\ SIGN WKITING AND GLASS EMBOSSmG; A COMPLETE PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATED MANUAL OF THE ART BT JAMES CALLINGHAM. TO WHICH ARE ADDED NUMEROUS ALPHABETS. PHILADELPHIA: HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., INDDSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS, 810 WALNUT STREET. 1890. PKINTKD AT COLLINS PRINTING HOUSE, PHILADELPHIA, V. S. A. PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. In presenting to the public this edition of Callingham's Sign Writing and Glass Embos- sing, but few prefatory words are deemed neces- sary. Suffice it to say, that in the text some trifling alterations have been made in order the more completely to adapt it to American uses ; while, in the form of plates, have been added, at the end, a great variety of Alphabets, to supply a want which was deemed but too apparent — the one and only serious shortcoming, as it is be- lieved, of this most admirable, useful, and artistic volume. H. C. B. Philadelphia, May, 1, 1811. 3 PEEF AGE. We have every reason to believe that this work is the first which has appeared on the subject of Sign Writing ; certainly it takes precedence as treating of Glass Em- bossing. Practical knowledge and experience of these arts have enabled us to present a complete exposition of the vari- ous branches, as practised by the leading sign-writers of the metropolis. Our chief object has been to assist the young in acquiring a thorough knowledge of Sign Writing and Glass Embossing, and .to aid, with suggestions and in formation, those who, having had some practice, fall short of that excellence which it is desirable to attain. The foregoing paragraph will account for some of the explanations of words and phrases that occur in this work, and which to the educated mind will no doubt appear unnecessary. If the course of instruction herein laid down should be the means of improving in any degree the efforts of those already engaged in, or those just entering upon a study cf the wondrous, mystic art " of " painting speech," our object will have been achieved London, 1871. 4 CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Introductory. History of Sig'ns, Sign Painting-, and Sign Writing 9 Signs painted by Artists of Eminence t2 Hotten's History of Sign-boards 12 Aniiqnity of the Art 17 Early Inscriptions on the AValls of Ecclesiastical Edifices — Sketch of their History 18 Development of the Art in the Reign of Edward VI., and its subsequent Decline 22 Its Practice by the Serjeant Painters 23 Joim De Critz 26 Moxon , 28 Cliristofel Van Dyck 29 The Art of Forming and Cutting Letters, and the Enact- ments Regarding and Limiting the Number of Persons engaged in it 29 Monumental Inscriptions and Brasses 31 CHAPTER IL DRAWING ESSENTIAL LINES. Straight Lines and Curves 36 Method of Practice 36 Freedom of Hand 36 Circles and Curves 36 Parallel Lines 38 Uniformity of Outline 38 Adjustment of the Letters 39 i J CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. SETTING OUT TPIE WRITING Classes of Alphabets 42 Individuality of Style 42 Roman Capitals 43 Italic Capitals. . 43 San-seriff Capitals 43 Egyptian Capitals 43 " Snapping " a chalk line 4 Adjusting the Lines 43 Arc of a Circle or a Scroll 46 Sketching out the Writing 46 Balancing , 47 Number of Lines 4'' Lines for Ornamental Writing 4f Old English or Gothic 4! tilaiiting Letters 49 CHAPTER IV. COMMON ALPHABETS AND NUMERALS. Attainment of Legibility and Distinctness in an Alphabet 50 Improvements 51 Arabic Numerals and their Modifications , 52 Roman Letters the Groundwork of Modern Alphabets 54 Varieties of Style 54 Introduction of San-seriff 5; Egyptian 55 Clarendon 5; Type Cutters and Writers 5i Proportions of Alphabetic Characters 5( Seriffs 5' Position of Cross-bars 5' Capitals and Small Letters 5' 'J'hick and Thin Strokes 5i The Letter S, method of forming it 5! San-seriff S 6: Extremities of S andC, and C and G 6. Strokes of Letters composed of Oblique Lines — A, K, V, etc 62 Sign Writing on the Continent 63 CONTENTS. iii Rule of Albert Durer 6-. Thickness of Letters 64 Moxon 64 Dutch Letters 64 Christofel Van Dyck 65 Top Arc of Letters S, 0, G, etc., smaller than the bottom (jt) Curves and Points 65 San-serifF N and M 66 Short & 67 The Roman J and G 69 R 70 Q 72 Italics 72 Old-face Type 74 Modern 'i'ype 74 Mediaeval Alphabets ." 75 The late Prince Consort's Taste 75 Consistency 77 CHAPTER Y. ANCIENT AND ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS. Originality 78 Use of Ornament 79 Harmony 79 Want Of Harmony 79 Sir M. Digby Wyatt on Illuminated Work 79 Writing Scripture 'J'exts in Churches 80 Mediaeval Church Inscriptions 80 Incongruities 81 " The Model Outline." 84 Characteristics of Mediaeval Alphabets 84 Obsolete Forms 85 Alphabets of the Twelfth Century 85 I and J ; U, V and W 86 The Fifteenth ('entury Alphabets 87 Capitals and "Minuscules" 88 Different Forms of Roman Letters 88 Letters of the Tudoresque Period .' 90 Careless but Graceful Outlines 91 Set Styles 93 Legible and Illegible Writing 94 Symmetry and Grace 95 iv CONTENTS. CHAPTER VI. THICKNESSES AND SHADOWS. Blocked or Raised Letters..... 97 Linear Perspective 99 The Thickness 100 The Shadow 100 (Geometrical Solids 102 Deceiving the Eye 103 The Object of Thicknesses 103 Imitation 104 Light and Shade 105 Gradations of Tints 106 Reflections 106 Representation of Sohd Bodies 107 Laws of Optics 107 Jlxamples 109 Raised Letters 110 fcjimk Letters 112 CHAPTER TIL LETTERS IN PERSPECTIVE. Geometrical Problem for Expanding or Contracting Letters 115 Elements of Perspective 119 Perspective of Raised Letters 121 Perspective of Shadows 121 Examples 121 Effect of Distance 122 To Test the Work 124 Perspective Italic 127 CHAPTER Yin. COLORS USED IN SIGN WRITING. 'J'heir Nature and Method of Employment, and Yehicles used for diluting Colors 129 White Lead 129 Flake White 180 Zinc White 130 CONTENTS. V Ivory Black 131 Veoetable Black 132 Yermilion 132 Lake 134 Rose Madder 135 Carmine 136 Indian Red 136 Purple Brown 136 Light Red, Red Lead, and Venetian Red 137 French Ultramarine 137 Prussian Blue 137 Intense Blue 137 Chrome Yellow 138 Yellow Ochre 138 Raw Sienna 138 Burnt Sienna 138 Vandyke Brown 138 Emerald Green 138 CHAPTER IX. HINTS ON COLORING. Tint, Shade, and Hue 140 Harmonious Arrangements 141 Intense Colors 142 Capricious Combinations 142 'J'astes Differ 143 The Sentiment of the Coloring as suited for Different Pur- poses 143 Method of Practice generally followed by the Sign Writer. 143 *'Cissing" 144 Use of the Sable Pencil 144 Writing Pencils 145 Common Styles of Coloring 146 Bright Grounds 148 Powerful Contrasts 149 Method of Procedure in regard to Colored Writing 150 Grained and Marbled Grounds 154 CHAPTER X. GOLD LEAF AND GILDING. Books and Hundreds , 157 Alloys—" Virgin " Medium "—and " Deep Gold " 158 vi CONTENTS. Its Ductility, Malleability, and Thinness 159 Substitutes for Gold Leaf — Double Gilt, Dutch Metal.... 159 " Spider Legs " 161 The Cushion, Cutting Knife, and Tip 162 Method of Gilding 162 Pouncing 166 Mordants 167 CHAPTER XL GLASS EMBOSSING. Improvements in the Manufacture of Glass 169 Development of the Art of Glass Embossing 170 Provincial Work 172 Etching on Glass 173 Professor Beckman 173 Secreta 175 Isinglass 176 Fluoric Acid — its Nature and Properties 177 Sir Humphry Davy 177 Fluor Spar 178 Setting out the Pattern 179 Transferring it to the Glass 179 Brunswick Black 179 Method of Procedure 179 A Caution 180 Grinding or Obscuring the Glass 182 Engraving on Glass 184 Embossing Colored Glass 185 " Building up " Designs 187 Examples 188 CHAPTER XIL BURNISHED GILDING ON GLASS. The Art long a Secret 192 'J'he Mordant or Size for Gilding 192 Method of Gilding 193 Burnishing 194 Application of Heat 195 Sizing 195 The Process repeated 195 CONTENTS. vii Transferring the Writing or Pattern 196 Black Japan 19G Colors used for Thicknesses and Shadows 197 CHAPTER XIII. ORTHOGRAPHICAL AND OTHER ERRORS. Bad Spelling 198 Apostrophes 201 Ignorance or Eccentricity of Employers 202 Irregular Spacing 203 Judging Distances 204 Appendix. — White Lead 205 Fifteen Plates of Alphabets, etc Index * 209 Sign Writing AND Glass Embossing. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. It is curious that the term " sign-writer " is not to be found in any encyclopaedia or dictionary, ancient or modern. The use of this compound is undoubtedly quite recent ; but this would hardly account for its omis- sion from every work of reference. Probably lexicog- raphers do not consider it, in the sense in which it is now employed, to be strictly appropriate, inasmuch as (1) a sign, properly so called, is now seldom seen, and (2) the painting of letters on buildings, &c., can hardly be called writing. Even Kelly's ponderous " Post Office London Direc- tory does not deem the sign-writer worthy of separate enumeration in its list of trades. Under the head of "sign-painters" — a class of workmen almost unknown in the present day, painted signs having been superseded by written ones — the enquirer is told to ^' 8ee Writers and Grainers f ' and if he turn as directed, he will find a list of from 200 to 300 names and addresses, included in which are ticket writers, grainers, decorators, and others (9) 10 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. without the slightest attempt at classification. Sixty-nine years ago, when the " London Directory " first made its appearance, there might have been some difficulty in making a distinction between sign-painters and sign- wrlters, because the period of transition from one to the other had not fully passed ; but that the large body of influential art-workmen now engaged in sign-writing in the metropolis should still be neglected in so import- ant a publication is a circumstance that seems almost inexplicable. There is no question that the use of the word " sign " in its conjunction with the art of " writing " is quite modern. A sign was originally hung up to signify or represent a particular object or occurrence, and this was not written, but was invariably a carving or a pictorial representation. The most common instances of the re- tention of this old custom amongst us are to be found in the three gilded balls of the pawnbroker ; the chequers of the publican ; the twist of the tobacconist ; the striped or bandaged pole of the barber ; the fish dangling on a fishing rod, to attract the followers of Izaac Walton ; the golden canister of the tea-dealer ; and the hat of the hat- ter. These and other trade emblems, and the painting of signs, were unquestionably resorted to in the first in- stance as the only practicable means of identification among people utterly ignorant of the mysteries of writing and reading. This is apparent from the fact that through- out the country the sign of an inn or place of business was, in many instances^ selected as a play upon the name of the head of the house ; so that it conveyed a sort of double meaning, indicating at once the name of the house and of its occupier. Thus, Jane Hart kept the Heart" in Southwark ; John Salmon, in Spitalfields, kept the "Salmon and Bowl;" William Woodcock, a bookseller in St. Paul's Churchyard, represented his house by means of a cock standing on a bundle of wood ; Jane Keye, in Bloomsbury Market, styled her house the " Key ; " John INTEODUCTOEY. 11 Bell, in Wood Street, adopted the sign of the "Bell;" and similar instances might be multiplied to any extent. All these were signs, distinguishing marks, and were expressed by means of carved or pictorial representa- tions, the meaning of which could be easily understood without the aid of writing. It may here be mentioned, incidentally, that the tokens or symbols used by pilgrims who had visited the shrines of saints and martyrs were also technically termed "signs." These were generally made either of lead or pewter, sometimes of silver, and were sewn on the hat or garments, or worn as brooches ; and by means of these " signs," and the devices upon them, which indicated the particular place visited, the pilgrim was recognized. The author of the " Supplement " to the " Cantei'bury Tales" speaks of these "signs" being purchased by Chaucer's pilgrims on the occasion of their visit to Canterbury. He says : — "Then, as manere and custom is, signes there they bought and again : — • ** They set theiv signes upon their hedes, and some oppon their capp. ' ' In all probability Hooker had in mind these "signes" as well as those of the streets when he said that they " must resemble the things they signify." It is an undoubted fact that the old trade signs were often very inartistic and badly execaited. The cost of painting a good sign must have been so great that only a few of the keepers of the principal inns and places of business would feel themselves justified in incurring it. Dry den, in his translation of Du Fresnoy's "Art of Painting," alludes to the want of skill of the "sign-post dawbers " of his day. And in Henry VI., we meet with the expression " an ale-house' paltry sign." In fact, the signs of the olden times appear to have afforded an infinite 12 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. amount of amusement to the wits, in consequence of their inherent badness, and the inconsistencies which they presented. Some few signs, however, were painted by artists of eminence, among the more/ecent of whom may be named Hogarth, Richard Wilson, George Morland, Ibbetson, Sir Charles Ross, David Cox, Harlow, and Old Crome. Of course, these famous artists did not paint signs profes- sionally. They did it, perhaps, only on one or two noted occasions, either as a mark of respect to those who were fortunate enough to secure tiieir services, or in order to wipe off their tavern score, or, possibly, to keep the wolf from the door during temporary distress. We recollect an artist of some celebrity who, a few years ago, painted, a sign for a public-house. On this becoming known to some of his patrons, one of them — a noble lord — thought it terribly infra dig.y and severely called him to account for thus prostituting his talents. Had the remonstrance come from any other quarter, it would no doubt have been resented; but, as it was, the artist was obliged to content himself with an appeal ad misericordiam — simply ejaculating in response, The wolf! my lord; the wolf We have doubtless all laughed at the expedient of the schoolboy who, having drawn a clumsy outline of a house, thought it necessary to ensure its identity by writing underneath it, " This is a house.'^ In the early days of signs, the sign-painter could have recourse to no such aid to his genius, for it must be borne in mind that, long after the reign of Henry VIII., the great mass of the people, even of the better class, were utterly ignorant of the art of writing, and comparatively few were able to read. Mr. J. Camden Hotten, in his admirable " History of Sign-boards," says, " It is a well-knowa and established fact that the London signs of old had nt inscriptions under them.'^ This would be so, because even if the painter, or dawber,'^ as he Was more commonly INTKODUCTORY. 13 called, had sufficient knowledge to enable him to write underneath his painting the name of the object or event it was intended to represent, there would have been this disadvantage, that it would not be understood by a tithe of the people, to whom, indeed, it might be a greater puzzle than the ill- conceived and badly-limned painting itself. Hence, in those days it was an absolute necessity that the sign should, as far as possible, resemble the thing it signified ; since, if either through unskilfulness or ignorance on the part of the painter, the spectator was left in doubt as to the meaning of the thing signified, the whole intention of the representation would have been defeated. There seems no doubt, however, that the sign itself was not always the sole guide to a stranger. Let it be remembered that, even a century ago, it was an unusual occurrence for a family to emigrate from one town to another. The difficulties incident to locomotion were so great that generations of families passed away without having travelled more than a dozen miles from the places of their birth ; and, consequently, the towns and vil- lages being sparsely populated, the residents in them had an exact traditional knowledge of all the houses within the narrow bounds in which they passed their ex- istence. It is quite possible, therefore, that many of the inns in small towns exhibited no specific ^^sign" at all — or that, if they did, it had become so dilapidated that identification would have been impossible, — but depend- ed upon the oral transmission of their names from one generation to another. So that if a traveller found him- self in a strange neighborhood, he would not rely so much upon his own visual powers or the genius of the sign-painter, as upon the guidance of the inhabitants in finding the particular house he required. In London, however, signs must have been all-impor- tant, owing to its large and rapidly-increasing dimen- sions. The old-fashioned projecting swing signs were 2 14 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. . not only numerous, but obtrusive in their gautly attrac- tiveness. In Cliarles's time, it was no uncommon thing for opposite neighbors, by a sort of mutual consent, to suspend a chain or bar across the street, on which they hung their signs, after the fashion of the old Paris lamps ; but for some reason or other these were abolished by the Act of 7th Charles II., which directs that in all the streets no sign-posts shall hang across, but that the signs shall be fixed against the balconies, or some convenient part of the side of the house.'^* Subsequently, this privilege was abused, and in many cases the enormous signs projected nearly across the street, and, besides stopping the free circulation of air and keeping out the health-giving sunshine, they were not unfrequently the cause of accident. The newspapers of the early part of the last century contained many accounts of accidents, sometimes fatal in their results, through the falling of sign-boards on the heads of pedestrians. So dangerous, indeed, did the streets become through these overhang- ing signs, that in 1718 the Court of Common Council , appointed a committee to consider the advisability of ordering their removal, and though nothing definite ap- ])ears to have come of their deliberations at the time, yet about the middle of the last century an edict went forth that in the city all signs w^ere to be taken down and affixed to the front of the houses, flat against the wall. This had the effect of remedying a nuisance which at this time had become almost intolerable, and to which the poet Gay refers in his ^'Trivia; or, the Art of \¥alking the Streets of London "the swinging signs your ears offend With creaking noise." As showing the high estimation in which signs were held, and their utility in those* days, this further reference to them may be cited from the same work : * Journal of Archaeologicai Association, vol. ix., p. 42. INTRODUCTORY. 15 ** If drawn by biis'ness to a street unknown, Let the sworn porter point thee through the town ; Be sure observe the signs, for signs remain. Like faithful landmarks to the walking train." Before the introduction of inscriptions on sign-boards, and when the houses were not numbered, the trades- people were driven to many curious shifts to make known the exact whereabouts of their places of business. At this distance of time, the following advertisement, taken from a newspaper at the beginning of the last century, is interesting : Dr. James Tilbough, a German doctor, states that he liveth at present over against the New Exchange in Bedford Street, at the sign of the ^ Peacock,' wdiere you will see at night two candles burning within one of the chambers before the balcony, and a lanthorn with a candle in it upon the balcony, where he may be spoke withal alone, from 8 in the morning till 10 at night.'' This description is unusually elaborate. Possibly the doctor was a migratory bird, and had lived at many different parts of the town. The at present" would rather strengthen this idea. Then again, Faithorne, the engraver, gives his address, in 1691, at the ''sign of the ' Ship,' next door to the ' Drake,' opposite to the ' Pal- grave Head' tavern, without Temple Bar." One more example. In the Spectator of the 29th of April, 1718, the following advertisement appears: ''In George Street, in York Buildings, in the Strand, the third house on the right hand, number 3 being over the door, may be had money lent, upon plate or jewels, at reasonable rates." The " number 3 over the door" in this an- nouncement shows that in 1718 the plan of numbering houses had come into vogue. The introduction of tiiis practice took place just before the year 1708, for in that year Hatton published his " New View of London," wherein he mentions as a remarkable circumstance con- nected with the history of Prescott Street, Goodman's Fields, that, " instead of signs, the houses are distin- 16 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. guished by numbers, as the staircases in the Inns of Court and Chancery." Now, as the term " sign" has changed its signification, so the word ^' writing," as applied to the work of the sign-writer, has also come to possesss a meaning very dif- ferent from that which it originally had. It is hardly necessary to point out that the words wdiich, in the lead- ing languages of Europe, express the art of writing, pro- perly denote engraving. All the records of the ancients which were intended to be permanent were engraved in wood or stone ; and temporary memoranda were im- pressed with a metal stylus on waxed tablets of ivory or wood, called table-books, and were, therefore, capable of being obliterated. Various vegetable and animal substances were also used for this purpose ; but, what- ever the material employed, the records were always impressed by means of some hard material. The use of table-books was continued long after more portable and tractable substitutes had been introduced. Even in Chaucer's time they were not unknown in England, for he evidently describes one in his " Sompnour's Tale." The friar is provided with : "A pair of tables, all of ivory, And a pointed [style], ypolislied fetislily [neatly], And wrote always the names as he stood Of all folk that gave them any good." And, later still, the Archbishop of York, in Henry IV., second part, act 4, is made to say : " And therefore Avill he wipe his tables clean, And keep no tell-tale to his memory," But admitting, as we are bound to do, that the word writing," in its ordinary signification, is accurate lus applied to the productions of the pen, which superseded the old stylus, still it is a somewhat different matter as applied to the formation of alphabetic characters as at present practised by tlie sign-writer, who, in reality, is not an engraver or a writer, but an artist in the draw- ing and painting of letters. INTRODUCTORY. 17 Whetlicr. however, this may or may not account for the omission of the sign-writer from every work of refer- ence, it is now too late to cavil about terms. Sign-writ* ing has become one of the most prominent and useful of the industrial arts, and will, no doubt, in due course occupy its proper position in all encyclopsedias and treatises on the arts and sciences. It would seem that the art of sign-writing , as it is now called, is of considerable antiquity. It probably origi- nated with the custom of writing or painting texts and inscriptions in churches and other religious edifices, which was resorted to at a very early period. There is ample evidence that this practice is almost coeval with the history of the Christian Church itself. The erudite Bingham, in his ^' Antiquities of the Christian Church,^' vol. ii., pp. 497, 498, devotes an entire section to this subject, in the course of which, speaking of the ancient churches, he observes: — "Another ornament, which served for use as well as beauty, was their comely and pertinent inscriptions, many of which are preserved and still to be read in ancient authors. These were of two sorts : some taken out of Scripture ; others, useful com- positions of men's own inventing. The walls of the church seem conniionly to have had some select portions of Scripture written upon them, containing some proper admonition and instruction for all in general, or else more peculiar to that order of persons who had their station in such a particular part or division of the church. Thus I have observed before out of St. Ambrose, that the place of the virgins had that text of St. Paul some- times written by it on the walls : ' There is dilference be- . tween a wife and a virgin,' &c. And by this one place, we may judge how other parts of the church were em- bellished and adorned with proper instructions out of the Holy Scripture.'' This learned divine also quotes from Paulinus and other ancient authors to show that incriptions of 'Miumane" composition were written on 2* 18 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. the several parts and utensils of many churches ; ^lA he repeats two short Latin distichs, written over tlie doors of the church : one on the outside, exhorting men to enter the church with pure and peaceable hearts ; and the other on the inner side of the doors, requiring men when they go out of church with their bodies, to leave at least their hearts behind them. " Many other like inscriptions,'' he adds, " may be seen in Sidonius Apollinaris and other writers of that age." In the ecclesiastical edifices of this country, inscrip- tions were originally painted upon the walls, and on the rood loft or screen, and occasionally upon the windows j but they were always used in the first instance as subor- dinate to more elaborate decorations. Subsequently, however, these inscriptive texts, or ^' Scriptures,'' as they were generally called, assumed greater prominence, and were employed not merely in connection with or as subordinate to other paintings, but formed of themselves the sole and chief embellishments; and ultimately this custom of using them appears to have extended itself to buildino^s other than those of a relii^ious character. The phylacteries, or twisted scrolls, held by saints, angels, or demons (the earliest form in which theelucida- tor}; texts and other inscriptions first appeared in English architecture), date from about the year 1087. In an illuminated Saxon MS. of the tenth century, the Evil Spirit is represented with a scroll bearing the word " Diabolis; " and shortly after this period the inscriptive scroll l)egan to be commonly applied in church decora- tions. These scrolls or labels were sometimes colored, and bore the letters in white or gold ; but they were more frequently painted white, with the inscription in black or color. They seem to have been adopted in the first instance as a means of leading to the identification of the different figures represented, and were conse- quently merely accessorial to the general design, what- ever that might be. 'INTRODUCTORY. 19 In the thirteenth century, the adoption of the labelled text and other forms of painted inscriptive decoration became general, and in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- turies they formed an important feature in ecclesiastical adornment. About the year 1397, Lord Berkeley, had the Apocalypse in Latin and French inscribed on the walls of his chapel at Berkeley ; and about the year 1472, Prior Sellinge painted the walls of the southern walk of the cloister at Canterbury with texts of Scripture. The walls of the Clapton Chapel, Long Melford, are also painted with Scriptural texts, as are those of the chapel ofMoreton Hall, in Cheshire. On the cornice of the screen which now forms part of the Bourchier monu- ment, in the chapel of St. Paul, at Westminster, a por- tion of the Non Nobis,^^ or 115th Psalai, is still per- fect. The letters are gold on a ground of blue, and the words are separated by shields and heraldic devices. Tiie hollow of the cornice in the hall at Croydon Palace has the Scripture, ^'Nosce teipsum — "Know thyself — painted in wliite letters on a blue ground."^' The use of texts of Scripture is enjoined by a passage in the eighty-second canon, which appoints " that the Ten Commandments be set up on the east end of every church and chapel, where the people may best see and read the same, and other chosen sentences written upon the walls of the said churches and chapels, in places convenient." During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the name of our blessed Lord, in monograms, initials, and cy{)hers, was very frequently introduced into ecclesiastical decoration. The name of Jesus was commonly con- tracted into I. H. C, and used as a devotional emblem. This form is said to have been " invented " by St. Ber- * For some of the foregoing particulars we are indebted to the excellent work of Mr. Blackburne on " English Architecture iu the Middle Ages." 20 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. nardin, of Sienna, about the year 1400. Several ex- cellent specimens of the ancient form of this monogram are still preserved. Almost coeval with, or rather latet than, the use of this monogram, or nomal abbreviation, the letters A. M. (Ave Maria), M. A. (Maria), M. R. (Maria Regina), became a common form of ornamenta- tion in churches. The letter M was frequently used by itself, and was often most tastefully designed. Short ejaculatory prayers also formed favorite decorations. Amongst these may be cited the iBVUm * IBtXiB * ^ttteit on a painted screen at Worstead, Norfolk ; the JilfS- mre * ^obis * Jhesu * Sal\)ator formerly to be seen on the back of the choir stalls at Canterbury; and the Sl^U * Ul0VCf to be met with in several places. But, as we before stated, inscrij)tive texts were not confined to religious edifices merely. In the Middle Ages it was customary to cover the walls of public and private buildings with moral or religious sentences, of an appropriate character. Henry III., who manifested great regard for the fine arts, and entertained and en- couraged their professors, frequently directed his palaces and chapels to be painted with English historical sub- jects, and adorned w^ith sculpture, and ordered inscrip- tions to be introduced in several instances. By a 'man- damus of the 20th of this king, the king's treasurer is commanded to have the Great Chamber at Westminster painted a good green color, according to the fashion of the curtain in the great gable of the same chamber, and that the motto, — " Ke ne dune ke ne tine ne pret ke desire,'^* — be painted on the wall — an appropriate text lor the place of hospitality. A Latin rendering of the same motto was also ordered to be painted on the hall of the palace of Woodstock, in the year 1248. At a later period, Chaucer refers to the practice, — * " Who gives not of what he has, shall not have what he de- sires." INTRODUCTORY. 21 " A.nd sothe to saine my chambre was Ful wel depainted And all the walls with colours fine Were paint, botlie texte and glose, And all the Romaunt of the Rose." The author of " Piers Ploughman's Crede," who, it is supposed, wrote at the end of the reign of Richard II., mentions the existence of writing and heraldic devices on windows : *' Wyde wyndowes ywrought Ywryten ful thikke, Shynen with shapen sheldes To shewen aboute, With merkes of merehauntes Ymeddled* betwene." Some of the inscriptions, or " posies/' as they were called, were very curious. Redding, in his history of Cornwall, mentions that the following lines, illustrative of " Perseverance'' and " Niggardliness," are painted on the panels of the wainscoting, in the room in Pen- gerswick Tower, Cornwall : ** What thing is harder than the rocke ? What softer is than water cleere ? Yet will the same with often droppe, The hard rock perce, as doth a spere : Even so, nothing so hard to attayne, But may be hadd with labour and paine." " Behold this asse, wiche laden ys AVith riches, plcntye, and with meat, And yet thereof no pleasure bathe, But thystells, hard and rough, doth eat : In like case ys the rich niggarde. Which hath inoughe, and lyveth full hard.'* According to Blackburne, this practice, as originally ex- * ^^Y-msddled is mixed ] the 'marks' of merchants are put in opposition to the 'shapen shields,' because merchants had no coats of arms." — Specimens of the Early English Foels, by George Ellis, Esq., vol. i., p. 163. 22 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. ilibited, seems to have continued so late as the time of Archbishop Williams (1639), who caused the cloisters at Buckden ^'to be fairly pargetted, and beautified with comely copartments and inscriptions of wise counsels and sentences;'^ and it prevailed, in a modified form, to a much more recent period. The practice of writing inscriptions in religious edi- fices in all probability received much encouragement during the reign of Edward YI., when the custom of covering the interior walls of churches with " Scrip- tures'^ was at its climax. It is a well-established fact that antecedent to this reign mural paintings ornamented even the poorest and most insignificant parish churches, as well as stately cathedrals and magnificent abbeys — the inscriptive i^^exts, with but few exceptions, being sub- ordinated thereto ; but owing to an alteration in the re- ligious feeling of the country, under the reign of Edward YL, a devoted Protestant, many of these paintings were obliterated with whitewash, texts^ of Scripture being substituted ; and it would seem that successive layers of this material were applied at differ- ent times, so as to remove all traces of the paintings, not only from the walls but also from the recollection of the ecclesiastical authorities themselves. That the defacing of paintings and the writing of Scripture texts on the walls greatly obtained in this reign may be seen by the numerous records extant, of which the following, under the date of 1550, in the churchwardens' accounts of St. Mary's the Great, Cambridge, may be taken as a fair sample : For makyng the wall where Saynt George stood in the chyrche vj'** It. paid for wythynge y' chyrch xx' iij**- It. payd for wryghtynge of the chyrch walla with Scriptures iiij""" iij' iiy '' INTRODUCTORY. 23 It would be very interesting to know what quantity of writing was introduced for the sum of c£4 3s. 4d., which is equivalent to at least £40 in present money.* This large item would lead one to suppose that the texts were executed by some first-class master, and in the best style of art. But, unfortunately, this point cannot now be settled, for, as illustrative of the transitoriness of mun- dane affairs, Edward VI. succumbed to consumption, and was succeeded on the throne by Queen Mary, a zealous Catholic, and accordingly, the church texts, em- blematical of Protestantism, were obliterated, and Ro- man Catholicism, outwardly at all events, again reigned supreme. In 1553, shortly after the accession of Mary, the following entry occurs in the churchwardens' accounts of St. Mary's the Great, already quoted : "Payd to Barnes for mendyng the rode and over the alter in the chapell, and for washing oute the Scriptures^ 4s. 4d." * A very different amount is charged in the churchwardens' accounts of St. Helen's, Abingdon, under date 1561, as witness the following items, published in the *' Arch[Eologia," vol. i : "To the carpenter and others for taking down the roode lofte and stopping the holes in the wall where the joices stoode, 15s. 8d. " To the peynter, for roriting the Scripture whore the roode lofte stood, and overthwarte tlie same isle, 3s. 4d." The scale of wages paid to artificers and laborers at this period may be gathered from " The Booke for a Justice of Peace," 1559, wherein it is laid down that " none artificer hereafter named take no more nor greatter wages than hereafter is limitted, — tliat is to say, a free mason, maister carpenter, rough mason, nor ioyner, from Easter to Michelmas, every of them vj for the day without meate and drinke, and with meate and drinke iiij " In an ac- count of the 5th of Edward VI., 1551, is a charge for painters ■working under Anthony Toto, serjeant-painter, in preparing a temporary banqueting house in Hyde Park for the entertainment of 'Uhe Marshall St. Andrew," from which it appears that the men were paid from 5d. to 15d. per day ; and the serjeant-painter himself had a "reward of £2 13s. 4d. towards his pains and charges m setting forward all the painters' work." 24 SIGN WETTING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. In the parish books of St. Benet's, Gracechurch Street, London, which was rebuilt by Wren after the Great Fire, and which has just been demolished to make room for City improvements, are some curious entries of pay- ments on the accession of Queen Mary : and amongst them are the following : — " To a plasterer for washing oute and defacing of the Scriptures, 3s. 4d. " Maldng the Roode, with Mary and John, £6.' and then, subsequently, "Pulling down the same Roode, 1st year Queen Eliza- beth, 4s. 2d. " Pulling down the altar and John, 2s. 4d." Numerous inscriptions in churches which had long been obliterated have been discovered at different times, and archaeologists are unanimous in fixing as their date the reign of Ed ward VI., inasmuch as beneath these are invariably found traces of mural paintings, which it is supposed the texts superseded. A few years ago a.series of mural paintings was discovered under successive cov- erings of whitewash in St. John's Church, Winchester ; and in an account of these hi the Journal of the Archceo- logical Association, vol. ix, p. 11, if is stated that "the first portion discovered was the figure of St. Andrew. Near the feet of this figure were observed faint traces of letters, which looked at first almost coeval with the figure ; but, on a closer examinatio'i, proved to be some remains of a text or prayer, not later than the time of Edward VL" We have thus the fact clearly established that about the middle of the sixteenth century the writing of inscrip- tions in churches was a common practice. It may have been, and probably was, the case that the writing on the walls of the pi'incipal churches at this time was entrusted to the hands of some of the talented foreigners who had l)oon induced to visit this country during the reign of Henry VIII., and who did so much for the revival of INTRODUCTORY. 25 classical architecture and tlie arts generally. It may be also tliat the splendid book-illuminators of this period employed themselves in writing on the walls of churches, or, at least, in designing models for those who did so, and thus gave a stimulus to this branch of industrial art; and that, when this practice fell into disuse, and the art of boolc illumination, owing to the introduction of the printing-press, declined, writing was not thought of sufficient importance, or there was not enough demand for it, to encourage painters to devote themselves to it entirely. That the painting of inscriptions and other forms of decoration was entrusted to, and performed by, the leading artists of this period is not a mere matter of con- jecture. So recently as the seventeenth century there was not that minute division of labor which obtained at a later period, and which is now so fully developed. Artists were not content with merely one branch of art. Tlie work of the sculptor, painter, and architect was often performed by one and the same individual. In one sense, this was a misfortune, the arts becoming weakened through the innovations introduced into the different branches into which they are divided. It was thouglit that a clever sculptor must be a clever architect, or that a good designer must be capable of anything within the domain of sculpture, painting, or architecture. But thougli the higher forms of art were not, as a rule, bene- fited by this diversity of employment, it cannot be denied that industrial art was often elevated through the attention given to it by the superior minds of the great jnasters. They brought to bear upon their work an intelligent appreciation of which the ordinary routine workman of the present day is totally incapable. To this fact must be attributed the production of those incomparable monograms and devices which at one time adorned our public edifices, particularly those devoted to ecclesiastical purposes, some of which are happily still 3 26 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. preserved in the national archives. Decorative or in- scriptive painting was not deemed beneath the dignity of the most favored artists, who appear to have under- taken any kind of work requiring the exercise of refined taste. We have it on the authority of John de Critz, serjeant-painter of Charles I., that he painted and gilded His Majesty^s barge, and did other work of an equally inartistic and ordinary character. In a memorandum in liis own hand-writing, De Critz has bequeathed to all future generations of painters, for the comfort and edi- fication of the profession, the fact that he did not rebel against the execution of work which now-a-days would be thought beneath the notice of any third-rate painter. The following bill of his, as given in Walpole's "Anec- dotes," shows conclusively the sort of employment in which he engaged himself: *'For several times oyling and layinf^ with fayre white a stone for a sundyall opposite to some part of the l^ing and queen's lodgings, tiie lines thereof being drawn in severall colours, the letters directing to the howers gnilded with fine gould, whereon the number and figures specifying the planetary liowcrs are in- scribed ; likewise certain letters drawne in black informing in what part of the compasse the sun at any time there shining shall be resident ; the whole worke being circumferenced with a frett painted in a manner of a stone one, the compleat measure of the whole being six foote." The following account is also in the handwriting of De Critz: " John de Critz demandeth allowance for these parcclls of Worke following, viz :— For repayreing, refreshing, washing, and varnishing the Whole of his Majesty's privy barge, and mending with fine gould and faire colors many and divers parts thereof, as about the chaire of state, the doores, and most of the antiques about the windowes, that had been galled and defaced, the two figures at the entrance being most new coloured and painted, the Mercury and the lions that are fixed at the sternes of this and the row barge being in several places repayred both with gould and coloms, as also the taffarils on tlie top of the barge in many parts guikfcd and strowed with fayre by sc. The two figures of Justice and Fortitude most an end being quite new painted and guilded. INTEODUCTOEY. 27 The bovder on the outside of the bulk being new layd with faire wliite and trayled over with greene according to the custom here- tofore — and for baying and colouring the whole number of the oares for the row barge being thirty-six." In reference to this account, Walpole adds the following foot-note : "In the court books at Paintcrs'-hall, there is a letter to the company from the Earl of Pembroke, directing them to appoint cei-tain persons of their hall to view the king's and queen's barges lately beautified, painted, and gilded by De Creetz, and give an estimate of the work, which they did of £280 and some other expenses." The letters most in use prior to the invention of print- ing were of the sort called ^' Secretary," or Gothic, of which there were several kinds, more or less resembling ea^h other. Accordingly, the first printing letters were the same as the written characters of that age, which have been distinguished by the name of " Monkish-En- glish," and these are the parents of our present Old- English or Black Letters. About thirty-three years after the introduction of printing into this country, the Koman letters were first adopted by the Italian printers, Conrad Schweynheym and Arnold Pannartz, and used by them in their edition of " St. Augustin on the City of God," which was completed in the year 1467. The Roman characters of this early period were not alto- gether unlike those of the present day, though, as com- pared with our own, they were very rudely formed. These letters were much improved by Nicholas Jenson, who, in 1470, was sent to Mainz by Louis XL, to learn the new art of printing. He ultimately settled in Venice, which became so celebrated for the beauty of its types that it is said to have supplied them to the early printers of Rome. Wynkyn de Worde is reputed, but without sufficient authority, to have been the first who introduced the round Roman letters of Schweyn- heym and Pannartz into England. However this may have been, it is certain that Pynson, in 1518, printed a 28 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. book in England entirely in Roman characters. About this time the letters now known by the name of Italic were invented by Aldus Manutius. They were first called Venetian, from the inventor being a resident at Venice ; but not long after they were " dedicated to the state of Italy, to prevent any dispute that might arise from other nations claiming a priority, as was the case concerning the first inventor of printing."* The art of forming letters at this time was regarded as a secret, the few who were able to do it at all satis- factorily being most watchful lest they should be the means of communicating their knowledge to others. This seems to have been the case more especially with the early letter-cutters. Mr. Moxon, in his " Mechanical Exercises," published in 1683, remarks, with respect to letter-cutting for typographical purposes, that "it was a handy-work at that time kept so concealed among artificers of it that he could not learn any one had taught it any other; but that every one that had used it learnt it of his own genuine inclination and he adds that, *^by the appearance of some work done, a judicious eye might doubt whether they went by any rule at all, though geometric rules in no practice whatever ought to be more nicely or exactly observed than in this." By applying in every instance geometry and mathematical and mechanical skill to the art of formino; and cutting alphabetic characters, Mr. Moxon was the first of En- glish letter-cutters who reduced to rule and published the art which before him had been practised, as he him- self asserts, but by guess, and left to succeeding artists examples that they might follow his practice. At this period the Dutch had acquired pre-eminence for the beauty of their Roman letters. Moxon, who describej them as " the true shape," says they were formed sa exactly of the mathematical regular figures, straight • Philip Luckoinbc's " Origin and Progress of Printing," 1770. INTEODUCTOEY. 29 lines, circles, and arches of circles, and with such a true placing of fats and leans,'^ that he "set himself to anatomize the proportion of every part and member of them," and, being a practical letter-cutter himself, he adopted as the proportions of his own letters those of Christofel van Dyck. So celebrated was Christofel van Dyck in his branch of art, that when the Stadthouse at Amsterdam was near completion, he was sought by the officials to whom was entrusted the perfecting of the arrangements, and offered <£80 sterling for only drawing on paper the names of the several offices that were to be painted over the doors, for the painter to paint from.* This is important evidence of the value put upon the services of a skilled writer in those days. In addition to the jealousy which existed amongst those skilled in the art of forming and cutting letters for printing, and which tended to keep it a secret art, the early letter-cutters had to contend against all sorts of prohibitive legal restraints. We can find no trace of any enactments respecting written or painted inscriptions of any kind ; but the spread of knowledge which the print- ing press was calculated to effect was viewed with con- siderable alarm ; and it was consequently decreed by an order of the Star Chamber, dated the 11th of July, 1637, that " there should be four founders of letters for print- ing, and no more," and as the places of these became void, the vacancies were to be filled up by the Arch- bishop of Canterbury or the Bishop of London, with six other High Commissioners. The same decree limited the number of master printers to twenty. On the dis- solution of the Court, 16th Charles L, these restrictions were removed, but were reimposed in the 14th Charles • II., when it was also enacted that " no founder was to cast any letter * * * or to bring from parts * " Regulse Trinra Ordinum Literarum TypograpMcarum," by Joseph Moxon, 1676. 3* 30 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. beyond the seas any letters founded or cast for print- ing," nor was any person ^' to buy any letters or other materials belonging unto printing without application to the masters and wardens of the Company of Stationers/^ This Act expired in 1693, and thenceforward the art of letter-founding, and, as a consequence, of painting in- scriptions, became more general, and greater uniformity and neatness prevailed in the shapes of the letters. From about this period dates the peculiar formation of the Roman characters whicli are now so much in repute and known as the " old-faced." There does not seem to be any very conclusive evi- dence that writing upon signs was resorted to, except in rare instances, before the close of the seventeenth cen- tury. On the contrary, there are extant records which, incidentally, go far to show that painted inscriptions for business purposes were exceptional, and had be(!ome by no means general even in the beginning of the last century. A Frenchman — M. Misson — who visited England in 1719, gives some account of the signs of London, observing that they seldom write upon the signs the names of the things repi-esented in them." And Mr. Hotten, in his work already referred to, says that the absence of inscriptions was not to be lamented, for those that existed only ' made fritters of English' " — a charge from which we are not altogether free in the present day, as Avill be shown in a subsequent chapter. Were it possible, it would no doubt amuse some of our modern sign-writers to see and criticise the letters forming the inscriptions thus referred to. Unfortunate- ly, owing to the perishable nature of the materials cm- • ployed, they are debarred this opportunity. But, com- paring like things with like, w^e may indirectly get a glimpse of the style of the early painted inscriptions from those engraved on tomb and other memorial stones, wiiich are still extant. The letters on some of the superior class of tond)3 INTEODUCTORY. 31 which were executed centuries ago are as perfect in symmetry and as regularly formed as any of the present day. Even so far back as 1085, the sculptured letters in Gothic characters on the tomb of Gundrada, sister of William the Conqueror, in Southover Church, Lewes, are almost perfection in form and finish.* Henry III.'s tomb in Westminster Abbey bears inscriptions in the Anglo-Norman, or, as Mr. Astle calls them, modern Gothic,^^ characters, which are excellently well shaped. The famous tomb of Henry VII., also in Westminster Abbey, affords a capital illustration of symmetry and beauty as regards the inscriptions, some of which are in Old English or Black Letter, according to the usual custom in the Mediaeval period, and others in ornament- ed Roman capitals. But it must be borne in mind that the highest talent procurable from the continent was engaged in the execution of these important national memorials. The momument to Henry VII. was the work of the great master Torrigiano; and although he may not have actually executed the inscriptions, still they would have come under his own immediate super- intendence, and would not have been trusted to any inferior hand. The monument of Richard 11. and others of about the same date (1400), in Westminster Abbey, bear inscriptions in Gothic characters, which have never been excelled. They are not only well proportioned, but perfect in every particular, and might be takeo as * The letters on this tomb are so remarkably neat and symiwft- trical and so nearly like those in use at the present day, that we entertained some doubt whether they were of the date assigned to them. Being desirous of ascertaining the truth, we communi- cated with the eminent antiquary, Mr. Mark Anthony Lower, and we have permission 1o state on his authority that the tomb is a genuine relic of the eleventh century. Moreover, the lettering is precisely similar to that on the tomb of Gundrada's mother at Caen. Gundrada died in 1085, and as she and her husband, Wil- liam de Warrenne, had recently founded Lewes Priory, it may reasonably be presumed that the monument dates before the year 1100. 32 SIGN WHITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. models of excellence in the present day.* Mr. Henry Shaw has given examples of these in his excellent work on " Mediaeval Alphabets and Devices/^ published in 1845j to which the reader is referred. In addition to the inscriptions on tombs, those on ancient monumental brasses are most interesting, as affording evidence of the skill of the early engravers on metal centuries before the art of printing was thought of. The lettering on some of these relics is exceedingly well executed, the characters bearing a strong resem- blance to the modern, both in form and proportion. It is somewhat singular that the monumental brasses which are known to have been engraven in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, are superior to those of a more recent date. This art began rapidly to decline towards the close of the sixteenth, and became almost extinct in the seventeenth century. As affording a marked contrast to these master-pieces, * There is little doubt that the inscriptions on the superior class of tombs were regarded as an integral portion of the work itself. Nicholas Stone, who was born at Woodbury, near Exeter, in 1586, attained much celebrity in making monuments for persons of dis- tinction. The history of his works is fully recorded by himself. Yertue met with his pocket book, in which he left an account of the statues and tombs he executed, who employed him, and the payment he received. Walpole, in his " Anecdotes of Painting," vol. i,, p. 237, et se^., makes some extracts from this diary, from which we quote the following, showing that, at all events, the price received by Stone for inscriptions was no mean sum : " My Lord of Clare also agreed with me for a monument for his brother Sir George Holies, the which I made and sett up in the chappell at Westminster where Sir Francis Vere lyeth buried, for the which I was paid from the hands of the said Earl of Clare £100. " And in the same church I made an inscription for Sir Richard Cox for the which I had £80. *' And another fast by for Monsieur Casabon ; the Lord Bishop of Durham paid for it £G0. "And about this time (1635) I made," &c. INTRODUCTORY. 33 are the more common engraven or carved inscriptions which have come down to our own time from the Mid- dle Ages, many of which are of the rudest possible kind. Even those of the last century are characterized by ill-shaped letters, bad punctuation, and an utter ignorance of the construction of words. It will not be necessary in this work to give any examples of these inferior inscriptions, inasmuch as nearly every one in- terested in the subject must have observed their short- comings. The forms of the letters are of the most primitive and rude description, of which no idea can be given by means of simple letter-press. Whilst, therefore, we have examples showing, on tiie one hand, that the great masters who executed the superior monuments were thoroughly efficient writers in the best sense of the term, inasmuch as they delineated the literal characters of the alphabet with perfect grace and symmetry; we have, on the other hand, abundant evidence that the ordinary workman was vastly deficient in all the artistic knowledge and refinement which should distinguish a competent writer. We are not aware whether these memorial inscriptions were generally designed or pencilled out by the master- mason himself — as those executed by Nicholas Stone appear to have been — or whether it was customary, as it is at the present day, for the mason to entrust this to some other person, — a sign-writer, for instance, — and then cut in the letters to the writer's outline. Assuming the latter to have been the case, it may naturally be inferred that the writer would be anxious to do his best, having regard to the length of time his work would be expected to endure in stone. This, then, would rather lead to the assumption that the less durable painted in- scriptions on signs and houses would be executed in a comparatively less skilful manner, or, at all events, that so much pains would not be bestowed upon them. However this may be, it is pretty certain that the art of 34 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. writing, especially as it was exhibited on signs, was at a very low level at the end of the seventeenth and throughout the first half of the eighteenth century. At this period, the projecting signs having been doomed, and the arts of reading and writing having become pretty general accomplishments, the picture signs began to be succeeded by written ones, which had, in fact, be- come absolutely necessary in consequence of the pro- gress of commercial enterprise. The old method was at best a clumsy one, and utterly unsuited to the require- ments of a country which had begun to earn for itself the reputation of being, what it was afterwards contemj*- tuously designated, " a nation of shopkeepers." CHAPTER 11. DKAWING ESSENTIAL LINES. Writing being a species of drawing, it becomes ne- cessary at the outset for the student in the art of form- ing and painting alphabetical characters, to perfect him- self in drawing essential lines, both straight and curved. The straight lines are called perpendicular, horizontal, and oblique ; and, besides these, there are the correspond- ing curves. Every letter of the alphabet — in fact, every arbitrary character — is formed by different combinations of these lines. This is self-evident; yet, no longer ago than the year 1772, a Mr. L. D. Nelme jDublished a work on the Origin and Elements of Languuge and Letters,'^ in w^hich he labored to show that all elemen- tary characters derive their form from the line and the curve, as if they could have been derived from any other source ! In order to be able to make essential lines with ease and precision, the beginner is recommended to practise drawing them over and over again with a piece of soft or " free" chalk, or pipe-clay,* on a black board. As, practically, the sign-writer is called upon to exercise his * The best way to get the pipe-clay is to go to a maker of ihe ordinary white claj'-pipes ; and, for a penny, the student will be able to purchase several sticks of well-formed crayon-looking material — in fact, pieces of the stems of pipes broken before being baked. This is a most serviceable article, and is most invariably used by writers. It marks feadily, without scratching the paint, and it has this great advantage over soft chalk, that it docs not leave any trace of dust behind. 35 36 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. art on upright surfaces, it is important that the student should commence his practice on a board, resting on an easel, and slanting but very slightly, and nev^er on the flat top of a table or bench. The straight or curved lines should be effected purely by free-hand drawing, without ruler or compasses, until the student has acquired the habit of rendering them with tolerable precision. The method of procedure should be varied occasionally by substituting for the pipe-clay a sable hair pencil charged with oil color, and when this is used, the right arm must rest on a mahl-stick held in the left hand, and never upon the board itself. In using oil color, the paint sliould be rubbed off with a piece of rag before it has had time to dry, or it will be necessary to paint the board afresh after each day's practice. In drawing straight and curved lines the use of ruler or compasses should be avoided.. The chief object to be attained is freedom and command of hand ; and this is only to be accomplished by practising without those mechanical aids, which, though indispensable to the architectural or engineering draughtsman, would only serve to retard the progress of the writer. At the outset, the student, though able to see that his attempts are not perfect, will probal)ly be at a loss to discover where his line is at iault; but after repeated efforts the eye Avill become so educated that it will at once detect the slightest deviation from the truth, and suggest where amendment is required. If, for instance, a line intended to be vertical leans either to the right or left, an experienced eye will easily detect it. In such a case it is common to hear even skilled workmen say that it is " not straight.'^ This, of course, is an obvious error, the fact being that the line is simply out of up- right, as all the three essential lines — horizontal, per- pendicular, and oblique — are straight. In making circles or curves by free-hand drawing — and lettering is a species of drawing more or less me- DEAWING ESSENTIAL LINES. 37 ihahical according as the letters be plain or ornamental— coiisiderable practice will be required. It is possible to make a perfect circle without the aid of compasses. His- tory lias left it on record that, when the great painter Giotto appeared before the emissaries of the then reign- ing Pope, who had come to engage him, and was asked for some specimen of his work, he at once drew, off- hand, a circle so perfect that no further proof of the young painter's genius was asked for. Everybody, however, cannot be expected to reach this high state of perfection ; but with diligence and care every one can attain to considerable efficiency in drawing straight lines, curves, and circles, without any guides save those of the . eye and hand. To accomplish this, the best mode of proceeding at first, is to form a circle of about three inches in diameter, which will be found easier than making a large one to begin with ; then to mark a sec- ond circle round it at a given distance, and to repeat the operation until the blackboard is covered with a series of concentric rings. By continuing to do this alternately with pipe-clay and a sable-hair pencil charged with color, the student, after repeated efforts, will find no difficulty in making a circle true enough for all practi- cal purposes, so far as writing is concerned, without any mechanical aid whatever. Of course, the amount of rSuccess will always be in proportion to the diligence and pains bestowed; and in regard to this, as Avell as every regular or geometrical form, the most uneducated eye is, to a certain extent, capable of judging. As has been already said, all forms of an arbitrary character are com- posed of straight lines and curves. A capital Roman R, for instance, is a combination of straight and curved lines, and is, therefore, what is called an arbitrary or irregular form. The letter S is another example, as also is G, and others might be instanced if it were necessary. Obviously, these letters are more difficult of formation than those embracing direct or straight lines only, such 4 58 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. as A, E, and many others ; and, accordingly, tlie student should make at least two of the former to one of the latter, in order to become equally proficient in both. Lines running in the same direction, and continuing always at the same distance from each other, are called parallel lines, and should be practised in the same way as single lines. Every letter of the alphabet is formed of parallel lines, as may be seen in the case of skeleton letters. Take the simple form of as an example. It will here be seen that there are two perpendicular and two horizontal lines; and if any degree of facility in making straight lines has been acquired, it may readily be im- agined that no great difficulty will be experienced in combining them in so simple a manner. It is necessary not only to practise drawing lines par- allel to each otiier, but to do it with the view of keeping them all at the same distance apart, because if they are not uniform tliroughout, and are used as the component parts of letters, the writing will present anything but a regular or pleasing appearance. Suppose, for instance, the learner were to write in large letters, the word EN- TIRE, and that in doing so he made the perpendicular lines of the thick strokes of the letters, which should be not only parallel but equidistant, at different distances from each other, the result would be very unsatisfactory when the outline came to be filled up, for instead of the letters bein[ of one uniform thickness throughout, they would probably present an irregular appearance somewhat like the following : And it must be remembered that this irregularity would be still more apparent if the letters w^ere produced upon a very large scale. To secure perfect uniformity in the thickness, or, rather, width of the thick strokes of the letters — the term DRAWING ESSENTIAL LINES. 39 "thickness'^ being used technically to express a diiferent thing, which will be hereafter explained — it is not neces- sary to resort to the use of measure or compasses, as any deviations from just proportions will at once offend the experienced eye. The well-known forms and proportions of the alphabetic characters will enable the student to perceive whether his attempts are successful or otherwise. Alison, in his ^' Essay on Taste/^ remarks that "^o man ever presumes to speak of the proportions of a machine of the use of which he is ignorant." But here the " machine " is a universal one, and everybody is more or less acquainted with the proportions of the particular class of forms which it presents. Nor should any measurement be adopted for the dis- tance or space between the letters ; but in all cases the eye and judgment must be depended upon. Indeed, it would be a mistake to attempt to gain uniformity by having exactly the same space between the letters, some requiring to be closer together than others, in order to get rid of the void which some letters in contact exhibit. Take, for example, the word PERFECTION. The E should be a trifle closer to the P than the R. to the E, or the F to the P, and there should be less space between the CTI than between any of the other letters in the word (with the exception of the first two). The reason for this is obvious. If the same spacing were adopted throughout, the gap or "white,'^ as it is called, formed by the P and the T, would give those letters the appear- ance of being wider spaced than any of the rest. To make this perfectly clear, take the word LAMB. Now^ it must be apparent from the conformation of these let- ters that their distance from each other should not be equal. The LA should be closer together than the AM^ and the AM than the MB. The right foot of the L and the left foot of the A should nearly touch ; there should be a trifle more space between the A and M ; and as in the M and B the thick perpendicular lines come together 40 SIGN WEITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. the distance between them should be at least double that between the A and the M. Of course, in the compara- tively small type in which this work is printed it is im- possible to point out with any degree of force the effect of injudicious spacing between the letters. The student, however, will at oace see wdiat is intended to be con- veyed. That which is scarcely observable in the case of small letters, is at once manifest when the lettering is produced on a large scale. Evidences in regard to want of judgment in this particular may be met with very frequently; but these only indicate that the sign-wTiter is not a thoroughly efficient master of his art. The beginner should pay much attention to this point at the outset, and carefully note any irregularity which he may discover, so that he may avoid it in his own practice. In regard to this matter of adjustment, the sign-writer has a decided advantage over the printer, the types used for printing being cast on the principle that all the let- ters in a word should stand exactly the same distance apart. Theoretically, this is no doubt perfectly sound ; but, practically, it is open to objection. If the letters were all square, pointed, or round, uniformity of spac- ing might be adopted. But as some letters are square, others pointed, and others again curvilinear, the spacing must necessarily be so adjusted as to counterbalance the irregularity that would be otherwise apparent, and which, in typography, is often noticeable. The object of this adjustment is so self-evident that further explanation would be superfluous. It must be understood, however, that what is here stated has only a general application, and that no abso- lute rules to guide the student in this matter can be laid down. He will soon perceive where his efforts fall short of the anticipated result, and by carefully storing those defects in his memory future failure will, to a great ex- tent, be obviated. The art of drawing straight lines and curves, so as to DRAWING ESSENTIAL LINES. 41 secure correctness of outline, then, is the very first essential in writing. To attain this no pains should be spared. If the letters are not well formed and set out accurately in the first instance, the application of color will only make the imperfections more glaring, and dis- appointment in the end will be the certain result. A baker who makes a shapeless loaf of bread has the satis- faction of knowing that it will soon be consumed ; but the work of the sign-writer is, for the most part, exposed so long to the public view, that it is worth an effort to make the letters carefully, so that employer and employed may be satisfied, and the eye not offended with the work of the hand. 4* CHAPTER III. SETTING OUT THE WRITING. Having in the foregoing chapter dwelt upon the necessity which exists for facility of hand and correct- ness of eye in relation to the simple forms which, in different combinations, compose the letters of the alpha- bet, we now pass on to the next point of consideration, and give a few hints as to the best methods of setting out the writing, whatever it may happen to be. In a work of this kind it is not expedient to give the absolute forms of all the letters of the alphabet, of which there are several classes — such as Roman, Italic, San- SGv'iW, Egyptian, Ornamental, etc. It might at first be imagined that all writers would form the letters of these various alphabets in the same way ; but such is not the case, every one having a style more or less peculiar to himself. This may seem a strange assertion to the un- observant, but it is true nevertheless. Those accustomed to the styles of the different writers of the metropolis, or of any large provincial town, are able, by a mere glance at the lettering ])roduced, to tell off-hand by whom it was executed, even though they may not have seen the work during its progress — -just as in ordinary longhand writing with a pen or pencil, a person familiar with an- other's style of caligraphy is capable of recognizing, and, if necessary, of swearing to it. For this reason, the learner is not recommended to copy exactly any individ- ual's peculiar style of forming the alphabets of various kinds ; but he should select from the best, models he can 42 SETTING OUT THE WEITING. 43 find either in typograpliy or on the walls or sign- boards. As a rule, closely copying printers' letters is not ad- visable. These are often very indifferent models for the sign-writer. It is but right, however, to remark that of late years type-founders have greatly improved their style, especially wood letter-cutters, and many of their alpliabets are by no means to be discarded as un- worthy of imitation. The taste and judgment must be consulted in this matter ; and, by following what these dictate as the best forms for grace and symmetry, the beginner will soon acquire a style of his own quite as individual as that of his hand- writing. As the names of the principal alphabets in common use are frequently mentioned throughout this little work, it may be necessary here to make sure that the beginner has a clear knowledge of what these names imply. With this view we insert a line in each of the four ordinary classes of letters. Thus, there are first the Roman capitals : — ABCDEFGHLJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ. Then, what are called Italic : — ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ, ^^"ext comes the San-seriff : — ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ Then w^e have the Egyptian : — ■ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ. The first thing to be done by way of practice is to " snap^' a chalk line on the surface on which the letters liave to be made. Let the black board again be used. It should be stated that, though the use of any sort of measurement in regard to the letters themselves has been deprecated, it is almost a necessity that some means should be adopted to keep the tops and bottoms of the letters in a direct line. It is, therefore, necessary to 44 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. "snap" two chalk lines of the height required for the letters. Now, before setting out these horizontal lines, or, as they are called, ^^straight" lines, care should be taken to ascertain whether the two sides of the board are equal — whether, in fact, the board is a perfect square or a perfect parallelogram. If it is not, as is often the case, and it is intended to have, say, three rows of letters, the difference in the two sides, though it may be but slight, should be divided equally between the three rows, so tliat not one of the three should run either up or down in tin oblique direction. If the board is much wider at one end than the other, the best plan will be to find the half of each side, and having marked the point with a piece of pipe-clay or crayon, to set out the middle row from it. Suppose the letters are to be four inches in height, mark off with the rule two inches above and two inches below the half way point. The chalk lines should then be snapped, and the letters carefully outlined with a piece of writer's pipe-clay. The other two rows should next beset out and snapped in like manner; but in doing this it must be taken into consideration that the board is out of square, that one side has a greater depth than the other, and accordingly an allowance must be made to counteract this inequality. If the right side be wider than the left, the top row of letters should be a trifle further from the middle row on that side than on the other ; and the same with reference to the bottom row. By this means the defect in the shape of the board will be divided away, and, to all appearance, got gid of; and though, of course, the three rows of letters will not, strictly speaking, be parallel, the variation will be almost, if not entirely, inappreciable. If this method of adjustment in the setting out were not followed, and the three rows of letters were made exactly parallel with the top of the board, they would appear to run " up-hill," as it is called ; or, if they were SETTING OUT THE WRITING. 45 measured from the bottom, they would run " down- hill/' and in either case, the writing would seem to be in fault instead of the board. It should be clearly understood that in no instance must the letters themselves vary in height in the same line, except in a few instances, which are hereafter ex- plained. When this adjustment is required to make up for the defect in the plane surface, whatever it may be, it should be made in the space between the lines, and should not interfere with the lines themselves, which must always be parallel. We have used the word snap in its technical sense, and it is necessary to explain it. To " snap a line " is to form it by means of a chalked cord drawn across a surface, and then snapped or flicked, so that the chalk is deposited, a faint line being thus secured. The method of snapping the chalk-line, simple as it is, is not unworthy of a little description. When there are two persons, one at each end of the board to be written upon, the line is easily made ; but when, as often happens, the operator is alone, he Avill have to find a sort of substitute for a second person. He must, there- fore, provide himself with a finely-pointed awl, and make a small loop at the end of the cord or chalk-line. By inserting the awl through the loop, and pressing it into the board at the point where the line is required on the right hand side, the cord will be fixed securely at one end. It should then be held in the left hand, leav- ing the right at liberty to rub it with chalk, and to snap it Avhen is is guided to the proper point and pulled tight by the left hand. This method is invariably adopted, owing to its simplicity and effectiveness. If the board be but three or four feet long, the cord, having previously been rubbed with a piece of chalk, can be held between the thumb and finger of each hand, and drawn tight across the board in the direction in which the line is re- quired ; and if a piece of cotton has been attached to the middle of the cord, the end being in the mouth and held 46 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. between the teeth, a slight backward motion of the liead Buffieieiit to make a jerk will have the desired effect. It sometimes happens that the writing is not re- quired to be in a straight line, bat on a curve, and this is frequently the case with the top line when more than me is required. When judiciously introduced, curved lines, in combination with direct lines, have a pleasing effect ; but a series of curves in different directions should be avoided ; for unless the writer has acquired proficiency in his art it will be a difficult task to arrange them in a satisfactory manner. The most common form of curved writing is that of an arc of a circle, or a scroll. The latter is invariably made by the hand without any guide, and it is by no means difficult of formation. If an arc of a circle is desired, a faint line should be drawn down the centre of the board, near the bottom of which the left hand should press the chalk-line, and, having inserted a piece of crayon or pencil through the loop, the right hand will be at liberty to describe the curve. Of course, the arc will vary just in proportion as the left hand is held higher or lower on the board. To form the second line the length of the cord must be taken in to the extent required, and the left hand must hold the cord to exactly the same point of contact as that frog which the first line was described. Care should be taken that the right hand, in guiding the crayon or pencil, moves regularly and evenly round, or the arc will be imperfect, and nearer the top of the board on one side than the other. Having made the chalk lines, the letters should be first lightly sketched out to ascertain whether they will come in evenly in the allotted length. The young writer will find this one of the most perplexing things with which he will have to contend. Failure at the outset is almost inevitable. Sometimes he will reach the end of his space before he has half finished the number of letters he expected or thought to get in ; and then, perhaps, in SETTING OUT THE WRITING. 47 his very next attempt, he will have exhausted his lettci'S long before reaching the end of the space he intended to fill. Nothing looks much worse than writing when it liappens to be " all on one side," as the expression goes. No matter how perfect the individual letters may be, if they are as a whole unevenly balanced, the result will be most disagreeable. Even men who are reputed to be good workmen often fail in this particular. It is no very uncommon thing to see painted on a shop fascia for instance, the shopkeeper's name and calling, and at one end only a fine flowing flourish, altogether out of place and superfluous, its obvious object being to balance the line and hide the writer's want of skill, instead of which it not unfrequently makes the matter worse, the reason of its introduction being so transparent. A really skil- ful and practised writer has no occasion to resort to such a subterfuge, for he will judge at once of the exact height and proportion the letters ought to be to fill a given space. It is almost marvellous to what perfection some men have attained in this respect. No matter if the line be twenty or thirty feet long, they will set out the letters they have to write to such a nicety that they will be within an inch or two at the most of the space they i|ktended to occupy, and they will do this the first time, without repeated trials. Of course, the learner will be a long time before he can hope to attain this degree of certainty. He should not, however, relax in his efl()rts until he has attained some approach to it. Much de- pends upon the correctness of the eye and the judgment; much more perhaps upon experience, which, as Shake- speare says, "Is by Industry achieved, And perfected by the swift course of time.'* In forming certain kinds of letters — Egyptian and old English, for instance — it is advisable to have four hori- zontal lines ; two for the top and bottom, and two others inside of these, as shown in the annexed example (Fig. 1). 48 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. T'ig- 1- The utility of these lines needs scarcely a • word of explanation. The blocks/^ as the tops and bottoms of the Egyptian let- . ters are sometimes called, are by this means kept perfectly regular. It would be diffi- cult to j^roceed without these extra lines, especially if the length of the surface to be written upon is very great. The next diagram (Fig. 2) shows the method of setting out, and will at once commend the plan to the begin- ^. ^ ner. It will be noticed that the ^' two top lines and the two bot- fBgB SSBBSS SSSSBa ^^^^^ Hues are not exactly equi- BBlHi^^HlHB^^I distant, or, at least, they ought B HMWBlBwW BB ^^^^ botton Hues, for ^^SSSS^SSSSSSSlm ^^^^ ^^^^y should invariably be a little further apart than the top. If it were not so, the letters would be ^Hop- heavy " and present a clumsy appearance. Ornamental writing sometimes requires a fifth line, in order to keep the centres regular. Take what is called a scroll letter, as the E or the I in Fig. 3, and it will be found that the plan there shown is the only one tliat can be adopted with any certainty as to the result. Without these guides it would be almost impossi- ble to execute good work ; and when it is considered how easy it is to make any num- ber of parellel lines, it would })e folly to mar the effect of the writing by proceeding without them. In fact, the most experienced writers ado]>t the sample plan here in- dicated rather than run the risk of failure in the end. In old English or Gothic the plan of double lincs^ should also bo adopted. Capitals in this alphabet should be rather more than twice the height of the small letters ; but in the case of Koman letters, the capitals are SETTING OUT THE WRITING. 49 generally made rather less than twice the height ol the small letters. In forming any kind of slanting letters, as Italic, care should be taken that all the letters slope to the same degree, but no mechanical means for effecting this object should be had recourse to. It will be found in practice that slanting letters are by no means difficult of regular formation. The great thing to be attended to is to see that the letters whose sides always slope, such as A and W, fall in evenly with the rest. In old founts of print- ing letters, it was customary for all the thick strokes of the Italic capitals to be made to slope to exactly the same angle. Hence, the letters Ay F, and were not at all well balanced with the rest of the alphabet, but leaned to a much greater extent ; and it is singular that this irregularity, arising as it does from an obvious geometrical error, should not have been corrected till the present century. We have, however, dwelt fully upon this subject in a subsequent chapter. 5 CHAPTER IV. COMMON ALPHABETS AND NUMERALS. The many different alphabets now in common use are remarkably clear and intelligible, presenting no in- tricate combinations of design, such as those which mark the ehiborate workmanship of the early book illu- minators. Perspicuity is indispensable in modern alphabets. We have no time to waste in stripping the web from the curious and sometimes over-wrought ini- tial or uncial letters, in order to discover what they really are. When the printing press was not, and vyheu the scribe and the artist were profitably employed, in producing illuminated books for the learned and the rich, the highly-elaborated and cleverly-executed pages were not intended to be glanced at, skimmed over, thrown to one side, and no more thought about. They were far too scarce and too valuable for that. The ornamental garbs in which the letters were presented were meant to be looked at, admired, and prized by future generations. They were "things of beauty,^' and it was intended they should remain "joys for ever." In this utilitarian age, when everything is at full pressure, and we move on at express railway speed, it is of paramount importance that our written language should be as readily understood through the medium of the eye, as it is that oral language should strike upon the tympanum of the ear as soon as it is uttered. To this facilitation of the interchange of ideas all our modern alphabets contribute. Bit by bit they have been divest- 50 COMMON ALPHABETS AND NUMERALS. 51 ed of all unnecessary accessories ; and now we can boast of possessing a thoroughly intelligible and practical set of literal characters as the representatives of articulate sounds. The Times newspaper of December 28th, 1859, admir- ably dwells upon this subject. " Happily for us,^' the writer says, the written symbols employed by the Ro- mans, which are now the chief medium of expression for all the languages of Europe, America, Australia, and the greater part of civilized Africa, reflect exactly the rough and stalwart energy which made Rome to Europe what we are to the world. They have bestowed on us an alphabet as practically effective, and as suited to the capabilities of human vision, as any that could have been devised. This alphabet of ours is like an English- man's dress — plain and manageable; not very artisti- cally arranged, it may be, nor remarkable for copious- ness or flow of outline, but sufficiently elastic and capable of extension. Its symbols have certainly no graceful curves like the pictui-esque Persian ; but, better than all flourishes, each letter has plain, unmistakable features of its own.'' The natural tendency of all writing has been towards legibility and distinctness. Where points of resemblance between different letters or numerals threatened to inter- fere with the legibility of the writing, they have been changed so as to prevent any possibility of their clash- ing. Nor have these modifications and alterations been so slight or unimportant as might at first be sujjposed. The old-fashioned f (for s) has been altogether discon- tinued. The difficulty of distinguishing between f and f (s and f) must have been very trying to children learning to read and to near-sighted adults; and so nearly did these forms resemble each other, that a reader would occasionally have to depend upon the context to discover \\ hich was which." Then, whenever the small e and t came together, they were joined as one letter. 52 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. thus S: ; the c in this connection resembling in every respect the letter e. And, curiously enough, when et (for "and,") occurred, the two lettei-s were joined to- gether, thus^ ; so that the c in the former cases became e in the latter ! Some of the capitals also have under- gone alteration ; and, altogether, we now possess a set of exceedingly clear and intelligible alphabets. The numerals in common use, which are of Arabic extraction, have undergone some remarkable changes since the ])eriod of their introducti(m into Europe, which is variously assig\ied to the twelfth, thirteenth, and four- teenth centuries. The use of these numerals was origin- ally confined to men of science, who found them invalu- able for astronomieal purposes ; and it was not till the fifteenth century that they had become at all general. Chaucer makes mention of "figures newe,^' no doubt in allusion to the Arabic numerals, which, in his day, had asserted their superiority over the old and cumbrous Roman symbols. It is perfectly clear, however, that for a long period the similarity in the forms of some of these numerals led to endless confusion ; and it was not till about the middle of the sixteenth century that they assumed their modern shape, by which all liability to error was obviated. Owing to the great similarity that originally existed between the figures ], 3, and 5, antiqua- ries are not altogether agreed as to the dates to assign to old buildings on which carvings of these characters are found. A notable instance of this occurred in the case of a carving on a wooden beam, over a great passage, in the Half Moon Inn, near Magdalen College, Cambridge. Several talented gentlemen have persisted in reading it as 1332, and ascribing the timber house in which it was found to that date ;* but Mr. Thomas Wright and Mr. Mark Anthony Lower, the learned anti(juaries, have, with much greater show of reason, de(.*ided that the nu- * Journal of Arch. Association, vol. ix. COMMON ALPHABETS AND NUMERALS. 53 morals are 1552, and that the building is of that date. Similarly, Mr. Lower has pointed out that dates at May- field Palace and at Selnieston Church, which have been stated to be of the fourteenth century, belong really to the sixteenth, the fives having been mistaken for threes. Then, the figure seven was originally formed like an in- verted V, thus A ') subsequently it became turned in this wise > ; and ultimately it assumed its modern shape. The figure one, also, which was originally a straight, sometimes wavy, line, came to be shaped in all res})ects like the Roman I; and it was not till compara- tively recent times that it has been invested with a dis- tinctive form of its own. When these numerals came to be used for common purposes, they gradually became individualized ; and so far did the alterations go in this direction that beauty of form was to a certain ex- tent sacrificed. The only figures that were kept within the limits of the parallel lines were 0, 1, 2, the remain- der being made to sprawl out above or below the line, as the case might be, utterly regardless of any principle of uniformity. And through this extension above and below the lines, it was often difficult to determine dates, as the circles of the 6 and 9 became o when the tails got defaced or broken off. On the bronze coinage of this country, the old-faced figures are employed, with this alteration, that the nought, instead of being small, is made of the same height as the long figures, so that any confusion in consequence of the defacing or wearing out of the coin will be avoided. The height of the figures being equal, the straggling propensity referred to has been corrected, whilst their distinctness has in no wise been impaired. Through a long series of years, and after many changes of more or less importance have taken place in them, we are now fortunate in possessing sets of alphabets and of numerals which, if not quite perfection in artistic ar- rangement, are nevertheless thoroughly practicable, and 5* 54 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. present in a high degree that symmetry and neatness of ibrm, without which a thing cannot be beautiful or attractive. There is nothing of Oriental intricacy about our literal characters. They are in all respects perfectly simple and manageable. The Roman letters may be said to form the anotomy or ground-work of all modern alphabets, with the ex' ception perhaps of the Gothic, which, however, can hardly be called modern. The fundamental forms of the Roman characters comprise, as it were, the normal style, and all varieties of them the abnormal. TheSan- seriff and the Egyptian have the Roman as their bases. Even Italic is nothing but a slanting Roman, and every ornamental letter has a like origin. But notwithstand- ing that we are confined to this one common alphabet, still there is hardly any limit to the variety of styles which may be deduced from its forms. In the first place, by simply omitting the tops and bottoms — the seriffs — of the Roman letters, and making all the re- maining strokes of one thickness, the San-serilf, orSans- seriff — that is, without serilF — is produced ; next, by adding the tops and bottoms of the same thickness to these letters, the Egyptian results. From these we have endless abnormal varieties, more or less ornamental or fanciful. Then, again, these may be varied by changing the relative difference between the thickness and thin- ness of the body strokes and seriffs, or by the addition or omission of certain unessential lines ; the forms of the letters may be made up of grotesque figures, serpents, pieces of wood, stones, and other things; and then, in addition, the forms of these several varieties may either be condensed or expanded — that is, made longer and narrower, or shorter and broader. The nomenclature of these abnormal varieties is rather a matter of fancy than of appositeness, and generally belongs to the type-founders, who, however, do not al- ways call the same style of letters by the same name. COMMON ALPHABETS AND NUMERALS. £5 What one calls San-seriif, another describes as Gro tesqiie; what is generally known as Egyptian, is some- times called Antique, though it is difficult to say why, seeing that the letters so designated do not date farther back than the close of the last century. Egyptian is perhaps as good a terra as could be given to the letters bearing that name, the blocks being charat^teristic of the Egyptian style of architecture. These letters were first used by sign-writers at the close of the last century, and were not introduced in printing till about twenty years later. Sign-writers were content to call them " blocli letters," and they are sometimes so-called at the present day ; but on their being taken in hand by the type- founders, they were appropriately named Egyptian. The credit of having introduced* the ordinary square or San- seriff letters, also belongs to the sign-writer, by whom they were employed half a century before the type- founder gave tliem his attention, which Avas about the year 1810. The first approach to either of these two kinds of letters was made by Mr. Caslon, in 1785, in a fount of Roman letters, measuring three inches in height, which were undoubtedly the largest that had ever been made at this period ; but in these letters the thin strokes were enlarged proportionately with the thick, and the consequence was the production of the thick Roman, now generally called " Clarendon," the name being probably derived from the fact that these letters were first made for the Clarendon Printing-office, in the Uni- versity of Oxford. The first ornamental type letters were formed, 1785, by a combination of miscellaneous pieces of bordering, which presented a very singular ap- ^ The term "introduced" must be understood in a qualified sense, inasmuch as square or ansjular capitals, correspondini^' to San-seritF, were used bytlie early book illuminators Astle give- specimens of them taken from MS>S. of tlie seventh and eii^ht centuries. Subsequently, however, they seem to have been neg lected and were not introduced again until the period mentioned. 66 SIGN WEITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. pearance. In the following year Mr. Caslon brought out a series of initial letters about three-quarters of an inch in height, the ground work being in half tint, upon which the letters were left " open,'^ or white. Before this (late, however, the sign-writer, following the exam- ple of the wood-engraver, had begun to invent different ornamental styles, remains of which may still be found in some of the old churches. But these will not in any respect bear comparison with the work of modern sign- writers. Many persons suppose that the makers of printers' types take the lead in introducing new designs and styles in lettering, but there is no sufficient ground for this assumption. It sometimes happens that the sign-writer is enabled to take pattern from the letters of the printer; but it is seldom that he can do so with much advantage, the writer's letters being generally invested with " thick- ness,^' as well as shadow, and it is not every design which will admit of these additions being satisfactorily made. As various shapes are assigned to some of the alpha- betic characters by different writers, it is now our pro- vince to point these out and discuss them, with the view of assisting the student in choosing tliose forms which most strongly recommend themselves, and to give him such practical hints as will be serviceable in his course of study. When any attempt has been made to define the pro- portions of the letters of the al[)habet, it has invariably been done by assigning to some a square, to others half or a third of a square, and to certain others again, of the wider capitals, a third more than a square. Whit- tock, in his " Painters' and Glaziers' Guide," published in 1841, devotes two or three pages to the subject of sign- writing, in the course of which, S})eaking of the Roman capitals, he says that " twenty -two of the letters are formed in a perfect square, viz : ABCDEFGHKL COMMON ALPHABETS AND NUMERALS. 57 NOPQRSTUVXYZ. Letters I and J are formed in an upright parallelogram, half the size of the square ; and the letters M and W in a horizontal parallelo- gram one-third larger than the square." Now, it must be perfectly obvious tliat the whole of the twenty-two letters mentioned ought not to be of exactly the same width, and that, if they were so formed, some would look unduly extended, whilst others would appear slightly elongated or compressed. A moment's reflec- tion would convince the veriest novice in the art, that the letters I and J could not be proportionately formed if half a square were assigned to each. The J ought, of course, to occupy a greater space than the I. Any rules, therefore, tor tlie ])roportions of letters must be regarded as merely ajiproximative. The experienced eye is the best guide in tliis matter. The writer should familiarize himself with the forms of the letters, noting carefully the grounds of difference in each of them, so that any disproportion in those drawn may be detected. It may be here observed, as a rule that can be de- pended upon, that the projecting lines or " seriflV — for- merly called by type-cutters the " footing" and the "topping" — of the Roman letters should extend right and left a distance equal to, or rather greater than, the thickness of the down stroke, sometimes called the " stem" of the letters. The bottom of the stem, or, as Moxon termed it, " fat stroke," should curve ofP grace- fully towards the end of the base line; whilst the top may be either straight, forming an obtuse angle with the down stroke, or curved, according to fancy. The letters B E F H and X, which have divisons or cross-bars, should have those divisions or cross-bars not quite in the centre, but a trifle nearer the top. A and Y are also divided, but these divisions shoidd be about midway between the top and bottom lines. The small Roman letters occupy about half the height of the capitals. The tops of the ascending letters, b, d, 58 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. f, h, k, and 1, should be made as high as the top of the capitals; and the descending letters — g,j, p, q, and y — - should extend below the line in the same proportion as the others do above it. Some persons who profess to be writers do not even take the trouble to place the thick and thin strokes of the Roman capitals in their proper places. It is not an uncommon thing in country villages, and sometimes even in towns, to see the thick strokes of A, M, V, Y, or W, placed on the wrong side. Now this must be the result ot sheer ignorance or carelessness. In case of doubt, a glance at a printed book would at once set the matter at rest. But there is a simple rule by which even a refer- ence to printed matter is obviated. If the writer were to imagine that, instead of a sable pencil, he had to make the letters with a pen, and that he must begin on the left hand side and make each letter without lifting the pen, the thick and thin (or down and up) strokes would be indicated without further trouble. He would know that a pen when going upwards would not make a thick stroke, and that when it was guided downwards it would not make a thin one ; and by following the progress of the imaginary pen in this way he would be certain of the result. In making M, for instance, the writer would begin at the bottom of the left hand, and then, without moving the pen off the paper, he would make the whole letter. The first stroke being upright, would be thin, the second being downwards, would be thick, the third thin, and the fourth thick. Whatever implement a letter is made with, if it be considered as made with a pen, the thick and thin strokes will be at once indi- cated. The letters which contain curved lines are generally considered, and unquestionably are, the most difficult for beginners ; and in forming them it is advisable to follow a few given rules which cannot fail to lead to something like a satisfactory result. COMMON ALPHABETS AND NUMERALS. 59 Probably the letter which of all others (with perhaps a single exception) the learner invariably finds the most difficult of symmetrical formation is a Roman S ; and it is not an uncommon occurrence for even practised hands to fail in making this letter graceful or duly proportion- ate to the others. Nothing tends to mar the effect of the work so much as a badly-shaped S, and therefore, it is important that any difficulty in this respect should be overcome at the outset. There are a few mechanical lines which may be adopted in the first instance as a guide to the correct formation of this character, but these are little better than arbitrary, and should be dispensed with at the earliest possible moment. For, after all, if the eye be not trained to a correct percei)tion and an ac- curate discrimination, and if the hand have not, as the result of experience, the power of exact definition, and precise demonstration, the ultimate result will be inde- finite and unsatisfactory. But, at first, the beginner will find his progress aided and accelerated by adopting guide lines, to which in practice, he will have neither the inclination nor the time to resort. These lines must ne- cessarily be few and sim[)le. The subjoined wood-cuts will show the method of procedure in regard to the letter S, and if the plan here laid down be followed for a few times, the beginner will soon find that he cim dispense with any such adventi- tious assistance altogether, and yet succeed in produ(!ing a tolerably well-proportioned letter. For a Roman S, the student should, in the first place, sketch out four parallel lines — which, it may be observed, are not neces- sary for Roman characters generally — as recommended for Egyptian letters, p. 47. Then draw two vertical lines, of the same distance apart as that between the top and bottom parallel lines, so as to form a square. ISext draw diagonal lines from corner to corner so as to get the centre of the square. Between the two top lines draw an arc of a circle, and the same also between the (50 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. two bottom lines, the one on the bottom line being a trifle larger than that on the top, and of course they must be in opposite directions, as if they formed parts of one circle. The annexed diagram (Fig. 4.) will fully illustrate the method here indicated. The lines A, B, c, D form a square, the centre of which is E. The arcs do not touch the sides of the vertical lines, because if they did the S would be somewhat expanded, and we are now dealing with a fair-proportioned letter. Although the centre E is not the exact centre of the S, still it is a useful guide in giving a balance to the middle or thick curve of the letter. The position of the centre will be seen from Fig. 5, where the H^^HIBI arcs are joined with the thick strokes, letter complete, and the relative positions of the several parts. There is, however, another method of arriving at the proper proportions of this character, and that is by means of a circle, as shown by the subjoined representation, Fig. 6. The manner in which the top and bottom arcs fall away from the circle at their HI^S|W extremities, and are joined with the iJ^^^mi seriffs, is here clearly shown. This is a very simple method of procedure, and by carefully turning the curves wdiich form the body of the letter, the most inexperienced will succeed in producing a well-shaped S. If the dotted lines be removed from the examples abov^e given, each letter will be found of exactly the same proportion, as in Fig. 7. It is very easy to expand or condense the letter S by Fiff. 6. COMMOM ALPHABETS AND NUMERATES. 61 Fig. 7. Fig. 8. using, instead of a circle, an ellipse. If an expanded letter be required, the horizontal length of the ellipse, technically called the transverse diam- eter, should be equal to that of the diameter of the letter O in the same expanded line. This will be found fairly proportionate. Fig. 8 will ex- plain what is here intended, the dotted line corresponding in size to the ex- pansion of O. Of course, if the S is to be condensed, instead of expanded, all that is ne- cessary is to place the ellipse vertically, keeping its hori- zontal width or conjugate diame- ter, of the same measurement as the O elongated, when it will be exactly proportioned to the other letters in the line. A San-seriff S is shaped in two different ways. Sometimes the ex- tremities are finished horizontally, and sometimes obliquely. Of these two methods of form- ation the latter is that which most commends itself, as it is neater, and, geometrically considered, more accurate. That may be demonstrated in this way. All the San- seriff letters are substantially of -p^^ q one thickness throughout, and in their general character all the angles are right angles. Hence it is evident that, in order to be consistent, the extremities of the S should be brought off oblique- ly, or at a right angle with the bend of the arcs. In Fig. 9 the first letter is represented with horizontal ex- tremities, and the second with the diagonal, the^ latter being preferable, not only on account of its being in geometrical keeping with the straight letters, but because it leaves the letter more open for shading. The same 6 G2 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. Fig. 10. Fiff. 11. principle applies to the otlier curved letters, C, G, J, and Q. The next figure (10) is an exact copy of a prin- ter's C, with the extremities finished horizontally, in- stead of obliquely, the form of which is very objectionable in sign-writing. As an argument against this position, it may be urged that the strokes of the let- ters, which are composed of oblique lines — such as A, K, V, etc. — are not inter- sected at right angles, and that these, being exceptional, there is no reason why the curved let- ters should not come under the same category. In answer io this, it is sufficient to remark that uniformity de- mands that the height of the letters should be equal, and that if the sides of the letters formed of oblique lines were cut off at the top or bottom at right angles, this uniformity would be destroyed. For instance, what would be thought of the calibre of the writer who formed these oblique-sided letters upon the principle of rigid right angles, as in Fig. 11 ? It w^ill bo seen at once that the uniformity which is so essential, is here absolute- ly destroyed ; Avhereas in the case of curved letters, uni- formity is greatly aided by having the extremities cut off at right angles with the turn of the curve. It is the more desirable that the course recommended sliould be followed, inasmuch as it enables a greater distinction to be made between the letters C and G, "wliich, in San-seriff characters, are very nearly alike, •^^)ecially if the horizontal intersection of their width Fi£?. 12. COMMON ALPTTABT^.TS A^Tf NITMEr.ALS. 63 bo adopted. These letters sliould take the sliape they respectively assume in the subjoined, Fig. 12. There is here sufficient distinction between the two for any practical purpose; but if the lower extremity of the C were cut across, as it were, horizontally, it would, to a certain extent, clash with the G, and, in addition, it would present a heavy and clumsy appearance. It may be remarked that some tyjic-cutters and wri- ters make the lower portion of a San-seritf G very similar to an Egyptian G, Fig. 13. This certainly has the advantage of distinctness, but it has the great disadvantage of being totally out of character with the remainder of the San-seriif alphabet. On an Egyptian G, it is quite appropriate, inasmuch as the Egyptian is an alj)habet Ibrmed essentially of blocks,^' which is its speciality. True, on the above (Fig. 13) only half a block appears — that is, it does not extend right and left as an Egyptian block woulvd do ; still it is a whole half too much, and should be omitted. As a general rule, the use of all exceptional adjuncts — everything that is not Fig. 14. in keeping with the general cliaracter of the Avhole body of letters employed — should be discountenanced. Formerly it was the custom to add a foot to the Roman C, as in Fig. 14. This, how- ever, is quite unnecessary, and is rather a disfigurement than otherwise. It is now seldom used in this country, except by writers of very antiquated notions ; but in France and on the continent generally it is still commonly employed. The continental sign- writers are far behind those of this country, which is rather singular, considering the advanced state of art generally, and of decorative art in particular, across the Channel. They have not devoted so much attention to the art of sign-writing as it has received in this coun- 64 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. try of late years. Their letters and fio^ures are most badly formed, and devoid of tasteful ornament; in fa(;i, they seem to have entirely overlooked this bran(;h of painting. The letters most in vogue with them are miserably attenuated, and generally compressed. This, however, cannot of itself be objected to, as every nation has its characteristic style; but these lean and con- densed letters — looking for all the world as if they were suffer* ng from atrophy — are not neatly and regularly formed, and it is to this particular that our objection applies. It was a rule laid down by Albert Durer, who did not consider it beneath his genius to treat of the Roman capitals, that the stem of these letters should be in the proportion of one to ten ; that is to say, the width of the tliicli stroke should be one tenth the height of the letter. Accordingly, the initial letters which are known to have been designed or engraved by Durer are greatly atten- uated ; and, in a modified degree, the sign-writers of Germany and France have followed the models of this distinguished artist up to the present day. The thick- ness of the stems of the modern English Roman capitals is in the proportion of about one-fourth or one-fifth of the height of the letters. Moxon remarks that in his day — two centuries ago — the stem was made much fatter than formerly, it being one-sixth ])art of the length, and he mentions that this not only added a great grace to the letter, but rendered it more easy to the eyes in reading, and more durable either for inscrip- tions or records.'^ The Dutch also were for a lono^ time celebrated for their proficiency in the shaping of letters, both in regard to written and printed characters. Hol- land was formerly regarded as the great emporium for tlie production and sale of art tnanufactures, and artists flocked there as to a market where their services would be likely to be in demand. The com})etitiou engen- dered by this assemblage of talent was not without its COMMON ALPHABETS AND NUMERALS. 65 fruit. Many artists of repute gave themselves up to tlie perfecting of alphabetic characters, principally, how- ever, confining themselves to Roman and Italic, capital and small letters ; and hence it was that our early Eng- lish type-founders set so much value upon the letters im- ported from Holland. Christofel van Dyck was one of the most celebrated letter-makers of the seventeenth cent.iry, and though his Roman capitals approached neaier than those of any of his contemporaries to the mocern standard — or, more correctly, the standard of the last century — still they were far from perfection. For the period in which they were formed they were certainly advanced ; and so highly were they esteemed by those of our own countrymen who took an interest in this subject, that Mr. Moxon, in 1676, selected them as a pattern, and laid down their proportions as a useful guide to ^' writing-masters, painters, carvers, masons, and others that are lovers of curiosity.^' In the foregoing examples it will be noticed that the top arc of the letters S, C, G, etc., is a trifle smaller than that of the bottom. This must always be the case, or the letter will look over-weighted at the top. It may here be remarked that all letters, of whatever denomination, that touch the line with a curve, or Ro- man letters that come in contact with it only with a point — A, V, and W — should extend a little above or below the line, or both, as the case may be. If they are not made in this way they will, when conjoined with such letters as B, E, H, K, etc., appear shorter in com- parison with them. Should the writing happen to be at a great elevation, and the spectator have to look up from below, or even from the opposite side of the street, the apparent smallness of the curved and pointed let- ters, as compared with the square or broad letters, will be almost incredible, if the curves and points do not ex- ceed the limits of the line. In the case of large writing, of two or three feet in height, the curved and pointed 6=^ 66 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. letters slioalJ, in most instances, extend as much as an inch or two inches above or below the line, to prevent their appearing diminutive, even though they occur in the middle of a word. This holds good, as we have said, with respect to small writing, but in a lesser degree, and ought never to be lost sight of, wdiether the writing be on a level with the eye, or at a greater elevation. In illustration of our meaning, we have selected the following example from the specimen book of an emi- nent type-founder ; and, though on a small scale, it is sufficient to show that this point has not been attended to, the O's ap})earing diminutive in comparison witli tlie otlier letters, though in reality the top of the curve would ton h the line, assuming that one were drawn horizon- tally along the tops of the letters : HOOK In order to obviate the necessity for carrying the point of the letters A, V, and W, through the line, or in pre- ference to it, some sign-writers get rid of the point alto- gether by a mode of forming the letters which can hard - ly be recom- mended. They cut off the point altogether, as in Fig. 15. Tiiis has not the neat appearance of the fine point of the acute angle ; and when a thickness and shadow are added, the effect is anything but pleasing or satis- factory. Those of the San-seriff letters whi(;h contain slanting members are sometimes formed upon the same principle. COMMON ALPHABETS AND NU?»rERALS. 67 Fig. 16. Fig 17. This IS obviously a The letters X, for instance, is made equal to nearly two widths at the top of the first perpendicular stroke, and at the bot- tom of the second, as shown in the annexed example (Fig. 16). But the more common way, and certainly that which has most to recommend it, is to make the perpendicular lines equal in width, and to draw the oblique ones from the in- nermost ano^les, as in Fis*. 17. much neater letter than the preceding. A, M, Vj and W, should be similarly made, or they will look thick and heavy. Though M is a wider letter than N, yet there is no occasion to shorten the middle member, as some writers per- sist in doing.* (Fig. 18.) It is better in every respect to bring the centre down to the line, but it is not necessary that its width on the line should be quite as great as that of the two outside members. There is one other letter of frequent occurrence which is quite as difficult of symmetrical formation as the let- ter S itself, and in which failure is quite as often ap- parent, and that is the " short-and," as it is called by printers, namely, &.t Moxon, writing in 1676, re- * It is curious to notice tlie peculiarities in the formation of let- ters wliicli obtain in different parts of the country. The M here indicated is almost universally met with in the West of England. We have noticed repetitions of it at Plymoutli, Exeter, Barnstaple, and even so far south-east as Portsmoutli, in which place it is quite an unusual thing to meet with an M of any other shape; whereas in most other parts of the country, a letter so singularly lonned would call forth the sneers of the smallest school-hoy. f This character holds a somewhat peculiar position in our alphabet. Its name, the derivation of which is matter of un- certainty, is variously pronounced in different parts of the country. 68 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. marked that of all the characters yet made, this is the most troublesome, it having no less than ten centres in it, and consequently so many arches ; and he fills two quarto pages in showing how to form it, but as his " & " and the modern one are very different, both his example and explanation are now valueless. We pre- sent two examples, showing the letter in symmetry and out of symmetry; and in order that the ill-formed specimen may be a fair one, we have selected it from the shape assigned to it by Mr. Moxon, and which he so much extols, in preference to giving an original Tt is, however, pretty evident that the names by which it is known are corruptions of the same words, owing to a general resemblance. These are ampers and, ample-se-and, ampuzzand, apples-and, empnzad, apusse-and, and empassy. There seems to be little doubt that and per se is the real meaning of the character, per se being the Latin for bp itself. In old spelling-books it was customary at the end of the alphabet to print the following symbols, with their explanations, thus : &c. et cetera. & (per se) and. Children were taught to read these characters, "et-c, etcetera," and " et-per-se, and," the old logogram (et) being the proto- type of the modern &. It seems clear, therefore, that the correct pronounciation is "and per se, and," which is easily susceptible of the corruptions noticed above. This hypothesis gains strength from the fact that the expression "A per se A" was occasionally used by the early English writers, as denoting superiority, and in this way it was almost synonymous with the modern " A I.'* Thus we find in Chaucer. ' O faire Creseide, the floure and A per se Of Troye and Greece." And in Stevens's " Memoirs of Bradford," the martyr, in one of his letters addressed to Lord John Russell, says, " My good lord, yon are A p>€r se A with us, to our comfort and joy unspeakable." As this seems to have been a customary mode of expression, it i« nntiiral to suppose that the words per se would be applied to the character wliich by itself represented the word ''and," and that i 'k' et would be generally adopted as a convenient contraction of 11 r('i)eafe(lly recurring word. COMMON ALPHABETS AND XmiER VLS. CO design, which it might ^ig 19 be thought would be exao^o:e rated. Of the following examples (Figs. 19 and 20) it need hardly be pointed out which comes under the first denomination and which under the second. This letter is so frequently used in sign- writing, in lieu of its equivalent " and/' and it is often of such large dimensions, that it is of the utmost import- ance it should be well proportioned and evenly balanced in all its p irts. Some writers form the upper extremity or seriff of the & with a round head; and others with a mere " topping." Now, of the two methods the latter is undoubtedly that which most commends itself. As we have before insisted, uniformity of (character is the great essential to be aimed at, and it will be at once apparent that of t!ie two the triangular extremity is more in keeping with the Roman alphabet. Formerly, there were several circular adjuncts to the Roman, and particularly the Italic letters, but one by one these have given way to the seriff or triangular termination, which is more characteristic of these alphabets; and the only two exceptions that now remain are to be found oc- casionally in the &, and always in the capital J. It nnght be thought premature to advocate the placing of this latter letter u])on its proper footing, so that it may no longer remain a solitary exception to the whole of the alphabet; but that in the course of time it will assume a shape which seems naturally to belong to it, all the improvements of the past few years tend to indi- cate. The J formed so as to give it a strict family like- ness must resemble the foot of the letter G, only reversed, as in the annexed Fig. 21. It may be remarked that the reformed J does not present a very singular ap- 70 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING Fig. 23. pearaiice, and this is due to the fact that it is only Fiff 31 invested with a form which by virtue of its being a member of this particular family, it ought to assume. This would not be so if an alteration were made in the opposite direction, by which one of mimSg^ the triangular seriffs were invested with a circular form. Just suppose for a moment that the letter G was divested of its ordinary shape, and that in lieu thereof the lower extremity was fashioned like the present J, only conversely; the effect of this would beat once striking from its monstrosity, as the family likeness, instead of being enhanced, wou only be tampered with, making the letter appear as if it were an alien, belonging to a family of half-castes. It may seem a strange assertion to make, but it really is a fact, that the present method of forming a J is equally as absurd as it would be to form the G like that in the annexed Fig. 22, although years back it was often so formed. The time, however, has not come for the altera- tion here foreshadowed, which, sooner or later, will be certain to follow the many judicious improvements which have already been made with a view to character and symmetry. We now come to another letter which is som ewhat difficult of formation, and which invariably perplexes the beginner, and that is R. Perhaps there is no other single letter in the alphabet which is so variously shaped. It is often very badly formed, but this must be the re- sult either of carelessness or want of practice. There is a groat diversity of opinion among writers as to the exact sliipe tlie lower right-hand member should assume arul, accordingly, those who have but little idea o beauty of form, persist in giving it a curve which is any- thing but graceful. As iin example of a sign-writer's K, the following cut (Fi^. 23) is presented; but it differs COMMON ALPHABETS AND NUMERALS. 71 greatly from that of the type-cutters. The turning up of the lower extremity of the R, as in a printing letter^ is not suitable for sign-writing. Besides being in the way of the shadow and thickness when these are added, the turned-up or hook-shaped foot is not so handsome as that given in the subjoined example, to say nothing of its unnecessary proximity to the succeeding letter, what- ever it may be. A little care and attention will enable any one to con- quer any difficulty which may present itself in regard to this letter, upon which, by the way, much of the beauty of the work will depend. A San-seriff R is sometimes made with the lower member curved, and sometimes with it straight, but the writer must exercise his own choice as to which plan he will adopt. If a preference can be given to either, it should undoubtedly be to the straight member. Of course, before the addition of the foot or lower member, the letter is in all respects a perfect P, the loop being neither more nor less extended. And here it may be as well to observe that, in form- ing the letter B, the top bow should be a trifle smaller than the bottom one ; and the same with regard to the letter E, the top limb should be a trifle smaller and shorter than the bottom. This is necessary in order to maintain a proper balance. For the same reason, an L should have the projecting limb somewhat shorter than the corresponding limb of the E. This will prevent the let- ter with which it may be in companionship from appear- ing unduly detached, in consequence of the open space necessarily occasioned by the barrenness of the upper part of the L. When the Roman E and S come to- gether, care should be taken to make allowance for the want of seriffs between the two letters ; for if they be placed exactly the same distance apart as those letters which have seriffs, they will appear much nearer to each 72 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. other than the rest. As an exam})le, notice the diflPer- ence even in this small print — ES and ME ; the seriifs on the M and E separating those two letters, whereas the thick strokes of the E and S almost touch each other. The letter though comparatively seldom occurring, has undergone a good many changes, as regards its sin- gle appendage. Not very long ago we find it sha])ed thus, Subsequently it assumed a more graceful form, thus, Q ; but this too nearly resembled the figure 2 ; and latterly it has been brought to greater perfection by simply placing the tail through the bottom of the O, thus Q, by which it is kept within reasonable limits, and that great point to which all modern improvements have tended — namely, symmetry — has been kept in view. As this is ^the only letter of the ordinary capitals which tj'ansgresses the boundary of the line, it is but reasona- ble to suppose that it will yet undergo further altera- tion, so that its exceptional character in this particular will be done away with. But how this will be effected it is not easy to conjecture. Possibly the shape of the ancient Q will supersede the present isolated character ; or, it may be that some other modification may be thougiit more suitable. Seeing that this letter is alwaya followed by U, there is no reason wdiatever why the tail should project below the line. It would be different if tlie Q were liable to be followed by the A, wdiich, how- ever, is never the case. With regard to slanting letters, which are called Italic, tlie chief object should be to ensure that they all slope to the same degree — an angle of about 70 being, perhaps, more generally adopted than any other. The letters wherein failure in this respect is most often found arc Ay V, W, X, and F, and to these may be added S. la ancient types these letters invariably slant at a much more acute angle than the others, the thick strokes be- ing formed parallel to the thick strokes of the other let- COMMON ALPHABETS AND NUMERALS. 73 ters, whereas a moment's reflection will show that this should not be. Tai^e the subjoined as a fair specimen of the old Italic, wherein this peculiarity is at once ap- parent : HEAVEN. It will be seen that the A and Fin this line slope at a different angle altogether from the other letters, giving to the whole an irregular appearance. There is a very simple rule by which the whole of the Italic letters may be made to slope uniformly. If we take the Ro- man A for instance, ^. ^. „^ and place it in a square ^'^'^^^ with a line down the centre, as in Fig, 24, and then make the two sides of the square slope to the same degree as the thick down strokes of the Italics, the A, formed as in the square, will slant to the proper degree, as in Fig. 25. The cause of this w^ant of general parallelism in the sloping is so self-evident that it needs not to be pointed out. The marvel is that it should have passed current for some two centuries before any type-cutter— and pos- sibly any sign-writer — should have ventured upon a correction. But it is still more marvellons to think that, after the much desiderated correction had been applied, an attempt should recently have been made to introduce tliese old irregular letters again to the public notice; for the vagaries of fashion have of late brought into use in the printing trade several kinds of old-faced types, of which the foregoing is by no means the worst specimen ; and the infection has in some degree been caught by the sign-writer. It is often said that there is no accounting for taste, and the re-introduction of these primitive un- 74 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. polished alphabets, which are utterly devoid of grace or symmetry, is another illustration of that hackneyed truism. In order that our objection to the " ancient" letters may be better understood, we present the accompanying con- trast between the " old-faced" and the modern. The first is a fair specimen of what is considered the very perfection of the old letters, and the next is a line of the modern. Any one with the least pretension to good taste will at once discern in what our objection consists. Here is a specimen of the ANCIENT TYPE, And here of the MODEEN. We have thus, on the one hand, a hard, an irregular, and unfinished letter ; and on the other, a graceful, sym- metrical, and highly-finished letter, which, in obedience to the caprice of fashion, has in many instances had to make room for the former. But there is some indica- tion that this absurdity, like all fashions that have their birth in bad taste, is happily passing away, and the modern letter is again asserting its superiority. It has always been the case in the arts, that, after periods of extravaganza and bizzareriej there has been a recur- rence to sound taste. Positive retrogression is against nature, and any tendency in this direction will most as- suredly correct itself. The adherents of the old irregular alphabets, which were made so because scarcely any one was capable of making them better, might just as reason- ably advocate a return to the rough and unplaned machi- nery of the first locomotive steam engines, taking as their model the old "Puffing Billy," now so carefully pre- served in the Patent Museum at South Kensington. COMMON ALPHABETS AND NUMEEALS. 75 Let it not for a moment be imagined from the pre- ceding observations that we take objection to Mediaeval alphabets, properly so called, or indeed to any alphabets which have due proportions and symmetry to recommend them, which the above have not. On the contrary, we hold that, for certain purposes, such as ecclesiastical docorations or memorials of every kind, and for illumi- nation, there is nothing more appropriate than inscrip- tions in the Mediaeval characters. The Anglo-Norman, the Black-letter, and the Church-text, being in keeping with the early ecclesiastical architecture and memorial embellishments, are to be preferred to any modern letter for any of the purposes indicated. These alphabets have a distinctive character of their own which has never been altered. They have been left untouched by the hand of time, and accordingly their use in certain cases is to be commended. We do not, therefore, object to Mediaeval alphabets, as such, but to those that are ill-shaped and irregularly formed. It seems absurd that, when after long practice and immense experience, the most competent authorities have decided upon the neatest and most desirable forms for alphabetic characters to assume, and after they have succeeded in cutting these letters with a degree of neatness and exactitude which was formerly totally unapproachable, any one should prefer the letters of the old cutters, who, if they had had the ability, would doubtless have rejoiced to have ex- ercised it in the way that is characteristic of the modern letter-cutters. The idea of introducing the Mediaeval style of letter- ing is, we believe, due to the late Prince Consort, wno saggested that the inscriptions in the Great Exhibition of 1851 should be written in the old Roman characters. This suggestion, having met with approval, was carried out. But the writing there was pure Mediaeval, being based on the best models of the great masters, as ex- hibited on memorial tombs and monumental brasses. It 76 SIGN WEITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. may be taken for granted that no inferior style of letter- ing would have found favor with the Prince Consort, whose taste in matters of this kind was proverbially sound. The leading publishers, catching at the idea thus inaugurated, ventured to publish some of their works in the "old-faced'' type, which was as near an approach to the true Mediaeval as they could arrive at; and, as if this was not going far enough, they printed upon toned paper ; so that not only was the old type used, but the paper was an imitation of the books w^iich had become browned by age. At first, the old-style type and toned paper were used only in the case of reprints of old standard works; subsequently, new books were brought out in the same style ; and within the last four or five years most of the newspaj)ers which have been started have followed in the same wake. Towards the close of the year 1860, the bronze coinage was issued, and the letters forming the inscriptions being in the rudest style of the last century (not Mediaeval) Roman, were severely criticised by the public press. There can be little or no objection to the style of any alphabets provided the letters are all uniform, well-pro- portioned, and judicious in combination throughout. Each family should be distinctive, and this distinctive- ness or individuality should not be partial, but entire. If any ornament be added to one letter, the same class of ornament should be added to the whole of the letters. There must be no irregularity in this respec^t. Each and all the letters must be in strict keeping. Angular letters should be angular, and only angular ; scroll letters should be scroll, and only scroll ; and blocked should be blocked, and only blocked ; and this holds good throughout from A to Z. This is indispensably necessary to secure per- fect uniformity, without which the most highly finished writing would be unsatisfactory. Groups or families of letters, so long as uniformity of outline be preserved, may be as various in their distinctive, individual charac- COMMON ALPHABETS AND NUMERALS. 77 ter as the fancy may devise ; but the moment that any departure from this rule takes place, the result will be incongruous and unpleasant to the eye. The same holds good as regards expanded or condensed letters. Con- dense the A, and all the intermediate letters down to Z must be condensed in exact geometric proportion ; or expand one letter, and all the remainder must be ex- panded proportionately. This is an absolute rule from which there must be no departure. Disregard of the principle of consistency lies at the root of most of the failures in sign-writing. We remem- ber a writer who had " invented a new style of letter, and who was greatly perplexed because, however neatly he might execute any sign in this particular style, the effect was not agreeable. The invention consisted in adding to a San-seriif alphabet, which is, of course, straight at top and bottom, and is essentially square in character, a semi-circular projection in the centre of each downstroke. The fact was, that the combination was characterless and incongruous ; and, as a consequence, the result was spotty and impleasant. Circles and right- angles have their proper places, but a mixture of the tw^o, as in this instance, in one letter produces a discord and a hardness which even the inexperienced eye readily detects. 7* CHAPTER V. ANCIENT AND ORNAMENTAL ALPHABET. We have thus far touched only upon the plain alpha- bets which are most commonly used both in writing and printing. As these form the basis of the ornamental letters, they require to be perfectly mastered before any approach to success can be expected in the more difficult combinations which an expert will be called upon to produce. It is here that the genius of the painter is most severely tested. In order to execute the compara- tively simple forms of the Roman San-seriff*, and Egyp- tian alphabets satisfactorily, great neatness and finish are demanded. The angles should be clean and true, the various vertical and horizontal lines straight, the parallel lines regular, and the curves well poised. A considerable amount of dexterity is necessary to attain perfection in these particulars, and it can only be ac- quired by much practice. But, beyond this, when the learner comes to the more difficult accomplishment of ornamental writing, he must familiarise himself with the general principles of design ; for obviously, a good painter will not always rest content with copying the productions of others, however much they may have in them that is worthy of imitation. As in the higher branches of art, the most original artist attains the greatest popularity, and his works conmiand the highest ])ricos ; so it is in regard to the sign-writer. The great point for him to aim at is originality. And in this matter the field is practically boundless, there being really 78 A^^CIENT AND ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS. 79 no limit to the forms which may be given to the alpha- betic characters. At the outset, however, it is necessary to guard the beginner against an extravagant use of ornament. As a general rule, it should be simple rather than complex. And whatever style of embellishment be decided upon, care should be taken that it does not detract from the legibility of the lettering; for if it have this tendency, the result can scarcely be deemed satisfactory, as it must be borne in mind that the writing has to serve a practi- cal purpose, to which, in the great majority of cases, the decorative accessories are subordinate. Then, again, it is of paramount importance that as regards design, the style of lettering, whatever form it may assume, should be harmonious. Paradoxical as it may sound, there must be unity in variety — that is, the variety in the parts must not destroy the unity of the whole. Each and all of the letters must be modelled on the same principle ; and taste must be our guide in de- termining the suitableness of the ornament and the quantity which it is desirable to introduce. Want of harmony in style is unquestionably the most glaring fault of the modern sign-writer. Speaking upon this very point, a great authority — Sir M. Digby Wyatt — re- marks, with regard to the kindred subject of illumina- ting, that " there are few faults more common in modern work, or more offensive to the educated eye, than the association of styles of lettering and styles of ornamenta- tion warring with each other in the properties of both time and form.'' This remark applies with equal force to the art of the sign-WTiter, which, by the way, is becom- ing more akin to, and partaking of the nature of, book- illumination on a large scale. Hence, it is more than ever important that taste should be cultivated, in order that the student may avoid the incongruities of style which so frequently present themselves, and be prepared for the execution of that quasi-illuminated work which 80 SIGN WRITING AND GI.ASS EMBOSSING. is beginning to develope itself. Lettering based upon the principle of the early book-illuminations is now to be seen on the facias of some of the principal shops and show-boards of the metropolis ; and there is little doubt that ere long it will become somewhat general, owing to its superior Jittractiveness, though for business pur- poses its adoption will always be checked in some degree by the cost of its production. For inscriptive texts in religious edifices, however, the use of illuminated capi- tals and Mediaeval lettering seems likely to become pretty general. Sir M. Digby Wyatt recommends the more extended adoption of this species of writing in clmrches, and though it is too much to expect, as he seems to do, that amateur illuminators will lay them- selves open to this kind of work — requiring, as it does, for its performance, the frequent use of lofty scaliblding — still it is a branch of art which sign-writers and decorative painters may carry on with advantage. In his " Art of Illuminating,'' this gentleman says: An elegant and useful ap})lication of the art would be to enrich ceilings, walls, cornices, string-courses, panels, labels round doors and windows, friezes, bands, chimney-pieces, and stained and painted furniture in churches, school-rooms, dwellings, and public buildings of all kinds, with beau- tiful and appropriate inscriptions, of graceful form and harmonious coloring. Such illuminations would form, not only an agreeable, but an eminently useful decora- tion. How many texts and sentences, worthy, in every sense, of being ^ written in letters of gold,' might not be thus brought prominently under the eyes of youth, manhood, and old age, lor hope, admonition, and com- fort." What is here recommended has already, to a certain extent, been carried out. In several modern churches, the j)olychromatic architecture has been re- lieved with inscriptions in illuminated Mediieval char- acters, and the effect has been much a])proved by the leading ecclesiologists. Nor is this an extravagant ANCIENT AND ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS. 81 mode of enrichment. Its cost is far less than might at nrst be imagined ; whilst in point of durability it is quite unobjectionable. For all common purposes texts of Scripture could be painted on the walls in two colors only, the initials being red and the other letters blue, or vice versa. Of course, for this work the ancient alpha- bets are preferable to the modern, and when these are employed, the accessorial ornamentation characteristic of the old style should be employed also. Thus, in the Mediaeval period, it was customary to begin with a qua- trefoil, painted red or blue, and of about the same height as the letters. This figure is constructed of four equal segments of circles, either intersecting or stopped by angles forming a cross, thus, ^ This was a common figure in all kinds of church architecture and inscrip- tions. Then to be strictly accurate, the spaces between the words must not be left open, but should be filled in with some kind of stop, floriated ornament, grotesque, or " powdering."* These powderings were often noth- ing more than round spots, several of which were some- times grouped together, and they were used to fill up the intervals between the words and also at the end of the writing, when it did not reach the end of the panel or space within which it was placed. From this custom no doubt arose the vicious practice, from which certain country writers are not now altogether free, of placing a full stop or a star after every word. Although to the more experienced workman this may seem to be in de- fiance of all rules of punctuation, yet it should not be * Synonymous with " besprinkled" in heraldry. A common form of powdering was the gilded stars studded in well-arranged lines on a blue ground for ceilings, which were considered to have a natural as well as an emblematic allusion to the heavens. Chaucer, in his " Cuckow and Nightingale," uses the terms: *' The ground was grene, ypoudred with daisye." 82 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. forgotten that there is at least a precedent for it in the elaborate work of the Mediaeval period. Tlie letters used in the thirteenth and fourteenth cen- turies in church inscriptions were chiefly Gothic and Roman capitals, the small Roman letters, " minuscules," or " lower case," as they are designated by printers, not being commonly used till the latter part of the fifteenth century. These al[)habets were similar to the modern Roman type, and were for the most part well formed. Many of the inscriptions which have been brought to light in restoring old edifices show that the art of inscriptive painting was by no means neglected during this period. Of course, the peynters" who were capa- ble of producing the beautiful emblematical designs in ecclesiastical buildings in the Middle Ages were not likely to fail in this department of art. Nor, as a rule, did they fail in it. The majority of the specimens which have been preserved are excellent, both as re- gards design and arrangement of colors. If, therefore, it should again become fashionable to cover our church walls with Scriptures" — and, as we have intimated, already there are indications of a revival of this ancient custom — the student will have almost unlimited scope for the exercise of his talents. It is im- portant, therefore, that he should make himself acquaint- ed with the various styles of design which have obtained at different epochs, so as to' be enabled to distinguish between the Anglo-Saxon, the Celtic, the Byzantine, the Romanesque, the Italian, the French, the Flemish, and the German schools. The lettering ought always to harmonize, historically and artistically, with the sur- rounding embellishments. The complicated interlace- ment of the early Celtic or the Saxon school should not be mixed up with letters which belong to the present cen- tury ; the elegantly emblazoned grounds of Oriental and Byzantine art should not accompany modern San-seriff" letters ; nor would it be an evidence of good taste to ANCIENT AND ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS. 83 produce an admixture of the Romanesque style of orna- mentation with a " black letter" of the period of the seventeenth century. But even if there should not be harmony in this respect — if the style of lettering and the style of architecture should be inconsonant with each other — still the inconsistency and want of taste thus ex- hibited would be insignificant in comparison with the mixed style of decoration which is now so commonly met with in religious edifices. The walls of churches are often made to assume the most incongruous^ appear- ance possible. It is more than probable that some huge monument of the most barbarous of all ages in ecclesiastical design — that of James I., or of the most heathenish, that of Queen Anne, and her immediate successors — will be the most obtrusive object on the op- posite wall of the church which we are entering. Our Gothie forefathers, while they did 7iot deface the church with cumbrous barbarisms, or desecrate it with figures of heathen gods and goddesses — erected in honor, it may be, of impious, immoral, and infidel statesmen, heroes, or poets — did make the walls vehicles of instruction and recipients of decoration, often highly elaborate, and gen- erally not a little adapted to their places."* It is im- portant to enforce the adoption of a pure style of writing, that shall be in entire accord and concord with the character of the architecture itself. The lettering should, in fact, be a part of the design, and not present the appearance of an accidental addition, as if it were an afterthought. Whether sign-writers are apt to fail in this particular branch of decorative art or not it would be premature to say, considering that they have hitherto been so little called upon to show what they are capable of in this respect; but a writer on illumination, who styles him- * Poole's Lectures on the Structure and Decoration of Church- es, 1845. 84 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. self illuminating artist to the Queen," — whatever that may mean, — has published a specimen of illumination, which he ironically calls the model outline ;" and ho proceeds to observe that it is " based upon no principle whatever," remarking that "scrollwork, having neither beginning, middle, nor termination, and preserving a series of flourishes, may be said to give this class of out- line a distinctive character, under the generic title of sign-boarding.''^ The author in question — D. Lauraiit de Lara — in other portions of his work speaks of sign- painters with something approaching contempt. He might at least have waited to see what they are capable of before he attempted to compare all the anachronisms in this beautiful art to the productions of the sign-wri- ter. For our part, we believe that, when this depart- ment of writing becomes more fully developed and in demand for wall decoration, it will not suffer at all through the shortcomings of the sign-painter. Having dwelt upon this tempting theme so far in the general, we now come to more detailed particulars respecting the styles of lettering which have obtained at different periods in the history of this country. In order to give a clear insight into the more general characteris- tics of Mediaeval alphabets, and to show the various changes which have taken place in them from time to time, it will be necessary to give a few specimens, the subject being entirely beyond the scope of mere letter- press description. It is, however, neither expedient nor within the limits of the present treatise to give any ex- amples of elaborate illuminated initials and borderings, such as may be found in most works on the subject. These will seldom be required by the sign-painter, and if they should happen to be, a reference to the pub- lished specimens will generally be sufficient.* *See " Art of Illumination," by Henry Shaw, who gives sev- eral beautiful examples in chronic lithography, from Fust and ANCIENT AND ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS. 85 It is not at all likely that the sign-writer will ever be called upon to execute lettering in the styles which prevailed prior to about the 12th century, inasmuch as the primary object of all modern writing must be to afford information, and to this end it would be of little use to put up the old Anglo-Saxon or Celtic characters — the shapes of which are now little more than archaeo- logical curiosities, and would tend rather to confound than to enlighten. However desirable it may be to give our ecclesiastical edifices an antiquated appearance by the adoption of early Mediaeval writing, to do this at the cost of legibility would be simply absurd. The letters must not be so unlike those at present in every-day use as to be unintelligible. The Anglo-Saxon C, lor instance, which was formed exactly like an E with the centre cross-bar omitted, thus, E, would now lead to confusion. The letter M was shaped in several ways — sometimes like the annexed figure |m, and at others thus gl> whilst it was not unfrequently similar to an inverted W. We often find S represented by a sort of Z, thus, S,and N in this way, JT- Of course, it would be folly to re- introduce these obsolete and almost forgotten forms, which would be utterly unintelligible to the great mass of the people. Discarding, then, these primitive characters, we com- mence with an alphabet of about the twelfth century, which presents no peculiarity that may not be readily understood, all the letters, the original shapes of which have been carefully preserved, having a strong resem- blance to those in modern use : — Schoeffer's Bible, 1462, the Lansdowne MS., 1470, and otlier celebrated illuminated works. Also Sir M. Digby Wyatt's book on the same subject, a condensation of which, with colored speci- mens, can be procured for a few shillings. 8 86 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. XMffil^qpQRSfe TaVXY 111 this alphabet it will be observed that there is no J or W, whicli were not often used at this remote period ; but if occasion should arise for the use of this old alpha- bet it would be advisable to add these letters rather than resort to their early representatives — viz., I and VV. J is simply the consonantal form of I. The substitu- tion of J for I as a consonant at the beginning of words dates back only two or three centuries. The letter itself, however, though in ancient times seldom used, existed before the Roman Republic came to an end. The separation of J from I was not adopted in dictionaries and other works of reference till quite recently ; but we believe it is now done universally. The letter J is always followed by a vowel. Originally, it extended below the line with a very small bend to the left, to distinguish it from the vowel form I. Before the intro- duction of J by the early printers, the letter I was used by them both as a vowel and a consonant; and even now it is so used occasionally. The name John, for instance, is still spelt with an I by some persons, but the use of I as a consonant is now almost obsolete. In ordinary penmanship, however, it is still the habit of many people to make no distinction between I and J, and hence arise many mistakes in proper names. This ANCIENT AND ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS. 87 addition, like every other addition to, or alteration of, our alphabet, was for a long time only partial, and its form underwent some minor changes ; but when its utility became manifest, it was more generally employed, and it assumed the shape with which in all modern alphabets, it is invariably invested. Then, as to W, it was not till the sixteenth century, that it was adopted, 3xcept in very rare instances, as a character by itself. Ptior to this period two Vs, not joined together, served for its equivalent. And when at last it was made a dis- tinct letter, the Vs overlapped each other to such an extent that the thick strokes nearly touched, and the appearance was anything but pleasing. The reason why this letter is called double-u instead of double-v, is because U was identical with V in the Latin, and in the more early form of the English language. Although U and V always had two sounds, there was only one form, that of V — till the beginning of the fourth century, when the U was introduced, the inconvenience of ex- pressing two sounds by one symbol having long before been observed. To Louis Elzevir, one of a celebrated family of printers of this, name, who flourished at Leyden about the year 1600, belongs the credit of first making the distinction between the V consonant and the U vowel in typography. It is not necessary to give other specimens of about the same period, in which some of the letters only are slightly varied, the general character being maintained. The following is illustrative of the 15th century, the letters being selected from the Bedford missal in the British Museum, and known under the name of " Missal capitals." We would have the student mark how care- fully each letter is slightly ornamented, and how exceed- ingly uniform this ornamentation is kept up throughout; evidencing that one common error of modern times was avoided by the early scribes or illuminators : — 88 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. These capitals were sometimes used alone, and some- times merely as initial letters, the " minuscules," or small letters accompanying them being Old English or Black letters. The almost invariable practice seems to have been to paint the small letters black, whilst the capitals were in gilt and colors, and more or less orna- mented. Thus, after any of the foregoing capitals the small letters would range as in the following line : — 'JE[tav ®air: ^J^onour tl)t ^^^ing. which was a common inscription on chancel screens and arches about the time of the first and second Charles. At a subsequent period the Black-letter or Gothic ca[)itals were used, and the Anglo-Norman capitals were not so often mixed up with the Gothic minuscules. The Roman capitals as now commonly employed, only less polished in shape, became great favorites after the inven- tion of printing, and for a time cpiite superseded all the other letters, both in printing and writing. These were very rudely constructed at first, the earliest printed books in which moveable Roman types were used having much the appearance of the first efforts of a child at school. What the Roman letters of the painter may have been at this period there is now nothing to show. They were ANCIENT AND OENAMENTAL ALPHABETS. 89 probably not better than — perhaps not so good as — those of the printer. As the Roman characters, owing to their superior legibility, became general in all printed books, so they did in painted inscriptions, and they have up to the present time, and doubtless always will, be more universally employed than any others. From time to time since their more general adoption, slight variations have been made in their forms, but these have never been far removed from the strict Roman shape. Amongst the most commendable of these, the subjoined — commonly met with on monumental brasses, and known by the name of " Latin," — holds a high place for neatness and uni- formity : — ENTERPRISE. This letter, though retaining the Roman element in every particular, has an antique appearance, which ren- ders it highly effective for some kinds of business pur- poses, where the more ancient style of writing would be unsuitable, and where the irregular letter, which is now called the "old-face," would be altogether inappro- priate. Another form of Roman letter is subjoined. The features which distinguished the characters of the Mediae- val period are here fully preserved, whilst the lines which form the letters are admirably executed, and give the whole an appearance of elegance and lightness which is not often met with. The combination of large and small capitals renders this style of letter valueless for many purposes, owing to the comparatively large amount of space it requires to render it effective, the dif- ference between the height of the small and the large capitals being for all practical purposes wasted : — 8* 90 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. ASKET /VlAKER. Amongst the most ornamental alphabets, Old Eng- lish and German Text hold the first place, but the forms of these are generally so well understood, and such ample facilities exist for referring to them in printed works, that specimens of them need not here be given. Suffice it to remark that Old English small letters should be placed as close as possible together, and that the down strokes should be made of one uniform thickness. The same applies to German Text, which it is customary to adorn with flourishes both above and below the Vine of letters. These letters are frequently used with good effect for words of secondary import on surfaces where several lines of writing are introduced. It is not often that it is desirable to do more than bring them up with a single cast shade, even if a thickness" be added to the other letters on the same surface. Another style of alphabet, somewhat analogous to ttie above, has been introduced under the name of Tudor- esque, and for some purposes it is most appropriate. It is a handsome alphabet, and while presenting the chief characteristics of the Tudoresque period, it is sufficiently readable for almost any purpose. As this alphabet is not so frqeuently met with as the two preceding, an en- tire set of capitals and small letters is subjoined, by copy- ing which the young writer will become fam'liar with the peculiarities of the different characters, and be ena- bled to form them when called upon to do so without reference to the printed specimens : — ANCIENT AND OENAMENTAL ALPHABETS. 91 In regard to ornamental styles of lettering there is ample scope for the exercise of ingenuity. The hard for- mal lines which compose the ordinary Roman San-seriff, and Egyptian alphabets, are susceptible of great variation. The writer may occasionally depart from the set form of these characters, and by a species of special license intro- duce lines which commend themselves by their freedom and grace. When the letters are of gold or any light color on a dark ground this license may be taken with considerable advantage ; but in no case would it be wise to vary the stiff forms of the letters by sub- 92 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. stituting a graceful flow of lines if a " thickness is to be added. The erratic form, so to speak, is sufficiently obtrusive of itself, especially when it ex- tends above or below the line, and any application of a colored " thickness " will detract from the freedom wliich the apparently careless, but graceful lines are intend- ed to afford. We have drawn a sketchy outline of the ornamental style here indicated, showing how the let- ters may be advantageously varied, and yet a general uniformity preserved throughout. Taking these four letters as liis model, the student should make a complete alphabet, preserving as nearly as possible the same features in every letter. This is a capital method of practice, as it gives facility of hand in drawing, and shows with what a variety of graceful forms the letters of the ordinary alphabets may be in- vested. In the foregoing specimen the letters are detached, but sometimes it may be desirable to run them together in certain parts, in order to give them an appearance of carelessness. This apparent carelessness, however, needs groat discrimination in its execution, or, instead of that freedom which is indispensable, it will look awkward and out of place. The following specimen evinces an easy grace, the seeming carelessness of which is really its <»:reat recommendation ; — ANCIENT AND ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS. 93 These letters may be made very effective on a board where space is abundant, but they ought never to be used if cramped for room, especially as regards their height. The lower portion of the letters in the specimen is tinted, and if this be successfully accomplished by the writer it will add to the effect. If the letters are written in gold, the tinting may be done by a thin glaze of some trans- parent color, burnt sienna and Vandyke brown being most generally used for this purpose. The markings of the lines, which overlap, should be made with Vandyke brown. No thickness should be put on, a single cast shade being all that is required. We subjoin a specimen of another style of ornamental lettering, in which, while there is a certain amount of freedom, the forms are all set and regular, without that flow of line which characterizes the preceding styles : — This specimen is very distinct, and is suitable for almost any purpose. Like the examples already given, and those which follow, the above has been drawn and engraved for this work, simply with the view of show- ing in what direction the student may exercise his in- 94 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. ventive faculties, and as suggestive of the variety of forms which may be applied to the letters. Some experienced sign-writers delight in giving to letters which are distinguished by geometric precision of outline a few graceful turns, in order to break the hard- ness of the straight lines. This is a good practice, if intelligently carried out. Here is an example : — The M, N, and E. in the accompanying specimen show this departure from the usual rigidity, without the uni- formity of the lettering being injured in the slightest degree. The flourishes which accompany the C, S, and E tend to break the stiffness, and at the same time to fill up the bare spaces, but these should in all cases be used sparingly, and never brought up with a thickness even though a thickness be given to the letters them- sel ves. There is something free and pleasing in the style of lettering, of which we present an example below. Worked in gold on a black ground it is singularly effec- tive. The curved stems of the letters require to be very uniform, and the letters must be kept close together. Their legibility will not be destroyed by this near prox- imity : — SffiOTHER Due regard must always be had to the readability of the writing. The whole of tlie above examples are uu* ANCIENT AND ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS. 95 objectionable, in this respect, but in order to show how easily the lettering may be rendered almost unreadable — at all events, at the first glance — the following line has been cut ; — Although the letters are formed with neatness, and every point as regards careful construction has been attended to, still it is difficult to distinguish the letters at a glance, and hence we have an illustration of that overelaboration against which the student has already been cautioned. The preceding style of lettering, which is perfectly readable, is but a simpler form of this com- plex and unreadable style. The difference between the two consists in a continuation, conversely, of the down- strokes in the latter case, forming diamonds, the simi- larity of which dazzles the eye and perplexes the under- standing. We subjoin one other example of ornamental letter- ing, selected from the specimens of a celebrated type- founder. The drawing and casting of the letters are as near an approach to perfection as possible. In the specimen book, the alphabet of which the letters form part is described as " Mediaeval,'^ and writing very similar in character was common on the old records engraven in brass and stone. It has, however, a modern aspect, and may appropriately be characterised as such, so that those who object to ancient styles simply because they are ancient ma^^ not be debarred from adopting letters which have so much symmetry and grace to recommend them. 96 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. For writing in burnished gilt on glass this style is very suitable, and when a blended thickness be added, and the lights and shades are nicely blended, the elfect is incom- parably grand. We have selected the word " History," as containing sufficient letters to guide the young writer in forming the rest of the alphabet to correspond : — It is not needful to multiply examples. Enough have been given to enable the diligent student to construct others for himself. The art is one that is capable of in- finite variety, and will well repay any amount of atten- tion that can be given to it. The above suggestive styles may serve as the starting point from which the student may diverge in manifold directions. CHAPTER yi. THICKNESSKS AND SHADOWS. The letters in which the modern sign-writer delights are those which appear in relief and are called " blocked." Common as this style of lettering is now, the date of its introduction is quite recent. Whittock, whose work on Jjecorative Painting was published in 1841, speaks of blocked lettei'S as quite a novelty ; and he thus accounts for their origin : — The projecting letters, formed of wood or metal, have of late become so fashionable, that the writers on shop fronts, sign-boards, etc., have had re- course to imitating them, and have produced letters in such bold relief that they look much better than the ■raised letters." We have thus pretty clear testimony that the imitation of raised letters was first practised just before the year 1841; and it would seem that this imi- tation was introduced to supersede in effect the solid let- ters, which had probably become far too general in their use to please the writers of that day. Whittock re- marks that the written letters, in imitation of the raised ones, " have a beautifid effect in gold on a rich rosewood surface. It is difficult to convey an idea of the mode of producing them by a written description, but the fol- lowing directions will give the painter who resides at a distance from London an idea of them. The flat sur- face [of the letter] is gold ; this is supposed to be the middle tint. The strong light, which is made with yel- low ochre and white, is seen on the side of the letter, 9 97 98 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING, tlie Upper part of which is in warin shade as well as the under part. A very strong shadow is seen under this, upon the rosewood, which gives the warm shade all the effect of a reflected light ; a more faint shade is seen l)e- yond this. If executed with skill, it is difficult to tell whether the letters are raised or not without actually touching them. This method is used not only for flat letters raised from the ground, but also for the beautiful foliated letters that are now becoming so fashionable." In order to imitate raised letters, — that is, letters cut out of wood or some solid substance, and affixed to a flat surface, — it is necessary that the young writer should have some idea of at least the elements of linear per- spective. Lettering, however, is not performed accord- ing to the strict rules of perspective, in which all the lines meet in a point, but each letter is formed as if it had an individual perspective of its own, apart from its connection with other letters. To give a simple illustration, suppose we take a rec- tangular parallelogram ; that is, an ol)ject which has its opposite sides parallel to each other, and the angles are all right angles. Let it be a block of wood, an inch square, and about six inches in length. We will attach one side of this solid body to an upright flat surface, and let it remain there, and then proceed to view it in the light of perspective. If we stand immediately in front Fi ' 26 object, the eye being exactly level with its centre, it will be impossible to see either of n tlie two sides or the top or bottom, and it will appear, if there be no cast shadow, nothing more than a flat body, as in Fig. 26. If the student now shifts his position, and instead of keeping his eye directly opposite the centre of the block of wood, stands a little on one side and views it from a less elevated position, he will then see, not only the front THICKNESSES AND SHADOWS. 99 surface of the object, but one of the sides and the bot- tom ; thus if he stands a little to the right the figure will appear as in the subjoined example (Fig. 27). Or, it may be that he views the object from -p'lg. 27. above it, but at the same distance from the left, in wliich case it will appear as in Fig. 28. It will thus be seen that, according to the variation of the position from which the spec- tator views the object, it apparently changes its form. Now, if it be assumed that the rectangular parallelo- gram represents the San-seriff D, the application of the foregoing illustration will at once be obvious. The four sides of the block of wood are thus disposed of ; that which faces the board to which it is at- pig. 28. tached is invisible, the right and left sides and the top and bottom are wdiat in writing is [\\ designated the ^' thickness," — of course, only one side and one end being seen at a time, — and the front of the wood block is the ^ letter itself Individually, the letters should be ^' blocked-up," or invested with thickness, according to the rules of linear perspective ; but, collectively, the principles of linear perspective will not apply, because of the disproportion in color which would be necessitated, owing to the thick- nesses varying as the letters approach to or recede from the eye. In perspective, all lines meet in the same point, called the point of sight, which is always placed on the horizontal line at an elevation corresponding with that of the eye of the spectator. To make this clear, supposing we attach a number of wood blocks — or, say, raised letters — to an upright flat surface, and view them from a lower elevation than the letters, and from about the centre, ihey would, according to the rules of perspec- tive, appear as in Fig. 29. 100 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. Fig. 29. H- H The above illustration is a correct perspective repr&v sentatioii of a number of raised letters, viewed from tlio ])oint A, on the horizontal line H. From this, it will be clearly seen that a row of letters in perspective would present a variety of thicknesses, which would complete- ly destroy the uniformity of any piece of writing. Conse- quently, each letter must have a sort of perspective of its own, so as to secure regularity in the thickness of each letter, as if the work was viewed piecemeal, or one letter at a time. Having thus explained what is technically called "the thickness,'' we now proceed to show how this dif- fers from the cast-shade or shadow. In the preceding remarks, no illustration has been afforded of the manner in which light of any kind causes a shadow to fall on a flat surface, through shining ob- licpiely, or in any other way, upon the raised block at- tached to it. If we view the parallelogram as explained in Fig. 26, and the sun or some artificial light be shining upon it in an oblique direction, — say, from behind the shoulder of the spectator, — a shadow will be j)rojected, although the thickness be invisible to the observer. THICKNESSES AND SHADOWS. 101 This shadow will appear as shown in Fig. 30. If the side and bottom of the block be in view of the spectator, he will not only see the representation as in Fig. 27 ; but there will be a shadow on one side of the object, according to the position of the light, as shown in Fig. 31. All objects from which a shadow is cast must project from the surface on which the shadow falls. If there is no projection, there can, of course, be no shadow ; and, as nearly every ])iece of writing now exe(;uted has at least a cast-shade, it is implied that the lettering projects from the surface on 3^ which it is seen. And this shadow — which is technically called a " cast-shade'' — is perfectly correct, although the writ- ing may not be " blocked-up," or invested with a ^' thickness.'' It is the practice of some writers to make the shadow of the letters of which the sides are seen equal in height with the top of the letters. This, however, is pi^. altogether wrong, as can be easily shown. Sup- posing, for example, that the parallelogram, in- stead of being wood, were made of glass, — that it is transparent, in fact, — we shoidd then be able to discern the whole of the four sides of the object, as in Fig. 32. Now, if the sun were shining obliquely on this object from the right, — the side Oii which it is viewed by the spectator, — the 33 shadow at the top would not come from the front surface of the letter, but from the back, where it comes in contact with the plane on which it is fixed, as will be seen by the annexed cut (Fig. 33). It will, therefore, be seen that the shadow should not be carried to the top of the front of the letter, but that it should fall diagonally from the back; in which case if the letter be supposed to be a solid object, it will be seen at a correct perspec- 9* 102 SIGN WEITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. tive distance from the top. The width of the shadow, as well as that of the thickness, must be left to the judgment of the painter. It is quite clear from the specimens of lettering occa- sionally met with, that some writers do not understand the simplest elements of perspective, or of light and shade, as applied to written characters. Sometimes rows of letters on a sign-board are shaded as if the light came from different quarters ; and thicknesses are applied sometimes on one side of the letters and sometimes on the other, as if the spectator could be in two })laces at the same time. We have even seen letters sunk in plaster, and yet the painter has put a cast-shade on the surface of the plastering ! Such instances, however, are exceptional. The young writer would do well to procure a few simple geometrical solids, which are sold at the artists' repositories, beginning with the rectilinear figures and then selecting the curvilinear. He should fix these against a painted background, and then place a light in such a position that a shadow may be projected on to the back ground. By carefully copying these figures and the shadows projected, the student will much sooner become acquainted with the art of representing raised letters than he could do by any amount of verbal teach- ing. That which he ascertains experimentally will be * of far more value to him than any slavish following of the conventional methods practised by the mere mechanic. In the work produced by one-half of the writers of the present day tliere is room for improvement in this respect; and the most intelligent and observant will certainly gain many advantages over the routine work- man, who learns just so many combinations of light and shade, and could not for the very life of him get out of the beaten track, and produce an original piece of work. It is recorded as a matter of history that in some of the old monastic establishments in Greece, art was so per- THICKNESSES AND SHADOWS. verted that a school of painting was inaugurated, in which pictures were manufactured according to written receipts, for grouping and coloring, with uniform devices and inscriptions. Let it not be recorded of the writers of the nineteenth century that they worked in a set groove from which they could not deviate. As a true artist studies nature and natural phenomena, so a writer should devote himself to the study of his art, ever seek- ing fresh combinations and devices, but never proceed- ing against the true principles of art so far as they can be intelligently brought to bear upon his calling. In the imitation of raised letters, the study of the writer should be to deceive the eye of the spectator. Unless, indeed, this be his aim, the primary object of the elaborately blended and softened thickness and shadow is to a certain extent lost sight of. The faculty of sight is perhaps the most easily cheated of all our senses. Theatrical scenery and panoramic effects afford a good illustration of this truth. And this deception by a kind of sleight-of-fiand adroitness, which is sure to please, should be amongst the highest endeavors of the sign- painter. Whoever gives the best evidence of skill in this direction will occupy a higher position than he who is bound by a timid adherence to conventionalities. It is not for a moment to be supposed that thickness- es are to be introduced solely for the purpose of adding color and giving variety to the work. The object of their introduction should be, principally, to give to the letters, by means of chiaro-SGuro, the appearance of what they are not in reality. And this has more or less been the end and aim, not only of the mechanical painter, but also of the very foremost and most refined professional artists. That those great painters of antiquity, the rec- ords of whose performances read more like fables than realities, made chiaroscuro their chief study, is evident from what has been handed down to us by their histo- rians. We have all read of the productions of Apelles, 104 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. t])e Prince of Painters, and of other Greek artists. PI in J, who had seen the picture of Alexander grasping a thunderbolt, by Apelles, relates that the hand and the missile were so perfect that they had the appearance of protruding from the wall. The oft-repeated story of Zc'uxis and Parrhasius may be introduced here, to show that the faithful imitation of natural objects was not be- neath the notice of their genius. History has recorded tliat tiiese great painters of antiquity entered into a con- test of competitive talent. The former brought to the trial, as a proof of his skill, a bunch of grapes which he had painted, and considered himself certain of triumph, because his imitation was so natural that birds had at- tempted to peck the painted fruit while exposed to view. Parrhasius presented a curtain, which he declared con- cealed the efforts of his skill, and Zeuxis, trying to withdraw the curtain, found it was only a painting, whereupon he confessed himself beaten, exclaiming, " I have deceived birds, but you have deceived man ! This minute imitation, this realism, is universally ap- preciable. It appeals alike to all minds. It is clear that the Greek artists Parrhasius, Zeuxis, Protogenes, and Apelles considered the perfect imitation of nature and of natural objects as the very essence of their art. And although, in the history of painting, artists and schools have arisen who have disregarded this essential, yet that is no argument against the productions of those who, while they have not neglected the principles on which the higher arts are based, have yet regarded exe- cutive or imitative art as the great desideratum by which to attain perfection. ^yhat is true of the higher arts in this particular, is equally true of the most unpretentious of the industrial arts. If Zeuxis could paint so as to deceive birds, and Parrhasius so as to deceive man, there is no reason why any one who pays proper attention to the representation of natural objects should not be able to give some ap- THICKNESSES AND SHADOWS. 105 pearance of solidity and relief to what is in reality per- fectly flat. The Painted Hall at Greenwich, by Sir J. Thornhill, is a good instance of relievo decoration ; the walls, which are flat, being painted in imitation of fluted columns with ornamental mouldings and cornices. The sides of the upper part of the hall are painted in imita- tion of bas-reliefs, and the eflect is very pleasing. An- other good example may be found at Hampton Court Palace, where the decorations by \'errio, which are in relief, are most tasteful, and the eye finds a difliculty in detecting at first sight where the work of the painter ends and that of the modeller begins. These splendid examples of light and shade should stimulate the young painter to persevere in his eflbrts, until he is able to produce on a flat surface letters which appear to project or to recede, as the case may be, so as to deceive — if not the expert in such matters — at least those whose knowledge of the subject is limited. If a raised or a sunk letter be represented in such a way that it deceives the eye, the painter naturally takes a higher position than he would do if he executed his work sim- ply mechanically, making it apparent that the raising or sinking is a mere clumsy imitation and not the reality. Any tyro can paint in this slovenly manner, but it re- quires much study and perseverance to effect the higher object to be aimed at. In order to attain to the perfection we would incul- cate, the student, having practised with the geometrical solids, is recommended to procure a few well-formed let- ters cu<- out of wood, and to place them in the sunlight against a suitable background, copying the lights and shades, together with the reflected lights which are seen upon the sides of the letters, and noting any peculiarity that may present itself By so doing, he will get a clearer insight into the matter than he would do by fol- lowing the set rules of the best of masters. Having thus enforced the necessity of observation and 106 SIGN WETTING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. study, it becomes ns to point out a few of the peculiari- ties whicli are presented to the eye of tlie observant in- quirer. In the foregoing remarks, alhision has been made to light and shade, but there was no reference to the gradations of tint, which the student will not, per- haps, at first discover, but which, nevertheless, play an important part in all imitative execution, and are always seized upon by the practised master. No one can fail to have noticed the softened or blended thicknesses which appear on the best letters of the foremost writers of the present day. The blended or graduated thicknesses are not, or, at least, ought not to be — the result of a mere whim ; but they are introduced in accordance with the laws of optics. If we have to imitate on a flat surface a letter cut out of a solid block of wood, the sides and front of which are colored in one uniform tint, it is per- fectly obvious that it could not be represented satisfac- torily by using the same unform tint on the flat surface for both the front and the thickness, because this would only tend to confuse. There must be a distinction be- tween the front of the letter and the thickness ; and this distinction is really in strict consonance with nature. Light and shade intervene to develop the form of the ohject, and to give variety to the tint. Without these all objects would appear flat. Supposing the light to fall directly on the front of the letter, that will be the iiighest light, and it will appear lighter than it is in reality. Hence we get a difference of tone for the front and side. But then there is the bottom of the letter, which we will suppose to be visible to the spectator. This cannot, of course, have so much light even as the side, the shadow being projected across it, and hence it will appear much darker in tone. But then, in addition to these three degrees of light and shade, there are the reflections, the rays emitted from surrounding objects, and the shadow to be borne in mind and represented. THICKNESSES AND SHADOWS. 107 In order to simplify the matter, and as it is not our province at present to deal with color, let it be assumed tliat the solid letter which we are copying is painted a j)ure white. In this case, the light falling on the front, the letter will appear a perfect white, the thickness at the side will be a shade removed from white, whilst the underneath thickness will be in half tint. In ordinary ])lain work these three varieties of tone would embrace all that the writer would care to introduce. And though to some extent they would have the desired effect — that of throwing the letter out in relief — still there would be something wanting to complete the illusion. In the representation of solid bodies, there are two cardinal principles which can never be disregarded : — I. The brightest light gradually loses its force as it recedes from the eye, and at the remotest distance be- comes a slight shade. II. The darkest shadow gradually loses its intensity as it recedes from the eye, until it becomes altogether indistinguishable. Thus, light and shadow are affected by distance in an opposite manner — the light becoming darker, and the shadow lighter, whereby each assimilates to the other. It therefore follows, as a natural consequence, that the front of the object, on which the light falls, will not present any gradations, but will be of uniform bright- ness throughout. The side, however will not be uni- form in tone ; but will be darkest where it meets tlie light, becoming gradually fainter towards the back- ground. This is the effect of contrast. It is always necessary to give force to the highest light by encom- passing it with darker tones, which have no existence in fact, but which must not be omitted in any realistic rep- resentation. First, — the light from that part of a surface nearest ix> the eye has greater force than that from the further end 108 SIGN WHITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. of the same surface. This effect is varied, however, ac- cording to the obliquity of the surface, the situation of the illuminating power, the reflections, and so forth. In looking along a flat white surface — say, a sheet of card- board — on which the light falls evenly, the nearest edge will appear the brightest; at a small distance this bright- ness becomes modified; a little further off its intensity is yet m()re decreased ; and, as the eye advances towards the other extremity, the light has altogether disappeared and a slight shade is apparent. Or, let us suppose that a long row of buildings has to be represented. Now, from the immense distance of the natural luminary — • the sun — the rays it emits are assumed to be parallel, and not divergent, and they will therefore, fall with equal force along the entire range of buildings. Consequently, it may appear to the uninitiated that the light ought to be equally distributed in the representation. But here the principle of aerial perspective steps in ; and, as in the previous illustration, the high light nearest the spectator becomes modified as it recedes, until at the furthest ex- tremity of the buildings it is almost lost in shade. The surface being uniform, this effect is very gradual, regu- lar, and constant. The gradation of light and shade may be still more forcibly illustrated, if, instead of a flat superficies, we select a circular metallic object. Here the gradation from the highest light to the strongest shade is very rapid, and easily distinguishable by the most unobservant. The distance between the highest light and the intensest shade being bounded by the cir- cumference of the object, the contrast is necessarily very vivid. Secondly, — the nearest end of any object that is in shadow seems more deeply shaded than the remotest end. If, for instance, the rays of light, instead of strik- ing against the front of a range of buildings, are behind it, a shadow will be cast on to the road or pavement, and this shadow will be most intense the nearer it is to the THICKNESSES AND SHADOWS. 109 eye, becoming weakened, or, as it were, diluted by de- grees, as it recedes, until it is lost in the distance. The effect of the atmosphere, whilst it moderates and dimin- ishes the resplendence of light, has a greater effect on the obscurity of shadow. Light, therefore, is distinguisha- ble at a much farther distance than shadow, the air tell- ing with greater force upon the one than the other. It is scarcely necessary for our purpose to carry this theme further; but simply to give a single diagram illus- trative of the subject, and then to apply it practically to the shading of geometric solids in the form of letters, show- ing how they are made to ap})ear to advance or recede. For simplicity of illustration, instead of selecting a range of buildings, suppose we take a number of cubes, and place them on a plane superficies, such as the top of a table, as shown on the next page. The rays of light are supposed to strike the top of the table uniformly, to be equally distributed all over its surface, and at the same time to fall on the cubes from one side, so that their tops and one side are in high light, whilst the other portions are darkened. The object of this diagram (Fig. 34) is to show how both the light and the shade lose their intensity as they recede from the eye. It will be observed that the light parts of the most distant cubes become darkened, and the dark parts light- *ined, in accordance with the well-known laws of optics which we have pointed out, till in the two most distant cubes they are almost similar in tint. The practical application of this diagram to the imi- tation of letters in relief will be apparent, if a number of solid letters be substituted for the cubes. Although the above figure applies rather to writing placed in perspec- tive than to surface representations, the same principle holds good in both instances, only in a less marked de- gree in the latter case. In order not to be misunderstood, it will be necessary :o show the practical application of the laws of optics 110 SIGN WRITING AND. GLASS EMBOSSING. Fig. 34. oxemplified in the cubes to the subject matter herein treated, by the aid of another diagram. Let us take two letters, which will be sufficient for our purpose — one with straight, and the other curved lines, in order tlie more clearly to show the gradations of light and shade, as well as the shadow, which will be preseuted, and let us sup- pose the front of them to be painted white, and the sides red, and let them be affixed to a tinted board, as shown on page 111. Now, here we have a representation of two letters cut out of a solid substance, the gradations of tint and the shadow being distinctly marked. The light, it will be noticed, comes from behind the spectator, striking tha letters obliquely on the right-hand side. The front of the letters is in high light. The thickness being paint- ed red, it is assumed that it is deeper in tint than the ground color, even at the sides where the light falls. Of course, then, the under portion of the thickness must be much darker, as it is not only not illuminated, but has a shadow thrown across it. It will be seen that the un- der thickness is even deeper in shade than the shadow. This would not be the case if the thickness of the blocks were painted white, the same as their front surface ; but, being red, the shade is strengthened accordingly. When the thickness of block letters is painted a lighter color than the ground, the under portion of the blocks being in shade, will aj)pear lighter than the shadow VAdiich falls on the ground. The sides of the letters on which the light falls are not quite uniform in tint. These are marked by grada- tions, which must be carefully watched and represented. Jn rectilinear objects, the side next the highest light is slightly toned as the effect of contrast, although in reali- ty such tone does not exist, and is contrary to the law ])ointed out in regard to the cubes. Objects should be represented not as they really are, but as they present themselves to the eye. Letters which have a light thickness on a dark ground are generally invested with two cast-shades — one black and the other a shade darker than the grountL 112 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. The thickness on the shadow side of the letters is ont of sight, but the shadow itself is projected" on to the back- gmuiid, and it will be found in nature that the darkest part of the shadow impinges upon the highest light. The angle at which the shadow is projected depends, of course, U{)on the position of the illuminating power ; and if it be the sun, the declination of the shadow must be parallel throughout, and not in perspective, as it would be if some artificial light were the illuminating medium. It only remains to be remarked further, that the shadow thrown by a white object is darker than the shadow side of that object. Thus, the under part of a light thickness ought never to be so dark in tone aa the shadow on the surface upon which the letters are fixed. From the foregoing observations, it is evident that there is ample scope in this particular branch of the art for the exercise of much intelligence and ingenuity on the part of the diligent student. In contrast to raised letters, there are those that are "sunk,'^ or cut into any solid substance, and these are of two kinds — the square and the prismatic. The for- mer are usually cut in compo or plaster whilst it is new and still wet, and the latter are generally chiselled on memorial or headstones. Both of these kinds of sunk letters are imitated by sign-writers, and sometimes with so much skill that the spectator is left in ignorance of the deception to which he is subjected. The learner ixS recommended to begin by copying, not the imitations of others, but the actual sunk letters themselves. This is the only method of procedure cal- culated to lead to successful imitation. The lights, shadows, and reflections should be carefully watched and noted, so that they may be properly applied in practice. It will be found that the imitation of square suidc letters is less difficult than that of the prismatic, in which failure is most often apparent; in fact, very few writers THICKNESSES AND SHADOWS. 113 hecome thoroughly efficient in this particular. It is no uncommon thing for writing of this sort to have an ef- fect the very reverse of what was intended ; for, instead of its appearing to sink or retire from the surface, it actually seems to advance. Work of this kind, which is too frequently the result of reproducing mere imita- tion, cannot, of course, be regarded as satisfactory. A few studies from a model, if they be watchfully and in- telligently persevered in, will be worth any amount of mere reproductive imitation. In the square sunk letters there is the depth, as con- tra-distinguished from the " thickness'^ of raised letters, to be taken into consideration, as also the reflections and shadow. If the spectator station himself below the line of lettering, and view it in an oblique direction, he will, of course, see one side and the underneath part of the reveal. In a representation, the rays of the sun are generally made to fall on the side visible to the specta- tor, and tliis is perhaps the wisest arrangement. This side, then, will be in high light, and the underneath por- tions will be in shade. We thus get what corres- ponds to the light and dark thickness in a raised block. But in this case, the shadow, which is caused by the sun's rays, will be exhibited on the body of the letters themselves, and not on the surface on which they are formed. A sunk letter cannot project a shadow beyond its own boundary. This shadow, then, will be on the opposite side, though on the face of the letter itself, to that on Avhich the depth of the sinking is represented. If this plan has been followed, the result will be in ac- cordance with the subjoined letters (Fig. 36) : Fig. 36. 10* 114 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. The other kind of sunk letters is formed on a some- what similar principle as regards light and shade, but the shadow, if any, is less defined. A light side and a dark side are generally adopted for the vertical strolvcs in representing these letters, the horizontal lines being marked by a stronger contrast between the light and shade. The letters following (Fig. 37), which are pur- posely made to the same outlines as the foregoing (Fig. 36), will show the ordinary method of representation. Fig. 37. These are sufficient to sliow the general principle upon which sunk letters should be imitated, and it will reatl- ily be seen what an extensive field is here opened up to the beginner. It is not necessary to enlarge upon this subject. A few attempts, based on the foregoing illustrations, will convince the student that his only chance of success is in proportion to his diligence and aj^plication. The hints herein afforded are necessarily brief, but to any one of ordinary intelligence tliey will be found sufficient to pave the way to great achievements iu the direction indicated. CHAPTER VII. LETTERS IN PERSPECTIVE. In these days of puffery, when each advertising tradesman is endeavoring to secure a monopoly of at- traction to his announcements, the ingenuity of the sign- writer is taxed to the utmost extent. There is a per- petual demand upon him for some " new thing f and the direction in which, as it seems to us, there is still much scope for the writer to exercise his ingenuity is that of lettering in perspective, which, if carried out with judgment and ability, may be rendered highly at- tractive. For the proper performance of this kind of work, which has already been successfully adopted in a few instances, it is essential that the waiter should have a fair know^ledge of the rules of perspective both linear and aerial. After some amount of practice the student will be enabled to put letters in perspective without any complicated geometrical lines ; but at the same time it will be found much more satisfactory if he understands thoroughly the elements of perspecti ve, so that if the eye detect any apparent deviations in the work, the writer may be enabled to apply to it an unerring test by which :t may be proved, and, if found wrong, corrected. The more experienced writers form their perspective letters without any but the simplest lines, and generally they ^re pretty successful. Of course, in practice, it is not always convenient to make use of any great number of 115 116 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. linos, as they would often extend far beyond the limits of the board or surface to be written upon ; and then, again, there may be, as is often the case, structural ob- stacles to prevent their being used. This, however, must never be made an excuse for any failure that may be exhibited, inasmuch as the perspective writing may, in the first instance, be set out on a sheet of paper in accordance with correct principles, and when the pro- portions of the several letters have been found, they may readily be transferred to any larger scale by the aid of a rule-scale, a pair of compasses, or by a simple geometric problem. Before proceedin;^ further on this particular head, it may not be inopporcune to digress a little, and explain the geometrical problem referred to, as its application may, in certain cases, be very advantageous, and save a considerable amount of trouble and vexation. When a piece of writing has been set out to one scale, and it is required to be expanded or contracted, it may be done with mathematical precision, in regard to each indivi- dual letter, by the aid of simple geometry. Take a short line of writing, which will suffice for mere illustration — any word containing letters of various widths — and suppose that it has been set out according to one scale, and that it is important it should be enlarged, and that such enlargement is required to be made duly propor- tionate in the width of the various letters. Now, in order to do this, it would be a tedious process to meas- ure the letters one by one, and assign to each its exact proportional expansion ; and if the line of letters hap- pened to be very long, this would be exceedingly diffi- cult, and more especially so if the scale of enlargement involved an irregular or fractional measurement. The easiest mode of procedure, therefore, is to adopt a sim})le geometric problem, which is frequently used by ai-chi- tectural and mechanical draughtsmen, and which will S(irve equally well for the purpose in question. Sup- LETTERS IN PEESPECTIVE. IIT posing that a number of letters have been set out in the ordinary way, and that it is desired to expand them so as to make them fill a longer line, and that it is impor- tant that this expansion should be exactly proportionate in every way, it will be necessary to proceed in accord- ance with the subjoined diagram. Let it be imagined that the word writer has to be expanded, that it is, say, two feet in length, and that it has to be spread out to two feet and three-quarters, without increasing the height of the letters. The diagram (Fig. 38) is on a scale of one inch to the foot. The first thing is to draw the line of expansion at any distance below the writing to be extended, and then draw a diagonal line from A to the point b. Parallel lines must now be drawn from the top row of letters to the diagonal line, and from there vertical lines extending to the line of expansion B, when the proportional expansion will be the result thus : Fig. 38. The same problem may be used with equal facility for the compression of the letters, the only difference being in shortening the diagonal line. This line, as has been already intimated, may form any angle with the line of writing, and the result will be the same. Of course, in practice, the dimensions of the writing will generally be 118 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. sue! I that a large space will be required for setting out any expansion or contraction, according to the foregoing diagram ; and, accordingly, it will be found that the worksliops of most writers have at least one side plas- tered and painted or distempered, so that, when neces- sary, the writing may be lightly sketched upon it, pre- viously to its being set out upon the work. Beginners will find it of the utmost importance to provide them- selves with a good wall-space, upon which they can practice at their leisure; and in certain cases, when very particular work has to be executed, it is advisable to at- tach a piece of white paper to the wall, to set out the lettering upon it, and then to transfer it to the surface to be written. In this way a clearly-defined outline will be secured, and the danger of scratching the newly- painted ground with the pipe-clay will be avoided. White paper suitable for this purpose is now made of various widths, the widest being six feet, and can be pro- cured at most artists' color shops in rolls of twelve yards long, or cut off at so much per yard run. It is very cheap. Or, the common white lining paper used by paper-hangers, which is still cheaper, will serve for most ordinary purposes, but it has not the substance of the cartridge paper just referred to. It may be added further, in regard to the above sub- ject, that, if a number of boards have to be written ex- actly alike, as is often the case for advertising purposes, the plan of setting out on a sheet of paper, and then transferring to the boards by means of a pounce, is most advanttigeous, the saving of time being very considera- ble. Besides this, uniformity is secured — and that with- out any difficulty. Before leaving the subject of correct proportional ex- pansion or contraction, it should be stated that the same principle may be applied to a variety of purposes, which, however, it is not necessary to point out, as the foregoing illu. trations are of themselves sufficiently demonstrative. LETTERS IN PERSPECTIVE. 119 We now return to the more abstruse subject of perspec- tive writing. And first it must be distinctly understood that there tan only be one horizontal line and one point of sight in a single representation, just the same as in a picture. This is a matter which requires to be enforced with some persistency, as it is often lost sight of or neg- lected by writers of even good repute, who sometimes on one surface have as many as three or four points of sight — one, in fact, for each line of letters. Of course, this is utt; rly absurd, and defeats the object intended. A spectator cannot be in several places at one and the same time, and hence there cannot be several horizontal lines or several points of sight on one surface. It must, therefore, be understood, once for all, that if writ- ing be made in perspective, all the lines of letters must tend towards one point on the horizontal line, which line is always supposed to be on a level with the eye of the spectator. To this line all the rows of letters in per- spective must incline, and here, if they are of sufficient length, they should meet. As an example, let us proceed to put in perspective the word theatre, in San-seriff characters, on a rec- tangular-shaped board. The first thing to be done is to determine where the horizontal line will fall, and, for the sake of convenience, let that be drawn across the middle of the board, as H in the annexed Fig. 39. Let A B c D be the plan of the board, and the lineH through the centre the horizontal line. The next thing is to de- cide upon the vanishing point, and, for the sake of sim- plicity, let this be fixed near the extreme right of the board, as at E. Now, the height of the writing being marked off on the left side, which is supposed to be near- est the eye, lines giving the perspective inclination of the writing must be drawn to the vanishing point E, and the letters must be formed within them, as shown on next page. It will be seen that the letters diminish as they recede, 120 SIGN WKITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. not only in height, but in width, and that if they ex- tended to the vanishing point they would be indistinguisli- able, owing to their presumed extreme distance from the spectator. But now, if we shift our position, so that the vanish- ing point, instead of being near the side of the board, falls in the middle of the horizontal line, the result will he that the letters will diminish as they recede much more rapidly, and it will be correct to have some per- spective writing in another line on the other side, and if any other linos of letters are added they must go off towarils and meet in the same vanishing point. An in- stance of this is given in Fig. 41, page 122, where each Fig. 39. side of the building supports a line of letters, which are attached as raised blocks to the walls. Another row of letters stands on the floor, and, b^i ng in front of the spectator, does not vanish, but it will be noticed that the thickness of the letters is in perspective and tends toward the vanishing point. The horizontal line in the foregoing and following ex- amples has been placed in the centre of the rectangle, and as a general rule this is the most effective for a sign- board, but it is by no means imperative. It may be nearpr the top or bottom, and still the perspective will be accurate, so lono: as all the vanishinii; lines meet in the one point. LETTERS IN PERSPECTIVE. 121 To ascertain the correct perspective of raised letters, it will be necessary to have a point of distance on the hori- zontal line, as A (Fig. 40), in addition to the vanishing point B, in which all the lines of the thickness must meet, as shown in the following diagram, which gives the perspective of the thickness ; — Fig. 40. We have sometimes seen writing in perspective that appeared very effective a short distance off, but when looked into, has been found to be altogether wrong in principle. The perspective declination of the letters themselves has been correct enough, but the thickness has been added without any reference to the perspective of the writing, just as if the letters were placed within parallel lines. Of course, if the rules of perspective be applied to the letters at all, they should be applied as well to the thickness, and unless this is done the result cannot be correct. It is a pity that writers do not tal Now, the point is to arrange the preceding figures on these squares in such a way that an acceptable — not to say elegant — design may be formed. That this can be 190 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. effected without much difficulty the following diagram, composed of Nos. 7, 8, and 9, serves to show : — This design, which would have a pleasing effect for the centre of a pane of glass, shows not merely what a few simple patterns are susceptible of producing in com- bination, but illustrates by the blackened portion the stage of the work just prior to the acid being poured over the glass. The lighter half represents the first out- line of the work. Of course, in practice, the entire de- sign would be brought to the stage shown by the black part of the engraving. The same patterns may be arranged so as to form cor- ners more or less elaborate. When one corner has been built up, the other three can readily be obtained by means of transfer paper. Take as a specimen, the fol- lowing corner in type from Messrs. S. A. George & Co.'s establishment, which, with a slight alteration here and there, could be used for embossing on glass : — GLASS EMBOSSINa. 191 Lines in continuation may also be composed of the same figures Take the following as an example : — With these few hints, we leave the subject to the skill and ingenuity of the student. CHAPTER XII. BURmSHED GILDING ON GLASS. The art of burnished gilding on glass was Tor ft long time kept a profound secret by the masters of it ; and it was not until this kind of ornamentation was extensive- ly adopted, that a knowledge of it became at all general amongst professed sign-writers. Indeed, even now there are many sign-writers who are ignorant of the art, and look upon it as quite special, and altogether beyond their reach. And yet, when properly understood, it is ex- ceedingly simple. It is our intention to give full directions for effecting this kind of work, so that the humblest sign-writer will be able to produce the gilding clear and bright without difficulty. The gold used, it need hardly be mentioned, is the ordinary gold leaf. In the first place, it is necessary to make a mordant for affixing the gold leaf to the glass. This is done in the following manner : — Procure some fine isinglass, and place about as much in a tea-cup as will cover a six- penny piece, and then pour on it about half a cup full of boiling water, which will dissolve the ieinglass. Be- fore the water has got cold add about as much spirits of wine as there is water in the cup; then strain the whole through a clean silk handkerchief, and tlie mordant is ready for use. The addition of the spirits of wine is BURNISHED GILDING ON GLASS. 193 most material as, without it, the gilding cannot be sat- isfactorily accomplished. Whatever the lettering that has to be written on the glass, it must be first set out on a sheet of white paper, and reversed. This paper, with the writing reversed, should be fixed at the edges or corners on to the glass by means of paste, the writing appearing backwards. The glass having been thoroughly cleansed and rubbed with a silk handkerchief, the gilding may be com- menced, the gold leaf, of course, being on the reverse side to that to which the paper is attached. It is usual to place the glass in a slanting position on an easel, the lines of lettering not being horizontal, or reading from left to right, but perpendicular, reading from top to bottom. The mordant is put on, — or, more correctly perhaps, flowed on, — with a soft camel hair pencil of large dimensions, and the gold leaf is lifted from the cushion and placed on the mordant with a tip, after having been cut to the required dimensions. If the line of writing be less than about three inches in height, it is advisable to gild the whole line, without paying any regard to the shapes of the letters, so that when the line is finished, it will present a solid piece of gilding about the same height and length as the let- ters, and nothing more. The first piece of gold leaf should be placed at the beginning of the line, which is the top of the glass, and each succeeding piece below it, the different pieces just overlapping each other. It is necessary to be particular in this matter, because if the pieces of gold do not meet together, the interstices may, and most probably will, show when the work is com- pleted, and will prevent the uniformity of burnish which it is so desirable to attain. For letters of larger dimen- sions than three inches in height, the gilding may, as a general rule, be made to cover each letter, leaving the spaces between untouched. When the process of gild- ing is completed, these letters will present but a rough 17 194 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. resemblance to their general and true shapes, the pieces of gold leaf being irregular in size, and extending in different directions over the correct outline of the writ- ing. The beginner will probably endeavor to make the gold leaf go too far, and be too niggard of its use ; but a short experience will teach him that the wisest economy is to cover not only the whole of the letters with the metallic leaf, but to carry it a little beyond their bound- ary. As soon as the gilding has been completed thus far, it should be left to dry in a warm room, or placed before the fire, in which case it will be dry in a few minutes. If there are several lines of lettering, the first line or two will probably be dry before the last is completed. There is no difficulty in ascertaining whether it is dry or not, because as it dries it assumes a burnished appear- ance, and presents a strong contrast to those parts which are still wet, where tlie gold is often crinkled up, and always " mat,'' or dead. When the gilding is perfectly dry and bright, it should be rubbed over very gently with a piece of cotton wool. This will heighten the burnish of the gold, and remove the loose pieces which do not adhere to the glass. The work of gilding is now but half completed. In its present stage, most likely every joining of the gold leaf will be visible on the front of the glass, and if the work be held up to the light, innumerable holes and faulty places will be discovered in the gilding. The beginner, however, need not be discouraged by this re- sult, inasmuch as it is the common experience. After the gilding has been manipulated as described, a soft camel hair brush — a flat one is recommended — charged with the isinglass size should be passed lightly over the work ; but, of course, the brush must not be worked to and fro, or it will remove the gold leaf. The size should be flowed on freely and rapidly, and if any small places have been omitted, no attempt should be BURNISHED GILDING ON GLASS. 195 made to retouch them whilst the size is wet. When it is dry, the gilding will resume its brightness. In order to complete the burnish of the gold, some writers subject the work to a process which is, unfortu- nately, attended with no small risk. When it has been sized, as explained above, hot water is poured over the gilding, and this not only washes out any little specs which may appear on the front of the gold, but enhances its brilliancy considerably. The hotter the water poured over the work, the brighter does the gold leaf become. In this respect the writer is subject to a temp- tation which occasionally proves a source of trouble and loss: for, of course, beyond certain degrees of heat the water will break the glass. This was a very common occurrence formerly, but in modern practice the hot water bath is often dispensed with, and the size coated over the gilding is applied hot. This latter method is not quite so effective as the former one, but it has the re- commendation of being safe. The whole of the gilding has now to be repeated. A second layer of gold leaf over the first is absolutely neces- sary to ensure a satisfactory result. This is, in the truest sense, double gilding." The second coat of gold is put on with the isinglass size, the same as the first ; and, as it dries, the gilding, as it shows through the front of the glass will present a rich and finished appearance. The loose pieces of gold should be removed as after the first coat, by means of cotton wool gently rubbed over the work. Another coat of size made hot may now be applied, and the gilding is ready to be written upon. It may be added that the longer the gilding is left on the glass the harder it becomes. In all cases, it is better to leave it on for a day or two before writing upon it, be- cause the isinglass does not get thoroughly hard, though to all appearance it is perfectly dry in an hour or two. The affinity of gold leaf to glass is somewhat curious. If the gilding be left untouched for two or three months, 196 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. the action of the spirits of wine will cause the gold leaf to adhere so firmly to the glass that it will be difficult to remove it by washing it with water, whereas, in the course of a few days after it is laid on, it may be readily- removed by the slightest application of a damp sponge. There are several ways of transferring the outline of the writing to the gold. Perhaps the most expeditious method is to rub some dry whitening over the front side of the writing, as set out on the paper, place this over the gilding, face downwards, then go over the outline of the letters with a pointed stick or hard pencil. On removing the paper, it will be found that where the let- ters have been traced with the stick, the whitening has marked the gold. Another method of transferring the writing to the gilding is to prick through the outline of the letters, and then, j)lacing the paper so perforated face downwards on the glass, to pounce the back of it with whitening, so that the dust permeates through the per- forations. This is a more tedious method than that al- ready described, but it is equally effective. Having by either of these modes of procedure pro- cured an outline of the writing or design, the next step is to paint the letters with a sable writing pencil. The vehicle invariably used for this purpose is the ordinary Japan black used by coach painters. If, on turning the glass round, it should be seen that the Japan black at all deadens the gilding, or is perceptible in any way on the front of the glass, another coat of size should be passed over the work to prevent the black from permeating through the gold leaf. When the Japan has become hard, the superfluous gold must be washed off with a sponge and warm water. The workman need not be particular about forming the tops and bottoms of the let- ters with neatness, because when the Japan is dry, the edges may be cut up sharp and true by passing a small chisel along a straight edge, so as to trim the writing and make the tops and bottoms [)erfectly regular. All BURNISHED GILDING ON GLASS. 197 the straight lines of the letters maybe trimmed in a sim- ilar manner, but the curved ones must be perfected with the writing pencil. For gilding on embossed glass, the mordant or size should be made a little stronger, having a larger quan- tity of isinglass in its composition, or it will be found that the gold leaf will not adhere readily to the em- bossed portions of the glass. It should be stated that embossed letters are produced in just the same way as when the glass is intended to be obscured, except that the fluoric acid need not be left on for so long a time, the mere deadening of the surface being all that is re- quired to give the effect of mat gold. The softened colored thicknesses added to the letters are effected with the ordinary oil colors thinned with boiled oil and turpentine, the latter being used sparing- ly. Three or more tints are generally mixed on the palette, with a separate pencil to each, and these tints are softened with a larger sable pencil, and the outer edges are cut up with a pointed stick guided by a straight edge, whilst the color is wet, and the superfluous color is wiped off with a piece of rag. By this means a sharpness of outline is obtained which the most skilful writer would fail to get by the mere use of the pencil. The shadow is put on as soon as the thickness is dry, and not being softened down, quick drying colors may be employed. CHAPTER XIII. ORTHOGRAPHICAL AND OTHER ERRORS. The sign-writer need not necessarily be highly edu- cated, though, of course, in this, as in other tilings, the educated man has many advantages over the illiterate. The great requisite for a writer is, first and chiefly, a knowledge of spelling, and secondly, some idea of punc- tuation. Beyond this, so far as his vocation is con- cerned, he need not go. That many writers who are able to form letters and words symmetrically and with freedom are not proficient in these elementary require- ments, is evident by the examples that are occasionally to be seen in the principal thoroughfares. It is true that positively bad spelling is not a common occurrence on a house front, sign, or show-board of any pretensions ; but instances of mis-spelt words placed in prominent posi- tions on the faQades of attractive buildings are too com- monly met with. We have, therefore, thought that, in the few closing pages, we could not do better than touch briefly upon some of the common mistakes which sign-writers commit, either through a defective knowledge of orthography, or, possibly, in some cases from thoughtlessness. From the largeness of this theme — upon which many chapters might be written — and the limited space at command, the examples we are enabled to give must necessarily be somewhat brief and discursive. And first, as regards bad spelling, it was only the other day we saw written, in large letters, on a princi- pal business house in the city, the following announce- ment : — 198 ORTHOGRAPHICAL AND OTHER ERRORS. 199 WHOLESALE STATIONARY WAREHOUSE. STATIONERY being, of course, the word intended. Tliia is a very common error in sign-writing. The next ex- ample, though not so common as the foregoing, is far more singular. On a house in John street, Clerken- well, not long since, the following might be seen : — DYING DONE HERE. The writer of this laconic sentence, no doubt expressed a truth, but not that which he really ought to have con- veyed. That persons died on the premises, as they do elsewhere, might be quite true. And that is just what he took the pains to inform the public, though, of course, he was engaged to proclaim to them that dyeing was the particular trade carried on there. Then, we have seen chops and stakes, instead of chops and steaks • and, more singular still, the final word spelt staks. On the window blinds of public-houses, one sometimes sees SMOKEING room, the e'^ being superfluous. Sim- ilarly, MANGLING is sometimes erroneously rendered MANGLEING ; BAKING, BAKEING, and SO On. The word parlour is often spelt parlor, and the " u" is dropped in many similar instances, such as COL- OR, LABOR, etc. Americans generally omit the " u in these words, and the practice is becoming somewhat fre- quent in England.* It may, however, be laid down broadly, that no departure should be made from the ac- cepted method of spelling a word, inasmuch as new- fangled notions, when carried out in practice, challenge attention and cause disputes, especially in the case of painted letters, which, owing to the prominence, so easily catch the eye. We remember an instance in which a sign-writer had ^ From the large and rapidly increasing circulation of Web- ster's Dictionary in that country. 200 SIGN WEITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. to paint on the door-post of a doctor's residence the words visiTOEs' BELL, and the workman, having been reading some of the late Mr. Charles Dickens's works, rendered the first word as the great novelist himself was in the habit of spelling it, substituting e " for " o in Visitors. This spelling may pass unnoticed in a book printed in brevier or long primer, but when the visiter is made conspicuous by the lettering of the writer, there is a degree of singularity about the word which is abso- lutely puzzling. It may be that Dickens was perfectly right in his peculiar spelling of the word, and that by and by it may become general, but until it does we would advise the writer to avoid taking any such liberty with what is, with perhaps an exception here and there, ac- cepted as correct, and almost always adopted. Speaking of Mr. Dickens recalls another speciality of his, which it is as well to caution the sign-writer against. It is that of rendering the plural of Miss by adding "s" to the end of the surname. Thus, in the case of two young ladies of the name of Brown, he would write, *^The Miss Browns,'' instead of'" The Misses Brown." If a painter were required to write up, " Miss Brown's Academy," he should write it as we have just written it ; but if there were more than one Miss Brown he might be puzzled to know how to render it properly. If he followed Mr. Dickens's plan, he would make it, "The Miss Browns' Academy," whereas the proper way would be to render it "The Misses Brown's Academy." To put this matter more forcibly, take the case of the masculine instead of the feminine. If, for instance, there are three brothers named Brown in partnership engaged in trade, who would think of addressing them as the Mr. Browns ? The Messrs. Brown is the proper designation, and yet on the principle adopted by Dickens they should be addressed the other way. Amongst other mis-spelt words, we have noticed CHEESEMONGER Spclt CHEESMONGER ; CARPETS PLAN- NED, rendered carpets planed. OKTHOGRAPHICAL AND OTHER ERRORS. 201 If there is one thing more than another in which a sign-writer is at sea, it is tlie matter of apostrophes. Where they ought to be they are omitted, and where they ought not to be, there they are. And yet what is simpler to understand just where they should be, and to place them there ? The rules given for the correct use of the apostrophe are so simple that it is singular failure in regard to them should be so often exhibited. Amongst other instances, we have seen Rose Villas', the apostrophe being quite unnecessary. Then we have seen Jones & Co., Draper's — the apostrophe being again superfluous. Ladies School affords another ex- ample, there being no apostrophe after the " s,'' where it is required. ^' Mens' Boots " and " Gentlemens' Hair Dressed." In these instances the apostrophe is misplaced after ^^s," which it should precede. Then we have seen Brown's (late Jones) Tea Establishment ; whereas it should be (late Jones's), or (late Jones'), either of which is correct. Another example of a super- fluous apostrophe is shown by the following : — Grenier & Son's, Grocers. It would be correct to put the apostrophe in the case of Grenier & Son's Grocery Stores. In punctuation some very strange things are occasion- ally perpetrated. The sign-writer who disdains punc- tuation, and omits " points " of every description, is far wiser than he who, fancying he has a knowledge of the art, introduces commas and full points in all sorts of queer places. It is not needful for the sign-writer to use any points beyond those of the comma and period, except in very rare instances. But these ought always to be used in their proper places. How often does one see a comma introduced between a Christian and sur- name, as, for instance, Henry, Robinson; or a full point similarly misused, as Thomas. Jones. We have lately noticed on a facia, otherwise excellently written, William. B. Jones, the point after William being 202 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. quite out of place. When the initial of a name is used, or the name is shortened, as Wm. B. Jones, the point is adopted in both instances. Some sign-writers have such a love for points that they will insert a period between all the words, and then, perhaps, wind up at the end with a comma ! All these idiosyncrasies are not, however, always the fault of the workman. Employers are occasionally ignorant or eccentric, and they insist upon their peculiar crotchets being carried out to the letter. As an illustra- tion of the former, we may cite a case which came within our knowledge. A publican engaged a sign- writer to do certain lettering on his establishment, and, having seen the writing when it was set out, insisted that " it wouldn't do for him," asking the writer how he spelt brandy ? " B-r-a-n-d-y," answered the work- man. Very well, then B-r-a-n-d-y-s must be bran- dies,'' triumphantly exclaimed the obtuse landlord. But," the writer observed, it is always spelt i-e-s." " Well, if everybody else has it wrong, that's no reason why I should," muttered Boniface, with an oath, adding that, if the work was not done as he wished, he would send for a writer " who had learnt to spell ! " The sign-writer is, as we have said, not only at the mercy of the ignorant, but now and then has to fight against, or favor, as the case may be, eccentricity. A marine artist of more than local celebrity, formerly re- siding in Brighton, but now deceased, always had paint- ed in legible characters on the street-door of his studio, in one of the turnings leading out of the Western Road, the words No. Wun; meaning. No. 1. The artist, who was a genial fellow, and not usually crotchety, had in this single instance become enamored of Pitman's phon- otoepy ; but so far from " No. Wun " enlightening the public, it was a constant source of conjecture and bewil- derment. Then, there are other things perpetrated by sign-wri- ORTHOGRAPHICAL AND OTHER ERRORS. 203 ters for which they are not altogether responsible. If a tradesman who engages a writer is incapable of cor- rectly stating what he wishes written regarding his own trade, it is hardly to be expected that the writer will be much better. For instance, since the velocipede mania has set in, a maker of, or dealer in velocipedes, in the Waterloo Road, has had the following painted over his shop — TWO AND THREE WHEELED BYCICLES ON HIRE. It can hardly be expected but that, in such a case, the sign-writer would follow his instructions literally, quite unconscious of the absurdity of the announcement. Want of skill in his vocation now and then leads the sign-writer to do some funny things. Unable, perhaps, through want of sufficient practice, to judge of the num- ber of letters which he can get into a given space, he will resort to all sorts of curious shifts to atone for this deficiency. It is a common joke related of a country writer — we do not, of course, vouch for the accuracy of the story — that he had to write on a wooden rail, in a village churchyard, the oft-repeated line — A VIRTUOUS WOMAN IS A CROWN TO HER HUSBAND, but finding that the length of the rail would not admit of the whole inscription being carried out in the propor- tion in which he had commenced the lettering, he exer- cised his inventive faculties, and, remeiiibering that 5s. was a crown, he rendered the motto in this fashion : — • A VIRTUOUS WOMAN IS A OS. TO HER HUSBAND. Another countryman — it is as well to attribute the joke to this source — was engaged to write on the outer wall of a skittle alley, in bold letters, the words : — • THIS IS THE SPOT FOR SKITTLES. The landlord was somewhat startled when the work was finished to find it rendered thus : — THIS IS THE % FOR SKITTLF^. 204 SIGN WRITING AND GLASS EMBOSSING. A short distance away, the large black spot presented the appearance of a hole knocked through the flint wall, and so the public, not unnaturally, read the line as, " This is the hole for skittles." Boniface could not stand tliis, and so the writing was obliterated, and the inexperienced limner tried his hand afresh, — let us hope with a more satisfactory result. Want of skill is often apparent in the distances be- tween the letters. Thus, Adam, strong boot-maker, has been rendered by the bad adjustment and the omis- sion of the comma, — A DAM strong boot maker. And, No damaged goods has figured as — No dam AGED GOODS. As regards giving prominence to the most important words, also, a writer often fails. Words that should be large are painted small, whilst those of small import are rendered large. At the Vauxhall Railway Station there is a good example of this. The following words are painted on a board : — Passengers are requested not to pass beyond this point. There are four large lines, which are passengers, requested, pass beyond, and POINT, the last being the largest of all. The other words are painted very small. At a short distance the request reads just the opposite of what is intended, the NOT being almost imperceptible ; whereas the words NOT TO pass. should form the principal line on the board, as they really contain the gist of the announce- ment. APPENDIX, WHITELEAD* The production of whitelead until within a comparatively recent date was confined, almost exclusively, to Holland, and the Dutch system of corroding is recognized as the best. Its manufacture was first introduced, to any extent, into this coun- try at the works of Mr. John Harrison, Philadelphia, the foun- der of the present well-known firm of Harrison Brothers & Co., manufacturing chemists, about the year 1806, though a Mr. Wetherill of that city had been successful in some practical experiments before that time. The pig lead is melted in large iron pots, and from them the molten metal is run into a series of moulds, revolving on an endless chain. The lead is thus cast into what are called buckles, weighing about a pound each, flat and round and shaped like a grate to give a greater surface for the chemical action to which they are to be subjected. These buckles are placed in earthen pots, but kept from contact with the acetic acid with which the latter are charged, by means of projections made purposely in the pots, and upon which the buckles rest. The pots are then stacked up in what are known as beds — large frame structures, roofed in and provided with double walls — to the number of ten thousand or more. They are placed in layers with boards and tan between each, and piled up to the height of the building, the bottom of which and spaces between the walls all being padded with tan bark, till the whole is tightly shut in and the contents of the pots are left to the silent action of chemical laws. The tan generates heat, makes an oxide of the lead and vaporizes the acid, and with the carbonic acid formed in the decomposition of the tan, gradually reduces the metal to a beautiful snow-white substance. This result is only attained after an interval of ten to fourteen weeks, when, the beds being opened, the buckles are found thus transformed into carbonate of lead, or, more properly speaking, into a hydrated carbonate. * Prepared by David C. Llojd. 18 206 206 APPENDIX. From the beds it is taken to long- revolving screens, through the meshes of which it falls into bins prepared for its reception, and any imcorroded particles of metal are separated and re- turned to the melting caldrons. The pots on being taken out contain no acid, and the lead has increased considerably in bulk and weight. By day and night, chemistry, that mysterious agent, lias silently been doing its appointed task and producing by a strange and unseen process this interesting and beautiful result. 'I'he lead, after havhig passed through the separating screens, is first thoroughly washed to deprive it of any free acetic acid, stain, or impurities, and is then ground in water between heavy burr-stone mills into a fine pulpy mass; this is then gathered and pumped upon drying pans in the kiln house. Deprived by this means of its water, the product of these manifold processes becomes the pure dry whitelead of commerce. This dry or carbonate of lead is then kneaded with a suitable quantity of linseed oil, generally in the proportion of eight pounds of oil to one hundred of lead, by means of what are called machine mixers, and, on being thoroughly mixed, the pasty mass descends through hoppers provided for the purpose, on to a lower floor of the mill house, and is there, in the best establishments, passed through a first mill, which again passes or feeds it into another, and, after grinding there, it is discharged into large tubs, where it should remain some time before pack- ing into kegs or cans for the trade. Notwithstanding the great number of so-called whitelead manufacturers existing in the United States, the majority have no real claims to be called such, and are so in name only. Its production constitutes a most important branch of industry ; but one, which, owing to the large capital requisite and the length of time required before even the finished article can yield return, only a few large firms are engaged in it. Much interest is attached to the various processes we have described, but there is still a very general ignorance of the subject. The only actual corroders of lead, doing business in New York, given not in order of precedence, but alphabetically, are : — Battelle & Renwick, The Atlantic Whitelead Co., Hall, Bradley & Co., The Brooklyn Harrison Brotliers & Co., The Union " " J. Jewett & Sons. In Philadelphia : — Harrison Brothers & Co., John T. Lewis & Brothers, Wetherill & Brother. Boston, Pittsburg, Baltimore, and St. Louis and other large APPENDIX. 207 Cities, each contains one or more firms who are actual cor- roders. There is much rivalry as to the merits and demerits of those various brands ; but it is more among the consumers than the corroders themselves. The latter are, as a class, conservative, and look quietly on, fully satisfied that there is room enough for all. The former vaunt the particular brand they have been accustomed to use and constitute themselves its zealous cham- pions, although they know nothing, probably having never tried the merits of the others. The truth is that prejudice has more to do with this favorit ism than merit. There may be slight differences in mode of preparation, washing, and grinding ; but they are all good ; and all, as we have said, undoubtedly pure, so that the consumer is safe in selecting either make. One brand will have the preference and almost exclusive sale in one section of the country and be almost unknown in an- other. 'J'he oldest and among the most widely distributed is that of Harrison Brothers ^ Co., and we have been told, it is usual with some parties, who are about having painting done and are particular as to the work, to insert in their contracts that only this brand of lead shall be employed ; but the prefer- ence so often given to it is not due to a degree of purity over the others, as all are pure ; but merely to the extreme and peculiar care given to it while passing through the various stages of washing, drying, grinding, and preparing for the market, the result of an experience of over sixti/ years devoted to the busi- ness. From what we have said it will be apparent to procure good work and satisfactory results from the use of whitelead it is of the first importance that material known to be good should be employed. The painter should, for his own sake, purchase nothing else, and the owner of property should, for the same reasons, permit this only to be used upon his work. If lead is to be employed let those requiring painting done stipulate, for their own protection, either by bargain or contract, what the brand shall be, and thus guard against the employment of a pig- ment, which, by being perhaps only second rate, may cause the work speedily to require re-doing. In conclusion, we may add that all strictly pure leads are about the same in price, and if not kept in stock by local dealers, can always be procured by such, so ihat there is no reason why any one should be restricted to any particular brand against his wish or taste. SCKIPT. MONASTIC CONDENSED. >BCDEFGH1JK LMl(0PQ^STUVWXYZ 12 345678 90 MONASTIC. 12345 6' 7890 ITALIC GOTHIC. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP QRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuuwxyz CONDENSED. iKDEf&HIJIl GOTHIC CONDENSED. abcdefghijltliiinopqistuviiixiiz l2345e/890 ABCDEFGHIJKLtHNOPQRSTUVWn; OLD STYLE. ABCDEFGHIJK LMNOPQ RSTU VWXYZ 12 345678 90 CELTIC. ABCDEF GHIJKLMN OPQRS TUVWXYZ 1234567890 4 FEltSPECTl V K. MJB(& BMW PKBSPKCTIVE ORNAMENTED), GOTHIC DOUBLE SHADED. 5 OTINAMKNTEB. ANTiaUE OKNAMKNTED. ORNAMENTED. & mil ML MM ROTTND SHADED. iiiiiPi iiJiiii iiP|iiTi IONIC SHADED. J§1 ' ORNAMENTED. jsciii® GOTHIC SHADEn. * if- I ORNAMENTED. II Y WXT BROADGAUOE OKNATE. 11 I ORNAMENTED. OBNAMENTED. FOHI OPOR TU¥W MY 12 GOTHIC CONDENSED SHADED. TUSCAN ANTIQUE SHADED, 14 MODERN TEXT If w 15 INDEX. PAGE ' FAOS 209 210 INDEX. PAGE Imitation of raised letters 97 Imitation of sunk letters "112 Iiidiitu red 136 Indigo 138 Intense blue 137 Introductory 9 Isinglass size 175 Italic capitals 43 Italic, perspective 127 Ivory black 131 Joined letters 52 Lake 134 Lattn letters 89 Lead, white 129 Letter, scroll 48 Letters, classes of 42 Letters, how formed 35 Letters in perspective 116 Letters, slanting 49 L, formation of 71 Madder, rose 136 Medieoval style 75 M, formation of 58, 67 Minuscules 82 Missal capitals 87 Mordants for gilding.... 167 Modern type 74 N, formation of. 67 Normal alphabets 54 Numerals 50,52 Object in writing 36 Ochre, yellow 138 Old English „ 48 Old-faced type 76 Open letters 66 Origin of signs 10 Ornamental alphabets 78 Ornamental writing 48 Orthographical errors 198 Over-elaboration 95 Pencils 145 Perspective italic 127 Perspective, letters in 115 Perspicuity 50 Primary colors 1 10 Primitive alphabet 86 Proportion of letters 64 Prussian blue 137 Punctuation 201 Purple brown 136 Q, formation of. 72 Raised letters 97 Raw sienna 138 Red, Indian 1".6 Eelievo decoration 105 PAOB R, formation of 70 Roman capitals 43 Roman letters 89 Rose madder 136 Rule for thick strokes 68 Rule of Durer 64 Sau-seriff capitals 43 Scroll letter 48 Sculpturing glass 176 Seriflffl 57 Setting out the writing 42 S, formation of. 59 Shade 141 Shadows 97 Sienna ^ 138 Sign boarding 84 Sign-writer 9 Sign, origin of. 10 Sizes of glass 171 Slanting letters 49, 72 Solids, representation of 107 Squares, letters formed in 66 Straight writing 43 Sunk letters 112 Symbol and 67 Symbol for and 52 " Teasing" 144 Thicknesses 97 Thick strokes, rule for 58 Thinning 139 Tint 141 Type, ancient 74 Type, modern 74 Type, old-faced 76 Ultramarine 137 Uniformity 38 Vandyke brown 138 Varieties of alphabets 54 Vegetable black 132 Vermilion 132 White, floke 130 White le Ml 129 White, zinc 130 Whittock on letters 66 Words mis-spelt ,200 Writing 35 Writing in curves 46 Writing, ornamental 48 Writing, setting out the 42 Writing, straight 43 Wyatt on ornamenting 79 Yellow, chrome 138 Yellow ochre 138 Zinc white 130 &, formation of. 6" OF practical and Scientific Boo^^ PUBLISHED BY Henry Carey Baird & Co. INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS, 810 Walnut Street, Philadelphia. ^ Any of tlie Books comprised in this Catalogue will le sent by mail, free at postage, to any address in the world, at the publication prices, A Descriptive Catalogue, 84 pages, 8vo., will be sent free and free of postage, to any one in any part of the world, who will furnish his address. Where not otherwise stated, all of the Books in this Catalogue are bound in muslin. AMATEUR MECHANICS' WORKSHOP: A treatise containing plain and concise directions for the manipula- tion of Wood and Metals, including Casting, Forging, Brazing, Soldering and Carpentry. By the author of the " Lathe and Its Uses." Seventh edition. Illustrated. 8vo. . . . $3.00 ANDRES.— A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of Volatile and Fat Varnishes, Lacquers, Siccatives and Sealing Waxes. From the German of Erwin Andres, Manufacturer of Varnishes and Lacquers. 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With a Portrait, and a Biographical Sketch. 8vo. . . . ^3.00 STOKES.— The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's Companion: Comprising the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabinet Work; Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl- Work; the Art of Dyeing and Stain- ing Wood, Ivory, Bone, Tortoise-Shell, etc. Directions for Lacker- ing, Japanning, and Varnishing; to make French Polish, Glues^ Cements, and Compos'-i^ ns ; with numerous Receipts, useful to work men generally. Bv Stokes. Illustrated. A New Edition, with an Appendix upor xCnch Polishing, Staining, Imitating, Varnishing^ etc., etc. i2mo ^1.25 STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS; Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Projjerties of Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for Testing Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By Officers of the Ordnance Department, U. S. Army. By authority of the Secre- tary of War. Illustrated by 25 large steel plates. Quarto . ^10.00 SULLIVAN. — Protection to Native Industry. By Sir Edward Sullivan, Baronet, author of " Ten Chapters on Social Reforms." 8vo. ^I-SO SULZ. — A Treatise on Beverages : Or the Complete Practical Bottler. Full instructions for Laboratory Work, with Original Practical Recipes for all kinds of Carbonated Drinks, Mineral Waters, Flavorings, Extracts, Syrups, etc. By Chas. Herman Sulz, Technical Chemist and Practical Bottler 1:1 . J2 I?.. ..-^-".c- gtg — . Hvo. . . $io.oc S6 HENRY CAREY BAIRu & CO.'S CATALOGUE. SYME. — Outlines of an Industrial Science. By David Syme. i2mo. . . ... $2.0(i TABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, SQUARE, AND FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC., By Measurement. Cloih ...... 63 TAYLOR.— Statistics of Coal : Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and Manufactures; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commercial Distribution and Amount of Production and Consumption on the American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manu- facture. By R. C. Taylor. Second edition, revised by S. S. Halde- MAN. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engravings. 8vo., cloth ^10.00 TEMPLETON.— The Practical Examinator on Steam and the Steam-Engine : With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of Engineers, Students, and others. By William Templeton, En- gineer. i2mo. . . . . . . . . ^1.25 THAUSING.— The Theory and Practice of the Preparation of Malt and the Fabrication of Beer: With especial reference to the Vienna Process of Brewing. Elab- orated from personal experience by JULIUS E. Thausing, Professor at the School for Brewers, and at the Agricultural Institute, Modling, near Vienna. Translated from the German by William T. Brannt, Thoroughly and elaborately edited, with much American matter, and according to the latest and most Scientific Practice, l)y A. Schwarz and Dr. A^ H. Bauer. Illustrated by 140 Engravings. 8vo., 815 pages ^10.00 THOMAS.— The Modern Practice of Photography: ■ By R. W. Thomas, F. C. S. 8vo. . . . • , 75 THOMPSON.— Political Economy. With Especial Refbrence to the Industrial History of Nations : By Robert E. Thompson, M. A., Professor of Social Science in the University of Pennsylvania. i2mo. . . . . ^1.50 THOMSON.— Freight Charges Calculator: By Andrew Thomson, Freight Agent, zt^mo. . . ^1.25 URNER'S (THE) COMPANION: Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turn* ing; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments; and Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instructions for working them. i2mo ^1.25 TURNING : Specimens of Fancy Turning Executed on the Hand or Foot-Lathe : With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cutting Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Photographs. 4to. ^3.00 JRBIN— BRULL.— A Practical Guide for Puddling Iron and Steel. By Ed. Urbin, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize Essay, ) HEKRY CAREV BAIRB & CO.'S CATALOGUE. read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of the School of Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 1865-6. To which is added A Comparison of the Resisting Properties of Iron and Steel. By A. Brull. Translated from the French by A, A. Fes- QUET, Chemist and Engineer. 8vo. .... ^i.oo VAILE. — Galvanized-Iron Cornice-Worker's .Manual : Contaming Instructions in Laying out the Different Mitres, and Making Patterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also, Tables of Weights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and olhei" Matter calculated to Benefit the Trade. By Charles A. Vaile. Illustrated by twenty-one plates. 4to ^S-OO f ILLE. — On Artificial Manures : Their Chemical Selection and Scientific Application to Agriculture. 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Comprising the Electro-Deposition of all Metals by means of the Battery and the Dynamo-Electric Machine, as well as the most approved Processes of Deposition by Simple Im- mersion, with Descriptions of Apparatus, Chemical Products employed in the Art, etc. Based largely on the " Manipulations Hydroplas- tiques" of Alfred Roseleur. By William H. Wahl, Ph. D. (Heid), Secretary of the Franklin Institute. Illustrated by 189 eu- gravings. 8vo., 656 pages ...... WALTON. — Coal-Mining Described and Illustrated: By Thomas H. Walton, Mining Engineer. Illustrated by 24 large and elaborate Plaies, after Actual Workings and Apparatus. $$.00 28 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. WARE.— The Sugar Beet. - Including a History of the Beet Sugar Industry in Europe, Variette. of the Sugar Beet, Examination, Soils, Tillage, Seeds and Sowing. Yield and Cost of Cultivation, Harvesting, Transportation, Conserva- tion. Feeding Qualities of the Beet and of the Pulp, etc. By Lewu S. Ware, C. E., M. E. Illustrated by ninety engravings. 8vo. WARN.— The Sheet-Metal Worker's Instructor: For Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers, etc. Contain- ing a selection of Geometrical Problems ; also. Practical and Simple Rules for Describing the various Patterns required in the different branches of the above Trades. By Reuben H. Warn, Practical Tin-Plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing Instructions for Boiler-Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, Rules for Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and Steel, Tables of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by thirty- two Plates and thirty-seven Wood Engravings. 8vo. . ^3.00 ATARNER.— New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams, for the Computation of Earth-work : Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates, of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non-profes. sional Computers. In two parts, with an Appendix. Part I. A Prac- tical Treatise; Part II. 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Watson, Author of " The Modern Practice of American Machinists and Engineers." Illustrated by 78 engravings. TVATSON. — The Modern Practice of American Machinists and Engineers : Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lat"he Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow-work generally , with the most Economical Speed for the same ; the Results verified b) Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vise, and on the Floor. Together HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 29 with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steam- Engine, Boilers,, Gears, Belling, etc., etc. By Egbert P. Watson, Illustrated by eighty-six engravings. i2mo. . . . $2.^0 JVATSON.— The Theory and Practice of the Art of Weaving by Hand and Power : With Calculations and Tables for the Use of those connected with the Trade. By John Watson, Manufacturer and Practical Machine- Maker. 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Together with a Model Specification involvir.g a great variety of instructive and suggestive matter. By GeorgE Wjghtwick, Architect. A new edition, revised and considerably enlarged ; comprising Treatises on the Principles of Constructirin and Design. By G. HusKissoN Guillaume, Architect. Numerous ttiustrations. One vol, i2mo ^2.00 — Tables of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. With an Introductory Chapter on the Course of Analysis. By Pro- fessor Heinrich Will, of Giessen, Germany. Third Americant from the eleventh German edition. Edited by Charles F, HiMES, Ph. D., Professor of Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa 8vo. . . • ^1.50 WILLIAMS.— On Heat and Steam : Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Explo- sion. By Charles Wye Williams, A. I. C. E. Illustrated 8vo. $3 50 WILSON.— A Treatise on Steam Boileils : Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By Robert Wilson. 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Illustrated, i2mo. $2.50 ERANNT. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vine- gar and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit- Wines : Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables by Canning and Evaporation ; Preparation of Fruit-Butters, Jellies, Marmalades, Catchups, Pickles, Mustards, etc. Edited from various sources. By William T. Brannt. Illustrated by 79 Engravings. 479 pp. 8vo. $5.00 BRANNT.— The Metal Worker's Handy-Book of Receipts and Processes : Being a Collection of Cliemical Formulas and Practical Manipula- tions for the working of all Metals ; including the Decoration and Beautifying of Articles Manufactured therefrom, as well as then- Preservation. Edited from various sources. By William T. Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo, ^$2.50 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. OAVIS. A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Bricks, Tiles, Terra-Cotta, etc. : Including Hand- Made, Dry Clay, Tempered Clay, Soft-Mud, and Stiff-Clay Bricks, also Front, Hand-Pressed, Steam- Pressed, Re- pressed, Ornamentally Shaped and Enamelled Bricks, Drain Tiles, Straii^ht and Curved Sewer and Water-Pipes, Fire-Clays, Fire-Bricks, Glass Pots, Terra-Colta, Roofing Tiles, Flooring Tiles, Art Tiles, Mosaic Plates, and Imitation of Intarsia or Inlaid Surfaces, com- prising every Important Product of Clay Employed in Architecture, Engineering, the Blast Furnace, for Retorts, etc., with a History and the Actual Processes in Handling, Disintegratin<^, Tempering and Moulding the Clay into the Shape, Drying Naturally and Artificially^ Setting, Burning with Coal, Natural Gas and Crude Oil Fuels, En- amelling in Polychromic Colors, Composition and Application of Glazes, etc., including Full Detailed Descriptions of the Most Mod' ern Machines, Tools, Kilns and Kiln Roofs used. By Charle? Thomas Davis. Second Edition. Thoroughly Revised. Illus- trated by (217 Engravings. 501 pp. 8vo. . . . ^S-Od POSSELT.— Technology of Textile Design : Being a Practical Treatise on the Construction and Application of Weaves for all Textile Fabrics, with minute reference to the latest Inventions for Weaving. Containing also an Appendix, showing the Analysis and giving the Calculations necessary for the Manufac- ture of the various Textile Fabrics. By E. A. PossELT, Head Master Textile Department, Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art, Philadelphia, vi^ith over 1000 illustrations. 29a pages. 4to. ......... #5.00 POSSELT.— The Jacquard Machine Analysed and Explained: With an Appendix on the Preparation of Jacquard Cards, and Practical Hints to Learners of Jacquard Designing. By E. A. PossELT. With 230 illustrations and numerous diagrams. 127 pp. 4to ;^3.oo RICH.— Artistic Horse-Shoeing : A Practical and Scientific Treatise, giving Improved Methods of Shoeing, with Special Directions for Shaping Shoes to Cure Different Diseases of the Foot, and for the Correction of Faulty Action in Trotters. By George E- Rich. 62 Illustrations. 153 pages. i2mo ^1,00 RICHARDSON.— Practical Blacksmithing : A Collection of Articles Contributed at Different Times by Skilled W^orkmen to the columns of " The Blacksmith and Wheelwright," and Covering nearly the Whole Range of Blacksmithing, from the Simplest Job of Work to some of the Most Complex Forgings. Compiled and Edited by M. T. Richardson. Vol.1. 210 Illustrations. 224 pp. i2mo. . . , ^i.oo Vol. II. 230 Illustrations. 262 pages. i2mo. . . ^i.oo 32 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. RICHARDSON —The Practical Horseshoer: i5eing a Collection of Articles on Hoiseshoeing in all its Branchef which have appeared from time to time in the columns of " The Blacksmith and Wheelwright," etc. Compiled and edited by M. T. Richardson. 174 illustrations i^i.oo ROPER. — Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and Firemen : By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i8mo. Morocco . ^2.00 ROPER.— The Steam Boiler: Its Care and Management: By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i2mo., tuck, gilt edges. ;^2.oo ROPER.— The Young Engineer's Own Book : Containing an Explanation of the Principle and Theories on which the Steam Engine as a Prime Mover is Based. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. 160 illustrations, 363 pages. i8mo., tuck . ^3.00 ROSE. — Modern Steam- Engines : An Elementary Treatise upon the Steam-Engine, written in Plain language ; for Use in the Workshop as well as in the Drawing Office. Giving Full Explanations of the Construction of Modern Stean:>- Engines : Including Diagrams showing their Actual operation. To- gether with Complete but Simple Exjilanaiions of the operations of Various Kinds of Valves, Valve Motions, and Link Motions, etc., thereby Enabling the Ordinary Engineer to clearly Understand the Principles Involved in their Construction and Use, and to Plot out their Movements upon the Drawing Board. By Joshua Rose. M. E. Illustrated by 422 engravings. 4to., 320 pages . . ^6.00 ROSE.— Steam Boilers: A Practical Treatise on Boiler Construction and Examination, for the Use of Practical Boiler Makers, Boiler Users, and Inspectors; and embracing in plain figures all the calculations necessary in Designing or Classifying Steam Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated by 73 engravings. 250 pages. 8vo. .... $2.':^o SCHRIBER.— The Complete Carriage and Wagon Painter: A Concise Compendium of the Art of Painting Carriages, Wagons, and Sleighs, embracing Full Directions in all the Various Branches, including Lettering, Scrolling, Ornamenting, Striping, Varnisliing, and Coloring, with numerous Recipes for Mixing Colors. 73 Illus- trations. 177 pp. i2mo $1.00 VAN CLEVE.— The English and American Mechanic : Comprising a Collection of Over Three Thousand Receipts, Rules, and Tables, designed for the Use of every Mechanic and Manuf-.c- turer. By B. Frank VAN Cleve. Illustrated. 500 pp. i2mo. ;^2.oo WAHNSCHAFFE.— Guide for the Scientific Examination of the Soil : By Dr. Felix Wahnschaffe. Translated from the German by William T. Brannt. Illustrated by numerous Engravings. 8vo. (In preparation.) \