'f THE PORTFOLIO MONOGRAPHS ON ARTISTIC SUBJECTS EDITED BY P. G. HAMERTON PUBLISHED MONTHLY No. 1 1 November , 1894 Albert Dtirer’s Engravings by LIONEL OUST London: SEELEY AND CO., LIMITED, ESSEX STREET, STRAND Sold by Hatchard, 187 Piccadilly Paros : Librairie Galignani, 224 Rue de Rivoli. Berlin : A. Asher & Co., 13 Unter den Linden New York : Macmillan & Co. Price Half-a-crown 2 THE PORTFOLIO . REEVES’ ARTISTS’ COLOURS. FOR YOUR BEST WORK USE BEST MATERIAL. “ I can speak of them in nothing but the highest terms; they are pure and rich in tint, very free and pleasant in working, and bear the severest test as to permanency.” The Pkesident of the R.B. A. CATALOGUE POST FREE REEVES & SONS, Ltd. 113, Cheapside, London, E.C. 19, LOWER PHILLIMORE PLACE. 8, EXHIBITION ROAD. ^ Thomas Moring ENGRAVER. BOOK-PLATES BRASS DOOR-PLATES MEDALS ARMORIAL PAINTING ILLUMINATING DIE SINKING VISITING CARDS STATIONERY 52 HIGH HOLBORN LONDON, W.C. Established 1791 . 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THE AUTOTYPE COMPAf HAS THE HONOUR TO ANNOUNCE THE PUBLICATION OF NINETY-THREE DRAWING ALBERT DURER Reproduced in Facsimile from Originals in the British M and accompanied by Descriptive Text by SIDNEY COJ M.A., Keeper of Prints and Drawings, British Muse! “The British Museum collection, reproduced in this volume. Professor Colvin, “ a fairly complete and representative survey of th phases of Diirer’s activity as a draughtsman and sketcher during alt of his career." The Volume is Imperial Folio, Half-morocco, Plates^ Guarded and Interleaved. Edition ioo Copies. Pn Guineas. The AUTOTYPE FINE-ART CATALOGUE : (New Edition) pages, with Illustrated Supplement, containing 68 miniature 1 hotogi notable Autotypes, post free is. “AUTOTYPE : A DECORATIVE AND EDUCATIONAL A New fam fililet, free on application. THE AUTOTYPE CO., 74, Hew Oxford-Street, Lo H VENETIAN GLAS WEDDING PRESENTS TABLE & GENERAL US A Choice Collection at Moderate Prices mi always be seen at the Gallery of the VENICE & MURANO GLASS CO 30 ST. JAMES’S STREET, S.W. THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER By LIONEL OUST Of the Department of Prints and Drawings , British Museum LONDON SEELEY AND CO. LIMITED, ESSEX STREET, STRAND NEW YORK, MACMILLAN AND CO. 1894 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES The Madonna with the Monkey (B. 42^ Frontispiece The Nativity (B. 2) to face The Little White Horse (B. 96) „ ?? Portrait of Pirkheimer (B. 106) Jt ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT Armorial Bearings of the Diirer Family. From a woodcut by A. Diirer (B. 160) . Albrecht Diirer at the age of thirteen. From a drawing by himself in the Albertina collection at Vienna Portrait of Albrecht Durer when a boy. From a drawing by himself in the University Library at Erlangen Portrait of Albrecht Durer in 1493. From the painting in the collection of Herr Eugen Felix at Leipzig The Promenade. From an engraving by A. Diirer (B. 94) The Prodigal Son. From a drawing by A. Diirer, in the Print Room, British Museum The Virgin and Child. From the woodcut title-page to “ The Life of Mary,” by A. Durer (reduced) (B. 76) The Babylonish Whore. From a woodcut in “The Apocalypse,” by A. Durer (B. 73 ) ' The Birth of the Virgin Mary. From a woodcut in “ The Life of Mary,” by A. Diirer (reduced) (B. 80) The Holy Family. From a woodcut in “ The Life of Mary,” by A. Diirer (reduced) (B. 90) Winged Genius. From the engraving known as “The Dream,” by A. Diirer (B. 76) Portrait of Albrecht Diirer, by himself. From the painting in the Alte Pinakothek at Munich PAGE 32 60 76 9 13 J 4 2 1 25 26 3i 3 5 37 39 4 1 43 1 The references are to Le Peintre-Graveur, by A. Bartsch, vol. vii. 4 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AGE Group of Dogs. From the engraving of “ St. Eustace,” by A. Diirer (B. 57) . , 51 The Man of Sorrows. From the title-page to “The Small Passion,” on wood, by A. Dtirer (B. 16) 53 The Coat of Arms, with a Cock. From an engraving by A. Diirer (B. 100) . . 55 St. Jerome. From a woodcut by A. Diirer (B. 114) 59 Portion of Diirer’s “ Melencolia ” (B. 74) 63 Maximilian, Emperor of Germany. From a woodcut portrait by A. Diirer (reduced) (B.I 54 ) 65 The Crucifixion. From an engraving by A. Diirer, executed for the sword-hilt of the Emperor Maximilian (B. 23) 68 St. Anthony. From an engraving by A. Diirer (B. 58) 71 Book-plate of Willibald Pirkheimer. From a woodcut by A. Diirer 73 Portrait of Albrecht Diirer. From a woodcut published after his death (reduced) ( B - I 5 6 ) 77 A Rhinoceros. From a woodcut by A. Diirer (reduced) (B. 136) 83 The Virgin crowned by two Angels. From an engraving by A. Diirer (B. 39) . 84 St. Jerome. From a woodcut by A. Diirer (B. 115) 86 List of books to which the writer has been more or less extensively indebted : — 1. “Das Leben und die Werke Albrecht Diirers,” von Joseph Heller (Bamberg, 1827). 2. “Albrecht Diirers Kupferstiche, Radirungen, Holzschnitte, und Zeichnungen,” vom Oberbaurath B. Hausmann (Hannover, 1861). 3. “ Diirers Kupferstiche und Holzschnitte. Ein kritisches Verzeichniss,” von R. v. Retberg (Mtinchen, 1871). 4. “Albert Diirer : his Teachers, his Rivals, and his Followers,” by Sidney Colvin, in the Portfolio , vol. viii. (1877). 5. “Albert Diirer, his Life and Works,” by Moriz Thausing. Translated from the German and edited by Fred. A. Eaton, 2 vols. (John Murray, 1882). 6. “Albert Diirer et ses Dessins,” par Charles Ephrussi (Paris, 1882). 7. “ The Literary Remains of Albrecht Diirer,” by W. M. Conway and Lina Eckenstein (Camb. Univ. Press, 1889). 8. “Albrecht Diirer,” von Anton Springer (Berlin, 1892). 9. “ Albrecht Diirers Aufenthalt in Basel, 1492-1494,” von Dr. Daniel Burckhardt (Miinchen, 1892). 10. “Albrecht Diirers Venetianischer Aufenthalt, 1494-1495,” von Dr. Gabriel von Terey (Strassburg, 1892). 11. “Catalogue of the Engraved Work of Albrecht Diirer,” the prints arranged in the order of their execution, by C. H. Middleton (Cambridge, 1893). 12. “ Diirers Schriftlicher Nachlass, etc.” herausgegeben von Dr. K. Lange und Dr. F. Fuhse (Halle, 1893). THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER CHAPTER I History of engraving on wood and copper before Diirer— Martin Schongauer — ■ Diirer's birth and parentage— Ant honi Koberger and printing in Nuremberg — Early drawings — Apprenticeship to Wolge?nut — “ Wanderjahre'" — First visit to Venice — Jecopo dei Barbari — Return to Nuremberg. To one writing of the life and work of an artist such as Albrecht Diirer, the weighty words of John Ruskin, in his Introduction to the gospel of modern art, Modern Painters, recur with particular emphasis. “ If it be true,” says Ruskin — “ and it can scarcely be disputed — that nothing has been for centuries consecrated by public admiration, without possessing in a high degree some kind of sterling excellence, it is not because the average intellect and feeling of the majority of the public are competent in any way to distinguish what is really excellent, but because all erroneous opinion is inconsistent, and all ungrounded opinion transitory ; so that while the fancies and feelings which deny deserved honour and award what is undue have neither root nor strength sufficient to maintain consistent testimony for a length of time, the opinions formed on right grounds by those few who are in reality competent judges, being necessarily stable, communicate themselves gradually from mind to mind, descending lower as they extend wider, until they leaven the whole lump, and rule by absolute authority, even where the grounds 6 THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER and reasons for them cannot be understood. On this, the gradual victory of what is consistent over what is vacillating, depends the reputation of all that is highest in art and literature.” So writes the art-prophet of the nineteenth century, and his words, leading up as they do to the study and appreciation of the immortal works of Turner, apply as well to the equally immortal creations of Albrecht Diirer. Albrecht Diirer fills a large space in the history of art. So far as Germany is concerned he is facile princeps, unrivalled even in his own age by so great an artist as the younger Hans Holbein, and towering above all his successors, no one of whom can raise a head high enough to look him in the face, with the exception perhaps of Adolf Menzel at the present day. Wherever there are or will be students and lovers of art, there must be a great majority in whom instinct and intellect will be stimulated by the study of the works of Diirer, whether as painter, engraver, philosopher, author, or merely as simple burgher citizen of Nuremberg. That city — mein liebes Nurenberg , as Hans Sachs sings in Hie Meis ter singer — is justly proud of the artist to whom it owes so much of its fame, and cherishes among its most treasured relics that low- ed linged gabled house near the Thiergartner Thor in which Diirer lived, worked, and died. Although it would seem that it was Diirer’s ambition to excel as a painter, it is as an engraver that he has won his fame and taken so sympathetic a grasp of the human heart. It is as an engraver also both on wood and on metal that he has 'earned that high place in the hierarchy of art which generations of students have allotted to him. It is all the more astonishing to think that copperplate-engraving was hardly older than the century in which Diirer was born, and that wood- engraving, if of greater antiquity, owes its place among the pictorial arts almost entirely to Diirer himself. It will probably always remain an impossible task to fix an exact date for the invention of engraving on copper or wood, even when limited to the function of giving off an impression with ink or some similar pigment. Two factors must, however, be always taken into consideration — namely, the ink and paper necessary for the making of prints. It was not until the fifteenth century that paper began to be manufactured from linen rags, good, strong, and above all cheap enough to be of use to the printer and the engraver. Parchment, beloved of the scribe, was at all times THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER 7 an expensive luxury, well adapted for highly finished work, but most unsuitable for rapid and marketable writing or printing. The invention of such paper led to the development of all branches of engraving, and in its turn to that invention which has proved perhaps the most im- portant and fruitful for the whole human race — printing from movable types. Moreover, it was not until the middle of the fifteenth century that an ink was manufactured of a consistency suitable for really satis- factory printing — an ink which it must be remarked, by the way, has never been excelled even at the present day. Given the absence of these two necessary ingredients, the tardiness of the human race in the invention of engraving, or rather of printing in all its branches, can be explained and excused. The history of wood-engraving is well known : its early use for small rude outline prints of saints or playing-cards, intended solely as a frame- work for colour, roughly but not always inartistically applied ; then the picture- or block-books, from which sprang the invention of printing with movable types ; and, finally, its adoption for the purpose of decorating or illustrating books. The history of copperplate-engraving is more obscure. The researches of Dr. Max Lehrs, the director of the Royal Cabinet of Prints at Dresden, have proved that it was practised in the first quarter of the fifteenth century, and with some skill. It was really developed out of the goldsmith’s art, all the earliest copperplate- engravers being probably professional workers in metal. The earliest practitioner of the art was an engraver known as the “ Master of the Playing-cards,” from a series of interesting cards engraved on copper by him in the early part of the fifteenth century. These cards were popular at the time, because they were copied by the illuminators of manuscripts, which can be dated not later than 1435. Other engravers, whose names are unknown, followed, but the first engraver to invest the art of copper- plate-engraving with interest and importance was a native of the Upper Rhine country, whose initials only, E. S., are known, and who worked from about 1450, or perhaps earlier, till 1467. He was probably a goldsmith by profession, but his engravings, which show his gradual progress in the art, are frequently picturesque and decorative, combining great technical skill with much beauty of design and intensity of con- ception. His immediate successors of importance and originality were the THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER artist known as “ The Master of the Amsterdam Cabinet,” from the fact that the bulk of his engravings, executed with the needle or dry point, are preserved at Amsterdam, but who was a native of Swabia or South Germany, and has been identified conjecturally by no less an authority than Dr. Lippmann of Berlin as Hans Holbein the elder ; an engraver known by his initials P. W., apparently a native of Cologne ; and Martin Schongauer. Schongauer was a native of Colmar in Alsace, where he was born about the middle of the fifteenth century. Living as he did in the vicinity of the Upper Rhine, and not far from the district in which the master E. S. worked, he must have been acquainted with that artist’s engravings. He was both painter and engraver, mingling with the hard dry goldsmith’s handling of the copper a tenderness of touch and a depth of feeling which have made his engravings not only highly valued both by his contemporaries and by posterity, but also models which formed and influenced the whole of German art, and established a national character in it, as opposed to the dominating influence of the Flemish school of Rogier van der Weyden and the stern uncompromising art of Cologne. His engravings were circulated far and wide, penetrating even beyond the Alps. Michelangelo was not too great to copy a print by Schongauer, nor Raphael to adopt from one of Schongauer’s engravings the principal motive of one of his most famous pictures. H'ubsch Martin , or Martin the Beautiful, he was dubbed by his friends. Albrecht Durer’s family did not belong to Nuremberg, nor was he sprung from any patrician or burgher race in its neighbourhood. Fortu- nately he has left a record of his early life and parentage, compiled in 1524 from some notes left by his father. From these he tells that his grandfather Anthoni Diirer was of a farmer race in a hamlet called Eytas, close to a small town called Gyula, eight miles south of Gross- wardein in Hungary, into which town he came as a boy and was appren- ticed to a goldsmith. The grandfather married a girl called Elisabeth, by whom he had one daughter and three sons, the eldest of whom was Albrecht, Durer’s father ; of the other two the second was called Ladislas, became a saddler, and was the father of Durer’s cousin, Niklas Unger (the Hungarian), who, after working with Durer’s father at Nuremberg, settled as a goldsmith at Cologne ; the third son became a scholar, and IO THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER parish priest at Grosswardein. Albrecht Diirer the elder, after wander- ing through Germany and in the Netherlands, came to Nuremberg in 1455, being about twenty-eight years of age, on St. Eulogius’s Day (March 11), “ and on that same day Philipp Pirkheimer was celebrating his wedding on the Veste, and a great dance was held under the big lime-tree” ; so early did the names of Diirer and Pirkheimer come together. It has been suggested, with some ground, that the name of Diirer (or Thiirer, as it was pronounced at Nuremberg) is merely a rendering of the Hungarian word A] to (Eytas), meaning a door. Albrecht the elder was taken as an apprentice by Hieronymus Hoi per, who in 1467 gave him his daughter Barbara to wife, the marriage taking place eight days before St. Veit’s Day (June 8). Holper had married Kunigunde Oellinger von Weissenburg, which shows him to have been a man of some position. Albrecht and Barbara Diirer had eighteen children, of whom only three lived to grow up — Albrecht, the third child and second son, born in 1471 ; Andreas, born in 1484 ; and Hans, born in 1490. Albrecht Diirer the elder became one of the leading goldsmiths in Nuremberg. His marriage obtained him an entry into the rights of a burgher, and he became Master of the Goldsmiths’ Company, and held other public offices of repute. Diirer has left two painted portraits of him — one, dated 1491, at Florence, and another, dated 1497, at Sion House. On the reverse of the former are painted the arms of the Diirer family, being two shields, one bearing gules, an open door azure (for Diirer or Thiirer), the other azure, a ram argent for Holper, and surmounted by a Moor’s bust with cap and jacket gules, faced with or. Diirer has left a fine woodcut of his own arms, the canting coat being evidently adopted according to the practice prevalent among the leading families of Nurem- berg. He also left a written description of his father, in which he says that his father “ spent his life in great industry and hard severe work, his only object being to earn with his own hand a living for himself and family ; that he was very poor, met with many troubles and reverses, but was esteemed by all who knew him, since he led an honourable Christian life, was patient, gentle and peaceful in his dealings with everybody, and always thankful to God ; that he kept but little company, and sought few pleasures for him- self, was a man of few words, and feared God ; that he paid a great deal THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER n of attention to his children’s education, his daily words to them being ‘that we should love God and deal truly with our neighbours.’ ” His mother’s character is more shadowy : she seems to have been pious and benevolent, and deeply attached to her children, especially to her youngest son Hans, the Benjamin of the family. The two younger sons both became artists : Andreas, a goldsmith at Nuremberg ; and Hans, after working at Nuremberg, and in the service of the Emperor Maxi- milian, eventually became a painter at Cracow in Poland, not far from the country of his ancestors. Diirer was born on May 21, 1471, in his father’s house in the Burgstrasse, a street in the St. Sebald quarter of Nuremberg, leading up to the castle or Veste. In the immediate vicinity were the houses of Bernhard Walther the astronomer, Michel Wolgemut the painter, Hartmann Schedel the man of letters, and Anthoni Koberger the famous printer and publisher, who stood godfather to the young Albrecht. Diirer says that his father took a special delight in him, as he saw that he was anxious to learn, so that he allowed him to go to school and learn to read and write before he apprenticed him to his own trade as a goldsmith. Diirer, however, found that his inclinations were much more towards painting than goldsmithry, and told his father so. His father was disappointed at having wasted so much time on teaching the boy his craft, but gave in to him, and apprenticed him for three years, on St. Andrew’s Day in i486, to the painter Michel Wolgemut, during which time, Diirer says, “ God lent me industry, so that I learnt well ; but I had to put up with a great deal of annoyance from my fellow-pupils.” The date of Diirer’s birth synchronises with the commencement of a great artistic and industrial movement in Nuremberg. Wie friedsam treuer Sitten Getrost in That und Werk Liegt nicht in Deutschlands Mitten Mein liebes Niirenberg . — Die Meistersinger. v Painting, though practised in Nuremberg for some years previously, did not attain any importance there until the days of the Pleydenwurffs and Wolgemut. Wolgemut married the widow of Hans Pleydenwurff, and with his stepson Wilhelm Pleydenwurff was the chief purveyor of I 2 THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER paintings to the citizens of Nuremberg. Their paintings are of no mean merit, which is now beginning to be recognised. More important, however, to Nuremberg was the great development in the art of printing. Gutenberg’s invention was brought from Mayence to Nuremberg about 1470 by Johann Sensenschmidt. Johannes Regiomontanus printed there in 1472 his Kalendarium Novum. The great man, though, in the trade was Anthoni Koberger, the first great bookseller in the world, who, besides the numerous printing-presses which he kept at work in Nuremberg, was the chief disseminator of books throughout Europe, with correspondents in every town of import- ance— Augsburg, Munich, Prague, Vienna, Pesth, Cracow, Liibeck, Paris, Lyons, Basle, Milan, Bologna, Florence, and Venice — a veritable “ prince of booksellers,” as one of his contemporaries addresses him. Koberger, though not the actual printer of the first illustrated Bible, which was published by Heinrich Quentel at Cologne in 1480, purchased the blocks, brought them to Nuremberg, and published them in a Bible of his own in 1483. These cuts are evidently designed by a good artist, and probably instigated Koberger to a new venture of book-illustration, when he planned out the Schatzbehalter and the JVeltchronik , with Hartmann Schedel as editor of the latter, and intrusted the drawing of the illustrations to the best artists at hand — the painters Wolgemut and Pleydenwurff. As these books were not published until 1490 and 1492 respectively, after the expiration of Diirer’s apprenticeship, he could scarcely have had much share in their production. Supposing that they occupied some years before completion, it is not impossible that he may have had, as an apprentice, some subordinate part in the work. Unfortunately for these books, the merit of the designs was ruined by the inefficiency of the wood-cutters in Koberger’s employment, as may be seen by comparing the drawing of The Creator in the Print Room at the British Museum with the printed frontispiece of the Chronicle. The only painting of importance known to have been produced in Wolgemut’s studio during Diirer’s apprenticeship is the so-called Peringsdorffer altarpiece, now in the German Museum at Nuremberg, a work of great merit and interest, which must have been executed before the young Diirer’s eyes. There are but few traces of Durer’s work as a boy artist. The most I 4 THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER interesting is the portrait of himself (in the Albertina collection at Vienna) at the age of thirteen, drawn in silver point from a reflection in a looking-glass, an amazing production for a boy of that age. A some- what older portrait of himself has just been discovered at Erlangen, a head resting on his hand, drawn with the pen, evidently also from a looking-glass, with a large composition of the Holy Family drawn with the pen on the other side of the same sheet of paper. This drawing Portrait of Albrecht Diirer when a boy. From a drawing by himself in the University Library at Erlangen. shows a great advance in the art ; though a mere sketch, the drawing of the hand is masterly, and it must be ascribed to a time when the young D iirer had acquired some training, probably during his apprenticeship to Wolgemut. Another drawing (in Berlin), signed and dated 1485, repre- sents the Virgin and Child enthroned, with an angel playing music on either side, and a somewhat similar drawing is in the Louvre at Paris. A fourth drawing in pencil (in the British Museum) of a woman with a THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER I S hawk on her wrist is inscribed by another hand: “ This also is old. Albrecht Diirer did it for me before he came to the painter, in Wolgemut’s house on the upper story in the hinderhouse, in the presence of Conrad Lomayr, deceased.” A few other pen-drawings have also been preserved — one of three soldiers (at Berlin), a riding-party (at Bremen), and a courier (in the British Museum). These are all what may be termed engraver’s drawings, drawn in outline and shaded with cross-hatchings, as if they had been done by Martin Schongauer. Diirer’s father seems not only to have been acquainted with Schongauer’s engrav- ings, but to have been in correspondence with Schongauer himself, and the style of these early drawings of Diirer, and many of the designs of Wolgemut and Pleydenwurff, show that Schongauer’s engravings must have been regular subjects of study among the pupils in that studio. These drawings show that even at this date Diirer studied the works of other artists, but never merely copied, always working up his notes into original compositions of his own. Diirer’s apprenticeship to Wolgemut terminated towards the close of the year 1489. “ When I had completed my service,” he says, “ my father sent me away, and I remained absent four years, until my father summoned me back.” He left Nuremberg after Easter in 1490, and returned after Whitsuntide in 1494. It was the custom in Germany for all young men who intended entering on a trade after the completion of their apprenticeship ( Lehrjahre ) to go away from home for a similar period ( JVanderjahre ) and acquire what knowledge they could of the trade on which they were going to embark, in places and from persons away from their own immediate surroundings. It has been a matter of some dispute as to how Diirer spent his years of wandering. Fortunately, a friend and contemporary of Diirer, Christoph Scheurl, a leading man of letters and humanist in Nuremberg, has left an explicit statement of how part of Diirer’s time was occupied. Noticing a statement made by the historian Wimpfeling in 1503, to the effect that Diirer had learnt engraving from Martin Schongauer, Scheurl questioned Diirer himself about the matter. Diirer informed Scheurl that when he was thirteen years old his father had intended to send him eventually to study under Schongauer at Colmar, and had even written to Schongauer on the subject, but that Schongauer died just about the time when Diirer had completed THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER 16 his three years’ apprenticeship to Wolgemut. However, Diirer, in 1492, after travelling through Germany, went all the same to Colmar, and was hospitably received by Schongauer’s brothers, the goldsmiths Caspar and Paul, and the painter Ludwig, as he was also at Basle by another brother, the goldsmith Georg Schongauer. Martin Schongauer, however, Diirer never even saw, so that he could never have been his pupil. From this it is evident that Diirer’s father, being well acquainted with Schongauer as an engraver, intended his son, after completing his drawing studies with Wolgemut, to go and study in Schongauer’s school at Colmar. It is now known that Schongauer died at Breisach on the Rhine early in 1491, but that his school of engraving was carried on by his brother Ludwig. Diirer therefore, although he could not have the advantage of instruction from the great Martin himself, did the next best thing, by coming all the same to study in the Schongauer school at Colmar. It is uncertain what places he had previously visited in Germany, but it is highly probable that his travels were directed by his godfather Koberger, who was in communication with every important town in Germany, and in constant employment of young men like Diirer as travellers in the 1 This passage is seldom quoted at length. It occurs in Scheurl’s letter, “ De Vita et Obitu Reverendi Patris Antonii Kressen, &c.,” printed in Goldast’s edition of the Life and Works of Willibald Pirkheimer. It runs as follows: “ Et in magno precio habuit Albertum Durer Nuremberga, quem ego Germanum Appellem per excellentiam appellare soleo. Testes mihi sunt, ut reliquos taceo, Bononienses pictores, qui illi in faciem me audiente publice principatum picturae in universo orbe detulerunt, affirmantes jucundius se morituros viso tamdiu desiderato Alberto. Testis liber quem de ratione pingendi post Appellem nostro aevo solus perscripsit, de quo pictores judicant et potentes. Mihi in meo suavissimo Durer non minus grata sunt ingenuina probitas, facundia, eomitas, f acilitas, humanitas. Itaque unum prasterire nequeo. Jacobus Vimphelingius nunquam a me sine honoris praefatione nominandus capite 68 Epitomatis Germanorum tradit Albertum nostrum usum esse prteceptore Martino Schon Columbariensi, ceterum Albertum ad me, hoc significantem, scribit, saepe etiam coram testatur, patrem Albertum, is ex vico Cula prope Veradium civitatem Hungariae natus erat, destinasse quidem se adolescentulum, tertium decimum annum natum, Martino Schon ob celebrem famam in disciplinam traditurum fuisse, et ad eum eius rei gratia dedisse etiam litteras, qui tamen sub id tempus excesserit undi ipse in Gymnasio utriusqe nostrum vicini et municipis Michaelis Wolgemuts triennio profecerit : tandem peragrata Germania, quum anno nonagesimo secundo Colmariam venisset a Caspare et Paulo aurifabris et Ludovico pictore, item etiam Basileae a Georgio aurifabro, Martini fratribus, susceptus sit, benigne atque humane tractatus. Ceterum Martini discipulum minime fuisse, immo ne vidisse quidem, attamen videre desiderasse vehementer.” THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER l l bookselling trade. It is certain that at some time Diirer visited Strasburg 1 2 and Basle, where two of Koberger’s chief correspondents were in business — Griininger at Strasburg and Amerbach at Basle. Moreover, these two printers were the chief continuers of Koberger’s enterprise in books illus- trated by the best artists, of whom there was at the time no large choice. Diirer therefore could have got plenty of employment both in designing ERRATUM. In th t. Portfolio for September Gainsborough’s portrait of Lady Mary Carr , reproduced by kind permission of Mr. Tooth, was wronglv entitled “Lady Ray.” 01 me rater illustrations lu trie ix urernuerg rnr cuiriTuniK auu m tnc drawings and engravings of the so-called “ Master of the Amsterdam Cabinet ” mentioned above. That so intelligent a writer as Sebastian Brant, who supervised the printing and illustration of his own works, should have perceived the value of Diirer’s draughtsmanship is very probable indeed. Although evidence has been strongly, almost passionately, brought to show the contrary, it seems to be clearly proved that the latter portion of Diirer’s Wanderjahre was spent in Venice. Venice was one of the chief centres of the printing world, in fact of the whole world’s commerce. German merchants from Venice, Augsburg, and the Hanse Towns mustered there in such force that a special building was reserved for their accommodation, the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, adjoining the Rialto, where they were enjoined by the Venetian Government to reside. Many merchants resided there as general 1 It has been ascertained that Georg Schongauer, the goldsmith, and his wife Apollonia left Basle and settled at Strasburg, where according to an old tradition Diirer worked under him, and painted their portraits. 2 See D. Burckhardt, Ditrers Aufentkalt in Basel. B THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER 16 his three years’ apprenticeship to Wolgemut. However, Durer, in 1492, after travelling through Germany, went all the same to Colmar, and was hospitably received by Schongauer’s brothers, the goldsmiths Caspar and Paul, and the painter Ludwig, as he was also at Basle by another brother, the goldsmith Georg Schongauer. Martin Schongauer, however, Diirer never even saw, so that he could never have been his pupil. From this it is evident that Diirer’s father, being well acquainted with Schongauer 1 This passage is seldom quoted at length. It occurs in Scheurl’s letter, “De Vita et Obitu Reverendi Patris Antonii Kressen, &c.,” printed in Goldast’s edition of the Life and Works of Willibald Pirkheimer. It runs as follows: “ Et in magno precio habuit Albertum Durer Nuremberga, quem ego Germanum Appellem per excellentiam appellare soleo. Testes mihi sunt, ut reliquos taceo, Bononienses pictores, qui illi in faciem me audiente publice principatum picturas in universo orbe detulerunt, affirmantes jucundius se morituros viso tamdiu desiderato Alberto. Testis liber quem de ratione pingendi post Appellem nostro aevo solus perscripsit, de quo pictores judicant et potentes. Mihi in meo suavissimo Durer non minus grata sunt ingenuina probitas, facundia, comitas, f acilitas, humanitas. Itaque unum praeterire nequeo. Jacobus Vimphelingius nunquam a me sine honoris prasfatione nominandus capite 68 Epitomatis Germanorum tradit Albertum nostrum usum esse prsceptore Martino Schon Columbariensi, ceterum Albertum ad me, hoc significantem, scribit, saepe ctiam coram testatur, patrem Albertum, is ex vico Cula prope Veradium civitatem Hungarias natus erat, destinasse quidem se adolescentulum, tertium decimum annum natum, Martino Schon ob celebrem famam in disciplinam traditurum fuisse, et ad eum eius rei gratia dedisse etiam litteras, qui tamen ■sub id tempus excesserit undi ipse in Gymnasio utriusqe nostrum vicini et municipis Michaelis Wolgemuts triennio profecerit : tandem peragrata Germania, quum anno nonagesimo secundo Colmariam venisset a Caspare et Paulo aurifabris et Ludovico pictore, item etiam Basileae a Georgio aurifabro, Martini fratribus, susceptus sit, benigne atque humane tractatus. Ceterum Martini discipulum minime fuisse, immo ne vidisse .quidem, attamen videre desiderasse vehementer.” THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER 17 bookselling trade. It is certain that at some time Diirer visited Strasburg 1 and Basle, where two of Koberger’s chief correspondents were in business — Griininger at Strasburg and Amerbach at Basle. Moreover, these two printers were the chief continuers of Koberger’s enterprise in books illus- trated by the best artists, of whom there was at the time no large choice. Diirer therefore could have got plenty of employment both in designing and cutting wood-blocks from either of these firms. That he did so at Basle is clear from a wood-block of St. Jerome, preserved in the museum there, which bears his name on the back, and was used for an edition of St. Jerome s Letters , published by Kessler, another of Koberger’s corre- spondents at Basle in 1492. A series of partially completed wood-blocks for use as illustrations to an edition of Terence are also preserved in the museum at Basle, and a large part of these have been credited to Diirer. 2 The conventional treatment of the figures and costume then in vogue makes it almost impossible to separate with certainty the works of various draughtsmen on wood at the time. The same features occur not only in the illustrations published at Basle and Strasburg, but also in some of the later illustrations to the Nuremberg JVeltchronik and in the drawings and engravings of the so-called “ Master of the Amsterdam Cabinet ” mentioned above. That so intelligent a writer as Sebastian Brant, who supervised the printing and illustration of his own works, should have perceived the value of Diirer’s draughtsmanship is very probable indeed. Although evidence has been strongly, almost passionately, brought to show the contrary, it seems to be clearly proved that the latter portion of Diirer’s JVanderjahre was spent in Venice. Venice was one of the chief centres of the printing world, in fact of the whole world’s commerce. German merchants from Venice, Augsburg, and the Hanse Towns mustered there in such force that a special building was reserved for their accommodation, the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, adjoining the Rialto, where they were enjoined by the Venetian Government to reside. Many merchants resided there as general 1 It has been ascertained that Georg Schongauer, the goldsmith, and his wife Apollonia left Basle and settled at Strasburg, where according to an old tradition Diirer worked under him, and painted their portraits. 2 See D. Burckhardt, Diirers Aufentkalt hi Basel. B 1 8 THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER agents, among whom was Anthoni Kolb, a native of Nuremberg, and one of Koberger’s chief friends and correspondents. Diirer, as Koberger s godson, would naturally have a strong recommendation to Kolb, and a warm welcome from the merchants of Nuremberg. Painting in Venice had just commenced that era of progress and increasing glory which was inaugurated by the introduction of the secret of oil-colours by Antonello da Messina, was continued and brought to a higher pitch of excellence by Gentile and Giovanni Bellini, and reached its culmination in the works of Giorgione and Titian. At the time of Diirer’s first visit the Bellinis were the chief power in Venetian painting, though their rule was shared by that great pioneer in art, their brother-in-law Andrea Mantegna, at Padua. It is known that Diirer had intercourse with Giovanni Bellini, but the painter with whom he was brought into most close association was one Jacopo dei Barbari, or de Barbaris, known familiarly to his fellow-countrymen as Jacometto, and to his German friends as Jakob Walch, that being the word always used by Diirer in his letters to signify an Italian. Barbari was about twenty years older than Diirer, and apparently already an acquaintance of Kolb. He had a considerable reputation as a painter of portraits and illuminations, and was noted for the minuteness and delicacy of his painting, though his colouring, at least in his later works executed in Germany, was very cold and thin. He was however certainly one of the leading painters in Venice before the suns of Giorgione and Titian had risen, and a writer in J 5 2 9> ^e “ Anonimo ” of the Abbate Morelli, does not hesitate to assign to him the exquisite little painting of St. Jerome in his Study , recently acquired by the National Gallery, but now accredited with every possible authority to the great Antonello da Messina himself, whose pupil Barbari 1 1 Although there is no reason for doubting the ascription of this interesting painting to Antonello da Messina, it is interesting to quote the “Anonimo’s ” own words, since he wrote as far back as 1529. The picture was then in the house of Antonio Pasqualino at Venice. “El quadretto del S. Jeronimo che nel studio legge, in abito cardinalesco, alcuni credono che el sii stato di mano di Antonello da Messina ; ma li piu, e piii veri- similmente, 1 attribuiscono a Gianes, ovvero al Memelin, pittor antico ponentino ; e cussi mostra quella maniera, benche el volto e finito alia italiana ; sicche pare de mano de Jacometto. Li edifici sono alia ponentina, el paesetto e naturale, minuto e finito, e si vede oltra una finestra, e oltra la porta del studio e pur fugge : e tutta l’opera, per sottilita, colori, disegno, forza, rilevo, e perfetta. Ivi sono ritratti un pavone, un cotorno e un bacil da barbiero espressamente. Nel scabcllo vi c finta una letterina THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER J 9 may have been. Barbari was not only a painter, but also an engraver of merit. His engravings stand alone among the works of his contempor- aries, and, though clearly influenced both by the technical execution and the antique paganism of Mantegna, have an originality of types quite their own, and a style of engraving which approaches more nearly to the northern school than to Mantegna. The half-open mouths and sentimental pose of his figures, with their languorous limbs and clinging drapery, are in strong contrast to the robust and buxom vitality which one asso- ciates with Venetian art. Barbari it was who first introduced Diirer to the proportions and measurements of the human body as a subject for study. Diirer has recorded how, when Barbari first showed him the male and female figure drawn according to measurement, he would rather have had it explained to him than received a new kingdom. Like Keats in his sonnet on Chapman’s Homer, Diirer may have said — Then felt I like some watcher of the skies When a new planet swims within his ken. Barbari however refused to explain the whole thing clearly to Diirer, who wanted to get it printed “ for Barbari’s honour and for common use.” Diirer therefore being young and ignorant, but already a devoted art- student, racked his brains to try and work the matter out, and finally, after reading what Vitruvius had to say upon the matter, began that course of original studies on the subject which formed his most absorbing occupation throughout life . 1 attaccata aperta, che pare contener el nome del maestro, e nondimeno, se si gaarda sottilmente appresso, non contiene lettera alcuna, ma e tutta finta. Altri credono che la figura sii stata rifatta da Jacometto Veneziano.” ( Notizia d'opere di disegno, pubblicata e illustrata da D. Jacopo Morelli. Seconda edizione . . . di G. Frizzoni, Bologna 1884.) The suggestion might be hazarded that the barber’s basin in the front of the picture is a canting device on the name Barbari or Barberino. It has been doubted by some critics whether the painter Jacometto and Jacopo dei Barbari are the same person. 1 Durer’s statement is also seldom quoted at length. It occurs in one of the draught dedications to Pirkheimer of Durer’s book on Proportion , and is among the manuscripts in the British Museum. “Idoch so ich keinen find, der do Etwas beschrieben hatt van Menschlicher Mass zu machen, dann einen Mann, Jacobus genennt, van Venedig geborn, ein lieblicher Moler, Der wies mir Mann und Weib, die er aus der Mass gemacht hatt und dass ich auf diese Zeit liebr sehen wollt, was sein Meinung war gewest dann ein neu Kunigreich, und wenn ichs hatt, so wollt ich ihms zu Ehren in Druck bringen, gemeinen Nutz zu gut. Aber ich was zu derselben Zeit noch jung und hatt nie van solchem Ding gehort. Und die Kunst ward mir fast lieben, und nahm die Ding B 2 20 THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER Durer’s sojourn in Venice was terminated by a summons from his father to return home. He has left an interesting record of his travels in the portrait of himself painted in 1493, and now in the collection of Herr Eugen Felix at Leipzig. Here we see Diirer as he appeared to the Venetians, already displaying a love of fine clothes, and holding in his hand a sprig of blue eryngium (the Mannertreue of Germany). This portrait was originally painted on parchment, like a drawing of the Child Christ in the Albertina collection at Vienna which bears the same date. Over a copy of this portrait no less a personage than Goethe was once moved to enthusiasm. Such paintings on parchment were much in vogue in Basle at this date, so that it is probable that these two paintings were executed during Diirer’s stay in that town. Diirer brought home with him from Venice several careful copies of engravings by Mantegna and the Paduan school, showing how deep an impression that great artist and student of the antique had made upon Durer’s mind with his novelties of perspective and audacious feats of draughtsmanship. zu Sinn, wie man solche Ding mocht zu Wegen bringen. Dann mir wollt dieser vorgemeldt Jacobus seinen Grund nit klarlich anzeigen, das merket ich wol an ihm. Doch nahm ich mein eigen Ding filr mich und las den Fitrufium, der beschreibt ein Wenig van der Gliedmass eines Manns. Also van oder aus den zweien obgenannten Mannen hab ich meinen Anfang genummen, und hab dornoch aus meinen Furnehmen gesucht van Tag zu Tag .” — See Lange and Fuhse’s Durer’s Sckriftlicher Naehlass, Halle, 1893. Portrait oj in the collection of Albrecht Dllrer Herr in 1493 ; from Eugen Felix at the painting Leipzig. CHAPTER II Marriage — Early engravings — Influence of Barbari— Early paintings— Early woodcuts The Reformation — Pirkheimer— The Apocalypse — Adam and Eve — The Life of Mary. The cause of Diirer’s peremptory summons home was soon apparent. ‘‘After my return,” writes Diirer, “ Hans Frey came to terms with my father, and gave me his daughter Agnes, and two hundred gulden with her, and we were married on the Monday before St. Margaret’s day (July 7), in 1494.” Diirer was now twenty-three years of age, and, though his early drawings show a wonderful amount of skill for his age, there is no trace of that precocity of productiveness which characterised some of his con- temporaries, for instance Lucas van Leyden. Diirer was still more of a student than a practical artist. What he studied he absorbed into his mind, digested so to speak, and drew upon for use at subsequent periods. He was now, however, brought face to face with the struggles and difficulties of life. His father was a poor and industrious man, with a wife and two growing boys still to provide for. Hans Frey, though a man of good position, was a dilettante dabbler in various mechanical crafts, and it may be doubted whether Agnes Frey brought to her husband at any time more than her wedding dowry of two hundred gulden. The young couple found a home under Diirer’s father’s roof, and no doubt were also called upon to contribute to the economy of the Diirer household. In painting, to succeed in which was the goal of Diirer’s ambitions, he had made as yet but little progress. He could have learnt in Venice, but hardly yet had time to practise, the art of oil-painting in the manner of Antonello da Messina, but his early works are executed in the old THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER 23 “tempera” manner, as in the altarpiece at Dresden. When he took to oil-painting he practised it chiefly on portraits. It was to engraving that Ddrer turned for a livelihood. There are no traces of his having executed or published any engravings on copper before his return to Nuremberg and his marriage in 1494. One is tempted to see in an anonymous engraving with four nude studies for figures of Adam and Eve an early experiment on copper by Albrecht Diirer, so striking is the resemblance of the head in the figure of Adam to that in Durer’s own portrait of 1493. Expert authorities however have shown that the technical execution of the engraving is not only quite different from that of Diirer, but is also in close affinity to one or two other contemporary engravers. Dismissing this engraving, of which the only impression is in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris, there remain several engravings which must have been executed between the summer of 1494 and 1497, the latter date being the first which appears on any plate engraved by Diirer. In his early engravings Diirer remains faithful to the method of the Schongauer school, the firm, rather hard, and dry goldsmith’s touch and line. The freedom and almost violence of Mantegna’s parallel strokes of shading seem to have been alien to the more reserved and concentrating temperament of Diirer. Although a practised and accurate draughtsman, Diirer shows in his earliest prints an inexperience in the actual engraving which can only be accounted for by the supposition that they were literally his first attempts at copperplate-engraving. Perhaps the earliest in date is the unsigned print of Death as a Ravisher , which is entirely in Diirer’s manner, though some have declined to admit it as his work. In this, one of the manifold representations of the omnipresence and omnipotence of Death, which had so powerful a hold on the popular imagination at this date, the figure of Death is Durer’s own conception, not a gibbering skeleton as in Holbein’s work, but the ragged corpse-like wild man of the woods, whom we meet again in The Four Riders of the Apocalypse, The Knight , Death , and the Devil , and The Arms of Death. Next come three engravings, which bear Durer’s monogram in its earliest forms — The Love-Bargain , a familiar study of sensuality and avarice, and The Six Soldiers , signed and The Holy Family with the Locust , signed 7k- In the last, which may possibly be the earliest of all, there is an 24 THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT PURER attempt to cope with difficulties of grouping and perspective which has not been wholly successful. The unsuccessful foreshortening of rhe hgure of Joseph in this last engraving lends some colour to the views of those who would see in the engravings of The Great Courier and The Conversion of St. Paul 1 early and unsuccessful attempts of Differ as an engraver. With these four early engravings may be grouped The Promenade , another Death subject, in which a handsome pair of lovers walk uncon- scious of the vicinity and menaces of the common enemy. These five engravings, with their landscape backgrounds, show a distinct attempt to produce a picturesque effect on the copper, an advance already on the Schongauer school, where the skill of the engraver was chiefly exercised in the simple representation of the subject. Next came a group of small engravings, treated more delicately and in the Schongauer manner — that is to say, in simple line without the introduction of a landscape background, and in general handling rather suggestive of the work of Jacopo dei Barbari : these are The Peasant and his Wife , The Three Peasants , The Cook and the Housekeeper , The Oriental Family, and The Little Fortune. The last is probably, if the Adam and Eve studies be set aside, Diirer’s first engraving of the nude. It is noteworthy that in three of these early engravings — Death as a Ravisher , The Holy Family with the Locust , and The Little Fortune — a plant of eryngium occurs similar to that held in Diirer’s hand in his portrait of 1493. Two small engravings with landscape backgrounds may be classed with these early prints — The Lady on Horseback with a Lanzknecht and The Little Courier, and with these The Monstrous Pig, important to those to whom the fixing of dates is the chief object, since this abortion is known to have actually been born in 1496. Perhaps a little later come three larger and more ambitious composi- tions, more genuinely pictures on copper than those mentioned before The Penitence of St. John Chrysostom (sometimes known erroneously as St. Genevieve ), St. Jerome in Penitence , and The Prodigal Son. The last is a well-known and popular engraving, for which a preliminary drawing exists in the British Museum. Both drawing and engraving show the same fault in the drawing of the Prodigal’s limbs, and testify to the fidelity with which Diirer transferred his carefully prepared drawings on to the 1 The only known impressions of these are in the Print Room at Dresden. 26 THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER copper. Here Diirer displays that mingling of pathos and humour which is so stimulating to human sympathy. The delightful and yet wholly unobtrusive humour of the pigs is an excellent foil to the haggard and heartrending expression of the poor prodigal. The Prodigal Son. From a drawing by A. Durer, in the Print Room , British Museum. In the St. Jerome a new phase commences of Diirer’s career as an engraver. No student of the engravings by Jacopo dei Barbari can fail to be struck by the similarity between the figure of St. Jerome and some of those in Barbari’s engravings. It appears to be certain that during the THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER 27 last few years of the fifteenth century Barbari visited Nuremberg and resided there some time. Many of his engravings are printed on the same paper which was used by Diirer, though this does not necessarily prove that they were printed in Nuremberg, since the paper could easily have been obtained in the Fondaco dei Tedeschi at Venice. But from this time for a period Diirer’s engravings show distinct traces of the influence of Barbari, and the presence of Barbari at Nuremberg would make the personal association of the two artists for this period very probable. Barbari, as the older man, naturally influenced Diirer, especially in his choice of subjects, his types of face, and treatment of the nude. Diirer’s training as a goldsmith no doubt helped him to see that the delicate graver-work of Barbari, however useful for artistic fame, was of inferior commercial value to the firmer and more durable work of the Schongauer school. To this, which may be termed the Barbari period of Diirer’s career, belong the four prints The Rape of Amymone ( Das Meerwunder), Hercules ( Eifersucht or Hahnreih ), The Four Naked Women , and The Dream, all remarkable for the studies of the nude, the elaborate landscape back- grounds and accessories, and the general obscurity of their meaning. In the Hercules certain figures are taken directly from a drawing adapted from a North Italian engraving of The Death of Orpheus , and brought home by Diirer from Italy in 1494 ; the figure of Deianeira (if this be the right interpretation) is borrowed from the drawn copy of Mantegna’s Fight of Tritons of the same date. The whole composition is, however, worked up into a group which is thoroughly Diirer’s own, and forms perhaps the most important and instructive of his early engravings. The subject is obscure, and it is sometimes called The Effects of Jealousy ( Eifersucht ) ; but it is spoken of by Diirer himself as Ercules, and prob- ably is a mediaeval rendering of the story of Nessus and Deianeira, a similar subject occurring in later series of the Labours of Hercules, one in a series of French engravings attributed to Geoffrey Tory, and executed about I529 % being obviously based on Diirer’s composition. In The Rape of Amymone (the Meerwunder, as Diirer himself calls it) a nude nymph is borne away on the back of Glaucus, a marine deity ; the composition offers similar types, but still greater affinity to the work of Barbari. It appears to be based on a drawing of The Rape of Europa, which is accompanied on 28 THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER the same sheet by some studies of lions’ heads, traditionally said to have been done in Venice, and two figures immediately copied from Barbari. This group was probably altered by Diirer to the more obscure fable, in order to introduce the figure of Glaucus with its resemblance to Barbari’s T riton and Nymph. In The Four Naked IVomen , the first engraving by Diirer with a date, and also the first which bears his monogram in its familiar state, the same female type occurs : the group with its enigma- tical meaning, which perhaps Diirer would alone be able to explain, is probably nothing more than a group of nude studies which, by the addition of a few emblematical accessories, has been converted by Diirer into an allegory of obscure import. It is characteristic of much of Diirer’s engraved work that the central motive of the work is to present some study in draughtsmanship, and by adding certain accessory objects — what he himself would call his “ traumwerk ” — to invest the whole com- position with a mysterious significance. So in The Dream the nude female figure is obviously the chief motive, the allegory of the sleeping student being analogous to that in Barbari’s engraving Custodi nos dormientes. The popularity and commercial success of Diirer’s engravings are shown by the rapidity with which pirate copies were made and put upon the market. The chief purveyors of these copies were Israhel van Meckenem, a goldsmith of Bocholt in Westphalia, where he kept a workshop, from which, until his death in 1 503, issued numerous copies of the engravings of the Master E. S., Martin Schongauer, and eventually Diirer ; and Wenzel von Olmiitz, 1 who devoted his attention chiefly to the works of Schongauer, the Master P. W. of Cologne, and Diirer. Copies by Meckenem exist of The Holy Family with the Locust , The Promenade, and The Four Naked Women. The last two were also copied by Wenzel with Hercules , The Rape of Amy mone, The Dream , and others of Diirer’s early engravings. It is an argument against the publication of Barbari’s engravings in Nuremberg or anywhere in Germany that had 1 It is perhaps necessary to point out that the otherwise admirable Life of Diirer by the late Dr. M. Thausing of Vienna (translated into English and edited by F. A. Eaton) is marred by an unfortunate identification of the engraver W. with M.Wolgemut, Diirer’s master, instead of with the mere copyist Wenzel, whose authorship of these engravings has been clearly proved by Dr. Max Lehrs of Dresden. THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER 29 they been known and circulated in Germany they could hardly have escaped the vigilance of these and other pirates. Allusion has been made to the elaborate landscape backgrounds of some of these engravings. Diirer was from an early age a careful student of nature, and a number of drawings have been preserved, views of scenery in or near Nuremberg, which are minutely executed in a kind of gouache or in water-colours, perhaps the earliest use of these for purely pictorial art, as opposed to that of the illuminist or miniature-painter. In the British Museum there is a fascinating drawing of the river Pegnitz near Nuremberg, in which there stands on an island one of those tall gabled houses which formed part of the outworks of a fortified city. This building, the “Weierhaus” of the drawing, existed until quite lately. It was introduced by Diirer into the background of one of his most attractive engravings, The Virgin and Child with the Monkey, one which was quickly pirated by Wenzel von Olmiitz and others. Diirer’s hand was now strong and precise upon the copper, and the smaller engravings of The Virgin with Flowing Hair on a Crescent, the two St. Sebastians, The Virgin and St. Anne, Justice, The Standard Bearer, and The Man of Sorrows, all executed in the simple line manner, show a great advance on the smaller prints of a few years back. Copperplate-engraving by no means occupied all Durer’s time. Painting was still his most cherished art, the Mantegna-like altarpiece at Dresden being his first important work, in which the centre group of the Virgin and Child is full of the small incidents of German home-life which Diirer so frequently introduced, while the figures of St. Anthony and St. Sebastian on the wings are powerful studies from the life. In this picture also occur the child-angels in which Diirer specially delighted. For the next few years his paintings were chiefly portraits, such as those of his father (1497), now at Sion House ; more than one portrait of a fair Madonna-like maiden of the Fiirleger family ; various members of the Tucher family ; the wonderful portrait of Oswolt Krell (1499), now at Munich ; and his own portrait in gaily coloured dress (1498), now at Madrid. With his pen and pencil he was never idle, and wood-engraving now revealed to him special opportunities for the use of his skill as a draughtsman. The Briefmaler and Formschneider , male and female, were well known in Nuremberg among craftsmen for 30 THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER many years before Diirer. The art of wood-engraving had risen little above the level of a mechanical craft until the time of Koberger, who first called in the assistance of superior draughtsmen. It was Diirer, however, who by perfecting the skill of the wood-engraver and by means of his own admirable designs on the woodblock first brought the art to rank high in the hierarchy of the arts. Before his time, the woodcut as a separate picture in black and white, independent of colour, unaccom- panied by explanatory text, and used for ornamental and not for mere utilitarian purposes, could hardly be said to exist. Diirer, as has been seen, very probably worked in his boyhood as a Briefmaler or Formschneider for Koberger at Nuremberg, and almost certainly for Amerbach at Basle : witness the St. Jerome woodblock of 1492. At Venice he would have seen what beautiful results could be obtained by care both in designing and cutting the woodblocks for the ornaments and illustrations of books. In Venice, too, were produced at this date fine woodcuts on a very large scale ; but it is doubtful whether any of these were published anterior to The Apocalypse of Diirer. So Diirer now set up for himself a working studio in his father’s house at Nuremberg, and, bringing his own early training to bear on his assistants, inaugurated a new era of wood-engraving as a pictorial art. The earliest woodcut thus produced by Diirer appears to be The Men s Bath , a group of nude men in one of the open-air public baths in Nuremberg. The town was noted for its many baths in the ever- useful Pegnitz, and its cobbler poet, Hans Sachs, chronicles these public baths as among its chief glories. Here no doubt came Diirer very often in pursuit of his studies of the nude. The drawing of this woodcut, and that for The Womens Bath , dated 1496, and preserved at Bremen, of which a woodcut also exists, though possibly not published in Diirer’s lifetime, were made in this way, and the engraving of The Four Naked Women , mentioned before, was probably composed from similar studies. Drawings of these baths also exist, done by Diirer in later years. The youthful spectator gazing over the palisade in The Men s Bath is perhaps the young artist himself. On the same scale, and drawn in the same bold and masterly manner, are the woodcuts of Samson and the Lion , The Martyrdom of St. Catherine , The Martyrdom of the Ten Thousand Saints in Nicomedia, Hercules (another obscure version THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER 3i of one of the Labours ), The Knight and Foot-soldier (an equestrian study- similar to, though on a larger scale, the engravings of The Little Courier and The Lady on Horseback ), and The Holy Family with the Hares , in which the animals disport themselves in gay insouciance of the solemnity The Virgin and Child. Woodcut title-page to “ The Life of Alary f by A. D'urer [reduced). of their surroundings. But Diirer was meanwhile planning a work to be engraved on wood which has remained one of the great achievements of the graphic arts, which called out all his artistic skill and invention, and which reflects not only the internal thoughts and aspirations of Diirer’s 32 THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER own mind, but the sentiments and emotions of the age in which he lived. This was the famous series of illustrations to The Apocalypse, the trumpet-call, or reveille , as it may be called, of the Reformation. Two events of singular importance occurred during Diirer’s Wander- jahre — the accessions of a new Pope and a new Emperor. Under any circumstances these events would have been exciting enough, but the characters of the two men thus elevated were so remarkable that there was hardly a human being in the civilised world who was not in some way or other affected by them. In 1492 the infamous Roderigo Borgia was elected Pope under the title of Alexander VI., and in August 1493 Maximilian of Austria, who had already acquired by marriage the sovereignty of the Netherlands, succeeded his father as Emperor of Germany. The excesses and exactions of the Papacy soon began to excite murmurs of disapprobation, especially in Germany, where the printing- press had now opened the gates of knowledge to the laity and afforded a channel for the expression of criticism and free thought. From the printing-presses at Nuremberg, Augsburg, and Basle there poured forth a stream of literature with which all the allied powers of autocracy and priesthood were inadequate to cope. Theology no longer kept the key turned on the human intellect. The writings of the ancients in poetry and philosophy, the Liter a Humaniores of the schools, brought men to consider man for man’s sake, as well as for God’s. Authors of their own country began to be read as well as the classics or the writings of the Church Fathers. No town was so well adapted to receive and foster the new ideas as Nuremberg, with its burgher government and commerical intercourse with other countries, and by its daily practice of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The great book-merchant of Nuremberg, Koberger, must be regarded as one of the pioneers of the Reformation. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that his godson Albrecht Differ was on terms of friendship with the leading men of culture and learning in Nuremberg. Among these were Conrad Celtes, Maximilian’s poet laureate ; Peter Dannhauser, author of the Archetypus Triumphantis Rom‘ v ■iitufli me iblLIBALDI-PIRREYWVHERI- EFFIGiES ! , • AETATI5 • SYAE- ANNO • L • ij i • VIYITYTG Ingeki o • gaeteraayortis > •ERVN.T- A'Ss® THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER 77 whom he seems to have intended to immortalise on copper, were Eobanus Hesse, of whom a woodcut exists from a drawing by Diirer, Christian Portrait of Albrecht Diirer. From a woodcut published after his death [reduced). of Denmark, &c., but his work as a copperplate-engraver was now at an end. 78 THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER Once more did painting monopolise his attention. He conceived the idea of four great figures, representing his favourite subject of the Four Temperaments, as represented by the Apostles Peter, John, Paul, and Mark. These he painted on two great upright panels, and presented to the Town Council of Nuremberg, though they have since found their way to Munich. When Diirer’s creative powers as an artist began to fail him, he set to work to put in order the numerous notes and studies he had made throughout his life on Measurement and Proportion. Among the scraps of manuscript which have been preserved is the following scheme for a magnum opus on the theory and practice of art : — Ten things are contained in the little book : — The first, the proportions of a young child. The second, proportions of a grown man. The third, proportions of a woman. The fourth, proportions of a horse. The fifth, something about architecture. The sixth, about an apparatus through which it can be shown that all things may be traced. The seventh, about light and shade. The eighth, about colours ; how to paint like nature. The ninth, about the composition of a picture. 1 he tenth, about free painting, which alone is made without any help from the understanding. The result of his labours was that in 1525 he published a kind of preliminary work entitled The Teaching of Measurements by Rule and Compass in Lines , Planes , and Solids, compiled by Albrecht Diirer, and printed with illustrations for the use of all lovers of art, in the year I 5 2 5 - 1 T- his was a work on geometry, and Durer paid special attention to the illustrations, since, as he says in the text, “ anything which you see is more credible than what you hear, and when both seen and heard it is easier to remember. He then took in hand the four books on Human 1 Underweysung der Messung mit dem zirckel uii richtscheyt in Linien ebnen unnd gantzen corporen durch Albrecht Diirer zusamcn gctzoge und zu Nutz allc kunstliebhabenden mit zugehorigen figuren in truck gebracht im Jar Mnxxv. 79 THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER Proportions , but in the meantime put forth in 1527 a treatise on The Art of Fortification } He had only completed for the press one out of the four volumes of Human Proportions at the time of his death, but the work was seen through the press and completed by Pirkheimer in 15 28. 2 His studies on the proportions of a horse remained incomplete and unpublished, and were eventually stolen or appropriated by Hieronymus Andreae and Hans Sebald Beham, who would have published them for their own profit and credit, had not Diirer’s widow obtained an injunction against them from the Town Council. Another work, intended to be called A Banquet {or Dish) for Toung Painters , remains only in fragments. This work would seem however to have been completed, for Camerarius, in the eulogy of Durer from which quotations have already been made, says that “ if I find that my industry and devotion in this matter meet with my readers’ approval, I shall be encouraged to translate into Latin the rest of Albrecht’s treatise on painting, a work at once more finished and more laborious than the present. Moreover, his writings on other subjects will also be looked for, his Geometries and Teichismatics, in which he explained the fortification of towns according to the system of the present day. These however appear to be all the subjects on which he wrote books. As to the promise which I hear certain persons are making, in conversation or in writing, to publish a book by Durer on the sym- metry of the parts of the horse, I cannot but wonder from what source they will obtain after his death what he never completed during his life. Although I am well aware that Albrecht had begun to investigate the law of truth in this matter too, and had made a certain number of measurements, I also know that he lost all he had done through the treachery of certain persons, by whose means it came about that the author’s notes were stolen, so that he never cared to begin the work afresh. He had a suspicion, or rather a certainty, as to the source whence came the drones who had invaded his store, but the great man preferred to hide his knowledge to his own loss and pain rather than to lose sight of generosity 1 Etliche underricht zu befestigung der Stett Schloss und flecken. . . . Gedriickt zu Niirenberg nach der Geburt Christi Anno mcccccxxvii in dem Monat October. 2 Hjerin sind begriffen vier biicher von menschlicher Proportion durch Albrechten Diirer von Niirenberg erfunden und beschriben zu nutz alien denen, so zu diser kunst lieb tragen, mdxxviij. 8o THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER and kindness in the pursuit of his enemies. We shall not therefore suffer anything that may appear to be attributed to Albrecht’s authorship, un- worthy as it must evidently be of so great an artist.” Diirer’s labours were terminated rather suddenly by his death, which occurred in Passion Week, on April 6, 1528. A woodcut portrait of him published after his death shows the extent to which he had been reduced by the ravages of disease. The face is worn and haggard, and the head has been shorn of those golden curls which were the glory of Diirer’s portraits, and made him famous among his fellow-citizens. It is usually supposed that Diirer died of an inflammation of the spleen, brought on by the malarious fever which he incurred during his visit to Zeeland. A drawing at Bremen seems to support this, in which he has drawn himself pointing to a large yellow spot near the left groin, and inscribed “ Where the yellow spot is to which my finger points, there it is that I feel pain.” It has been suggested, however, to the present writer that the recorded symptoms of Diirer’s illness point rather to the continuous presence of renal disease, and that he suffered for many years from the presence of a calculus or calculi in the left kidney. As far back as the year 1503 Durer had been attacked by illness, during which he suffered great pain, as is shown by a drawing of Christ in agony as The Man of Sorrows, which is inscribed by Diirer, “This I drew during my sickness,” and is evidently a record of his own suffering. The journey to the Netherlands, with its constant change of diet and mode of travelling, its feastings and wine-drinkings, and, finally, the long hurried ride and expedition by boat with the escape from shipwreck during the journey to Zeeland, would all have aggravated the existing ailment, and rendered him an easy victim to the malaria of the marshy coast. The fever, nausea, and headache from which Diirer subsequently suffered are all usual symptoms of the presence of such a disorder, and the sudden and peaceful passing away of a patient is, according to Dr. Norman Moore, a frequent occurrence in such cases. Many were the lamentations over his death. Those of Pirkheimer were loud and pathetic. Eobanus Hesse, one of the friends whose portraits Diirer drew, wrote an elegy on his death, which he sent to Luther, who replied in the touching words, that “ Christ had taken him away in good time from those stormy days, which were destined to be- come more stormy still.” Melanchthon added his voice to the chorus of THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER mourning. Erasmus alone was rather chilly in his reception of the news : perhaps he had not forgiven Diirer for the unflattering portrait mentioned before. Diirer was laid in the burying-place of the Frey family in the cemetery of St. John outside Nuremberg, where at a later date a monument was erected to mark the spot where his body had been laid. His widow and his chief assistant and wood-engraver, Hieronymus Andreae, carried on the trade in his engravings for several years. Hieronymus, as has been stated before, was concerned in the piratical abstraction of Diirer’s notes on the proportion of the horse. It was probably at his advice, or under his direction, that a great number of woodcuts were published after Diirer’s death bearing his well-known monogram, and many of them, no doubt, from drawings actually made by Diirer himself. In this branch of engraving it is sometimes difficult to separate the woodcuts published during Durer’s lifetime and under his superintendence from those furbished up by Hieronymus in the years immediately following Durer’s death. Many of those by Hans Schaufelein have been included among Diirer s works at a time when the tendency to pile on to the name of a great artist any work which could be said in the slightest degree to resemble his was as great as the present tendency among critics to eliminate any work which may seem to them of inferior value or inadequate execution in proportion to the estimate in which they hold the artist in question. What is beauty ? This was the question which Diirer asked himself daily throughout his life, and to which he could never find a satisfactory answer. “ Utility is an element of Beauty, he says, “ therefore what is useless in man is not beautiful. To judge of Beauty requires reflection. The standard of Beauty should, in my opinion, be like the standard of what is good.” Such are some of Diirer s scattered thoughts upon the subject. His final opinion was that no man on earth can positively affirm what the perfection of human beauty is. No one but God knows that, and he to whom God may reveal it. In truth, and in truth alone, lies the secret of what constitutes beauty and perfection of shape in the human form. Truth, therefore, in Durer’s opinion is the nearest equivalent to beauty, and truth can only be acquired by close intellectual study with careful and accurate observation of nature. The aesthetic mind of the nineteenth century may be repelled by some of Diirer s most truthful 82 THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER creations, especially in his delineations of the nude female figure. Diirer, however, went to nature for his studies of truth, and rejected all search of ideal beauty, feeling, no doubt, that it would be as futile and unsatisfying as that of Faust. Hence all his exquisite studies of natural objects. A stag-beetle, a hare, a plant of celandine, a dead jay, a marble quarry, a village nestling by a stream — to him are all as much imbued with beauty as the human form and countenance. Dreaming of beautiful things which he could not achieve, he depicted exactly what he did see in his waking hours * combining the somewhat favouche veracity of a Rembrandt with the imagination of a Watts and the minute accuracy of an Isaac Oliver. As has been mentioned before, Durer was a devoted student of natural history, especially of any object new or strange to him. A good instance of this is the well-known woodcut of a rhinoceros, done in 1515 from a drawing made by Durer from the description sent him by a friend from Lisbon, where in 1513 a live rhinoceros had been brought from India. The original drawing of which this woodcut was made is in the British Museum, together with a similar drawing of a walrus, made also from description. It will be remembered that it was to try and see a whale that Durer made his hurried and, as it proved, fatal journey into Zeeland. It is as a black-and-white artist that Diirer has his chief claim on the reverence of posterity. He was the first great artist in this noble art, in which he was to be followed by Rembrandt, Hollar, Ostade, Meryon, Whistler, Haden, and a host of others. For the first time in history art was, in spite of the abnegation of colour, placed within the grasp and the intelligence of the people. Schongauer had led the way with his engravings ; but it was Durer, with his great woodcuts, who spoke and taught a new popular language. Erasmus writes of Diirer’s woodcuts as follows : “ Apelles, it is true, made use of few and unobtrusive colours ; while Durer, admirable as he is too in other respects, what can he not express with one single colour — that is to say, with black lines ? He can give the effect of light and shade, brightness, foreground and background. Moreover, he reproduces not merely the natural look of a thing, but also observes the laws of perfect symmetry and harmony with regard to the position of it. He can also transfer, by enchantment, so to say, upon the canvas things which it seems not A Rhinoceros. From a woodcut by A. Diirer [reduced). 84 THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER possible to represent, such as fire, sunbeams, storms, lightning, and mist ; he can portray every passion, show us the whole soul of man shining The Virgin crowned by two Angels. Engraving by A Durer through his outward form, nay, even make us hear his very speech. All this he brings so happily before the eye with those black lines that the picture would lose by being clothed in colour. Is it not more worth THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER 85 admiration to achieve without the winning charm of colour what Apelles only realised with its assistance ?” In this short study of Albrecht Diirer’s life and work it has not been possible to do more than recount the more salient events of his life, and note the development and importance of his work as an engraver. His countless drawings, executed in every size and method, must be passed over with the remark that it is in them that Diirer s chief excellence as an artist is to be found, and that a prolonged study of such collections as those in the print rooms at the British Museum and at Berlin, or in the Albertina collection at Vienna, cannot fail to instruct and inform the mind of any student, lay or professional. Of his numerous designs for ornament more cannot be said here than that they proved the foundation of a school at Nuremberg, it being the branch of engraving in which Diirer’s pupils and successors, the little masters, particularly excelled. All the works of carving or sculpture which have been attributed to Diirer may be considered as doubtful ; the once famous hone-stone carving of The Birth of St. John the Baptist being now known to be the work of a later Nuremberg artist. As a painter Diirer’s works rank high, but not in the first class ; as an engraver he is easily the first of his age, though some may think him to have been excelled in mere tech- nical skill by Schongauer or Aldegrever ; as a draughtsman he remains unrivalled for precision, dexterity, and variety ; as a thinker he is a worthy representative of the age of Luther and Erasmus. But it is not only as a mere creative artist that Diirer attained his eminence. He was one of the great pioneers of art. Before him, little or nothing had been done north of the Alps to make art a factor in popular life. There is probably no branch of the fine arts which has not been affected in some way or another by the fact of Diirer s existence. Of how many artists can it be said that they left an impress on the whole subsequent history of art, and that they remain beacon lights or milestones by which the course of true art can be followed with the certainty of arriving at some definite conclusion ? Giotto, Luca Signorelli, Michelangelo, Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, Rubens, Titian, Velazquez, Turner, Rembrandt, it is among these names that that of Diirer will rank for ever in the history of the world. The minds of those who study Diirer s work should be open and 86 THE ENGRAVINGS OF ALBRECHT DURER unbiassed. In that case there cannot but be conveyed to them the lesson which truth, purity, and sincerity of purpose are ever bound to teach. In the words of Camerarius, “ There is nothing foul, nothing disgraceful in his work '; the thoughts of his pure mind shunned all such things ” ; and again, “ if there be anything in this man that at all resembled a fault, it was only his incessant diligence and the frequently unjust severity of his own self-criticism.” In bringing this monograph to a conclusion, the words may be quoted which Diirer wrote in 1512 among the many drafts for his book on proportion : “ In this matter I will, with the help of God, set forth the little which I have learnt, though it will seem but a poor thing to many. But this does not trouble me, for I know well that it is easier to find fault with a thing than to make something better.” St. Jerome. Fro?n a woodcut by A. Diirer. INDEX Aegidius, Peter, 69 Albert ot Brandenburg, 76 Aldegrever, 85 Alexander VI., 32 Amerbach, Hans, 17, 30 Amsterdam Cabinet, Master of the, 8, 1 7, 56 Andrea, Zoan, 42 Andres, Hieronymus, 56, 75, 79, 81 Anonimo, The, 18 Apelles, 1 5 n, 82 Barbari, Jacopo dei, 18, 19,24, 26, 27, 28, 36, 45, 7° Baumgartner, 36, 40, 62 Beham, Barthel, 56, 75 „ Hans Sebald, 56, 75, 79 Bellini, Gentile, 18 ,, Giovanni, 18, 45, 46, 47 Borgia, Roderigo, see Alexander VL Brandenburg, see Albert Brant, Sebastian, 17 Brescia, Giovanni Antonio da, 42 Camerarius, Joachim, 42, 46, 79, 85 Campagnola, Giulio, 42 Carpaccio, Vittore, 34 Celtes, Conrad, 32, 34 Charles V., 67, 68, 69, 71 Chelidonius, Benedictus, 54, 56 Christian, King of Denmark, 71, 77 Colleoni, Bartolommeo, 62 Dannhauser, Peter, 32 Dietrich, 71 Dratzieher, 48 Diirer, Agnes, 22, 40, 41, 48, 68, 75, 79, 8 1 „ Albrecht, the elder, 9, 10 „ Andreas, 10, 11, 54, 57 „ Anthoni, 9 ,, Barbara, 10, 48, 61, 63 „ Elisabeth, 9 „ Hans, 10, 11, 40, 48, 66 ,, Ladislas, 9, 68 E. S., the Master, 7, 9, 28 Ebner, 40 Erasmus, 69, 70, 76, 81, 82, 85 Euphorion, 61 Felix, Eugen, 20 Folz, Hans, 56 Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, 36, 49> 66 > 75> 76 Frey, Hans, 22, 81 Fugger, 64 Fiirleger, 29 Gartner, 48 Giorgione, 15, 44, 45 Giotto, 85 Goethe, 20, 61 Griininger, 17 Gutenberg, 12 Haden, Seymour, 82 Harsdorffer, 40 Heller, Jakob, 49, 57, 68 Hesse, Eobanus, 77, 80 Holbein, Hans, 6, 8, 23, 7 6 Hollar, W., 82 Holper, Hieronymus. 10 Holzschuher, 36. 40 ImhofF, 40, 48, 64 Julius II., 46 Keats, John, 19 Koberger, Anthoni, 11, 12, 16, 17, 30, 32, 34 Kolb, Anthoni, 18, 45 Kratzer, Nicolas, 69 Krell, Oswolt, 29 Kress, 1 5 n, 40, 67 Kulmbach, Hans von, 56 Landauer, Matthaus, 50 Lehrs, Max, 7, 28/z Leyden, Lucas van, 22, 70 88 INDEX Lippmann, F., 8 LoiTelholtz, 40 Lomayr, Conrad, 14 Lombard. Augustin, 71 Lucian, 60 Luther, Martin, 74, 75, 76, 80, 85 Mabuse, Jan van, 69 Mantegna, Andrea, 18, 19, 20, 23, 2 7, 34, 46 Marcantonio, 38, 42, 44, 70 Margaret of Austria, 46, 69, 71, 72 Matsys, Quentin, 68 Maximilian, II, 32, 46, 57, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 76 Meckenem, Israhel van, 28 Melanchthon, 74, 76, 80 Menzel, Adolf, 6 Meryon, 82 Messina, Antonello da, 18, 22 Michelangelo, 9, 47, 85 Modena, Nicoletto da, 42 Moore, Norman, 80 Miinzer, 75 Negker, Jost dc, 67 Niitzel, Caspar, 40, 66 Oellinger, Kunigunde, 10 Oliver, Isaac, 82 Olmiitz, Wenzel van, 28 Orley, Bernard van, 69, 70 Ostade, 82 P. W., The Master, 8, 28 Pacioli, Luca, 47 Patenir, Joachim, 68 Pencz, Georg, 56, 75 Pfinzing, Melchior, 32, 48 Philip of Burgundy, 46 Pirkheimer, Philipp, 10 Pirkheimer, Willibald, 19, 33, 41, 45 — 49, 54, 60, 73, 76, 79, 80 PleydenwurfF, 1 1, 12, 15 Raphael, 9, 44, 47, 51, 69, 71, 85 Regiomontanus, ';Johannes, 12 Rembrandt, 41, 82, 85 Robetta, 42 Roydon, 42 Rubens, 85 Ruskin, John, 5 Sachs, Hans, 6, 30, 56, 63 Schaufelein, Hans Leonhard, 56, 81 Schedel, Hartmann, 11, 12 Scheurl, Christoph, 15, 46 Schongauer, Caspar, 16 „ Georg, 16 „ Ludwig, 16 „ Martin, 8, 9, 15, 16, 28, 34, 82, 85 „ Paul, 16 Sensenschmidt, Johannes, 12 Sidney, Sir Philip, 42 Signorelli, Luca, 85 Spalatin, Georg, 75 Spengler, Lazarus, 16, 32, 54, 66 Springinklee, Hans, 66 Stabius, Joannes, 66, 67 Terence, 17 Thausing, M., 28 n Titian, 18, 44, 45, 85 Tory, Geoffroy, 27 Tucher, 29, 40 T urner, 6, 85 Unger, Niklas, 9, 68, 69 Varnbuler, Ulrich, 60 Vasari, 44 Velazquez, 85 Verrocchio, 62 Vinci, Leonardo da, 46, 47, 85 Vincidore, Tommaso, 69, 71 Vitruvius, 19 Volckamer, 40 Wagner, 63 Walch, Jakob, see Barbari Walther, Bernhard, 1 1 Watts, 82 Weyden, Rogier van der, 9 Whistler, 82 Wierix, 42 Wimpfeling, Jakob, 15 Wolgemut, Michel, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 48 Zwinglius, Ulrich, 74 1 + ■■1