truth 
 and beauty of the original. These peculiarities ai'e also to be e.xamined and 
 contemplated upon, that this character may be engrafted upon works of 
 imagination. Reynolds says, “ I very much doubt w hether a habit of 
 drawing correctly what we see will not give a proportionable power of 
 drawing what we imagine.” 
 
 To educate the eye to accomplish this, it is necessary, in the first 
 instance, to select such objects as are simple in their forms, that the eye 
 may perceive them distinctly, and make them gradually give place to others 
 more complicated, to fit the eye and the hand to a variety of lines. It is 
 also of the first importance that the draw ings be made sufficiently large, 
 that an opportunity may be given for filling up the various spaces with 
 the minute parts, and also to prevent the hand acquiring a cramped, or 
 little manner of drawing: it is also of equal importance, that the object 
 chosen for representation be such as can be compared with the original, 
 to test the exactness of the copy; much injury and fallacy has arisen 
 from not attending early to a proper mode of study ; how often, for 
 example, do we perceive in those who draw landscapes the incapability 
 of drawing the human figure with any degree of correctness; this arises 
 entirely from careless drawing in the first instance. A tree may be 
 imperfectly drawn, yet look sufficiently true to please most spectators ; 
 but thd human figure possesses proportions, the want of which can be 
 easily detected ; but had we an opportunity of comparing the tree with 
 
68 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 the original in nature, we should discover the resemblance to be equally 
 imperfect; for an eye capable of drawing correctly, can draw any 
 object presented to it, wdiether simple or complicated. Educating the 
 eye in the first instance in the elements of lineal and aerial perspective, 
 gives it a clearer insight into the causes of the changes of form and 
 shadow, observable in all objects ; while drawing from the objects them- 
 selves in place of copies, gives it a power of perception^^, and a knowledge 
 of embodying forms in composition, quite unattainable by any other 
 method. When we consider that the images of objects dwell upon the 
 retina only while the eye is directed to them, and, like the pictures on the 
 table of the camera obscura, instantaneously vanish when we turn to 
 something else, we may perceive the necessity of keeping each several 
 part sufficiently long under examination before delineating it, that the mind 
 may be put in possession of its form and colour, so as to retain it in 
 the memory not only while copying it, but with such an impression as 
 will improve and enrich the imagination with a multiplicity of imagery. 
 Those w'ho advocate the study of nature, without educating the eye in the 
 first instance, are not aware that it is the superficies of things only which 
 present themselves to the outward vision, and without a monitor to direct, 
 the art would always be in its infancy A tree drawn by a beginner 
 
 “ Dr. Jurin observes, that the eye, as well as other parts of the frame, acquires strength and 
 perfection from frequent use of the muscles, as is noticed in the eyes of sportsmen, travellers, 
 sailors, &c., who see better at long distances ; while those whose professions lead them to close 
 examination, see better at small distances : but drawing from nature, especially distant prospects, 
 perfects the eye in both-these extremes, as we have to carry the vision to examine objects far off, 
 and immediately transfer it to a near examination on the paper close to the eye, for this organ 
 is wonderfully provided with the means of changing the crystalline lens, both for pushing it forward 
 from the retina, and rendering it more convex when viewing near objects ; and also for drawing 
 it more within the vitreous humour and rendering it flatter when examining distant objects. — Sec* 
 Dr. Jurin on Distinct Visiony and Potterjield on the Dye. 
 
 ^ ‘‘ Cicero remarks, that not to know what has been transacted in former times, is to continue 
 always a child. If no use is made of the labours of past ages, the world must remain always in the 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 69 
 
 represents a flat image, like a plant or a piece of sea weed dried between 
 the leaves of a book ; a figure represents but the section of one, for even 
 if the foreshortened portions were perceived, he is incapable of giving 
 them the perspective appearance, or lifting it from the ground by means 
 of the application of light and shade. The first restorers of the art in 
 Italy advanced but little beyond the flat brasses that supplied them with 
 the means of design : even in the hands of Giotto and Massaccio fore- 
 shortening was but little attended to, and then from a want of light and 
 shade to give the parts their relative situations, looked cramped and 
 feeble ; it was not till the master minds of Leonardo da Vinci and Michael 
 Angelo grappled with the subject that difficulties disappeared; those 
 portions of the figure were no longer represented in profile views, but 
 advanced or receded from the spectator, and whole groups, in place of 
 looking like a continuous frieze, were turned round, and sunk in the 
 depths of the composition by means of lineal and aerial perspective. 
 Raffaelle, by taking advantage of the works of those who had preceded 
 him, carried the art to a state of perfection, which the study of nature, 
 notwithstanding his constant application to her, never could liave enabled 
 him to achieve; tlie contemplation of the fine works of antiquity created 
 elevated visions of ideal composition, while his constant application to 
 nature for the details enabled him to give a reality and identity to the 
 creations ot his imagination. Without the eye being made acquainted with 
 the beauties of those who have advanced the art to its present state, either 
 progressively, by studying the best works, or by commencing a course 
 of drawing from antique sculpture, it will be impossible to select what is 
 beautiful in nature, or be able to choose one point of view more interesting 
 than another. It will also be impossible to combine a variety of object.s. 
 
 infancy of knowledge. The discoveries of every man must terminate in liis own advantage, and 
 the studies of every age be employed on questions which the past generation had discussed and 
 determined. We may with as little reproach borrow science as manufactures from our ancestors ; 
 and it as rational to live in caves till our own hands have erected a palace, as to reject all know- 
 ledge of architecture, which our understandings will not supply.” — Dr. Johnson. 
 
70 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 unless vve have, a knowledge of those principles upon which the various 
 works are constructed that have given satisfaction ; for though, as is the 
 case with music, the varieties are endless, yet the science is simple, and 
 to be perceived by those who investigate the arrangements of harmony. 
 He who attempts to study from nature unassisted by education in the lirst 
 instance, will find himself often mistaken in his results; neither will he 
 arrive at so certain, or so expeditious a method of delineating objects 
 with truth and feeling, as he will be continually in dread of falling into 
 error. Leonardo da Vinci says, “ theory is the great director of experi- 
 ment, the only interpreter of the works of nature which is never wrong ; 
 it is our judgement which is sometimes deceived, because we are expecting 
 results which experiment refuses to give ; we must consult experiment, 
 and vary the circumstances till we have deduced general rules, for it alone 
 can furnish us with them ; and general rules direct us in our inquiries into 
 nature, and the operations of art ; they keep us from deceiving ourselves 
 and others, by promising ourselves results which we can never obtain.” 
 
 This is the experience which enables the artist to select and combine, 
 to leave out or add to the various appearances presented to his eye. 
 Why is it, for example, that the portrait painter, when his sitter is placed 
 before him, turns the head, first to one side, then to the other, and 
 contemplates it also under a variety of effects of light and shade ? It is to 
 observe the best arrangement of the features, to select that view of the 
 head, which developes the greatest character, and the most beautiful 
 points. To enable the eye to make these selections, it is necessary to 
 combine with the study of nature the study of the works of those eminent 
 men who have preceded us. The works of Titian will convince the student 
 how much quiet grandeur is to be produced by simplicity and breadth ; 
 the works of Vandyke exemplify the art of arrangement, and a beautiful 
 distribution of the features, also the art of uniting the several parts by 
 means of light and shade, or disposition of the hair, or subordinate 
 accessories. This power of planning out or adjusting the several parts to 
 
EDUCATION OF THE EYE. 
 
 71 
 
 the best advantage may be acquired by long- contemplation of the various 
 combinations observed in nature; but a reference to the etchings by 
 Vandyke, and the prints after him, will facilitate the student in his 
 inquiries. We know that Rubens advised Vandyke and Velasquez to 
 study the works of Titian as the best means of arriving at perfection in 
 portrait painting ; and so uniform has been this mode of acquiring correct 
 knowledge, that the works of Reynolds or of Lawrence may be studied as 
 the best means of shortening labour, these artists having adopted the 
 principles existing in the works of their great predecessors, so as to suit 
 the fashion and taste of their own time.s, but along w'ith such study 
 bringing their own genius to the incessant contemplation of nature: for, 
 as Bacon observes, “ to spend too much time in studies, is sloth ; to use 
 them too much for ornament, is affectation; to make judgement wholly 
 by their rules is the humour of a scholar, they perfect nature, and are 
 perfected by experience ; for natural abilities are tike natural plants, that 
 need pruning by study, and studies themselves do give forth directions 
 too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience.” 
 
 The art of studying from nature may be therefore considered as 
 implying that which w'e perceive through the medium of our own eyes, 
 and those things made apparent through the spectacles of other men ; for 
 seeing nature does not inerelj^ mean seeing the exact length and breadth 
 of any object, but means the power of discerning her beauties and defects, 
 those portions which are to be preserved, and the mode of heightening their 
 effect upon the eye of the spectator, and the several parts which operate 
 detrimentally to the general arrangement of the whole, w’hich are to be 
 intercepted by other objects, or left out entirely^l For, as the accidental 
 
 ^ Nothing can be so unphilosophical as a supposition that we can form any idea of beauty or 
 excellence out of or beyond nature, which is and must be the fountain-head from whence all our 
 ideas must be derived. This being acknowledged, it must follow of course, that all the rules which 
 this theory, or any other teaches, can be no more than teaching the art of seeing nature. The 
 
72 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE 
 
 combinations of nature are thrown togetlier uncontrolled by the likings or 
 dislikings of any one, the greatest study is necessary, so as to form a 
 complete work, which shall possess all the appearance of chance combined 
 with the most skilful adjustment: for example, what a variety of appear- 
 ances do not the effects of light and shade produce upon the same scene, 
 viewed at various times of the day, or seen under the advantages or 
 disadvantages of accidental arrangements of objects ; this power of 
 discernment is therefore to be acquired by the study of the works of those 
 who have excelled in the different departments of the art, and afterwards 
 perfected in searching out and contemplating the beautiful combinations 
 which lie scattered in the endless varieties of nature : this mode of study 
 alone can enable one artist to surpass another in the power of selection ; 
 and the same scene, bald and ineffective in the hands of one, may be 
 rendered full and of rich effect by another, who has watched a more 
 favourable arrangement, and who has followed up and completed the 
 various hints derived from accidental combinations, as in Plate vii. Fig. 1 
 and 2. 
 
 Thus the study of nature is conducive to perfect the education of the 
 
 rules of art are formed on the various works of those who have studied nature most successfully ; 
 by this advantage, of observing the various manners in which various minds have contemplated her 
 works, the artist enlarges his own views, and is taught to look for and see what otherwise would 
 have escaped his observation. It is to be remarked, that there are two modes of imitating nature; 
 one of which refers for its truth to the sensations of the mind, and the other to the eye. Some 
 schools, such as the Roman and Florentine, appear to have addressed themselves principally to the 
 mind ; others solely to the eye, such as the Venetian, in the instances of Paid Veronese and 
 Tintoret ; others, again, have endeavoured to unite both, by joining the elegance and grace of 
 ornament with the strength and vigour of design ; such are the schools of Bologna and Parma. 
 All these schools are equally to be considered as followers of nature. He who produces a work 
 analogous to the mind or imagination of man is as natural a painter as he whose works are calcu- 
 lated to delight the eye ; the works of Michael Angelo or Julio Romano, in this sense, may be said 
 to be as natural as those of the Dutch painters. — Reynolds’s Notes upon Fresnoy’s Art of 
 Painting. 
 
72 . 
 
 an . 1W.SAV ON THE 
 
 ■ c .r-'li-fi *i. >!(!«, i_>r uuMifo ar<' Uirowii topotber uncontrolled l>;- iV* !iknu{-. 
 
 . of aW one, the greidest study is uecessftvy, so a» I ’ •>rtu .. 
 
 -iir)|>l(-ti* vrorlf, which slv.ill pofrsyss all tlifc n^p^arftn^Qjf Hiance ( on^tMued 
 ith the D»L«j< skilftil adjtUtuu'iit wfQlro variety of app*" .’ 
 
 •>' ' tup '»« dHe . Tfecti. M*d^h!:^ prodocf ufxm-th** same scene, 
 
 \ -!f fhi-diy, ^-eu «m*TuN; tiie advantage or 
 'df'iir.ctdoidak^ jLrr^n;|;e^hcn ef" blqejfJs; this .pow.cr -ot 
 •. ■ ' ilr^feeriirti'ciit is thecef >r-‘ tiV'fie aeuulrOtl fly <h>' sTutJV jat \k‘ oT 
 
 who itfrve,_c>cellod hi fh**' dillerept departments thrr'iul* iiiid -f4^er^a:ds 
 pefthctod'' m searching and coat*.* titpiaiiair Ose hewutit.d copbinations 
 '■wbich”lie' scattered in the endless varieties of nimire: Utw* mode ot sl^ah. 
 alone CJin enal>i« one artist to sqrpa.ss another in. the powfv ef selection; 
 and the ’same scene, bald and inefTective in the hands of otc- m; v hr 
 _ Jbll and of Kmh^eJect_by_anof]ier, w!u> has watc.betl a niorc 
 
 favourable arrangement, and who has followed up and completed the 
 various hints derived from accidental combinations, as in Plate yu. Fig, 1 
 arri 2 ! ^ • -- — 
 
 Thus ...- *s ctwviiut! •• '■ (f- p* rticc.t the edneation of the 
 
 rulos, of »rl " yi' ■. on the »»risn» '•■ ; 
 
 by this uS*enrioV the vnriM*4 * '' ' •' her 
 
 itOffc*,’tlw aMi*J #^trgr-tn» "ikii vknvr. *nd ^ . -, ■ -n.i ,n»l .otherwise woulii 
 
 here esca^Ksi libaiv' Mioo. li iriu he reuiarki'd. iN«i.iAr»» b-x ,i»« njo<le« of nnitaluig hnlure; . 
 f i>ne of irhirh ,K'P oi ('>r »t» truth!' to ibc jeWjitiohs of raini, :aiil lUu other to tlie eye. ■ Some 
 
 ^ srho<A »uch ?s the Hintiwi aud Flortiiiihe, to h“*e adilr^^ed tiutoseke* |iriucipaUy to the . 
 
 ]||., minff; w'a«s jaMj. dte.«}'c, -'ll' a« Venetian, m the iii»t»arO» ni Paul Veronea* and 
 
 jjiitt rer'^ a'^rV'. again, hare *u<lotn£i»r*i’to; Uob, by joininif.' tht. eli'pTtco and grace of 
 VAq^uicot limthij atnnigtUa4il vip'or' af dcsig;^; siaih are tha. ac|rtot> of Bologna. jad Parjswu 
 ^ "AVt'thoM' «yBjol* ,Lfi Jitybe eohUdertid a«^g^w«rs ^natam.’- wlw {trodnora s 
 
 *■•■ ■ '''! ■ ' ■ U*.-' ■■ emid or ihiiipmAo.n utanarf icyn nattli^ a Jatittter an he wh'psw Wark' 
 
 lAedVo dcfjptt • 'he >sorte.<rf.Mi4hl»f'’tUf,eUor .ImV U'p'thiPyia tW'' 
 
 ' .. ^lo-atM iBrttmwal M thbf*. ef the*’ liutch' Mii ti tat .— iVev»i»W«'a A'iNW .a»y)'>o (rt e 
 
 jr • 
 
 ■L ■£* 
 
EDUCATION OP THE EYE. 
 
 73 
 
 eye, by careful investigation of her works ourselves, and by being able to 
 comprehend and appreciate the works of those who have most successfully 
 studied her; and tliis not in a lukewarm or superficial manner, but with 
 that noble enthusiasm which stimulated tlie genius of Michael Angelo 
 through a long life, and even, when deprived of the power of vision from 
 old age, made him order his attendants to convey him to the gardens of the 
 Medici, that he might feel and pass over with his hands the glorious remains 
 of Grecian art, on whose statues he had founded his own education. 
 
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 HISTORICAL MEMOIRS OF THE 
 
 HOUSE OF RUSSELL, from the Time of the Nor- 
 man Conquest. 
 
 By J. H. WIFFEN, M.R.S.L. 
 Corresponding Member of the Society of Antiquaries of 
 Normandy, &c. &c. In Two Volumes, 8vo. with Plates 
 and Portraits. Price 21. 2s. Royal 8vo. India Proofs. 
 3L. 13s. 6d. 
 
 MEMOIRS OF THE RACE OF AN- 
 CESTRY WHENCE THE HOUSE OF IIUSSFI.I. 
 HAD ITS ORIGIN. Royal 8vo. Price 7s. in boards. 
 
 SPENCE’S ANECDOTES. With an 
 
 Appendix of Original Letters, by Pope, Hume, Horace 
 W At, POLE, &c. Published from the Original Papers; 
 with a Life of the Author, by Samuel Weller Singer. 
 In Octavo. Price 14s. 
 
 “ TIu'se Anecdotes of Spence, after having, while in MS., fur- 
 nished much auiusement and instruction to the literary antiqiiaiic> 
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 in this or any other language.”- Owarter/y Revieu, 105, /er JiUy. 
 
 In 4to. Price Ids’, or with the Plates cure fidlv coloured. 
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 OBSERVATIONS ON THE MECHA- 
 NISM OF THE HORSE'S FOOT, illustrated with 
 Sixteen Plates. 
 
 By STRICKLAND FREEMAN, Esq. 
 
 Also, by the same Author, in 4to. Price i 1. 1 Is. 6d. 
 
 THE ART OF HORSEMANSHIP, al- 
 
 tered and abbreviated according to the Principles of 
 the late Sir Sidney Meadows. Illustrated liy I'hirtv 
 Copper Plates, engraved in line by Skelton, from De- 
 signs by CfiALON. 
 
 The Publishers, having purchased the stock of tliese 
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 hi One Vol. small Svo. Price 6s. in boards, a New Edition. 
 
 THE LIFE OF LORD RODNEY. By 
 
 LIEUT.-GENERAL MUNDY.