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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2018 with funding from 
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 https://archive.org/details/metalworkershandOObran 
 
THE 
 
 METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK 
 
 OF 
 
 RECEIPTS AND PROCESSES. 
 
 BEING A COLLECTION OF CHEMICAL FORMULAS AND PRAC¬ 
 TICAL MANIPULATIONS FOR THE WORKING OF ALL 
 THE METALS AND ALLOYS; INCLUDING THE DEC¬ 
 ORATION AND BEAUTIFYING OF ARTICLES MANU¬ 
 FACTURED THEREFROM, AS WELL AS 
 THEIR PRESERVATION. 
 
 Edited, from Various Sources, bv 
 
 WILLIAM T. BRANNT, 
 
 EDITOR OF “THE TECHNO-CHEMICAL RECEIPT BOOK” AND “THE METALLIC ALLOYS.” 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY SIXTY-THREE ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., 
 
 INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS, 
 
 810 Walnut Street. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE & RIVINGTON, Limited, 
 ST. dunstan’s house, fetter lane, fleet street. 
 
 1890. 
 
Copyright by Henry Carey Baird & Co., 1890. 
 
 PRINTED AT 
 
 COLLINS PRINTING HOUSE, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, U. 8. A. 
 
 THE GETTY CENTER 
 
 I IPDARV 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 S INCE chemistry has become the hand-maid of the industries, 
 it is next to impossible to keep secret for any length of time 
 the composition of a specialty, the analytical chemist taking care 
 that it soon becomes common property. But the results of his 
 labors being of necessity scattered through the various technical 
 journals, not always readily accessible, the advantages derived 
 therefrom by the practical workman are very problematical, unless 
 he can procure the information wanted without the expense of 
 the time and labor required for examining the very numerous 
 original sources of such information. 
 
 To collect such flotsam and jetsam of the technical journals, 
 domestic and foreign, has been the design in preparing the matter 
 for the present volume; and thus to furnish to the metal-worker, 
 in the form of a handy-book, receipts and processes of practical 
 application, which would otherwise be in great measure overlooked 
 or entirely lost. In the treatment of the different subjects they 
 have, as far as practicable, been divested of all mere technicalities, 
 also omitting that which was not properly relevant. 
 
 At the present time the public is accustomed to the consideration 
 of useful facts, set forth in the briefest terms, and, bearing this in 
 mind, in many cases a single article has been made to embrace 
 data from a number of different sources. With the aid of a liberal 
 supply of foreign and domestic books and journals bearing on the 
 
 (iff) 
 
iv 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 various subjects, which have been furnished by the enterprising 
 publishers, the editor trusts that not much of interest or importance 
 has been omitted. In consulting innumerable volumes and journals 
 every care has been taken to select the best receipts and processes, 
 and the editor is confident that every metal-worker, no matter in 
 what branch of the industry he may be engaged, will here find 
 something of use and benefit to himself. 
 
 In regard to the practical application of the receipts, the observ¬ 
 ance of the following rules is recommended : i. Be careful to use 
 the exact proportions prescribed. 2. Always first experiment with 
 small quantities. 3. Should the first attempt prove unsuccessful, 
 do not condemn the receipt, but make another trial, as the fault 
 can generally be traced to a mistake in the manipulation or an 
 error in the quantities. 
 
 The alphabetical arrangement of related subjects adopted and a 
 very copious table of contents, as well as index, will render refer¬ 
 ence to any subject or special receipt prompt and easy. 
 
 WM. T. BRANNT. 
 
 Philadelphia, September 10, 1890. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 I.—Chemical Relations of the Metals. 
 
 Number of metals distinguished by the chemist; Principal metals and 
 alloys used by the practical metal-worker; Advantage of a knowledge of 
 the chemical properties of metals to the metal-worker . . . -33 
 
 Behavior of metals towards oxygen; Phenomena in the oxidation of potas¬ 
 sium ............. 34 
 
 Definitions of oxidation and oxide; Fusibility of zinc; Combustion of 
 metals; Formation of cupric and cuprous oxides; Definition of super¬ 
 oxides and protoxide .......... 35 
 
 Definition of sub-oxide; Base and noble metals; Combinations of the 
 metals with chlorine; Preparation of chlorine; Precautions in using 
 chlorine ; Manner of collecting chlorine in a bottle . . . -36 
 
 Combustion of Dutch gold in chlorine ; Solution of gold in chlorine water; 
 Definition of metallic chlorides; Preparation of metallic chlorides; Defi¬ 
 nitions of hydrogen and oxyhydrogen gas ...... 37 
 
 Chloride of zinc ; Metals which do not dissolve in hydrochloric acid . . 38 
 
 Aqua regia and its action on gold and platinum; Combinations of silver 
 and lead with chlorine; Combinations of the metals with sulphur; Con¬ 
 version of copper into cuprous sulphide; Mosaic gold ; Combinations of 
 iron with sulphur ........... 39 
 
 Conversion of iron into ferrous sulphide; Iron pyrites; Laws of combina¬ 
 tion of the elements; Table of the most important elements with their 
 symbols and atomic weights ......... 40 
 
 Definition of atomic or indivisible weights; Manner of expressing chemical 
 combinations; Metallic salts ......... 41 
 
 Definition of bases and acids; Preparation of litmus tincture and litmus- 
 paper ; Definition of salts; Cupric sulphate or blue vitriol; Acetate of 
 lead or sugar of lead ; Formation of metallic salts . . . . .42 
 
 Combinations of metallic oxides with acids; Definition and formation of 
 haloid salts; Chromate of lead or chrome yellow; Precipitates with sul¬ 
 phuretted hydrogen .. . 43 
 
 Apparatus for preparing sulphuretted hydrogen, illustrated and described ; 
 Characteristics of precipitates obtained with sulphuretted hydrogen . 44 
 
 (v) 
 
vi 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 II.—The Most Important Metallic Preparations, and the Chemicals 
 
 used in the Metal Industry. 
 
 Iron preparations; Ferrous sulphate (copperas, green vitriol); Ammonio- 
 ferrous sulphate; Ferrous chloride ; Ferric chloride . . . -45 
 
 Sesquioxide of iron, colcothar or rouge; Potassium-ferrocyanide (yellow 
 prussiate of potash); Potassium ferricyanide (red prussiate of potash); 
 Ferric sulphate; Preparations of cobalt and nickel; Cobaltous chloride . 46 
 
 Cobaltous nitrate; Cobaltous oxide; Nickel chloride; Nickel sulphate; 
 Nickel nitrate ; Nickel hydrate ; Copper preparations ; Copper powder ; 
 Cupric sulphate (sulphate of copper, blue vitriol) . . . . -47 
 
 Cupro-diammonium sulphate; Copper nitrate; Cupric chloride; Copper 
 nitrate; Cupric chloride ; Copper carbonate ; Acetate of copper; Neutral 
 acetate of copper ........... 48 
 
 Basic acetate of copper or verdigris; German and French verdigris; 
 Cyanide of copper; Cupric and cuprous oxides; Preparations of lead, tin 
 and bismuth; Acetate of lead (sugar of lead) ; Lead carbonate (white 
 
 lead); Lead chloride .......... 49 
 
 Lead sulphate ; Lead chromate (chrome yellow) ; Stannous chloride (pro¬ 
 tochloride of tin, tin-salt); Stannic sulphide; Mosaic gold; Bismuth 
 nitrate ............. 50 
 
 Preparations of zinc, antimony and arsenic; Chloride of zinc ; Zinc sulphate 
 (white vitriol) ; Zinc oxide ; Iron black ; Antimony trichloride (butter of 
 antimony); Tartar emetic ; White arsenic or arsenious acid . . -51 
 
 Schweinfurt green ; Preparations of mercury and silver; Mercurous sul¬ 
 phate ; Mercuric nitrate ; Mercurous nitrate ; Mercuric chloride or cor¬ 
 rosive sublimate ; Nitrate of silver (silver nitrate, lunar caustic) . . 52 
 
 Chloride of silver (argentic chloride, horn silver) ; Argentic oxide; Silver 
 carbonate; Cyanide of silver (prussiate or hydrocyanate of silver); 
 Silver sulphate ; Silver sulphide ; Silver hyposulphite . . . - S3 
 
 Preparations of gold and platinum ; Chloride of gold (auric chloride) ; 
 Aurous chloride ; Cyanide of gold (prussiate or hydrocyanate of gold) ; 
 
 Gold salt (Gozzy’s gold salt) ......... 54 
 
 Purple of Cassius; Platinic chloride (chloride of platinum, tetra-chloride 
 of platinum); Ammonio-chloride of platinum; Spongy platinum . . 55 
 
 Acids; Sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) ; Fuming sulphuric acid or Nord- 
 hausen sulphuric acid .......... 56 
 
 Table of percentage of anhydrous sulphuric acid at different degrees B6; 
 Nitric acid (aqua fortis) ......... 57 
 
 Table of percentage of anhydrous nitric acid at different degrees Be; 
 Hydrochloric acid ........... 58 
 
 Table of percentage of gaseous hydrochloric acid at different degrees Be ; 
 Aqua regia (nitro-muriatic acid) ........ 59 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 vii 
 
 Chromic acid; Acetic acid; Tartaric acid; Boric or boracic acid . . 60 
 
 Oxalic acid (salt of sorrel); Prussic acid (hydrocyanic acid); Various 
 chemicals and substances used in the metal industry; Ammonia (spirits 
 
 of hartshorn) ; Ammonium phosphate.6l 
 
 Ammonium sulphide (sulphydrate, or hydrosulphate of ammonia) ; Benzine 
 (benzole, light oil from coal tar); Borax (sodium biborate); Calcium, 
 potassium and sodium sulphides; Caoutchouc (India rubber, gum 
 
 elastic).62 
 
 Vulcanized rubber; Carbon bisulphide; Emery; Graphite (plumbago, 
 
 black lead); Gutta-percha.63 
 
 Magnesia (calcined); Potassium bicarbonate; Potassium cyanide (white 
 prussiate of potash); Potassium hydroxide (caustic potash) ; Potassium 
 nitrate (saltpetre); Sodium bicarbonate; Sodium hydroxide (caustic 
 
 soda); Sodium phosphate (tribasic phosphate of soda) . . . .64 
 
 Sodium pyrophosphate (bibasic phosphate of soda); Sulphur; Tartar 
 (potassium bitartrate) .......... 65 
 
 III. —Directions for the Determination of the Constituents of 
 Metallic Alloys, Impurities of the Technically Most Important 
 
 Metals, Etc. 
 
 Manner of dissolving metals; Characteristics that indicate the presence of 
 
 various metals in the solution.66 
 
 Manner of testing for mercury ; Determination of magnesium ; Determina¬ 
 tion of nickel and cobalt ......... 67 
 
 Determination of iron, chromium, manganese, zinc, alumina, chloride of 
 silver, chloride of lead and subchloride of mercury . . . .68 
 
 Determination of gold, platinum, antimony, tin, bismuth, copper, cadmium 
 and arsenic ............ 69 
 
 Marsh’s apparatus for the detection of arsenic, illustrated and described; To 
 distinguish genuine from spurious gold ....... 70 
 
 To test gold ware; To recognize light gilding upon metallic articles . . 71 
 
 To recognize light silvering; Test-water for silver . . . . • 7 2 
 
 To distinguish tin-foil from lead-foil; To test mercury as to its purity ; To 
 test tin and soft solders; To detect lead in tin; To test brass . . 73 
 
 To test white metals, copper and nickel; To test acids; To detect alloys in 
 
 gilding.74 
 
 To test enamel for lead; Ready distinction of cast-iron, steel and wrought- 
 iron; Method for ascertaining the quality of iron and steel . . -75 
 
 Examination of burnt iron ......... 76 
 
 Resistance of a few metals and alloys to calcium hydrate; How to tell a 
 hand- from a machine-cut file ........ 77 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 viii 
 
 IV.—Alloys and Amalgams. 
 
 Alloys ; Definition of an amalgam ; Characteristics and properties of alloys; 
 Fusion of alloys; Specific gravity of alloys ...... 79 
 
 Dr. Ure’s rule for calculating the specific gravity of alloys; Table of alloys 
 whose density is greater or less than the mean of their constituents; 
 Tenacity of alloys ........... 80 
 
 Preparation of alloys ; Rules for fusing the metals . . . . .81 
 
 The fusing points of the principal metals and other elements employed in 
 alloys; Alloys of bismuth and cadmium ...... 82 
 
 Alloys of copper and tin; Bronze; Definition of bronze and of white 
 metals ............. 83 
 
 Ordnance or gun metal; Table showing the composition of ordnance bronze 
 of various times and different countries ....... 84 
 
 Steel bronze or Uchatius bronze; Bell-metal; Chinese tam-tams or gongs . 85 
 
 Table showing the composition of some bell-metals; Bell-metal for small 
 bells; Japanese bell-metal; Small clock-bells, table-bells, sleigh-bells, 
 
 etc.86 
 
 Silver bell-metal; Machine bronze ; Red brass and white brass . . 87 
 
 Table of metals for bearings, etc. ........ 88 
 
 Locomotive brass castings; Brasses for side rods . . . . .89 
 
 Brasses for driving boxes; Bells; Castings subjected to steam pressure; 
 Pumps and pump chambers; Piston packing rings; Approved composi¬ 
 tions for bearings of rapidly running machines; Bearing metals for loco¬ 
 motives ; Babbitt’s anti-attrition metal ....... 90 
 
 Fenton’s alloy for axle-boxes for locomotives and wagons; Dewrance’s 
 patent bearing for locomotives; Alloy for anti-friction brasses; Hoyle’s 
 
 patent alloy for pivot bearings ; Phosphor bronze ; Phosphide of copper; 
 
 Phosphide of tin . . . ..91 
 
 Various sorts of phosphor bronze; Silicon bronze; Silicon brass ; Statuary 
 bronze ............. 92 
 
 Table of alloys of different colors suitable for statuary bronze; Table show¬ 
 ing the compositions of a few celebrated statues . . . . -93 
 
 Best bronze for statues according to D’Arcet; Bronze for gilding; Bronze 
 for small castings; Bronze which can be rolled; Chinese bronzes; Delta 
 metal ............. 94 
 
 Gold bronze; Japanese bronze ; Malleable bronze.95 
 
 Old Peruvian bronze ; Ormolu; Silveroid; Speculum metal . . .96 
 
 Alloys of copper and zinc; Brass and similar alloys . . . . *97 
 
 Color of copper-zinc alloys; Table of the composition of copper-zinc alloys; 
 Tombac (red brass) and similar alloys ....... 98 
 
 Table of the composition of brass and similar alloys.99 
 
 Alloys of copper with silver and gold ; Color of gold alloys . . . 100 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 ix 
 
 Proportion of various metals in gold alloys used by jewellers; Argent-Ruolz ioi 
 G ray silver (Japanese silver); Tiers argent (one : third silver) ; Imitat'on 
 silver alloys; Alloy for spoons; Alloy resembling silver; Delalot’s alloy; 
 Mousset’s silver alloy ; Warne’s metal ....... 102 
 
 White alloy closely resembling silver; Aluminium alloys; Aluminium 
 brasses ; Cowles Bros.’ series of tests of aluminium brass . . . 103 
 
 Aluminium bronze . . . . . . . . . . .104 
 
 Directions for preparing aluminium bronzes ...... 105 
 
 Ferro-aluminium ........... 106 
 
 Various aliminium alloys; Alloy for dental plates.107 
 
 Alloy resembling German silver; Alloy resembling silver; Bourbonne’s 
 aluminium alloy; Lechesne; Minargent; Neogen .... 10S 
 Niirnberg gold; Britannia metal and similar alloys; Table of composition 
 of several varieties of Britannia metal; Ashberry metal .... 109 
 Biddery metal; Minofor metal; Manganese alloys; Cupro-manganese . no 
 Red brass; White metal; Ferro-manganese ; Manganese silver; Man¬ 
 ganese steel; Hadfield’s manganese steel . . . . ... in 
 
 Nickel alloys; Nickel and copper; Nickel coins of the United States, 
 Belgium and Brazil; Nickel, copper and zinc alloys; Table of the com¬ 
 position of various kinds of German silver . . . . . .112 
 
 Alfenide, Argiroide and allied alloys '. . . . . . 113 
 
 Albata metal; Alfenide; British plate metal; Metal for spoons, forks, etc.; 
 White alloy resisting the action of vegetable acids; White argentan; 
 Alloys of nickel and steel . . . . . . . . .114 
 
 Type metal; Table of alloys suitable for casting type . . . .115 
 
 Ehrliardt’s type metal; Music plates ; Various alloys; Acid-proof bronze ; 
 Alloy for casting small articles; Alloy for moulds for pressed glass; 
 Alloy of copper and antimony . . . . . . . .116 
 
 Alloys for calico-printing rollers; Alloys for small patterns in foundries; 
 
 Birmingham platinum ; Calin; Cooper’s alloy for steel pens ; Dysiot . 117 
 Fahlun or tin brilliants; Gold and palladium alloys; Gold-like alloy; Iron 
 alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . .118 
 
 Lemarquand’s non-oxidizable alloy; Lutecine or Paris metal; Malleable 
 brass; Marley’s non-oxidizable alloy ; New alloys ; Alloy for the manu¬ 
 facture of jewelry .119 
 
 New imitations of gold and silver . . . . . . . .120 
 
 New method of preparing alloys ; Non-magnetic alloys for watches . .121 
 
 Non-oxidizable alloy; Platinoid; Platinum bronze; Shakdo ; Sideraphtite ; 
 
 Soft alloy for coating metals, etc. . . . . . . . .122 
 
 Amalgams; Amalgam of Lipowitz’s metal; Copper amalgam . . .123 
 
 Gold amalgam . . . . . . . . . . . .124 
 
 Iron amalgam ; Silver amalgam; Tin amalgam ..... 125 
 
X 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Zinc amalgam . . . . ... .126 
 
 V.—Annealing, Hardening, Tempering. 
 
 Annealing of hard and other iron castings . . . . . .126 
 
 To make steel so soft that it can be worked like copper; New 
 way of annealing steel; Two ways of annealing steel; Annealing of 
 bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . .127 
 
 To harden copper; To case-harden wrought-iron ..... 128 
 
 To case-harden axie arms; To harden cast-iron ; To harden cast-iron in a 
 simple manner ........... 131 
 
 To quickly and thoroughly harden soft iron ; To harden wrought-iron parts 
 of machines ............ 132 
 
 To harden steel by pressure; To harden steel in petroleum; To harden 
 steel so that the exterior is hard, and the interior soft .... 133 
 
 To harden small drills; Hardening water for steel; Fluids for hardening 
 steel articles . . . . . . . . . . . .134 
 
 Hardening compound for steel; Hardening mixture, patented by J. Robb 
 of Dundee, Forfarshire; To avoid cracks, curving and warping in harden¬ 
 ing steel; How to harden thin steel plates ...... 135 
 
 Hardening of steel according to Newton and Ames; To harden steel in 
 sealing-wax . . . . . . . . . . . .136 
 
 To harden springs and saws ......... 137 
 
 To harden files and other steel instruments; To harden steel instru¬ 
 ments ............. 139 
 
 To harden tools; Hardening gun-barrels according to Neunert . . . 140 
 
 To harden the bores of musket-barrels; Adam Schaefer’s fluid for hardening 
 steel; To harden copper ......... 141 
 
 To harden zinc; Hardening compound ; New case-hardening compound ; 
 
 Agents for hardening, improving and welding steel . . . .142 
 
 Tempering colors of steel .......... 143 
 
 Alloys for baths used in tempering and heating steel articles; Effect of 
 temperature on steel . . . . . . . . . . 144 
 
 To temper steel by electricity; To temper mining picks; To temper taps 
 and dies ............ 145 
 
 Improvements in tempering and hardening steel and iron .... 146 
 
 To temper brass ; To temper magnets ....... 147 
 
 VI.—Bronzing and Coloring. 
 
 Methods of bronzing metals; Preparation of varnish for bronzing; Gold 
 bronze; Silver bronze .....••••• I 4S 
 Copper-bronze; Red bronze; Green bronze; French bronze . . . 149 
 
CONTENTS. xi 
 
 Blue bronze. I 5 ° 
 
 Brown bronze; Bronzing by dipping in melted bronze; Bronze liquid; 
 Cheap bronze ; To bronze small brass articles; Bronzing process used in 
 
 the Paris mint. I S I 
 
 To bronze copper; To bronze copper bluish-gray; Green bronze for 
 
 brass. 1 5 2 
 
 To bronze articles of copper and brass; Brown fire-proof bronze upon copper 
 
 and brass; Green bronzing. 153 
 
 Bronzing of cast-iron; Gold bronze of great lustre on iron; To bronze cast- 
 
 iron; Bronze-like surface on iron or steel. 154 
 
 To give ground steel objects the appearance of gold or good bronze ; To 
 
 bronze tin; To bronze zinc. 155 
 
 To color silvered cast-zinc articles; To bronze electrotypes green, brown, 
 black; To bronze medals . . . . . . . . -156 
 
 Graham’s bronzing liquids; For brass (by simple immersion) . . .157 
 
 For copper (by simple immersion) ; For zinc (by simple immersion) . . 158 
 
 Rockline’s method of bronzing; Walker’s chemical bronze ; Bronze pow¬ 
 ders . . . . . . . . . . • . . 159 
 
 Table of the composition of alloys for some colors of bronze powders; 
 
 English bronze powders; Brocade bronze powder.160 
 
 Copper bronze powder; Genuine gold bronze; Aurum musivum (Mosaic 
 gold) ............. 161 
 
 Brownish-gold bronze powders; Genuine silver bronze powder; Imitation 
 silver bronze powder; Argentum musivum ...... 162 
 
 Iron black; Metallochromy; To color articles of brass ; Preparation of the 
 lead solution for coloring brass . . . . . . . .163 
 
 Preparation of the iron solution for coloring metals; Preparation of the 
 objects to be colored; Weil’s process of producing iridescent copper pre¬ 
 cipitates on iron ........... 164 
 
 Approved coatings for metals: Black or colored coat; Golden yellow to 
 brown coat; Black coat . . . . . . . . .165 
 
 Beautiful steel-gray; New process of producing a gold-colored coating upon 
 small metallic articles . . . . . . . . . .166 
 
 Colored coatings for metals . . . , , , . . .167 
 
 Coloring of copper; Brown color upon copper; Red-brown color upon 
 
 copper..168 
 
 To color copper blue-black; Preparation of cuivre fumt ; Steel-gray upon 
 copper ; To color copper dark steel-gray; Various colors upon massive 
 
 copper.169 
 
 Black upon copper ; Dead-black on copper; To brown copper; Browning 
 liquid for copper . . , . . . . . . . *170 
 
 Imitation of genuine patina ......... 171 
 
XU 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Another method of imitating genuine patina; Coloring of brass and bronzes; 
 
 Lustrous black on brass; Steel-gray on brass . . . . . 173 
 
 Gray color with a bluish tint upon brass; Straw color to brown through 
 golden-yellow and tombac color on brass; Color resembling gold on 
 brass; Brown color called bronze Barbedienne on brass . . .174 
 
 Bronze Barbedienne on massive brass; To color brass violet and corn¬ 
 flower blue ; Ebermayer’s method of coloring brass . . . . 175 
 
 To brighten and color brass . . . . . . . . .176 
 
 Antimony colors on brass; Dead-black on brass instruments . . . 177 
 
 Deep black-blue stain on brass; Lustrous gold or green on brass . .178 
 
 Gold and orange stains for brass; Beautiful silver color on brass; New 
 bronze color upon brass and copper; To color copper and brass . . 179 
 
 To whiten brass and copper; To blacken small iron articles in bulk . . 180 
 
 Lustrous black on iron ; Brown-black coating with bronze lustre on iron; 
 
 To give iron a silver-like appearance with high lustre . • . . 181 
 
 To color iron and steel blue ; To color iron and steel gray ; Thierault’s 
 process for coloring wrought-iron and steel . . . . . .182 
 
 To blue small articles of sheet-steel; To blue small articles of iron and 
 steel so as to leave portions of them bright; Coloring of gold . . 183 
 
 Bronze-like patina upon tin ; Sepia-brown on tin and its alloys . . .184 
 
 Coloring zinc; Gray coating on zinc . ....... 185 
 
 Green coating on zinc ; Bronze color on zinc ; Copper-red on zinc . . 186 
 
 Red-brownish color on zinc; Yellow-brown shades on zinc; To brown gun- 
 barrels . . . . . . . . . . . . .187 
 
 Another method of browning gun-barrels; To blacken damasked gun- 
 barrels; To brown medals and coins ....... 188 
 
 VII.—Casting and Founding. 
 
 Properties necessary to render a metal suitable for casting; Shrinking of 
 
 metals in casting ... 189 
 
 Table showing the contraction of metals in casting ..... 191 
 
 Easy rule to find approximate weight of castings; Weight of castings; 
 Moulding sand for castings of ingot iron; To prevent the baking of 
 moulding sand ........... 192 
 
 Moulding and moulds .......... 193 
 
 Foundry flasks illustrated and described ... 196 
 
 To mould lace, etc., in cast-iron ........ 200 
 
 Cores in heavy castings; Core for difficult castings ..... 261 
 
 Casting without core, illustrated and described ...... 202 
 
 Casting brass-nuts on screws ......... 203 
 
 Casting on to other metals ... 204 
 
 Ornamenting wrought-iron by burning on ...... 205 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xiii 
 
 To repair castings by burning on ; To fill up holes in castings . . . 206 
 
 Bell founding ............ 207 
 
 Casting aluminium bronze ......... 209 
 
 Thomas D. West on casting aluminium bronze and other strong metals . 211 
 To cast lead-pipe free from flaws ........ 213 
 
 Dense and flexible copper castings; Wroughtiron (or Mitis) castings . 214 
 
 Analyses of Mitis metal.215 
 
 Casting stereo-plates by the paper process ; Another stereotype process . 217 
 Manufacture of chilled wheels . . . . . . . . .219 
 
 Casting of zinc ............ 223 
 
 Apparatus for casting metal illustrated and described ..... 224 
 
 Preparation of chills for casting metal; Painting and varnishing patterns . 225 
 Black-leading of patterns .......... 226 
 
 Varieties of wood most suitable for patterns; To preserve iron patterns 
 from rusting; To mend patterns ........ 227 
 
 Glue for pattern-makers; Improved method of treating steel for casting . 228 
 
 VIII.—Cements. 
 
 Iron cements or rust joints.228 
 
 Iron cement which stands red heat; Cement for uniting iron surfaces and 
 filling in joints; Cement for blowing engines, blast pipes, hot-blast stoves, 
 etc.229 
 
 Chenot’s iron cement; Cement for gas retorts and for connecting of parts of 
 iron exposed to heat; Cement for smearing over joints of iron water reser¬ 
 voirs; For cementing joints or cracks in iron stoves; For air-tight oven 
 doors; For fastening iron rods, cramps, hooks, etc., especially in stone 230 
 Cement for iron; To cement iron to iron; Cement for fastening iron 
 articles in stone; Cement for repairing defective places in castings; 
 
 Cement for iron stoves; Cement for mending iron pots and pans . . 231 
 
 Cement for making joints; Grouvelle’s oil cement; Stephenson’s oil 
 
 cement; Serbat’s mastic.232 
 
 Marteaux and Robert’s cement; Diamond cement; Glycerin cement for 
 
 iron ; Fire-proof and water-proof cements.233 
 
 Cement for electrical or chemical apparatus; Acid-proof cement; To 
 
 cement thin metal-sheets; To unite glass and brass; To fasten metallic 
 mountings upon glass, porcelain, etc.; Cement for fastening the metal 
 parts upon glass lamps; To cement metal plates on to wooden boxes ; To 
 
 cement iron to wood or stone ; To fasten metals on wood . . . 234 
 
 Cement for fastening metal upon glass; Cements for fastening metal letters 
 upon glass, marble, wood, etc.; To cement glass into metal . . . 235 
 
 Cement for fastening brass to glass; To fasten leather upon iron . . 236 
 
 To fasten paper labels to iron; Cements for fastening labels on polished 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 nickel; To cement forks and knives in their handles ; To secure forks 
 and knives in silver handles ; To cement with copper amalgam; Cements 
 for parts of machines .......... 237 
 
 Cement for steam pipes; For parts of copper and brass; For pipe conduits 
 not exposed to heat; For packing stuffing-boxes and pistons of engines ; 
 
 To make a permanent and durable joint ...... 238 
 
 Schiefer’s packing rings for man-holes and flanges; Colored cement for 
 repairing zinc ornaments ......... 239 
 
 Evans’s metallic cement; Cement for luting crucible lids; Cements for 
 water pipes ; Cement for joining cast-iron water pipes (for use on a large 
 scale); Bismuth cement for cementing the glass parts on petroleum 
 lamps; Armenian or jeweller’s cement ....... 240 
 
 IX.— Cleansing, Grinding, Pickling, Polishing. 
 
 Cleansing metals with the sand blast; Sand blast illustrated and described 241 
 
 Cleansing of metals by means of acid with the use of a galvanic current . 242 
 Scouring and polishing of knitting needles; To scour and polish needles . 243 
 To cleanse guns with petroleum ........ 244 
 
 Cleansing of coins, medals and articles of silver; To cleanse golden-bronze ; 
 
 To cleanse bronze fixtures; To cleanse silvered dial plates . . . 245 
 
 To cleanse chandeliers and gas fixtures; To cleanse small screws; To free 
 iron from ingrained rust; To remove rust from polished steel articles; To 
 extract rust from steel .......... 246 
 
 To remove rust from nickel-plated articles; To freshen up nickel watch 
 movements; Grinding .......... 247 
 
 Rules for the use of emery wheels ........ 248 
 
 Emery wire; Emery sticks ......... 249 
 
 To cleanse emery which has been used; Pickling or dipping of metallic 
 objects; Pickle for cast-iron or wrought-iron articles .... 250 
 
 Purpose of pickling copper, brass, tombac, and bronze . . . *251 
 
 English process of pickling brass ........ 252 
 
 Method usually pursued in the United States for cleaning brass parts ; Pick¬ 
 ling of German silver; To pickle zinc ....... 253 
 
 To give a brilliant appearance to tombac, brass and copper; To polish 
 metals ............. 254 
 
 Polishing by means of wheels; Polishing agents or polishing powders; 
 Lime; Vienna lime ; Ferric oxide ....... 255 
 
 Caput mortuum, crocus, colcothar, jeweller’s red or rouge ; Tripoli . . 256 
 
 Tin-putty; Chalk; Polishing files ; Polishing stock ; Buff wheels; Rough¬ 
 ing wheel; Medium wheel; Fine wheel ...... 257 
 
 Tumbling drum or box illustrated and described.258 
 
CONTENTS. xv 
 
 Polishing with the burnisher or burnishing stone ..... 259 
 Most common forms of burnishing tools illustrated and described . . 260 
 
 Burnishing cutlery.262 
 
 To burnish silver; Scratch-brushing; How to make a hand scratch-brush . 263 
 
 Hand scratch-brushes illustrated and described.264 
 
 Fluids used in scratch-brushing ; Methods of scratch-brushing . . . 265 
 
 Scratch-brush lathe and circular scratch-brushes illustrated and described . 266 
 Repairing and keeping in order hand scratch-brushes .... 267 
 
 Polishing of the separate metals: Iron and steel; Copper, brass, German 
 silver and tombac; Gold; Silver and plated ware; Dead lustre on 
 articles of gold and silver ; Tin articles ....... 268 
 
 Polishing of antimony and lead alloys; Polishing of zinc ; Polishing agents; 
 
 Parisian polishing powder; Emery cloth.269 
 
 Polishing rags; Belgian polishing powder; Agents for cleansing iron and 
 steel objects; For soft metals (tin and Britannia wares); For cleansing silver¬ 
 ware ; For cleansing silver ornaments; Polishing powders for silver . 270 
 English silver soap; Rose-color English silver soap; Polishing balls for 
 silver; Polishing paste for silver . . . . . . . .271 
 
 Polishing powder for gold-workers; Polishing powder for gold articles; 
 Polishing paste for brass; To cleanse brass articles; To cleanse old 
 brass; Polishing soaps .......... 272 
 
 Polishing water ........... 273 
 
 Polishing (Putz) pomades; Polishing cartridges (Putzpatronen) ; Polish 
 for pressed articles of brass; Rouge for polishing metals . . . 274 
 
 To polish steel; To polish steel objects ....... 275 
 
 Lustreless surface on steel; To polish and color copper; To cleanse dirty 
 polishing leather.276 
 
 X.—Decorating, Enamelling, Engraving, Etching. 
 
 Bronces incrust£s (incrustations).277 
 
 Marie Tessin du Motay’s process of incrusting; Corvin’s Niello . . 278 
 
 Damaskeening; Imitation of Damascus steel ...... 279 
 
 Damascus gun-barrels; Turkish damask illustrated and described . . 280 
 
 Barnard damask, illustrated and described; To damaskeen iron and steel 
 with platinum; Damaskeening with gold or silver .... 281 
 
 Imitation of damask; To produce damask in relief upon gun-barrels; 
 
 Damaskeened surface upon steel guns.282 
 
 Damasked bronze; Iridescent colors upon metals; Moirfe metallique . 283 
 Colored moir6 on tin-plate; Moirfe on brass ...... 285 
 
 To decorate tin-plate.286 
 
 New method of decorating metals. 287 
 
XVI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Nielled silver ............ 288 
 
 Composition of various niels; Composition of Tula ..... 289 
 
 Muffles for nielling and enamelling illustrated and described . . . 290 
 
 To imitate nielled work by the galvanic method ; Oxidized silver . . 292 
 
 New protecting coat on metals; Photo-chemical process of decorating 
 metal .... ......... 294 
 
 To prepare zinc for painting; How to prepare a rough surface in grounding 
 metals for subsequent decoration ........ 295 
 
 To coat stoves, tools, etc.; Ward’s inoxidizing process ; Inoxidizing process 
 for cast-iron ............ 296 
 
 The Barfif process for preserving iron and steel from rust .... 297 
 
 Enamelling metals ; Ground, or ground mass ; Covering mass or glaze . 298 
 Enamel for iron objects; To enamel cast-iron utensils .... 299 
 
 Very white and firmly adhering enamel for cast-iron articles as prepared in 
 England ............ 300 
 
 Another method of enamelling cast-iron; Mottled enamel .... 301 
 
 Enamel for cast-iron pipes according to Amtmann ; Glaze for iron pipes . 302 
 Emaille de fer contre-oxydi; Glass enamel for iron; Enamel for copper 
 cooking utensils ........... 303 
 
 Colored enamels ; Enamels for goldsmiths ...... 304 
 
 White enamel for ornamental articles ....... 305 
 
 Emaille Cloisonn6e ; Enamelling watch dials ...... 306 
 
 Emaille plaque-vitro-metallique; Emaille champ lev£e ; Phosphorescent 
 enamel; To secure enamel and glass to metal by means of the electric 
 current; Engraving on copper ........ 307 
 
 Engraving on silver or gold ......... 308 
 
 To engrave aluminium; Soft wax for engravers; Wax-mass for copper 
 engravers; Etching-ground ......... 310 
 
 Callot’s etching-ground; Etching on copper; Etching on brass and silver ; 
 
 Etching on steel . . . . . . . . . . -311 
 
 Etching names on steel and glass . . . . . . . .312 
 
 Etching on zinc; Etching solution for brass . . . . . . 313 
 
 Glyphogene or etching fluid for steel; Etching without etching-ground . 314 
 To produce figures in relief . . . . . . . . -315 
 
 Metallography (method for producing drawings of all kinds in relief upon 
 metal) according to Zach . . . . . . . . .316 
 
 XI.—Electro-plating, Brassing, Coppering, Galvanizing, Gilding, 
 Nickelling, Silvering, Tinning, Etc. 
 
 Preparatory manipulation of articles to be plated . . . . . 317 
 
 Freeing from grease; Dipping ......... 318 
 
 Composition of preliminary pickle, of pickle for bright lustre and of pickle 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xvn 
 
 for a dead lustre; Mixture for the production of a dull-grained surface 
 upon brass ; Mixtures for dipping German silver, silver, zinc and tin . 319 
 Water used for the preparation of the galvanic baths; Composition and 
 temperature of the baths ; Batteries used for electro-deposition . . 320 
 
 Bunsen’s battery illustrated and described . ..321. 
 
 Manner of locating batteries.322 
 
 Terms used in electrolytic deposition of metals; Table of chemical and 
 electro-chemical equivalents ......... 323 
 
 Practical application of the table; Preparation of zinc for batteries . . 324 
 
 Aluminium bath; Antimony baths; Arsenic baths ..... 325 
 
 Brass baths; Brass bath from cupric sulphate and zinc sulphate; Brass bath 
 
 for zinc.326 
 
 Brass bath for cast-iron, wrought-iron and steel; Solution for transferring 
 
 any copper-zinc alloys serving as anode.327 
 
 Cobalt baths ............ 328 
 
 Electro-plating with cobalt by contact; Copper baths; Copper baths for 
 iron and steel articles ; To be used at an ordinary temperature . .329 
 
 To be used at from 140° to 158° F.330 
 
 Copper bath without potassium cyanide; The Elmore process of electro- 
 depositing copper for tubes and wire bars . . . ... . 331 
 
 To get a copper deposit on wax; Brush coppering for iron and steel . 334 
 To copper iron ............ 335 
 
 To copper iron and steel; To copper cast-iron ; To coat iron articles with 
 copper, brass or bronze .......... 336 
 
 To coat tin, cast-iron, or zinc with copper ; To copper zinc plates . . 337 
 
 Gold baths ............ 338 
 
 Gilding with a dead lustre.341 
 
 Gilding by contact and dipping, cold gilding and gilding by adhesion; Gold 
 solution for gilding by contact ... ..... 342 
 
 Baths for gilding by touching with a zinc rod ...... 343 
 
 Baths for gilding by dipping ......... 344 
 
 Cold gilding, or gilding by the rag . . . . . . . . 345 
 
 To gild by adhesion ; To gild steel; To fire-gild silver objects . . . 346 
 
 To fire-gild and fire-silver metals which cannot be amalgamated, for 
 instance, iron and steel; To give gilt articles a beautiful rich appear¬ 
 ance; To improve bad tints of gilding ; To gild articles of metal . . 347 
 
 Imitation gilding; Gilding powder for copper, silver, brass, etc.; Gilders’ 
 
 wax for fire-gilding.. . . . . 348 
 
 Quicksilver water ; Iron baths ......... 349 
 
 Lead baths; To coat metals with lead . . . . . . - 35 * 
 
 Improved method of covering articles of iron with lead .... 352 
 
 Leyson’s process of leading.353 
 
 2 
 
xviii 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Alloys for hot leading; Nickel baths; Preparation of the metals to be 
 
 nickelled.354 
 
 Composition of the most simple nickel bath; Weston’s solution; Pott’s 
 
 solution.356 
 
 Powell’s solutions; Nickel bath much used in this country; Baths for 
 rapidly nickelling cheap articles . . . . . . . -357 
 
 Nickel baths for special purposes . . . . . . . . 358 
 
 New nickel baths.359 
 
 Nickelling of knife-blades, sharp surgical instruments, etc. . . . 360 
 
 Phenomena which may occur in nickelling and the means of avoiding them 361 
 To improve defective nickelling ; To nickel polished objects of iron or steel 
 
 without the use of a battery.363 
 
 To imitate nickel-plating . . . . . . . . . . 364 
 
 Platinum baths; Platinum bath patented by the Bright Platinum Plating 
 Co., of London . . . . . . . . . . . 365 
 
 Platinum bath recommended by Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson; To platinize 
 copper; To platinize by the wet method ...... 366 
 
 To coat metals with platinum in a cheap way ...... 367 
 
 Silver baths. 368 
 
 Silvering by contact.370 
 
 Silvering by dipping; Blanching.371 
 
 Cold silvering ; Composition of argentiferous pastes.372 
 
 Graining.373 
 
 Nuremberg graining powder; Operation of graining ..... 374 
 
 Gold baths with yellow prussiate of potash.376 
 
 Birmingham silvering .......... 377 
 
 Mechanical silvering according to Bertrand; Silvering of iron according to 
 Rinmann; To silver Bessemer steel and utensils manufactured from it . 378 
 
 Alloy for silvering.379 
 
 Tin baths.380 
 
 Tinning by contact; Tinning by dipping; Tinning by boiling articles of 
 iron and steel . . . . . . . . . . -381 
 
 To tin small brass or copper objects; Another method; Eisner’s bath; 
 Stolba’s method of tinning ......... 382 
 
 Cold tinning; Tinning hard steel or case-hardened articles . . . 383 
 
 Improved process of tinning metals ........ 384 
 
 To tin kettles; To tin lead plates ........ 385 
 
 To prepare tinned lead pipes; To make “ Fonte argentine ” or tinned cast- 
 iron ; Zinc baths ........... 3^6 
 
 To zinc copper and brass without a battery; Another process; Tc zinc iron 
 in the cold way ........... 3^7 
 
 Galvanizing sheet-iron ... 3^8 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xix 
 
 To galvanize old and new parts. 39 2 
 
 Metallic coating upon flowers and insects by the galvanic way; To coat 
 iron articles with other metals according to Newton .... 393 
 
 XII.—Fluxes and Lutes. 
 
 Fluxes; Substances used as fluxes; Best flux for alloys of copper and tin; 
 
 Good flux for brass; Black flux.394 
 
 Gray flux; White flux. 395 
 
 Quick flux; Flux for reducing arsenic; Cornish reducing flux; Refining 
 flux; Crude flux; Fluxes for arsenical compounds; Moreau’s reducing 
 
 flux; Salt cake; Lutes.396 
 
 Stourbridge clay; Windsor loam; Fat lutes. 397 
 
 XIII.—Lacquers, Paints and Varnishes. 
 
 Japanning tin.397 
 
 Vermilion ground; Black grounds for japanning; Black japan for tin 
 
 lanterns.400 
 
 Asphalt lacquer on iron; To lacquer brass . . . . . .401 
 
 Lacquer for brass; Pale lacquer for brass; Pale gold lacquer for brass; 
 Gold-colored lacquer for brass watch cases, etc.; Gold lacquer for metallic 
 
 articles; Gold lacquer for tin plate.402 
 
 Green lacquer; Iron lacquer for blacksmiths, locksmiths and founders; 
 Lacquers for gold; Pale lacquer for gold; Lacquer for philosophical 
 
 instruments.403 
 
 Lacquer for steel; Lacquer for tin-foil; Metallic gold color; To lacquer 
 
 optical instruments.404 
 
 Coating for bars of spring steel not acted upon by acids; Black coating for 
 
 iron.406 
 
 New rust preventive; To protect iron and steel from rust; To protect 
 
 lightning-rods, metal-roofs, etc., from rust.407 
 
 To protect lead pipes; Painting of iron.408 
 
 Paint for sheet-iron roofs.409 
 
 Paint for preserving zinc roofs; Black varnish for iron and steel; Black 
 
 varnish for zinc.410 
 
 Bright asphalt varnish for sheet metals; Colored varnish for sheet metals . 411 
 Green varnish for metals; Green transparent varnish; Varnish for iron 
 work; Varnish for common work ; Varnish for iron patterns . . 412 
 
 Varnish for metals according to Max Innes.413 
 
 XIV.— Soldering and Solders. 
 
 Object of soldering; Definition of solders; Agreement of metals and solders 413 
 
XX 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Preparation of the work for hard soldering; Definition of brazing; Descrip¬ 
 tion of the soldering iron ......... 414 
 
 Tinning of the copper bit; Definition of a “ wiped joint; ” The blow-pipe 
 
 and its uses.415 
 
 Blast used by pewterers; Heat required for hard soldering; The brazier’s 
 hearth; Preparation of the meeting edges; Operation of hard soldering 
 or brazing ............ 416 
 
 Brazing of iron; Composition and nature of spelter; Use of the blow-pipe 
 in hard soldering and brazing . . . . . . . .417 
 
 Fluxes and soldering liquids used in soldering; Preparation of soldering 
 
 liquid.418 
 
 Soldering paste; Soldering fat; Miiller’s soldering liquid . . . . 419 
 
 Gauduin’s soldering liquid ; New soldering liquid; Soft solders . . 420 
 
 Preparation of soft solder; Bismuth solder; Hard solders; Spelter solder . 421 
 Tables showing the composition of various kinds of hard solders . .422 
 
 Solders for aluminium; To solder aluminium with the blow-pipe; To 
 solder aluminium with the common soldering iron; Soldering of alumin¬ 
 ium bronze ............ 423 
 
 Hulot’s solder for aluminium bronze; Solders for aluminium bronze jewelry ; 
 Hard solder for 10 per cent, bronze; Middling hard solder for 10 per 
 cent, bronze; Soft solder for aluminium bronze; Argentan solders ; 
 Readily fusible argentan solder; Less readily fusible argentan solder; 
 Soldering cast-iron .......... 424 
 
 To solder cast-iron objects; Soldering with dry lead chloride; Gold 
 solders ............. 425 
 
 Solder for enamelled work; Refractory solder; More readily fusible solder; 
 
 To remove tarnish from gold after hard soldering; Silver solders . . 426 
 
 Hard silver solders; Hard silver solder for the first soldering; Softer hard 
 silver solder for after soldering; Alloy for cold soldering . . . 427 
 
 Copper the best material for joining iron to iron; To solder copper wire; 
 
 To solder saws ........... 428 
 
 To solder without a soldering iron; To color soft solder; To make platinum 
 adhere to gold ........... 429 
 
 Autogenous soldering .......... 430 
 
 XV.—Welding and Welding Compounds. 
 
 Analogy to welding; Chief difficulty in welding iron; Heat required for 
 welding iron and cast-steel ......... 430 
 
 Purpose of welding powders; General rule for welding . . . .43* 
 
 To weld cast-steel; Fluxes used in welding cast-steel .... 432 
 
 American welding compound for welding steel to steel; Another formula ; 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xxi 
 
 Welding compound to weld steel to wrought-iron at a red heat; To weld 
 steel to iron or steel; Welding compound for welding wrought-iron to 
 
 wrought-iron at a red heat.433 
 
 To thoroughly and firmly unite by welding steel with steel, cast-steel with 
 cast-steel and cast-steel with iron; Improved method of welding . . 434 
 
 To weld copper; To make old steel rails new ...... 435 
 
 Welding of platinum; Electric welding; The apparatus .... 436 
 
 Generation of electricity by the direct and indirect systems . . . 437 
 
 The process of electric welding; Simplicity of the process .... 438 
 
 Time required for making an electric weld; Applications of electric weld¬ 
 ing ; Strength of electric welds ........ 439 
 
 Electrohephestos; MM. de Bernados’ and Olszewsky’s method of electric 
 welding; Experiments with Bernados’ and Olszewsky’s electric welding 
 apparatus at Tegel, near Berlin; Chemical change produced in steel and 
 iron by the action of the arc in electric welding ..... 440 
 Storage batteries constructed by M. de Bernados illustrated and described 441 
 Manner of operating Bernados’ and Olszewsky’s apparatus illustrated and 
 described.44 2 
 
 XVI.—Wire—Manufacture, Brassing, Coppering, Electroplating, 
 
 Galvanizing, Etc. 
 
 What wire-drawing consists in; Drawing properties of metals, on what they 
 
 depend.445 
 
 Definitions of the qualities of wires; Plough steel; Characteristics of wire 
 rods, on what they depend; Amount of carbon which may be present in 
 steel rods; Deleteriousness of sulphur and phosphorus .... 446 
 
 Breaking strengths of various wires; Manner of rolling rods at Garrett’s 
 wire-rod mill, near Chicago, Illinois, and in England .... 447 
 
 The entire series of grooves of a wire-rod roll illustrated; Construction of 
 an oval groove illustrated ......... 448 
 
 Preparation of wire-rods for drawing; A wire-drawing mill illustrated and 
 
 described.449 
 
 Wire-drawers’ soap or grease.450 
 
 F. Vogel’s pickle; Lubricant in drawing Bessemer wire recommended by 
 Chas. H. Morgan; Annealing of wire during the drawing process; 
 Annealing pots . . . . . . . . . . . 451 
 
 W. Rath’s method of preventing the formation of scales during 
 annealing; Drawing drums; Ripping blocks; Tempering or “ patenting ” 
 
 wires.452 
 
 Half-round wire; Schniewindt’s apparatus for producing half-round wire 
 illustrated and described ; Barbed wire ; Typical shapes of barbed wire 
 
 illustrated and described ......... 453 
 
xxii 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Barbed fencing wire manufactured by Bernhard Ebeling, of Bremen, and 
 C. Klauke, of Miincheberg, near Berlin ...... 454 
 
 Moen’s machine for the manufacture of barbed wire illustrated and 
 described ; Barbed wire from a single wire; Barbed wire manufactured 
 by the “Westphalische Union ” of Hamm . . . . *455 
 
 Phosphorized bronze or brass wire ; Hardening of wire; Ramsden’s method 
 of hardening wire illustrated and described ...... 456 
 
 Tables relating to wire by John A. Roebling’s Sons Co., of Trenton, 
 
 N.J. . . • .. 459 
 
 Table of wire gauges, in decimal parts of an inch ..... 460 
 
 Table indicating size, weight and length of iron and steel wire . . . 461 
 
 Table of weight per 1000 feet of copper wire ...... 462 
 
 Table of weight per mile of copper wire; To brass wire in the galvanic 
 
 way ..463 
 
 To electro-brass wire; Manufacture of brass wire; To copper iron wire . 464 
 To galvanize wire; Roberts’ apparatus for galvanizing wire illustrated and 
 
 described.465 
 
 Vogt’s arrangement for closing vessels through which the wire is conducted 
 in a straight line, illustrated and described; Wittle and Kamper’s arrange¬ 
 ment for removing superfluous zinc, illustrated and described; Roberts’ 
 apparatus for the same purpose, illustrated and described . . . 466 
 
 To gild metallic wire and wire cloth; J. W. Spaeth’s machine for gilding 
 
 wire and wire-cloth illustrated and described.468 
 
 Manufacture of gold wire; To nickel wire ..470 
 
 To tin wire and wire-gauze ......... 471 
 
 To harden steel piano wire ; Coating which does not readily oxidize upon 
 steel and iron wire .......... 473 
 
 XVII.— Miscellaneous. 
 
 Manufacture of basic open-hearth steel; J. H. Darby’s experiments, and 
 
 description of furnaces used.474 
 
 Composition of the charge ; Analysis of the soft steel obtained ; The Carls- 
 
 son Bessemer process.' . . . 475 
 
 Malleable cast-iron.476 
 
 Lead lapping illustrated and described.479 
 
 Sawing iron and steel; Manufacture of nicking saws .... 481 
 Hardening and tempering of the saws ; Speed at which the saws should be 
 run; Manner of cutting off a piece of hardened steel .... 482 
 Utilization of red-brass turnings ; Recovery of copper .... 483 
 Recovery of gold from gold baths, etc.; The wet process .... 484 
 Recovery of gold and silver from sweepings and other refuse from the 
 manufacture of gold ware, etc.; Ungilding ...... 485 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xxiii 
 
 Utilization of nickel waste; Adams’ nickel-plating salt; To recover nickel 
 from old solutions ........... 486 
 
 Recovery of silver from old cyanide plating solutions, etc.; The wet 
 
 method; Preparation of granulated silver.487 
 
 Desilvering; Recovery of platinum from platinum solutions . . . 488 
 
 Recovery of tin from tin-plate waste ; Another method; To separate lead 
 from zinc; How Japanese swords are made ...... 489 
 
 To make knives from old files; Manufacture of metal pipes, F. Madeley’s 
 
 patent.491 
 
 Improvement in the treatment of steel, C. Jones’ patent; Ink for writing on 
 tin; Ink for writing on zinc; Insulating coverings for steam-pipes, etc. . 492 
 Another insulating material for steam-pipes; Insulating mass for steam- 
 boilers, etc.; Insulating material for electrical conduits; Flexible insula¬ 
 ting mass for electrical conduits; Gold beating ..... 493 
 
 Composition of the cutch; Composition of the shoder .... 494 
 
 Lining for furnaces; Matrix mass for the reproduction of metals, coins, 
 etc.; Oil of mustard as a lubricator; Spinning of metals illustrated and 
 described ............ 495 
 
 Spinning tools, illustrated and described ....... 496 
 
 To cut sheet-brass by chemical means; To roughen sheet-brass for painting; 
 
 To cut iron plates with the assistance of sulphuric acid; To make a hole 
 in hard steel; To detach gold from metallic articles .... 499 
 
 To give metals, lead, tin, zinc, etc., the capacity of firmly adhering to other 
 metals, and to amalgamate with them; To keep steel from rusting; To 
 prevent metals from rusting; To prevent the rusting in of screws; To 
 loosen rusted screws; To prepare good crucibles ..... 500 
 
 To purify gold in the dry way (by cementation) according to Philipp ; To 
 repair cracked church bells; To restore burnt cast-steel . . . 501 
 
 To restore burnt steel tools ; To sharpen files.502 
 
 Process of sharpening files with the sand blast ...... 503 
 
 To sharpen tools; New method of securing flues ..... 504 
 
 Solidification of powdered metal; Combustibility of iron .... 505 
 
 Colors expressing high temperatures ........ 506 
 
 Rails and fastenings per mile of railroad.507 
 
 Index.509 
 
THE 
 
 METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK 
 
 OF 
 
 RECEIPTS AND PROCESSES. 
 
 i. 
 
 CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF THE METALS. 
 
 The chemist distinguishes 49 different metals, and understands 
 under the term “metals” simple bodies (elements) which form 
 certain combinations with oxygen, differing essentially from the 
 combinations with oxygen of the non-metals. 
 
 The practical metal worker makes use only of a small portion of 
 the metals; he works up by themselves : iron, copper, zinc, tin, 
 lead, silver, gold, platinum, aluminium and nickel. In combination 
 with other metals, i. e., as alloys, are used: antimony, bismuth, 
 cadmium, manganese, tungsten, chrojnium, arsenic and iridium. 
 
 Although in working metals their physical properties chiefly come 
 into consideration, and the practical metal worker has principally 
 to deal with their fusibility, ductility and divisibility, he must not 
 be ignorant of their chemical properties, because, on the one hand, 
 the gaining of metals is based upon chemical processes, and, on the 
 other, cases frequently occur in practice, especially in processes 
 relating to the ornamentation of the finished article, which can be 
 explained only by a knowledge of chemistry. 
 
 For this reason it is considered necessary to devote some space 
 to the chemistry of metals and their behavior towards some non- 
 metallic bodies. The experiments here given, the execution of 
 3 ( 33 ) 
 
34 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 which by the reader is urgently advised, may at the same time 
 serve as a preparatory course for the qualitative analysis of metals 
 and alloys given in Section III. 
 
 Behavior of Metals towards Oxygen. —Freshly-fractured surfaces 
 of metals exhibit a characteristic lustre—metallic lustre—which 
 remains constant with a few metals only, whilst with others it can 
 be preserved only by certain agents (polish, lacquer). Without 
 such agents the lustre is soon lost in consequence of the action 
 of the air, heat or moisture. 
 
 This alteration is most plainly illustrated by potassium. Potas¬ 
 sium is a metal of such softness that it can be cut with a knife with 
 greater ease than lead. The freshly-cut surface has a silver-like 
 lustre which, however, instantly tarnishes on exposure to air, and 
 the metal is converted into a white body which readily dis¬ 
 solves in water. For this reason potassium by itself cannot be used 
 for technical purposes, and, for reasons to be explained later on, it 
 can only be preserved by keeping it in a sealed tube free from 
 oxygen or beneath the surface of naphtha. 
 
 The white body mentioned above has a larger volume and 
 greater weight than the potassium used; consequently the metal 
 must have combined with other bodies, such as occur in the atmos¬ 
 phere. And such is actually the case, one constituent of the 
 air—oxygen—having combined with the metal. The body formed 
 —potassium oxide—having further absorbed water from the air, 
 potassium hydrate is formed. 
 
 The union of potassium with oxygen is still more rapidly effected 
 by throwing a piece the size of a pea upon water. Its specific 
 gravity being only 0.865, A swims upon the surface. The water, 
 however, is instantly decomposed, hydrogen being rapidly dis¬ 
 engaged ; and the heat evolved is sufficient to inflame the gas, 
 which burns with a violet flame from the volatilization of a portion 
 of the potassium. In this case oxygen is withdrawn from the 
 water. The potassium hydrate also formed in this experiment has 
 instantly dissolved in the water. To prove that the water actually 
 contains in solution the combination of a metal with oxide—a 
 metallic oxide —it is only necessary to dip a piece of red litmus 
 
CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF THE METALS. 
 
 35 
 
 paper into the water. In pure water the litmus paper is not changed; 
 however, in water containing a metallic oxide in solution, it is 
 colored blue as far as dipped in. 
 
 The process of the absorption of oxygen just described is called 
 oxidation, the combination of the metal with oxygen, an oxide, and, 
 in case the oxide has further absorbed water, this new combination 
 is termed an hydroxide. 
 
 The oxidation of metals takes place with special ease under the 
 influence of heat. A piece of magnesium wire held in a spirit 
 flame burns with a bright white light, the product of combustion 
 being magnesium monoxide or magnesia. 
 
 Zinc is a readily fusible metal, it becoming liquid at 773 0 F. 
 By heating it to 932 0 F. its affinity for oxygen becomes so apparent 
 that on pouring it from the crucible it burns with a splendid 
 greenish light and when cool forms a white flaky body— zinc oxide. 
 
 Hence the combustion of metals is nothing else but their union 
 with oxygen—an oxidation. However the oxidation effected by 
 heat is not always a visible phenomenon of combustion. 
 
 By heating a piece of copper-sheet over an alcohol flame the 
 latter becomes green, this being an indication of the combustion 
 of the copper; moreover, the color of the copper also changes, it 
 becoming gradually yellow, violet and blue and finally black. 
 The black body formed is cupric oxide. By immersing the sheet 
 after the formation of the oxide in water, the oxide scales off and 
 the sheet shows a brown-red appearance different from that of 
 metallic copper. This brown-red layer can be readily removed by 
 mechanical means (scraping, polishing), but by repeated heating is 
 also converted into oxide. Hence it is also a combination of 
 copper with oxygen, but it contains only half as much oxygen as 
 cupric oxide, and is called cuprous oxide. 
 
 Cupric oxide contains 63.5 parts of copper to 16 of oxygen, 
 whilst cuprous oxide contains 127 parts of copper to 16 of oxygen. 
 
 Most metals unite with oxygen in two proportions; some, how¬ 
 ever, for instance, lead and manganese, will combine with more 
 oxygen than is contained in their oxides. Such higher grades of 
 oxidation are termed super-oxides, whilst the terms protoxide and 
 
36 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-ROOK. 
 
 suboxide are applied to combinations of oxygen containing less 
 oxygen than the oxides. 
 
 Platinum, gold, silver and mercury do not combine with oxygen 
 in the manner above described. They retain their metallic lustre, 
 and their oxides can only be prepared with difficulty. To dis¬ 
 tinguish them from the more readily oxidizable base metals they are 
 called noble metals. 
 
 Combinations of the Metals with Chlorine .—To prepare chlorine 
 for experiments it may be separated from hydrochloric acid, a 
 combination of chlorine and hydrogen. For this purpose pour 
 over 20 parts by weight of finely pulverized pyrolusite (peroxide 
 cf manganese) in a flask, 60 parts by weight of hydrochloric acid, 
 and apply a gentle heat; a heavy yellow gas is disengaged which 
 is the substance in question. The reaction consists in an inter¬ 
 change between the two atoms of oxygen of the pyrolusite and 
 four atoms of chlorine from the hydrochloric acid, the oxygen 
 uniting with the hydrogen to form water, while of the chlorine 
 one-half unites with the manganese, forming a chloride, and the 
 other half is given off as gas. 
 
 The disengaged chlorine being very poisonous if inhaled, great 
 care must be exercised in its preparation. As a precautionary 
 measure frequently wave a cloth moistened with a few drops of 
 spirit of wine and spirit of sal-ammoniac through the air. The 
 chlorine contained in the air combines with the spirit of sal- 
 ammoniac to a body which is not injurious to the respiratory 
 organs. 
 
 To collect the chlorine in a bottle fill the latter with lukewarm 
 water and fasten a bent glass-tube to the boiling flask by means of 
 a perforated tube, allowing the free end of the tube to dip in a 
 dish filled with water. The chlorine escapes in bubbles from the 
 aperture in the tube. To collect it close the bottle filled with luke¬ 
 warm water with the thumb or a moistened glass-plate and immerse 
 it, mouth down, in the dish filled with water. On removing the 
 thumb or the glass-plate the water does not run out, and the filled 
 bottle can be readily brought over the discharge-aperture of the 
 glass-tube. The escaping chlorine gradually displaces the water. 
 
CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF THE METALS. 
 
 37 
 
 When all the water is displaced and the bottle filled with chlorine, 
 it is taken out after having previously been corked under water. 
 Powdered antimony, if allowed to fall into a bottle filled with 
 chlorine, burns with a white smoke and the appearance of a fiery 
 rain. 
 
 A piece of Dutch gold (metal-leaf) also burns with a lively flame 
 in chlorine, the product of combustion dissolving with a blue-green 
 color in water. 
 
 Genuine gold dissolves in chlorine water, the solution being of 
 a slightly yellowish color. Hence chlorine furnishes a sure means 
 of distinguishing genuine from spurious gold. 
 
 The combinations of chlorine with metals are called metallic 
 chlorides. Metallic chlorides in solutions are obtained by intro¬ 
 ducing metals or metallic oxides into hydrochloric acid, iron 
 and zinc being especially soluble in the acid. If, for instance, 
 small pieces of zinc are brought into a bottle provided with two 
 mouths (Fig. i), and hydrochloric acid diluted with water be 
 poured through a funnel placed air-tight upon the bottle, the zinc is 
 dissolved with a vigorous development of gas. To more closely 
 examine the evolved gas, secure to the other mouth of the bottle a 
 bent glass tube, the free end of which is drawn out to a fine point. 
 
 The gas escaping at a readily ignites. The flame does not emit 
 light, but gives out such an intense heat that iron wire may be 
 fused in it and platinum wire brought to a red heat. The ignition 
 of the gas, however, must not be effected too quickly, because so 
 long as the atmospheric air is not completely removed from the bottle 
 and the tube, a mixture is formed which ignites with violent detona¬ 
 tion by being brought in contact with a lighted match or a red hot 
 wire. The gas evolved is called hydrogen and the mixture of hydrogen 
 and air, oxyhydrogen gas. By inverting a glass bell (Fig. i) over 
 the hydrogen flame the aqueous vapors formed condense and run 
 down, drop by drop, on the’sides of the glass-bell. 
 
 In order to obtain a clear idea of the above-described process of 
 the development of hydrogen, it must be remembered that 
 hydrochloric acid consists of chlorine and hydrogen. Chlorine, 
 however, has a stronger affinity for zinc than for hydrogen, and, 
 
38 
 
 THE METAL WORKER'S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 therefore, by bringing zinc into hydrochloric acid, the chlorine 
 leaves its associate, which escapes, while the chlorine forms with 
 
 the zinc a combination soluble in water —chloride of zinc. In dis¬ 
 solving metallic oxides in hydrochloric acid no hydrogen is liber¬ 
 ated, because the hydrogen separating from the acid instantly 
 combines with the oxygen of the oxide to water. Thus, for in¬ 
 stance, by bringing cupric oxide into hydrochloric acid a green 
 solution results from which, by evaporation, the chloride of copper 
 is obtained in green crystals. A development of hydrogen does 
 not take place, because : 
 
 Cupric oxide = 
 Hydrochloric acid = 
 Products: 
 
 copper -p oxygen, 
 
 chlorine -y hydrogen, 
 
 chloride of copper + water. 
 
 Gold, platinum and mercury do not dissolve in hydrochloric 
 acid. However, it has previously been stated that gold dissolves 
 in pure chlorine. If, now, hydrochloric acid is to be used for the 
 solution of gold, a body has to be added to the acid which with¬ 
 draws from it the hydrogen and liberates the chlorine. Nitric acid, 
 being very rich in oxygen, answers this purpose. By carefully 
 
CHEMICAL KELATIONS OF THE METALS. 
 
 39 
 
 mixing 2 parts by weight of hydrochloric acid and 1 part by 
 weight of nitric acid a mixture known as aqua regia is obtained. 
 By placing gold or platinum in this mixture a portion of the oxygen 
 of the nitric acid combines with the hydrogen of the hydrochloric 
 acid to water, whilst the chlorine of the hydrochloric acid com¬ 
 bines with the metal to chloride of gold or chloride of platinum. 
 The nitric acid, deprived of a portion of its oxygen, becomes 
 nitrous gas and nitrous acid, both of which escape as yellow vapors, 
 very injurious to the respiratory organs. 
 
 The combinations of silver and lead with chlorine are insoluble 
 in water. Hence hydrochloric acid does not dissolve these metals, 
 a superficial layer of chloride of silver or chloride of lead being 
 formed, which prevents the further action of the acid. 
 
 Combinations of the Metals with Sulphur .—Sulphur is a non- 
 metallic body of yellow color, which melts at 222 0 F. and boils at 
 784° F., whereby it is converted into brown-red vapors which, 
 when sufficiently cooled, condense to a yellow powder (flowers of 
 sulphur). Sulphur is frequently associated with metals, a large 
 portion of the latter being gained from metallic sulphides. 
 
 By holding a piece of sheet copper in the brown-red vapor of 
 sulphur it loses its flexibility and red color ; it becomes brittle and 
 gray; jt has lost 25 per cent, of weight and has been converted 
 into cuprous sulphide, which consists of 16 parts sulphur and 63.4 
 parts copper. (There is also a combination of copper with sul¬ 
 phur which contains about 33^ per cent, of sulphur.) 
 
 By wrapping in a piece of tin-foil one-half of its weight of sul¬ 
 phur and heating them in a test cube over a spirit flame, a portion of 
 the sulphur evaporates, while another portion combines with the 
 tin to brown-black sulphide of tin, which consists of 32 parts sulphur 
 and 118 parts tin. The preparation of the combination of sulphur 
 with tin known as mosaic gold (59 parts tin, 32 sulphur) will be 
 given later on. 
 
 With iron sulphur combines without the assistance of heat. By 
 mixing 30 parts by weight of iron filings, 20 of flowers of sulphur 
 and 20 of water in a small pot and placing the mixture in a warm 
 place in order to allow the water to evaporate, a black powder will 
 
40 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-COOK. 
 
 be found in the pot ; this powder is ferrous sulphide and contains 
 32 parts sulphur to 56 parts iron. 
 
 A combination containing 56 parts iron and 64 parts sulphur oc¬ 
 curs naturally and is known as iron-pyrites. 
 
 Metallic sulphides are mostly distinguished by a characteristic 
 coloration, those known as “ pyrites ” especially having a beautiful 
 gold lustre. 
 
 Laws of Combination of the Elements .—In the preceding para¬ 
 graphs the phenomena have been explained by which from two 
 simple bodies a new body with new properties may be formed. In 
 the following the opposite case will be considered, because many 
 of the bodies thus formed can be again decomposed into their con¬ 
 stituents. The bodies which cannot be further decomposed either 
 by chemical or mechanical means are called elements. 
 
 Table of the Most Important Elements, with their Sym¬ 
 bols and Atomic Weights : 
 
 Name. 
 
 Aluminium. 
 
 Antimony (Stibium). . 
 
 Arsenic. 
 
 Barium. 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 Boron. 
 
 Bromine. 
 
 Cadmium. 
 
 Calcium. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Chlorine. 
 
 Cohalt. 
 
 Copper (Cuprum). 
 
 Fluorine. 
 
 Gold (Aurum). 
 
 Hydrogen. 
 
 Iodine. 
 
 Iridium. 
 
 Iron (Ferrum). 
 
 Lead (Plumbum). 
 
 Magnesium. 
 
 Symbol. 
 
 Atomic 
 
 1 weight. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Symbol. 
 
 Atomic 
 
 weight. 
 
 A1 
 
 27.4 
 
 Manganese. 
 
 Mn 
 
 55 
 
 Sb 
 
 I 22 
 
 Mercury (Hydrargy- 
 
 
 
 As 
 
 75 
 
 rum). 
 
 Hg 
 
 200 
 
 Ba 
 
 137 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 Ni 
 
 58.8 
 
 Bi 
 
 210 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 N 
 
 14 
 
 B 
 
 I I 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 O 
 
 l6 
 
 Br 
 
 80 
 
 Palladium. 
 
 Pd 
 
 106.6 
 
 Cd 
 
 I 12 
 
 Phosphorus. 
 
 P 
 
 31 
 
 Ca 
 
 40 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 Pt 
 
 197-4 
 
 c 
 
 12 
 
 Potassium (Kalium).. . 
 
 K 
 
 39-i 
 
 Cl 
 
 35-5 
 
 Selenium . 
 
 Se 
 
 79-4 
 
 Co 
 
 58.8 
 
 Silicium . 
 
 Si 
 
 28 
 
 Cu 
 
 634 
 
 Silver (Argentum) .... 
 
 A g 
 
 108 
 
 F 
 
 >9 
 
 Sodium (Natrium) . 
 
 Na 
 
 23 
 
 Au 
 
 197 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 S 
 
 32 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 Thallium. 
 
 T1 
 
 204 
 
 I 
 
 127 
 
 Tin (Stannum) . 
 
 Sn 
 
 118 
 
 Ir 
 
 198 
 
 Titanium . 
 
 Ti 
 
 50 
 
 Fe 
 
 56 
 
 Tungsten or Wolfram 
 
 W 
 
 184 
 
 Pb 
 
 207 
 
 Uranium . 
 
 U 
 
 240 
 
 Mg 
 
 24 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Zn 
 
 65.2 
 
CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF THE METALS. 
 
 41 
 
 The names of the most important elements are given in the fore¬ 
 going table. Opposite to them in the third column are placed 
 certain numbers which express the proportions in which they com¬ 
 bine together or simple multiples of those proportions; these num¬ 
 bers are called atomic or indivisible weights. In the second column 
 are placed symbols by which these weights are denoted ; these sym¬ 
 bols are formed of the first letters of the Latin names of the ele¬ 
 ments, a second letter being added when the names of two or more 
 elements begin with the same letter. The names of the metallic 
 elements are distinguished by large type. 
 
 From the table it will be seen that, for instance, 118 parts 
 of tin combine with 32 parts of sulphur, or with 16 parts of oxy¬ 
 gen. The elements combine, however, not only according to the 
 proportion of their atomic weights, but also according to the mul¬ 
 tiples thereof. On p. 39 was mentioned a combination of tin and 
 sulphur, consisting of 118 parts tin and (2 X 32 =) 64 parts of 
 sulphur, and tin-stone contains for 118 parts of tin (2 X 16 =) 32 
 parts of oxygen. 
 
 As previously stated, each chemical element is denoted, for 
 brevity’s sake, by a symbol, which also expresses the atomic weight. 
 Hg, for instance, does not only mean mercury, but also 200 parts 
 by weight of mercury. To express chemical combinations, the 
 symbols of the elements are placed along-side each other, thus: 
 
 Hg S = (mercury and sulphur =) cinnabar. 
 
 Cl H = (chlorine and hydrogen =) hydrochloric acid. 
 
 If in the combination one of the elements is contained as a mul¬ 
 tiple, a small figure denoting the multiple is placed at the right of 
 the symbol. Thus the symbol 
 
 For Ferric chloride is Fe Cl 3 
 “ Minium “ Pb 3 0 4 
 
 “ Cuprous oxide “ Cu 2 O 
 “ Nitric acid “ FI N 0 3 
 
 Metallic Salts .—As previously mentioned the combinations of 
 the metals with oxygen differ essentially from those of the non- 
 
42 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 metals with oxygen. While the first, when soluble in water, have 
 an alkaline taste, the latter have an acid taste; the first are called 
 bases and the latter acids. 
 
 Blue litmus-tincture is an infallible reagent for acids; a drop of 
 it brought into an acid fluid is colored red. The tincture is pre¬ 
 pared by pouring over commercial litmus ten times its weight of 
 water and letting it stand for 12 hours. The fluid is then decanted 
 from the sediment and kept for use in a wide-mouthed, open bottle. 
 In a corked bottle it soon decomposes. 
 
 To make litmus-tincture available for the detection of alkalies, 
 compound it drop by drop with dilute hydrochloric acid until it 
 becomes red. Red litmus-tincture is colored blue by an alkaline fluid. 
 
 For many purposes it is of advantage to use litmus-paper in place 
 of the tincture, the fluids to be tested not being colored by it.- It 
 is prepared by soaking filtering paper in litmus-tincture, drying 
 and cutting it into small pieces ; one-half of each piece is finally 
 drawn through dilute hydrochloric acid, the red portion serving as 
 a reagent for alkalies, and the blue for acids. 
 
 In the same manner as the elements combine together the bases 
 may also enter into combinations with the acids. Such combina¬ 
 tions are called salts and are generally distinguished by the ap¬ 
 pearance of characteristic crystalline forms. 
 
 By dissolving black oxide of copper in hydrochloric acid a blue 
 solution is obtained from which a blue salt crystallizes out. This 
 salt is cupric sulphate or blue vitriol. 
 
 Litharge dissolved in acetic acid gives acetate of lead or sugar of 
 lead, which crystallizes out in transparent colorless crystals. 
 
 By treating metals with acids, salts are also formed, but the 
 metals must first be oxidized before being brought in contact with 
 the acid. By pouring, for instance, dilute sulphuric acid over 
 zinc, the latter withdraws the oxygen from the water while the hy¬ 
 drogen escapes. In dissolving silver in nitric acid the silver with¬ 
 draws from the acid a portion of its oxygen and the acid becomes 
 nitrous oxide, which on coming in contact with the air is com 
 verted into nitrous acid. The same phenomena appear in dissolv¬ 
 ing copper as well as other metals in nitric acid. 
 
CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF THE METALS 
 
 43 
 
 Metallic oxides being thus formed they may combine with the 
 respective acids, the result being sulphate of zinc, or nitrate of 
 silver, or nitrate of copper. It will, however, readily be seen that 
 the gaining of nitrates directly from the metals cannot be profit¬ 
 able, since a portion of the acid is consumed for the oxidation of 
 the metal. 
 
 By treating metals with hydrochloric acid metallic chlorides are 
 formed (see page 36). In the metallic chlorides the acid, how¬ 
 ever, is not combined with a base, though generally they have the 
 character of a salt. To distinguish them and the combinations of 
 the metals with iodine and bromine from the combinations with 
 oxygen, the term haloid salts is applied to them. 
 
 All the salts mentioned thus far are soluble in water; insoluble 
 in water or soluble with difficulty are, for instance, the salts of 
 barium, strontium, calcium and lead obtained with sulphuric, 
 chromic and sulphurous acids and the haloid salts of lead, silver, etc. 
 
 These salts may be obtained by two different methods: either 
 by compounding a soluble salt with the respective acid or by mix¬ 
 ing the solutions of two salts which reciprocally exchange their 
 constituents'. 
 
 By compounding a solution of sugar of lead with tartaric acid 
 tartrate of lead is precipitated, whilst the supernatant liquid con¬ 
 tains acetic acid. By adding hydrochloric acid to a solution of 
 nitrate of silver, chloride of silver is precipitated, the supernatant 
 fluid containing nitric acid. If the solution of nitrate of silver be 
 compounded with sodium chloride (common salt) chloride of sil¬ 
 ver is also precipitated, but the nitric acid liberated from the 
 nitrate of silver combines with the sodium to a salt. 
 
 From a solution of sugar of lead compounded with a solution 
 of potassium bichromate, chromate of lead, the chrome-yellow of the 
 painter, is separated, the acetic acid of the sugar of lead being re¬ 
 placed by the chromic acid of the potassium bichromate. In a 
 similar manner metallic sulphides can be precipitated from the 
 solutions of metallic salts, sulphuretted hydrogen being used for 
 the purpose. 
 
 Precipitates with Sulphuretted Hydrogen. —For the preparation of 
 
44 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 sulphuretted hydrogen the apparatus shown in Fig. 2 may be used. 
 It consists of the developing vessel a , a porcelain sieve b, suspended 
 by means of a platinum wire to a glass rod, a funnel c and a bent 
 tube, to which is secured a second tube by means of a rubber 
 hose. By the clip d the gas developed in the glass vessel may be 
 shut off. The porcelain sieve is filled with small pieces of iron 
 monosulphide and dilute sulphuric acid (1 part acid to 5 water) 
 poured in through the funnel until a copious disengagement of gas 
 takes place. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a colorless gas having the 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 odor of putrid eggs; it is not an irritant, but, on the contrary, 
 powerfully narcotic. Water absorbs it with avidity. It has the 
 property of decomposing the oxides of heavy metals and precipi¬ 
 tating the metals as metallic sulphides. The precipitate has generally 
 a characteristic color. In the presence of antimony it is orange ; 
 of cadmium, arsenic or stannic oxide, yellow ; of bismuth or stan¬ 
 nous oxide, brown; of gold, brown-black; of silver, lead or 
 gold, black. 
 
 If zinc, nickel, iron or cobalt be present in the solution, the lat¬ 
 ter must first be made alkaline, the combinations of these metals 
 with sulphur being soluble in dilute acids. To make the solutions 
 
MOST IMPORTANT METALLIC PREPARATIONS. 
 
 45 
 
 alkaline compound them with ammonia until red litmus paper be¬ 
 comes blue. From the alkaline solution sulphuretted hydrogen 
 precipitates zinc with a white color, manganese with a flesh color, 
 and iron, nickel and cobalt with a black color. 
 
 II. 
 
 THE MOST IMPORTANT METALLIC PREPARATIONS, AND 
 THE CHEMICALS USED IN THE METAL-INDUSTRY. 
 
 i. Iron Preparations. 
 
 Ferrous sulphate (copperas , green vitriol ) is obtained in pale 
 green crystals which rapidly oxidize in the air. It is best prepared 
 by dissolving iron filings in dilute sulphuric acid and filtering the 
 boiling hot solution. By mixing the filtrate with spirit of wine the 
 ferrous sulphate separates as a fine white crystalline meal which is 
 washed with spirit of wine and quickly dried between blotting- 
 paper. Ferrous sulphate thus prepared is distinguished by great 
 durability, whilst the commercial article, which is mostly prepared 
 from iron pyrites, quickly oxidizes in the air and gives turbid 
 solutions. 
 
 A 7 nmonio-ferrous sulphate is formed by dissolving separately in as 
 little water as possible, 139 parts of ferrous sulphate and 60 of 
 ammonium sulphate, and pouring the solutions heated to 140° F. 
 into a porcelain dish, adding a few drops of sulphuric acid and 
 stirring until cool. A pale blue crystalline meal is deposited which 
 the next day is dried in a funnel, the tube of which is closed by 
 a tuft of cotton. 
 
 Ferrous chloride is obtained by dissolving iron in hydrochloric 
 acid. By sufficiently evaporating the solution pale green crystals 
 are obtained which readily oxidize in the air and dissolve with ease 
 in spirit of wine. 
 
 Ferric chloride is obtained as a black-brown hygroscopic mass 
 by adding chlorine water to a solution of ferrous chloride, or by 
 
46 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 dissolving ferric oxide in hydrochloric acid. In water it dissolves 
 to a yellow fluid. 
 
 Sesquioxide of iron , colcothar or rouge occurs in commerce as a 
 brown-red powder. It is obtained as a by-product in the manu¬ 
 facture of sulphuric acid from solution of ferrous sulphate. A 
 product of a red-brown color consisting of sesquioxide of iron and 
 clay has recently been brought into commerce under the name of 
 iron minium ; it is used in the preparation of paint. 
 
 Potassium ferrocyanide (yellow prussiate of potash) is a commer¬ 
 cial article. It occurs in the shape of fine yellow and semi-trans- 
 lucenf crystals with mother-of-pearl lustre, which break gradually 
 and without noise. The fracture is jagged, and filled with a multi¬ 
 tude of small bright spots. 
 
 Potassium ferricyanide (red prussiate of potash) is obtained by 
 allowing chlorine to act upon a solution of yellow prussiate of 
 potash. It forms prismatic or sometimes tabular crystals. It 
 serves for distinguishing ferric from ferrous oxides, its solution 
 yielding a deep blue precipitate with ferrous oxides, but not with 
 ferric oxides. 
 
 Ferric sulphate' is obtained by heating 5 parts of ferrous sulphate 
 with 15 parts of water and 1 part of sulphuric acid, and adding to 
 the boiling solution nitric acid in small quantities until the, at first 
 black, fluid has acquired a brown-yellow color. By evaporation it 
 yields a pale yellow crystalline mass, from which anhydrous ferric 
 sulphate is obtained by compounding the concentrated solution 
 with sulphuric acid. With yellow prussiate of potash ferric sul¬ 
 phate gives a deep blue precipitate which is know as Berlin blue. 
 By mixing solution of ferrous sulphate with solution of yellow 
 prussiate of potash a pale blue precipitate—protocyanide of iron—■ 
 is obtained, which after long standing in the air is also converted 
 into Berlin blue. 
 
 2. Preparations of Cobalt and Nickel. 
 
 Cobaltous chloride is obtained in blue crystalline scales of a 
 greasy touch by heating the metal in chlorine, or by adding strong 
 hydrochloric acid to a solution of the protoxide in hydrochloric 
 
MOST IMPORTANT METALLIC PREPARATIONS. 47 
 
 » 
 
 acid. By absorption of water the color of the scales changes to 
 red. 
 
 Cobaltous nitrate is a red crystalline salt and very deliquescent. 
 By prolonged heating the acid escapes and steel-blue sesquioxide 
 of cobalt remains behind. 
 
 Cobaltous oxide is a greenish-gray powder readily reduced to the 
 metallic state by ignition in hydrogen, and is converted into the 
 sesquioxide in presence of oxygen. 
 
 Nickel chloride is best obtained by dissolving metallic nickel in 
 aqua regia. A solution of nickel or its oxide in hydrochloric acid 
 also yields, after evaporation, nickel chloride in small granular 
 crystals of a blue color, which dissolve in water with a green, and 
 in ammonia, with a blue color. In the dry way it is obtained in 
 delicate, lardaceous scales by conducting chlorine gas over slightly 
 heated metallic nickel. 
 
 Nickel sulphate is obtained by dissolving metallic nickel in sul¬ 
 phuric acid compounded with a few drops of nitric acid to accel¬ 
 erate the action. It crystallizes out in emerald-green crystals 
 which readily dissolve in water, and with spirit of sal-ammoniac, 
 give a dark blue fluid. 
 
 Nickel nitrate is an emerald-green powder, also soluble in am¬ 
 monia ; it is very deliquescent. It is obtained by dissolving 
 metallic nickel in nitric acid. 
 
 By adding potash or soda to a solution of a nickel salt, nickel 
 hydrate is precipitated as a green powder. It is soluble in am¬ 
 monia, forming a violet solution. 
 
 3. Copper Preparations. 
 
 Copper-powder used in the preparation of copper amalgam is pre¬ 
 pared as follows: Place a strip of sheet-zinc in a saturated solution 
 of blue vitriol mixed with an equal volume of hydrochloric acid. 
 The copper is precipitated as a fine powder which, after decanting 
 the supernatant fluid, is washed first with weak and next with 
 stronger alcohol; it is then quickly dried to prevent oxidation. 
 
 Cupric sulphate (sulphate of copper, blue vitriol ) is the best known 
 copper salt. It occurs in blue crystals and dissolves in 4 parts of 
 
48 
 
 TI1E METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 cold water. It is obtained by dissolving cupric oxide in sulphuric 
 acid, or on the large scale, by heating scrap or refuse copper with 
 sulphur in a furnace so as to convert it into cuprous sulphide which 
 is then oxidized to cupric sulphate and oxide. The mass is thrown 
 into dilute sulphuric acid and the resulting sulphate crystallizes out 
 from the solution. 
 
 Cupro-diammonium sulphate. —By adding ammonia to a solution 
 of cupric sulphate a pale blue precipitate is formed which, by a 
 further addition of ammonia, dissolves to a dark blue fluid. By 
 carefully adding to the fluid double its volume of alcohol the cupro- 
 diammonium sulphate crystallizes out after 24 hours. 
 
 Copper nitrate is formed by dissolving the metal or oxide in 
 nitric acid and concentrating the solution in a copper kettle. It 
 forms dark blue, prismatic crystals. 
 
 Cupric chloride. —This salt is obtained in long bluish-green 
 needles by dissolving cupric oxide in hydrochloric acid and evap¬ 
 orating the solution. By heating the needles water escapes, then 
 chlorine, while cuprous chloride remains behind. On exposure to the 
 sun it acquires a copper color and a metallic lustre. It is also 
 obtained as a brown fluid by heating solution of cupric chloride 
 compounded with hydrochloric acid together with copper. By the 
 addition of water the cuprous chloride precipitates as a white 
 powder. 
 
 In a cold solution of sodium hyposulphite cuprous chloride dis¬ 
 solves to a yellow fluid, which does not change at an ordinary 
 temperature, but, when heated, deposits black sulphide of copper. 
 Sulphide of copper with a black color is also precipitated by 
 sulphuretted hydrogen from solutions of copper salts. 
 
 Copper carbonate. —On adding a solution of soda to one of 
 cupric sulphate a pale blue precipitate of copper carbonate is 
 formed which after some time becomes green; it is known under 
 the name of mmeral green. 
 
 Acetate of copper occurs in two varieties: 
 
 1. The tieu/ral salt obtained by dissolving cupric oxide in acetic 
 acid. It is found in the market either in the form of dark green 
 crystals or of a bright green powder—highly poisonous—soluble in 
 
MOST IMPORTANT METALLIC PREPARATIONS. 
 
 49 
 
 water which becomes green ; very soluble in ammonia, forming a 
 solution of an azure-blue color. . 
 
 2. The basic salt or verdigris; it is a powder of a fine turquois 
 bluish-green; it is highly poisonous. It is obtained either from 
 copper and vinegar (German verdigris), or by piling together 
 sheets of copper with the skins of pressed grapes (French verdi¬ 
 gris). It is imperfectly soluble in water, and difficult to combine 
 with the sulphites and cyanides, unless previously treated with 
 ammonia. It is often used for adulterating the neutral salt. 
 
 Cyanide of copper. —Two salts are called by this name ; one im¬ 
 properly so called is the ferrocyanide, a powder of a maroon or 
 Vandyke-brown color, obtained by the precipitation of a soluble 
 copper salt with ferrocyanide of potassium; the other, the cyanide, 
 a dirty white powder with a greenish-yellow tinge resulting from 
 the precipitation of a soluble copper salt by cyanide of potassium. 
 Whatever be its mode of production, it is freely soluble in all the 
 alkaline cyanides. 
 
 Cupric and cuprous oxides. —The formation of these oxides has 
 already been discussed on page 35. Cuprous oxide is soluble in 
 ammonia. Th® ammoniacal copper compound formed is a very 
 strong reducing agent, and serves for the precipitation of silver in 
 the manufacture of silver mirrors. 
 
 4. Preparations of Lead, Tin and Bismuth. 
 
 Acetate of lead (sugar of lead) is a poisonous salt obtained by 
 dissolving litharge in acetic acid and evaporating the solution. It 
 is ordinarily found in the shape of crystalline masses; white; 
 light; very soluble; savor, at first sweetish, then metallic. It 
 yields a turbid solution which becomes clear by the addition of a 
 few drops of acetic acid. 
 
 Lead carbonate (white lead ) is used as a paint; insoluble in 
 water. 
 
 Lead chloride is readily obtained by adding hydrochloric acid or 
 a soluble chloride to a solution of a lead salt. It crystallizes in 
 white lustrous needles, sparingly soluble in cold water (1 part in 
 4 
 
50 
 
 TOE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 120), but much more soluble in boiling water and in strong 
 hydrochloric acid. 
 
 Lead sulphate is formed as a precipitate insoluble in water by 
 mixing solution of a lead salt and sulphuric acid. 
 
 Lead chromate (chrome yellow). —This salt is obtained as a 
 brilliant yellow precipitate on mixing solutions of potassium 
 chromate or dichromate with lead nitrate or acetate. On boiling 
 it with lime water, one-half of the acid is withdrawn, and a basic 
 lead chromate of an orange-red color left. 
 
 Stannous chloride (.Protochloride of tin , Tin-salt). —This salt is 
 manufactured in large quantities, and occurs in commerce in the 
 form of small, needle-like crystals. It is greasy to the touch, 
 fuses readily, communicates to the fingers a characteristic odor and 
 has a taste at first saline and then astringent and caustic. It is 
 soluble in water, but is partly precipitated in the state of a white 
 subsalt, which readily dissolves in a slight excess of acid. 
 
 Stannous chloride is prepared by dissolving granulated tin (in 
 excess) in hot hydrochloric acid, evaporating the solution to a 
 syrupy consistency and letting it crystallize. When the crystals 
 are heated they first fuse in their water of crystallization, which 
 soon evaporates, carrying off a small portion of hydrochloric acid. 
 The operation is completed when thick white fumes begin to be 
 evolved, which is evidence that the salt itself is beginning to 
 volatilize. The fused chloride of tin thus obtained is preferable 
 for tinning with alkaline baths. 
 
 Stannic sulphide may be obtained in golden yellow spangles by 
 passing stannic chloride and sulphuretted hydrogen through a 
 heated tube, or by heating mixtures of finely-divided tin, sulphur 
 and sal-ammoniac, or of stannous sulphide and corrosive sublimate. 
 The preparations thus obtained are known under the name of 
 mosaic gold. 
 
 Bismuth Jiitrate forms transparent crystals, and is obtained by 
 dissolving bismuth in nitric acid. The crystals are decomposed by 
 water with the production of a basic salt. 
 
MOST IMPORTANT METALLIC PREPARATIONS. 
 
 51 
 
 5. Preparations of Zinc, Antimony and Arsenic. 
 
 Chloride of zinc is obtained in solution by introducing zinc into 
 hydrochloric acid until a portion of it remains undissolved. 
 
 Zinc sulphate (white vitriol) is obtained on a large scale by 
 roasting blende and lixiviating the roasted mass with water. In 
 commerce it is found in three forms : either in white or opaque 
 plates, or in large transparent crystals, or in a mass formed of a 
 quantity of needle-like crystals resembling those of tin-salt. Its 
 taste is sour, styptic and metallic, and it is very soluble in water, 
 which remains colorless. 
 
 Zinc oxide prepared by burning the metal is employed as a 
 pigment under the name of zinc white; it is chiefly valued for its 
 permanency, as it is not blackened by exposure to sulphuretted 
 hydrogen like white lead. 
 
 Iron black is finely divided antimony powder precipitated from 
 a solution of antimony by zinc. It imparts to figures of plaster of 
 Paris and papier-machd the appearance of bright steel; hence its 
 name. 
 
 Antimony trichloride is obtained by the action of chlorine or 
 mercuric chloride upon the metal or by heating the trisulphide with 
 mercuric chloride. It is a translucent, light yellow fatty mass, 
 whence its common name of butter of antimony. On exposure to 
 the air it absorbs water with avidity, forming a very caustic fuming 
 liquid. An addition of water causes turbidity and precipitation; 
 hence it is diluted with alcohol. 
 
 Tartar ejnetic. —By boiling the tetroxide of antimony with 
 cream of tartar it is dissolved and the solution yields on evapora¬ 
 tion crystals of tartar emetic, which is almost the only antimonious 
 salt which will bear admixture with water without decomposition. 
 In the metal industry it is used for the production of lustrous 
 colors upon brass. 
 
 White arsenic or arsenious acid, a very poisonous substance, 
 which generally occurs in the shape of a white powder and some¬ 
 times in vitreous-like lumps resembling porcelain. It is slightly 
 
62 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 soluble in water. It is employed in certain silver-whitening baths 
 and also in the electro-baths for brass. 
 
 Schweinfurt green is obtained from equal parts of arsenious acid 
 and neutral verdigris by heating the solutions by themselves and 
 mixing them boiling hot. It consists of 31.29 parts cupric oxide, 
 58.65 arsenious acid and 10.6 acetic acid. It is very poisonous. 
 
 6 . Preparations of Mercury and Silver. 
 
 Mercurous sulphate is a white, sparingly soluble, crystalline 
 powder, formed by slightly heating mercury with concentrated 
 sulphuric acid. 
 
 Mercuric nitrate is obtained by dissolving at a gentle heat mer¬ 
 cury in nitric acid and, when solution is complete, boiling the 
 fluid for a few minutes. 
 
 Mercurous nitrate is a white crystalline salt, obtained by dissolv¬ 
 ing the metal in cold dilute nitric acid. Potash solution precipi¬ 
 tates from the solution mercurous oxide, which is readily resolved 
 on exposure to light or by simple trituration in a mortar into mer¬ 
 cury and mercuric oxide. 
 
 Mercuric chloride or corrosive sublimate is obtained by dissolving 
 the metal in aqua regia. It crystallizes out in the form of white 
 columns ; it is highly poisonous. 
 
 Nitrate of silver (.silver nitrate, lunar caustic) is one of the most 
 important silver salts. It is readily made by dissolving the metal 
 in moderately dilute nitric acid and concentrating the solution 
 when it separates out in anhydrous tables. In the trade the salt is 
 found in three forms: either as crystallized nitrate of silver in thin 
 rhombic and transparent plates; or in amorphous, opaque and 
 white plates of fused nitrate; or in small cylinders of white, or 
 gray, or black color, according to the nature of the mould em¬ 
 ployed, in which form it constitutes the lunar caustic for surgical 
 uses. 
 
 Nitrate of silver dissolves in its own weight of water, forming a 
 neutral solution, which is partially reduced by the action of hydro¬ 
 gen with the production of silver and silver nitrate. In the metal 
 
MOST IMPORTANT METALLIC PREPARATIONS. 
 
 53 
 
 industry it is employed for preparing silver-baths, metallizing 
 moulds and for many other purposes. 
 
 Chloride of silver (argentic chloride , hor-n silver ) is readily ob¬ 
 tained by adding hydrochloric acid or a chloride to a solution of 
 nitrate of silver. It forms a white curdy mass almost absolutely 
 insoluble in water. On exposure to the light it soon turns blue 
 and then black. To prevent this decomposition it should be kept 
 in blue or opaque bottles. It fuses at a high temperature and ac¬ 
 quires the appearance of horn, from which it derives its name of 
 horn silver. It is employed in the preparation of the baths for 
 electro-silvering, for the whitening baths and for the pastes for 
 silvering by friction. It readily dissolves in ammonia. 
 
 Argentic oxide is precipitated as a black powder from a solution 
 of nitrate of silver by ammonia. It is redissolved by an excess of 
 the precipitating agent. 
 
 Silver carbonate is insoluble in water and is formed as a precipi¬ 
 tate on bringing together solutions of nitrate of silver and of 
 potash. 
 
 Cyanide of silver (prussiate or hydrocyanate of silver). —This 
 substance is white, becomes slowly black when exposed to light 
 and is insoluble in water and in cold acids, which, however, will 
 dissolve it with the aid of heat. It is prepared by passing cyano¬ 
 gen gas through, or adding hydrocyanic acid to, a cold solution of 
 nitrate of silver. The precipitate formed is thoroughly washed 
 and kept in a moist condition in blue or black bottles. 
 
 Silver sulphate is formed by the action of hot concentrated sul¬ 
 phuric acid on the metal, or by adding sulphuric acid to a strong 
 solution of silver nitrate. It is sparingly soluble in water • it forms 
 with ammonia a readily soluble compound. 
 
 Silver sulphide is obtained by fusing silver with sulphur. It is 
 readily fusible, forming, when cold, a leaden-gray mass, which is 
 so soft that it may be readily cut with a knife and pressed into 
 moulds. 
 
 Silver hyposulphite is prepared by adding, to a solution of nitrate 
 of silver, ammonia until the precipitate is dissolved and then pour- 
 
54 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 ing in a concentrated solution of sodium hyposulphite and alcohol. 
 The salt separated is washed and dried. 
 
 7. Preparations of Gold and Platinum. 
 
 Chloride of gold (auric chloride') is generally prepared by dissolv¬ 
 ing finely laminated or otherwise comminuted gold in aqua regia. 
 The operation is conducted in a glass flask and with the aid of a 
 gentle heat until all the gold has dissolved to form a yellow liquid, 
 which still retains a great excess of acid. The heat is then slightly 
 increased and continued until the liquid is a hyacinth-red. After 
 cooling a crystallized mass of a fine yellow color is obtained, which 
 is well adapted to the preparation of the immersion-gilding bath. 
 
 On the other hand, for electro-gilding baths, the action of the 
 fire should preferably be continued until the liquid in the flask has 
 acquired a blackish-red .color without losing its fluidity. On 
 cooling the crystals are brown-red. 
 
 Aurous chloride is a yellowish-white insoluble powder, obtained 
 by heating auric chloride to about 302° F. until the color changes 
 to pure yellow. 
 
 Cyanide of gold (prussiate or hydrocyanate of gold) is prepared 
 by precipitating a solution of chloride of gold with a solution of 
 cyanide of potassium. An excess of alkaline cyanide must be 
 avoided, as it will dissolve the precipitate and form a double 
 cyanide of gold and potassium. This salt is employed for the 
 preparation of gilding baths and is preferred to the chloride for 
 this purpose, as it avoids the objection of introducing chloride of 
 potassium into the gilding solution. 
 
 Gold salt ( Gozzy's gold salt, Sal auri Figuicri, Aurum muriati- 
 cutn natronatum crystallisation). —Dissolve 8 parts of gold in aqua 
 regia. Add 2 parts of common salt and evaporate to dryness. Or 
 dissolve 1 part of gold in a mixture of 4 parts of hydrochloric 
 acid and 1 of nitric acid, evaporate the solution to crystallization, 
 dissolve it in 8 parts of water, mix the solution with o. 25 part of 
 common salt and again evaporate to crystallization. In the pres¬ 
 ence of free acid dissolve the mass in water, evaporate to crystal¬ 
 lization and recrystallize several times. Or, dissolve 100 parts of 
 
MOST IMPORTANT METALLIC PREPARATIONS. 
 
 56 
 
 gold in 400 of hydrochloric acid and 100 of nitric acid, heat until 
 all the nitric acid is decomposed, then mix with 73 parts of sodium 
 carbonate and evaporate to dryness. (In place of common salt 
 or sodium carbonate potassium chloride or potassium carbonate 
 may be used.) 
 
 Purple of Cassius, so named after its discoverer, is the dark- 
 purple precipitate formed on bringing together dilute solution of 
 chloride of gold with a solution of stannous chloride. Purple of 
 Cassius imparts to pastes and enamels a beautiful purple color; it 
 is prepared as follows: Dissolve 30.86 grains of tin in boiling 
 aqua regia, evaporate the solution at a gentle heat until solid, then 
 dissolve it in distilled water and after adding 30.86 grains of a 
 solution of stannous chloride dilute with 10 quarts of water and 
 stir into the fluid a solution of chloride of gold prepared from 0.75 
 grain of gold and not containing an excess of acid, which is 
 effected by evaporating the solution of chloride of gold to dryness 
 and heating for some time at 322 0 F. On adding 1 oz. 12 
 drachms of ammonia the fluid becomes turbid and the purple sepa¬ 
 rates out. 
 
 Plaiinic chloride (chloride of platinum, Tetra-chloride of pla- 
 tinuni). —This salt is prepared like the chloride of gold; but the 
 aqua regia should be made of 5 parts of hydrochloric acid to 3 of 
 nitric acid. The product is evaporated nearly to dryness in a 
 porcelain capsule from which it may readily be detached after cool¬ 
 ing. If it be desired to have it more acid, and therefore more easy 
 to dissolve, it is poured while still fluid, and not sensibly fuming, 
 upon a porcelain plate, from which it is easily separated after cool¬ 
 ing. Platinic chloride is soluble in water and alcohol, caustic soda 
 and sodium carbonate and phosphate; in the latter case it forms 
 double salts like chloride of gold. 
 
 Ammonio-chloride of platinum is precipitated from a solution of 
 platinic chloride by mixing it with sal-ammoniac or another atn- 
 moniacal salt. It is a lemon-yellow powder soluble with difficulty 
 in water. By heating the powder spongy platinutn is obtained. 
 
56 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 8 . Acids. 
 
 Sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol ).—Ordinary sulphuric acid is a 
 colorless, odorless, dense fluid, which is produced in large quantities 
 by oxidizing in lead chambers moist sulphurous acid by the vapors 
 of nitric acid. Its name of oil of vitriol comes from its oily 
 consistency and from the green vitriol (sulphate of iron), 
 from which it was formerly obtained by distillation in closed 
 vessels. 
 
 Concentrated sulphuric acid, which may still contain 18.46 per 
 cent, of water, attacks and blackens organic substances, becoming 
 itself more or less dark thereby. The particles of dust flying in 
 the air and falling into it are sufficient to produce this phenomenon. 
 Sulphuric acid is very hygroscopic, i. e., very much inclined to 
 absorb water. On mixing with water it becomes heated to a con¬ 
 siderable extent. Now, as it is frequently used in a dilute state, it 
 is necessary to remark that water should never be poured into the 
 acid ; pour the acid in a thin jet and in small quantities into the 
 water, stirring diligently with a glass rod. To avoid too much 
 heating and the explosion of the mixing vessel place the latter in 
 another vessel filled with water. The acid is preserved in glass 
 bottles closed with glass stoppers. The value of commercial sul¬ 
 phuric acid being dependent on its content of anhydrous acid, it 
 is tested with an aerometer. Beaume’s aerometer sinks in pure 
 concentrated sulphuric acid, specific gravity 1.842 to 66°. The 
 table on p. 57 gives information in regard to the content in other 
 cases; it may be remarked that the sulphuric acid to be tested 
 should be at 59 0 F. 
 
 Anhydrous sulphuric acid is not found in commerce. Fuming 
 sulphuric acid, also called Nordhausen sulphuric acid, is obtained by 
 burning sulphate of iron, and is a mixture of anhydrous and or¬ 
 dinary sulphuric acid. It is a brownish fluid of a pungent odor 
 (sulphurous acid) which fumes in the air, and on heating yields 
 vapors of anhydrous sulphuric acid. Fuming sulphuric acid is 
 chiefly used for dissolving indigo. 
 
MOST IMPORTANT METALLIC PREPARATIONS. 
 
 57 
 
 Percentage of Anhydrous Sulphuric Acid at Different 
 
 Degrees Be. 
 
 Degrees B6. 
 
 Anhydrous 
 
 acid. 
 
 Hydrated sul¬ 
 phuric acid. 
 
 Degrees Be. 
 
 Anhydrous 
 
 acid. 
 
 Hydrated sul¬ 
 
 phuric acid. 
 
 Degrees Be. 
 
 Anhydrous 
 
 acid. 
 
 Hydrated sul¬ 
 
 phuric acid. 
 
 o 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.9 
 
 23 
 
 22.1 
 
 25.8 
 
 46 
 
 46.4 
 
 56.9 
 
 I 
 
 i -5 
 
 1-9 
 
 24 
 
 22.1 
 
 27.1 
 
 47 
 
 47.6 
 
 58-3 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 2.8 
 
 25 
 
 23.2 
 
 28.4 
 
 48 
 
 487 
 
 59-6 
 
 3 
 
 3 1 
 
 3-8 
 
 26 
 
 24.2 
 
 29.6 
 
 49 
 
 49.8 
 
 61.0 
 
 4 
 
 3-9 
 
 4.8 
 
 27 
 
 253 
 
 31.0 
 
 50 
 
 51.0 
 
 62.5 
 
 5 
 
 4-7 
 
 5-8 
 
 28 
 
 26.3 
 
 32.2 
 
 5 i 
 
 52.2 
 
 64.0 
 
 6 
 
 5-6 
 
 6.8 
 
 29 
 
 27-3 
 
 33-4 
 
 52 
 
 53-5 
 
 65.5 
 
 7 
 
 6.4 
 
 78 
 
 30 
 
 28.3 
 
 347 
 
 53 
 
 54-9 
 
 67.0 
 
 8 
 
 7.2 
 
 8.8 
 
 31 
 
 29.4 
 
 36.0 
 
 54 
 
 56.0 
 
 68.6 
 
 9 
 
 8.0 
 
 98 
 
 32 . 
 
 30-5 
 
 37-4 
 
 55 
 
 57 -i 
 
 70.0 
 
 IO 
 
 8.8 
 
 10 8 
 
 33 
 
 31-7 
 
 38.8 
 
 56 
 
 58.4 
 
 71.6 
 
 11 
 
 9-7 
 
 11 9 
 
 34 
 
 32.8 
 
 40.2 
 
 57 
 
 597 
 
 73-2 
 
 12 
 
 10.6 
 
 13.0 
 
 35 
 
 33-9 
 
 41.6 
 
 58 
 
 61.0 
 
 747 
 
 13 
 
 11 5 
 
 14.1 
 
 36 
 
 35 -i 
 
 43-0 
 
 59 
 
 62.4 
 
 76.4 
 
 14 - 
 
 12.4 
 
 15.2 
 
 37 
 
 36.2 
 
 44-4 
 
 60 
 
 63.8 
 
 78.1 
 
 is 
 
 13.2 
 
 16.2 
 
 38 
 
 37-2 
 
 45-5 
 
 6l 
 
 65.2 
 
 79 9 
 
 l6 
 
 14 1 
 
 17 3 
 
 39 
 
 38-3 
 
 46.9 
 
 62 
 
 66.7 
 
 81.7 
 
 17 
 
 15-1 
 
 18.5 
 
 40 
 
 39-5 
 
 48.3 
 
 63 
 
 68.7 
 
 84.1 
 
 18 
 
 16.0 
 
 19.6 
 
 4 i 
 
 40.7 
 
 49.8 
 
 64 
 
 70.6 
 
 86.5 
 
 19 
 
 17.0 
 
 20.8 
 
 42 
 
 41.8 
 
 51.2 
 
 65 
 
 73-2 
 
 89.7 
 
 20 
 
 18.0 
 
 22.2 
 
 43 
 
 42.9 
 
 52.8 
 
 66 
 
 81.6 
 
 100.0 
 
 21 
 
 19.0 
 
 233 
 
 44 
 
 44.1 
 
 54.0 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 20.0 
 
 24-5 
 
 45 
 
 45-2 
 
 55-4 
 
 
 
 
 Nitric acid (aqua fords ').—It is found in commerce of various 
 colors and degrees of strength but rarely chemically pure. It is a 
 liquid of a nauseous smell; taste, strongly acid. It destroys the 
 skin and the majority of organic matters, dissolves most of the 
 metals, always with a production of orange vapors. It is obtained 
 by decomposing nitrate of soda with sulphuric acid and condensing 
 the vapors formed. Nitric acid may also be diluted with water, the 
 same precautions as given for sulphuric acid being used. The 
 content of anhydrous and hydrated nitric acid in the mixtures is 
 found from the following table : 
 
58 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Percentage of Anhydrous Nitric Acid at Different 
 Degrees Be. 
 
 Degrees Be. 
 
 Density. 
 
 1 00 parts contain 
 at 32 0 F. 
 
 100 parts contain 
 at 59 0 F. 
 
 Anhydrous 
 nitric acid. 
 
 Hydrated 
 nitric acid. 
 
 Anhydrous 
 nitric acid. 
 
 Hydrated 
 nitric acid. 
 
 6 
 
 1.044 
 
 5-7 
 
 67 
 
 65 
 
 7.6 
 
 7 
 
 1.052 
 
 6.9 
 
 8.0 
 
 7-7 
 
 9.0 
 
 9 
 
 1.067 
 
 8.7 
 
 10.2 
 
 9.8 
 
 11 4 
 
 IO 
 
 1.075 
 
 98 
 
 11 4 
 
 10.9 
 
 12-7 
 
 15 
 
 I.I l6 
 
 15.1 
 
 17.6 
 
 16.6 
 
 19.4 
 
 20 
 
 1.161 
 
 20.7 
 
 24.2 
 
 22.5 
 
 26.3 
 
 25 
 
 1 . 210 
 
 26.9 
 
 3'-4 
 
 28.9 
 
 33-8 
 
 30 
 
 1.261 
 
 33 5 
 
 39 1 
 
 35-6 
 
 4 i -5 
 
 35 
 
 1-321 
 
 41.1 
 
 48 0 
 
 43 5 
 
 5°-7 
 
 40 
 
 1.3S4 
 
 50.0 
 
 58.4 
 
 52.9 
 
 61.7 
 
 45 
 
 1.454 
 
 61.9 
 
 72.2 
 
 71.1 
 
 78.4 
 
 46 
 
 1.470 
 
 65.2 
 
 76.1 
 
 72.2 
 
 83.0 
 
 47 
 
 1.485 
 
 68.7 
 
 80.2 
 
 74-7 
 
 87.1 
 
 Hydrochloric acid .—This acid is gaseous, and emits abundant 
 and dense fumes in contact with air. Water at the temperature of 
 68° F. dissolves 460 times its own volume of this acid; that is, 1 
 quart of water will dissolve 460 quarts of this gas and the original 
 volume of the water will be increased about one-third. It is 
 this solution of the acid that is found in commerce and always 
 employed in the arts ; it is generally contaminated with sulphurous 
 and sulphuric acids, and by perchloride of iron which imparts to it a 
 yellow color. A concentrated solution of hydrochloric acid in 
 contact with moist air emits dense fumes which are the most ap¬ 
 parent in the presence of ammoniacal vapors. Hydrochloric acid 
 is mostly obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of soda. 
 The content of gaseous hydrochloric acid in hydrated hydrochloric 
 acid will be seen from the following table: 
 
MOST IMPORTANT METALLIC PREPARATIONS. 
 
 59 
 
 Percentage of Gaseous Hydrochloric Acid at Different 
 
 Degrees Be. 
 
 Degrees BA 
 
 100 parts contain 
 gaseous acid. 
 
 Degrees BA 
 
 100 parts contain 
 gaseous acid. 
 
 Degrees BA 
 
 IOO parts contain 
 gaseous acid. 
 
 at 32 0 F. 
 
 at 59° F. 
 
 at 3 2° F. 
 
 at 59 0 F. 
 
 at 32 0 F. 
 
 at 59 0 F. 
 
 O 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 9 
 
 12.7 
 
 HA 
 
 18 
 
 27.0 
 
 28.4 
 
 I 
 
 1-4 
 
 15 
 
 IO 
 
 14.2 
 
 15.0 
 
 19 
 
 28.7 
 
 30.2 
 
 2 
 
 2.7 
 
 29 
 
 I I 
 
 1 5-7 
 
 16.5 
 
 20 
 
 3<=4 
 
 32.0 
 
 3 
 
 4.2 
 
 4-5 
 
 12 
 
 17.2 
 
 18.1 
 
 21 
 
 32-3 
 
 33 9 
 
 4 
 
 5-5 
 
 5-8 
 
 13 
 
 18.9 
 
 19.9 
 
 22 
 
 34 -i 
 
 35-7 
 
 5 
 
 6.9 
 
 7-3 
 
 14 
 
 20.4 
 
 21-5 
 
 23 
 
 36.1 
 
 37-9 
 
 6 
 
 8.4 
 
 8.9 
 
 is 
 
 21.9 
 
 23.1 
 
 24 
 
 38.0 
 
 39-8 
 
 7 
 
 9 9 
 
 IO.J. 
 
 l6 
 
 23.6 
 
 24.8 
 
 25 
 
 40.2 
 
 424 
 
 8 
 
 11.4 
 
 12.0 
 
 17 
 
 25.2 
 
 26.6 
 
 
 
 
 Aqua regia (nitro-muriatic acid ) is a mixture of 2 parts hydro¬ 
 chloric acid and x nitric acid (seep. 39). But as both acids occur 
 in commerce in different degrees of strength it will be readily seen 
 that the action of aqua regia will not always be equally vigorous. 
 To always obtain aqua regia of an equal strength take 
 
 For 100 parts 
 of hydro¬ 
 chloric acid. 
 
 Nitric acid of 
 
 42 ° 
 
 38 ° 
 
 34 ° 
 
 2 9 0 
 
 24 0 
 
 19 0 
 
 25 ° 
 
 108 
 
 126 
 
 IS® 
 
 178 
 
 218 
 
 284 
 
 23 0 
 
 94 
 
 108 
 
 130 
 
 154 
 
 190 
 
 246 
 
 20° 
 
 82 
 
 96 
 
 114 
 
 136 
 
 168 
 
 218 
 
 18° 
 
 72 
 
 84 
 
 IOO 
 
 118 
 
 146 
 
 190 
 
 16° 
 
 62 
 
 72 
 
 86 
 
 102 
 
 126 
 
 162 
 
 13 ° 
 
 52 
 
 60 
 
 72 
 
 86 
 
 106 
 
 136 
 
 On mixing the two acids they are decomposed in such a manner 
 that two combinations, gaseous at an ordinary temperature, and 
 free chlorine, are formed. It is chiefly due to the content of 
 chlorine gas that aqua regia is the strongest solvent for metals. 
 
60 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Gold and platinum dissolve only in aqua regia, and various metallic 
 sulphides (cinnabar, iron pyrites) are decomposed by it. 
 
 Chromic acid is obtained by adding to one measure of a solution 
 of bichromate of potash, saturated at T30 0 F., one measure and a 
 half of concentrated sulphuric acid and allowing the solution to 
 cool, when chromic acid crystallizes out in fine crimson needles. 
 The needles adhere very firmly to the sides of the vessel, so that 
 the fluid can be readily poured off by inclining the vessel. When 
 this is done the crystals of chromic acid are brought with the aid 
 of a glass rod upon a porous brick which is placed under a glass 
 bell. After 24 hours the water adhering to the crystals has been 
 absorbed by the brick, and the crystals, which are now entirely dry, 
 are preserved in a wide-mouthed bottle. 
 
 Solution of chromic acid crystals is a very good etching agent 
 for metals. In modern times it is also frequently used as an ex¬ 
 citant in galvanic batteries. 
 
 Acetic acid is found in commerce in various degrees of concen¬ 
 tration. Pure anhydrous acetic acid is a colorless fluid of a very 
 acid taste and a pungent odor. At 32 0 F. it solidifies to a crystal¬ 
 lized mass (glacial acetic acid), which melts at 59 0 F. In modern 
 times wood vinegar or pyroligneous acid is employed in large 
 quantities ; it is colorless or more or less yellow. It often possesses 
 an empyreumatic odor and generally marks 8° of the hydrometer. 
 Wine vinegar is more or less colored, and may be concentrated. 
 Its smell is sufficient to distinguish it. 
 
 Tartaric acid is found in commerce as powder and in crystals. 
 Solutions of it should be prepared immediately before use, as by 
 prolonged standing they easily decompose with the formation of 
 mould. 
 
 Boric or boracic acid is much used in nickelling. United with 
 sodium it constitutes borax. In commerce it is found in the shape 
 of scales with nacreous lustre and greasy to the touch. When in 
 vitreous masses, more or less translucent, it is anhydrous and has 
 been subjected to igneous fusion. It is also employed for increas¬ 
 ing the whiteness of silver alloys and for decomposing the subsalts 
 deposited in electro-baths containing cyanide of potash. 
 
MOST IMPORTANT METALLIC PREPARATIONS. 
 
 61 
 
 Oxalic acid (salt of sorrel ) forms crystals which, when heated on 
 a platinum sheet, fuse and burn without residue. It is very 
 poisonous. 
 
 Prussic acid (hydrocyanic acid ) is one of the most poisonous sub¬ 
 stances known and should be used very seldom, and then with the 
 greatest care. Diluted prussic acid is colorless, with a bitter taste ' 
 and the characteristic smell of bitter almonds. It is employed for 
 maintaining the strength of the pyrophosphate of gold in immer¬ 
 sion baths and for decomposing the alkaline carbonates formed in 
 baths with cyanide of potassium. 
 
 9. Various Chemicals and Substances Used in the Metal 
 
 Industry. 
 
 The following substances used occasionally by the metal worker 
 are arranged in alphabetical order: 
 
 Ammonia (spirits of hartshorn). —This compound, which gener¬ 
 ally bears the name of ammoniacal gas when in the gaseous form, 
 and of ammonia when in solution, presents properties similar to 
 those of potash, soda and other alkalies which are metallic oxides. 
 On account of this analogy it is customary to consider it as the 
 oxide of a hypothetical metal, ammonium, a compound radical 
 composed of nitrogen and hydrogen. Gaseous ammonia dissolves 
 in water eagerly, one volume absorbing, when cold, about 500 
 volumes of the gas. Aqua ammonia is a colorless liquid, possessing 
 a characteristic and overpowering pungent smell. Ammonia restores 
 the blue color of litmus reddened by an acid and saturates the af¬ 
 finities of the most powerful acids, and on this account is often 
 employed for removing acid stains upon clothes. The aqua am¬ 
 monia used in the arts is obtained chiefly from the ammoniacal 
 liquor resulting from the destructive distillation of coal for the 
 manufacture of gas. 
 
 Ammonium phosphate. —This salt is obtained by the exact satura¬ 
 tion of phosphoric acid with ammonia. The liquid obtained is 
 then evaporated at a gentle heat, and a few drops of ammonia are 
 now and then added in order to compensate for that removed by 
 
62 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 the decomposition of small quantities of the salt. When the 
 liquid becomes syrupy it is set aside to crystallize in a cool place. 
 This salt is used for the composition of baths for thick platinum 
 deposits. 
 
 Ammonium sulphide ( sulphydrate , or hydrosulphate of ammonia) 
 is a liquid and of a deeper color, according as it contains more 
 sulphur. Its smell is exceedingly pungent and offensive, and its 
 taste is alkaline and nauseous. The sides of the bottles in which 
 it is kept are often covered with a pellicle of sulphur or sulphides. 
 By rapid evaporation a residue of sulphur is left. It rapidly forms 
 sulphides with the metals and produces on silver the black coating 
 misnamed oxidation. It is often employed for bronzing, for pro¬ 
 ducing the so-called “ patina” on the surface of various metals or 
 alloys. It is prepared by saturating ammonia with sulphuretted 
 hydrogen gas. 
 
 Benzine ( benzole, light oil from coal-tar) is a clear fluid of a 
 characteristic odor; it is very volatile and inflammable. It is an 
 excellent solvent for all the oils, resins, gums, varnishes, fats, etc. 
 
 Borax (.sodium biborate) occurs generally in colorless prismatic 
 crystals, which swell up on heating, and before the blow-pipe form 
 a colorless glass. This glass dissolves nearly all the metallic 
 oxides, and on account of this borax is much used for tests with 
 the blow-pipe, and in hard-soldering. Borax is employed for 
 restoring the shade of defective gildings and for destroying the sub¬ 
 salts of silver formed in electro-silvering baths and which injuriously 
 affect the color of the electro-silver deposits. 
 
 Calcium, potassium and sodium sulphides. —These salts are ob¬ 
 tained by boiling the alkali and flowers of sulphur in a certain 
 quantity of water. In commerce they are found in fused brown 
 masses, the potassium sulphide especially being known .as liver of 
 sulphur. They dissolve in water with a yellow or red color and 
 have the characteristic odor of sulphuretted hydrogen; when treated 
 by an acid they give off sulphuretted hydrogen, yielding at the 
 same time a deposit of sulphur. 
 
 Caoutchouc (India rubber, gum elastic) is extracted from the sap 
 flowing from incisions made in the trunk of Ficus elastica or cahuca, 
 
MOST IMPORTANT METALLIC PREPARATIONS. 
 
 63 
 
 a tree indigenous to Java. When pure it is white, but its color is 
 generally brown or red, caused by the smoke of the fire employed 
 in drying it. 
 
 The combination of sulphur with caoutchouc furnishes the prod¬ 
 uct called “ vulcanized rubber ,” and by modification of the treat¬ 
 ment it may be converted into the substance known as “ hard 
 rubber,” which is used for a multitude of purposes. Water, alco¬ 
 hol and acid do not dissolve caoutchouc; on the other hand, 
 ethers, bisulphide of carbon, essential oils and benzine dissolve 
 and leave it behind after the volatilization of the solvent. 
 
 Carbon bisulphide is a colorless clear fluid of very disagreeable 
 odor. It is extremely volatile, inflammable and burns with a blue 
 flame. Most resins, as well as caoutchouc, gutta-percha, sulphur, 
 and phosphorus are soluble in carbon bisulphide. 
 
 Emery. —As regards its chemical composition emery is crystal¬ 
 lized alumina (aluminium oxide), the same as the ruby, topaz and 
 sapphire. On account of its hardness it is used for grinding 
 metals and glass, and for this purpose can be* had in commerce in 
 various degrees of fineness. Besides, in the shape of powder, it is 
 also used secured to paper or linen by glue (emery-paper, emery- 
 cloth), as well as mixed with shellac, linseed oil and water-glass 
 and pressed into moulds (emery-wheels, emery-files). 
 
 Graphite ( plumbago , black lead). —This is nearly pure carbon 
 and is found in amorphous masses in several countries. It is black, 
 with a metallic lustre and is difficult to ignite. It is employed for 
 imparting electric conductivity to the surfaces of many substances 
 which are not naturally conductors, and also for preventing adher¬ 
 ence of two superposed metals. 
 
 Gutta-percha is the hardened milky juice of a tree indigenous to 
 the East Indies. It generally occurs in the shape of large thick 
 blocks. It is of a chocolate-brown color, very solid at an ordinary 
 temperature and insoluble in water, acids and alkalies. Carbon 
 bisulphide and chloroform dissolve it in the cold, and oil of turpen¬ 
 tine when heated. On heating gutta-percha to from 112 0 to 140° 
 F. it becomes so soft and plastic that it can be brought into any 
 
64 
 
 THE METAL WORKER'S IT ANDY-BOOK. 
 
 desired shape. On cooling it again becomes solid, retaining, how¬ 
 ever, the acquired shape. 
 
 Magnesia {calcined') is a white loose powder, consisting of 
 magnesium oxide, and is obtained by calcining carbonate of mag¬ 
 nesia. It is slightly soluble in water, and feebly alkaline. 
 
 Potassium bicarbonate. —This salt is white and colorless and crys¬ 
 tallizes either in tabular form, like nitrate of silver, or in cubes, like 
 common salt. It is soluble in tepid water, without decomposition ; 
 but at the boiling point it loses one-fourth of its carbonic acid and 
 becomes a sesquicarbonate. At a red heat it is transformed into 
 simple carbonate, i. e., it loses another fourth of carbonic acid. 
 
 Potassium cyanide {whiteprussiate of potash) is a very poisonous, 
 colorless salt, with an odor of prussic acid. The use of potassium 
 cyanide in electro-plating and gilding depends upon the power of 
 the solution of the salt to dissolve the cyanides of gold and silver, 
 forming compounds which are easily decomposed by the galvanic 
 current, with deposition of metallic gold or silver upon any object 
 capable of conducting the current which may be attached to the 
 negative pole. Solution of potassium cyanide is also able to dis¬ 
 solve metallic silver and sulphide of silver, which is taken advan¬ 
 tage of in removing photographic stains from the hands and in 
 cleaning silver or gold lace. 
 
 Potassium hydroxide {caustic potash) is found in commerce in 
 sticks the thickness of a lead-pencil. It is very deliquescent and 
 must be kept in hermetically closed bottles. 
 
 Potassium nitrate {saltpetre) readily yields a portion of its oxy¬ 
 gen to other bodies, and consequently acts in an oxidizing manner 
 upon metals, carbon, etc. It is also used as a flux. 
 
 Sodium bicarbonate. —The properties, etc., of this compound 
 correspond with those of potassium bicarbonate. 
 
 Sodium hydroxide {caustic soda) occurs in commerce in thick 
 white masses. It becomes deliquescent by the absorption of car¬ 
 bonic acid from the air, whereby it is converted into carbonate 
 of soda. 
 
 Sodium phosphate {tribasic phosphate of soda) is prepared by 
 treating calcined and powdered bones with sulphuric acid and 
 
MOST IMPORTANT METALLIC PREPARATIONS. 
 
 65 
 
 letting the mixture rest for several days. The acid phosphate of 
 calcium is then removed by washing the residue, and the filtered 
 liquid is saturated with sodium carbonate until carbonic acid is no 
 longer disengaged. The clear liquid is then concentrated until it 
 marks 33 0 Be. and is allowed to crystallize once or several times. 
 Sodium phosphate is used for hot electro-gilding baths and other 
 purposes. 
 
 Sodium pyrophosphate (bibasicphosphate of soda'). —The commer¬ 
 cial salt is generally in the form of a white powder, odorless, and 
 with a hot, saline, alkaline and then bitter taste. It is soluble in 
 water, but not so freely as the preceding salt. 
 
 Sulphur occurs in commerce either in the shape of sticks or of a 
 fine powder (flowers of sulphur). On heating sulphur to 446° F. 
 and suddenly cooling it becomes soft and plastic and may be used 
 for taking impressions of medals, etc. It is not soluble in water, 
 but dissolves in heated oils and bisulphide of carbon. Metallic 
 sulphides dissolve in melted sulphur, a mass known as Spence's 
 metal being formed which may be used for casting. The color of 
 Spence’s metal is gray, sprinkled with lustrous dots. It has about 
 the hardness of zinc, a specific gravity of 3.37 to 3.7, melts at 
 320 0 F., expands on cooling and is claimed to be capable of resist¬ 
 ing well the disintegrating action of the atmosphere ; it is attacked 
 by but few acids, and by them but slowly; is insoluble in water 
 and may receive a high polish. It makes clean, full castings, tak¬ 
 ing perfect impressions ; it is cheap and easily worked. It is pre¬ 
 pared by introducing iron disulphide (Fe S 2 ), zinc blende and 
 galena into melted sulphur. According to an analysis by Juptner 
 « it contains: iron disulphide, 57.38 per cent. ; free sulphur, 32.44; 
 zinc sulphide, 3.93; various substances and silicic acid, 5.84; 
 cupric sulphate, a trace. 
 
 Tartar (potassium bitartrate). —This salt occurs nearly pure in 
 wine, from which it becomes separated in the shape of small white 
 or red crystals, according to the color of the liquor. It is collected 
 from the sides of wine casks and purified by bone-black, in which 
 state it is known as cream of tartar. Tartar is acid, slightly sol- 
 5 
 
G6 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 uble in water, and it decrepitates in the fire, where it blackens, 
 disengaging a smell like burnt sugar. 
 
 III. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE CON¬ 
 STITUENTS OF METALLIC ALLOYS, IMPURITIES OF 
 THE TECHNICALLY MOST IMPORTANT METALS, ETC. 
 
 Since most metals dissolve in nitric acid, pour over the sample 
 in a glass flask chemically pure nitric acid and assist solution by 
 careful heating over a spirit flame. 
 
 1. Gold and platinum dissolve only in aqua regia; tin and an¬ 
 timony are only oxidized by nitric acid. Hence if an undissolved 
 residue of the sample remains it indicates gold, platinum or anti¬ 
 mony (or carbon with cast-iron). Filter the residue, which maybe 
 termed A, from the solution and treat it further as given under 15. 
 
 2. Dilute a sample of the filtrate (or, if filtration be not neces¬ 
 sary, a sample of the solution) in a test-glass with distilled water. 
 If turbidity or a white precipitate appears it indicates bismuth , 
 which has been precipitated as basic salt from the solution by water. 
 The non-appearance of this reaction, however, is not conclusive 
 proof of the absence of bismuth, since an excess of nitric acid 
 prevents the precipitation of basic bismuth nitrate. To be cer¬ 
 tain, first evaporate the sample to drive off the acid and then dilute 
 with water. 
 
 3. Another sample of the solution is mixed with dilute sulphuric 
 acid. If a white, granular precipitate is formed, the sample of 
 metal contains lead, because only sulphates of lead are insoluble 
 in acids. 
 
 4. If, on mixing a portion of the original solution, or in case the 
 test for lead was successful, a portion of the filtrate free from lead, 
 with pure hydrochloric acid, a white, caseous precipitate is formed 
 if the metallic sample contains silver or mercury. In case test 
 
DETERMINATION OF METALLIC ALLOYS, ETC. 
 
 67 
 
 No. 3 has not been previously executed, a precipitate of chloride 
 of lead may also take place if lead is present. For the further 
 treatment of this precipitate, which may be termed B, see 
 under 14. 
 
 5. Add to a small sample of the solution in nitric acid a few 
 drops of caustic ammonia. If the solution acquires a fine blue 
 color, the sample of metal contains copper. 
 
 6. To test for mercury evaporate a few drops of the solution in 
 nitric acid to remove the acid and dilute with water. If a copper 
 wire placed in the aqueous solution turns gray and becomes white 
 with a metallic lustre on rubbing with the fingers, the presence of 
 mercury is shown. 
 
 7. Next conduct into a somewhat larger sample sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, and compound it with water containing sulphuretted 
 hydrogen. All metals mentioned in 1 to 6 are precipitated as 
 metallic sulphides. Hence a precipitate, which may be termed C, 
 will generally be obtained. This precipitate is filtered off, thor¬ 
 oughly washed with water containing sulphuretted hydrogen, and 
 further tested for cadmium as given under 16. 
 
 8. Neutralize the filtrate from the previous experiment and mix 
 it with ammonium sulphide. The precipitate formed, which may 
 be termed D, is washed out with water containing ammonium sul¬ 
 phide and tested according to xo. Magnesium may also be con¬ 
 tained in the filtrate. 
 
 9. To determine magnesium, evaporate a small quantity of the 
 filtrate obtained in 8 and add some sodium phosphate and ammonia. 
 If the solution contains magnesium a crystalline precipitate (of 
 ammonium magnesium phosphate) is formed, which is insoluble in 
 ammoniacal water. 
 
 10. Pour dilute hydrochloric acid over the precipitate D (from 8). 
 If a black residue (consisting of sulphides of nickel and cobalf), 
 and which may be termed E, is formed it is filtered off and further 
 tested according to 11. Boil the filtrate until the sulphuretted 
 hydrogen is completely driven off, then compound it with nitric 
 acid, boil again and evaporate. Now compound it with strong 
 alkaline lye in excess, boil and filter. The precipitate, which may 
 
68 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 be termed F, is analyzed according to 12. The filtrate may con¬ 
 tain zinc or alumina. Both are determined according to 13. 
 
 11. The residue E (from 10) is dissolved in hydrochloric acid, a 
 few drops of nitric acid are added and the solution is evaporated 
 nearly to dryness. By adding some sodium nitrate and acetic acid, 
 and after standing for some time in the heat, a yellow precipitate is 
 formed if cobalt be present. After 12 hours filter off and compound 
 the filtrate with caustic soda. Nickel is present when a greenish 
 precipitate is formed, which does not completely dissolve in the 
 excess of the precipitating agent. 
 
 12. A portion of the precipitate F (from 10) is dissolved in 
 hydrochloric acid and a sample of it tested, 
 
 a. With potassium ferrocyanide for iron. 
 
 b. Melt another sample with potassium carbonate and potassium 
 chlorate, and boil the melted mass with water. If chromium was 
 present it has been converted into chromic acid (yellow solution), 
 and can be readily recognized by compounding the solution with 
 sugar of lead. If chromium is not found, a portion of the sample 
 is tested with the blow-pipe for manganese. 
 
 c. If chromium was found, a portion of the hydrochloric acid 
 solution is neutralized with potassium carbonate, compounded with 
 caustic soda in excess, and the precipitate tested for manganese and 
 the filtrate for zinc, according to 13. 
 
 13. Moisten the solution to be tested for manganese upon a 
 platinum-sheet with some soda and a trace of saltpetre, and let the 
 flame of the blow-pipe act upon it. If the solution contains 
 manganese a green paste is obtained, which on cooling turns blue- 
 green. The filtrate from 10 may contain zinc or alumina. Com¬ 
 pound a portion of it with sulphuretted hydrogen ; a white pre¬ 
 cipitate (sulphate of zinc) indicates zinc. Acidulate another 
 portion with hydrochloric acid, add ammonia in slight excess and 
 warm. Alumina, if contained in the solution, is precipitated as 
 aluminium hydrate. 
 
 14. The white precipitate B (from 4) may contain chloride of 
 silver, chloride of lead or subchloride of mercury. Treat it with 
 much water whereby chloride of lead is dissolved ; the lead may 
 
DETERMINATION OF METALLIC ALLOYS, ETC. 
 
 69 
 
 then be determined, as in 3, with sulphuric acid. Treat the residue 
 with ammonia. If complete solution takes place the residue con¬ 
 sists of chloride of silver, and from the solution the silver is again 
 precipitated as chloride of silver by nitric acid. A black residue, 
 insoluble in water and ammonia, consists of chlorine and mercury 
 (subchloride of mercury). 
 
 15. The residue which remained by dissolving in nitric acid is 
 warmed in aqua regia. If a white, insoluble powder is separated, 
 it generally consists of chloride of silver, more rarely of chloride 
 of lead. Though silver and lead by themselves are soluble in 
 nitric acid, by alloying with the more noble metals they are 
 frequently protected from solution, and may be contained in the 
 residue. They are determined according to 14. A portion of 
 the solution is now mixed with ferrous sulphate solution. A fine 
 brownish separation consists of metallic gold. A yellow precipitate 
 produced by sal-ammoniac confirms the presence of platinum. 
 
 If the residue A consists of a white powder it is washed off with 
 water and boiled in a flask with tartaric acid. If it is soluble it 
 consists of oxide of antimony ; if insoluble it contains tin. 
 
 16. The precipitate C (from 7) obtained with sulphuretted hy¬ 
 drogen contains a number of metallic sulphides, a portion of 
 which (antimony, arsenic, tin, gold, platinum) is dissolved by am¬ 
 monium sulphide. The residue is boiled with dilute nitric acid and 
 dissolves, separating flaky sulphur which floats upon the solution. 
 If a portion remains undissolved it consists of oxide of mercury. 
 From the filtered solution separate the lead by means of sulphuric 
 acid (see 3) and after settling filter and mix with ammonia. A 
 precipitate indicates bismuth ; a blue coloration copper. Evaporate 
 the solution completely, add some acetic acid and water and pre¬ 
 cipitate the copper with sulphuretted hydrogen. Cadmium, if 
 present, is precipitated as sulphide of cadmium, and hence the pre¬ 
 cipitate has to be treated with boiling sulphuric acid. The sul¬ 
 phide of cadmium is dissolved while sulphide of copper remains 
 undissolved. If the alloy contains cadmium yellow sulphide of 
 cadmium is precipitated from the filtrate by sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 17. Some alloys contain arsenic, it being also found as an im- 
 
70 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 purity in many metals. To complete the analysis a test for arsenic 
 must, therefore, also be made. Marsh’s apparatus is used for this 
 purpose. It consists of a flask a (Fig. 3), in which hydrogen gas 
 is developed from chemically pure zinc and dilute pure sulphuric 
 acid. The tube c ends in a wide glass tube d, which is filled with 
 calcium chloride for drying the gas. The gas escapes through the 
 
 F'g’ 3- 
 
 P 
 
 smaller tube e, running to a point at f If now through the funnel 
 b a few drops of the metallic solution are brought into the appara¬ 
 tus the flame of hydrogen will acquire a blue coloration if the 
 solution contains arsenic, and a white smoke of arsenious acid will 
 rise from it. The arsenietted hydrogen formed is very poisonous, 
 a few bubbles of it being sufficient to cause death. If a piece of 
 glass or porcelain is depressed upon the flame it will acquire a metallic 
 mirror of arsenic. This metallic mirror, however, is not an infal¬ 
 lible test, since antimony produces the same phenomenon. To 
 ascertain whether arsenic or antimony has to be sought for in the 
 metal drop a little solution of calcium chloride upon the metallic 
 mirror ; arsenic is immediately dissolved, while antimony remains 
 unchanged. 
 
 To Distinguish Genuine from Spurious Gold .—Genuine gold dis¬ 
 solves in chlorine water and the solution has only a slightly yellow¬ 
 ish color. Hence chlorine is a safe agent to distinguish genuine 
 
DETERMINATION OF METALLIC ALLOYS, ETC. 
 
 71 
 
 from spurious gold. To test the genuineness of gilt articles rub 
 a tiny drop of mercury on some corner of the surface to be ex¬ 
 amined ; it will produce a white, silvery spot if the gold is pure 
 or if there is gold in the alloy. If this silvery spot does not ap¬ 
 pear there is no gold in the surface exposed. To prove the cor¬ 
 rectness of this result a drop of a solution of nitrate of mercury 
 can be dropped on the surface, when a white spot will appear if 
 the gold is counterfeit, while the surface will remain unaltered if 
 the gold is genuine. After the operation heating the article 
 slightly will volatilize the mercury and the spots will disappear. 
 Pure gold can be distinguished from its alloys by a drop of chloride 
 of gold or of nitrate of silver. If the gold is pure there will be 
 no stain, but if mixed with other metals the chloride of gold will 
 leave a brownish stain upon it and the nitrate of silver a gray 
 stain. 
 
 The simplest means of distinguishing genuine gold from a gold¬ 
 like alloy consists in rubbing the article to be tested against an 
 ordinary flint until a lustrous metallic coloring remains upon the 
 latter. Now hold a strongly-sulphured burning match against the 
 coloring ; if it disappears from the flint the article is not gold. 
 
 To Test Gold Ware .—When a sample of the alloy cannot be 
 had for a chemical test the touchstone forms a means of convenient 
 examination. It consists of a species of black basalt obtained 
 chiefly from Silesia. If a piece of gold be drawn across its sur¬ 
 face a golden streak is left, which is not affected by moistening 
 with nitric acid, whilst the streak left by brass or any similar base 
 alloy would be rapidly dissolved. Experience enables an operator 
 to determine by means of the touchstone nearly the amount of 
 gold present in the alloy, comparison being made with the streaks 
 left by alloys of known composition. 
 
 To Recognize Light Gilding upon Metallic Articles .—It is fre¬ 
 quently of importance to know whether a metallic article has a 
 thin coating of gold, or whether its gold-like appearance is due to a 
 lacquer. To execute the test clean a piece or portion of the article 
 to be tested with alcohol or ether and dissolve it in nitric acid free 
 from chlorine. In case the article is gilded the layer of gold floats 
 
72 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S IIANRY-ROOK. 
 
 upon or in the solution. In many cases treatment with chloroform 
 is required, the removal of coatings of varnish not always being 
 accomplished with alcohol or ether, and thus the layer of varnish 
 which is not attacked by the acid would lead to error. The cer¬ 
 tainty of the presence of gold is best determined as follows: After 
 complete solution of the article in nitric acid dilute the solution 
 with water, filter through a small filter, wash out, dry and glow. 
 The glowed residue is treated with the assistance of heat with a 
 little aqua regia, poured off or filtered, if necessary, and the filtrate 
 evaporated to dryness at a moderate heat. In the presence of gold 
 a slight, lustrous separation of gold will frequently be observed on 
 the sides of the evaporating vessel. Take up the residue of evapo¬ 
 ration with about 0.12 to 0.18 cubic inches of water and divide 
 the solution into three portions which are used for the following 
 tests: Addition of a drop of concentrated solution of proto¬ 
 chloride of tin : a content of gold gives a dark, brown separation. 
 Addition of a drop of solution of ferrous sulphate gives a brownish 
 or bluish separation, and addition of oxygenated water a blue 
 separation. 
 
 To Recognize Light Silvering .—On touching silvered articles with 
 a mixture of equal parts of bichromate of potassium and pure 
 nitric acid of 1.35 specific gravity, a red stain is produced. To 
 recognize light silvering apply to the article, previously cleansed 
 with alcohol or ether, a drop of 1.5 per cent, solution of bisulphide 
 of soda. After allowing the drop to act for 10 minutes rinse it off 
 with water. Upon silvered articles a full, round, steel-gray spot is 
 produced. Other white metals and alloys, with the exception of 
 amalgamated copper, do not show this phenomenon, there appear¬ 
 ing at the utmost a ring at the edge of the drop. Amalgamated 
 copper is more quickly colored and acquires a more dead black 
 color than silver. This test is so sensitive that the spot appears 
 even if the silvering is so thin that the original color of the article 
 shows through it. 
 
 Test-water for Silver .—This consists of 16 parts chromic acid and 
 32 of distilled water ; keep the fluid in a well-stoppered glass bottle. 
 File into the surface of the article to be tested, rub the filed place 
 
DETERMINATION OF METALLIC ALLOYS, ETC. 
 
 73 
 
 upon the touchstone and apply the test-water. By detaching or rins¬ 
 ing off the latter with water it will be shown whether the article is 
 silver or silvered. With silver the touch becomes blood-red, the 
 coloration being the more intense the finer the silver. The touch 
 of silvered German silver, tin, compositions, etc., is not decom¬ 
 posed by the test-water, the touch appearing in its original color, 
 or, at the utmost, with a dull gray tint. 
 
 To Distinguish Tinfoil from Lead-foil. —Treat the foil with 
 concentrated sulphuric acid ; tin is dissolved, while lead remains 
 undissolved. 
 
 To Lest Mercury as to its Purity. —Pour nitric acid over a drop 
 of mercury in a dish. If pure the mercury moves for a moment 
 and then remains quiet and motionless. If it contains foreign 
 metals it commences at once a vigorous circular motion which is 
 kept up until the mercury is completely dissolved. 
 
 Tin is generally tested as to its purity by breaking it, whereby it 
 gives out a single, crackling sound (the cry of tin). To recognize 
 the nature of impurities dissolve a sample in aqua regia ; arsenic and 
 antimony are detected by Marsh’s apparatus (see p. 70). Mix another 
 portion of the solution with potassium ferrocyanide : a white pre¬ 
 cipitates indicates the purity of the tin ; a blue precipitate gener¬ 
 ally the presence of iron, and a red-brown precipitate that of 
 copper. Lead may be detected by the addition of sulphuric acid 
 or Glauber’s salt. 
 
 Soft Solders are tested in the same manner. They should con¬ 
 tain only tin and lead. Some soft solders contain bismuth which 
 is detected by diluting the solution (see under 2, p. 66). 
 
 To Detect Lead in Tin. —Make a solution of potassium bichro¬ 
 mate in water. Next apply some acetic acid to the tin to be 
 tested which will produce a whitish coating. Then apply some of 
 the potassium bichromate solution and, if the whitish coating turns 
 yellow, the tin contains lead, and the more the yellower the coating 
 becomes. 
 
 To Test Brass. —With a larger content of lead brass becomes 
 brittle. To detect the presence of lead add to the solution of the 
 brass in nitric acid a few drops of sulphuric acid. A conclusion 
 
74 
 
 TTTE METAL WORKER'S HANDY-ROOK. 
 
 of the quantity of lead present can be drawn from the volume of 
 the precipitate. 
 
 White metals should always be tested with Marsh’s apparatus. 
 If the metallic mirror is only partially dissolved by chloride of 
 lime, the sample contains arsenic and antimony. The other con¬ 
 stituents are found in the manner already stated. 
 
 Copper has to be tested for arsenic, bismuth, lead, tin, zinc, iron, 
 antimony and sulphur. By compounding the solution in nitric 
 acid with barium nitrate a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid 
 is formed in case sulphur is present. 
 
 Nickel has only to be tested for copper, iron and cobalt. The 
 manner of determining copper has been given under 5, p. 67. 
 Iron can be recognized by its reaction with potassium ferrocyanide. 
 To determine the presence of cobalt dissolve the metal in hydro¬ 
 chloric acid, dilute the solution with water and write with a goose 
 quill upon a strip of white paper. After drying heat the writing ; 
 if it appears emerald-green to blue-green the solution contains 
 cobalt. For other methods see under n, p. 68. 
 
 Acids are readily tested for metallic acids according to the 
 directions previously given. If uncertain as to the kind of acid 
 to be tested it should be borne in mind that, 
 
 a, hydrochloric acid gives, with nitrate of silver, a precipitate of 
 chloride of silver; 
 
 b, sulphuric acid gives, with a solution of barium chloride, a 
 precipitate of barium sulphate. 
 
 c, nitric acid does not react upon both of the above solutions, but 
 acquires a dark brown color by ferrous sulphate ; however, if it con¬ 
 tains hydrochloric acid it becomes turbid by nitrate of silver and is 
 then unfit for dissolving silver, etc., and the preparation of pickle. 
 
 To Detect Alloys in Gilding. —A solution of chloride of copper 
 will show the difference between gilding for which gold has been 
 used and gilding with alloys of inferior metals. If the gilding be 
 imitation gold, a touch of the solution will give a black mark, 
 copper separating out through the zinc in the yellow metal; with 
 pure metal no discoloration will occur. The test may also be 
 effected with a solution of chloride of gold or nitrate of silver, 
 
DETERMINATION OF METALLIC ALLOYS, ETC. 
 
 75 
 
 the first of which will give a brown spot, the second a gray or 
 black spot; neither has any effect on gold. Common gold goods 
 of 14-karat gold will not change their color with nitrate of silver. 
 Leaf-gold is tested by being shaken up in a closed bottle with 
 sulphuric chloride. Beaten gold will show no alteration, while 
 “ metal ” leaves will grow gradually dark. 
 
 To Test Eriamel for Lead. —For the simple and rapid detection 
 of the presence of lead in the enamel of culinary vessels, apply a 
 drop of concentrated nitric acid to the enamel of the carefully 
 cleansed vessel and evaporate it to dryness by gentle heating. 
 Then moisten the place which had been subjected to the action of 
 the acid with a drop of sodium iodide, and the presence of lead 
 will be indicated by the formation of yellow iodide of lead. 
 
 Ready Distinctioii of Cast-iron , Steel and Wrought-iron. —Apply 
 a drop of nitric acid to the surface of the article to be tested, which 
 should be previously made bright by filing. After allowing the 
 acid to act for a few minutes wipe it off and rinse with water. 
 Upon wrought-iron a dead white ash-gray spot will be clearly per¬ 
 ceptible, upon steel a brownish-black one and upon cast-iron a 
 deep black one. By this means it can be readily determined 
 whether an article of wrought-iron is welded with steel and how 
 far such welding extends. The entire test is based upon the differ¬ 
 ence of content of carbon in the above products of iron, cast-iron 
 containing comparatively the greatest percentage of carbon, next 
 wrought-iron and steel least; by the action of the nitric acid upon 
 the metallic surface the iron is dissolved and the carbon exposed. 
 A similar phenomenon appears in etching meteoric iron with nitric 
 acid, peculiar figures being formed. 
 
 Method for Ascertaining the Quality of Iron and Steel. —Good iron 
 is readily heated, is soft under the hammer and throws out few 
 sparks. 
 
 Coarse grain with bright crystallized fracture or discolored spots 
 indicates cold-short, brittle iron which works easily when heated 
 and welds well. Cracks on the edge of a bar are indications of 
 hot-short iron. A medium, even grain with fibres denotes good 
 
 iron. 
 
76 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S HANDY BOOK. 
 
 A soft, tough iron, if broken gradually, gives long silky fibres 
 of leaden-gray hue, which twist together and cohere before 
 breaking. 
 
 Badly refined iron gives a short blackish fibre on fracture. A 
 very fine grain denotes hard, steely iron, likely to be cold-short 
 and hard. 
 
 Examination of Burnt Iron .—The most recent method of testing 
 iron is to microscopically examine the finely ground surface. The 
 results of such examinations by Wedding were as follows: Burnt 
 iron is characterized by the loosening of the coherence between the 
 separate crystals constituting the solid iron. This loosening may 
 take place at a temperature approaching the melting point in con¬ 
 sequence of the formation of new crystals, or at lower tempera¬ 
 tures, by reason of the crystals separating from each other (passing 
 the limit of elasticity) in such a manner that by subsequent cooling 
 off, the initial volume is not regained; it may, however, also take 
 place by reason of a chemical change, which always consists in an 
 absorption of oxygen. 
 
 The external appearance is, in all cases, nearly the same; the 
 texture is coarse-grained, the separate grains showing a more or 
 less lustrous surface, while the strength and ductility are diminished. 
 For the regeneration of the iron it becomes necessary to destroy this 
 coarse-grained texture, bringing at the same time the split crystals 
 together either by hammering or rolling alone, or by the simultaneous 
 reduction of the oxides. The oxide (as a rule magnetic oxide of 
 iron, Fe 3 0 4 ) may also be reduced, without heating to the melting 
 point. It is difficult to answer in a scientific way the question 
 which method should be used for the regeneration of burnt iron ; 
 whether heating below the melting point or heating with fusion 
 should be resorted to. In the Royal techno-chemical experimental 
 station, at Berlin, sixteen tests were made, the results of which 
 may be briefly stated as follows : i. Burnt steel does not show the 
 lustrous network of homogeneous iron which characterizes the un¬ 
 burnt product. 2. This network disappears to a greater extent the 
 richer in oxygen the steel becomes. 3. White and, as a rule, lustrous 
 planes appear more frequently and more perceptibly the more the steel 
 
DETERMINATION OF METALLIC ALLOYS, ETC. 
 
 77 
 
 is burnt and the more coarse-grained its structure has become. 4. 
 When burning has progressed to the formation of silicic acid, drop¬ 
 like separations show themselves in place of crystallized iron, even 
 with a fine-grained structure. 5. Highly-burnt steel which has 
 become coarse-grained, shows plainly the dividing lines of the 
 separate grains splitting still further. 6. Regenerated steel con¬ 
 taining no silicic acid cannot be distinguished from sound steel. 
 7. Regenerated steel containing silicic acid shows a more intimate 
 union of the grains, but can be plainly recognized by the dividing 
 lines. 
 
 Resistance of a Few Metals and Alloys to Calcium Hydrate.— 
 Filings and turnings of the metals to be examined, in quantities of 
 77 grains, were left, at a normal temperature, to the action of milk of 
 lime with 4 per cent, hydrate for 14 days; they were then separated 
 from the lime solution by washing until phenolpthaleine showed no 
 longer a red coloration, dried and weighed. The results were as 
 follows: 
 
 1. “ Saxonia ” pure soft lead: loss of weight 0.811 per cent. 
 The metal was considerably attacked. 
 
 2. Antimony regulus : the metal remained entirely unchanged. 
 
 3. Lead pipe (with 25 per cent, slag lead) : loss of weight, 0.299 
 per cent. ; considerably attacked. 
 
 4. Lead plate (12 per cent, slag lead): loss of weight, 0.658 
 per cent. ; considerably attacked. 
 
 5. Pure cast-iron: increase in weight, 0.014 per cent.; very 
 much corroded. 
 
 6. Brass: loss of weight, 0.686 per cent.; considerably at¬ 
 tacked. 
 
 7. Phosphor-bronze: no alteration. 
 
 8. Pure tin : loss of weight, 0.122 per cent. ; the metal was but 
 little attacked. 
 
 From these results it may safely be concluded that for pumps in¬ 
 tended for the conveyance of milk of lime phosphor-bronze or an 
 alloy of tin and antimony is most suitable. 
 
 How to Tell a Hand- from a Machine-ait File. —Take the file 
 with the tang pointing towards you and turn it down under the 
 
78 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 eye in such a way that the light will bring out prominently the 
 rows of teeth. If you find the rows straight and regular you can 
 at once make up your mind that it is a machine-cut file. If, on 
 the other hand, you detect irregularities in “ rowing,” even if uni¬ 
 formity is broken in no other way, you can safely decide that the 
 file is hand-cut. A double-cut file tried in this way very readily 
 proclaims its make. 
 
 In some cases, however, hand-made files are cut with wonderful 
 cleverness and nicety ; so to be always safe—especially if your eye is 
 inexperienced in such matters or is not naturally quick or keen, 
 the better plan is to insist upon palpable regularity or irregularity 
 in rowing, according to the make of file wanted. And right here 
 it is recommended that when you have the leisure and the privi¬ 
 lege, whether you want to buy files or not, that you compare the 
 hand and the machine-cut article a few times under your eye; 
 afterwards you will be quite as able to make distinctions as a file 
 manufacturer himself. 
 
 Generally speaking, the hand-cut file is preferred for soft metals. 
 Manufacturers of brass goods and kindred specialties frequently 
 complain that the machine-cut file ridges the surface of the object 
 filed, owing to the perfect regularity of the rows of teeth. Some 
 manufacturers have attempted to overcome this prejudice by al¬ 
 ternating the number of rows of teeth to the inch. Thus they will 
 run sixteen rows with the machine to the inch, the next time four¬ 
 teen, the third sixteen, and so on. 
 
 The best cutting file is the one with a true diamond tooth. If a 
 file of this kind is held in the proper way, so that the point of the 
 diamond is brought straight against the metal, the very heaviest 
 cutting possible can be done. But it should be remembered in 
 this connection that a good deal depends on the way the teeth are 
 “rowed” on the file; the rows may lie in directions making it 
 awkward, if not a matter of impossibility, for the user to present 
 the teeth properly to the metal. 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 79 
 
 IV. 
 
 ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 I. Alloys .—Alloys are compounds of two or more metals. 
 However, when one of the metals entering into combination is 
 mercury, the result is usually not termed an alloy, but an amalgam. 
 Many alloys possess the characteristics of a mixture and the mean 
 properties of the metals of which they are composed, while others 
 approach more closely chemical combinations and, consequently, 
 partially show other properties than their components. As a rule, 
 alloys are more readily destroyed by external influences than the 
 pure metals, though there are exceptions which show the reverse. 
 The color of an alloy frequently varies very much from that of the 
 metals used in its preparation, though, as a rule, it approaches 
 nearest to that of the metal present in greatest quantity. There 
 are, however, some variations in this respect; an alloy consisting, 
 for instance, of determined proportions of gold, silver and copper 
 shows a greenish color, which, as is well known, does not apper¬ 
 tain to any of these metals. The ductility and hardness of the 
 metals also undergo considerable change in alloying. As a rule 
 the ductility decreases, while the hardness compared with that of 
 the metals constituting the alloy increases to a considerable extent. 
 A few metals, for instance antimony, possess in a high degree the 
 property of making metals harder. 
 
 The alloys, as a rule, fuse at a lower temperature than that at 
 which the constituent most difficult to fuse becomes fluid. Thus 
 platinum, which is scarcely fusible at all, readily combines with 
 any of the inferior metals, zinc, tin and some others. Again, 
 several of the readily fusible alloys melt below the boiling point 
 of water, which is less than half the melting heat of tin, their most 
 fusible ingredient. 
 
 The specific gravity of an alloy seems to depend upon the 
 amount of cohesion or attraction exerted by the constituent metals 
 for one another, and to bear no reference whatever to the high or 
 low specific gravity of those constituents in their free state. It is 
 
80 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 common among authorities, who publish determinations of specific 
 gravities of the alloys, to give the calculated, as well as the observed, 
 specific gravity. The calculated specific gravity is that which the 
 alloy would have if there were neither expansion nor condensation 
 of the metals during the act of combination. The specific gravi¬ 
 ties should be calculated from the volumes and not from the 
 weights. Dr. Ure gives the rule as follows: Multiply the sum of 
 the weights into the products of the two specific gravity numbers 
 for a numerator, and multiply each specific gravity number into the 
 weight of the other body, and add the products for a denominator. 
 The quotient obtained by dividing the said numerator by the de¬ 
 nominator is the truly computed mean specific gravity of the 
 alloy.” 
 
 The following table of the alloys, whose density is greater or less 
 than the mean of their constituents, is given by several writers: 
 
 Alloys the Density of which is Greater [ 
 than the Mean of their Constituents. 
 
 Gold and zinc. 
 
 Gold and tin. 
 
 Gold and bismuth. 
 
 Gold and antimony 
 Gold and cobalt. 
 
 Silver and zinc. 
 
 Silver and tin. 
 
 Silver and bismuth. 
 
 Silver and antimony. 
 
 Copper and zinc. 
 
 Copper and tin. 
 
 Copper and palladium. 
 
 Copper and bismuth. 
 
 Lead and antimony. 
 
 Platinum and molybdenum. 
 Palladium and bismuth. 
 
 [ Alloys the Density of which is Less 
 than the Mean of their Constituents. 
 
 Gold and silver. 
 
 Gold and iron. 
 
 Gold and lead. 
 
 Gold and copper. 
 
 Gold and iridium. 
 
 Gold and nickel. 
 
 Silver and copper. 
 
 Iron and bismuth. 
 
 Iron and antimony. 
 
 Iron and lead. 
 
 Tin and lead. 
 
 Tin and palladium. 
 
 Tin and antimony. 
 
 Nickel and arsenic. 
 
 Zinc and antimony 
 
 The tenacity of an alloy is, as a rule, less than that of the most 
 tenacious of the component metals, a very small quantity of lead, 
 for instance, sufficing to decrease the tenacity of gold, which is 
 one of the most tenacious of metals. In a few cases, however, the 
 alloy possesses a higher degree of tenacity than the constituent 
 metals, there being, for instance, an alloy of copper and zinc 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 81 
 
 which is more ductile than copper, though zinc belongs to those 
 metals which are distinguished by brittleness rather than by 
 ductility. 
 
 Alloys are generally made by directly melting together the 
 metals which are to take part in the mixture. The operation may 
 be carried on in an earthenware crucible when small quantities are 
 being operated upon ; but for manufacturing on a large scale a 
 reverberatory furnace, preferably heated with gas, should be em¬ 
 ployed to effect the melting. The melting and mixing of the 
 several metals is a point which is far from being reduced to any¬ 
 thing like a system in many establishments, and practical men are 
 often at a loss as to the proper means for securing a definite and 
 uniform alloy. As a general rule it is necessary to melt the less 
 fusible metal first and to add the more fusible afterwards. Founders 
 generally are of the opinion that if the metal of the first melting is 
 run out into a bar and then remelted a more complete incorpora¬ 
 tion is obtained. Where a great difference exists in the specific 
 gravities of the component metals, it is necessary to observe certain 
 fixed rules in order to obtain a perfectly homogeneous mixture; 
 each metal tends to find its own particular level in the liquid 
 compound, according to its density ; therefore, if the casting is 
 of considerable size and requires a long time to cool, a partial 
 separation will often take place, the lightest rising to the surface. 
 Therefore, the metals, while in a state of fusion, must not be 
 allowed to remain quiescent, but an intimate mixture be effected 
 by vigorous stirring, sticks of dry soft wood being in many cases 
 used for this purpose. By stirring the fused mass with one of 
 these sticks, the wood is more or less carbonized according to the 
 temperature of the mass. In consequence of the dry distillation 
 of the wood taking place thereby, there is evolved an abundance 
 of gases which, by ascending in the fused mass, contribute to its 
 intimate mixture. The stirring should be continued for some time 
 and the alloy then cooled as rapidly as possible. When three 
 metals have to be united together, they should first be melted in 
 pairs and afterwards together. 
 
 The following may serve as general rules for fusing the metals: 
 
 6 
 
82 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 i. The melting-pot should be red hot, and those metals first placed 
 in it which require the most heat to fuse them. 2. Put the metals 
 in the melting-pot in strict order, following exactly the different 
 fusing points from the highest degree of temperature required 
 down to the lowest, in regular sequence, and being especially 
 careful to refrain from adding the next metal until those already in 
 the pot are completely melted. 3. When the metals fused together 
 in the crucible require very different temperatures to melt them, a 
 layer of charcoal should be placed upon them, or if there is 
 much tin in the alloy, a layer of sand should be used. 4. The 
 fused mass should be vigorously stirred with a stick, and even 
 while pouring it into another vessel the stirring should not be re¬ 
 laxed. 5. In making new alloy, use a little old alloy of the same 
 kind, if there be any on hand. 6. Make sure that the melting-pots 
 are absolutely clean and free from traces of former operations. 
 
 The fusing points of the principal metals and other elements em¬ 
 ployed in alloys are as follows: 
 
 Aluminium. 
 
 
 
 1292 0 F. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 . 626° F 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 
 
 797 “ 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 . —40 “ 
 
 Arsenic. 
 
 
 
 773 “ 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 
 
 5°4 “ 
 
 Phosphorus. 
 
 
 Cadmium. 
 
 
 
 608 “ 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 . 4712 “ 
 
 Copper. 
 
 
 
 1922 “ 
 
 Silver. 
 
 .1832 “ 
 
 Gold. 
 
 
 
 2282 “ 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 . 239 “ 
 
 Iron, cast. 
 
 
 to 
 
 2192 “ 
 
 Tellurium. 
 
 
 “ wrought.. . . 
 
 .2732 
 
 to 
 
 2912 “ 
 
 Tin. 
 
 . 455 “ 
 
 Steel. 
 
 .. ..2372 
 
 to 
 
 2552 “ 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 . 773 “ 
 
 Alloys of Bismuth and Cadmium. —These alloys have the pe¬ 
 culiarity that their melting points are far below those of their con¬ 
 stituent metals, some of them even melting in hot water. They 
 can be used for casting in moulds which will not stand great heat, 
 for instance moulds of paper, wood, plaster of paris, etc. The 
 composition of the most important alloys belonging to this group 
 is given in the following table : 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 83 
 
 
 Melts 
 
 at 
 
 ° F. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Anti¬ 
 
 mony. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Cad¬ 
 
 mium. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Bis¬ 
 
 muth. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Lipowitz’s alloy. 
 
 .58 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 Readily fusible alloy. 
 
 170 
 
 II 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 
 l6 
 
 tt it it 
 
 I67 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 
 IO 
 
 8 
 
 it if it 
 
 203 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 a a a 
 
 150 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 Wood’s alloys. 
 
 14CU0 161.6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 to 2 
 
 5 to » 
 
 Soft solder. 
 
 179.6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 “ “ . 
 
 300.2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 Cliche metal. 
 
 .... 
 
 50 
 
 36 
 
 
 22.5 
 
 
 it a 
 
 
 32-5 
 
 48 
 
 
 10.5 
 
 9 
 
 Metallic cement. 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 I 
 
 Newton’s metal. 
 
 202 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Rose’s metal.. 
 
 200.75 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 a a 
 
 174.2 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Readily fluid metal suitable f 
 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 for impressions of plaster j 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 of paris moulds, wood 1 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 engravings, medals, etc. [ 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Glass cement. 
 
 212 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2.5 
 
 Bismuth alloys.. . , . 
 
 212 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 it it 
 
 235 9 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 it it 
 
 253-9 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 a it 
 
 266 
 
 IO 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 a a 
 
 270.3 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 a a 
 
 287.9 
 
 l6 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 tt a 
 
 293-7 
 
 l6 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 a a 
 
 308.8 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 a a 
 
 320.3 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 a a 
 
 330-7 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 a tt 
 
 341.6 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Alloys of Copper and Tin. — Bronze. The alloys produced by the 
 union of copper and tin are termed “ bronze" in the actual sense 
 of the word if the copper is present in predominating quantity, 
 while those in which the content of tin predominates are called 
 “ white metal." Bronze has been known and employed from very 
 remote ages. It was used exclusively by the ancients for making 
 swords and other sharp instruments, for coinage, statues and many 
 other useful and ornamental purposes. Great variations are made 
 in the proportions of the two chief ingredients, according to the 
 nature of the application for which the alloy is intended. The ad¬ 
 dition of a little zinc to the alloy is an advantage, but too much of it 
 
84 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 diminishes its tenacity; lead is objectionable, owing to its tendency 
 to sink after casting, thus destroying the homogeneity of the alloy. 
 The metals should be melted rapidly to prevent loss of metal by 
 oxidation, and the melted mass should be covered with a layer of 
 charcoal and kept constantly stirred. The operation is generally 
 carried on in refractory crucibles, heated in a reverberatory furnace 
 of suitable form. The cooling in the moulds must be as rapid as 
 possible, in order to prevent the liquation of the metals. 
 
 Ordnance or Gun-metal. —Gun-metal contains on an average 90 
 to 91 per cent, of copper and 9 to 10 per cent, of tin ; sometimes 
 it contains some lead and zinc. The principal requisite of an al¬ 
 loy answering all the demands of a good ordnance bronze is the 
 production oTentirely homogeneous castings, which it is endeavored 
 to attain by solidifying the alloy under conditions allowing of its uni¬ 
 form cooling off. The moulds are always placed in a vertical position, 
 and the evil of the upper portions of the casting showing fre¬ 
 quently a different composition from the lower, is counteracted by 
 using an excess of bronze, so that the finished casting has a long 
 piece on top, the so-called “dead-head or “ sullage-piece,” which 
 is later on sawed off and remelted with a new charge. This dead¬ 
 head contains the greater portion of the liquated metal, and also 
 the so-called “ waste” consisting of oxidized metal. 
 
 The following table shows the composition of ordnance bronze 
 of various times and different countries: 
 
 
 Copper 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Brass. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 United States.. 
 
 France (modern). 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 England. 
 
 France (1780). 
 
 Savoy (Turin, 1771). 
 
 Russia (1819),. 
 
 Lucerne (Switzerland) . 
 
 Cochin-China.| 
 
 90 
 
 90.09 
 
 90.90 
 
 89-3° 
 
 IOO 
 
 IOO 
 
 88 6l 
 88.929 
 77 -iS' 
 93->9 
 71.16 
 89.5S 
 95-20 
 
 10 
 
 9.9 
 
 9-1 
 
 10.7 
 
 12.0 
 
 10.7 
 
 10-375 
 
 3-42 
 
 5 - 4-3 
 
 10.15 
 
 4.71 
 
 0.062 
 
 13.22 
 
 0.419 
 
 5-02 
 
 27 16 
 
 O.69 
 0.110 
 1.16 
 1.38 
 1.40 
 
 6l .O 
 
 6.0 
 
 Turkey (1464).j 
 
 . .. j .. 7 . 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 85 
 
 Steel Bronze or Uchatius Bronze .—The ordnance bronze known 
 under this name is prepared in the Austrian arsenals, the method 
 of melting and subsequent treatment in casting being kept secret. 
 It is only known that the bronze contains 8 per cent, of tin and 
 that the casting, is effected in cold moulds. In casting a copper 
 rod about 2 inches in diameter is inserted as a core in the centre 
 of the iron mould. It serves as a conductor of heat and later on is 
 bored out. The alloy is crystalline and of a gold-yellow color. To 
 increase the solidity of the piece steel bolts with a diameter of from 
 0.39 to 2.36 inches are forced in by means of a hydraulic press. 
 
 Bell-metal contains on an average 78 per cent, of copper and 22 
 per cent, of tin. The color of good bell-metal is a peculiarly gray 
 white, differing materially from that of ordnance bronze and 
 statuary bronze. Bell-metal is hard, brittle and sonorous and ex¬ 
 hibits a fine-grained fracture. Cooled suddenly from a red heat it 
 becomes soft, but regains its hardness after being reheated and 
 cooled very slowly. The larger the proportion of copper in the 
 alloy the deeper and graver is the tone of the bells formed from it. 
 The addition of tin, iron or zinc causes them to give out a sharper 
 tone. The opinion was formerly held that an addition of silver 
 adds to the beauty of the tone, though at present it is thoroughly 
 understood that such is not the case. The melting and casting of 
 bell-metal is not so difficult as that of ordnance bronze, though 
 great analogy exists between them. The copper is first melted 
 down, and after heating the fused mass as much as possible the tin 
 is introduced and an intimate mixture promoted by vigorous 
 stirring. Many bell-founders do not add all the tin at once, but 
 at first about two-thirds of it, and when this has formed a union 
 •with the copper the other third. 
 
 Chinese Tam-tams or Gongs are distinguished by a strong far- 
 reaching sound. The alloy of which they are made is nearly of 
 the same composition as the ordinary bell-metal, the difference in 
 sound being due to mechanical treatment. As soon as the plates 
 intended for the manufacture of tam-tams are well solidified, they 
 are withdrawn from the mould and introduced into a furnace where 
 they are raised to a cherry-red heat. They are then inserted 
 
8(1 
 
 TTTE METAL WORK EL’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 between iron disks, plunged into water and allowed to cool, after 
 which they are withdrawn, and are so tenacious that they may be 
 worked under the hammer. 
 
 The following table shows the composition of some bell-metals: 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 £ 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Anti- 
 [ mony. 
 
 Standard, very sonorous. 
 
 39 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Plunders’ standard, paler and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 inferior to above. 
 
 77 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 2 
 
 Very deep toned and sonorous... 
 
 40 
 
 IO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 For church and other large bells. 
 
 3 ° 
 
 IO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alarm bell at Rouen. 
 
 76.1 
 
 22.3 
 
 1.6 
 
 
 1.6 
 
 
 
 “ “ “ Ziegenhain. 
 
 7C4S 
 
 33-59 
 
 .... 
 
 4.04 
 
 
 0.12 
 
 
 “ “ “ Darmstadt. 
 
 73 94 
 
 21.67 
 
 
 1.19 
 
 0.17 
 
 
 
 “ “ “ Reichenhall 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (13th Century).. 
 
 80 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tam-tam.- 1 
 
 7S.51 
 
 10.27 
 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.18 
 
 
 
 
 IO 
 
 4 
 
 i -5 
 
 
 0.5 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 IO 
 
 2-5 
 
 o -5 
 
 i -33 
 
 
 
 
 Bells of Japanese origin. J. 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 05 
 
 
 
 [ 
 
 IO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bell-metal for Small Bells, which is said not to tarnish nor 
 crack and to be very light in weight and give an excellent sound, 
 is composed of copper, 3 lbs. ; nickel, y 2 lb., melted and cooled ; 
 then add y 2 lb. zinc and oz. aluminium ; melt and cool. Melt 
 again and add y oz. mercury and 3 lbs. melted copper. 
 
 Japanese Bell-metal. —This alloy, called “ Karakane ” by the 
 Japanese, is cast in various qualities. I. Copper, 10 parts; tin, 4 ; 
 iron, y 2 ; zinc, 1 y. II. Copper, 10 parts; tin, 2)4 lead, r ; 
 zinc, y 2 . III. Copper, 10 parts; tin, 3 ; lead, 2; iron, y 2 ; zinc, 1. 
 IV. Copper, 10 parts; tin, 2; lead, 2. 
 
 Small Clock-bells , Table-bells, Sleigh-bells, etc. —For these an 
 alloy giving a clear and pure tone has to be used. The following 
 table will suffice to show the composition of such alloys: 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 87 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Anti¬ 
 
 mony. | 
 
 Bis¬ 
 
 muth. 
 
 House-bells. 
 
 “ “ smaller. 
 
 Clock-bells, German. 
 
 “ “ Swiss. 
 
 “ “ Paris. 
 
 Sleigh-bells. 
 
 White table-bells. 
 
 tt (( (( 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 73 
 
 74-5 
 
 72.0 
 
 84.5 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 24-3 
 
 25 
 
 26.56 
 
 15.42 
 
 800 
 
 7 
 
 2.7 
 
 0-5 
 
 1.44 
 
 0.1 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 Silver Bell-metal .—This alloy, suitable for small bells, is dis¬ 
 tinguished by a beautiful silver-clear tone and a nearly white color. 
 It is composed of 
 
 Parts. 
 
 I. II. III. 
 
 Copper. 40 41.5 41.6 
 
 Tin..... 60 58.5 58.4 
 
 Machine Bronze .—In this collective term are included a great 
 number of alloys with very variable properties, and which have 
 actually nothing in common except that they are used for certain 
 parts of machines. Many of these mixtures of metals must be as 
 hard as possible in order to resist wear ; others must possess great 
 strength, so as not to yield under shocks or pressure ; while still 
 others must have the property of showing even under a heavy load 
 but little frictional resistance when in contact with other metals. 
 There are two kinds of bearing-metal, viz. : red brass and white 
 metal , the former being bronze-like alloys with from 82 to 89 per 
 cent, of copper and n to 18 per cent, of tin. By the addition of 
 zinc, lead and antimony, the hardness or ductility of the alloy is 
 changed according to the purpose for which it is to be used. An 
 addition of lead facilitates the working of the alloy but also favors 
 liquation ; antimony increases the hardness of the alloy. 
 
88 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 White bearing metal is distinguished from red brass by being 
 more readily fusible, so that it can frequently be cast around 
 the respective pivot. It consists of tin, 74 to 91 per cent., antimony, 
 6 to 15, and copper, 2 to xi. The copper increases the hardness 
 and strength of the alloy. In English bearing-metal a portion of 
 the tin is replaced by zinc or lead. Small quantities of other 
 metals besides tin, lead, zinc, antimony and copper, which occur 
 in the alloys, must be considered as impurities of the metals used. 
 
 Metals for Bearings, Etc. 
 
 I. Red Brass Bearings, etc. 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 For locomotive axles. 
 
 86 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 “ railroad car axles. 
 
 tt tt tt tt 
 
 S2 
 
 82 
 
 84 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 IO 
 
 
 tt tt tt tt 
 
 75 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 
 “ various axles. 
 
 73 7 
 
 2.1 
 
 14.2 
 
 
 “ “ “ (medium hard). 
 
 6955 
 
 5-SS 
 
 21.77 
 
 
 “ “ “ (hard). 
 
 “ “ “ (very hard).. 
 
 “ cog-wheels. 
 
 “ punches . 
 
 82 
 
 S8.8 
 
 9 i -3 
 
 833 
 
 2 
 
 11.2 
 
 8.7 
 
 16.7 
 
 16 
 
 
 “ steam-whistles. 
 
 So 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 
 it it it 
 
 81 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 
 “ cocks. 
 
 88 
 
 2 
 
 IO 
 
 
 “ boxes for wagon-wheels. 
 
 87.7 
 
 2.6 
 
 9-7 
 
 
 “ stuffing-boxes. 
 
 S6.2 
 
 3-6 
 
 10.2 
 
 
 “ mechanical instruments. 
 
 81.2 
 
 5 -i 
 
 12.8 
 
 
 “ files. 
 
 64.4 
 
 IO 
 
 17.6 
 
 8.6 
 
 tt it 
 
 61.5 
 
 7-7 
 
 3 °.s 
 
 
 “ weights. 
 
 90 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 
 “ castings to be gilded. 
 
 79.1 
 
 7.8 
 
 • 3-1 
 
 
 a a tt tt 
 
 77.2 
 
 7 
 
 158 
 
 
 “ shovels (malleable). 
 
 tt tt tt 
 
 50 
 
 16.4 
 
 33-6 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 “ buttons (white) . 
 
 57 9 
 
 36.8 
 
 5-3 
 
 
 “ sheet for pressed articles. 
 
 “ small castings. 
 
 63.88 
 
 94.12 
 
 90 
 
 3°-55 
 
 5-55 
 
 5.88 
 
 
 tt it it 
 
 IO 
 
 
 “ piston rings. 
 
 84 
 
 8-3 
 
 2.9 
 
 4-3 
 
 “ pump barrels. 
 
 88 
 
 2 
 
 IO 
 
 “ eccentric straps. 
 
 90 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 89 
 
 Metals for Bearings, Etc. — Continued. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 II. White Metal Bearings. 
 
 German for light loads.. .. 
 
 tt it it it 
 
 it it it it 
 
 it ti it it 
 
 tt ft tt it 
 
 “ “ heavy “ .... 
 
 (( it it it 
 
 English for heavy loads.. .. 
 
 “ “ medium “ .... 
 
 tt tt tt it 
 
 For mills.. . 
 
 it it 
 
 tt tt 
 
 For heavy axles . 
 
 it it tt 
 
 For rapidly revolving axles 
 Bearings of great hardness.. 
 
 it it ti 
 
 “ (cheap). 
 
 tt it 
 
 For railroads :— 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 Prussian and Hanoverian rail¬ 
 roads approved under the 
 
 heaviest pressure.... 
 
 Bavaria, durable cold running. . 
 
 Austria government railroad. 
 
 Distributing slide valves. 
 
 Railroad cars and larger ma¬ 
 chines . 
 
 Railroad cars, harder and f 
 stronger.( 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Anti¬ 
 
 mony. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Copper 
 
 85 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 82 
 
 11 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 80 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 76 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 90 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 86.81 
 
 7.62 
 
 
 
 
 5-57 
 
 17-47 
 
 
 76.14 
 
 
 
 5.62 
 
 76.7 
 
 15-5 
 
 
 
 
 7.8 
 
 72 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 42 
 
 3 
 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 IO 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 72.7 
 
 18.2 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 9.1 
 
 38 
 
 6 
 
 47 
 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 17 
 
 77 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 2-5 
 
 12 
 
 82 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 88 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 i -5 
 
 *•5 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 91 
 
 6 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 85 
 
 IO 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 80 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 86.81 
 
 7.62 
 
 
 
 
 5-57 
 
 90 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 90 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 83.2 
 
 II. 2 
 
 
 
 
 5.6 
 
 
 l6 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 8 
 
 80 
 
 
 Locomotive Brass Castings .—The following compositions are 
 highly recommended : 
 
 Brasses for Side Rods.-- Copper, 6 lbs. ; tin, i lb. To ioo lbs. 
 of this mixture add y 2 lb. each of zinc and lead. 
 
90 
 
 TTTE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Brasses for Driving-Boxes. —The same as for side rod brasses. 
 
 Some master mechanics prefer harder brasses and call for 5 lbs. 
 of copper and 1 lb. of tin, y 2 lb. of zinc and y 2 lb. of lead. 
 
 Bells. —Copper, 4 lbs. ; tin 1 lb. To every 100 lbs. of this mix¬ 
 ture add zinc, y 2 lb., and lead y 2 lb. 
 
 Castings subjected to Steam Pressure. —Copper, 20 lbs. ; tin, 1 y 2 
 lbs.; lead and zinc, of each 1 lb. 
 
 Pumps a?id Bump Chambers. —Copper, 8 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. To 
 every 100 lbs. of this mixture add 1 y 2 lbs. each of lead and zinc. 
 
 Piston Packing Rings. —Copper, 16 lbs. ; tin, 2]j lbs. To every 
 100 lbs. of this mixture add 1 lb. each of zinc and lead. 
 
 Approved Compositions for Bearings of Rapidly RunningMachines. 
 —I. Tin, 17 parts; antimony, 77; copper, 6. II. Copper, 86 
 parts; zinc, 14. III. Copper, 82; zinc, 18. IV. Copper, 84; 
 zinc, 16. V. Copper, 100; zinc, 10; tin, 3. VI. Tin, 17.47; 
 zinc, 76.14; copper, 5.69. 
 
 Bearing Metals for Locomotives. —I. Copper, 86 parts; tin, 14. 
 II. Dutch. Copper, 85.25 parts; tin, 127.5; zinc, 2. III. Ap¬ 
 proved Belgian. Copper, 80 parts ; tin, 16 : lead, 2 ; antimony, 2. 
 IV. French Northern Railroad. Copper, 82 parts ; tin, xo ; zinc, 
 8. V. Copper, 87.5 parts; tin, 7.88; zinc, 5.07. VI. Copper, 
 79.5 parts; tin, 7.5 ; zinc, 5; lead, 8. 
 
 Babbitt's Anti-Attrition Metal is made by melting separately 4 
 parts of copper, 12 of Banca tin, 8 of regulus of antimony and 
 adding 12 parts of tin after fusion. The antimony is added to the 
 first portion of tin and the copper is introduced after taking the 
 melting-pot away from the fire and before pouring it into the 
 mould. The charge is kept from oxidation by a surface coating 
 of powdered charcoal. The “lining metal” consists of this 
 “ hardening ” fused with twice its weight of tin, thus making 3.7 
 parts copper, 7.4 parts antimony and 88.9 tin. The bearing to be 
 lined is cast with a shallow recess to receive the Babbitt metal. 
 The portion to be tinned is washed with alcohol and powdered with 
 sal-ammoniac, and those surfaces which are not to receive the lin¬ 
 ing metal are to be covered with a clay wash. It is then warmed 
 sufficiently to volatilize a part of the sal-ammoniac and tinned. 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 91 
 
 The lining is next cast in between a former, which takes the place 
 of the journal and the bearing. 
 
 Fenton's Alloy for Axle-Boxes for Locomotives and Wagons .— 
 Zinc, 80 parts; copper, 5)4 ; tin, 14)4. This alloy may be recom¬ 
 mended as regards cheapness and lightness. 
 
 Dewrance's Patent Bearing for Locomotives. —Copper, 4 parts ; 
 tin, 6 ; antimony, 8. 
 
 Alloy for Anti-Friction Brasses. —Zinc, 80 parts; tin, 14; 
 copper, 5 ; nickel, 1. 
 
 Hoyle's Patent Alloy for Pivot Bearings. —Tin, 24 parts; lead, 
 22 ; antimony, 6. It is claimed to stand friction without heating 
 longer than any other composition. 
 
 Phosphor Bronze, which is largely used as a substitute for bronze 
 and gun-metal compositions, for gearing, bearings, wire rope, etc., 
 is an alloy of copper and tin, which has been fluxed by the intro¬ 
 duction of a variable quantity of phosphorus, which is generally 
 added in the form of phosphide of copper or phosphide of tin. 
 Phosphide of copper is prepared by heating a mixture of 4 parts of 
 super-phosphate of lime, 2 parts of granulated copper and 1 part 
 of finely pulverized coal in a crucible at not too high a temperature. 
 The melted phosphide of copper, which contains 14 per cent, of 
 phosphorus, separates on the bottom of the crucible. According 
 to another method phosphide of copper is prepared by adding 
 phosphorus to copper sulphide solution and boiling, adding sul¬ 
 phur as the sulphide is precipitated. The precipitate is carefully 
 dried, melted and cast into ingots. When of good quality and 
 in proper condition it is quite black. 
 
 Phosphide of Tin is prepared as follows : Place a bar of zinc in 
 an aqueous solution of chloride of tin, collect the sponge-like tin 
 separated, and bring it moist into a crucible, upon the bottom of 
 which sticks of phosphorus have been placed. Press the tin tightly 
 into the crucible and expose it to a gentle heat. Continue the 
 heating until flames of burning phosphorus are no longer observed 
 on the crucible. After the operation is finished a coarsely-crystal- 
 line mass of a tin-white color, consisting of pure phosphide of tin, 
 is found upon the bottom of the crucible. 
 
92 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The addition of phosphorus to bronze prevents the formation 
 of oxide*- by which the strength, ductility and homogeneity of the 
 resulting alloy would be impaired, and furnishes a metal which in 
 respect to these qualities is notably superior to ordinary bronze. 
 Numerous grades of phosphor bronze are made according to the 
 uses for which it is intended. However, according to Thurston, 
 five sorts are considered to answer all requirements: 
 
 o. Ordinary phosphor bronze of 2 per cent, phosphorus, x. 
 Good phosphor bronze of 2 y 2 per cent, phosphorus. These two 
 numbers are in all cases superior to ordinary bronze and steel. 2. 
 Superior phosphor bronze of 3 per cent, phosphorus. 3. Extra 
 phosphor bronze of 3 */2 per cent, of phosphorus. 4. Maximum phos¬ 
 phor bronze of 4 per cent, of phosphorus. These three, according 
 to Delalot, are superior to any other bronzes. Above No. 4 phos¬ 
 phor bronze is useless; below No. o it is inferior to common bronze 
 and steel. Nos. 3 and 4 are comparatively unoxidizable. 
 
 Silicon-bronze is a combination of copper with silicon; its 
 tenacity is as great as that of phosphor-bronze, and its power of 
 conducting electricity considerably larger. It is chiefly used for 
 telephone-wires which with the same conducting power have only 
 T V the weight of ordinary wires. The following shows the com¬ 
 position of some of these alloys: 
 
 Telephone-wire A. 
 
 Copper.99-94 per cent. 
 
 Tin.0.03 “ “ 
 
 Silicon. 0.02 “ “ 
 
 Iron.trace “ “ 
 
 Zinc.. 
 
 99.99 per cent. 
 
 Telegraph-wire A. 
 
 Copper. 97.12 per cent. 
 
 Tin. 1.14 “ “ 
 
 Silicon. 0.05 “ “ 
 
 Iron. trace “ “ 
 
 Zinc. 1.62 “ “ 
 
 99.93 per cent. 
 
 Silicon-brass. —Copper, 71.30 per cent.; zinc, 26.65 > lead, 
 0.74; tin, 0.57 ; iron, 0.38; silicon, 0.14. 
 
 Statuary Bronze. —The bronze at present used for statues con¬ 
 tains, on an average, copper, 86.6 per cent. ; tin, 6.6; lead, 3.3, 
 and zinc, 3.3. A statuary bronze which thoroughly answers the 
 purpose must become thinly fluid in fusing, fill the moulds out 
 sharply, allow of being readily worked with the file, and must 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 93 
 
 acquire a beautiful green color, the patina, on exposure to the air 
 for a short time. Statuary bronze being chiefly used for artistic 
 purposes, its color is of great importance. 
 
 The following table gives a series of alloys of different colors suit¬ 
 able for the purpose: 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Color. 
 
 84.42 
 
 11.28 
 
 4 3 ° 
 
 red-yellow. 
 
 84.00 
 
 I I.OO 
 
 5.00 
 
 orange-red. 
 
 8305 
 
 I 3-03 
 
 3-92 
 
 << tf 
 
 8300 
 
 12.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 (t it 
 
 81.05 
 
 15-32 
 
 3-6 3 
 
 orange-yellow. 
 
 81.00 
 
 15.00 
 
 4-00 
 
 a a 
 
 7809 
 
 18.47 
 
 3-44 
 
 a tt 
 
 73-58 
 
 23.27 
 
 3 -i 5 
 
 tt tt 
 
 73.00 
 
 23.OO 
 
 4.00 
 
 pale-orange. 
 
 70.36 
 
 26.88 
 
 2.76 
 
 pale-yellow. 
 
 70.00 
 
 27.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 it tt 
 
 6 5-95 
 
 31-56 
 
 2.49 
 
 
 In the following table will be found the compositions of a few cel¬ 
 ebrated statues; 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 <u 
 
 eu 
 
 a. 
 
 0 
 
 CJ 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 c 
 
 p 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 Anti¬ 
 
 mony. 
 
 Column Vendome (Paris).. 
 
 89.20 
 
 0.5 
 
 10.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 
 
 Column of July (Paris)... . 
 
 91.40 
 
 5.6 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.4 
 
 
 
 
 Henry IV. (Paris). 
 
 89.62 
 
 42 
 
 5-7 
 
 0.48 
 
 
 
 
 Keller’s Louis XIV. 
 
 91.4 
 
 5-53 
 
 i -7 
 
 i -37 
 
 
 
 
 Napoleon I . 
 
 75.0 
 
 2.00 
 
 3 0 
 
 2.00 
 
 
 
 
 The Shepherd, Potsdam 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Palace. 
 
 88.68 
 
 1.28 
 
 9.2 
 
 0.77 
 
 
 
 
 Bacchus, Potsdam Palace.. 
 
 89-34 
 
 1.63 
 
 7-5 
 
 1.21 
 
 0.18 
 
 
 
 Germanicus, Potsdam. 
 
 89.78 
 
 2-35 
 
 6 16 
 
 i -33 
 
 
 0.27 
 
 
 Augsburg bronze. 
 
 8943 
 
 
 8.17 
 
 1.05 
 
 0-34 
 
 0.19 
 
 
 
 94-74 
 
 054 
 
 1.64 
 
 0.24 
 
 
 0.71 
 
 0.84 
 
 Munich bronze. 
 
 77-03 
 
 19.12 
 
 C.9I 
 
 2.29 
 
 0.12 
 
 0-43 
 
 
 
 92.88 
 
 0.44 
 
 4.18 
 
 2.31 
 
 0.15 
 
 
 
94 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Best Bronze for Statiles According to D'Arcet. —Copper, 78.5 
 parts; zinc, 17.2 ; tin, 2.9; and lead, 1.4; or, copper, 164 parts; 
 zinc, 36 ; tin, 6; and lead, 3. 
 
 Bronze for Gilding. —This should be fusible at a low temperature, 
 compact and close-grained. Copper, 82.25 > zinc, 17.50; and tin, 
 0.25; takes gilding well. 
 
 Bronze for Small Castings. —An excellent bronze for this purpose 
 is composed of copper, 94.12 parts; tin, 5.88. It becomes very 
 thinly fluid in the heat and fills out the moulds well. 
 
 Bronze which can be Rolled. —A bronze containing 4.5 to 7 parts 
 of tin to 100 of copper can be readily rolled out to sheets at a red 
 heat. 
 
 Chinese Bronzes. —Analyses of different specimens of Chinese 
 bronze gave the following results: 
 
 Name. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 4 - 3 6 
 
 5-52 
 
 7.27 
 
 C opper. 
 
 82.72 
 
 72.09 
 
 72.32 
 
 Lead. 
 
 9-9 
 
 20.31 
 
 14-59 
 
 Iron. 
 
 °-55 
 
 1 -73 
 
 0.28 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 1 86 
 
 
 
 Arsenic. 
 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 Delta-metal is an alloy of zinc, iron and copper, which receives 
 during fusing an addition of phosphorus and, according to the 
 desired properties, a further addition of tin, manganese and lead. 
 It has the color of a gold-silver alloy, and can be worked cold as 
 well as hot; it cannot be welded ; with some care it may, however, 
 be soldered. It does not rust. On account of its great tenacity it 
 is used in place of steel for torpedoes, bicycles, ship-chains, in the 
 construction of steamboats, etc. 
 
 Delta-metal as manufactured by the “Deutsche Della-Mctall 
 Gesellschaft' ’ is composed as follows : 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 95 
 
 Name 
 
 Cast. 
 
 Wrought. 
 
 Rolled. 
 
 Hot punched. 
 
 Copper.. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Manganese. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 Phosphorus. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 55-94 
 
 0.72 
 
 0 87 
 
 0.81 
 
 41.61 
 
 trace 
 
 0.013 
 
 Per cent. 
 55.80 
 
 1.82 
 
 1.28 
 
 0.96 
 
 40.07 
 
 trace 
 
 O.OI 1 
 
 Per cent. 
 55.82 
 
 0.76 
 
 0.86 
 
 1.38 
 
 41.41 
 
 0.06 
 
 trace 
 
 Per cent. 
 54.22 
 
 1.10 
 
 0.99 
 
 1.09 
 
 42.25 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.02 
 
 99963 
 
 99.941 
 
 100.29 
 
 99-83 
 
 Gold Bronze.— Copper, 90.5 parts; tin, 6.5; zinc, 3. This 
 alloy retains its beautiful gold color on exposure to the air, but 
 loses it rapidly if exposed to both air and water. 
 
 Japanese Bronze. —M. E. J. Maumene gives the results of an 
 analysis of Japanese bronzes as follows : 
 
 Name. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 L 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 86.38 
 
 80.91 
 
 88.70 
 
 92.07 
 
 Tin. 
 
 1.94 
 
 7-55 
 
 2.58 
 
 I.04 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 I.6l 
 
 0.44 
 
 O.IO 
 
 I.04 
 
 Lead. 
 
 5.68 
 
 5-33 
 
 3-54 
 
 I.04 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 3-36 
 
 3.08 
 
 3-71 
 
 2.65 
 
 Iron. 
 
 0.67 
 
 i -43 
 
 1.07 
 
 3-64 
 
 Manganese. 
 
 0.67 
 
 trace 
 
 1.07 
 
 3-64 
 
 Silicic acid. 
 
 O.IO 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.09 
 
 O.O4 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 O.IO 
 
 0.31 
 
 O.O9 
 
 O.O4 
 
 Waste. 
 
 0.26 
 
 0.79 
 
 0.21 
 
 0.56 
 
 Malleable Bronze .—A patent has been taken out both in England 
 and France by Messrs. A. Sentex, C. Marshall and A. Saunier, es¬ 
 tablishing a process for producing malleable and ductile bronze bars 
 or plates which are free from cracks and blow-holes, are “ un- 
 oxidizable” and which may be “ rolled and drawn with the greatest 
 ease,” and, moreover, have the appearance and “sonorousness of 
 
96 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 gold:” 3.3 lbs. of tin are purified by melting under nitre; 22 
 lbs. of copper are melted and 1.76 ozs. of equal parts of nitrate 
 and cyanide of potassium are added for the double purpose of re¬ 
 ducing the oxides and “ fattening ” the metal. Then 0.88 oz. of 
 bitartrate of potassium with the same quantity of cyanide is added, 
 and, after poling, the tin is introduced; 0.88 oz. each of sal-am¬ 
 moniac and cyanide are thrown on ; 15.43 grains of “ phosphuret 
 of copper” introduced to “impart mildness,” and 0.7 oz. of 
 “Marseilles soap” added, which still further fattens the metal. 
 Finally 15.43 grains of sodium are added at the moment of 
 casting. The metal, if cast in sand, may contain zinc, and, the 
 portion of tin reduced, the quantity of phosphorus and sodium 
 may be increased. 
 
 OId Peruvian Bronze. —An old chisel, weighing about 7 ozs., 
 found in Quito, showed, according to Boussingault, the following 
 composition: Copper, 95 parts; tin, 4.5; lead, 0.2; iron, 0.3; 
 silver, traces. 
 
 Ormolu. —This bronze is distinguished by a pure golden-yellow 
 color and requires but very little gold for gilding. It is much used 
 for the finest bronze articles of luxury. It is composed of copper, 
 58.3 parts; tin, 16.7; zinc, 25.3. 
 
 Silveroid. —This alloy, which has been recently brought into 
 commerce by H. Wiggin, consists of copper and nickel, to which, 
 according to the purpose for which it is intended, zinc, tin and 
 lead are added. The alloy is very white, lustrous, fine-grained and 
 of great tenacity. It is used as a substitute for gun-metal and 
 brass where a lustrous color and polish are required. 
 
 Speculum-metal. —The alloys known under this name are em¬ 
 ployed for making metallic reflectors, requiring a true white color, 
 good lustre and a hard, clean surface not easily tarnished or 
 scratched. Speculum-metal contains on an average from 64 to 69 
 per cent, of copper and 30 to 35 per cent, of tin. To heighten 
 the white color small quantities of arsenic and antimony are some¬ 
 times added. 
 
 The following table shows the composition of some alloys used 
 for speculum-metal: 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 97 
 
 Name. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Arsenic. 
 
 Other metals. 
 
 Standard alloy. 
 
 68.21 
 
 31-79 
 
 
 
 
 Otto’s. 
 
 68.5 
 
 31-5 
 
 
 
 
 Richardson’s. 
 
 65-3 
 
 3 ° 
 
 0.7 
 
 2 
 
 2 Silver. 
 
 Mudge’s. 
 
 65 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 Little’s. 
 
 65 
 
 30.8 
 
 2-3 
 
 i -9 
 
 
 Sallit’s. 
 
 64.6 
 
 31-3 
 
 
 
 4.1 nickel. 
 
 Chinese. 
 
 80.83 
 
 
 
 
 8.5 antimony. 
 
 Old Roman. 
 
 6 3-9 
 
 19.05 
 
 
 
 17.29 lead. 
 
 Alloys of Copper and Zinc. Brass and Si?nilar Alloys .—Brass is 
 an alloy of copper and zinc in varying quantities. Ordinary brass 
 contains from 18 to 50 per cent, of zinc (on an average to 2 parts 
 of copper 1 part of zinc). With a larger content of copper 
 the color becomes reddish and the alloy is called tombac. Tombac 
 contains at the utmost 18 per cent, of zinc; it is especially used 
 where great ductility, flexibility and but little hardness are required, 
 as, for instance, for fine works of wire and sheet, or where a reddish 
 shade of color is desired, for instance, for articles which are to be 
 gilded. For most technical purposes, however, brass richer in 
 zinc is employed, mostly because, on account of the greater content 
 of zinc, it is cheaper and besides more readily fusible. Brass 
 for ordinary coarser castings consists generally of alloys with a 
 high content of zinc, which, besides, are frequently produced from 
 the more impure raw materials. But brass for the fabrication of 
 sheet and wire is made from the purest materials and contains less 
 zinc than cast-brass, generally from 25 to 35 per cent., exception¬ 
 ally only up to 37 per cent. Besides copper and zinc, brass fre¬ 
 quently contains very small quantities of other metals (tin, lead, 
 iron), which are seldom intentionally added, but mostly come from 
 impurities of the component metals. The color of copper-zinc 
 alloys varies according to the content of tin and will be seen from 
 the following table: 
 
 7 
 
98 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Color of Copper-Zinc Alloys. 
 
 Content of 
 zine. 
 
 Color. 
 
 Content of 
 zinc. 
 
 Color. 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 
 35 per cent. . 
 
 
 IO “ . 
 
 
 38 “ 
 
 . . .dark yellow. 
 
 16 “ . 
 
 .red-yellow. 
 
 41 
 
 .. reddish-yellow. 
 
 20 “ . 
 
 .. .. reddish-yellow. 
 
 50 “ 
 
 
 22 “ . 
 
 
 60 “ ... 
 
 
 25 “ . 
 
 
 70 “ 
 
 
 27 “ . 
 
 
 80 “ 
 
 
 30 “ . 
 
 
 90 “ 
 
 
 To brass belong also a number of copper-zinc alloys for definite 
 purposes ; for instance, Aich’s metal, oroide, etc., the composition 
 of which is given in the following table: 
 
 Composition of Copper-Zinc Alloys. 
 
 I. Tombac {Red Brass ) and Similar Alloys , 
 
 Name. 
 
 Copper 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Various 
 
 metals. 
 
 Tombac, from Ocker. 
 
 85 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 “ “ Iserlohn. 
 
 92 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 “ “ Hegermuhle. 
 
 853 
 
 14.7 
 
 
 
 
 English tombac for castings. 
 
 86.4 
 
 13.6 
 
 
 
 
 Tombac for fine sharp castings. 
 
 87 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 “ “ gun mountings. 
 
 80 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Ntirnberg tombac for Dutch gold.. 
 
 84.6 
 
 • 5-4 
 
 
 
 
 Tombac for jewelry (chrysochalk) 
 
 90 
 
 7-9 
 
 
 
 
 Tombac resembling gold. 
 
 89.97 
 
 9.96 
 
 0.05 
 
 
 
 “ “ “ . 
 
 82 
 
 ' 7-5 
 
 o -5 
 
 
 
 Tombac for gilding. 
 
 86 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 “ (d’Arcet). 
 
 82.5 
 
 17-5 
 
 
 
 
 Sheet for buttons. 
 
 99-15 
 
 0.85 
 
 
 
 
 it it tt 
 
 84.21 
 
 15-79 
 
 
 
 
 Austrian axle journals. 
 
 92.5 
 
 7-5 
 
 
 
 
 Pinchbeck for fancy articles. 
 
 93-6 
 
 6.4 
 
 
 
 
 Oroide. 
 
 90 
 
 IO 
 
 
 
 
 “ . 
 
 S5.5 
 
 14-5 
 
 
 
 
 Talmi gold. 
 
 86.4 
 
 12.2 
 
 1.1 
 
 
 0.3 iron. 
 
 Similor or Mannheim gold. . 
 
 89.44 
 
 9-93 
 
 0.62 
 
 
 
 Tournay’s metal (for buttons). 
 
 S2.54 
 
 17.46 
 
 
 
 
 Tissier’s metal (very hard). 
 
 97 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1 to 2 arsenic. 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 99 
 
 Composition of Copper-Zinc Alloys — Continued. 
 II. Brass and Similar Alloys. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Copper 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Various metals. 
 
 Sheet brass from Stollberg. 
 
 “ “ Hegermiihle. . 
 
 u “ Ocker. 
 
 64.8 
 
 70.16 
 
 68.98 
 
 70.1 
 72-73 
 
 68.1 
 
 32.8 
 2745 
 
 29-54 
 
 29.9 
 27.27 
 3 i 9 
 337 
 
 38.2 
 
 40 
 
 29.2 
 27.63 
 
 27 45 
 28.15 
 
 28.5 
 
 34 - 6 
 
 324 
 
 24.42 
 
 37-2 
 36.88 
 31.46 
 33 5 
 324 
 
 35 - 5 
 27.27 
 
 33-4 
 
 38.2 
 
 28 
 
 33-3 
 
 24.9 
 33 -i 
 44-5 
 
 46 
 
 45.1 
 
 24-5 
 
 32.8 
 
 39-2 
 
 347 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.2 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.79 
 
 0.97 
 
 f 0.79 antimony. 
 
 “ “ Iserlohn. 
 
 “ " Liidenscheid... 
 
 6t t( Vienna.. 
 
 
 \ 0.23 iron. 
 
 “ “ Temappes. 
 
 (( “ China. 
 
 64.4 
 
 56.6 
 
 60 
 
 0.2 
 
 3-3 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.4 iron. 
 
 “ for ships’ sheathing, 
 
 so-called Muntz metal. 
 
 Brass wire from England. 
 
 70.3 
 
 71.89 
 
 70.16 
 
 7136 
 
 71-5 
 
 654 
 
 65-S 
 
 71.88 
 
 62.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 o -3 
 
 0.85 
 
 0.2 
 
 
 “ “ Augsburg. 
 
 “ “ Neustadt. 
 
 « it it 
 
 it it it 
 
 “ good quality. 
 
 0.79 
 
 
 “ brittle. 
 
 
 2.1 
 
 
 Cast brass from Ocker. 
 
 
 1.09 
 
 °-5 
 
 0.88 
 
 o -3 
 
 2.9 
 
 ( 2.32 iron 
 
 a a a 
 
 
 \ 1.01 antimony. 
 0.1 iron. 
 
 Clock wheels (Black Forest) .. 
 
 ti it if it 
 
 Turned castings from Iserlohn.. 
 
 tt it a a 
 
 Cast brass for stamps used for 
 gilding in book-binderies. . . . 
 Brass from Liidenscheid. 
 
 60.66 
 60 06 
 637 
 
 64.5 
 
 61.6 
 
 72 73 
 
 66.6 
 
 1- 35 
 
 2 - 5 
 0.2 
 
 0.74 iron. 
 
 I.43 iron. 
 
 3.0 antimony. 
 
 a <t 
 
 
 
 
 Aich or sterro-metal malleable 
 in the heat. 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 1.8 iron. 
 
 Chrysorin, for fancy articles.. .. 
 
 “ (by Rauchenberger). 
 
 Potin, brittle, ordinary brass.. .. 
 English sterling metal. 
 
 72 
 
 66.7 
 
 71.9 
 
 66.2 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.7 iron. 
 
 Thurston’s tough, strong brass... 
 Brass, very tenacious (Storer). . 
 
 if if ti it 
 
 Bristol brass (Prince’s metal). . 
 
 it ft ti tt 
 
 if tt ft it 
 
 Mosaic gold. 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 54-9 
 
 75-5 
 
 67.2 
 
 608 
 
 6 5-3 
 
 0.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
100 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Composition of Copper-Zinc Alloys — Continued. 
 
 II. Brass and Similar Alloys. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Copper 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Various metals. 
 
 Sheet from manganese bronze, 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 1.13 iron. 
 
 pale yellow. 
 
 60.95 
 
 29-93 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 7.95 manganese 
 
 Sheet from manganese bronze, 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 4.48 manganese 
 
 still paler. 
 
 63.16 
 
 26. n 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1 
 
 3.67 nickel. 
 
 Cast brass,French,for fine castin’s 
 
 63.70 
 
 33 55 
 
 2.50 
 
 0.2; 
 
 
 ft ft (f if 
 
 64.45 
 
 32-44 
 
 0.25 
 
 2.86 
 
 
 ft u u ft 
 
 70.90 
 
 24 05 
 
 2.00 
 
 3 05 
 
 
 t ft if tt a 
 
 7243 
 
 22.75 
 
 1.87 
 
 2.95 
 
 
 Robierre’s metal, for ship sheath- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in g. 
 
 66 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 
 Sterro-metal (Rosthorn’s). 
 
 55-33 
 
 41.So 
 
 
 
 4.66 iron. 
 
 “ (English or Ged- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ge’s alloy for ship-sheathing). 
 
 60 
 
 3 S .5 
 
 
 
 1.5 iron. 
 
 Alloys of Copper with Silver and Gold. —On account of their 
 great intrinsic value these alloys are chiefly used for coinage and in 
 art industries. At the present time the fineness of all coins is 
 determined by thousandths, the standard varying according to the 
 size of the coins, and the laws of the different countries from T 9 o ° 0 ° 0 - 
 to T VoV The fineness used in the manufacture of silverware varies 
 from to T 9 cny 0 c>> while that of gold ware varies from to 
 
 t 9 <jo°o> ordinary Pforzheim gold articles containing, for instance, 
 only from ^ to &%%■ 
 
 Color of Gold Alloys. —The color of gold alloys depends on the 
 greater or smaller contents of gold and silver. Alloys very rich in 
 silver are more whitish, and those very rich in copper more red¬ 
 dish. Cadmium imparts a green color, and steel a gray color to 
 the alloy. The following table gives the composition of colored 
 gold alloys most used : 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 101 
 
 Color. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Cadmium. 
 
 Steel. 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 583 
 
 250 
 
 167 
 
 
 
 Dark yellow. 
 
 583 
 
 125 
 
 292 
 
 
 
 Very red. 
 
 583 
 
 42 
 
 375 
 
 
 
 Yellow... 
 
 666 
 
 194 
 
 i 39 
 
 
 
 Red. 
 
 666 
 
 67 
 
 268 
 
 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 750 
 
 146 
 
 104 
 
 
 
 Red. 
 
 750 
 
 104 
 
 146 
 
 
 
 Green. 
 
 750 
 
 166 
 
 
 84 
 
 
 << 
 
 746 
 
 114 
 
 97 
 
 43 
 
 
 “ .. 
 
 750 
 
 I2 5 
 
 .... 
 
 125 
 
 
 Gray. 
 
 800 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 200 
 
 (C 
 
 725 
 
 275 
 
 
 
 
 (t 
 
 857 
 
 86 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 57 
 
 Blue. 
 
 250 to 750 
 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 25° 
 
 Pale yellow. 
 
 666 
 
 333 
 
 
 
 
 Pale red. 
 
 600 
 
 200 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 Proportion of Various Metals in Gold Alloys used by Jewellers. 
 
 Carats. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Melts at degrees F. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 23 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 23 
 
 2012 
 
 22 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 22 
 
 2009 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 2002 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 1995 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 1992 
 
 >3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 1990 
 
 12 
 
 8^ 
 
 3^ 
 
 12 
 
 1987 
 
 IO 
 
 IO 
 
 4 
 
 IO 
 
 1982 
 
 9 
 
 
 4^ 
 
 9 
 
 1979 
 
 8 
 
 10 yh. 
 
 5 Yz 
 
 8 
 
 1973 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 i960 
 
 Argent-Ruolz .—This alloy, also called argent franeais, has the 
 appearance of pure silver but is much cheaper and harder. 
 
102 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 According to the quality of the articles, different alloys are used 
 as follows: 
 
 Parts. 
 
 I. II. III. ' 
 
 Silver.. 33 40 20 
 
 Copper. 37 to 42 30 to 40 45 to 55 
 
 Nickel. 25 to 30 20 to 30 25 to 35 
 
 Gray Silver {Japanese Silver). —In Japan an alloy of equal parts 
 of silver and copper is prepared which acquires a beautiful gray 
 color by boiling in a solution of alum to which sulphate of copper 
 and verdigris are added. 
 
 Tiers Argent ( one-third Silver). —Silver 33.33 parts, aluminium 
 66.66. Used in Paris for the manufacture of various utensils. It 
 is harder than silver, and stamped and engraved with greater ease 
 than alloys of copper and silver. 
 
 Imitation Silver Alloys. —There is a large number of imitation 
 silver alloys which are used as substitutes for many purposes. The 
 composition of a few of them is here given : 
 
 Alloy for Spoons. —A beautiful alloy closely resembling silver is 
 obtained by melting together copper, 50 parts; nickel, 25, and 
 zinc, 25. 
 
 Alloy resembling Silver. —Copper, 70 parts; manganese, 30; 
 zinc, 20 to 25. 
 
 Delalot's Alloy. —Pure copper, 80 parts; manganese, 2; zinc, 
 18; phosphate of lime, 1. First melt the copper, then add 
 gradually the manganese and, when this is completely dissolved, 
 the phosphate of lime. Remove the scoria and about ten minutes 
 before casting add the zinc. To promote the fusion of the man¬ 
 ganese, part of calcium fluoride, part of borax and 1 part of 
 charcoal may be added. 
 
 Mousset's Silver Alloy. —Copper, 59.06 parts; silver, 27.56; 
 zinc, 9.57 ; nickel, 3.42. Color, yellowish with a reddish tinge, 
 but white upon the fractured surface. 
 
 IVarne's Metal. —Tin, 10 parts; nickel, 7; bismuth, 7; cobalt, 3. 
 White, fine-grained, quite difficult to fuse. 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 103 
 
 White Alloy Closely Resembling Silver. —Copper, 69.8 parts; 
 nickel, 19.8; zinc, 5.5 ; cadmium, 4.7. 
 
 Aluminium Alloys. 1. Aluminium Brasses. —By this name are 
 generally known the alloys of aluminium with zinc and copper ; 
 they are about as much superior to ordinary brass as aluminium 
 bronze is to ordinary bronze. They are made in two general 
 ways; either by introducing metallic aluminium into melted brass 
 or by introducing zinc into melted aluminium bronze. Repeated 
 remeltings of aluminium brass are not advisable, since, like all 
 brasses, it changes its composition on melting, though not to so 
 large a degree. After mixing it needs to be remelted only once in 
 a clean crucible. Aluminium brasses flow well, give sharp sound 
 castings, are more ductile, malleable, and have greatly increased 
 strength and power to resist corrosion. 
 
 Cowles Bros, report the following series of tests made, in 1886, 
 at their works in Lockport, their alloys all being made by adding 
 zinc to alu?niniu 7 n bronze: 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Tensile strength per 
 square inch (cast¬ 
 ings). 
 
 Elongation 
 per cent. 
 
 Aluminium. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 5-8 
 
 67.4 
 
 26.8 
 
 95.712 
 
 1.0 
 
 3-3 
 
 633 
 
 33-3 
 
 85.867 
 
 7.6 
 
 3 -o 
 
 67.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 67 - 34 I 
 
 12.5 
 
 i -5 
 
 77-5 
 
 21.0 
 
 32-356 
 
 41.7 
 
 *•5 
 
 71.0 
 
 27-5 
 
 4 I -952 
 
 27.0 
 
 1.25 
 
 70.0 
 
 28.0 
 
 35-059 
 
 25.0 
 
 2-5 
 
 70.0 
 
 27.5 
 
 40.982 
 
 28.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 57 -o 
 
 42.0 
 
 68.218 
 
 2.0 
 
 1.15 
 
 55-8 
 
 48.0 
 
 69.520 
 
 4.0 
 
 When it is remembered that ordinary brass has rarely a tensile 
 strength of over 30,000 lbs. with an elongation of about 10 per 
 cent., the benefit of the aluminium can be easily realized. The 
 principal disadvantage of aluminium brass compared with alumin- 
 
104 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 ium bronze is that it cannot be remelted without changing its 
 quality by reason of its containing zinc. 
 
 2. Aluminium Bronze .—Aluminium possesses properties which 
 render it one of the most useful metals yet discovered, and the 
 only bar to its greater employment has hitherto been its high price. 
 At the present time strenuous efforts are made to cheapen the 
 manufacture of the metal, and there is an immediate prospect of 
 the price being considerably reduced by various new processes. 
 While being very malleable and ductile, aluminium ranks second 
 only to steel in tenacity; it is highly sonorous, four times lighter 
 than silver, non-volatile at very high temperatures, conducts heat 
 and electricity as well as silver, is inoxidizable in the air even at a 
 red heat, is not acted upon by water, sulphuretted hydrogen or 
 ammonium sulphide, resists concentrated nitric acid and dilute 
 sulphuric acid, and forms alloys of considerable value. 
 
 The alloys of aluminium with copper show very different proper¬ 
 ties according to the quantities of aluminium they contain. Alloys 
 containing but little copper cannot be used for industrial purposes. 
 With 60 to 70 per cent, of aluminium they are very brittle, glass- 
 hard and beautifully crystalline. With 50 per cent, the alloy is 
 quite soft, but under 30 per cent, of aluminium the hardness 
 returns. 
 
 The usual alloys are those of 1, 2, 5 and 10 per cent, of alumin¬ 
 ium. The 5 per cent, bronze is golden in color, polishes well, 
 casts beautifully, is very malleable, cold or hot, and has great 
 strength, especially after hammering. The 7.5 per cent, bronze is 
 to be recommended as superior to the 5 per cent, bronze. It has a 
 peculiar greenish-gold color which makes it very suitable for 
 decoration. All these good qualities are possessed by the 10 per 
 cent, bronze. It is bright golden, keeps its polish in the air, may 
 be easily engraved, shows an elasticity much greater than steel, 
 and can be soldered with hard solder. 
 
 In making aluminium-copper alloys great attention must be paid 
 to the quality of the copper used. Ordinary commercial copper 
 may contain small amounts of antimony, arsenic or iron, which the 
 aluminium can in no way remove and which effect very injuriously 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 105 
 
 the quality of the bronze. The aluminium bronzes seem to be 
 extremely sensitive to the above metals, particularly to iron. This 
 necessitates the employment of the purest copper; electrolytic is 
 sometimes used when not too high-priced, but Lake Superior is 
 generally found satisfactory enough. Even the purest copper may 
 contain dissolved cuprous oxide or occluded gases, and it is one of 
 the functions of aluminium to reduce these oxides and gases, 
 forming slag which rises to the surface and leaving the bronze free 
 from their influences. If tin occurs in the copper it lowers very 
 greatly the ductility and strength of the bronzes, but zinc is not so 
 harmful. 
 
 Care should also be taken as to the purity of the aluminium used, 
 though its impurities are not so harmful as they would be if occur¬ 
 ring in similar percentage in copper, since so much more copper 
 than aluminium is used in these alloys. Yet the bronzes are so 
 sensitive to the presence of iron that an aluminium with as small a 
 percentage of this metal as possible should be used. The silicon 
 in commercial aluminium is not so harmful as the iron, but it does 
 harden the bronze considerably and increases its tensile strength. 
 The purest aluminium alloyed with the purest copper always pro¬ 
 duces the highest quality of bronze. 
 
 The following directions for preparing the bronzes are given : 
 Melt the copper in a plumbago crucible and heat it somewhat 
 hotter than its melting point. When quite fluid and the surface 
 clean, sticks of aluminium of a suitable size are taken in tongs and 
 pushed down under the surface, thus protecting the aluminium from 
 oxidization. The first effect is necessarily to chill the copper more 
 or less in contact with the aluminium, but if the copper was at a 
 good heat to start with, the chilled part is speedily dissolved and 
 the aluminium attacked. The chemical action of the aluminium 
 is then shown by a rise of temperature, which may even reach a 
 white heat. Considerable commotion may take place at first, but 
 this gradually subsides. When the required amount of aluminium 
 has been introduced, the bronze is let stand for a few minutes arid 
 then well stirred, taking care not to rub or scrape the sides of the 
 crucible. By the stirring the slag, which commences to rise even 
 
TITE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 10G 
 
 during the alloying, is brought almost entirely to the surface. The 
 crucible is then taken out of the furnace, the slag removed from 
 the surface with a skimmer, the melt again stirred to bring up what 
 little slag may still remain in it, and is then ready for casting. It 
 is very injurious to leave it longer in the fire than is absolutely 
 necessary. No flux is necessary, the bronze needing only to 
 be covered with charcoal powder. The particular point to be at¬ 
 tended to in melting these bronzes is to handle as quickly as pos¬ 
 sible when once melted. 
 
 As with ordinary brass and bronze two or three remeltings are 
 needed before the combination of the metal appears to be perfect 
 and the bronze takes on its best qualities. After three or four 
 meltings it reaches a maximum at which point it may be melted 
 several times without sensible change. It gives good castings of 
 all sizes and runs in sand moulds very uniformly. Its specific 
 gravity is 7.68, about that of soft iron. Its strength when ham¬ 
 mered is equal to the best steel. It may be forged at about the 
 same heat as cast-steel and then hammered until it is almost cold 
 without breaking or ripping. Tempering makes it soft and malle¬ 
 able. It does not foul a file and may be drawn into wire. Any 
 part of a machine which is usually made of steel can be replaced 
 by aluminium bronze. 
 
 Ferro-aluminium .—The iron-aluminium alloy known by this 
 name, which is being largely used at present for introducing 
 into iron and steel, is generally made with 5 to 15 per cent, 
 of aluminium. Several different makes of this alloy are on the 
 market, some made directly from alumina, others made by adding 
 aluminium to iron. When made by the latter method a good 
 quality of pig-iron is chosen, and when melted the aluminium, 
 in bars, is seized in tongs and dipped under the surface. A rise 
 of temperature occurs, and a noticeable separation of graphitic 
 carbcn, causing “ kish ” to collect on the surface. It is said that 
 the pig-iron thus alloyed has its combined carbon almost entirely 
 converted into free carbon, losing thereby in weight sometimes as 
 much as 2^4 per cent. When all the aluminium required has 
 been added the melt is stirred, the crucible remaining in the fur- 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 107 
 
 nace; then it is let stand for a few minutes, taken out of the fire, 
 skimmed clean and cast into slabs or bars. 
 
 Various Aluminium Alloys .—The following alloys have been 
 patented by Mr. Jas. Webster: 
 
 I. Copper is melted and aluminium added to it until a io per 
 cent, bronze is made. There is then added to it i to 6 per cent, 
 of an alloy, ready prepared, containing : Copper, 20 parts ; nickel, 
 20 ; tin, 30 ; aluminium, 7. 
 
 II. The two following alloys are prepared in the usual way, under 
 a flux consisting of equal parts of potassium and sodium chlorides, 
 and are cast into bars. 
 
 Aluminium.15 parts. 
 
 Tin.85 “ 
 
 II. 
 
 Nickel. 17 parts. 
 
 Copper. 17 “ 
 
 Tin. 100 “ 
 
 To make the bronzes equal parts of these two alloys are 
 melted with copper, the more of the alloys used the harder and 
 better the bronze. The best mixture is, of copper, 84 parts; al¬ 
 loy I., 8; alloy II., 8. The copper is first melted, then the al¬ 
 loys put in together and stirred well with a stirrer of wood or clay. 
 This alloy is suitable for art castings, kitchen utensils, etc., or any¬ 
 where where durability, hardness, malleability, polish and very 
 slight oxidizability are required. A cheaper and more common 
 alloy may be made of copper, 91 parts; alloy I., 4; alloy II., 5. 
 
 III. The following alloy is said to withstand oxidation well, to 
 have great tenacity, durability, capability to bear vibrations and to 
 take a high polish. A preliminary alloy is made of copper, 200 
 parts; tin, 80; bismuth, 10; aluminium, 10. The alloy proper is 
 formed by melting together : Preliminary alloy, 4 y parts ; copper, 
 164; nickel, 70; zinc, 6i}4- 
 
 IV. Copper, 53 parts; nickel, 22^ zinc, 22 ; tin, 5 : bis¬ 
 muth, ; aluminium, y. 
 
 Alloy for Dental Plates. —Aluminium, 90 to 93 parts ; silver, 5 
 to 9 ; copper, 1. This alloy, when cast under slight pressure, gives 
 perfect castings, is very white and easy to work. The addition of 
 
108 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 copper is said to decrease to a minimum the shrinkage of the alloy, 
 also giving a closer grain. 
 
 Alloy Resembling German Silver. —Copper, 70 parts; nickel, 23; 
 aluminium, 7. This alloy has a beautiful white color and takes a 
 high polish. It resembles some of the finer grades of German 
 silver. 
 
 Alloy Resembling Silver. —Copper, 75 parts; nickel, 16; zinc, 
 2; tin, 2; cobalt, 2 ; iron, 1 y 2 ; aluminium, 
 
 Bourbonne's Aluminium Alloy. —For many purposes this alloy 
 may serve as a substitute for aluminium. It is obtained by melting 
 together 10 parts of tin and 10 of aluminium. It is whiter than 
 aluminium, has a specific gravity of 2.05 (is, therefore, somewhat 
 heavier than the pure metal), is more capable than aluminium of 
 resisting most agents and is worked with greater ease. Finally the 
 alloy, without previous preparation, can be soldered as readily as 
 brass. 
 
 Lechesne. —Under this name two compositions have been pat¬ 
 ented in England : 
 
 I. II. 
 
 Copper. 900 parts. 600 parts. 
 
 Nickel. 100 “ 400 “ 
 
 Aluminium. “ l A “ 
 
 The first of these alloys is the one to which the name “Lechesne ” 
 appears to be given. It is made by putting first the nickel into 
 the crucible and after melting gradually stirring in the copper. The 
 heat is then raised and the aluminium added. The alloy is heated 
 almost to boiling and cast very hot. It is claimed that this alloy 
 is equal to the finest German silver. 
 
 Minargent. —Copper, 100 parts; nickel, 70; antimony, 5; 
 aluminium, 2. It is similar to the alloy resembling German sil¬ 
 ver, but somewhat harder. Melt together the copper, nickel 
 and antimony, and then granulate the resulting alloy in water. 
 The dried granules are mixed with the aluminium and with 1.5 per 
 cent, of a flux consisting of 2 parts borax and 1 part fluorspar, and 
 then remelted. 
 
 Neogen. —Copper, 58 parts; zinc, 27; nickel, 12; tin, 2; bis- 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 109 
 
 muth, y? ; aluminium, y 2 . This alloy is claimed to closely re¬ 
 semble silver. 
 
 Nurnberg Gold. —Copper, 90 per cent. ; gold, 2 y 2 ; aluminium, 
 •jy. This alloy is used for making cheap imitation gold ware, re¬ 
 sembling gold in color and not tarnishing in the air. 
 
 Britannia Metal and Similar Alloys. —These alloys are of great 
 importance. They are readily fusible and very useful for cheap 
 ware, which may frequently be silvered. Britannia metal consists 
 principally of tin alloyed with antimony. Many varieties contain 
 only these two metals and may be considered as tin hardened by 
 antimony. Other similar alloys contain, however, in addition, 
 certain quantities of copper, sometimes lead, and occasionally 
 bismuth. 
 
 The following table shows the composition of several varieties of 
 Britannia metal: 
 
 Britannia metal. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Anti¬ 
 
 mony. 
 
 Copper 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Bis¬ 
 
 muth. 
 
 English. 
 
 81.9 
 
 16.25 
 
 1.84 
 
 
 
 
 “ . 
 
 90.62 
 
 7.81 
 
 1.46 
 
 
 
 
 (( 
 
 90.1 
 
 6.3 
 
 3 1 
 
 0.5 
 
 
 
 (< 
 
 85-4 
 
 9.66 
 
 0.81 
 
 3.06 
 
 
 
 Pewter. 
 
 81.2 
 
 5-7 
 
 1.6 
 
 
 iiS 
 
 
 (< 
 
 89-3 
 
 7.6 
 
 1.8 
 
 
 1.8 
 
 
 “ . 
 
 833 
 
 6.6 
 
 1.6 
 
 3.06 
 
 
 1.6 
 
 Tutania. 
 
 9 r -4 
 
 
 0.7 
 
 0-3 
 
 7.6 
 
 
 Queen’s metal. 
 
 88.5 
 
 7 -i 
 
 35 
 
 0.9 
 
 
 
 German. 
 
 72 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 “ . 
 
 84 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 “ (cast). 
 
 20 
 
 64 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Malleable (cast). 
 
 48 
 
 
 3 
 
 48 
 
 .... 
 
 I 
 
 Birmingham (sheet). 
 
 90.6 
 
 7.8 
 
 i -5 
 
 
 
 
 “ (cast). 
 
 90.71 
 
 9.2 
 
 0.09 
 
 
 
 
 Karmarsch’s. 
 
 8S 
 
 5 
 
 3 - 6 
 
 1-4 
 
 .... 
 
 1.6 
 
 Keller’s. 
 
 85.7 
 
 10.4 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 1.8 
 
 Wagner’s (fine). 
 
 85.64 
 
 9.66 
 
 0.81 
 
 3.06 
 
 
 0.83 
 
 Ashberry Metal. —Copper, 2 parts; tin, So; antimony, 14; 
 
110 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 zinc, i ; nickel, 2; aluminium, i. Or copper, 3 parts; tin, 79; 
 antimony, 15 ; zinc, 2 ; nickel, 1. Used for coffee-pots, tea-pots 
 and all similar articles generally made of Britannia metal. 
 
 Biddery Metal .—Genuine East India Biddery metal consists of 
 copper, 3.5 parts; zinc, 93.4; lead, 3.1. Or copper, 11.4 parts; 
 zinc, 84.3; tin, 1.4; lead, 2.9. 
 
 Minofor Metal. —Copper, 3.26 parts ; tin, 67.53 > antimony, 17; 
 zinc, 8.94. Or copper, 4 parts; tin, 66; antimony, 20; zinc, 9; 
 iron, 1. Used for the same purposes as Britannia metal. 
 
 Manganese Alloys .—A favorable effect is produced by an addi¬ 
 tion of manganese to bronze, brass, copper, etc. All varieties of 
 commercial copper, as well as bronzes, contain more or less oxide, 
 which injures the properties of these alloys, especially decreasing 
 their tenacity and malleability. The removal of such admixtures 
 of oxide is effected by substances which have a greater affinity for 
 oxygen than copper, for instance, by an addition of phosphorus in 
 the preparation of phosphor-bronze. Metallic manganese acts, 
 however, far more energetically, as it does not volatilize like phos¬ 
 phorus at the fusing temperature. For this purpose an alloy of 
 copper and manganese, the so-called cupro-manganese, consisting 
 of copper, 70.5 parts; manganese, 25, and coal, 0.5, is recom¬ 
 mended. Of this composition an addition of 2^3 per cent, suffices 
 for most cases. The process is very simple. After melting the 
 bronze masses the metal-bath is covered with pulverized wood 
 charcoal, and the pieces of cupro-manganese previously weighed 
 and reduced to small pieces are allowed slowly to slide into the 
 crucible. Fusion takes place instantaneously, but the crucible is 
 for a few moments to be replaced upon the fire in order to some¬ 
 what increase the temperature reduced by the addition of the cold 
 pieces of metal. In pouring out proceed in the ordinary manner. 
 To enclose the oxide of manganese formed by this process add to 
 the charcoal with which the metal-bath is covered about one-half 
 its quantity of pure carbonate of soda or potash. The following 
 alloys are prepared according to this method : 
 
 I. Tin, 16 parts; zinc, 3^ ; lead, 3^ ; cupro-manganese, 1. 
 
 II. Tin, 16 ; zinc, 3 ; lead, 3; cupro-manganese, 2. 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 III. Red Brass. —Copper, 85 ; tin, 14 ; cupro-manganese, 1. 
 Or copper, 81 ; tin, 17; cupro-manganese, 2. 
 
 IV. Udiite Metal. —Tin, 42 ; lead, 40 ; antimony, 20 ; cupro- 
 manganese, 2. 
 
 Ferro-ma 7 iganese. —This is composed of manganese, 75 parts, 
 and iron, 75, and may be used for the preparation of sterro-metal: 
 copper, 54 parts; zinc, 40; ferro-manganese, 6. 
 
 A composition of cupro-manganese, consisting of copper, 70 
 per cent., and manganese, 30 per cent., is used as an addition to 
 many alloys, especially for tombac, brass and bronze. By this ad¬ 
 dition greater density, solidity and extensibility are imparted to 
 the alloys. A copper-tin alloy with 6 per cent, manganese possesses 
 the hardness of steel. For bearings the alloy consists of copper, 80 
 parts ; tin, 6 ; zinc, 5 ; cupro-manganese, 9. For rolls an alloy 
 composed of tin, 64 parts; copper, 8; antimony, 16; lead, 10; 
 and cupro-manganese, 2, is recommended. For malleable brass, 
 copper, 56^ parts; zinc, 42; and cupro-manganese, i) 4 . 
 
 Manganese alloys are capable of taking a good polish and have 
 a white to rose-color color. Cupro-manganese is used in refining 
 copper for the reduction of cuprous oxide, the manganese alloy 
 playing in this case a role corresponding to that of ferro-manganese 
 in the preparation of steel. 
 
 Manganese Silver consists of copper, 80 per cent. ; manganese, 
 15/ and zinc, 5. It is white, takes a good polish and is readily 
 worked. 
 
 Manganese Steel. —To the steel melting quietly 80 per cent, 
 ferro-manganese is added in such quantity as desired. The steel 
 is then poured out. To obtain steel with 9 per cent, manganese 
 o. n to 0.12 per cent, of the 80 per cent, ferro-manganese, to¬ 
 gether with 5.5 to 6 per cent, of carbon, have to be added. This 
 steel mixture liquefies with ease. The pieces prepared from it are 
 very resistant to shocks. It is difficult to work with drill or chisel, 
 but can be conveniently hammered and stretched. 
 
 Hadfield's Ma?iganese Steel. —The electrical resistance of the 
 non-magnetic manganese steel is 8 times greater than that of ordinary 
 Steel and iron and 30 times greater than that of copper. Material 
 
112 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 with 5 or 6 per cent, of manganese is very hard; with io per cent., 
 soft; with 22 per cent., hard. For wrought material the best con¬ 
 tent is 14 per cent., with not over 1 per cent, of carbon. In 
 France manganese steel is used for horse-shoes, whole regiments 
 of cavalry being provided with them. 
 
 Nickel Alloys. —1. Nickel and Copper. Nickel and copper unite 
 in a wide range of proportions, the color of the alloys varying from 
 copper-red to the blue-white of the nickel. The use of alloys of 
 copper and nickel alone is limited ; they are chiefly employed for 
 coinage, the beautiful white color and considerable hardness im¬ 
 parted to copper by an addition of nickel making them especially 
 suitable for this purpose. 
 
 Nickel Coins of the United States, Belgium and Brazil. —Copper, 
 75 parts ; nickel, 25. 
 
 2. Nickel, Copper and Zinc Alloys. —These alloys form the mix¬ 
 tures of metals known as German silver, packfong, argent neuf 
 etc. The preparation of German silver must be executed with the 
 greatest care, since nickel has a very high melting point. The 
 more readily fusible metals are first melted and alloyed together, 
 after which the fused nickel is brought into the crucible and the 
 whole vigorously stirred with a stout wooden stick. 
 
 The following table gives the composition of various kinds of Ger- 
 man silver; 
 
 
 Copper 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 r 
 
 So 
 
 31-3 
 
 18.7 
 
 
 
 French for sheet.-( 
 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 l 
 
 53-3 
 
 25 
 
 16.7 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 Vienna. -1 
 
 55-6 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 Berlin./ 
 
 54 
 
 28 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 55-5 
 
 29.I 
 
 i 7-5 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 63-34 
 
 17.01 
 
 1913 
 
 
 
 English.-{ 
 
 62.40 
 
 22.15 
 
 15-05 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 62.43 
 
 26.05 
 
 10.85 
 
 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 113 
 
 Various kinds of German Silver 
 
 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 
 
 Copper 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 English. 
 
 57-40 
 
 25 
 
 13 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 26.3 
 
 36.8 
 
 36.8 
 
 
 
 Chinese.■ 
 
 
 43-8 
 
 40.6 
 
 15 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 7 
 
 36 9 
 
 17.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 40.4 
 
 25-4 
 
 31.6 
 
 
 2.60 
 
 
 ' 
 
 48-5 
 
 243 
 
 24.3 
 
 2.9 
 
 
 
 
 54-5 
 
 21.8 
 
 21.8 
 
 1.9 
 
 
 For casting.■ 
 
 
 58-3 
 
 19.4 
 
 19.4 
 
 2-9 
 
 
 
 
 57-8 
 
 27.1 
 
 14 3 
 
 0.8 
 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 20.0 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 
 Sheffield— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Common (yellow). 
 
 59-3 
 
 25-9 
 
 14.8 
 
 
 
 Silver-white. 
 
 55 2 
 
 24.1 
 
 20.7 
 
 
 
 Electrum (bluish). 
 
 51.6 
 
 22.6 
 
 25.8 
 
 
 
 Hard (can be worked cold). 
 
 45-7 
 
 20 
 
 3 I -3 
 
 
 
 Fricke’s— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bluish-yellow (hard). 
 
 55-5 
 
 39 
 
 5-5 
 
 
 
 Pale yellow (ductile). 
 
 62.5 
 
 31 2 
 
 6-3 
 
 
 
 Silvery (hard). 
 
 50 
 
 18.8 
 
 31.2 
 
 
 
 “ (harder). 
 
 59 
 
 30 
 
 IO 
 
 
 
 Common formula. 
 
 55 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 Many varieties of German silver contain different quantities of 
 iron, manganese, tin or very frequently lead to change the proper¬ 
 ties of the alloy or to cheapen it. An addition of lead makes 
 German silver more fusible; one of tin acts in a certain sense as 
 in bronze, making the alloy denser and more sonorous and caus¬ 
 ing it to take a better polish. An addition of iron or manganese 
 increases the white color of the alloy, but also renders it more re¬ 
 fractory and inclining it towards brittleness. 
 
 Alfenide, Argiroide and Allied Alloys .—The alloys brought into 
 commerce under these and many other names consist in most cases 
 of a mixture of metals closely resembling German silver ; they are, 
 however, generally electro-plated with pure silver. 
 
 8 
 
114 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK 
 
 Albafa Metal. —Nickel, 3 to 4 parts; copper, 20; zinc, 16. 
 Used for plated goods. 
 
 Alfenide. —Copper, 59.6 parts; zinc, 30.3; nickel, 10.1 ; and a 
 trace of iron. 
 
 British Plate Metal. —Copper, 20 parts; nickel, 5 to 6 ; zinc, 
 8 to 10. Used for plated goods. 
 
 Metal for Spoons,-Forks, etc. —Copper, 69.8 parts; nickel, 19.8; 
 zinc, 5.5 ; cadmium, 4.7. 
 
 White Alloy Resisting the Action of Vegetable Acids. —Tin, 875 
 parts; nickel, 55 ; antimony, 50; bismuth, 20. 
 
 White Argentan. —Copper, 8 parts ; nickel, 3 ; zinc, 35. This 
 beautiful composition is a deceptive imitation of silver. 
 
 3. Alloys of Nickel and Steel. —The composition of the alloy can 
 be as effectually controlled in the open hearth furnace as in the cru¬ 
 cible. It can be made in any good open hearth furnace working 
 at a fairly good heat. If the charge be properly worked, nearly 
 all the nickel will be found in the steel; almost nothing being lost 
 in the slag. The ingots are clean and smooth in appearance on the 
 outside, but those richest in nickel are a little more “ piped ” than 
 ingots of ordinary mild steel. Any scrap produced can be re¬ 
 melted in making another charge without loss of nickel. No ex¬ 
 traordinary care is required when reheating the ingots for hammer¬ 
 ing or rolling. If the steel has been properly made and be of 
 correct composition it will hammer and roll well whether it con¬ 
 tains little or much nickel. Tests of steel with varying contents 
 of nickel showed that the addition of 4 per cent, of nickel raises 
 the elastic limit from 16 up to 28 tons, and the breaking strain 
 from 30 up to 40.6 tons without impairing the elongation or con¬ 
 traction of area to any noticeable extent. In another case some¬ 
 what similar results were found with an addition of only 3 per 
 cent, of nickel, combined with an increase of the carbon to 0.35 
 per cent. In two cases, one containing 2.0 per cent, of nickel, 
 0.90 per cent, of carbon and 0.50 per cent, of manganese, the 
 other 4 per cent, of nickel, 0.85 of carbon and 0.50 of manganese, 
 there was an extreme hardness due in part to the large quantity of 
 carbon present, but also to the presence of nickel in addition. 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 115 
 
 The quality of hardness obtains as the nickel is increased until 
 about 20 per cent, is reached, when a change takes place, and suc¬ 
 cessive additions of nickel tend to make the steel softer and more 
 ductile, and even to neutralize the influence of carbon. In the 
 25 per cent, nickel steel there are some peculiar and remarkable 
 properties. In the unannealed specimen the breaking strain is 
 high and the elastic limits moderately so, but in the annealed piece, 
 while the breaking strain remains good, the elastic limit is very 
 greatly reduced, down to one-third of the breaking strain. Again, 
 in both cases, the ductility as shown by the extension before 
 fracture is marvellous, reaching 40 per cent, in 8 inches. Another 
 feature is that this elongation is nearly uniform throughout the 
 piece. The whole of the series of nickel steels up to 50 per cent, 
 nickel take a good polish and finish, with a good surface, the color 
 being lighter with the increased additions of nickel. The steels 
 rich in nickel are practically non-corrodible, and those poor in 
 nickel are much better than other steels in this respect. The 1 per 
 cent, nickel steel welds fairly well, but this quality deteriorates 
 with each addition of nickel. The 25 per cent, nickel steel, with 
 its peculiar properties of high breaking strain, great ductility and 
 comparatively low elastic limit, is extremely well adapted for all 
 operations involving considerable deformation ; for instance, for deep 
 stamping and flanging, whilst its non-corrodibility will render it 
 invaluable for a great number of purposes. In the region between 
 25 per cent, and about 5 per cent, of nickel are an abundance of 
 possibilities as yet comparatively unknown, in which will no doubt 
 be found materials for tool steel equal, if not superior, to anything 
 at present known. 
 
 Type Metal. —-An alloy of lead and antimony answers best for 
 this purpose. At present a great many receipts for type metal are 
 known, in the preparation of which other metals besides lead and 
 antimony are used for the purpose of rendering the alloy more 
 fusible. 
 
 In the following table some alloys suitable for casting type are 
 given : 
 
116 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Ehrhardt's Type Metal is composed of zinc, 89 parts; tin, 4; 
 lead, 3 ; copper, 4; or, zinc, 93 ; tin, 3; lead, 3; copper, 2. 
 
 Music Plates. —I. Tin, 5 to 7.5 parts; antimony, 5 to 2.5. II. 
 Lead, 16; antimony, 1. III. Lead, 8; antimony, 2; tin, 1.5. 
 IV. Lead, 4; antimony, 2; zinc, 1. V. Lead, 7.5; antimony, 
 2.5 ; copper, 0.5. 
 
 Various Alloys. — Acid-proof Bronze. This alloy may be advan¬ 
 tageously substituted for hard rubber, porcelain and other sub¬ 
 stances which, though acid-proof, are much exposed to wear and 
 tear, and sometimes too costly. The alloy consists of copper, 15 
 parts; tin, 2.34; lead, 1.82; antimony, 1. The metals are 
 melted together in the usual manner, and the alloy is worked like 
 ordinary bronze. 
 
 Alloy for Casting Small Articles. —Fuse a mixture of 79 per 
 cent, of cast-iron, 19.50 of tin and 1.50 of lead. This alloy has 
 a beautiful appearance, and fills the mould completely. It is 
 to a certain extent malleable. 
 
 Alloy for Moulds for Pressed Glass. —An alloy suitable for this 
 purpose is obtained by melting together 100 parts of iron with 10 
 to 25 of nickel. 
 
 Alloy of Copper and Antimony. —A beautiful alloy is produced 
 by fusing together in a crucible at a strong heat equal parts of 
 antimony and copper. The compound is hard and of a beautiful 
 violet hue. This alloy has not yet been applied to any useful 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 117 
 
 purpose, but its excellent qualities, independent of its color, en¬ 
 title it to consideration. 
 
 Alloys for Calico-printing Rollers. —Hauvel considers a semi- 
 hard bronze of the following composition the best material for the 
 rollers: Copper, 86 parts; tin, 14; zinc, 2. Rendel, on the 
 other hand, found an English roller material composed of copper, 
 5.6 parts; zinc, 78.3 ; tin, 15.8. Though this compound gives a 
 hard, fine-grained alloy, it is likely to be readily attacked by the 
 colors used in printing. 
 
 According to analyses by J. D6pierreand P. Spiral, the compo¬ 
 sition of the scrapers (sometimes called doctors or ductors) in¬ 
 tended to remove the surplus of colors from the rollers is as 
 follows : 
 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Yellow French scrapers. 
 
 . 78-75 
 
 12.50 
 
 8-75 
 
 “ English “ . 
 
 . 80.50 
 
 10.50 
 
 8.00 
 
 “ German “ . 
 
 
 9.80 
 
 4.90 
 
 Alloys for Small Patterns in Foundries. —I. Tin, 7.5 parts ; lead, 
 2.5. II. Zinc, 75 parts; tin, 25. III. Tin, 30 parts; lead, 70. 
 The last of these alloys is for patterns which will not be in frequent 
 use, and which may be mended, bent, etc. The first gives harder 
 and stiffer patterns; the second is harder than tin and more tena¬ 
 cious than zinc, while at the same time it preserves a certain 
 ductility. 
 
 Bimningham Platinum. —This is a white alloy for buttons, and 
 consists of copper, 43 per cent. ; zinc, 57. Other alloys for white 
 buttons are: I. Yellow brass, 32 parts; zinc, 3; tin, 1. II. Yellow 
 brass, 32 parts; zinc, 4; tin, 2. 
 
 Calin. —By this name is known an alloy used by the Chinese for 
 lining tea-chests. It is composed of lead, 126 parts; tin, 17.5; 
 copper, 1.25, and a trace of zinc. 
 
 Cooper's Alloy for Steel-pens. —Copper, 1 part; platinum, 4; 
 silver, 8. It is distinguished by its hardness, elasticity and incor¬ 
 rodibility. 
 
 Dysiot. —By this name is known a bearing-metal manufactured 
 
118 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 by Rompel & Co., of Homburg. It is prepared by melting 
 together copper, 62 parts; lead, 18; tin, 10; and zinc, 10. 
 
 Fahlun or Tin Brilliants. —An alloy of especially fine lustre is 
 known under the name of “Fahlun brilliants.” It is used for 
 stage jewelry and consists of tin, 3 parts, and lead, 2, or of tin, 3 
 parts, and lead, 1. For the production of brilliants melt small 
 portions of the alloy in an iron crucible. By dipping into the 
 fluid mass, previously freed from every particle of oxide, pieces of 
 glass or brass, ground like brilliants and highly polished, a thin 
 layer of metal adheres to them which, after cooling, can be readily 
 detached. The separate pieces may be connected by soldering. 
 Sometimes the alloy is poured into moulds faceted in the same 
 manner as diamonds. 
 
 Gold and Palladium Alloys. —Alloys of gold, copper, silver and 
 palladium have a brownish-red color, and the hardness of iron. 
 They are sometimes used for bearings of the arbors in fine watches, 
 as they cause but little friction (less than the jewels used for the 
 same purpose) and never rust on exposure to the air. The compo¬ 
 sition used in the Swiss and English watch factories consists of 
 gold, 18 parts; copper, 13; silver, 11 ; palladium, 6. 
 
 Gold-like Alloy. —This alloy closely resembling gold is obtained 
 by melting together copper, 16 parts; zinc, 1 ; and platinum, 7. 
 The copper and platinum are first covered with borax, next with 
 pulverized charcoal, and melted, after which the zinc is added. 
 The alloy produced is easily worked and may be drawn into the 
 finest wire; it does not turn blue. 
 
 Iron Alloy. —A compact, very malleable iron alloy capable of 
 taking a high polish has been patented in England, by W. M. 
 Arnold. It is obtained by melting together pig-iron, 50 lbs. ; 
 sodium, y 2 lb. ; copper and antimony, each y lb., and zinc 2 y 2 
 lbs. It is claimed to be especially suitable for ships’ screws, it re¬ 
 sisting quite well the corroding action of sea-water. By omitting 
 the sodium and decreasing the quantity of zinc a softer variety of 
 iron is obtained, while the additions of larger quantities of sodium 
 and zinc and the decrease of the content of copper yield a harder 
 material. 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 119 
 
 Lemarquand's Non-oxidizable Alloy. —Copper, 750 parts; nickel, 
 140; black oxide of cobalt, 20; tin in sticks, 18; zinc, 72. The 
 metals must be pure. 
 
 Lutecine or Paris Metal. —Copper, 800 parts; nickel, 160; tin, 
 20; cobalt, 10 ; iron, 5 ; and zinc, 5. 
 
 Malleable Brass. —Alloy, copper, 33 parts, and zinc, 25 parts, 
 the copper being loosely covered with the zinc in the crucible. 
 As soon as the copper is melted pure zinc is added. The alloy is 
 then cast in molding sand into the shape of bars, which, it is said, 
 are malleable into any form when still hot. To make brass soft, 
 heat it to a low red and plunge in water. It cannot be hardened 
 except by rolling and hammering. 
 
 Marley’s Non-oxidizable Alloy. —Iron, 10 parts; nickel, 35; 
 brass, 25 ; tin, 20 ; zinc, xo. Articles prepared from this alloy 
 are heated to a white heat and dipped into a mixture of sul¬ 
 phuric acid, 60 parts; nitric acid, 10 ; hydrochloric acid, 5 ; and 
 water, 25. 
 
 New Alloys. —I. An alloy which is said to practically resist the 
 attack of most acid and alkaline solutions is composed as follows: 
 Copper, 15 parts; tin, 2.34; lead, 1.82; antimony, 1. This 
 alloy is, therefore, a bronze with the addition of lead and anti¬ 
 mony. It is claimed that it can be very advantageously used in 
 the laboratory to replace vessels or fittings of ebonite, vulcanite or 
 porcelain. 
 
 II. Pure copper or tin is melted and to the melted mass is added 
 a piece of arsenic enclosed in a copper capsule. After thorough 
 stirring the mass is granulated by pouring into water. The 
 granules of the alloy thus obtained are remclted and then used as 
 an addition for the preparation of bronze and other alloys, whereby 
 it is claimed the alloy acquires greater elasticity, strength and 
 homogeneity than phosphor-bronze and similar alloys. 
 
 III. For the Manufacture of Jewelry, etc. —This alloy has a 
 color resembling that of the various alloys of gold. It is very re¬ 
 sistible and ductile and acquires great lustre by polishing. It 
 consists of 978 parts by weight of pure copper; 2 of gold ; and 20 
 of aluminium. The copper and gold are first melted in a crucible 
 
120 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S ITANRY-BOOK. 
 
 of chamotte * or other refractory material, and when the metals are 
 fluid the aluminium is added. When not more than 2 lbs. of the 
 alloy are made at one time the mass is kept in a fused state for 
 half an hour, about ozs. of borax being added as a flux. The 
 melted mass is then poured into ingots. The alloy thus obtained can 
 be worked into sheet, wire or ribbon, as required for the manu¬ 
 facture of jewelry. To obtain the various colors it is only neces¬ 
 sary to vary the proportions of the three metals; for red, for in¬ 
 stance, somewhat less gold and aluminium is used, for yellow 
 somewhat less gold, and for green somewhat less gold and more 
 aluminium. 
 
 New Imitations of Gold and Silver .—To prepare an alloy having 
 the appearance and color of gold, melt in a crucible 800 parts by 
 weight of pure copper, 25 of platinum, and 10 of tungstate of lime, 
 and granulate the melt by letting it run into water containing for 
 every 35.31 cubic feet 17 ozs. each of slaked lime and potash. 
 The purpose of these ingredients is to purify the alloy. The 
 metallic granules are then collected and dried, and after remelting 
 them in the crucible, 170 parts by weight of gold are added. This 
 alloy, when cast into ingots, has the appearance of red gold. Differ¬ 
 ent colors may be obtained by varying the proportions of the 
 metals. Boric acid, saltpetre, and sodium chloride, previously 
 fused together in equal proportions, are used as flux; the proportion 
 is 7 drachms to 1 lb. of alloy. 
 
 The alloy used for the imitation of silver consists of iron, 65 
 parts; nickel, 23 ; tungstate of lime, 4; aluminium, 5 ; and copper, 
 5. The iron and tungstate of lime are fused together, and granu¬ 
 lated in the same manner as above described, with the exception 
 that the water into which the alloy is allowed to run contains 2 lbs. 
 each of slaked lime and potash to every 35.31 cubic feet. During 
 fusion in the crucible the metals must be carefully covered with a 
 flux consisting of 1 part of boric acid and 1 of potassium nitrate. 
 In the crucible containing the aluminium and the copper place a 
 piece of soda (15 grains to every 10 lbs. of metal), to prevent the 
 
 * A mixture of unburnt fire-clay anti dust of fire-bricks, glass pots or seggars. 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 121 
 
 oxidation of the aluminium; add also some charcoal, to prevent 
 the oxidation of the copper. Before granulating the metal, thor¬ 
 oughly stir the contents of each crucible with a ladle of fire¬ 
 clay. The granulated metal is dried, then melted together in the 
 above-mentioned proportions, thoroughly stirred, and cast into 
 ingots. This alloy has the appearance of silver or of platinum. 
 The alloys resist the action of sulphuretted hydrogen, and are not 
 attacked by vegetable acids and but slightly by mineral acids; they 
 are ductile and flexible. 
 
 New Method of preparing Alloys .—The alloys consist of heavy 
 metals and the sulphides of the alkali metals, or metals of the alka¬ 
 line earths. Preferably sulphide of strontium is alloyed with 
 copper, in order to obtain a product of a constant gold-like color. 
 For this purpose zinc is melted together with 8 to 15 per cent, of 
 calcined strontium sulphate, and the resulting alloy allowed to 
 cool. To this alloy a varying quantity of copper is added, accord¬ 
 ing to the color and power of resistance required. As much of the 
 zinc as desired may be expelled by subsequent cupellation. 
 
 Non-Magnetic Alloys for Watches .—To overcome the injurious 
 effect of magnetic action upon watches, alloys of palladium are 
 proposed as substitutes for steel wherever it is employed in the 
 works. The composition of the new alloys varies from 45 to 75 
 parts of palladium, 15 to 30 parts of copper, 20 to 25 parts of 
 silver, with sometimes the addition of small proportions of iron, 
 steel, nickel, gold, and platinum. These alloys are claimed to be 
 unoxidizable in moist air, to preserve their elasticity indefinitely, 
 not to vary sensibly with changes of temperature, and remain 
 uninfluenced by proximity to dynamos. 
 
 Another non-magnetic alloy, recently brought out by Messrs. 
 Ostermann and Lacroix, of Geneva, Switzerland, is made of from 
 30 to 40 parts of gold, 30 to 40 parts of palladium, o. 1 to 5 parts 
 of rhodium, 10 to 20 parts of copper, o. 1 to 5 parts of manganese, 
 and the same proportion of silver and platinum. The copper and 
 manganese are first mixed, after which the other articles are added; 
 or all the metals may be put into a crucible at the same time, the 
 manganese being used for the bottom layer. 
 
THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 12 ‘J 
 
 Non-Oxidizable Alloy. —Iron, io parts; nickel, 36; copper, tin, 
 zinc, each, 18. This metal has a white color, with a slightly red¬ 
 dish tinge. 
 
 Platinoid. —This alloy is a kind of German silver, with an addi¬ 
 tion of 1 to 2 per cent, of tungsten. The latter, in the form of 
 phosphor-tungsten, is first melted together with a certain quantity 
 of copper, the nickel is next added, then the zinc, and finally the 
 remainder of copper. In order to remove the phosphorus and a 
 portion of the tungsten, both of which separate dross, the resulting 
 compound is several times remelted. Finally an alloy of a beautiful 
 white color is obtained, which, when polished, closely resembles 
 silver, and retains its lustre for a long time. Platinoid has the 
 properties of German silver in a pre-eminent degree. It shows 
 great resistance, which remains quite constant at different tempera¬ 
 tures, and is about 1 J 4 times greater than that of German silver. 
 
 Platinum Bronze. —This name is applied to an alloy prepared 
 from 100 parts of pure nickel, 10 of tin, and 1 of platinum, by 
 adding to the melted nickel the platinum and 4 parts of the tin, 
 and then gradually the remaining 6 parts of tin. This alloy is 
 intended for household utensils. For bells, etc., 100 parts of 
 nickel, 20 of tin, 2 of silver, and 1 of platinum are used. 
 
 Shakdo. —This is a Japanese alloy, consisting of copper and gold, 
 the proportion of the latter varying from 1 to 10 per cent. Articles 
 made from this composition are, after polishing, boiled in a pickle, 
 consisting of cupric sulphate, alum, and verdigris, whereby they 
 acquire a bluish-black color. Shakdo is worked into scabbards, 
 buckles, etc., and into many decorative articles. 
 
 Sideraphtiie. —This alloy consists of iron, 65 parts; nickel, 23; 
 tungsten, 4; aluminium, 5 ; and copper, 5. It is claimed to resist 
 the action of vegetable acids, and to be quite indifferent towards 
 mineral acids. 
 
 Soft Alloy for Coating Metals, etc. —From a solution of cupric 
 sulphate precipitate the copper with zinc; pulverize the precipitate, 
 and in a porcelain dish make the copper-dust thus obtained into a 
 cake with pure sulphuric acid of 1.85 specific gravity. According 
 to the hardness desired, carefully mix 20, 30, or 36 parts of this 
 
ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 
 
 123 
 
 cake with 70 parts of mercury, and wash the amalgam thus obtained 
 with an abundance of warm water to remove all traces of acid. In 
 10 to 12 hours the alloy is so hard that it will scratch tin. For 
 use heat the alloy until it can be worked like wax. In this state 
 it is applied to the surface of the article, to which, after cooling, 
 it adheres with great tenacity. 
 
 II. Amalgams .—The readiness with which mercury unites with 
 most of the other metals to form definite chemical compounds, 
 called “amalgams,” is one of its most striking properties and is 
 turned to account for the extraction of silver and gold from their 
 ores. Amalgams are crystalline combinations and form at a low 
 temperature. They are at first so soft that they can be kneaded 
 like wax, but after some time harden completely. The following 
 are some of the most important: 
 
 Amalgam of Lipowitz's Metal .—This amalgam is prepared as 
 follows: Melt in a dish, cadmium, 3 parts; tin, 4; bismuth, 15, 
 and lead, 8, and add to the melted alloy 2 parts of mercury pre¬ 
 viously heated to about 212 0 F. Amalgamation takes place readily 
 and smoothly. After the introduction of the mercury imme¬ 
 diately take the dish from the fire and stir the liquid mass until it 
 solidifies. While Lipowitz’s alloy becomes soft at 140° F. and 
 melts at 158° F., the amalgam melts at about 143.5 0 F. This 
 amalgam may be used for the manufacture of small, hollow stat¬ 
 uettes and busts, which can be readily gilded or bronzed by the 
 galvanic process. 
 
 Small statuettes are readily made by preparing a hollow mould 
 of plaster of Paris and after uniformly heating it to about 140° 
 F. pouring in the melted amalgam. The mould is then swung to 
 and fro, this being continued until the amalgam is solidified. 
 After cooling the mould is taken apart and the seams trimmed with 
 a sharp knife. The operation may also be modified by placing the 
 mould upon a rapidly revolving disk and pouring in the melted 
 amalgam in a thin stream. By the centrifugal force developed the 
 melted metal is hurled against the sides of the mould, and in this 
 manner statuettes of considerable size can be cast. 
 
 Copper Amalgam .—Place strips of zinc in a solution of sulphate 
 
124 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 of copper and shake vigorously. The copper thus obtained in the 
 form of a delicate powder is washed and while still moist treated in 
 a dish with a solution of mercurous nitrate. Hot water is then 
 poured over the copper, the dish kept warm, and the mercury 
 added. The contents of the dish are then kneaded with a pestle 
 until the pulverulent copper combines with the mercury to a plastic 
 mass. The longer the kneading is continued the more homo¬ 
 geneous the mass will be. The best proportions to use are 3 parts 
 of copper and 7 of mercury. 
 
 An important application of copper amalgam is for cementing 
 metal, it being only necessary to apply it to the metals to be 
 cemented, which must be bright and previously heated to from 
 176° to 194 0 F., and press them togetner; they will be joined as 
 firmly as if soldered. 
 
 A composition of 25 parts of copper in fine powder obtained by 
 precipitation from solutions of the oxide by hydrogen, or the sul¬ 
 phate of zinc, washed with sulphuric acid and amalgamated with 7 
 parts of mercury, after being well washed and dried, is moderately 
 hard, takes a good polish and makes a fine solder for low tempera¬ 
 tures. It will adhere to glass. 
 
 An imitation of gold, which, on account of its golden-yellow color 
 and capability for taking a fine polish, is suitable for the manufac¬ 
 ture of cheap jewelry, consists of copper, 86.4 parts; mercury, 
 
 i 3 - 6 - 
 
 Gold Amalgam .—This is formed when mercury is heated with 
 powdered gold or gold-foil. It consists usually of 2 parts of gold 
 to 1 of mercury. An amalgam suitable for fire-gilding is best pre¬ 
 pared as follows: Heat in a graphite crucible, rubbed inside with 
 chalk to prevent adhesion, the gold to be alloyed to a red heat. It 
 is not absolutely necessary to use chemically pure gold, but it 
 should be at least 22 carat fine and preferably alloyed with silver 
 instead of copper. Gold amalgam containing copper becomes 
 stone-hard in a short time, and a small content of it impairs its 
 uniform application to the metals to be gilded. It is best to use 
 the gold in the form of thin sheets, which are cut into small pieces 
 by means of scissors, and brought into the crucible. When the 
 
alloys and amalgams. 
 
 125 
 
 gold is heated to a red heat introduce about the eighth or ninth part 
 of the weight of the gold of mercury previously heated to boiling. 
 Stir constantly with an iron rod, and after a few minutes remove 
 the crucible from the fire. If the finished amalgam were allowed 
 to cool in the crucible it would become strongly crystalline and be 
 unsuitable for fine gilding. To prevent this it is at once poured 
 into a larger vessel cooled by water. By keeping this amalgam for 
 some time crystallization nevertheless takes place, the amalgam 
 separating from the mercury in excess, and it is, therefore, advis¬ 
 able to prepare it fresh a short time before use. Crystalline amal¬ 
 gam can be restored by heating in a crucible with an excess of 
 mercury. 
 
 Iron Amalgam is only used in the industries in rare cases where 
 iron is to be fire-gilt, and then it is produced upon the article to 
 be gilded itself. For this purpose the article previously made 
 bright by pickling is boiled in a mixture of mercury, 12 parts; 
 zinc, 1; copperas, 2; water, 12; hydrochloric acid, 1. The 
 mercury dissolved in the>solution separates upon the iron article, a 
 thin, lustrous layer of iron amalgam being formed upon the sur¬ 
 face to which the amalgam of gold can be readily and uniformly 
 applied without further preparation. 
 
 Silver Amalgam .—This is best prepared by the use of pulveru¬ 
 lent silver obtained by the reduction of silver solution. It may be 
 prepared by bringing a solution of nitrate of silver in 10 to 15 
 parts of water into a bottle, adding a few small pieces of sheet zinc 
 and vigorously shaking for a few minutes. The silver separating 
 in the form of a very fine black-gray powder need only be washed 
 and dried to be suitable for the preparation of amalgam. This 
 finely divided powder may be directly dissolved in the mercury, 
 though it requires some time. The object is more quickly attained 
 by heating the mercury nearly to boiling in a crucible, then throw¬ 
 ing in the pulverulent silver and quickly combining the mass by 
 vigorous stirring with an iron rod. 
 
 Tin Amalgam .—Tin and mercury combine readily at ordinary 
 temperatures. If 3 parts of mercury are brought into contact with 
 1 of tin, 6-sided crystals of tin amalgam are formed. Tin amalgam 
 
126 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 is used for silvering looking-glasses. When pulverized and rubbed 
 on the polishing-stone it forms a kind of mosaic silver. Electric 
 amalgam may be made by melting tin and zinc together in various 
 proportions in a porcelain crucible. The mixture is well stirred 
 up and when on the point of solidifying the mercury is added and 
 worked into the mass. The whole is next transferred to a mortar 
 warm enough to keep the amalgam soft, while it is well worked to¬ 
 gether, after which a piece of tallow or lard, not quite the equal 
 in bulk to the mass, is kneaded in until the amalgam attains the 
 proper consistency. 
 
 Zinc Amalgam is formed by mixing and triturating zinc filings 
 with mercury at a heat somewhat below the boiling point of the 
 latter. It is usually prepared by pouring mercury into zinc at the 
 temperature at which the latter is just kept in a fused state. Care 
 must be taken to keep the liquid stirred and to add the mercury 
 slowly and in as fine a stream as possible. 
 
 V. 
 
 ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING. 
 
 Annealing of Hard and Other Iron Castings .—The process con¬ 
 sists in the sudden immersion of the casting at a certain tempera¬ 
 ture into a fluid in order to make it capable of being punched, 
 drilled, etc., like wrought-iron. The principal point in the opera¬ 
 tion is the temperature at which the iron is immersed in the fluid, 
 the proper degree being the moment when the iron is reduced to a 
 slight red heat, i. e., as soon as the red heat is at the point of 
 disappearing. The fluid in which the iron is immersed may be 
 composed of various constituents, provided, however, that it con¬ 
 tains no acids or other substances injurious to the iron. The best 
 results are obtained with a solution of treacle and water of specific 
 gravity 1.005. If the iron shows the proper degree of heat when 
 taken from the chill it is directly brought into the fluid, otherwise 
 
ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING. 
 
 127 
 
 it is again heated somewhat above the required degree and, after 
 cooling to a slight red heat, immersed in the fluid. 
 
 To make Steel so Soft that it can be Worked like Copper. .Pul¬ 
 
 verize beef bones, mix them with equal parts of loam and calves’ 
 hair and stir the mixture into a thick paste with water. Apply a 
 coat of this to the steel and place it in a crucible, cover this with 
 another, fasten the two together with wire and close the joint 
 hermetically with clay. Then place the crucible in the fire and 
 heat it slowly. When taken from the fire let it cool by placing it 
 in ashes. On opening the crucible the steel will be found so soft 
 that it can be engraved like copper. 
 
 New Way of Annealing Steel. —Heat the piece as slowly as 
 possible, and when at a low red heat put it between two pieces of 
 dry board and screw them up tight in a vise. The steel burns its 
 way into the boards and, on coming together around it, they form 
 a practically air-tight charcoal-bed. When it cools off the steel is 
 apt to be found thoroughly annealed. 
 
 Two Ways of Annealing Steel. —It may be heated to a dull, red 
 heat, covered with dry, warm sand and left to cool slowly; or heat 
 and cover it up in the forge fire, and leave it there until the fire is 
 out and all is cold. The other method is to heat the steel red hot; 
 heat gradually, let it “soak,” as the smiths say, until it is evenly 
 heated, then remove it from the fire and take it to some dark place. 
 Let the steel cool until you lose sight of the dull red in the dark ; 
 then cool off in cold water. A good “ dark place” may be made 
 by throwing your coat over a barrel, leaving just room enough to 
 look in at the iron. This method is called “ water anneal,” and 
 is based upon the theory that steel softens when cooled at a certain 
 temperature. 
 
 Annealing of Bronze. —This process is especially employed in 
 the preparation of alloys for cymbals, tam-tams, bells, etc. These 
 alloys themselves are brittle, and the instruments cast from them 
 become soft and sonorous only by immersing them while still hot, 
 in cold water, then hammering and finally again heating and slowly 
 cooling. While steel acquires hardness by quenching, a copper-tin 
 alloy has the remarkable property of becoming sensibly softer and 
 
128 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 more ductile when quickly cooled, and this property is made use 
 of by heating the alloy to a dark red, or, in case of thin objects, to 
 the melting point of lead, and then immersing in water. The 
 alloy thus treated can be worked under the hammer and stretched 
 without cracking or breaking. 
 
 To Harden Copper .—Among the latest methods resorted to for 
 hardening copper is that of melting together and stirring until 
 thoroughly incorporated, copper and from i to 6 per cent, of 
 manganese oxide. The other ingredients for bronze and other 
 alloys may then be added. The copper thus becomes homogen¬ 
 eous, harder and tougher. 
 
 To Case-harden Wrought-iron. —Wrought-iron is nearly pure 
 decarbonized iron, and is not possessed of the property of harden¬ 
 ing. But articles made of wrought-iron may be exteriorly con¬ 
 verted into steel and afterwards hardened. The process is called 
 case-hardening, and only differs from cementation in being 
 carried on for a shorter time; it is seldom necessary to convert the 
 iron into steel more than -^g-inch deep, unless where great stiffness 
 as well as hardness is required. Case-hardened iron for various 
 purposes is better than steel; it has the hardness and polish of steel 
 externally, with a core of soft fibrous iron in the centre. Prus- 
 siate of potash renders iron nearly as hard as steel, by heating the 
 iron to redness, sprinkling the potash finely powdered upon it, and 
 then plunging the iron into pure cold water; but the hardness is 
 confined to the surface, and only for articles not exposed to much 
 wear can a sufficient coating of steel be obtained by this process. 
 Greater and more uniform effect is produced by a perfectly tight 
 box, and animal charcoal just sufficiently burnt to admit of being 
 reduced to powder, in order that more of it may be got into the 
 box with the articles ; bones reduced to dust answer the purpose 
 equally well. The box should be of plate-iron not less than yfa to 
 i^-inch thick. The size and shape differ according to the articles 
 operated upon. The box is furnished with an iron lid with two 
 holes pierced in it for drawing testing pieces out, if required. 
 The box may be strengthened against buckling by riveting a piece 
 of iron about ^-inch square inside the box about i inch from the 
 
ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING. 
 
 129 
 
 top; this will also answer for the lid to rest upon, and prevent it 
 from pressing upon the articles when expanded by the heat. Clay 
 or loam put between this iron square and the lid makes a secure 
 joint. Two holes are pierced in the box at opposite sides just 
 above the lid, for inserting 2 iron pins, and making the joint more 
 secure. Upon a small scale a good box may be made by welding 
 a plug into one end of a piece of wrought-iron pipe, and using a 
 loose plug for the opposite end ; the loose plug being fastened into 
 place with an iron pin passing through it and the pipe, and luted 
 with clay. For a small article a box may be formed of loam, which 
 is gradually dried before it is exposed to a red heat. The articles be¬ 
 ing previously finished, except polishing, are put into the iron box 
 in alternate layers with the animal charcoal, commencing on the 
 bottom of the box with charcoal to the thickness of about ^-inch; 
 upon this a layer of the articles is placed, then another of charcoal 
 about yi of the first, and so on till the box is nearly full, finishing 
 with charcoal about the thickness of the first layer, leaving room 
 every way for the expansion of the articles by the heat, otherwise 
 they will bend each other in the box. The packing completed the 
 lid is put on and the box luted. The whole is now placed in a 
 suitable furnace; the fire must not be urged, as the contents of the 
 box require to be very gradually and uniformly heated to redness 
 and retained at this heat for the period required for the depth of 
 steel desired. In half an hour after the contents have arrived at 
 the proper uniform temperature, the depth of steel will scarcely be 
 the thickness of a dime; in an hour about double the depth, and 
 so on. To tell when the central articles arrive at the proper heat, 
 a testing piece is withdrawn; if it be not sufficiently heated, the 
 heating must be continued a little longer; after a reasonable time 
 another piece is withdrawn and if sufficiently hot, hardened in 
 pure cold water; it can then be broken with the hammer, and the 
 extent of the carbonization ascertained. Different kinds of iron 
 absorb carbon unequally; consequently the testing pieces must be 
 made of the same kind of iron as the articles. The more homoge¬ 
 neous the iron the more equally it absorbs carbon; consequently 
 the less likely it will be to alter its shape in hardening. For test- 
 9 
 
130 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 ing pieces, plain pieces of the same kind of iron as the articles 
 may be used. They require to be brightened and are placed, at 
 the time of the packing of the box, in the central part, in such a 
 manner that they may be readily pulled out through the holes in 
 the lid, either by a piece of iron wire attached, or by being made 
 long enough to project through the holes, so that they may be 
 gripped with pliers; the holes are luted the same as other parts. 
 When the articles are sufficiently converted, the box is drawn from 
 the fire, the lid taken off, and the contents are immersed in pure 
 cold water; taken out when cold they are ready for polishing. To 
 prevent rusting the articles may be dried by riddling in a sieve 
 with dry sawdust, after which they are wiped with a greasy cloth. 
 If the articles be immersed in oil instead of water, they will be 
 much tougher but less hard, though sufficiently so for some pur¬ 
 poses. It is not necessary to immerse them direct from the box, 
 as it answers equally well to allow them to remain in the box until 
 cool, and then reheat them in'an open fire and immerse them sepa¬ 
 rately. When the case-hardening is required to terminate at any 
 particular part of an article, the part needed to be soft may be bound 
 with thin iron wire and cased with loam. This prevents the iron 
 from absorbing carbon at that part. The loam requires to be 
 gradually dried upon the article previous to putting it into the 
 box, otherwise it will crack. Another method is to shrink an iron 
 ring or collar upon the part not required to be case-hardened; but 
 this is not economical, especially when many articles require to be 
 treated. To save the trouble of shrinking a collar on and getting 
 it off again, a collar somewhat larger in diameter than the article 
 may be used, the space between being filled up with loam. When 
 a collar is shrunk upon an article it has generally to be cut asunder 
 to be taken off, and is in future useless; it may be got off by ham¬ 
 mering, but this will damage the article if it has been previously 
 finished except polishing. If the article after being cemented with 
 the carbon be immersed in water previous to taking off the collar, 
 the latter will become hard because it has absorbed carbon ; con¬ 
 sequently it will require to be ground on the grind-stone before 
 it can be cut off by the chisel, file or turning tool. In some in- 
 
ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING. 
 
 131 
 
 stances when case-hardening is to terminate at a particular part, 
 it is more convenient and economical to postpone the finishing 
 until after it has been cemented with carbon. Iron cemented with 
 animal charcoal, however skillfully performed, is never so tenacious 
 as iron cemented with wood charcoal; consequently it is unfit for 
 cutting tools as it will not take a fine firm edge, and it is ques¬ 
 tionable whether it could be made suitable for the purpose by pass¬ 
 ing through the process of forging and melting. 
 
 To Case-harden Axle-arms. —Instead of using one large pan and 
 plunging half a dozen arms into it, have for each arm a round, con¬ 
 ical box, made of old boiler plate inch thick, and about 2 or 3 
 inches longer and about 2 inches larger in diameter inside than 
 the arm. Into the box place sufficient animal charcoal to raise 
 the collar of the axle-arm nearly flush with the top of the box, then 
 surround the arm with the charcoal as far up as the collar, ramming 
 it firmly down as you proceed, and finally cover the top of the 
 charcoal with fire-clay, taking care to plaster the clay well round 
 the axle and the edge of the box. The furnace is a small rever¬ 
 berating one, capable of holding 8 to 12 of these boxes at a time. 
 The boxes are allowed to remain in the furnace 1 to 2 hours, accord¬ 
 ing to the size of the axles, etc. 
 
 To Harden Cast-iro?i. —Mix 2 pounds of concentrated sulphuric 
 acid and 2 ozs. of nitric acid with 2*4 gallons of water. Plunge 
 the article at a cherry-red heat into this mixture. The surface 
 becomes very hard. 
 
 To Harden Cast-iron in a Simple Manner. —A cast-iron furnace, 
 the size of which depends on that of the casting, is employed. It 
 is provided front and back with doors, so that a small carriage can 
 be run into it. The arrangement of the carriage depends on the 
 form and size of the furnace, as well as on the objects to be 
 hardened. A pipe perforated with small holes enters the furnace, 
 and conveys into it heated steam. The objects to be hardened, espe¬ 
 cially cylinders, are allowed to rest as much as possible with their 
 ends upon the carriage. For small objects, such as cutlery, a small 
 furnace with a single door suffices. It must, however, always be 
 provided with a carriage, in order to effect cooling off as quickly 
 
132 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 as possible. The steam, with a tension of two atmospheres, is 
 taken from an ordinary boiler. As near as possible to the furnace 
 in which the hardening is effected is another furnace, through which 
 the steam is conducted in a coil of pipe with a diameter of 15^ 
 inches, and the same height. Near the bottom of this coil is a 
 cock for the discharge of condensed water. In the centre the coil 
 is lined with brick-work ; the fire in the furnace circulates around 
 it and makes it red-hot, so that the steam passing through it to the 
 hardening furnace, becomes superheated and suitable for hardening. 
 For objects up to 0.59 inch thick, one hour suffices to complete 
 the hardening. 
 
 To Quickly and Thoroughly Harden Soft Iron. —Moisten the 
 object with water, and scatter powdered yellow prussiate of potash 
 upon the surface. Then heat to a red heat, whereby the melting 
 prussiate of potash coats the surface of the object; finally, quench 
 quickly in cold water, and repeat the operation. A white heat 
 must not be used, the iron not being hardened thereby but, on the 
 contrary, oxidized. Red prussiate of potash must not be used, the 
 hardening process not being successful with it. 
 
 To Harden Wrougilt-iron Parts of Machines. —The most suitable - 
 agents for this purpose are old leather, hoofs, horns, and bones; 
 they are generally charred, coarsely powdered, and thoroughly 
 mixed. A box of cast-iron or strong sheet-iron serves for the 
 reception of the parts to be hardened. Upon the bottom of this 
 box is first placed a layer of the cementing agent, about 1% inch 
 deep. Upon this layer are placed the larger parts, in such a man¬ 
 ner as not to touch each other. These parts are then covered 
 inch deep with the cementing powder, special care being had that 
 all the separate parts are well covered. Upon this layer of cement¬ 
 ing agent comes again a layer of iron parts, then again a layer of 
 cementing agent, and so on until the box is full. The box is now 
 covered with an iron lid, and the latter thoroughly luted with clay. 
 The box is then placed upon the hearth, and surrounded and 
 entirely covered with glowing coals, care being had to keep up a 
 vigorous fire, so that the entire box may become red-hot at one 
 time. Heating is continued for about two or three hours. In 
 
ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING. 
 
 133 
 
 the meanwhile a large tub full of fresh water is placed as near as 
 possible to the hearth. In order to keep the water in the tub as 
 cold as possible, it is advisable to arrange so that fresh water may 
 run constantly into it. The fire is now removed from the lid, the 
 box opened, and the separate articles taken out with tongs, and 
 suddenly immersed in the water, where they remain until they are 
 quite cooled off. The waving to and fro of the iron parts and a 
 constant supply of fresh water cannot be too highly recommended, 
 because all the labor, time, and expense would be lost if the articles 
 be not sufficiently and energetically cooled off. In immersing the 
 articles in the water care must be had not only to manipulate them 
 rapidly, but they must also be introduced lengthwise, to prevent 
 them as much as possible from becoming crooked. Immersing the 
 articles flat would at once make them crooked. When taken from 
 the water the articles are dried as quickly as possible upon hot 
 stones, and then greased with oil. 
 
 To Harden Steel by Pressure. —This method of hardening steel, 
 invented by Clemandat, of Paris, consists in heating the steel to a 
 cherry red, and then subjecting it in a hydraulic press to a pressure 
 of up to 2,000, 4,000, and 6,ooo lbs. per 0.155 square inch. The 
 steel is allowed to cool between the press-plates of the hydraulic 
 press; it possesses the structure and qualities of steel obtained by 
 tempering, and especially a very fine grain, great hardness and 
 density. This phenomenon is explained by the simultaneous action 
 of compression and cooling, the first replacing the hammering or 
 rolling, and the latter the immersion in a cooling fluid. 
 
 To Harden Steel in Petroleum. —According to B. Morgossy, the 
 articles to be hardened are first heated in a charcoal fire, and, after 
 thoroughly rubbing with ordinary washing soap, heated to a cherry 
 red. In this condition they are quickly plunged into petroleum; 
 ignition of the petroleum need not be feared, but, of course, an 
 open flame must not be near at hand. Articles hardened according 
 to this method show no cracks, do not warp in the least, and after 
 hardening remain nearly white, so that they can be blued without 
 previous rubbing with emery. 
 
 To Harden Steel so that the Exterior is Hard and the Interior 
 
134 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANOY-BOOK. 
 
 Soft. —Pulverize and mix yellow prussiate of potash 3 parts ; borax, 
 1 ; saltpetre, 1; and sugar of lead, fi. Heat the steel to be 
 hardened to a red heat, and scatter the powder over it. Then 
 replace the steel in the fire, and when it has attained the proper 
 degree of heat, cool it off in cold rain-water. Steel cooled off 
 according to this method is very tenacious. 
 
 To Harden Small Drills. —The drill being filed the right size 
 (the edge must not be hammered flat), it is moderately heated with¬ 
 out becoming red, and then plunged into borax, whereby it becomes 
 incrusted with borax and the air is excluded. The drill may now 
 be hardened by heating to cherry-red, and finally plunged into a 
 piece of borax, or, what is still better, into mercury, care being had 
 not to inhale the vapor. The borax yielding to the heat of the 
 drill, melts and cools off the drill. The results of various experi¬ 
 ments of cooling off the drill incrusted with borax in water, oil, etc., 
 were not so favorable as plunging it into borax or mercury. The 
 drill becomes extraordinarily hard, without being brittle, so that 
 articles which cannot be worked with drills hardened in the ordinary 
 manner can be drilled with it. Watchmakers generally use broken 
 broaches for such small drills, they being under the impression that 
 they are of the best steel; such, however, is not always the case, the 
 broaches having frequently been burnt in hardening; consequently 
 the steel is spoilt for such purposes, and hence it is advisable to 
 take new round steel wire. 
 
 Hardening-water for Steel. —Generally water at a temperature of 
 from 50° to 77 0 F. is used for quenching the steel in hardening; 
 the water should, however, not be too cold, as otherwise cracks or 
 fissures are formed in the steeU Watchmakers and jewelers use 
 hardening-water of 32 0 F., and frequently ice for very small 
 articles. Water containing soap in solution is unsuitable for hard¬ 
 ening. 
 
 Fluids for Hardening Steel Articles. —I. Rosin, 10 lbs. ; train 
 oil, 5 lbs. ; lard, 2 lbs. ; and assafoetida, 4^ ozs. By using, this 
 bath steel, even if frequently heated, retains its former character¬ 
 istics. 
 
 II. Especially Used for Hardening Cutlery. —Refined borax, 
 
ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING. 
 
 135 
 
 2 lbs.; sal-ammoniac, 4 lbs.; water, 3 quarts; and French red 
 wine, 4 ozs. . 
 
 III. Sal-ammoniac, 3 lbs. ; potash, 1 lb. ; water, 4 gallons; red 
 wine or vinegar, 1^ pints; and tartaric acid, 1 lb. 
 
 Hardening Compound for Steel. —Pulverize 3 parts by weight of 
 prussiate of potash, 1 of borax, 1 of saltpetre, and of sugar of 
 lead, and intimately mix the whole. After heating the steel to be 
 hardened to a red heat, take it from the fire and scatter the powder 
 over it. The steel is then replaced in the fire, and after having 
 been brought to the required degree of heat, cooled in cold rain¬ 
 water. 
 
 Hardening Mixture, Patented by J. Robb, of Dundee, Forfar¬ 
 shire. —The red-hot iron is plunged into a mixture of yellow prus¬ 
 siate of potash, 1 lb. ; rock salt, 2 lbs. ; bone-dust, lbs. ; char¬ 
 coal, 2 ozs. ; and hydrochloric acid, pint. The metal is then 
 again heated, once more plunged into the mixture for a few minutes, 
 and then, while still hot, immersed in cold water. The propor¬ 
 tions of the above substances may vary, and, in some cases, lime 
 may be added. 
 
 To Avoid Cracks, Curving, and Warping in Hardening Steel .— 
 The following directions should be observed: 1. Thin flat pieces 
 should be immersed, edge foremost, with uniform velocity. If al¬ 
 lowed to touch the water with the broad surface they would warp. 
 2. Articles considerably thicker on one side than on the other, for 
 instance, razors, must be immersed with the thick side foremost, as 
 otherwise the thin side would show cracks. 3. The article is to be 
 immersed in the hardening-water as far as it has been made red 
 hot; otherwise, a crack is formed on the place of immersion. 4. 
 In hardening cast-iron articles tipped with steel, it must be taken 
 into consideration that cast-iron contracts more strongly than steel, 
 and that consequently the article would every time curve. To 
 avoid this, curve the article before hardening to the opposite side. 
 
 How to Harden Thin Steel Plates. —Provide two pieces of iron 
 about 6" x 6" x 1", with one surface on each block planed, spread 
 a liberal supply of good sperm oil on each planed surface, place the 
 blocks near by in level position to insure an even thickness of oil, 
 
13(3 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 and keep the blocks cool. Immerse the steel plates in molten lead, as 
 far as they are required to be hardened; when a red heat is obtained, 
 drop the piece quickly upon the oiled surface of one of the iron 
 blocks, and simultaneously lay the other iron block upon the work; 
 when cool, they will be found true. This system has been succcess- 
 fully used for years for hardening thin steel tools. 
 
 Another method is as follows: Sheet steel inch thick can be 
 successfully hardened between two cast-iron blocks placed in a 
 screw-press or any kind of hand-press. Holes should be drilled in 
 the corners of the lower block for spiral springs of sufficient power 
 to keep the blocks apart. 
 
 The steel should be heated (a small gas furnace is preferable), 
 and quickly inserted between the blocks, and pressed hard until 
 cool enough to insure against drawing temper. A good plan is to 
 have two pieces in the furnace at once, and allow one to cool while 
 the other is heating. 
 
 To draw the temper, brighten part of the piece on an emery- 
 wheel, and then run them together with sand in a sheet-iron 
 tumbler, under which is a fire (a few gas-jets are the best), until 
 the desired color is obtained. 
 
 Hardening of Steel According to Newton and Ames. —According 
 to the patent considerable hardness can be imparted to the surface 
 of steel objects by mechanical means. The process consists in 
 gently pressing a slowly revolving steel object against a quickly 
 revolving emery wheel. Besides its revolution the object to be 
 hardened has a horizontal motion in a lateral direction, so that 
 with each revolution it is pushed sideways nearly 0.78 inch. The 
 hardening process is finished when the object is out of reach of the 
 emery wheel. The hardened layer is about 0.03 millimetre thick, 
 and is capable of resisting the best tools hardened in the ordinary 
 manner. 
 
 To Harden Steel in Sealing-wax. —Watch and clock-makers and 
 engravers harden their steel in sealing-wax. The article is heated 
 to a white-heat and thrust into sealing-wax, allowed to remain for a 
 second, then withdrawn, and again inserted in another part of the 
 wax. This treatment is continued till the steel is cold and will no 
 
ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING. 
 
 137 
 
 longer enter the sealing-wax. The extreme hardness of steel thus 
 prepared enables one to engrave or drill steel hardened by other 
 processes, the drilling or engraving tool being first dipped in oil 
 of turpentine. 
 
 To Harden Springs and Saws .—Springs and saws are generally 
 hardened in various compositions of oil, suet, wax and other 
 ingredients, which, however, lose their hardening property after a 
 few weeks’ constant use. The saws are heated in long furnaces and 
 then immersed horizontally and edgeways in a trough containing 
 the composition ; two troughs are commonly used, the one until it 
 gets too warm, then the other for a period, and so on alternately. 
 Part of the composition is wiped off the saws with a piece of 
 leather, when they are removed from the trough, and they are then 
 heated one by one over a clear, coke-fire until the grease ignites; 
 this operation is called “blazing off." 
 
 The composition used by an experienced saw-maker is 2 lbs. of 
 suet and % lb. of beeswax to every gallon of whale oil; these 
 are boiled together, and will serve for thin works and most kinds 
 of steel. The addition of black resin to the extent of about 1 lb. 
 to the gallon makes it serve for thicker pieces and for those which 
 did not become hard by the first application ; but the resin should 
 be added with judgment or the objects will become too hard and 
 brittle. The composition is useless when it has been constantly 
 employed for about a month ; the period depends, however, on the 
 extent to which it is used. The trough should be thoroughly 
 cleaned out before a new mixture is placed in it. 
 
 The following composition is recommended : Spermaceti oil, 
 20 gallons; bee^suet, rendered, 20 lbs. ; neat’s-foot oil, 1 gallon; 
 pitch, 1 lb.; black resin, 3 lbs. The last two articles must be 
 previously melted together, and then added to the other in¬ 
 gredients. The whole is then heated in a suitable iron vessel with 
 a close cover until the moisture is entirely evaporated, and the 
 composition will take fire on a flaming body being presented to its 
 surface. The flame must be instantly extinguished by putting on 
 the cover of the vessel. 
 
 When the saws are needed to be rather hard, but little of the 
 
133 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 grease is burnt off; when milder, a larger portion; and for a 
 spring temper, the whole is allowed to burn away. When the 
 work is thick or irregularly thick and thin, as in some springs, a 
 second and third dose are burnt off to insure at all parts equality 
 of temper. 
 
 Gun-lock springs are sometimes literally fried in oil for a con¬ 
 siderable time over a fire in an iron tray; the thick parts are then 
 sure to be sufficiently reduced, and the thin parts do not become 
 the more softened from the continuance of the blazing heat. 
 
 Springs and saws appear to lose their elasticity after hardening 
 and tempering from the reduction and friction they undergo in 
 grinding and polishing. Towards the conclusion of the manu¬ 
 facture the elasticity of the saw is restored principally by hammer¬ 
 ing and partially by heating over a clear, coke-fire to a straw-color. 
 The tint is removed by very dilute hydrochloric acid, after which 
 the saws are well washed in clear water and dried. 
 
 Watch springs are hammered out of round steel wire of suitable 
 diameter until they fill the gauge for width, which at the same 
 time insures equality of thickness; the holes are punched in their 
 extremities, and they are trimmed on the edge with a smooth file. 
 The springs are then tied up with binding wire, in a loose open 
 coil, and heated over a charcoal fire upon a perforated revolving 
 plate; they are hardened in oil and blazed off. 
 
 The spring is now distended in a long metal frame similar to 
 that used for a saw blade, and ground and polished with emery 
 and oil between lead blocks. By this time its elasticity appears 
 quite lost, and it may be bent in any direction ; its elasticity is, 
 however, entirely restored by a subsequent hammering on a very 
 bright anvil. 
 
 The coloring is done over a flat plate of iron or hood, under 
 which a small spirit-lamp is kept burning. The spring is con¬ 
 tinually drawn backwards and forwards about 2 or 3 inches at a 
 time, until it assumes the orange or deep blue tint throughout, ac¬ 
 cording to the taste of the purchaser. By many the coloring is 
 considered to be a matter of ornament and not essential. The 
 last process is to coil the spring into the spiral form that it may 
 
ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING. 
 
 139 
 
 enter the barrel in which it is to be contained. This is done by a 
 tool with a small axis and winch-handle and does not require heat. 
 
 The balance springs of marine chronometers are wound into the 
 square thread of a screw of the appropriate diameter and coarse¬ 
 ness. The two ends of the spring are retained by side screws, and 
 the whole is carefully enveloped in platinum foil and tightly bound 
 with wire. The mass is next heated in a piece of gun-barrel closed 
 at the one end and plunged into oil, which hardens the spring al¬ 
 most without discoloring it, owing to the exclusion of the air by 
 the close platinum covering which is now removed, and the spring 
 is let down to the blue before removal from the screwed block. 
 
 The balance or hair springs of the best watches are hardened in 
 the coil upon a plain cylinder and are then curled into the spiral 
 form between the edge of a blunt knife and the thumb, the same 
 as in curling up a narrow ribbon of paper or the filaments of an 
 ostrich feather. 
 
 In hardening bow-springs for all kinds of vehicles they are 
 heated by being drawn backwards and forwards through an ordi¬ 
 nary forge fire, built hollow, and then they are immersed in a 
 trough of plain water. In tempering them they are heated until 
 the black red is just visible at night ; by daylight the heat is de¬ 
 noted by its making a piece of wood sparkle when rubbed on the 
 spring, which is then allowed to cool in the air. 
 
 To Harden Files and Other Steel Instruments .—The files, etc., 
 are first coated with a paste prepared by boiling glue and salt in 
 yeast and thickened by an addition of wood charcoal and graphite 
 (black lead). Upon this coat is scattered a coarse powder consist¬ 
 ing of a mixture of horn, wood charcoal and common salt. A solid 
 crust is formed upon the files, which protects them from a dis¬ 
 placement of the cuts by the metal and conveys to them oxygen 
 while being heated. For tempering the files are brought into a 
 lead-bath. To prevent the oxidation of the lead on the surface a 
 mixture of potash, soda and tartar is scattered upon it. The files 
 remain in the bath 5 to 8 minutes, according to their thickness, and 
 are then immersed in water. 
 
 To Harden Steel Instruments .—The instrument is first brought to 
 
140 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 a cherry heat, if possible in a charcoal fire. The edge is then 
 quickly dipped in a mixture of black soap and finely pulverized 
 yellow prussiate of potash, taken out and quenched, but only half of 
 it, in clear water, in which it remains until cold. Only in this man¬ 
 ner can the warping of the object be prevented and the edge thor¬ 
 oughly hardened, while the remaining portion which may have to 
 serve for securing the instrument in a handle remains sufficiently 
 soft to allow of holes being drilled in it. 
 
 To Harden Tools .—The following process has the advantage of 
 enabling one to give to castings any desired degree of hardness 
 without their warping or becoming too hard and brittle in the in¬ 
 side. For the hardening agent take Peruvian bark, 500 parts by 
 weight ; hartshorn shavings, 50 ; common salt, 25 ; yellow prussiate 
 of potash, 15 ; saltpetre, 15; and black soap, 100. Spread out the soap 
 in a layer about o. 39 inch deep, and after scattering upon it the pul¬ 
 verized mixture of the other five ingredients thoroughly knead the 
 paste thus formed. This kneading should, however, not be con¬ 
 tinued longer than is absolutely necessary to form the mass into a 
 stick of about 2 inches diameter. After about 24 hours’ drying 
 the mass is ready for use. In superficial hardening of punches, 
 twisted augers, etc., care must be had to heat the cast-steel article 
 only dark red, i. <?., only to such an extent that on cooling in cold 
 water its hardness is not increased. Then coat the portions to be 
 hardened with the hardening agent and cool off the object. The 
 interior as well as all portions not coated remains perfectly soft and 
 tough, while the prepared portions become as hard as glass. To 
 accurately hit the correct degree of heating the cast-steel it is 
 recommended to make in the above manner several experiments 
 with a round steel wire about y 2 inch thick. By testing the frac¬ 
 ture with a file the condition of the interior is then ascertained. 
 
 Hardening Gun-barrels According to Neunert .—The barrel to be 
 hardened is placed in a gas-pipe of suitable size, the lower end of 
 which is made narrow to prevent the barrel from slipping out while 
 in a vertical position. Several such pipes containing gun-barrels 
 are then heated to a red heat in a reverberatory furnace, when some 
 hardening compound is thrown into every barrel. The pipes are 
 
ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING. 
 
 141 
 
 now taken from the furnace, placed in a vertical position under a 
 hose and hardening water is passed through each barrel under a 
 pressure of yi to ^ atmosphere. It is very advantageous to add a 
 small quantity of sulphuric and nitric acids to the hardening water. 
 
 To Harden the Bores of Musket-barrels. —The barrels are secured in 
 a frame so that they can be turned during heating to prevent warping. 
 Through the barrels heated to a red heat is then conducted a jet of 
 a solution of potassium ferrocyanide, whereby the bore acquires con¬ 
 siderable hardness in consequence of saturation with carbon and 
 nitrogen, while the chemical constitution of the rest of the metal 
 is unchanged. 
 
 The same object is attained by a less costly method, as follows: 
 The barrel is filled with nitrogenous (animal) waste, such as leather, 
 hair, horns, hoofs, etc., suitably comminuted, or with a mixture of 
 yellow prussiate of potash, borax and corn meal, or yellow prus- 
 siate of potash and charcoal. Both ends of the bore are then 
 closed by a cork or clay and the barrel is heated as uniformly as 
 possible. 
 
 Adam Schaefer's Fluidfor Hardening Steel, which serves to im¬ 
 prove the quality of many varieties of steel, consists principally of 
 ordinary resins, linseed oil, glycerin and powdered wood charcoal, 
 the ingredients being intimately mixed and the mixture heated. The 
 steel at a bright cherry-red heat is dipped in the fluid and, after 
 cooling in it, again heated and subjected to one of the usual 
 methods of hardening by water, oil or melted compositions of 
 metal. The effect produced by this process is said especially to 
 show itself in burnt cast-steel, which thereby regains its original 
 qualities, while softer varieties of steel acquire the advantages of 
 cast-steel. Tools made from Bessemer steel, which cannot be 
 hardened in the usual manner, may, after passing through the 
 above-described process, be used for cutting castings which fre¬ 
 quently resist the best tools made of tungsten steel. 
 
 To Harden Copper. —To impart to copper and copper alloys 
 greater hardness and tenacity the following process is recommended: 
 Melt the copper with i to 6 per cent, of oxide of manganese (the 
 naturally occurring black oxide will do) in a crucible, stir thor- 
 
142 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 oughly and after carefully removing the scum formed pour it out. 
 The same process is followed in the preparation of brass, the nec¬ 
 essary quantity of zinc being added to the melted copper and oxide 
 of manganese. Though chiefly used for brass alloys, the process is 
 suitable for all alloys of which copper forms the principal constituent. 
 
 To Harden Zinc. —According to Brignol, Fargon and Delpierre’s 
 method from 1.76 to 3.52 ozs. of sal-ammoniac per pound, accord¬ 
 ing to the hardness desired, are brought into the melted metal. 
 Zinc thus treated, it is said, can be worked with the turning-tool 
 and file, and can in many cases be advantageously substituted for 
 bronze. 
 
 Hardening Compound. —Pulverize and mix intimately 1 part 
 each of pulverized yellow prussiate of potash, purified saltpetre 
 and calcined cows’ hoofs, 3^ of gum arabic, 3^ of aloes and y 2 of 
 common salt. Scatter the compound upon the steel while at a red 
 heat, and upon the wrought-iron while at a white heat, and burn it 
 thoroughly in. 
 
 New Case-hardening Compound. —This compound is very effica¬ 
 cious for case-hardening iron. It consists of lampblack, 16 parts; 
 sal-soda, 18; muriate of soda, 4; and black oxide of manganese, 1. 
 
 Agents for Hardening, Improving and Welding Steel. —The so- 
 called “ Steel-powder No. 1,” prepared by A. Schenker’s Wittwe at 
 Rhein felden, is claimed to possess the property of improving steel; 
 it may also serve as welding powder and to restore burnt steel to 
 its original condition and hardness. This powder consists of jA, 
 borax, ammonium chloride and j/3 organic substance (resin, 
 white pitch) with a trace of silicic acid. By the addition of this 
 powder during forging, turning tools, etc., are much improved. 
 
 Powder No. 2, for Welding Cast-steel with the Assistance of Heat, 
 consists of ferric oxide, 25 per cent. ; ammonium chloride, 15 per 
 cent. ; silicic acid, 50 per cent.; and carbonate of lime, io- per 
 cent. 
 
 Powder No. 3, for Hardening Steel, is claimed to restore to 
 “ fatigued ” steel its original strength. It consists of 48 per cent, 
 nitre, 58 per cent, organic substance (very likely pulverized hoofs) 
 and about 2 per cent, silicic acid. 
 
ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING. 
 
 143 
 
 Powder No. 4, the so-called '•'■Iron Powder," is used for super¬ 
 ficially hardening wrought and ingot iron. It is claimed that by 
 scattering it three times upon the articles and burning off, as great 
 a depth of steel is obtained as by case-hardening for six hours. It 
 consists of 15 per cent, sodium chloride, 25 per cent, pyrolusite, 
 10 per cent, sodium carbonate and 50 per cent, organic substance. 
 Color, reddish-brown. This powder is also suitable for case- 
 hardening. 
 
 The following agents are brought into commerce by Karl Kilpfer, 
 Biel, Switzerland: Hardening mass A is a brown-red mass drawing 
 threads; it consists very likely of train oil, 50 parts; ordinary 
 colophony, 40; and turpentine resin, 10. It is used for hardening 
 as well as for restoring burnt steel. The tools or other articles to 
 be hardened are brought to a red heat in a charcoal fire and 
 plunged into the mass until black. They are then returned with¬ 
 out previous cleaning to the fire and when at a red heat hardened 
 in the hardening-water B. This is prepared by boiling pure well- 
 water in an uncovered vessel, pouring it off when cold from the 
 sediment and adding for each quart of water 14 drachms of a mix¬ 
 ture consisting, according to analysis, of 40 per cent, nitre, 59 per 
 cent, ammonium chloride and a trace of sodium sulphate (the 
 latter perhaps only as an impurity). 
 
 The “ Steel-hardening Powder C" consists of 5 five per cent, 
 nitrate of soda, 15 per cent, ammonium chloride, 25 per cent, yel¬ 
 low prussiate of potash and 55 per cent, organic substance (pul¬ 
 verized hoofs). 
 
 The li Hardening-water D" consists of a concentrated solution 
 of salts, the same as B, 4 lbs. of powder being taken to every 10 
 quarts of water and when dissolved 1 lb. of pure sulphuric acid 
 added. 
 
 Tempering Colors of Steel. —By superficial oxidation tempering 
 colors are formed in hardening steel, which serve as a guide as re¬ 
 gards the temperature and degree of hardness. 
 
144 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 Color. 
 
 428 0 F. 
 
 Pale yellow. 
 
 Light straw-yellow. 
 
 Straw-yellow. 
 
 Brown-yellow. 
 
 Brown with purple stains 
 Purple 
 
 Pale blue. 
 Corn-flower-blue. 
 
 Dark blue. 
 
 44 Q .6 “ . 
 
 469.4 “ . 
 
 491.0 “ . 
 
 COQ.O “ . 
 
 440.6 “ . 
 
 qqo .4 “ . 
 
 CCn.4 “ . 
 
 600.8 “ . 
 
 
 The steel is suitable for 
 
 Surgical instruments. 
 
 Razors and pen-knives. 
 
 Scissors, chisels. 
 
 Axes, planes, irons, bread-knives. 
 Table-knives, 
 
 Sword-blades, watch-springs. 
 Fine saws, drills, fencing-foils. 
 Hand-saws. 
 
 I 
 
 For Baths Used by Cutters and Others in Tempering and Heatijig 
 Steel Articles, Parkes and Martin propose the following alloys : 
 
 No. 
 
 Use. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Melting 
 points. 
 Degrees F 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Tin 
 
 Paris. 
 
 1 
 
 Lancets. 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 420 
 
 2 
 
 Other surgical instruments. 
 
 V/z 
 
 4 
 
 43 ° 
 
 3 
 
 Razors. 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 442 
 
 4 
 
 Pen-knives. 
 
 S'A 
 
 4 
 
 450 
 
 5 
 
 Knives, scalpels, etc. 
 
 IO 
 
 4 
 
 470 
 
 6 
 
 Chisels, garden-knives. 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 490 
 
 7 
 
 Hatchets. 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 509 
 
 8 
 
 Table-knives. 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 530 
 
 9 
 
 Swords, watch-springs. 
 
 48 
 
 4 
 
 55 ° 
 
 IO 
 
 Large springs, small saws. 
 
 50 
 
 4 
 
 558 
 
 II 
 
 Handsaws. 
 
 Oil, boiling. 
 
 600 
 
 12 
 
 Articles of low temper. 
 
 
 4 
 
 612 
 
 Effect of Temperature on Steel .—At 570° F. a dark blue color is 
 produced upon polished steel, which is changed to a pale blue at 
 590° F. Oil or grease of any kind will answer for drawing the temper 
 of cutlery. The temper for lancets is obtained at 430° F., axes 
 at 500° F., swords and watch-springs at53o° F.,small saws at 570° F. 
 and large saws at 590° F. Copper-colored spots are not pro¬ 
 duced by tempering, but they may be obtained on the polished 
 
ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING. 
 
 145 
 
 surface of steel by immersing the article in a solution of sulphate 
 of copper. 
 
 To Temper Steel by Electricity. —Among the more recent uses to 
 which electricity has been applied is that for tempering watch-springs 
 and other forms of spring steel, whether in the form of ribbon or wire. 
 The steel is wound on a spool, whence it passes down through a 
 bath of oil. An electric current is sent through the wire of such 
 strength as to keep it at the proper redness to answer the desired 
 requirements of temper. As the heating is not done in contact 
 with the air, but is entirely beneath the surface of the oil, there is 
 no trouble from blistering, as in the ordinary methods. The final 
 temper is drawn in the same manner, and the wire or ribbon is 
 finished by means of rolls. The process is also applied to a num¬ 
 ber of springs beside those for watches, including piano wires. In 
 all cases the process can be controlled to a nicety, both as to ex¬ 
 act temper and its uniformity through the wire. 
 
 To Temper Mining-picks. —When ready for hardening, the pick 
 should be heated in the blaze of a charcoal fire until red hot and 
 then plunged into cold rain water and kept there until it is nearly 
 cold. Some blacksmiths use salt-water. No salts of any kind 
 should exist in the water, but the water should be cold. If it is 
 warm throw in a little ice and the tempering will be all the better. 
 Pure soft water for hardening will make a tougher pick and one less 
 liable to crack at the edges than where salt-water is used. The 
 last hammering of a pick should always be given on the flat sides, 
 across close to the edges, and then up each side about an inch. By 
 doing so the corners wiU be less liable to crack. 
 
 To Temper Taps and Dies. —The great difficulty in hardening 
 tools is principally their liability to twist or get out of truth; 
 secondly, cracking (especially if large) after hardening; thirdly, 
 getting the right temper. First, carefully select your steel; let it 
 be of the best cast, with a medium grain ; a fine-grained steel will 
 break when much less force is applied than a coarser-grained, and 
 although it will take a keener edge it will not resist the strain re¬ 
 quired by a tap or rimer. Next centre it and turn off the scale 
 and soften. The object of softening after the scale is removed is 
 10 
 
146 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 to make the grain of the steel equal throughout ; if it be softened 
 with the scale on it will generally cast. To soften enclose the ar¬ 
 ticles in a piece of gas-tube, filling up with wrought-iron turnings 
 and plugging the ends with clay, making the whole red hot and 
 allowing it to cool very slowly, i. e., leaving it in hot ashes all 
 night. This method makes the steel very soft and equalizes the 
 grain. After softening turn up the work, taking care not to bend 
 or straighten it, should it have cast, as it probably will in the pro¬ 
 cess of softening. The reason for this is that if the steel be bent 
 or hammered the grain will be closer in one place than in another, 
 and heat has a great tendency to bring it back to its original posi¬ 
 tion. The next thing after finishing your tool is to harden it : 
 first, slightly heat it over a gas or other flame and rub it all over 
 with a mixture of castile soap and lampblack. This is to prevent 
 the edges from being burnt. The next is to get a thick iron pipe 
 2 inches in diameter and ^-inch bore. This is well filled up with 
 taps or dies and charcoal-dust, the ends being closed with clay as 
 before ; this is placed in the furnace and occasionally turned until 
 it is one uniform heat of cherry-red or on the outside a trifle hotter. 
 It is then carefully removed from the fire, one end of the clay is 
 knocked off, and the contents are allowed to drop perpendicularly 
 into a solution of water, chloride of sodium and nitrate of iron ; 
 this solution is kept at a temperature of 6o° F. The articles to be 
 hardened should remain at least ^ hour before being removed. 
 This method of hardening maybe summed up thus: make the 
 steel of one grain throughout, prevent it from oxidizing whilst be¬ 
 ing heated, allow every part to heat at the same time, avoid bend¬ 
 ing while hot, and, lastly, restore if possible by replacing the loss 
 of carbon caused by heating. 
 
 hnprovements in Tempering and Hardening Steel and Iron .— 
 Glycerin is used in tempering steel, cast-steel or cast-iron. The 
 specific gravity of the glycerin may be varied between 1.08 and 
 1.26 at 59 0 F. by adding water according to the composition of the 
 steel. The quantity of glycerin should be from 1 to 6 times greater 
 in weight than the weight of the pieces to be plunged into it, and its 
 temperature may be varied from 59 0 to 392 0 F., according to the 
 
ANNEALING, HARDENING, TEMPERING. 
 
 147 
 
 hardness of the metal. The harder the steel to be tempered the 
 higher the temperature should be, and for a mild steel a low tem¬ 
 perature should be used. To increase the quenching power of the 
 bath various salts may be added to the glycerin solution. Thus, 
 when a hard temper is wanted, protosulphate of manganese may be 
 added in quantity varying from i to 34 per cent, of the liquid or 
 from to 4 per cent, of potassium sulphate. For a softer temper 
 1 to 10 per cent, of manganese and 1 to 4 per cent, of potassium 
 chloride may be added. The principal advantages to be derived 
 from these methods are: 1. The temperature of the aqueous solutions 
 of glycerin may be varied within wide limits, the boiling point of 
 pure glycerin being 84. 2° F. 2. Owing to the fact that solutions 
 of glycerin in water dissolve most salts that are soluble in water, the 
 quenching properties of the bath may readily be varied by dissolv¬ 
 ing such salts in it as will suit the kind of metal to be tempered and 
 the degree of temper required. 
 
 To Temper Brass .—Brass not hardened by mixture, but by com¬ 
 pression, either by rolling, hammering, wire drawing or any other 
 process which compresses the particles of metal, can be tempered 
 just as easily and in the same manner as an equal-sized piece of hard¬ 
 ened steel would be tempered, viz ., by heat. By placing a small piece 
 of polished steel on the brass object to be tempered and applying 
 the heat so as to affect equally the brass and steel, the color of the 
 steel will indicate the temper in exact proportion to every shade of 
 color of the steel. 
 
 To Temper Magnets .—A combined process for tempering and 
 magnetizing steel bars for magnets is employed by M. Ducoetet. 
 He uses a water-tight vessel, at the bottom of which are two soft 
 iron pole pieces; the poles of a powerful electro-magnet are placed 
 underneath these. The vessel is partly filled with water, and a 
 layer of oil is above this. The red-hot bar is passed through these. 
 Its passage first through the oil is found to soften the steel without 
 depriving it of its power of being magnetized. 
 
148 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 VI. 
 
 BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 Metals are bronzed by one of two methods, the color being 
 produced either by chemical agents or by the application of bronze 
 powders. For the latter purpose there are found in trade bronze 
 powders made of brass in an impalpable state of division and which 
 present the most varied shades, according to the degree of oxida¬ 
 tion which the brass undergoes when heated in contact with the 
 air. These bronze powders are applied upon metals to imitate 
 bronze. The operation is entirely mechanical. After the object 
 has been more or less cleaned, it receives a thin coating of a fatty 
 drying varnish which is allowed to become nearly dry. A good 
 varnish for the purpose is made as follows: Boil i to 2 lbs. of lin¬ 
 seed oil in an earthen vessel for 2 hours; then remove it from the 
 fire and when somewhat cooled off add gradually 1.23 ozs. of red 
 lead. If on adding the red lead a red scum is formed upon the 
 surface of the oil, the oil is too hot and the addition of red lead has 
 to be interrupted until the oil is cooler. The addition of red lead 
 is succeeded by that of a like quantity of white litharge. The 
 varnish is then allowed to stand in the sun for a few days to clarify 
 and finally kept for use in a glass or tin vessel. To give the object 
 a gold bronze, ochre is triturated with the varnish and some blue or 
 black mixed with it, so that a dirty green color results. Apply 
 two or three layers of this color to the surface of the object by 
 means of a soft brush, allowing the first layer to dry before apply¬ 
 ing the next. The last coating, however, must not be allowed to 
 become entirely dry. The bronze powder is laid upon this layer 
 with a badger brush or otherwise, and adheres strongly. After 
 drying and dusting off the superfluous bronze powder with a stiff 
 brush the whole is covered with a coat of transparent and colorless 
 varnish. This process evidently fills up the details and is suited 
 only to large pieces which are imperfectly finished. 
 
 If the article is to receive a silver bronze, rub some zinc white 
 and lampblack into the above-mentioned varnish so that a sort of 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 149 
 
 silver-gray color is obtained. Apply 2 or 3 coats of this paint to 
 the article and bronze with silver bronze before the last coat is en¬ 
 tirely dry. Very beautiful effects can in this manner be obtained 
 by the use of various ground-colors, such as colcothar, leaf-green, 
 dark gray and even black. In bronzing iron it is very advan¬ 
 tageous to first coat it, without regard to the succeeding colors, 
 with red oxide of iron, rubbed up in varnish, and then apply the 
 actual colors. A very neat bronzing is produced with a paint of 
 graphite and varnish, the last coat of which is dusted over before 
 becoming entirely dry with aluminium bronze powder, the whole 
 acquiring thereby the appearance of polished iron. 
 
 Copper Bronze upon iron and zinc is obtained by coating the 
 metal with a brown lacquer or varnish and dusting copper-dust 
 upon it in the manner previously described. Copper-dust may 
 also be mixed with spirit lacquer and applied together with the 
 lacquer. 
 
 Red Bronze is produced by the application of red bronze lacquer 
 or red bronze powder or red mosaic gold. For bronzing with red 
 bronze lacquer the objects must be clean and bright, since every 
 stain shows through the lacquer. For bronzing with red metallic 
 bronze the object is first coated with varnish and the bronze pow¬ 
 der laid upon it with a velvet rag or soft brush. 
 
 Green Bronze upon tin, zinc and lead may be produced by the 
 application of green bronze lacquer of a dull lustre or of green 
 varnish. The green for the bronze color is best prepared by mix¬ 
 ing Frankfort black with chrome yellow. 
 
 As regards bronzing by chemical agents it is not necessary to 
 give a detailed description of the mode of application, since a 
 large number of receipts and their use for bronzing metals and 
 alloys are given as follows: 
 
 French Bronze .—A new bronze upon French bronze figures 
 shows all shades of pale or clay-yellow to red-brown, and of red to 
 dark and black-brown. It has a bronze-like appearance, and 
 adheres tightly to the metal, i. e., is chemically combined with it. 
 To produce such colorations, solutions of sulphur combinations of 
 arsenic and antimony have been successfully used. After cleaning 
 
THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 150 
 
 and pickling, the articles must be subjected to a thorough washing 
 with water, as otherwise every trace of acid left behind will later 
 on in drying or bronzing penetrate through the seams and produce 
 indelible stripes and stains. Great care must also be had in drying 
 the article. For applying the solutions a tuft of cotton, or a soft, 
 close brush, is used. The operation is best commenced by first 
 applying a dilute solution of ammonium bisulphide as sparingly as 
 possible, brushing over a certain limited portion of the figure at 
 one time. The quicker and more uniformly this is done, the better 
 and more beautiful the bronzing will be. After drying the sulphur 
 separated out is brushed off, and a solution of sulphide of arsenic 
 in ammonia applied, the result being a coloration similar to mosaic 
 gold. The oftener this solution of sulphide of arsenic is applied 
 the browner the color becomes, and a very dark brown can be 
 finally obtained by a solution of sulphide of arsenic in ammonium 
 bisulphide. By solutions of sulphide of antimony in ammonia or 
 ammonium sulphide the coloration becomes reddish, it being 
 p issible to produce the most delicate rose color as well as the 
 deepest dark red. By rubbing some places more vigorously, a very 
 fine metallic lustre is produced. Ammonia or ammonium sulphide 
 redissolves the bronzing, so that places not thoroughly colored can 
 be improved, though in such case it is better to rub off the entire 
 figure with ammonium sulphide. In the same manner as the solu¬ 
 tions in ammonia or ammonium sulphide, those in hydrate or sul¬ 
 phide of potassium or sodium can also be used, the latter being in 
 some cases even more advantageous. By slightly pickling the 
 object the color of the bronze is changed. If a casting of bronze 
 or brass is left too long in the pickle, the metal becomes coated 
 with a greenish-gray film, which, on rubbing with a piece of cloth, 
 becomes lustrous and adheres firmly. On treating with the above- 
 mentioned metallic sulphides this coating acquires a dull yellow 
 coloration. The number of such agents for bronzing can, undoubt¬ 
 edly, be still further augmented, and an operator having some 
 knowledge of chemistry may be able to use many other similar 
 solutions of metallic salts. Heat must not be used. 
 
 Blue Bronze .—Prepare a sand-bath as large as the article to be 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 151 
 
 bronzed. Cleanse the article from all grease by dipping m boiling 
 potash lye, and then treat it with white vinegar. Wipe and dry 
 the surface thoroughly, and rub it with a linen rag moistened with 
 hydrochloric acid. Allow the coating to dry for a quarter of an 
 hour, and then heat the article on the sand-bath until it has 
 acquired the desired color, when it should be removed. 
 
 Brown Bronze. —Observe the same directions as in the foregoing. 
 The blue bronze is finally rubbed over with a linen rag saturated 
 with olive oil, which will change the blue color into brown. 
 
 Bronzing by Dipping in Melted Bronze. —This process is similar 
 to tinning, galvanizing, etc. The bright metal is dipped in bronze 
 melted under a cover of borax in an iron crucible, and moved in it 
 until it has acquired the temperature of the melted alloy and be¬ 
 comes uniformly coated with it. The bronzed article is then taken 
 out, and allowed to cool upon a grate by moving it until the coat¬ 
 ing congeals. Large pieces are to be sufficiently heated before 
 dipping, in order to prevent the melted bronze from being cooled 
 off too much. 
 
 Bronze Liquid.-— Dissolve sal-ammoniac, i oz. ; alum, oz. ; 
 arsenic, oz., in strong vinegar, i pint. The compound is im¬ 
 mediately fit for use, and, where the metal is good, is seldom found 
 to fail. 
 
 Cheap Bronze. —Make into a paste with oil, and melt together 
 verdigris, 16 ozs. ; flowers of zinc, 8 ozs; borax and saltpetre, of 
 each 4 ozs.; corrosive sublimate, 2 drachms. This bronze is used 
 in the commoner kinds of tea-boards, etc. 
 
 To Bronze Small Brass Articles. —Oxide of iron, 3 parts ; white 
 arsenic, 3 parts; hydrochloric acid, 36 parts. Clean the brass well 
 to get rid of grease, etc., and apply with a brush until the desired 
 color is obtained. Stop the process by oiling well, when the article 
 may be varnished or lacquered. 
 
 Bronzing Process Used in the Paris Mint. —Powder and mix 1 lb. 
 each of verdigris and sal-ammoniac. Take a quantity of this mix¬ 
 ture as large as a hen’s egg, and mix into a dough with vinegar. 
 Place this in a copper pan (not tinned), boil in about 5 pints of 
 water for 20 minutes, and then pour off the water. 
 
152 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-ROOK. 
 
 For bronzing, pour part of this fluid into a copper pan ; place 
 the medals separately in it upon pieces of wood or glass, so that 
 they do not touch each other, or come in contact with the copper 
 pan, and then boil them in the liquid for a quarter of an hour. 
 
 To Bronze Copper .—Dissolve 30 parts of carbonate or hydro¬ 
 chlorate of ammonium and 10 parts each of common salt, cream of 
 tartar, and acetate of copper in 100 parts of acetic acid of moderate 
 concentration, or in 200 parts of strong vinegar, and add a little 
 water. When an intimate mixture has been obtained, smear the 
 copper object with it, and let it dry at the ordinary temperature 
 for 24 to 48 hours. At the end of that time the object will be 
 found to be entirely covered with verdigris presenting various tints. 
 Then brush the whole, and especially the reliefs, with a waxed brush, 
 and, if necessary, set off the high reliefs with hematite or chrome 
 yellow, or other suitable colors. Light touches of ammonia give 
 a blue color to the green portions, and carbonate of ammonium 
 deepens the color of the parts on which it is laid. 
 
 To Bronze Copper Bluish-gray .—According to Dr. Bottger, a 
 brightly polished sheet of copper acquires a beautiful bluish-gray 
 color by applying to the surface a fluid obtained by the warm 
 digestion of cinnabar with a solution of sodium sulphide, to which 
 some caustic lime has been added. 
 
 Green Bronze for Brass. —I. Mix strong vinegar, 80 parts; 
 mineral green, 1 ; red umber, 1 ; sal-ammoniac, 1 ; gum arabic, 1; 
 ferrous sulphate (green vitriol), 1, and add 4 parts of Avignon 
 berries (fruits of Rhamnus infeclorius'). The articles to be bronzed 
 should be cleansed with dilute nitric acid, then rinsed in water and 
 the fluid applied with a brush. Should the color not be dark 
 enough heat the article until it cannot be held in the hand and 
 then give it a coat of spirit of wine mixed with a little lampblack. 
 Finally apply a coat of spirit varnish. 
 
 II. Add to a solution of 8*4 drachms of copper in 1 oz. of 
 strong nitric acid, io }4 ozs. of vinegar, 3*4 drachms of sal-am¬ 
 moniac and bY\ drachms of aqua ammonia. Put the liquid in a 
 loosely-corked bottle and allow it to stand in a warm place for a 
 few days, when it may be used. After applying it to the objects, dry 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 153 
 
 them by exposure to heat, and, when dry, apply a coat of linseed 
 oil varnish, which is also dried by heat. 
 
 To Bronze Articles of Copper and Brass. —Neutralize 20 parts 
 by weight of ammonia with vinegar and compound the solution with 
 10 parts of verdigris and 6 of sal-ammoniac. Larger articles after 
 being freed from grease and other impurities are brushed with the 
 solution, the operation being repeated until the desired shade of 
 color is produced. The articles are dried at the ordinary tempera¬ 
 ture of a room. Smaller articles are dipped, with constant stir¬ 
 ring, in the fluid heated nearly to the boiling point. The desired 
 coloration having been attained, the solution is poured off and re¬ 
 placed by hot water, the rinsing being twice repeated with stirring. 
 The articles are best dried in saw-dust. 
 
 Brown Fire-proof Bronze upon Copper and Brass. —Dissolve 1.12 
 drachms each of pulverized verdigris and finely powdered sal-am¬ 
 moniac in 1 pint of water, let the solution stand covered 3 or 4 
 hours and then add 1 y 2 pints of water. In bronzing hold the cop¬ 
 per article, which should be perfectly clean, over a coal fire and 
 heat to a uniform heat and color. Then apply the solution and 
 dry carefully. Tinned copper must not be heated enough to melt 
 the tin. By thus treating copper 5 or 6 times it acquires a brassy 
 color, and after 6 to 10 applications a beautiful yellow tint. If it 
 is desired to give a copper article a color shading from yellow into 
 brown it must not be hot when the mixture is applied; for light 
 brown the operation is to be repeated 20 to 25 times. When the 
 desired color has been obtained place the article at once in clean 
 water, but do not polish or dry it immediately after taking it out. 
 In fact, the greatest care is here required. It is best to dry the 
 article over a moderate coal fire, when the bronze will become 
 durable and fire-proof. 
 
 Green Bronzing. —The repeated alternate applications to copper 
 or brass of dilute acetic acid and exposure to the action of the fumes 
 of ammonia will give a very antique-looking green bronze; but a 
 quick method of producing a similar appearance is often desirable. 
 To this end the articles may be immersed in a solution of 1 part 
 of perchloride of iron in 2 parts of water. The shade becomes 
 
154 
 
 THE METAL WOllKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 darker with the length of immersion. Or, the articles may be 
 boiled in a strong solution of nitrate of copper. Or, they may be 
 immersed in a solution of 2 ozs. of nitrate of iron and 2 ozs. of 
 hyposulphite of sodium in 1 pint of water. Washing, drying and 
 burnishing complete the process. 
 
 Bronzing of Cast-iron. —To give cast-iron the appearance of 
 bronze coat the polished iron with a thin layer of linseed oil or 
 linseed oil varnish and thoroughly heat it in the air to bring about 
 the oxidation of the metal. The temperature must be higher or 
 lower according to whether a pale yellow or dark brown coloration 
 is to be produced. The so-called Tucker bronze is obtained by 
 greasing the polished iron and exposing it for 2 to 5 minutes to the 
 action of vapors produced by a bath composed of equal parts of 
 concentrated nitric and hydrochloric acids, then coating the iron 
 with vaseline and heating until the latter commences to decompose. 
 
 Gold Bronze of Great Lustre on Iron. —Dissolve 3 ozs. of finely 
 powdered shellac in 1^ pints of spirit of wine. Filter the varnish 
 through linen and triturate a sufficient quantity of Dutch gold with 
 the filtrate to give to it a lustrous appearance. The iron, pre¬ 
 viously polished and heated, is brushed over with vinegar and the 
 color applied with a brush. When dry the article may be coated 
 with copal lacquer to which some amber lacquer has been added. 
 
 To Bronze Cast-iron. —First clean and smooth the surface and 
 then coat it uniformly with a layer of vegetable oil, for instance a 
 poor quality of olive oil. Then heat, without, however, raising the 
 temperature to the burning point of the oil. In this manner the 
 cast-iron at the moment the decomposition of the oil takes place 
 absorbs oxygen and a brown surface of oxide is formed on the sur¬ 
 face which adheres very firmly and acquires a good polish, so that 
 the surface of the cast-iron assumes a bronze-like appearance. 
 
 Bronze-like Surface on Iron or Steel. —A very fine bronze-like 
 surface, and one that will prevent rusting, may be produced on 
 iron or steel as follows: The object to be acted upon must be 
 cleansed, so as to take off all oxidation or other impurity. It is 
 then exposed for two or three minutes to the action of the vapors 
 of a heated mixture of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid in equal 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 155 
 
 proportions, at a temperature ranging from 550° to 650° F. After 
 the objects have cooled, they are to be rubbed over with vaseline, 
 and again heated until the vaseline begins to decompose. This 
 treatment with the vaseline has to be repeated once. Should a 
 lighter coloring than bronze be desired, it can be produced by 
 mixing acetic acid with the other acids. In using the above- 
 named chemicals great care should be observed in handling and 
 preserving. 
 
 To Give Ground Steel Objects the Appearance of Gold or Good 
 Bronze. —First remove all fatty matter and dirt from the steel 
 object by washing in turpentine, benzine, or petroleum, then heat 
 and apply a light gold varnish, which, when dry, is coated with the 
 clearest and best copal lacquer. In this manner an elegant gold 
 color of various shades is obtained, according to the more reddish 
 or yellowish color of the varnish. 
 
 To Bronze Tin. —Prepare two solutions: one of 1 part ferrous 
 sulphate (green vitriol), 1 part cupric sulphate (blue vitriol), and 
 20 parts of distilled water; and the other of 4 parts verdigris and 
 16 parts vinegar. Thoroughly cleanse the article by means of a 
 clean brush dipped in a fine earth and water, and after thoroughly 
 drying, apply to both sides a light coat of the first solution by 
 means of a brush. After drying, the article presents a blackish 
 appearance. The second solution is then applied with a brush 
 until the article acquires a dark copper-red color. It is now allowed 
 to dry one hour, and then polished with a soft brush and finely 
 elutriated bloodstone, the surface being frequently breathed upon 
 so as to make the bloodstone adhere. In conclusion it is polished 
 with the brush alone, which is from time to time drawn over the 
 palm of the hand. To protect the bronze against moisture, cover 
 it with a very thin layer of gold lacquer. 
 
 To Bronze Zinc. —The zinc to be bronzed must receive an electro¬ 
 deposit of brass, which is then dipped into a weak solution of sul¬ 
 phate of copper for a red tinge. When dry, wet with a rag dipped 
 into hydrosulphate of ammonia, or a solution of polysulphide of 
 potassium, or protochloride of copper dissolved in hydrochloric 
 acid. After another drying, the surface is brushed over with a 
 mixture of peroxide of iron and plumbago, according to the tint 
 
156 
 
 TTTE METAL WORKER'S HANDY BOOK. 
 
 desired. The brush may be slightly wetted with essence of turpen¬ 
 tine, which aids the adhesion of the powder. The raised portions 
 are strongly rubbed to uncover the brass. Afterwards give a coat 
 of colorless varnish. According to another method, the brassed or 
 coppered article is pickled with dilute nitric acid, and then coated 
 with a paste made of 3 parts of peroxide of iron, 2 of graphite, and 
 a sufficient quantity of spirits of wine. After 24 hours this coating 
 is brushed off, and a dark-brown bronze will appear. A bronze of 
 a lighter color is obtained by gently rubbing the brassed or coppered 
 zinc with a soft brush dipped in a solution of ozs. of sal- 
 ammoniac, and 3 ozs. of potassium binoxalate in 3*4 to 5^ pints 
 of vinegar. 
 
 Silvered Cast-Zinc Articles are colored partially gray and partially 
 black. The dark colors are obtained by coating with a solution of 
 liver of sulphur and also by rubbing with graphite. 
 
 To Bronze Electrotypes — Green. —Steep the medal or figure in a 
 strong solution of common salt, or sugar, or sal-ammoniac for a few 
 days, wash in water, and allow to dry slowly, or suspend over a 
 vessel containing a small quantity of bleaching powder, and cover 
 over; the length of time it is allowed to remain will determine the 
 depth of the color. 
 
 Brown. —Add 4 or 5 drops of nitric acid to a wineglassful of 
 water, and apply the mixture to the object. When dry, heat the 
 object gradually and equally; the surface will be darkened in pro¬ 
 portion to the heat applied. 
 
 Black. —Wash the surface of the object over with dilute sulphide 
 of ammonia, and dry at a gentle heat; finally, polish with a hard 
 brush. 
 
 To Bronze Medals. —The most simple bronze is obtained by 
 applying upon the cleansed object a thin paste made of water with 
 equal parts of plumbago and peroxide of iron, with a certain pro¬ 
 portion of clay. Then heat the whole, and when the object is 
 quite cold, brush in every direction for a long time with a middling 
 stiff brush, which is frequently rubbed upon a block of yellow wax, 
 and afterwards upon the mixture of plumbago and peroxide of iron. 
 This process gives a very bright red bronze, suitable for medals 
 kept in a showcase. 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 157 
 
 A similar bronze may also be produced by dipping the article 
 into a mixture of equal parts of perchloride and nitrate of sesqui- 
 oxide of iron, and heating until these salts are quite dry. Then 
 rub with the waxed brush as described. 
 
 According to another method, the object is cleansed and covered 
 with hydrosulphate of ammonia. When dry, it is brushed with 
 peroxide of iron and plumbago, and afterwards with the waxed 
 brush. If the object impregnated with hydrosulphate of ammonia 
 is gently heated a black bronze is obtained, which, being uncov¬ 
 ered at certain places, produces a good effect. 
 
 Graham's Bronzing Liquids .*—These are used by simple immer¬ 
 sions and have a wide range of application, as will be seen from 
 the following three tables: 
 
 I. For Brass {by Simple Immersion). 
 
 Number. [ 
 
 J Water. j 
 
 Nitrate of iron. 
 
 Perchloride of iron. 
 
 j Permuriate of iron. 
 
 Nitrate of copper. 
 
 Tersulphide of ar¬ 
 senic. 
 
 Muriate of arsenic. 
 
 i Potash solution of 
 
 sulphur. 
 
 Pearl ash solution. 
 
 Cyanide of potas¬ 
 sium. 
 
 Ferrocyanide of po¬ 
 tassium solution. 
 
 Sulphocyamde of po¬ 
 tassium. 
 
 Hyposulphite of soda. 
 
 Nitric acid. 
 
 Oxalic acid. 
 
 
 I 
 
 pt. 
 
 I 
 
 dr. 
 
 5 
 
 dr. 
 
 P t. 
 
 OZ. 
 
 g>‘- 
 
 OZ. 
 
 dr. 
 
 dr. 
 
 OZ. 
 
 pt. 
 
 dr. 
 
 dr. 
 
 dr. 
 
 OZ. 
 
 Brown and 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 every shade 
 to black. 
 
 tt a 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 l6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 l6 
 
 
 . . 
 
 Brown and 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 l6 
 
 I 
 
 
 every shade 
 to red. 
 
 it it 
 
 s 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Brownish-red. 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 it it 
 
 7 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 Dark brown. 
 
 8 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yellow to red. 
 
 9 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Orange. 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Olive-green. 
 
 I I 
 
 I 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 Slate. 
 
 12 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 Blue. 
 
 13 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Steel-gray. 
 
 14 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Black. 
 
 * Brassfounder’s Manual, London, 1887. 
 
158 
 
 Till] METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Liquid No. 5 must be boiled and cooled. No. 13 must be used 
 at 180 0 F. or over. No. 6 is slow in action, sometimes taking an 
 hour to give good results. The action of the others is usually 
 immediate. 
 
 II. For Copper {by Simple Immersion). 
 
 Number. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Nitrate of iron. 
 
 Sulphate of copper. 
 
 Sulphide of anti¬ 
 mony. 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 Muriate of arsenic. 
 
 Pearl ash. 
 
 I Sulphocyanide of po- 
 
 I tassium. 
 
 Hyposulphite of soda 
 
 Hydrochloric acid. 
 
 
 
 P t. 
 
 dr. 
 
 oz. 
 
 dr. 
 
 dr. 
 
 dr. 
 
 OZ. 
 
 dr. 
 
 OZ. 
 
 dr. 
 
 
 15 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brown and every shade to black. 
 
 l6 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Dark brown-drab. 
 
 17 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 << it it 
 
 is 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 Bright red. 
 
 !9 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 Red and every shade to black. 
 
 20 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 Steel-gray at 180 0 F. 
 
 * Made to the consistency of cream. 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 159 
 
 Rockline's Method of Bronzing .—A layer of jeweler’s rouge 
 moistened with water is applied by means of a brush to the article 
 to be bronzed, which is then heated to a red heat. By this process 
 the peroxide of iron is reduced to ferrous oxide, and the necessary 
 quantity of oxygen for the formation of a suboxide yielded to the 
 copper. The coating of jeweler’s rouge is then removed from the 
 article to be bronzed by pouring a boiling saturated solution of 
 acetate of copper over it, and drying with tufts of cotton. 
 
 Walker's Che?tiical Bronze .—Boil i oz. of ammonium carbonate 
 and a like quantity of blue vitriol in i% pints of vinegar until the 
 latter is nearly evaporated. Then add pints of vinegar in 
 which has been dissolved drachm of oxalic acid and a like 
 quantity of sal-ammoniac. Place the mixture over the fire until 
 it commences to boil, then allow it to cool, filter and put by in 
 well-closed bottles. 
 
 If a medal, etc., is to be bronzed, it is first thoroughly cleansed, 
 then heated and the liquid applied with a badger’s hair brush. In 
 a short time boiling water is poured over the medal and, when dry, 
 it is rubbed with a cotton rag dipped in oil and then with dry 
 cotton. 
 
 Bronze Powders .—In metal-leaf (Dutch gold) factories the 
 waste resulting in rolling and hammering is used in the preparation 
 of bronze powder. According to the old method the waste was 
 rubbed with a honey or gum solution upon a stone until a mass 
 consisting of fine powder combined to a dough by the honey or 
 gum solution was formed. This dough was thrown into water, and 
 after the solution of the cementing substance the metallic powder 
 was dried, and subjected to oxidation by mixing it with a little fat 
 and heating it in a pan over an open fire until the desired shade of 
 color was obtained. At the present time this laborious and time- 
 consuming method has been much shortened by the use of suitable 
 machines, and of alloys prepared by melting together the metals in 
 suitable proportions for powders which do not require to be colored 
 by oxidation. These alloys are beaten out into thin leaves by 
 hammers driven by steam. The leaves are then converted into 
 powder by forcing them through the meshes of a fine iron-wire 
 
160 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 sieve with the assistance of a scratch-brush. This rubbing through 
 the sieve is effected with a simultaneous admission of oil, and the 
 mass running off from the sieve is brought into a grinding 
 machine of peculiar construction—a steel plate covered with fine 
 blunt-pointed needles revolving over another steel plate. In this 
 machine the mass is reduced to a very fine powder mixed, however, 
 with oil. The powder is first brought into water where the greater 
 portion of the oil separates on the surface. The metallic mass 
 lying on the bottom of the vessel is then subjected to a strong 
 pressure, which removes nearly all the oil, the small quantity re¬ 
 maining exerting no injurious influence, but being rather beneficial, 
 as it causes the powder to adhere with greater tenacity to the 
 articles to which it is applied. 
 
 In the following table the composition of the alloys for some colors 
 is given : 
 
 Color. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 82.33 
 
 16.69 
 
 0.16 
 
 Pale green. . 
 
 8432 
 
 15.02 
 
 0.63 
 
 Lemon. 
 
 84 50 
 
 15 30 
 
 0.07 
 
 Copper-red. 
 
 99.90 
 
 
 
 Orange. 
 
 98.93 
 
 0-7 3 
 
 
 Pale yellow. 
 
 90.00 
 
 9.60 
 
 
 Crimson ... 
 
 98.22 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.56 
 
 English Brotize Powders. —The better qualities of English bronze 
 powders consist of copper, 83 parts ; silver, 4.5 ; tin, 8; oil, 4.5 ; 
 and the poorer qualities of copper, 64.8 parts; silver, 4.3; tin, 
 8.7 ; zinc, 12.9 ; and oil, 3. 
 
 Brocade Bronze Powder. —The variety of bronze powder known 
 under this name consists of coarser pieces prepared from the waste 
 of metal-leaf factories, by comminuting it by means of a stamping 
 mill and separating the pieces of unequal size formed first by 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 161 
 
 passing through a sieve and finally by a current of air. A certain 
 kind of brocade consists, however, not of metallic alloy, but 
 simply of mica rubbed to a fine powder. 
 
 Copper Bronze Powder may be obtained by dissolving copper in 
 nitric acid, diluting the solution with water, and then putting into 
 it some small pieces of brightly scoured iron when the copper will 
 be precipitated in a metallic state. The fluid is then poured off, 
 the powder carefully washed, dried and rubbed to heighten its 
 lustre. 
 
 Genuine Gold Bronze .—Leaf gold is ground with honey upon a 
 stone until the leaves are broken up and minutely divided. The 
 mixture is then removed from the stone by a spatula and stirred up 
 in a basin of water, whereby the honey is melted and the gold set 
 free; the basin is then left undisturbed until the gold subsides; 
 the water is poured off and fresh quantities added until the honey 
 is entirely washed away. The gold is finally collected on filtering 
 paper and dried for use. Gold bronze occurs in various shades or 
 colors, red, reddish, pale or dark yellow, as well as greenish, the 
 color depending on the varying content of gold or the different 
 mixture of gold with silver and copper. By boiling with various 
 salt solutions or acidulated masses various tones may also be im¬ 
 parted to gold bronze. It acquires a vivid yellow color by boiling 
 in water containing nitric, sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, a red¬ 
 dish color by boiling in a solution of crystallized verdigris or blue 
 vitriol in water, while other shades are obtained by boiling in solu¬ 
 tions of common salt, tartar, green vitriol or saltpetre in water. 
 
 Metallic gold powder is also obtained by dissolving pure gold in 
 aqua regia and precipitating it again by an electro-positive metal, 
 such as iron or zinc, which in the form of rods is placed in the 
 fluid. The gold is thereby entirely separated. The rods used for 
 precipitation must be scoured perfectly clean and bright. The lustre 
 of the gold bronze may be heightened by rubbing after drying. 
 
 Aurum Musivum (.Mosaic Gold ).—This is chiefly used for bronz¬ 
 ing copper and brass, plaster of paris figures, etc. It is mixed with 6 
 parts of bone-ash and rubbed moist on the object. It is best pre¬ 
 pared as follows : Melt 2 parts of tin in a crucible, and add with 
 11 
 
162 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 constant stirring, i part of mercury previously heated so far that it just 
 commences to volatilize. When cool grind the amalgam to a fine 
 powder and intimately mix it with i part of sal-ammoniac and i of 
 flowers of sulphur, and place the mixture in a closed glass flask or 
 retort in a sand-bath. Now heat sufficiently for the vapors to 
 escape, which deposit on the upper part of the vessel. Sublima¬ 
 tion being finished take the vessel from the sand-bath and allow it 
 to cool. The upper portion of the contents forms the bronze, 
 which is of a vivid gold-color, while the lower portion consists of 
 sal-ammoniac and cinnabar. On account of the injurious vapors a 
 good draught should be provided for or the operation carried on in 
 the open air. 
 
 Brownish Gold Bronze Powders are obtained by exposing to the 
 air and repeatedly moistening with a little water fine, clean iron- 
 filings, then boiling several times, and finally placing the mass in 
 the sun or near a stove. A deep rust-brown powder is thus 
 formed, which becomes still more intensely red by repeatedly 
 adding a little nitric acid during the last boiling. The powder is 
 freed from metallic iron-filings by washing, and dried. By mixing 
 this powder with imitation gold bronze or mosaic gold, bronze 
 powders of the most varying shades may be made. 
 
 Genuine Silver Bronze Powder is obtained by grinding waste of 
 silver-leaf in the same manner as given for gold bronze, or by dis¬ 
 solving silver in nitric acid, diluting the solution with water and 
 precipitating the silver as metallic powder by placing a piece of 
 brightly scoured copper-sheet in the solution. 
 
 Imitation Silver Bronze Powder is obtained from the waste of 
 imitation silver-leaf, which is rubbed fine, washed and dried. To 
 heighten the lustre of the powder it is again rubbed when dry. 
 
 Argentum Musivum. —This is an amalgam of equal parts of 
 mercury, bismuth and tin. It may also be prepared as follows: 
 Melt 50 parts of good tin in a crucible, and when liquid add 50 
 parts of bismuth, stirring constantly with an iron wire until the 
 bismuth is liquid. Then remove the crucible from the fire and stir 
 in, while the contents are still liquid, 25 parts of mercury and mix 
 the mass until it can be ground upon a stone. 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 163 
 
 Iron Black. —A bronze-color occurring in commerce under the 
 name of “iron black,” and which imparts to the articles treated 
 with it the appearance of bright steel, is finely divided antimony, 
 and may be obtained by precipitating a solution of antimony salt 
 with metallic zinc. 
 
 Metallochromy. —Of importance for the metal industry are the 
 beautiful rainbow-colors which may be produced by decomposing 
 upon polished metallic surfaces certain solutions of metallic 
 salts by means of the galvanic current. The metallic surface 
 to be colored is connected to the poles of a powerful galvanic 
 battery, and at a distance of about y 2 line is placed the point 
 of a wire connected to the second pole. The colors produced 
 resist more or less friction, are surprisingly brightened by heat, 
 and can stand a considerable degree of it. To color articles 
 of brass the following method is frequently used: Prepare a 
 solution of 7 ozs. of caustic potash or of 6 ozs. of caustic soda 
 in 2 quarts of distilled water and boil it together with A,y 2 ozs. of 
 elutriated litharge in a porcelain dish for y 2 hour, constantly 
 replacing the water lost by evaporation. Allow the fluid to settle, 
 then pour off the supernatant clear liquid and preserve it for use. 
 For coloring the fluid is placed in a porous clay cell surrounded in 
 a glass vessel by a fluid consisting of i part of nitric acid and 20 
 parts of water. In this dilute acid is placed a platinum plate and 
 in the fluid in the clay cell the object to be colored, the latter 
 being connected with the negative pole of a battery. The colors 
 appear and change very rapidly. For coloring metals by the 
 galvanic current Matthey uses chiefly lead suboxide and ferric 
 oxide. Preparation of the lead solution : Boil 4 y 2 ozs. of litharge, or 
 better, massicot prepared by glowing for 10 minutes, red lead 
 with a solution of 16 ozs. of caustic potash in 1 quart of distilled 
 water. When cool pour off the clear fluid from the undissolved 
 lead oxide and dilute it with distilled water until it shows 24 or 
 25 0 Be'. Preserve the fluid in a well-stoppered bottle; when used 
 in the course of time it deposits potassium carbonate. It is then 
 boiled with caustic lime, allowed to settle, and the clear fluid is 
 again used. From time to time it must be again boiled with lead 
 
164 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 oxide. Preparation of the iron solution: This fluid may be frequently 
 used and in many cases is indispensable, it giving shades which 
 cannot be obtained with lead solution. It consists of an aqueous 
 solution of ferrous sulphate and ammonia, and is prepared by 
 mixing a freshly prepared solution of green vitriol in distilled 
 water free from air with some dilute sulphuric acid and with liquid 
 ammonia until the precipitate at first formed redissolves. The 
 solution thus prepared must be immediately used, it decomposing 
 on exposure to the air, ferric hydrate being separated. The colors 
 produced with this fluid are less durable than those obtained with 
 lead solution, but they are brighter and adhere as firmly as the blue 
 produced on steel by heating. Preparation of the objects to be 
 colored: Galvanic coloration should be preferably produced upon 
 a non-oxidizable layer of metal. Gold or a gilt surface, or 
 platinum is especially suitable as a base for the lead oxide 
 separating from the lead solution. Upon platinum it produces a 
 beautiful blue and upon gold, green. The coloration of silver is 
 not so good as that of other metals because its surface becomes 
 immediately dead by oxidation. The better the article to be 
 colored is polished, the brighter the colors obtained ; a surface 
 polished with the burnisher becomes more beautiful than one 
 simply polished with ferric oxide. Before coloring each article 
 should be carefully cleansed with an aqueous, or, still better, 
 alcoholic solution of potash. After cleansing the articles must 
 not be touched with the fingers or a cloth. As a galvanic ap¬ 
 paratus the inventor employs a small constant battery with two 
 elements. 
 
 Weil's Process of Producing Iridescent Copper Precipitates on 
 Iron. —The bath to be used is obtained by precipitating 35 parts of 
 sulphate of copper, or an equivalent quantity of another copper 
 salt by an alkali. The precipitated hydrated oxide of copper is 
 then added to a solution of 150 parts of potassium tartrate, and 
 this mixture to 1000 parts of water. By now adding 60 parts of 70 
 per cent, caustic soda a clear copper solution is obtained. The 
 object to be coppered is thoroughly treated with a scratch-brush in 
 a bath of a solution of potassium tartrate, then secured as cathode 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 165 
 
 to the wire of the negative pole and immersed in the bath. The 
 bath gives a well-adhering coating of copper, and can be continually 
 used by replacing the consumed copper by the addition of hydrated 
 oxide of copper ; the quantity of copper thus added must, however, 
 not be so large as to exceed the original proportion of hydrated 
 oxide of copper to potassium tartrate. If the latter be the case, an 
 iridescent film of a brass to bronze-color appearance, or of a red, 
 blue, and green color, according to the strength of the current, the 
 duration of the action, and the proportional quantity of hydrated 
 oxide of copper, is formed. These colors are very suitable for 
 industrial purposes, and their effect may be increased by covering 
 certain portions of the article so as to retain the original copper or 
 iron base. 
 
 Approved Coatings for Metals. —i. Black or Colored Coat. Dis¬ 
 solve flowers of sulphur, about 5 to 10 per cent., in hot oil of tur¬ 
 pentine, and gradually add to the solution, with constant stirring, 
 a corresponding quantity of linseed-oil varnish. A black paint is 
 obtained by the addition of solution of asphalt, and any other color 
 desired, by mixing with non-metallic coloring substances. This 
 paint protects the metal coated with it by superficially converting 
 it into sulphur combinations. 
 
 2. Golden Yellow to Brown Coat. —Place a sufficient quantity of 
 vulcanized rubber in small pieces in an earthen pot, provided with 
 a well-fitting lid, upon glowing coals for 5 minutes ; do not remove 
 the lid, as the vapors developed are very inflammable. Pour the 
 melted mass into a tin dish to cool; for the easier removal of the 
 cooled mass, it is advisable to slightly grease the tin dish. Next 
 break up the mass into small pieces, put them in a capacious bottle, 
 pour benzine and rectified oil of turpentine upon them, and shake 
 frequently until all is dissolved except a slight sediment. The 
 fluid poured off from the sediment is an excellent quickly drying 
 varnish, which adheres firmly to metals, and can also be recom¬ 
 mended for electrical apparatus. 
 
 3. Black Coat. —To obtain this, it is first necessary to procure 
 very good and pure platinum chloride. It is best prepared by dis¬ 
 solving platinum in aqua regia (3 parts hydrochloric acid and 1 part 
 
1G6 
 
 TnE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 nitric acid). By evaporating the solution, the desired platinum 
 chloride is obtained in the form of crystals, which are dissolved in 
 water. A very beautiful and durable black color is produced upon 
 the articles by dipping them into the solution, or coating them with 
 a sponge moistened with the solution. The same effect is also pro¬ 
 duced by allowing the crystals to deliquesce in the air, and vigor¬ 
 ously rubbing the metal with the moist powder by means of a piece 
 of leather, or smaller articles with the thumb or palm of the hand. 
 To obtain good results, the articles to be blackened must be given a 
 pure metallic surface by turning or in some other manner, be carefully 
 polished, and especially freed from adhering grease by rubbing with 
 Vienna lime, jeweler’s rouge, etc. Various shades of color can be 
 produced. The articles treated as above described are dead black ; 
 a lustrous black color is obtained by polishing with a soft piece of 
 leather moistened with oil, and a lustrous gray-black color by¬ 
 polishing with the burnisher or burnishing stone. The color, 
 especially when polished, is very durable, since platinum is not 
 changed by the action of the air. A black color may also be 
 obtained by the following process : First brush the article over 
 with nitric acid, and, after drying by heating, brush vigorously to 
 obtain uniformity. Then lay the article over a vessel containing 
 solution of liver of sulphur, and expose it to the action of the 
 developing sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 4. Beautiful Steel Gray. —This coating is obtained by the use of 
 a mixture prepared as follows: Triturate 3.85 grains of lamp¬ 
 black with 3 to 4 drops of gold-size oil in a dish to a homogeneous 
 coherent mass, and carefully dilute the latter with 24 drops of oil 
 of turpentine. This mixture is especially suitable for optical instru¬ 
 ments. Apply a very thin and uniform coating to the articles by 
 means of a fine brush, and allow to dry thoroughly. 
 
 New Process of Producing a Gold-colored Coating upon Small 
 Metallic Articles. —The articles of tombac or brass or similar sheet 
 ornamented with sunk ornamentations, inscriptions, names, etc., 
 are first pickled in the ordinary manner, then silvered in an or¬ 
 dinary silver-bath and finally brought into a bath consisting of 6 
 lbs. of distilled water, 1 oz. sodium hyposulphite and 0.35 oz. of 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 167 
 
 sugar of lead. Dissolve the sugar of lead by itself in water and 
 add the saturated solution to the solution of the sodium sulphite in 
 the water. Dip the silvered articles in this bath previously heated 
 to from 140° to 167° F. until they have acquired the correct gold- 
 color, which will require 2 or 3 minutes, according to the tempera¬ 
 ture of the bath. Articles with holes or eyes may be strung upon 
 wires and suspended in the bath; otherwise immersion suffices. 
 When taken from the bath the articles are rinsed in clean cold 
 water, rubbed with dry saw-dust and dried. 
 
 Colored Coatings for Metals .—These maybe obtained by forming 
 on the surfaces of the metals a coating of a thin film of a sulphide, 
 but the process requires in its application considerable experience. 
 The thorough cleaning of the articles from grease by immersion in 
 boiling potash lye and rinsing in water is absolutely necessary to suc¬ 
 cess. The process is as follows: In a quart of pure water dissolve 
 1 oz. of hyposulphite of sodium. Stir into this another solution 
 made by dissolving 1 oz. of acetate of lead in a pint of water. 
 
 For use heat the solution in a glass or earthenware pan to about 
 195 0 F. and immerse in it the metal to be colored. The coat¬ 
 ing is one of lead sulphide, and its depth of color will depend 
 upon the time the metal is immersed. In a few minutes brass ar¬ 
 ticles of small size may be coated with any color varying from 
 golden-yellow to the tint of clean copper or red gold to carmine, 
 down to dark red; from light analine-blue to bluish-white, then to 
 reddish-white or brown. Steel and iron articles may also be treated 
 and given a fine blue color without the aid of such great heat as is 
 necessary in “bluing” or oxidizing. Copper articles do not, of 
 course, show the lighter tints. If the cleaning is well done the 
 adhesion will be perfect, so perfect, indeed, that the burnisher may 
 be used with impunity ; but it is not prudent to use the scratch¬ 
 brush. Instead of burnishing, however, the surface may be fin¬ 
 ished by a soft and smooth buff, which will impart a lasting polish. 
 
 The solution will not keep long in the heated state, as it deposits 
 its sulphide upon the bottom of the vessel if no metals are present. 
 
 A beautiful red and green coloring can be given to brass articles 
 by omitting the lead and using in its stead an equal weight of sul- 
 
168 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 phuric acid. If the immersion continues the red changes to a 
 fine, brilliant green, and then to green and brown, with,a splendid 
 iris glitter. This coating is very durable and may be especially 
 recommended. 
 
 Coloring of Copper .—All shades from pale copper color to dark 
 chestnut-brown may be produced by a superficial oxidation of the 
 copper. Uniform heating over a spirit flame suffices for small ar¬ 
 ticles, while with larger objects a more uniform result is attained 
 by heating them in oxidizing fluids or coating with an oxidizing 
 paste. Excellent results are obtained with a paste prepared, ac¬ 
 cording to the darker or lighter shade desired, from 2 parts ferric 
 oxide and 1 part graphite, or 1 part ferric oxide and 1 part graphite, 
 and water or alcohol. This paste is uniformly applied with a brush 
 and the article thus treated put in a warm place. The darker the 
 color desired the higher the temperature must be and the longer it 
 must act upon the object. When the heat has sufficiently acted 
 upon the article the dried powder is removed by brushing with a 
 soft brush, and the manipulation repeated in case the shade is not 
 sufficiently dark. The article is finally rubbed with a soft linen 
 rag moistened with alcohol, or brushed with a soft brush and a few 
 drops of alcohol until it is completely dry, and then brushed over 
 with a brush previously rubbed upon pure wax. The more or less 
 dark shade produced in this manner is very warm and resists the 
 action of the air. 
 
 Brown Color upon Copper is obtained by the application to the 
 thoroughly cleansed surface of the object of a paste of 3 parts of 
 verdigris, 3 of ferric oxide, 1 of sal-ammoniac and vinegar, and 
 heating until the applied mixture turns black; the object is then 
 washed and dried. By the addition of some cupric sulphate (blue 
 vitriol) the color may be darkened to chestnut-brown. 
 
 A brown color is further obtained by brushing to dryness with a 
 hot solution of 1 part of potassium nitrate, 1 of common salt, 2 of 
 ammonium chloride and 1 of liquid ammonia in 95 parts of 
 vinegar. 
 
 Red-brown Color on Copper .—Make a paste of 2 parts of verdi¬ 
 gris, 2 of cinnabar, 5 of sal-ammoniac and 5 of alum with sufficient 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 169 
 
 vinegar. Apply this paste to the article and after heating over a 
 coal fire wash and repeat the process. 
 
 To Color Copper Blue-black. —Dip the article in a hot solution of 
 ix% drachms of liver of sulphur in i quart of water, moving it 
 constantly. Blue-gray shades are obtained with more dilute solu¬ 
 tions. It is difficult to give definite directions as to the length of 
 time the solution should be allowed to act, since this depends con¬ 
 siderably on its temperature and concentration. With some ex¬ 
 perience the correct treatment will, however, soon be learned. 
 
 Cuivre fume is prepared by coloring the copper or coppered ob¬ 
 jects blue-black with a solution of liver of sulphur, then rinsing 
 them and finally scratch-brushing, whereby the shade becomes 
 lighter. From raised portions, which are not to be dark, but show 
 the color of copper, the coloration is removed by polishing upon a 
 felt disk. 
 
 Steel-gray upon Copper. —To produce a steel-gray color upon 
 copper, dip the clean and pickled articles in a heated solution of 
 chloride of antimony in hydrochloric acid. By using a strong 
 galvanic current the articles may also be coated with a steel-gray 
 precipitate of arsenic in a heated arsenic-bath. 
 
 To Color Copper Dark Steel-gray .—For this purpose a pickle 
 consisting of i quart of hydrochloric acid, 0.125 quart of nitric 
 acid, 1 y 2 oz. of arsenious acid and a like quantity of iron filings 
 is recommended. 
 
 Various Colors upon Massive Copper. —First draw the article 
 through a pickle composed of sulphuric acid, 60 parts; hydro¬ 
 chloric acid, 24.5, and lampblack, 15.5; or, of nitric acid, 100 
 parts; hydrochloric, 1^ ; and lampblack, Then dissolve in a 
 quart of water 4.58 ozs. of sodium hyposulphite, and in another quart 
 of water 14.11 drachms of cupric sulphate (blue vitriol), 5.64 
 drachms of crystallized verdigris and 7.75 grains of sodium ar¬ 
 senate. Mix equal volumes of the two solutions, but no more 
 than is actually necessary for the work in hand, and heat to 167° 
 to 176° F. By dipping articles of copper, brass or nickel in the 
 hot solution they become immediately colored with the colors 
 mentioned below, one color passing within a few seconds into the 
 
170 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 other, and for this reason the effect must be constantly controlled 
 by frequently taking the objects from the bath. The colors succes¬ 
 sively formed are as follows: 
 
 Upon copper. 
 
 Orange, 
 Terra-cotta, 
 Red (pale), 
 Blood red, 
 Iridescent. 
 
 Upon brass. 
 
 Golden-yellow, 
 
 Lemon-color, 
 
 Orange, 
 
 Terra-cotta, 
 
 Olive-green. 
 
 Upon nickel. 
 
 Yellow, 
 
 Blue, 
 
 Iridescent. 
 
 Some of these colors being not very durable have to be pro¬ 
 tected by a coat of lacquer or paraffine. It is further necessary to 
 diligently move the articles so that all portions acquire the same 
 color. The bath decomposes rapidly, and hence only sufficient for 
 2 or 3 hours’ use should be mixed at one time. 
 
 Black upon Copper is produced by a heated pickle consisting of 
 2 parts of arsenic acid, 4 of concentrated hydrochloric acid, 1 of 
 sulphuric acid of 66° Be. and 24 of water. 
 
 Dead-black on Copper. —Brush the object over with a solution of 
 1 part of platinum chloride in 5 of water, or dip it into the solu¬ 
 tion. When dry rub it with a flannel rag moistened with a drop 
 of oil. A similar result is obtained by dipping the copper object 
 in a solution of nitrate of copper or of manganese and drying over 
 a coal fire. The manipulations are to be repeated until the forma¬ 
 tion of a uniform dead-black. 
 
 To Brown Copper .—The copper to be browned is scoured bright 
 with glass-paper, strongly heated over a coal fire, and brushed over 
 with the following solution : Crystallized acetate of copper, 5 
 parts; sal-ammoniac, 7; dilute acetic acid, 3; distilled water, 85. 
 Finally, rub the article with a solution of 1 part of wax in 4 parts 
 of oil of turpentine. 
 
 Browtiing Liquid for Copper.—Add acetic acid to 11 drachms of 
 spirit of sal-ammoniac until blue litmus paper dipped into the 
 liquid turns red. Then add 5^ drachms of sal-ammoniac and 
 sufficient water to make 2.11 pints. With the fluid thus obtained 
 repeatedly moisten the copper surfaces, rubbing after each applica¬ 
 tion until the desired brown tint is obtained. 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 171 
 
 Imitation of Genuine Patina .—Articles of copper and bronze 
 exposed for a long time to the action of the air acquire a beautiful 
 brown or green color, which considerably contributes to their 
 handsome appearance. This color is known as Aerugo nobilis 
 (noble rust), or patina. 
 
 Though there are many agents by means of which a layer of 
 patina can be produced upon the bronze, the coating thus obtained 
 cannot compare as regards beauty and durability with the genuine 
 patina. 
 
 In order to obtain a coating similar to genuine patina, it is recom¬ 
 mended to pursue as nearly as possible the same course by which 
 the latter is naturally formed. By the action of rain, which always 
 contains salts, though in very minute quantity, in solution, the 
 copper is attacked and basic salts of copper are formed upon the 
 surface, which are in the course of time converted by the action of 
 the carbonic acid of the air into basic copper carbonate. The 
 latter has a beautiful green color, and is found in nature as mala¬ 
 chite. But besides this process others also take place upon the 
 surface of the article, especially upon that of monuments erected in 
 large cities. The air of the latter is constantly charged with cer¬ 
 tain quantities of sulphur combinations, originating partially from 
 the putrefaction of excrements, etc., in the sewers, and partially 
 from the combustion of coal containing sulphur. Now, copper 
 being very sensitive to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen, a coat¬ 
 ing of black cupric sulphide is consequently formed upon the sur¬ 
 face of the object, which explains why bronze statues erected in 
 large cities frequently turn black. Dust and fine particles of soot, 
 which deposit themselves especially in the depressions of the object, 
 further contribute to their becoming black. Cupric sulphate has, 
 however, the property of becoming rapidly converted in the air into 
 copper sulphate, from which is again formed copper carbonate, or, 
 so to say, a coating of malachite. Genuine patina, especially that 
 observed on very antique statues, consists, therefore, of a very firmly 
 adhering coating of malachite. 
 
 To produce upon a statue a patina-like deposit, brush it over with 
 a very dilute solution of cupric nitrate, to which a small quantity 
 
172 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S nANDY-BOOK. 
 
 of common salt solution may be added. When entirely dry, brush 
 the statue with a fluid consisting of ioo parts of weak vinegar, 5 of 
 sal-ammoniac, and 1 of oxalic acid, and repeat the application 
 after drying. In the course of about one week the statue will 
 have acquired a green-brown color, resembling that of genuine 
 patina. 
 
 A finer coating, which more closely resembles genuine patina, is, 
 however, obtained by dipping the article into the solution of cupric 
 nitrate, and placing it in a room where a large quantity of carbonic 
 acid is developed, the fermenting-room of a distillery being espe¬ 
 cially adapted for this purpose, since the high temperature prevail¬ 
 ing therein promotes the formation of the green coating. The 
 progress can in this case be watched from day to day, and if in 
 about a week the statue has not acquired the desired coloration, the 
 application of the above-mentioned solution is repeated, this being 
 continued until the desired tint is obtained. The formation of the 
 patina under these conditions taking place in a similar manner as 
 in the open air, a very beautiful and durable coating is obtained. 
 
 For coating articles of brass with a green patina , apply a solution 
 prepared by dissolving 10 parts of copper in 20 of nitric acid, 
 diluting the solution with 150 parts of vinegar, and adding 5 parts 
 of sal-ammoniac. Allow the articles to stand a few days in the air, 
 and when a green coloration has made its appearance, brush them 
 with old linseed oil, and after a few days rub them with a soft 
 woollen rag. If after the application of the linseed oil the article 
 readily bronzes, a very beautiful patina will soon appear. 
 
 There are several methods of giving an agreeable brown patina 
 to medals. It is, however, most readily accomplished by heating 
 the medal in a spirit-flame, and then brushing with graphite. To 
 color a number of medals at the same time, dissolve 30 parts of 
 verdigris and 30 of sal-ammoniac in 100 of water, and add water 
 to the solution until a precipitate is no longer formed. Place the 
 medals without touching each other upon the bottom ©f a shallow 
 dish, pour the boiling hot solution over them, and allow them to 
 remain until they have acquired the desired tint, which should be 
 a fine brown. 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 173 
 
 Another Method of Imitating Genuine Patina is as follows : Pre¬ 
 pare a paint by triturating copper carbonate with a pale spirit var¬ 
 nish (sandarac varnish, white shellac varnish), and apply it to the 
 article with a brush. The greenish paint remains in the depres¬ 
 sions, and presents a patina-like appearance. Ordinary verdigris 
 gives a bluish color, and crystallized verdigris a pale-green color. 
 Various intermediate shades may be obtained by mixing these two 
 copper combinations. 
 
 Coloring of Brass and Bronzes. —Most of the directions given for 
 coloring copper are also available for brass and bronzes. Many 
 colorations on brass are effected, however, only with difficulty, and 
 are not entirely successful, as, for instance, coloring black with 
 liver of sulphur. As a pickle for the production of a 
 
 Lustrous Black on Brass The following solution serves : Dissolve 
 freshly precipitated carbonate of copper while still moist in strong 
 liquid ammonia, using sufficient of the copper salt that a small 
 excess remains undissolved, or in other words, that the ammonia 
 is saturated with copper. The carbonate of copper is prepared by 
 mixing the hot solutions of equal parts of cupric sulphate (blue 
 vitriol) and of soda, and filtering off and washing the precipitate. 
 
 Dilute the solution of the copper salt in ammonia with one- 
 fourth its volume of water, add 31 to 46 grains of graphite, and 
 heat to 95 0 or 104° F. Place the clean and pickled objects in this 
 pickle for a few minutes, until they show a full black shade, then 
 rinse in water, dip in hot water, and dry in sawdust. The solution 
 soon spoils, and hence no more than required for immediate use 
 should be prepared. 
 
 Steel-gray on Brass is obtained by the use of a mixture of 1 lb. 
 of strong hydrochloric acid with x pint of water, to which is added 
 5)^ ozs. of iron-filings and a like quantity of pulverized antimonic 
 sulphide. 
 
 Hydrochloric acid compounded with arsenious acid is also recom¬ 
 mended for this purpose. The mixture is brought into a lead 
 vessel, and the objects dipped into it should come in contact 
 with the lead of the vessel, or be wrapped around with a strip of 
 lead. 
 
174 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Gray color with a bluish tint tipon brass is produced with solu¬ 
 tion of antimonious chloride (butter of antimony), while a pure 
 steel-gray color is obtained with a hot solution of arsenious chloride 
 with a little water. 
 
 Straw-color to Brown through Golden Yellow and Tombac Color 
 on Brass may be obtained with a solution of carbonate of copper 
 in caustic soda lye. Dissolve 5.29 ozs. of caustic soda in 1 quart 
 of water and add 1^ ozs. of carbonate of copper. By using the 
 solution cold a dark golden-yellow is first formed, which finally 
 passes through pale brown into dark brown with a green lustre ; 
 with the hot solution the coloration is more rapidly effected. 
 
 Color Resembling Gold on Brass. —According to Dr. Kayser a 
 color resembling gold is obtained as follows: Dissolve 8*4 
 drachms of sodium hyposulphite in 17 drachms of water and add 
 5.64 drachms of solution of antimonious chloride ( liquor stibii 
 chlorati). Heat the mixture to boiling for some time, then filter 
 off the red precipitate formed, and after washing it several times 
 upon the filter with vinegar, suspend it in 2 or 3 quarts of hot 
 water; then heat and add concentrated soda lye until solution is 
 complete. In this hot solution dip the clean and pickled brass 
 objects, removing them frequently to see whether they have acquired 
 the desired coloration. The articles become gray by allowing 
 them to remain too long in the bath. 
 
 Brown Color, called Bronze Barbedienne, on Brass. —This beauti¬ 
 ful color may be produced as follows: Dissolve by vigorous shak¬ 
 ing in a bottle freshly precipitated arsenious sulphide in spirit of 
 sal-ammoniac, and compound the solution with antimonious sul¬ 
 phide until a slight permanent turbidity shows itself and the fluid 
 has acquired a deep yellow color. Heat the solution to 95 0 F. and 
 suspend the brass objects in it. They become at first golden-yellow 
 and then brown, but as they come from the bath with a dark, dirty 
 shade they must be several times scratch-brushed to bring out the 
 color. If after using it several times the solution does not work 
 satisfactorily add some antimonious sulphide. The solution decom¬ 
 poses rapidly and should be prepared fresh every time it is to be 
 used. 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 175 
 
 Bronze Barbedienne on Massive Brass or brassed articles of zinc 
 or iron may be produced as follows : Mix 3 parts of pentasulphide 
 of cntimony with 1 part of finely pulverized blood-stone, and 
 triturate the mixture with ammonium sulphide to a not too thickly- 
 fluid pigment. Apply this pigment to the objects with a brush, 
 and, after allowing it to dry in a drying chamber, remove the 
 powder by brushing with a soft brush. 
 
 To Color Brass Violet and Corn-flower Blue. —Dissolve in 1 
 quart of water 4^ ozs. of sodium hyposulphite, and in another 
 quart of water 1 oz. 3^ drachms of crystallized sugar of lead, and 
 mix the solutions. Heat the mixture to 176° F. and then immerse 
 the articles, moving them constantly. First a gold-yellow color¬ 
 ation appears which, however, soon passes into violet and blue, 
 and, if the bath be allowed to act further, into green. The action 
 is based upon the fact that in an excess of sodium hyposulphite a 
 solution of hyposulphite of lead is formed which decomposes slowly 
 and separates sulphide of lead, which precipitates upon the brass 
 objects and produces the various lustrous colors. 
 
 Similar lustrous colors are obtained by dissolving 2.11 ozs. of 
 pulverized tartar in 1 quart of water and 1 oz. of chloride of tin in 
 y 2 pint of water, mixing the solutions, heating and pouring the 
 clear mixture into a solution of 6.34 ozs. of sodium hyposulphite 
 in 1 pint of water. Heat this mixture to 176° F. and immerse the 
 pickled brass objects. 
 
 Ebermayer's Method of Coloring Brass. —In testing Ebermayer’s 
 directions Dr. George Langbein did not always obtain the same 
 results as those claimed by Ebermayer, and his observations are 
 added in parenthesis to every direction. 
 
 1. Sulphate of copper (green vitriol), 8 parts by weight; crystal¬ 
 lized sal-ammoniac, 2 ; water, 100, give by boiling a greenish color. 
 (The color is olive-green, and useful for many purposes. The 
 coloration succeeds, however, only upon massive brass, but not 
 upon brassed zinc.) 
 
 2. Potassium chlorate, xo parts by weight; sulphate of copper, 
 10 ; water, 1000, give by boiling a brown-orange to cinnamon-brown 
 color. (Only a yellow-orange color could be obtained.) 
 
176 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 3. By dissolving 8 parts by weight of sulphate of copper in 1000 
 of water, and adding 100 of caustic soda until a precipitate is 
 formed, and boiling the articles in the solution, a gray-brown color 
 is obtained, which can be made darker by the addition of col- 
 cothar. (Stains are readily formed ; upon brassed zinc a pleasant 
 pale brown is formed.) 
 
 4. With 50 parts by weight of caustic soda, 50 of sulphide of 
 antimony, and 500 of water a pale fig-brown color is produced. 
 (Fig-brown could not be obtained, the shade being rather dark 
 
 olive-green.') 
 
 5. By boiling 400 parts by weight of water, 25 of sulphide of 
 antimony, and 60 of calcined soda, and filtering the hot solution, 
 mineral kermes is precipitated. By taking of this 5 parts by weight 
 and heating with 5 of tartar, 400 of water, and 10 of sodium hypo¬ 
 sulphite, a beautiful steel-gray is obtained. (The result is tolerably 
 sure and good.) 
 
 6. Water, 400 parts by weight; potassium chlorate, 20 ; nickel 
 sulphide, 10, give, after boiling for some time, a brown color, which 
 is, however, not formed if the sheet has been pickled. (The brown 
 color obtained is not very pronounced.) 
 
 7. Water, 250 parts by weight; potassium chlorate, 5 ; carbonate 
 of nickel, 2 ; and nickel salt, 5, give, after boiling for some time, 
 a brown-yellow color playing into a magnificent red. (The results 
 obtained were only indifferent.) 
 
 8. Water, 250 parts by weight; potassium chlorate, 5 ; nickel 
 salt, 10, give a beautiful dark brown. (Upon massive brass a good 
 dark brown was obtained. The formula is, however, not available 
 for brassed zinc.) 
 
 To Brighten and Color Brass. —The work to be brightened and 
 colored is first annealed in a red-hot muffle, or over an open fire, 
 allowing the cooling to extend over one hour. The object of the 
 heating is to remove the grease or dirt that may have accumulated 
 during the process of fitting. Soft-soldered work, however, must be 
 annealed before being fitted together, and afterwards boiled in potash 
 lye ; this is also done with work having ornamental surfaces. Next, 
 it is immersed in a bath of dilute nitric acid, which may be made 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 177 
 
 with 2 or 3 parts of water and i of acid; but the old acid that 
 contains a small quantity of copper in solution is frequently pre¬ 
 ferred. The work is allowed to remain in this liquid for i or 2 
 hours, according to the strength of the acid; it is then well rinsed 
 in water, and scoured with sand applied with an ordinary scrubbing- 
 brush, and washed. The pickling bath is made by dissolving i 
 part of zinc in 3 of nitric acid of 36° Be., in a porcelain vessel, and 
 adding a mixture of 8 parts of nitric acid and 8 of sulphuric acid. 
 Heat is then applied, and when the liquid is boiling the work is 
 plunged into it for half a minute, or until the violent development 
 of nitrous vapor ceases, and the surface is becoming uniform. Then 
 it is plunged into clean water, and well rinsed to remove the acid. 
 The ordinary dark grayish-yellow tint, which is thus very often 
 produced, is removed on immersing the work again in nitric acid 
 for a very short time. Then it is plunged into clean or slightly 
 alkaline water, well rinsed to remove the acid, and plunged into 
 warm, dry beech or boxwood sawdust, and rubbed until quite dry. 
 To prevent the action of the atmosphere, it is lacquered ; if a green 
 tint is to be produced, the lacquer is colored with turmeric. A 
 dark grayish, but agreeable tint, is obtained by previously immersing 
 the work in a solution of white arsenic in hydrochloric acid, or in 
 a solution of bichloride of platinum, with the addition of some 
 vinegar, or rubbing with plumbago. 
 
 Antimo 7 iy Colors on Brass .—Dissolve *4 oz. of cream of tartar in 
 1 lb. of hot water, and add 1 y 2 or 2 ozs. of hydrochloric acid and a 
 like quantity of pulverized metallic antimony. By heating the 
 fluid to boiling and immersing the brass objects, the latter acquire 
 a beautiful lustrous color, a gold-yellow tint appearing first, which 
 is succeeded by a beautiful copper-red. By allowing the articles 
 to remain longer in the fluid, the copper-red passes into a beautiful 
 blue-violet, which is finally succeeded by a blue-gray. The colors 
 are constant, and do not change by exposure to the air. 
 
 Dead-black on Brass Instruments .—Place about a thimbleful of 
 lampblack on a smooth surface of glass or porcelain, drop 4 or 5 
 drops of gold size on it, and thoroughly incorporate the same with 
 a spatula. It should form a stiff paste. Use as little of the size as 
 12 
 
178 
 
 THE METAL WORKER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 possible, as an excess will give the coating a glossy, instead of the 
 desired dead finish. Add about double the volume of turpentine; 
 mix with a camel’s-hair brush, and apply to the surface to be 
 coated. 
 
 Deep Black-blue Stain on Brass .—A stain which produces a deep 
 black-blue layer on brass, and does not require coating with 
 lacquer, is prepared as follows: Dissolve by shaking in a tightly 
 closed vessel about ozs. of copper carbonate in 1 y 2 pint of 
 strong spirits of sal-ammoniac. The quantity of copper carbonate 
 used must be sufficiently large that a precipitate (hydrated oxide 
 of copper) is formed. The solution thus obtained is diluted with 
 about y 2 pint of water, and is immediately ready for use, but as a 
 rifle produces, after a few days, a darker and finer color than at the 
 start. The articles cleaned by filing or turning remain in the fluid 
 until they show the desired color. 
 
 Lustrous Gold or Green on Brass .—French articles of cast or 
 sheet brass are made of a cheap, pale-colored quality of brass, but 
 they have a beautiful gold color which gives them a fine appearance 
 and makes them more salable. To produce this color the follow¬ 
 ing process is used : Dissolve 4 parts each of caustic soda and milk 
 sugar in 100 parts of water. Heat the solution to boiling for a 
 quarter of an hour; remove the vessel containing the dark yellow 
 solution from the fire and add, with stirring, 4 parts of a cold sat¬ 
 urated solution of sulphate of copper. When the fluid has cooled 
 off to about 165° F., and after the separated suboxide of copper 
 has settled, the clean polished articles of brass are introduced into 
 it in a vessel of wood with perforated bottom. In about 2 minutes 
 the golden coloration will probably be dark enough, and the ar¬ 
 ticles are removed, washed and dried in saw dust. If the articles 
 are permitted to remain for a longer time in the liquid the yellow¬ 
 ish color at first developed will change to a lustrous bluish-green 
 and finally to iridescent colors. In order to obtain uniform colora¬ 
 tions the temperature must be maintained between 140° and 
 165° F. 
 
 The copper bath may be used repeatedly, and for this purpose 
 should be kept in a well-stoppered flask. When it has become 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 179 
 
 spent it may be revivified by the addition of i part of caustic soda, 
 sufficient water to replace that lost by evaporation, heating to boil¬ 
 ing and the addition of 2^ parts of sulphate of copper. If, in¬ 
 stead of milk-sugar, glycerine or a bitartrate is used, the colors 
 obtained are not so uniform. 
 
 Gold and Orange Stains for Brass. —Dip the articles in a mix¬ 
 ture of 3 drachms of caustic soda, 2 ozs. of water and 5 ]/ 2 drachms 
 of moist carbonate of copper. The shades of color appear in a 
 few minutes, and the progress can be readily judged and observed. 
 After obtaining the desired shade of color rinse the articles in 
 water and dry in fine saw-dust. 
 
 Beautiful Silver Color on Brass. —Dissolve in a well-glazed ves¬ 
 sel Of, ozs. of pulverized cream of tartar and drachms of tar¬ 
 tar emetic in 1 quart of hot water, and add to the solution 1^ ozs. 
 of hydrochloric acid, 4^ ozs. of granulated or, still better, pul¬ 
 verized tin and 1 oz. of pulverized antimony. Dip the articles to 
 be coated in the solution heated to the boiling point. After boil¬ 
 ing one-quarter to one-half hour they will be provided with a 
 beautiful lustrous coating, which is hard and durable. 
 
 New Bronze-color upon Brass and Copper. —A fluid for the pro¬ 
 duction of a brown bronze-color upon brass and copper consists of 
 acetate of copper, 5^ parts; sal-ammoniac, 7 ; acetic acid, 1 ; and 
 water, 100. The articles to which this fluid is to be applied must 
 before each application be vigorously heated over a coal fire, the 
 beautiful brown color frequently appearing only after thus treating 
 the article 20 or 25 times. With skilful manipulation the fluid 
 gives very good results. For coating cast-bronze wares a so-called 
 Paris bronze lacquer is sold, which consists simply of a solution of 
 shellac in alcohol with the addition of camphor. A solution of 1 
 part of shellac in 8 or xo of alcohol and adding part of cam¬ 
 phor rubbed up with a few drops of oil of lavender gives a lacquer 
 equal to the commercial article. 
 
 To Color Copper and Brass. —By dipping a piece of sheet brass, 
 brightly polished and perfectly clean, in a dilute solution of neu¬ 
 tral acetate of copper, which should contain not a trace of acid, at 
 a medium temperature for a few moments it acquires an extraor- 
 
180 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 dinarily beautiful golden-yellow color. By coating brightly-pol¬ 
 ished sheet brass a few times with a very dilute solution of chloride 
 of copper it appears deadened and greenish-gray bronzed. By 
 uniformly heating brightly-polished brass so that it can be handled 
 without burning the hands and brushing it over in this state as 
 rapidly and uniformly as possible with a tuft of cotton dipped in a 
 solution of chloride of antimony it acquires a beautiful violet color. 
 
 To Whiten Brass and Copper .—Small articles of brass and cop¬ 
 per may be whitened by boiling them in a solution of ^ lb. of 
 cream of tartar, 2 quarts of water and 1 lb. of grain tin or any 
 pure tin finely divided. The tin dissolves in the cream of tartar 
 and is again precipitated on the brass or copper. 
 
 To Blacken Small Iron Articles in bulk .—A deep black upon 
 small iron articles is produced by heating them in bulk in con¬ 
 nection with oiled saw-dust. For this purpose a strong sheet-iron 
 drum resembling a coffee-roaster is used. It consists of a cylin¬ 
 drical body provided on one end with a handle for turning, and 
 on the other with a funnel in the centre of which is the aperture 
 for charging. For the distribution of the contents strong iron 
 pins are rivetted into the body of the drum. When in use the drum 
 is slowly revolved over a coal or gas fire. The coloring agent 
 consists of an intimate mixture of 10 parts of dry saw-dust and 1 
 part of linseed oil. The saw-dust thus oiled is shaken in the drum 
 together with the articles to be blackened and exposed to the heat 
 while revolving the drum. The saw-dust undergoing combustion 
 evolves a thick smoke which cannot immediately escape from the 
 drum, it passing out slowly through the aperture in the funnel. 
 This smoke coats the articles with a firmly adhering black color. 
 Care must, however, be had not to expose the articles too long to 
 the heat as otherwise the beautiful black is replaced by a gray color. 
 Hence it is necessary to occasionally examine the articles as to 
 their color. When they show the proper black color the drum is 
 quickly emptied and the contents are spread out upon sheet-iron 
 to cool. 
 
 In mixing the saw-dust with oil care must be had not to exceed 
 the prescribed proportions, as with a larger quantity of oil the 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 181 
 
 saw-dust remains adhering to the articles and is very difficult to 
 remove. 
 
 Lustrous Black on Iron is obtained by the application of a solu¬ 
 tion of sulphur in spirits of turpentine prepared by boiling upon 
 the water bath. After the evaporation of the spirits of turpentine 
 a thin layer of sulphur remains upon the iron, which, on heating 
 the article, intimately combines with the metal. 
 
 By another method the cleansed and pickled iron articles are 
 coated when dry with linseed oil and heated to a dark red. If 
 pickling is omitted the coating with linseed oil and heating have 
 to be repeated twice or three times. 
 
 According to Meriten a lustrous black on iron is obtained by 
 placing the articles as anode in distilled water heated to 158° F. and 
 using an iron plate as cathode. A layer of ferroso-ferric oxide is 
 formed which, however, can only be obtained in a firmly adhering 
 state upon wrought-iron. The lustre appears by brushing with a 
 soft waxed brush. The current conducted into the bath must only 
 be strong enough to decompose the water without perceptible 
 development of gas. 
 
 Brown-black Coating with Bronze Lustre on Iron. —Heat the 
 bright iron objects and brush them over with a concentrated solu¬ 
 tion of potassium bichromate. When dry heat them over a char¬ 
 coal fire and wash until the water running off shows no longer a 
 yellow color. Repeat the operations twice or three times. A 
 similar coating is obtained by heating the iron objects with a solu¬ 
 tion of 10 parts of sulphate of iron (green vitriol) and 1 part of 
 sal-ammoniac in wat&r. 
 
 To give Iron a Silver-like Appearance with High Lustre .—Scour 
 the polished and pickled iron surfaces with a solution prepared as 
 follows : Heat moderately 1 ozs. of chloride of antimony, 0.35 oz. 
 of pulverized arsenious acid and 2.82 ozs. of elutriated blood-stone 
 with 1 quart of 90 per cent, alcohol upon a water bath for half an 
 hour. A partial solution takes place. Dip into this fluid a tuft of 
 cotton and go over the iron portions, using slight pressure. A thin 
 film of arsenic and antimony is thereby precipitated, which is the 
 
182 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 more lustrous the more carefully the iron had been previously 
 polished. 
 
 To Color Iron and Steel Blue. —Polish and cleanse the article 
 thoroughly with lime and then brush it over with the following 
 mixture : Butter of antimony, 8 parts ; fuming nitric acid, 8; and 
 hydrochloric acid, 16. Add the hydrochloric acid very slowly 
 and drop by drop to avoid heating. Apply the mixture to the 
 steel with a rag and rub with green, young oak wood until the 
 desired blue color is produced. 
 
 According to BSttger a durable blue on iron and steel may be 
 obtained by dipping the article in a y 2 per cent, solution of potas¬ 
 sium ferricyanide (red prussiate of potash) mixed with an equal 
 volume of a y 2 per cent, solution of ferric chloride. 
 
 To Color Iron and Steel Gray. —Polish the article, and coat it 
 with a mixture of butter of antimony, 8 parts, and sulphuric acid, 
 2 parts. If the color does not turn out handsome enough add a 
 few drops of acetic acid. 
 
 Thieraulf s Process for Coloring Wrought-iroa and Steel. —Thier- 
 ault has invented a process for coloring iron and steel which is in¬ 
 tended at the same time to protect the materials from rust and in¬ 
 crease the beauty of their appearance. The process has been intro¬ 
 duced in practice and has proved useful. In the patent specification 
 the following mixtures are mentioned as suitable for the execution of 
 the process. Fluid No. I contains chloride of mercury and sal-am¬ 
 moniac; No. 2 contains chloride of iron, sulphate of copper, 
 nitric acid, alcohol and water; No. j, ferrous chloride besides 
 nitric acid, alcohol and water; and No. 4, a weak solution of 
 potassium sulphide. The articles are thoroughly cleansed from 
 grease by immersion in boiling potash lye and rinsing in water, 
 and when dry are twice brushed over with a sponge slightly satu¬ 
 rated with fluid No. 1, the second layer being applied when the 
 crust of oxide formed upon the metal is entirely dry and has been 
 rubbed off with a scratch-brush and iron filings and dried with 
 linen. The remaining operations are executed in the same 
 manner. Several layers of fluid No. 2 are next applied and then 
 fluid No. 3, the sponge being thoroughly soaked with the latter, 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 183 
 
 After drying io minutes the articles are thrown into a bath of water 
 at 194 0 to 212 0 F., in which they remain for 5 to 10 minutes 
 according to their bulk. When taken out and dried, a few more 
 layers of fluid No. 3 are applied, next a layer of fluid No. 4, and 
 then the articles are again immersed in hot water. When taken 
 from the bath they are wiped off and receive several more layers of 
 fluid No. 3 diluted for this purpose with water. They are then 
 coated with a thin film of olive oil, washed off, immersed in water 
 at 140° F. and, when taken out, rubbed thoroughly first with a 
 woolen rag and finally with a little olive oil. Articles of iron and 
 steel thus treated have a beautiful black, lustrous appearance, 
 especially when polished. 
 
 To Blue Small Articles of Sheet-steel. —Dip the articles in a fluid 
 alloy composed of lead, 25 parts; and tin, 1 part, which is melted 
 at the degree of heat required for bluing. The immersion may 
 also be effected in a sand bath heated to and maintained at the 
 required temperature, 572 0 F. for dark blue, 478° F. for pale blue. 
 
 To Blue Small Articles of Iron and Steel so as to leave Portions 
 of them Bright.- —The ground and finely polished work is blued, 
 which is best effected over a thick iron plate heated red-hot. In 
 order to insure uniformity the work should not be laid directly 
 upon the plate, but held at some distance over it. The bluing 
 being effected, which will be the finer and more durable the better 
 and more compact the material used in the work, the places which 
 are to remain blue are covered with an oil paint and allowed to 
 dry somewhat. Heated wine vinegar is then poured over the 
 whole, whereby the places not covered by the oil paint immediately 
 become bright. By using the wine vinegar cold it must act about 
 5 minutes, and the surface obtained is not lustrous but a dead 
 white. After the treatment with vinegar the work is dipped into 
 cold water. The oil paint is then removed, which is readily 
 effected. By this method the bright places retain their polish and 
 show great lustre. 
 
 Coloring of Gold. —To impart to articles of gold alloys a color 
 approaching that of chemically pure gold they are treated with a 
 pickle which dissolves the copper and silver on the surface of the 
 
184 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S nANRY-BOOK. 
 
 alloy and exposes a layer of pure gold. The composition of this 
 pickle is such that some gold is also dissolved, but it precipitates 
 at once upon the surface of the object, and thus effects the actual 
 coloring. The composition for coloring gold articles consists of 
 decrepitated common salt, 4^ ozs. ; saltpetre, 8.11 ozs. ; and 
 hydrochloric acid, 6 ozs. The two salts are finely powdered and 
 intimately mixed, and the hydrochloric acid poured over them. 
 The mixture is boiled until chlorine develops. Suspend the gold 
 articles to be colored to a glass-hook or platinum wire and im¬ 
 merse them in the boiling mixture; take them out after 3 to 5 
 minutes and rinse in boiling water. If the desired color is attained 
 throw the objects into a vessel filled with water, where they remain 
 until all the objects are colored. Then dip them successively in 
 boiling water and dry quickly. If the proper degree of coloration 
 has not been attained repeat the immersion in the bath. By the 
 chlorine developed in the coloring bath chlorides of copper, silver 
 and gold are formed. The latter are, however, in consequence 
 of the content of copper in the alloy, decomposed and the pure 
 gold is precipitated in a more or less thick layer. As in coloring 
 gold it is absolutely necessary to employ a fluid which develops 
 chlorine in abundance, dilute aqua regia compounded with a cor¬ 
 responding quantity of common salt may be directly used in case 
 the alloy contains silver. A suitable mixture is as follows: Con¬ 
 centrated hydrochloric acid, 31 parts by weight; concentrated 
 nitric acid, 10; common salt, 20; and water, 40. In this bath 
 the articles must remain only a very short time, as otherwise the 
 surface becomes dead and lustreless. 
 
 Bronze-like Patina upon Tin .—Brush the object over with a 
 solution of 1^ ozs. of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) and a like 
 quantity of ferrous sulphate (green vitriol) in 1 quart of water, and 
 moisten the dried object with a solution of 3)^ ozs. of verdigris in 
 10^2 ozs. of vinegar. When dry, polish the object with a soft brush 
 rubbed upon wax and some ferric oxide. The coating thus obtained 
 being not especially durable must be protected by a coating of 
 lacquer. 
 
 Sepia-brown on Tin and its Alloys .—Brush the object over with a 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 185 
 
 solution of i part of platinum chloride in io of water, allow the 
 coating to dry, then rinse in water, and, after again allowing to 
 dry, brush with a soft brush until the desired brown lustre 
 appears. 
 
 A dark coloration is also obtained with a solution of ferric 
 chloride. 
 
 Coloring Zinc. —The results obtained by coloring zinc directly 
 according to existing directions cannot be relied on, and it is, 
 therefore, recommended to first copper the zinc and then color the 
 coppering. Experiments in coloring zinc black with alcoholic 
 solution of chloride of antimony according to Dullos’s process 
 gave no useful results. Puscher’s method is better; according to it 
 the articles are dipped in a boiling solution of 5.64 ozs. of pure 
 green vitriol and 3.17 ozs. of sal-ammoniac in 2^ quarts of water. 
 The loose, black precipitate deposited upon the articles is removed 
 by brushing, the article again dipped in the hot solution and then 
 held over a coal-fire until the ammonia salt evaporates. By repeat¬ 
 ing the operation three or four times a firmly-adhering black coat¬ 
 ing is formed. To color zinc black with nitrate of manganese, as 
 proposed by Neumanns, is a tedious operation, it requiring to be 
 repeated seven or eight times. It is done by dipping the article 
 in a solution of nitrate of manganese and heating over a coal-fire, 
 the manipulations being repeated until a uniform dead-black is 
 formed. 
 
 By suspending zinc in a nickel-bath slightly acidulated with sul¬ 
 phuric acid, a firmly adhering blue-black coating is after some time 
 formed without the use of a current. This coating is useful for 
 many purposes. A similar result is attained by immersing the 
 zinc articles in a solution of 2.11 ozs. of the double sulphate of 
 nickel and ammonium and a like quantity of sal-ammoniac in x 
 quart of water. The articles become first dark yellow, then suc¬ 
 cessively, brown, purple-violet and indigo-blue , and stand slight 
 scratch-brushing and polishing. 
 
 Gray Coating on Zinc is obtained by a precipitation of arsenic 
 in a heated bath of 2.82 ozs. of arsenious acid, 8.46 drachms of 
 sodium pyrophosphate and 1^ drachms of 98 per cent, potassium 
 
18C 
 
 TPIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 cyanide to i quart of water. A strong current should be used so 
 that a vigorous development of hydrogen is perceptible. Platinum 
 sheets or carbon plates are used as anodes. 
 
 Green Coating on Zinc. —Zinc articles maybe provided with a 
 permanent dark or light green coating resembling enamel as fol¬ 
 lows: Dissolve 50 parts of hyposulphite of sodium in 500 of boil¬ 
 ing water, and at once pour the solution in a fine stream into 25 
 parts of sulphuric acid. The milk of sulphur that separates will 
 soon ball together in lumps and settle. The hot liquid containing 
 sulphate of sodium and sulphurous acid is decanted and the 
 cleansed zinc placed in it. In a short time it will acquire a very 
 brilliant light-green coating, which only needs to be washed and 
 dried. By exposing it for a longer time to this hot bath the coat¬ 
 ing grows thicker and the color darker and more brilliant. To 
 insure a fine, brilliant deposit the temperature should not be allowed 
 to fall below 145° F. By dipping the articles thus treated in 
 diluted hydrochloric acid (1 acid to 3 water) sulphuretted hydrogen 
 is evolved, and this enamel-like coating loses its lustre and becomes 
 lighter in color. Aqueous solutions of aniline colors have little 
 effect upon this dull surface, and none whatever on the brilliant 
 coating. 
 
 The effect of marbling may be obtained by moistening the gray 
 zinc and applying hydrochloric acid in spots with a sponge, then 
 rinsing off and, while still wet, flowing over it an acidified solution 
 of sulphate of copper which produces the appearance of black 
 marble. As this has a dull surface it should be varnished. 
 
 By adding 15 parts of chrome alum and 15 more of the hyposul¬ 
 phite to the above solution, the article treated will take on a 
 brownish color. 
 
 Bronze-color on Zinc. —A sort of bronzing on zinc is obtained 
 by rubbing it with a paste of pipe-clay to which has been added a 
 solution of 1 part by weight of crystallized verdigris, 1 of tartar 
 and 2 of crystallized soda. 
 
 Copper-red on Zinc. —Immerse the article in a bath of chloride 
 of copper dissolved in spirits of sal-ammoniac. If the color is to 
 have a yellowish tone add some crystallized verdigris. 
 
BRONZING AND COLORING. 
 
 187 
 
 Red-brownish Color on Zinc. —Rub with a solution of chloride 
 of copper in liquid ammonia. 
 
 Yellow-brown Shades on Zinc. —Rub with a solution of chloride 
 of copper in vinegar. 
 
 To Brown Gun-barrels. —Mix chloride of antimony to a creamy 
 consistency with olive oil. Apply the mixture evenly to the heated 4 
 barrel, allow it to act for 12 to 24 hours, then remove the excess 
 with a woolen rag and repeat the operation. After the second ap¬ 
 plication has acted for 12 to 24 hours, the iron or steel is covered 
 with a bronze-like layer of ferric oxide and antimony, which resists 
 the action of the air and may be made lustrous by brushing with a 
 waxed brush. The sharpening of the chloride of antimony can be 
 effected by adding a little nitric acid to the paste of olive oil and 
 chloride of antimony so as to hasten the operation. Another 
 formula is, nitric acid, 1.5 parts; sweet spirit of nitre, 1.5; 
 rectified alcohol, 3 ; blue vitriol, 6; tincture of chloride of iron, 
 
 3; distilled water, 100. Dissolve the blue vitriol in the water, 
 then add the other materials. The burnishing and marking can be 
 effected with the burnisher and scratch-brush. The polishing is 
 best effected by rubbing with a piece of smooth, hard wood, called 
 polishing wood. The barrel is finely varnished with shellac var¬ 
 nish and again polished with the hard-wood polisher. Some prefer 
 the tone of brown produced by blue vitriol, 5 parts; sweet spirit 
 of nitre, 5 ; water, 100. In any case the surface of the iron must 
 be well cleansed and rendered quite bright; it is then freed from 
 grease by rubbing with whiting and water, or better, with powdered 
 quick lime and water. The browning composition is then put 
 on and allowed to remain 24 hours. It is then rubbed off with a 
 stiff brush. If not sufficiently browned repeat the last process after 
 browning. Clean the surface well with hot water containing a 
 little soda or potash, and, lastly, with boiling water, and dry it. 
 The surface can be burnished and polished. Varnish with tin¬ 
 smith’s lacquer, or with gum shellac, 2 ozs. ; dragon’s blood, 3 
 drachms; methylated spirit of wine, 4 pints. The metal should 
 be made hot before-applying this varnish, and it will present an 
 excellent appearance. If the varnish is not required to color, but 
 
188 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 only to preserve the actual tint produced on the metal surface by 
 the browning fluid, leave out the dragon’s blood. 
 
 Another Method of Browning Gun-barrels is as follows : Mix 
 16 parts of sweet spirit of nitre, 12 parts of a solution of sulphate 
 of iron, a like quantity of butter of antimony and 16 parts of sul¬ 
 phate of copper. Let the mixture stand in a well-corked bottle in 
 a moderately warm place for 24 hours, then add 500 parts of rain 
 water and put it away for use. 
 
 After the barrel has been rubbed with emery paper and polished, 
 wash it with fresh lime water, dry thoroughly, and then coat it over 
 uniformly with the above mixture ; it is best to use a tuft of cotton. 
 Let it dry for 24 hours and then brush it with a scratch-brush. Re¬ 
 peat the coating and drying twice, but in rubbing off for the last 
 time use leather moistened with olive oil in place of the scratch¬ 
 brush, and rub until a beautiful lustre is produced, then let it dry 
 for 12 hours and repeat the polishing with sweet oil. 
 
 To Blacken Damasked Gun-barrels. —The finely polished barrel 
 is coated by means of a woolen rag with a very thin layer of olive 
 oil and then dusted over with hard-wood ash. It is next blackened 
 by heating over glowing coals, and after removal from the fire 
 allowed to cool. When cool it is brushed over with water con¬ 
 taining a few drops of hydrochloric acid to the pint and then 
 quickly washed with tow or coarse linen and water. Of the dam¬ 
 ask thus treated the steel portions become white, while the iron 
 portions appear black. When the operation is finished the barrel 
 is carefully dried and finally rubbed with oil. 
 
 To Brown Medals and Coins. —Boil a solution of 2 parts of 
 verdigris and 1 of sal-ammoniac in vinegar, and after removing the 
 scum, dilute with water until it shows only a slight metallic taste 
 and no more white precipitate is formed. Pour off the fluid from 
 the precipitate, bring it to the boiling point as rapidly as possible, 
 and immediately pour it over the polished and clean medals, which 
 should rest with the edges upon a wooden or copper grate on the 
 bottom of the vessel in such a manner that only two points of the 
 periphery touch the bars of the grate. Examine at least every five 
 minutes whether the desired color has been obtained, because by 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 189 
 
 remaining too long in the fluid the coating becomes scaly and dead. 
 When the medals have acquired an agreeable, red-brown, lustrous 
 color pour off the solution and immediately wash carefully and 
 repeatedly with much water. The solution used, which has become 
 concentrated by boiling, can be again employed by diluting with 
 water and some vinegar. The more dilute the solution, the slower 
 the process of browning takes place; the success of the operation 
 is, however, also more certain. A too strong solution gives a coat¬ 
 ing which peels off on rubbing. 
 
 VII. 
 
 CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 A metal to be suitable for casting should possess the following 
 properties: i. It must be fusible without great difficulty. 2. The 
 casting made of it must show a homogeneous structure. 3. It must 
 fill out the mould sharply and accurately. 
 
 Gray pig-iron especially excels in these three points, its ap¬ 
 plicability for so many purposes depending on these properties; 
 next come the metallic alloys, brass, bronze, gun-metal, type-metal 
 and the various mixtures of lead and tin. It will be readily under¬ 
 stood that a thickly-fluid metal cannot penetrate into the fine 
 depressions, and hence, will not fill the mould accurately, this 
 being especially noticeable with tin by itself. On the other hand a 
 mixture of tin, lead and bismuth is very thinly liquid. At a higher 
 temperature white pig-iron becomes pasty, and consequently is not 
 suitable for casting. 
 
 Shrinking of Metals in Casting .—With the exception of cast-iron 
 all metals in congealing have the property of contracting, i. e., of 
 occupying a smaller space; a further contraction takes place during 
 the cooling of the congealed metal. The volume of cast-iron in¬ 
 creases at the moment of congelation, and consequently the sides 
 of the mould, if yielding as in ordinary sand moulds, will be forced 
 
190 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 apart. After congealing the ordinary contraction also takes place 
 in iron. 
 
 Hence, all castings when completely cooled off will be smaller 
 than the pattern or the mould. This contraction of the metals in 
 casting is called “shrinking.” If, therefore, a casting is to fit 
 other pieces already finished or designed of determined size the 
 pattern must be made larger, in proportion to the shrinkage. 
 
 The pattern is the model of which the casting is to be the copy, 
 but an intermediate stage is necessary, namely, the mould, which 
 represents in hollows the projections which must appear on the 
 finished casting. Each of these articles, namely, the pattern, the 
 mould and the casting, is generally made in different materials, 
 each of which is subject to certain alterations in size and shape, 
 dependent upon the degree of heat to which it may be exposed, or 
 upon changes in dryness or moisture. Thus, from the original 
 design or drawing a pattern is made, most frequently in wood, 
 which is then transferred to the mould; this varies in materials 
 according to the nature of the work into which finally the molten 
 metal is poured. In view of these circumstances, and certain 
 known properties of materials at different temperatures, allowances 
 have to be made for shrinkage, etc. The casting itself contracts 
 in cooling to an extent which is pretty well, but by no means ac¬ 
 curately ascertained, and for which a regular allowance is made. 
 Thus, in large, heavy castings, inch is added to every foot of 
 length in the pattern, which is found in practice sufficient to allow 
 for the contraction of the metal on cooling, combined as it is with 
 the slight increase in the size of the mould over the pattern. In 
 small castings inch to the foot, or about i per cent., is suf¬ 
 ficient. 
 
 The following table gives the results of practical observations on 
 the shrinkage of metals in casting, and is very simple in applica¬ 
 tion. Thus, a cast-iron girder 20 feet long must have a pattern 
 0.1246 X 20 = 2.492 inches longer than itself, but a pattern 20 
 feet long would give a casting 0.1236 X 20 = 2.472 inches shorter 
 than itself. 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 191 
 
 Contraction of Metals in Casting. 
 
 Cast-iron girder. 
 
 tt tt 
 
 Gun-metal bar. 
 
 it it 
 
 (( tt 
 
 it tt 
 
 tt tt 
 
 tt tt 
 
 ft it 
 
 (( tt 
 
 «« << 
 
 Copper and tin; copper, 
 1.3; tin, ro. 
 
 it a ti 
 
 tt it it 
 
 ft ft ft 
 
 ft ft ft 
 
 Yellow brass . 
 
 Copper. :.... 
 
 ft 
 
 if 
 
 ft 
 
 Lead (mould)... 
 Zinc cast in iron, 
 
 if ft 
 
 tt ft 
 
 Length 
 
 
 Contraction. 
 
 
 of 
 
 pattern. 
 
 Total in 
 inches. 
 
 Per foot 
 of 
 
 pattern. 
 
 Per foot 
 of 
 
 casting. 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 21 
 
 in. 
 
 8X 
 
 3-1 
 
 0.1236 
 
 0.1246 
 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 2.05 
 
 0.1225 
 
 0.1236 
 
 
 5 
 
 4 % 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.18568 
 
 0.1886 
 
 Maximum 
 
 S 
 
 7 U 
 
 0.936 
 
 0.1653 
 
 0.1676 
 
 
 “ 
 
 
 0.97 
 
 0.1713 
 
 0.1737 
 
 
 6 
 
 °x 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.1616 
 
 0.1684 
 
 
 5 
 
 6tV 
 
 it 
 
 0.92 
 
 0.1671 
 
 0.1695 
 
 
 ft 
 
 0.90 
 
 0.1635 
 
 0.1657 
 
 
 it 
 
 
 0.88 
 
 0.1598 
 
 0.1620 
 
 
 it 
 
 if 
 
 0.84 
 
 0.1526 
 
 0.1545 
 
 Minimum 
 
 5 
 
 ft 3 
 °T5 
 
 0.895 
 
 0.1607 
 
 0.1623 
 
 0.1632 
 
 0.1645 
 
 Mean of 8 
 
 Maximum 
 
 “ 
 
 tt 
 
 0.880 
 
 0.1595 
 
 0.1617 
 
 
 it 
 
 tt 
 
 0.880 
 
 0-1595 
 
 0.1617 
 
 
 it 
 
 it 
 
 0.855 
 
 0.1550 
 
 0.1570 
 
 Minimum 
 
 it 
 
 a 
 
 
 0.1591 
 
 0.1612 
 
 Mean of 4 
 
 2 
 
 9 '/s 
 
 5 
 
 0.1811 
 
 0.1839 
 
 7 
 
 iof 8 
 
 i -54 
 
 0.1948 
 
 0.1980 
 
 Minimum 
 
 7 
 
 5 /s 
 
 1.465 
 
 0.1972 
 
 0.2005 
 
 
 it 
 
 tt 
 
 
 0.1972 
 
 0.2005 
 
 Maximum 
 
 2 
 
 O 
 
 0.21 
 
 0.1964 
 
 0.1050 
 
 0.1996 
 
 0.1059 
 
 Mean of 4 
 
 2 
 
 A 3 
 °T5 
 
 0.455 
 
 0.2257 
 
 0.2301 
 
 Minimum 
 
 it 
 
 it 
 
 0.465 
 
 0.2307 
 
 0.2352 
 
 Maximum 
 
 it 
 
 ft 
 
 
 0.2282 
 
 0.2326 
 
 Mean of 2 
 
 For practical purposes the following may be taken as sufficient 
 approximations: 
 
 In locomotive cylinders 
 
 In pipes = 
 
 Girders, beams, etc. = in 15 inches. 
 
 Engine beams, connecting rods = % in 16 inches. 
 
 In large cylinders, say 70-inch diameter, 
 
 10 feet stroke, the contraction of diameter = at top. 
 
 Ditto = y 2 at bottom. 
 
 Ditto in length = y& in 16 inches. 
 
192 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 In thin brass 
 In thick brass 
 In zinc 
 In lead 
 In copper 
 In bismuth 
 Ill tin 
 
 = yfa in 9 inches. 
 
 = *4 in io inches. 
 = t 5 j in a foot, 
 from '/% to in a foot. 
 = t 3 j in a foot. 
 
 = in a foot, 
 from x * 2 to in a foot. 
 
 Easy Rule to Find Approximate Weight of Castings. —Thickness 
 in Yq of inches X width in of inches X length in feet = lbs. 
 weight cast-iron; for lead add to the result one-half; for brass 
 add one-seventh, and for copper one-fifth. 
 
 Weight of Castings. —The following table gives the weight of a 
 pattern weighing i lb. when cast in different metals: 
 
 A pattern weighing 1 lb. 
 
 
 Will w 
 
 eigh when cast in 
 
 
 Cast-iron. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Yellow 
 
 brass. 
 
 Gun-metal 
 
 Mahogany. 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 IO 
 
 9.8 
 
 IO 
 
 White pine. 
 
 14 
 
 14-5 
 
 18 
 
 17-5 
 
 17.8 
 
 Yellow pine. 
 
 13 
 
 12.6 
 
 16 
 
 15-5 
 
 16 
 
 Cedar. 
 
 11.5 
 
 11 4 
 
 14.5 
 
 14 
 
 14-5 
 
 Maple. 
 
 IO 
 
 9.8 
 
 12.5 
 
 12 
 
 12.4 
 
 Moulding Sand for Castings of Ingot-iron. —This mass serves for 
 the manufacture of dense and smooth castings of ingot-iron, and 
 consists of a mixture of from 1464 to 1831 cubic inches of sharply- 
 burnt, pulverized and entirely pure refractory clay with 61 cubic 
 inches of sugar, 2 quarts of water and \ quart of paraffine oil. 
 Before use the mixture is several times sifted to insure a uniform 
 distribution of the moisture; an admixture of silicic acid, lime, 
 magnesia or charcoal must be carefully avoided. 
 
 To Prevent the Baking of Moulding Sand. —Moulding sand con¬ 
 sists chiefly of quartz sand and clay, the latter serving as a cement 
 for the former. The availability of the sand for moulding is 
 dependent on its fineness and the proportion of the above- 
 mentioned constituents. The content of clay, on the one hand, 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 193 
 
 must not be so large that the sand becomes hard by the slight 
 glowing caused by contact with the fluid metal, and, on the other, 
 must be sufficiently large to impart to the sand the required 
 coherence after moistening and pressing together. The baking of 
 moulding sand is decreased by an addition of soot and coal powder, 
 and promoted by an addition of beer yeast, beer, molasses, rye- 
 flour, etc. A content of lime is injurious to moulding sand. In 
 many places available moulding sand is found which need only to 
 be comminuted and sifted to be ready for use. Where such natural 
 moulding sand cannot be had, it may be prepared by mixing 93 
 parts of pure quartz sand with 7 parts of clay free from lime. 
 Moulding sand which has been used and has partially lost its 
 cementing power can be restored by mixing with fresh sand. 
 Moulding sand should not be stored in the open air, since the finer 
 particles of clay are washed out by the rain. 
 
 Moulding a?id Moulds .—Almost all general machine moulding 
 is done in green sand, which is moulding sand, moistened suf¬ 
 ficiently to cause it to adhere; and work in which particular care 
 is to be taken is done in dry sand. This is sand which has been 
 dampened, the same as green sand, and then put in an oven and 
 thoroughly dried, which sets the mould in shape. It is claimed 
 that by thus drying the sand the casting will be saved from sand- 
 holes. Another advantage of dry sand moulding is that the mould 
 can be tipped on end and make the casting endwise to insure 
 soundness, as the pressure of the metal from above causes a solid 
 settlement towards the bottom of the casting. Thus it is claimed 
 by this method that a more solid and sounder casting can be made 
 than by the use of green sand, in which the casting must be done 
 flat, as the sand would not otherwise adhere and the mould would 
 be spoiled. The first step in moulding, after the moulder receives 
 his pattern of the article to be cast from the pattern-maker, is the 
 making of the flask or box in which moulding sand and the pattern 
 are to be placed. This flask is built upon the idea of allowing 
 room for the pattern and moulding sand. The flask is generally a 
 box of pine wood or iron. The white pine flask must be made 
 strong enough to stand the pressure of metal and the weight of 
 13 
 
194 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 sand in the box. The pine boards are put together with dowel 
 pins, so that when the flask is taken apart it can be easily made up 
 again. 
 
 Wooden flasks are made for green sand moulding, but all flasks 
 made for dry sand moulding are made of iron, because these 
 moulds have to be put in an oven and kept there until the sand is 
 thoroughly dry, and the pine boards would not stand the heat. In 
 flasks for both green and dry sand moulding there are bars sticking 
 from the upper and side interior surface of the flask to hold the 
 sand in place. Some of these bars have little pieces set on at right 
 angles to the end, or little hooks, which aid in holding the sand 
 in place in addition to the adhesiveness caused by the dampening 
 in the green sand and afterwards by the drying or baking of the 
 dry sand mould. These bars extend from the interior surface of 
 the flask to within a few inches of the pattern, and without them 
 the sand would probably not hold its form after the pattern is 
 withdrawn. The flask is generally made of three or more pieces 
 so that it can be taken apart and the pattern taken out after the 
 mould is formed. The flask having been prepared, a certain 
 quantity of the wet or dampened moulding sand is taken and 
 rammed down hard into place, and then the pattern is put in and 
 covered up with damp moulding sand, which is also rammed down 
 firm. After the pattern is covered up and the whole interior flask 
 filled up, it is secured and the whole allowed to rest a while until 
 it is thoroughly set and the pattern is taken out, the upper part of 
 the flask and mould replaced, and the mould is ready for the metal. 
 The dry sand flask, after being thoroughly and solidly filled with 
 wet sand, is carried to the oven and baked until the sand is thor¬ 
 oughly dry and set, the time depending on the size of the flask and 
 the amount of sand. Then it is removed, the pattern taken out, 
 and the mould is ready for the casting. The dry sand mould being 
 baked holds together very well, as may be easily understood, but 
 it appears singular that the green sand will hold together, but such 
 is the adhesive powder of the wet sand and the arrangement of 
 the holding bars, that it almost invariably does. The cases of the 
 breaking of moulds because the sand does not hold are not frequent, 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 195 
 
 and the main loss of moulds comes from the breaking of the flasks, 
 which sometimes give way when the metal is being poured in, 
 owing to the great weight of metal and sand combined, which the 
 flask is not strong enough to sustain. This occurs mainly in large 
 castings, and naturally the losses are very serious, it being often¬ 
 times very difficult to recover the molten metal, which becomes 
 mixed with the sand, and get it in condition for casting again. 
 The casting being generally large, the losses of this character are 
 mostly heavy ones. 
 
 Moulds have to be broken sometimes because of the impossibility 
 of removing the pattern without doing so, owing to the bad pattern¬ 
 making, and in this case both the mould and the pattern are a loss 
 and sometimes a very expensive one. 
 
 The green sand moulds are broken up after they have been used 
 once, and most of the dry sand moulds are broken up also, and if 
 further castings are wanted new moulds are prepared. When a 
 number of castings of the same character or description are wanted, 
 and the casting is a small one, it is done by the gate system. In 
 other words a number of patterns are prepared and joined together 
 by a little bar extending one from the other, and the moulds are 
 made from this gate pattern.. 
 
 The rest of the operation is the same as any casting, and the 
 articles are secured in gate or joined together at a certain point by 
 a bar or bars which can be easily broken, and the rough ends 
 finished off, leaving the articles just as they are wanted. The 
 advantage of this method is that a larger number of small articles 
 can be secured by one gate casting which otherwise would have to 
 be cast separately at the expenditure of much additional labor and 
 time. 
 
 The patterns for this gate-casting system are made separately, 
 but with the little bars projecting out in such a manner as to form 
 a continuous bar or connection in the casting. This method of 
 work is very useful in the casting of small articles, and is practised 
 to a great extent by the gray iron foundries. The moulds and 
 flasks for this gate casting are made in exactly the same manner as 
 for other castings. 
 
196 
 
 TUE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The flasks for the different moulds are, according to circum¬ 
 stances, made in three or four parts to conform to the joints of the 
 mould, which in turn is based upon the character of the pattern. 
 The joints in the mould, and consequently in the flask, are for the 
 purpose of removing the various parts so as to get the pattern out, 
 and the pattern itself has to be jointed, in order that it may be 
 taken out properly. There are frequently more joints in the flask 
 and mould than in the pattern. The top of the flask, which is 
 always a removable part, is called the cope. This cope is invari¬ 
 ably gaggered ; that is, it has the bars and hooks above mentioned 
 extending from its inner surface to hold the sand in place. The 
 bottom of the mould is called the nowel, and the pieces, parts, or 
 sides between the cope and nowel are termed the cheeks. Accord¬ 
 ing to the style of the pattern the cheeks are few or many; that is, 
 they have few joints or a good many. The cope is of course always 
 removable, and the cheeks are also, to get the patterns out. In 
 very large castings the foundry floor, which is always made of 
 moulding sand, is used for the nowel, and the cope and cheeks are 
 constructed in the flask as usual. 
 
 Foundry Flasks. —Fig. 4 (i) is a plan of the section view ; Fig. 
 4 (2) showing a very serviceable and useful style of cast-iron flasks 
 used in some foundries. They are made from band-pulley patterns, 
 and have a flange cast on each edge. No bars are cast in them. 
 Two holes, A A, are drilled and countersunk in each flange for the 
 wrought guide-pins B (one shown bolted in position at C). By 
 this arrangement a drag or cope of any depth can be made by 
 simply placing the pieces on top of each other, and fastening 
 together with bolts and clamps made for the purpose. Crossbars 
 can be fitted in the cope to suit the work. In a certain foundry 
 they have also a large number of square and oblong flasks made in 
 the same order as shown in broken plan, Fig. 4 (3). These flasks 
 are in constant use. The drags of the smaller sizes are turned 
 over on a level sand bed without any danger of their dropping out. 
 Bottom boards are used on the larger ones, unless the work is of 
 such a character as to bed in. The drags, of green and dry sand 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 197 
 
 mould, four and five deep, are made in a comparatively short time 
 by having these sections to clamp together. 
 
 Fig. 4 (4) is a broken plan of another style of square and oblong 
 cast-iron flasks, which are handy in a foundry for general or special 
 work. The lugs D are cast plain and drilled by a template, and 
 wrought-iron guide-pins bolted in for the cope. Section Fig. 4 (5) 
 is on a line through Fig. 4 (4) from E to E (without showing the 
 lug D~). The joint edge E has a strengthening strip cast on it, 
 and the handles G are made by placing cores rammed up in core¬ 
 box, Fig. 4 (6), against the end of the pattern when moulding the 
 flask. 
 
 Fig. 4 (7) is the plan of the drag of a flask used more especially 
 on moulding machines, but which are successfully and profitably 
 used on the floor in some foundries. These flasks are made with 
 the sides and ends straight or tapered, as may be required. As the 
 lugs HH fit over pins on the moulding machine, which are the 
 counterpart of the pins cast on the cope, it is necessary to have the 
 inside of the lugs smooth, and as near the same size as possible. For 
 this purpose the cast-iron clamp, Fig. 4 (8), is made and planed 
 upon the sides and inside of the ends at /. The ends of these 
 clamps or formers at I ought to be wide, and long enough to 
 extend into the sand beyond the lugs, so as to prevent a rough 
 place or fins on the points at J, which would prevent the flask 
 fitting nicely on the guides of the moulding machine, or the cope- 
 pins working in the drag. The plan is very simple. The flask 
 pattern is of cast-iron, and when moulding it the clamp is set in the 
 lugs, and rammed up with the pattern, and left in the mould when 
 the pattern is drawn out on the plan of any chill. 
 
 Fig. 4 (9) is a plan view of the cope of this type of flask. Fig. 
 4 (10) is an end elevation of Fig. 4 (9), and Fig. 4 (11) is a cross- 
 section of the same broken off at K. These views show the style 
 of cast-iron formers or chills that are used to cast the guide-pins in; 
 these pins fit into recesses in the moulding machine, and must be 
 very exact to prevent shifting on the machine, or when the cope- 
 sand drags are closed together. It will be noticed that the chill 
 extends beyond the pin at L L , and is also a little deeper at MM, 
 
198 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Figs. 4 (io) and 4 (11). This prevents the fins and ragged edges 
 spoken of in connection with the lugs, Fig. 4 (9). 
 
 These pins and lugs are made heavy and strong, and as the 
 
 F'g 4 - 
 
 flasks are cast of soft foundry iron, the bearing or working parts 
 of the pins and lugs have a smooth surface; they fit together very 
 nicely, and do not wear, and are not easily broken off. Wooden 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 199 
 
 handles JV JV are bolted to the flasks, and if desired for the class 
 of work to be made in them, strengthening strips or bars can be 
 cast across the bottom of the drags, and crossbars of any style cast 
 in the copes (this can also be done in Figs. 4 (3) and 4 (4). Flasks 
 of this pattern made for a moulding machine have been used con¬ 
 stantly on the floor for other work, and as they are interchangeable 
 there is no danger of getting the flasks mixed. Fig. 4 (12) is one 
 style of end for a heavier class of cast-iron flasks. The braces O O 
 extend from the height of the trunnion-hole P, and taper off to the 
 ends; Q Q are strengthening brackets for the flanges P R, Fig. 4 
 (13) being a cross-section from P. It is not always that both these 
 flanges are cast oh, sometimes only on the joint edge of the flask, 
 and often, when the centre-rib brace is used, no flanges are made 
 except at the ends for bolting to wooden sides. The holes £ 5 are 
 for bolting to the ends of heavy iron sides, Fig. 4 (14), which have 
 a flange all around the edge, and holes, at T T, for bolting iron 
 crossbars shown in side and edge views, Fig. 4 (15 and 16). The 
 various shapes at V V will be understood by moulders as being made 
 to suit, and intended to fit, corresponding shapes in the pattern; 
 the holes IV W are cast in to make the bars lighter, and as many 
 can be made as desirable, so that it does not affect the strength of 
 the bar. 
 
 Fig. 4 (17) shows a style of trunnion made of wrought-iron for 
 lifting and swinging heavy flasks. The trunnion is put through the 
 hole P, and fastened by driving the key, Fig. 4 (18), into the slot 
 near the end of the trunnion. This leaves a projection on the 
 inside of the flask, and is not near so convenient in any way 
 (whether the flask is round or square) as to cast a good strong 
 trunnion on the flask seen at Fig. 4 (19); or the end of the trunnion 
 X can be of wrought-iron and cast fast in the flask. 
 
 Y Y, Fig. 4 (14), is another style of handles or loops for heavy 
 flasks. These are better made of wrought-iron, and cast fast or 
 bolted in the sides of the flasks; they can be put in straight or at 
 any angle to suit. For flasks of medium weight a good strong 
 handle of this style can be made in a core, as at Fig. 4 (20), and 
 cast on the sides of the flask. Fig. 4 (6 and 20) are section views 
 
200 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 of the straight and loop style of handle rammed up in the core-box, 
 showing them before the core-box is turned over to remove the 
 handle patterns. In the drawings the core-boxes are shown deeper 
 than is really necessary (Robert E. Masters, in “The Western 
 Machinist. ”) 
 
 To Mould Lace, etc., in Cast-iron. —Mr. Outerbridge has suc¬ 
 ceeded in moulding fine lace in cast-iron, the impression showing 
 the most delicate lines of the pattern. The lace to be moulded must 
 first be carbonized. In place of lace other fine tissues, embroid¬ 
 ered ornamentations upon stuffs, leaves, grasses, etc., may also be 
 moulded, previous carbonization being, however, always required. 
 The process is as follows : The respective articles are laid flat upon 
 a layer of pulverized coal upon the bottom of a cast-iron box; 
 another layer of pulverized coal is then sifted upon them. 
 Another layer of patterns may be laid upon this, succeeded by 
 another layer of pulverized coal, and so on until the box is full. 
 The box being closed with a well-fitting lid it is placed in a furnace 
 and heated, at first slowly to expel moisture and gases, until the 
 blue flames disappear. The heat is then increased to a white heat 
 and continued for at least two hours. The box is then taken from 
 the furnace and allowed to cool off gradually, when the tissue is 
 taken out and tested in a gas flame. If carbonization is complete 
 the tissue suffers no change and is ready for casting. It shows 
 great pliancy, the same as is observed in the carbon threads of in¬ 
 candescent lamps. In the first experiments a piece of lace carbon¬ 
 ized in the manner above described was laid upon moulding sand, 
 the ends being allowed to project over the edges of the flask to 
 insure against displacement. The fluid iron being poured in, the 
 carbonized lace fixed itself firmly to the sand, and after casting 
 could without difficulty be detached from the iron. Thus several 
 castings can be obtained from one pattern. The impressions are 
 extraordinarily fine and delicate, and could formerly only be 
 obtained by galvanic deposition. It does not matter whether soft 
 gray foundry-pig or white pig is used. 
 
 The success of the castings must be chiefly attributed to the 
 peculiarity of iron of possessing under certain circumstances a 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 201 
 
 tendency of absorbing carbon. In flowing over the carbonized 
 lace the liquid iron evidently combines with the carbon of the 
 pattern, and very likely would completely absorb the tissue if it 
 did not congeal so rapidly. Something similar may be observed 
 with mercury. The latter when poured upon a table runs about in 
 globules without moistening the table, unlike water. But when 
 poured upon a zinc plate it does not run off in globules, but in¬ 
 stantly combines with the zinc, moistening it like water. It is, 
 therefore, evident that if another metal, such as brass or zinc, 
 were poured upon carbonized articles, such sharp impressions could 
 not be obtained. 
 
 Cores in Heavy Castings .—When cores run through heavy bodies 
 of iron, the hot liquid raises the fusible element of the sand to 
 such a high temperature that the grains fuse together, so that when 
 the casting cleaner tries to get the core out lie finds it almost as 
 hard as the iron. A good thing to prevent this fusing of the sand 
 is to mix some sea-coal or blacking in it, and to give the surface 
 of the core a good body of black lead or plumbago blacking. 
 This outside coat of blacking will prevent the liquid iron from 
 eating into the surface of the core sand, and the sea-coal or black¬ 
 ing mixed in the sand burns away and passes off in the form of 
 gas, leaving a porous body between the grains of sand, which 
 assists in preventing its fusion. 
 
 In putting rods in such cores as are subjected to a high tempera¬ 
 ture, it is a good plan to coat them with two or three coats of flour- 
 paste and dry them in an oven as it is put on ; for by doing this 
 the dried paste burns off from the rod and leaves it free to come 
 out of the casting. 
 
 Core for Difficult Castings .—The following are instructions for 
 a composition for cores that may be required for difficult jobs, 
 where it would be extremely expensive to make a core-box for 
 them: Make a pattern (of any material that will stand moulding 
 from) like the core required. Take a mould from the same in the 
 sand, in the ordinary way, place strengthening wires from point to 
 point, centrally, gate and close your flask. Then make a compo¬ 
 sition of 2 parts brickdust and x of plaster of Paris; mix with 
 
202 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 water and cast. Take it out when set, dry it and place it in the 
 mould warm, so that there may be no cold air in it. 
 
 Casting Without Core .—This mode of casting would, no doubt, 
 be used more if it were not connected with a peculiar disadvantage. 
 Casting without core is executed by pouring the fluid metal (zinc, 
 tin, lead or alloys of these metals) into a mould generally of brass 
 
 with a comparatively large gate, whereby the gate must of course 
 be kept uppermost, just the reverse of the position shown in the 
 illustration, Fig. 5. The mould b entirely filled with liquid metal 
 is then more or less quickly inverted, so that it comes into the 
 position shown in the illustration. By not allowing time for com¬ 
 plete congelation the larger portion of the metal poured in will 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 203 
 
 run out, whilst a crust c of more or less thickness remains in the 
 mould and forms a casting useful for many industrial purposes. 
 
 To obtain solid castings free from blowholes the metal must 
 stand under a certain pressure which is also required for other 
 castings. For this purpose a “dead-head ” (riser or sullage piece) 
 is used, and as the dead-head is also hollow after inverting the 
 mould, this portion of the casting is called the “ funnel.” In the 
 illustration a small bust A is given as an example of casting with¬ 
 out a core ; the lower portion of the finished bust is indicated by 
 the curved line d; B is the dead-head or funnel which simply 
 serves for making the metal in A compact. After removing the 
 casting from the mould the dead-head or funnel B is separated 
 from the casting by sawing, filing or other suitable mechanical 
 treatment along the edge of d. The metals chiefly used for casting 
 without a core possess, however, the peculiarity of being worked 
 with difficulty, especially zinc and many zinc alloys, fouling the 
 saws and files so that the separation of the dead-head from the 
 casting becomes a difficult matter. This is the chief reason why 
 casting without core is comparatively little in use. 
 
 The necessity of removing the dead-head or funnel by sawing, 
 filing, etc., however, is entirely done away with by working in the 
 mould b along the edge of d a groove e. This groove is filled with 
 a material which is a bad conductor of heat but will stand a high 
 temperature, asbestos being especially recommended for the purpose. 
 Now, while the fluid metal when poured in congeals on the 
 metallic walls of the mould, they being good conductors of heat, 
 congelation does not take place along the line of the asbestos, the 
 metal poured in remaining fluid, or at least much more fluid on 
 this point than on other places of the mould. By now inverting 
 the mould the strip i lying opposite to the groove e filled with 
 asbestos runs out together with the metal filling the mould, and 
 when taking the mould apart the dead-head or funnel B will be 
 found separated from the actual casting, or connected with it only 
 by a very thin film which can readily be severed. 
 
 Casting Brass-nuts o?i Screws .—Polish the screw, make a mould 
 on it, with a gate or runner at the end when the mould is hori- 
 
204 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 zontal, x inch in diameter, 5 inches high, scoop out the top 3 
 inches diameter levelled down to 1 inch; second, make the gate 
 or runner on the top of screw y 2 inch diameter, same height as 
 the other. Take a pricker and prick from the top of the mould to 
 the pattern nut about a dozen holes, after which draw diamonds 
 with the wire from these holes to the sides of t'he mould on the 
 top. Now part the mould, draw the nut and screw, cut the gates, 
 making the one at the end of nut same as the down one, one inch 
 in diameter; take the screw, smoke it over a gas flame, turning it 
 round, pouring a little oil on it; continue heating till the oil begins 
 to boil. At this stage take a little dry of the parting-sand, which 
 is used to part the mould, sprinkle this all round on the top of the 
 oil, heat now as before to dull red and proceed as before. Remelt 
 the metal, take 3 lbs. of old waste handles free from iron, add to 
 this 9 lbs. of copper, melt both, and when ready for casting add 
 y 2 lb. of zinc or spelter, allow it to remain in the fire ten minutes, 
 take it out, add y 2 lb. of block tin and y lb. of lead; stir the 
 whole well up. The screw is now red and in the mould; rush the 
 metal in quickly at the gate 1 inch diameter; be sure the metal is 
 hot and it will rise at the other gate to the top of the mould. Be 
 careful at this stage. To take the nut off do not heat it; dress it 
 as before; hammer it cold, heat it—now hold the screw upright, 
 pour on oil at the top of the nut, allow it to cool, catch the nut in 
 vice, apply a lever to the square at end of screw and turn it 
 around. 
 
 Casting 071 to other Metals .—It is occasionally desired to unite 
 other metals by means of cast-iron, or to fix ornamental castings on 
 to light work made of wrought-iron or steel. One well-known 
 application of this process is Moline’s invention for the combina¬ 
 tion of wrought and cast-iron in the manufacture of window-frames. 
 The sash-bars are formed of wrought-iron, rolled of any light and 
 convenient section, suited to receive glass: these bars are united 
 by ornamental cast-iron bosses. 
 
 An iron pattern is first made, from which a sand mould is ob¬ 
 tained ; the wrought-iron bars are cut to the required lengths and 
 placed in the mould with their ends nearly touching; over these 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 205 
 
 ends the mould of the boss is placed, which must be sufficiently 
 large to cover them so that, when cast on, the bosses shall firmly 
 unite the wrought-iron bars. These windows can be readily made 
 of any usual size or shape, and are easily fixed They are light in 
 appearance, and combine the strength of wrought-iron with the 
 ornamental character, which can be readily obtained by the addi¬ 
 tion of cast-iron flowers, scrolls, armorial bearings and other 
 Ornaments. 
 
 For ornamenting wrought-iron railings, two ways of applying 
 cast-iron may be mentioned. Either the wrought-iron bars may be 
 placed in the moulds and the ornaments cast round their ends, or 
 the ornaments may be cast in green sand moulds, cored out to fit 
 wrought-iron bars, on to which they are afterwards fixed by an alloy 
 of zinc and lead. Lead alone is to be avoided, as it sets up a 
 galvanic action and assists the formation of rust. 
 
 In designing cast-iron railings it will be well to adopt outlines in 
 which the metal will not be unfairly strained, by the union of very 
 light and heavy pieces in the same casting. Discard all very fine 
 ornamental work for streets where there is much traffic, as accident 
 or mischief will very shortly spoil the beauty of the work which 
 cannot be repaired. Ornamental cast-iron work of a fine intricate 
 character is only in place where it can be seen to advantage, and is 
 not exposed to violence. 
 
 If cast-iron chill-moulds are used for the ornamental castings, 
 the ornaments will naturally be rather brittle, in most cases this 
 will be found of little consequence, but where it is desired to avoid 
 brittleness, the work can be placed in an annealing oven, when the 
 cast-iron will be made into malleable cast-iron without prejudicially 
 affecting the wrought-iron if any is used in conjunction with the 
 cast-iron, as is frequently done. 
 
 Ornamenting Wrought-iron by Burning on .—Burning on is occa¬ 
 sionally practised for the purpose of ornamenting wrought-iron 
 with scrolls, volutes, or twisted forms. Loam moulds are made, 
 and, when thoroughly dried, are applied to that portion of the 
 wrought-iron which it is wished to burn on to; cast-iron is then 
 poured through the moulds until the wrought-iron is brought to a 
 
206 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 welding heat ; pouring is then ceased, and the cast-iron, when 
 cooled down, is found firmly affixed to the wrought-iron. 
 
 For ornamental cast-iron railings which are designed with com¬ 
 paratively heavy pilasters and bars, having the intervals between 
 them filled in with light ornamental work, the two should not be 
 cast at one and the same time, otherwise the light work will be 
 almost certain to break away from the heavy, owing to the unequal 
 contraction in cooling. The ornamental work should be cast first, 
 of fine, soft, fluid iron, and be provided with small-fitting pieces or 
 lugs at convenient points for fixing to the heavy bars or up¬ 
 rights. Coat these lugs on the fine work with clay and black-wash, 
 place in a sand mould and cast the heavy work round it. By so 
 doing the iron will not be liable to fracture from unequal contrac¬ 
 tion and expansion. 
 
 To Repair Castings by Burning on .—A piece of machine framing, 
 the necks of rolls or a standard which has been broken or found 
 defective may be repaired as follows: First cut away the defective 
 parts down to the sound metal ; build a coke-fire round the part 
 of the casting which is to be repaired until it is brought to a bright 
 red-heat, then dust over the surface of the cut metal with powdered 
 glass or borax. Then apply a hollow loam mould of the desired 
 part to the casting, properly secured in position and provided with 
 a hole for the exit of the metal. Pour very hot liquid cast-iron 
 into the mould and allow it to flow away until the cut surface of 
 the original metal of the casting can be felt with an iron bar to 
 have become soft and pasty by contact with the hot liquid iron. 
 Then stop the exit hole and allow the metal in the mould to set. 
 If the operation has been properly performed the casting should, 
 when struck, ring with the same sound as a single good casting, 
 thus showing that the old and new metal are perfectly united. 
 
 To Fill up Holes in Castings .—Holes occasionally occur on the 
 surface of a casting, which, although not of sufficient importance 
 to make it advisable to reject or break up the casting, are unsightly. 
 Liquid cast-iron may be poured into such holes, the superfluous 
 metal being removed by an iron straight-edge. It is usually pre¬ 
 ferred, however, to fill up these cavities with an alloy having a 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 207 
 
 similar appearance to the cast-iron, but being much more fusible. 
 One such alloy consists of antimony, 69 parts by weight; copper, 
 16; tin, 2, melted together; to which add afterwards, lead, 13 
 parts ; another is, antimony, 65 parts by weight; copper, 16; lead, 
 13; prepared in the same way. 
 
 Bell Founding .—The most important point in the art of bell 
 founding is the proper form to give a bell to obtain the desired 
 tone, which is also dependent on the metal used. In a bell of the 
 usual proportions the thickness of the upper or thin part is one- 
 third of the sound-bow, or thickest part. As to the thickness of 
 the sound-bow itself, which is often spoken of simply as the thick¬ 
 ness of the bell, large bells of a peal are sometimes made as thin 
 as of the diameter, and the small ones as thick as T \j of the 
 diameter; the most effective proportion is from T D 2 to T D 5 . 
 
 In casting peals of bells it is necessary to take rather a wider 
 range, in order to prevent the treble being so small and weak as to 
 be overpowered by the tenor, though care must be taken not to run 
 into the opposite extreme and make the large bells too thin. In 
 calculating the sizes of bells to produce particular notes, and as¬ 
 suming that eight bells are made of similar material, and their 
 sections exactly similar figures, in the mathematical sense, they 
 will sound the eight notes of the diatonic scale, if all their dimen¬ 
 sions are in these proportions: 60, 53^, 48, 45, 40, 36, 32, 30, 
 which are merely convenient figures for representing the inverse 
 proportions of the times of vibration belonging to the eight notes 
 of the scale. So that if it is required to make a bell a fifth above 
 a given one, it must be 2 /s of the size in every dimension, unless it 
 is intended to vary the proportion of thickness to diameter, for the 
 same rule then no longer holds, as a thinner bell will give the same 
 note with a less diameter. 
 
 The reason is that according to the law of vibrating plates or 
 
 thickness 
 
 springs, the time of vibration of similar bells varies as 2. 
 
 When the bells are also completely similar solids, the thickness 
 itself varies as the diameter, and then the time of vibration may 
 be said simply to vary inversely as the diameter. 
 
208 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The weights of bells of similar figures vary as the cubes of their 
 diameters, and may be nearly enough represented by the figures 
 216, 152, no, 91, 64, 46, 33, 27. The exact tune of a set of 
 bells as they come out of the moulds is a secondary consideration 
 to their tone or quality of sound, because the notes can be altered 
 a little either way by cutting, but the quality of the tone will 
 remain the same forever, except that it grows louder for the first two 
 or three years that the bell is used, probably from the particles 
 arranging themselves more completely in a crystalline order under 
 the hammering, as is well known to take place. 
 
 The designing of bells is regulated by certain fixed rules, derived 
 from experience, and which are handed down from one generation 
 of bell founders to another; some makers have their own peculiar 
 mixtures of metal and design of bell, to which they attach par¬ 
 ticular importance and secrecy, but it is doubtful whether any real 
 advantage has been attained, either in tone or durability, by any of 
 the secret processes as compared with bells carefully designed and 
 cast with proper precautions, and a thoroughly good metal, on the 
 ordinary plan. 
 
 Small bells are generally moulded in sand from a metal or 
 wooden pattern, and the sand-mould is dried in a stove. 
 
 Large bells are moulded in loam. The core is built in brick 
 on an iron platform, which must have nugs in case the mould is 
 made above ground. This brick core is covered with ^ inch or 
 1 inch thick of hair-loam, and the last surface washing is given by 
 finely ground composition of clay and brickdust. This latter is 
 mixed with an extract of horse-dung, to which is added a little 
 sal-ammoniac. Upon the core the “thickness” is laid in loam- 
 sand, but the thickness is again washed with fine clay to give it a 
 smooth surface. Ornaments which have been previously moulded, 
 either in wax, wood or metal, are now attached by means of wax, 
 glue or any other kind of cement. If the ornaments are of such 
 a nature as to prevent the lifting of the cope without them, for the 
 cope cannot be divided, the ornaments are fastened to the thick¬ 
 ness by tallow, or a mixture of tallow and wax. A little heat given 
 to the mould will melt the tallow, after which the ornaments ad- 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 209 
 
 here to the cope, from which they may be removed when the cope 
 is lifted off the core. The thickness must be well polished ; and, 
 as coal cannot be used for parting, the whole is slightly dusted 
 over with wood ashes. The parting between the core and the 
 thickness is also made with ashes. The cope is laid on at first by 
 means of a paint brush, the paint consisting of clay and ground 
 bricks, made thin by horse-water. This coating is to be thin and 
 fine ; upon it hair-loam and finally straw loam is laid. 
 
 The crown of the bell is moulded over a wood pattern, after the 
 spindle is removed. The iron or steel staple for the hammer is set 
 in the core, into the hollow left by the spindle. It projects into 
 the thickness, so as to be cast into the metal. The facing of the 
 mould ought to be finished when the cope is lifted off. Small de¬ 
 fects may occur, and are, if not too large, left as they are; the ex¬ 
 cess of metal in those places being chiselled off after the bell is 
 cast. All that can be done in polishing the facing of the mould is 
 to give it a uniform dusting of ashes. When the mould is perfectly 
 dry, it is put together for casting. The core may be filled with 
 sand, if preferred, but there is no harm done if it is left open, for 
 bell-metal does not generate much gas, and there is no danger of 
 an explosion. The cope is in some measure secured by iron, but 
 its chief security is in the strong well-rammed sand of the pit. 
 The cast-gate is on the top of the bell, either on the crown, or if 
 the latter is ornamented, on one side of it. Flow-gates are of no 
 use here ; the metal must be clean before it enters the mould; 
 there is no danger of sullage. 
 
 Casting Aluminium Bronze .—Aluminium bronze is not an easy 
 metal to cast perfectly until the moulder is familiar with its peculi¬ 
 arities, The great enemies of steel castings, dissolved oxides and 
 gases, forming blow-holes, are here absent. The aluminium re¬ 
 moves these impurities from the original copper and by its presence 
 afterwards keeps the bronze free from them. The obstacles which 
 afford most trouble in casting aluminium bronze are the shrinkage 
 in setting and contraction in cooling. These two factors are 
 extraordinarily large, and must be met by provisions made in 
 moulding. 
 
 H 
 
210 
 
 THE METAL WORKER'S HAN l)T HOOK. 
 
 A plumbago crucible is best for melting the bronze, the melt 
 being kept covered with powdered charcoal. It is recommended 
 to coat the stirrers and skimmers used with a wash made of plum¬ 
 bago and a little fire-clay, as the contact of the bronze with bare iron 
 tools cannot but injure its quality. The crucible should not be 
 kept in the fire any longer than is absolutely required to bring the 
 bronze to proper heat for casting. As the metal solidifies rapidly, 
 it is necessary to pour it quickly and to make the gates amply large 
 so that there shall be no “ freezing ” in the “ gates ” before the cast¬ 
 ing is perfectly fed. To obviate the shrinkage as much as possible, 
 the metal is allowed to enter the mould at a temperature not higher 
 than will admit of it running freely. When there is a heavy mass 
 of metal in the shape of an envelope surrounding a core, the con¬ 
 traction upon solidification will cause the metal to split unless the 
 core is made to yield equally with the contraction. Baked sand- 
 moulds are preferable to green sand, except for small castings. 
 
 One of the chief difficulties met with in the casting of alumin¬ 
 ium bronze is to avoid oxidation in transferring the metal from the 
 crucible or ladle to the mould. If any of the film of oxide which 
 floats on the surface should get into the casting during the pouring, 
 it will appear there like so much dirt, and is apt to cause trouble. 
 The ordinary “skim-gate” will prevent this in the case of small 
 castings, but with large masses the metal is first poured into a 
 receiver, which is connected with and is part of the pouring “gate,” 
 but is prevented from entering the mould by means of a plug, which 
 closes up the mouth of the “gate.” To illustrate this more clearly, 
 imagine the pouring “gate” shaped like a funnel, into which the 
 metal is first poured. It is prevented from running into the mould 
 by the plug already mentioned. As soon as the dirt has risen to 
 the top the plug is withdrawn, and consequently nothing but the 
 clear metal at the bottom enters the mould. For castings over 50 
 pounds the metal is poured from a large ladle through a hole in 
 the bottom. Ample facilities should be made for the escape of 
 gases. 
 
 The following remarks on this subject are extracted from a paper 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 211 
 
 on “Casting Aluminium-bronze and Other Strong Metals,” by 
 Thomas D. West: 
 
 The difficulties which beset the casting of aluminium-bronze are 
 in some respects similar to those which were encountered in 
 perfecting methods for casting steel. There is much small work 
 which can be successfully cast by methods used in the ordinary 
 moulding of cast-iron, but in peculiarly proportioned and in large 
 bronze castings other means, and extra display of skill and judg¬ 
 ment, will be generally required. In strong metals there appears 
 to be a “ red shortness ” or degree of temperature after it becomes 
 solidified, at which it may be torn apart if it meets a very little 
 resistance to its contraction, and the separation may be such as 
 cannot be detected by the eye, but will be made known only when 
 pressure is put upon the casting. To overcome this evil and to 
 make allowances for sufficient freedom in contraction much judg¬ 
 ment will often be required, and different modes must be adopted 
 to suit varying conditions. One factor often met with is that of 
 the incompressibility of cores or parts forming the interior portions 
 of castings, while another is the resistance which flanges, etc., upon 
 an exterior surface oppose to freedom of contraction of the mass. 
 The core must generally be “ rotten,” and of a yielding character. 
 This is obtained by using rosin in coarse sand, and filling the core 
 as full of cinders and large vent-holes as possible, and by not using 
 any core rods of iron. The rosin would cause the core when heated 
 to become soft, and would make it very nearly as compressible as a 
 “green-sand” core when the pressure of the contraction of the 
 metal would come upon it. 
 
 By means of dried rosin or green-sand cores we were able to meet 
 almost any difficulties which might arise in ordinary work from the 
 evils of contraction, so far as cores were concerned. For large 
 cylinders or castings which might require large round cores which 
 could be “ swept,” a hay rope wound around a core barrel would 
 often prove an excellent yielding backing, and allow freedom for 
 contraction sufficient to insure no rents or invisible strains in the 
 body of the casting. To provide means for freedom in the con¬ 
 traction of exterior portions of castings which may be supposed to 
 
212 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 offer resistance sufficient to cause an injury, different methods will 
 have to be employed in almost every new form of such patterns. 
 It may be that conditions will permit the mould to be of a 
 sufficiently yielding character, and again it may be necessary to dig 
 away portions of the mould or loosen bolts, etc., as soon as the 
 liquid metal is thought to have solidified. In any metal there may 
 be invisible rents or strains left in a casting through tension, when 
 cooling, sufficient to make it fragile or crack of its own accord, and 
 it is an element which from its very deceptive nature should com¬ 
 mand the closest attention of all interested in the manufacture of 
 castings. 
 
 Like contraction, the element of shrinkage is often found seriously 
 to impede the attaining of perfect castings from strong metals. In 
 steel castings much labor has to be expended in providing risers 
 sufficient to “feed solid” or prevent “draw-holes” from being 
 formed, and in casting aluminium-bronze a similar necessity is 
 found. The only way to insure against the evils of shrinkage in 
 this metal was to have the “risers” larger than the body or part of 
 the castings which they were intended to “feed.” The feeder or 
 riser being the largest body, it will, of course, remain fluid longer 
 than the casting, and, as in cast-iron, that part which solidifies first 
 will draw from the nearest uppermost fluid body, and thus leave 
 holes in the part which remains longest fluid. The above principle 
 will be seen to be effective in obtaining the end sought. It is to be 
 remembered that it is not practicable to “churn” this bronze, as is 
 done with cast-iron. A long cast-iron roll, i foot in diameter, can 
 by means of a feeder 5 inches in diameter, and a ^-inch wrought- 
 iron rod, be made perfectly sound for its full length. To cast such 
 a solid in bronze, the feeding-head should be at least as large as the 
 diameter of the roll, and the casting moulded about one-quarter 
 longer than the length of roll desired. The extra length would 
 contain the shrinkage-hole, and, when cut off, a solid casting would 
 be left. This is a plan often practised in the making of guns, etc., 
 in cast-iron, and is done partly to insure against the inability of 
 many moulders to feed solid, and to save that labor. A method 
 which has been found to work well in assisting to avoid shrinkage 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 213 
 
 in ordinary castings in aluminium-bronze was to “gate” a mould 
 so that it could be filled or poured as quickly as possible, and to 
 have the metal as dull as it would flow to warrant a full-run casting. 
 By this plan very disproportionate castings have been made without 
 feeders on the heavier parts, and upon which draw- or shrinkage- 
 holes would surely have appeared had the metal been poured hot. 
 
 The metal works well in our ordinary moulding sands, and 
 “peels” extremely well. As a general thing, disproportionate 
 castings weighing over ioo lbs. are best made in “dry” instead 
 of “green-sand ” moulds, as such will permit of cleaner work and 
 a duller pouring of the metal, for in this method there is not that 
 dampness which is given off from a green-sand mould, and which is 
 so liable to cause “ cold shots.” When the position of the casting 
 work will permit, many forms which are proportionate in thickness 
 can be well made in green sand by coating the surfaces of the moulds 
 and gates with silver, lead, or plumbago. From “blow-holes,” 
 which are another characteristic element likely to exist in strong 
 metals, it can be said that aluminium-bronze is free. Should any 
 exist it is the fault of the moulder or his mould, as the metal itself 
 runs in iron moulds as sound and close as gold. Sand moulds to 
 procure good work must be well vented, and, if of “dry sand,” 
 thoroughly open sand mixture should be used and well dried. The 
 sand for “ green-sand ” work is best fine, similar to what will work 
 well for brass castings. For “ dry-sand work ” the mixture should 
 be as open as possible, and, for blacking the mould, use the same 
 mixtures as are found to work well with cast-iron. 
 
 To Cast Lead-pipe Free frotn Flaws. —G. Dolleschal, of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, uses the following contrivance: A round vessel for the 
 reception of the melted lead terminates in the centre below in a short 
 open tube with an interior diameter equal to the exterior of the 
 lead-pipe to be cast. Through this tube and through the entire vessel, 
 exactly in the centre, runs a long core-tube the exterior width of 
 which is equal to the interior of the lead pipe. By a driving gear 
 the vessel can be moved in an exactly straight line from below to 
 above. It is first brought upon the bottom plate of the entire 
 arrangement so that the short tube is closed below. The melted 
 
214 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 lead is then poured in and the vessel moved slowly upwards so that 
 the lead has time to congeal in the annular space between the short 
 tube and the core-tube, whilst it remains fluid in the vessel. The 
 lead-pipe thus gradually grows from below to above until the lead 
 in the vessel is exhausted or the upper end of the core-tube is on a 
 level with the upper portion of the vessel. 
 
 Dense and Flexible Copper Castings are obtained by adding 
 cryolite and sugar of lead to the copper after it is melted. The 
 proportions are as follows: Pulverized cryolite, 2 lbs. ; and sugar 
 of lead, 8*4 ozs. to 200 lbs. of copper; a further addition of 2 
 lbs. of borax being also advisable. The quantities of the additions 
 may be varied according to circumstances. The mixture of cryo¬ 
 lite and sugar of lead, with or without borax, is added after the 
 copper is melted. When the compound is entirely melted, which 
 will be the case in 10 to 15 minutes, the melted copper is poured 
 into the mould. 
 
 Wronghl-iron (or Mitis) Castings .—When wrought-iron is heated 
 to a high temperature it does not pass quickly into the fluid state, 
 but for a large increase of temperature above the point at which it 
 first softens it will remain thick or mushy. At a very high temper¬ 
 ature it can be made sufficiently fluid to pour into moulds, but the 
 castings thus made are notably unsound and weak. It was dis¬ 
 covered by Mr. Wittenstroem, of Stockholm, working with the co¬ 
 operation of Mr. L. Nobel, of St. Petersburg, that if a small 
 amount of aluminium is added to a charge of wrought-iron which 
 has been heated until pasty, the iron immediately liquefies and can 
 be poured into castings having all the properties of wrought-iron 
 except fibre, and as sound as if of cast-iron. These castings were 
 called “Mitis” castings because of their softness in contrast with 
 cast-iron castings. 
 
 The details of the production of Mitis castings are as follows: 
 As the raw material to operate on, wrought-iron, scrap or mild 
 steel are equally suitable. It was found that some of the best re¬ 
 sults are to be obtained by using Swedish scrap iron or English 
 hematite iron, that is, materials containing less than o. 1 per cent, 
 of phosphorus, which is a very injurious ingredient if present in 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 215 
 
 much larger quantity. Using a mixture with poorer quality of 
 iron, with phosphorus running up to 0.15 per cent., good results 
 may still be obtained—that is, the castings still compare favorably 
 with ordinary malleable castings. In using scrap steel, which is 
 necessarily low in phosphorus, it was found that manganese inter¬ 
 fered with the production of good castings, a result rather unex¬ 
 pected. Since almost every melter devises various mixtures of his 
 own, as circumstances permit, it is but natural that the best features 
 of the Mitis process are found united with some other old-estab¬ 
 lished practices. Thus in one Mitis plant in the United States the 
 mixture for melting was composed of: Mitis scrap, 35 per cent.; 
 hematite muck bar, 35; wrought-iron punchings, 12^; soft steel 
 scrap (o. 1 per cent, carbon), 12^; white pig-iron, 3; ferro-silicon 
 (10 per cent, silicon), 1; ferro-aluminium (6 per cent, alumi¬ 
 nium), Yz. It seems that in this charge the melter used a little 
 white iron as a flux, which would probably introduce 0.1 per cent, 
 of carbon; then the virtues of ferro-silicon for making sounder 
 castings are utilized by adding 0.1 per cent, of silicon to the 
 charge; lastly, 0.04 per cent, of aluminium was introduced. 
 
 In general it may be said that if iron free from impurities is 
 used, very good castings are obtained; if iron is used with a large 
 percentage of phosphorus, proportionally brittle and unsatisfactory 
 castings result. 
 
 The ferro-aluminium used should be, for similar reasons, free 
 from any considerable amount of such impurities as generally 
 injure wrought-iron. 
 
 Since the castings are almost identical in composition with the 
 charge of iron melted, the following analyses of Mitis metal, made 
 by Mr. Edward Riley, will show the range of material or mixture 
 to which the process has been successfully applied : 
 
 Raw material. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Silicon. 
 
 Phosphorus. 
 
 Manganese. 
 
 Hematite bar. 
 
 0.067 
 
 0.161 
 
 0.068 
 
 0.022 
 
 Swedish scrap. 
 
 0.053 
 
 0.044 
 
 0.077 
 
 0.027 
 
 Refined iron. 
 
 0,130 
 
 0.124 
 
 0.137 
 
 O.OI4 
 
THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 21 fi 
 
 Table Continued. 
 
 Raw material. 
 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Silicon. 
 
 Phosphorus. 
 
 Manganese. 
 
 ]/ 2 Staffordshire iron' 
 ]/ 2 Swedish scrap 
 
 
 0.130 
 
 0-035 
 
 0.150 
 
 0.026 
 
 Staftordshire iron 
 y Hematite bar 
 
 
 0.070 
 
 0.093 
 
 0.194 
 
 0.014 
 
 Slaflordshire iron.... 
 
 
 0.106 
 
 0.080 
 
 0.250 
 
 O.014 
 
 The above figures are percentages; sulphur was present in all as 
 a trace. The first in the table, those low in phosphorus, gave the 
 best castings, the last the poorest; with over % per cent, of phos¬ 
 phorus the castings were brittle. 
 
 The charge of wrought-iron is placed in covered crucibles and 
 brought to a temperature of about 2200° C., at which heat it 
 just loses the solid and assumes the pasty condition. If it were 
 desired to cast the iron without adding aluminium it would be 
 necessary to superheat it several hundred degrees above this point, 
 not only to give it the desired fluidity but also to permit it being 
 carried about the casting shop. It is during this superheating that 
 a large part of the gases contained in the molten iron are absorbed. 
 If, therefore, the charge is treated with aluminium immediately 
 on reaching the melting point, the effect is such that this super¬ 
 heating with its accompanying deterioration of the iron is rendered 
 unnecessary. This is possible for the reason that on adding ferro- 
 aluminium sufficient to introduce 0.05 to 0.1 per cent, of alu¬ 
 minium the charge immediately liquefies, and is so far from its 
 setting point that it can be removed from the furnace and poured 
 into numerous moulds, retaining all the time its exceptional fluidity. 
 The metal acts just as if it had been superheated several hundred 
 degrees, but this has been accomplished without leaving it in the 
 furnace for half an hour or so, thus attaining an economy in fuel 
 which is not to be ignored. When the crucible is taken from the 
 furnace the charge is perfectly dead melted, lies quiet in the crucible, 
 evolves no gas, and teems like molten silver. It is cast in either 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 217 
 
 sand or iron moulds, and on account of its fluidity does not require 
 large heads to bring the castings up sharp and show the finest impres¬ 
 sions of the mould. The material being primarily wrought-iron, 
 the castings do not have to be annealed before using. The thinnest 
 or most complicated castings, which it would be almost impossible 
 to forge in wrought-iron, can be produced, thus furnishing dif¬ 
 ficult forged pieces at not much greater expense than ordinary cast¬ 
 ings. Mitis castings are, in short, objects cast of molten iron yet 
 having all the desirable properties of wrought-iron. 
 
 Casting Stereoplates by the Paper Process .—Lay a sheet of tissue 
 paper upon a perfectly flat surface, and paste a piece of soft printing 
 paper on to the tissue paper, pressing them very flat and even. Oil 
 the form of type, lay the paper on it, and cover with a damp rag; 
 beat the paper evenly into the type with a stiff brush, then paste on 
 it a piece of blotting paper and repeat the beating-in process, after 
 which several other layers of soft, tenacious paper must be pasted on 
 and beaten in in the same manner; back up the paper with a piece 
 of cartridge paper. The whole must then be dried at a moderate 
 heat under a slight pressure. When quite dry, brush over the face 
 of the paper mould with plumbago or French chalk. When this is 
 done it is ready for the matrix. This is a box of the size required 
 for the work, the interior of which is type-high. This is called the 
 gauge, and lifts out to insert the paper mould, and is regulated by 
 hand to the size of the plate required. This being placed inside, 
 the lid is shut down and screwed tight, with the end or mouthpiece 
 left open. The metal is poured in at the orifice, and as it is 
 mounted to swing, the box is moved about so as to throw the metal 
 well down and make a solid cast. Then water is dashed on the box, 
 the screw-bar unshackled, the lid lifted, the plate taken off, and the 
 paper mould is ready for use for another casting. 
 
 Another Stereotype Process .—The stereotyper first dries the form 
 of types upon an iron steam-table. The form is then partially 
 unlocked, and a hand-brush is rubbed over the surface of the types, 
 cleansing them preparatory to placing over the entire form a sheet 
 or sheets of thin bank-note paper of the finest quality, previously 
 wetted to insure the required pliability. This paper being laid 
 
218 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S IT ANDY-BOOK. 
 
 evenly over the types, the workman takes a long-handled brush, 
 made of short, stiff bristles, with which he beats the wet paper 
 evenly, forcing it into all depressions of the types, taking care not 
 to break the paper. The work being finished, a dampened sheet 
 of thicker, more ordinary paper is placed over the first. This is 
 also brush-hammered down upon the types, and followed by another 
 sheet of paper thinly coated with a preparation of whiting and 
 starch. Again the brush is used to beat this home, after which a 
 brown-paper backing is put on, and then the form of types, covered 
 by the before-mentioned sheets of paper, is trundled to another 
 steam-table, where it is slid under a powerful screw-press, several 
 blankets folded over it, and all firmly held down until the paper 
 matrix is dry-hardened, or “cooked,” as the workmen express it. 
 The papering process occupies three or four minutes, the cooking 
 about twice as long. The matrix is now peeled off from the form, 
 and prepared for casting by sifting it over with finely powdered bo¬ 
 rax, which, with a soft brush, is thoroughly rubbed into the sunken 
 surface left by the types. The surplus borax having been removed, 
 the matrix, which now resembles hard but pliable pasteboard, is 
 ready for the casting box, which is made of iron, either straight or 
 curved, to suit the press-bed. Handle-irons hold the matrix in its 
 proper place, at the exact distance, about half an inch, necessary 
 for the thickness of the stereotype plate, which is made by pouring 
 a quantity of hot type-metal into an open end of the casting box. 
 This metal, dropping between one surface of the casting box and 
 the sunken surface of the matrix, fills up the latter without burning 
 it. A few moments are allowed for cooling, and then the matrix is 
 stripped from the warm plate, which is subsequently prepared for 
 the press by trimming down all thick lines, or chiselling away any 
 superfluous metal, paring off the edges, filing, and otherwise treating 
 the stereotype after the usual manner. Circular saws driven by 
 steam and hand-cutting machinery of various kinds are used in 
 finishing, the whole operation of stereotyping occupying from 15 
 to 20 minutes. A second plate may be obtained from the original 
 matrix in about 2 minutes, and almost any number of castings can 
 be taken by careful workmen. 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 219 
 
 Manufacture of Chilled Wheels .—The following is a brief descrip¬ 
 tion of the largest establishment for the manufacture of chilled 
 wheels in the United States, and the manner in which the work is 
 advanced from stage to stage: The foundry, which is of course the 
 most important portion of the whole works, is a fine building, with 
 two lines of rails running down its whole length, except opposite ' 
 the furnaces. The rails are laid to a gauge of about io feet, and 
 upon them are placed 12 light travelling cranes, with a platform 
 attached to the centre-post, and upon which the man working the 
 crane stands and controls its movements, both in hauling the moulds 
 and ladles, and in moving the crane from place to place upon the 
 line, the crane being geared for travelling. The floor of the foundry 
 is so laid out that there is room on either side of both pairs of rails 
 for a row of moulds, and in the centre of the building is a path 
 about 4 feet wide. Against one side of the building, and in the 
 centre of its length, are five cupolas, three of 4 feet 6 inches internal 
 diameter, and two smaller ones of 18 inches in diameter. The 
 former are employed in melting the iron for the wheels, the latter 
 chiefly for experimental purposes. The three cupolas are tapped 
 into converging channels, all running into one large tipping reser¬ 
 voir, from which the small ladles are supplied. The blast to the 
 cupolas is furnished by a vertical blowing engine, with two blowing 
 cylinders, one at the top of the machine and one at the bottom, 
 with the steam-cylinder between the two. 
 
 The mixing of the irons for the cupola is the most important and 
 difficult operation in the whole course of manufacture. Besides the 
 steel-scrap nothing but charcoal pig-iron is employed, and of this 
 from twelve to twenty different kinds, all of the highest class, are 
 used in varying proportions. But these mixtures have to be altered 
 frequently, owing to irregularities in the nature of the metal, and 
 daily tests are made, with a view of ascertaining what changes, if 
 any, have to be introduced into the next day’s work. The propor¬ 
 tions of the mixture being decided upon, the cupolas are charged, 
 a ton of coal being first put into the bed of each furnace. The charge 
 is then carefully loaded upon trucks upon a weighing platform. 
 Piles of the various pigs are placed in their proper order around the 
 
220 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 truck, and there is a drum upon the weighing machine, on which a 
 sheet of paper is placed, and the weight of each different pig, in 
 proper order, is written upon it. For instance, the workman 
 commences with 250 lbs. of coal in his truck; he then places 125 
 lbs. of old steel rails, 125 lbs. of cinder pig, 350 lbs. of old wheels, 
 and so on through the long list of charcoal pig-iron employed, the 
 old material being placed at the bottom of the furnace. The 
 weighing platform is so arranged as to record the accumulating 
 weights as the drum revolves, bringing before the workman the 
 name and quantity of each successive ingredient, which he takes 
 from its respective heap before him. As soon as it is loaded, the 
 truck is raised to the top of the cupola by an hydraulic lift. The 
 moulds, when ready, are placed down the building in four rows, one 
 on each side of the two lines of rail upon which the cranes run. 
 The patterns used are almost all in iron, and the chills in the 
 moulds are of cast-iron. One workman can, on an average, mould 
 ten wheels a day, but all failures in the casting, arising from any 
 carelessness in moulding, are charged to him on a rapidly increasing 
 scale. 
 
 Before the metal in the cupola is ready to run, a charcoal fire is 
 lighted in the receiver before spoken off, in order to warm it, and 
 also that when filled the metal may be covered with charcoal and 
 oxidation checked. In a similar manner the ladles, of which there 
 are a very large number employed, have burning charcoal placed in 
 them, and they are internally coated in the usual way. These ladles 
 are cylindrical pots made of sheet-iron and mounted each on a 
 pair of wheels for facility of transport. On the sides of each 
 ladle are two sockets, into one of which is placed the end of a 
 handle with forked ends. The ladle being run up to the receiver, 
 the latter is tipped over by the gearing attached to it, and the ladle 
 is charged ; it is then brought along the floor to the crane, which 
 takes hold of it ; the two square-ended handles before mentioned 
 are inserted in the holes in the axles, the ladle is raised, and the 
 iron poured into the mould. The chilled portion of the wheel 
 sets almost as soon as it comes into contact with the chills, and in 
 a very short time after the casting has been made, the flasks are 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 221 
 
 removed, the sand knocked away, and the red-hot wheel is placed 
 on a truck to be taken to the annealing pits. This process is one 
 of the most important of the series. If the wheel be allowed to 
 cool in the open air severe internal strains are created which will 
 sometimes be sufficient to destroy the casting, and open air cooling 
 was the chief cause of failure in the early periods of this class of 
 wheel-making. 
 
 The annealing ovens are placed at one end of the foundry, and 
 below the floors, the top of the ovens being at that level. Besides 
 these ovens of very large diameters for extra-sized wheels, chilled 
 tyres, etc., there are 48 pits ranged in 6 rows of 8 each. These 
 rows are divided into pairs, each pair of 16 pits being devoted to 
 the reception of one day’s production, the period required for 
 annealing being 3 days. By this arrangement, when the last two 
 rows of ovens are charged, the first two rows can be emptied and 
 refilled, so that the work proceeds without interruption and in 
 regular rotation. Two hydraulic cranes, with the booms revolving 
 upon a fixed post, are placed upon the floor and command the 
 whole area occupied by the ovens. The boom of each crane is 
 made double, and upon it runs to and fro a small carriage, from 
 which hangs the chain, carrying at the lower end the hooks by 
 which the wheels are handled. This attachment consists of three 
 arms with flattened ends turned over so as to grip the wheel. The 
 upper ends of these arms are hinged together, and as they tend 
 always to fall inward, they hold the wheel tightly, but by moving a 
 single attachment the arms are thrown outward when it is desired 
 to release the wheel. The motion of the cranes is controlled by 
 one man, fixed stops being provided on the guiding apparatus, so 
 that when the crane is adjusted for filling one oven it remains in 
 that position till it is thrown over to the next. 
 
 The ovens or annealing pits are cylinders of sheet-iron inch 
 thick, about 66 inches in diameter, and of sufficient depth to con¬ 
 tain easily 18 wheels w r ith cast-iron distance-pieces between them. 
 They are lined with brickwork, and being of considerable depth, 
 they descend into a lower floor. The lower parts are enclosed in 
 a large rectangular chamber, one for each set of ovens. Within 
 
222 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 this chamber, and for a short distance above it, fire-brick is used 
 instead of ordinary brickwork as in the upper portions, and within 
 the cylinder a circular foundation of brickwork is set, upon which 
 are placed the wheels on being lowered by the crane. The whole 
 of this weight then is transferred direct to the foundation of the 
 building. At the end of each of the three rectangular chambers 
 already mentioned is a furnace, and each chamber is divided down 
 the whole of its length by a perforated flue; through these perfora¬ 
 tions the heat from the furnace passes and enters the lower ends of 
 the ovens. These furnaces are required to prevent the too sudden 
 cooling of the castings, but only % ton of coal is burned for each 
 full day’s production. Flues leading to the chimney carry off the 
 heated gases from the upper parts of the ovens, and so the process 
 of cooling is thus very gradually carried on, until at the end of 
 three days the wheels are ready for removal. The three large an¬ 
 nealing pits mentioned above are somewhat differently arranged. 
 To save room they are not carried down so low as the other ovens, 
 but terminate at a height of about 7 feet above the floor, each 
 being supported upon a central column. When they are used a 
 fire is lighted in the bottom of each pit, the wheels are put in 
 and covered over, and the oven is allowed gradually to cool. 
 
 On being removed from the pit the wheels are taken into the 
 cleaning and testing room. Here the sand is removed, and the 
 wheels tested by hammering under a sledge as well as by a small 
 hammer, while the thread is cut at intervals by a chisel. The 
 heavy blows to which the wheel is subjected never fail in detecting 
 faults when such exist, and when they are discovered the wheel is 
 removed to be broken up. About 10 per cent, of the whole pro¬ 
 duction is rejected, but occasionally this proportion is very much 
 higher. 
 
 In order to keep the quality of the wheels up to the desired stand¬ 
 ard, a large number of test pieces are cast every day and submitted 
 to examination. By this means an accurate knowledge of the 
 nature of the wheels, the character of the chill and other points 
 is obtained; the data are carefully recorded, and if the tests are 
 satisfactory the wheels corresponding to the test piece are delivered 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 223 
 
 into stock. If not they are returned to be broken up. The sound 
 wheels are finally taken to the machine-shop where they are bored, 
 and, if desired, fitted with their axles. The tools, therefore, in this 
 shop are few in number, consisting of three boring machines, a 
 press for forcing the wheels on or for drawing them off the axles, 
 and a number of lathes. 
 
 The average life of a chilled cast-iron wheel of first quality is 
 asserted to be 50,000 miles for passenger and 100,000 miles for 
 freight traffic. 
 
 Casting of Zinc .—Great difficulties were at first met with in the 
 application of zinc to casting. Since these have been conquered 
 quite a branch of industry has been developed, which furnishes 
 many articles for household and other uses. The extreme brittle¬ 
 ness of zinc is no longer a hindrance, since it has been ascertained 
 that it can be overcome by heating the metal to a certain degree 
 (302° to 317 0 F.). Zinc fills the moulds very sharply, and is, 
 therefore, especially adapted to ornamental and art castings. For 
 larger castings in one piece it is not suitable, as it readily tears on 
 account of strong shrinkage, but the patterns may be divided and 
 the castings united by soldering. From such castings colossal stat¬ 
 ues can be made, which when coppered by the galvanic process 
 resemble the best bronze castings. For household use zinc is 
 worked into ink-stands, lamps, candlesticks, signs, etc. 
 
 The zinc is generally melted in cast-iron kettles and poured out 
 with ladles. Green sand serves as moulding material, though loam 
 may also be used. The sand must be genuine moulding sand, 
 fine and not too loamy; the moulds are not heated. The 
 temperature of melting should not be too high, as otherwise the 
 metal readily oxidizes. Oxidizing may be prevented by covering 
 the metal, while in crucible or ladle, with a layer of common salt 
 or a little hydrochloric acid, which amounts to the same, a coat of 
 zinc oxide being instantly formed on the surface of the melted 
 metal, which effectually prevents further oxidation from the action 
 of the oxygen in the atmosphere. It is an improvement to keep a 
 layer of charcoal on top of the zinc, or a soft metal which can be 
 melted in a ladle ] the casting of oxide forms a protection against 
 
224 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 oxidation to a certain degree only, while the layer of charcoal 
 tends to reduce the oxide again to its metallic form. Indeed, it is 
 possible to recover lead, tin, zinc and antimony from the “dross” 
 or oxide which gathers in the ladle, it being only necessary to melt 
 the oxide with charcoal, salt and soda, to get it again into useful 
 shape. The dross should be powdered, likewise the salt, charcoal 
 and soda. Mix them together and melt. The soda and salt melt 
 into a pasty mass, and the carbon unites with the oxygen of the 
 dross, leaving the metal free, all but burning off the charcoal. 
 The salt and soda act simply as a flux in reducing the oxides. 
 
 For hollow castings the cores are made of sand, but to prevent 
 the danger of tearing on account of the considerable shrinkage of 
 the metal, the scaffolding around which the core mass is moulded 
 must be so arranged that it can be readily withdrawn. 
 
 Metallic moulds, if used, must be previously heated. For 
 moulding the ordinary flasks used in brass and iron foundries are 
 employed. To obtain from patterns of larger pieces, castings of 
 slight thickness, the entire pattern is first moulded in the lower 
 part of the box ; the top part of the box is then placed in position, 
 the depressed mould is scattered over with coal-dust and the sand 
 in the upper part of the box carefully pressed into the depression 
 of the mould. The upper part of the box is then again removed 
 and sufficient of the moulded sand mass for the intended thickness 
 of the metal scraped off. 
 
 Apparatus for Casting Metal, patented by H. A. Brustlein, of 
 Firming, France. The casting ladle g (Fig. 6) sits upon a crane 
 and can be moved in a circle as well as up and down ; moreover, 
 it can be horizontally shifted to and fro. On the discharge aperture 
 in the bottom is a pipe a, which terminates below in an enlarged 
 mouth-piece b of burnt clay. This serves the purpose of changing 
 the course of the metal flowing out, and is so arranged that the 
 metal cannot fall vertically upon the bottom of the mould, but 
 must flow over the slightly rising bottom in the mouth-piece b. 
 The bottom of the casting mould h consists of a comparatively 
 thin metal plate c, which rests upon the frame d, supported by the 
 plate f. The latter in the centre passes into a water-pipe which 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 225 
 
 feeds the rose e, whereby the bottom c is cooled. To the plate /is 
 secured a bevel wheel i, by means of which the entire mould is 
 revolved, whilst the rose e remains stationary. 
 
 Preparation of Chills for Casting Metal. —To obtain a dense 
 casting in chills, the mould previously made hand-warm is smeared 
 over with old lard and then dusted with soap-stone powder. By 
 this means an expanding layer is formed during casting between the 
 chill and the casting, whereby the gases still present in the interior 
 of the metallic mass are forced to escape through the fluid ingot. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 Painting and Varnishing Patterns. —As a precaution against 
 defects in the wood, and also as a preservative for the patterns, 
 they are usually coated with varnish or oil paint. Thus their 
 capillary attraction is lessened and their surfaces made smooth and 
 glossy. There is nothing better for these purposes than a moderately 
 hard-drying oil paint, black-leaded over when dry. One mode of 
 coating patterns is to paint them with a thin coat of oil paint, con¬ 
 sisting of red-lead and acetate or sugar of lead. Allow this to dry 
 in a warm room, then carefully rub over with sand-paper and finish 
 15 
 
226 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 with powdered chalk, or a thin coat of less rapidly setting oil paint 
 may be applied, and the surface finished with pumice-stone and 
 very fine glass-paper. Rub well with a soft cloth, then put on a 
 coat of black-lead mixed with beer, applied with a hard brush. 
 
 When only one or two castings are required from a pattern, 
 especially if it should be of an ornamental and delicate character, 
 tliis coating of black-lead and beer may be applied directly to the 
 naked wood of the pattern. This plan answers very well where 
 the wooden pattern is to be employed simply for the production 
 of a metallic pattern. But it is certainly desirable that patterns 
 which have to be used several times should be painted in oil, more 
 especially when they contain joints made in glue. 
 
 For large, coarse work, a thin coat of common lead-color oil 
 paint, with slight finish of black-lead put on dry, is a cheap and 
 simple protection. 
 
 For wheel patterns the following paint has been recommended 
 as giving excellent results in the moulds and a smooth surface on 
 the castings: A first coat is applied of a paint made of thin drying 
 oil, spirits of turpentine, and pure white-lead mixed with a little 
 crystallized acetate of copper. When dry this is smoothed off with 
 pumice stone, then a second very thin coat of the same paint is 
 applied, with the addition of a little copal varnish. The patterns 
 are then slowly dried, special attention being given that no warping 
 occurs. The paint dries very hard, but after a while, when exposed to 
 wear and handling, it becomes scratched, when it ceases to give such 
 good results as those first obtained. This defect is partially reme¬ 
 died by rubbing the surfaces over with powdered French chalk. 
 
 Some patterns, made of rather hard wood, such as dry mahogany, 
 will deliver very well if coated with copal varnish. 
 
 Weak shellac varnish is also a capital protection to patterns; it 
 is easily made by dissolving to 2 parts by weight of shellac in 
 20 of methylated spirits. The ingredients take some 20 or 30 hours 
 to mix in cold weather, but the mixing may be accelerated by the 
 vessel being placed on a stove or other warm place. 
 
 Black-leading of Patterns .—All metallic patterns are much im¬ 
 proved in their “delivery” by being finely “black-leaded.” 
 
CASTING AND FOUNDING. 
 
 227 
 
 Prior to the application of the plumbago, the surface of brass or 
 gun-metal patterns should be roughened by leaving them wetted 
 with a solution of sal-ammoniac. Zinc, solder, or type metal, or 
 other such soft alloys will take the black-lead at once, if the surface 
 be free from grease and dirt. 
 
 Varieties of Wood Most Suitable for Patterns. —The following is a 
 list of the different varieties of wood most suitable for pattern¬ 
 making, with their specific gravities : 
 
 Cork 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Specific gravity. 
 
 American pine . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 0.37 
 
 American fir 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 0.42 
 
 Larch 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 0.54 
 
 Cowrie 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 0.58 
 
 Red Honduras cedar 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 0.55 
 
 Elm .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 0.55 
 
 White poplar 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 0.34 to 0.53 
 
 Willow 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 0.42 to 0.5 
 
 Sycamore . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 0.60 
 
 Lime tree . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 0.60 
 
 Pear tree . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 0.66 
 
 Cherry tree 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 0.71 
 
 Maple 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 0.75 
 
 Apple tree 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 0.80 
 
 Alder 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 0.80 
 
 Beech 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 0.85 
 
 Honduras mahogany 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 0.81 to i.06 
 
 Boxwood . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 1.03101.33 
 
 To Preserve Iron Patterns from Rusting, and to make them deliver 
 more easily, they should be allowed to become slightly rusty ; next, 
 they should be warmed sufficiently to melt beeswax, which is then 
 rubbed all over them, and nearly removed ; when cold they are to 
 be polished with a hard brush. 
 
 To Mend Patterns .—For mending patterns needing temporary 
 repairs, or for making additions where but one or two moulds are 
 to be made, the following material will be found very useful: Melt 
 together i lb. beeswax, i lb. resin, and i lb. paraffine wax. It is 
 well to note that the beeswax intended is the wax made by the 
 
228 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 bees, and not the wax made by the wholesale dealers. When the 
 genuine article is used, this mixture will be found very useful for 
 making additions to patterns, small temporary patterns, and for a 
 variety of purposes in the pattern shop. 
 
 Glue for Pattern-makers. —Pattern-makers mix with their glue 
 some good thin-drying linseed oil, in the proportion of about i part 
 of oil to 4 of water. The oil is added to the glue, and well stirred 
 in whilst hot. This glue is scarcely affected by moisture, and 
 makes a strong, sound joint, although it does not set hard and 
 glossy like ordinary glue. 
 
 Improved Method of Treating Steelfor Casting. —This method con¬ 
 sists in passing melted steel or iron through a bath or filtering medium 
 of a purifying and deoxidizing alloy of less specific gravity than 
 either steel or iron, such bath or filtering medium rising and form¬ 
 ing a stratum or film on the surface of the melted steel or iron while 
 in the cupola from which it is subsequently tapped. The filtering 
 medium is obtained from aluminous iron ore containing from io to 
 12 per cent, of titanium. It is claimed that the effect of passing 
 the steel as it melts through this deoxidizing layer is to clear it of 
 impurities, especially those of a gaseous character, and the resulting 
 castings are free from honeycombs and blowholes. The steel can 
 be reduced to the mildest temper by annealing. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 CEMENTS. 
 
 Iron Cements or Rust Joints. —These cements contain as an 
 essential constituent iron filings and turnings which, as well as the 
 iron surfaces to be united with such cement,’are quickly oxidized 
 by the addition of sal-ammoniac, salts, etc., whereby the cement 
 increases in bulk, and, consequently, a complete filling up of the 
 joints is effected. They serve for closing joints on iron pipes, 
 vessels, plates, etc., for cementing iron to iron, or iron to stone. 
 
CEMENTS. 
 
 229 
 
 I. Iron Cement which Stands Red Heat. —Iron filings, 4 parts; 
 pulverized fat clay, 2; and finely powdered pieces of Hessian 
 crucibles, 1. The ingredients are mixed and moistened with salt 
 water. Care must be had not to add too much salt, as otherwise 
 the latter would fuse and run from the joints. In using this cement 
 for joining pipes which are to lay in the fire, it is put between the 
 flanges of the pipes, and pressed together by screws. It can be 
 heated only when dry and hard. 
 
 II. Cement for Uniting Iron Surfaces and Filling in Joi?its. —Mix 
 100 parts of iron filings, free from rust and not larger than rape 
 seed, part of coarsely powdered sal-ammoniac, and y 2 part of 
 flowers of sulphur; moisten the mixture with urine and beat it, with 
 repeated moistening, until it becomes heated, dry, and brittle. In 
 this state it is placed in the joints, and forced in as tightly as 
 possible with chisel and hammer, whereby it again becomes moist 
 and soft. Finally, the joints are filled up evenly, and allowed to 
 dry two days, when, as an indication of good cementing, separate 
 black drops must appear upon the hardened crust. The cement 
 does not adhere to tarred kettles or dirty and greasy joints. To 
 keep it, it is rammed into an iron pot and water poured over it. 
 For use, pour off" the water, add to the mass taken out sufficient iron 
 filings to give it the necessary consistency, and pour the water back 
 into the pot. The stronger and quicker the cement rusts in the 
 joints the better it acts. The proportions used vary, however, very 
 much. For instance, a. Iron filings, 30 parts; sal-ammoniac, x; 
 sulphur, x. With this composition the danger of progressive rusting 
 is, however, greater on account of the larger quantity of sal- 
 ammoniac in proportion to iron filings ; or, b . Pulverized cast-iron 
 turnings, 50 parts; sal-ammoniac, 2; flowers of sulphur, 1; or, c. 
 Pulverized iron filings, 100 parts, and pulverized sal-ammoniac, 2 
 parts. The mixtures are kept in well-closed boxes in a dry place, 
 for use moistened with urine, and applied as mentioned under II. 
 The cemented places must be heated only when entirely dry. 
 
 III. For Blowing Engines, Blast Pipes, Hot-blast Stoves, etc .— 
 Mix iron filings, 15 parts ; clay, 1 ; and common salt, 1, with equal 
 parts of vinegar and water, or with urine, to a cement. 
 
230 
 
 TTTE METAL WORKER’S ITANDY-BOOK. 
 
 IV. Chenot's Iron Cement. —Iron reduced from iron ores by 
 hydrogen-gas is kneaded with clay or gypsum. An addition of 
 urine, ammonia, or vinegar very much accelerates the hardening of 
 this cement. 
 
 V. For Gas Retorts and for Connecting of Parts of Iron Exposed 
 to Heat. —Mix thoroughly 26 lbs. of iron filings, iP / 2 lbs. of cement, 
 2 lbs. of gypsum, 7 ozs. of sal-ammoniac, and 5^ ozs. of sulphur 
 with x pint of vinegar, and stir into the mixture some warm water. 
 If the cement is good, small brown bubbles are formed on the sur¬ 
 face in drying. Articles joined with this cement must be protected 
 from continued moisture, as otherwise the cement swells and bursts 
 the articles. 
 
 VI. For Smearing Over Joints of Iron Water Reservoirs. —Mix 
 iron filings with wine vinegar or dilute sulphuric acid (1 part acid 
 to 30 water), and press the mass into the joints ; or, mix 2 parts of 
 iron filings and 1 of green vitriol to a paste with wine vinegar. 
 
 VII. For Cementing Joints or Cracks in Iron Stoves. —Mix coarse 
 iron filings, clay, sand, salt, and cow-hair with fresh blood; or, 
 clay, beech wood-ash, and some salt with water. 
 
 VIII. For Air-tight Oven Doors. —Intimately mix 120 parts of 
 iron filings, 2 of pulverized sal-ammoniac, 8 of powdered feldspar, 
 and 1 of flowers of sulphur, and make the mixture into a paste with 
 water. This cement must be used at once. 
 
 IX. For Fastening Iron Rods, Cramps, Hooks, etc., Especially in 
 Stone. —Make into a paste 3 parts of plaster of Paris and 1 part of 
 iron filings with water or glue water. According to another direc¬ 
 tion, 7 parts of plaster of Paris to 1 of iron filings are used. If, 
 however, the articles to be cemented are to remain white, the iron 
 filings are omitted, and only 7 parts of plaster of Paris and 3 of 
 white of egg with a sufficient quantity of water are used. 
 
 It is frequently very difficult to cement articles of iron together 
 so that the cemented places remain tight, even in the fire, to prevent 
 fluids from permeating. If one of the above-described cements of 
 iron filings, sulphur, and sal-ammoniac is used for the purpose, it 
 becomes almost always necessary to tighten the screws in a short 
 time on account of the cement slagging together, which is some- 
 
CEMENTS. 
 
 231 
 
 times very unhandy. Under certain circumstances the cement may 
 also be attacked by the fluid in the apparatus, which of course would 
 cause leakage. Furthermore, the articles joined together easily 
 warp in the great heat or expand in the fire, which causes the 
 cement to give way or to crumble. In such cases packing with iron 
 has proved very effectual. The process is as follows: The articles 
 to be made tight are first made bright by pickling or filing ; a disk 
 of bright wrought-iron of the exact shape of the parts to be 
 joined and moistened with vinegar is placed between them and 
 the screw or rivet tightened. 
 
 Cement for Iron. —The following mixture has been successfully 
 used for the cementing of iron railing tops, iron gratings to 
 stoves, etc., in fact, with such effect as to resist the blows of a 
 sledge-hammer. This mixture is composed of equal parts of 
 sulphur and white-lead with about | part of borax, the three in¬ 
 gredients being thoroughly incorporated together, so as to form a 
 homogeneous mass. When this composition is to be applied, it is 
 wet with strong sulphuric acid and a thin layer of it placed between 
 the two pieces of iron, these being at once pressed together. In 
 five days it will be perfectly dry, all traces of the cement having 
 vanished, and the work having every appearance of welding. 
 
 To Cement Iron to Iron. —Mix powdered cast-iron bore chips, 60 
 parts; sal-ammoniac, 2; flowers of sulphur, 1; and stir the mix¬ 
 ture into a stiff paste by adding water. The cement must be used 
 while fresh. 
 
 Cement for Fastening Iron Articles in Stone. —Mix good plaster 
 of Paris, 7 parts; iron filings, 1 ; and stir the mixture into a paste 
 with water. This cement dries very quickly. 
 
 Cement for Repairing Defective Places in Castings. —One part of 
 black pitch and 1 of rosin are melted in a crucible, and a sufficient 
 quantity of fine iron filings added to form a stiff mass, which is 
 allowed to become cool. The defective place is heated, a piece of 
 the cement laid upon it and pressed down with a hot iron. 
 
 Cement for Iron Stoves. —Mix with sufficient water to form a 
 stiff paste, wood ashes, 10 parts ; clay, 10 ; burnt lime, 4. 
 
 Cement for Mending Iron Pots and Pans. —Take 2 parts by 
 
232 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 weight of sulphur and i of fine black-lead. Put the sulphur in an 
 old iron pan, holding it over the fire until it begins to melt, then 
 add the black-lead ; stir well until all is mixed and melted; then 
 pour out on an iron plate or smooth stone. When cool break into 
 small pieces. A sufficient quantity of this compound being placed 
 upon the crack of the iron pot to be mended, can be soldered by 
 a hot iron in the same way a tinsmith solders his sheets. If there 
 is a small hole in the pot drive a copper rivet in it and then solder 
 over it with this cement. 
 
 Cement for Making Joints. —I. Mix ground lead with as much 
 finely powdered red-lead as will make it the consistency of soft 
 putty. 
 
 II. Mix equal parts of white-lead and red-lead, and add as much 
 boiled linseed oil as is required to give it the proper consistency; 
 or, make boiled linseed oil and red-lead mixed into a putty. These 
 cements are used for making metallic joints sound. The following 
 cements are cheaper: 
 
 Grouvelle's Oil Cement. —Mix thoroughly red-lead, i part; 
 white-lead, 2 l / 2 ; perfectly dry clay, 2 (all finely pulverized), with 
 boiled linseed oil. 
 
 Stephenson's Oil Cement. —Litharge, 2 parts; lime fallen to a 
 powder, 1 ; and fine sand, 1, are mixed to a stiff paste with hot 
 linseed oil. The cement is used while fresh and warm. 
 
 Serb at's Mastic. —Finely pulverized sulphate of lead is pounded 
 together with 1 part of old linseed oil in a suitable apparatus. 
 Repeat the operation twice, adding each time 1 part of finely 
 pulverized pyrolusite. It is then preserved in a stone vessel closed 
 with wet bladder. Another direction for preparing this mastic is 
 as follows : Triturate 5 parts of zinc oxide and 5 of sulphate of 
 lead with about 4 of linseed oil, then add gradually 10 parts of 
 finely ground pyrolusite and a like quantity of colcothar, and pound 
 the whole in a cast-iron mortar with an iron pestle, adding gradu¬ 
 ally 100 parts more of pyrolusite and a like quantity of colcothar. 
 The cement is good when sufficiently thick, and at the same time 
 so flexible that it can be rolled out between the fingers without 
 
CEMENTS. 
 
 233 
 
 breaking. If the cement has become hard add some more oil and 
 work it thoroughly with the iron pestle. 
 
 Marteaux and Robert's Cement. —This cement may be used for 
 pipes, steam-engine cylinders, etc. It is prepared from pyrolusite, 
 ioo parts; graphite, 12; white-lead, 5; red-lead, 3; and clay, 3. 
 The ingredients are pulverized, sifted and mixed. To 7 parts of 
 the mixture add 1 part of boiled linseed oil and make the whole 
 into a paste, which is heated in a sheet-iron pan and then vigor¬ 
 ously pounded so that it becomes soft, after which the alternate 
 heating and pounding is twice repeated. 
 
 Diamond Cement. —This cement is recommended for steam- 
 apparatus, steam-boilers, etc., since, when hard, it adheres firmly 
 to the metallic surface and does not shrink. According to Hager 
 it consists of linseed oil varnish, 16 parts; litharge, 16; whiting, 
 15 ; and prepared graphite, 50. As the graphite very much im¬ 
 pedes the drying in of the linseed oil at an ordinary temperature, 
 the mass can be preserved for a long time in a plastic state. 
 
 Glycerin Cement for Iron. —According to Bant’noff a very durable 
 fire-proof and water-proof cement for cementing together and 
 tightening even very large iron articles, for instance, cracked 
 boilers, is obtained by working equal parts of red-lead and litharge 
 to the consistency of glazier’s putty with concentrated glycerin. 
 
 Fire-proof and Water-proof Cement. —To 4 or 5 parts .of clay 
 thoroughly dried and pulverized add 2 parts of iron filings free 
 from oxide, 1 of peroxide of manganese, y 2 of sea salt and y 2 
 of borax. Mix these ingredients thoroughly and render them as 
 fine as possible, then reduce them to a thick paste with the necessary 
 quantity of water, mixing intimately. It must be used imme¬ 
 diately. After application it should be exposed to heat, gradually 
 increasing almost to a white heat. This cement is very hard, and 
 presents complete resistance alike to a red heat and boiling water. 
 Another method is as follows : To equal parts of sifted peroxide of 
 manganese and pulverized zinc-white add a sufficient quantity of 
 commercial soluble glass to form a thin paste. This mixture, when 
 used immediately, forms a cement quite equal in hardness and re¬ 
 sistance to that obtained by the first method. 
 
234 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-ROOK. 
 
 Cement for Electrical or Chemical Apparatus. —A good cement 
 for this purpose may be prepared by mixing 5 lbs. of resin, 1 lb. 
 of wax, 1 lb. of red ochre and 2 ozs. of plaster of Paris, and 
 melting the whole at a moderate heat. 
 
 Acid-proof Cement. —Make a concentrated solution of silicate of 
 soda, and form a paste with powdered glass. This simple mixture 
 will sometimes be found invaluable in operations of the laboratory 
 where a luting is required to resist the action of acid fumes. 
 
 To Cement Thin Metal-sheets. —Dissolve isinglass cut into small 
 pieces in little water at a moderate heat and add a small quantity 
 of nitric acid, the proper proportion being determined by experi¬ 
 ment. With too much nitric acid the cement requires weeks for 
 drying and with too little it does not adhere well. 
 
 To Unite Glass and Brass. —Melt 5 parts of resin and 1 of wax . 
 and stir into the melted mass 1 part of burned ochre and y part 
 of plaster of Paris ; or, melt together 4 parts of pine resin and 1 
 of wax and stir into the melted mass 1 part of elutriated brickdust 
 or chalk. Apply warm to the heated surfaces. 
 
 To Fasten Metallic Mountings upon Glass, Porcelain, etc. —Dis¬ 
 solve 2 parts of glue of a good quality in water, heat the solution 
 over a coal-fire and add 1 part of good linseed oil varnish and y 2 
 of Venetian turpentine. The cemented articles must remain tied 
 together for 40 to 60 hours. 
 
 Cement for Fastening the Metal Parts upon Glass Lamps. —Resin, 
 12 parts; strong lye, 16; water, 20; plaster of Paris, 20. The 
 resin is boiled with the lye until it is entirely dissolved and, when 
 cold, forms a tenacious solid mass. This is sufficiently diluted by 
 adding the water and the plaster of Paris is then carefully worked 
 in. This cement is insoluble in petroleum. 
 
 To Cement Metal Plates on to Wooden Boxes. —Melt together 6 
 parts of resin and y of linseed oil and stir into the melted mass 1 
 part of burnt ochre and y 2 part of plaster of Paris. 
 
 To Cement Iron to Wood or Stone. —Melt together 4 parts of 
 black pitch and 1 of wax and stir 1 part of brickdust into the 
 melted mass. 
 
 To Fasten Metals on Wood. —Prepare a thick solution of glue 
 
CEMENTS. 
 
 235 
 
 and stir into it finely ground chalk until the mass has acquired the 
 required consistency. For fastening metals, especially copper, to 
 sandstone the following composition may be used : Work together 
 7 parts of white-lead, 6 of litharge, 6 of bole, 4 of powdered 
 glass and 4 of linseed oil varnish so as to form a plastic mass. 
 
 Cement for Fastening Metal upon Glass. —To secure metal to 1 
 glass in a safe and quick manner the use of the following cement is 
 recommended: Intimately mix 100 parts by weight of pulverized 
 white litharge and 50 of dry white-lead and work it with a mixture 
 of 3 parts of boiled linseed oil and 1 of copal lacquer to a plastic 
 mass. The cementing itself is very simple. The lower surface of 
 the metal is coated with the cement, pressed upon the glass and 
 the excess of cement removed with a suitable instrument. The 
 cement dries rapidly and becomes very hard. 
 
 Cements for Fastening Metal Letters upon Glass, Marble, Wood, 
 etc. —I. Mix copal varnish, 15 parts; boiled linseed oil, 5 ; oil of 
 turpentine, 5 ; and glue, 5. The glue is dissolved by placing the 
 mixture in a water bath. When solution is complete 10 parts of 
 slaked lime are added. 
 
 II. Mix 15 parts of a varnish prepared from sandarac and white 
 resin with 5 parts of linseed oil, boiled with litharge, and 5 parts 
 of oil of turpentine. To this add 5 parts of marine glue, and 
 after dissolving this mixture on a water bath add 10 parts of flake 
 white and white-lead. 
 
 III. Mix 15 parts of copal varnish prepared with an addition of 
 resin and 5 parts of oil of turpentine with 2 parts of powdered 
 isinglass, 5 of sifted iron filings and 10 of washed clay or ochre. 
 
 IV. Mix 15 parts of copal varnish prepared with gum lac, 5 of 
 linseed oil boiled with litharge, 8 of solution of caoutchouc in tar 
 oil, 7 of tar oil with 10 of Roman cement and plaster of Paris. 
 
 To Cement Glass into Metal .—To cement the glass portions into 
 metallic cases, as is frequently required, for instance in the manu¬ 
 facture of physical and optical instruments, etc., the following 
 practically tested directions are recommended : 
 
 I. Melt carefully 160 parts by weight of finely pulverized colo¬ 
 phony, 40 of white wax and 80 of colcothar; add to the melting 
 
TriE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 2"G 
 
 mass 20 parts by weight of Venetian turpentine, remove the mass 
 from the fire and stir the finished cement until cold with a wooden 
 spatula. Apply the cement warm. 
 
 II. Use a good quality of sealing wax, which should, however, 
 not be too brittle. Any brittleness can be immediately removed 
 by the addition of some Venetian turpentine. In cementing glass 
 into metallic cases the glass as well as the metallic casing must be 
 carefully heated to the melting point of the sealing wax. 
 
 III. Carefully mix shellac with a like quantity of finely powdered 
 pumice and apply warm. 
 
 IV. To fasten metallic or glass articles for optical glasses so that 
 in polishing they remain in a fixed position use a cement consisting 
 of a mixture of io parts of pitch and i of white wax. 
 
 Cement for Fastening Brass to Glass. —For cementing brass on 
 glass the following receipt will be found to answer very well : Take 
 resin soap—made by boiling i part of caustic soda and 3 parts of 
 resin in 5 of water—and knead it into half the quantity of plaster 
 of Paris. This cement is used largely for fastening the brass tops on 
 glass lamps. It is very strong, is not acted upon by petroleum, 
 bears heat very well and hardens in one-half to three-quarters of an 
 hour. By substituting zinc white, white-lead or slaked lime for 
 plaster of Paris it hardens more slowly. Water attacks only the 
 surface of this cement. Of course, as it sets shortly after mixing, 
 only as much as may be needed for immediate use should be made 
 at one time. 
 
 To Fasten Leather upon Iron. —Apply a coat of lead paint, either 
 white or red lead, to the iron. When dry cover the coat of paint 
 with a cement prepared as follows : Soak glue of the best quality 
 in cold water until soft; then dissolve it in vinegar at a moderate 
 heat, add one-third of its volume of white oil of turpentine, 
 and after thoroughly mixing apply the cement while warm with a 
 brush and press the leather upon it. Another method is as follows : 
 Digest 1 part of crushed nut-galls for 6 hours with 8 of distilled 
 water and strain the mass. Soak glue in its own weight of water 
 for 24 hours and then dissolve it. The warm infusion of galls is 
 spread upon the leather and the glue solution on the roughened 
 
CEMENTS. 
 
 237 
 
 surface of the warm metal; the moist leather is pressed upon it and, 
 when dry, it adheres so firmly that it cannot be removed without 
 tearing. 
 
 To Fasten Paper-lab els to Iron. —Rub the place where the label 
 is to be fastened with an onion cut in half and then stick on the 
 label with paste, gum or glue. The vegetable mucilage of the 
 onion adheres firmly to the iron and combines with the paste on 
 the paper to a mass which does not crack off and stands heating. 
 
 Cement for Fastening Labels on Polished Nickel. —Dissolve 400 
 parts by weight of coarsely powdered dextrin in 600 of water, add 
 20 of glycerin and 10 of glucose and heat the mixture to 194 0 F. 
 
 Another Mode of Preparation is as follows: Stir 400 parts by 
 weight of dextrin with water, dilute the mass by a further addition 
 of 200 parts by weight of water, add 20 of glucose and 10 of 
 aluminium sulphate and heat the mass in a steam-bath to 194 0 F., 
 whereby the mass, which is at first thick, becomes clear and thinly 
 fluid. Both kinds of cement are well suited for the purpose, 
 though the first deserves the preference. 
 
 To Cement Forks and Knives in their Handles. —I. Mix 1 part 
 of brickdust and 2 of pulverized colophony. Fill the cavity in the 
 handle with the mixture and push in the previously heated tang of 
 the blade. 
 
 II. Melt together 4 parts of colophony and 1 part of sulphur 
 and stir into the melted mass iron filings, fine sand or brick-dust. 
 Use in the same manner as in I. 
 
 III. To Secure Forks and Knives in Silver Handles. —Melt 2 
 parts of pitch and stir 1 part of brickdust into the melted mass. 
 Fill the cavity in the handle with the mixture and push in the tang 
 of the blade. 
 
 To Cement with Copper Amalgam. —The metals to be cemented 
 are first made bright by acid, then heated to from 176° to 194 0 F. 
 and, after applying the amalgam, firmly pressed together. The 
 parts adhere as firmly as if soldered. 
 
 Ce 7 nents for Parts of Machines. —These consist of a mixture of 
 caoutchouc or gutta-percha with filings of iron, steel, copper or 
 brass, or, in the place of the latter, with powdered iron or copper 
 
238 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 ores. The caoutchouc and gutta-percha form either essential parts 
 of the mixture or simply serve for cementing the metallic sub¬ 
 stances together. An addition of sal-ammoniac or another sub¬ 
 stance, which attacks the metals in the presence of water, serves 
 for the oxidation of the metals in the mixture, thus effecting a 
 firmer union. The ingredients may, if desired, be compounded 
 with sulphur combinations; they are then rolled out and brought 
 into the required shape. The proportions vary according to the 
 purpose for which the cement is to be used. 
 
 I. For Steam-Pipes. —Caoutchouc, 2 parts; gutta-percha, 1 ; 
 sulphur, 1; iron filings, 10. Should there be a difference in price, 
 a portion of the caoutchouc may be replaced by gutta-percha and 
 vice versa ; powdered ores, with omission of a corresponding por¬ 
 tion of sulphur, may be substituted for the portion of the iron 
 filings. 
 
 II. Cement for Parts of Copper and Brass. —The same composi¬ 
 tion as given under I. is used, the iron being replaced by copper or 
 brass shavings. 
 
 III. For Pipe-conduits not Exposed to Heat. —Caoutchouc, 4 
 parts ; gutta-percha, 1 ; sal-ammoniac, 1 ; sulphur, 1 ; iron fil¬ 
 ings, 10. 
 
 IV. For Packing Stuffing-boxes and Pistons of Steam-engines .— 
 Caoutchouc, 5 parts; gutta-percha, 2 ; sulphur, 1 ; powdered 
 graphite, 1 ; silicate of magnesia, 1 ; filings of copper, zinc, lead, 
 tin or alloys of these metals, 10. 
 
 If the ingredients have been intimately mixed and form a homo¬ 
 geneous mass the cements are well adapted for the purposes men¬ 
 tioned. If one of the cements is to be exposed to the direct action 
 of the fire or a high degree of heat asbestos is to be added to the 
 mixture. For the oxidation of the metals contained in the cements 
 they are exposed to the action of cold or hot water for 1 to 12 
 hours, according to the thickness of the plates into which they 
 have been rolled. The penetration of moisture into the mass is 
 promoted by mixing with it some fibrous material such as cotton or 
 asbestos. 
 
 A Permanent and Durable foint can be made between rough 
 
CEMENTS. 
 
 239 
 
 cast-iron surfaces by the use of mineral asbestos mixed with suf¬ 
 ficient white-lead to make a very stiff putty. This will resist any 
 amount of heat, and is unaffected by steam or water. It has been 
 employed for mending or closing cracks in cast-iron retorts used in 
 the distillation of oil and gas from cannel coal. The heat being 
 applied to the bottom of the retorts, and the temperature of the iron 
 maintained at a bright red heat, after a time the bottom of the retort 
 would give way, the larger portion of the crack being downward 
 toward the fire. The method employed was to prepare the mixture 
 and place it on the top of a brick, then put the brick on a bar of 
 iron or a shovel, and press the cement upward to fill the crack in 
 the iron, holding it for some time until it had penetrated the cavity 
 and somewhat set. Of course, during this operation, the lid was 
 removed from the retort, so that no pressure of gas or oil forced 
 the cement outward until set. 
 
 Schiefer's Packing Rings for Manholes and Flanges. —The joining 
 of manholes and flanges is not difficult when there is sufficient 
 time to allow the cement to harden. The case is, however, dif¬ 
 ferent when such joints are to be made in a short time and the 
 work is to be at once proceeded with. Hence the use of Schiefer’s 
 rings may be recommended, which avoid this evil and allow of an 
 immediate continuation of the work. The rings are made of stout 
 pasteboard, and receive first a ground paint of ioo parts of 
 graphite, ioo of fibrous gypsum, 2 of alum, and 20 of rye flour in 
 75 of water. The mass is intimately and finely ground, and 
 applied thrice as uniformly as possible to the rings. The rings 
 when completely dry and hard and solid are again three times 
 coated with a paint of 50 parts of graphite, 5 of chemically pure 
 white-lead, of borate of manganese and 20 of good linseed oil 
 varnish, and are then ready for use. They are then again coated 
 with the above composition, which should, however, be of greater 
 consistency and are used in the same manner as rubber or similar 
 rings. 
 
 Colored Cement for Repairing Zinc Ornaments.- —Soda water glass 
 solution of 33 0 Be is intimately mixed with fine whiting and an 
 addition of zinc dust (tutty) to a thick plastic mass, which hardens 
 
240 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 in 6 to 8 hours, becomes extraordinarily solid and acquires a gray 
 color. By polishing, after hardening, with an agate it acquires the 
 lustrous white color of metallic zinc, so that defective zinc orna¬ 
 ments and zinc vessels can be durably repaired with it. The 
 cement adheres well also to glass and wood. 
 
 Evans's Metallic Cement. —This alloy is obtained by dissolving 
 cadmium amalgam prepared from 25.99 parts of cadmium and 
 74.01 parts of mercury in an excess of mercury, slightly pressing 
 the solution in a leather bag and thoroughly kneading. By knead¬ 
 ing, especially if previously heated to about 97 0 F., the cement is 
 rendered very plastic and, like softened wax, can be brought into 
 any form. On cooling it acquires considerable hardness. 
 
 Cement for Luting Crucible Lids. —Apply a thick paste made 
 from lime freshly slaked to a powder and concentrated solution 
 of borax. Let it dry slowly and then heat in the usual manner. 
 
 Cements for Water-pipes. —I. Cement for Joinitig Cast-iron Water- 
 pipes (for use on a large scale). Pulverize and mix 24 parts of 
 Roman cement, 8 of white lead, 2 of litharge and 1 of colophony. 
 Work the mixture into a plastic mass with old linseed oil kept 
 boiling together with one-half its weight of colophony until the 
 latter is dissolved. 
 
 II. Mix equal parts of burned lime, Roman cement, potter’s 
 clay and clay, all separately dried and ground fine, and knead the 
 mixture with linseed oil. 
 
 III. Melt together colophony and tallow, and stir into the 
 melted mass enough finely sifted gypsum to give it the required 
 consistency. 
 
 Bismuth Cement for Cementing the Glass Parts on Petroleum 
 Lamps. —This cement is composed of lead, 3 parts ; tin, 2 ; and 
 bismuth, 2.5. 
 
 Armenian or Jeweller's Cement. —Dissolve 5 or 6 pieces of gum 
 mastic the size of a large pea in as much spirits of wine as will 
 suffice to render it liquid; in a separate vessel dissolve as much 
 isinglass (previously softened in water, though none of the water 
 must be used) in rum or other spirit, as will make a 2 oz. phial of 
 very strong glue, adding two small pieces of gum-ammoniac, which 
 
CLEANSING, GRINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 241 
 
 must be rubbed or ground until dissolved, then mix the whole 
 at a sufficient heat. Keep it in a.phial closely stoppered, and 
 when it is to be used set the phial in boiling water. This cement 
 is effectual in uniting almost all substances, even glass to polished 
 steel. 
 
 IX. 
 
 CLEANSING, GRINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 Cleansing Metals with the Sand Blast .—In large establishments 
 engaged in galvanizing cast-iron without previous grinding, the use 
 of the sand blast in place of the circular wire brush has recently 
 been introduced with great advantage. Articles with deep depres¬ 
 sions, which cannot be reached with the scratch-brush, as well as 
 small articles, which cannot be conveniently held in the hand and 
 pressed against the revolving scratch-brush, can only be brought 
 by the sand blast into a state of sufficient metallic purity for the 
 galvanizing process. However, while the revolving scratch-brushes 
 impart to the objects a certain lustre, they acquire by the sand 
 blast a dead lustre and, hence, the blast is also frequently used for 
 the purpose of deadening lustrous surfaces to their entire extent, or 
 of producing contrasts; for instance, dead designs upon a lustrous 
 ground, or vice versa. 
 
 Fig. 7 shows such a sand blast. The compressed air, whose 
 pressure must be at least equal to an 18^-inch column of water, 
 passes through the blast-pipe A into a nozzle running horizontally 
 through the machine, and carries away from there a jet of sand 
 which falls into the outflowing blast, and is hurled upon the objects 
 placed under the nozzle. The objects rest upon sheet-iron plates 
 or in boxes of sheet-iron, which, moving at a slow rate, pass under 
 the nozzle ; the motion is effected by the shafts B B with the use 
 of rubber belts. To prevent dust the machine is provided with a 
 wooden or sheet-iron casing, a few windows allowing a view of 
 the interior. The sand used in blasting collects in a box and is 
 returned to the sand-reservoir by an elevator. 
 
 16 
 
242 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The jet of sand acts not only upon the upper side of the objects, 
 which it strikes first, but also almost as energetically upon the 
 lower, so that, as a rule, the cleansing process is completed by 
 one operation. Articles of a specially unfavorable shape must be 
 passed twice or three times under the nozzle. 
 
 F'g- 7- 
 
 Cleansing of Metals by Means of Acids with the Use of a Galvanic 
 Current .—When metallic, especially iron, objects are cleansed and 
 made bright by pickling in an acid, the latter, as a rule, dissolves 
 besides the oxide more or less metal, whereby the surface of the 
 article loses much of its smoothness. To avoid this, the articles to 
 be cleansed are made, while being immersed in the acid mixture, 
 the negative pole of a galvanic apparatus, whereby the metal is 
 almost completely protected. For this purpose a square vessel is 
 used, in the centre of which stand two narrow, porous cells. Each 
 
CLEANSING, GRINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 243 
 
 of these cells contains a number of zinc plates fastened to an iron 
 rod above the cell. In the vessel, on the side of each cell, is a 
 movable bottom provided with holes, upon the upper surface of 
 which is secured an iron bar bent to and fro. This bar is connected 
 by a wire to the rod, to which are suspended the zinc plates of the 
 corresponding cell. For use, the vessel and the cells are filled as 
 full as possible with a fluid consisting of i lb. of common salt, 5 
 lbs. of water, and 26 ozs. of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. The 
 articles to be cleansed are placed upon the above-mentioned bot¬ 
 toms, whereby they come in contact with the iron bars, and become 
 the negative pole of a simple galvanic apparatus. The cleansing 
 action of the fluid is, if necessary, assisted by heating by means of 
 a steam-pipe placed at the bottom of the vessel. 
 
 Scouring and Polishing of Knitting Needles .—For this purpose 
 Kraiten & Schneeloch, of Altena, Westphalia, use a four-cornered 
 box, the length of the knitting needles. The long sides of this 
 box, from about yi their height, run obliquely, with an*inclination 
 of 40° towards the interior. On the oblique sides inside of the box 
 move up and down two flat wedges, which above are connected by 
 joints to vertical rods. On top these rods run in guides, and are 
 moved up and down by a crank with connecting rod. Between the 
 two flat wedges the box is filled with about 55 lbs. of knitting 
 needles, a few handfuls of comminuted pebbles, and about 1 quart 
 of oil. The oblique sides force the wedges in passing down to 
 move towards the interior, whereby the knitting needles and 
 pebbles are rubbed together, scouring the former bright. To pre¬ 
 vent some of the knitting needles slipping between the wedges and 
 the walls of the box, springs are placed on the stationary guides, 
 which press the wedges against the oblique sides. 
 
 To Scoter and Polish Needles .—Needles of equal length, but of 
 varying thickness, are placed parallel and in 7 or 8 rows lengthwise 
 upon close, coarse linen, and covered alternately with thin layers 
 of fine quartz sand or emery powder. Rape-seed oil is then poured 
 over the mass, and the whole rolled together in the form of a 
 sausage. These rolls are about 17^ to 23^ inches long, 3 to 5 
 inches thick, and contain from 150,000 to 500,000 needles. They 
 
244 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 are tied together on the ends, and sometimes wrapped around with 
 a stout cord ; 12 to 40 of them are then placed one after the other 
 in the scouring mill. The latter consists essentially of a lower and 
 upper wooden plate, one of which is fluted and can be moved to 
 and fro. When the lower plate is stationary, the whole resembles 
 an ordinary mangle, and it acts also in a similar manner, the rolls 
 containing the needles being set in a rolling motion by the moving 
 to and fro of the fluted plate. By these means the needles rub 
 against each other, and are scoured and polished in the sharp 
 sand. 
 
 To Cleanse Guns with Petroleum .—Cleansing a weapon with fats 
 and oils does not entirely protect it from rust; the so-called drying 
 oils get gummy and resinous, while the non-drying oils become 
 rancid, and by exposure to the air acids are formed, and these 
 attack the iron. For these reasons petroleum is to be preferred for 
 this purpose. Petroleum is as great an enemy to water as are the 
 fatty oils,*and hence it keeps away the water from a gun-barrel 
 covered with it. It is very essential, however, that the petroleum 
 employed be perfectly pure, for impure oil, such as is often met 
 with in commerce, attacks the metal. Care must also be had not 
 to allow it to come in contact with the polished stock. When 
 about to clean a gun, some tow is wrapped around the ramrod and 
 enough petroleum poured upon it to thoroughly moisten it; it is then 
 pushed in a rotary manner through the barrel and back a dozen 
 times, and the tow taken out and unrolled, and the upper and lower 
 ends of the barrel rubbed with the clean part, after which it is 
 thrown away. This removes the coarser portion of the dirt. A 
 round brush of stiff bristles, and fitting the barrel, is now screwed 
 to the ramrod, then moistened thoroughly with petroleum and 
 twisted into the barrel, running it back and forth at least a dozen 
 times, thus loosening the dirt that is more firmly attached. The 
 first operation is now repeated, except that the tow on the ramrod 
 is left dry, and the rubbing with this must be continued in all direc¬ 
 tions as long as it comes out soiled. The use of wire-brushes is 
 objectionable for cleaning guns, as the numerous steel points cut 
 
CLEANSING, GRINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 245 
 
 into the tube. Only soft tow, hemp, woollen rags, or the like, 
 should be used, as the petroleum dissolves the dirt sufficiently. 
 
 Cleansing of Coins, Medals, and Articles of Silver. —Rossler 
 recommends for this purpose a moderately concentrated solution of 
 potassium cyanide, kept ready for use in a bottle. In cleansing 
 medals and smaller objects place three tumblers alongside each 
 other, two of them filled with water and one with solution of potas¬ 
 sium cyanide. Now grasp the objects separately with brass 
 tweezers, and dip them in the potassium cyanide solution; the 
 brownish or dirty yellow coating disappearing at once. Then rinse 
 the objects quickly in the second and third tumblers, and finally 
 dry them with a linen cloth. Larger articles—for instance, spoons, 
 tankards, candlesticks, etc.—are treated by moistening the yellow 
 places with a small brush or tuft of cotton saturated with solution 
 of potassium cyanide, washing and drying. The process is used 
 in the same manner for gilded articles. 
 
 To Cleanse Golden-bronze. —Bronze which has become dirty by 
 oil, fat, tallow, or other greasy body, is boiled in an infusion of 
 ashes, and cleansed with a soft brush dipped in a fluid of equal parts 
 of water, nitric acid, and alum. Each piece is then dried with a 
 rag, and slightly heated. To cleanse clock pendulums, and free 
 them from the substance called by the gilders “mercury-dust,” heat 
 them moderately, touch the stain with a brush dipped in nitric acid, 
 rub with a linen rag, and again heat moderately. 
 
 To Cleanse Bronze Fixtures. —Boil the articles in ordinary soap¬ 
 boilers’ lye, rinse in water, and roll in bran or sawdust. If the 
 bronze is pressed, the lye must be mixed with common salt and 
 the article thoroughly brushed, but no water must touch the 
 back. 
 
 To Cleanse Silvered Dial-plates. —Silvered dial-plates of clocks 
 frequently lose their lustre by the effect of air and smoke or sul¬ 
 phurous emanations. To cleanse them make pulverized purified 
 tartar into a paste with water. Take some of the paste on a brush 
 of bristles and rub the dial-plate, turning it constantly until the 
 silvering has acquired its original whiteness and lustre. Then wash 
 
246 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 the dial-plate with clean water and dry by gently patting with 
 cloth, and finally expose it for a few minutes to a moderate heat. 
 
 To Cleanse Chandeliers and Gas-fixtures. —The chandeliers or 
 fixtures, whether gilded or not, are taken apart and the separate 
 parts boiled for a few minutes in a sharp lye and then cleansed with 
 a soft brush. Next draw them through a strong solution of potas¬ 
 sium cyanide, then wash them in a large boiler with hot water, dry 
 them in clean saw-dust and finally polish them with chamois 
 leather. If necessary, lacquer the parts after putting them to¬ 
 gether. 
 
 To Clean Small Screws. —Screws that are too small for separate 
 treatment may be cleaned from rust as follows: Take a pound of 
 strews and place them in a small box—a cigar-box will do; put a 
 small quantity of oil on them and shake for a minute. Then put a 
 piece of cotton-waste in the box and repeat shaking for a minute ; 
 finally put a handful of saw-dust in the box and shake for another 
 minute or so and remove the saw-dust by sifting it from the screws 
 in a fine sieve. 
 
 To Free Iron from Ingrained Rust. —A thorough cleansing of the 
 iron may be easily effected by immersing the article in a nearly 
 saturated solution of chloride of tin. The duration of the immer¬ 
 sion will depend upon the thicker or thinner film of rust; in most 
 cases, however, 12 to 24 hours will suffice. The solution of 
 chloride of tin must not contain too great an excess of acid, other¬ 
 wise it will attack the iron itself. After the articles have been re¬ 
 moved from the bath they should first be washed in water and then 
 with ammonia and be dried as quickly as possible. Articles which 
 have been treated in this manner assume the appearance of dead 
 silver, but their normal appearance may be restored by simple 
 polishing. 
 
 To Remove Rust from Polished Steel A rticles. —Soak the rusty places 
 for a few days with oil and then scour with emery or tripoli and oil, 
 using a stick of hard wood. Wipe off the oil and all other im¬ 
 purities, rub the stains once more with emery and wine vinegar and 
 finally polish with fine bloodstone and leather. 
 
 To Extract Rust from Steel. —Immerse the article to be cleaned 
 
CLEANSING, GRINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 247 
 
 for a few minutes, until all dirt and rust is taken off, in a strong 
 solution of cyanide of potassium, say about oz., in a wineglass¬ 
 ful of water; then take it out and clean it with a tooth-brush 
 dipped into a composition of cyanide of potassium, castile soap, 
 whiting and water made into a paste of about the consistency of 
 cream. 
 
 To Remove Rust from Nickel-plated Articles. —Grease the rust 
 stains and after a few days rub thoroughly with a cloth moistened 
 with ammonia. The ammonia dissolves the rust without injury to 
 the plating. Should this process be not entirely successful, touch 
 the stains with dilute hydrochloric acid and rub vigorously. Then 
 wash the articles and when dry polish with tripoli or a similar 
 polishing material. 
 
 To Freshen up Nickel Watch-movements. —Nickel watch-move¬ 
 ments which have become yellow or stained by reason of change 
 of temperature or other influences may be freshened up as follows: 
 To 50 parts of rectified alcohol add 1 part of sulphuric acid. 
 Place the parts to be freshened in this fluid for 10 to 15 seconds, 
 immersing, however, only a few at a time, so as to be able to take 
 them out at the proper time, since a longer immersion would be 
 injurious. When taken from the fluid rinse the parts in clean 
 water and then place them for a short time in rectified alcohol; 
 finally dry them in saw-dust or with soft linen. Nickel movements 
 thus cleaned have almost the appearance of being new, their 
 smoothness being not in the slightest degree injured, as would be 
 the case if the leather-file or brush were used. 
 
 Grinding .—-The object of grinding metallic surfaces is the same 
 as that of filing and consists in the removal from the surface of very 
 fine particles by the rough grains of the grinding agents. Metals 
 which are to be ground show, as a rule, a very rough surface, it 
 not being possible to obtain another one in casting, forging, ham¬ 
 mering, etc. The object of grinding is to give shape to the article 
 or beautify its surface, and the principal condition for executing 
 the grinding process is that the grinding material should under all 
 circumstances be harder than the article to be ground, it being of 
 no consequence whether it is used in a solid form (stones or wheels) 
 
248 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 or as a powder. The choice of the grinding material depends en¬ 
 tirely on the nature and condition of the article to be ground. 
 Grindstones, for instance, attack hardened steel articles much bet¬ 
 ter than even the best files. The health of the workman being 
 much affected by dry-grinding, it is now chiefly used only for 
 such articles which, for instance, like needles, cannot be con¬ 
 veniently dried separately, but nevertheless suffer much from rust. 
 The fine particles of iron and stone which become detached are 
 best removed by a small, rapidly-running ventilator. In wet-grind¬ 
 ing the lower half of the stone runs either in water or is kept wet 
 from above by a gutter; it has the advantage of not wearing out 
 the stone so quickly, of producing finer and more uniform grinding 
 scratches upon the articles and heating them less, which is of 
 special importance in grinding hardened steel. Small grind¬ 
 stones are generally driven by hand, but larger ones by power ; 
 special contrivances for securing the article to be ground are 
 also frequently used. In grinding with pulverulent substances 
 the article to be ground remains either stationary or is made to re¬ 
 volve, the grinding agent being pressed against it by the hand or a 
 special contrivance. Generally speaking, it is the same whether 
 the grinding material is moved over the article or the latter over 
 the former, but mostly the article to be ground is held firmly or 
 moved very slowly, while the grinding agent, for instance the 
 grindstone, wheels coated with grinding powder and similar con¬ 
 trivances, revolve very rapidly. Grinding may also be effected by 
 the sand-blast; this process is now much used for cleansing cast¬ 
 ings, etc. 
 
 Rules for the Use of Emery Wheels .—In using emery wheels the 
 following rules are to be observed: x. To make the most of the use 
 of emery wheels, a strongly built grinding machine upon a solid 
 foundation is the principal condition. 2. The wheel must not be 
 forced or wedged upon the grinding shaft, but must easily fit upon 
 it. For this purpose it is recommended to have the diameter of the 
 wheel-base at least 0.039 ’ nc ^ larger than the diameter of the axis. 
 3. Place between the iron flanges, which should be about one-third 
 the diameter of the wheel, and the sides of the wheel a disk of 
 
CLEANSING, GRINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 249 
 
 pasteboard or rubber about 0.079 i nc h thick. 4. The loose 
 flange should not be screwed up tighter than can be done with a 
 wrench with one hand. With thin wheels, especially those for 
 sharpening saws, the nut must be very moderately tightened, and 
 it is best to fix it with a jam-nut. 5. It is advisable in grinding to 
 press whenever possible with the entire hand, since in free-hand 
 grinding even the hardest wheel breaks from the unequal pressure. 
 Unskilled grinders should whenever possible use an adjustable table. 
 6. The emery wheel is to be protected from every shock, and the 
 maximum number of revolutions must not be exceeded. 7. When 
 a wheel has lost its round shape it should be at once turned by 
 means of a diamond or other suitable tool, as otherwise the efficacy 
 of the wheel is not completely utilized, and the irregular running 
 may cause it to burst. In turning the wheel by means of a 
 diamond, it must be revolved by hand or placed in a lathe. 
 
 Emery Wire is a thick or thin wire which is made sharp by oiling 
 and then scattering emery over it; it is used either in a form 
 similar to a drill-bow or in the same manner as an emery belt run¬ 
 ning over pulleys. The wire may also be made sharp by allowing 
 it to run first through a vessel filled with oil and then through one 
 filled with emery powder, by which means there is always fresh 
 emery for grinding. 
 
 Emery Sticks are file-like instruments used for working the 
 various metals, as well as other substances, and which in certain 
 cases may replace steel files. They are either round, pointed on 
 one end, or uniformly flat or angular, and consist either through and 
 through of a composition similar to that used for emery wheels, 
 or they are of wood, coated with a thin layer of the above- 
 mentioned composition, or they consist, finally, of emery paper 
 pasted on wood. The manufacture of the first kind is similar to 
 that of emery wheels. For making the second kind, the wood may 
 be coated with a solution of shellac in alcohol, and the emery 
 applied before the shellac is entirely dry; the whole is then dried 
 thoroughly. This coating with shellac and emery has to be several 
 times repeated, until the layer is of sufficient thickness. Care must 
 be had to allow each application of shellac solution and emery to 
 
250 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 become thoroughly dry before applying the next, as otherwise the 
 mass remains soft, and readily rubs off. To make the third kind of 
 emery stick, the wood to be used must be very dry and smoothly 
 planed. Coat it first a few times with thin glue solution, and then 
 rub it smooth with glass paper; cut the emery paper into suitable 
 pieces, and, after coating the back with boiling glue, stick it on 
 the prepared wood, being careful to have it perfectly smooth. 
 
 To Cleanse Emery which has been Used. —Formerly emery which 
 had been used was considered useless waste, though sometimes 
 attempts were made to make it again available by glowing it, in 
 order to destroy the admixed oil. But other impurities were not 
 removed by this treatment, while, on the other hand, the emery 
 lost its hardness. The oil and other impurities can, however, be 
 removed from the emery without injuring its hardness, as follows: 
 Boil the emery with a sufficient quantity of caustic soda solution of 
 specific gravity 1.015, in order to extract and saponify the oil and 
 fat; this is effected in a cast-iron boiler, and by keeping the emery 
 as much as possible suspended in the fluid by means of a stirring 
 apparatus. After the saponification of the oil, the fluid is drawn 
 off into another vessel; it may then be mixed with acid to separate 
 the fatty acids formed, which, after washing, can be used for various 
 purposes. To the emery remaining in the boiler, water is added, 
 and the stirring apparatus again set in motion to wash out the 
 admixed impurities. The emery is finally dried and, if it does not 
 contain too much iron, is again available. If, however, it contains 
 a large quantity of iron, it is, after drying, allowed to slide down an 
 inclined plane along which electro-magnets are placed, which retain 
 the iron particles. The emery may, however, also be treated with 
 hydrochloric, sulphuric, nitric acids, etc., to dissolve the iron. 
 The emery freed from iron is washed and dried, and, if it should 
 contain much sand, freed from it by winnowing. 
 
 Pickling or Dipping of Metallic Objects. —Metallic objects are ren¬ 
 dered bright by removing the oxides with an acid. For cast-iron 
 or wrought-iron articles mix 1 part of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid 
 with 10 parts of water, add some tar, and immerse the objects in 
 the mixture until the scales are removed from the surface, after 
 
CLEANSING, GRINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 251 
 
 which they are rinsed off in clean water and dried. The purpose 
 of pickling copper , brass, tombac, and bronze is to produce a lustrous 
 surface. Finished brass sheets, after passing through the rolls, 
 have a black color, which is partially due to the formation of 
 cupric oxide on the surface, and,, partially, to sulphur combinations 
 formed by heating with coal in annealing. In order to impart to 
 the brass its characteristic beautiful yellow color it is subjected to 
 pickling. The operation commences by placing the sheets in a 
 fluid consisting of io parts of water and i of sulphuric acid. The 
 layer of oxide quickly dissolves, and the sheets show the pure, yel¬ 
 low brass color; they are then washed and dried. In most cases 
 the sheets are subjected to a second treatment with acids, in order 
 to impart to them a beautiful color; hence the treatment with 
 sulphuric acid is generally termed preparatory pickling. As the 
 actual pickle, either nitric acid by itself is used or a mixture of 2 
 parts of nitric acid and 1 of sulphuric acid. Pickles containing 
 nitric acid possess the property of dissolving zinc from the brass 
 more quickly than copper, the surface of the sheet acquiring in conse¬ 
 quence of it a warmer tone, shading more or less into reddish. By 
 exercising great care, dilute nitric acid by itself may be used as a 
 pickle, but the sheets must be immediately washed, since, if only 
 the slightest trace of the acid remains, they acquire after some 
 time a greenish color, due to the formation of a basic cupric 
 nitrate. 
 
 It has been observed that nitric acid containing a certain quan¬ 
 tity of nitrous acid yields especially beautiful tones of color. To 
 obtain them a small quantity of organic substance is added to the 
 nitric acid or to the mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. The 
 most curious substances are used for the purpose, snuff, for instance, 
 being highly recommended as especially efficacious in producing 
 beautiful colors. The use of such substances is, however, entirely 
 superfluous, there being a number of cheaper organic substances 
 which, when brought together with concentrated nitric acid, evolve 
 nitrous acid. The cheapest of these materials is dry saw-dust, the 
 nitric acid acquiring a short time after its introduction an orange- 
 yellow color, which is due to the products of decomposition of the 
 
252 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 nitric acid, prominent among which is nitrous acid. After taking 
 the sheets from the pickle they are washed, best in running water, 
 in order to remove the last traces of acid. By quick pickling the 
 articles are obtained bright by the removal of the layer of oxide 
 from the smooth surface of the metal. But sometimes a dull lustre¬ 
 less surface is to be imparted to the brass, which is effected by treat¬ 
 ing the articles with a boiling pickling fluid composed also of nitric 
 and sulphuric acids. In many factories this pickle is prepared by 
 dissolving i part of zinc in 3 of nitric acid and mixing the solu¬ 
 tion with 8 parts each of nitric and sulphuric acids. The solution 
 is heated in a porcelain dish, and the articles to be pickled dipped 
 in it 30 to 40 seconds. In dipping brass articles large masses of 
 red-brown vapors, originating from the products of decomposition 
 of the nitric acid, are evolved, which strongly attack the lungs. 
 The operation should, therefore, be executed under a well-drawing 
 chimney or, still better, in an open space. 
 
 The pickled articles have a gray color, and in order to bring 
 out the pure yellow color are immersed for a few seconds in pure 
 nitric acid. They are then drawn through a weak solution of soda 
 or potash and finally washed. The bright metal losing its beauti¬ 
 ful color on exposure to the air in consequence of oxidation, the 
 articles after drying must be coated with a good varnish. 
 
 The English Process of Pickling Brass is as follows: The articles 
 to be pickled are heated in muffles at a dark red heat and then 
 dipped in dilute sulphuric acid for the production of a clean metal¬ 
 lic surface. After heating and dipping, the articles are thrown into 
 a trough filled with weak and impure nitric acid. The trough is 
 of wood, lined with lead plates and, for filling it, nitric acid pre¬ 
 viously employed for stronger baths is used. When the articles are 
 pure and of a uniform color they are removed from the bath, 
 rinsed in water and dried in saw-dust. They are then deadened. 
 This is effected by bringing them into a bath of nitric acid diluted 
 with about ^ water. The immersed articles become coated with 
 a milky scum, which after 1 or 2 minutes disappears. When thor¬ 
 oughly uniform, which is absolutely necessary, the articles are 
 dipped in strong nitric acid and then instantly immersed in various 
 
CLEANSING, GRINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 253 
 
 baths of water to remove all traces of acid. If the article has de¬ 
 pressions which might retain acid it is necessary to dip it quickly 
 into warm potash solution. The washed articles are then allowed 
 to lie in clean water to which some crude pulverized tartar has been 
 added. By this treatment they acquire the beautiful dead color so 
 highly valued in commerce. If the articles are to be pickled so as 
 to show lustre they are immediately placed, after cleaning, in strong 
 nitric acid, and if the highest degree of lustre is desired, the entire 
 surface is thoroughly scratch-brushed. Polishing is effected with 
 finely polished steel tools; the articles to be polished are brushed 
 over with ox-gall, and during polishing are from time to time 
 dipped in water containing tartar. Finally they are dried in San¬ 
 ders wood shavings in an iron pan over a heated hearth. They 
 are lacquered with cold shellac solution, which may be colored by 
 an addition of dragon’s blood, alkanet, etc. 
 
 The Method Usually Pursued in the United States for Cleaning 
 Brass Parts is as follows: Prepare a mixture of i part of ordinary 
 nitric acid and i part of sulphuric acid in an earthen vessel and 
 have at the same time in readiness a bucket of fresh water and a 
 box of saw-dust. The brass parts are first dipped quickly into the 
 acid, then into the water and finally dried in the saw-dust, by which 
 the brass acquires an excellent lustrous color. Dirty parts are first 
 washed in a warm, strong solution of potash and soda. 
 
 Articles of German silver are pickled by first immersing them in 
 a mixture of i part of nitric acid and 12 of water, then quickly in 
 a mixture of equal parts of nitric acid and sulphuric acid, next 
 rinsing in water and finally drying in pine saw-dust. The great¬ 
 est care must, of course, be used in pickling, it being especially 
 necessary to see that the acid used is not too strong and that the 
 articles are not allowed to remain too long in the bath, as in both 
 cases great loss is incurred by some of the metal being dissolved. 
 To prevent rusting of the articles repeated washing with clean 
 water and careful drying are also absolutely necessary. 
 
 To Pickle Zinc. —Zinc is generally mechanically pickled by 
 scouring with sand and powdered pumice. The bath used for 
 brass is also very effectual. To larger articles which cannot well be 
 
254 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 dipped apply a solution of potassium-ammonium tartrate thickened 
 with sufficient clay to form a fluid paste. After a few hours rub 
 the article with a brush dipped occasionally into fine sand moistened 
 with the pickle. 
 
 To Give a Brilliant Appearance to Tombac, Brass and Copper , 
 Kaselowsky, of Stuttgart, uses the following process: The articles 
 are first immersed in nitric acid and then quickly washed with much 
 water. They are then dipped, with constant moving to and fro, 
 for one or two seconds in a mixture, prepared at least the evening 
 before, of nitric acid, 70^ ozs. ; sulphuric acid, 53 ozs. ; hydro¬ 
 chloric acid, 2.82 ozs. ; alum, 5.29 ozs. ; sal-ammoniac, 3.17 ozs.; 
 and lampblack, 314 ozs. When taken from this bath the articles 
 must be quickly washed in an abundance of water. The bath is to be 
 prepared as follows: First pour the nitric acid into the vessel, then 
 add the finely pulverized salts, next the hydrochloric acid and, in 
 the course of 1 to 2 hours, gradually, the sulphuric acid. In mix¬ 
 ing the acids considerable heat is developed and injurious fumes 
 attacking the respiratory organs are evolved. It is, therefore, ad¬ 
 visable to effect the mixture in the open air or under a well-drawing 
 chimney and to use a large vessel, as otherwise, when adding the 
 sulphuric acid, the fluid might run over. This acid mixture has 
 the advantage that it can be used for a long time, it only being 
 necessary to add some sulphuric acid and later on some nitric acid 
 and sal-ammoniac. The objects are but little attacked by the acid 
 mixture, and it is, therefore, especially adapted for printed metal 
 wares and lamp fixtures, to which it imparts a gold-like appearance. 
 Copper, especially galvano-plastic articles, acquire a much brighter 
 and more lustrous appearance by it. 
 
 To Polish Metals .—All polishing of metals is begun, in the first 
 instance, by rubbing down the surface by some hard substance that 
 will produce a number of scratches in all directions, the level of 
 which is nearly the same and which obliterate the marks of the file, 
 scraper or turning tool that has been first employed. For this 
 purpose coarse emery is used, or pumice and water, or sand and 
 water applied upon a piece of soft wood, or of felt, skin or similar 
 material. When the first coarse marks have thus been removed, 
 
CLEANSING, GRINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 255 
 
 next proceed to remove the marks left by the first polishing 
 material by finely-powdered pumice stone ground up with olive 
 oil, or by finer emery and oil. In some cases certain polishing 
 stones are employed, for instance, a kind of hard slate used with 
 water. To proceed with the polishing still finer powders are used, 
 such as tripoli and rotten stone. Putty of tin and crocus martis 
 are also used for higher degrees of polish. But the whole process 
 consists merely in removing coarse scratches by substituting those 
 which are finer and finer until they are no longer visible to the 
 naked eye; and even long after that, if the surface is examined 
 by a microscope, it will be seen that what appeared without any 
 scratches is covered all over with an infinity of them, but so minute 
 that they require a high magnifier to be discovered. It is evident 
 that great care must be taken to have the last polishing material 
 uniformly fine, for a single grain or two of any coarse substance 
 mixed with it will produce visible scratches instead of a perfectly 
 polished surface. 
 
 Polishing by Means of Wheels .—To give metallic articles the 
 highest degree of lustre, bodies are used which, though they attack 
 the articles very delicately, possess sufficient hardness to remove 
 the scratches and roughness produced by grinding with emery, 
 pumice, etc. These agents are called “polishing agents” or, as 
 they are always used in a pulverulent form, “ polishing powders,” 
 the most important of them being lime, ferric oxide, tripoli, tin- 
 putty, chalk and graphite. 
 
 Lime is used in a burned, unslaked state. It should be free 
 from all admixtures, and especially from carbonic acid and water. 
 An excellent variety is the so-called “Vienna lime.” It is pre¬ 
 pared from a variety of dolomite which is first burned, then slaked 
 and finally glowed for a few hours. This polishing agent consists 
 of lime and magnesia, and should be kept in well-closed cans, as 
 otherwise it absorbs carbonic acid and moisture from the air and 
 becomes useless. In using Vienna lime the articles to be polished 
 are brushed over either with spirits of wine or oil. 
 
 Ferric Oxide is used in its natural state, and is also prepared arti¬ 
 ficially. The natural ferric oxide, such as hematite, specular and 
 
256 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 red iron ores, should be ground fine and elutriated. The polish¬ 
 ing agent known as caput mortuum, crocus, colcothar, jewellers' red 
 or rouge, obtained by heating ferrous or ferric sulphate in the 
 preparation of fuming sulphuric acid, is also ferric oxide. Both 
 these oxides are very useful polishing agents. For polishing fine 
 articles of steel, gold, gilt, bronze, etc., the jewellers’ red is pre¬ 
 pared artificially. For this purpose mix pulverized green vitriol 
 with pulverized saltpetre and common salt, stir the mixture with 
 water to a thin paste and boil down the mass in an iron crucible to 
 dryness. The mixture thus obtained is heated in a Hessian cru¬ 
 cible at a red heat until it becomes quiet and homogeneous; it is 
 then poured out, and when cool, powdered, boiled with water and 
 washed. It is advisable to somewhat elutriate the powder thus 
 obtained to eliminate grains of sand which may have reached it from 
 the crucible. The powder is finally collected upon a cloth and 
 dried. For 50 parts of crystallized green vitriol 25 parts of pure 
 nitrate of soda, 13 of common salt and 18 of sodium sulphate may 
 be used. A larger addition of saltpetre gives a preparation of a 
 redder color, and an increase of potassium sulphate and a higher 
 temperature one of a more violet color. An increase of common 
 salt produces a browner color, and the jeweller’s red is obtained 
 in lustrous lamina; the violet powder is harder than the red. The 
 former (steel rouge) is, therefore, chiefly used for steel, and the 
 latter (gold rouge) for gold and silver. 
 
 According to another method, 1 part of soda is dissolved in 4 
 of water and the solution heated to boiling. Add gradually to the 
 boiling fluid somewhat more than part of green vitriol and con ¬ 
 tinue boiling for some time. When cold a greenish-white mass of 
 ferrous carbonate is found on the bottom of the vessel. Pour off 
 the supernatant fluid, wash the precipitate with much water, then 
 dry it and finally convert it by slight glowing in a clay crucible 
 into red ferric oxide. In using this jewellers’ rouge the articles 
 are generally moistened with spirits, though sometimes simply with 
 water. 
 
 Tripoli is generally a gray-white or yellow powder of slight hard¬ 
 ness, and consists almost wholly of the cast shells of microscopic 
 
CLEANSING, GRINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 257 
 
 organisms. It serves chiefly for polishing soft metals, and is used 
 first with oil and lastly dry. 
 
 Tin-putty is artificially prepared by glowing oxalate of tin, which 
 is obtained by decomposing tin-salt with oxalic acid. 
 
 Chalk is only used in the form of whiting. 
 
 To prevent scattering, the polishing agents are generally mixed 
 with a fluid, water, spirit of wine or oil being used for the purpose. 
 With these fluids the polishing agents are made into a paste and a 
 thin layer of it applied to the polishing tool. For the latter a 
 piece of leather or cloth frequently suffices. It is provided with 
 the polishing agent, pressed by the hand upon the article to be 
 polished and moved to and fro upon it. Smooth articles which 
 can be secured in the lathe are polished by pressing the tool pro¬ 
 vided with the polishing agent against the revolving article. In this 
 case the flexible pieces of leather or cloth can be replaced by sticks 
 of wood covered with leather or cloth. These tools are called 
 “polishing files.” By joining two of them together by a hinge- 
 joint the “ polishing stock ” is formed, which is used for polishing 
 smooth bodies in the lathe. 
 
 Since in polishing, as well as in grinding, it is absolutely neces¬ 
 sary that either the work or the tool move with great velocity, 
 disk-like tools are generally used, which are secured either in a 
 lathe or a lathe-like machine, which allows of a still more rapid 
 revolution of the disks than the lathe. These disks are known as 
 buff-wheels, one variety of them consisting of a wooden disk 
 covered with walrus leather. 
 
 The last or dead grinding is also executed with such polishing 
 disks. For this purpose very finely elutriated emery is uniformly 
 applied to the leather of the polishing wheel. When dry a second 
 and third application of emery may, if necessary, be made. This 
 disk is called “roughing wheel;” when somewhat worn it is 
 termed “medium wheel,” and when almost completely denuded 
 of grinding agent “fine wheel.” In grinding with these wheels, 
 oil is used. When the grinding agent is used up the remainder is 
 soaked with warm water and scraped off with a knife to prepare 
 the disk for a fresh application. In consequence of the rapid 
 17 
 
258 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 rotation of the disk the leather and the layer of emery become 
 brittle and full of fissures. To remove this defect a piece of tallow 
 is held against the revolving disk, and it is then smoothed by press¬ 
 ing a smooth stone against it. For polishing, the polishing agent 
 mixed with oil is applied to the clean leather of the disk. 
 
 Another kind of buffing wheel is made by solidly pressing old 
 or new woollen rags between two iron disks provided with holes 
 and pins. The wheels are secured to the spindle of the polishing 
 machine and first made round, which is readily effected by holding 
 the sharp edge of a scythe against the revolving cloth disk. In 
 using the cloth-wheel Vienna lime mixed with oil is first employed 
 and finally dry Vienna lime. 
 
 If a large number of small articles, such as buckles, steel beads, 
 metal buttons, steel watch chains, ferules, etc., are to be polished at 
 one time, a tumbling drum or box is used. In its simplest form 
 the apparatus consists of a barrel of suitable size, through the head 
 and bottom of which passes a square axle of hard wood. This axle 
 rests with a pivot of round iron in a suitable frame, and is pro¬ 
 vided either with a crank or a pulley. 
 
 The manipulation of the apparatus varies according to the con¬ 
 dition of the articles to be polished. Generally scales and other 
 traces of previous working have to be removed. For this purpose 
 the drum is filled one-quarter full with river sand, and after moist¬ 
 ening it with an equal volume of dilute sulphuric acid, as many 
 of the articles to be polished are thrown upon the moist layer of 
 sand that somewhat more than a quarter of the barrel-space re¬ 
 mains empty. The aperture for filling is then closed and the 
 drum revolved, the contents being from time to time examined to 
 see whether they are sufficiently scoured. To accelerate the scour¬ 
 ing action of the sand it is advisable to provide the drum inside 
 with a few rounded-off wooden pieces, so that the articles placed 
 in it strike each other and are thoroughly shaken up, or the drum 
 itself may be of a hexagonal shape. 
 
 After tumbling with sand for i to 2 hours, the articles are brought 
 into a drum partially filled with leather-waste, charcoal, emery and 
 oil. When actually ground in this drum they are polished or made 
 
CLEANSING, GKINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 259 
 
 lustrous in a third drum partially filled with Vienna lime to which, 
 for cheapness sake, pulverized charcoal and coarse beech saw-dust 
 may be added. 
 
 A very practical form of tumbling drum, in which a change of 
 position of the contents must constantly take place, is shown in 
 Fig. 8. The drum A, of wood or iron, is obliquely placed upon 
 the shaft B. The objects are introduced into the drum through 
 the door C. The drum is revolved by a crank, or by a belt by 
 means of the pulley D. All portions of the drum describe thereby 
 
 ellipses, the walls of the drum being now raised (indicated by the 
 dotted lines) and then lowered, so that the articles in the drum are 
 in constant motion and rub against each other. 
 
 According to another method, small articles of iron are first 
 pickled with acid, then washed with boiling water, next scoured 
 bright in a drum with steel powder or powdered cast-iron, and 
 finally polished in a mixture of hard wood saw-dust, elutriated 
 tripoli, and, according to circumstances, jewellers’ rouge. 
 
 Polishing with the Burnisher or Burnishing-stone .—To burnish 
 an article is to polish it by removing the small roughness upon its sur¬ 
 face, and this is performed by a burnisher. This mode of polishing 
 is the most expeditious and gives the greatest lustre to a polished 
 body. It removes the marks left by the emery, tin-putty or other 
 polishing agents, and gives to the burnished articles a black lustre 
 resembling that of looking-glass. The form and construction of 
 the burnisher is extremely variable, according to the respective 
 trades, and it must be adapted to the various kinds of work in the 
 
260 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 same art. In general, as this tool is only intended to efface in¬ 
 equalities, whatever substance the burnisher is made of is of little 
 consequence to the article burnished, provided only that it is of a 
 harder substance than that article. 
 
 The burnishers used are of two kinds, of steel and of hard stone 
 They are either curved or straight, rounded or pointed, and made 
 so as to suit the projecting parts or the hollows of the piece. Steel 
 burnishers are made of the finest quality of steel, filed into a suit¬ 
 able shape, hardened and ground, and finally polished with Vienna 
 lime or jewellers’ rouge. Stone burnishers are made of jasper as 
 well as of agate, but red hematite, known under the name of blood¬ 
 stone, is most frequently used for the purpose. This raw material 
 is found only in few places, and among several hundred weight of 
 it are frequently found only a few pounds of suitable stones, which 
 generally occur as kernels enclosed in larger pieces. To these 
 pieces an approximate shape is given by skillful splitting. They 
 are then rounded either with the grindstone, or rubbed, so that 
 they present, at the bottom, a very blunt edge, or sometimes a 
 rounded surface. These are polished with emery, like steel bur¬ 
 nishers, and are finished by being rubbed upon a leather covered 
 with jewellers’ rouge or Vienna lime. Blood-stone is harder than 
 case-hardened steel, the cross-grain of the fibrous pieces especially 
 excelling in great hardness. 
 
 Fig. 9 shows the most common forms of burnishing tools. 
 Both must be perfectly free from small fissures and possess the 
 highest polish. The burnisher is mounted in a wooden handle, 
 and firmly fixed by a copper ferule. The operation of burnishing 
 is very simple. Take hold of the tool very near to the stone, and 
 lean very hard with it on those parts which' are to be burnished, 
 causing it to glide by a backward and forward movement without 
 taking it off tire piece. When it is requisite that the hand should 
 pass over a large surface at once, without losing its point of sup¬ 
 port on the work-bench, in taking hold of the burnisher be careful 
 to place it just underneath the little finger. By these means the work 
 is done more quickly, and the tool is more solidly fixed in the hand. 
 During the whole process the tool must be continually moistened 
 
CLEANSING, GRINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 261 
 
 with black soap-suds. The water with which it is frequently wetted 
 causes it to glide more easily over the work, prevents it from heat¬ 
 ing and facilitates its action. The black soap containing more 
 alkali than the common soap, acts with greater strength in cleansing 
 off any greasiness which might still remain on the surface; it also 
 more readily removes the spots which would spoil the beauty of the 
 burnishing. In consequence of the friction the burnisher soon 
 loses its bite and slips over the surface as if it were oily. In order 
 to restore its action it must from time to time be rubbed on the 
 leather. The leather is fixed on a piece of hard wood with shallow 
 
 8^5 
 
 
 4 6 
 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 furrows along it. There are generally two leathers—one made of 
 sole leather, and the other of buff leather. The first is impregnated 
 with a little oil and jewellers’ rouge, and is particularly used for 
 the blood-stone burnishers, the other has only a little tin-putty 
 scattered in the furrows, and is intended exclusively for rubbing 
 steel burnishers, as they are not so hard as the blood-stones. Blood¬ 
 stone being very hard, the workman uses it whenever he can in 
 preference to the steel burnisher. It is only on small articles and 
 in difficult places that steel burnishers are used, as they by their 
 variety of form are adapted to all kinds of work. In general, the 
 
262 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 blood-stone greatly reduces the labor. When the articles, on ac¬ 
 count of their minuteness, cannot be conveniently held in the 
 hand, they are fixed in a satisfactory frame on the bench, but under 
 all circumstances be very careful to manage the burnisher so as to 
 leave untouched those parts of the work which are intended to re¬ 
 main dull. When in burnishing an article, which is plated or lined 
 with silver, there is any place where the layer of precious metal is 
 removed, restore it by silvering these places. The burnishing 
 being finished remove the soap-suds which still adhere to the sur¬ 
 face of the work by rubbing with a piece of old linen cloth. But 
 when there are a great number of small pieces to be finished, to 
 throw them into soap-suds and dry them afterwards in saw-dust is 
 more expeditious. The burnishing of gold-leaf or silver on wood 
 is performed with burnishers made of wolves’ or dogs’ teeth, or 
 agates mounted in iron or wooden handles. When about to 
 burnish gold applied on other metals, dip the blood-stone burnisher 
 into vinegar; this kind being exclusively used for that purpose. 
 But when burnishing leaf-gold on prepared surfaces of wood, keep 
 the stone, or tooth, perfectly dry. The ordinary engraver’s bur¬ 
 nisher is a blade of steel, made thin at one end, to fit into a small 
 handle to hold it by. The part in the middle of the blade is 
 rounded on the convex side, and is also a little curved. The 
 rounded part must be well polished and the tool be very hard. 
 This burnisher is used to give the last polish to such parts of cop¬ 
 per and steel plates as may have been accidentally scratched, or 
 speckled, where false lines are to be removed, and also to lighten 
 in a small degree such parts as have been too deeply etched or 
 graved. In clock-making, those pieces or parts are burnished 
 which, on account of their size or form, cannot be conveniently 
 polished. The burnishers are of various forms and sizes: they are 
 all made of cast-steel, very hard and well polished; some are 
 formed like sage-leaf files, others like common files—the first are 
 used to burnish screws and pieces of brass, the others are used for 
 flat pieces. The clock-makers have also very small ones of this 
 kind to burnish their pivots, which are called pivot burnishers. 
 
 Burnishing Cutlery .—The burnishing of cutlery is executed by 
 
CLEANSING, GRINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 263 
 
 hand or vice burnishers; they are all made of fine steel, hardened 
 and well polished. The first kind have nothing particular in their 
 construction; but vice burnishers are formed and mounted in a 
 very different manner. On a long piece of wood, placed horizon¬ 
 tally in the vice, is fixed another piece, as long, but bent in the 
 form of a bow, the concavity of which is turned downwards. 
 These two pieces are united at one of their extremities by a pin 
 and hook, which allows the upper piece to move freely around this 
 point as a centre. The burnisher is fixed in the middle of this 
 bent piece, and it is made more or less projecting by the greater or 
 lesser length which is given to its base. The movable piece of 
 wood, at the extremity opposite to the hook, is furnished with a 
 handle, which serves the workman as a lever. This position allows 
 the burnisher to rest with greater force against the article to be 
 burnished, which is placed on the fixed piece of wood. The 
 burnisher has either the form of the face of a round-headed ham¬ 
 mer, well polished to burnish those pieces which are plain or con¬ 
 vex, or the form of two cones opposed at their summits, with their 
 bases rounded, to burnish those pieces which are concave or ring- 
 shaped. 
 
 To Burnish Silver .—Commence by cleaning off any kind of dirt 
 which the surfaces of the silver articles had contracted whilst being 
 made, as that would entirely spoil the burnishing. For this pur¬ 
 pose take pumice-stone powder, and with a brush made very wet 
 in strong soap-suds rub the various parts of the work, even those 
 which are to remain dull, which, nevertheless, receive thus a beauti¬ 
 ful white appearance ; wipe with an old linen cloth and proceed to 
 the burnishing. 
 
 Scratch-brushing ,—For brightening articles in relief, steel or 
 stone burnishers can be but seldom employed, scratch-brushes being 
 used in this case. The shape of the scratch-brush varies with the 
 articles to be operated upon. A hand scratch-brush is made of 
 numerous wires of hardened brass selected from a bundle of or coil 
 of large diameter, so that the wires have little tendency when in 
 place to curve. To make a good hand scratch-brush, proceed as 
 follows: Select a coil of brass wire of the proper degree of fineness 
 
264 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 (Fig. io), and bind it tightly with strong twine for about two-thirds 
 of the intended length of the brush—6 or 8 inches—(Fig. ii). 
 Then, with a chisel, cut the bundle of wire close to the cord at one 
 end, and about 2 inches from it at the other end. Then dip the 
 close-cut end into a neutral solution of chloride of zinc, and plunge 
 it into molten tin, which solders all the wires and prevents their 
 separation, and injury to the hand of the operator. The tool thus 
 made may be used as it is, but it is preferable to fix it by means of 
 another string to a thin wooden handle, which projects above the 
 soldered end (Fig. 12). Scratch-brushes are also made by cutting 
 a coil of wire for a length of from 12 to 16 inches, binding it in 
 
 the middle, and doubling it so as to unite the two ends (Fig. 13). 
 This process is less economical, and the wires have a tendency to 
 become entangled. Very small scratch-brushes are necessary for 
 reaching sinuosities and depressions in the work, and other parts 
 difficult of access. An old scratch-brush, the wires of which have 
 
CLEANSING, GKINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 265 
 
 been bent in every direction, when fixed to a long handle, is useful 
 
 for scouring the interior of certain pieces, such as Etrus¬ 
 can vases, coffee-urns, etc. (Fig. 14). The varnishers on 
 metal use for rapid work a kind of brush (Figs. 15 and 
 16), with long and stiff brass wires. Such brushes are 
 only used for the preparation of articles of considerable 
 size, such as clock dials, hearth furniture, and the 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 Fig. i5' 
 
 Scratch-brushing is seldom done dry; the tool as well as the 
 pieces must be constantly wet with fluids, especially such as produce 
 a foam in brushing, for instance, water and vinegar, or sour wine, 
 or solutions of cream of tartar or alum, when it is desired to 
 brighten a gold deposit which is too dark; but that most generally 
 used is a decoction of licorice-root, of horse-chestnut, of marsh¬ 
 mallow, of soap-wort, or of the bark of Panama-wood, all of which 
 being slightly mucilaginous, allow of a gentle scouring with the 
 scratch-brush, with the production of an abundant froth. A good 
 adjunct for scratch-brushing is a shallow wooden tub containing the 
 solution employed, with a board laid across it, nearly level with the 
 edges, which, however, project a little above. This board serves 
 as a rest for the pieces. 
 
 With small objects and articles of jewelry, the operator holds the 
 scratch-brush as he would a writing-pen, and moves it over the 
 article with a back-and-forward motion imparted by the wrist only, 
 the forearm resting on the edge of the tub. For larger articles, on 
 the contrary, the operator holds his extended fingers close to the 
 lower part of the scratch-brush, so as to give the wires a certain 
 support, and, with raised elbow, strikes the piece repeatedly, at 
 the same time giving the tool a sliding motion. When a hollow is 
 
266 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK, 
 
 met with which cannot be scoured longitudinally, a twisting motion 
 is imparted to the tool. 
 
 Circular scratch-brushes in which the wires are arranged radially 
 are used for scouring articles that admit of their use, such as table 
 ware and plated wares in general. These circular scratch-brushes 
 
 are attached to the spindle of a lathe, and the wires consequently 
 all receive a uniform motion in the same direction. The scratch¬ 
 brush lathe shown in Fig. 17 consists of a circular brush of brass 
 wires, with a metal or wooden case, mounted upon a spindle run¬ 
 ning in two bearings, and driven either by foot or by steam-power. 
 The wires are from 2 to 3 inches long, and the form of the bmsh 
 
CLEANSING, GRINDING, PICKLING, POLTSHfNG. 
 
 267 
 
 is shown in Fig. 18. The top of the brush revolves towards the 
 operator, who presents the object to be scratched to the bottom. 
 The brush is surrounded by a wooden cage or screen to prevent 
 splashing. It is open in front, and above it is placed a reservoir 
 of one of the liquids above named, from which a slender jet of the 
 liquid is allowed to dribble upon the top of the brush. In order 
 to protect the operator against the water projected by the rapid 
 motion, there is fixed to the top of the frame a small inclined 
 board, which reaches a little lower than the axis of the brush, with¬ 
 out touching it. This board receives the projected liquid and lets 
 it fall into a zinc trough which forms the bottom of the box. 
 
 Fig. ,8. 
 
 Through an outlet provided in one of the angles of the trough a 
 gum tube conveys the waste liquid to a reservoir below. 
 
 The above-described hand and lathe scratch-brushes are made of 
 wire of various gauges, from coarse to very fine, according to their 
 intended uses. Scratch-brushes of spun glass, with fibres of extreme 
 fineness and elasticity, are also used for scouring very delicate 
 objects. 
 
 When a hand scratch-brush becomes too short the twisted ends 
 are cut off with a cold-chisel, and a new portion of wire is uncov¬ 
 ered by removing part of the string wrapping. The best way to 
 remove the twisted-wire ends is by resting the scratch-brush upon 
 a lead block, and cutting them off with a sharp cold-chisel, if pos¬ 
 sible with, one stroke of the hammer. Scratch-brushes must be 
 carefully looked after and their wires kept in good order. When 
 they begin to curl, they are now and then beaten with a mallet of 
 
268 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 boxwood upon a small block held between the knees, so as not to 
 produce a dead stroke. Scratch-brushes kept too long in water 
 become hard. If they become greasy, they are cleansed in caustic 
 potash ; oxide is removed by acid. Dipping in nitric acid is some¬ 
 times resorted to for diminishing the size of the wires and making 
 them smoother. The circular brush is occasionally reversed, in 
 order to change the direction of the wires. 
 
 Polishing of the Separate Metals.—Iron and Steel are generally 
 polished after treatment with emery. For this purpose tin putty, 
 Vienna lime or oxide of iron (steel rouge) are generally employed, 
 the polishing material or the article being moistened with water or 
 spirit. Polishing wheels (buff or cloth wheels) are best for the 
 purpose, though buff sticks and wooden sticks as well as woollen 
 rags are also employed. 
 
 Copper, Brass, German Silver and Tombac are polished with 
 Vienna lime and oil. If previously pickled the burnisher is 
 mostly used. 
 
 Polishing with the burnisher is always executed wet. Gas-fix¬ 
 tures are polished, after pickling, in the spinning lathe with the 
 burnisher, a peculiar fluid (polish) being used, which, according to 
 O. Ronicke, is composed of: orange shellac, dissolved in spirits, 
 1000 parts by weight; powdered turmeric root, 1000 ; tartar, 2000; 
 ox-gall, 50; alcohol, 100; and water, 3000. Dip the burnisher 
 in the fluid and polish the article, or wrap a linen rag moistened 
 with the fluid round a piece of wood and hold the rag with the left 
 hand upon the place where the pressure with the burnisher is ap¬ 
 plied. By drying the article with a linen rag a polish equal to 
 that with Vienna chalk is obtained. 
 
 Gold is polished with jewellers’ rouge, which is mixed with alco¬ 
 hol and applied to the buff-stick. 
 
 Silver is polished with the burnisher or bloodstone, soap water, 
 small beer, etc., being used in connection with it. 
 
 Silvered and Plated Ware are also polished with Vienna lime. 
 
 Dead Lustre on Articles of Gold and Silver is produced by means 
 of scratch-brushes of finely spun glass threads. 
 
 Tin Articles are ground and polished with Vienna lime or whiting, 
 
CLEANSING, GRINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 269 
 
 the first being used with linen rags and the latter with chamois leather. 
 If only places in relief are to be polished a broad, rounded-off 
 burnisher is used and as polishing agent soap water, white of egg, 
 ox-gall diluted with water, decoction of soap root, etc. The ar¬ 
 ticles are finally washed with water containing tartar and dried. 
 
 Antimony and Lead Alloys are polished with burnt magnesia upon 
 soft leather or with fine jewellers’ rouge. 
 
 Zinc is first scraped and finally polished with pulverized wood 
 charcoal or Vienna lime. 
 
 The polished articles are generally dried in heated saw-dust and, 
 after drying, freed from adhering saw-dust with a cotton rag or 
 soft leather. Gilded or silvered articles are dipped in hot water, 
 dried with cotton or linen cloths and finally rubbed with soft 
 leather. 
 
 Vienna lime produces a light polish upon brass, steel, etc., but 
 iron oxide a dark lustre, the difference in the coloration being very 
 likely due to some of the polishing agent remaining in the pores 
 of the metal. 
 
 Polishing Agents .—Old and’ used metallic objects lose in the 
 course of time their lustre produced by polishing; they become 
 dull and covered with a crust of dust, oxides, sulphur combinations, 
 etc. To cleanse such objects polishing agents acting either me¬ 
 chanically or chemically are used. 
 
 To the mechanically acting polishing agents belongs the so-called 
 Paris rouge. It is used for restoring lustre to gold articles by care¬ 
 fully rubbing them with leather dipped in it. Under the name 
 Parisian polishing powder a rose-colored powder is brought into 
 commerce. It is especially adapted for polishing silver, but may 
 also be used for articles of steel, copper or gold. It consists of a 
 mixture of 6 parts of carbonate of magnesia and x of jewellers’ red. 
 For use dip a rag moistened with spirits or water in the powder and 
 after thoroughly rubbing the article dry it with soft leather. 
 
 1 Emery-cloth may be used for scouring, but it gives no lustre, be¬ 
 cause the polishing agent is sharp-grained and applied to the cloth. 
 More suitable is a polishing agent consisting of fustian saturated 
 with a dilute solution of waterglass. By washing the impregnated 
 
270 
 
 THE METAL WORKER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 stuff the silicic acid and a portion of the potash remain behind. 
 This polishing cloth is well adapted for cleansing and scouring 
 bright brass. 
 
 Another kind of polishing rags is obtained by dissolving 4 parts 
 by weight of Castile soap in 20 of water and adding 2 of tripoli 
 to the solution. Strips of linen are then saturated with the solu¬ 
 tion and allowed to dry. According to another method polishing 
 rags are prepared as follows: Dip flannel rags in a solution of 20 
 parts of dextrin and 30 of oxalic acid in 20 of logwood decoction, 
 wring them gently and sift over them a mixture of finely pulverized 
 tripoli and pumice stone. The moist rags are piled upon each 
 other, placing a layer of the powder between each two. They are 
 then pressed, taken apart and dried. 
 
 Belgian Polishing Powder, which is recommended for polishing 
 articles of silver, consists of a mixture of whiting, 250 parts; 
 elutriated pipe-clay, 117; white lead, 62; white magnesia, 23; 
 and jewellers’ red, 23. 
 
 For Cleansing Iron and Steel Objects finer grades of emery-cloth 
 are very suitable. For polished iron and steel articles it is best to 
 use tin-putty and prepared hartshorn triturated with spirits of wine 
 and applied with soft leather. 
 
 For Soft Metals {Tin and Britannia Wares) the dried pistil of 
 shave-grass, which is rich in silica, is very suitable. 
 
 For Cleansing Silverware the most simple (chemically acting) 
 polishing agent is sodium hyposulphite. Moisten a rag or brush 
 with a saturated solution of the salt. Still better in its action is 
 a fluid of water, 40 parts ; sodium hyposulphite, 4 ; sal-ammoniac, 
 2; and caustic ammonia, 1. This fluid maybe used cold and 
 it is not necessary to previously free the articles from grease with 
 soda or potash lye. 
 
 For Cleansing Silver Ornaments use a boiling hot solution of 
 tartar or wrap them around with zinc wire and boil them in a solu¬ 
 tion of 1 part of borax in 10 of water. In both cases the articles 
 must be previously cleansed with soda lye. 
 
 Polishing Powders for Silver. —I. Mix intimately finely pul¬ 
 verized cream of tartar, 4 parts ; flake white, 8 ; pulverized alum, 2. 
 
CLEANSING, GRINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 271 
 
 Knead the mixture into a stiff paste with strong wine vinegar and 
 dry it in the air. Then pulverize the dry mass, knead it again 
 to a paste with wine vinegar, repeat the process once more after 
 drying and lastly pulverize the mass obtained. 
 
 II. Mix intimately pulverized hartshorn, i part; chalk, 5 ; and 
 jewellers’ red, 1. 
 
 III. Mix intimately by sifting xo parts of fine whiting, 1 of pul¬ 
 verized soda and % of pulverized citric acid. For use moisten 
 the powder with water so that the soda and citric acid dissolve and 
 act chemically upon the silver. 
 
 English Silver Soap. —This polishing agent, by means of which 
 and the use of a brush a nice lustre is imparted to silver articles, is 
 prepared as follows: Dissolve 2 parts of Castile (pure olive oil) 
 soap in 2 parts of soft water. Take the soap-paste formed from the 
 fire, stir into it 6 parts of fine whiting, pour the soap into moulds, 
 and allow it to cool. 
 
 Rose-color English Silver Soap. —This is prepared in a similar 
 manner as the foregoing, but instead of mixing the soap-paste with 
 whiting, add 2 parts of finest quality of white tripoli, 3 of pulverized 
 chalk, and 1 of jewellers’ red. Before pouring the soap into moulds 
 perfume it with a few drops of oil of lavender, which imparts to it 
 a very fine odor, and renders it more salable than soap without 
 perfume. 
 
 Polishing Balls for Silver. —This polishing agent is a powder 
 brought into the form of a ball by means of an agglutinant. It is 
 prepared by intimately mixing 2 parts of yellow tripoli and 3 parts 
 of whiting, kneading the mixture with a solution of 1 part of gum- 
 arabic in 12 of water to a stiff paste, and finally forming the latter 
 with the hands into balls the size of a pigeon egg. These balls are 
 dried upon boards in a moderately warm room, and, when perfectly 
 solid, are packed in tin-foil. 
 
 Polishing-paste for Silver. —Perfume 3 parts of vaseline with a 
 few drops of nitrobenzol (essence of mirbane), and stir into it 5 
 parts of whiting, 1 of burnt hartshorn, and 1 of pulverized cuttle- 
 bone, so that an intimate mixture of the consistency of butter is 
 formed. Put into small tin boxes. 
 
272 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Polishing Powder for Gold-workers. —Mix together 4.3 parts of 
 carbonate of lead (basic white lead), 17.4 of chalk, 1.7 of carbon¬ 
 ate of magnesia, 4.3 of alumina, 2.6 of silica, and 1.7 of jewellers’ 
 red. 
 
 Polishing Powder for Gold Articles. —Dissolve iron filings in 
 hydrochloric acid until the development of gas ceases, and then 
 compound the resulting chloride of iron with liquid ammo¬ 
 nia as long as a precipitate is formed. Collect the precipitate 
 upon a filter and dry it, without further washing, at a tempera¬ 
 ture at which the adhering ammonia does not volatilize. By these 
 means the ferrous oxide originally precipitated is converted into 
 ferric oxide, and the mixture contains about 70 per cent, of ferric 
 oxide and 30 per cent, of ammonia. It forms a very good polishing 
 powder. 
 
 Polishing Paste for Brass. —Dissolve 15 parts of oxalic acid in 
 120 of boiling water, and add 500 parts of pumice powder, 7 of oil 
 of turpentine, 60 of soft soap, and 65 of any kind of fat oil. 
 
 To Cleanse Brass Articles which have become so dirty by smoke 
 and heat that they cannot be cleansed with oxalic acid, proceed as 
 follows: Rub them first with potash lye, then immerse them in a 
 mixture of equal parts of nitric and sulphuric acids and water, and 
 after washing and rinsing in water, dry and polish. 
 
 To Cleanse Old Brass. —To cleanse old brass, especially small 
 figures, sword-hilts, mountings, etc., immerse them in a mixture of 
 
 1 part of nitric acid and y 2 part of sulphuric acid. Take them out 
 after a short time, rinse thoroughly in cold water, dry in sawdust, 
 and finally polish with finely pulverized Vienna lime. The articles 
 will appear like new. 
 
 Polishing Soaps. —I. Stir into 25 lbs. of liquid cocoanut-oil soap 
 
 2 lbs. of tripoli, and 1 lb. each of pulverized alum, tartaric acid, 
 and white-lead. 
 
 II. Stir into 25 lbs. of liquid cocoanut-oil soap 5 lbs. of col- 
 cothar and 1 lb. of ammonium carbonate. 
 
 III. Mix 25 lbs. of liquid cocoanut-oil soap with 4 to 5 lbs. of 
 calcined oxalate of iron. 
 
 IV. Stir together in the customary manner 24 lbs. of cocoanut oil 
 
CLEANSING, GKINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 273 
 
 with 12 lbs. of lye of 38 to 40° B6., and, when the mass is bright, 
 stir into it 3 lbs. of colcothar, mixed with 3 lbs. of water and 1.12 
 ozs. of spirit of sal-ammoniac. 
 
 The polishing soaps are cut into suitable pieces, stamped, and 
 brought into commerce provided with directions for use. These 
 directions are generally to the effect to apply a small quantity of the 
 soap by means of a flannel rag moistened with water to the article 
 to be polished, and rub until the desired lustre is produced. 
 
 Kratzer, of Leipzig, gives the following directions for polishing 
 soaps as substitutes for polishing pomades : I. Pulverize as finely as 
 possible 332 parts of white bole or chalk, 332 of tartaric acid, and 
 265 of infusorial earth. Free the bole or chalk and the infusorial 
 earth from adhering pebbles by sifting. Pour water over the sifted 
 mass in a vessel, stir thoroughly, and after 3 or 4 minutes pour off 
 the bole, etc., which is finely divided in the water, and repeat the 
 operation. The bole, etc., is then allowed to settle, and after 
 carefully decanting off the supernatant water, the sediment is placed 
 upon a filter and completely dried upon a stove. To the ingredi¬ 
 ents thus prepared add 200 parts of glycerin, 200 of water, and 25 
 of alcohol. The polishing soap thus prepared is poured into tin 
 boxes or moulds. 
 
 II. Mix 5 lbs. of cocoanut oil with 8 lbs. of soda lye of 23 0 Be., 
 and boil the mixture until a clear glue-like mass is formed. When 
 the soap is sufficiently solid add 1 lb. of chalk and ^ lb. each of 
 white-lead, tartar, and alum, all previously converted into a fine 
 powder, and pour the mass into small moulds about 10 inches long, 
 and open on top and bottom so that the cold soap can be more 
 readily removed. For convenience sake, commercial cocoanut-oil 
 soap may be used instead of preparing the soap. The process is as 
 follows-: Convert 5^ lbs. of cocoanut-oil soap into fine shavings, 
 and melt it with the addition of some water. To the melted soap 
 add then, with constant stirring, 6.34 ozs. of chalk, 3 ozs. of alum, 
 3 ozs. of tartar, and 3 ozs. of white-lead, all previously finely pul¬ 
 verized. This soap is also poured into tin moulds open on top and 
 bottom, and taken out when cold. 
 
 Polishing-waier .—An excellent and entirely harmless polishing- 
 18 
 
274 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 water is obtained by shaking together 8.81 ozs. of whiting, i lb. of 
 alcohol, and 1.12 drachms of spirit of sal-ammoniac. 
 
 Polishing (. Putz ) Pomades. —-I. Melt 5 lbs. of lard or yellow 
 vaseline, and stir into the melted mass 1 lb. of fine colcothar. 
 
 II. Melt 2 lbs. of palm oil and 2 lbs. of vaseline, and stir into 
 the melted mass 1 lb. of ferric oxide, 14.n ozs. of tripoli and 
 oz. of oxalic acid. 
 
 III. Heat 4 lbs. of American mineral oil and 1 lb. of lard, and 
 stir into it 5 lbs. of fine colcothar. 
 
 The polishing pomades are generally perfumed with nitrobenzole 
 (essence of mirbane), and brought into commerce in small tin 
 boxes provided with directions for use. 
 
 Polishing Cartridges ( Putzpatronen). —Moisten 50 parts of elutri. 
 ated quartz or infusorial earth and 10 of emery-dust with 100 parti 
 of a 30 per cent, gum tragacanth solution, and bring the whole to 
 a suitable consistency with soap solution (100 parts of soap dissolved 
 in 150 of spirits of wine). The best polishing material is undoubt¬ 
 edly infusorial earth, either by itself or impregnated with oleic 
 acid. Infusorial earth by itself is especially suitable (or polishing 
 windows, mirrors, gold and silver ware, copper and brass utensils, 
 particularly when greasy. 
 
 Polish for Pressed Articles of Brass. —Substances which are slimy 
 without being actual fats are better adapted for this purpose than 
 soap, and can be more readily removed from the articles. The 
 best polishing agent is equal volumes of water and ox-gall boiled 
 together. When cold the fluid is kept in well-corked bottles, and 
 for use a sufficient quantity is poured into a glass or porcelain ves¬ 
 sel. It is applied with a small brush, and the burnisher is also 
 from time to time dipped into it. 
 
 Rouge for Polishing Metals. —As the rouge found in the market 
 does not meet the requirements of the workman, at least for every 
 metal, the following simple method is given which allows the work¬ 
 man to prepare for himself just the quality and quantity necessary 
 for his particular work. Heat sulphate of iron (as pure a quality 
 as can be obtained) in an iron vessel over a slow fire, stirring it 
 continually with an iron spatula till it is dry and takes the form of 
 
CLEANSING, GRINDING, PICKLING, POLISHING. 
 
 275 
 
 a pale greenish-yellow powder. This powder, after being crushed 
 in a mortar and sifted, is to be calcined in a new crucible and ex¬ 
 posed to the fire of a smelting-stove as long as vapors arise from it. 
 As soon as no more of these can be observed the contents of the 
 crucible may be left to cool, and when cool will appear like the 
 rouge used for polishing. Its color may vary from pale red to 
 brown red, or even to blue and violet, but these variations arise 
 only from the different degrees of heat employed; and it may be 
 observed that the higher the temperature has been during the pro¬ 
 cess the darker the color and the harder the powder—a fact which 
 also explains why the pale-red powder is used only for gold and 
 silver, while the violet is employed for steel. No matter what the 
 color is, it is very important that the rouge be well bruised and 
 washed in water before it is used. For this purpose three clean 
 glasses are taken and one of them is filled with clean water, in 
 which a part of the rouge is mixed by stirring it for some time with 
 a small piece of wood. After allowing about half a minute for the 
 rouge to settle to the bottom of the glass, the remainder of the 
 (red) liquid is decanted into the second glass, but every particle of 
 the deposit must be left in the first one. The same process has to 
 be observed also for the second and third glasses, but with this dif¬ 
 ference: the powder in the second glass is allowed to settle about 
 2 minutes, while in the third one it is left for several hours, that is, 
 until the water assumes its natural clearness. The sediment of the 
 first glass is almost valueless, that of the second of medium quality, 
 but that of the third glass is of very good quality and fit to be 
 used with great advantage after it has been slowly dried. In some 
 cases the rouge thus obtained may be mixed with grease, and gener¬ 
 ally it will be found of great advantage to moisten it with spirits 
 of wine and burn it in a clean iron vessel. 
 
 To Polish Steel .—Rub the steel with a piece of emery paper from 
 which you have removed some of the roughness by rubbing it on 
 an old knife. 
 
 To Polish Steel Objects .—This process consists in polishing the 
 steel objects by means of a wheel or disk made of 16 parts of tin 
 and i of zinc, to the flat side of which jewellers’ red moistened 
 
276 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 with alcohol is applied. After moderately drying the objects are 
 burnished with an agate. 
 
 Lustreless Surface on Steel. —A finely-polished lustreless surface 
 on tempered steel may be procured by either of the following 
 operations : After the steel article has been tempered it should be 
 rubbed on a smooth iron surface with some pulverized oil stone 
 until it is perfectly smooth and even, then laid upon a sheet of 
 white paper and rubbed back and forth until it acquires a fine dead 
 polish. Any screw-holes or depressions in the steel must be cleaned 
 and polished beforehand with a piece of wood and oil stone. This 
 delicate lustreless surface is quite sensitive and should be rinsed 
 with pure soft water only. A more durable polish is obtained by 
 first smoothing the steel surface with an iron polisher and some 
 powdered oil stone, carefully washing and rinsing. Then mix in 
 a small vessel some fresh oil and powdered oil stone, dip into this 
 mixture the end of a piece of elder pith, and polish the steel sur¬ 
 face with a gentle pressure, cutting off the end of the pith as it be¬ 
 comes soiled. In conclusion, it should be thoroughly cleaned in 
 soft water, when the article will be found to have a fine white, 
 lustreless polish. 
 
 To Polish and Color Copper. —To polish copper parts rub them 
 with rotten stone and oil, next with a flannel rag and finally with 
 leather. A solution of oxalic acid applied to dull brass soon re¬ 
 moves the layer of oxide and uncovers the metal. The acid is then 
 washed off with water, and the brass rubbed with soft leather. A 
 mixture of hydrochloric acid with alum triturated with water gives 
 to articles, immersed in this solution for a few seconds, a golden 
 color. An orange-color playing into gold is imparted to polished 
 copper by immersing it for a few seconds in a solution of crystal¬ 
 lized acetate of copper. A beautiful violet color is obtained by 
 immersing the metal for a few seconds in a solution of chloride of 
 antimony and then rubbing with a stick wrapped around with cot¬ 
 ton. During this operation the copper must be heated to the tem¬ 
 perature of the hand. A crystalline appearance is produced by 
 boiling the article in solution of blue vitriol. 
 
 To Cleanse Dirty Polishing Leather. —Prepare a weak solution 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 277 
 
 of soda in warm water, rub some soap into the leather and let it 
 soak two hours; then wash it until clean and finally rinse it in a 
 solution of soda and yellow soap in water to keep it soft. By wash¬ 
 ing in water alone the leather becomes hard and useless, but the 
 small quantity of soap which remains in the leather and penetrates 
 the finest portions renders it soft as silk. After rinsing wring the 
 leather in a coarse towel and dry it quickly; when dry pull it in 
 all directions and brush well. By these means a softer and better 
 leather will be obtained than most of the leathers found in com¬ 
 merce. 
 
 In using a rough leather to go over highly polished surfaces it 
 will be frequently observed that the polish is injured. This is 
 caused by particles of dust and even grains of polishing-red which 
 remain in the leath Such leather should be thoroughly brushed. 
 
 X. 
 
 DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 
 
 Bronces Incrustes ( Incrustations ).—By this term are designated 
 ornamentations in silver or gold upon a body of massive copper or 
 bronze. The body is, as a rule, first bronzed, since its natural tone 
 of color is generally subject to change by atmospheric influences 
 and does not present a good contrast. Copper, for instance, is 
 generally bronzed brown-red, the white of the silver contrasting 
 well with it. The ornamentations consist partially of lines and 
 partially of planes, calling to mind niello work. While in the 
 latter the noble metal is mechanically pressed into the places de¬ 
 pressed by engraving or roughened with a file, in incrusting, as 
 executed by Christofle, of Paris, the deposition of the metal is effected 
 by galvanic precipitation. The process is as follows : The design 
 which is to be incrusted in silver or gold upon a metal is executed 
 with a pigment of white-lead and glue-water or gum-water. The 
 portion not covered by the design is then coated with a varnish. 
 The article is next placed in dilute nitric acid, whereby the pig- 
 
278 
 
 TTTE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 ment is first dissolved, and, next, the surface etched, which is 
 allowed to progress to a certain depth. Etching being finished the 
 article is washed in abundance of water and immediately brought 
 into a silver or gold bath, in which, by the action of the current, the 
 exposed places are filled up with metal. The varnish is now com¬ 
 pletely removed with benzine and the entire surface ground smooth. 
 The contours are quite sharp. The surface of the body is then 
 bronzed, which, however, does not change the tone of the silver 
 or gold. An especially beautiful effect is produced by bronzing 
 separate portions of the surface, between the silver ornamentation, 
 black with sulphide of copper. A vessel thus decorated then shows 
 three tones of color, viz. : the design in white and black upon the 
 agreeable brown-red .ground of cuprous oxide. The principal 
 requisite for the production of these incrustations is manual skill 
 and much patience; expensive apparatus is not required, every 
 skilled electro-plater being able to execute the work. 
 
 According to the patented process of Marie Tessin du Motay, 
 the portions to be provided with incrustations are not only pro¬ 
 duced by etching but also by stamping and pressing. In the latter 
 case the metals which are to represent the design may.be precipitated 
 either before or after pressing. If the precipitation takes place 
 before pressing the relief of the stamps used must correspond to the 
 greater or smaller layer of metal precipitated. 
 
 Corvin's Niello .—On account of the laborious work, and slight 
 durability of the ornamentation, the decoration of metallic surfaces 
 by inlaying with colored lamina of mother-of-pearl, amber, ivory 
 and tortoise-shell has been seldom executed, though by a combina¬ 
 tion of the iridescent mother-of-pearl with the various metallic 
 lustres the most splendid articles of art can be produced. After 
 many years of labor Corvin-Wierbitzky has succeeded in producing 
 such works by galvanoplasty, and has patented the following pro¬ 
 cess : He first makes a matrice of metal, whose surface is finely 
 polished. This matrice may be used for the production of numerous 
 duplicates of the same kind of basin or other objects. The 
 incrustations (mother-of-pearl, glass, ivory, amber, etc.) are then 
 shaped by means of a saw, files and other tools to the form cor- 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 279 
 
 responding to that which they are to occupy in the design. The side 
 of the incrustations which is laid upon the matrice is as a rule smooth. 
 The shaped incrustations, smooth side down, are pasted on to the 
 parts of the model they are to occupy in the design. The latter 
 being in this manner produced, the back of the non-metallic 
 lamina is prepared so as to conduct the galvanic current. By now 
 placing the matrice thus prepared in the galvano-plastic apparatus, 
 the copper precipitates not only upon the metallic matrice, but also 
 upon the back of the inlaid pieces, the latter being firmly enclosed 
 by the precipitated metal. When the deposit of metal has the 
 desired thickness it is detached from the slightly-heated matrice, 
 and incrustations with the right side polished are thus obtained. 
 The lamina are more accurately and evenly laid in than would be 
 possible by the most skilful hand-work. The articles may then be 
 further decorated by engraving, gilding, silvering, etc. 
 
 Damaskeening .—Damascus steel is a special kind of carbon steel 
 which is manufactured according to Anossow’s process in Slatust 
 in the Ural. The sword blades celebrated for centuries for their 
 good qualities derive their name from Damascus in Asia Minor, but 
 nothing is known about their manufacture. It has been tried, as 
 will be explained later on, to imitate the damask by welding 
 together strips of iron and steel, but, though the designs were 
 quite beautiful, genuine damask was not obtained. The designs of 
 damask consist of a peculiar net-work of light lines standing out 
 from a dark ground, and showing either a moire striped lengthwise 
 or wavy or net-like or ribbon-like. A good Damascus blade will 
 cut an- iron nail without suffering injury. For the production of 
 Damascus steel, according to Anossow’s process, iron together with 
 graphite and a flux is melted in a crucible. The cake of steel 
 found after cooling upon the bottom of the crucible shows already 
 a damaskeened surface, and is then carefully worked further in the 
 ordinary manner. 
 
 Imitation of Damascus Steel .—Cut 8 sheets of steel 12 inches 
 long, 1 inch wide and T * 2 inch thick. Now prepare 5 sheets of 
 soft iron and 4 of brittle iron of equal dimensions with the steel 
 sheets. These are then joined together in the following manner: 
 
280 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 A sheet of steel is laid upon one of soft iron, upon this one 
 of brittle iron, then one of steel, and so on to the seventh sheet, 
 which should be one of soft iron. The bundle is placed in the fire, 
 and, after moderately heating, welded together. It is then squared 
 and worked smooth under the hammer and brought to a white- 
 heat. One end is then placed in a vise, the other is grasped with 
 a pair of tongs and the mass vigorously twisted into the shape of a 
 screw. It is then smoothed and wrought into a bar y 2 to y inch 
 wide and £ to y, inch thick. This is cut into 2 equal parts. A 
 sheet of steel inch thick, and as long and as wide as one of the 
 two parts of the prepared bar, is cut and placed between the two 
 parts. The bundle is placed in the fire and then beaten under the 
 hammer to the thickness required for the articles to be manufac¬ 
 tured. A pickle consisting of 1 y 2 pints of water, 1 oz. of nitric 
 acid, 1 oz. of sal-ammoniac and 4 y 2 drachms of blue vitriol is now 
 prepared in a copper vessel. Paint the places which are not to be 
 damaskeened with some kind of varnish, and place the articles 
 manufactured from the prepared bar in the bath. When the 
 pickle has taken effect they are removed, rinsed off with cold water 
 and dried. 
 
 Damascus Gun-barrels .—The best known varieties of damask 
 are the “ rose and Bernard damask.” The process of manufactur¬ 
 ing the first variety, which is also called “ Turkish ” damask, is 
 shown in Fig. 19 A. 
 
 Square rods of the thickness of a lead-pencil are first formed 
 by arranging 26 ribands of iron and mild steel as thick as paper, in 
 alternate layers, welding the whole together and twisting it like a 
 rope by securing one end in a vise and grasping the other with a 
 pair of tongs. Six such twisted rods are then welded together as 
 shown at A, Fig. 19, and twisted around an iron tube h. These 
 crude barrels are worked, while hot, under the hammer until all 
 parts are uniformly united. When the barrel is finished the tube 
 around which the riband of damask is twisted is bored out. The 
 finished barrel is filed smooth and polished, and then treated with 
 dilute nitric acid, when it exhibits a diversified laminated structure, 
 resembling when properly managed an ostrich feather. 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 2S1 
 
 Barnard damask is made by alternately arranging 81 square rods 
 of iron and steel in the manner of a chess-board, B, Fig. 19, weld¬ 
 ing the whole together, twisting it like a rope, and again welding 
 three such ropes for the formation of the riband, which is then 
 twisted around the iron tube. Fig. 19, C, shows the design of the 
 damask of a double-barrel gun. In this case the iron and steel 
 bands are placed one upon the other before heating and held 
 together by wire. 
 
 To Damaskeen Iron and Steel with Platinum. —Take several thin 
 steel sheets or alternately steel and iron sheets, wrap around each 
 a platinum wire, and after placing one upon the other, firmly 
 tie the whole together with steel wire in such a manner that 
 
 J? 
 
 u 
 
 
 Fig. 19 . 
 
 the last wrappings touch each other. The whole is then welded 
 together, best with the use of borax. The mass thus obtained can 
 then be worked further as desired. By browning or bluing the 
 finished article the lustrous white platinum damask appears upon a 
 blue or brown ground. Instead of platinum other refractory 
 metals, for instance, nickel, may be used. 
 
 Damaskeening with Gold or Silver. —There are two methods of 
 practising this process. By one method the surface of the metal 
 to be damaskeened is roughened with a file ; the artist, by skilful 
 manipulation, causes to adhere to the roughened surface threads of 
 gold or silver, which are pressed down and burnished. Broad sur- 
 
282 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 faces are produced by working the threads or wires side by side. 
 Heat is applied, but the necessary degree requires great judgment. 
 In the other method the surface to be damaskeened is incised or 
 cut into, the incision being expanded at the bottom. Into this 
 channel gold or silver is introduced and beaten down. 
 
 Imitation of Damask. —Prepare a mixture of equal parts of good 
 linseed oil varnish, white resin and wax. Coat with this the iron, 
 which should have been previously cleansed and polished, and 
 draw with a pen the pattern usually used in damaskeening. Make 
 a rim of wax around the pattern, and pour nitric acid mixed with 
 an equal quantity of lemon juice upon the pattern. As soon as 
 the nitric acid assumes a brownish color pour it off, wash the iron 
 thoroughly with water and remove the varnish by melting. If the 
 article is small, round, or has an uneven surface, place it for a few 
 minutes in a mixture of 8 parts of water, i of nitric acid, and i 
 of lemon juice, and allow it to remain until the fluid assumes a 
 brownish color, when it is taken out and cleansed. 
 
 To Produce Damask in Relief upon Gun Barrels .—Carefully 
 close all openings of the barrel with corks and cleanse it from 
 adhering grease. Then place it in a box, pitched inside, and 
 pour over it one quart of water previously mixed with i oz. of 
 hydrochloric acid. The barrel remains in this mixture for 3 to 4 
 hours, when it is taken from the box, washed with water, next 
 rubbed with tow dipped in tripoli and finally thoroughly dried. 
 It is then oiled and heated over a coal-fire. In consequence of 
 this treatment the steel portions appear in relief, the iron portions 
 having been attacked by the corroding solution. 
 
 Damaskeened Surface upon Steel-guns. —The beautiful damas¬ 
 keened surface exhibited by the Woolwich and Elswick steel-guns 
 is produced by means of a special solution composed of the follow¬ 
 ing ingredients: Tincture of steel, 2 ozs. ; nitric acid, 1 oz. ; sul¬ 
 phate of copper, 1 oz. ; spirit of nitre, 1^ ozs. ; spirits of wine, 
 ozs.; and water, 1 gallon. This solution is smeared over the 
 parts, and when dry another coat is put on, the result being a fine 
 brown color which, if not dark enough, is made so by a repetition 
 of the operation, six coats being sufficient to make the surface 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING. ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 283 
 
 black. The acid is then killed by washing with soda solution, and 
 the whole rubbed with a hard brush until smooth, after which it is 
 rubbed with oily waste. Other solutions for this purpose are in 
 use at some establishments of high repute, one of the most im¬ 
 portant of these consisting of a mixture of i oz. each of sulphur, 
 tincture of steel, nitric acid and spirit of nitre with y oz. of ‘ 
 sulphuric acid, y 2 oz. each of mercuric chloride and sulphate of 
 copper, and x quart of water. 
 
 Damasked Bronze .—By this term are understood bronze articles 
 engraved with quite deep lines which are inlaid with silver or gold 
 wire, pressed in by means of a burnishing stone or small hammer. 
 The articles are finally polished and have a beautiful appearance, 
 the gold and silver designs upon the bronze ground presenting 
 frequently a striking resemblance to embroidery. 
 
 Iridescent Colors upon Metals .—To produce rainbow colors upon 
 gilt articles of iron, brass, and other metals, as well as upon clean 
 metallic surfaces in general, they are treated as follows: Prepare a 
 bath by boiling for half an hour 3*4 ozs. of caustic soda, 14^ 
 drachms of litharge and 1 quart of water. Connect the object to 
 be colored, which must be previously thoroughly cleansed and 
 pickled, with the wire of the positive pole of a battery, and use 
 a platinum wire as anode. By dipping the platinum wire in the 
 bath without touching the article, the latter becomes immediately 
 colored with various colors originating from a more or less thick 
 layer of the precipitated oxide of lead. Colors of all possible 
 contrast can be obtained by placing vertically a piece of stout 
 parchment paper between the articles to be colored and the platinum 
 wire, and also by providing the parchment with numerous holes or 
 radical segments. 
 
 Moire Metallique .—To give tin-plate and articles manufactured 
 from it a crystalline surface, it is polished by hammering and then 
 heated over a coal-fire so that the tin melts, however, without 
 oxidizing. It is then removed, and the side which had been 
 exposed to the fire is poured over with water from a vessel so 
 arranged that a broad stream can be brought upon the surface. In 
 cooling the tin crystallizes, but the surface presents a poor appear- 
 
284 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 ance, and must, therefore, be further treated with acid. The sheet 
 is placed in a mixture of i part of nitric acid, 2 of hydrochloric 
 acid, and 3 of water, whereby the tin upon the surface is in a short 
 time dissolved. The sheet is then taken out, washed first in caustic 
 potash-lye, which considerably enhances the metallic lustre, and, 
 after rinsing in clean water, dried at a moderate heat, and finally 
 coated with transparent copal lacquer. By certain manipulations 
 the direction the crystallization is to take may be determined. By 
 drawing, for instance, with a hot soldering-iron designs upon the 
 back of the heated and cooled plate, the tin melts through the 
 plate, and by the action of the acids the design is recognized upon 
 the other side by the changed direction of the crystallization. By 
 heating tinned sheet-iron over the flame of a spirit-lamp the tin 
 fuses all around, and forms a round spot whose circumference 
 becomes the larger the longer the sheet remains over the flame. 
 On removing the flame the place where it was applied will be 
 recognized as the centre of a stellated crystallization. Pure tin is 
 best adapted for this purpose. The moire is as a rule obtained by 
 exposing tin or tin-plate, previously carefully cleansed, to the 
 action of hydrochloric, sulphuric, or nitric acid, or other chemical 
 reagents of not too strong action, and finally freeing the surface 
 covered with moire as much as possible from the oxides produced 
 during the operation. 
 
 I. Pour into a clean and dry glass or porcelain vessel 80 parts by 
 weight of ordinary sulphuric acid, and add 10 of ammonium 
 chloride, sodium chloride, etc., and immediately cover the vessel 
 with the sheet to be treated, allowing it to remain as long as 
 effervescence continues. It is then removed, washed by immersing 
 in ordinary water, and dried with fine linen, or allowed to dry by 
 itself. This operation is repeated five or six times in succession 
 until a moire of desired purity and beauty is obtained. 
 
 II. By immersing tin-plate in sulphuric or hydrochloric acid for 
 two or three minutes and thoroughly rinsing in ordinary water, it 
 will be found covered with moire. 
 
 III. A very white and lustrous moire is obtained by boiling tin¬ 
 plate in sulphuric acid diluted with ten times its volume of water 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 285 
 
 for half an hour, then rubbing with a soft woollen rag dipped in a 
 solution of equal volumes of cold water and sulphuric acid, washing 
 and finally rinsing in cold water. 
 
 IV. First wash the plate with a soft rag saturated with a mixture 
 of equal volumes of alcohol and oil of turpentine. After thoroughly 
 rubbing the entire surface, wash with pure alcohol and dry with 
 clean linen. Now take the yelks of 12 fresh eggs, and rub them 
 up carefully in a mixture of 12 teaspoonfuls of hydrochloric acid 
 and a like quantity of water. When the composition has acquired 
 the consistency of a stiff paste, add 12 teaspoonfuls of nitric acid, 
 which renders the mixture more fluid. Now dip a pad of cotton or 
 other soft stuff in the fluid, and rub the surface of the metal, being 
 careful to carry the pad quickly and lightly over all parts, so that 
 the composition is everywhere uniformly applied, but not allowed 
 at any point, to dry. When the designs show well and the moire 
 has acquired a good lustre, so that neither a stain or an inequality 
 of color is observed, wash with a woollen rag strongly saturated 
 with a mixture of equal parts of hydrochloric and nitric acids and 
 5 parts of water, and, after washing in an abundance of water, allow 
 the article to dry. By adding to the acid mixture diluted with 
 water a small quantity of trichloride of gold, the gold precipitates 
 in the form of oxide, and imparts to the moire more beauty and 
 lustre. 
 
 Colored Moire on Tin-plate .—Heat the tin-plate to a temperature 
 at which the tin begins to melt, and then immerse it quickly in a 
 fluid composed of hydrochloric acid, 2 parts ; nitric acid, 1 ; water, 
 3; and potassium bichromate, 1 ; deep black spots are produced, 
 which become still darker by adding some tin salt. By now thor¬ 
 oughly rinsing the sheets, pouring hydrochloric acid over them, 
 which is allowed to run slowly from the sheets, so that only a 
 slightly acid fluid remains, and finally pouring over a solution of 
 10 parts of sodium hyposulphite in 120 of water, crystals playing 
 into various colors, according to the longer or shorter time of the 
 action of the solution, are obtained. The articles are finally rinsed 
 in water, then in alcohol, and coated with a suitable varnish. 
 
 Moire on Brass ,—To produce moire on brass, boil the objects in 
 
286 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 a concentrated aqueous solution of blue vitriol (i part blue vitriol 
 to 2 parts water) for some time. The shades obtained vary accord¬ 
 ing to the proportion of zinc and copper in the brass. If an article 
 when taken from the solution appears dark red or dark violet with¬ 
 out perceptible reflections, it is only necessary to rub it with a little 
 wax-varnish or rosin-varnish. The formation of moire is much 
 promoted by putting a few small pieces of iron in the solution. 
 
 To Decorate Tin-plate .—Lithographs upon tin-plate or other 
 metal sheets are frequently produced by directly printing the sheets 
 in the lithographic press. More elegant results are, however, 
 obtained as follows: The design is printed in black color, to which 
 some copal lacquer has been added, upon sheets of paper, the size 
 of the sheets to be decorated, which have been prepared with paste, 
 gum, and glycerin. The paper, printed side down, is immediately 
 laid upon the sheet, and passed together with it through the press; 
 it is then dampened with a wet sponge, and again passed through 
 the press. To save time, the production of the lithograph and its 
 transfer to the metallic sheet is frequently combined as follows: 
 Lay the paper upon the stone, upon the paper a leather-plate, and 
 upon the latter the sheet with the last-printed paper, and pass the 
 whole through the press. When the sheet comes from the press 
 the paper is again dampened, and then carefully drawn off, whereby 
 the design in its finest details remains upon the sheet. The sheets 
 are now placed in an oven, heated to 284° F. for 12 hours, then 
 coated with a mixture of copal lacquer, oil of turpentine, and lin¬ 
 seed-oil varnish, and again placed in the oven for 12 hours. When 
 directly printing the sheets from the stone some asphalt or iron 
 lacquer is added to the printing-ink, and for other colors some 
 dammar lacquer, in order to obtain better lustre and to promote 
 drying. The printed sheets are dried in the oven until the color 
 cannot be wiped off, care being had, however, not to raise the 
 temperature to the melting-point of the tin. When dry, the prints 
 receive by means of a flat, broad, soft brush a uniform and not too 
 thick coating of a mixture of 1 part of linseed oil and 2 parts of 
 dark copal lacquer, and are then again dried in the oven for one 
 hour. This coating imparts to the sheets the lustre and color of 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 287 
 
 polished brass; its principal advantage being, however, that it does 
 not crack off when bent, so that the decorated sheets can be worked 
 in every way, and even hammered. 
 
 New Method of Decorating Metals .—This invention of Nellie 
 C. Duncombe, of New York city, presents a beautiful field for 
 taste, skill and industry, and it has been carefully fenced in by the 
 patent issued July 16, 1889. The decorative design is formed 
 upon the metallic surface by means of etching and oxidation of the 
 metal. Suppose the plate to be decorated to consist of polished sheet 
 brass, all those portions which are finally to appear as polished sur¬ 
 faces—the high lights or, perhaps, the outlines of the design—are 
 covered with a brush dipped in a suitable varnish. When the var¬ 
 nish is dry the plate is immersed in a bath of nitric acid some¬ 
 what diluted, in which is a small piece of copper in process of dis¬ 
 solution. By this immersion the surface of the plate is both etched 
 by the acid and discolored by the action of the copper which is 
 dissolved by the acid. After a few moments’ immersion the plate 
 is removed and rinsed. As it dries in the air the exposed surface 
 becomes a dull brown, like old bronze. All the portions that are 
 to retain this color are then painted with the same varnish and the 
 plate is then dipped in a weak solution of copper salt. This 
 brightens the surface and gives it a yellowish, mottled appearance. 
 Then the plate is dried in fine saw-dust, box-wood preferred. After 
 protecting with the varnish so much of the color as it is desired to 
 retain, the plate is again immersed in the same nitric acid bath 
 until it has been sufficiently etched to remove the previous oxida¬ 
 tion, again rinsing and holding it, either side up, over a tray con¬ 
 taining diluted nitric acid and pieces of copper and sheet brass. 
 After being left to be oxidized in these fumes a few moments, the 
 plate is again dried in saw-dust, and the result is an orange-color 
 somewhat mottled. Again painted and exposed for a longer time 
 to the fumes of the acid, copper and brass, a green color is pro¬ 
 duced. Again dried in the saw-dust and painted as before, a 
 frosted effect is produced on the unpainted portion that is left by a 
 quick dip in a bath of nitric and sulphuric acids and water, after 
 which it is rinsed and dried quickly in hot saw-dust. 
 
288 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The varnish is now removed with turpentine or another solvent 
 and the entire design is exposed, and the plate is completed. 
 
 It is immaterial, after painting over the high lights, in what 
 order the successive oxidations are produced, but it is preferable to 
 oxidize the finer and more delicate portions of the design first 
 and finish with the ground etching. The depth of the etchings 
 is of no consequence, the color, like beauty, being only skin- 
 deep. 
 
 The varnish preferred for the operation is made as follows : As¬ 
 phalt, 2 ozs. ; white wax, i y 2 ozs. ; Burgundy pitch, i oz., and a 
 sufficient quantity of turpentine. Melt the asphalt in a glazed 
 saucepan and add the wax gradually, stirring with a glass rod, add 
 the pitch and continue stirring, permitting it to boil up twice or 
 three times, but never let it boil over. Take the saucepan from 
 the fire and stir in enough turpentine to make the mass the con¬ 
 sistency of tube oil paints. Other colors, such as dark purple or 
 orange, red and green, green bronze and light green, bright 
 green and red, bright pink, iridescent purple, may be made by the 
 same method with various kinds of baths. 
 
 Nielled Silver .—This term is applied to silver articles provided 
 with a black etching. The articles are produced by first engrav¬ 
 ing them quite deeply and inlaying the lines with a black enamel 
 consisting of metallic sulphide. The niel consists of a mixture of 
 sulphide of silver, sulphide of copper and sulphide of lead. The 
 older niel was generally rich in silver, but in the modern the sul¬ 
 phur combinations of copper and lead preponderate. To prepare 
 the niel fuse first the sulphur in a graphite crucible and heat until 
 the sulphur boils. Heat a certain quantity of silver and copper, 
 which are best used in the form of wire or thin sheet; throw first 
 the silver into the crucible, then the copper and finally the lead, 
 the latter in pieces the size of a pea. Stir the mass with a clay 
 rod to intimately mix the metallic sulphides and examine whether 
 there are still unmelted parts in the crucible. When all is melted 
 pour the mass quickly into water, which imparts to it a certain de¬ 
 gree of brittleness. Then powder the niel as finely as possible in 
 a cast-iron mortar, separating the fine from the coarse powder and 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 289 
 
 again pulverizing the latter. The proportions generally used are as 
 follows: 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silver. 8 2 i x 2 
 
 Copper. ...,i8 5 6 2 i 
 
 Lead. 13 7 10 4 
 
 Sulphur...96 24 36 5 3 
 
 According to Hart the niel consists of 4 parts of fine silver, 9 of 
 pure copper, 1 of platinum (which is, however, not absolutely 
 necessary), 2 of borax and 48 of flowers of sulphur. First melt 
 the silver, then add the copper and, when both are liquid, the lead. 
 The melted metals are stirred with a stick of charcoal to insure 
 homogeneity. The mixture is then poured into a large crucible 
 containing the pulverized sulphur. The crucible is then replaced 
 upon the fire for a few minutes to keep the mass fluid. It is then 
 poured over brushwood into water so that granules are formed. 
 These granules are collected, dried in the air and then pulverized 
 in a mortar. 
 
 The firm of Zachers, of Berlin, claim to have discovered the 
 process of making the niel called Tula, after the Russian town of 
 the same name. According to them the niel is prepared from 9 
 parts of silver, 1 of copper, 1 of lead and 1 of bismuth. The 
 metals are melted and saturated with sulphur. This mixture gives 
 the splendid blue which was formerly erroneously considered as 
 steel-blue. 
 
 The article to be nielled having been prepared with the graver, 
 by etching or stamping, is then dipped in a solution of borax. 
 The pulverized niel is next made into a stiff paste with a concen¬ 
 trated solution of sal-ammoniac and pressed into the hollows by 
 means of a spatula or brush. After wiping off the excess of niel 
 with a moist cloth the article is allowed to dry, after which it is to 
 be heated. 
 
 This is effected with single small objects over glowing coals, but 
 if a larger number of objects are to be treated they are placed upon 
 sheet-iron and brought into the glowing muffle of an enamelling 
 furnace. When the niel is fused the iron plate with the articles is 
 19 
 
290 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 taken out and after cooling the pattern is uncovered by a level 
 grinding with pumice stone, when the silver will appear as over a 
 black ground. Polishing is effected with the same agents and in 
 the same manner as that of other silver objects. A cheaper method 
 than by engraving each article by itself is to engrave in relief a 
 steel plate and press it against the silver plate between two hard 
 bodies. The copy is hollow and ready to receive the niel. A 
 great many copies may be obtained from the same matrix. 
 
 The muffles which serve for the reception of the objects to be 
 
 c c 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 nielled and enamelled consist of semi-cylindrical bodies generally 
 made of refractory clay. On one of the wider sides they are pro¬ 
 vided with a large opening and on one of the narrower sides with 
 a small round aperture. The large aperture is closed with a clay 
 plate after the objects have been placed in the muffle. In the 
 small aperture is secured a tube which can be closed by a clay 
 stopper. By removing the stopper the interior of the muffle can 
 be watched through the tube, and the burning in of the niel or en- 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 291 
 
 amel controlled. An enamelling furnace with brass muffle, which 
 is very suitable for working on a small scale, is shown in cross sec¬ 
 tions at Fig. ?o; M is the muffle of stout sheet-brass. It is pro¬ 
 vided on one side with a lid which, with its projecting edges, can 
 be pushed into the muffle. The furnace is constructed of double 
 sheet-iron, and the space between the outer casing A B C D and 
 the inner casing c is filled with a bad conductor (ashes, etc.). The 
 casing rests upon four iron legs and is provided at d e with a small 
 chimney. The muffle rests with both ends upon projecting edges 
 of the inner casing. The furnace is heated either by gas or, as in- 
 
 Fig 21. 
 
 dicated in the illustration, by spirit flames. The size of the muf¬ 
 fle as well as of the entire apparatus depends on the dimensions of 
 the largest article to be decorated. 
 
 Another muffle-furnace is shown in Fig. 21. O is the actual 
 furnace of refractory material, M the clay muffle resting either 
 upon wrought-iron rails or upon projections of the furnace wall. 
 R is the grate, A the ash-pit and B the aperture for introducing the 
 fuel. In front of the muffle is a day plate P which serves as a 
 table in introducing and withdrawing the articles to be enamelled. 
 
THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 202 
 
 To Imitate Nielled Work by the Galvanic Method .—The design 
 is executed upon the silver surface with a pigment consisting of 
 white-lead and glue or gum water. The portions which are to 
 remain free are coated with a protecting varnish and the design is 
 then uncovered by etching with very dilute nitric acid. The ar¬ 
 ticle is then brought as the anode into a dilute solution of ammonium 
 sulphide, and a small platinum sheet connected with the negative 
 pole is dipped into the solution. Sulphide of silver being formed, 
 the design becomes quickly black-gray and, after removing the 
 protecting varnish with benzine, stands out in sharp contrast with 
 the white silver. 
 
 Oxidized Silver .—This name is incorrect, as by it is understood, 
 riot an oxidation, but a combination with sulphur or chlorine. 
 Solution of pentasulphide of potassium (liver of sulphur of the 
 shops) is generally used for oxidizing silver. Liver of sulphur is 
 prepared by intimately mixing and heating together 2 parts of 
 thoroughly dried potash and 1 part of sulphur powder. Dissolve 
 2 or 3 drachms of the compound in 0/2 pints of water, and bring 
 the liquid to a temperature of from 155 0 to 175 0 F., when it is 
 ready for use. Silver objects previously freed from dust and grease 
 with soda lye and thorough rinsing in water, plunged in this bath, 
 are instantly covered with an iridescent film of silver sulphide, 
 which in a few seconds more becomes blue-black. The objects are 
 then removed, rinsed off in plenty of fresh water, scratch-brushed, 
 and, if necessary, polished. It is advisable to use the oxidizing 
 liquid as soon as prepared. After it has been used for some time 
 the deposit becomes dull and gray and lacking in adherence. 
 There is danger in using the alkaline liquid too strong; the coating 
 will form more quickly, but does not adhere so well. 
 
 The process is very readily executed upon pure silver, but with 
 articles of cupriferous silver the result is not quite so beautiful, and 
 it is, therefore, advisable to subject them to blanching before 
 oxidizing. 
 
 A velvety black color is obtained by dipping the article previous 
 to oxidizing in solution of mercurous nitrate, by which it becomes 
 coated with a thin film of mercury, which forms an amalgam with 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 
 
 293 
 
 the silver. When brought into the liver of sulphur solution a mix¬ 
 ture of mercury sulphide and silver sulphide is formed, which is 
 much darker than silver sulphide by itself. By dipping the oxidized 
 article into a liquid composed of io parts of blue vitriol, 5 of sal- 
 ammoniac, and 100 of vinegar, the places of the silver left bright 
 acquire a warm brown shade. 
 
 Another method of oxidation is effected by dipping the article into 
 diluted chlorine water, chloride of lime solution, or into eau de 
 Javelle. The action of these baths is based upon the formation of 
 a thin layer of silver chloride, which, on exposure to light, becomes 
 dark. 
 
 Beautiful effects and tasty designs may be produced by combin¬ 
 ing various shades of oxidation with the bright or gilded silver 
 surface. By executing the design, for example, with asphalt 
 lacquer and placing the articles in the liver of sulphur solution, only 
 the places left free become oxidized, and the result, after removing 
 the asphalt lacquer with oil of turpentine, will be a white design 
 upon a dark ground. Dark designs upon a white ground are 
 executed with ink prepared by thickening concentrated liver of 
 sulphur solution by the addition of gum-arabic solution. When 
 the design is dry the article is heated so that the gum cracks off or 
 can be removed by a gentle tap. Black and light designs upon a 
 dark gray ground are carried out by executing the first with asphalt 
 solution and the latter with ink composed of mercurous nitrate and 
 gum-arabic solution, and dipping the article into the liver of sulphur 
 bath. 
 
 A yellow color is imparted to silver articles by dipping in a hot, 
 concentrated solution of cupric chloride. 
 
 A deep black oxidized surface may be obtained directly on cop¬ 
 per , properly cleansed, by immersion in a concentrated solution of 
 hydrous carbonate of copper, either cold or tepid. The copper 
 surface at once becomes coated with a fine black deposit, which will 
 stand subsequent treatment very well. A fine oxidized surface 
 may also be produced by depositing on the surface of the articles 
 or on certain portions thereof a film of metallic platinum. For 
 this purpose prepare a solution of platinic chloride in sulphuric 
 
THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 2D4 
 
 ether or alcohol, and apply the solution with a brush to the parts 
 of the surface to be oxidized. The ether or alcohol speedily evap¬ 
 orates, leaving behind a film of metallic platinum adhering to the 
 surface of the object, which film, according to its thickness, imparts 
 to the surface either a steel-gray or nearly black lustre. A hot 
 aqueous solution of platinic chloride will give the same results. 
 
 New Protecting Coat on "Metals .—Two pounds of borate of lead 
 are ground very fine with water. It is then allowed to settle, and, 
 after pouring off the water, the deposit is mixed with a precipitate’ 
 of platinum obtained by the addition of i)4 cubic inches of am¬ 
 monia to a solution of 63^ drachms of platinic chloride in i quart 
 of water, allowed to settle for 3 hours, decanting the ammonia- 
 water, replacing it by clean water, again allowing it to settle for 3 
 hours, and finally decanting the water. The platinum is ground 
 together with the borate of lead for at least x / 2 hour; 5 quarts of 
 water are then added, and the mass is ready for use. The articles 
 of iron, steel, or copper to be coated, previously brushed or washed, 
 are dipped in the preparation, or coated with it by brushing, and 
 heated in a strongly heated muffle, or by a gas flame, until the 
 originally white coating has acquired the color of dull iron. 
 
 Photo-chemical Process of Decorating Metal. —Breit, of Barmen, 
 has patented in Germany a process according to which the metallic 
 surface to be decorated—tabbied tin-plate is especially suitable for 
 the process—is first coated with a colorless or colored alcoholic 
 lacquer, and then, in a dark room, with a solution of chrome- 
 gelatine. The latter is obtained by dissolving 5 to 10 parts by 
 weight of gelatine and 1 to 2 of bichromate of potash in 100 of 
 water. The gelatine possesses the peculiarity of losing its solubility 
 in water by the action of light. Hence, by covering, after drying, 
 the plate with the desired pattern and exposing it in a copying 
 frame to the light, the layer of gelatine on the places exposed to 
 the light becomes insoluble, while the parts covered by the pattern 
 can be removed by placing the plate in warm water. After drying, 
 the layer of lacquer first applied is removed from the places freed 
 from gelatine with cold spirit of wine. The gelatine design 
 remaining upon the plate may be colored as desired by placing the 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 
 
 295 
 
 plate in a dye-bath, the colored designs upon a bright ground thus 
 obtained being fixed by lacquering. Before lacquering the metallic 
 surfaces may be suitably provided with a patina, whereby the effect 
 of colored designs upon a differently colored ground is obtained. 
 
 To Prepare Zinc for Painting. —Brush over the zinc with a solu¬ 
 tion of i part each of chloride of copper, nitrate of copper and 
 sal-ammoniac in 64 parts of water and add to the mixture 1 part 
 of commercial hydrochloric acid. After 12 to 24 hours the solu¬ 
 tion dries to a dull gray color. Painting upon this surface the 
 colors will adhere in a perfect manner. Another process is as 
 follows: Into some hydrochloric acid of full strength drop 
 pieces of zinc until effervescence ceases. Add an equal quantity 
 of water and with a sponge tied to a stick wash over every part of 
 the surface to be painted. This roughens the surface and takes off 
 that sort of greasiness which prevents paint from adhering. After 
 the acid has remained a short time on the zinc wash with water or 
 dilute vinegar, dry, and paint. 
 
 How to Prepare a Rough Surface in Grounding Metals for Sub¬ 
 sequent Decoration. —The object of this process is to ground metals 
 which are to be enamelled, or decorated with vitrifiable colors, or 
 protected from tarnishing or rusting. The preparation of the sur¬ 
 face to be enamelled is very simple and inexpensive; the enamel 
 can be directly and uniformly applied without the necessity of 
 using a special ground mass and adheres very firmly without 
 cracking or peeling off. The process is executed as follows : Mix 
 finely pulverized iron-scale (magnetic oxide), or, still better, pure 
 ferroso-ferric oxide prepared by precipitation, with more or less 
 finely pulverized emery and triturate the mixture with a solution 
 of lead or tin soap, adding a few per cent, of a readily fusible frit. 
 Apply this mass to the metal to be grounded and burn it in. In 
 burning in, the article may be heated to a red heat, whereby a fine 
 violet-blue coating, rough to the touch, is obtained, which, with¬ 
 out further preparation, can be dipped into the covering mass, en¬ 
 amelled or painted with vitrifiable colors, and burnt in. By this 
 treatment the rough violet-blue coating formed from the lead solu¬ 
 tion and the magnetic iron mixed with emery constitutes the 
 
296 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 ground mass for the enamel and colors. By the foregoing described 
 method of grounding, articles of all kinds, of cast-iron as well as of 
 wrought-iron, can be provided with a very durable enamel. By 
 increasing the quantity of magnetic iron a ground mass for a very 
 refractory covering mass may be made. 
 
 To Coat Stoves, Tools, etc. —Metallic tools and other articles, 
 particularly those of iron and steel which are used in laboratories 
 and other workshops where acid vapors are of frequent occurrence, 
 can be protected with a lustrous black coat which resists acids, and 
 is but little affected even by a low red heat, as follows: Have a 
 sheet-iron box constructed large enough to hold all the articles to 
 be coated, and provided with a false bottom of wire netting about 
 1 1/2 inches above the actual bottom. Underneath this wire netting 
 is placed a layer of crushed blacksmith’s coal about ^ inch deep; 
 then place the articles, which must be entirely free from rust, clean 
 and polished, upon the wire net. The box is then covered with a 
 well-fitting lid and set on a strong fire, which causes the coal to 
 give off tarry constituents, the heat being continued until the bot¬ 
 tom of the box is at a red heat. When all evolution of gas has 
 ceased the box is allowed to become cold, and the articles are 
 taken out, and will be found covered with a beautiful glossy coat. 
 
 Ward's Inoxidizing Process. —This process is based upon the 
 simultaneous employment of silicates and heating. The cast- or 
 wrought-iron articles are coated by means of a brush or by immer¬ 
 sion with a silicate. This coating dries quickly, and when the 
 articles are exposed to a suitable heat liquefies, penetrates the pores 
 of the metal, and after cooling forms a dense uniform coating of a 
 dead-black color, which does not change by the action of the 
 atmosphere nor crack off from the article. By adding to the sili¬ 
 cate pigments used for coloring glass, decorated surfaces of great 
 beauty may be obtained, which are far superior to those produced 
 in the ordinary manner by the application of paint. 
 
 Inoxidizing Process for Cast-iron. —The cast-iron articles, entire 
 gas-chandeliers, water pipes, ornamental pieces, railings, kitchen- 
 pots, etc., are placed upon an iron carriage and first exposed in a 
 reverberatory furnace of special construction at a temperature of from 
 

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DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 297 
 
 m2 0 to 1292 0 F. for 15 minutes to the oxidizing, and then for 
 20 minutes to the reducing action of gas generators. After removal 
 from the furnace and cooling, the inoxidized articles acquire a 
 uniform slate color; they may, however, be enamelled and deco¬ 
 rated in any manner desired. In applying the enamels pickling 
 with acid is not necessary, and consequently the enamel adheres 
 very firmly. Various articles exposed in the open air for two years 
 to all kinds of atmospheric influences showed no trace of deteriora¬ 
 tion. Numerous experiments have demonstrated that the tensile 
 strength of the iron is but little decreased by inoxidation, in fact, no 
 more than by annealing. As regards the durability of the surface layer 
 with a high load, it has been determined that from wrought-iron 
 bars it cracked off in the form of small lamina with an average 
 tension of 4025 lbs., but from cast-iron it did not crack off even 
 with a breaking load. 
 
 The Barff Process for Preserving Iron and Steel from Rust .—- 
 Barffing is so called from the name of its discoverer; and its 
 purpose is to render the surface of metallic articles treated, resistant 
 to acids and impervious to humid oxidation. Iron and steel that 
 have been properly barffed will not rust. The process belongs in no 
 sense to the chemical laboratory, and requires no particular 
 scientific knowledge or technical skill for its success. Highly 
 polished work retains its finish after the process, although the 
 treatment changes the shining polish to a dark slate color. But 
 working parts, such as sliding and rubbing surfaces, retain their 
 smoothness, and work as freely after as before the process; plugs, 
 valves, and stems for cocks, gates and faucets, for instance, working 
 just as smoothly as though they had not been barffed. 
 
 The articles to be treated are made perfectly clean—free from 
 oil and dust—and are placed in a muffle, an air-tight oven, into 
 which is led a steam-pipe from a boiler that carries steam at a press¬ 
 ure of from 60 to 100 pounds to the inch. This pipe, after leaving 
 the boiler, becomes a coil in a furnace in which it is kept at a red 
 heat. Of course, the steam that is discharged into the muffle is 
 what is known as “red-hot steam,” or steam highly superheated. 
 The effect of this steam on the articles exposed to its action is to 
 
298 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S ITANDY-ROOK. 
 
 convert their surfaces into magnetic oxide of iron, this change 
 reaching to an appreciable depth, giving to the surface the hardness 
 of steel with the durability of gun-metal. It has been said that 
 the surface of the metal is changed to an “appreciable depth,” 
 perhaps it would be more precise to say, that this magnetic oxide 
 adds to the surface; for micrometer tests show that the article is 
 absolutely larger after being barffed than before undergoing the 
 process. 
 
 Pieces which are to work together, therefore, as the plug and 
 barrel of a cock, are fitted to allow for this increase, the plug being 
 finished somewhat smaller than it would have been if it was to be 
 u^ed in its lathe-finished state. The only limit to the size of the 
 pieces to be barffed is the capacity of the muffle. 
 
 Enamelling Metals .—In enamelling metals, transparent or 
 opaque, colored or plain enamels are fused by heat upon the surface 
 of the object and incorporated by fusion with its surface. Enamel 
 for metals must, therefore, be indestructible by heat. A good 
 enamel for coating iron utensils should firmly adhere to the surface, 
 withstand slight shocks and be capable of resisting changes of 
 temperature and chemical influences. Besides it should not be too 
 refractory and should fuse at a lower temperature than the metal to be 
 coated. To enable the enamel to follow the expansion and con¬ 
 traction of the iron, and to stand changes of temperature, two 
 kinds of enamel fusible at different temperatures are applied in 
 enamelling iron utensils. The first layer is called ground ox ground 
 mass, and consists of an aluminium silicate containing frequently 
 as much as 75 per cent, of silicic acid. The refractoriness of the 
 ground mass is besides frequently decreased by the addition of 
 boric acid and alkalies, and its adhesion to the iron promoted by a 
 small content of magnesia. For enamelling articles not to be used 
 for culinary purposes, the refractoriness of the ground mass may be 
 decreased by the addition of oxide of lead. The ingredients for the 
 preparation of the ground mass are fused, and after cooling, pulver¬ 
 ized and ground until a uniform, fine powder is obtained. 
 
 The covering mass, ox glaze, contains less silica and alumina and 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 
 
 299 
 
 is therefore more readily fusible than the ground mass. It is 
 rendered opaque by the addition of zinc oxide. 
 
 Enamel for Iron Objects .—An enamel for cast and wrought-iron 
 articles is obtained by fusing together 130 parts of finely pulverized 
 crystal glass, 20^ parts of calcined soda and 12 of boric acid, 
 and comminuting and finely pulverizing the fused mass. This 
 enamel is glass-like, transparent and lasts well upon sheet-iron. 
 Several layers of enamel of different degrees of fusibility may also 
 be used for enamelling. The layer coming in direct contact with 
 the iron is called “ground-mass.” It fuses but incompletely, only 
 the second layer, “ the covering mass,” fusing completely and im¬ 
 parting the requisite smoothness to the glaze. For preparing the 
 ground-mass fuse together 30 parts of finely ground feldspar with 
 25 of borax, and after pulverizing the mass, mix it with 10 parts of 
 clay, 6 of feldspar and 1^ of carbonate of magnesia. Mix this 
 ground-mass with water to a paste and apply it to the object to be 
 enamelled. Then scatter upon it the covering-mass composed of a 
 finely powdered and fused mixture of 37^ parts of quartz meal, 
 2f/ 2 of borax, 50 of stannic oxide, 15 of soda and 10 of saltpetre. 
 The mass is uniformly distributed upon the object to be enamelled, 
 carefully dried and burnt in in the muffle furnace. Other directions, 
 especially for sheet-iron, are as follows : Silica or quartz, 30 to 50 
 parts; flint, 10 to 20; or, granite, 20 to 30 parts; china clay, 10 
 to 20 ; or, borax, 16 to 20 parts; pipe clay, 8 to 10; or, glass, 6 to 
 10 parts; chalk, 6 to 10; or, magnesia, 10 to 15 parts; porcelain 
 meal, 5 to 15 ; or, feldspar, 5 to 20 parts; boric acid, 20 to 40 ; 
 or, carbonate of soda, 10 to 20 parts ; saltpetre or heavy spar, 6 to 
 10 ; gypsum, 2 to 8 ; fluorspar, 3 to 10. After fusing, the masses 
 are finely ground and applied in thin layers, because on heating, 
 the enamel and sheet expand differently. Cooling must also be 
 effected very slowly since by cooling off too rapidly the enamel 
 contracts unequally and cracks off. 
 
 To Ena?nel Cast-iron Ute?isils .—This is done in Lower Silesia 
 by means of two masses, one for a ground and the other for a 
 surface coat. For the ground-mass tio lbs. of quartz, 50 lbs. of 
 borax and 16^ lbs. of fluorspar are ground as fine as possible and 
 
300 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 fused together in clay crucibles. Of the resulting mass 35 lbs. are 
 then mixed with 14 to 27 y 2 lbs. of quaitz, 9 to 14 lbs. of gray 
 clay and 1 lb. of borax. The composition is then, with water, 
 formed into a paste, applied to the vessels and burnt in. 
 
 For the surface coat the following ingredients are mixed together : 
 Fluorspar, 5^ lbs. ; zinc oxide, 2~y ; stannic oxide, 10 y 2 ; bone 
 meal, \y 2 smaltine, 1 to iy ozs. To this are added: Fluor¬ 
 spar, 35^ lbs. ; borax, 20 to 21^ lbs. ; sodium carbonate, 7 lbs. ; 
 nitre, 2^ to 3^ lbs. ; and the mixture is fused in refractory cru¬ 
 cibles with a hole in the bottom through which the liquid mass 
 escapes into a vessel placed beneath the furnace. The mass, when 
 ,cold, is pounded and ground, and 4 ozs. of washed white clay and 
 y 2 lb. of zinc oxide are added during the grinding process to every 
 66 lbs. of the mass. The composition is then applied like the first 
 and burnt in. 
 
 In England a very white and firmly adhering ena?nel for cast-iron 
 articles is prepared as follows : Keep the articles at a red heat in 
 sand for y 2 hour, cool off slowly and cleanse them with hot dilute 
 sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, then rinse in water and dry. Next 
 apply a ground-mass composed of flint glass, 6 parts; borax, 3 ; 
 minium, 1 ; oxide of zinc, 1, finely powdered and roasted at a red 
 heat for 4 hours, then rendered semi-fluid by increased temperature, 
 then cooled in cold water and 1 part of it mixed with 2 parts of 
 bone meal and made into a paste with water. When the coating 
 on the article is dry apply a surface coat composed of a mixture of 
 32 parts of calcined bones, 16 of china clay, 14 of feldspar, 4 of 
 potash, mixed with water, dried, cooled and, when powdered, 
 made into a paste with 16 parts of flint glass, $y of calcined 
 bones, and 3 of calcined quartz with sufficient water. When this 
 second coat is dry, apply a mixture composed of 4 parts of feld¬ 
 spar, 4 of pure sand, 4 of potash, 6 of borax, 1 of oxide of zinc, 
 1 of saltpetre, 1 of white arsenic and 1 of pure chalk, mixed, 
 calcined and cooled, and rubbed to a fine powder with 3^ parts 
 of calcined bones and 3 of quartz. The coated articles are heated 
 in a muffle in a furnace, which fuses the last two coatings and 
 forms an adhesive and brilliant white enamel. 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 301 
 
 Another Method of Enamelling Cast-iron .—Scour the objects 
 thoroughly with sand and dilute acid, rinse in water and dry. 
 Then apply by means of a coarse brush a thin coat of gum-arabic, 
 and scatter upon this, while still moist, the enamelling powder. 
 For white enamel the powder consists of 130 parts of pulverized 
 flint glass, 20 of calcined soda and 12 of borax, fused together in 
 a crucible. The objects strewn over with this powder are dried at 
 176° F., and the powder is then liquefied in a suitably heated 
 furnace. This coating adheres well and contains no injurious 
 substances. 
 
 Mottled Enamel .— The composition of the enamel is as follows : 
 Silica, 100 lbs. ; soda-ash, 35 lbs. ; borax, 75 lbs. ; plaster of Paris 
 or gypsum, 10 to 20 lbs. ; and arsenious acid in the proportion of 
 per cent, of all the other ingredients. When these are com¬ 
 pounded the resulting mixture is an enamel vitreous enough to 
 carry a glaze of itself, with an affinity for wrought or sheet-iron 
 which causes it to adhere with extreme tenacity when burned upon 
 it, and which will not exfoliate or absorb moisture in quantity 
 sufficient to destroy its polish. The ingredients of the enamel 
 having been comminuted, are carefully mixed together and brought 
 to a state of complete vitrifaction in a reverberatory furnace. 
 Then the enamel is run off as usual into water to granulate, when 
 it is ready for grinding. In making an enamel for wrought or 
 sheet-iron ware, 100 lbs. of the enamel are ground, adding about 
 5 lbs. of clay, preferably white, and having a pronounced soapy 
 feeling, this clay helping to give body to the enamel and preventing 
 its “ crazing ” when it is finally fixed on the iron in the heat of a 
 muffle. It is advisable to introduce, along with the enamel and 
 clay in the grinding process, calcined magnesia carbonate in the 
 proportion of 8 ozs. to 100 lbs. of the enamel. The magnesia 
 serves to make the enamel coat as finally applied less transparent, 
 contributes to the flecking or spotting of it with white, and thus 
 in a measure prevents the iron base from imparting to the enamel 
 throughout its own dull and unattractive shade. Prepared as above 
 the mixture is run through a strainer into tubs, where it is allowed 
 to remain about one day, during which time a sort of ripening is 
 
302 
 
 TEE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 effected, when it is finally prepared as follows: The mixture being 
 brought to about the consistency of cream by the addition, if 
 necessary, of water, magnesia sulphate is added until the mixture 
 is coagulated and pasty, yet still capable of being shaken out into 
 a thin and uniform coat, 2 ozs. magnesia sulphate being usually 
 sufficient for 100 lbs. of the mixture. The mixture having been 
 finally prepared, the article is dipped into it, having been first 
 prepared by the well-known processes of annealing, pickling, 
 scouring and washing. For washing, clean water is used, the iron 
 remaining therein until it is dipped. Care should be taken that 
 the enamel is not laid on too heavily, and that it be evenly dis¬ 
 tributed. Having received a thin uniform coat by dipping, the 
 article is dried, for if the enamel coat is burned while still damp it 
 will crack or craze. This drying is accomplished for convenience 
 and despatch in an oven constructed for the purpose, the range of 
 heat in which varies from about ioo° to 200° F., but it may be 
 effected at summer heat in an ordinary close room. The higher 
 the temperature the smaller and less distinct the spots; the lower 
 the temperature the more pronounced the mottling. The time re¬ 
 quired depends on the thickness of the enamel coat, the quantity 
 of moisture present, and the degree of heat employed. When 
 thoroughly dried the coat is of a whitish color, and usually either 
 brown or reddish-brown spotted ; and when burned in a muffle is of 
 grayish color, dark spotted. The burning process is effected in an 
 ordinary muffle at a red, cherry-red, or slightly greater heat, the 
 ordinary time required being about 4 minutes. 
 
 Enamelfor Cast-iron Pipes According to Amtmann .—The ground 
 mass consists of quartz, 34 parts; borax, 15; and soda, 2. The 
 covering mass is composed of feldspar, 34 parts; quartz, 19; 
 borax, 24; stannic oxide, 16; fluorspar, 4; soda, 9; and salt¬ 
 petre, 3. The fusing of the covering mass requires a strong white 
 heat for 20 minutes, and the outside of the hot finished pipes is 
 provided with a coat of tar. 
 
 Glaze for Iron Pipes.—To protect iron pipes buried in the 
 ground for a long time from destroying influences, it is recom¬ 
 mended to coat them with a glaze composed of pulverized crystal 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 303 
 
 glass, 260 parts; soda, 41 parts; and borax, 24 parts. The care¬ 
 fully mixed ingredients are fused in a crucible, and, after cooling, 
 the mass is converted into a very fine powder by pounding and 
 grinding. The pipes to be coated are first cleansed by pickling in 
 the usual manner, then washed and dried. They are next coated 
 with a thin layer of solution of gum-arabic and then the powder 
 is distributed over them by means of a sieve. To expel all moisture 
 the pipes are next placed in a room heated to about 320° F., and 
 finally heated to a red heat, at which the coat of glaze fuses. 
 When the coating is uniform it adheres very firmly to the iron sur¬ 
 face and resists all external influences. This process, called 
 by the inventor, Emaille de fer contre-oxyde, may be recommended 
 for iron pipes which are to possess special power of resisting external 
 influences, but for general use it is perhaps too expensive. 
 
 Glass Enamel for Iron. —The articles, kitchen utensils, signs, 
 etc., coated with this enamel, are not affected by atmospheric 
 influences, nor destroyed by an ordinary fire, and do not rust. 
 
 Intimately mix 4 parts of powdered glass, 2 of spar, 1 of salt¬ 
 petre and of a part of zinc oxide. Fuse them in a crucible and 
 pour into moulds to cool. For use the necessary quantity is 
 triturated with water. Heat the iron utensil to a red heat in a 
 muffle furnace and apply the enamel, which will present a brilliant 
 glassy appearance. To color the enamel blue, add cobaltic oxide; 
 for red, ammonium; for black, manganic oxide; for yellow, uranic 
 oxide; for brown, ferric oxide; for green, a mixture of 2 parts of 
 stannic oxide and 1 of manganic oxide; for pure white, stannic 
 oxide. 
 
 Enamel for Copper Cooking Utensils. —Powder and mix 12 parts 
 of white fluorspar, 12 of unburned gypsum and 1 of borax, and 
 fuse the mixture in a crucible. Pour the mass out, and, when 
 cold, triturate it into a paste with water. Apply this with a brush 
 to the inside of the vessel and place the latter in a moderately 
 warm place so that the paste will dry uniformly. When dry, heat 
 the vessel to such a degree in a muffle furnace that the paste which 
 has been applied liquefies. When cold, the result will be a white 
 opaque enamel. 
 
304 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Colored Enamels. —As a ground mass for colored enamels the 
 following compositions may be used : Sand, 3 parts; chalk, 1 ; 
 calcined borax, 3. This composition is especially suitable for pale 
 red, purple and blue, but may also serve for other delicate colors, 
 as it exerts no injurious influences upon the substances contained in 
 the colors. A composition which, though it fuses with difficulty, 
 may be used for any color is as follows: Quartz meal, 60 parts; 
 alum, 30; common salt, 35; red-lead, 100; magnesia, 5. For 
 painting on enamel it is best to keep on hand the various colors in 
 the form of sad-colored vitrifiable pigments. For this purpose 
 prepare a readily fusible enamel, which, however, must contain a 
 covering body, such as oxide of tin or lead, and add the coloring 
 ' oxides. After fusing the mass convert it into a coarse powder, 
 which is again fused. This operation is continued until a uniformly 
 colored pigment is obtained. The latter is then pulverized, 
 mixed with oil of lavender and applied to a ground mass, con¬ 
 sisting of pure white refractory enamel. When the picture is com¬ 
 pleted the object is carefully heated in the muffle so that only the 
 colored composition fuses. When this is the case the heat is at 
 once moderated to prevent the colors from running together. If 
 the painting does not turn out well it may be effaced by careful 
 scraping with a very hard graver and again covered by painting 
 over; but it is very difficult to execute this operation in such a 
 manner as not to injure the beauty and uniformity of the paint¬ 
 ing. 
 
 Enamels for Goldsmiths. —These differ from ordinary enamels in 
 having a vivid lustre and a beautiful color, which must not suffer a 
 change in remelting. As coloring agents metallic oxides by them¬ 
 selves or in mixtures are used as follows : 
 
 For blue, oxide of cobalt ; for rose-color and blue-gray, oxide of 
 gold ; for white, oxide of tin ; for yellow and brown , oxide of 
 uranium; for yellow, red and brown, oxide of iron ; for yellow and 
 blue-green, oxide of chromium; for violet and brown, oxide of 
 manganese. 
 
 The enamels are finely pulverized and made with water into a 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 
 
 305 
 
 thin paste. After having been applied to the metal and dried, they 
 are burnt in the muffle, and, after cooling, polished. 
 
 White Enamel for Ornamental Articles .—Calcine together and 
 convert completely into oxide 2 parts of tin and 1 of lead. Mix 1 
 part of this oxide mixture with 2 parts of pulverized white crystal 
 glass, and after adding a very small quantity of saltpetre or pyro- 
 lusite as a decolorizing agent, fuse in a small crucible, and pour the 
 fused mass into cold water. Repeat the fusing twice or three 
 times, or until the mass is no longer blistered, but thoroughly 
 homogeneous. It is then rubbed to a fine powder, and may be 
 applied either by itself, or, for small surfaces, by mixing it with oil 
 of lavender and laying it on, like oil paint, with a brush. For the 
 preparation of white enamel with a lower fusing point, the follow¬ 
 ing composition may be used : 100 parts of the tin-lead oxide, 60 
 of pure quartz meal, and 25 of common salt. In place of pure 
 quartz meal sand may be used, which must, however, be subjected 
 to purification, in order to yield a white product. For this pur¬ 
 pose calcine 100 parts of sand with 25 of common salt. The iron 
 contained in the sand combines with the chlorine of the common 
 salt to a combination which evaporates on heating, and a fritted 
 mass sufficiently free from iron remains behind. The sand is then 
 mixed with 25 parts of red-lead and fused. In this manner a 
 fritted mass representing a lead-soda glass is obtained. To prepare 
 enamel with this mass, it is finely pulverized and mixed with a zinc 
 oxide, or with the mixture of tin oxide and lead oxide, by using 
 100 parts of oxide to 50 of the frit. The larger the quantity of tin 
 oxide in the enamelling mass the thinner the coating may be. 
 Enamelling masses containing no tin oxide may also be prepared, 
 sodium antimonate being generally used in this case. A composi¬ 
 tion giving a very beautiful enamel consists of a mixture of 3 parts 
 of crystal glass, 1 of sodium antimonate, and a very small quantity 
 of saltpetre. In preparing all these kinds of enamel care must be 
 had in fusing to prevent the action of reducing bodies in the 
 crucible by closing the latter with a well-fitting lid. If fire gases 
 penetrate into the crucible, enamelling masses of inferior quality 
 are obtained. 
 
 20 
 
306 
 
 TUB METAL WORKER'S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Emaille Cloisonnee .—The work known under this name is exe¬ 
 cuted in a peculiar manner, generally upon copper or gold, and 
 gives an enamel of unlimited durability. The outlines of the 
 design to be executed in enamel are chiselled in the surface of the 
 metal, so that a very narrow plate of metal remains standing 
 between the boundaries of enamel of a determined color. The 
 place inside of the outlines is chiselled out with a graver, and the 
 surfaces remaining standing are made as rough as possible, in order 
 to offer a good hold to the enamel. For articles of gold the out¬ 
 lines for the enamelling masses are frequently formed of thin strips 
 of sheet gold, which are placed upon the plate and fused together 
 ^vith it by heating. In the cavities prepared in this manner the 
 enamelling mass mixed to a thick paste with oil of lavender or water 
 is placed, the application and fusing of the mass being repeated 
 until the cavities are entirely filled. Enamels of various colors can 
 be used, each color being terminated by the edges of the cavities, 
 and after heating the articles appear coated with the firmly adhering 
 enamel. After the last fusing of the enamel the object is ground 
 and polished. 
 
 Enamelling Watch-dials .—Thin sheet-iron is cut into the desired 
 shape and pressed, the edges being raised to prevent the enamel 
 from running off when in a fluid state. The plate is then cleansed. 
 The proper proportion of the enamelling mixture is as follows, 
 though in many cases and for special purposes it may be slightly 
 modified: White-lead, 12 parts; arsenic, 2^/2 ; crystal glass, 8; salt¬ 
 petre, 3; borax, 6^ ; flint, 2. The ground ingredients are mixed, 
 fused in a crucible, and while hot chilled in cold water, which ren¬ 
 ders the mass easily broken. It is next crushed to the fineness of 
 coarse sand, washed, dried, and is then ready for use. The 
 cleansed and dried dials are scattered over, according to the 
 desired thickness of the coating, with more or less of the powder, 
 and then placed in a muffle. Lettering and figuring may be 
 executed in the usual manner. If they are, however, to be put 
 upon the cold enamel they are printed on the dial with soft black 
 enamel by transferring. The dial is then again placed in the 
 muffle to fuse the enamel of the lettering and figuring. The color 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 307 
 
 of the enamel may, of course, be varied by the addition of different 
 salts and earths, for instance, by cobalt, peroxide of manganese, 
 peroxide of iron, etc. ; a similar variation of color for the lettering 
 and figuring being also possible. 
 
 Emaille Plaque-vitro-metalliquc. —The articles are first treated in 
 exactly the same manner as given under “ Glaze for Lro?i Pipes,” 
 and after burning in of the enamel, coated again with a solution of 
 gum. Upon this coating of gum are then placed very thin leaves 
 of beaten metal—copper, gold, silver, platinum, etc.—and burnt 
 in. 
 
 Emaille-champ Levee is prepared by stamping thin gold sheets 
 with steel dies, filling in the depressions thus made with enamel, 
 and burning the latter in. 
 
 Phosphorescent Enamel. —Commercial phosphorescent paint in 
 powder is intimately mixed with of its weight of very finely 
 pulverized fluorspar or cryolite and of calcium borate. The 
 mixture is made into a paste with water, and applied in a uniform 
 layer to the articles to be enamelled by means of a brush. They 
 are then burnt in the usual manner. 
 
 To Secure Enamel and Glass to Metal by Means of the Electric 
 Current. —The enamel, pieces of glass, etc., arranged upon a per¬ 
 forated metal support, are immersed in a metallic solution (of 
 copper, zinc, gold, etc.), and an electric current is conducted 
 through the latter. The current effects a separation of the metal 
 in the solution, which fills up the spaces between the enamel, 
 pieces of glass, etc., and the perforations of the support, whereby a 
 durable union with the metallic support is effected. 
 
 Engraving on Copper. —This is executed by cutting lines repre¬ 
 senting the subject on a copper plate by means of a steel instru¬ 
 ment, called a graver or burnin, ending in an unequal-sided 
 pyramidal point. Besides the graver, the other instruments used 
 in the process are a scraper, a burnisher, an oil-stone and a cushion 
 for supporting the plate. In cutting the lines on the copper the 
 graver is pushed forward in the direction required, being held at a 
 small inclination to the plane of the copper. The use of the 
 burnisher is to soften down the lines that are cut too deeply and 
 
308 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 for burnishing out scratches in the copper; it is about 3 inches 
 long. The scraper, like the burnisher, is of steel, with three sharp 
 edges to it; it is about 6 inches long, tapering towards the end. 
 Its use is to scrape off the burr raised by the action of the graver. 
 To show the appearance of the work during its progress, and to 
 polish off the burr, engravers use a roll of woollen cloth or felt, 
 called a rubber, which is used with a little olive oil. The cushion, 
 which is a leather bag about 9 inches in diameter filled with sand, 
 for laying the plate upon, is now rarely used except by writing 
 engravers. For architectural subjects or for skies, where a series 
 of parallel lines is wanted, a ruling-machine is used, which is very 
 accurate. This is made to act on an etching ground by a point or 
 knife connected with the apparatus, the lines thus made being bit¬ 
 in with nitric acid in the ordinary way. 
 
 The copper plate must be perfectly polished, very level, and free 
 from any imperfection ; to this must be transferred an exact copy 
 of the outlines of the drawing. To do this the plate is uniformly 
 heated in an oven or otherwise till it is sufficiently hot to melt 
 white wax, a piece of which is then rubbed over it and allowed to 
 spread so as to form a thin coat over the whole surface, after which 
 it is left in a horizontal position till the wax and plate are cold. A 
 tracing of the original design having been taken with a black lead- 
 pencil on a piece of thin tracing paper, it is spread over the face 
 of the prepared plate, with the lead lines downwards, and being 
 secured from slipping, a strong pressure is applied, by which 
 operation the lead lines are nearly removed from the paper, being 
 transferred to the white wax on the plate. The pencil marks on 
 the wax are now traced with a fine steel point so as just to touch 
 the copper; the wax is then melted off, and a perfect outline will 
 be found on the copper, on which the engraver proceeds to execute 
 his work. 
 
 Engraving on Silver or Gold. —I. The engraving is first exposed 
 to the vapor of iodine, which deposits upon the black parts only. 
 The iodized engraving is then applied with slight pressure to a 
 polished plate of silver or silvered copper. The black parts of the 
 engraving, which have taken up the iodine, part with it to the 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCIIING. 309 
 
 silver which is converted into an iodide at those parts opposite to 
 the black parts of the design. The plate is then put in com¬ 
 munication with the negative pole of a small battery and immersed 
 in a saturated solution of sulphate of copper, connected with the 
 positive pole by means of a rod of platinum. Copper will be 
 deposited on the non-iodized parts corresponding to the white 
 parts of the engraving, of which a perfect representation will thus 
 be obtained; the copper representing the white parts and the 
 iodized silver the black parts. The plate must be allowed to re¬ 
 main in the bath for only a very short time, for if left too long, 
 the whole plate would become covered with copper. The plate, 
 after having received the deposit of copper, must be carefully 
 washed, and afterwards immersed in a solution of sodium hyposul¬ 
 phite to dissolve the iodide of silver, which represents the 
 black parts; it is then thoroughly washed in distilled water and 
 dried. 
 
 II. Heat a silver plate, previously coated with copper, to a 
 temperature sufficient to oxidize the surface on the copper, which 
 successively assumes different tints, the heating being interrupted 
 when a dark brown-color is obtained. It is then allowed to cool, 
 and the exposed silver is amalgamated, the plate being slightly 
 heated to facilitate the operation. As the mercury will not com¬ 
 bine with the oxide of copper, a design is produced of which the 
 amalgamated parts represent the black, and the parts of the plate 
 covered with oxide of copper the white ones. The amalgamation 
 being complete, the plate is to be covered with three or four thick¬ 
 nesses of gold-leaf, and the mercury is evaporated by heat, the 
 gold adhering only to the black parts. The superfluous gold must 
 then be cleaned off with the scratch-brush ; after which the oxide 
 of copper is dissolved by a solution of nitrate of silver, and the silver 
 and copper underneath are attacked with dilute nitric acid. Those 
 parts of the design which are protected by the gold, not being 
 attacked by the acid, correspond to the black parts of the plate; 
 the other parts corresponding to the white parts of the engraving 
 may be sunk to any required depth. When this operation is com- 
 
310 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 pieted the plate is finished and may be printed from in the ordi¬ 
 nary method of printing from wood-cuts. 
 
 To Engrave Aluminium. —One of the many interesting pecu¬ 
 liarities of aluminium is its resistance to the direct action of the 
 graver; the tool slips off like from a hard surface of glass. How¬ 
 ever, by using a varnish of 4 parts of oil of turpentine and 1 of stearin, 
 mixed with 1 of rum, the graver penetrates the aluminium like 
 pure copper. 
 
 Soft Wax for Engravers. —Melt together tallow, 1 part, and yel¬ 
 low wax, 2 parts ; or, olive oil, 1 part, and yellow wax, 5 parts ; 
 or, turpentine, 1 part, and yellow wax, 4 parts; or, yellow wax, 
 5 parts, and Venetian turpentine, 3 parts. 
 
 Wax-mass for Copper Engravers. —As an excellent coating for 
 copper plates which are to be engraved, the following mixtures can 
 be especially recommended : For work in winter : Yellow wax, 
 40 parts; mastic, 30; asphalt, 15. For work in summer Yellow 
 wax, 120 parts; mastic, 30; asphalt, 60; amber, 30. Melt the 
 asphalt and the wax, each by itself, and, after allowing the mastic 
 to dissolve in the wax, mix both substances together with constant 
 stirring. For use the mass as well as the copper plate must be 
 heated, the latter for the purpose of making the ground adhere more 
 firmly. 
 
 Etching-ground. —I. White wax, 1 part; mastic, 1 part; asphalt, 
 *4 part. Pulverize the mastic and asphalt, each by itself, melt the 
 wax in an earthen pot over a fire, and when very hot add, with 
 constant stirring, first the mastic powder and then the asphalt pow¬ 
 der. Continue the stirring until the asphalt is completely melted, 
 then remove the pot from the fire, allow the mixture to cool, and 
 pour it into clean warm water. While in the water knead the mix¬ 
 ture with the hand, and finally form it into small cylinders or balls, 
 which are kept for use wrapped in taffeta. 
 
 II. Mastic, 2 parts; asphalt, 1. 
 
 III. White wax, 3 parts; asphalt, 4; black pitch, 1 ; colophony, 1. 
 First melt the wax and pitch, next add the colophony and 
 asphalt, and then boil until a sample after cooling readily breaks 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 311 
 
 on bending. In melting, a carbonizing heat should be strictly 
 avoided. 
 
 Callot's Etching-ground consists of pure linseed-oil varnish, which 
 is heated in an earthen pot, and mixed with an equal weight of 
 powdered mastic, the mass being constantly stirred. When inti¬ 
 mately melted together the mixture is filtered through fine linen 
 into a bottle. For use the mixture is applied to the heated plate 
 by means of a brush, and after smoothing the coat with a tuft of 
 cotton it is dried by being held over the heated plate, until the 
 varnish ceases to smoke. 
 
 Etching on Copper .—For coating the plates ordinary etching- 
 ground is used, while pure nitric acid with y$ water, poured j4 
 centimetre deep upon the plates, serves as corroding solution. 
 Callot and Piranesi's corroding solution acts, however, with greater 
 uniformity. It is prepared from wine vinegar, 8 parts; verdigris, 
 4; common salt, 4; alum, 1 ; and water, 16. A corroding solu¬ 
 tion which can be highly recommended is prepared as follows : 
 Dilute 10 parts of fuming nitric acid with 70 of water, and add a 
 boiling solution of 2 parts of potassium chlorate in 20 of water. 
 For etching slighter portions, the solution may be further diluted 
 with 100 or 200 parts of water. Deeper places are produced by 
 allowing the corroding solution to act for a longer time, or by the 
 addition of fluid of greater strength. 
 
 Etching on Brass and Silver is executed in the same manner as 
 on copper. 
 
 Etching on Steel .—Fine lines are produced in 1 to 2 minutes, 
 and the strongest lines in 15 minutes, by a corroding solution 
 composed of 4 parts of pyroligneous or ordinary acetic acid, to 
 which is subsequently added 1 part of rectified alcohol. A mix¬ 
 ture of 3 ozs. of warm water, 4 grains of tartaric acid, and 4 drops 
 of nitric or sulphuric acid may be used for very soft steel. Many 
 metallic solutions diluted with the necessary amount of water may 
 also serve as corroding solution, they having the advantage of no 
 bubbles being formed. Among others may be mentioned the solu¬ 
 tions of stannates, bismuth nitrate and cupric nitrate, though with 
 the use of the latter the precipitating copper exerts an injurious 
 
312 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S nANDY-BOOK. 
 
 influence. For fine lines Humphry's mixture is used ; it is prepared 
 by dissolving y£ oz. each of corrosive sublimate and alum in i 
 quart of hot water. After cooling the solution is applied with a 
 fine brush. The fine lines are produced in about 3 minutes. The 
 corroding solution having acted sufficiently it is poured off and the 
 plate washed with alcohol diluted with 4 parts of water. To pre¬ 
 vent any further action of remaining traces of corroding solution, 
 the lines are filled, by means of a brush, with oil of turpentine 
 containing some asphalt in solution, and the plate is protected from 
 rust by a coat of caoutchouc varnish or of mutton-suet. 
 
 Etching Names on Steel and Glass .—With equal quantities of 
 cupric sulphate (blue vitriol), sodium chloride (common salt), well 
 powdered and mixed together, names or other marks can be etched 
 on steel surfaces. The wax process must be used, although soap 
 will answer, or any other substance not acted upon by acids. 
 Spread the beeswax or soap in a thin, even coating over the article 
 to be etched, and with a sharp-pointed awl write or draw the 
 design upon the wax-covered surface. Every line must be cut 
 cleanly, and every particle of the coating removed, otherwise a 
 break will appear in the etched line. When the drawing has been 
 made satisfactory, put a “tinker’s dam” around the wax-covered 
 spot; this is done by rolling out a piece of putty into a long, thin 
 roll, bending it around the wax-covered spot and pressing it lightly 
 down, thus making a little reservoir to hold the acid or other cor¬ 
 roding substance. Mix up the salt and sulphate of copper, fill 
 inside the dam, and moisten with water to hasten their action. 
 When satisfied that the etching is deep enough, or tired of waiting 
 for it to work, wash off the corroding mixture and scrape off the 
 wax, or dissolve it away with turpentine, alcohol, or naphtha. If 
 the etching is not deep enough, an ink roller, such as is used on 
 printing presses, may be passed over the surface and a coating of 
 ink put on. This will prevent any acid action upon the surface 
 thus protected, and the corroding solution may be reapplied until 
 the etching is sufficiently deep. If successive etchings are neces¬ 
 sary, the plate should be rinsed and warmed after each removal of 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 313 
 
 the corroding solution, and more ink applied before another lot 
 of fresh corroder is put to work. 
 
 In regular work, where large numbers of zinc etchings are made, 
 dragon’s blood is used to protect the surface instead of printer’s 
 ink, but for occasional work ink is good enough. Nitric and sul¬ 
 phuric acids may be used for etching, and the effect of the compo¬ 
 sition described above depends upon the chlorine and sulphuric 
 acid set free by the combination of the two salts. 
 
 Etching on glass may be done as easily as etching upon steel or 
 other metals. To do this exactly the same preparations are made, 
 then a mixture of sulphuric acid and a powdered fluorspar is spread 
 upon the surface to be etched. Another and cleaner way, although 
 it takes longer, is to put the acid and powdered spar in a shallow 
 lead dish and invert over it the article to be etched. The subject 
 thus serving as a cover to the acid dish, it is exposed to the fumes 
 which arise and which are almost as corrosive as the mixture itself. 
 Etching is always unsatisfactory unless the wax is evenly spread, 
 cleanly cut out, and everything very neatly done. 
 
 Etching on Zinc .—Dissolve 2 parts of crystallized cupric sul¬ 
 phate (blue vitriol) and 3 of cupric chloride in 64 of distilled 
 water and add to the solution 8 parts of hydrochloric acid of 1.1 
 specific gravity. This fluid has a slightly bluish color and sheet- 
 zinc previously scoured bright with dilute hydrochloric acid and 
 sand instantly acquires, on being dipped into it, a very deep velvety 
 black color. By instantly withdrawing the sheet-zinc thus treated 
 from the fluid and immediately rinsing it off in abundance of clean 
 water and then drying, the black coating adheres very firmly, so 
 that it is probable that this mode of etching may answer in many 
 cases as a sort of paint, especially for zinc intended for roofing. 
 For etching zinc in relief it is only necessary to draw the lines, let¬ 
 ters, etc., upon the zinc with the above-described fluid and, after 
 drying, place the zinc for 1 to 3 hours, according to requirement, 
 in dilute nitric acid (1 part acid to 8 water). By this means the 
 zinc is eaten away while the lines, letters, etc., remain in relief. 
 
 Etching Solution for Brass .—Prepare a mixture of 8 parts of 
 nitric acid of specific gravity 1.40 and 80 parts of water; further- 
 
314 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-ROOK. 
 
 more dissolve 3 parts of potassium chlorate in 50 of water. The 
 two fluids are mixed and used for etching. Ordinary etching 
 ground is used for covering. 
 
 Glyphogene or Etching Fluid for Steel .—This etching fluid con¬ 
 sists of the preparatory corroding solution, the rinsing water and 
 the actual corroding solution. The preparatory corroding solution 
 consists of water, 95 parts; chemically pure nitric acid, 5 parts, 
 and some spirits of wine, and is allowed to act for a few minutes 
 only. The articles treated with the preparatory corroding 
 solution are then rinsed off with the rinsing water, consisting of 
 distilled water containing 1/3 of its volume of spirits of wine, and 
 quickly dried. The actual corroding solution is composed of dis¬ 
 tilled water, 30 parts; spirits of wine, 15; chemically pure nitric 
 acid, 6, and crystallized nitrate of silver, y j. A layer 0.59 inch 
 deep is poured upon the plate. 
 
 Etching without Etching-ground .—A method of employing the 
 galvanic precipitation of metals for the production of ornamenta¬ 
 tion either sunk or in relief is given by Millvard and executed as 
 follows : In order to produce sunk figures or drawings the latter are 
 first laid or printed upon the metallic surface. A very thin layer 
 of gold, silver or copper is then galvanically precipitated in the 
 ordinary manner. The precipitated metal deposits itself upon all 
 parts of the surface except those covered by the drawing. The 
 surface of the metal is now cleansed from the material with which 
 the drawing has been executed and is then connected with the 
 negative pole of a galvanic battery, whereby a solution is used 
 which acts only upon the metal of the original plate, so that all the 
 places previously covered by the ground are dissolved or sunk. In¬ 
 stead of using a galvanic battery the metallic surface may be simply 
 dipped into a solution of an acid which only attacks the bare places 
 of the surface, but not the metal deposited upon it. The sunk 
 drawing may on various places be provided with relief lines cross¬ 
 ing each other, so that it acquires the appearance of cross-hatching. 
 This is effected by drawing such lines with a brush dipped in var¬ 
 nish before the plate, after being cleansed from the protecting 
 cover, is acted upon by the galvanic battery or the above-mentioned 
 
DECORATING, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ETCHING. 315 
 
 chemical agents. Another method of producing sunk drawings is 
 as follows: The entire surface is first covered with a metallic layer 
 in the above-described manner. The whole is then coated with a 
 varnish and after executing the drawing in the varnish the surface 
 is exposed to the action of the negative pole of a galvanic battery 
 or dipped into a suitable solution of an acid salt, whereby the 1 
 metal, exposed by cutting through the varnish, is dissolved and re¬ 
 moved, thus producing a sunk drawing. 
 
 Figures in Relief are Produced as follows: A coating of any 
 kind of metal is first deposited in the above-mentioned manner 
 upon the surface to be ornamented. The figure desired in relief is 
 then drawn or printed upon the deposited metal. The plate is then 
 connected with the negative pole of a galvanic battery or dipped 
 into a solution of an acid salt, whereby all the bare portions of the 
 deposited metal are dissolved and removed, while the lines of the 
 intended figure remain standing out in relief. According to another 
 method the entire surface is coated with varnish and the drawing 
 scratched into the latter. The places thus bared from varnish 
 receive a galvanoplastic coating of any kind of metal, after which 
 all the remaining varnish is removed from the plate. The latter is 
 then exposed to the action of the negative pole of a galvanic bat¬ 
 tery or treated with a fluid which attacks the metal of the original 
 surface, but not the deposited metal. 
 
 For copper printing plates it is especially recommended to cut 
 with a fine, hard needle or a diamond through the layer of gold on 
 the places which are to be etched and then to etch with ferric 
 chloride. The lines may be considerably finer as when the plate is 
 covered with an etching ground, since the layer of gold can be cut 
 through very sharp and does not peal off. By giving the copper 
 plate a thin coat of iron and scratching in the drawing, the latter 
 can be etched with argentammonium sulphate without attacking 
 the iron coating. According to Prof. Husnik, a solution of cor¬ 
 rosive sublimate is compounded with a concentrated solution of 
 ammonium nitrate and sufficient caustic ammonia added to re¬ 
 dissolve the precipitate at first formed. This corroding substance 
 also exerts no etching effect upon iron. Copper and brass plates 
 
316 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S ITANDY-BOOK. 
 
 treated in this manner show clear drawings of the amalgam which 
 has been formed. By dissolving the iron and treating the plates 
 with a suitable coloring matter, dark drawings upon a yellow or 
 copper-colored ground are obtained. By applying to etched copper 
 plates, before dissolving the iron coating, silver or gold amalgam, 
 drawings in gold or silver are obtained by the subsequent removal 
 of the iron coating and heating the plate in the open air so that the 
 mercury oxidizes. 
 
 Metallography (Method for Producing Drawings of all Kinds in 
 Relief upon Metal ) According to Zach. —The surface of a zinc or 
 steel plate is finally ground and polished, then covered with a 
 ground consisting of white wax, 2 parts; mastic, 2; asphalt, 1; 
 and colophony, ]/ 2 , and smoked with a wax-torch until it has a 
 lustre. Upon this ground the drawing is then executed with a 
 graver. The plate is then surrounded with a rim of wax and 
 etched 15 to 20 minutes with dilute nitric acid. It is then washed 
 with water, and, after covering the fine lines, if necessary, with 
 asphalt dissolved in oil of turpentine, etching is continued for 15 
 to 20 minutes more. The ground is then dissolved with oil of 
 turpentine and the plate cleansed. In this manner a sunk drawing 
 is obtained, which, however, must have such a depth that the cast¬ 
 ings to be made from it afterwards appear sufficiently in relief to 
 allow of their being printed from, in a printing-press. To obtain 
 from this matrix a patrice, i. <?., a drawing in relief suitable for 
 printing, a readily fusible metal consisting of bismuth, 7 parts ; 
 lead, 4 ; and tin, 4, is melted. The plate with the deeply etched 
 drawing is placed in a heated mould and the alloy poured over 
 it vertically. The drawing lies afterwards in relief upon the cast¬ 
 ing without injury having been done to the original. 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 317 
 
 XI. 
 
 ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, GALVAN¬ 
 IZING, GILDING, NICKELLING, SILVERING, TIN¬ 
 NING, ETC. 
 
 [For Electro-plating, etc., of Wire, see that head.] 
 
 In all branches of the electro-deposition of one metal upon another 
 several preliminary conditions have to be complied with in order 
 that the deposition may take place uniformly and adhere firmly. 
 The articles must be absolutely free from grease, and, furthermore, 
 their surfaces must be purely metallic. This is effected by 
 mechanical treatment in conjunction with chemical cleaning. 
 The mechanical treatment varies according to the condition 
 of the surfaces of the articles and the demands made on the 
 galvanic deposition. Rough castings to be galvanically coated 
 must first be thoroughly scratch-brushed with pumice-stone, except 
 where, as in the case of copper and its alloys, dipping is substituted 
 for this process. When the rough surface of a casting is coated 
 with another metal the deposition shows the same roughness as the 
 base; hence the articles must be ground or polished in order to 
 obtain depositions with lustrous surfaces. Grinding is almost 
 exclusively effected upon wooden disks covered with leather; 
 emery of various degrees of fineness is glued upon the leather, and, 
 during the grinding, a mixture of emery and tallow or oil is from 
 time to time applied to the articles. When grinding is finished the 
 articles are brushed upon circular brush-disks of bristles or fibres to 
 remove the last fine scratches ; the direction of brushing is at a right- 
 angle to the direction of the last grinding, and the brushes are also 
 fed with a mixture of tallow and emery. Only articles of iron and 
 steel are, as a rule, ground, while the softer metals, copper, zinc, 
 etc., are simply brushed and then polished. Polishing is effected 
 by holding the articles against rapidly revolving disks of cloth or 
 felt, which are secured to the shaft of the polishing machine. 
 According to the fineness of the polishing desired, the polishing 
 
318 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 disks are fed with various polishing agents, a mixture of Vienna 
 lime and colcothar being mostly used. Grinding disks should 
 make from 1,200 to 1,600 revolutions per minute, and polishing 
 disks from 2,000 to 2,400 revolutions. 
 
 The depositions are polished upon similar disks of felt or cloth; 
 silver and gold depositions, however, are burnished with the bur¬ 
 nisher and burnishing-stone. 
 
 Many depositions have to be scratch-brushed during the galvanic 
 operation in order to get them dense and thick. This is done 
 with fine brass-wire brushes, but for white and hard metal fine steel- 
 wire brushes are used. Scratch-brushing is never done dry, water, 
 decoction of soap-root, beer yeast, etc., being used in connection 
 with it. 
 
 The chemical cleaning consists in the removal of grease and dirt 
 and of non-metallic layers upon the surface (scales, rust, etc/). 
 
 Freeing from Grease is effected by boiling the articles in caustic 
 lyes (soda or potash lye), which should be followed by brushing or 
 rubbing with pulverized freshly-burnt lime free from sand. Articles 
 which will not stand heating are freed from grease with benzine. 
 
 Dipping .—The choice of the fluids for the removal of non-metal¬ 
 lic layers depends on the nature of the metals to be dipped. Iron 
 and steel are generally dipped in dilute sulphuric acid, 1 part by 
 weight of sulphuric acid of 66° Be. to 15 to 20 water; hydro¬ 
 chloric acid may be substituted for the sulphuric acid. 
 
 Copper, brass, tombac and bronze are made bright by dipping 
 in compound acids. The operation is as follows: The articles are 
 first dipped in dilute sulphuric acid to remove tarnish, and then in 
 a mixture of 100 parts by weight of nitric acid of 36° Be., 50 of 
 sulphuric acid of 66° Be., x of soot and 1 of common salt. As 
 soon as the articles show a bright appearance they are quickly 
 rinsed in a large quantity of water which must be frequently 
 changed. 
 
 When copper alloys are not to be further worked after dipping, 
 it is generally desirable that they come from the pickle with a cer¬ 
 tain lustre. To attain this the dipping is executed in two opera¬ 
 tions, the articles being first made bright in a preliminary pickle 
 
ELECTROPLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 319 
 
 and then dipped into another pickle to give them lustre. The pre¬ 
 liminary pickle consists of nitric acid of 36° Be., 200 parts by 
 weight; common salt, 1 ; soot, x. 
 
 The pickle for bright lustre is composed of nitric acid of 40° 
 Be., 75 parts by weight; sulphuric acid of 66° Be., 100, and com¬ 
 mon salt, 1. The articles having been made bright in the pre¬ 
 liminary pickle, are rinsed off in a large quantity of water, then drawn 
 through hot water so that they dry quickly, and, when dry, dipped 
 into the pickle for a bright lustre ; drying is absolutely necessary, 
 the lustre obtained being the more beautiful the freer the pickle is 
 from water. 
 
 For a dead lustre the brass is dipped in a mixture of 3 parts of 
 nitric acid containing 1 part of zinc in solution, with 8 parts of 
 pure strong nitric acid and 8 parts of boiling sulphuric acid. The 
 strong effervescence which first takes place soon ceases and the 
 brass when taken out presents a dead brown or gray appearance. 
 It acquires lustre by being drawn through strong nitric acid. 
 The following mixture is also recommended : Nitric acid of 36° 
 Be., 200 parts; sulphuric acid, 100 ; common salt, x ; sulphate of 
 zinc, 1 to 5. This mixture is used cold. 
 
 The following mixture is suitable for the production of a dull- 
 trained surface upon brass: Mix 1 volume of saturated solution of 
 bichromate of potash and 2 of the strongest hydrochloric acid ; 
 place the articles in this mixture for a few hours, then drain them 
 through the above-mentioned pickle for bright lustre, and finally 
 rinse them in much water. 
 
 German Silver is first dipped in a mixture of nitric acid, 1 part, 
 and water, 10 parts, and then in a mixture of nitric acid and sul¬ 
 phuric acid each x part. 
 
 Silver is dipped in dilute sulphuric acid, zinc also in dilute sul¬ 
 phuric acid or in hydrochloric acid, and tin in hydrochloric acid. 
 
 In dipping with acids injurious fumes are produced, so that it is 
 prudent to operate in the open air or under a good chimney-hood 
 with a movable glass sash. 
 
 Articles which are soldered with soft solder, or contain iron, be- 
 
320 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 come black in nitric acid, and hence such places must be made 
 bright again with the scratch-brush. 
 
 The articles having been dipped and freed from grease are ex¬ 
 amined as to whether they are entirely free from grease by im¬ 
 mersing them in water; when entirely free from grease they 
 become uniformly wet. If, however, lines and spots appear, the 
 articles are not thoroughly clean and must be again boiled in 
 caustic lye, or, still better, brushed with a mixture of 2 parts whit¬ 
 ing and 1 part freshly-slaked lime stirred with water to a thick 
 paste. A scarcely perceptible tarnish (a layer of oxide) being 
 readily formed upon articles freed from grease by dipiping, it is 
 recommended to draw them, shortly before suspending them in the 
 baths, through a solution which dissolves the tarnish. For iron 
 such solution consists of dilute sulphuric acid (1 acid to 25 water), 
 and for copper, brass, tombac, bronze and German silver of a 
 solution of cyanide of potassium (1 part of 60 per cent, cyanide 
 of potassium to 20 of water). The articles are then thoroughly 
 rinsed and without delay brought into the bath. 
 
 The water used for the preparation of the galvanic baths should 
 be as pure as possible, distilled or filtered rain-water being best for 
 the purpose. Care should be taken to use pure chemicals, as the 
 bad results from baths composed of unsuitable materials are fre¬ 
 quently due to impure chemicals. Moreover, the baths must not 
 be too poor in metal nor too concentrated ; in the first case the 
 depositions form too slowly and in the latter the salts separate 
 in crystals enveloping the anodes and interrupting thereby the con¬ 
 duction of the current, while by the separation of small crystals 
 upon the articles holes may readily be formed in the deposition. 
 The temperature of baths which work cold should not be below 
 59 0 F., a temperature of 64.5° to 68° F. being best. Dust must 
 be kept away from the baths as much as possible, as by depositing 
 upon’the articles it might disturb the coherence of the deposition ; 
 should a layer of dust be observed upon the baths they must be 
 filtered or the dust removed by drawing a broad strip of blotting- 
 paper over the surface. 
 
 There are two kinds of batteries used for electro-deposition: 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 321 
 
 those which act under the action of physical agents, but these, on 
 account of their feeble intensity, are rarely used; others act under 
 the influence of chemical reactions, of decompositions and recom¬ 
 positions, or of greater or less affinities. The varieties of these 
 instruments are, at the present time, very numerous. But the best 
 battery is that which, under the smallest volume, is the most ener¬ 
 getic, constant, regular and economical. 
 
 When dynamo-electric machines are not used, Bunsen’s battery 
 is the most suitable for the execution of galvanic depositions. 
 Each element is composed of a glass vessel which is half filled 
 with nitric acid at 36° or 40° Be, and which receives a hollow 
 cylinder of pulverized coke, moulded and cemented at a high 
 temperature by sugar, gum or tar. At the upper part of this 
 cylinder, where it does not dip into the acid, a copper collar is 
 fixed, which may be tightened at will by means of a screw. A 
 copper band or ribbon is fixed to the collar, and may be con¬ 
 nected with the zinc of another element. A porous porcelain cell 
 is placed inside the coke cylinder, and contains a dilute solution 
 of sulphuric acid (1 part acid and 9 parts water), into which is put 
 a bar or cylinder of zinc strongly amalgamated or covered with mer¬ 
 cury. When a battery of several elements is to be formed the coke 
 of the first element is connected with the zinc of the second, and 
 so on, and the apparatus is completed at one end by coke com¬ 
 municating with the anode, and at the other by a zinc connected 
 with the cathode or object to be electroplated. 
 
 A modification of Bunsen’s battery, which is preferred by gold 
 and silver electroplaters, is as follows: Each element is composed 
 of an exterior vessel or pot, most generally of stoneware; a 
 cylinder of zinc, covered with mercury, provided with a binding 
 screw or w'ith a copper band, whether for a single element or for 
 the end of a combination of elements in a battery, or to connect 
 the zinc with the carbon of another element; a porous cell of 
 earthenware pipe or porcelain ; a cylinder of graphite, made from 
 the residue found in old gas retorts. The graphite is bound by a 
 copper band fixed to it by means of a wire of the same metal, all 
 the binding being afterwards covered with a thick varnish to pro- 
 21 
 
322 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 tect it from the acid fumes of the battery ; notwithstanding the 
 varnish the acid may rise by capillary attraction and corrode the 
 copper band between the carbon and the wire ; therefore, binding 
 screws of various shapes and sizes should be used to connect the 
 carbon or zinc by means of ribbons or wires. Use conducting 
 wires of pure copper covered with cotton, silk, india rubber or 
 gutta-percha, and presenting the metal at their extremities in order 
 to effect the connections. Figs. 22, 23 and 24 show the three 
 forms of Bunsen’s elements mostly used. 
 
 Other batteries used are Daniell’s, Grove’s, Grenet’s, Srnee’s, 
 Meidinger’s, etc., but for a description of these and of dynamo- 
 electric machines the reader is referred to works on this subject. 
 
 Batteries must be kept in a place where the temperature does not 
 greatly vary. A frost arrests their action, and great heat increases 
 it too much. A good place for them is a box, and they are put at 
 such a height that they may be easily manipulated. This box 
 should have means of ventilation in such away that the air coming 
 in at the lower part will escape at the top through a flue and carry 
 away with it the acid fumes constantly disengaged. It is best to 
 keep the batteries in a room different from that where the baths 
 and metals are to be operated upon, as these are easily injured by 
 acid vapors. The galvanic current may be conducted into the 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 323 
 
 work-room by wires passing through holes in the wall and covered 
 with gutta-percha. 
 
 Terms Used in Electrolytic Deposition of Metals. —i. The terms 
 “cathode ” and “ anode ” are synonymous with the positive and 
 negative poles of an electric or galvanic battery. 
 
 2. To measure the volume of electricity passed between these 
 points, the term “ amperes ” is used as the unit, like feet or cubic 
 feet, for measuring in the usual mechanical sense. 
 
 3. For expressing the force with which the volume of electricity 
 is propelled, the term “ volt ” is used as the unit. 
 
 4. The resistance opposed to the electricity is measured by 
 “ ohms.” 
 
 5. The work done in the electrical circuit is expressed by 
 “ watts,” in the same way that in a steam-engine the power devel¬ 
 oped is expressed by h. p. To put this shortly: 
 
 1 ampere x 1 volt = 1 watt. 
 
 1 watt x 746 = E. II. P. 
 
 These are the electrical terms employed by common consent in 
 all European languages in connection with this science. 
 
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Equivalents. 
 
 
 Specific 
 
 gravity. 
 
 Chemical 
 
 equivalent. 
 
 Electro-chemical 
 
 equivalent, 
 
 milligrammes. 
 
 Precipitate by 1 
 ampere in 1 hour, 
 in grammes. 
 
 Hydrogen.. .. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 0.01036 
 
 00375 
 
 Aluminium . . 
 
 2.6 
 
 13-7 
 
 0.14250 
 
 °- 5 I 37 
 
 Antimony . . . 
 
 6.8 
 
 122 
 
 1.26880 
 
 4-5750 
 
 Arsenic. 
 
 5-7 
 
 7-5 
 
 0.78000 
 
 2.8125 
 
 Cobalt. 
 
 8-7 
 
 29-5 
 
 0.30680 
 
 1.1062 
 
 Copper. 
 
 8.8 
 
 31.8 
 
 0.33070 
 
 1.1925 
 
 Iron. 
 
 7-5 
 
 28 
 
 0.29120 
 
 1.0500 
 
 Gold. 
 
 19.2 
 
 98-3 
 
 1.02230 
 
 3.6862 
 
 Lead. 
 
 11 3 
 
 1035 
 
 1.07640 
 
 3.8812 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 8.6 
 
 29.5 
 
 0.30680 
 
 1.1062 
 
 Platinum .... 
 
 21.2 
 
 98.6 
 
 1.02540 
 
 3-^975 
 
 Silver . 
 
 10.5 
 
 108 
 
 1.12320 
 
 4.0500 
 
 Tin. 
 
 7-3 
 
 327 
 
 O.34OIO 
 
 1.2262 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 7.2 
 
 59 
 
 0.61360 
 
 2.2125 
 
324 
 
 TI1E METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 With the assistance of this table it can be calculated how long a 
 measured surface has to remain in the bath in order to acquire a 
 deposit of determined weight with the most suitable density of 
 current. Suppose the time is to be determined which a square 
 decimeter of surface has to remain in a nickel bath in order to 
 acquire a deposit millimetre thick with a density of current of 
 0.5 ampere. First calculate the weight of the precipitate by 
 multiplying the surface in square millimetres with the thickness 
 and specific gravity. One square decimetre is equal to 10,000 
 square millimetres, which, multiplied by millimetre, gives as 
 a product 1,000, which multiplied by the specific gravity of nickel, 
 8.6, gives 8,600 milligrammes — 8.6 grammes. Hence a deposit 
 y'ij milligramme thick upon a surface of 1 square decimetre repre¬ 
 sents the weight of 8.6 grammes. Since for the regular deposit 
 per square decimetre, a density of current of 0.5 ampere is required, 
 and 1 ampere precipitates, according to the above table, 1.1062 
 gramme in 1 hour, *4 ampere precipitates 0.5531 gramme of 
 nickel in 1 hour, and, therefore, about 16 hours will be required to 
 precipitate 8.6 grammes. 
 
 According to this example the time, for instance, can also be cal¬ 
 culated, which one, two or more dozens of knives and forks or spoons 
 which are to have a deposit of silver of a determined weight, must 
 remain in the bath, when the density of current is known. Sup¬ 
 pose 50 grammes of silver are to be deposited upon 1 dozen of 
 spoons and the most suitable density of current is 0.2 ampere per 
 square decimetre; if the surface of 1 spoon represents 1.10 square 
 decimetre, the surface of 1 dozen spoons of equal size is 13.2 
 square decimetres. Hence, they require 13.2 X 0.2 amperes = 2.64 
 amperes; now, since 1 ampere precipitates in 1 hour 4.05 grammes 
 of silver, 2.64 amperes precipitate in the same time 10.7 grammes 
 of silver, and with this current the dozen spoons must remain about 
 hours in the bath to deposit 50 grammes of silver upon this 
 surface. 
 
 Preparation of Zinc for Batteries .—Melt the zinc and then add 
 tin and mercury; next pour the melted mass ip moulds and heat 
 until a portion of the mercury appears upon the surface. The 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 325 
 
 pieces while still hot are finally subjected to the action of a weak 
 acid solution. 
 
 Aluminium Bath .—Aluminium is one of the most difficult and 
 uncertain of metals to deposit electrolytically. The following 
 receipt is given by Mr. Herman Reinbold, who states that it 
 furnishes excellent results : 50 parts by weight of alum are dis¬ 
 solved in 300 of water, and to this are added 10 parts of aluminium 
 chloride. The solution is heated to 200° F., and when cold 39 
 parts of cyanide of potassium are added. A feeble current should 
 be used. 
 
 Antimony Baths .—Galvanic depositions of antimony are but 
 seldom made use of in the industries, though they are very suitable 
 for the production of contrasts in decorating. Gore discovered 
 the explosive power of depositions of solutions of antimony chloride 
 or of antimony containing hydrochloric acid. According to 
 Gore a bath consisting of tartar emetic 3 ozs., tartaric acid 3 ozs., 
 hydrochloric acid 4*^ ozs. and water 1 quart, yields a gray, crys¬ 
 talline deposition of antimony. This bath requires a current of 
 about 3 volts. The deposition possesses the property of exploding 
 when scratched with a hard object. 
 
 A lustrous non-explosive deposition of antimony is obtained by 
 boiling 4.4 ozs. of carbonate of potash, 2.11 ozs. of pulverized 
 antimony sulphide and 1 quart of water, for one hour, replacing 
 the water lost by evaporation and filtering. Use the bath boiling 
 hot, employing a piece of antimony as anode. The separated 
 antimony has the color of polished cast-iron, and takes a high 
 polish. 
 
 Arsenic Baths .—Depositions of arsenic are frequently used for 
 decorative purposes, for instance, to color gray the dead back¬ 
 ground of brassed lamp-legs, cans, etc., while the prominent por¬ 
 tions are bright brass. A good arsenic bath is as follows : Prepare 
 by boiling for half an hour and filtering a solution of sodium 
 arsenate 1^ ozs., potassium cyanide 0.88 oz., and water 1 quart. 
 A good deposition of arsenic is obtained with a strong current and 
 having the bath at a temperature of 176° F. Use a platinum-sheet 
 or a carbon plate from natural gas-coal as anode. 
 
326 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S TIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Another Bath is composed as follows : Pulverized arsenious acid, 
 x. 75 ozs. ; crystallized sodium pyrophosphate, 0.7 oz. ; 98 per cent, 
 potassium cyanide, 1.75 ozs. ; water, 1 quart. Dissolve the sodium 
 pyrophosphate and the potassium cyanide in the cold water, then 
 add, with constant stirring, the arsenious acid, and heat until the 
 latter is dissolved. The bath is used warm and requires a strong 
 current of at least 4 volts. A platinum-sheet or carbon-plate is 
 used as anode. Large baths, which are preferably used cold, 
 must be more concentrated and require a stronger current than the 
 hot baths. 
 
 Brass Baths. —A good brass bath is composed as follows : Car¬ 
 bonate of soda, 10342 ozs.; bisulphate of soda, 7 ozs. ; neutral acetate 
 of copper, 43^ ozs. ; chloride of zinc, 43^ ozs. ; 98 per cent, po¬ 
 tassium cyanide, 14 ozs.; arsenious acid, 30^ grains; water,. 10 
 quarts. Dissolve the carbonate of soda in 5 quarts of the water, 
 and then add gradually the bisulphate of carbon. Now stir to¬ 
 gether the acetate of copper and chloride of zinc with 2 quarts of 
 the water, and slowly, and with constant stirring, pour the mixture 
 into the solution of the soda salts. Next add the solution of the 
 potassium cyanide in 3 quarts of the water, then the arsenious 
 acid, and boil the whole for a few hours, replacing the water lost 
 by evaporation. The solution when cold is filtered. 
 
 Brass-bath from Cupric Sulphate and Zinc Sulphate. —Dissolve 
 ozs. each of cupric and zinc sulphate in 5 quarts of warm 
 water, and mix the solution with one of 15^ ozs. of carbonate of 
 soda in 5 quarts of water. Allow the precipitate of carbonate of 
 copper and carbonate of zinc, which is formed, to settle for 12 
 hours, and then pour off the supernatant fluid. Now add to the 
 precipitate enough water to bring the volume up to 8 quarts; dis¬ 
 solve in it 1034 ozs. of carbonate of soda and 7 ozs. of bisulphate 
 of soda, and finally add a solution of ozs. of 98 per cent, 
 potassium cyanide in 2 quarts of cold water, which renders the fluid 
 clear. Before boiling, add 30^ grains of arsenious acid. 
 
 Brass-bath for Zinc. —Dissolve 93^ ozs. of crystallized bisul¬ 
 phate of soda and 14 ozs. of 70 per cent, potassium cyanide in 8 
 quarts of water, and add to this solution one of 43^ ozs. each of 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 327 
 
 neutral acetate of copper and crystallized chloride of zinc, 5^ ozs. 
 of aqua ammonia, and 2 quarts of water. 
 
 Brass-bath for Cast-iron, Wrought-iron and Steel. — Dissolve 
 35 % ozs. of crystallized carbonate of soda, 7 ozs. of crystallized 
 bisulphate of soda, 13^ ozs. of 98 per cent, potassium cyanide in 
 8 quarts of water; then add, with constant stirring, a solution of 
 melted chloride of zinc 3^ ozs., neutral acetate of copper 4 % ozs., 
 in 2 quarts of water; boil and filter. 
 
 Solution for Transferring any Copper-zinc Alloy serving as Anode. 
 —Bisulphate of soda, 14^ ozs. ; crystallized sal-ammoniac, 9)4 
 ozs. ; 98 per cent, potassium cyanide, 2^ ozs. ; water, 10 quarts. 
 
 The color of the brass deposits depends on the proportional 
 quantity in which copper and zinc are present. A strong current 
 precipitates more zinc, and a weaker one more copper; the deposit 
 being more greenish in the first case, and more reddish in the lat¬ 
 ter. Hence the necessity arises of regulating the current so that 
 both metals are precipitated in a proportion required for the de¬ 
 sired color of the deposit. Formerly the color was obtained by 
 suspending copper and zinc anodes in the bath, and allowing the 
 copper anodes to dip in deeper than the zinc anodes for the pro¬ 
 duction of reddish brass, and the reverse for greenish brass. But 
 at the present time the different colors are produced in one bath 
 with brass anodes, by diminishing or increasing the strength of 
 the current by the current-regulator, which renders the entire pro¬ 
 cess more simple and more assured. 
 
 Annealed sheets of brass, with as large a surface as possible, are 
 used as anodes. To increase the metallic content of the bath it is 
 best to use a solution of cyanide of copper and cyanide of zinc in 
 potassium cyanide, adding at the same time some neutral bisulphate 
 of soda, while a thinly fluid paste of cyanide of copper and cyanide 
 of zinc is employed for the removal of an excess of potassium 
 cyanide. The formation of slime on the anodes is treated in the 
 same manner as given for copper baths, which see. 
 
 Brass baths showing more than any other baths the peculiarity 
 of precipitating in an irregular manner, when freshly prepared, it 
 is absolutely necessary to thoroughly boil them. If for any reason 
 
328 
 
 TIIR METAL WORKER'S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 this cannot be done, they must for some time be thoroughly worked 
 through with the current before a regular deposit of a uniform 
 color can be obtained. For this purpose as many anodes as pos¬ 
 sible are suspended in the bath, while a few sheets of brass, zinc 
 or iron are also suspended to the negative pole. A sufficiently 
 strong current, to cause a vigorous development of hydrogen on 
 the cathodes, is then conducted through the bath. A test is from 
 time to time made, to see whether the bath works in a regular 
 manner, and when this is the case the sheets are removed from the 
 negative pole and the operation is commenced. 
 
 According to their composition brass baths require a tension of 
 current of 3 to 4 volts, and an intensity of 0.5 to 0.6 ampere per 
 15*4 sc l uare inches. 
 
 Cobalt Baths .—Nickel being cheaper than cobalt and its color 
 somewhat whiter, electro-plating with this metal is but little prac¬ 
 tised. On account of its greater solubility in dilute sulphuric acid 
 it is, however, under all circumstances to be preferred for coating 
 valuable copper-plates for printing. Gaiffe recommends for this 
 purpose a solution of 1 part of chloride of cobalt in 10 of water. 
 The solution is to be neutralized with aqua ammonia, and the 
 plates are to be electro-plated with the use of a moderate current. 
 
 Cobalt precipitated from a chloride solution does not yield, how¬ 
 ever, a hard coating, and hence the following bath is recommended 
 for the purpose: Double sulphate of cobalt and ammonium, 21 
 ozs. ; cobaltous carbonate, 0.8 oz. ; crystallized boric acid, 10^ 
 ozs. ; water, 10 quarts. This bath requires a current of 2.5 to 2.75 
 volts. 
 
 Warren has recently described a solution of cobalt which can be 
 decomposed in a simple cell apparatus, and for this reason would 
 seem to be suitable for electro-plating small articles en masse. 
 For the preparation of the bath dissolve 3*4 ozs. of chloride of 
 cobalt in as little water as possible, and compound the solution 
 with a concentrated solution of Rochelle salt until the voluminous 
 precipitate at first formed is almost entirely redissolved, and filter. 
 Bring the bath into a vessel and place the latter in a clay cell, filled 
 with concentrated solution of sal-ammoniac or common salt, and 
 
ELECTROPLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 329 
 
 containing a zinc cylinder. Connect the articles to be electro¬ 
 plated by a copper wire to the zinc, and allow the articles to dip 
 in the cobalt solution. 
 
 Electro-plating with Cobalt by contact. —While nickelling by 
 touching with zinc yields only incomplete results, the electro¬ 
 plating with cobalt of copper and brass articles succeeds very well 
 with the use of the following bath : Crystallized cobalt sulphate, 
 0.35 oz.; crystallized sal-ammoniac, 0.7 oz.; water, 1 quart. Heat 
 the bath to between 104° and 122 0 F., and immerse the previously 
 cleansed and pickled articles in the bath, bringing them in contact 
 with a bright zinc surface; for small articles a zinc sieve may be 
 used. In 3 or 4 minutes the coating is thick enough to bear vigor¬ 
 ous polishing. 
 
 Copper Baths. —The composition of these baths depends on the 
 purpose for which they are to serve, and in the following the most 
 approved baths are mentioned, with the exception of the acid cop¬ 
 per bath, which is used for plastic deposits of copper. 
 
 In most cases the more electro-positive metals—zinc, iron, tin, 
 etc.—are to be coppered, either as a preparation for the succeeding 
 process of nickelling, silvering, or gilding, or to protect them 
 against oxidation by a thick deposit of copper. The above- 
 mentioned electro-positive metals, however, decompose the acid 
 copper solutions, and separate from them pulverulent copper, while 
 an equivalent portion of zinc, iron, tin, etc., is dissolved. For 
 this reason such solutions of copper cannot be used for coating 
 these metals, alkaline copper baths being exclusively employed for 
 the purpose, which may be arranged in two groups—into those 
 containing potassium cyanide and into those without it. 
 
 Hassauer prepares a copper bath by dissolving 2P/2 ozs. of copper 
 cyanide in a solution of 17.5 ozs. of 70 per cent, potassium cyanide, 
 in 3 quarts of water, boiling, filtering, and diluting with 7 quarts 
 of water to a 10-quart bath. This bath works very well when 
 heated to between 113 0 and 122 0 F., but when used cold requires 
 a very strong current. 
 
 Copper Baths for Iron and Steel Articles. —I. To be Used at an 
 Ordinary Temperature. —Water, 10 quarts ; crystallized bisulphate 
 
330 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S ITANDY-BOOK. 
 
 of soda, 7 ozs. ; crystallized carbonate of soda, 14 ozs. ; neutral 
 acetate of copper, 7 ozs. ; 75 per cent, potassium cyanide, 7 ozs. ; 
 spirit of sal-ammoniac, 4.4 ozs. 
 
 II. To be Used at front 140° to 158° F. —Water, 10 quarts; 
 crystallized bisulphate of soda, 2^ ozs. ; crystallized carbonate of 
 soda, 7 ozs. ; neutral acetate of copper, 7 ozs. ; 75 per cent, 
 cyanide of potassium, 9^ ozs. ; spirit of sal-ammoniac, 4 ozs. 
 The baths are best prepared as follows: Dissolve the bisulphate 
 and carbonate of soda in one-half the water, the potassium cyanide 
 in the other half, and mix the copper salt with the spirit of sal- 
 ammoniac ; then pour the blue ammoniacal copper solution into 
 the solution of the soda salts, and finally add the potassium cyanide 
 solution ; the bath will be clear and colorless. Boiling, though 
 not absolutely necessary, is of advantage, after which the solution 
 is to be filtered. 
 
 The following formula is highly recommended: Water, xo 
 quarts; crystallized carbonate of soda, 8)4 ozs. ; crystallized bi¬ 
 sulphate of soda, 7 ozs. ; neutral acetate of copper, 7 ozs.; 98 or 
 99 per cent, potassium cyanide, 8)4 ozs. The bath is prepared as 
 follows : Dissolve in 7 quarts of warm water the carbonate of soda, 
 gradually add the bisulphate of soda to prevent violent effer¬ 
 vescence, and then add, with vigorous stirring, the acetate of cop¬ 
 per in small portions. Dissolve the cyanide of potassium in 3 
 quarts of cold water, and mix both solutions when the first is cold. 
 By thorough stirring with a clean wooden stick a clear solution is 
 obtained, which is best boiled for half an hour, and then filtered. 
 
 For small zinc articles which are to be coppered in a sieve, the 
 bath is warmed and a little more potassium cyanide added. 
 
 Instead of acetate of copper cupric sulphate (blue vitriol) may be 
 used for preparing the baths, the following formula being especially 
 suitable for the purpose: Dissolve 10 )4 ozs. of cupric sulphate and 
 14 ozs. of carbonate of soda, each by itself, in hot water, and mix 
 both solutions; allow the precipitate of carbonate of copper which 
 is formed to settle and pour off the clear supernatant fluid. To the 
 precipitate add 7 quarts of water, then gradually 8)4 ozs. of car¬ 
 bonate of soda and 7 ozs. of bisulphate of soda, and mix this solu- 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 331 
 
 tion with one of ozs. of 98 per cent, potassium cyanide in 3 
 quarts of water. After mixing, the discoloration of the fluid takes 
 place rapidly, when it is boiled and filtered. 
 
 Annealed sheets of pure copper with as large a surface as possible 
 serve as anodes. They become gradually covered with a green 
 slime, which must from time to time be removed by scouring with 
 sand. When a very strong and rapid formation of slime takes 
 place and the bath becomes bluish, potassium cyanide is wanting 
 and must be added. Too large an excess of potassium cyanide 
 causes strong development of hydrogen and no deposition, or only 
 a very slight one, takes place, which besides has the tendency to 
 peel off. Such excess can be readily removed by the addition of 
 cyanide of copper, stirred with water to a thinly fluid paste. As 
 the anodes are not able to keep the content of copper in the bath 
 constant, there being not as much copper dissolved from them as is 
 precipitated, the content of metal in the bath must be increased, 
 when it commences to work slowly, by the addition of solution of 
 cyanide of copper in potassium cyanide; it is also advisable to add 
 at the same time some neutral bisulphate of soda. 
 
 The deposit of copper is thoroughly brushed with a soft brass 
 scratch-brush, the article is then returned to the bath, and again 
 scratch-brushed, this being repeated until the deposit is of sufficient 
 thickness. The coppered articles are then immersed in hot water, 
 dried in saw-dust, and finally polished dry with Vienna lime upon 
 fine flannel disks. The polished articles are lastly coated with a 
 colorless lacquer to prevent oxidation in the air. 
 
 Copper Bath without Potassium Cyanide .—Dissolve 52^ ozs. of 
 potassium sodium tartrate (Rochelle salts), jo 1 /^ ozs. of cupric sul¬ 
 phate, 28 ozs. of caustic soda in 10 quarts of water. 
 
 The Ehnore Process of Electro-depositing Copper for Tubes and 
 Wire Bars .—A revolving, cylindrical mandril of iron is placed in 
 an electrolytic vessel containing solution of cupric sulphate. 
 Around the mandril are arranged bars of copper, which communi¬ 
 cate with the positive pole of a dynamo whilst the mandril com¬ 
 municates with the negative pole. The copper deposits upon the 
 bottom, and when the deposit has acquired sufficient thickness the 
 
332 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 tube is withdrawn, which thus has been finished without soldering. 
 To impart to the deposited copper tenacity and ductility its surface 
 is rubbed with a polishing-stone. The agate used as a polishing- 
 stone presses lightly upon the surface of the copper, being in con¬ 
 tinual operation from one end of the revolving mandril to the other. 
 The velocity of both is so regulated that the entire surface of the 
 deposit is rubbed by the polishing-stone, and that the thin layers 
 successively deposited are suitably polished and acquire the neces¬ 
 sary mechanical properties. The impurities of the copper thus 
 electrolyzed and purified fall to the bottom of the electrolytical 
 vessel, from whence they are removed, washed, dried, and melted, 
 to be finally treated for the recovery of gold and silver. 
 
 By the nature of the above-described process the copper is neces¬ 
 sarily and unavoidably pure; and is, therefore, especially adapted 
 for cable and other electrical purposes. Special machinery has 
 been arranged so that an electro-burnished tube produced by the 
 above-mentioned method may be cut spirally into a square wire, 
 which can then be drawn down in the usual manner to any required 
 diameter. The wire being drawn directly from the electro-burnished 
 tube obviates entirely the necessity for melting, and thus constitutes 
 altogether a new departure in the manufacture of pure copper wire. 
 Some of the tests to which it has been subjected are very interest¬ 
 ing. Two large coils of the new wire were taken, the wire of the 
 first having a diameter of 0.113 inch (about 12 Birmingham wire 
 gauge), and the second a diameter of 0.05 inch (about 18 B. W. 
 G.), both being extremely hard drawn. In order, however, to be 
 perfectly satisfied that the practical limit of hardness had been 
 reached, the larger wire was drawn through 13 holes in a draw- 
 plate (the last hole being of agate) without annealing, until the 
 diameter of the wire was reduced to 0.057 inch. Its hardness may 
 be judged of by the fact that the breaking-strain was 29 tons per 
 square inch, with an elongation of only ^ per cent. The No. 18 
 B. W. G. wire had a breaking-strain of nearly 29 tons per square 
 inch, with an elongation of only 3 /& per cent. When these wires 
 were annealed they showed an elongation of 25 to 33 per cent, 
 before breaking. 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 333 
 
 Dr. Matthiessen found that the purer the metal was obtained the 
 greater was the variation of its electrical resistance with correspond¬ 
 ing variations of temperature, and gave the general law as Rt = Ro 
 (i + at -f b t 2 ) where Ro is the resistance of the metal or alloy at 
 the temperature of 0 ° C., and Rt the resistance of any temperature 
 t degrees C. above 0 °. He found that for most pure metals the 
 value of a was 0.003824 t, and b 0.00000126 t 2 with the sign -f- 
 between them. The experiments carried out on the new wire are 
 confirmatory of its great purity, as these coefficients are found to be 
 distinctly higher, the expression for it being Rt = Ro (1 -f- 
 0.0041158 t -f- 0.000003077 t 2 ). 
 
 The results of the conductivity tests are given in the first table. 
 The conducting power of the hardest wire is so high that, with a 
 breaking strain of 29 tons per square inch, it has a conductivity 
 about 2^/2 per cent, higher than that of soft annealed wire of the 
 best quality hitherto obtained commercially (say 98 per cent.). 
 When the new wire is annealed it has a conducting power 4^ per 
 cent, above the best commercial copper. 
 
 
 Gauge (ap- 
 
 Conductivity of annealed 
 
 Conductivity of annealed 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 proximate) 
 
 wire in terms of standard 
 
 wire in terms of standard 
 
 
 B. W. G. 
 
 for annealed copper. 
 
 for hard copper. 
 
 in. 
 
 0.113 
 
 12 
 
 102 33 
 
 10439 
 
 0.057 
 
 17 
 
 102.35 
 
 IO4.4I 
 
 0.049 
 
 18 
 
 102 45 
 
 104.51 
 
 Mean. 
 
 
 102.38 
 
 
 
 
 
 The following mechanical tests 
 
 have been made on 
 
 the wire, 
 
 each result 
 
 being the 
 
 mean of three experiments : 
 
 
 
 
 Breaking strain. 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 
 Weight per 
 
 /-*- 
 
 
 Elonga- 
 
 twists in 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 statute mile. 
 
 Observed. Per sq. in. 
 
 tion. 
 
 3 inches. 
 
 In. 
 
 Lb. 
 
 Lb. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 
 0.113 
 
 205.0 
 
 612 
 
 27.4 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 0.082 
 
 IIO.O 
 
 375 
 
 31.2 
 
 
 42 
 
 0.057 
 
 52.8 
 
 166 
 
 28.7 
 
 Y 
 
 not taken. 
 
 0.05 
 
 40.8 
 
 127 
 
 28.4 
 
 H 
 
 47 
 
334 
 
 THE METAL WORKER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The wire was also tested as follows: It was wrapped six times 
 around its own circumference, as in making a “bell-hanger’s 
 joint.” It was then unwrapped, wrapped again, and so on until 
 the wire broke. The results were: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wrappi 
 
 ng and Unwrapping. 
 
 
 In. 
 
 
 No. 
 
 on 
 
 off 
 
 on 
 
 off 
 
 on 
 
 off 
 
 on 
 
 off 
 
 | 
 
 r 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 0.113I 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 1 
 
 l 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 | 
 
 r 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 ' 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 0.05 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 
 l 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 It will thus be seen that the hard wire is admirably adapted for 
 over-head telegraph wires, possessing the two requisites of great 
 strength and high conductivity. The efficiency of dynamo ma¬ 
 chines and electrical instruments can be increased, because a greater 
 number of “ampere-turns” can be got within a given space. 
 The copper tape or riband used so extensively for lightning con¬ 
 ductors can be cut direct from the tube, of any length and sec¬ 
 tional area, by the special machinery before mentioned. It would 
 take up too much space to dilate upon the enormous demands for 
 pure copper that must arise, due to the development of the indus¬ 
 trial application of electricity. 
 
 To get a Copper Deposit on Wax .-—Coat the wax with black- 
 lead ; brush the wax over with alcohol, and follow with black-lead 
 plumbago, rubbing with a soft brush. The deposit is made from 
 a saturated solution of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) in water; 
 the solution should stand for 24 hours, and be stirred occasionally 
 before using. A copper wire is melted into the wax and the black- 
 lead well worked with the brush over it, so as to make an electric 
 connection between the wire and the wax. The copper plate 
 placed in the solution from which the copper is dissolved to keep 
 up the strength of the solution, is attached to the carbon or cop¬ 
 per pole of the battery and the wax to the zinc pole. 
 
 Brush-coppering for Iron and Steel .—This process can be rec- 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 335 
 
 ommended for its simplicity and general applicability. The 
 utensils required are two vessels of sufficient size, each provided 
 with a brush preferably so wide that the entire surface of the article 
 to be treated can be coated with one application. One of the 
 vessels contains a strongly saturated solution of caustic soda, and 
 the other a strongly saturated solution of cupric sulphate (blue 
 vitriol) of the best quality. 
 
 For coppering, the well-cleansed article is first uniformly coated 
 with a brush full of the caustic soda solution, and then also with a 
 brushful of the copper solution. A quite thick film of copper is 
 immediately firmly deposited upon the article. Care must be had 
 not to take the brush too full, and not to touch the places once 
 gone over the second time, as otherwise the layer of copper does 
 not adhere firmly. The coppering thus produced is so strong and 
 durable that, without fear of injury, the articles may afterwards be 
 scratch-brushed, gilded and silvered, and also colored brown or 
 steel-blue. 
 
 For coloring, the following directions are given : For brown, 
 dissolve 6.77 drachms of calcium monosulphide and 1 oz. 6 
 drachms of powdered sal-ammoniac in 10 quarts of water. Small 
 articles are dipped into this solution and large ones brushed over 
 with it. After dipping, the articles are to be thoroughly scratch- 
 brushed, as they show various colors when they come from the 
 bath, and acquire a uniform tone only by scratch-brushing. 
 
 For Dai'k-steel Blue .—Dissolve from 12 drachms to 1 oz. of 
 potassium sulphide and the same quantity of common salt in 10 
 quarts of water. The bath is used in the same manner as for 
 brown. 
 
 This process can be especially recommended for articles which 
 are to be decorated in several colors. By only partially gilding or 
 entirely silvering such articles, very beautiful effects can be pro¬ 
 duced by the use of the above-described method, which, with some 
 experience, is less difficult to execute than coppering by the gal¬ 
 vanic current or by immersion. 
 
 How to Copper Iron .—Iron can be coppered by dipping it into 
 melted copper, the surface of which is protected by a melted layer 
 
336 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 of cryolite and phosphoric acid; the articles to be thus treated 
 being heated to the same temperature as the melted copper. An¬ 
 other process consists in dipping the articles into a melted mixture 
 of i part of chloride or fluoride of copper, 5 or 6 parts of cryolite, 
 and a little chloride of barium. If the article, when immersed, is 
 connected with the negative pole of a battery, the process is has¬ 
 tened. A third method consists in dipping the articles in a solution 
 of oxalate of copper and bi-carbonate of soda, dissolved in 10 or 
 15 parts of water, acidified with organic acid. 
 
 To Copper Iron and Steel. —First free the objects of cast-iron, 
 steel or wrought-iron from rust, and then brush them thoroughly 
 with a brush of hard bristles dipped in pulverized tartar saturated 
 with cupric sulphate (blue vitriol). The articles thus treated will 
 be coated with a thin, uniform and firmly adhering layer of 
 copper. 
 
 To Copper Cast-iron. —To provide cast-iron articles with a 
 beautiful and durable coating of copper proceed as follows: Scour 
 the article with a pickle consisting of 50 parts of hydrochloric acid 
 of 15° Be. and 1 part of nitrate of copper. Then rub them with 
 a woollen rag or a soft brush dipped in a solution of 10 parts of 
 nitrate of copper and a like quantity of cupric chloride in 80 parts 
 of nitric acid of 15 0 Be. After a few seconds rinse the articles in 
 clean water and polish them with a dry woollen rag. This rubbing 
 and subsequent polishing is repeated until the layer of copper is 
 of the desired thickness. In this manner ground or rough 
 objects can be entirely or partially coppered, the process being 
 recommendable on account of its simplicity, cheapness and the 
 durability of the coppering. To give articles thus coppered the 
 appearance of antique bronze, touch them up with a solution of 4 
 parts of sal-ammoniac, 1 part of oxalic acid and 1 part of acetic 
 acid in 30 parts of water, the operation being repeated until the 
 object has acquired the desired color. 
 
 To Coat Iron Articles with Copper, Brass or Bronze. —W. Tyth- 
 erbigh, of Birmingham, England, proceeds as follows : The sheets 
 are first pickled and then uniformly covered with a layer of brass- 
 filings upon which borax is scattered. The sheets thus prepared are 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 337 
 
 «» 
 
 next brought into a furnace heated to the proper degree. The union 
 of the two metals takes place by the fusion of the brass, the time 
 required for the process being only about ten seconds. The union 
 is very complete, so that the sheet can at will be rolled, stamped, 
 annealed, etc., without fear of a separation of the two metals, and 
 the brass can only be removed from the iron by filing. This pro¬ 
 cess is especially suitable for ship-sheathing. For coating small 
 cast or wrought-iron articles with copper, brass, bronze or a similar 
 alloy another method is employed. The metal or alloy with which 
 the iron is to be coated is melted with an addition of borax in 
 suitable iron or clay vessels, the thoroughly cleansed articles are 
 then dipped into the bath and are moved to and fro so that they 
 acquire the heat of the metal and become coated with it. They 
 are then taken out and allowed to cool upon a grate, they being 
 moved about until the coating congeals. Larger articles are heated 
 before placing them in the melted metal. 
 
 To Coat Tin, Cast-iron or Zinc with Copper .—The bath can be 
 used cold as well as warm, and consists of sodium sulphide, 10.58 
 ozs. ; 75 per cent, cyanide of potash, 17.63 ozs. ; acetate of 
 copper, 12.34 ozs. ; ammonia, 7.05 ozs. ; and water, 55 lbs. A 
 bath for smaller articles of zinc, which are generally coppered at a 
 boiling heat in a strainer, consists of sodium sulphide, 3.52 ozs. ; 
 cyanide of potash, 24.69 ozs. ; acetate of copper, 15.87 ozs. ; 
 ammonia, 5.29 ozs. ; and water, 44 to 55 lbs. The acetate of 
 copper is dissolved by itself in 5 quarts of water and, after mixing 
 it with the ammonia, added to the other solution. When cyanide 
 of potash of unknown content is used, its solution is added last 
 until the fluid is entirely discolored. 
 
 To Copper Zinc Plates .—To coat a zinc plate with a hard 
 though very thin layer of copper, dip it into a bath composed of 
 100 parts of water saturated with cupric chloride (40 cupric 
 chloride and 60 water), 150 parts of ammonia and 3000 of water. 
 For very solid coppering use the above described bath, which has 
 a fine blue color, and add a saturated solution of prussiate of potash 
 in water until the blue color of the first mixture has quite dis¬ 
 appeared. This process of coppering is somewhat slower than by 
 22 
 
338 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 the galvanic way, but yields nearly as solid results. For plates 
 engraved with the graver, or stamped, it is best to use a mixture 
 of prussiate of copper with neutral potassium sulphate, to which is 
 added another mixture of cupric sulphate (blue vitriol) dissolved 
 to saturation in water, and of water saturated with prussiate of 
 potash. After the complete solution of the precipitate and dis¬ 
 coloration of the fluid, the bath is ready for use. By now adding 
 to the above-mentioned reagents, sulphate or chloride of zinc, a 
 very good brass bath is obtained which is allowed to act upon the 
 zinc plate by means of a single electric element. Instead of using 
 completely saturated baths one-quarter to one-third of their volume 
 of ordinary water may be added to them. For hard coppering the 
 second bath is the most suitable, it yielding very satisfactory results, 
 and as it is known to contain prussiate of potash there is no danger, 
 provided care be exercised. 
 
 Gold-baths .—There are a large number of receipts for gold- 
 baths, and only the most approved will be mentioned in the follow¬ 
 ing. Baths for electro-gilding are used either cold or warm. 
 Warm gold-baths need not to be so rich in gold as cold baths, re¬ 
 quire less strength of current, and, generally speaking, yield denser 
 depositions of warmer tones. By using pure gold solution, Which 
 contains no other metal, the separated gold has the pure yellow 
 color characteristic of fine gold; for a more reddish or more 
 greenish color, i. e., the color of gold alloyed with copper or silver, 
 a bath containing copper or silver besides gold has to be used. 
 Some electro-platers prefer baths prepared with potassium cyanide, 
 others those prepared with potassium ferro-cyanide. The first are 
 considered the most profitable. 
 
 It does not pay to dissolve the gold for the baths, since chloride 
 of gold of great purity can be procured from chemical factories. 
 Brown neutral chloride of gold should be asked for, the crystal¬ 
 lized, orange-color salt containing too much acid. 
 
 The most simple gold-bath consists of neutral chloride of gold, 
 0.35 oz. ; 99 per cent, potassium cyanide, 0.7 oz. ; and water, 1 
 quart. Dissolve the potassium cyanide in one-half of the water 
 and the chloride of gold in the other half; mix both solutions and 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 339 
 
 boil for half an hour, replacing the water lost by evaporation. 
 The color of the deposition of gold yielded by this bath is, how¬ 
 ever, not so warm as when the following bath is used for cold 
 electro-gilding: 
 
 Dissolve 0.24 oz. of neutral chloride of gold in 1 pint of water 
 and add spirit of sal-ammoniac as long as a yellow precipitate of 
 fulminating gold is formed. Then filter off and wash the pre¬ 
 cipitate in the filter with distilled water, rinse the residue from the 
 filter into a porcelain dish, and add water until the volume amounts 
 to 1^2 pints. Then dissolve in y, pint of water y 2 oz. of 99 per 
 cent, potassium cyanide, add this solution to the first and boil, with 
 constant replacement of the water lost by evaporation, until the 
 fluid shows no odor of ammonia. 
 
 One quart of this bath prepared from fulminating gold mixed 
 with 3 quarts of distilled water gives an excellent bath for warm 
 electro-gilding, for which purpose it is to be heated to between 158° 
 and 167° F. 
 
 Too large an excess of potassium cyanide in the gold baths must 
 be avoided, it causing a pale color in the gilding. 
 
 Another bath suitable for electro-gilding is as follows: Chemi¬ 
 cally pure sodium phosphate, 2.11 ozs. ; neutral sodium sulphide, 
 0.35 oz. ; 99 per cent, potassium cyanide, 0.7 oz. ; neutral chloride 
 of gold, 0.7 oz. ; and distilled water, 1 quart. The salts are dis¬ 
 solved in the order mentioned, in the cold water. The bath is used 
 at a temperature of from 158° to 167° F. If it is to be used for the 
 direct gilding of iron and steel, only 0.18 to 0.35 oz. of potassium 
 cyanide is taken instead of 0.7 oz. 
 
 A formula for a cold bath prepared with potassium ferrocyanide 
 instead of potassium cyanide is as follows: Yellow prussiate of 
 potash, 0.56 oz. ; sodium carbonate, 0.56 oz. ; fine gold (in the 
 form of chloride of gold or fulminating gold), 0.7 oz. ; water, 1 
 quart. Heat the solution of the yellow prussiate of potash and of 
 the sodium carbonate in the 1 quart of water to boiling, then add 
 the gold salt, and boil for % hour, or with the use of freshly pre¬ 
 cipitated fulminating gold, until the disappearance of the ammonia 
 odor. When cold the solution is mixed with a quantity of distilled 
 
340 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 water corresponding to the quantity of water lost by evaporation, 
 and filtered. This bath gives a good gilding upon all metals, 
 including steel and iron. Suitable strength of current, 3.25 to 3.5 
 vol ts. 
 
 Many electro-platers prepare the gold baths with the assistance 
 of the electric current. For this purpose prepare a solution of 3.52 
 ozs. of potassium cyanide (98 to 99 per cent.) per quart of water, 
 and after heating to from 122 0 to 140° F., conduct the current of 
 two Bunsen elements through two sheets of gold, not too small, 
 which are suspended as electrodes in the potassium cyanide solu¬ 
 tion. From the sheet of gold connected to the positive pole the 
 gold dissolves off, forming potassium aurocyanide. The action of 
 the current is interrupted when the solution is so far saturated with 
 gold that an article immersed in it and connected to the negative 
 pole instead of the other gold-sheet, is gilded with a beautiful warm 
 tone. By weighing the sheet of gold serving as anode, the amount 
 of gold which has passed into solution is ascertained. A good gold 
 bath prepared according to this method should contain 3.52 ozs. 
 of potassium cyanide and 0.7 oz. of fine gold per quart of water. 
 
 As anodes it is best to use sheets of fine gold, which gradually 
 dissolve, and thus convey fresh metal to the bath. The insoluble 
 platinum anodes should only be used in the production of very thin 
 depositions. The color of the gold deposited depends on the con¬ 
 tent of gold of the bath, its temperature, and the strength of the 
 current. Warm baths rich in gold give with a strong current a 
 brown, pulverulent deposition which, though it becomes bright by 
 scratch-brushing, parts with gold. Hence the use of a current- 
 regulator is of great advantage, since with its assistance various 
 shades of gold color can be obtained in one bath. It may be 
 accepted as a rule that the stronger the current the more reddish 
 and fiery the color will be, and the weaker the current the paler 
 and more greenish the color. Electro-platers of the old school use 
 platinum anodes for the production of the color, allowing them to 
 dip in more or less deep; in the first case the gilding becomes 
 more reddish, since more of the current passes into the bath, and 
 in the latter paler. 
 
ELECTRO PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 341 
 
 Only copper, brass, bronze, and tombac can be directly gilded; 
 other metals must first be coppered or brassed; cheap steel articles 
 are an exception, however; for instance, needles, the eyes of 
 which may be directly gilded. Amalgamating the articles before 
 gilding is unnecessary. The current must not be so strong that a 
 formation of bubbles is perceptible, as otherwise the gold would 
 separate brown and pulverulent; it is best to use a current of such 
 strength only that deposition takes place slowly, a coating of the 
 greatest density being thus obtained. For the production of a thick 
 deposit frequent scratch-brushing of the articles is absolutely neces¬ 
 sary, the brush being moistened with decoction of soap-root or 
 solution of tartar. To obtain red gold a copper salt has to be 
 added to the gold bath, it being best to use solution of copper 
 cyanide in potassium cyanide, small portions of which are gradually 
 added until the desired tone of red gold is obtained; a gold bath 
 may also be converted into a red gold bath by suspending a few 
 copper anodes alongside of the gold anodes. 
 
 Green gold is obtained by the addition of silver solution, cyanide 
 or chloride of silver dissolved in potassium cyanide; or by sus¬ 
 pending a few silver anodes alongside the gold anodes, whereby 
 strict attention must be paid to the careful regulation of the 
 current. 
 
 Gilding with a Dead Lustre may be effected by the slow deposit 
 of a large proportion of gold. This gilding is very durable, but 
 dull and earthy in appearance and is costly. Other means of ef¬ 
 fecting the same purpose are : i. By acids , giving a dead lustre to 
 the metallic surface, previous to gilding, and by the processes in¬ 
 dicated in the cleansing operations. This is employed for small 
 articles, or, when gilding by dipping, for brass articles, or large 
 embossed work. 2. With frosted silver, by depositing upon the 
 object to be gilt a coat of frosted silver and then gilding in a good 
 bath; this method is expensive, the burnished parts are greenish, 
 and the intermediary coat of silver is more easily blackened by 
 sulphur fumes than gold. 3. By copper, by depositing in a solu¬ 
 tion of sulphate of copper, decomposed by the current, a coat of 
 this metal, which possesses a pink dead lustre. The whole is 
 
342 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 rapidly passed through the acid mixture for bright dipping and 
 then gilded in a good bath. 
 
 The deposits of gold are frequently further colored in case they 
 have not acquired the right tone in the bath. This is effected by 
 treating them with gilders’ wax or brushing with certain mixtures. 
 
 Treatment with gilders’ wax consists in uniformly coating the 
 gilt articles with the wax and burning it off over a charcoal fire. 
 The articles are then dipped in water, scratch-brushed with wine- 
 vinegar, dried and burnished. (For various compositions of 
 Gilders’ Wax see under that head.) 
 
 To give the articles a rich appearance they may be coated with 
 a paste of 3 parts alum, 6 parts saltpetre, 3 parts sulphate of zinc, 
 3 parts of common salt and water, heating until the mixture turns 
 black, washing and scratch-brushing with wine-vinegar. 
 
 Gilding by Contact and Dipping , Cold Gilding and Gilding by 
 Adhesion .—The article is first pickled and must not again be 
 touched with the hands. It is then placed in a solution of gold 
 and touched with a rod of zinc or copper, whereby metallic gold is 
 precipitated upon the article; by a shorter or longer contact dif¬ 
 ferent colors may be produced. Gold solutions of varying composi¬ 
 tion are employed for gilding by contact, the following solution 
 being, for instance, used for jewelry. Prepare first a gold solution 
 by dissolving 3.52 ozs. of fine gold in a mixture of 8.81 ozs. of 
 nitric acid and a like quantity of hydrochloric acid in a glass or 
 porcelain vessel, which is allowed to stand a few days in a warm 
 place. To promote dissolution it is best to use the gold in the 
 form of thin sheet or wire, thick pieces dissolving very slowly. 
 The clear gold solution is then gradually mixed with 6.6 lbs. of 
 bicarbonate of potash, whereby it strongly effervesces, and the 
 whole is then poured into an iron kettle containing 20 quarts of 
 boiling water. The articles to be gilded being again pickled with 
 sulphuric acid are then tied together with brass wire, again dipped 
 for a moment in a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, rinsed 
 and then immediately immersed in a mercury solution prepared by 
 dissolving mercury in nitric acid and diluting the solution with 
 water. In case the articles contain much copper they quickly ac- 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 343 
 
 quire a white color in the mercury solution by becoming coated 
 with a thin layer of mercury. They are then placed in the gold 
 bath and touched with a zinc rod. After remaining in the gold 
 bath for about half a minute they are taken out, rinsed off and 
 dried. The rinsing water, which contains gold, is collected and 
 the gold regained by acidulating the water with hydrochloric acid 
 and pouring into it a solution of ferrous sulphate (copperas), 
 whereby the fluid acquires an inky appearance, but soon again be¬ 
 comes clear. On the bottom of the vessel will then be found a 
 very fine brown powder, which consists of chemically pure gold 
 and can be again used for the preparation of gilding fluid. By 
 sufficiently heating the baths the following formula may also be 
 advantageously used for gilding by touching with a zinc rod: 
 
 I. Fine gold (in the form of fulminating gold) 0.56 drachm ; 
 98 per cent, cyanide of potash, 2.82 drachms; water, 1 quart. 
 The bath is prepared by converting 0.56 drachm of fine gold into 
 neutral chloride of gold by dissolving in aqua regia and evaporat¬ 
 ing; or, 0.67 to 0.7 oz, of neutral chemically pure chloride of gold 
 is dissolved in water, the gold precipitated as fulminating gold with 
 liquid ammonia and washed. It is then dissolved in the water 
 containing the cyanide of potash and heated until the odor of am¬ 
 monia disappears, the water lost by evaporation being constantly 
 replaced. The temperature of the bath should be about 158° to 
 167° F. If necessary the amount of cyanide of potash may be 
 increased. 
 
 II. Chemically pure crystallized sodium phosphate, 2.J1 ozs. ; 
 neutral sodium sulphate, 5.64 drachms; cyanide of potash, 1.12 
 drachms; fine gold (in the form of chloride), 0.56 drachm; dis¬ 
 tilled water, 1 quart. If this bath is to be used for the direct gild¬ 
 ing of steel only 0.56 drachm of cyanide of potash need to be 
 taken. Dissolve at a moderate heat in a porcelain or enamelled 
 iron vessel the sodium phosphate and neutral sodium sulphate, and 
 to the perfectly cold solution add the neutral gold chloride pre¬ 
 pared from 0.56 drachm of gold and the cyanide of potash. For 
 use heat the bath to from 158° to 167° F. 
 
 III. The following bath yields a good deposit: Fine gold (in the 
 
344 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-ROOK. 
 
 form of chloride of gold), 1.97 drachms; yellow prussiate of 
 potash, 1 oz. ; potash, 1 oz. ; common salt, 1 oz. ; water, 1 quart. 
 To prepare the bath heat the solution of the yellow prussiate of 
 potash, potash and common salt in the water to the boiling point, 
 add the gold salt and boil hour. After cooling the solution is 
 compounded with the quantity of distilled water corresponding to 
 that lost by evaporation, and filtered. For use heat the bath to 
 the boiling point. 
 
 In the execution of gilding by contact the points of contact 
 must be frequently changed to prevent stains. 
 
 For Baths for Gilding by Dipping the following two formula 
 have stood the test. I. Crystallized sodium pyrophosphate, 2.82 
 ozs.; 12 per cent, prussic acid, 4.51 drachms; crystallized chloride 
 of gold, 1.12 drachms; water, 1 quart. Heat the bath to the 
 boiling point and immerse the pickled objects of copper or its al¬ 
 loys, moving them constantly, until gilded. Iron, steel, tin and 
 zinc are previously coppered, coating the articles with mercury be¬ 
 fore immersion being entirely superfluous. 
 
 All gold baths prepared with sodium pyrophosphate give quick 
 and beautiful results when fresh, but they have the disadvantage of 
 quickly decomposing and can consequently seldom be completely 
 utilized. In this respect the following formula answers much 
 better: 
 
 II. Crystallized sodium phosphate, 2.82 drachms; chemically 
 pure caustic potash, 1.69 drachms; chlcride of gold, 0.56 drachm; 
 98 percent, cyanide of potassium, 9.03 drachms; water, 1 quart. 
 Dissolve the sodium phosphate and caustic potash in ^ of the 
 water and the cyanide of potash and chloride of gold in the re¬ 
 maining Heat the solution to the boiling point; the bath 
 
 can be almost entirely utilized, it not being decomposed by keep¬ 
 ing. Should the bath become weak add about 2.82 drachms of 
 cyanide of potash and use it for preparatory boiling until no more 
 separation of gold is obtained. To complete the coating the ar¬ 
 ticles subjected to such preparatory boiling are then dipped for a 
 few seconds in a freshly prepared bath of the composition given 
 above. 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 345 
 
 The layer of gold formed by dipping is in all cases very thin, 
 the amount of gold precipitated corresponding with the quantity 
 of the metal forming the base which has been dissolved. 
 
 Cold Gilding, or Gilding by the Rag .—This mode of gilding is 
 chiefly employed upon silver, though sometimes also upon brass 
 and copper. The operation is as follows: Dissolve 1.12 or 1.69 
 drachms of chloride of gold in as little water as possible, to which 
 has previously been added 0.56 drachm of saltpetre. Dip in this 
 solution small linen rags and, after allowing them to dry off, dry 
 them in a dark place. These rags saturated with gold solution are 
 then charred to tinder at not too great a heat, whereby the chloride 
 of gold is reduced, partially to protochloride and partially to finely 
 divided metallic gold. This tinder is then rubbed in a porcelain 
 mortar to a fine uniform powder. 
 
 To gild with this powder dip into it a charred cork moistened 
 with vinegar or salt water and rub, with not too gentle a pressure, 
 the surfaces of the article to be gilded, which must be previously 
 cleaned from adhering grease. The thumb of the hand may be 
 used in place of the cork ; but in both cases care must be had not 
 to moisten them too much, as otherwise the powder takes badly. 
 After gilding the surface may be carefully polished with the steel. 
 
 For cold gilding a solution of chloride of gold in an excess of 
 cyanide of potash may also be used, after thickening the solution 
 to a paste by rubbing in whiting. After zincking the metals the 
 paste is applied by means of a cork, a piece of leather or a brush. 
 Martin and Peyraud, the originators of this method, describe the 
 operation as follows: Articles of other metals than zinc are placed 
 in a bath consisting of a concentrated solution of sal-ammoniac, 
 in which has been placed a quantity of granulated zinc. The ar¬ 
 ticles are allowed to boil a few minutes, whereby they acquire a 
 coating of zinc. For the preparation of the gilding composition 
 dissolve 11.28 drachms of chloride of gold in a like quantity of 
 water and add a solution of 2.11 ozs. of cyanide of potash in as 
 little water as possible (about 2.82 ozs.). Of this solution add so 
 much to a mixture of 3.52 ozs. of fine whiting and 2.82 drachms 
 of pulverized tartar that a paste is formed which can be readily ap- 
 
346 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-ROOK. 
 
 plied with a brush to the article to be gilded. When the article is 
 coated heat it to between 140° and 158° F. After removing the 
 dry paste by washing the gilding appears and can be polished with 
 the burnishing-stone. 
 
 To Gild by Adhesion .—This process is chiefly employed upon 
 sword-blades, gun-barrels and similar objects which are to be pro¬ 
 vided with gilded decorations. For this purpose the finely- 
 polished article is coated with an etching ground prepared by melt¬ 
 ing together equal parts of resin, wax and black pitch and adding to 
 the melted mass x parts of asphalt and \ l / 2 parts of mastic. The 
 desired design is then scratched in the etching ground and, after 
 roughening the portions thus exposed with nitric acid and rinsing 
 in water, the etching ground is removed with oil of turpentine. 
 The object is then heated until it acquires a blue color, and a 
 double layer of gold-leaf is then laid on the roughened portions 
 and pressed down with the burnisher. As many gold leaves as de¬ 
 sired may in this manner be laid on, but every two leaves must be 
 burnished. Instead of roughening the portions to be gilded by 
 etching with acid, the design is frequently scratched in the object 
 with a sharp tool and the gold made to adhere in the manner de¬ 
 scribed above by pressing and burnishing. This method requires, 
 however, more gold than the first. 
 
 To Gild Steel .—Steel is best gilded as follows : Dissolve chloride 
 of gold free from acid, in water, add three times the volume of the 
 solution, of ether, and after 24 hours lift off the ethereal gold solu¬ 
 tion. Polished steel dipped in this solution is immediately beauti¬ 
 fully gilded. By coating portions of the steel with lacquer or 
 varnish beautiful designs can be produced. For other metals than 
 steel, gilding by the galvanic process is to be preferred. 
 
 To Fire-gild Silver Objects .—Wrap several pieces of leaf-gold 
 around a round cylindrical rod of silver, wrap the whole in paper, 
 and, after securing it with thread or twine, heat it in a coal fire. 
 The twine and paper, of course, char, but the gold at the same time 
 unites firmly with the silver. The union of the metals may be still 
 further increased by polishing with the burnisher or a burnishing- 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 347 
 
 stone of blood-stone. The rod of silver thus gilded can be drawn 
 out to the finest wire. 
 
 To Fire-gild and Fire-silver Metals which Cannot be Amalga¬ 
 mated; for Instance, Iron and Steel. —First copper the objects, and 
 then gild or silver in the usual manner with gold or silver amalgam. 
 If damaskeening in gold or silver upon an iron or steel ground or vice ‘ 
 versa is to be produced, the entire surface is first coppered. The 
 places which are to be silvered or gilded are then coated with 
 asphalt lacquer, and the article is dipped in solution of chromic 
 acid, which dissolves the copper unprotected by the varnish, and 
 leaves the iron or steel, which is not attacked by it, exposed. The 
 varnish is then removed with oil of turpentine, and the gilding or 
 silvering executed in the usual manner upon the coppered portion. 
 For platinum the process is the same, but nitric acid is used instead 
 of chromic acid. 
 
 To Give Gilt Articles a Beautiful Rich Appearance. —Pulverize 
 and mix alum, 3 parts by weight; nitrate of potash, 6 ; sulphate of 
 zinc, 3; and common salt, 3, with sufficient water to form a thinly 
 fluid paste. Apply this paste as uniformly as possible to the objects 
 by means of a brush, and when dry heat them upon a hot iron 
 plate until the coating becomes black. Then wash in water, 
 scratch-brush with wine-vinegar, dry, and polish. 
 
 According to a French direction, the same result is attained by 
 pulverizing and mixing sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), 3 parts by 
 weight; verdigris, 7; sal-ammoniac, 6; nitrate of potash, 6, with 
 acetic acid, 31 ; dipping the gilt articles into the mixture, heating 
 upon an iron plate until black, and, when cold, pickling with con¬ 
 centrated sulphuric acid. 
 
 Some practitioners unprove bad tints of gilding by dipping the 
 objects into a dilute solution of nitrate of mercury until the gilding 
 shows a white amalgam; the mercury is then volatilized over a 
 flame, and the object scratch-brushed. Others apply a paste of 
 pulverized borax and water, heat until the borax melts, and then 
 dip quickly in dilute sulphuric acid. 
 
 To Gild Articles of Metal. —The following process has been 
 patented in Germany : A solution of aluminium nitrate and cobalt- 
 
348 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 ous nitrate is evaporated and glowed. Of the residue 21.16 ozs. are 
 melted together with 122.96 ozs. of red-lead, 28.21 ozs. of boric 
 acid, and 7.05 ozs. of glass powder, pulverized finely and rubbed 
 up with oil of turpentine. An acid solution of 3.52 ozs. of gold is 
 mixed with 30.86 grains of tin and a like quantity of arsenious 
 acid, and any acid present neutralized with ammonia. The objects 
 to be gilded are first coated with the above-mentioned enamel and 
 burnt, and then brushed with the gilding fluid and again burnt. 
 
 Imitation Gilding. —A very beautiful coating upon copper is 
 obtained by boiling the objects, previously pickled very bright, in 
 very dilute hydrochloric acid, to which have been added tartar and 
 an amalgam of 1 part zinc and 12 parts of mercury. The articles, 
 after being washed and dried, are heated to volatilize the mercury, 
 and a gold-colored precipitate capable of taking a high polish will 
 appear. 
 
 Gilding Powder for Copper, Silver, Brass, etc. —Mix proto¬ 
 chloride of gold, 20 parts; cyanide of potash, 60; distilled water, 
 100; tartar, 5 ; and finely elutriated chalk, 100. By means of a 
 clean woollen rag apply this mixture to the article to be gilded, 
 which should previously be cleaned and drawn through a pickle of 
 a mineral acid. 
 
 Gilder's Wax for Fire-gilding. —The wax used in fire-gilding 
 serves for coloring the gold, and consists of an intimate mixture 
 of yellow wax with finely pulverized verdigris, to which, as a rule, 
 some bole, burnt alum or burnt borax is added. The theory of 
 the use of gilder’s wax is as follows: By the verdigris (cupric 
 acetate) an actual red alloy is produced upon the surface of the 
 article to be gilded. This is effected, 1, by the precipitation of 
 copper from the melting mixture upon the zinc of the bronze; 2, 
 by the co-operation of the products of the dry distillation of the 
 wax and the acetic acid, the heated cupric oxide of the verdigris is 
 reduced to copper which, as well as the copper precipitated upon 
 the zinc, combines with the gold to a reddish gold alloy. The 
 remaining ingredients serve only for the dilution of the active 
 copper combinations, though some gilders claim to have observed 
 that gilder’s wax containing alum gives a lighter color than that 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 349 
 
 prepared with borax. Hence it is possible that in using gilder’s 
 wax containing alum an alloy of gold and aluminium is produced. 
 For preparing gilder’s wax there are a number of directions, of 
 which those which have stood the test are here given. For all kinds 
 of gilder’s wax the separate constituents are pulverized and passed 
 through a fine hair-sieve; the particles remaining in the sieve 
 being further pulverized until all has passed through. The 
 pulverized ingredients are then mixed, care being had to inhale as 
 little as possible since verdigris is poisonous. Melt the wax in a 
 clean pot, without, however, allowing it to become too hot, and 
 gradually add the ingredients with constant stirring to prevent the 
 heavier metallic particles from settling on the bottom. Then pour 
 the mass, with constant stirring, into a suitable vessel, previously 
 cooled and moistened with water, and after cooling cut it up into 
 pieces. 
 
 I. White wax, 8 parts; verdigris, 2; cupric sulphate (blue 
 vitriol), 2; borax, 
 
 II. White wax, 12 parts; Armenian bole, 3; verdigris, ij 4 ‘, 
 ferric sulphate, 2; burnt ochre, ; and borax, 
 
 III. White wax, 12 parts; verdigris, > copper-scales, 3; and 
 borax, 
 
 IV. Yellow wax, 18 parts; red chalk, 8; cupreous water, 3; 
 verdigris, 2; borax, 1 y 2 ; and burnt copper, 3. 
 
 V. Yellow wax, 18 parts; verdigris, 6; sulphate of zinc, 6; red 
 chalk, 8 }^ ; copper scales, 4; ferrous sulphate (copperas), 3 ; col- 
 cothar, j and borax, 
 
 Quicksilver Water is a solution of mercurous nitrate, and is 
 prepared by dissolving 10 parts of metallic mercury in xi of cold 
 nitric acid of 36° B., and diluting the solution with 275 parts of 
 rain or distilled water. It serves for moistening bronze as well 
 as copper, brass and German silver, and even silver of less fine¬ 
 ness than -pj 5 <j 0 o, which do not take the gold amalgam well before 
 gilding. 
 
 Iron-baths .—Depositions of iron serve chiefly for coating, or so- 
 called steeling, of copper-plates, cliches, etc., to make them more 
 capable of resisting mechanical wear. Galvanically precipitated 
 
350 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 iron is extraordinarily hard, but also very brittle, and hence thick 
 depositions are difficult to obtain. Moreover, in modern times 
 nickelling the plates has been successfully substituted for steeling. 
 
 According to Varrentrap the following bath serves for steeling: 
 Pure green vitriol, 4.75 ozs.; sal-ammoniac, 3.5 ozs. ; water, 1 
 quart. Boil the water for y, hour to remove all air, and after 
 cooling add the green vitriol and sal-ammoniac. By the action of 
 the air this bath separates ferric hydrate in flakes, and it must, 
 therefore, be frequently filtered. It requires a current of 1 to 1.25 
 volts. To decrease the tendency of the bath to decompose, am- 
 monio-ferrous sulphate may be used. 
 
 A simple solution of sal-ammoniac (3.50 ozs. of sal-ammoniac 
 to 1 quart of water) may also be made into an iron-bath by hang¬ 
 ing in iron sheets as anodes, suspending a copper-plate to the 
 negative pole and allowing the current to circulate until a regular 
 separation of iron is attained, which is generally the case in 5 to 
 6 hours. 
 
 For decorative purposes a deep-black deposition of iron may be 
 produced as follows: Dissolve as large a quantity of steel-filings as 
 possible in 50 quarts of commercial hydrochloric acid. The satu¬ 
 ration of the solution is recognized by a sediment, which no longer 
 dissolves, being formed on the bottom of the vessel. Then add 2 
 lbs. of white arsenic and vigorously stir the mixture. The arsenic 
 dissolves very slowly; but the bath cannot be considered finished 
 until all of it is dissolved, and the color obtained by means 
 of the bath is the deeper the more complete the solution of the 
 arsenic. The articles to be treated are connected to the negative 
 pole of the battery, iron and carbon-plates serving as anodes. For 
 a bath of 50 quarts two Bunsen elements about 7^ inches high 
 are required, and the bath being very acid the articles must be 
 connected with the battery previous to immersion. Upon copper 
 and brass the deposit is directly produced, but iron articles being 
 attacked by the bath are first provided with a coat of nickel. The 
 deposit of iron upon this nickel coating is very beautiful, and has 
 been designated by the name of “ black nickelling.” 
 
 A steel bath recommended by Klein as doing good service con- 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 351 
 
 sists of a solution of equal parts of green vitriol and of sulphate 
 of magnesia. The solution is kept neutral by suspending in it 
 bags filled with carbonate of magnesia. The most suitable con¬ 
 centration of the solution corresponds to a specific gravity of 1.55, 
 and, according to recent experiments, the density of current 
 should at the utmost amount to 0.02 ampere per 61 cubic inches. 
 
 Lead-baihs .—Dissolve by continued boiling, caustic potash, x. 75 
 ozs. and finely pulverized litharge, 0.17 ozs. in x quart of water. 
 According to Watt the following solution is used : Acetate of lead, 
 0.17 oz. ; acetic acid, o 17 oz. ; water, 1 quart. The bath pre¬ 
 pared according to the first formula deserves the preference. 
 
 Lead baths require anodes of sheet-lead or cast-lead plates, a 
 weak current, and frequent scratch-brushing of the articles in order 
 to make the deposition more dense and to attain greater thickness. 
 Iron is best first coppered. Superoxide of lead being separated 
 upon the anodes, the latter must be frequently cleansed with the 
 scratch-brush. 
 
 To Coat Metals with Lead .—A coat of lead protects metals from 
 the effects of mineral acids and other chemical products, and, 
 hence, vessels of lead or of leaded metal are much used 
 in the chemical industries. Lead possesses, however, but little 
 solidity and power of resistance, and apparatus, which has to resist 
 a certain pressure, such as evaporating pans, crystallizing vessels, 
 acid reservoirs, monte-jus, and, in general, apparatus for acid fluids 
 and gases, is seldom made of it, that manufactured from leaded 
 sheet-iron or sheet-copper being more durable. In a galvanic man¬ 
 ner lead coatings can only be produced by means of a bath, which 
 consists of a solution of oxide of lead in caustic potash or caustic 
 soda. The fluid is prepared as follows: Dissolve 1 part of purified 
 potash in 10 to 12 parts of water, and gradually add 1 part of burnt 
 lime in the form of powder. To test whether the potash has been 
 completely converted into caustic potash, mix a small sample of the 
 fluid with dilute sulphuric acid. If no effervescence takes place the 
 conversion is complete. Now separate the precipitate, which con¬ 
 sists of carbonate of lime, from the caustic potash lye by filtering 
 through strong linen. Then boil the lye in an iron kettle until it 
 
352 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 shows a specific gravity of 1.33. When this is the case allow the 
 lye to cool off, and then preserve it for future use in well-corked 
 bottles. For use boil litharge in the lye until nothing more dis¬ 
 solves, and into this fluid, which represents the lead bath, place the 
 object to be leaded. The object is connected to the cathode of the 
 battery, a sheet of lead serving as the anode. In this manner all 
 metals can be provided with a lead coating. It is best to previously 
 copper iron in the galvanic manner. The same fluid can be used 
 for leading brass and copper by contact. The thoroughly cleansed 
 articles are suspended in the solution heated to the boiling point, 
 and touched with a piece of tin. The articles immediately become 
 coated with a coherent layer of lead, while the tin goes into solu¬ 
 tion. Coatings of lead are, however, more frequently produced in 
 a dry way than by leading in the galvanic manner or by contact. 
 The pickled sheets are dipped in a solution of sal-ammoniac, im¬ 
 mediately dried, and then immersed in the lead bath. Lead not 
 adhering well, especially to iron, this bath seldom consists of the 
 pure metal, alloys of lead and tin, of tin, lead, and antimony, or 
 of lead and zinc being generally used. According to a German 
 patent, the metals to be leaded are pickled in an acid—for iron it 
 is best to use dilute hydrochloric acid containing some zinc in 
 solution—and then tinned upon one side. The thoroughly tinned, 
 cleansed, and completely dry sheets are fixed horizontally with a 
 narrow rim or border of sand or metal around them, and heated 
 until the thin layer of tin upon the metal melts. Melted lead freed 
 as much as possible from oxide is then poured over the surface of 
 the sheets. The lead flows over the metal, and forming a lead- 
 tin alloy with the layer of tin, coats the sheet with a layer of 
 uniform thickness. A principal requisite is to heat the sheets to 
 between 428° and 447 0 F., the temperature at which the layer of 
 lead commences to melt. Small irregularities due to pouring the 
 metal are removed by hammering or passing the leaded sheets 
 through an ordinary plate-roll. Sheets of metal prepared in this 
 manner can be bent, rivetted, and hammered without causing a 
 separation of the lead from the other metal. 
 
 Improved Method of Covering Articles of Iron with Lead .—The 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 353 
 
 article of iron or steel is first cleaned (preferably by steel brushes), 
 then roughened by a sand-jet blower, washed over with a soldering 
 liquid, and plunged into a bath of molten lead. While in the bath 
 the article is brushed with steel brushes to insure intimate contact 
 between the lead and iron. The layer of lead thus obtained is too 
 thin to protect the iron from the action of acids, and the article is 
 subjected to a second operation. If it be a plate of iron or steel 
 it is fixed horizontally, with a narrow rim or border placed round 
 it, and it is then washed over with a soldering liquid, heated to 
 about 750° F., and molten lead is poured over its surface and 
 uniformly distributed. The height of the rim determines the 
 thickness of the layer of lead. The whole is then again heated to 
 a temperature above the melting-point of lead, and the surface 
 again brushed with steel brushes. The plate is then allowed to 
 cool, care being taken during the cooling of the sheet-iron or plate 
 to keep the layer of lead as long as possible above the melting-point 
 of lead by fresh additions of small quantities of molten lead. In 
 the case of pipes, boilers, or similar vessels, a suitable “core” or 
 casing is provided, and after treating the surface with soldering 
 liquid and heating to 75 2 0 F., the space between the article and 
 the “core” is filled with molten lead. The whole is then again 
 heated above the melting-point of lead, and finally allowed to cool 
 slowly, the lead again being kept as long as possible in a molten 
 state. 
 
 Ley son's Process of Leading .—The iron, sheet or wire, is first 
 pickled bright with acid, then brought into a solution of sal- 
 ammoniac, and dried. The melted lead is in an iron kettle or box, 
 whose upper cross-section is separated by a bridge-like partition, so 
 that it dips only very slightly into the melted lead. The lead on 
 one side of this partition is covered with sand, while on the other 
 side a few pieces of sal-ammoniac are thrown upon the surface to 
 prevent the formation of oxide. It is necessary to compound the 
 lead with some zinc, which is effected by stirring about every half 
 hour with a zinc rod dipped in a solution of sal-ammoniac, whereby 
 for every 330 lbs. of lead about 8.46 drachms of zinc alloy are 
 added. The iron sheets, previously pickled, washed in solution of 
 23 
 
354 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 sal-ammoniac, and quickly dried with the assistance of heat, are 
 then immersed in the lead bath prepared in the manner above 
 described. The sheets are introduced from the sal-ammoniac side, 
 carried through under the partition by means of tongs, and drawn 
 out through the layer of sand. 
 
 Alloys for Hot Leading. —I. Lead, 9 parts; tin, 1; antimony, 
 
 1. Melt under a cover of common salt, to which some chloride of 
 barium may be added. The pickled sheets of iron are immersed in 
 the melted mixture. 
 
 II. Lead, 7 to 8 parts; tin, 1 part; this alloy may be improved 
 and made more durable by the addition of some zinc and anti¬ 
 mony. 
 
 III. An alloy with 1 to 2 per cent, of tin and 6 per cent, of 
 arsenic is claimed to adhere well to iron, but on account of its 
 great content of arsenic it could only be used in very few cases. 
 
 IV. Tin, 3 parts; lead, 16; copper, 1; and antimony, 1 ; or, 
 tin, 3 parts ; and lead, 17. 
 
 Nickel Baths. —The extensive application of nickel-plating is 
 due to the elegant appearance of the plated ware, the constancy 
 of nickel when exposed to atmospheric influences, its hardness, 
 and the ease with which the operation is executed. 
 
 Preparation of the Metals to be Nickelled. —Iron and steel are 
 immersed for some time in boiling hot solution of caustic soda or 
 potash, then thoroughly brushed, rinsed in cold water and finally 
 dipped in an acid pickle of 1 part of sulphuric acid, 2 of hydro- 
 choloric acid and 10 of water, after which they are again rinsed, 
 thoroughly rubbed with fine, washed pumice-stone or Vienna lime, 
 rinsed off and at once brought into the bath. Fine polished in¬ 
 struments of iron and steel for surgical, dental and other purposes, 
 scissors, knives and telegraph instruments are treated in the same 
 manner, but in place of the washed pumice-stone they should be 
 brushed with whiting or tripoli, or, what is still better, with infu¬ 
 sorial earth. Brass, bronze, Britannia metal, etc., are also treated 
 with a hot solution of caustic soda or potash, then rubbed and 
 brushed, rinsed in water and at once placed in a solution of potas¬ 
 sium cyanide in water (8*^ ozs. of potassium cyanide to 4 quarts 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 355 
 
 of water). They are then cleansed with a bristle brush kept for 
 that purpose, carefully rinsed in water and at once brought into the 
 bath. The variegated colors produced upon brass by the action of 
 the solution of caustic soda disappear almost instantaneously in the 
 solution of cyanide, and a bright surface of the metal is sure to be 
 obtained. Special attention must be paid to the careful rinsing of 
 the articles, especially if they have hollow places and depressions, 
 after they have been treated in the solution of cyanide of potas¬ 
 sium, to prevent the nickel bath from being spoiled by the cyanide. 
 For many articles of brass having more or less dull and finely 
 polished places it is sufficient to dip them, after having been freed 
 from all fatty substances by boiling caustic soda lye and subsequent 
 rinsing in water, into the mixture of acids, then to rinse them 
 again and bring them at once into the bath. For iron castings or 
 filed articles the use of finely-sifted pumice or chalk is absolutely 
 necessary. Copper wire should be tightly wound around all metal¬ 
 lic articles and two or more wires around large articles. With ar¬ 
 ticles consisting of two metals, for instance iron with steel, or with 
 brass, the wire must be wound around both metals. Smaller 
 articles are suspended from copper hooks. The articles should not 
 be immersed in the nickelling bath until the battery or dynamo is 
 in action. The objects remain in the bath until they have acquired 
 a white color, which will require from 5 to 30 minutes, according 
 to the strength of the current and the number and size of the 
 articles suspended. Large objects of steel or iron require longer 
 than brass, copper, etc., and, if they fill the bath entirely, must 
 remain in it, according to circumstances, for several hours or an 
 entire night. In case the article to be nickelled assumes a gray or 
 black color, or feels gritty or rough, the current is too strong. The 
 appearance of a yellowish white coloration is due to too weak a 
 current. The article after its removal from the bath should im¬ 
 mediately be dipped for a few seconds in boiling water, then 
 allowed to drain off, dried in warm saw-dust free from rosin and, if 
 necessary, polished. Fine articles are rubbed with a polishing 
 brush or with soft leather and whiting. Burnishing the nickelled 
 articles with the steel is not admissible, as the coating is too hard 
 
356 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 and too brittle for such usage. The better the articles have 
 been polished before plating the more beautiful the nickelling 
 will be. 
 
 The composition of the baths depends partially on the nature of 
 the metals to be nickelled. While one and the same bath may be 
 used for nickelling all kinds of metal, some compositions offer 
 greater advantages for nickelling certain metals, on account of the 
 greater whiteness of the deposit obtained and the weaker current 
 required, etc. It is always best to use several baths and not to 
 nickel all kinds of metals in one and the same bath. It is, for in¬ 
 stance, entirely wrong to nickel zinc articles, even when previously 
 coppered in a bath in which iron and brass are treated. 
 
 A further requirement in nickelling is the use of pure nickel 
 salts free from other metals; the anodes must also be made of pure 
 nickel. 
 
 Boric acid, recommended by Weston as an addition to nickel 
 baths, as well as to other galvanic baths, has a favorable effect upon 
 the pure, white separation of nickel, especially in nickelling un¬ 
 ground surfaces. 
 
 The most Simple Nickel Bath consists of a solution of 8 to io 
 parts by weight of pure double sulphate of nickel and ammonium 
 in ioo parts by weight of distilled water; the solution if too acid 
 is neutralized to a slightly acid reaction with spirits of sal-ammo¬ 
 niac. The solution is prepared by boiling the salt with the cor¬ 
 responding quantity of water, using in summer io parts of nickel 
 salt to ioo of water, but in winter only 8 parts, to prevent the 
 nickel salt from crystallizing out. This bath requires a strong 
 current and cast nickel anodes. 
 
 Weston's Solution .—Double sulphate of nickel and ammonium, 
 io parts; refined boric acid, 2^ to 5; water, 150 to 200. The 
 nickel salt and boric acid may be dissolved separately in boiling 
 water, the solutions mixed and the volume brought up to that of 
 the formula, or the two components may be dissolved together. 
 
 Pott's Solution .—Acetate of nickel, 2parts; acetate of cal¬ 
 cium, 2^/2 ; water, 100. To each gallon of this solution add 1 oz. 
 acetic acid 1.047 specific gravity. 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 357 
 
 To prepare this bath dissolve about the same quantity of the dry 
 carbonate of nickel as that called for in the formula (or three- 
 quarters of that quantity of the hydrated oxide) in acetic acid, 
 adding the acid cautiously and heating until effervescence has 
 ceased, and solution is complete. The acetate of calcium may be 
 made by dissolving the same weight of carbonate of calcium (mar¬ 
 ble dust) as that called for in the formula (or one-half that quan¬ 
 tity of caustic lime) and treating it in the same manner. Add the 
 two solutions together, dilute the volume to the required amount 
 by the addition of water, and then to each gallon of the solution 
 add i oz. of free acetic acid. 
 
 Powell's Solutions. —I. Sulphate of nickel, 6 parts; citrate 
 of nickel, 3; phosphate of nickel, 3; benzoic acid, ij4; water, 
 200. 
 
 II. Phosphate of nickel, 10 parts ; citrate of nickel, 6; pyro¬ 
 phosphate of sodium, 10; bisulphide of sodium, 1 y 2 ; citric acid, 
 3; aqua ammonia, 15 ; water, 400. These solutions yield good 
 results, but their complex composition must debar them from 
 general use. 
 
 The following bath is much used in this country, and is especially 
 suitable for nickelling ground surgical instruments, as well as all 
 ground iron articles which are to be thickly and solidly nickelled. 
 It is also excellent for solid nickelling of copper, brass and bronze. 
 The deposit of nickel is white, dense and hard, and hence takes 
 a high polish without danger of the nickel grinding off. The bath 
 is prepared by dissolving the salts in boiling water, and when cool 
 adding small fragments of ammonium carbonate until the bath is 
 neutral to test-paper. It is composed of sulphate of nickel and 
 ammonium, 25)4 ozs, ; ammonium sulphate, 7.9 ozs. ; crystallized 
 citric acid, 1^ oz. ; water, 10 to 12 quarts. It requires a current 
 of 2 to 2.2 volts. 
 
 Baths for Rapidly Nickelling Cheap Articles. —I. Chloride of 
 nickel and sal-ammoniac each, 1.75 ozs. ; water, 1 quart; or, II. 
 Sulphate of nickel and ammonium, 2 ozs. ; sal-ammoniac, 1 oz. ; 
 and water, 1 quart. If too acid, neutralize both solutions with 
 
358 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 spirits of sal-ammoniac. The bath prepared with chloride of nickel 
 is preferably used for nickelling zinc lamps. 
 
 Nickel Baths for Special Purposes. —I. Sulphate of nickel and 
 ammonium, ioj 4 ozs. ; potassium citrate, 7 ozs. ; ammonium 
 chloride, io }4 ozs. ; water, 10 to 12 quarts. To prepare the bath 
 dissolve 10 ozs. of nickel sulphate and 3^2 ozs. of pure crystallized 
 citric acid in water, neutralize accurately with caustic potash and 
 then add the ammonium chloride. This bath is especially adapted 
 for quick nickelling of polished zinc wares previously slightly 
 coppered. The deposition is effected with a very feeble current 
 without the formation of black streaks such as otherwise are apt to 
 appear in nickelling with a feeble current. The deposit itself is 
 dull and somewhat gray, but acquires a very fine polish and pure 
 white color by slight treatment upon the polishing disks. With a 
 stronger current the bath is also suitable for the direct nickelling 
 of zinc articles; it must, however, be kept strictly neutral. The 
 bath works with rolled anodes, and requires but seldom a correction 
 of the reaction. 
 
 II. Phosphate of nickel, 8}4 ozs.; sodium pyrophosphate, 26^ 
 ozs. ; water, 10 to 15 quarts. Dissolve the sodium pyrophosphate 
 in water, heat the solution to about 167° F. and add the phosphate 
 of nickel with constant stirring. The phosphate of nickel is ob¬ 
 tained as a pale green powder by precipitating solution of nickel 
 sulphate with sodium phosphate. This bath yields a very fine dark 
 nickelling upon iron, brass, copper, etc., as well as directly without 
 previous coppering upon sheet zinc and zinc castings, and may be 
 advantageously used for decorative purposes where darker tones of 
 nickel are demanded. 
 
 III. A fairly good nickel bath for electro-platers, having but a 
 feeble current at their disposal, is obtained from a solution of sul¬ 
 phate of nickel and ammonium, 22^ ozs. ; sulphate of magnesia, 
 11 ozs. ; water, 10 to 12 quarts. This bath precipitates readily 
 and strongly, and a thick coating can be deposited upon iron with¬ 
 out fear of peeling off; even zinc may be directly nickelled with a 
 comparatively feeble current. The deposit is, however, rather 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 359 
 
 soft, with a yellowish tinge, and the bath does not remain constant 
 as the anodes are but slightly attacked. 
 
 New Nickel Baths. —I. The following formulae have been 
 recently recommended, but do not offer any advantages over those 
 previously given. 
 
 I. Dissolve 25 y 2 ozs. of neutral ammonium tartrate, 35^ ozs. 
 of sulphate of nickel, and 77 grains of tannin in 20 quarts of 
 water. 
 
 II. Dissolve 17^ ozs. of sulphate of nickel, 9*^ ozs. of tartaric 
 acid and 2^ ozs. of caustic potash in 10 quarts of water. 
 
 In nickelling, either cast or rolled plates of nickel are used as 
 anodes, some baths requiring cast anodes besides rolled anodes in 
 various proportions; it can here only be indicated that the correct 
 proportion is that by which the original acidity of the bath is 
 maintained during the operation. 
 
 As regards the surface of the anodes to be suspended in the bath, 
 it may be laid down as a rule that it should be at least equal in 
 size to the surface of the articles to be nickelled; in most cases it 
 is, however, best that it should be larger. For suspending the 
 anodes it is best to use strong hooks of pure nickel wire ; with flat 
 articles the distance of the anodes from them should be from 3^ 
 to 4inches, and correspondingly more with objects in high 
 relief. 
 
 Careful regulation of the current is required for the production 
 of thick deposits. The following may be laid down as a rule : In 
 2 or 3 minutes the articles should show themselves plainly and 
 everywhere coated with nickel, and no violent development of gas 
 bubbles should be seen. If a deposit of nickel is not observed 
 after 2 or 3 minutes the current is too feeble, and if, on the other 
 hand, a strong development of gas takes place, the current is too 
 strong; in the first case the current must be strengthened and, in 
 the latter, decreased; as otherwise the articles are apt to “burn,” 
 that is, the metal will be precipitated as a dark-gray or black 
 deposit which discolors and renders it useless. 
 
 With a correctly regulated current it must be possible to allow 
 the articles to remain in the bath, without burning, for J^to 2 hours, 
 
360 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 according to the composition of the bath. The sufficient thickness 
 of the deposit is recognized by the dead-bluish tinge the articles 
 assume; when in this state they take up but little more nickel and, 
 if they are to have a thicker deposit, must be scratch-brushed and 
 then quickly returned to the bath. Articles to be coated with 
 a thick deposit must be turned in the bath, that is, they must after 
 some time be so suspended that the portions which first were down 
 come up. Copper, brass, bronze, German silver, iron and steel 
 are generally nickelled directly; but zinc, tin, lead and Britannia 
 ware are coppered or brassed before nickelling. Small articles 
 which cannot be suspended are nickelled in a sieve, it being best 
 to heat the bath for this purpose. The nickelled articles are 
 thoroughly rinsed in water, then immersed in hot water until they 
 have acquired the temperature of the water, dried in saw-dust and 
 finally polished. 
 
 Nickelling of Knife-blades, Sharp Surgical Instruments, etc.— 
 Most electro-platers experience considerable trouble in nickelling 
 sharp-edged instruments, the edges and points being invariably 
 spoiled either by the deposit of nickel or in polishing. The fol¬ 
 lowing directions are given for the convenient nickelling of such 
 instruments without any damage being done to the edges. 
 
 New articles, which have not been used, require no special prepa¬ 
 ration. they being at once freed from grease and brought into the 
 bath. But instruments which have been used and are partly or 
 entirely coated with rust must first be ground after the removal of 
 the rust by chemical or mechanical means. The marks left by the 
 stone or emery-wheel are effaced by means of the circular brush. 
 But in brushing the edges become again dull if special precautionary 
 measures are not used. For instance, the edge of a knife-blade 
 must never come in contact with the brush. This is prevented by 
 firmly pressing the blade flat upon a soft support of felt or cloth, 
 so that the edge sinks somewhat into the support without, however, 
 cutting into it. The edge is then held downward and thus to¬ 
 gether with the support brought against the revolving brush. In 
 this manner the blades can be vigorously brushed without fear, of 
 spoiling the edges. 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COrPERTNG, ETC. 
 
 361 
 
 The treatment in giving them a high polish after nickelling is 
 the same. Freeing from grease may be done in the usual manner 
 with lime-paste, but must also be effected upon a soft support, the 
 same as in polishing. After thorough rinsing in clean water the 
 separate pieces, without being previously coppered, are brought di¬ 
 rectly into the nickel bath, the composition of which must, of 
 course, be suitable for nickelling steel articles. The instruments 
 are first coated with the use of a strong current, the operation be¬ 
 ing then continued with a weak current, so that the deposition 
 takes place slowly and with great uniformity. 
 
 In suspending the articles in the bath care should be had that 
 neither a point nor an edge is turned towards the anodes. It is 
 best to use a bath with anodes only on one side, or to interrupt the 
 positive conduction on one side, and to suspend the blades with 
 their backs towards the anodes. If, for any reason, the instruments 
 are to be suspended between two rows of anodes, the edges should 
 be uppermost as near as possible to the level of the bath; they 
 should never hang deep or downwards. 
 
 Phenomena which may Occur in Nickelling, and the Means of 
 Avoiding them. —1. Thearticles do not become coated with nickel but 
 acquire discolored, generally darker, tones. Reasojis : The current is 
 either too feeble to effect a separation of nickel, and the discolor¬ 
 ation is due to the chemical action of the nickel solution upon the 
 constituent metals of the articles. Remedy: Increase the current 
 or diminish the surface of suspended articles; also examine 
 whether the current actually passes into the bath, otherwise clean 
 the contacts. 
 
 2. A deposition of nickel takes place, but it is dark or spotted 
 or marbled, even with a sufficiently strong current. Reasons: 
 The bath is either alkaline, which has to be ascertained by litmus 
 paper and, if so, the slightly acid reaction of the bath must be re¬ 
 stored by the addition of a suitable acid ; or, the bath is too con¬ 
 centrated, in which case a separation of crystals will be observed; 
 this is remedied by diluting with water; or, the nickel solution is 
 very poor in metal, which can be remedied by the addition of 
 nickel salt; it should also be tested as to the admixture of copper, 
 
362 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S nANDY-BOOK. 
 
 since the production of dark tones is frequently due to this; in 
 this case the bath is allowed to work for some time, and if the 
 content of copper is inconsiderable a white deposit will soon be 
 obtained ; or, the cleaning and dipping of the articles has been 
 incomplete, which is remedied by again thoroughly cleaning them ; 
 or, the conducting power of the bath is insufficient, which is 
 remedied by the addition of a suitable conducting salt. 
 
 When freshly prepared baths yield dark nickelling it can gener¬ 
 ally be remedied by working the bath 2 or 3 hours. 
 
 3. A yellowish tinge of the nickelling. Reasons: Alkalinity 
 of the bath. Remedy : See under 2 ; or, with cast-iron, an insuf¬ 
 ficient metallic surface, which is remedied by repeating the scratch- 
 brushing; or, unsuitable composition of the bath. 
 
 4. The articles rapidly acquire a white deposit of nickel, 
 but the color soon changes to dull gray-black, especially on the 
 deepest corners and edges. Reason: Too strong a current. 
 Remedies: Regulating the current, or hanging in more articles, or 
 taking out elements. Frequent turning of the articles. 
 
 5. The nickelling is white, but readily peels off by scratching 
 with the finger-nail, or by the action of the polishing-disk. 
 Reasons: The current is either too strong, which is remedied as 
 under 4; or, the bath is too acid. This is remedied by the addi¬ 
 tion of spirit of sal-ammoniac, potassium carbonate or carbonate 
 of nickel, according to the composition of the bath ; or, insuf¬ 
 ficient cleaning and dipping, which is remedied by thorough clean¬ 
 ing after removing the unsuccessful deposit and, if it cannot be 
 entirely removed, coppering. 
 
 6. Though nickelling may proceed in a regular manner some 
 places remain free from deposit. Reasons: Either some of the 
 surfaces of the articles touch each other, or air-bubbles are in¬ 
 closed in cavities; or, faulty arrangement of the anodes. Remedy: 
 Removal of the causes. 
 
 7. The deposit appears with small holes. Reasons: A deposit 
 of particles of dust upon the articles. Remedy: Remove the dust 
 from the surface. When there is a general turbidity of the bath in 
 consequence of alkalinity, add the most suitable acid and boil and 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 363 
 
 filter the bath ; or, insufficient removal of gas-bubbles from the 
 articles. Remedy: Shake the negative poles by blows with the 
 finger. 
 
 8. Deposition takes place promptly upon the portions of the 
 articles next to the anodes, while deeper portions remain free from 
 nickel or become black; or the portions covered by the suspending 
 wire show dark lines. Reason: Insufficient conducting power of 
 the bath. With large depressions this is not remedied by the 
 addition of a suitable conducting salt, but requires treatment with 
 the hand anode. 
 
 To Improve Defective Nickelling. —With the brass parts thoroughly 
 cleansed defective places should not occur, but when they happen 
 by accident or negligence recourse is had to the so-called “ doctor.” 
 This consists of a piece of nickel anode connected to the positive 
 pole by a thin copper wire. Around this piece of nickel, which 
 is about the size of a finger, a piece of ordinary muslin is wrapped 
 several times. The defective article is then held on top of the 
 positive pole, and, after dipping the piece of nickel in the nickel 
 solution until the muslin is thoroughly soaked, it is moved to and 
 fro over the defective place, a nickel coating being thus formed. 
 Defects in gilding or silvering may be remedied in the same man¬ 
 ner, a piece of gold or silver and the corresponding solution being 
 of course used. 
 
 To Nickel Polished Objects of Iron or Steel Without the use of a 
 Battery. —The method of coating metallic objects with a thin layer 
 of nickel without the use of a galvanic battery consists in placing 
 the article to be nickelled in a solution of chloride of zinc and a 
 nickel salt. Since, however, by this method of nickelling, stains 
 may readily occur where the metal comes in contact with the zinc, 
 which afterwards would have to be removed by polishing, a special 
 process is employed. To a dilute 5 to 10 per cent, solution of 
 chloride of zinc add enough nickel sulphate to give the solution a 
 deep green-color, and then heat, best in a porcelain vessel, to the 
 boiling point. Then, without troubling about the turbidity of the 
 bath caused by the separation of a basic nickel salt, immerse the 
 articles, previously cleansed and freed from grease, in it in such a 
 
364 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 manner that they do not touch each other, or at least only in a few 
 places, and keep the whole boiling for 30 to 60 minutes, from time, 
 to time replacing the water lost by evaporation. During the boiling a 
 bright layer of nickel is precipitated upon all portions of the 
 objects free from grease or oxide. The boiling may without injury 
 be continued for hours, though the thickness of the layer of nickel 
 will not be essentially increased thereby. The articles being 
 uniformly nickelled are taken from the bath, rinsed off in water, 
 holding some chalk in suspension, and then carefully dried. The 
 layer of nickel thus produced will bear polishing with chalk, and 
 the process may be recommended for articles requiring a thin but 
 firmly adhering coating. The chloride of zinc used must not con¬ 
 tain any metal precipitable by iron. Where commercial chloride 
 of zinc of a sufficiently good quality cannot be had, it is best pre¬ 
 pared by dissolving zinc waste in pure hydrochloric acid and allow¬ 
 ing the solution to stand with an excess of zinc for the precipitation 
 of metals precipitable by zinc. After 24 hours the solution is 
 filtered off and is ready for use, whereby it has to be taken into 
 consideration that it contains for every part of dissolved metallic 
 zinc nearly 2.1 parts of chloride of zinc. The nickel sulphate 
 used should also be as pure as possible, and the cold solution, 
 when brought in contact with bright iron, must especially not de¬ 
 posit any metal, for instance, copper, precipitable by iron. Dur¬ 
 ing the operation, when in consequence of the formation of a 
 layer of nickel, the bath shows a pale green color, fresh nickel salt 
 must be added until the intense green color reappears. The fluid 
 used for nickelling separates, on standing in the air, ferric hydrate, 
 from which it is freed by filtering, and it can then be repeatedly 
 re-used for nickelling after adding some solution of chloride of 
 zinc and nickel sulphate. With the use of cobalt sulphate a 
 lustrous layer of metallic cobalt can in the same manner be pre¬ 
 cipitated upon polished objects of iron and steel. 
 
 To Imitate Nickel-plating .—A sort of light nickel-plating is 
 obtained by heating a bath of pure granulated tin, crude tartar and 
 water to the boiling point and adding some nickel oxide heated to 
 a red-heat. A brass or copper object immersed in the solution 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 365 
 
 becomes immediately coated with nearly pure nickel. By adding 
 some carbonate or tartrate of cobalt the fluid acquires a bluish 
 coloration, the intensity of which depends on the quantity of 
 cobalt used. While this method cannot be advantageously used 
 for plating on a large scale it is serviceable for small work. 
 
 Platinum Baths .—The platinum baths formerly proposed did 
 not yield quite satisfactory results, the content of platinum being 
 too small in some of them, and with others dense deposits could 
 not be obtained. A new formula by Bottger gives, however, quite 
 a good bath. A moderately dilute boiling solution of sodium 
 citrate is added to platoso-ammonium chloride until an excess of 
 the latter does no longer dissolve even after continued boiling. 
 The following proportions have been found very suitable: Dis¬ 
 solve 17^ ozs. of citric acid in 2 quarts of water, and neutralize 
 with caustic soda. To the boiling solution add, with constant 
 stirring, the platoso-ammonium chloride freshly precipitated from 
 2.64 ozs. of platinum chloride, heat until solution is complete, 
 allow to cool and dilute with water to 5 quarts. To decrease the 
 resistance of the bath to conductivity 0.7 or 0.8 oz. of sal- 
 ammoniac may be added ; a larger addition, however, causes the 
 separation of dark-colored platinum. 
 
 The platoso-ammonium chloride is prepared by adding to a con¬ 
 centrated solution of platinum chloride concentrated solution of 
 sal-ammoniac until a yellow precipitate is no longer formed on 
 adding a further drop of sal-ammoniac solution to a filtered sample 
 of the fluid. The precipitate is filtered off and brought into the 
 boiling solution of sodium citrate. This bath works very uniformly 
 if the content of platinum is from time to time replenished. 
 
 “The Bright Platinum Plating Company,” of London, has 
 recently patented the following composition of a platinum bath : 
 Chloride of platinum, 0.98 oz. ; sodium phosphate, 19^ ozs. ; 
 ammonium phosphate, 3.95 ozs. ; sodium chloride, 0.98 oz. ; and 
 borax, 0.35 oz., are dissolved with the aid of heat in 6 to 8 quarts 
 of water, and the solution is boiled for 10 hours, the water lost by 
 evaporation being constantly replaced. The results obtained with 
 this bath are not much better than those with Bdttger’s bath. 
 
3G6 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The following bath has been recommended by Prof. Silvanus P. 
 Thompson: Chloride of platinum, 2 parts; sodium borate, 16; 
 sodium carbonate, 16; sal-ammoniac, 2; water, 150. 
 
 Platinum baths must be used hot, and even then require a cur¬ 
 rent of 5 to 6 volts tension. An abundant development of gas 
 must appear on the articles and the anodes; the surface of the 
 anodes (platinum anodes) must not be too small, and must be only 
 a few centimetres distance from the articles. Since the platinum 
 anodes do not dissolve, the content of platinum in the bath be¬ 
 comes constantly smaller, and the bath must from time to time be 
 strengthened. It is then heated in a porcelain dish or enamelled 
 iron vessel to the boiling-point, some fresh solution of sodium 
 citrate is added, and platoso-ammonium chloride introduced as 
 long as it dissolves. A concentrated solution of platoso-ammonium 
 chloride may be kept on hand, and a small quantity of it at inter¬ 
 vals be added to the bath. 
 
 To Platinize Copper .—Dissolve platinum in aqua regia, and pre¬ 
 cipitate the solution with sal-ammoniac. Dilute this precipitate 
 with much water, and expose it in a well-luted receiver to a mod¬ 
 erately strong heat for half an hour until the receiver is glowing 
 hot. By this process the precipitate is converted into a gray pow¬ 
 der, which is nothing else but very finely divided platinum. A 
 portion of this powder is rubbed with 5 parts of mercury in a thor¬ 
 oughly heated mortar. From the mass thus obtained a thick 
 amalgam is formed, to which 2 parts more of mercury are added 
 in order to make it more pliant. This platinum amalgam when 
 applied to polished copper adheres very firmly. The operation 
 succeeds still better by mixing some chalk with the amalgam. 
 Copper coated in this manner with platinum acquires by polishing 
 the lustre of silver. 
 
 To Platinize by the Wet Method .—The fluid required for coating 
 metals by this method with a layer of platinum is prepared by dis¬ 
 solving 1 part of chloride of platinum and 1 part of pure honey in 
 8 parts of water, adding to the solution 6 parts of spirits of wine 
 and 2 of ether, and filtering the mixture if necessary. After thor¬ 
 oughly cleansing and drying the articles, heat them over a flame, 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 367 
 
 but so that they do not touch it, not quite to a red heat, and then 
 suddenly immerse them in the platinizing solution. Generally, 
 immersing for one minute suffices, but if necessary repeat the opera¬ 
 tion, the articles, before heating, being again washed and dried. 
 The solution of platinum may be weaker or stronger than that given 
 above, and of course the appearance of the layer of platinum depos¬ 
 ited upon the articles will be accordingly. It will be readily seen 
 that this process is only suitable for small objects, the consumption 
 of alcohol and ether making it rather expensive. 
 
 Metals can also be coated in the wet way with a layer of platinum 
 by cleansing them thoroughly and then putting them in a solution 
 of i part of platoso-ammonium chloride in 64 parts of water heated 
 to 167° F. In the course of 1 to 5 minutes they are taken out, and 
 the coating of platinum polished with whiting. 
 
 A moistened mixture of platoso-ammonium chloride and tartar 
 may be used for platinizing in the cold way, while for platinizing 
 by boiling a solution of chloride of platinum rendered slightly 
 alkaline with carbonate of soda is used. The articles are immersed 
 into the solution, previously heated to between 131° and 140° F., 
 and when taken out rinsed in water, and rubbed with soft, dry 
 leather. All the coatings obtained by the processes given above 
 are very delicate, but they produce splendid effects upon orna¬ 
 ments and statues. It is recommended to protect them with a 
 varnish of wax dissolved in oil of turpentine, or of paraffine dis¬ 
 solved in benzine. 
 
 To Coat Metals with Platinum in a Cheap Way .—Iron articles 
 are first coated with a mixture of borate of lead, oxide of copper, 
 and oil of turpentine, and then exposed to a temperature of between 
 482° and 626° F., whereby the coating fuses and spreads uniformly 
 over the iron, penetrating its pores. If the articles are to have a 
 smooth surface (enamel-like appearance) a second coating consist¬ 
 ing of borate of lead, oxide of lead, and oil of lavender, is in the 
 same manner applied to the first. Upon both coatings a thin, uni¬ 
 form layer of platinum can be readily deposited by the application 
 by means of a brush (or for smaller objects by immersion) of a 
 solution of dry platinic chloride in ether and volatile oils, and 
 
368 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 evaporating the fluid at a temperature not exceeding 392 0 F. ; very 
 finely divided platinum is separated, which adheres firmly to the 
 surface. If the articles have been provided only with the first- 
 mentioned coating the precipitated platinum shows a dull color. 
 Such treatment suffices for articles which are simply to be protected 
 from wear and tear. For the attainment of decorative effects it is, 
 however, recommended to provide the articles to be platinized with 
 both the coatings mentioned above. The many uses to which this 
 process can be put, as well as its cheapness and the great power of 
 resistance of the coating, make it of special value for large indus¬ 
 tries. 
 
 Silver Baths .—These are solutions of silver salts in potassium 
 cyanide, the content of silver varying from 0.35 to 0.88 oz. of fine 
 silver per quart, according to the desired thickness of the deposit. 
 For ordinary galvanic silvering 0.35 oz. of fine silver (= 0.56 oz. 
 of nitrate of silver, or 0.47 oz. of chloride of silver) is dissolved in 
 a solution of 0.7 oz. of 98 per cent, potassium cyanide in 1 quart 
 of water. 
 
 For heavy silvering of knives, forks, etc., a stronger bath is used : 
 0.88 oz. of fine silver ( = 1.17 oz. of chloride of silver, or 1.03 oz. 
 of cyanide of silver) is dissolved in a solution of 1.75 oz. of 98 per 
 cent, potassium cyanide in 1 quart of water. 
 
 No accurate statement can actually be made in regard to the con¬ 
 tent of potassium cyanide in the bath, as it depends on the strength 
 of the current used. With a very weak current, and consequently 
 slow precipitation, somewhat more potassium cyanide may be used 
 than with a stronger current and more rapid precipitation. The 
 appearance of the anodes, for which sheets of fine silver are used, 
 moreover, indicates whether the bath contains too much or too 
 little potassium cyanide. They should become gray during silver¬ 
 ing, and gradually reassume their white color after the interruption 
 of the current. If they remain white during silvering the bath 
 contains too much potassium cyanide, and, if they turn black and 
 retain this color after the interruption of the current, potassium 
 cyanide is wanting. With a correct content of potassium cyanide 
 a beautiful, fine-grained deposit is obtained, with a strength of 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 369 
 
 current of 0.15 to 0.25 amperes per 15^ square inches and 0.5 to 
 0.75 volt. The deposit of silver is always dull. 
 
 It is claimed that by the addition of some bisulphide of carbon, 
 tar oil, etc., to the silver bath a lustrous instead of a dull coating 
 is obtained. Some bisulphide of carbon is added to a small quan¬ 
 tity of the silver bath, and after thorough shaking, some of this 
 fluid which has absorbed small quantities of bisulphide of carbon 
 is added to the silver bath. 
 
 It is advisable to frequently move the articles to be silvered in 
 the bath, as otherwise streaks are apt to form ; in large electro¬ 
 plating establishments the articles are kept in constant motion by 
 mechanical devices. 
 
 Before silvering the metals must first be prepared; if silver were 
 directly precipitated upon copper, brass or German silver, the 
 coating would not adhere, and to attain this the metals must first 
 be amalgamated. This is done by dipping the articles, previously 
 freed from grease, in a dilute solution of mercurous nitrate (30 to 
 150 grains per quart); they remain in the solution only long 
 enough to become uniformly white. They are then rinsed in 
 water, brushed off with a soft brush and immediately brought into 
 the silver bath. Iron, steel, nickel, zinc, tin, lead and Britannia 
 ware must first be coppered and then amalgamated before being 
 brought into the silver bath. 
 
 The articles remain in the bath until they show a dead-white 
 coating (10 to 15 minutes), when they are taken out, brushed with 
 a not too fine brass scratch-brush to ascertain that the deposit 
 adheres, freed from grease, amalgamated and again brought into 
 the bath, where they remain until the required thickness of the 
 deposit is obtained. Before taking the articles from the bath they 
 are allowed to remain suspended for a few seconds, with the current 
 shut off or reversed, which prevents the deposit from turning 
 yellow. 
 
 If the articles are to retain the beautiful white crystalline mat 
 with which they come from the bath, they must, without being 
 touched with the fingers or striking against the sides of the vessel, 
 be thoroughly rinsed in water, then dipped in clean hot water and 
 24 
 
370 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S nANDY-BOOK. 
 
 hung up free to dry. Immediately after drying they must be pro¬ 
 vided with a coating of colorless lacquer, as the silver quickly 
 turns yellow, and besides is very sensitive. 
 
 Forks and spoons of German silver are frequently silvered so 
 that the deposit is thicker on the places subject to the most wear. 
 This is effected by laying the silvered articles between plates of 
 gutta-percha of a corresponding shape, and held together by rubber 
 bands. In these plates the places to be further silvered are cut 
 out. By suspending the forks and spoons thus covered in the bath 
 the unprotected places receive a further layer of silver, the outlines 
 of which are later on smoothed down with the burnisher. 
 
 The silvered articles are finally scratch-brushed, they being 
 frequently moistened during this operation with decoction of soap- 
 root ; they are then dried in clean, fine saw-dust, and finally re¬ 
 ceive a high lustre by polishing with the steel or blood-stone. 
 
 Silvering by Contact .—For silvering by contact with zinc the 
 following bath may be used: 98 per cent, potassium cyanide, 8.11 
 to 8.81 ozs. ; fine silver (in the form of chloride of silver or nitrate 
 of silver), 3.52 ozs. ; distilled water, 10 quarts. To prepare this 
 bath dissolve 5.64 ozs. of chemically pure crystallized nitrate of 
 silver in 5 quarts of distilled water, then dissolve the potassium 
 cyanide in the remaining 5 quarts and mix both solutions. The 
 articles to be silvered must be thoroughly cleansed by pickling and 
 amalgamated by dipping into a solution of 0.35 oz. of nitrate of 
 mercury in 1 quart of water, to which, gradually and with con¬ 
 stant stirring, pure nitric acid is added until a clear fluid results. 
 In this mercury solution the articles remain until they are uniformly 
 covered with a white coating. They are then rinsed off in water 
 and, in case the amalgamation shows a gray instead of a white tint, 
 brushed. Before placing the articles in the bath they are wrapped 
 round with bright zinc wire or are brought in contact with a bright 
 strip of zinc while in the bath, care being had to frequently change 
 the points of contact to prevent the formation of stains. By the 
 contact of the metal to be silvered with the electro-positive zinc, a 
 weak current is produced which effects the deposition of the sil¬ 
 ver ; but this taking place very slowly, it is best to heat the silver 
 
ELECTRO-PLATJNG, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 371 
 
 bath. At the same time silver is precipitated upon the zinc and 
 hence the latter must be frequently freed from the precipitate and 
 brightened by means of a file or emery-paper. 
 
 Silvering by Dipping .—For silvering by this process articles of 
 copper, brass or any other alloy of copper, as well as coppered and 
 brassed wares, the following solution is recommended: Crystallized 
 nitrate of silver, 5.64 drachms; 98 percent, potassium cyanide, 1.23 
 ozs.; water, 1 quart. To prepare the bath dissolve the silver salt in 
 1 pint of distilled water, then the potassium cyanide in the remain¬ 
 ing pint of water and mix the two solutions. The bath is heated in 
 a porcelain or enamelled iron vessel to between 176° and 194 0 F. 
 and the thoroughly cleansed and pickled articles immersed in it 
 until they are uniformly silvered ; previous amalgamation is not 
 necessary. The precipitate is lustrous if the articles are left but a 
 short time in the bath, but becomes dull when they remain longer; 
 in the first case the deposit of silver is a mere film and, while it is 
 somewhat thicker in the latter, it can under no circumstances be 
 called solid. 
 
 According to Dr. Ebermayer the composition of a silver bath for 
 dipping is as follows : Dissolve 1.12 ozs. of nitrate of silver in water 
 and precipitate the solution with caustic potash ; then thoroughly wash 
 the precipitated silver oxide and dissolve it in 1 quart of water, 
 which contains 3.52 ozs. of potassium cyanide in solution, and finally 
 dilute the whole with 1 quart more of water. For silvering the bath 
 is heated to the boiling point, and the silver withdrawn may be re¬ 
 placed by the addition of moist silver oxide as long as complete 
 dissolution takes place. When the silvering is no longer beautiful 
 and of a pure white color the bath is useless and is then evaporated. 
 
 Blanching .—The process known under this name is used for 
 coating with a thin film, or rather coloring, with silver small ar¬ 
 ticles, such as hooks and eyes, pins, etc. It differs from the above- 
 described dipping process, which effects the silvering in a few 
 seconds, in that the articles require to be boiled for a longer time. 
 The process is as follows : Prepare a paste from 14.11 drachms of 
 nitrate of silver precipitated as chloride of silver, 44 ozs. of cream 
 of tartar and a like quantity of common salt, by precipitating the 
 
372 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 solution of the nitrate of silver with hydrochloric acid, washing 
 the chloride of silver and mixing it with the above-mentioned 
 quantities of cream of tartar, common salt and sufficient water to 
 a paste, which is kept in dark glass to prevent the chloride of silver 
 from being decomposed by the light. Small articles of copper or 
 brass are first freed from fat and pickled. Then heat in an en¬ 
 amelled kettle 3 to 5 quarts of rain water to the boiling point, add 
 2 or 3 heaping tablespoon fills of the above-mentioned paste and 
 bring the metallic objects contained in a stone-ware sieve into the 
 bath and stir them diligently with a rod of glass or wood. Before 
 placing a fresh lot of articles in the bath the addition of silver 
 paste must be renewed; if finally the bath acquires a greenish 
 color, caused by the dissolved copper, it is no longer suitable for 
 the purpose, and is then evaporated and added to the silver 
 residues. 
 
 Cold Silvering. —In this process an argentiferous paste composed 
 as given below is rubbed by means of the finger, a piece of soft 
 leather or a rag upon the cleansed and pickled metallic surface 
 (copper, brass or other alloys of copper) until it is entirely sil¬ 
 vered. The paste may also be rubbed in a mortar with some water 
 to a thinly fluid, uniform mass which is applied with a brush to the 
 surface to be silvered. By heating the metal, and subsequent 
 washing, the silvering appears. The application of the paste by 
 means of a brush is chiefly made use of for decorating with silver, 
 articles thinly gilded by dipping. For articles not gilded, the 
 above-mentioned rubbing on of the stiff paste is to be preferred. 
 
 Composition of A?'gentiferous Pastes. —I. Silver in the form of 
 freshly precipitated chloride of silver,* 0.35 oz. ; common salt, 
 0.35 oz. ; potash, 0.7 oz. ; whiting, 0.52 oz., and water, a suffi¬ 
 cient quantity to form the ingredients into a stiff paste. 
 
 II. Silver in the form of freshly prepared chloride of silver,* 
 0.35 oz. ; potassium cyanide, 1.05 oz. ; sufficient water to dissolve 
 these two ingredients to a clear solution and enough whiting to 
 form the whole into a stiff paste. This paste is also excellent for 
 polishing tarnished silver; it is, however, poisonous. 
 
 * From 0.56 oz. of nitrate of silver. 
 
ELECTRO PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 37? 
 
 The following composition, which is not poisonous, does excel¬ 
 lent service: Silver in the form of chloride of silver, 0.35 oz. ; 
 cream of tartar, 0.7 oz.; common salt, 0.7 oz., and sufficient water 
 to form the mixture of the ingredients into a stiff paste. 
 
 Graining .—In gilding parts of watches, gold is seldom directly 
 applied upon the copper; there is generally a preliminary opera¬ 
 tion called graining by which a grained and slightly dead appear¬ 
 ance is given to the articles. Marks of the file are obliterated by 
 rubbing upon a whet stone and lastly upon an oil stone. Any oil 
 or grease is removed by boiling the parts for a few minutes in a 
 solution of 10 parts of caustic soda or potash in 100 of water, 
 which should wet them entirely if all the oil has been removed. 
 The articles being threaded upon a brass wire, cleanse them rapidly 
 in the compound acids for a bright lustre and dry them carefully in 
 white wood saw-dust. The pieces are fastened upon the even side 
 of a block of cork by brass pins with flat heads. The parts are 
 then thoroughly rubbed over with a brush, entirely free from grease, 
 and dipped into a paste of water and very fine pumice-stone pow¬ 
 der. Move the brush in circles in order not to rub one side 
 more than the other; thoroughly rinse in clean water, and no par¬ 
 ticle of pumice-stone should remain upon the pieces or the cork. 
 Next place the cork and the pieces in a weak mercurial solution, 
 composed of water, z\ gallons ; nitrate or binoxide of mercury, 
 oz. ; sulphuric acid, { oz., which slightly whitens the copper. 
 The pieces are passed quickly through the solution and then rinsed. 
 This operation gives strength to the graining, which, without it, 
 possesses no adherence. The following preparations may be used 
 for graining: 
 
 I. Silver in impalpable powder, 2 ozs. ; finely pulverized cream 
 of tartar, 20 ozs. ; pulverized common salt, 4 lbs. 
 
 II. Silver powder, 1 oz. ; cream of tartar, 4 to 5 ozs. ; common 
 salt, 13 ozs. 
 
 III. Silver powder, common salt and cream of tartar, equal 
 parts by weight of each. The mixture of the three ingredients 
 must be thorough and effected at a moderate and protracted heat. 
 The graining is the coarser the more common salt there is in the 
 
374 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 mixture, and it is the finer and more condensed as the proportion 
 of cream of tartar is greater, but it is then more difficult to scratch¬ 
 brush. The silver powder is obtained as follows: Dissolve in a 
 glass or porcelain vessel y$ oz. of crystallized nitrate of silver in 
 2*4 gallons of distilled water and place 5 or 6 bands of cleansed 
 copper y inch wide in the solution. These bands should be long 
 enough to allow of a portion being above the liquid. The whole 
 is kept in a dark place and from time to time stirred with the cop¬ 
 per bands. This motion is sufficient to loosen the deposited silver 
 and present fresh surfaces to the action of the liquor. When no 
 more silver deposits on the copper the operation is complete, and 
 there remains a blue solution of nitrate of copper. The silver 
 powder is washed by decantation, or upon a filter, until there re¬ 
 mains nothing of the copper solution. It is then carefully dried, 
 avoiding all pressure to prevent balling. 
 
 Nuremberg Graining Powder is produced by grinding a mixture 
 of honey and silver-foil upon a ground plate-glass with a muller 
 until the proper fineness is obtained. The silver is separated by 
 dissolving the honey in boiling water and washing the deposited 
 metal in a filter until no trace of honey remains. The silver is 
 then carefully dried at a gentle heat. 
 
 For the purpose of graining, a thin paste is made of one of the 
 above powders and water and spread by means of a spatula upon 
 the watch parts held upon the cork. The cork itself is placed upon 
 an earthenware dish, to which a rotating movement is imparted by 
 the left hand. An oval brush with close bristles, held in the right 
 hand, rubs the watch parts in every direction but always with a ro¬ 
 tatory motion. A new quantity of paste is added two or three 
 times and rubbed in the manner indicated. The more the brush 
 and cork are turned the rounder becomes the grain, which is a good 
 quality; and the more paste added the larger the grain. When 
 the desired grain is obtained the pieces are washed and scratch- 
 brushed. The brushes employed are of brass wires as fine as hair 
 and very stiff and springy. It is necessary to anneal them upon an 
 even fire to different degrees; one soft or half annealed, for the 
 first operation or uncovering the grain ; one harder, for bringing 
 
ELECTEO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 375 
 
 lip the lustre ; and one very soft or fully annealed, used before 
 gilding for removing any marks which may have been made by 
 the preceding tool and for scratch-brushing after the gilding, 
 which, like the graining, must be done by giving a rotary motion 
 to the tool. If it happens that the same watch part is composed 
 of copper and steel, the latter metal requires to be preserved against 
 the action of the cleansing acids and of the graining mixture by a 
 composition called resist. This consists in covering the pinions 
 and other steel parts with a fatty composition which is suffi¬ 
 ciently hard to resist the tearing action of the bristle and wire 
 brushes and insoluble in the alkalies of the gilding bath. A good 
 composition is: yellow wax, 2 parts by weight; colophony, 3^ ; 
 extra fine red sealing-wax, 1 yi ; polishing rouge, 1. Melt the 
 colophony and sealing-wax in a porcelain dish upon a water bath 
 and afterwards add the yellow wax. When the whole is thoroughly 
 fluid, gradually add the rouge and stir with a wooden or glass rod. 
 Withdraw the heat, but continue the stirring until the mixture 
 becomes solid, otherwise all the rouge will fall to the bottom. The 
 flat parts to receive this resist are slightly heated and then covered 
 with the mixture, which melts and is easily spread. For covering 
 steel pinions employ a small gouge of copper or brass fixed to a 
 wooden handle. The metallic part of the gouge is heated upon an 
 alcohol lamp, and a small quantity of resist is taken with it. The 
 composition soon melts, and by turning the tool around the steel 
 pinion this becomes coated. Use a scratch-brush with long wires, 
 as their flexibility prevents the removal of the composition. When 
 the resist is to be removed after gilding, place the parts in warm oil 
 or into tepid turpentine, then into a very hot soap-water or alkaline 
 solution, and, lastly, into fresh water. Scratch-brush and dry in 
 warm white wood saw-dust. The holes of the pinions are cleaned 
 and polished with small pieces of very soft white wood, the friction 
 of which is sufficient to restore the primitive lustre. The gilding 
 of parts composed of copper and steel requires the greatest care, 
 as the slightest rust destroys their future usefulness. Should some 
 gold deposit upon the steel it should be removed by rubbing with 
 a piece of wood and impalpable pumice-dust, tin-putty or rouge. 
 
376 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S nANDY-BOOK. 
 
 After the parts are grained in the manner described the gilding 
 may be effected in a gold bath composed according to one of the 
 following formulae: I. Fine gold (as fulminating gold), 1.97 
 drachms; 98 per cent, potassium cyanide, 5.64 to 8.46 drachms, 
 according to the strength of current used; water, 1 quart. To 
 prepare this bath, dissolve 1.97 drachms of fine gold in aquia regia 
 in a porcelain dish over a gas or spirit flame, and evaporate the 
 solution to dryness. Continue the heating until the solution is 
 thickly fluid and dark brown, and it congeals on cooling to a red- 
 brown laminated mass. Too strong heating is to be avoided, as 
 otherwise the chloride of gold would decompose to metallic gold 
 and escaping chlorine. Dissolve the neutral chloride of gold thus 
 formed in 1 pint of water, and add liquid ammonia to the solution 
 as long as a yellowish-brown precipitate is formed, avoiding, how¬ 
 ever, a considerable excess of ammonia. The precipitate of fulmi¬ 
 nating gold is filtered off, washed, and dissolved in 1 quart of water 
 containing 8.46 drachms of cyanide of potassium in solution. Boil 
 the solution, constantly replacing the water lost by evaporation 
 until the odor of ammonia, which is liberated by dissolving the 
 fulminating gold in cyanide of potassium, disappears, and then 
 filter. Instead of dissolving the gold itself and preparing neutral 
 chloride of gold by evaporation, it is more convenient to use 3.95 
 drachms of chemically pure neutral chloride of gold, as furnished 
 by chemical factories, and to precipitate the fulminating gold from 
 its solution. 
 
 Too large an excess of cyanide of potassium gives gold deposits 
 of a disagreeable pale color. When working with a strong current 
 the excess of cyanide of potassium need only be small, while with 
 a weak current it may be greater. 
 
 For those who prefer to work with gold baths prepared with yel¬ 
 low prussiate of potash instead of potassium cyanide, the following 
 formula is given: II. Yellow prussiate of potash, 8.46 drachms; 
 carbonate of soda, 8.46 drachms; fine gold (as chloride of gold or 
 fulminating gold), 30.86 grains; water, 1 quart. To prepare the 
 bath, heat the solutions of the yellow prussiate of potash and of the 
 carbonate of soda in the water to the boiling-point, add the gold 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, RRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 377 ’ 
 
 salt, and boil % hour; or with the use of freshly precipitated ful¬ 
 minating gold, until the odor of ammonia disappears. After 
 cooling, the solution is mixed with a quantity of distilled water 
 corresponding to that lost by evaporation, and filtered. This bath 
 gives a beautiful bright gilding upon all metals, even upon iron and 
 steel. Suitable tension of current, 3.25 to 3 5 volts. 
 
 Fulminating gold when dried readily explodes, and hence should 
 not be allowed to dry, but immediately dissolved while in a moist 
 state. 
 
 The articles to be gilded are suspended in the bath to metallic 
 holders, connected with the zinc pole of a battery, and of a shape 
 appropriate to the nature and form of the watch parts. One or 
 more platinum wires are used for anodes, and are disposed in the 
 centre or around the bath. The battery most generally employed is 
 composed of three, four, five, or six small Daniell’s elements. 
 Those with balloons, on account of their constancy, should be pre¬ 
 ferred. The slower the gold deposits the finer and more adherent 
 it is. When the coating is sufficient, wash the articles in clear 
 water, and fix again upon the cork, in order to proceed to the 
 last scratch-brushing with a decoction of licorice or of horse- 
 chestnut. 
 
 Birmingham Silvering .—The articles are first superficially silvered 
 either by the cold process or by dipping, then immersed in a solu- 
 . tion of nitrate of silver, the concentration of which depends on the 
 intended thickness of the coating, and finally heated by the tem¬ 
 perature at which the silver salt decomposes, whereby metallic 
 silver remains behind. By these manipulations the articles are 
 prepared for the succeeding operations, which consist in melting in 
 an iron crucible a certain quantity of borax, and heating until the 
 silver melts in it. When this temperature is attained, which is 
 recognized by dipping a small piece of silver into the melted borax, 
 the silvered articles are introduced and rapidly stirred about. The 
 operation is finished when the borax runs freely from one of the 
 articles taken from the bath, and the article itself shows a bright 
 surface. Otherwise the melting is continued, but not to the fusing 
 point of the metallic base. The articles, after being taken from 
 
378 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 the bath and allowed to cool off, are boiled in dilute sulphuric acid 
 (i part acid to 12 water) for the removal of adhering particles of 
 borax, then rinsed in clear water and dried. They finally receive 
 a coating of fine silver in the galvanic way. 
 
 Mechanical Silvering According to Bertrand. —The articles of 
 copper or an alloy are first cleansed, and after coating them in the 
 galvanic way with a thin layer of silver, covered with leaf-silver, 
 the firm adherence of which to the metal is then effected by the 
 combined use of heat and a steel brush. The temperature at which 
 the complete adherence of the silver is effected is far below that of 
 the melting-point of silver. 
 
 Silvering of Iron According to Rinmann. —The articles to be sil¬ 
 vered, for instance, buckles, spurs, etc., are first coated with cop¬ 
 per or brass, and the silvering executed upon the smoothed and 
 polished layer of copper or brass. Dissolve 0.58 oz. of silver in 
 aqua regia, and dilute the solution in a porcelain dish with 30 or 
 40 times the quantity of water. Then pour in as much solution of 
 common salt in water as suffices for the pulverulent precipitation of 
 the silver. Now pour the water off from the silver, and rub the 
 latter into a thin paste with 2.2 ozs. of sal-ammoniac and a like 
 quantity of glass-gall (sandiver). Cover with this paste the brass 
 or copper layer of the iron article, and spread it uniformly with a 
 stiff brush. Both the application of the paste and brushing may be 
 repeated twice or three times. Dry each layer before applying the 
 next by holding the article over a moderate coal fire until it no 
 longer smokes. Then cool the article in a boiled solution of tartar, 
 and brush carefully with a scratch-brush. Finally rinse it off in 
 clean water, dry, rub with the polishing-steel moistened with lime 
 water, and wash again. For dull silvering the operation is the 
 same, but the article is washed in warm water and dried. 
 
 To Silver Bessemer Steel and Utensils Manufactured from it .— 
 The articles, etc., are first carefully cleansed with hot lye, then 
 slightly pickled with dilute hydrochloric acid and scoured with 
 fine sand. Now drop solution of mercury in nitric acid into 
 water, slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, until a clean strip 
 of copper, when dipped into the mixture, acquires a white coating. 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 379 
 
 But as iron, unlike other metals, does not amalgamate by mere dip¬ 
 ping, it is immersed in the mercury solution, being at the same 
 time in connection with the zinc pole of a Bunsen element, a strip 
 of platinum or gas carbon being used as an anode for the other 
 pole. The metal is soon covered with a layer of mercury, and is 
 then taken out, well washed and silvered in a silver solution. * 
 When taken from the silver-bath the article is thoroughly washed and 
 heated over a coal-fire in a fire-place with a good draught until it 
 audibly hisses when touched with the wet finger. It is then allowed 
 to cool, is thoroughly brushed with the scratch-brush, and, if neces¬ 
 sary, polished. To save silver the ware may first be covered with a 
 layer of chemically pure tin : i part of purified cream of tartar is 
 dissolved in 8 parts of boiling water and one or more tin anodes 
 are connected to the carbon pole of a Bunsen element. The zinc 
 pole communicates with a well-cleansed piece of copper and the 
 battery is made to act until enough tin has deposited on the copper, 
 when this is taken out and the iron ware put in its place. The 
 ware when coated with a layer of chemically pure tin is finally 
 silvered. By the use of alternately suspended strips of alpaca as 
 an anode, the deposit of silver can be somewhat alloyed with the 
 tin. The articles thus produced are considerably cheaper than 
 silvered ware of brass, German silver, etc. 
 
 Alloy for Silvering .—This alloy consists of tin, 80 parts; lead, 
 18; silver, 2; or tin, 90 parts; lead, 9; silver, 1. Melt the tin, 
 and when the bath shows a lustrous white color add the granulated 
 lead and stir the mixture with a pine stick; then add the silver and 
 stir again. Increase the fire for a short time until the surface of 
 the bath assumes a light yellow color, then stir thoroughly and cast the 
 alloy into bars. The operation of silvering is as follows: The article, 
 for instance a knife-blade, is dipped into diluted hydrochloric or 
 sulphuric acid, rinsed in clean water,.dried, rubbed with a piece 
 of soft leather or dry sponge, and then exposed in a muffle to a 
 temperature of 158° to 176° F. for five minutes. The effect of 
 this treatment is to render the surface of the iron or steel porous. 
 With iron not very good and coarsely porous the silvering process 
 is difficult to execute. With steel, however, the process is easy; 
 
380 TITE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 the article heated to about 140° F. is dipped into the alloy melted 
 in a crucible over a moderate fire. The bath, which must be com¬ 
 pletely liquid, is stirred with a pine or poplar stick. The surface 
 should show a fine silver-white color. One or two minutes dipping 
 suffices for a knife-blade. When taken from the bath the article is 
 dipped into cold water or, if necessary, hardened and tempered in the 
 usual manner. It is then rubbed dry and polished without heating. 
 Articles thus treated have the appearance of silver, and resist oxida¬ 
 tion in the air. To protect them from the action of acid liquids 
 they are first dipped in an amalgam bath of 69 parts mercury, 39 
 parts tin, and 1 part silver, then while hot in melted silver, and 
 electro-plated with silver. This method of silvering is claimed to 
 be very durable and not costly. 
 
 Tin Baths. —Electro-tinning is but seldom executed. A good 
 tin bath is obtained by dissolving 0.35 oz. of pyrophosphate of 
 soda and 15.43 grains of tin salt in 1 quart of water. This bath 
 requires an average current of 2.5 volts tension, cast-zinc plates 
 being used as anodes. Zinc, copper and brass objects are directly 
 tinned in this bath. Iron and steel articles are first coppered or 
 treated with the following composition : Dissolve with the aid of 
 heat, in an enamelled cast-iron vessel, ammonia alum n ozs. and 
 fused protochloride of tin yi oz. in 4*4 gallons of water. The 
 pieces of iron previously cleansed and rinsed in cold water are im¬ 
 mersed in the solution as soon as it boils. They are immediately 
 covered with a film of tin of a fine, white, dead lustre, which may 
 be rendered bright by friction. The bath is maintained at the 
 proper strength by small additions of fused protochloride of tin. 
 
 Though the tin bath given above suffices for all cases an alkaline 
 tin bath first proposed by Eisner may be mentioned ; its composition 
 is as follows : Crystallized tin salt, 7 ozs. ; water, 1 quart; and 
 sufficient potash lye of io° Be. to dissolve the precipitate formed. 
 The solution of the tin salt in the water is mixed with potash lye 
 of the stated concentration until the precipitate of zinc hydrate 
 which is formed is redissolved ; some electro-platers recommend 
 the addition of 0.35 oz. of potassium cyanide to the bath. With- 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 381 
 
 out this addition the bath requires 3.75 to 4 volts, and, with 
 it, 3 - 5 - 
 
 Tin baths must not be used at a temperature below 68° F. ; they 
 require according to their composition a current of 2 to 3 volts. 
 Too strong a current causes a pulverulent separation of the tin 
 which does not adhere well. 
 
 Tinnitig by Contact. —Suitable solutions for tinning by contact 
 with zinc in the boiling tin bath are as follows: 
 
 I. Pulverized tartar, 3.52 ozs.; alum, 3.52 ozs. ; fused proto¬ 
 chloride of tin, 14.11 drachms; rain-water, 10 quarts. 
 
 II. Potassium pyrophosphate, 7 ozs. ; crystallized protochloride 
 of tin, 0.7 oz. ; fused protochloride of tin, 2.82 ozs.; water, 10 
 quarts. 
 
 III. For Tinning by Dipping. —Potassium pyrophosphate, 5.64 
 ozs. ; fused protochloride of tin, 1.23 oz. ; rain-water, 10 quarts. 
 
 Formula I. and II. yield good results. To tin by contact, heat 
 the bath to boiling and suspend the clean and pickled articles in 
 contact with pieces of zinc, or better, wrapped around with zinc- 
 wire spirals, care being had to from time to time move them about 
 to prevent staining. Large baths which cannot be readily heated 
 are worked cold, the articles being covered with a large zinc plate; 
 in the cold bath the formation of the tin deposit requires, of course, 
 a longer time. By using a galvanic current the deposit can be made 
 as heavy as desired. By dipping in the bath prepared according 
 to formula III., zinc can only be coated with a very thin film of 
 tin, which, however, can be made as thick as desired by the use 
 of a battery. 
 
 For thinning by contact in a cold bath, Zilken has patented the 
 following solution : Dissolve in xoo quarts of warm water, tin salt, 
 7 to 10.5 ozs. ; pulverized alum, 10.5 ozs. ; common salt, 15.87 
 ozs. ; and pulverized tartar, 7 ozs. The cold solution forms the 
 tin bath. The articles to be tinned are to be wrapped round with 
 strips of zinc. Duration of the process, 8 to 10 hours. 
 
 Tinning by Boiling Articles of Iron and Steel. —Crystallized am¬ 
 monium-alum, 7 ozs. ; crystallized protochloride of tin, 2.82 
 drachms; fused protochloride of tin, 2.82 drachms; rain water, 
 
3S2 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 io quarts. Dissolve the ammonium-alum in the hot water, and 
 when dissolved add the tin salts. The bath is to be used boiling- 
 hot, and kept at its original strength by an occasional addition of 
 tin salt. The clean and pickled iron articles being immersed in 
 the bath become, in a few seconds, coated with a firmly adhering 
 film of tin of a dead-white color, which may be polished by 
 scratch-brushing or scouring with saw-dust in the polishing drum. 
 Tinning by boiling in the bath, composed as above given, is the 
 most suitable preparation for iron and steel articles which are to be 
 subsequently strongly tinned by the galvanic process. To be en¬ 
 tirely sure of success it is recommended to thoroughly scratch¬ 
 brush the articles after boiling, to replace them in the bath, and 
 then suspend them in a bath composed of crystallized sodium 
 pyrophosphate, 3.52 ozs.; fused tin salt, 0.35 oz. ; and water, 10 
 quarts. To prepare the bath dissolve the sodium pyrophosphate in 
 the water, suspend the tin salt in a small linen bag in the bath, 
 and move the bag to and fro until its entire contents are dissolved. 
 
 Another Very Suitable Bath is as follows: 98 percent, cyanide 
 of potassium, 3.52 ozs.; potassium carbonate, 35.27 ozs.; proto¬ 
 chloride of tin, 14.11 drachms; water, 10 quarts. 
 
 To Tin Small Brass or Copper Objects. —Prepare a bath from 
 pulverized tartar, 3.52 ozs. ; protochloride of tin, 14.11 drachms; 
 water, 10 quarts; and, after heating the bath to boiling, immerse 
 the objects to be tinned (pins, hooks, handles, eyes, etc.) in a 
 tin sieve or in contact with a piece of zinc ; frequent stirring with 
 a tin rod shortens the process. 
 
 Another Method, given by Bottger, gives good results. Dissolve 
 oxide of tin by boiling with potash lye, and place the copper or 
 brass objects in the boiling solution in contact with tin shavings. 
 
 Eisner'sBath yields equally good results. It consists of a solu¬ 
 tion of equal parts of tin salt and common salt in rain water. The 
 manipulation is the same as given above. 
 
 Stolba's APethod of Tinning. —Prepare a solution of 1.76 oz. of 
 tin salt and 5.64 drachms of pulverized tartar in 1 quart of water, 
 moisten with this solution a small sponge, and dip the latter into 
 pulverulent zinc. By then rubbing the thoroughly cleansed and 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 383 
 
 pickled articles with the sponge they immediately become coated 
 with a film of tin. To obtain uniform tinning the sponge must be 
 repeatedly dipped, now into the tin solution, and now in the zinc 
 powder, and the rubbing continued for a few minutes. 
 
 Cold Tinning .-—Block tin dissolved in hydrochloric acid with 
 a little mercury forms a very good amalgam for cold tinning ; or, 
 i part of tin, 2 of zinc and 6 of mercury. Mix tin and mercury 
 together until they form a soft paste. Clean the metal to be 
 tinned, being careful to free it from greasiness. Then rub with a 
 piece of cloth moistened with hydrochloric acid, and immediately 
 apply a little of the amalgam to the surface, rubbing it with the 
 same rag. The amalgam will adhere to the surface and thoroughly 
 tin it. Cast-iron, wrought-iron, steel and copper may be tinned 
 in this way. Those who find it difficult to make soft solder adhere 
 to iron with sal-ammoniac, will find no difficulty if they first tin 
 the surfaces in this manner and then proceed as with ordinary tin¬ 
 plate. 
 
 Tinning Hard Steel or Case-hardened Articles .—In the first 
 place a bath of melted tin will not injure the temper or materially 
 soften hardened steel surfaces, inasmuch as tin melts at 442 0 F., and 
 polished steel acquires a straw color at 460° F. The iron or steel 
 articles must first be freed from scale (if any), either from the 
 foundry or forge, by means of a pickle of dilute sulphuric acid, and 
 then scratch-brushed or scoured with sand. If the articles are of 
 steel and have been quenched or hardened in oil, every trace of 
 the oil must be removed by immersion in boiling soda lye; next 
 the surface must be made chemically clean; even the film of 
 oxide, due to a pale straw color, will prevent the due adherence 
 of the tin to the steel. Have a bath consisting of 1 part of 
 hydrochloric acid to about 20 parts of water, hold the article 
 with a pair of brazing tongs and stir it for a few seconds in the 
 bath, withdraw it, and, while still wet, instantly immerse it in a 
 ladleful of melted tin, the surface of which should be kept from 
 oxidizing by a flush of good clean tallow. In less than half a 
 minute the article, when withdrawn, will be found completely 
 
384 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 tinned. Of course precaution must be taken not to overheat the 
 tin, but keep it down to the proper melting temperature. 
 
 Improved Process of Tinning Metals .—An improved process for 
 coating metals with tin, by Borthel and Moller, of Hamburg, is 
 said to possess the advantage of preventing, or at least delaying, 
 oxidation. The process can be employed with special advantage 
 for tinning cast-iron cooking utensils, household and other im¬ 
 plements of cast-iron, as the employment of poisonous enamel is 
 avoided and a much higher degree of polish attained. The pro¬ 
 cess can also be employed for protecting architectural or other 
 iron decorations from rusting by the coating of tin or of another 
 metal without detriment to the sharpness of the form, as is the 
 case with the customary oil or bronze paints. In order to produce 
 a perfectly even coating of tin on cast-iron, the latter is first pro¬ 
 vided with a thin coating of chemically pure iron, regardless of 
 the form of the casting. This coating is produced in a galvanic 
 manner in a bath composed as follows: 21.16 ozs. of sulphate of 
 iron, Fe S O, are dissolved in 5 quarts of water, to which is added 
 a solution of about 84.72 ozs. of carbonate of soda, Na C O, in 5 
 quarts of water. The resulting precipitate of ferrocarbonate is dis¬ 
 solved insmall quantities in concentrated sulphuric acid until the fluid 
 has a green color. The bath is then rendered aqueous by adding 
 about 20 quarts of water. Blue litmus paper dipped in the bath must 
 assume a deep claret color, and red litmus paper remain unchanged. 
 
 The objects to be provided with a coating of chemically pure iron 
 are placed in the bath opposite to the anode of cast or wrought- 
 iron, and both parts connected to the corresponding poles of a 
 dynamo-machine, electric battery or other appropriate source of 
 electricity. In a very short time the objects placed in the bath 
 are covered with a coating of iron, the thickness of which depends 
 on the duration of the action of the bath or the strength of electric 
 current. The coated objects are then well rinsed in clean water, 
 dried, then painted with, or immersed in, a solution of ammonia 
 in chloride of zinc, or chloride of zinc alone, and then immersed 
 in a vessel containing melted tin. The tin adheres with great 
 tenacity to the prepared surface, and the surplus of tin can be 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 385 
 
 readily removed by a brush or in another manner. If the object 
 to be tinned is of such size, or so complicated in form that it 
 cannot be readily immersed in molten tin, it can be placed in a 
 galvanic tin bath, which can be readily made into any desired size. 
 In this bath it is provided with a layer of tin of desired thickness, 
 which, after having been painted either with a solution of chloride 
 of zinc, or of ammonia in chloride of zinc, can be heated to such 
 a degree that the tin is uniformly melted on to the object. 
 
 In like manner objects cast or made of lead, or other readily 
 melting metals which would lose their form by melting when im¬ 
 mersed in melted tin, are, previous to tinning, provided with a 
 coating of tin in a galvanic bath, as mentioned above, without 
 being subjected to heat for melting the layer of tin deposited on 
 the same. With objects of wrought or rolled iron, or which do 
 not require the before described treatment, i. e., the production 
 of a coating of chemically pure iron, it will be sufficient to care¬ 
 fully clean the same and paint them with a solution of ammonia 
 in chloride of zinc, or a concentrated solution of chloride of zinc. 
 This tinning process combines the advantage of simple manipula¬ 
 tion and great durability of the coating with cheapness of manu¬ 
 facture, which is partially attained in the saving of tin. 
 
 To Tin Kettles .—The kettle to be tinned is first freed from oxide, 
 etc. It is then coated with a io per cent, solution of chloride of 
 tin, to which as much purified tartar as will lay upon the point of 
 a knife has been added. Now rub thoroughly the moistened 
 places with coarse zinc powder, obtained by pulverizing zinc just 
 congealed. This process may be used for brass, cast and wrought- 
 iron, and also for steel. The tinning, to be sure, is thin, but it 
 adheres firmly, and a thicker coat can be obtained by repeating 
 the process after a few minutes. Finally the kettle is rinsed off 
 and polished in the usual manner, for instance, with whiting. 
 
 To Tin Lead Plates .—Heat the plates to the melting point of 
 tin, next scatter powdered colophony upon them, then pour 
 melted tin over them and spread out and rub on both the colo¬ 
 phony and tin with tow; finally wipe off the excess of tin. Lead 
 25 
 
386 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 plates tinned in this manner on one or both sides can be rolled 
 out as desired. 
 
 To Prepare Tinned Lead Pipes. —According to Grand’s method 
 for the manufacture of such pipes, a cylindrical mould with a 
 hollow pivot is placed horizontally upon a lathe or other machine 
 which will give it a quick, revolving motion. As much melted 
 lead as is necessary for lining the interior surface with a sufficient 
 thickness is then introduced through the above-mentioned hollow 
 pivot. The machine is now set in rapid motion, and the melted 
 metal is forced by centrifugal force against the inner surface of the 
 mould, forming a hollow cylinder of uniform thickness. Through 
 the same pivot a corresponding quantity of melted tin is then 
 introduced, which by reason of the constant revolution deposits 
 itself firmly upon the inner surface of the previously formed cylin¬ 
 der of lead. The tube thus made can be drawn out in the_ usual 
 manner. 
 
 To Make “Ponte Argentine," or Tinned Cast-iron. —Dissolve in 
 250 quarts of water 6.6 lbs. of sodium pyrophosphate, and add 1.1 
 lb. of ordinary and 1.65 lb. of dried and fused tin-salt. Heat the 
 whole to 176° F., and place in it the iron articles, together with a 
 few pieces of tin. In working on a large scale, the fluid and the 
 articles to be tinned are brought into large vats provided with an 
 axis, which can be set in motion by a suitable mechanism. 
 
 Zinc Baths. —The deposition of zinc in a galvanic way being 
 connected with certain difficulties, it is but little applied in practice, 
 and, hence, only the compositions of a few baths, which yield the 
 best results, are given. 
 
 I. Dissolve 2 ozs. of caustic potash in x pint of water, add to the 
 solution one of 0.35 oz. of chloride of zinc and 0.7 oz. of sal- 
 ammoniac in 1 pint of water, and stir until the precipitate at first 
 formed is redissolved. Rolled sheets of zinc are used as anodes, 
 and a current of a tension of about 3 volts is required. The articles 
 to be zinced must be frequently moved about, as the zinc has a 
 tendency to deposit only upon the portion nearest to the anodes, 
 and, furthermore, they must be frequently scratch-brushed and 
 replaced in the bath. It is advisable to warm the bath. 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 387 
 
 II. Alum, 3 y 2 ozs.; zinc oxyhydrate, 0.35 oz. ; water, 1 quart. 
 Dissolve 0.8 oz. of sulphate of zinc in 1 pint of water, and carefully 
 add potash lye until a further drop of it produces no longer a pre¬ 
 cipitate; an excess of potash lye must be avoided, as it dissolves 
 the zinc oxyhydrate. The precipitate is filtered off, washed with 
 water, and the moist zinc oxyhydrate mixed with the solution of 
 the alum in the water, whereby it becomes completely dissolved. 
 This bath requires a tension of current of from 3 to 3.5 volts. 
 
 III. Sulphate of zinc, 2^ ozs. ; water, 1 quart; and potash lye 
 sufficient to redissolve the precipitated zinc oxyhydrate. This bath 
 also works quite well, and requires from 2.75 to 3 volts, and 1.5 
 amperes per 15^ square inches. 
 
 To Zinc Copper and Brass Without a Battery. —Pour over finely 
 granulated zinc or zinc-dust in a porcelain or other non-metallic 
 vessel a concentrated solution of sal-ammoniac and heat to the 
 boiling point. Pickle the articles to be zincked with somewhat 
 dilute hydrochloric acid and throw them into the boiling solution. 
 By continued boiling the articles become in a short time coated 
 with a very bright layer of zinc. Finely granulated zinc is obtained 
 by pouring the melted metal into a strongly heated iron mortar, 
 and thoroughly and quickly rubbing the fluid mass with the iron 
 pestle until it congeals. 
 
 Another Process is as follows: Commercial zinc gray, i. <?., very 
 finely divided metallic zinc, is boiled several hours with a concen¬ 
 trated solution of caustic soda. The articles to be zincked are then 
 immersed in the boiling fluid, and, the boiling being continued, 
 become in a short time coated with a very bright layer of zinc. 
 When a copper article thus coated with zinc is carefully heated in 
 an oil bath to between 248° and 284° F., the zinc alloys with the 
 copper, formijig a sort of bronze similar in color to tombac. 
 
 To Zinc Iron in the Cold Way. —This process may be used to 
 protect iron from rust. A mixture of finely pulverized zinc with 
 oil and a siccative is applied with an ordinary brush, one applica¬ 
 tion being, as a rule, sufficient. Coating the article twice insures, 
 it is claimed, complete immunity from the effects of sea-water and 
 
388 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 the atmosphere. The coating of zinc gives to the iron a steel-gray 
 color, and does not prevent the application of other paint. 
 
 Galvanizing Sheet-iron .—The metal to be coated requires to be 
 freed from oxide and impurities of every description before it will 
 take a proper coating of zinc. The preliminary cleaning, however, 
 does not require to be done with such extreme care as in the case 
 of galvanoplastic deposits. The first step in the process is, there¬ 
 fore, the operation of pickling, i. e., the removal of the black scale. 
 For this operation there is usually provided a stout rectangular 
 wooden tank, from 5 to 6 feet high and 9 to 10 feet long, and wide 
 enough to accommodate from 100 to 200 sheets at a time. This con¬ 
 tains the pickling liquid, generally commercial sulphuric acid 
 diluted with from 10 to 12 parts of water; and into this liquid, 
 heated by steam, as many sheets are immersed (on edge) as the 
 tank will accommodate. In from 1 to 2 hours the scaling of the 
 iron is effected, a workman or two all this time industriously wedg¬ 
 ing the individual sheets apart with suitably contrived tongs to 
 insure the penetration of the pickle to all the sheets. This done 
 the sheets are withdrawn from the pickle tank and transferred to 
 large, shallow washing vats of wood, in which they are washed in a 
 stream of fresh water. They are next subjected to an inspection 
 in order that any obstinately adhering particles of scale or cinders 
 that the acid may have failed to take off may be removed. For 
 this purpose they are passed, one by one, to a bench or table where 
 a workman armed with a stiff brush and a triangular-shaped steel 
 scraper carefully examines each sheet, and removes such patches of 
 scale as may yet adhere in spots upon the pickled sheet. From his 
 hands they pass into a second shallow tank filled with clean water 
 (which should properly be renewed from time to time) and in which 
 they are allowed to remain for 12 to 24 hours. The purpose of this 
 washing is to remove all traces of sulphuric acid and basic sulphate 
 of iron from the pickled sheet, the retention of which would other¬ 
 wise act injuriously upon the character and the durability of the 
 zinc coating. In order that the work may go on continuously, 
 several of such water-tanks must be provided, so that a lot of iron 
 shall always be ready for the next operation. This is termed 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 389 
 
 “ clearing,” and consists in immersing the sheets from the water- 
 tanks for a few minutes in commercial hydrochloric acid contained 
 in a flat wooden tank like the water-tanks above described. This 
 treatment removes every trace of oxide from the sensitive iron 
 skin, forms a thin layer of chloride upon it, and renders the iron 
 insensible to oxidizing influences during its subsequent manipula¬ 
 tion. From the clearing tank the sheets are arranged on edge in a 
 rack to keep them from touching each other (which rack is com¬ 
 monly mounted on a truck) and rolled twenty-five or more at a time 
 into a drying chamber. In about 20 minutes or half an hour they 
 are removed and are then ready for dipping. The galvanizing pot 
 for sheet-iron work is a rectangular vessel of heavy boiler plate, 
 riveted in the most substantial manner, about 4 feet deep and 12 
 feet long and 15 to 24 inches wide and capable of containing 20 to 
 30 tons of zinc. Its bottom rests upon solid masonry, the brick¬ 
 work being carried up about it on all sides, providing a fire space 
 all about the sides of the pot, by which the metal is kept in a 
 melted state, and its temperature regulated to a nicety with the aid 
 of draft spaces opened or closed by removing or inserting bricks 
 provided for the purpose. The temperature of the zinc bath is a mat¬ 
 ter of vital importance to the quality of the work and of great 
 economical importance, and it is here that the skill and experience 
 of the workman tells strongly. For sheet-iron work the heat of 
 the bath is kept at about iooo 0 F. 
 
 The zinc being of the right heat, a thin centre-plate of iron is 
 put in position, its edge dipping slightly beneath the surface of the 
 zinc, and dividing the bath longitudinally into two parts. The 
 object of this contrivance is to insure that the sheets when dipped 
 and passed to the other side of the bath shall be completely im¬ 
 mersed in the melted metal. This object is also accomplished by 
 drawing the sheets through the bath by means of a pair of rollers 
 submerged in the melted metal. They are passed one by one into 
 the metal, guided beneath the centre-plate, and, as they emerge on 
 the other side, seized at one end by an iron gripper and drawn 
 through a layer of sand strewn on the surface of the metal, the 
 object of which is to remove all the superfluous metal. The 
 
390 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 operations of dipping and drawing proceed at about the rate of one 
 sheet per minute. In the setting of the zinc coating, which takes 
 place almost instantly after the withdrawal of the sheet from the 
 bath, the beautiful crystallization of the metal ensues, which is so 
 much admired. This appearance is known to the trade as 
 spangling, and much attention is given to the preliminary prep¬ 
 aration of the iron just described, upon the proper performance 
 of which the size and beauty of the spangles are largely dependent. 
 
 From time to time, as the sheets are dipped, a handful of sal- 
 ammoniac is strewn upon the surface of the metal bath for the pur¬ 
 pose of clearing it of oxide and insuring a perfect contact of the 
 clean metals with each other. Sometimes the centre-plate and sand 
 are dispensed with, and the sheets are “dipped bright.” From 
 the bath the sheets pass to the rolls to be straightened ; next they 
 are bundled, then weighed and stamped, and are now ready for 
 shipment or use. 
 
 With cast-iron and general jobbing work the process is sub¬ 
 stantially the same. Owing to its greater impurity, however, ob¬ 
 jects of cast-iron require a much longer period of immersion in 
 the metal than sheet, which, as stated above, takes the coating in¬ 
 stantly. Some time, too, is required with large and heavy castings 
 before they become heated to the temperature of the zinc bath, 
 which is necessary before the amalgamation will ensue. Castings 
 require on these accounts an immersion of from 15 to 30 minutes. 
 Where small castings can be “ tumbled,” and thus deprived of much 
 of their adhering scale and sand, it is frequently unnecessary to pickle 
 them in the manner here described. In such cases they are simply 
 cleaned by a few minutes’ immersion in hydrochloric acid and 
 dipped. On the other hand, common rough and unfaced castings 
 require much time and attention to scale and prepare them for the 
 zinc bath. Where the articles are small enough a lot of them is 
 placed in a perforated iron ladle with a long handle and dipped, 
 with occasional shaking, until they have taken a proper coating. 
 They are then removed from the ladle singly with tongs, the sur¬ 
 plus metal being knocked off as they are taken out. Hoop iron 
 and wire are passed through the zinc from a reel at a uniform 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 391 
 
 speed. Wire cloth is beaten as it comes out to remove the super¬ 
 fluous metal that would otherwise clog up the meshes. 
 
 A matter which seriously troubles the galvanizer, and which 
 entails considerable pecuniary loss on him, is the formation of what 
 is technically known as dross. This is an alloy of zinc and iron 
 which is formed in the zinc bath, partly by the solvent action of 
 the zinc on the iron of the pot, but chiefly from the iron articles 
 dipped and from the dripping off of the superfluous amalgam as 
 they come from the bath. This alloy carries from 90 to 95 per 
 cent, of zinc and from 5 to 10 per cent, of iron and other impuri¬ 
 ties. It has a higher point of fusion and a higher specific gravity 
 than zinc; hence, as it is formed, it gradually forms a mushy, 
 more or less granular, accumulation in the bath. While the work 
 is going on the agitation of the metal stirs up the accumulated 
 dross and keeps it floating through the liquid zinc, and as it greatly 
 interferes with the smoothness of the work it must be removed from 
 time to time. This operation, called “ dressing,”is performed with 
 a large perforated iron ladle, through the openings of which the 
 fluid zinc runs off, while the dross is retained, packed into moulds, 
 so as to form slabs of about 75 lbs. weight, and in this form is 
 usually sold to the smelters and refiners, who regain the zinc it con¬ 
 tains either by distillation or by special patented procedures. The 
 formation of this dross is a serious item of loss, amounting in some 
 establishments to as much as 30 per cent, of the whole amount of 
 zinc used, though, on the average, it will not exceed 25 per cent. 
 
 The simplest method for treating this alloy, by which much of 
 the zinc it carries may be gained, consists in melting it in a separate 
 iron pot and allowing it to cool slowly and without disturbance. 
 The upper layers of the metal, which may be skimmed off, will be 
 found to consist of nearly pure zinc. In this manner a large quan¬ 
 tity of metal may be regained from the dross and used again. 
 The bottoms, rich in iron, may be disposed of to the refiners. 
 
 To prevent the adhesion of the dross to the bottom of the pot, 
 as well* as to facilitate its removal therefrom, in the manner above 
 described, it is customary to introduce a small quantity of lead into 
 the zinc bath. This metal does not alloy with zinc or iron, and by 
 
392 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 reason of its greater density it sinks to the bottom of the pot, 
 forming a liquid cushion on which the dross and other impurities 
 float. To lend additional whiteness to these galvanized wares 
 some operators introduce from time to time a small quantity of tin. 
 
 The spent “pickle ” (sulphuric acid) is collected in large vats and 
 disposed of to the manufacturers of sulphate of iron (green vitriol). 
 
 To Galvanize Old and New Parts .-—Galvanized articles subject 
 to strong wear frequently become damaged. To put them into 
 good condition, i. e., to regalvanize them, it is necessary to first 
 thoroughly clean them. With iron articles the process is as fol¬ 
 lows : Place the articles in a pickle composed of 5 to 8 drachms 
 of sulphuric acid to 1 quart of water, allowing them to remain until 
 the oxide is eaten off. Then dip them, but only for a moment, 
 in strong nitric acid, and wash off quickly with much water. To 
 large articles the pickle may be applied with a brush, thoroughly 
 scrubbing afterward with sand. This scrubbing is also necessary 
 when the coating of zinc still adheres to some places or parts of 
 the articles, since the zinc strongly oxidizes in this pickle. Articles 
 of brass or copper are best cleansed with a pickle consisting of equal 
 parts of sulphuric and nitric acids with a small addition of com¬ 
 mon salt. If the articles are strongly oxidized or greasy it is best 
 to previously pickle them and remove the grease by heating. The 
 pickle for this purpose consists of x part sulphuric acid in 8 to 
 10 water. The articles being thus thoroughly cleaned may be 
 regalvanized in various ways. Iron is best galvanized by dip¬ 
 ping into a fluid zinc bath. The articles are first dipped in a 
 concentrated solution of sal-ammoniac, then quickly dried and fi¬ 
 nally immersed in the melted zinc. Articles of large size must 
 not be too quickly removed from the bath, as otherwise the zinc 
 adheres more firmly to places not yet sufficiently heated than 
 to others. To prevent the articles from cooling off too quickly 
 they must, after being removed from the zinc bath, be placed in 
 hot, preferably boiling, water. Small articles are brought into the 
 zinc bath in a net of strong iron wire and have to be constantly 
 shaken to insure all the places and all the articles being coated with 
 zinc. Copper and brass may also be coated with zinc by chemical 
 
ELECTRO-PLATING, BRASSING, COPPERING, ETC. 
 
 393 
 
 means, the process being as follows : The articles are dipped into 
 a bath of chloride of zinc solution made boiling hot and to which 
 a few pieces of granulated zinc are added. By remaining a few 
 minutes in contact with the zinc the articles become coated with a 
 very bright, firmly-adhering layer. The articles may also be 
 dipped in a solution of zinc dust in concentrated caustic lye. This 
 bath must also be brought to the boiling point. 
 
 Metallic Coating upon Flowers and Insects by the Galvanic Way. 
 —The process consists in first dipping the articles into an albu¬ 
 minous fluid in order to prevent their metallization. They are 
 then immersed in a bath of a 20 per cent, nitrate of silver solution, 
 and exposed to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen to reduce the 
 adhering nitrate of silver. The organic substance is now ready for 
 the galvanic deposit; by the latter the smallest inequalities of sur¬ 
 face become apparent, and small hairs scarcely visible to the naked 
 eye can be plainly distinguished. 
 
 To Coat Iron Articles with Other Metals, According to Newton .—• 
 According to this process the articles are not prepared, as is gener¬ 
 ally customary, by treating them with dilute acid, but by dipping 
 in ordinary concentrated hydrochloric acid as found in commerce, 
 whereby the time required for cleaning the articles is much short¬ 
 ened. After sufficient action of the acid, a few pieces of zinc are 
 dropped into thebath between the iron articles; the action of the acid 
 upon the iron ceases immediately, because it attacks and dissolves 
 the zinc. About 1 lb. of zinc suffices for half a ton or more of 
 iron bolts or nails. Articles not very rusty or dirty are cleaned in 
 a minute or less. The articles when taken from the acid are imme¬ 
 diately immersed, without previous washing or drying, in the 
 melted metal, care being, however, had to introduce them gradually 
 to prevent the scattering of melted metal. The union of the metal 
 with the iron by this process takes place with greater ease and more 
 completely than when the articles are previously dried and exposed 
 to the air. The kind of metal to be used for coating the iron de¬ 
 pends on the intended use of the article. Two alloys rich in lead 
 are, however, proposed, because for certain purposes, for instance, 
 for ships’ sheathing and covering roofs, lead protects better than 
 
394 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 tin. For example: Tin, 15 parts; lead, 75; copper, 5; and anti¬ 
 mony, 5; or, tin, 15 parts; and lead, 85. The antimony effects 
 a more complete union of the tin and lead, and without antimony 
 the copper appears only mechanically mixed with the lead. This 
 alloy gives as white a coating as tin alone, the bluish color of the 
 lead being neutralized by the copper and antimony. 
 
 XII. 
 
 FLUXES AND LUTES. 
 
 Fluxes. —There are numerous substances which, being them¬ 
 selves easily fused, are added to more refractory materials to pro¬ 
 mote their fusion; the following articles are largely used for this 
 purpose: Crude tartar, commercial cream of tartar, borax, salt¬ 
 petre, sal-ammoniac, common salt, limestone, glass, and fluor¬ 
 spar. 
 
 As most metals are more disposed to oxidize when in a molten 
 state than when solid, it is usual to cover the surface of the metal in 
 the crucible or melting-pot with some flux, to protect the metal 
 from the action of the air. In the cupola the slag from the lime 
 answers this purpose. With the precious metals powdered charcoal 
 is frequently used, as are also borax and saltpetre. Brass founders 
 employ broken glass or powdered charcoal. For the more fusible 
 metals resin and oils are used. 
 
 The best flux for alloys of copper and tin is resin. It should be 
 added when the metals are almost melted. In using this flux the 
 copper is usually melted first and the flux added. When it is in 
 the mushy state, after the flux has been put in, the zinc and tin are 
 added. A good flux for old brass is common resin soap. It should 
 be added in small lumps, and stirred down into the metal when in 
 the molten state. In forming alloys of different metals, the molten 
 metals should always be kept under a covering of black glass or pul¬ 
 verized charcoal to prevent oxidation. 
 
 Black Flux, as it is commonly called, is composed of 7 parts of 
 
FLUXES AND LUTES. 
 
 395 
 
 crude tartar, 6 of saltpetre, 2 of common bottle glass, and by some 
 a small amount of calcined borax is added. These ingredients are 
 first finely powdered and mixed, and then gradually heated in an 
 iron pot or ladle, so as to burn them together. Care should be 
 taken not to overheat the mixture, and as soon as thoroughly 
 melted and mixed together it should be removed from the fire and 
 allowed to cool. After it has cooled it is finely pulverized and 
 sifted, and is then ready for use. It has a great affinity for moist¬ 
 ure, and should be protected against it by being placed in glass 
 bottles, and the bottles corked up until wanted for use. This is the 
 most powerful flux that can be made. It is but little employed in 
 forming or fluxing alloys, but principally by assayers in assaying 
 different kinds of metallic ores. In these assays the quantity of 
 black flux used varies according to the qualities of ores, but the 
 amount is generally about equal proportions of ore and flux. The 
 ore is first roasted, and then finely broken up and mixed with the 
 flux, and the whole is then rapidly heated in a crucible. If the 
 flux does not make the slag sufficiently fluid to allow the metal to 
 settle, a small amount of calcined borax is added, which makes the 
 slag more liquid, and permits the metal to pass to the bottom of 
 the crucible. The crucible is then removed from the fire, and the 
 mixture is either poured from it or allowed to cool in it. After it 
 has cooled the slag is knocked off with a hammer, and a bottom of 
 metal is obtained. When using this flux the clay crucible, without 
 either clay or graphite, is preferred, for the flux is very hard on a 
 crucible that contains either of these substances. Black flux is used 
 by some foundrymen in melting the fine scrap sweepings from the 
 floor, and dross and refuse from the crucible. By melting these in 
 a crucible with black flux they obtain considerable amounts of 
 metal from them that would otherwise be lost. In melting the 
 refuse with black flux the common clay crucible should always be 
 used. 
 
 Gray Flux is a product of the decrepitation of 3 parts of tartar 
 and 2 of saltpetre and contains considerable less carbon than the 
 black flux. 
 
 White Flux is obtained by the decrepitation of 1 part of crude 
 
396 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 tartar and i to 2 parts of saltpetre. It contains chiefly potassium 
 carbonate besides potassium nitrate, next small quantities of cal¬ 
 cium carbonate (from the content of lime in the crude tartar), some 
 metallic chlorides and sulphates. On account of its content of 
 nitrates it is chiefly used as an oxidizing flux. The mixture is the 
 more effective the more complete the mixture of tartar and salt¬ 
 petre. It has great affinity for moisture and must be kept in well- 
 closed bottles. 
 
 Quick Flux is a mixture given by Beaume. It consists of salt¬ 
 petre, 3 parts; sulphur, 1, and saw-dust (from resinous wood), 1. 
 It promotes the fusing of metals which can be readily converted 
 into sulphides (copper, silver) by converting them into readily 
 fusible sulphides. 
 
 Flux for Reducing Arsenic. —Carbonate of soda, in crystals, 8. 
 parts; finely powdered charcoal, 1 part. Heat gradually to a red heat. 
 
 Cornish Reducing Flux. —Crude tartar, 10 parts ; saltpetre, 4; 
 borax, 3. Powder together. 
 
 Refining Flux. —Crude tartar and saltpetre, equal parts. Burn 
 together. 
 
 Crude Flux. —Saltpetre, 1 part; cream of tartar, 2 parts. Mix 
 with finely powdered charcoal; keep dry in an air-tight vessel or 
 well cork the bottle. 
 
 Fluxes for Arsenical Compounds. —I. Dry potassium carbonate, 
 3 parts; cyanide of potassium, 1 part. 
 
 II. Dry carbonate of soda and potassium cyanide, equal parts. 
 
 Moreau's Reducing Flux. —Powdered glass, free from lead, 8 
 parts, and 1 part each of calcined borax and charcoal. Powder 
 well and mix. 
 
 Salt Cake. —In smelting expensive articles the use of salt cake 
 as a flux greatly improves the appearance of'the metal or alloy ; the 
 refuse uniting with the salt cake floats to the surface of the crucible 
 and is skimmed off. 
 
 Lutes. —These are soft adhesive substances, generally of an earthy 
 composition, used for closing vessels to make them air and gas 
 tight, or for coating over vessels or parts of vessels, to protect them 
 from the effects of high temperatures. 
 
LACQUERS, PAINTS AND VARNISHES. 
 
 397 
 
 Stourbridge Clay in fine powder, made into a paste with water, 
 will sustain a great heat. 
 
 Windsor Loam, a natural mixture of sand and clay. 
 
 Either of the above may be used for coating vessels or for making 
 tight the hot joints of metallic vessels. Mixtures of pulverized 
 borax with either of the above, or with common clay, form fusible 
 fluxes, useful for glazing over the surfaces of vessels so as to close 
 their pores. 
 
 I. Mix thoroughly 2 parts good clay, 8 parts sharp washed sand 
 and 1 part horse dung; then temper like mortar. 
 
 II. Linseed or almond meal mixed to a paste with milk, lime 
 water or starch paste. This lute stands a temperature of 500° F. 
 
 Fat Lutes. —I. Mix dry clay or pipe-clay in powder with drying 
 •linseed oil into a thick paste. The part to which this is applied 
 must be clean and dry. 
 
 II. Plaster of Paris mixed with water, milk or weak glue. Both 
 these lutes stand a dull red heat. 
 
 White-lead, paste and paper, caoutchouc and yellow wax are 
 also used as lutes for various purposes. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 LACQUERS, PAINTS AND VARNISHES. 
 
 Japanning Tin .—The first process with the tea-tray, which is 
 made of sheet-iron, is to scour it well with a piece of sandstone, 
 which process removes all the scales of iron, and makes the surface 
 perfectly smooth. It is then given a coat of vegetable black, which 
 must be mixed with black tar varnish, and thinned with tar spirits 
 and well strained ; only a small quantity of varnish is necessary, as 
 this coat may dry dead. The article is then put into a stove to 
 harden. The stove is nothing more nor less than a large oven ; 
 large of course where a great quantity of work is put in at one time. 
 The heat must be as even as possible all over the heated space, and 
 must be free from dust. The temperature must not be much, if 
 
398 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 any, under 21 2° F., the articles to remain in this temperature 10 to 
 12 hours. When taken out of the stove they are allowed to get cold. 
 They then receive a coat of black tar varnish, which must not be 
 thinned, except it be so thick as to be quite unworkable, and in 
 that case tar spirits should be used sparingly. A stiffish bristle 
 brush with short bristles should be employed. The varnish is dis¬ 
 tributed evenly all over the surface, and must be put on so sparingly 
 that it cannot “run,” as japanners say, which it is sure to do 
 immediately it gets warm, particularly on upright articles, if too 
 much is put on. Two coats of this varnish on the top of the 
 vegetable black are frequently sufficient when done by an expert 
 hand, but a third coat improves the work, and often is indis¬ 
 pensable ; 10 to 12 hours’ hardening is requisite between the coats. 
 It is likewise necessary to rub down the small lumps which will 
 appear after each coat, with a piece of pumice, first made flat by 
 rubbing it on a slab of slate. Keep dipping the pumice in water. 
 This rubbing down must be executed very lightly, or the smooth 
 parts will be scratched. If the article is to be decorated with bur¬ 
 nished gold, the first process after coming out of the stove the last 
 time is to “ rough ” it. This is done with very fine pumice sand 
 applied with some kind of corded or roughish material, jean being 
 the material most used. The process is very laborious, as it requires 
 all the pressure that can be employed, and that, too, for some con¬ 
 siderable time. It is part of the polishing. When the surface has 
 been made level by this, the next thing is to go through the same 
 again ; but this time, instead of using sand and the cutting mate¬ 
 rial, black or soft rotten-stone must be employed, with flannel or 
 cloth kept well wetted. This makes the surface exceedingly 
 smooth, and ready to be brightened up into a fine polish by rubbing 
 the sand up and down. The workman so employed has to keep 
 rubbing the dry hand into powdered white rotten-stone, also oc¬ 
 casionally moistening the hand by placing it on a wet cloth for 
 the purpose. The polish soon comes up under a practical hand. 
 It takes months of practice in this polishing before the hand obeys 
 the intellect. The work now passes to the ornamenter. After he 
 has put on his ornaments of gold and color, it is placed in a stove 
 
LACQUERS, PAINTS AND VARNISHES. 
 
 399 
 
 at only a few degrees of heat, as much heat would destroy his work. 
 When dry, that part only of the article which is covered with orna¬ 
 ment receives a coat of copal polishing varnish. This varnish 
 does not improve the appearance, but is necessary to preserve the 
 decoration. No polish or varnish can equal black varnish, which 
 is about a fourth the price of copal. This varnish is put on with a 
 flat camel-hair brush, and will harden in a heat of about ioo° F. in 
 4 hours. If put in too great a heat it will turn color and com¬ 
 pletely spoil the work. It is now ready for “finish” polishing, 
 which consists of the rotten-stone process again and handing up as 
 before, and last of all, a few drops of oil are used with a sprinkling 
 of water, and this is called oiling off. It requires great dexterity, 
 or, instead of adding to the lustre with the oil, it will completely 
 dull the surface. There are plenty of goods that do not go through 
 all these processes, and yet look fairly well; such, for instance, as 
 grocers’ canisters, and numerous other articles. These, as soon as 
 they have received the second coat of black varnish, are taken 
 directly to the ornamenter without being “roughed ” or polished, 
 and if the varnish has been put on well and kept free from dust, 
 they look very well. When no polishing is done either before or 
 after the ornamenting, the article is frequently covered all over 
 with the copal varnish coat. The only safe way of obtaining the 
 proper varnishes is to get them from those who supply japanners. 
 
 When tin goods are to be japanned the only preparation neces¬ 
 sary is to clean off all grease spots with a piece of clean rag dipped 
 in turpentine; and as to heat, when it is not too hot to disturb the 
 solder, it will not hurt the black varnish, providing it is put on 
 sparingly. If not the varnish will shrivel. The finish upon 
 grocers’ canisters may be readily obtained, as there is nothing on 
 them but good stoving and varnishing—no polishing. Colored 
 surfaces are ground in turpentine in a mill, or on a stone slab, and 
 mixed with mixing varnish. If an etneraldgreen ground is required, 
 some let the first coat be of white-lead mixed with varnish, and 
 this is followed by two coats of the emerald green without any 
 white in it. The coat of white gives to the green a solidity which 
 could not be obtained otherwise. A moderate heat is required as 
 
400 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 these varnishes will not become hard without heat, but in no com¬ 
 parison to the heat nor the time required for black varnish. 
 
 A Vermilion Ground is sometimes first coated with orange-red, 
 and one coat of vermilion on that should be sufficient. When 
 the last coat is dry or hard the whole surface should be well rubbed 
 down with fine pumice sand, which can be purchased from oil and 
 paint shops; but it must be fine, and, if necessary, dusted through 
 fine muslin. What is called a “bob” must be made of a piece 
 of jean, large enough to hold in the hand conveniently, and this 
 must be dipped into water and then into the sand; this rubbed 
 vigorously up and down the work will make it quite smooth. Use 
 freely of the water, but moderately of the sand. Afterwards wipe 
 off all cleanly with a wash-bather, and the surface will be found to 
 be dull, but smooth. Exactly this method is also used for black 
 varnished surfaces. The work is now ready for ornamenting, if 
 any ornamenting is to be done; if not, it is ready for varnishing 
 with the clear varnish, which will at once brighten the surf., e 
 which had to be dulled in the operation of smoothing it. 
 
 Black Grounds for Japanning. —I. Asphalt, i lb. ; copaiba bal¬ 
 sam, i lb., and a sufficient quantity of oil of turpentine. The 
 asphalt is melted over a fire, and the balsam, previously heated, is 
 mixed in with it. The mixture is then removed from the fire and 
 mixed with the turpentine. 
 
 II. Moisten good lampblack with oil of turpentine and grind it 
 very fine with a muller on a stone plate, then add a sufficient 
 quantity of ordinary copal varnish and rub well together. 
 
 III. Asphalt, 3 ozs. ; boiled linseed oil, 4 quarts; burnt umber, 
 8 ozs. ; and a sufficient quantify of oil of turpentine. Melt the 
 asphaltum, stir in the oil, previously heated, then the umber, and, 
 when cooling, thin down with the oil of turpentine. 
 
 IV. An extra fine black is prepared from amber, 12 ozs. ; puri¬ 
 fied asphalt, 2 ozs. ; boiled linseed oil, y 2 pint; resin, 2 ozs. ; oil 
 of turpentine, 16 ozs. Fuse the gum, resin and asphalt, add the 
 hot oil, stir well together, and, when cooling, add the turpen¬ 
 tine. 
 
 Black Japan for Tin Lanterns. —Asphalt, 1 ozs.; boiled lin- 
 
LACQUERS, PAINTS AND VARNISHES. 
 
 401 
 
 seed oil, 4 pints; burnt umber, 4 ozs. Heat till well mixed, and, 
 when cool, add turpentine till of a proper consistence. 
 
 Asphalt Lacquer on Iron .—In order to obtain the filed places 
 equally dark with the rest, rub the iron lightly and thinly with the 
 best quality of soot or bone-black, then burn in and rub off with 
 turpentine. By now coating the article with asphalt lacquer it 
 shows a uniformly black and durable color. 
 
 To Lacquer Brass .—In preparing brass for colorless, or nearly 
 colorless lacquer, the articles, after being annealed, pickled, 
 scoured and washed, are either dipped for an instant into pure 
 commercial nitric acid, washed in clear water and dried in saw. 
 dust, or immersed in a mixture of 1 part of nitric acid with 4 of 
 water until a white curd covers the surface, at which moment the 
 articles are withdrawn, washed in clear water and dried in sawdust. 
 In the first case the brass will be bright; in the latter a dead flat, 
 which is usually relieved by burnishing the prominent parts. Then 
 the articles are dipped for an instant in commercial nitric acid, 
 well washed in water containing tartar to preserve the color till 
 lacquered, and dried in warm sawdust. So prepared, the articles 
 are heated on a plate and varnished. Spirit varnish is used, which 
 consists in its simple form of x oz. of shellac dissolved in 1 pint of 
 alcohol. For imparting richness of color to this simple varnish 
 such coloring substances as red sanders, dragon’s blood and annotto 
 are added. To lower the tone of color turmeric, gamboge, saffron, 
 cape aloes and sandarac are used. The first group reddens, the 
 second yellows the varnish, while a mixture of the two gives a 
 pleasing orange, and various tints can be got by suitable mixtures. 
 
 Small circular work, after being well scoured and burnished, if 
 necessary, is best lacquered in the lathe. The work should be 
 slightly warmed over a clear charcoal fire, or in a stove, and the 
 lacquer applied very thinly with a soft camel’s-hair brush. A char¬ 
 coal brazier should be held under the work for a few seconds after 
 the application of the lacquer to prevent chilling. To lacquer a 
 flat surface, clean carefully by boiling in potash and water. Dip 
 in hydrochloric acid, if it be desirable to heighten the color of the 
 brass; wash well, first in cold water, then in hot (removing any 
 26 
 
402 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 black muddiness with a brush), and dry in hot sawdust. When 
 dry, burnish if required. Place upon a flat iron plate, just luke¬ 
 warm. Pass the lacquer quickly but evenly over the surface by 
 means of a rather large but fine camel’s-hair brush. Be careful not 
 to pass twice over the same spot, or a ridge is almost sure to appear. 
 Warm the lower plate until the work is quite dry. 
 
 Lacquer for Brass. —Seed lac, 12 ozs.; copal, 4 ozs.; dragon’s 
 blood, 80 grains; extract of red sanders wood, 50 grains; saffron, 
 70 grains; pulverized glass, ^ lb. ; spirits of wine, 2 quarts. 
 
 Pale Lacquer for Brass. —Methylated spirits of wine, 1 gallon ; 
 shellac, 5 ozs. ; sandarac, 4 ozs. ; gum elemi, 1 oz. Mix in a tin 
 flask, and expose to a gentle heat for a day or two; then strain off, 
 and add gallon of spirit to the sediment and treat as before. 
 
 Pale Gold Lacquer for Brass. —Methylated spirits of wine, 2 
 gallons; seed lac bruised, 20 ozs.; and red sanders, 1 oz. Dissolve 
 and strain. 
 
 Gold Colored Lacquer for Brass Watch-cases, etc. —Seed lac, 6 
 ozs. ; amber and gamboge, each 2 ozs.; extract of' red sanders 
 wood in water, 24 grains; dragon’s blood, 60 grains; Oriental saf¬ 
 fron, 36 grains; powdered glass, 4 ozs. ; pure alcohol, 36 ozs. The 
 seed lac, gamboge and dragon’s blood are pounded very fine on 
 porphyry, or clean marble, and mixed with the powdered glass. 
 Over this mixture is poured the tincture formed by infusing the saffron 
 and the sanders wood extract in the alcohol for 24 hours, then strain¬ 
 ing. Metallic articles that are to be coated with this varnish are 
 heated, and, if they admit of it, immersed made up in packets. 
 
 Gold Lacquer for Metallic Articles. —Prepare a concentrated 
 solution of picric acid in alcohol, and add to it alcoholic solution 
 of pale shellac until a test shows the desired gold color. Then add 
 for every 2 lbs. of lacquer 2 y 2 drachms of. boric acid, previously 
 dissolved in as little spirit of wine as possible. 
 
 Gold Lacquer for Tin Plate. —Carefully cleanse the tin plate, and 
 apply with a broad soft brush a coat of a mixture of 1 part of lin¬ 
 seed oil and 2 parts of dark copal lacquer. Dry the coated plates 
 in a drying stove. Tin plate thus lacquered can be bent and ham¬ 
 mered without the lacquer cracking off or losing its lustre. 
 
LACQUERS, PAINTS AND VARNISHES. 
 
 403 
 
 Greeti Lacquer. —Mix io ozs. of shellac, 12 ozs. of turmeric, 8 
 ozs. of gum sandarac, and 2 ozs. each of gum elemi and gamboge 
 in 2 gallons of methylated spirits; expose to a gentle heat, strain, 
 add 1 gallon of spirit to the sediment, and treat as before. 
 
 Iron Lacquer for Blacksmiths, Locksmiths and Founders. —A 
 lacquer protecting the iron from rust and presenting a beautiful 
 black appearance is prepared as follows: Dissolve 8 ozs. of asphalt 
 in 4 lbs. of pine oil by heating in a copper kettle, and add 8 ozs. 
 of colophony. Solution must be effected carefully to prevent the 
 flame from coming in contact with and igniting the pine oil vapors. 
 For coating iron on a large scale asphalt tar is used, the links of 
 chains being first freed from scales by immersion in strongly 
 diluted hydrochloric acid. 
 
 Lacquers for Gold. —Alcohol, 1 gallon; turmeric lb.; mace¬ 
 rate for a week, then filter, and add gamboge, 2 ozs. ; shellac, 6 
 ozs. ; gum sandarac, 1^ lbs. ; dissolve in a warm bath, and add 1 
 quart common turpentine varnish. For red lacquer, use 1 y 2 lbs. 
 of annotto instead of the turmeric, and 8 ozs. of dragon’s blood 
 instead of the gamboge. 
 
 Pale Lacquer for Gold. —Alcohol, 36 ozs.; turmeric, 12 drachms; 
 dragon’s blood, 4 drachms; red sanders, 1 drachm; hay saffron, 2 
 drachms; shellac, 3 ozs. ; gum sandarac, 6 drachms; gum mastic, 
 6 drachms; Canada balsam, 6 drachms; dissolve, and add 4^ 
 drachms of spirit of turpentine. 
 
 Lacquer for Philosophical Instruments. —Gamboge, 3 ozs. ; san¬ 
 darac and elemi, each 8 ozs. ; best dragon’s blood, 4 ozs. ; terra 
 merit a* 3 ozs. ; oriental saffron, 8 grains; seed lac, 4 ozs. ; pul¬ 
 verized glass, 12 ozs. ; pure alcohol, 80 ozs. The dragon’s blood, 
 elemi, seed lac, and gamboge are all pounded and mixed with the 
 glass. Over them is poured the tincture obtained by infusing the 
 saffron and terra merita in the alcohol for 24 hours. This tincture, 
 
 * Terra merita is the root of an Indian plant; it is of a red color, and much 
 used in dyeing. In varnishing it is only employed in the form of a tincture, and 
 is particularly well adapted for the mixture of those coloring parts which con¬ 
 tribute the most towards giving metals the color of gold. In choosing it be 
 careful to observe that it is sound and compact. 
 
404 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 before being poured over the dragon’s blood, etc., should be 
 strained through a piece of clean linen cloth, and strongly squeezed. 
 If the dragon’s blood gives too high a color, the quantity may be 
 lessened according to circumstances. The same is the case with 
 tire other coloring matters. This lacquer has a very good effect 
 when applied to many cast or moulded articles used in ornamenting 
 furniture. 
 
 Lacquer for Steel. —A good lacquer for steel is prepared by dis¬ 
 solving io parts of pure mastic, 5 of camphor, 15 of sandarac, and 
 5 of elemi in pure alcohol, and filtering the solution. The lacquer 
 is used cold ; it dries clear and transparent. 
 
 Lacquer for Tinfoil. —Dissolve 7 ozs. of shellac in 1 quart of 
 alcohol, and filter the solution. Allow the slime remaining upon 
 the filter to drain off, covering the funnel with a glass plate to pre¬ 
 vent as much as possible the evaporation of alcohol. To the shel¬ 
 lac varnish thus obtained add 3J4 ozs. of best white gum elemi and 
 14 drachms of Venetian turpentine, and let the whole stand in a 
 moderately warm place, stirring frequently. Then filter, press out 
 the residue, consisting almost entirely of gum elemi, and add it 
 to the filtrate. The varnish thus obtained may be colored as 
 desired. 
 
 Metallic Gold Color. —Metallic articles coated with a very fine 
 gold varnish are frequently brought into commerce from France and 
 England. This varnish consists, according to Hart, of a very soft, 
 almost liquid amalgam of 1 part of zinc and 12 parts of mercury. 
 This amalgam is diluted with hydrochloric acid, and the copper 
 articles are boiled in the mixture ; they are then washed in clean 
 water and dried in saw-dust. The articles to be varnished must 
 previously be carefully cleansed with dilute nitric acid. 
 
 To Lacquer Optical Lnstrumenls. —Before lacquering the brass 
 must receive the highest possible finish and polish. This is done 
 by taking out the marks of the file with finer and finer sorts of 
 emery cloth or paper, then polishing with rotten-stone or oil, and 
 giving the article, after this has been cleaned off, a final touch with 
 a buff-stick and jewelers’ rouge. The article must be carefully 
 wiped clean, and care taken that it is not touched afterwards with 
 
LACQUERS, PAINTS AND VARNISHES. 
 
 405 
 
 the fingers, as these would leave a greasy mark. Care must be 
 taken at every step to invariably lay the successive strokes of the 
 emery cloth or paper and polishers in the same direction. When 
 the desired degree of polish has been attained, a quantity of lacquer 
 is poured into a convenient vessel. A fine, flat camel’s-hair brush 
 is taken, and the article being gently warmed and held on the left 
 hand, a small quantity of the lacquer is taken up on the brush, and 
 the brush is drawn over the brass with straight strokes, always, if 
 possible, in the same direction. The article may generally be held 
 by screwing a piece of wire into some hole in it, and holding the 
 wire with a small hand-vise. As many coats of the lacquer as 
 desired may be given by keeping the brass hot. The degree of heat 
 is an important element in the success of the operation ; it must not 
 exceed the temperature of boiling water, and in some cases this 
 would be too great. Considerable skill is required in lacquering 
 well, and that skill can only be attained after a great deal of expe¬ 
 rience. The great secret of lacquering for beginners is to take as 
 little as possible of the lacquer at a time on the brush, have the 
 article perfectly clean, a good brush with no loose hairs in it, and 
 not make the article too hot. 
 
 What has been described in the foregoing is the process adopted 
 for lacquering the outside of photographic lens mounts, or all those 
 portions of the brass work where the light does not pass. The 
 inside of the mounts, however, is treated in an entirely different 
 way. Where the light passes there must be a surface as nearly dead 
 black as can be got. This is obtained in the inside of the tubes by 
 mixing finely triturated lampblack with the lacquer used for the out¬ 
 side, and applying the black lacquer in one or more coats with heat 
 to the inside of the tube. The result is a finely grained black sur¬ 
 face which reflects no light. As soon as the surface has received 
 one or two coats no more must be given, as the repeated application 
 of the lacquer would make the surface glossy, the very thing which 
 it is wished to avoid. This method of blackening the brass does 
 excellently for all portions which are not to come in contact with 
 the fingers; but wherever the brass requires to be handled recourse 
 must be had to something different from lampblack. . Nitrate of 
 
406 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 copper may be especially recommended for this purpose. A solu¬ 
 tion is prepared by dissolving copper wire in nitric acid, weakened 
 by adding 3 or 4 parts of water to 1 of acid. The article to be 
 blackened is heated pretty hot, and then dipped into the solution; 
 it is then taken out and heated over a Bunsen burner or spirit lamp. 
 When the article is heated to the proper temperature the green color 
 of the copper first appears, and, as the heat is increased, the article 
 becomes a fine dead-black. It is not necessary to lacquer it, it 
 being best to give it simply a good brushing to remove the dust, when 
 it may be considered finished. The color becomes blacker by the 
 application of a single coat of lacquer, provided it is not put on in 
 sufficient quantity to make the surface glisten—too much lacquer, 
 however, invariably produces an objectionable polished surface. 
 
 Coating for Bars of Spring Steel not Acted Upon by Acids, Alka¬ 
 lies, etc. —The bars are first coated with copal or asphalt lacquer, 
 and dried at a high temperature. They are then wrapped in sev¬ 
 eral layers of strongly-pressed paper impregnated with chromium 
 glue, and subjected to a very heavy pressure, and finally receive a 
 coat of the following compound: China clay, 50 parts; shellac, 
 10; sandarac, 8; elemi, 3 ; gun cotton, 2 ; camphor, y 2 ; and oil 
 of lavender, 5, dissolved in 100 of alcohol. When half dry, the 
 bars are again subjected to pressure, and, when entirely dry, 
 ground. 
 
 Black Coating for Iron. —To protect iron as cheaply as possible 
 from atmospheric influences, it is to be coated with ozokerite. 
 Ozokerite forms a brown, resinous mass and melts at about 140° F. 
 For lacquering iron articles the ozokerite is melted in a kettle, and 
 the melted mass heated to about the boiling point of water. The 
 sheets to be lacquered, which are to be previously scoured bright 
 by rubbing with sand, are immersed in the melted mass, and after 
 draining off, the ozokerite is ignited by holding the sheets over a 
 coal fire. After the ozokerite has burned for some time the flame 
 extinguishes, generally by itself, and the iron appears provided with 
 very firmly adhering black coating which perfectly resists all 
 atmospheric influences, and also the action of acids and alkaline 
 bodies. If the iron is to be used for vessels for the reception of 
 
LACQUERS, PAINTS AND VARNISHES. 
 
 407 
 
 alkaline fluids, it is recommended to repeat the lacquering in the 
 manner described. 
 
 New Rust Preventive. —For the preparation of this preventive 
 the crude oils obtained in the dry distillation of brown coal, peat 
 or other bituminous substances are, according to Dr. L. Beckert, 
 subjected to a second distillation. The distillate passing over at 
 482° to 572 0 F. forms the initial point for the process. Caout¬ 
 chouc rolled out thin and cut into strips is poured over with four 
 times its quantity of this oil and allowed to stand for 8 days, 
 whereby it is converted into a homogeneous and soft mass which 
 can be drawn into threads. This mass is worked by means of a 
 stirring apparatus with pale vulcan oil or other suitable hydro¬ 
 carbon until a homogeneous, clear fluid drawing threads is formed. 
 In this manner the mechanical incorporation of the caoutchouc 
 with the oil is effected without a separation afterwards taking place. 
 By applying the oil in as thin a layer as possible by means of a 
 flannel rag to a metallic surface, and drying slowly, a thin film of 
 caoutchouc oil is formed which affords an absolute protection 
 against atmospheric influences. After exposure for one year not 
 the slightest cracks, it is claimed, could be detected in the film of 
 oil even by a microscopical examination. To remove the oil the 
 articles are thoroughly oiled with caoutchouc oil; after allowing 
 the latter to act for 12 to 24 hours, the clean metallic surface is 
 restored by wiping off. It is claimed that the caoutchouc oil is 
 also especially adapted for loosening rust already present. 
 
 To Protect Iron and Steel from Rust. —The following method is 
 but little known, although it deserves preference over many others: 
 Add 1pints of cold water to 7 ozs. of quick lime. Let the mix¬ 
 ture stand until the supernatant fluid is entirely clear. Then pour 
 this off and mix it with enough olive oil to form a thick cream, or 
 rather to the consistency of melted and recongealed butter. Grease 
 the articles of iron or steel with this compound, and then wrap 
 them up in paper, or, if this cannot be done, apply the mixture 
 somewhat more thickly. 
 
 To Protect Lightning-rods, Metal Roofs, etc., from Rust. —Con¬ 
 vert 2 parts of graphite mixed with 8 parts of sulphide of lead and 
 
408 
 
 TTIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 2 of sulphate of zinc into an impalpable powder, and add gradually 
 30 parts of linseed oil varnish previously heated to the boiling 
 point. This varnish dries very quickly, and protects the metals 
 coated with it from oxidation. 
 
 To Protect Lead Pipes it is recommended to provide them with 
 a coat of sulphide of lead. Dissolve y 2 oz. of caustic soda in iy 
 quarts of water; mix the solution with one of y 2 of lead nitrate (or 
 an equivalent of another lead salt soluble in water) in y 2 pint of 
 Avater, and heat the mixture to 195 0 F. As soon as a sufficient 
 quantity of lead salt has been added the fluid becomes turbid, and 
 must be quickly filtered through asbestus or a similar material. To 
 the clear fluid add 2 y 2 ozs. of hot water containing 1 drachm of 
 sulphocarbonide in solution. In using the fluid it is best to heat 
 it to 150° F., and to hold the thoroughly cleansed lead pipe in it 
 for a few moments, when it will be quickly coated with a fine layer 
 of sulphide of lead. If the lead has been thoroughly cleansed the 
 sulphide of lead adheres very tenaciously and can be polished with 
 a piece of leather. 
 
 Painting of Iron .—On exposure to the atmospheric air all metals 
 soon lose their metallic lustre ; they oxidize by absorbing oxygen 
 from the air. Iron becomes coated with a layer of hydrated 
 sesquioxide of iron or rust; copper with carbonate of copper as 
 well as with the hydrate, while zinc also oxidizes very rapidly, it 
 becoming dull gray. This change takes place most rapidly in 
 iron, every drop of rain causing a rust stain, and, hence, only iron 
 perfectly free from rust can be successfully painted. When the 
 oxidizing process has once commenced, its progress may for a time 
 be interrupted by painting, but it progresses slowly even under the 
 paint, the latter finally peeling off together with the layer of rust. 
 Copper oxidizes, but so slowly that protecting agents are seldom 
 used. While, when applied to wood, the paint penetrates the 
 pores, thus allowing of an intimate mechanical union, it cannot 
 penetrate the fine pores of the metals and, hence, the protection it 
 offers consists simply of a protecting coat, and consequently a 
 paint entirely different from that used for wood is required for 
 iron. The principal point in painting iron is the priming color. 
 
LACQUERS, PAINTS AND VARNISHES. 
 
 409 
 
 If this is defective or incorrectly applied the efficacy of the entire 
 work is doubtful, even if the succeeding coats are correctly applied, 
 because in such a case a union between the priming and body 
 colors only takes place, which, if the former does not firmly 
 adhere to the iron, soon becomes full of cracks and scales off. For 
 the priming color to adhere firmly to the iron three conditions are 
 required : i, it must be capable of drying quickly and thoroughly; 
 2, it must be thinly-fluid ; and 3, it must be applied in a thin layer 
 only. The priming color should dry quickly, so that by the lower¬ 
 ing of the temperature with a content of moisture remaining in 
 the air, which occurs quite frequently, and, as a rule, toward even¬ 
 ing, a precipitate of atmospheric water is not formed upon the iron 
 before the paint has become solid. A sort of emulsion of the 
 paint takes place thereby, in consequence of which it never dries to 
 a solid, homogeneous mass. If the iron is painted in the open air 
 a precipitate of moisture may also be formed upon it by the radiation 
 of heat from the iron. The power of the radiating heat of iron, as 
 well as of metals in general, is, to be sure, small, but Mellam’s ex¬ 
 periments have shown that it increases considerably when the 
 metallic surface is coated with varnish. 
 
 The priming color should be thinly-fluid in order to be sure that 
 all inequalities of the surface to be painted may be covered. If a 
 mistake is made in this direction, as frequently happens when the 
 paint is too thick and the painter is not very careful, the coating 
 readily tears under the expansion of the metallic surface by heat, 
 air and moisture penetrating into the fissures and gradually under¬ 
 mining the entire coat of paint by the formation of rust. And, 
 finally, the layer of paint should be very thin, because paints on 
 iron and other non-porous surfaces dry very slowly. If a thick 
 layer is applied, only a film is formed on top, under which the paint 
 remains fluid for a long time. 
 
 Paint for Sheet-iron Roofs .—The priming color is linseed oil 
 with red-lead ; for painting use 1 part of verdigris, 1 of white-lead, 
 and 3 of linseed oil; or, y 2 of verdigris, i~y of white-lead and 
 2 y 2 of linseed oil. The sheet-iron receives three coats, the first 
 
410 
 
 TOE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-ROOK. 
 
 before it is used, the second after the first is thoroughly dry, and 
 the third three days later. 
 
 Paint for Preserving Zinc Roofs. —Fat or resinous paints for 
 zinc roofs must be prepared with an abundant content of copper by 
 the actual chemical solution of' suitable copper preparations in the 
 varnishes and oils. Such paints combine very intimately with the 
 zinc surfaces, so that they resist the most abrupt changes of tem¬ 
 perature without scaling off. For the preparation of such paints 
 either copper soap prepared by precipitating a solution of copper 
 salt with soap solution is dissolved in varnish, or the emulsion, like 
 Russian train-oil paint, mixed with solution of copper salt. Rus¬ 
 sian train-oil paint is prepared by mixing train-oil with a solution 
 of soda or potash and suitable mineral colors, so that a thinly- 
 fluid paint is formed. 
 
 Puscher claims to have found a simple process of applying a very 
 durable paint of various colors to sheet-zinc. It is based upon the 
 use of basic acetate of lead. To a solution of this salt colcothar 
 may, for instance, be added, the result being a very agreeable, 
 brown-red paint. Such paint was used for painting the five domes 
 of the Niirnberg synagogue. By adding other coloring substances 
 light, dark and gray colors as well as yellowish shades can be 
 obtained, and thus zinc castings used for architectural purposes 
 may be given the appearances of sculptured work. 
 
 Black Varnish for Iron and Steel. —A black varnish of a 
 splendid tone is produced on steel and iron by turpentine and 
 sulphur boiled together, laid on with a brush. The evaporation 
 of the turpentine leaves a thin layer of sulphur, which unites with 
 the iron when heated a short time over a gas or spirit flame. The 
 varnish is durable and perfect. 
 
 Black Varnish for Zinc. —Dissolve equal parts of chlorate of 
 potash and blue vitriol in 36 times as much warm water and allow 
 the solution to cool. If the blue vitriol used contains iron, it is 
 precipitated as a hydrated oxide, and can be removed by decanta¬ 
 tion or filtration. The zinc castings are then immersed for a few 
 seconds in the solution until quite black, rinsed off in water and 
 dried. Even before it is completely dry the black coating adheres 
 
LACQUERS, PAINTS AND VARNISIIES. 
 
 41L 
 
 to the article so that it may be wiped dry with a cloth. If copper- 
 colored spots appear during the operation the solution is applied 
 to them a second time, and after a while they turn black, when the 
 article is washed and dried. On rubbing the coating acquires a 
 glittering appearance like indigo, which disappears on applying 
 a few drops of linseed oil varnish or “wax milk,” and the zinc* 
 then has a deep-black color and gloss. The “wax milk” is pre¬ 
 pared by boiling i part of yellow soap and 5 of Japanese wax in 
 21 of water until the soap dissolves. When cold it has the con¬ 
 sistency of a salve, and will keep in closed vessels for an indefinite 
 time. 
 
 Bright Asphalt Varnish for Sheet Metals .—Boil coal-tar until it 
 shows a disposition to harden on cooling; this can be ascertained 
 by rubbing a little on a piece of metal. Then add about 20 per 
 cent, of lump asphalt, stirring it with the boiling coal-tar until all 
 the lumps are melted, when it is allowed to cool and kept for use. 
 
 Colored Varnish for Sheet Metal .—Rub 7 y 2 drachms of acetate of 
 copper to a fine powder in a mortar, spread the powder in a thin 
 layer upon a porcelain plate, and let it stand in a moderately warm 
 place. In a few days the water of crystallization and most of the 
 acetic acid will be evaporated. Triturate the light-brown powder 
 which remains behind with some oil of turpentine, and stir in 
 ozs. of a fine quality of fat copal varnish heated to 167° F. If the 
 acetate of copper has been rubbed extraordinarily fine, the larger por¬ 
 tion of it will be dissolved after stirring hour. The varnish is 
 then poured into a glass bottle, placed in a warm place, and 
 frequently shaken. The small quantity of acetate of copper which 
 settles on the bottom may be used in the preparation of further por¬ 
 tions of varnish. This varnish is dark green ; four to five coats are 
 required to produce a beautiful green lustre upon articles of sheet 
 metal; but in order to obtain a variety of gold shades two coats are 
 sufficient if the respective articles are heated in a drying chamber or 
 upon uniformly heated metal plates. According to the time of 
 heating, either a greenish or yellow shade, or a dark yellow, orange 
 or reddish brown may be obtained. These colors surpass in lustre 
 those produced with English gold varnish, and have the advantage 
 
412 
 
 THE METAL WORKER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 of remaining constant on exposure to light. If a good quality of 
 copal varnish is used in the preparation of a polychromatic varnish 
 or lacquer, the sheet metal may even be hammered. The produc¬ 
 tion of gold colors depends on the reduction of oxide of copper, it 
 yielding a gold color when dissolved in small quantity by the copal 
 varnish. The more heat is applied the greater the reduction which 
 takes place, and hence the darker color. 
 
 Green Varnish for Metals. —Dissolve finely pulverized gum san- 
 darac or mastic in strong potash lye until it will dissolve no more. 
 Dilute the solution with water and precipitate it with a solution of 
 copper salt, either sulphate or acetate. The green precipitate is 
 washed, dried, and dissolved in oil of turpentine, producing a fine 
 green varnish, which does not change under the effect of light, and 
 is especially useful for ornamental iron work. 
 
 Green Transparent Varnish. —Grind a small quantity of Chinese 
 blue with double the quantity of finely powdered chromate of pot¬ 
 ash, add a sufficient quantity of copal varnish, thinned with turpen¬ 
 tine. The tone may be altered by more or less of one or the other 
 ingredients. 
 
 Varnish for Iron Work. —Dissolve in about 2 lbs. of tar oil 
 lb. of asphalt and a like quantity of pounded resin, mix hot in an 
 iron kettle, care being taken to prevent any contact with the flame. 
 When cold the varnish is ready for use. This varnish is for out¬ 
 door wood and iron work. 
 
 Varnish for Common Work. —This varnish is intended for pro¬ 
 tecting surfaces against atmospheric influences. It has been used 
 for coating wood and iron work with great advantage. Take 3 lbs. 
 of resin and powder it, place it in a tin can, and add 2^/2 pints of 
 spirits of turpentine, shake well, and let it stand, occasionally 
 agitating it, for a day or two. Then add of boiled linseed oil 5 
 quarts, shake the whole together, and allow it to stand in a 
 warm room till clear. The clear portion is decanted and used, or 
 reduced with spirits of turpentine until of the proper consistency. 
 
 Varnish for Iron Patterns. —Add to oil of turpentine, drop by 
 drop, strong commercial sulphuric acid; the acid will cause a dark 
 syrupy precipitate in the oil of turpentine; keep adding drops of 
 
SOLDERING AND SOLDERS. 
 
 413 
 
 sulphuric acid until no more precipitate is formed ; then pour out 
 the liquid and wash the syrupy mass with water, and it is ready for 
 use. Heat the iron to be varnished to a moderate heat, apply the 
 syrupy product, and allow it to dry. 
 
 Varnish for Metals According to Max Innes .—Potash or soda soap 
 is decomposed by a metallic salt—best sulphate of zinc. The me¬ 
 tallic soap thus formed is purified by washing, and, after adding io 
 per cent, of tallow, the whole is diluted with petroleum or another 
 volatile oil, which dissolves the metallic soap. It is then filtered 
 until entirely bright and clear, and kept for use in well-closed 
 vessels. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 SOLDERING AND SOLDERS. 
 
 Soldering is the process of uniting the edges or surfaces of sim¬ 
 ilar or dissimilar metals and alloys by partial fusion. In general 
 alloys or solders of various and greater degrees of fusibility than the 
 metals to be' joined are placed between them, and the solder when 
 fused unites the three parts into a solid mass. Less frequently the 
 surfaces or edges are simply melted together with an additional por¬ 
 tion of the same metal. The solders are broadly distinguished as 
 hard solders and soft solders; the former only fuse at a red heat, 
 and are consequently suitable alone to metals and alloys which will 
 endure that temperature; the soft solders melt at very low degrees 
 of heat, and may be used for nearly all the metals. 
 
 The attachment is in every case the stronger the more nearly the 
 metals and solders respectively agree in hardness and malleability. 
 Thus, if two pieces of brass or copper, or one of each are brazed 
 together, or united with spelter-solder—an alloy nearly as tough as 
 the brass—the work may be hammered, bent, and rolled almost as 
 freely as the same metals when not soldered, because of the nearly 
 equal cohesive strength of the three parts. Lead, tin, or pewter 
 are also malleable from the near agreement of these substances; 
 
414 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 whereas, when copper, brass, and iron are soft-soldered, a blow of 
 the hammer, or any accidental violence, is almost certain to break 
 the joint asunder so long as the joint is weaker than the metal gen¬ 
 erally ; and, therefore, the joint is only safe when the surrounding 
 metal, from its thinness, is no stronger than the solder, so that the 
 two may yield in common to any disturbing cause. 
 
 In hard-soldering it is frequently necessary to bind the works 
 together in their respective positions; this is done with soft iron 
 binding wire which for delicate jewelry work is exceedingly fine, 
 and for stronger work is ^ or ^ -inch in diameter. It is passed 
 around the work in loops, the ends of which are twisted together 
 with the pliers. In soft soldering the binding wire is scarcely ever 
 used, as, from the moderate and local application of the heat, the 
 hands may generally be freely used in retaining most of thin work 
 in position during the process. Thick work is handled with 
 pliers or tongs whilst being soft-soldered, and is often treated 
 much like glue joints, if we conceive the wood to be replaced by 
 metal, and the glue by solder, as the two surfaces are frequently 
 coated or tinned whilst separated, and then rubbed together to 
 distribute and exclude the greater part of the solder. 
 
 For the soft solders, the soldering iron is the most general agent 
 for applying the heat; for the hard solder, forge or other fires, or 
 the blow-pipe, are generally adopted. Brazing (used with sheet 
 brass and sheet copper) may be defined as soldering with fusible 
 brass, and hence as a form of hard soldering. 
 
 The soldering iron—more correctly the copper soldering bit— 
 consists of a small piece of solid copper rivetted between the forked 
 end of a split iron rod, the whole being provided with a wooden 
 handle. All works in tinned and sheet iron, and many of those in 
 copper and brass, are soldered with the copper-bit, which in general 
 suffices to convey all the heat required to melt the more fusible 
 solders now employed. If the copper-bit has not been previously 
 tinned, it is heated in a small charcoal stove, or otherwise, to a 
 dull red, and quickly filed to a clean metallic surface; it is then 
 rubbed immediately, first upon a lump of sal-ammoniac, and next 
 upon a copper or tin plate upon which a few drops of solder have 
 
SOLDERING AND SOLDERS. 
 
 415 
 
 been placed. This will completely coat the tool; it is then wiped 
 clean with a piece of tow and is ready for use. 
 
 The copper-bit or end must always, as has been said, be tinned, 
 or covered with tin, before using. This always needs to be done. 
 Here is another plan : File it bright with a fine file, and give it a 
 pointed end, not too sharp, and then put it into your charcoal or 
 coke fire. Get a soft red brick and scoop out a hole as big as a 
 cherry in its top surface. When the bit is not quite red hot, hold 
 the bar of solder in your left hand over the hole in the brick, and 
 touch it with the hot bit in such a way that the metal drops into the 
 cavity; drop also a pinch of powdered resin on it. Now rub the 
 bit round and round in the brick until it gets cool, and by that 
 time, if the operation has been properly performed, it will be coated 
 with solder. 
 
 It is customary to keep two soldering irons in use, so that while 
 one is in hand the other may be heating in the stove. It is im¬ 
 possible to make satisfactory work unless the tool be kept at a 
 sufficient heat. It should not, however, be raised to too great a 
 heat or the tinning will be burned off and will need to be re¬ 
 placed. 
 
 Besides the usual copper-bit the plumber employs a large heavy 
 bulbous iron in soldering. This is especially used for joints in 
 lead pipe, which require to be very sound. These are generally 
 extremely clumsy in appearance, as by the aid of the hot iron and 
 a piece of tick held in the left hand the plumber manages to 
 plaster a great bulbous patch of solder round the point of junction, 
 which is termed a “ wiped" joint. 
 
 The blow-pipe (mouth) is used to some extent in soft soldering, 
 principally by the gas-fitter, who is generally remarkably expert in 
 making therewith joints in his composition pipes. These are not 
 made like the plumber’s, by inserting one end of the pipe in the 
 other and plastering a bulb of solder around the place, but by 
 cutting off the pipes with a fine saw and filing them up square and 
 smooth to butt together into a mitre or T joint. These joints 
 have frequently to be made in very awkward and confined situa¬ 
 tions amongst joists under floors, etc., and are generally effected 
 
416 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 by applying the heat from one side only, by holding a small bundle 
 of dried ignited rushes there and forcing the flame thus obtained 
 upon the joints with a blow-pipe. They generally use a solder 
 rich in tin, and employ a flux of oil and resin in equal parts. 
 
 The pewterers generally use the hot-air blast by means of a 
 peculiar apparatus employed only in their trade. They use fusible 
 solder containing bismuth, and for flux a common green olive oil, 
 termed Gallipoli oil. 
 
 For hard soldering an intense fire heat is required, similar to 
 that obtained in the smith’s forge. In fact the ordinary black¬ 
 smith’s forge is frequently used for brazing, although the process is 
 injurious to the fuel as concerns its normal purpose. The brazier’s 
 hearth, for extensive work, is generally a plate of iron about 4 X 
 3 feet, supported on four legs at its corners, and with a central 
 opening about 2 feet by 1 foot, and 6 inches deep for the fuel. 
 The blast is generally supplied by a fan, and the tuyere-irons have 
 large apertures. 
 
 Fresh coal should never be used, but charcoal, or, failing that, 
 coke or cinders. Lard in the fire is very prejudicial. 
 
 In all cases of hard-soldering or brazing the meeting edges are 
 to be scraped or filed clean, especially when the heat used will not 
 reach the red degree. The work in copper, iron, brass, etc., 
 having been prepared and the joints retained in position by bind¬ 
 ing with iron wire when needed, the granulated spelter and borax 
 are mixed in a cup with a very little water, and spread along the 
 joints by a slip of sheet-metal or a small spoon. The work is then 
 placed above the clear fire, first at a small distance, gradually to 
 evaporate the moisture and deprive the borax of its water of 
 crystallization. During this process the flux boils up with a frothy 
 appearance, and sometimes shifts the solder away. The heat is now 
 increased, and when the metal assumes a faint red the borax melts 
 like glass. As the metal becomes deeper red the solder also fuses, 
 generally, if it contains any zinc, with a slight blue flame. Gener¬ 
 ally at this point the solder “ flushes” or disappears in the work. 
 Should it not do so, and appear refractory on the score of running 
 into the joint, the work may be tapped with the tongs in order to 
 
SOLDERING AND SOLDERS. 
 
 417 
 
 make it move. Care must, of course, be taken that the heat is not 
 so much raised as to melt the work as well as the solder. If the 
 work be iron, there is, of course, little need of precaution. 
 
 If iron is to be brazed the meeting surfaces must be filed bright. 
 Make a little borax into a paste with water and smear them over 
 with this. Next tie them together with fine iron wire; just enough 
 to prevent the pieces from coming apart. Then wind them round 
 and round at the place of the joint with several coils of fine brass 
 wire, rubbing them over with the borax paste. This is then laid 
 on the fire and the blast put on. Presently a small blue flame will 
 be seen reflecting over the place. This is a sign that the brass 
 wire is melting and the heat is dissipating the zinc constituents of 
 the brass, and the brass having melted and run into the joint the 
 job is done. 
 
 It is only iron, however, to which so much heat can be applied. 
 For brass and copper a more fusible metal than brass must be em¬ 
 ployed. This solder is called “spelter,” and is composed of equal 
 parts of copper and zinc. In fact it is a very soft kind of brass, 
 and liquefies at a much lower temperature than copper or ordinary 
 brass. 
 
 The blow-pipe is largely used in hard soldering and brazing, 
 especially for work in the precious metals. The ordinary blow¬ 
 pipe is a light conical brass tube about 10 or 12 inches long, from 
 J^-inch to ^-inch in diameter at the end for the mouth, and from 
 ts to 5V' nc h at the aperture or jet. The small end is bent in a 
 quadrant, that the flame may be immediately in sight. Very 
 usually it is fitted with a small hollow brass ball just below 
 the quadrant, to serve as a receptacle for the condensed vapor 
 from the lungs. This instrument is generally used with a lamp of 
 a wick from to 1 inch in diameter and produces a flame of great 
 heat, the object exposed to it being generally placed upon char¬ 
 coal. Gas is frequently used in conjunction with the blow-pipe, and 
 this is especially useful for sheet-brass, the work being held in place 
 by wire ties if necessary, and either laid upon a flat piece of 
 pumice-stone or held in a pair of pliers. 
 
 Since soldering must be executed with the assistance of heat, 
 27 
 
418 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 and the places to be joined would soon become again coated with 
 oxide, even if previously cleansed, care must be had to either ex¬ 
 clude the atmospheric air from the metal during the operation, or 
 to dissolve the oxides formed, or to reduce them to metal. Besides 
 various soldering liquids, the following substances are used as 
 fluxes: clay, borax, powdered glass, phosphoric acid and phos¬ 
 phates, cryolite, hydrochloric acid, chloride of zinc, colophony, 
 sal-ammoniac and soldering grease. Clay is only used for the 
 exclusion of the air, especially in soldering iron. Powdered glass 
 excludes the air only after fusion, consequently when oxides have 
 already formed, which, however, dissolve readily in the fused glass, 
 entering into combination with the free silicic acid of the glass. 
 
 Hydrochloric Acid exerts a corroding and dissolving effect upon 
 the oxides. It is much used in soldering zinc, it not being nec¬ 
 essary to previously brighten the metal. Still better is a solution 
 of chloride of zinc, which may be used for all kinds of metal. 
 When the places to be joined are free from dirt they need not be 
 filed or scraped ; iron alone has to be cleansed, which is readily 
 effected by brushing the places to be soldered with hydrochloric 
 acid and rubbing with a piece of sheet-zinc. 
 
 Powdered Colophony, turpentine and even oil of turpentine are 
 used as soldering agents. At the heat required for soldering they 
 melt and decompose, hydrogen and carbon being formed. It is 
 generally supposed that it is the carbon alone which effects the re¬ 
 duction of the metallic oxide formed on the joint to be soldered ; 
 however, according to Spencer’s experiments, the hydrogen liber¬ 
 ated in the distillation of resins also plays an important part as a 
 reducing agent, and, therefore, beeswax especially would be still 
 more suitable as a soldering agent. 
 
 The flux mostly used in soft soldering is a 
 
 Soldering Liquid prepared as follows: Dissolve small pieces of 
 zinc in pure hydrochloric acid until effervescence ceases. After a 
 few days take out the undissolved zinc, filter the solution, com¬ 
 pound it with yi its volume of spirits of sal-ammoniac, and finally 
 dilute with rain water. This soldering liquid causes no rust on iron 
 
SOLDERING AND SOLDERS. 
 
 419 
 
 or steel, and does excellent service in all soldering, as well as tin¬ 
 ning operations. 
 
 Soldering Paste .—By mixing solution of chloride of tin with 
 starch paste a syrupy liquid is obtained which is frequently used in 
 soldering, it being more readily applied to the soldering seam 
 than ordinary soldering liquid. 
 
 Soldering Fat. —Besides chloride of tin, soldering fat is also used 
 in soldering tin-plate, etc. It is prepared as follows: Melt in a 
 pot over a gentle coal-fire x lb. of olive oil and i lb. of tallow, and 
 after stirring in 8 ozs. of pulverized colophony, allow the mass to 
 boil up. When the mixture is sufficiently cool add, with constant 
 stirring, ^ pint of water previously saturated with pulverized sal- 
 ammoniac, whereby the mass acquires a yellow color, and is ready 
 for use. 
 
 The above-mentioned fluxes cannot be used for hard soldering, 
 as they would burn or volatilize at the temperature required. In¬ 
 stead of them borax or phosphates and occasionally phosphoric acid 
 are employed, these substances possessing in a high degree the 
 power of dissolving metallic oxides, and at a high temperature 
 fusing with them together to a glass-like mass. They are used 
 either in a solid form or as solution. Ordinary borax can only be 
 used for preparing soldering liquid, since, when used dry, it loses 
 by heating its water of crystallization, swells up and causes dis¬ 
 turbance in the operation. For use in a powdered state borax has 
 to be calcined ; this is readily effected by heating ordinary borax 
 until it forms a readily friable mass. 
 
 Phosphoric acid is used diluted either with water or spirits of 
 wine. 
 
 Muller's Soldering Liquid consists of a solution of phosphoric 
 acid in alcohol. It is prepared by dissolving phosphorus in nitric 
 acid, evaporating the solution to expel any excess of nitric acid 
 and mixing the syrupy mass with an equal quantity of strong alcohol. 
 The phosphoric acid dissolves the layer of oxide, the combination 
 formed melting under the soldering iron, and is displaced by the 
 melted solder which now comes in contact with the bright metallic 
 
420 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 surface. This fluid can be advantageously used in soldering copper, 
 as well as brass, bronze and argetan. 
 
 Gauduin's Soldering Liquid for copper and bronze consists of a 
 mixture of finely pulverized cryolite and a solution of phosphoric 
 acid in spirits of wine. 
 
 New Soldering Liquid. —Dissolve i part each of lactic acid and 
 glycerin in 8 of water. This liquid is claimed to possess the 
 advantage over zinc chloride of not being corrosive, or injurious to 
 the health of the workman. 
 
 Soft Solders. —The soft solder most frequently used consists of 2 
 parts of tin and 1 of lead. A cheaper solder is formed by 
 increasing the proportion of lead; tin to 1 lead is the most 
 fusible solder unless bismuth be added. The following table gives 
 the composition of some of these solders with their respective 
 melting points: 
 
 Number. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Melts at 
 degrees 
 
 F. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Melts at 
 degrees 
 F. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 I. 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 558 ° 
 
 7 . 
 
 
 I 
 
 334 ° 
 
 2. 
 
 1 
 
 IO 
 
 54 i 
 
 8. 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 340 
 
 3. 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 5 11 
 
 j 9 . 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 356 
 
 A . 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 482 
 
 10. 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 7 6 5 
 
 5. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 441 
 
 II . 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 378 
 
 6 . 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 370 
 
 12 . 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 380 
 
 For ordinary plumbers’ work the solders from 4 to 8 are used 
 with tallow as a flux. For lead and tin pipes No. 8 is used with a 
 mixture of resin and sweet oil as a flux. For Britannia metal No. 
 8 is used with chloride of zinc or resin as a flux. It can also be 
 employed for soldering cast-iron and steel, with common resin or 
 sal-ammoniac as a flux. The same solder may also be used for cop¬ 
 per and many of its alloys, such as brass, gun metal, etc., sal- 
 ammoniac, chloride of zinc or resin serving as a flux. Solder No. 
 5 is what is called in England plumbers' sealed solder, which is 
 assayed and stamped by an officer of the “ Plumbers’ Company.” 
 
SOLDETirNG AND SOLDERS. 
 
 421 
 
 To prepare soft solder first melt the tin, best in a porcelain or 
 stone vessel, as with the use of an iron vessel there is danger of the 
 absorption of iron by the solder. The tin being completely melted 
 add the lead in small portions and combine the two metals by 
 stirring with a stick of wood. Then pour the finished alloys into 
 suitable moulds, the best shaped being that of thin bars about 7^ 
 by 1^ inches and to inch thick. 
 
 The quality of a solder is judged by the appearance of the sur¬ 
 face of the cast pieces, special value being attached to its being 
 radiated crystalline, which is technically called the “flower,” and 
 should have a stronger lustre than the dull ground of a dead silver 
 color. If the solder shows a uniform gray-white color it contains 
 too little tin, and it is best to remelt it with the addition of a small 
 quantity of that metal. 
 
 Bismuth Solder .—Bismuth 1 part, tin 1, and lead 1. It melts at 
 284° F. This solder liquefies very readily and is considerably harder 
 than ordinary soft solder, but much more expensive. Since every 
 readily fusible metallic composition can be used for soldering the 
 fusible alloys of cadmium and bismuth (see p. 82) might be classed 
 with soft solders. On account of their costliness they are, how¬ 
 ever, only used in exceptional cases. 
 
 Hard Solders .—Under this name very different alloys are used, 
 their composition depending principally on that of the metals or 
 alloys to be soldered. Though hard solders are found in com¬ 
 merce every workman should learn to make his own hard solder, 
 since in many instances he can expect success, not only by a 
 thorough knowledge of the properties of the materials to be united, 
 but also of the metal he proposes to flow on them. 
 
 Spelter Solder .—This is used in brazing. It is composed of equal 
 parts of copper and zinc. Heat the brass in a crucible to a red- 
 heat with a flux of charcoal dust and borax, and then add the zinc. 
 If the zinc be put in at first it will evaporate or “ burn out ” before 
 the copper melts. If heated too hot after melting the zinc will 
 evaporate, passing into the air and coating surrounding objects with 
 white feathery flakes. If kept melted long a little more zinc should 
 be added if the solder is to be used on brass, but for iron consider- 
 
422 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S nANDY-BOOK. 
 
 able zinc may burn out before it deteriorates. It is cast in ingots, 
 heated to a red-heat and hammered while hot. If too hot it will 
 cake, but if at just the right temperature, it will granulate into fine, 
 lustrous particles, not losing their metallic yellow color. 
 
 The following table shows the centesimal composition of various 
 kinds of hard solders which have stood a practical test for various 
 purposes: 
 
 Very refractory 
 
 Refractory. 
 
 Readily fusible. 
 
 Half-white, readily fusible. 
 
 White. 
 
 Malleable solder. 
 
 Hard solder according to Volk.... 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 57-94 
 
 42.06 
 
 
 58-33 
 
 41.67 
 
 
 50.00 
 
 5000 
 
 
 33-34 
 
 66.66 
 
 
 44-00 
 
 49.90 
 
 3-30 
 
 57-44 
 
 27.98 
 
 14.58 
 
 72.00 
 
 18.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 53-30 
 
 46.70 
 
 
 Lead. 
 
 These solders being generally prepared by melting together brass 
 and zinc, the proportions required for the purpose are given in the 
 following table: 
 
 
 Tarts. 
 
 
 Brass. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 
 85.42 
 
 7.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 12.00 
 
 12.58 
 
 I. OO 
 
 
 « it 
 
 
 Refractory. 
 
 I.OO 
 
 
 «< 
 
 I.OO 
 
 
 Readily fusible. 
 
 2 .CO 
 
 
 
 4.OO 
 
 5.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 
 Half-white. 
 
 1.00 
 
 it 
 
 44-00 
 
 40.00 
 
 22.00 
 
 2.00 
 
 White. 
 
 2.00 
 
 8.00 
 
 
 2.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 It 
 
 18.00 
 
 12 OO 
 
 Very ductile. 
 
 78.25 
 
 81.12 
 
 17.25 
 
 18.88 
 
 
 
 
 
SOLDERING AND SOLDERS. 
 
 423 
 
 Solders for Aluminium. —French manufacturers use five kinds of 
 solder in soldering aluminium ; their composition is as follows: 
 
 The solders are made by first preparing an aluminium copper 
 alloy and mixing this with the required quantity of zinc. The 
 copper is first melted and the aluminium, divided into three or four 
 portions, is gradually introduced into the melted copper, a perfect 
 mixture being effected by stirring. When the last portion of 
 aluminium has been added throw in the zinc, and at the same time 
 some fat or resin, then stir quickly and briskly, immediately remove 
 the crucible from the fire and pour the alloy into iron moulds 
 previously rubbed with coal tar oil or benzine. 
 
 For soldering aluminium with the blow-pipe the following com¬ 
 position is recommended : Silver, io parts; copper, io; aluminium, 
 20; tin, 60; zinc, 30. 
 
 For soldering with the common soldering iron use: Tin, 95 parts, 
 and bismuth, 5 ; or tin, 97 parts, and bismuth, 3. The flux to be 
 used in all cases is either paraffine, stearin or vaseline. The articles 
 must be well cleaned before soldering and heated just enough to 
 make the solder adhere. 
 
 Soldering of Aluminium Bronze. —To solder aluminium bronze 
 with ordinary soft (pewter) solder: Cleanse well the parts to be 
 joined from dirt and grease. Then place the parts to be soldered 
 in a strong solution of sulphate of copper and place in the bath a 
 rod of soft iron touching the parts to be joined. After a while a 
 copper-like surface will be seen on the metal. Remove from bath, 
 rinse quite clean and brighten the surfaces. These surfaces can 
 
424 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 then be tinned by using a fluid consisting of zinc dissolved in 
 hydrochloric acid in the ordinary way with common soft solder. 
 
 Hu lot's Solder for Aluminium Bronze. —Lead-tin solder (equal 
 parts of lead and tin) with 12.5, 25, or 50 per cent, of zinc 
 amalgam. 
 
 Solders for Aluminium Bronze Jewelry. I. Hard Solder for 10 
 per cent. Brorize. —Gold, 88.88 per cent.; silver, 4.68; copper, 
 6.44. 
 
 II. Middling Hard Solder for 10 per cent. Bronze. —Gold, 50.40 
 percent.; silver, 27.60; copper, 18. 
 
 Soft Solder for Aluminium Bronze. —Brass (copper, 70 per 
 cent.; tin, 30), 14.30 per cent.; gold, 14.30; silver, 57.10; 
 copper, 14.30. 
 
 Argentan Solders. —These solders being not only used for solder¬ 
 ing German silver, but also for steel articles, efforts have been made 
 to prepare compositions answering all demands, of which the fol¬ 
 lowing have stood a practical test: 
 
 I. Readily Fusible Argentan Solder. —Copper, 35 parts ; zinc, 
 57 ; nickel, 8. 
 
 II. Less Fusible Argentan Solder (especially adapted for iron and 
 steel). Copper, 38 parts; zinc, 50; nickel, 12. 
 
 Soldering Cast-iron. —In a foundry doing agricultural work there 
 are a great many alterations to be made to patterns, and often it is 
 desirable to solder brass to cast-iron where drilling and rivetting to 
 the pattern would make anything but a neat job. By a great many 
 men who work on iron patterns it is considered quite a secret to 
 solder on cast-iron, but it is not so. The process is very much the 
 same as in soldering on a tinned surface. If the part of iron to be 
 soldered is cast-iron that is hard and thin, it should be polished on 
 an emery wheel and made clean and bright. Then dip it in potash 
 water, after which dip it for an instant in clean water and wash it 
 quickly with undiluted hydrochloric acid of the ordinary strength; 
 go over it with powdered resin and solder made from half tin and 
 half lead. This must be done quickly before the surface has time 
 to dry. 
 
 Another Plan is this: File the surface clean and wash as before, 
 
SOLDERING AND SOLDERS. 
 
 425 
 
 wipe it over with a flux made of sheet zinc dissolved in hydrocnloric 
 acid until it is surcharged, or is a saturated solution and has been 
 diluted with its own quantity of water; then sprinkle powdered 
 sal-ammoniac on it and heat it on a charcoal fire until the sal- 
 ammoniac smokes. Dip it in melted tin, and then remove and rap 
 off the surplus tin. 
 
 To Solder Cast-iron Objects .—Broken decorated cast-iron objects 
 may be soldered by first removing the dirt from the surfaces to be 
 joined and then brushing the latter with a scratch-brush until they 
 are, so to say, covered with a dry coat of brass. The surfaces thus 
 covered with brass are then tinned in the same manner as brass, and 
 the parts soldered together in the usual way. 
 
 Soldering with Dry Lead Chloride .—The process consists in 
 bringing the soldering plane of the heated soldering-iron in contact 
 with the dry lead chloride. When the lead chloride is melted the 
 solder is taken up in the usual manner and applied to the joints 
 to be united. In this manner lead, zinc, copper, brass or iron can 
 be readily soldered with lead with or without the use of soldering 
 liquid. This interposing role of lead chloride for soldering pur¬ 
 poses is also valuable for metallic coatings in a dry way by melting 
 one metal upon the other. The articles to be coated are brought 
 successively or simultaneously in contact with the melted lead 
 chloride and the metal which is to furnish the coating. According 
 to the shape of the article to be coated the melting may be effected 
 either upon the article itself or the coating accomplished by dip¬ 
 ping the object into the melted substances. Copper, brass and 
 iron can in this manner be coated with zinc, tin or lead. 
 
 Gold Solders .—In color and fusibility the solders used for articles 
 of gold should approach as nearly as possible the alloy of which 
 the latter are made; the smaller the content of gold in the alloy 
 to be soldered the more fusible the solder must be. The following 
 table gives the composition of some gold solders in general use: 
 
426 
 
 THE METAL WORKER'S HANDY-ROOK. 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Hard solder for fineness 750. 
 
 Soft “ “ 750. 
 
 Solder “ 583. 
 
 “ “ 583 . 
 
 “ for less fineness than 583_ ... 
 
 “ “ “ “583 . 
 
 “ “ “ “ 583 . 
 
 “ readily fusible. 
 
 “ “ “ for yellow gold. 
 
 q q q 0 q q q q\o 
 
 ChNf^NWHWHC) 
 
 2.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 O.5 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 54-74 
 
 5 -o 
 
 1.0 
 
 30 
 
 1.0 
 
 o -5 
 
 1.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 28.17 
 
 q q 
 
 LO P-! 
 
 Solder for Enamelled Work. —Articles which after being finished 
 are to be decorated with enamel cannot be soldered with every kind 
 of gold solder, since many enamels require so high a degree of heat 
 for fusion as to endanger the durability of the soldered joints. 
 Hence, solders with a high melting point have to be used. The 
 following compositions will be found to answer all requirements : 
 
 I. Refractory Solder. —Gold, 74 parts; silver, 18. 
 
 II. More Readily Fusible Solder. —Gold (750 fineness), 32 parts; 
 silver, 9 ; copper, 3. 
 
 To Remove Tarnish froni Gold After Hard Soldering. —First pro¬ 
 tect the gold by painting it over with yellow ochre ground up with 
 water and a very little borax. After soldering throw it into a 
 pickle composed of water 6 parts and sulphuric acid 1 part. A 
 copper boiling dish may be used for this pickle. If the article on 
 coming out of this pickle is whitish looking and shows too much 
 of the silver alloy, dip it for a moment in a hot mixture of sulphuric 
 acid and saltpetre (no water). Wash and polish with rotten stone 
 and oil; then wash again and polish with rouge. 
 
 Silver Solders. —The composition of these solders varies accord¬ 
 ing to the purpose for which they are to be used. In the following, 
 the compounds employed in the preparation of the solders most 
 frequently used, are given. 
 
SOLDERING AND SOLDERS. 
 
 427 
 
 Hard Silver Solders are used for soldering silver ware and fine 
 articles of brass, copper, steel and iron. I. Hard Silver Solder for 
 the First Soldering is generally composed of: 
 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 hi. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 IX. 
 
 X. 
 
 XI. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Fine silver.. 
 Copper. 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 ■? 
 
 57 
 
 28.6 
 
 66.7 1 66.3 
 
 27.7 2Z.7 
 
 50 
 
 33-4 
 
 II 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 76 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 157 
 
 35 
 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 .... 
 
 143 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 16.6 
 
 
 
 
 II. Softer Hard Silver Solder for After Soldering, i. e. , for solder¬ 
 ing articles having parts already soldered and requiring therefore a 
 more fusible solder: 
 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 IX. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Medium fine silver. 
 
 7 
 
 l6 
 
 l6 
 
 3-5 
 
 2 
 
 10.5 
 
 68.8 
 
 67,1 
 
 48-3 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 8.2 
 
 io-5 
 
 l6.I 
 
 Copper... 
 
 
 
 
 2.6 
 
 3 
 
 4-5 
 
 2-3 
 
 24.4 
 
 32-3 
 
 Tin. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3-3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alloy for Cold Soldering. —An alloy which is useful when metals 
 are required to be soldered together at a low temperature is pre¬ 
 pared as follows : Finely divided copper is obtained by adding zinc 
 to a solution of sulphate of copper. From 20 to 30 parts of this 
 copper, according to the hardness required, are mixed in a cast- 
 iron or porcelain mortar with concentrated sulphuric acid, to 
 which are finally added 70 parts of mercury. The amalgam thus 
 formed is thoroughly washed with water in order to remove the 
 sulphuric acid, and after being left untouched for some time it 
 
428 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S RANDY-BOOK. 
 
 becomes sufficiently hard to scratch lead. In using the alloy for 
 soldering it is warmed until it assumes the consistency of wax, in 
 which state it can be applied to the joint. 
 
 Copper is the best material for joining iron to iron, whether 
 wrought or cast. It unites the two surfaces very firmly, and, by 
 reason of its ductility and toughness, allows of the soldered articles 
 being bent into almost any shape. To solder iron or steel place a 
 thin strip of copper along the junction, bind the plates together 
 with wire and cover them an inch deep with clay free from sand. 
 For soldering iron to iron bring the plates, when dry, to a white 
 heat and then plunge them into cold water; for iron to steel or steel 
 to steel, cool slowly from the white heat. The vitrified clay is then 
 broken off. 
 
 To Solder Copper Wire .—In soldering copper wire for electrical 
 work, acid is often used, and the resulting “greenness” is a sure 
 indication of corrosion, which may extend under the solder, 
 covering the copper and forming serious resistance against the pas¬ 
 sage of the current. Indeed, it is presumable that the resistance of 
 both light and power as well as of signal circuits are often increased 
 by such corrosion from the use of acid in soldering. Sal-ammoniac 
 seems to be the natural flux with copper, but corrosion frequently 
 takes place where this salt is used as a flux. The only flux per¬ 
 missible in electric soldering in copper and brass is resin. Clean 
 copper will flux completely with resin provided the surfaces are 
 clean when the resin is applied. A bottle of strong soda water, 
 fitted with a sponge cover, can be carried with any soldering kit. 
 The soda quickly removes any grease or dirt, is “ killed ” by con¬ 
 tact with resin, and forms a perfect cleaning agent for preparing 
 copper or brass for soldering with resin as a flux. 
 
 To Solder Saws .—A piece of charcoal, a blow-pipe, some spelter 
 and borax are required. File the ends of the saw smooth, so that 
 one side laps over the other, fit the teeth opposite each other and 
 bind it with iron wire to keep in place. Then moisten the lap 
 with borax dissolved in water and place the saw on the charcoal. 
 Place the broken parts near a gas jet, sprinkle the parts previously 
 wetted with the spelter and blow the flame of gas until the spelter 
 
SOLDERING AND SOLDERS. 
 
 429 
 
 runs; let it get cool before removal. When quite cold file it flat 
 with the other part of the saw. 
 
 To Solder Without a Soldering Iron. —Pieces of brass can be 
 soldered without it being possible to detect the joint by filing the 
 pieces so as to fit exactly, moistening them with a soldering liquid, 
 then placing a piece of smooth tin-foil between them, tying them 
 together with wire and heating over a lamp or fire until the tin- 
 foil melts. With good soft solder almost all soldering can be done 
 over a lamp without the use of a soldering iron. The different 
 degrees of fusibility of solders can also be advantageously used for 
 several solderings and joints on the same piece. By soldering 
 first with a fine solder composed of lead, 2 parts; tin, x ; and 
 bismuth, 2, there will be no danger of melting when close to the 
 jointed part; another piece is soldered on with solder composed 
 of lead, 4 parts; tin, 4; and bismuth, 1. The best soldering liquid 
 to be used is composed of equal parts of water and hydrochloric 
 acid saturated with zinc. 
 
 To Color Soft Solder. —For giving the solder used in soldering 
 copper the same color as the latter, prepare first a saturated solu¬ 
 tion of pure sulphate of copper and apply it to the solder. By 
 then touching the solder with an iron or steel wire it becomes 
 covered with a film of copper which may be augmented as much 
 as desired by repeated moistening with the solution of copper and 
 touching with the wire. If the soldering is to show a yellow color 
 mix 1 part of saturated solution of sulphate of zinc with 2 parts 
 of solution of sulphate of copper, apply the mixture to the coppered 
 place and rub the latter with a zinc rod. If the soldered place is 
 to be gilded, copper it as above described, then coat with solution 
 of gum or isinglass and scatter bronze powder upon it. This 
 forms a surface which, when the gum is dry, can be polished. 
 
 To Make Platinum Adhere to Gold. —Platinum can be made to 
 : adhere to gold by soldering in the following manner : A small 
 quantity of fine, or 18-carat, gold should be sweated into the sur¬ 
 face of the platinum at nearly a white heat, so that the gold will 
 soak into the face of the platinum. Ordinary solder will then 
 adhere firmly to the face obtained in this manner. 
 
430 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Autogenous Soldering takes place by the fusion of the two edges 
 of metals themselves without interposing another metallic alloy as 
 a bond of union. This is accomplished by directing a jet of 
 burning hydro-gas from a small movable beak upon the two sur¬ 
 faces or edges to be soldered together. Metals thus joined together 
 are much less apt to crack asunder at the line of union by differ¬ 
 ence of temperature, flexibility, etc., than when the common 
 soldering process is employed. This method of soldering is 
 especially of great advantage in chemical works for joining the 
 edges of sheet-lead for sulphuric acid chambers and concentration 
 pans, because any solder containing tin would soon corrode. 
 
 XV. 
 
 WELDING AND WELDING COMPOUNDS. 
 
 In order to find a true analogy to welding we need go no further 
 than the ordinary “sticking together'’ of two pieces of cobblers’ 
 wax, pitch, putty or clay. These are in a viscous or semi-fluid 
 condition, and they cohere by an action similar to the transfusion 
 or intermingling and uniting of two liquids. Iron and platinum 
 pass through a viscous or pasty stage on their way from the solid 
 to the liquid state, and the temperature at which this pasty con¬ 
 dition occurs is the welding heat. The chief practical difficulty in 
 welding iron arises from the fact that at a welding heat it is liable 
 to oxidation, and the oxide of iron is not viscous like the metallic 
 iron. The union of different pieces of iron and steel by welding 
 succeeds well only when the surfaces of contact are as large as 
 possible, free from oxide and scale, and sufficiently heated. To 
 enlarge the surfaces of contact of two bars to be welded together 
 the ends are upset and sloped, or the end of one bar is ripped 
 open and the end of the other bar pointed like a wedge and in¬ 
 serted in the slit. Iron has to be heated to a white heat, whilst 
 cast-steel welds at a bright red heat; by heating the latter too 
 much it loses in quality—it burns. 
 
WELDING AND WELDING COMPOUNDS. 
 
 431 
 
 To obtain a clean surface on the pieces to be united care must 
 be had to remove the scale formed in heating. This is effected by 
 scattering upon them so-called “welding powders,” with which 
 the scale forms a readily fusible slag ; silicic acid (sand) and boric 
 acid are most frequently used. In welding steel other substances 
 are added to augment the fluidity of the slag. 
 
 Cast-iron or steel containing more than 2 per cent, of carbon 
 cannot be welded, because the compound of iron with so much 
 carbon is more fusible than pure iron, or than steel with less car¬ 
 bon, and it runs more suddenly or directly from the solid state 
 into that of a liquid, and hence presents no workable range of 
 weldable viscosity. 
 
 There is one point in welding steel which cannot be too strongly 
 insisted upon, and that is that the pieces, after having been brought 
 to the welding point, should not be struck heavily with the hammer, 
 but only tapped lightly at first until they have begun to weld ; after 
 that the sledge or steam-hammer may be used with perfect freedom. 
 Another important thing in welding steel is the heat. While it is 
 impossible to give any specific rules on this point, the general rule, 
 which will be found to hold good in all cases, is not to heat the 
 steel any higher than is absolutely necessary to effect a weld— 
 the higher the steel is in carbon the lower the heat at which it 
 ought to be worked, hence necessitating heavier hammers—and 
 next, not to finish the operation at too low a temperature. It will 
 be best to work the steel as rapidily as possible, reheat as often as re¬ 
 quired to prevent working or finishing cold, and anneal immediately 
 after welding the whole piece—not only the immediate vicinity of 
 the weld—containing the weld. The annealing heat should always 
 be higher than that at which the piece was finished. Another 
 source of danger to the homogeneity of the finished product is to 
 be found in cold-straightening. The presses in many mills are so 
 constructed as to exert absolute shearing stresses, and are apt to do 
 more harm than any subsequent service can do. Cold-straighten¬ 
 ing ought to be done at black heat, and the local effects of the 
 press be modified by distribution over a large area. This can be 
 accomplished by the use of broad oak wedges or the insertion of 
 
432 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 pieces of plank. Generally, plates, angles, beams, etc., have of 
 necessity to undergo more or less hammering in the course of con¬ 
 struction, and as this produces effects comparable to punching and 
 shearing, though in a much less degree, it becomes necessary, in 
 steel construction, to modify these effects in the same way, by 
 protecting the metal surface with wood and substituting heavy 
 wooden mallets for sledges. In fine, the working of steel in every 
 stage requires care—and, above all, intelligence—and the men 
 engaged in it must be impressed with the necessity for careful 
 manipulation and rational treatment. Undoubtedly the steel must 
 in the first place possess the proper qualities for structural purposes, 
 but then it must also be, subsequently, properly treated if it is to 
 bring those qualities into the finished structure. 
 
 To Weld Cast-steel. —I. The following precautions are necessary 
 to ensure success: Keep the cast-steel from the air while being 
 heated; heat as quickly as possible; don’t make it too hot or it 
 will burn, and break in pieces when hammered—for cast-steel re¬ 
 quires a low welding heat; strike lightly at first, and increase to 
 heavy blows; don’t use coals, because they contain sulphur, and 
 will give the surface of the steel a coating of sulphide of iron ; but 
 use coke, or what the smiths term “ breeze,” that is, coal well burnt 
 and the cinders washed. Use the following flux: Borax, % lb. ; 
 washing potash, ^ lb. ; and a small quantity of white glass pow¬ 
 dered; melt together, and when cold pound it. This flux will 
 dissolve the oxide that forms. Apply some before putting into the 
 fire to protect the surface of the work from oxide, and apply more 
 at your own discretion. If wanted to weld cast-steel to iron, the 
 iron will require a greater heat than steel. 
 
 II. Mix boric acid, 41.5 parts; common salt, 35 ; ferrocyanide 
 of potash, 15.5 to 26.7; resin, 7.6; carbonate of soda, 3 to 5. 
 
 This mixture does excellent service. It has, however, the dis¬ 
 advantage of not remaining unaltered if kept for any length of 
 time, as it gradually decomposes and assumes a blue color. But 
 this is a minor evil, as the compound is so easily prepared. 
 
 III. Fiala of Prague uses pulverized white marble for welding 
 cast-steel. The two pieces to be welded together are heated, and, 
 
WELDING AND WELDING COMPOUNDS. 
 
 433 
 
 after rolling in marble-dust, are promptly joined together and 
 subjected to a good hammering. 
 
 American Welding Compoundfor Welding Steel to Steel.- —Flowers 
 of sulphur, i part; sal-ammoniac, 2; borax, 10. 
 
 Another Formula is as follows: Boric acid, 41.5 ; common salt, 
 35 ; prussiate of potash, 15.5 ; calcined soda, 8. 
 
 Welding Compound to Weld Steel to Wrought-iron at a Red-heat. 
 —I. Pulverize and mix with water 6 parts by weight of borax, 2 of 
 sal-ammoniac, 1 of prussiate of potash, and y 2 of resin. Boil the 
 mixture, stirring it constantly, until it forms a stiff paste, which is 
 allowed to harden over the fire. When cold pulverize and mix it 
 with 1 part of wrought-iron filings free from rust. In using it 
 scatter the powder upon the red-hot pieces and liquefy it over the 
 fire. 
 
 II. Boric acid, 35 parts; common salt, 30.1; prussiate of 
 potash, 26.7; colophony, 7.6. 
 
 To Weld Steel to Iron or Steel.- —Mr. Paul Herzog gives the fol¬ 
 lowing as a special composition discovered by him for use in weld¬ 
 ing steel to steel or to iron: Borax, 500 parts by weight; sal- 
 ammoniac, 70; prussiate of potash, 70; unrusted iron filings, 35. 
 This compound is to be pulverized in a mortar, and then turned 
 into a sheet-iron pot or crucible; water is added until a thick 
 paste results, and then the crucible is put over a wood-fire and the 
 contents constantly stirred. The resulting mass resembles pumice 
 stone with green and gray streaks; this is cooled, pulverized, and 
 is at once ready for use. 
 
 Welding Compound for Welding Wrought-iron to Wrought-iron at 
 a Red-heat. —Borax, 1 part by weight; sal-ammoniac, ]/ 2 ; and 
 water, y 2 . Boil these ingredients, with constant stirring, until the 
 mixture is stiff, and then allow it to harden over the fire. When 
 cool the compound is pulverized and intimately mixed with y 
 part of wrought-iron filings free from rust. The pieces to be welded 
 are first dove-tailed or tied together, and the place to be welded is 
 made red-hot; the powder is then scattered upon it and liquefied 
 over the fire. A few light taps with the hammer suffice to join 
 the two pieces together. 
 
 28 
 
434 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 To Thoroughly and Firmly Unite, by Welding, Steel with Steel, 
 Cast-steel with Cast-steel and Cast-steel with Iron.—To weld steel 
 of larger and smaller dimensions, for instance, piston-rods or 
 spindles of spinning frames, cut off the bad end, upset it and cut 
 it open with a chisel; then in the same manner prepare the piece 
 to be welded on and join both parts. The part of the spindle to 
 be welded is then heated to a slight white-heat in a charcoal fire, 
 and some powder of the mixture given below scattered upon it by 
 means of an iron spoon. When the powder is melted another 
 portion is added and the welding joint closed by light blows with 
 the hammer. 
 
 To prepare the powder, pulverize in a covered mortar, 500 parts 
 by weight of borax, 70 of sal-ammoniac, 70 of yellow prussiate of 
 potash and 35 of iron filings free from rust, and bring all into a 
 sheet-iron crucible. Then add sufficient water to form a-thick 
 paste, and boil, with constant stirring, over a moderate wood-fire. 
 When correctly manipulated a green and gray mass resembling 
 pumice stone is formed, which, when cold, is pulverized and then 
 ready for use. By the use of this powder many spindles and piston- 
 rods up to a diameter of 2^/2 inches have been successfully welded. 
 The powder may also be used for welding pieces of cast-steel as 
 well as for joining cast-steel and iron. 
 
 Improved Method of Welding. —It is well known that in order to 
 weld iron in a durable manner its surface must be free from oxide, 
 which formerly could only be effected with a welding heat of 
 2,800° F. Such a high temperature is, however, injurious to 
 the quality of the iron, and still more so to that of steel, so 
 that many varieties of the latter could not be welded in this 
 •manner. 
 
 To overcome this difficulty pulverized borax is used, which, 
 however, cannot be uniformly distributed over the surface of the 
 iron. Lafitte now uses a gauze of very flexible wire, and applies 
 the fluxing agent uniformly to both sides of the gauze, or also to 
 paper. For small surfaces it frequently suffices to form a leaf from 
 the agglomerated fluxing agent and filings. Instead of covering 
 the two surfaces with powder, the wire gauze, which consists of the 
 
WELDING AND WELDING COMPOUNDS. 
 
 435 
 
 same material as the substances to be welded, is placed between 
 them and welded in. The welding takes place at a much lower 
 temperature and the fluxing agent generally volatilizes while the 
 wire gauze melts and unites with the surface. 
 
 To Weld Copper .—A mixture composed of i part soda phos¬ 
 phate and 2 boric acid is used. The powder is applied when the 
 metal is at a dull red heat ; it is then brought to a cherry-red and 
 at once hammered. The greatest care must be taken that no char¬ 
 coal or other solid carbon comes in contact with the points to be 
 welded, as otherwise copper phosphide would be formed, which 
 would cover the surface of the copper and effectually prevent a 
 weld. In this case it is only by careful treatment in an oxidizing 
 fire and plentiful application of the welding powder that the cop¬ 
 per can again be welded. It is, therefore, advisable to heat the 
 copper in a flame, for instance a gas flame. As copper is a much 
 softer metal than iron, it is much softer at the required heat than 
 the latter at its welding heat, and the parts welded cannot offer 
 any great resistance to the blows of the hammer. They must, 
 therefore, be so shaped as to be enabled to resist such blows, as well 
 as may be, and it is also well to use a wooden hammer, which, on 
 account of its lightness, does not exert so great a force. 
 
 Another Process is as follows: The two pieces of copper to be 
 united having been previously shaped so that the surfaces form a 
 lap or other suitable joint, borax is applied on and between the 
 surfaces of the joint, which are then heated and hammered. The 
 borax is prepared by being heated until all the water of crystalli¬ 
 zation has evaporated, when the residue is pulverized for use. 
 After being hammered while hot, the joint is further 'heated to a 
 white heat and sprinkled over with common salt or other equiva¬ 
 lent compound suitable for the exclusion of oxygen, and then 
 welded; or during the welding operation a current of chlorine 
 gas may be directed upon the heated copper joint. 
 
 To Make Old Steel Rails New. —Mr. W. B. Middleton, of Lan¬ 
 caster, Pa., has discovered a method of welding steel which prom¬ 
 ises to confer very great benefit upon those engaged in steel work¬ 
 ing. According to the specification of the invention, which has 
 
436 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 been patented in the United States and leading foreign countries, 
 pieces of steel may, at a proper welding heat, be perfectly, cheaply 
 and easily welded together after the pieces to be welded have been 
 coated with a solution of silicate of soda or other solution in which 
 silica is contained. In the practice of the invention the most 
 satisfactory results have been obtained by applying a solution of 
 silicate of soda to the pieces of steel to be welded, by dipping the 
 pieces in the solution, or by pouring it upon them, bunching to¬ 
 gether the pieces to be welded and heating them to an ordinary 
 welding heat and then passing them through rolls. This is the 
 process followed with large pieces, but smaller articles can be 
 welded under the hammer when previously treated with the solu¬ 
 tion. The inventor finds that the process is applicable for re¬ 
 working old steel rails and other heavy pieces, and it renders cer¬ 
 tain kinds of steel scrap, which were formerly almost worthless, 
 highly valuable. 
 
 Welding of Platinum .—Platinum does not oxidize when in a 
 red hot state and may be welded without the use of welding pow¬ 
 der by simply placing the red-hot pieces upon each other and uniting 
 them by blows of the hammer. Nevertheless the welding together 
 of two pieces of platinum is a difficult operation, since platinum 
 possesses the property of yielding up the absorbed heat with great 
 rapidity and cooling off to such an extent that the two pieces are 
 no longer soft enough to be united. This cooling off takes place 
 with such rapidity that the joining of the hot pieces must be has¬ 
 tened as much as possible, it being advisable to allow the flame of 
 the hydrogen-gas blow-pipe to act upon the pieces of platinum 
 during the entire operation of welding. 
 
 Electric Welding .—This process, the invention of Prof. Elihu 
 Thomson, is a new art; for, unlike the smith, who is confined to 
 iron, steel and platinum, it can weld any two pieces of the same 
 metal or alloy, ranging from the most refractory metals to the 
 alloy which fuses at 162° F. It will join dissimilar metals when 
 the welding point of one is not too far in excess of the fusion point 
 of the other. 
 
 The Apparatus .—The electricity is generated by one of two 
 
WELDING AND WELDING COMPOUNDS. 
 
 437 
 
 methods. In the direct system the dynamo is contained in the 
 machine below the clamps, and the armature has two windings; 
 the one being a fine winding, which is in series with the field- 
 magnet coils, and the other winding being merely a bar of copper 
 in the form of a letter U, or less than a single coil. This bar be¬ 
 ing of a very low resistance, the maximum current is sufficient for 
 welding purposes, and the terminals are connected directly with 
 the copper clamps. Alternating currents are generated in this 
 machine, and used for welding, in order to avoid commutators, 
 which are necessary in direct-current machines. It should be re¬ 
 membered that in all dynamos the electricity is generated in 
 alternate currents, and that these currents are in proper turn fed to 
 brushes of opposite polarity, and thus rendered continuous. In an 
 alternate-current dynamo the electricity is conducted from the 
 armature to rings instead of to a commutator, and it is thus better 
 suited for large currents, and some forms of the apparatus do not 
 require rings, or any moving contacts. There is no electrical 
 reason why an alternating current should be used except the con¬ 
 venience of its manipulation. In fact, the continuous current ap¬ 
 plied by secondary batteries has been used for this purpose. 
 
 Another form of apparatus, termed the indirect system, is more 
 conveniently suited for large work, or in places where a number 
 of welding machines are operated by the current from a single 
 dynamo. The welding current is produced by conversion of the 
 comparatively high-tension current by means of an inverted induc¬ 
 tion coil, termed a transformer. The primary circuit from the 
 dynamo is conducted through many turns of fine wire around a 
 soft iron ring, and upon this same ring is a single turn of a large 
 copper bar, in which the welding current is produced by inductive 
 effect. These currents receive 4,000 to 15,000 alternations per 
 minute. The welding currents are not changed suddenly or by 
 switches, as such manipulation would not be desirable or even 
 practicable with the great currents used; but in the direct welding 
 machine a set of resistance coils is placed in the fine circuit which 
 passes around the field magnets, and by interposing more or less 
 of the resistance coils in this circuit the strength of the magnets 
 
438 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 is diminished or increased, and the welding current altered ac¬ 
 cordingly. 
 
 With the indirect machine the amount of the secondary or 
 welding current is controlled by varying the current in the primary 
 coil by means of a kicking coil, or by a variable shunt in the field 
 coil, and in other ways. 
 
 In either case the apparatus is simple, and in full and complete 
 control at will of the operator by movement of a lever, and this 
 action controls the heat. 
 
 The Process .—In the electric welding process the two pieces to 
 be joined are secured in firm end contact by a pair of adjustable 
 copper clamps, which are placed upon the top of the apparatus. An 
 electric current of large volume is passed through the pieces, and 
 the contact between them being of less conductivity than the ho¬ 
 mogeneous metal, heating ensues at this place, as the juncture is 
 brought to the proper temperature by the gradual motion of the 
 regulating lever, and as the metal softens the clamps are pressed 
 towards each other to insure a continuous metallic union across 
 the bar. 
 
 The weld begins at the centre and proceeds radially towards the 
 surface, as the temperature becomes greater than at the interior. 
 The heating is further increased by the fact that the resistance of 
 the hot metal is greater than that of cold metal. 
 
 The enormous electric currents used in this welding process 
 sometimes reach 50,000 amperes, but with an electro-motive force 
 of half a volt, and therefore not capable of giving any sensation 
 to a person. 
 
 It would be injudicious to offer any premium upon ignorance, 
 but the operation of electric welding is one of the simplest of 
 mechanical processes, requiring but little skill on the part of the 
 operator in comparison with that exact training of hand and eye 
 and long experience necessary for ordinary welding. The operator 
 must understand the color of the proper welding heat of the metal 
 under treatment, but this is readily learned. The work is not 
 manipulated during the process, except when it is desired to reduce 
 the burr at the weld, and is at all times under observation, and its 
 
WELDING AND WELDING COMPOUNDS. 
 
 439 
 
 heat subject to entire control by means of a lever which graduates 
 the strength of the current. 
 
 The dynamo generating the electricity is self-regulating and 
 requires no attention except for lubrication. 
 
 There is no unnecessary waste of fuel, the heating being local, 
 and does not extend far from the weld ; cotton-covered wire one- 
 fourth of an inch in diameter can be welded without searing the 
 insulation over three-fourths of an inch from the weld. 
 
 The time for making a weld varies from a fraction of a second to 
 about two minutes, according to the work, although nothing over 
 two inches diameter has yet been welded ; but larger machines are 
 in process of construction. 
 
 It is not necessary to provide power fully equal to the maximum 
 demand, as the time is so short that the momentum of a flywheel 
 will serve the same purpose as in a drop press, and give up the 
 surplus energy required. 
 
 The power is inversely porportional to the time, and appears to 
 be about proportional to 2.3 power of the diameter in inches, with 
 a slight variation of quick work caused by differences in the rates 
 of the thermal conductivity of the material. 
 
 Applications .—The process is far cheaper than that of hand 
 welding, and also extends to other methods of manufacture, but 
 the comparative expense differs according to the previous condi¬ 
 tions in every place where it has thus far been applied. 
 
 Its applications in practical work thus far have been chiefly con¬ 
 fined to butt-welding for many purposes, such as continuous wire 
 work, carriage work, axles and tires, cotton-bale ties, barrel hoops 
 and wire cables and many miscellaneous purposes. Axes are made 
 of drop forgings, joining the tool steel edge to a mild steel poll; bars 
 are heated in the middle and upset, forming collars, and pipes are 
 joined together—a matter of great value in ice machines. The 
 list might be continued to greater length, but this indicates the 
 range of its practical uses at this early day. 
 
 Strength of Electric Welds .—The value of the process, for most 
 purposes, independent of any scientific interest or mechanical in- 
 
440 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 genuity shown in the apparatus, must be that of the resistance of 
 the welds under tensile stress. 
 
 It will be readily understood, however, that as this process ac¬ 
 complishes many things hitherto impossible, aside from any question 
 of ultimate strength, it is fitted for applications in many construc¬ 
 tions where it saves labor and time, provided only that the joints 
 be in all cases sufficiently good for the purpose for which the 
 article is designed. A large field thus opens up in the execution 
 of ornamental design in metal work, where it will supplant 
 screws, rivets or solder for fastenings, and in other evident applica¬ 
 tions. 
 
 Under the name “ electrohephestos ” MM. de Bernados and 
 Olszewsky have patented a new method of electrically welding 
 metals, especially parts of iron. This method, according to 
 “ Dingler’s Polytechnical Journal,” is in a certain sense a comple¬ 
 ment to Prof. Thomson’s process. While the latter brings the 
 pieces of metal to be joined to a welding heat and unites them by 
 the use of pressure, thus forming an actual weld, Bernados and 
 Olszewsky melt the two metals at their juncture, whereby a solder¬ 
 ing together is effected. 
 
 Extensive experiments with Bernados and Olszewsky’s electric 
 welding apparatus have recently been made at Tegel, near Berlin. 
 The process is described as follows: The joint of the two metals 
 which are to be welded together is connected with the negative 
 pole of a dynamo or other source of supply, the positive pole of 
 which is formed by a carbon pencil. Under the intense heat of 
 the arc the most refractory metals melt almost instantaneously at 
 their junction and fuse together. But the action is purely local, 
 like that of a blow-pipe, and only those parts upon which the arc 
 plays directly are attacked, the adjoining portions undergoing 
 little change, and the fused mass solidifying and cooling very 
 quickly. The slightness of the chemical change produced by the 
 action of the arc at the joint is shown by the appended table: 
 
WELDING AND WELDING COMPOUNDS. 
 
 441 
 
 
 Steel. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Composition of material. 
 
 Before 
 
 welding. 
 
 After 
 
 welding. 
 
 Before 
 
 welding. 
 
 After 
 
 welding. 
 
 Carbon ... 
 
 0.48 
 
 0.25 
 
 0-34 
 
 0.14 
 
 Silicon. 
 
 0.04 
 
 
 
 
 Manganese. 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.23 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.04 
 
 9.14 
 
 0.09 
 
 Phosphorus. 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.07 
 
 0.12 
 
 O.II 
 
 Iron. 
 
 98.86 
 
 99 30 
 
 98.90 
 
 99-43 
 
 The material requires little or no preparation. Even a pretty 
 thick layer of oxide will be reduced and drop off, while smaller 
 quantities of oxide unite to form a slag with the sandy clay 
 frequently added as flux. This slag prevents the oxidation of the 
 metals while cooling. No other fluxes are required. The 
 operations can also be carried on under water, although the gases 
 and steam generated cause trouble. Nevertheless, an apparatus has 
 been constructed to facilitate such work by forcing the water away 
 from the parts to be treated by means of compressed air. One of 
 the chief advantages claimed for the new process appears to be 
 that the arc is brought to the work, and not the work taken to 
 the arc, which would mean transformers, crucibles, or other apparatus. 
 Size is hence a question of secondary importance, and unwieldy 
 pieces may be dealt with, although for soldering work of the 
 ordinary kind a special operating table is employed as more con¬ 
 venient. 
 
 In order to obtain the various strengths of current and E. M. F. 
 necessary when operating upon pieces of different size storage bat¬ 
 teries are employed which have been especially constructed for this 
 purpose by M. de Bernados. The complete cell, Fig. 25, weighs 
 35 lbs. and contains nine lead plates, Fig. 26, all of the same kind, 
 four of them positive and five negative, with 1^ square yards of 
 total surface. Each plate consists of a frame cast of pure lead 6 X 
 7 yh inches surface and 0.2 inch thick. The interior of the frame 
 
442 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 is filled with strips of thin lead, alternately straight and corrugated, 
 Figs. 27 and 28, soldered into their places; the latter strips are 
 bent in such a manner as to facilitate upward currents in the liquid. 
 The cells have an interior resistance of 0.002 ohm and give 2.5 volts 
 when continually charged while at work. Fifty to seventy of these 
 cells are joined in a battery; several batteries, three for instance, 
 are grouped in parallel and are continually charged by a shunt 
 dynamo. The diagram, Fig, 29, explains the ordinary connections. 
 The shunt dynamo charges the fifty accumulator cells in series; a 
 voltmetre and an amperemetre are inserted at Fand A. From the 
 positive terminal of every fifth cell a wire leads to a plug switch¬ 
 board U ; from U the current passes through a variable resistance 
 W, and from thence through a flexible cable to the carbon-holder 
 Z and the carbon pencil K. The operator manipulates this carbon- 
 holder Z, the metal to be fused placed upon the table /"-being 
 joined directly to the negative terminal of the battery. By insert¬ 
 ing the plug in the switch-board U the operator may obtain cur¬ 
 rents from five cells, and so on to ten times five cells. If con¬ 
 siderable masses of metal are to be dealt with, currents of con¬ 
 siderable strength are needed. These are obtained by grouping 
 the batteries of certain sets of cells in parallel. Supposing the 
 dynamo gives a current of 175 volts and 120 amperes, that there is 
 a battery of seventy cells coupled in series, and that it is desired to 
 solder two boiler plates of § inch thickness. The carbon-holder 
 is connected with the positive terminals of the fortieth cells of 
 three groups. The carbon is allowed to touch for a fraction of a 
 second, and is taken off immediately, so that between the plates 
 and the carbon pencil an arc of a few millimetres’ length is formed. 
 The iron melts like wax, but the action seems too powerful, the 
 molten metal hissing and evaporating distinctly. In such a case 
 one of the three parallel groups is cut out. Should the action then 
 be too sluggish, one or more parallel groups is added. Sometimes 
 the arc proves too small or extinguishes frequently; in such cases 
 the number of cells in each group has to be increased. 
 
 The carbon-holder (Fig. 30) resembles a pair of scissors, and 
 consists of two copper bars having a round hole near the end, in 
 
WELDING AND WELDING COMPOUNDS, 
 
 443 
 
444 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 which the pencil is held firmly, either by the friction of the parts 
 or by means of a little wedge, as shown in the illustration. 
 
 One of the most important applications of the new process is 
 for welding plates of all thicknesses. For the very finest sheets 
 of one millimetre and less, the Electro-Hephestos Company 
 prefer a modification of Prof. Thomson’s process. But all 
 stronger plates up to several centimetres thickness are subjected to 
 the arc. 
 
 To effect this with ordinary plates, the edges are feathered as in 
 Fig. 31, or Fig. 32, and pressed together. The furrows are filled 
 with little pieces of the same material, and the arc is then applied, 
 while fresh pieces are added until the furrow is completely filled 
 with the molten mass. The plates are immediately afterwards 
 finished under the hammer. In making iron welds the small pieces 
 for filling are always of wrought-iron. With iron a flux of clay 
 sand is recommended ; with copper, borax or sal-ammoniac. The 
 arrangement (Fig. 32) secures great strength, but is of course only 
 applicable when the lower surface of the metal can be got at. 
 When the plates are joined on their lower surfaces, M. de Bernados 
 suggests a powerful electro-magnet placed as indicated in Fig. 33 
 to prevent the liquid metal (provided the material be para-magnetic) 
 from flowing off. The apparatus shown in Fig. 34 looks more 
 practical; it is intended to be employed when making vertical 
 seams. The pincers carry two pieces of graphite or coke, forming a 
 sort of chamber at the spot where the fusion is to be effected. 
 As soon as the mass has hardened sufficiently the carbon pieces are 
 pushed further up. Carbon pieces are frequently employed to 
 prevent the flowing off of the fused material. Figs. 35 to 39 ex¬ 
 emplify other ways of joining plates in cases where a perfectly 
 straight surface is not insisted upon ; for thinner plates the method, 
 Fig. 39, seems to offer particular advantages; for two one-fifth-inch 
 plates a seam of a yard length can be made in seven minutes. 
 When plates are to be joined at an angle the process is, of course, 
 exceedingly simple. 
 
 This process also permits of the welding of dissimilar metals, 
 so that iron and copper, zinc, steel, cast-iron, etc., can be united. 
 
WIRE—MANUFACTURE, BRASSING, ETC. 
 
 445 
 
 XYI. 
 
 WIRE-MANUFACTURE, BRASSING, COPPERING, ELEC¬ 
 TROPLATING, GALVANIZING, ETC. 
 
 The process of wire-drawing consists in pulling cold metallic 
 rods through perforated plates or “ blocks,” presenting a series of 
 tapering apertures of decreasing areas, and whereby the rods are 
 increased in length at the sacrifice of thickness. The ratio of 
 attenuation is directly according to the squares of sectional 
 diminution ; for example, by reducing a rod, say, one-half, one- 
 third, or one-fourth, etc., in diameter, its length is respectively 
 augmented four, nine or sixteen times. Iron and steel wires are 
 usually drawn through steel-plates, but those of the precious metals 
 required for the more accurate purposes of science or the arts are 
 commonly drawn through perforated diamonds, rubies, or other 
 hard stones suitably mounted in the “blocks,” and whereby great 
 lengths of fine wire can be produced of uniform section. For a 
 long period iron wire was very largely produced and almost ex¬ 
 clusively used for many purposes, but, for the last fifteen years or so, 
 steel has superseded its employment for numerous appliances, and 
 to a marked extent. 
 
 The drawing properties of metals are dependent upon the com¬ 
 bined degrees of tenacity and ductility—that is, the resistance 
 possessed by any body to the separation of its parts, and the 
 capacity for change of form under the influence of tension or 
 squeezing pressure respectively. Gold, platinum, silver and iron 
 range highest in ductile notation ; whilst lead, tin and zinc are 
 lowest. Tenacity has more influence upon ductile efficiency than 
 upon the malleability of metals. The various uses to which dif¬ 
 ferent wires are and may be applied are too numerous to define, 
 but amongst the most important, as measured by quantity used, are 
 the following: For ropes for marine, mining, railroad and agri¬ 
 cultural purposes ; for fencing, musical, bottling, bale-tying, brush¬ 
 making, carding, upholstering, netting, electrical engineering and 
 other manufacturing and scientific purposes. With the exception 
 
4-16 
 
 THE METAL WORKER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 of those employed for electrical and scientific purposes, the wires 
 would be chiefly composed of iron and steel. The qualities of 
 these wires are commonly defined by such prefixes as charcoal, iron 
 wire, Bessemer, basic, Siemens and crucible, etc., steel wires, and 
 these may be further characterized by the qualifications—black, 
 bright, annealed, improved or patented, galvanized, tinned, cop¬ 
 pered, etc. The first-named distinctions simply denote the pro¬ 
 cesses by which the steel has been manufactured, whilst other trade 
 conventional names indicate certain purposes to which the wire is 
 considered particularly applicable, for instance, “plough steel,” 
 which is steel wire of high tensile strength. Close attention is 
 given to the chemical composition of the ingots or blooms from 
 which the billets and wire rods are rolled. This composition 
 varies to a known or determined extent, according to the rods to 
 be manufactured ; it is a branch which is more or less justly con¬ 
 sidered one of the secrets of the industry. As a general statement 
 it may, however, be accepted that the various characteristics of 
 the different rods are mainly dependent upon the amount of carbon 
 present, and the proportionate admixtures with phosphorus, sul¬ 
 phur, silicon and manganese. When carbon is present to the 
 extent of 0.75 to 1 per cent., the metal exhibits remarkable tensile 
 properties and capabilities for tempering, also an ocult process in 
 the trade which has become quite an art; for upon the skill and 
 judgment with which this operation is conducted the excellency 
 of the wire largely depends. The requisite elimination or absence 
 of sulphur, phosphorus and silicon, is another important considera¬ 
 tion, for if present to any improper extent the steel cannot be 
 worked with a maximum amount of carbon, whereas manganese 
 favors the presence of the latter. For different purposes the amount 
 of carbon present in steel rods may range between, say 0.075 and 1 
 per cent., and their hardness and tensile resistance increase in ac¬ 
 cordance with such proportions. The appreciable presence of sul¬ 
 phur and phosphorus is generally highly deleterious, because they 
 produce “shortness” and unsoundness. Whilst excess of silicon 
 may impart similar properties and brittleness dependent upon the 
 amount of carbon present, phosphorus in any quantity is an enemy to 
 
WIRE—MANUFACTURE, BRASSING, ETC. 
 
 447 
 
 ductility and the process of tempering. From the above remarks 
 it will be evident that good wire rods can be and are produced 
 from suitable crucible steel, and from Siemens, Martin and Bessemef 
 steel. The following are the approximate breaking strengths of 
 various wires in tons per square inch : 
 
 Annealed iron wire, 25 tons per sq. in. tensile resistance. 
 
 Bright ditto, 35 “ “ “ “ “ “ 
 
 Bessemer and basic steel wire, 40 “ “ “ “ “ “ 
 
 Mild Siemens steel wire, 60 “ “ “ “ “ “ 
 
 Crucible cast-steel wire, 80 to 90 “ “ “ “ “ “ 
 
 Patent plough, crucible, ditto, 100 to 120 “ “ “ “ “ “ 
 
 Wire rods are now commonly rolled from blooms, 4 inches to 
 10 inches square, or billets, of about 2 inches square, of from 50 
 to 150 lbs. each. At Garrett’s wire-rod mill, near Chicago, Ill., 
 rods are rolled direct from 4-1'nch blooms of 120 lbs. each, and 
 finished in one heat, the average production per shift of 11 hours 
 being about 60 tons, and the largest week’s work about 770 tons. 
 In a large wire-rod mill in England the billets used weigh mostly 
 from 120 to 150 lbs. each; but even 200 lbs. can be manipulated 
 at one heat. Unlike rod mills of the ordinary or old construction, 
 which have the hot rods received on either side of the rolls by 
 hands, which pass them to and fro, the machine used in these 
 works is of more continuous action, and hands are only required on 
 the one side of the mill to feed the top set of rolls, and the rods 
 are automatically returned through a lower series. The mill is 
 driven by straps and a suitable gearing, so as to impart a suitable 
 velocity to each succeeding set of rolls, in order to pick up the 
 slack or increasing lengths caused by rolling out the rods ; the same 
 effect may also be obtained by varying /the diameter of the rolls. 
 The peripheries of the rolls are provided with the decreasing V, 
 U, and semicircular grooves, for the purpose of squeezing out and 
 kneading the metal into as compact and homogeneous a form as pos¬ 
 sible as it passes through them. The various rolls are capable of 
 accurate adjustment to insure each set reducing the rod to the re¬ 
 quired diameter, and the last of the series rolling exactly to a 
 desired gauge. 
 
448 
 
 TTTE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Rods are usually rolled down to a No. 5 English legal standard 
 wire gauge, but for smaller sizes of wire they are sometimes re¬ 
 duced to a No. 8 gauge in order to diminish the labor of wire¬ 
 drawing and also effect a saving in the annealing department. 
 During the rolling process before described the metal may be 
 squeezed through, say, twelve or fifteen sets of rolls, i. e., a dozen 
 or more consecutive “ passes ” are commonly made from the billet 
 to the finished rod at one, two or more heats, according to the 
 efficiency of the mill and general arrangements. Fig. 40 shows 
 the entire series of grooves of a wire-rod roll. The construction 
 
 o> O O <=> <> o O <=> o 00 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 of an oval groove will be seen from Fig. 41. The width of the 
 groove b is the diagonal of a square, from the corners of which the 
 two arcs are described which terminate the oval groove. It is then 
 b — 1.414 r, and h = 0.5858 r. 
 
 During the process of rolling the particles or molecules of the 
 metal are more or less squeezed or forced into abnormal positions, 
 
WIRE— MANUFACTURE, BRASSING, ETC. 
 
 449 
 
 thus impairing the uniform temper of the rods ; but this, however, 
 is commonly counteracted by subsequent annealing or reheating, so 
 as to allow the molecules to resume their normal relations. The 
 length of finished rods may vary from 60 to 150, and up to 500 
 yards in one piece, naturally dependent upon the gauges, materials 
 and weights they are produced from. For example, a No. 5 gauge 
 rod, 0.212 in. in diameter, rolled from a billet weighing 1 cwt., 
 would be about 320 yards in length, and this, if subsequently 
 drawn down to No. 20 gauge wire, 0.036 inch in diameter, would 
 equal some 11,200 yards in length, without any appreciable 
 diminution in weight. The gauge referred to is in all cases the 
 “ English legal standard.” 
 
 After the rods leave the “blooming mill ” they are taken to the 
 “wire mill,” where they are hung around wooden blocks, perhaps 
 half a dozen coils on each block, which are lowered into huge tubs 
 of sulphuric acid, and allowed to remain there until the acid has 
 removed the impurities from the surface. The blocks are then 
 raised by a pulley, and the rods are thrown upon the floor and 
 washed with the hose. Having been loaded on trucks and dried, 
 one end of each rod is pointed by a revolving machine so as to 
 obtain tapering rods capable of being introduced into the conical 
 apertures in the draw-plate. In some cases the rods after having 
 been freed from impurities are dipped in lime-water, which assists 
 the process of drawing, and finally are placed in a drying room or 
 chamber. 
 
 A wire-drawing mill consists of a series of horizontal drums or 
 pulleys—termed “blocks”—mounted on vertical axes upon long 
 benches with draw-plates and pincer devices attached to each. The 
 draw-plates, which are pierced with a regular gradation of tapering 
 holes, are held in vices or clamping frames firmly fixed to the 
 bench, whilst the mechanical pincers are provided for catching 
 hold of the tapering extremities of the rods inserted in the holes 
 of the plates for pulling them through, the pairs of pincers being 
 forced back by revolving cones fixed on the drum spindles. When 
 a sufficient length of any rod has thus been drawn to enable a turn 
 being taken round a revolving pulley or drum, the drawing process 
 29 
 
450 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 is continued by this means, the turning of each of the series of 
 pulleys drawing one of the various rods through the steel plates or 
 draw-blocks, and thereby increasing their lengths by reducing their 
 thickness. 
 
 Fig. 42 represents a wire-drawing mill. A is the reel upon 
 which the wire is wound ; b the draw-iron held in the frame B, the 
 finely hatched portion consisting of steel. C is the drum. The 
 shaft f with the pulley i revolves constantly, whilst when running 
 empty the drum stands still. When the drum is to revolve, it is 
 lifted up by means of a treadle at f; the hook o catches the drum 
 and takes it along. When the wire c, which winds up spirally, has 
 
 A c 
 
 entirely passed through the draw-iron the tension ceases, the drum 
 falls down, and, being liberated from the hook 0, comes to a stand¬ 
 still without the co-operation of the workman. 
 
 The wire drawn upon any drum may have to be re-drawn in a 
 similar manner a number of times dependent upon the gauge re¬ 
 quired, the process being facilitated by the application of lubri¬ 
 cants, termed “wire-drawers’ soap and grease,” as the wire is 
 pulled through the decreasing holes in the draw-plate. Lubrica¬ 
 tion, as commonly practised, consists in applying a paste made of 
 wheat flour or lime to the surface of the wire to be drawn, and when 
 the paste is dry to smear the wire with tallow or grease; the wire 
 
WIRE—MANUFACTURE, BRASSING, ETC. 
 
 451 
 
 is then ready to be drawn, the dried paste serving to prevent the 
 lubricant from being pressed out in the process. Some manufac¬ 
 turers use in drawing fine wire a lubricant consisting of sour beer 
 yeast and a layer of olive oil. F. Vogel recommends the following 
 fat pickle: Melt a determined quantity of lard or similar sub¬ 
 stance, and after cooling it to about 125 0 F. add, with constant 
 stirring, 20 to 40 per cent, of 66 per cent, sulphuric acid until the 
 mass is of the consistence of soft soap ; then, with continued 
 stirring, add water until the mixture is completely dissolved in the 
 water. By adding sulphuric acid as well as water the mass becomes 
 again heated, and hence sufficient provision for cooling must be 
 made. The application of this very fat fluid lubricant is claimed 
 to facilitate the drawing of wire to such an extent that annealing 
 during drawing is not so often required as in the ordinary process. 
 It is further claimed that the draw-irons do not wear out so 
 quickly, that the wire acquires a higher lustre and does not rust so 
 readily. 
 
 Chas. H. Morgan recommends the use of a hot solution of lime 
 and salt as a lubricant in drawing Bessemer wire. By using the 
 solution at a boiling temperature the water is quickly thrown off, 
 when the wire is taken from the bath and kept in a warm dry 
 place until it is drawn. Salt coating, whether combined with lime 
 or otherwise, is claimed to resist any pressure that steel wire of the 
 highest tensile strength makes, when being drawn, upon the inner 
 surface of the die. 
 
 As the drawing operations proceed the wire becomes proportion¬ 
 ally hardened and its original properties altered so that it has to 
 be annealed at certain stages of the process. In practice wire to 
 be drawn to a fine gauge is sometimes returned to the annealing 
 pot about half a dozen times. During the process of drawing some 
 wire may be placed on reels mounted in tubs of acid and other 
 solutions for cleaning off any coat of oxide formed by annealing. 
 The annealing pots are simply metal chambers into which the wire 
 is placed and hermetically sealed during the process of heating for 
 several hours at a red heat, and which afterwards is allowed gradu¬ 
 ally to cool down. An average-sized pot receives about 50 per 
 
452 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 cent, of wire at one charge. Finally annealed or tempered 
 wires are always softer and more pliable than those bright-finished 
 or drawn ; steel wire, however, requires different treatment from that 
 employed for iron. To avoid the formation of scales during an¬ 
 nealing, which cannot be entirely prevented, even with the use of 
 hermetically sealed pots, W. Rath immerses the wire before an¬ 
 nealing in a solution of calcium chloride of the consistence of 
 syrup. The protecting coat which is thereby formed upon the 
 wire is removed after annealing and cooling by rinsing in clean 
 water. 
 
 The drawing-drums before referred to are of various sizes—say 
 from 32 inches to 10 inches diameter, and maybe driven at a speed 
 of about 300 to 400 feet per minute for ordinary wire; steel wire 
 should be drawn at a slower speed in order to prevent breakages. 
 The drums used for taking the first draws on the rough rods are 
 termed “ripping blocks” and are of large diameter and strong 
 construction, whilst the speed of driving is usually rather lower 
 than that above mentioned; but this, however, is dependent 
 throughout upon the sizes of the blocks and the classes of wire to 
 be drawn. The drums of small-sized blocks may be driven at a 
 velocity of 500 feet or more per minute for drawing soft wire. 
 When the holes in the drawing-irons have become enlarged by 
 wear the plates are heated and hammered up and partially re¬ 
 punched, the requisite diameters of the holes being ascertained and 
 adjusted by the insertion of gauge punches. Some kinds of wires 
 are tempered or “ patented ” before drawing; others during or 
 after this process, in order to promote or develop a uniform temper 
 or flexibility, and few processes are conducted less according to 
 fixed rules or with more secrecy, as nothing but experience can 
 initiate one into this important branch of the industry. In every 
 case, however, it is necessary that the rods or wire be raised to a 
 definite temperature in a furnace chamber or “muffle” before the 
 cooling and fixing process is commenced, and which is somewhat 
 determined by the colors the metal assumes by oxidation during 
 the progress of treatment. 
 
 The finally prepared wires of the required gauges are then 
 
WIRE—MANUFACTURE, BRASSING, ETC. 
 
 453 
 
 formed into bundles or coils of convenient dimensions and re¬ 
 moved to the store-room ready for transport or use. 
 
 As regards wires from other metals than iron and steel it re¬ 
 mains to be said that they are generally drawn from small square 
 blocks cut from sheet. The strips are rounded off in the draw- 
 iron and gradually drawn out to the desired diameter. Annealing 
 is more or less required with all metals; copper requires but little, 
 it being very ductile. 
 
 Half-round Wire .—Schniewindt produces half-round wire by 
 splitting round wire by means of rotatory shears. The wire is 
 wound upon a reel a, Fig. 43, and passes through the rolls b, 
 
 which are provided with corresponding grooves to a guide f. The 
 latter feeds the wire to the circular knives in such a manner that it 
 is cut through longitudinally in the direction of its axis and wound 
 upon the two receiving reels d and d’. 
 
 Barbed Wire .—This variety of wire consists of wire cords, or 
 even single wires, provided with projecting sharp barbs placed at 
 short distances from each other. It is at present much used for 
 fencing of all kinds. As regards shapes and dimensions barbed 
 wire varies very much ; a number of typical shapes are shown in 
 Fig. 44. Varieties A to C consist of two galvanized steel wires 
 
454 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 0.098 inch in diameter, which are twisted into a cord and provided 
 with sharp-pointed barbs. The latter are formed of a piece of 
 wire cut obliquely on both ends and wrapped twice around the 
 cord. On A the barbs are 4^ inches apart, on B 2^ inches, and 
 on C, which is provided with four barbs, 5^ inches. Variety D 
 consists of three steel wires, between which are placed sharp sheet- 
 steel-points projecting in all directions, there being about 24 such 
 
 points for every 3^ feet. E shows barbed fencing wire manufac¬ 
 tured by-Bernhard Ebeling, of Bremen. It consists of two steel 
 wires 0.098 inch in diameter twisted together and provided through¬ 
 out their entire length with an insertion of a strip of notched hoop- 
 iron. Another variety manufactured by C. Klauke, of Miincheberg, 
 near Berlin, consists of a single wire only. It is made by a machine 
 especially constructed for the purpose. A short piece of wire is 
 
WIRE—MANUFACTURE, BRASSING, ETC. 
 
 455 
 
 first shaped as shown in J, Fig. 44, which is then connected with 
 the principal wire in the manner illustrated by F and H. This 
 arrangement is inferior to the shapes A to D, the wire being less 
 solid and the barbs pointing only in two directions. 
 
 Moen has patented a machine for the manufacture of barbed 
 wire, which is shown in Fig. 45. Around a wire is wrapped a strip 
 of sheet-iron, one edge, or both edges, of which is provided with 
 oblique incisions which, in wrapping and bending the strip of sheet- 
 iron, form the barbs. The strip of sheet-iron rolled up is placed 
 upon the wrapping contrivance R and reaches by means of the 
 guide v w the progressing, but not revolving wire. N and O are 
 
 conducting rolls, B is the drum for impulsion and is connected with 
 the arms P and Q, while J is the drum for carrying away the 
 finished barbed wire. 
 
 Barbed wire has also been manufactured from a single wire with¬ 
 out any addition. Fig. 44 G shows such a barbed wire consisting 
 of spirally twisted hoop-iron the edges of which are provided with 
 sharp incisions, which in twisting form projecting barbs. Finally 
 the “ Westphalische Union,” of Hamm, manufactures an oval wire 
 0.31 inch wide and o.ri inch in diameter, which, as shown in the 
 illustrations K and Z, Fig. 44, is provided on the sides with sharp 
 incisions. By turning up the points thus made barbs are formed 
 which are, however, rather short, stand quite obliquely and only 
 alternately on two sides. 
 
 Barbed wire is brought into commerce wound upon a wooden 
 reel. 
 
456 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Phosporized Bronze or Brass Wire. —Whiting, of Manchester, 
 England, manufactures phosphorized bronze or brass wire by im¬ 
 mersing stout wire of the above-mentioned or other alloys in a 
 solution of 0.125 to 5 P er c ent - of phosphorus in ether, bisulphide 
 of carbon or olive oil, 5 to 10 per cent, of sulphuric acid and 85 
 to 95 per cent, of water, whereby, it is claimed, the metal absorbs 
 phosphorus. The wire is then drawn one number finer and brought 
 into a closed retort, the bottom of which is covered with a thin 
 layer of phosphorus, so that the vapors of phosphorus evolved can 
 pass over the wire. The latter is then packed in charcoal, and the 
 charcoal being ignited the wire is kept in the heat until sufficiently 
 softened to allow of being drawn one number finer. Wire thus 
 repeatedly treated is claimed to possess great resisting power and 
 acquire a high polish. 
 
 Hardening of Wire. —Frequently it is desirable to harden wire, 
 especially steel-wire, in coils. For this purpose the coil is placed 
 upon a reel from which the wire is conducted in a horizontal direc¬ 
 tion to and wound upon a second reel placed at some distance 
 from the first. In its passage to the second reel the wire passes 
 through between a pair of plates 4 to 6 feet long, lying in a furnace 
 and kept at a red heat, and is next conducted through between a 
 similar pair of plates cooled by water. The plates of each pair are 
 provided with suitable grooves for the reception of the wire ; a 
 third pair of plates is moderately heated and serves for tempering 
 to the desired degree of hardness. Instead of the centre pair of 
 plates a reservoir filled with water or oil is sometimes used for 
 cooling. 
 
 Ramsden’s Method of Hardening Wire differs somewhat from the 
 above. The wire is conducted through pipes, in which it is heated 
 by the flame of an inflammable mixture of carburetted hydrogen 
 gas and steam, and then passes into a cooling bath. 
 
 For heavier wires two small pipes are arranged at a right-angle 
 to each other, the one being placed in a horizontal and the other 
 in a vertical position, and their mouth-pieces provided with narrow 
 apertures. The free end of the horizontal pipe connected by means 
 of a cock or valve with a steam-pipe, and the lower end of the 
 
WIRE—MANUFACTURE, BRASSING, ETC. 
 
 457 
 
 vertical pipe with a vessel filled with a hydrocarbon, for instance, 
 paraffine or petroleum. A current of steam being conducted 
 through the horizontal pipe absorbs, in passing by the mouth-piece 
 of the vertical pipe, carburetted hydrogen and carries it along in a 
 finely divided state and intimately mixed with the steam. Of such 
 pairs of mouth-pieces a sufficient number for the production of the 
 necessary degree of heat, which can be regulated by a cock, are 
 arranged in front of a cylinder lined with fire clay, so that the flame 
 entirely freed from smoke and other injurious substances passes 
 through the chamber into the chimney. Now if the chamber is 
 about 13 feet long the heat, where the flame enters, will be con¬ 
 siderably greater than where it passes out, and thus the apparatus 
 can be used in the front part for hardening and in the back part 
 for tempering. The chamber rests upon a vessel divided into two 
 parts, one division of which may be filled with cold water or a 
 frigorific mixture. The wire being unwound from a reel passes 
 through the front part of the chamber, and after being conducted 
 through the fluid is again wound upon a reel. For tempering the 
 wire may then be conducted through the back part of the chamber, 
 and from there into the other division of the vessel, which con¬ 
 tains water, oil or a suitable fatty mixture. 
 
 For finer wires and such as are not to come in contact with the 
 flame a pipe of fire-clay about 13 feet long is used ; it may be with¬ 
 out a partition, or divided into an upper and lower chamber. In 
 the latter case, the lower chamber is heated while the wire passes 
 through the upper. When coming from the latter it is struck by a 
 jet of oil or other suitable fluid, and tempering is effected by im¬ 
 mersing it in a bath of a suitable boiling fluid, for instance lin¬ 
 seed oil at 536° F., or mercury at the same temperature, or in 
 melted lead, the adhering lead being, in the latter case, removed. 
 Fig. 46 I shows the arrangement for coarser and // and III for 
 finer wires. On the chamber of the first the mouth-pieces B and 
 C, provided with the cock D, connect with the reservoir of car¬ 
 buretted hydrogen E and the steam conduit; G is the reel upon 
 which the wire to be hardened is wound. The wire W passes 
 through an aperture into the front part of the chamber, which is 
 
458 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 strongly heated, then underneath the first roll Trover a second roll, 
 through an aperture in the bottom of the chamber into the divi¬ 
 sion beneath and finally upon the reel G u the latter dipping into 
 the reservoir H, which is filled with water or a refrigorific mixture. 
 The wire while passing the two rolls i^in the chamber A x is heated 
 and hardened by dipping in the fluid in H. To facilitate the con¬ 
 ducting of the cold wire over the rolls F, before the chamber is 
 heated, apertures A u for passing the rolls through, are provided on 
 the upper portion of the chamber, which, after the wire is placed 
 in position, are closed by the lid A x . The superfluous heat is con¬ 
 ducted away from the chamber A through the chimney P, and the 
 reel G l with the hardened wire is taken from the reservoir H and 
 placed in K over the chamber A. From here the hardened wire 
 W passes into the rear or chimney end of the chamber A u in 
 which the heat, having been moderated by the bridge J, is 
 much less, but sufficient to heat the wire running over the rolls 
 F, for tempering. The wire is then wound upon the reel K 
 which dips into the oil in the reservoir H, whereby the wire is 
 tempered. 
 
 For finer kinds of wire the retort or heating chamber M, Fig. 
 46 II to IV, is divided lengthwise into two parts by the partition 
 N. On the front side of the chamber are apertures O lt opposite to 
 each a pair of mouth-pieces is arranged. The flame entering at 
 O sweeps along the lower side of IV through the holes C into the 
 upper part of the chamber. The wire is introduced into the upper 
 part of chamber at the end .Si and heated while passing through it. 
 The heat is retained in the upper portion of the chamber by the 
 lids L. These lids are arranged on each end of the upper cham¬ 
 ber so as to leave room to allow of the passage of the wire. On 
 leaving the retort the wire is hardened by dipping in a current of 
 oil running over the sloping plate 6". The oil flows uninterruptedly 
 from the pipe T, which is connected to a reservoir, runs over the 
 sloping plate 5 into the holder T u and from there is pumped back 
 into T. The hardened wire, in order to acquire the necessary 
 temperature, then passes through a bath U of linseed oil, mercury 
 or lead, which is heated by a fire. After passing through the bath 
 
WIRE—MANUFACTURE, BRASSING, ETC. 
 
 459 
 
 U it is wound upon ordinary reels arranged in a suitable position 
 near the bath U. To facilitate the introduction of the cold un¬ 
 tempered wire into the retort before heating, a channel or gutter 
 is provided on the upper side of the retort. The wire is conducted 
 through this channel or gutter, which, later on, is closed by the lid 
 
 M v The superfluous heat is conducted away through the chim¬ 
 ney X. 
 
 The following tables relating to wire are furnished by John A. 
 Roebling’s Sons Co., of Trenton, N. J. 
 
4G0 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Wire Gauges, . 
 
 In Deci 7 tial Parts of an Inch. 
 
 Number of 
 wire gauge. 
 
 Roebling. 
 
 Brown & 
 Sharpe. 
 
 Birming¬ 
 ham, or 
 Stubs. 
 
 English 
 
 Legal 
 
 Standard. 
 
 Old English, 
 or London. 
 
 oooooo 
 
 ooooo 
 
 oooo 
 
 .46 
 
 •43 
 
 •393 
 
 .46 
 
 •454 
 
 .464 
 
 • 43 2 
 
 ■4 
 
 •454 
 
 ooo 
 
 .362 
 
 .40964 
 
 •425 
 
 •372 
 
 •425 
 
 oo 
 
 • 33 i 
 
 .3648 
 
 .380 
 
 •348 
 
 •38 
 
 o 
 
 • 3 ° 7 
 
 •32495 
 
 •340 
 
 ■324 
 
 •34 
 
 i 
 
 •2S3 
 
 •2893 
 
 •3 
 
 •3 
 
 •3 
 
 2 
 
 .263 
 
 .25763 
 
 .284 
 
 .276 
 
 .284 
 
 3 
 
 • 244 
 
 .22942 
 
 .259 
 
 .252 
 
 • 259 
 
 4 
 
 .225 
 
 .20431 
 
 .238 
 
 .232 
 
 .238 
 
 5 
 
 .207 
 
 .18194 
 
 .22 
 
 .212 
 
 .22 
 
 6 
 
 .192 
 
 . 16202 
 
 •203 
 
 .192 
 
 .203 
 
 7 
 
 .177 
 
 .14428 
 
 .18 
 
 .176 
 
 .18 
 
 8 
 
 .162 
 
 .12849 
 
 .165 
 
 .16 
 
 .165 
 
 9 
 
 .148 
 
 • H 443 
 
 .148 
 
 .144 
 
 .148 
 
 IO 
 
 •135 
 
 .10189 
 
 •134 
 
 .128 
 
 •134 
 
 11 
 
 .12 
 
 .09074 
 
 .12 
 
 .Il6 
 
 .12 
 
 12 
 
 .105 
 
 .08081 
 
 .109 
 
 .104 
 
 .IO9 
 
 13 
 
 .092 
 
 .07196 
 
 .095 
 
 .O92 
 
 •095 
 
 14 
 
 .08 
 
 .06408 
 
 .083 
 
 .08 
 
 •083 
 
 '5 
 
 .072 
 
 .05706 
 
 .072 
 
 .072 
 
 .072 
 
 l6 
 
 .063 
 
 .05082 
 
 .065 
 
 .064 
 
 .065 
 
 17 
 
 .054 
 
 .04525 
 
 .058 
 
 .056 
 
 .058 
 
 18 
 
 •C 47 
 
 .0403 
 
 .049 
 
 .048 
 
 .049 
 
 19 
 
 .041 
 
 .03589 
 
 .O42 
 
 .04 
 
 •04 
 
 20 
 
 •035 
 
 .03196 
 
 •035 
 
 •036 
 
 •035 
 
 21 
 
 .032 
 
 .02846 
 
 •032 
 
 •032 
 
 •0315 
 
 22 
 
 .028 
 
 02534 
 
 .028 
 
 .028 
 
 .0295 
 
 2 3 
 
 .025 
 
 .02257 
 
 .025 
 
 .024 
 
 .027 
 
 24 
 
 .023 
 
 .0201 
 
 .022 
 
 .022 
 
 •025 
 
 25 
 
 .02 
 
 .0179 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 •023 
 
 26 
 
 .018 
 
 .01594 
 
 .018 
 
 .018 
 
 •0205 
 
 27 
 
 .017 
 
 .OI4I9 
 
 .016 
 
 .0164 
 
 .01S75 
 
 28 
 
 .016 
 
 .01264 
 
 .014 
 
 .0148 
 
 .0165 
 
 29 
 
 .015 
 
 01125 
 
 .013 
 
 .0136 
 
 •0155 
 
 30 
 
 .014 
 
 .01002 
 
 .012 
 
 .0124 
 
 •01375 
 
 3 i 
 
 •0135 
 
 •00893 
 
 .OIO 
 
 .0116 
 
 .01225 
 
 32 
 
 .013 
 
 .00795 
 
 .OO9 
 
 .0108 
 
 .01125 
 
 33 
 
 .OI I 
 
 .00708 
 
 .008 
 
 .OI 
 
 .01025 
 
 34 
 
 .OI 
 
 •0063 
 
 .007 
 
 .OO92 
 
 .0095 
 
 35 
 
 .0095 
 
 .00561 
 
 .005 
 
 .0084 
 
 .OO9 
 
 36 
 
 .OO9 
 
 .005 
 
 .OO4 
 
 .0076 
 
 .0075 
 
WIRE—MANUFACTURE, BRASSING, ETC. 
 
 461 
 
 Table Indicating Size, Weight, and Length of Iron and 
 
 Steel Wire. 
 
 Gauge 
 
 number. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Weight of 
 100 feet. 
 Pounds. 
 
 Weight of 
 one mile. 
 Pounds. 
 
 Feet in 2000 
 pounds. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Square inches 
 
 3-° 
 
 .362 
 
 34-73 
 
 1834 
 
 5*759 
 
 .102921 
 
 2-0 
 
 ■331 
 
 29.04 
 
 15 33 
 
 6,886 
 
 .086049 
 
 1-0 
 
 •307 
 
 25.00 
 
 I3 l8 
 
 8,000 
 
 .074023 
 
 I 
 
 .283 
 
 21.23 
 
 II2I 
 
 9.425 
 
 .062901 
 
 2 
 
 .263 
 
 18.34 
 
 968 
 
 10,905 
 
 •054325 
 
 3 
 
 .244 
 
 15.78 
 
 
 12,674 
 
 .046759 
 
 4 
 
 .225 
 
 13-39 
 
 707 
 
 I4.93 6 
 
 .039760 
 
 S 
 
 .207 
 
 h-35 
 
 599 
 
 17,621 
 
 •033653 
 
 6 
 
 .192 
 
 9-73 
 
 5H 
 
 20,555 
 
 .028952 
 
 7 
 
 .177 
 
 8.30 
 
 439 
 
 24,906 
 
 .024605 
 
 8 
 
 .162 
 
 6.96 
 
 367 
 
 28,734 
 
 .020612 
 
 9 
 
 .148 
 
 5.80 
 
 306 
 
 34,483 
 
 .017203 
 
 IO 
 
 •135 
 
 4-83 
 
 255 
 
 41,408 
 
 •014313 
 
 II 
 
 .120 
 
 3.82 
 
 202 
 
 52,356 
 
 .011309 
 
 12 
 
 .105 
 
 2.92 
 
 154 
 
 68,493 
 
 .008659 
 
 13 
 
 .092 
 
 2.24 
 
 1x8 
 
 89,286 
 
 .006647 
 
 14 
 
 .080 
 
 1.69 
 
 89 
 
 ”8,343 
 
 .005026 
 
 15 
 
 .072 
 
 i-37 
 
 72 
 
 145-985 
 
 .004071 
 
 l6 
 
 .063 
 
 1.05 
 
 55 
 
 190,476 
 
 .003117 
 
 17 
 
 •054 
 
 •77 
 
 4i 
 
 259,740 
 
 .002290 
 
 iS 
 
 .047 
 
 .58 
 
 3 1 
 
 344,827 
 
 •001734 
 
 19 
 
 .041 
 
 •45 
 
 24 
 
 444,444 
 
 .001320 
 
 20 
 
 -°35 
 
 ■32 
 
 17 
 
 625,000 
 
 .000962 
 
 21 
 
 .032 
 
 .27 
 
 14 
 
 740,741 
 
 .000804 
 
 22 
 
 .028 
 
 .21 
 
 I I 
 
 952,381 
 
 .000615 
 
 23 
 
 .025 
 
 • *75 
 
 9.24 
 
 
 .000491 
 
 24 
 
 .023 
 
 .140 
 
 7-39 
 
 
 .000415 
 
 25 
 
 .020 
 
 .Il6 
 
 6.124 
 
 
 .000314 
 
 26 
 
 .018 
 
 •093 
 
 4-9 1 
 
 
 .000254 
 
 27 
 
 .017 
 
 .083 
 
 4.382 
 
 
 .000227 
 
 28 
 
 .016 
 
 .074 
 
 3-907 
 
 
 .000201 
 
 29 
 
 .015 
 
 .061 
 
 3.22 
 
 
 .000176 
 
 30 
 
 .014 
 
 .054 
 
 2-851 
 
 
 .OOOI54 
 
 31 
 
 •0135 
 
 .050 
 
 2.64 
 
 
 .000143 
 
 32 
 
 .013 
 
 .046 
 
 2 428 
 
 
 .000132 
 
 33 
 
 .OII 
 
 •037 
 
 1 953 
 
 
 .000095 
 
 34 
 
 .OIO 
 
 .030 
 
 1.584 
 
 
 .000078 
 
 35 
 
 .0095 
 
 .025 
 
 1.32 
 
 
 .OOOC7I 
 
 3 6 
 
 .OO9 
 
 .021 
 
 1.161 
 
 
 .000064 
 
462 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Weight per iooo Feet of Copper Wire. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Roebling. 
 
 Brown & 
 Sharpe. 
 
 Birmingham. 
 
 English 
 
 legal 
 
 standard. 
 
 oooooo 
 
 ooooo 
 
 641.20 
 
 560.29 
 
 
 
 652.39 
 
 565-51 
 
 oooo 
 
 468.02 
 
 641.20 
 
 624.58 
 
 484.83 
 
 ooo 
 
 397-09 
 
 508.49 
 
 547-33 
 
 4 * 9-33 
 
 oo 
 
 332.00 
 
 403.26 
 
 437-56 
 
 366.97 
 
 o 
 
 2S5.60 
 
 322.79 
 
 350.29 
 
 3*8 10 
 
 I 
 
 242.69 
 
 253.61 
 
 272.72 
 
 272.72 
 
 2 
 
 209.60 
 
 201.13 
 
 244.07 
 
 230 83 
 
 3 
 
 180.41 
 
 * 59-49 
 
 203.27 
 
 * 92-43 
 
 4 
 
 153-39 
 
 126.49 
 
 I7 1 64 
 
 163.09 
 
 5 
 
 129.84 
 
 IOO.3I 
 
 146.66 
 
 136.19 
 
 6 
 
 hi.71 
 
 79-54 
 
 124.87 
 
 hi.71 
 
 7 
 
 94-93 
 
 63 08 
 
 98.18 
 
 93.86 
 
 8 
 
 79 52 
 
 50-03 
 
 82.50 
 
 77-57 
 
 9 
 
 66.37 
 
 39.68 
 
 66.37 
 
 62.83 
 
 IO 
 
 55.22 
 
 3*46 
 
 54 - 4 * 
 
 49.65 
 
 11 
 
 43-63 
 
 24-95 
 
 43-63 
 
 40.77 
 
 12 
 
 334 i 
 
 19.79 
 
 36.00 
 
 32-77 
 
 *3 
 
 25 65 
 
 15-69 
 
 27-35 
 
 25-65 
 
 14 
 
 19-39 
 
 12.44 
 
 20.87 
 
 * 9-39 
 
 15 
 
 15-71 
 
 9.S7 
 
 15.71 
 
 15.71 
 
 16 
 
 12.03 
 
 7-83 
 
 12.80 
 
 12.41 
 
 17 
 
 8.84 
 
 6.20 
 
 10.19 
 
 9 50 
 
 is 
 
 6.69 
 
 4-92 
 
 7.27 
 
 6.98 
 
 19 
 
 5.09 
 
 3-90 
 
 5-34 
 
 4.85 
 
 20 
 
 3 7 i 
 
 3 - 10 
 
 3 - 7 * 
 
 3-93 
 
 21 
 
 3.10 
 
 2.45 
 
 3 -'° 
 
 3 *0 
 
 22 
 
 2.38 
 
 i -94 
 
 2.38 
 
 2.38 
 
 23 
 
 1.S9 
 
 *45 
 
 1.89 
 
 1.74 
 
 24 
 
 1.60 
 
 1.22 
 
 147 
 
 *47 
 
 25 
 
 1.21 
 
 .970 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.21 
 
 26 
 
 .981 
 
 .770 
 
 .981 
 
 .981 
 
 27 
 
 .876 
 
 .610 
 
 •776 
 
 .815 
 
 28 
 
 .776 
 
 .484 
 
 •594 
 
 .664 
 
 29 
 
 .682 
 
 -384 
 
 .512 
 
 •560 
 
 3 ° 
 
 •594 
 
 • 3°4 
 
 436 
 
 .466 
 
 3 i 
 
 •552 
 
 .241 
 
 •303 
 
 .408 
 
 32 
 
 .512 
 
 .191 
 
 .245 
 
 •353 
 
 33 
 
 .366 
 
 •*52 
 
 .194 
 
 - 3°3 
 
 34 
 
 •303 
 
 .120 
 
 .148 
 
 .256 
 
 35 
 
 .273 
 
 -095 
 
 .076 
 
 .214 
 
 36 
 
 •245 
 
 .076 
 
 .048 
 
 •*75 
 
WIRE—MANUFACTURE, BRASSING, ETC. 
 
 463 
 
 Weight per Mile of Copper Wire. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Roebling. 
 
 Birmingham. 
 
 Brown & 
 Sharpe. 
 
 English 
 
 legal 
 
 standard. 
 
 OOOO 
 
 2466 
 
 3286 
 
 3375 
 
 2555 
 
 OCX) 
 
 2092 
 
 2884 
 
 2677 
 
 2210 
 
 00 
 
 1750 
 
 2305 
 
 2123 
 
 1933 
 
 0 
 
 1504 
 
 1846 
 
 1684 
 
 1682 
 
 I 
 
 1278 
 
 1437 
 
 1335 
 
 1437 
 
 2 
 
 1104 
 
 1287 
 
 1058 
 
 1216 
 
 3 
 
 950 
 
 1071 
 
 839 
 
 1012 
 
 4 
 
 808 
 
 9°4 
 
 665 
 
 860 
 
 5 
 
 684 
 
 773 
 
 528 
 
 718 
 
 6 
 
 588 
 
 657 
 
 418 
 
 588 
 
 7 
 
 500 
 
 517 
 
 332 
 
 495 
 
 8 
 
 419 
 
 435 
 
 263 
 
 409 
 
 9 
 
 350 
 
 350 
 
 209 
 
 332 
 
 10 
 
 291 
 
 287 
 
 166 
 
 263 
 
 11 
 
 230 
 
 230 
 
 131 
 
 215 
 
 12 
 
 176 
 
 190 
 
 104 
 
 173 
 
 13 
 
 135 
 
 144 
 
 83 
 
 135 
 
 14 
 
 102 
 
 no 
 
 65 
 
 102 
 
 15 
 
 83 
 
 83 
 
 S 2 
 
 83 
 
 l6 
 
 64 
 
 68 
 
 41 
 
 65 
 
 17 * 
 
 47 
 
 53 ^ 
 
 33 
 
 5° 
 
 18 
 
 35 
 
 38 
 
 26 
 
 37 
 
 19 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 20^ 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 19 Vz 
 
 19K 
 
 i6* 
 
 20^ 
 
 21 
 
 
 16* 
 
 13 
 
 16X 
 
 22 
 
 I2>! 
 
 
 ioy 
 
 12K 
 
 23 
 
 i°X 
 
 i°X 
 
 
 9 ^ 
 
 24 
 
 8X 
 
 rA 
 
 6^ 
 
 lA 
 
 25 
 
 6^ 
 
 ey 2 
 
 5 ^ 
 
 6 y 2 
 
 26 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 27 
 
 4^ 
 
 4 
 
 3 k( 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 3% 
 
 2 % 
 
 3 ^ 
 
 29 
 
 3 H 
 
 2 % 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 3 % 
 
 2 X 
 
 1# 
 
 2'/z 
 
 To Brass Wire in the Galvanic Way .—To carry out this process 
 place the iron rods intended for wire in a bath containing 3 parts 
 of ordinary tin salt to 4 of blue vitriol. The rods must only pass 
 once through the draw-iron and be previously zincked by immersing 
 them for 2 hours in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid in 
 which zinc plates—1 to 1.5 lb. of zinc to 100 lbs. of iron—are 
 
464 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 placed. The' rods are left in the brass bath for 5 to 6 minutes 
 until they have acquired a dirty reddish color; by passing through 
 the draw-iron they assume a fine straw-color or orange-yellow 
 surface. 
 
 To Electro-brass Wire .—A warm bath in an iron boiler lined 
 with sheet brass is used. The sheets of brass are connected to the 
 copper pole of the battery and dipped into the fluid. The bundles 
 of iron wire are first opened, dipped into sulphuric acid, then sus¬ 
 pended to a strong wooden peg and scoured with a brush and 
 sharp sand. They are next placed over a strong copper or brass 
 rod resting upon the edge of the boiler and insulated therefrom by 
 means of rubber tubes and connected to the zinc pole by the bat¬ 
 tery. The wires now receive a coating of copper and then a de¬ 
 posit of brass. As they are only partly submerged in the bath 
 they must from time to time be turned. They are finished by 
 washing and drying in saw-dust. The bath is prepared as follows: 
 Dissolve blue vitriol, 4^ ozs., and sulphate of zinc, 4)4 to 5)4 
 ozs., in 1 gallon of water. Precipitate the solution with 2 lbs. of 
 crystallized soda, decant and wash. Then pour a solution of 1 lb. 
 of soda and 8)4 ozs. of sodium bisulphate in 1 gallon of water 
 over the precipitate. Stir the mixture and add commercial potas¬ 
 sium cyanide until the fluid becomes clear, when it is filtered off 
 from the suspended ferric oxide. The best temperature for using 
 this bath is between 120° and 140° F. 
 
 Brass Wire which may be drawn out to the finest threads is 
 made by placing round rods of copper about 1 inch in diameter 
 and 2)4 inches long free in an iron box, upon the bottom of which 
 are laid granulated zinc and sal-ammoniac. By heating the box 
 vapors arise which combine with the copper and superficially con¬ 
 vert it into brass. The coating is made as uniform as possible by 
 frequently turning the rods. In this manner copper rods are ob¬ 
 tained which, so to say, are plated with brass and may be drawn 
 out to fine wires. The wires have the appearance of brass, but on 
 the cross section the red color of the copper can be recognized. 
 
 To Copper Iron Wire .—This process is claimed to prevent the 
 rusting of iron wire; it is partially effected by dipping and 
 
WIRE—MANUFACTURE, BRASSING, ETC. 
 
 465 
 
 partially by galvanic action. Dissolve at 86° F., 3.3^ drachms of 
 blue vitriol in 55 lbs. of water containing 1.12 drachms of sul¬ 
 phuric acid. Pass the iron wire through the cold solution until it 
 is covered with a coating of copper. It is then drawn through an 
 ordinary draw-iron to make the coating of copper adhere more 
 firmly. Repeat the dipping and subsequent passing through the 
 draw-iron several times. Galvanic coppering is effected as follows : 
 Connect the wire to the negative pole of a battery and a copper¬ 
 plate with the positive pole. As coppering fluid a solution of 39 
 ozs. of potassium cyanide and 88 ozs. of potassium bichromate in 
 55 lbs. of water is used ; the bath should have a temperature of 
 between 48 and 55 0 F. By the action of the galvanic current the 
 copper is dissolved from the positive pole and forms the copper 
 solution, from which the copper is deposited upon the wire con¬ 
 nected with the negative pole. The coppered wire is passed through 
 the draw-iron. Iron wire may in the same manner be tinned, 
 zincked and coated with lead. 
 
 To Galvanize Wire .—The wire, previously made bright by pick¬ 
 ling, is passed through a cast-iron crucible containing, according to 
 the quantity and size of the wire, from 40 to 1,000 lbs. of melted 
 zinc, and then passed through the draw-iron to remove the super¬ 
 fluous zinc. The drawing through the bath is effected by unwind¬ 
 ing the wire from a reel set in motion by a steam-engine, the 
 velocity depending on the diameter of the wire, it being more 
 rapid with thin wire and slower with thick wire. 
 
 An apparatus for this purpose, patented by Roberts, is shown in 
 Fig. 47. C is a guide pulley, the block of which is provided with 
 the protecting plate J, having a guide slit; it can be shifted on two 
 rods F, reaching up to the ceiling of the work-room. On these 
 rods F slides a block A 1 , with pulley D, provided below and above 
 with rope loops. To the lower of these loops is fastened a hand- 
 rope, and to the upper another rope AT, running over the pulley 
 G, which is secured in the ceiling ; to the rope H, is suspended 
 the counterweight I, which, when the running block is on top, 
 stands upon the floor. A* is a guide pulley resting in a frame. 
 The wire /« runs from the reel B around C over D and underneath 
 30 
 
THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 466 
 
 P into the acid bath, from there into a furnace and the metallic 
 bath, and from here through the polishing machine to the reel upon 
 which it is to be wound. With this apparatus many wires can at 
 the same time be treated. 
 
 Vogt has patented an arrangement (Fig. 48) for closing vessels 
 
 through which the wire is to be conducted in a straight direction. 
 It consists of two elastic strips f which, on tightening the screws 
 g, are pressed together by the metallic bodies e. 
 
 For the purpose of removing superfluous zinc Wittle and Kamper 
 have patented the arrangement shown in Fig. 49. It consists of 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 two comb-like plates a a, one of which remains stationary during 
 the operation while the other is secured to a rotary lever c. 
 
 Another apparatus for the same purpose, patented by Roberts, is 
 constructed as follows: Upon the edge of the crucible, where the 
 wire, m (Fig. 50) leaves the zinc bath, sits an iron box K, which is 
 
WIRE—MANUFACTURE, BRASSING, ETC. 
 
 467 
 
 provided with a slit for the passage of the wire. In the box two 
 rolls Z, with longitudinal ribs /, revolving in opposite directions 
 by means of a driving gear placed outside the box. These rolls L 
 are so mounted that two ribs l always come opposite to each other, 
 with sufficient space between them, however, to allow of the pas¬ 
 
 sage of the wire m. Outside of the box K are two revolving rolls 
 P, which, by means of the eccentric P', and the sliding rods R, sets 
 the springy stoppers T moving to and fro. To attain the springi¬ 
 ness of the stoppers T, they are composed of a rod R', hollow on 
 the end, into which catches the sliding rod B, and the actual 
 
 stopper T, which slides in a cavity provided with a spring. To 
 prevent the stopper T from falling out it is provided with a pin T ', 
 running in a groove. The box K is filled with mineral wool, which 
 by the rolls L is pressed with a certain force against the wire m 
 coming from the metallic bath Z, and thus cleans it. 
 
468 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 To Gild Metallic Wire and Wire-cloth .—Fine wire of gilded 
 copper and brass is much used in the manufacture of metallic 
 fringes, and lace for epaulets and other purposes. The fine copper 
 and brass wires being drawn through the drawing, machines and 
 wound upon spools by special machines, and hence not touched by 
 the hands, freeing from grease may generally be omitted. The first 
 .requisite for gilding is a good winding machine, which draws the 
 
 F 'g- 5 '- 
 
 wires through the gold bath and wash-boxes, and further effects the 
 winding of the wire upon spools. The principal demand made in 
 the construction of such a machine is, that by means of a simple 
 manipulation a great variation in the speed with which the wire or 
 gauge passes through the gold bath can be obtained. This is nec¬ 
 essary in order to be able to regulate the thickness of the gilding 
 by the quicker or slower passage of the wire. A machine well 
 adapted for this purpose is the one constructed by J. W. Spaeth. 
 The variation in the velocity of the passage of the wire is attained 
 by the two friction-pulleys A (Fig. 51) which sit upon a common 
 
WIRE—MANUFACTURE, BRASSING, ETC 
 
 469 
 
 shaft with the driving-pulley R, and transmit their velocity by 
 means of the friction-pistons K K to the friction-pulley F\ which 
 is firmly connected to the belt-pulley R driving the spool-spindle. 
 Since by a simple device the pistons K and K may be shifted, it is 
 clear that the transmission of the number of revolutions from F to 
 F is dependent on the position of the friction-pistons K and K, 
 and that the velocity will be the greater the shorter the distance they 
 are from the centre of the friction-pulleys F and F. In order that 
 the friction between F K and F may always be sufficient for the 
 transmission of the motion, even when the pistons are worn, four 
 weights G are provided, which press the above-mentioned parts 
 firmly against each other. 
 
 In front of each spool of this machine is inserted a small en¬ 
 amelled iron vat which contains the gold-bath, and is heated by a 
 gas-flame to about 167° F. Between this bath and the winding 
 machine is another small vat with hot water in which the gilded 
 wire is rinsed. 
 
 The wires unwind from a reel placed in front of the gold bath, 
 run over a brass drum which is connected to the negative pole of 
 the source of current, and transmits the current to the wires; the 
 dipping of the wires into the gold bath is effected by porcelain 
 drums which are secured to heavy beams of lead placed across the 
 vats, as shown in Fig. 52. The gilded wire being wound upon the 
 
 spools of the winding machine, these spools are removed and 
 thoroughly dried in the drying chamber. The wire is then again 
 reeled off on to a simple reel, in doing which it is best to pass it 
 through between two soft pieces of leather to increase its lustre. The 
 most suitable formula for the gold bath is as follows: Fine gold in 
 the form of fulminating gold, 15.43 grains; 98 per cent, potassium 
 
470 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 cyanide, 77.16 grains; water, 1 quart. The bath is prepared by 
 converting 15.43 grains of fine gold into neutral chloride of gold 
 by dissolving in aqua regia and evaporating, or 29.3 to 30.8 grains 
 of chemically pure neutral chloride of gold are directly dissolved 
 in water; the gold is precipitated as fulminating gold with aqua 
 ammonia, washed out, dissolved in water containing the potassium 
 cyanide and heated, with constant replacement of the water lost by 
 evaporation, until the odor of ammonia disappears. The tempera¬ 
 ture of the bath should be between 158° and 167° F. Strength ofcur- 
 rent 6 to 8 volts, which will produce a deposit of sufficient thickness 
 even with the wire passing at the most rapid rate through the bath. 
 
 Gold Wire is made by wrapping a very thin sheet of gold around 
 a cylinder of silver, securing it with wire, heating, and, while still 
 hot, rubbing vigorously with the burnisher, and immediately pass¬ 
 ing through the draw-iron. The ductility of gold is so great that 
 wire as thin as a spider’s web appears completely coated with gold 
 when examined under the microscope. 
 
 To Nickel Wire .—Nickelling of wire of iron, brass or copper is 
 scarcely done on a large scale; it is, however, believed that the 
 nickelling of iron and steel wires—for instance, piano strings— 
 might be of advantage to prevent rust or at least to retard the com¬ 
 mencement of oxidation as long as possible. 
 
 To nickel single wires cut into determined lengths according to 
 the general rules is simple enough; but this method cannot be 
 pursued with wire several hundred yards long rolled in coils as it 
 occurs in commerce. Nickelling the wire in coils, however, can¬ 
 not be done, as only the upper windings exposed to the anodes 
 would acquire a coat of nickel. Hence it becomes necessary to 
 unwind the coil, and for continuous working pass the wire at a slow 
 rate through the cleansing and dipping baths as well as the nickel 
 bath and hot-water reservoir, as shown in Fig. 54 in cross-section 
 and in Fig. 55 in ground-plan. 
 
 The unwinding of the wire is effected by a slowly revolving shaft 
 upon which the nickelled wire again coils itself; in the illustration 
 this shaft is omitted. In Fig. 54 four wires run over the four rolls 
 a, mounted upon a common shaft to the rolls b upon the bottom 
 
WIRE—MANUFACTURE, BRASSING, ETC. 
 
 471 
 
 of the vat A, whereby they come in contact with a thickly-fluid 
 lime-paste in the vat and are freed from grease. From the rolls b 
 the wires run through the wooden cheeks lined with felt, which 
 retain the excess of adhering lime-paste and allow it to fall back 
 into the vat. The wires then pass over the roll c to the roll d. 
 Between these two rolls is the rose g, which throws a strong jet of 
 water upon the wires, thereby freeing them from the adhering lime- 
 paste. The roll d, as well as its axis, is of brass, and to the latter 
 is connected the negative pole of the battery or dynamo, so that 
 by carrying the wires over the roll d negative electricity is conducted 
 to them. From the roll d the wires run over the roll-bench s (Fig. 
 54) to the vat C, which contains the nickel solution, so that they 
 are subjected to the action of the anodes arranged in this vat on 
 both sides of the wires. The wires then pass over the roll e, are 
 rinsed under the rose s, and run finally through a hot-water reservoir 
 and saw-dust (these two apparatuses are not shown in the illustration), 
 to be again wound into coils. In case a high polish is required the 
 nickelled wires may be run under pressure through leather cheeks 
 dusted with pulverized Vienna chalk. 
 
 To Tin Wire and Wire-gauze .—Allow the wire to run slowly 
 into a wooden trough which contains a mixture of 3 parts of water 
 and 1 or 1.75 of hydrochloric acid; then rinse it in water, dry by 
 passing it between two rolls covered with felt or coarse woollen 
 stuff, and finally pass it under a roll placed in a vessel containing 
 strongly-heated tin. To polish the wire coming from the zinc, 
 pass it through between rolls covered with woollen stuff dusted 
 with chalk powder. Wire-gauze is pickled in a similar manner, 
 and after rinsing in water the adhering water is removed by wiping 
 with cloths. The wire is then dusted with finely powdered resin 
 inclosed in a bag, the gauze placed upon a frame and immersed in 
 the tin bath, where it remains 1 to 2 minutes, when it is lifted out 
 and the excess of tin removed by shaking the frame. Especially 
 fine tinning of iron wire is produced as follows : Place the wire in a 
 wooden vessel of suitable size, which contains water mixed 
 with to per cent, of hydrochloric acid, and upon the bottom of which 
 zinc plates are placed. After a short time a gray coating of 
 
472 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 metallic zinc is formed upon the wire, when it is brought into the 
 tin bath. The latter is prepared by suspending 2 parts of tin-salt in a 
 
WIRE—MANUFACTURE, BRASSING, ETC. 
 
 473 
 
 bag in a vessel containing a solution of 2 parts of tartaric acid in 100 
 of water. The tin-salt being dissolved, stir the fluid until the white 
 precipitate formed is dissolved, and then add in small portions a 
 solution of 3 parts of soda. In consequence of the development 
 of carbonic acid vigorous effervescence takes place and a white 
 precipitate separates. The fluid is now allowed to rest until clear, 
 when it is drawn off, and the wire, which has been previously con¬ 
 nected to zinc plates, is immersed in the tin-bath for 2 or 3 
 hours. The tin deposits as a dead-white coating capable of a high 
 polish; the wire need only be passed once through the draw-iron 
 in order to acquire a beautiful lustre and to make the coating of tin 
 to adhere firmly. Small articles of iron may be readily tinned by 
 previously providing them with a thin coat of copper. This is 
 effected by first immersing the bright articles in a boiling solution 
 of chloride of zinc, and, when they have acquired a coating of 
 zinc, in a copper bath melted under a cover of borax. The 
 articles being thinly coppered may, with the assistance of sal- 
 ammoniac, be readily provided with a firmly-adhering deposit of 
 melted tin. 
 
 To Harden Steel Piano Wire. —Heat the steel wire to a red heat, 
 and then cool in the ordinary manner. Then immerse it in a 
 metal bath composed of lead 40 parts, zinc 12, antimony 26, tin 
 21, and bismuth 1. The bath should be heated somewhat above 
 its melting point, and the wire allowed to remain in it until it has 
 acquired the temperature of the bath, which takes, of course, a 
 longer time the thicker the wire is. When taken from the bath 
 cold water is sprinkled or poured over the wire. The hardening 
 and tempering above described are, as a rule, effected immediately 
 before the last drawing, and only after the last drawing, when the 
 wire is not required to be bright. 
 
 Coating which does not Oxidize Readily upon Steel and Iron Wire. 
 —Villiers produces such a coating by immersing the wire in a 
 weak acid solution, and after thoroughly washing, drying it at 176° 
 F. The wire is then immersed in a fluid alloy of tin 90 parts, 
 lead 9, and silver 1, rinsed in cold water and dried. 
 
474 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 Manufacture of Basic Open-hearth Steel .—In experiments made 
 by J. H. Darby, four 12-ton and afterwards two 20-ton furnaces 
 were used. Each furnace is provided with a separate chimney, 
 ordinary butterfly reversing valves of ample size, and regenerator 
 chambers of large capacity. The furnace proper is composed of 
 two wrought-iron sides, supported by H iron buck-staves, well 
 braced together at the top and bottom. The ends are left open ; 
 holes are cut in the plates for the three doors on the front side of 
 the furnace, and another hole is made at the back for the tap-holes. 
 The plates are also cut away, to allow air to circulate for cooling 
 purposes under the furnace bottom and bridge plates. The silica 
 blocks at each end of the furnace are built in the usual manner. 
 The roof is level from block to block; the ends, however, are 
 well inclined, to bring the flame down on the metal. On the iron 
 plates for holding the dolomite hearth fire-bricks are placed, so 
 that no part of the basic hearth when finished is more than 15 
 inches thick. As soon as all the brick-work is dry, hard-burnt dolo¬ 
 mite, well ground and mixed with as little anhydrous tar as is needed 
 to make it stick together when compressed, is rammed with hot 
 irons until the desired shape of the hearth is built up; the tap-hole 
 is made by a round piece of wood, which is left in and burnt out 
 as the furnace heats up. The shrunk dolomite or basic material is 
 brought up to the bottom of the doors and to an equal height all 
 round. On it a layer of about 2 inches chrome ore, also ground 
 fine and mixed with tar, is rammed to act as a neutral separator 
 between the acid and the basic portions; chrome ore is also 
 rammed in between the silica blocks and the basic hearth. The 
 side walls and jambs are built on the chrome ore. The roof is 
 then put on and the furnace heated up, at first with a coal fire. 
 When the furnace is properly dried and heated the hearth will be¬ 
 come very hard ; the tap-hole should be cleaned out, and then 
 filled with dry, ground, basic material for several inches. This 
 should be well pushed up against a scraper held from the middle 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 475 
 
 door. Anthracite coal is then rammed in, and the outside of the 
 tap-hole is covered with damp sand. The charge may now be 
 introduced. Mr. Darby uses 80 per cent, of pig and 20 per cent, 
 of scrap. Limestone is usually charged in sufficient quantity to 
 make a basic slag from the first, scrap and pig follow. When 
 sufficiently hot, additions of iron ore and limestone are made at ‘ 
 intervals during about five hours. The first sample is taken, and 
 from its appearance and fracture it is judged if sufficient ore has 
 been added. If so, as much as possible of the unspent oxide is 
 reduced in the slag by reacting on the remaining impurities, lime 
 additions being from time to time made. The hammered sample 
 rapidly improves. The edges, which were at first rough, become 
 smooth and free from cracks; the surface of the sample is clean, 
 and when the charge is ready it will bend over into four thicknesses 
 without any indication of cracking. Ferro-manganese is then 
 added, and the charge is teamed. Any kind of iron ore may be 
 used in the steel furnaces, providing it contains a low percentage 
 of silica. The 20-ton furnaces make from 180 to 200 tons of 
 ingots per week, or 23.3 cwt. per hour, exclusive of Sundays. 
 After experience in the manufacture of over 60,000 tons of basic, 
 open-hearth steel, Mr. Darby has never seen red-short material in 
 the usual soft quality. An average analysis of the soft steel is as 
 follows: 
 
 C = .12 p. c., P= .03, S = .018, Si = nil, Mn = .400. 
 
 This steel gives about 24.5 tons tensile strain per square inch 
 and 15 tons elastic limit, with an elongation of 31 to 33 per cent, 
 in 8 inches. 
 
 The Carlsson-Bessemer Process .—The Carlsson modification of 
 the Bessemer process is employed in Sweden in the treatment of a 
 charcoal pig-iron containing about 1.5 per cent, of silicon, 0.1 to 
 0.15 of manganese, 3.9 of graphite and o. 1 of combined carbon. 
 The slag produced in the production of this pig-iron approximates 
 more closely to a trisilicate than a bisilicate, alumina being con¬ 
 sidered as a base- After the pig-iron has been charged into the 
 
476 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 converter, it is blown for about 5 or 6 minutes, until the blue flame 
 appears that marks the commencement of the combustion of the 
 carbon. The blow is then stopped, and a definite proportion of 
 the charge, varying with the quality of the metal it is desired to 
 produce, is poured into a ladle of peculiar construction, so arranged 
 as to show the weight of the metal charged into it, the slag being 
 carefully removed. This portion of the charge usually contains 
 4.15 per cent, of carbon, 0.05 of silicon and 0.07 of manganese. 
 The remaining portion of the metal in the converter is then blown 
 until most of the carbon has been eliminated and the bath con¬ 
 verted into malleable iron. The portion of the metal previously 
 removed, together with any necessary additions required for special 
 purposes, is then added to the bath. When the reaction that 
 ensues is ended the metal is ready for pouring. Before this addi¬ 
 tion is made, the bath usually consists of metal containing a trace 
 of silicon, 0.03 per cent, of manganese, 0.05 per cent, of carbon 
 and, as a maximum, 0.02 of sulphur. As this metal is usually red- 
 short, some rich manganese iron is added before the addition of 
 the second portion of the metal from the ladle. The percentage of 
 silicon in the final product is usually about one-tenth of that of the 
 carbon, so that steel containing 0.2 of carbon would also contain 
 0.02 of silicon. 
 
 Malleable Cast-iron. —The custom among most malleable iron 
 makers is to use such irons only as are quite free from phosphorus 
 and sulphur, for the reason that the process in use is designed es¬ 
 pecially to eliminate carbon, and after they have driven that out 
 they have no desire to leave anything remaining which will make 
 the metal brittle. By the use and mixture of certain brands of 
 iron they have the means of converting their product into almost 
 pure wrought-iron. 
 
 The melting is now done, on the large scale, in reverberating fur¬ 
 naces, and the iron is purified, to a certain extent, while in a molten 
 condition by directing into the heating chamber a current of at¬ 
 mospheric air which mixes with the products of combustion. In 
 its essential principles the method has a resemblance to Berard’s 
 process of steel-making—the gaseous currents of air or of the fur- 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 477 
 
 nace may be used, as occasion requires, alternately, but the tuyeres 
 are not, like his, provided with apparatus for adjustment. The 
 process of removing impurities from the metal must not be carried 
 so far as to detract from its fluidity at the temperature at which it 
 is to be poured. These facts control the operation; the purer the 
 metal is the higher is its melting point, and whatever impurities 
 are allowed to remain must be such as may either be removed by 
 subsequent operations or such as may be allowed to exist in the 
 finished product. The useful function of the impurities is to lower 
 the melting point in the scale of temperature. Small test pieces, 
 of a finger’s length, are cast from time to time until the right 
 point is reached, as determined by the appearance of their fracture. 
 The metal is then ready to be poured into the moulds, and as 
 these will hold no large amount the pouring is generally done from 
 hand ladles. After the cast pieces are removed from the sand and 
 have the risers, runners and sprues knocked from them, they are 
 rattled in tumbling barrels to remove the adhering sand and scale 
 and to expose the naked surface of the material to the ready access 
 of the chemical agents of decarbonization. 
 
 The cast-iron pieces, hard and brittle, are now ready for the 
 process which will alter them in their whole nature without sub¬ 
 jecting them to any physical force. The process is one of disso¬ 
 ciation of the compound cast-iron, which is carburet of iron ; the 
 carbon has purposely been made to appear in its combined form 
 and is not visible as graphite; the iron, when broken, exhibits a 
 fine white appearance of the fractured surface, with a suggested in¬ 
 dication of lines radiating from the centre. 
 
 The pieces are packed in cast-iron boxes with the rust or oxide 
 of iron. These boxes are round or square, according to the shape 
 of the work. If round, they are perhaps 2 feet in diameter, and, 
 if rectangular, they may be 2 feet long, 1 y 2 feet wide and 1 foot 
 high. When these are filled rims of the same size are placed on 
 them, increasing the height another foot, and when these are filled 
 another rim, and still another is added, until the box is 4 feet in 
 depth, packed full of castings and oxidizing metal. This material 
 may be wrought-iron turning-chips which have been rusted by be- 
 
478 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 ing spread upon a hot floor, where they were sprinkled with a solu¬ 
 tion of sal-ammoniac. 
 
 After the boxes are packed they are placed in a double row in 
 brick chambers or ovens, which are large enough to contain twenty. 
 The aperture through which they were carried in is now walled up, 
 and fire is admitted to the chamber from a furnace at one side. 
 The flames fill the chamber and pass out to the flue on the opposite 
 side. The firing is continued for 3 days or longer, if required, 
 and the work having been brought to a red heat perhaps the first 
 day, stands for the remaining time immersed in this red-hot bath 
 of flame. When the time for firing the furnaces has expired they 
 are suffered to cool off slowly, and in a day and a half the boxes 
 are removed from the ovens and dumped on the large cast-iron 
 floor. This floor is a necessary part of the plant. When it is 
 used for oxidizing the turning-chips it is heated by the hotair 
 from the furnaces, which may be caused to pass underneath it on 
 their way to the chimney. It is not heated when the contents of 
 the boxes are emptied upon it, and when these are cool enough to 
 handle the iron turnings which have become caked upon them 
 quite strongly are knocked off and the pieces are carried to the 
 tumbling barrels, where they are rattled until bright. 
 
 The cast-iron articles subjected to the above process have a mal¬ 
 leable skin only; the depth of this is determined by the thorough¬ 
 ness of the process, and the core or body of the material beneath 
 this is still brittle. For this reason screws made from it having 
 threads cut through the skin are deficient in strength. The skin is 
 as refractory to melt as wrought-iron, but if this skin is broken and 
 the piece heated to a white heat the inside will either run out of 
 the rupture in a fluid state or, if it does not flux, it will shake out 
 like sand. In this way articles of intricate shapes may be made 
 light of weight by pouring out the fluid interior and leaving the 
 harder outer shell. 
 
 Th« chemical change in the iron which the annealing produces 
 is so great that the boxes used to anneal in, and which are so long 
 exposed to heat, will last four or five times as long if cast from 
 malleable scrap than they will if cast from pig-iron. For melting 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 479 
 
 pots for the more fusible metals and alloys, such as lead, tin or 
 babbitt, this metal is far preferable to common iron. It is also of 
 great value for making cast-iron gas retorts, which are still in use 
 to some extent, though generally superseded by fire-brick in gas¬ 
 works. It is excellent for use in making any articles that are to be 
 exposed to continuous heat, as pipe, in connection with furnaces. 
 
 Lead Lapping .—This process consists of grinding work in a lathe 
 by means of emery powder, oil being mixed with the emery to 
 hold it in place and render its application possible. A lap is a 
 mandril used to grind holes which are not quite true, or are too 
 small, or have been hardened and cannot be cut by a tool. A lap 
 may be a piece of copper rod, or of iron, with a tin or lead coat 
 around it. The diameter of a lap should be turned to an easy fit, 
 at both ends in the hole, and a trifle larger in the middle, so that 
 the hole which it is intended to grind will fit tightly on the man¬ 
 dril, the lathe being three times the length of the former. 
 
 Put the lap in the lathe and through the hole to be ground, run 
 the lathe at high speed, and apply oil and emery, moving the work 
 back and forth until it will pass easily over the large part of the 
 lap; then stop the lathe and hack the lathe with a cold-chisel, put 
 on more oil and emery, and grind as before. Care should be taken 
 that the work is rotated, in order that all sides of the hole grind 
 evenly. For holes to be made true, smooth and parallel, the work 
 is bored as well as possible, then set upon a true surface like a 
 planer table, and the lap applied. The mandril should be very 
 long and tapered, and for hard lapping the extreme end of the man¬ 
 dril should be fitted to a bearing, bolted to the planer table, and 
 the office of this bearing is to prevent all erratic movements of the 
 mandril while grinding. The process is the same as for hard lap¬ 
 ping, except the work is moved by power. Care must be taken 
 that the lap does not become dry during the process. If it does there 
 is apt to be heating and destruction of the lap-surface, even if no 
 harm comes to the object being finished. 
 
 Lead lapping is resorted to when great accuracy of surface is de¬ 
 sired, as well as high polish, and where a finish by filing and an 
 
480 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 application of emery paper would not do, although the method is 
 sufficient for rough work and small journal bearings. 
 
 Figs. 56 and 57 show a form of lap. It is a cast-iron cylinder, 
 or sleeve, split nearly in two, as shown, and fitted with lugs and a 
 thumb-screw to admit of changing the size of the sleeve. It will 
 be noticed that the cast-iron sleeve comes entirely together at a, 
 and the size of the object to be ground is determined by this stop. 
 If the lap becomes too much worn, a little metal may be filed from 
 the surface which comes in contact. The interior of the cylinder is 
 
 brushed with lead and charged with a flux of emery and oil, the 
 thumb-screw is loosened, and the lap applied to the object to be 
 ground, when it is running in the lathe at a speed of 300 lineal 
 feet per minute. 
 
 For some work the cast-iron cylinder may be made with a hinge 
 opposite the thumb-screw, giving ready access to the interior of 
 the lap. 
 
 Fig. 59 is an internal lap. It is simply a piece of lead, cast in 
 the taper arbor, which is fluted to prevent the lead from revolving 
 upon it. The lead is turned to size and charged with emery and 
 oil. The size is maintained by driving the taper arbor further 
 through the lead, which, being forced out by the round arbor, ex- 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 481 
 
 pands in every direction, and thus keeps its shape. Fig. 58 shows 
 an end view of the arbor and the lead tap upon it. 
 
 A cheap lap for coarse work is shown at Fig. 60. It consists of 
 two pieces of pine wood, cut out as shown, to receive the shafts, 
 and a leather hinge to connect the parts. To polish a shaft, open 
 the clamp, daub oil and emery in the notches and close the lap 
 upon the work. Fig. 61 shows a more accurate form of the variety 
 of lap. The pieces are made of cast-iron and brushed with lead, 
 then reamed, as already described. The set-screws shown on top 
 of this lap determine the size of the hole to fit the work, and 
 the bottom screws clamp the lap firmly against the set-screws. 
 (James. F. Hobart.) 
 
 Sawing Iron and Steel '.*—In a machine shop there is a constant 
 demand for means to cut off or to nick pieces of iron and steel that 
 cannot readily be put into the lathe on centres. The nicking saw 
 is the usual method employed, the saw being driven on centre by a 
 dog, as a shaft would be termed, and the work to be sawed fed to 
 it by the cross feed or other means. To make these nicking saws 
 and to properly temper them tries the patience of the mechanic 
 that does not understand the “know-how.” It is simple. First, 
 do not turn or face up a nicking saw. Cut it out of sheet cast- 
 steel without a particle of forging, selecting the steel of the proper 
 thickness. During all the process of making do not disturb the 
 “skin ” of the steel formed by the rolls under which it was made, 
 either by filing, smithing or polishing. Cut the disk out with a 
 cold-chisel and file it to circle; file the teeth like those of the 
 straight iron saw—those of the common “buck-saw” for wood 
 sawyers are a pattern—and make no set on them. Iron saws re¬ 
 quire to make no kerf. The teeth need not project on either side. 
 Of course, the saws must be drilled for a mandril, which should be 
 of steel, before they are toothed, being turned true on the mandril, 
 to which they should be secured by check-pin and nut. It is 
 economy to make a dozen or even more at a time. Drill the man¬ 
 dril hole and the notch in the hole for the check-pin, or “ steady- 
 pin ” as some call it, turn them as a whole, and cut the teeth all 
 * Jesse H. Lord, in Manufactured s Gazette. 
 
 31 
 
482 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 together in a slabber or milling machine. All this without smith¬ 
 ing or facing up in the lathe, preserving the steel-face intact. 
 
 The sizes of these saws for ordinary shop use are confined, for 
 efficient practice, to a diameter of 3 inches, or at most 3^ inches, 
 ranging downward, until for some work, diameters of 1 inch, 
 cutting not more than ^ inch under the mandril are necessary. 
 
 To temper these saws is the great trouble with many workmen. 
 The saws vary in thickness from y &-inch to y^-inch and in diameter 
 from 3 inches to inches, sometimes exceeding the higher size 
 and sometimes being less than the lower size mentioned. 
 
 Each saw must be separately hardened and tempered. To do 
 this properly the saw should be put upon a rod, with nut to hold it 
 in place, and heated over or in a charcoal fire, or over one of well- 
 coked sea coal, to a good red heat and plunged, slantwise, in cold 
 water, and moved about until cool. To temper the saw, smear it 
 when dry with animal oil—not kerosene, but sperm or lard oil—and 
 hold it over the fire until the oil takes fire and flashes in flame over 
 the surface of the saw. Let the oil burn a moment and then 
 quench it again. If the saw is sprung it may be straightened by 
 the hammer on the anvil, by fair blows, without danger of breaking. 
 Some prefer to draw the temper by heating a bar of iron of about 
 the size of the centre hole in the saw, and putting the saw on it so 
 that the heat will work gradually out to the circumference, when 
 the temper will be determined by color, usually a straw. If, how¬ 
 ever, color drawing is preferred, a better way is to draw in a pan 
 of heated sand, clean and without salt, as beach sand gives off fumes 
 that discolor the steel and mislead the eye. The oil test will be 
 found the best. 
 
 The speed at which these saws should be run depends somewhat 
 on the material to be cut, brass and other soft metals allowing a 
 quicker speed than iron and soft steel. About 100 revolutions per 
 minute will do for three-inch saws, giving about 75 feet of circum¬ 
 ferential motion ; but as the nicking saw is only a thin mill, the 
 speed of the mill in a milling machine is a good guide. 
 
 It may be necessary, sometimes, to cut off a piece of hardened 
 steel. This may be done by an untoothed disk of muntz metal, or 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 483 
 
 of hard-rolled sheet brass, fed with quartz sand and water, or by 
 kerosene oil and emery. In this case it is the sand or emery that 
 does the cutting, the disk’s edge merely presenting the abrading 
 material to the work. The sand and water, or the emery and oil 
 are handily fed through a common funnel suspended over the 
 work, the amount being regulated by a stick placed in the funnel 
 spout. 
 
 Utilization of Red-brass Turnings .—Turnings from red-brass 
 works are frequently sold for a low price, even by establishments 
 having facilities for casting in crucibles, because they are 
 apparently not fit for casting. These turnings can, however, 
 be profitably utilized for new castings as well as an addition to 
 other charges. The process is as follows : The turnings are melted 
 by themselves and during the melting process mixed with manganic 
 oxide in the proportion of 5 parts by weight of manganese to 100 
 of turnings. In charging for melting, it is advisable to cover the 
 bottom of the graphite crucible 0.39-inch deep with manganic 
 oxide; upon this is placed a layer of turnings about 1.18 inches 
 deep, and so on until the crucible is full. During melting the im¬ 
 purities contained in the turnings settle on the surface and can be 
 readily removed with a graphite ladle. The melt is best cast in 
 buttons (square pieces). When cool each button is cut, in order to 
 determine the qualities of the metal by the fractured surfaces. The 
 metal melted in this manner shows a reddish, nearly coppery 
 fracture, and is very tenacious and dense. An addition of manganic 
 oxide, not exceeding, however, 2per cent., to new material for 
 melting is also recommended. With this method the crucible 
 should not be covered with tallow, fat, pitch, etc. Boxes for 
 rapidly-running parts of machines showed great durability, being 
 but little worn after years of use. 
 
 Recovery of Copper .—In works where great quantities of copper 
 are operated upon, it is advantageous to recover the metal dis¬ 
 solved in the cleansing baths, which are allowed by the major¬ 
 ity of gilders, silver electro-platers and galvanoplastic operators to 
 go to waste with the rinsing water. The recovery of such copper 
 is an easy and inexpensive process. All the liquids holding copper 
 
484 
 
 THE METAL WORK EL’S 11 ANDY-BOOK. 
 
 are collected in a large cask filled with wrought- or cast-iron scraps. 
 By the contact of the copper solution with the iron a chemical re¬ 
 action immediately takes place, by which the iron is substituted for 
 the copper to make a soluble salt, while the copper falls to the 
 bottom of the cask as a brown powder. The cask should be 
 sufficiently large to hold all the liquids employed in a day’s work. 
 The liquids are decanted every morning. The old iron scrap is 
 generally suspended in a willow basket near the top of the liquid, 
 and, by occasionally moving it about in the liquid, the metallic 
 powder of copper alone falls to the bottom of the cask. 
 
 The same method is employed for recovering the copper from 
 old cleansing acids or from spent galvanoplastic baths. The cop¬ 
 per thus obtained is quite pure, and, by calcining it in contact 
 with the air, a black oxide of copper is obtained, which is serviceable 
 for enriching and neutralizing galvanoplastic baths too strongly 
 acidified. 
 
 Recovery of Gold frotn Gold Baths, etc .—To recover the gold 
 from old cyanide gilding baths, evaporate the baths to dryness, 
 mix the residue with litharge and fuse the mixture. The gold is 
 contained in the lead button thus obtained. The latter is then 
 dissolved in nitric acid, whereby the gold remains behind in the 
 form of insoluble spangles. These spangles are filtered off and 
 dissolved in aqua regia. 
 
 The following method is used for the recovery of the gold by the 
 wet process: The bath containing gold, silver and copper is 
 acidulated with hydrochloric acid, which causes a disengagement 
 of hydrocyanic acid. This gas is extremely poisonous, for which 
 reason the operation should be carried on in the open air, or where 
 there is a good draft or ventilation to carry off the fumes. A pre¬ 
 cipitate consisting of the cyanides of gold and copper, and chloride 
 of silver, is formed. This is well washed and boiled in aqua regia, 
 which dissolves the gold and copper as chlorides, leaving the 
 chloride of silver behind. The solution containing the gold and 
 copper is evaporated nearly to dryness, in order to remove the ex¬ 
 cess of acid, the residue is dissolved in a small quantity of water, 
 and the gold precipitated therefrom as a brown metallic powder, 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 4S5 
 
 by the addition of sulphate of iron (copperas). The copper re¬ 
 mains in solution. 
 
 Recovery of Gold and Silver from Sweepings and other Refuse 
 from the Manufacture of Gold-ware , etc. —Collect the sweepings, 
 dry them, if necessary, and heat them in a Hessian crucible, in 
 order to destroy all the organic substances. Triturate the glowed 
 mass in a porcelain dish or enamelled kettle with water, and treat 
 it with an excess of hydrochloric acid to dissolve any alkalies or 
 calcium carbonate present. The portion remaining undissolved 
 contains gold, silver, copper, sand, clay, ferric oxide, etc. To 
 recover the silver from it wash it thoroughly with distilled water 
 and boil it in pure nitric acid, which absorbs the silver. The 
 residue is again thoroughly washed, and from the combined fluids 
 the silver is precipitated as chloride of silver by common salt, or, 
 still better, by hydrochloric acid. The residue remaining midis- 
 solved after the treatment with hydrochloric acid is heated with 
 aqua regia and the gold precipitated by the addition of sulphate 
 of iron (copperas). Sometimes it may pay to treat the residue re¬ 
 maining undissolved in aqua regia with ammonia in order to ex¬ 
 tract the .chloride of silver, the formation of which under the 
 given conditions can scarcely be prevented. An experiment with a 
 small portion will show whether such treatment is advisable or 
 not. 
 
 Ungilding. —Gilded articles of iron and steel are best ungilded 
 by treating them as the anode in a solution of from 2 to 2^ ozs. 
 of 98 per cent, potassium cyanide in 1 quart of water, and suspend¬ 
 ing a copper plate greased with oil or tallow as the cathode. 
 Gilded silver-ware is readily ungilded by heating it to glowing 
 and then immersing it in dilute sulphuric acid, whereby the 
 layer of gold cracks off, the glowing and immersing in dilute sul¬ 
 phuric acid being repeated until all the gold is removed. Before 
 glowing and immersing in dilute sulphuric acid the articles may 
 first be provided with a coating of a paste of sal-ammoniac, flowers 
 of sulphur, borax and potassium nitrate, which is allowed to dry. 
 On the bottom of the vessel containing the dilute sulphuric acid 
 the gold will be found in the form of laminae and scales. These 
 
THE METAL WORKER'S HANT)Y-BOOK. 
 
 4 SO 
 
 are boiled with pure sulphuric acid, washed, and finally dis¬ 
 solved in aqua regia and made into chloride of gold or fulminating 
 gold. 
 
 To ungild articles of silver, copper or German silver, which will 
 not bear glowing, the solution of the gold may be effected in a 
 mixture of i lb. of fuming sulphuric acid, 2.64 ozs. of concentrated 
 hydrochloric acid and 1.3 ozs. of nitric acid of 40° B6. Dip the 
 articles in this warm acid mixture, and observe the progressive 
 action of the mixture by frequently removing the articles from it. 
 The articles to be treated must be perfectly dry before dipping 
 them in the mixture, and care must be had to preserve the latter 
 from dilution with water in order to prevent the acids from acting 
 upon the base-metals. 
 
 Utilization of Nickel Waste .-—For the utilization of waste from 
 rolled and cast-nickel anodes and of the nickel sand gradually col¬ 
 lecting upon the bottom of the vats, the following method is 
 recommended : Wash the waste repeatedly in clean hot water, and 
 then boil in dilute sulphuric acid (1 part acid to 4 water) until 
 water poured upon the waste is no longer clouded by it. Then 
 pour off the liquid and treat the waste or sand with concentrated 
 nitric acid. This must be done very carefully, and a large porcelain 
 vessel should be used to prevent the solution from running over. 
 When the solution is sufficiently concentrated, so that it contains 
 little free acid, it should be filtered and slowly evaporated to dry¬ 
 ness over the water bath. The product is nickel nitrate. The 
 nickel nitrate thus obtained is dissolved in hot distilled water, and 
 the solution precipitated with caustic soda carefully and gradually 
 added. The precipitate of hydrated nickel oxide is then carefully 
 filtered and washed, then treated with dilute sulphuric acid with 
 the aid of heat until solution has taken place. The solution is 
 concentrated by evaporation and an excess of concentrated solu¬ 
 tion of ammonium sulphate is added. The precipitate is the 
 double sulphate of nickel and ammonium, or Adams’ nickel-plating 
 salt, which is commonly used for nickel-plating. 
 
 To Recover Nickel from Old Solutions .— Urquhart proposes the 
 following plan : Make a saturated solution of ammonium sulphate 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 4S7 
 
 in warm water and add to it the old nickel-plating solution, with 
 constant stirring, and, after the lapse of a few minutes, a granular 
 precipitate of the double sulphate of nickel will begin to separate. 
 The addition of ammonium sulphate should be from time to time 
 continued, until the liquid is colorless. The precipitated salt is 
 very pure, and may be used directly in making a new bath. 
 
 Recovery of Silver from Old Cyanide Plating Solutions , etc .—The 
 baths may be evaporated to dryness, the residue mixed with a small 
 quantity of calcined soda and potassium cyanide and fused in a 
 crucible, whereby metallic silver is formed, which, when the heat 
 is sufficiently increased, will be found as a button upon the bottom 
 of the crucible; or if it is not desirable to heat to the melting 
 point of silver, the fritted mass is dissolved in hot water, and the 
 solution containing the soda and cyanide quickly filtered off from 
 the metallic silver. The evaporation of large quantities of fluid is, 
 to be sure, inconvenient, and requires considerable time, but the 
 reducing process above described is without doubt the most simple 
 and least injurious. 
 
 According to the wet method the bath is strongly acidulated with 
 hydrochloric acid, observing the precaution to provide for the 
 effectual carrying off of the hydrocyanic acid liberated as given 
 under gold. Remove the precipitated chloride of silver and 
 cyanide of copper by filtration, and after thorough washing, 
 transfer it to a porcelain dish and treat it, with the aid of heat, 
 with hot hydrochloric acid, which will dissolve the cyanide of cop¬ 
 per. The resulting chloride of silver is then reduced to the 
 metallic state by mixing it with four times its weight of crystallized 
 carbonate of sodium and half its weight of pulverized charcoal. 
 The whole is made into a homogeneous paste, which is thoroughly 
 dried, and then introduced into a strongly heated crucible. When 
 all the material has been introduced the heat is raised to promote 
 complete fusion and to facilitate the collection of the separate 
 globules of silver into a single button at the bottom of the crucible, 
 where it will be found after cooling. 
 
 If granulated silver is wanted, pour the metal in a thin stream, 
 and from a certain height, into a large volume of water. 
 
4SS TITE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Desilvering. —According to the nature of the base-metal different 
 methods have to be employed for desilvering. Silvered iron 
 articles are treated as anode in a potassium cyanide solution in 
 water (1:20), the iron not being brought into solution by potassium 
 cyanide; as cathode suspend in the solution a few silver anodes or a 
 copper-sheet rubbed with an oily rag. The silver precipitates upon 
 the copper-sheet, but does not adhere to it. Articles, the basis of 
 which is copper, are best desilvered by immersion in a mixture of 
 equal parts of anhydrous (fuming) sulphuric acid and nitric acid 
 of 40° Be. This mixture makes the copper passive, it not being 
 attacked, while the silver is dissolved. Care must, however, be 
 had not to introduce any water into the acids, nor to let them 
 stand without being hermetically closed, since by absorbing water 
 from the air they become dilute, and may then exert a dissolving 
 effect upon the copper. The fuming hydrochloric acid may also 
 be heated and 150 parts of crystallized nitrate of soda be added 
 instead of the nitric acid. In this hot acid desilvering proceeds 
 more quickly than in the cold acid mixture, but the latter acts more 
 uniformly. Desilvering is complete when the articles, on being 
 pickled, show no stains. 
 
 Recovery of Platinum from Platinum Solutions. —From not too 
 large baths precipitation of the platinum with sulphuretted hydrogen 
 is the most suitable method, and preferable to evaporating and re¬ 
 ducing the metal from the residue. The process is as follows: 
 Acidulate the platinum solution with hydrochloric acid, and, after 
 warming it, conduct sulphuretted hydrogen into it. The metal 
 (together with any copper present) precipitates as sulphide of 
 platinum. The precipitate is filtered off, dried and glowed in the 
 air, whereby metallic platinum remains behind. From larger baths 
 the platinum may be precipitated by suspending bright sheets of 
 iron in the acidulated bath. In both cases the precipitated plati¬ 
 num is treated with dilute nitric acid in order to dissolve any cop¬ 
 per present. After filtering off and washing the pure platinum it 
 is dissolved in aqua regia; the solution is then evaporated to dry¬ 
 ness in the water bath, and the chloride of platinum thus obtained 
 may be used in making a new bath. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 489 
 
 Recovery of Tin from Tin-plate Waste. —The waste is treated with 
 dilute chlorine at a temperature above the boiling point of chloride 
 of tin, so that the latter immediately after its formation is carried 
 away in the form of vapor, as, if it remains in the form of a fluid 
 in contact with the residues, it gives rise to the formation of chloride 
 of iron, chloride of tin being reduced. The vapors of chloride 
 of tin are precipitated by steam or by contact with moist surfaces 
 in roomy condensing chambers, or are absorbed by chloride of tin 
 solution of medium concentration. 
 
 Another method is as follows : Bring the waste into contact with 
 sulphur in a boiling-hot solution of sodium sulphide, whereby the 
 iron is completely freed from tin. The waste thus freed from tin 
 is thoroughly washed and dried, heated to a welding heat in tubes 
 of rolled-iron, taken out and hammered into rod-iron. The solu¬ 
 tion of sodium sulphide holding the tin is evaporated, the residue 
 calcined in a reverberatory furnace and the calcined mass reduced 
 to tin, at a raised heat, by means of a mixture of small coal, char¬ 
 coal and calcined soda or burnt lime. 
 
 To Separate Lead from Zinc. —Melt the alloy. The specifically 
 heavier lead collects in the lower portion of the crucible, while the 
 lighter zinc stands above it and can be poured off. 
 
 How fapanese Swords are Made. —In forging the metal is never 
 heated without being carefully coated with loam spread all over it 
 as a thin wash and sprinkled with straw ashes. The metal, too, is 
 kept perfectly clean, and never touched by the hand, as the least 
 sweat will hinder the perfectly uniform welding of the parts together 
 and leave a flaw visible in the sword. A steel plate with an iron 
 rod welded to it as a handle, and with several pieces of steel placed 
 upon it, is heated in the fire, and is hammered out on the anvil to a 
 shape about 6 or 8 inches long by inches wide and % or 
 inch thick. The steel bar so forged is doubled over, heated again 
 and hammered out into about the same dimensions as before; 
 doubled over again, reheated and hammered until it has been 
 refolded fifteen times. Then its handle is cut off, and in like man¬ 
 ner three such bars are made and the four bars welded into a some¬ 
 what longer bar, and thus again folded and hammered out to about 
 
490 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 the same dimensions. The resulting bar is made up of a vast 
 number of layers intimately welded together. The first doubling 
 gives 2, the second 4, and so on up to the fifteenth, which gives 
 32,768, and the four small bars together consist of 131,072 layers, 
 and after 15 additional foldings there must be 4,194,304 layers. 
 In consequence, the polished sword lias fine lines like the grain of 
 wood. They are called the sword’s hada (skin), and are distinguished 
 by names according to their form. The steel bar is now hammered 
 out to the length of the required blade, and after various manipula¬ 
 tions is given its shape, apparently without measurements or pat¬ 
 terns. When iron is used along with the steel there are several 
 ways of combining the small bars to make the large one, the 
 smiths of different provinces using different methods. In harden¬ 
 ing, the blade is covered with a coating of loam, which is carefully 
 removed along the edge, and is then heated in a vigorous fire of pine 
 charcoal. Afterwards it is cooled by dipping in lukewarm water. 
 The blade is then carefully cleaned and examined for blemishes. 
 A smith careful of his reputation rejects all imperfect blade6 and 
 uses the material for other purposes. Next the smith cuts the 
 groove, if any, with a steel graving tool. These grooves lighten 
 the sword, and are called vulgarly chi-nagashi (blood chains). The 
 smith then drills the hole in the tong for the bamboo or metallic 
 peg that holds the handle on. 
 
 Many smiths adorn their blades with engravings, especially with 
 representations of dragons, gods, and flower sprigs. 
 
 The final grinding and polishing is a trade quite distinct from 
 the smith’s. The grinder holds the sword horizontally, and rubs it 
 back and forth on a small whetstone well wet with water, moving by 
 degrees along the whole length of the blade. Finally the blade is 
 polished with a polishing stone and a stone powder as fine as flour, 
 or with the finest powdered steel forge cinders until the polish is 
 perfect. 
 
 The blade may now be mounted with a hilt, and, if moderately 
 long, with a guard, with a ferrule and a scabbard. The hilt is made 
 of wood often covered with shark’s skin, the rougher the better. 
 Over the shark’s skin silk cord is often found crosswise in several 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 491 
 
 styles. Between the shark’s skin and the cord there is often a 
 metallic ornament. The guard is only put on the larger swords, 
 and is preferably made of steel or the hardest wrought-iron. It is 
 sometimes a work of fine art, and .then often has the maker’s name 
 engraved upon the concealed part of it. 
 
 To Make Knives from Old Files .—First draw the temper by 
 heating the file to a cherry-red, then place it in ashes, and 5 inches 
 under the forge, and leave it there until cool. Now grind out the 
 file marks and next comes the drawing. Make the heat no higher 
 than a bright cherry heat, and use a good smooth-faced hammer. 
 The file is then drawn a little thicker than the back of the blade is 
 to be, and the blade is then bent, the edge being on the inside. The 
 blade is then drawn to an edge, the drawing on the inner curve 
 having the effect of straightening it. When it has been drawn to 
 an even and nice color and straightened, three holes are drilled in 
 it so that the handle can be fastened on it, and it is shaped with a 
 file. It is necessary to avoid getting the edge too thin, or else there 
 will be trouble in tempering. In tempering use soft and some¬ 
 what warm water. Seize the handle ends with a pair of tongs, hold 
 the blade, with the back down, over a clear, well-charred fire, and 
 heat evenly to the first hole until the blade is red, and then plunge 
 it endwise into the water. This should leave the blade so that 
 when tried with a file the file will take hold, just a little. If this 
 test shows that the blade is too hard, dip it in linseed oil, hold it 
 over a slow, clear fire until the oil ignites, and then dip into the 
 water again. This will toughen it, and cause it to hold its edge 
 better. The grinding should be done on a good even-faced stone. 
 
 Ma 7 iufaclure of Metal Pipes .—The following process, the inven¬ 
 tion of F. Madeley, is patented in England : A piece of soft steel 
 is in a suitable manner bent to a pipe so that both edges lie close 
 together It is then polished and coated with copper in a suitable 
 cyanide solution. For a layer of copper of special thickness it is 
 further treated in a solution of cupric sulphate. The pipe is then 
 further coated with brass in a suitable cyanide solution and finally 
 polished. In this manner pipes with a metallic coating are obtained 
 without the necessity of soldering or welding. 
 
402 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Improvement in the Treatment of Steel. —C. Jones, of Derby, 
 England, lias patented the following process: Steel scraps (railway 
 carriage and other carriage springs), after being cleaned by immer¬ 
 sion in dilute sulphuric acid and subsequent washing in boiling 
 water, are first dipped into oil or grease and then into soot. The 
 scraps are then packed with powdered gas coke into a metal box 
 and heated in a furnace for 30 hours or more, at about 1400° F., 
 then withdrawn and allowed to cool slowly. The scrap may then 
 be melted into blocks or ingots, which can be rolled, welded, ham¬ 
 mered or otherwise treated in the usual way. 
 
 Ink for Writing on Tin. —Dissolve 1 part of copper in 10 of 
 nitric acid, and add to the solution 10 of water. Cleanse the tin 
 with dry whiting and write with a quill. 
 
 Ink for Writing on Zinc. —Cleanse the surface of the zinc by 
 rubbing with a sponge dipped in dilute hydrochloric acid and fine 
 sand. Next dissolve 1 oz. 4 drachms each of crystallized verdigris 
 and sal-ammoniac in 1 pint of warm water, filter the solution after 
 cooling, and preserve it in well-closed bottles. Pieces of zinc 
 written on with this preparation are allowed to lie in water a few 
 hours. They are then dried and used without being varnished. 
 The writing may be executed with a steel pen or a quill, the first 
 being, however, strongly attacked by the fluid. In case the zinc 
 appears greasy and the writing runs together, cleanse the surface 
 with a rag dipped in chalk. This ink is very suitable for writing 
 labels. 
 
 Insulating Coverings for Steam-pipes , etc. —Felt, cork, waste, 
 mineral wool or asbestos pulp, either made into suitable forms and 
 atttached to the pipe, or filled into a casting surrounding the pipe, 
 and with or without an air space about the pipe, are much used for 
 the above purpose. A mass highly recommended is prepared as 
 follows: 100 parts by weight of finely ground limestone, 350 of 
 finely ground coal, 250 of pulverized clay, 300 of fine ashes from 
 boiler-flues are thoroughly mixed with 600 of water and 10 of sul 
 phuric acid of 50° Be, and after adding 15 of hair (hogs’ bristles, 
 cow hair or calf hair) the whole is made as homogeneous as possible. 
 The article to be covered should, if possible, be previously heated. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 493 
 
 The mass is then gradually applied in separate layers, each about 
 y 2 -inch thick, until a thickness of i y 2 to inches is attained. 
 The whole may finally be painted any color desired. 
 
 Another Insulating Material for Steam-pipes is prepared as 
 follows: Boil i lb. each of rice flour, rye flour, cows’ hair and 
 treacle with 150 quarts of water, and gradually and with constant 
 stirring add 80 lbs. of infusorial earth. Apply the mass in several 
 layers to the lukewarm pipes, so that finally a layer somewhat more 
 than y 2 -inch thick is formed. 
 
 Insulating Mass for Steam-boilers, etc. —Waste of cork, asbestos, 
 gypsum and cement, all finely ground, are shortly before use made 
 with water into a paste of the consistency of mortar. The result¬ 
 ing mass is applied with a trowel to the objects to be insulated. It 
 answers the purpose far better than masses containing hair, glue, 
 treacle, etc., as it is not subject to putrefaction or fermentation, 
 nor destroyed by heat. It being a very poor conductor of heat 
 the highest useful effect can be attained ; it adheres well and is 
 very durable. 
 
 Insulating Material for Electrical Conduits. —Mix 66 parts of 
 fine glass or quartz powder and 34 of finely pulverized vegetable or 
 mineral resin. Add to the mixture 26 parts of paraffine, beeswax 
 or spermaceti, and 3 parts of boiled or crude linseed oil. The 
 proportions of mixture vary according to circumstances. If the 
 mass is to be exposed to the sun the admixture of wax must be 
 small, while the reverse is the case if the mass is to be used for 
 telegraph lines under ground. 
 
 Flexible Insulating Mass for Electrical Conduits. —Mineral wax 
 (paraffine, ozokerite), 1 part ; wood tar, 29; shellac, 32; and 
 asbestos, flax or cotton, 32, are mixed in a boiler at between 92 0 
 and 212 0 F., and constantly stirred. For a harder mass take less 
 wood tar. For the production of a specially hard mass, the wax 
 may be omitted and about 24 parts of ground slate, infusorial 
 earth or clay free from iron added, and the quantity of asbestos, 
 etc., decreased. 
 
 Gold-beating. —The rough gold is put into a stone crucible, 
 melted, and poured into a mould, which gives it the right width 
 
494 
 
 T1IE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 for rolling. One hundred dollars’ worth of gold is generally 
 moulded at a time, the weight being about 5 ounces. It is then 
 run through the rollers, the pressure of which is so great that the 
 little bar of gold that is 1 inch thick in width and about 3 inches 
 in length, after being run through several times, becomes a strip 
 about 14 yards in length and about the thickness of a hair. The 
 strip is then cut into 1 inch squares. These squares are put into 
 what is called a cutch. This cutch is composed of 180 skins 314 
 inches square. The material that these skins are made of is an in¬ 
 vention of French origin, and is kept secret. Formerly vellum 
 was used. A gold square is placed between each skin, one directly 
 over the other, until the cutch is filled. Two parchment bands 
 are put over them in opposite directions to keep them from shift¬ 
 ing. The cutch is then beaten for 15 or 20 minutes with a 16- 
 pound hammer. The gold is then taken out of the skins, quartered 
 by a skewer, and put into what is called the shorter. The number 
 of skins in a shoder is 680. These skins come from what is called 
 the bung-gut of an ox, one animal furnishing but two skins. The 
 shoder skins are four inches square. The gold squares are put 
 between the skins in the same manner as in the cutch. They are 
 then beaten for 1 y?, hours with a 10 lb. hammer, taken out, and again 
 quartered with a piece of reed. They are then put into the mould, 
 one over the other as before, until the 900 skins which the mould 
 contains are filled. This is beaten with a hammer weighing 7 lbs. 
 for 3 or 4 hours. The leaf is then ready to be trimmed and 
 booked. Before the beating process the skins are heated and 
 primed to prevent the leaf from sticking. Heated presses are 
 used to take the moisture from the skins. Each skin is rubbed 
 with a hare’s foot, with plaster of Paris on both sides, before beat¬ 
 ing. Each one of the first squares of gold beaten out makes 25 
 leaves, or one book. The trimming of the leaves before they are 
 put into books is done by a sled-shaped machine called a wagon. 
 The trimming and booking are mostly done by girls. The trim¬ 
 mings that are left from the leaves are scraped together and melted 
 over. A little salt added makes it thoroughly clean. The granite 
 block that the beating is done on is about 3 feet in height, the top 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 495 
 
 surface being ground down perfectly smooth, so as to prevent the 
 blows of the hammer from cutting the under side of the mould. 
 
 Lining for Furnaces. —The composition used for lining furnaces 
 consists of ganister, or a similar highly silicious mass, and lime in 
 the proportion of about 90 parts of ganister to 10 of lime. The 
 limestone is burned and slaked, and after 12 hours added to the 
 ganister. Sufficient water for the requisite consistence is then 
 added and the whole thoroughly mixed. The furnace is then lined 
 with the mass and the latter dried by moderate firing. 
 
 Matrix Mass for the Reproduction of Ale da Is, Coins, etc. —Under 
 the name “ isolit ” a mass is brought into commerce which is 
 recommended as being especially suitable for matrices to be used 
 in galvano-plasty. It consists of yellow ceresin (purified ozo¬ 
 kerite), with 6 or 7 per cent, of petroleum and 4 or 5 per cent, of 
 sulphur. 
 
 Oil of'Mustard as a Lubricator. —For preventing the welding 
 together of iron surfaces upon which much and rapid friction is 
 exercised, such as turbine wheels, etc., ordinary oil of mustard, 
 mixed with small quantities of petroleum, fish oil, or other similar 
 fatty substances has been found to answer the purpose in every 
 respect, and to overcome all the difficulties heretofore experienced 
 with machinery where excessive friction disturbs the physical 
 quality of the metal used. 
 
 Spinning of Metals. —Spinning in the lathe is preferably employed 
 for shaping articles which are difficult to press or draw. The 
 principle of spinning consists in forcing by the continuous pressure 
 of a tool of a simple shape a sheet of metal into a revolving pat¬ 
 tern (chuck) or raising it over the chuck. In the first case the 
 inner surface of the chuck must correspond to the outer contours 
 of the article to be produced, whilst in the latter the chuck actually 
 forms the pattern of the work. 
 
 Fig. 62 shows both styles in cross-section and also the manner 
 of securing the chucks in the lathe. FF are the chucks ; they are 
 made of hard wood, generally white beach. Upon metallic chucks 
 the sheet-metal would very quickly spin hard ; the wooden chucks, 
 however, are frequently covered with sheet brass. The chucks 
 
496 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER’S ITANDY-BOOK. 
 
 must be turned very smooth, and are provided on one side with a 
 female screw, by means of which they are secured to the front end 
 of the mandril S, which is provided with a worm. This end is 
 also furnished with a female screw, in which fits the so-called bind¬ 
 ing screw D. The latter consists of a steel rod, provided on one 
 end with a worm about i*4 inches long and on the other with a 
 disk and handle. The length of the binding screw generally cor¬ 
 responds to the longest article to be turned; for shorter articles 
 various orbicular pieces V are inserted between the chuck and the 
 disk of the binding screw. With the use of the binding screw the 
 
 chuck as well as the sheet-metal to be spun must be provided with 
 an aperture for the binding screw to pass through. The chuck and 
 disk of sheet-metal before the commencement of spinning are 
 shown in I, Fig. 62. 
 
 The spinning is done with tools of various shapes resembling 
 burnishers; they have either flat, flat-round, club-shaped or hook" 
 like faces. Some of the shapes are shown in Fig. 63. The tools 
 should always be kept dull and smooth; sharp-edged or rough 
 tools must never be used. A strong steel pin is inserted in the 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 497 
 
 projection of the lathe, against which the tool is pressed during 
 spinning. The tool is held in the right hand and pressed in slow 
 strokes from the centre towards the periphery, progressing in a 
 horizontal direction from right to left, whilst the plate of sheet- 
 metal is made to revolve by the mandril; the plate is thereby 
 forced to gradually fit itself to the chuck. What shape of tool is 
 most suitable for each kind of work has to be learned by experience, 
 it being impossible to give special instructions in regard to this. 
 It need only be remarked that at first flat-round tools are always 
 used even in spinning sharp edges; flat tools are only employed 
 finally. 
 
 Fig- 63. 
 
 As indicated in Fig. 62, 7 , the sheet fits itself only gradually to 
 the chuck, and care must be had that the metal does not wrinkle. 
 For this purpose an entirely flat tool is held with the left hand 
 against the under side of the plate so as to be always opposite to 
 the spinning tool. Without the use of this tool the sheet-metal 
 would soon become wrinkled ; but when partially spun the use of the 
 second tool may be dispensed with. All metals cannot be spun with 
 equal facility, copper spinning best, next zinc, tombac and brass. 
 German silver and tin-plate are difficult to spin. To avoid friction 
 between the tool and metal-plate both are kept lubricated with 
 tallow or soap-water. In spinning the metals become gradually 
 
498 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 hard, zinc, for instance, becoming so hard in a short time that for 
 articles of any size it can only be spun warm. Warming is effected 
 by holding a spirit-lamp under the article. When the articles have 
 become hard and brittle by spinning they have to be annealed 
 before they can be further spun. By spinning the molecules have 
 assumed an abnormal position and are in a state of tension. If 
 now the half-finished articles were directly heated they would 
 frequently become full of cracks. To avoid this the tension is 
 relieved by pounding the article with a wooden hammer upon a 
 wooden support. The small dents made thereby can readily be 
 removed in finishing the spinning. The articles are first warmed 
 by placing them upon glowing coals and only covered with coals 
 when thoroughly heated through. In large establishments muffle 
 furnaces are also used for annealing. German silver sheet cracking 
 readily, great care is required in annealing it. 
 
 For flat articles with bright inner surfaces the chuck shown in II, 
 Fig. 62, is used; in this case the plate of sheet-metal A A must be 
 somewhat larger than the chuck. After being placed upon the 
 chuck it is covered with a round wooden plate V This wooden 
 plate has in the centre a brass plate with a conical depression, in 
 which sits the back-centre R. When the sliding-puppet of the 
 lathe has been brought as close as possible to the chuck, in conse¬ 
 quence of the friction the wooden plate and the disk of sheet- 
 metal are also revolved by the revolution of the chuck. The pro¬ 
 jecting edge of the disk of sheet-metal is then turned so far around 
 the edge of the chuck that it will hold the disk when the wooden 
 plate V is removed. It is still better to press the edge of the disk 
 of sheet-metal into a groove in the chuck. By now removing the 
 sliding-puppet and the wooden plate V, the disk of sheet-metal is 
 drawn over the hollow chuck like a drum-head. With the assistance 
 of the tools the sheet-metal is now pressed against the side of the 
 chuck by working from the edge towards the centre. The opera¬ 
 tion being finished, the edge is cut off with a tool. 
 
 Articles which are to be smooth inside and outside are also spun 
 without binding screw upon chucks of the above description. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 499 
 
 They are first spun over a chuck and then brought into a hollow 
 chuck. 
 
 For the manufacture of hollow articles of jewelry from gold- 
 sheet which is too thin for direct working, a gold tube is frequently 
 enveloped inside and outside with silver, then filled with brass and 
 subjected to the required manipulations. The article being finished, 
 the brass core is dissolved in a mixture of acids which does not 
 attack the silver, and finally the outer layer of silver is removed 
 with nitric acid. 
 
 To Cut Sheet-brass by Chemical Means. —By drawing a line with 
 solution of mercury salt upon a sheet of brass, the latter on the 
 place where the line is drawn immediately becomes as fragile as 
 glass. The mercury salt is decomposed by the acid dissolving with 
 great rapidity the copper and the mercury combining with the zinc 
 to an amalgam. 
 
 To Toughen Sheet-brass for painting with oil paint the following 
 process, which imparts to the sheet a moire-like appearance, may be 
 recommended. Place the brass for 12 hours in a pickle of con¬ 
 centrated sulphuric acid, 8 parts ; concentrated hydrochloric acid, 
 1 ; and water, 8; then rinse off with water. This graining may 
 be hastened by using a mixture of potassium bichromate and 
 hydrochloric acid, as well as by the use of a galvanic battery. 
 
 To Cut Out Iron Plates with the Assistance of Sulphuric Acid .— 
 A mixture of 1 part by weight of sulphuric acid and 6 of water 
 dissolves steel and iron. Now, by coating an iron or steel plate 
 with a thin layer of wax, drawing any design desired in the wax 
 and placing the plate in the above-mentioned fluid for several 
 hours, the portions constituting the design will drop out. Letters, 
 names and ornaments upon sword blades, etc., are etched in this 
 manner. 
 
 To Make a Hole in Hard Steel. —Prepare a mixture of sulphate 
 of copper, 1 oz. ; alum, oz. ; powdered common salt, half a 
 teaspoonful ; vinegar, 1 gill; and nitric acid, 20 drops. This will 
 make the hole, or, if washed off quickly, will give a beautiful 
 frosted appearance to the metal. 
 
 To Detach Gold from Gilt Metallic Articles. —Apply to the 
 
500 
 
 THE METAL WORKER’S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 articles a concentrated solution of sal-ammonic in vinegar and 
 heat to a dark-red heat; then throw them into cold, very dilute 
 sulphuric acid, whereby the gold becomes detached in thin scales. 
 The latter are fused with saltpetre and borax, whereby the gold is 
 obtained in a coherent form. 
 
 To Give Metals — Lead, Tin, Zinc, etc.—the Capacity of Firmly 
 Adhering to Other Metals, and to Amalgamate with them. —For 
 this purpose sal-ammoniac, phosphorus and borax are added to the 
 metals when in a melted state. To prevent as much as possible 
 the oxidation of the fused metal and the volatilization of the above- 
 mentioned agents, the surface is covered with pulverized wood or 
 animal charcoal. 
 
 To Keep Steel from Rusting. —Brush the steel with a solution 
 of paraffine in benzine. This is transparent, and does not disfigure 
 the work as does tallow or white-lead. 
 
 To Prevent Metals from Rusting. —The following is said to be 
 a good application to prevent the rusting of metals: Melt i oz. 
 of resin in a gill of linseed oil, and while hot mix with it 2 quarts 
 of kerosene oil. This can be kept ready to apply at any time with 
 a brush or rag to any tools or implements required to lay by for a 
 time, preventing any rust, and saving much vexation when the tool 
 is to be used again. 
 
 To Prevent Rusting In of Screws. —In machines exposed to heat 
 or moist air the screws soon rust in, even with the use of oil, which 
 later on renders it difficult to take the machines apart. By dipping 
 the screws before use in a thin paste of graphite and oil, they can 
 be readily taken out even after years. 
 
 To Loosen Rusted Screws. —One of the simplest and readiest 
 ways of loosening a rusted screw is to apply heat to the head of 
 the screw. A small bar or rod of iron, flat at the end, if reddened 
 in the fire and applied for 2 or 3 minutes to the head of the rusty 
 screw will, as soon as it heats the screw, render its withdrawal as 
 easy by the screw-driver as if the screw had been only recently 
 inserted. 
 
 To Prepare Good Crucibles. —Excellent and refractory crucibles 
 and retorts can be prepared from a mixture of 2 parts of pipe-clay 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 501 
 
 and i of quartz sand ; the latter must, however, be of sufficient 
 fineness to pass through the eye of a large needle. Crucibles pre¬ 
 pared according to this direction withstand the strongest fire of a 
 wind-furnace. 
 
 To Purify Gold in the Dry Way {by CementatioTi), According to 
 Philipp.— -Make an intimate mixture of brick-dust, 3 parts; sea 
 salt, 1 ; alum, 1; and green vitriol, 1, the salts being thoroughly 
 dried before being mixed with the brick-dust. The mixture is then 
 formed with a little wine vinegar to a paste, in the midst of which 
 the gold to be purified is placed; if the gold is in several pieces, 
 the latter are distributed throughout the mass. Gold of from 8 to 
 12 carats is best adapted for this mode of dry parting. Finer gold 
 must first be alloyed with copper until it shows the above-mentioned 
 carat. With gold alloys of less than 8 carats, the particles of gold 
 are difficult to separate from the cement after cementation. Cemen¬ 
 tation is effected in a crucible at a moderate red heat. After 
 cooling the porous, chemically pure gold is freed from the cement 
 by means of boiling water and finally melted with borax to a dense 
 mass. 
 
 To Repair Cracked Church Bells. —The process of repairing a 
 cracked church bell so that its tone will be completely restored 
 consists in placing a furnace in the interior of the bell so as to heat 
 and fuse the edges of the crack, and pouring new bell-metal in 
 the crack. To prevent the escape of liquid metal the wall of the 
 bell must be provided with suitable contrivances. 
 
 To Restore Burnt Cast-steel. —For this purpose a powder is used 
 which consists of saltpetre, 8 parts ; colophony, 4; and dragon’s 
 blood, r. Heat the article to a dark-red heat and dust it with the 
 above-mentioned finely pulverized mixture. When the powder is 
 absorbed the article is thoroughly worked upon the anvil. A 
 brown, uniform mixture obtained by fusing together colophony, 3 
 parts, and boiled linseed oil, 2, is also highly recommended for the 
 purpose. By dipping the red-hot burnt steel into this mass, and 
 repeating the operation it is completely restored. According to 
 another method the burnt steel is heated to a red heat and dusted 
 with a mixture of 8 parts of red chromate of potassium, 4 of salt- 
 
302 
 
 TITE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 petre, x / 2 each of aloes and gum arabic, and % of resin. Then 
 heat the article several times and cool it. If the article is to be 
 especially hard take 8 parts of saltpetre and 3 of resin. 
 
 To Restore Burnt Steel Tools .—Melt together 1 lb. of tallow and 
 4 ozs. of black pitch, and then add, with constant stirring, 13 ozs. 
 of sal-ammoniac, 4 ozs. of yellow prussiate of potash, 12 drachms 
 of soap and a handful of common salt. The red-hot articles are 
 plunged into the mass, allowed to cool therein, and then again 
 hardened in the usual manner. For large tools the heating and 
 plunging into the mass must be repeated. Another mixture which 
 may be recommended for the purpose consists of resin, 10 parts; 
 fish oil, 5 ; tallow, 2 ; assafoetida, 
 
 To Sharpen Files .—Dull files may be sharpened without recut¬ 
 ting by treating them with acid or with the sand blast. 
 
 In treating files with acid they are first freed from adhering 
 grease by scratch-brushing with the use of potash or soda lye. 
 They are then brought into an oblong box of a material not 
 attacked by acids, a few thin glass rods or varnished sticks of wood 
 being first placed upon the bottom. The files being laid alongside 
 each other, sufficient cold water to cover them is poured into the 
 box, the eighth part of concentrated nitric acid is then added, and 
 after mixing water and acid by moving the box, the whole is 
 allowed to stand quietly for 25 minutes. The files are then taken 
 from the bath, thoroughly scratch-brushed with the use of water 
 and replaced in the box for 25 minutes, the bath having previously 
 been strengthened by an additional eighth part of nitric acid. 
 During this operation care must be had to several times turn the 
 files and to see that they are entirely covered with the fluid. The 
 files are then again taken from the bath, thoroughly cleansed with 
 a scratch-brush and replaced in the bath, to which previously the 
 sixteenth part of concentrated sulphuric acid has been added. 
 The bath now becomes heated, and red-brown vapors of hyponi- 
 tric acid escape. Care must be had to keep the box in a rocking 
 motion so that the acids act as uniformly as possible. After 5 
 minutes the files are again taken out, cleansed, and then replaced 
 for 5 minutes more in the same bath, previously strengthened by 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 503 
 
 the addition of one-sixteenth part more of concentrated sulphuric 
 acid; care must be had to constantly keep the bath in an un- 
 dulatory motion. The operation is now finished, the files being 
 finally scratched-brushed, and, for the removal of every trace of 
 acid, placed in a vessel with water compounded with a few hand¬ 
 fuls of caustic lime, which gives them a good color. They are then 
 rinsed in clean water, dried over a spirit-flame and rubbed with a 
 little oil. 
 
 The treatment with acid may also be effected by means of a 
 galvanic battery, the bath, which is composed of water, ioo parts; 
 nitric acid, 80; and sulphuric, 40, being connected with the positive 
 pole. The negative pole is formed of a copper spiral passing 
 around the files without touching them, and with the end pointing 
 towards the surface of the fluid. By using a galvanic battery of 
 12 Bunsen elements 10 minutes suffice for the treatment. 
 
 The Process of Sharpening Files with the Sand Blast consists in 
 forcing with great rapidity a jet of fine sand against the file to be 
 sharpened by means of a jet of steam. The file is presented to 
 the jet of sand at an angle of from 40° to 50°, and so moved that 
 the jet of sand gradually strikes the entire surface. The sand 
 used for the purpose must be very fine and sharp, and prepared by 
 washing and elutriating. It is used in the shape of a fine mud 
 kept in a suitable holder. 
 
 Regarding newly cut and hardened files the following process 
 may be mentioned, whereby the breaking out of the teeth is as. 
 much as possible prevented: Fill an iron boiler 30 to 40 inches 
 long, 6 to 8 inches wide and of a corresponding depth with well 
 water. Heat the contents of the boiler to boiling over a large 
 wood-fire which, however, should strike only the bottom of the 
 boiler. Now add to the water 8 ozs. of white soap, previously dis¬ 
 solved in warm water, and 4 ozs. of potash. Then pour in colza 
 oil until the entire surface of the contents of the boiler is covered. 
 The hardened and cleansed files, secured to suitable double iron 
 wires, are then immersed in the boiling fluid for 2 or 3 minutes, when 
 they are taken out and laid upon a table or a board. By the heat 
 communicated to the files the water soon evaporates, whilst the oil 
 
504 
 
 TIIE METAL WORKER'S nANDY-BOOK. 
 
 in a short time penetrates through the cuts. By this means the 
 teeth become more elastic and do not break so readily. 
 
 To Sharpen Tools .—Instead of oil, which thickens and smears 
 the stone, a mixture of glycerin is recommended. The propor¬ 
 tions of the composition vary according to the class of tools to be 
 sharpened. One with a relatively large surface is best sharpened 
 with a clear fluid, 3 parts of glycerin being mixed with 1 of 
 spirits. A graver having a small cutting surface only requires a 
 small pressure on the stone, and in such cases the glycerin should 
 be mixed with only 2 or 3 drops of spirits. 
 
 New Method of Securing Flues .-—It is the usual method in order 
 to secure a flue in a boiler to expand the end of the flue into a 
 flange, through which rivets are passed to secure it to the plate of 
 the boiler. It is obvious, however, that in thus forming a flange 
 on the end of the flue the metal will be reduced in thickness,, and 
 this flanging can be practically done only for purposes where a 
 small or narrow flange will suffice. It is, however, desirable in 
 many cases where flues or tubes or pipes are used, to employ forms 
 thereof having flanges much wider in lateral extent than would be 
 possible to forge or expand from the body of the tube without 
 reducing the stock to such an extent that the flange would not 
 have the requisite strength compared with the body of the tube. 
 Thus with boiler or furnace pipes it is desirable to form integral 
 with the body of the flue the bead or plate that is to form a part of 
 it or is to connect it with the fire chamber or boiler shell. In an 
 invention recently patented, the plate forming the head is formed 
 with a circular flange, which is welded to the flue with which it 
 forms an integral part. In carrying out this method the central 
 portion of the head-plate is first cut out so as to form an opening 
 somewhat smaller than the flue. The edge of the opening is thus 
 bent up by passing a forging at right angles to the body of the 
 plate. If necessary, two flanged openings can be formed in the 
 plate. The head thus prepared is then welded to the flue. It is 
 claimed that the flanged or headed flue thus produced is a much 
 stronger structure than the flue heretofore produced, and has the 
 same lateral extent of flange or head, and it obviates all the objec- 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 505 
 
 tions incident to structures of similar shape, but having their parts 
 riveted together. 
 
 Solidification of Powdered Metals .—According to W. Spring, the 
 degree of pressure required to unite the powders of the respective 
 metals to a solid mass is as follows: 
 
 Lead, unites 
 
 at a pressure of 13 
 
 Tin, “ 
 
 “ “ “ 19 
 
 Zinc, “ 
 
 “ “ “ 38 
 
 Antimony, “ 
 
 « •< « 
 
 Aluminium, “ 
 
 “ “ “ 38 
 
 Bismuth, “ 
 
 “ « “ 38 
 
 Copper, “ 
 
 “ “ “ 33 
 
 is to the square inch. 
 
 Lead becomes liquid with a pressure of 33 tons to the square 
 inch, and tin with one of 47 tons. 
 
 Combustibility of Iron .—Combustibility is not generally con¬ 
 sidered one of the properties of iron, yet that metal will, under 
 proper conditions, burn readily. The late Prof. Magnus, of Berlin, 
 Germany, devised the following method of showing the combusti¬ 
 bility of iron : A mass of iron filings is approached by a magnet 
 of considerable power, and a quantity thereof is permitted to adhere 
 to it. This loose, spongy tuft of iron powder contains a large 
 quantity of air imprisoned between the particles, and is, therefore, 
 and because of its extremely comminuted condition, well adapted 
 to manifest its combustibility. The flame of an ordinary spirit- 
 lamp or Bunsen burner readily sets fire to the finely divided iron, 
 which continues to burn brilliantly and freely. By waving the 
 magnet to and fro the showers of sparks sent off produce a striking 
 and brilliant effect. 
 
 The assertion that iron is more combustible than gunpowder has 
 its origin in the following experiment, which is also a very striking 
 one : A little alcohol is poured into a saucer and ignited. A mix¬ 
 ture of gunpowder and iron filings is allowed to fall in small 
 quantities at a time into the flame of the burning alcohol, when it 
 will be observed that the iron will take fire in its passage through 
 the flame, while the gunpowder will fall through it and collect 
 
506 
 
 TTTE METAL WORKER’S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 beneath the liquid alcohol unconsumed. This, however, is a 
 scientific trick, and the experiment hardly justifies the sweeping 
 assertion that iron is more combustible than gunpowder. The 
 ignition of the iron under the foregoing circumstances is due to the 
 fact that the metal particles, being admirable conductors of heat, 
 are able to absorb sufficient heat during their passage through the 
 flame—brief as it is—and they are consequently raised to the 
 ignition point. The particles of the gunpowder, however, are 
 very poor conductors of heat, comparatively speaking, and during 
 the exceedingly brief time consumed in their passage through the 
 flame they do not become heated appreciably, or certainly not to 
 their point of ignition. Under ordinary circumstances, gunpowder 
 is vastly more inflammable than iron. 
 
 Another method of exhibiting the combustibility of iron, which 
 would appear to justify the assertion that it is really more combus¬ 
 tible than gunpowder, is as follows : Place in a refractory tube of 
 Bohemian glass a quantity of dry, freshly precipitated hydrated 
 ferric oxide. Heat this oxide to bright redness and pass a current 
 of hydrogen through the tube. The hydrogen will deprive the 
 oxide of its oxygen and reduce the mass to the metallic state. If, 
 when the reduction appears to be finished, the tube is removed 
 from the flame and its contents permitted to fall out into the air, it 
 will take fire spontaneously and burn to oxide again. This experi¬ 
 ment indicates that pure iron in a state of the extremest subdivision 
 is one of the most combustible substances known, more so even 
 than gunpowder and other explosive substances, which require the 
 application of considerable heat or of a spark to ignite them. 
 
 Colors Expressing High Temperatures. 
 
 Faint red. 
 
 
 Orange. ....... 
 
 
 Dull red. 
 
 
 Bright orange. 
 
 
 Brilliant red. 
 
 .H 70 
 
 White heat. 
 
 
 Cherry red. 
 
 .... 1650 
 
 Bright white heat .... 
 
 .2550 
 
 Bright cherry red. 
 
 
 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 507 
 
 Rails anil Fastenings per Mile of Railroad. 
 
 RAILS PER MILE. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Gross Tons 
 
 per yd. 
 
 per mile. 
 
 65-lb. 
 
 
 60 “. 
 
 . 94 - 3 ° 
 
 56 “. 
 
 
 50 “. 
 
 . 78-57 
 
 45 “. 
 
 . 7 o. 7 i 
 
 40 “.. 
 
 .62.86 
 
 35 “. 
 
 . 55 -oo 
 
 30 “. 
 
 . 47-14 
 
 Weight Gross Tons 
 
 per yd. per mile. 
 
 25-lb. 39.29 
 
 20 “. 31.43 
 
 18 “. 28.27 
 
 16 “. 25.14 
 
 14 “. 22.00 
 
 12 “. 18.85 
 
 10 “. 15.71 
 
 8 “. 12.59 
 
 FASTENINGS PER MILE. 
 
 Length of Rail. 
 
 30 feet. 
 28 “ . 
 26 “ . 
 24 “ . 
 22 “ . 
 21 “ . 
 20 “ . 
 18 “ . 
 
 No. of 
 Joints. 
 
 No. 
 
 Splices 
 
 No. 
 
 Bolts. 
 
 352 
 
 704 
 
 1,408 
 
 377 
 
 754 
 
 1,508 
 
 406 
 
 812 
 
 1,624 
 
 440 
 
 880 
 
 1,760 
 
 480 
 
 960 
 
 1,920 
 
 503 
 
 1,006 
 
 2,012 
 
 528 
 
 1,056 
 
 2,112 
 
 587 
 
 i,i 74 
 
 2,348 
 
 No. 
 
 11,264 
 IL3I4 
 n,372 
 11,440 
 11,520 
 11,568 
 11,616 
 11,740 
 
INDEX 
 
 Acetate of copper, 48, 49. 
 
 of lead, 42, 49. 
 
 Acetic acid, 60. 
 
 Acid, acetic, 60. 
 
 arsenious, 51, 52. 
 
 boracic, 60. 
 
 boric, 60. 
 
 chromic, 60. 
 
 hydrochloric, 58, 59. 
 
 hydrochloric, use of as a flux, 418. 
 
 hydrocyanic, 61. 
 
 nitric, 57, 58. 
 
 nitro-muriatic, 59, 60. 
 
 oxalic, 61. 
 
 phosphoric, use of as a flux, 418. 
 -proof bronze, 116. 
 
 -proof cement, 234. 
 prussic, 61. 
 sulphuric, 56, 57. 
 
 sulphuric, to cut out iron plates 
 with the assistance of, 499. 
 tartaric, 60. 
 
 to sharpen files with, 502, 503. 
 Acids, 56-61. 
 
 alkalies, etc., coating for bars of 
 spring steel not acted upon by, 
 406. 
 
 cleansing metals by means of, with 
 the use of a galvanic current, 
 242, 243. 
 definition of, 42. 
 dipping with, 319. 
 testing of, 74. 
 
 Adams’ nickel-plating salt, 486. 
 
 Aich or sterro-metal, 99. 
 
 Albata metal, 114. 
 
 Alder, specific gravity of, 227. 
 
 Alfenide, argiroide and allied alloys, 
 113, 114. 
 
 Alkalies, acids, etc., coating for bars of 
 spring steel not acted upon by, 
 406. 
 
 Alloy, Bourbonne’s aluminium, 108. 
 Delalot’s, 102. 
 for antifriction brasses, 91. 
 for casting small articles, 116. 
 for cold soldering, 4.7, 428. 
 
 Alloy for dental plates, 107, 108. 
 
 for moulds for pressed glass, 116. 
 for silvering, 379, 380. 
 for spoons, 102. 
 
 Gedge’s, for ship sheathing, 100. 
 Hoyle’s, for pivot bearings, 91. 
 Lemarquand’s non-oxidizable, 119. 
 Lipowitz’s, 83. 
 
 Marley’s non-oxidizable, 119. 
 non-oxidizable, 122. 
 of copper and antimony, 116, 117. 
 readily fusible, 83. 
 resembling German silver, 108. 
 resembling silver, 102, 108. 
 soft, for coating metals, etc., 122, 
 123. 
 
 tenacity of an, 80, 81. 
 variation in color of, 79. 
 white, closely resembling silver, 
 103. 
 
 white, resisting the action of vege¬ 
 table acids, 114. 
 
 Alloys, 79-123. 
 
 and amalgams, 79-126. 
 and metals, resistance of, to calcium 
 hydrate, 77. 
 definition of, 79. 
 
 exhibiting greater density than 
 their constituents, 80. 
 exhibiting less density than their 
 constituents, 80. 
 
 for bronze powders, composition of, 
 160. 
 
 for calico-printing rollers, 117. 
 for hot leading, 354. 
 for small patterns in foundries, 117. 
 fusibility of, 79. 
 
 fusing points of the principal 
 metals and other elements em¬ 
 ployed in, 82. 
 
 in gilding, detection of, 74, 75. 
 manganese, 110-112. 
 metallic, directions for the deter¬ 
 mination of the constituents of, 
 etc., 66-78. 
 new, 119, 120. 
 
 new method of preparing, 121. 
 
 (509) 
 
510 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Alloys, non-magnetic, for watches, 121. 
 of antimony and lead, polishing of, 
 209. 
 
 of bismuth and cadmium, 82, 83. 
 of copper and tin, 83-97. 
 of copper and zinc, 97-100. 
 of copper with silver and gold, 100- 
 102 . 
 
 of nickel, 112-115. 
 of nickel and steel, 114, 115. 
 preparation of, 81, 82. 
 specific gravity of, 79, 80. 
 table of colors of, for statuary 
 bronze, 93. 
 
 used by the metal-worker, 33. 
 various, 116-123. 
 
 Wood’s, 83. 
 
 Alumina, testing for, 68. 
 
 Aluminium alloys, 103-109. 
 alloys, various, 107-109. 
 bath, 325. 
 brasses, 103, 104. 
 bronze, 104-106. 
 bronze, casting of, 209-213. 
 bronze, Hulot’s solder for, 424. 
 bronze jewelry, solders for, 424. 
 bronze, soft solder for, 424. 
 bronze, soldering of, 423, 424. 
 bronzes, directions for preparing, 
 105, 106. 
 
 fusing point of, 82. 
 powdered, solidification of, 505. 
 solders for, 423. 
 
 specific gravity and chemical and 
 electro-chemical equivalent of, 
 - 323. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 to engrave, 310. 
 
 Amalgam, definition of, 79. 
 
 Amalgams, 123-126. 
 and alloys, 79-126. 
 
 American welding compound for steel, 
 433. 
 
 Ammonia, 61. 
 
 hydrosulphate of, 62. 
 sulphydrate of, 62. 
 
 Ammoniacal liquor, 61. 
 Ammouio-chloride of platinum, 55. 
 
 -ferrous sulphate, 45. 
 
 Ammonium, 61. 
 
 phosphate, 61, 62. 
 sulphide, 62. 
 
 Ampgres, definition of, 323. 
 
 Amtmann, enamel for cast-iron pipes, 
 according to, 302. 
 
 Annealing, hardening and tempering, 
 126-147. 
 
 of wire, 451, 452. 
 
 Anode, definition of, 323. 
 
 Anti-friction brasses, alloy for, 91. 
 Antimony and lead alloys, polishing 
 of, 269. 
 
 arsenic and zinc, preparations of, 
 51, 52. 
 baths, 325. 
 butter of, 51. 
 colors on brass, 177. 
 determination of, 69. 
 fusing point of, 82. 
 powdered, solidification of, 505. 
 regulus, resistance of to calcium 
 hydrate, 77. 
 
 specific gravity and chemical and 
 electro-chemical equivalent of, 
 323. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 trichloride, 51. 
 
 Apple-tree wood, specific gravity of, 
 
 227. 
 
 Aqua fortis, 57, 58. 
 regia, 59, 60. 
 regia, preparation of, 39. 
 
 Argent fran§ais, 101, 102. 
 
 -Ruolz, 101, 102. 
 
 Argentan solders, 424. 
 white, 114. 
 
 Argentic chloride, 53. 
 oxide, 53. 
 
 Argentiferous pastes for cold silvering, 
 composition of, 372, 373. 
 Argentum musivum, 162. 
 
 Argiroide, alfenide and allied alloys, 
 113, 114. 
 
 Armenian or jeweller’s cement, 240, 241. 
 Arsenic, antimony and zinc, prepara¬ 
 tions of, 51, 52. 
 baths, 325, 326. 
 determination of, 69, 70. 
 flux for reducing, 396. 
 fusing point of, 82. 
 specific gravity, and chemical and 
 electro-chemical equivalent of, 
 323. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 white, 51, 52. 
 
 Arsenical compounds, fluxes for, 396. 
 Arsenious acid, 51, 52. 
 
 Ashberrv metal, 109, 110. 
 
 Asphalt lacquer on iron, 401. 
 
 varnish, bright, for sheet-metals, 
 411. 
 
 Atomic weights and symbols of the 
 most important elements, 40. 
 weights, definition of, 41. 
 
 Augsburg brass wire, 99. 
 brouze, 93. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 611 
 
 Auric chloride, 54. 
 
 Aurous chloride, 54. 
 
 Aurum muriaticuru natronatum crvs- 
 tallisatum, 54, 65. 
 musivum, 161, 162. 
 
 Austrian government railroad, white 
 metal bearings used by, 89. 
 
 Axle-arms, to case-harden, 131. 
 boxes, Fenton’s alloy for, 91. 
 journals, Austrian, 98. 
 
 Axles and tires, electric welding of, 
 439. 
 
 heavy, white metal bearings for, 89. 
 railroad, bearings for, 88. 
 rapidly revolving, white metal 
 bearings for, 89. 
 various, bearings for, 88. 
 
 Babbitt’s anti-attrition metal, 90, 91. 
 
 Bacchus, statue of, 93. 
 
 Barbed wire, manufacture of, illus¬ 
 trated and described, 453-455. 
 
 Barff process for preserving iron and 
 steel from rust, 297, 298. 
 
 Barium, symbol and atomic weight of, 
 40. 
 
 Barnard damask, illustrated, 281. 
 
 Barrel hoops, electric welding of, 439. 
 
 Bases, definition of, 42. 
 
 Basic open-hearth steel, manufacture 
 of, 474, 475. 
 
 Batteries, management of, 322, 323. 
 preparation of zinc for, 324, 325. 
 storage, constructed by M. de 
 Bernados, illustrated and de¬ 
 scribed, 441, 442. 
 
 used for electro-deposition, 320-322. 
 
 Beams, contraction of, in casting, 191. 
 
 Bearing metals for locomotives, 89. 
 
 Bearings, metals for, 88, 89. 
 of great hardness, 89. 
 of rapidly running machines, ap¬ 
 proved compositions for, 89. 
 red brass, 88. 
 white metal, 89. 
 
 Beech, specific gravity of, 227. 
 
 Belgian bearing metal for locomotives, 
 89. 
 
 polishing powder, 270. 
 
 Belgium, nickel coins of, 112. 
 
 Beil founding, 207-209. 
 
 -metal, 85-87. 
 
 -metal, for church and other large 
 bells, 86. 
 
 -metal, founder’s standard, 86. 
 -metal, standard, 86. 
 
 -metal, very deep toned and 
 sonorous, 86. 
 
 Bell-metals, table of composition of, 
 
 86 . 
 
 Bells, metal for, 90. 
 
 moulding of, 208, 209. 
 peals of, 207. 
 small, metal for, 86. 
 weights of, 208. 
 
 Benzine, 62. 
 
 Benzole, 62. 
 
 Berlin blue, 46. 
 
 German silver, 112. 
 
 Bernados’, de, and Olszewsky’s method 
 of electric welding, illustrated 
 and described, 440-444. 
 
 M. de, storage batteries, constructed 
 by, illustrated and described, 
 441, 442. 
 
 Bertrand, mechanical silvering accord¬ 
 ing to, 378. 
 
 Biddery metal, 109, 110. 
 
 Birmingham Britannia metal, 109. 
 or Stubs wire gauge, 460. 
 platinum, 117. 
 silvering, 377, 378. 
 
 Bismuth alloys, 83. 
 
 and cadmium, alloys of, 82, 83. 
 cement for cementing the glass 
 parts on petroleum lamps, 240. 
 contraction of, in casting, 192. 
 determination of, 69. 
 fusing point of, 82. 
 lead and tin, preparations of, 49, 
 50. 
 
 nitrate, 50. 
 
 powdered, solidification of, 505. 
 solder, 421. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 Black flux, 394, 395. 
 lead, 63. 
 
 Blacksmiths, locksmiths and founders, 
 iron lacquer for, 403. 
 
 Blanching, 371, 372. 
 
 Blast pipes, hot blast stoves, blowing 
 engines, etc., cement for, 229. 
 Blocks, 445. 
 
 Blowing engines, blast pipes, hot blast- 
 stoves, etc., cement for, 229. 
 Blow-pipe, use and description of, 417. 
 Blue bronze, 150, 151. 
 vitriol, 42, 47, 48. 
 
 Bolts, number of, per mile of railroad, 
 507. 
 
 Boracic acid, 60. 
 
 Borax, 62. 
 
 use of, as a flux, 418. 
 
 Bores of musket-barrels, to harden, 
 141. 
 
 Boric acid, 60. 
 
512 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Boron, symbol and atomic weight of, 
 40. 
 
 Bourbonne’s aluminium alloy, 108. 
 
 Boxes for wagon-wheels, metal for, 88. 
 
 Boxwood, specific gravity of, 227. 
 
 Brass and bronzes, coloring of, 173. 
 and copper, brown fire-proof bronze 
 upon, 153. 
 
 and copper, new bronze color upon, 
 179. 
 
 and copper parts, cement for, 238. 
 and copper, to bronze articles of, 
 153. 
 
 and copper, to color, 179, 180. 
 and copper, to whiten, 180. 
 and copper, to zinc without a 
 battery, 387. 
 and glass, to unite, 234. 
 and similar alloys, 97-100. 
 and similar alloys, table of compo¬ 
 sition of, 99, 100. 
 antimony colors on, 177. 
 articles, small, to bronze, 151. 
 articles, to cleanse, 272. 
 bath for cast-iron, wrought-iron 
 and steel, 327. 
 bath for zinc, 326, 327. 
 bath from cupric sulphate and 
 zinc sulphate, 326. 
 baths, 326-328. 
 beautiful silver color on, 179. 
 bronze, Britannia metal, etc., prep¬ 
 aration of, for nickelling, 354, 
 355. 
 
 bronzing liquids for, 157, 158. 
 brown color called bronze Barb6- 
 dienue, on, 174, 175. 
 castings, locomotive, 89, 90. 
 cement for fastening, to glass, 236. 
 color resembling gold on, 174. 
 contraction of, in casting, 192. 
 copper and tombac, to give a bril¬ 
 liant appearance to, 254. 
 copper, iron, nickel bath for, 358. 
 copper or bronze, to coat iron 
 articles with, 336, 337. 
 copper, silver, etc., gilding powder 
 for, 348. 
 
 deep black-blue stain on, 178. 
 deposits, color of, 327. 
 dipping of, 318. 
 
 Ebermayer’s method of coloring, 
 175, 176. 
 
 English process of pickling, 252, 
 253. 
 
 etching on, 311. 
 
 etching solution for, 313, 314. 
 
 for sheet and wire, 97. 
 
 Brass, German silver, tombac and 
 copper, polishing of, 268. 
 gold and orange stains for, 179. 
 gray color with a bluish tint upon, 
 
 174. 
 
 green bronze for, 152, 153. 
 instruments, dead black on, 177, 
 
 178. 
 
 lacquers for, 402. 
 
 lustrous black on, 173. 
 
 lustrous gold or green on, 178, 
 
 179. 
 
 malleable, 119. 
 
 mixture for a dull-grained surface 
 on, 319. 
 
 moir6 on, 285, 286. 
 nuts, casting screws on, 203, 204. 
 old, to cleanse, 272. 
 or bronze wire, phosphorized, 456. 
 or copper objects, to tin, 382. 
 parts, method for cleaning, in the 
 United States, 253. 
 pickle for a dead lustre for, 319. 
 pickling of, 251, 252. 
 polish for pressed articles of, 274. 
 polishing paste for, 272. 
 red, 87, 111. 
 
 red, aud similar alloys, table of 
 composition of, 98. 
 resistance of to calcium hydrate, 
 77. 
 
 sheet, to cut by chemical means, 
 499. 
 
 sheet, to roughen for painting, 499. 
 steel-gray on, 173. 
 straw-color to brown through 
 golden yellow and tombac color 
 on, 174. 
 
 to brighten and color, 176, 177. 
 to color, violet and cornflower-blue, 
 
 175. 
 
 to lacquer, 401, 402. 
 to temper, 147. 
 to test, 73, 74. 
 various colors upon, 170. 
 very tenacious, 99. 
 watch cases, gold-colored lacquer 
 for, 402. 
 wire, 99. 
 
 wire, method of making, 464. 
 yellow, contraction of, in casting, 
 191. 
 
 Brasses for driving boxes, 90. 
 for side rods, 89. 
 
 Brassing, coppering, galvanizing, gild¬ 
 ing, nickelling, silvering, 'in¬ 
 ning, electro-plating, etc., 317- 
 
 394. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 513 
 
 Brassing, coppering, electroplating, 
 galvanizing, manufacture, etc., 
 of wire, 445-473. 
 
 of wire in the galvanic way, 463, 
 404. 
 
 Brazier’s hearth, 416. 
 
 Brazil, nickel coins of, 112. 
 
 Brazing, definition of, 414. 
 
 Bright Platinum Plating Co., of Lon¬ 
 don, platinum bath patented by 
 the, 365. 
 
 Brilliants, Fahlun or tin, 118. 
 
 Bristol brass, 99. 
 
 Britannia metal and similar alloys, 109, 
 
 110 . 
 
 ware, brass and bronze, preparation 
 of, for nickelling, 354, 355. 
 wares, polishing agent for, 270. 
 British plate metal, 114. 
 
 Brocade bronze power, 160, 161. 
 Bromine, symbol and atomic weight of, 
 40. 
 
 Bronze, acid-proof, 116. 
 aluminium, 104-106. 
 aluminium, casting of, 209-213. 
 annealing of, 127, 128. 
 
 Barbedienne on brass, 174, 175. 
 best for statues, 94. 
 blue, 150, 151. 
 bluish-gray for copper, 152. 
 brass and Britannia ware, prepara¬ 
 tion of, for nickelling, 354, 355. 
 brass or copper, to coat iron arti¬ 
 cles with, 336, 337. 
 brown, 151. 
 
 brown fire-proof, upon copper and 
 brass, 153. 
 cheap, 151. 
 
 copper, upon iron and zinc, 149. 
 
 damasked, 283. 
 
 definition of, 83. 
 
 dipping of, 318. 
 
 fixtures to cleanse, 245. 
 
 for electrotypes, 156. 
 
 for gilding, 94. 
 
 for small castings, 94. 
 
 French, 149, 150. 
 genuine gold, 161. 
 gold, 95, 148. 
 green, for brass, 152, 153. 
 green, on tin, zinc and lead, 149. 
 Japanese, 95. 
 liquid, 151. 
 machine, 87-92. 
 malleable, 95, 96. 
 manganese, sheet from, 100. 
 melted, bronzing by dipping in, 
 151. 
 
 33 
 
 Bronze, old Peruvian, 96. 
 
 or brass wire, phosphorized, 456. 
 ordnance, composition of, of various 
 times and countries, 84. 
 pickling of, 251. 
 platinum, 122. 
 powder, brocade, 160, 161 
 powder, genuine silver, 162. 
 powder, imitation silver, 162. 
 powders, 159, 160. 
 powders, brownish gold, 162. 
 powders, composition of alloys for, 
 160. 
 
 powders, English, 160. 
 red, 149. 
 silver, 148, 149. 
 
 statuarv, table of colors of alloys 
 for, 93. 
 
 steel or Uchatius, 85. 
 
 Walker’s chemical, 159. 
 which can be rolled, 94. 
 
 Bronzes, aluminium, directions for pre¬ 
 paring, 105, 106. 
 and brass, coloring of, 173, 174. 
 Chinese, 94. 
 
 incrustes (incrustations), 277, 278. 
 Bronzing and coloring, 148—189. 
 
 by dipping in melted bronze, 151. 
 cast-iron, 154. 
 green, 153, 154. 
 in Paris mint, 151, 152. 
 liquids, Graham’s, 157, 158. 
 Rockline’s method of, 159. 
 
 Brown & Sharpe’s wire gauge, 460. 
 Brown bronze, 151. 
 
 Brownish gold bronze powders, 162. 
 Buff wheels, 257 . 
 
 Bunsen’s battery, illustrated and de¬ 
 scribed, 321, 322. 
 
 Burnisher or burnishing stone, polish¬ 
 ing with the, 259-262. 
 Burnishing cutlery, 262, 263. 
 silver, 263. 
 
 stone or burnisher, polishing 
 with the, 259-262. 
 tools, illustrated and described, 
 260, 261. 
 
 Butter of antimony, 51. 
 
 Buttons, metal for, 88. 
 sheet for, 98. 
 
 Tournay’s metal for, 98. 
 
 Cadmium and bismuth, alloys of, 82, 
 
 83. 
 
 determination of, 69. 
 fusing point of, 82. 
 
 Calcium hydrate, resistance of metals 
 and alloys to, 77. 
 
514 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Calcium, potassium and sodium sul¬ 
 phides, 62. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 Calico printing rollers, alloys for, 
 117. 
 
 Calin, 117. 
 
 Callot’s etching-ground, 311. 
 Caoutchouc, 62, 63. 
 
 Caput luortuum, 256. 
 
 Carbon, amount of, permissible in steel 
 for wire, 446. 
 bisulphide, 63. 
 
 holder, illustrated and described, 
 442-444. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 Carbonate, copper, 48. 
 lead, 49. 
 silver, 53. 
 
 Carlsson-Bessemer process, 475, 476. 
 Carriage work, electric welding of, 
 439. 
 
 Case-hardened or hard steel articles, 
 tinning of, 383, 384. 
 Case-hardening axle-arms, 131. 
 compound, new, 142. 
 wrought-iron, 128-131. 
 
 Cassius, purple of, 55. 
 
 Cast-brass, French, 100. 
 
 Casting aluminium bronze, 209-213. 
 and founding, 189-228. 
 brass-nuts on screws, 203, 204. 
 Germau silver for, 113. 
 improved method of treating steel 
 for, 228. 
 
 metals, apparatus for, illustrated 
 and described, 224, 225. 
 on to other metals, 204, 205. 
 shrinking of metals in, 189-192. 
 small articles, alloy for, 116. 
 Castings, brass, 99. 
 
 cement for repairing defective 
 places in, 23.. 
 
 copper, dense and flexible, 214. 
 core for difficult, 201, 202. 
 easy rule to find weight of, 192. 
 heavy, cores in, 201. 
 iron, annealing of, 126, 127. 
 mitis, 214-217. 
 
 of ingot-iron, moulding sand for, 
 192. 
 
 small, bronze for, 94. 
 small, metal for, 88. 
 subjected to steam pressure, metal 
 for, 90. 
 
 to be gilded, metal for, 88. 
 to fill up holes in, 206, 207. 
 to repair, by burning on, 206. 
 tombac for, 98. 
 
 Castings, weight of, 192. 
 
 without core, illustrated and de¬ 
 scribed, 202, 203. 
 wrought-iron, 214-217. 
 
 Cast-iron articles, enamel as prepared 
 in England for, 300. 
 bronzing of, 154. 
 inoxidizing process for, 296, 297. 
 malleable, 476-479. 
 objects, to solder, 425. 
 or wrought-iron articles, pickle 
 for, 250. 
 
 pure, resistance of, to calcium 
 hydrate, 77. 
 soldering of, 424, 425. 
 steel and wrought-iron, ready dis¬ 
 tinction of, 75. 
 
 tin or zinc, to coat with copper, 
 337. 
 
 tinned, or fonte argentine, to 
 make, 386. 
 to bronze, 154. 
 to copper, 336. 
 to harden, 131, 132. 
 to mould lace in, 200, 201. 
 uteusils, to enamel, 299-301. 
 wrought-iron and steel, brass 
 bath for, 327. 
 
 Cast-steel, burnt, to restore, 501, 502. 
 to weld, 432, 433. 
 
 with cast-steel, to unite by weld¬ 
 ing, 434. 
 
 with iron, to unite by welding, 
 434. 
 
 Cathode, definition of, 323. 
 
 Caustic potash, 64. 
 soda, 64. 
 
 Cedar, red Honduras, specific gravity 
 of, 227. 
 
 Cement, acid-proof, 234. 
 
 fire-proof and water-proof, 233. 
 for uniting iron surfaces and filling 
 in joints, 229. 
 glass, 83. 
 metallic, 83. 
 
 Cementation, to purify gold by, 501. 
 
 Cements, 228-241. 
 
 Chalk, 257. 
 
 Chandeliers and gas-fixtures, to cleanse, 
 246. 
 
 Chemical and electro chemical equiva¬ 
 lents, table of, 323. 
 combinations, expression of, 41. 
 or electrical apparatus, cement for, 
 234. 
 
 relations of metals, 33-45. 
 
 Chemicals and substances used in the 
 metal industry, various, 61-66. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 515 
 
 Chemicals and the most important 
 metallic preparations used in the 
 metal industry, 45-66. 
 
 Chenot’s iron cement, 230. 
 
 Cherry-tree wood, specific gravity of, 
 227. 
 
 Chilled-wheels, manufacture of, 219— 
 223. 
 
 Chills, preparation of, for casting 
 metal, 225. 
 
 China, ordnance bronze of, 84. 
 
 sheet-brass from, 99. 
 
 Chinese bronzes, 94. 
 
 German silver, 113. 
 speculum metal, 97. 
 tam-tams or gongs, 85, 86. 
 
 Chisels, bath used in tempering and 
 heating, 144. 
 
 Chloride, argentic, 53. 
 auric, 54. 
 aurous, 54. 
 cobaltous, 46, 47. 
 cupric, 48. 
 cuprous, 48. 
 ferric, 45, 46. 
 ferrous, 45. 
 lead, 49, 50. 
 mercuric, 52. 
 nickel, 47. 
 
 of copper, how obtained, 38. 
 
 of gold, 39, 54. 
 
 of lead, 39. 
 
 of platinum, 39, 55. 
 
 of silver, 39, 53. 
 
 of zinc, 51. 
 
 of zinc, formation of, 38. 
 of zinc, use of, as a flux, 418. 
 platinic, 55. 
 stannous, 50. 
 
 Chlorides, metallic, definition of, 37. 
 metallic, preparation of, illustrated 
 and described, 37, 38. 
 
 Chlorine, combinations of metals with, 
 36-39. 
 
 combustion of Dutch gold in, 37. 
 preparation of, 36, 37. 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 water, solution of genuine gold in, 
 37. 
 
 Chromate, lead, 43, 50. 
 
 Chrome yellow, 43, 50. 
 
 Chromic acid, 60. 
 
 Chromium, testing for, 68. 
 Chrysochalk, 98. 
 
 Chrysorin, 99. 
 
 Church-bells, cracked, to repair, 501. 
 Clay, Stourbridge, 397. 
 use of, as a flux, 418. 
 
 Cleansing, grinding, pickling, polish¬ 
 ing, 241-277. 
 
 Cliche metal, 83. 
 
 Clock bells, table bells, sleigh bells, 
 etc., 86, 87. 
 wheels, 99. 
 
 Coal-tar, light oil from, 62. 
 
 Cobalt and nickel, preparations of, 46, 
 47. 
 
 baths, 328, 329. 
 determination of, 67, 68, 74. 
 electroplating with, by contact, 
 329. 
 
 specific gravity and chemical and 
 electro-chemical equivalent of, 
 323. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 Cobaltous chloride, 46, 47. 
 nitrate, 47. 
 oxide, 47. 
 
 Cochin-China, ordnance bronze of, 84. 
 Cocks, metal for, 88. 
 
 Cog-wheels, metal for, 88. 
 
 Coins and medals, to brown, 188, 189. 
 medals and articles of silver, cleans¬ 
 ing of, 245. 
 
 medals, etc., matrix mass for the 
 reproduction of, 495. 
 fineness of, 100. 
 nickel, 112. 
 
 Colcothar, 46, 256. 
 
 Colophony, use of, as a soldering agent, 
 418. 
 
 Color, beautiful silver, on brass, 179. 
 brown, on copper, 168. 
 red-brown, on copper, 168, 169. 
 resembling gold on brass, 174. 
 Colored enamels, 304. 
 
 Coloring and bronzing, 148-189. 
 
 Colors expressing high temperatures, 
 506. 
 
 iridescent upon metals, 283. 
 Column of July, 93. 
 
 Vendome, 93. 
 
 Combination of the elements, laws of, 
 
 40, 41. 
 
 Combinations, chemical, expression of, 
 
 41. 
 
 Connecting-rods, contraction of, in cast¬ 
 ing, 191. 
 
 Cooper’s alloy for steel-pens, 117. 
 Copper, acetate of, 48, 49. 
 
 alloys of, with silver and gold, 
 100 - 102 . 
 
 alloys, pickle for bright lustre for, 
 319. 
 
 alloys, preliminary pickle for, 
 319. 
 
 I 
 
516 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Copper amalgam, 123, 124. 
 
 amalgam, to cement with, 237. 
 and antimony, alloy of, 116, 
 117. 
 
 and brass, brown fire-proof bronze 
 upon, 153. 
 
 and brass, new bronze color upon, 
 179. 
 
 and brass parts, cement for, 238. 
 and brass, to bronze articles of, 
 153. 
 
 and brass, to color, 179, 180. 
 and brass, to zinc without a battery, 
 387. 
 
 and brass, to whiten, 180. 
 and nickel alloys, 112. 
 and tin, alloys of, 83-97. 
 and tin, contraction of, in casting, 
 191. 
 
 and zinc, alloys of, 97-100. 
 articles, desilvering of, 488. 
 bath without potassium cyanide, 
 331. 
 
 baths, 329-331. 
 black upon, 170. 
 
 brass, German silver and tombac, 
 polishing of, 268. 
 brass, iron, nickel bath for, 358. 
 brass or bronze, to coat iron articles 
 with, 336, 337. 
 bronze, 149. 
 bronze powder, 161. 
 bronzing liquids for, 158. 
 brown color upon, 168. 
 browning liquid for, 170. 
 carbonate, 48. 
 
 castings, dense and flexible, 214. 
 chloride of, how obtained, 38. 
 coloring of, 168. 
 contraction of, in casting, 192. 
 cooking tensils, enamel for, 303. 
 cyanide of, 49. 
 dead-black on, 170. 
 deposit on wax, 334. 
 determination of, 69. 
 dipping of, 318. 
 
 Elmore process of electro-deposit¬ 
 ing, for tubes and wire bars, 331- 
 334. 
 
 engravers, wax mass for, 310. 
 engraving on, 307, 308. 
 etching on, 311. 
 for joining iron to iron, 428. 
 fusing point of, 82. 
 
 German silver or silver, ungilding 
 articles of, 486. 
 
 massive, various colors upon, 169, 
 170. 
 
 Copper nitrate, 48. 
 
 or brass objects, to tin, 382. 
 phosphide of, preparation of, 91. 
 pickling of, 251. 
 powder, 47. 
 
 powdered, solidification of, 505. 
 precipitates, iridescent on iron, 164, 
 165. 
 
 preparations, 47-49. 
 recovery of, 483, 4S4. 
 red-brown color on, 16S, 169. 
 silver, brass, etc., gilding powder 
 for, 348. 
 
 specific gravity and chemical and 
 electro-chemical equivalent of, 
 323. 
 
 steel-gray upon, 169. 
 sulphate of, 47, 48. 
 sulphide of, 48. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 
 40. 
 
 testing of, 74. 
 to bronze, 152. 
 to bronze bluish-gray, 152. 
 to brown, 170. 
 
 to coat tin, cast-iron or zinc with, 
 
 337. 
 
 to color blue-black, 169. 
 to color dark steel-gray, 169. 
 to harden, 128, 141, 142. 
 to make steel soft, so it can be 
 worked like, 127. 
 to platinize, 366. 
 to polish and color, 276. 
 tombac and brass, to give a brilliant 
 appearance to, 254. 
 to weld, 435. 
 wire, to solder, 428. 
 wire, weight per mile of, 463. 
 wire, weight per 1000 feet of, 462. 
 zinc and nickel alloys, 112-114. 
 
 Copper-zinc alloy serving as anode, solu¬ 
 tion for transferring any, 327. 
 alloys, table of color of, 98. 
 alloys, table of composition of, 
 98-100. 
 
 Copperas, 45. 
 
 Coppering, brassing, electroplating, 
 galvanizing, manufacture, etc., 
 of wire, 445-473. 
 
 brassing, galvanizing, gilding, 
 nickelling, silvering, tinning, 
 electroplating, etc., 317-394. 
 zinc plates, 337, 338. 
 cast-iron, 336. 
 iron, 335, 336. 
 iron and steel, 336. 
 of iron wire, 464, 465. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 517 
 
 Core, casting without, illustrated and 
 described, 202, 203. 
 for difficult castings, 201, 202. 
 
 Cores in heavy castings, 201. 
 
 Cork, specific gravity of, 227. 
 
 Cornish reducing flux, 396. 
 
 Corrosive sublimate, 52. 
 
 Corvin’s niello, 278, 279. 
 
 Cowles Bros.’ tests of aluminium brass, 
 103. 
 
 Cowrie, specific gravity of, 227. 
 
 Cramps, etc., cement for fastening, 
 230. 
 
 Cream of tartar, 65. 
 
 Crocus, 256. 
 
 Crucibles, good, to prepare, 500, 
 501. 
 
 Crucible lids, cement for luting, 240. 
 Crude flux, 396. 
 
 Cryolite, use of, as a flux, 418. 
 
 Cuivre fume, 169. 
 
 Cupric and cuprous oxides, 49. 
 chloride, 48. 
 oxide, formation of, 35. 
 sulphate, 42, 47, 48. 
 sulphate and zinc sulphate, brass 
 bath from, 326. 
 
 Cupro-diammonium sulphate, 48. 
 Cupro-manganese, 110. 
 
 Cuprous and cupric oxides, 49. 
 chloride, 48. 
 oxide, formation of, 35. 
 sulphide, formation of, 39. 
 
 Cutch, 494. 
 
 Cutlers’ baths used in tempering and 
 heating steel articles, 144. 
 Cutlery, burnishing of, 262, 263. 
 
 fluid for hardening, 134, 135. 
 Cyanide of copper, 49. 
 of gold, 54. 
 of silver, 53. 
 
 Cylinders, contraction of, in casting, 
 191. 
 
 Daniell’s battery, 322. 
 
 Darby’s, J. H., experiments in the 
 manufacture of basic open-hearth 
 steel, 474, 475. 
 
 Darmstadt, alarm-bell at, 86. 
 
 Damascus gun-barrels, illustrated and 
 described, 280, 281. 
 steel, imitation of, 279, 280. 
 Damask, Barnard, illustrated, 281. 
 imitation of, 282. 
 
 production of, in relief upon gun- 
 barrels, 282. 
 
 Turkish, illustrated, 280. 
 Damasked bronze, 283. 
 
 Damaskeened surface upon steel-guns, 
 282, 283. 
 
 Damaskeening, 279. 
 
 iron and steel with platinum, 
 281. 
 
 with gold or silver, 281, 282. 
 
 Dead-head or sullage piece, 84. 
 
 Decorating, enamelling, engraving, 
 etching, 277-316. 
 
 Delalot’s alloy, 102. 
 
 Delta-metal, 94, 95. 
 
 Dental plates, alloy for, 107, 108. 
 
 Desilvering, 488. 
 
 Dewrance’s patent bearing for loco¬ 
 motives, 91, 
 
 Dial-plates, silvered, to cleanse, 245, 
 246. 
 
 Diamond cement, 233. 
 
 Dies and taps, to temper, 145, 146. 
 
 Dipping of metals, 318-320. 
 
 or pickling of metallic objects, 
 250-254. 
 
 Directions for the determination of the 
 constituents of metallic alloys, 
 impurities of the technically 
 most important metals, etc., 66- 
 78. 
 
 Drills, small, to harden, 134. 
 
 Driving-boxes, brasses for, 90. 
 
 Drum, tumbling, illustrated and de¬ 
 scribed, 258, 259. 
 
 Drums for wire drawing, sizes of, 452. 
 
 Duncombe, Nellie C., invention of 
 decorating metals by, 287, 288. 
 
 Dutch bearing-metal for locomotives, 
 89. 
 
 gold, combustion of, in chlorine, 
 37. 
 
 Dysiot, 117, 118. 
 
 Ebeling, Bernhard, of Bremen, barbed 
 wire manufactured by, 454. 
 
 Ebermayer’s method of coloring brass, 
 175, 176. 
 
 Eccentric straps, metal for, 88. 
 
 Ehrhardt’s type metal, 116, 
 
 Electric welding, 436-444. 
 
 welding, apparatus used in, 436- 
 438. 
 
 welding, applications of, 439. 
 welding, process of, 438, 439. 
 welding under water, 441. 
 welds, strength of, 439, 440. 
 
 Electrical conduits, flexible insulating 
 mass for, 493. 
 
 conduits, insulating material for, 
 493. 
 
 horse power, definition of, 323. 
 
518 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Electrical, or chemical apparatus, 
 cement for, 1434. 
 
 Electricity, direct system of generating, 
 
 437. 
 
 indirect system of generating, 437, 
 
 438. 
 
 for welding, generation of, 436, 
 437. 
 
 to temper steel by, 145. 
 
 Electro-brassing of wire, 464. 
 
 -chemical and chemical equiva¬ 
 lents, table of, 323. 
 
 -deposition, batteries used for, 320- 
 322. 
 
 -deposition of metals, preliminary 
 conditions necessary for the, 317, 
 318. 
 
 Electrohephestos, a new method of 
 electric welding, illustrated and 
 described, 440-444. 
 
 Electrolytic deposition of metals, terms 
 used in, 323. 
 
 Electro-plating baths, aluminium, 325. 
 antimony, 325. 
 arsenic, 325, 326. 
 brass, 326-328. 
 cobalt, 328, 329. 
 copper, 329-331. 
 gold, 238-342. 
 iron, 349-351. 
 lead, 351. 
 nickel, 354-360. 
 platinum, 365, 366. 
 silver. 368-370. 
 steel, 349-351. 
 tin, 380, 381. 
 zinc, 386, 387. 
 
 Electro-plating, brassing, coppering, 
 galvanizing, gilding, nickelling, 
 silvering, finning, etc., 317-394. 
 
 galvanizing, coppering, brassing, 
 manufacture, etc., of wire, 445- 
 473. 
 
 with cobalt by contact, 329. 
 
 Electrotypes, to bronze, 156. 
 
 Electrtim, 113. 
 
 Elements, definition of, 40. 
 
 fusing point of principal, employed 
 in alloys, 82. 
 
 laws of combination of the, 40, 41. 
 
 table of the most important with 
 their symbols and atomic weights, 
 40. 
 
 Elm, specific gravity of, 227. 
 
 Elmore process of electro-depositing 
 copper for tubes and wire bars, 
 331-334. 
 
 Eisner’s bath for tinning, 382. 
 
 Emaille champ levee, 307. 
 cloisonnee, 306. 
 de fer contre-oxyde, 303. 
 placque-vitro-metallique, 307. 
 Emery, 63. 
 cloth, 269. 
 sticks, 249, 250. 
 
 wheels, rules for the use of, 248, 
 
 249. 
 
 which has been used, to cleanse, 
 
 250. 
 
 wire, 249. 
 
 Enamel and glass, to secure to metal, 
 by the electric current, 307. 
 for cast-iron articles as prepared in 
 England, 300. 
 
 for cast-iron pipes, according to 
 Amtmann, 302. 
 
 for copper cooking utensils, 303. 
 for iron objects, 299. 
 mottled, 301, 302. 
 phosphorescent, 307. 
 to test, for lead, 75. 
 white for ornamental articles, 305. 
 Enamels, colored, 304. 
 
 for goldsmiths, 304, 305. 
 
 Enamelled work, solder for, 426. 
 Enamelling, engraving, etching, decora¬ 
 ting, 277-316. 
 metals, 298, 299. 
 
 Engine beams, contraction of, in cast¬ 
 ing, 191. 
 
 England, brass wire from, 99. 
 ordnance bronze of, 84. 
 wire-rod mill in, 447. 
 
 English Britannia metal, 109. 
 bronze powders, 160. 
 
 German silver, 112, 113. 
 legal standard wire gauge, 446. 
 old, or London wire gauge, 446. 
 process of pickling brass, 252, 253. 
 silver soap, 271. 
 sterling metal, 99. 
 sterro-metal, 100. 
 tombac, 98. 
 
 white metal bearings, 89. 
 Engravers, soft wax for, 310. 
 Engraving, etching, enamelling, deco¬ 
 rating, 277-316. 
 on aluminium, 310. 
 on copper, 307, 308. 
 on silver and gold, 308-310. 
 Engravings, wood, metal suitable for 
 impressions of, 83. 
 
 Etching, enamelling, engraving, deco¬ 
 rating, 277-316. 
 
 Etching fluid or glyphogene for steel, 
 314. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 519 
 
 Etching ground, 310, 311. 
 
 names on steel and glass, 312, 313. 
 
 on brass, 311. 
 
 on copper, 311. 
 
 on silver, 311. 
 
 on steel, 311, 312. 
 
 on zinc, 313. 
 
 solution for brass, 313, 314. 
 without etching-ground, 314-316. 
 Evans’s metallic cement, 240. 
 
 Fahlun or tin brilliants, 118. 
 
 Fastenings and rails per mile of rail¬ 
 road, 507. 
 
 Fat lutes, 397. 
 
 Fenton’s alloy for axle boxes, 91. 
 Ferric chloride, 45, 46. 
 oxide, 255, 256. 
 sulphate, 46. 
 
 Ferro-aluminium, 106, 107. 
 
 -manganese, 111. 
 
 Ferrous chloride, 45. 
 sulphate, 45. 
 sulphide, 40. 
 
 File, how to tell a hand- from a 
 machine-cut, 77, 78. 
 
 Files and other steel instruments, to 
 harden, 139. 
 metal for, 88. 
 
 old, to make knives from, 491. 
 polishing, 257. 
 to sharpen, 502-504. 
 
 Fine wheel, 257. 
 
 Fir, American, specific gravity of, 227. 
 Fire-gilding and fire-silvering iron and 
 steel, 347. 
 
 and fire-silvering metals, which 
 cannot be amalgamated, 347. 
 gilder’s wax for, 348, 349. 
 silver objects, 346, 347. 
 
 Fire-proof and water-proof cement, 233. 
 Flanges and manholes, Schiefer’s pack¬ 
 ing rings for, 239. 
 
 Flasks, construction of, 193, 194. 
 
 foundry, illustrated and described, 
 196-200. 
 
 Flowers and insects, metallic coating 
 upon, by the galvanic way, 393. 
 Flues, new method of securing, 504, 
 505. 
 
 Fluorine, symbol and atomic weight of, 
 40. 
 
 Flux, black, 394, 395. 
 
 Cornish reducing, 396. 
 crude, 396. 
 gray, 395. 
 
 Moreau’s reducing, 396. 
 quick, 396. 
 
 Flux for reducing arsenic, 396. 
 refining, 396. 
 white, 395, 396. 
 
 Fluxes, 394-396. 
 
 and lutes, 394-397. 
 
 for arsenical compounds, 396. 
 
 used in soldering, 418. 
 
 Fonte argentine or tinned cast-iron, to 
 make, 386. 
 
 Forks and knives, bath for silvering, 
 368. 
 
 and knives, cement to fasten, in 
 their handles, 237. 
 spoons, etc., metal for, 114. 
 
 Founders, blacksmiths and locksmiths, 
 iron lacquer for, 403. 
 
 Founding and casting, 189-228. 
 of bells, 207-209. 
 
 Foundry flasks, illustrated and de¬ 
 scribed, 196-200. 
 
 France, ordnance bronze of, 84. 
 
 French bearing metal for locomotives, 
 89. 
 
 bronze, 149,150. 
 cast-brass, 100. 
 
 German silver, 112. 
 
 Fricke’s German silver, 113. 
 
 Furnace for basic open hearth steel, 
 construction of, 474, 475. 
 
 Furnaces, lining for, 495. 
 
 Fusing points of the principal metals 
 and other elements employed in 
 alloys, 82. 
 
 Galvanic baths, temperature of, 320. 
 baths, water for, 320. 
 
 Galvanizing, brassing, coppering, gild¬ 
 ing, nickelling, silvering, tin¬ 
 ning, electroplating, etc., 317- 
 394. 
 
 brassing, coppering,electroplating, 
 manufacture, etc., of wire, 445- 
 473. 
 
 of wire, 465-467. 
 old and new parts, 392, 393. 
 sheet-iron, 388-392. 
 wire, Roberts’ apparatus for, illus¬ 
 trated and described, 465, 466. 
 wire, Roberts’ apparatus for remov¬ 
 ing superfluous zinc in, 463, 
 467. 
 
 wire, Vogt’s arrangement for clos¬ 
 ing vessels in, 466. 
 wire, Wittle’s and Kamper’s ar¬ 
 rangements for removing super¬ 
 fluous zinc in, 466. 
 
 Garden-knives, bath used in tempering 
 and heating, 144. 
 
520 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Garrett’s wire-rod mill near Chicago, 
 447. 
 
 Gas-fixtures and chandeliers, to cleanse, 
 246. 
 
 Gas retorts, etc., cement for, 230. 
 
 Gauduin’s soldering liquid, 420. 
 
 Gauges, wire, 460. 
 
 Gedge’s alloy for ship-sheathing, 100. 
 
 German Britannia metal, 109. 
 clock bells, 87. 
 silver, alloy resembling, 108. 
 silver, copper or silver, ungilding 
 articles of, 486. 
 silver for easting, 113. 
 silver, pickle for, 319. 
 silver, pickling of, 253. 
 silver, table of composition of 
 various kinds of, 112, 113. 
 silver, tombac, brass and copper, 
 polishing of, 268. 
 white metal bearings, 89. 
 
 Germanicus, statue of, 93. 
 
 Gilders’ wax for fire-gilding, 348, 349. 
 
 Gilding articles of metal, 347, 348. 
 
 brassing, coppering, galvanizing, 
 nickelling, silvering, tinning, 
 electroplating etc., 317-394. 
 bronze for, 94. 
 by adhesion, 346. 
 
 by contact and dipping, cold gild¬ 
 ing and gilding by adhesion, 
 342-346. 
 
 by dipping, baths for, 344, 345. 
 cold, or gilding by the rag, 345, 
 346. 
 
 imitation, 348. 
 improving bad tints of, 347. 
 light, upon metallic articles, to re¬ 
 cognize, 71, 72. 
 
 of metallic wire and wire cloth, 
 468-470. 
 
 powder for copper, silver, brass, 
 etc., 348. 
 steel, 346. 
 
 to detect alloys in, 74, 75. 
 with a dead lustre, 341, 342. 
 
 Gilt articles, to give a beautiful, rich 
 appearance to, 347. 
 metallic articles, to detach gold 
 from, 499, 500. 
 
 Girder, cast-iron, contraction of, in 
 casting, 191. 
 
 Girders, contraction of, in casting, 191. 
 
 Glass and brass, to unite, 234. 
 
 and enamel, to secure to metal, by 
 the electric current, 307. 
 and steel, etching names on, 312, 
 313. 
 
 Glass cement, 83. 
 
 cement for fastening brass to, 236. 
 cement for fastening metal letters 
 upon, 235. 
 
 cement for fastening metal upon, 
 235. 
 
 enamel for iron, 303. 
 lamps, cement for fastening the 
 metal parts upon, 234. 
 porcelain, etc., metallic mountings, 
 to fasten upon, 234. 
 powdered, use of, as a flux, 418. 
 pressed, alloy for moulds for, 116. 
 to cement metal into, 235, 236. 
 
 Glaze for iron pipes, 302, 303. 
 
 or covering mass for enamelling, 
 298, 299. 
 
 Glue for pattern-makers, 228. 
 
 Glycerin cement for iron, 233. 
 for sharpening tools, 504. 
 
 Glyphogene or etching fluid for steel, 
 314. 
 
 Gold alloys, color of, 100, 101. 
 
 alloys, table of proportion of various 
 metals in, used by jewellers, 
 101 . 
 
 amalgam, 124, 125. 
 and palladium alloys, 118. 
 and platinum, preparations of, 54, 
 55. 
 
 and silver, alloys of, with copper, 
 100 - 102 . 
 
 and silver, engraving on, 308-310. 
 and silver, new imitation of. 120, 
 121 . 
 
 and silver, recovery of, from sweep¬ 
 ings, etc., 485. 
 
 articles, polishing powder for, 272, 
 baths, 338-342. 
 
 baths for parts of watches, 376. 
 baths, recovery of gold from, 484, 
 485. 
 
 beating, 493-495. 
 bronze, 95, 148. 
 bronze, genuine, 161. 
 bronze of great lustre on iron, 154. 
 chloride of, 39, 54. 
 color, metallic, 404. 
 coloring of, 183, 184. 
 cyanide of, 54. 
 determination of, 69. 
 fusing point of, 82. 
 genuine, solution of, in chlorine 
 water. 37. 
 
 hydrocyanate of, 54. 
 lacquers for, 403. 
 
 -like alloy, 118. 
 mosaic, 99, 161, 162. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 521 
 
 Gold or silver, damaskeening with, 281, 
 
 282. 
 
 polishing of, 268. 
 prussiate of, 54. 
 
 recovery of, from gold baths, 484, 
 485. 
 
 salt, 54, 55. 
 solders, 425, 426. 
 
 specific gravity and chemical and 
 electro-chemical equivalent of, 
 323. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 to detach from gilt metallic articles, 
 499, 500. 
 
 to distinguish genuine from 
 spurious, 70, 71. 
 
 to make platinum adhere to, 429, 
 430. 
 
 to purify in the dry way, according 
 to Philipp, 501. 
 
 to remove tarnish from, after hard 
 soldering, 426. 
 tombac resembling, 98. 
 wire, production of, 470. 
 
 -workers, polishing powder for, 
 272. 
 
 Golden bronze, to cleanse, 245. 
 
 Goldsmiths, enamels for, 304, 305. 
 
 Goldware, fineness of, 100. 
 to test, 71. 
 
 Gongs, or Chinese tam-tams, 85, 86. 
 
 Gozzy’s gold salt, 54, 55. 
 
 Graham’s bronzing liquids, 157, 158. 
 
 Graining of watch-parts, 373-377. 
 powder, Niiruberg, 374. 
 
 Graphite, 63. 
 
 Gray flux, 395. 
 silver, 102. 
 
 Green bronze, 149. 
 
 bronze for brass, 152, 153. 
 bronzing, 153,154. 
 mineral, 48. 
 vitriol, 45. 
 
 Grenet’s battery, 322. 
 
 Grinding, 247-249. 
 
 pickling, polishing, cleansing, 241- 
 277. 
 
 Groove, oval, construction of a, illus¬ 
 trated, 448. 
 
 Grooves of a wire-rod mill, construction 
 of the, illustrated, 448. 
 
 Ground or ground mass for enamelling, 
 298. 
 
 Grouvelle’s oil cement, 232. 
 
 Grove’s battery, 322. 
 
 Gum elastic, 62, 63. 
 
 Gun-barrels. Damascus, illustrated and 
 described, 280, 281. 
 
 Gun-barrels, damasked, to blacken, 188. 
 hardening of, according to Neunert, 
 140, 141. 
 
 to brown, 187, 188. 
 to produce damask in relief upon, 
 282. 
 
 Gun-metal, contraction of, in casting, 
 191. 
 
 mountings, tombac for, 98. 
 
 Gun or ordnance metal, 84. 
 
 Guns, to cleanse with petroleum, 244, 
 245. 
 
 Gutta-percha, 63, 64. 
 
 Hadfield’s manganese steel, 111, 112. 
 
 Half-round wire, illustrated, 453. 
 
 Haloid salts, definition of, 43. 
 
 Hand-saws, bath used in tempering and 
 heating, 144. 
 
 Hanover, white metal bearings for rail¬ 
 roads in, 89. 
 
 Hardening and tempering saws, 482. 
 compound, 142. 
 of steel piano wire, 473. 
 of wire ; 456-459. 
 
 tempering and annealing, 126-147. 
 water for steel, 134. 
 
 Hartshorn, spirits of, 61. 
 
 Hatchets, bath used in tempering and 
 heating, 144. 
 
 Hegermiihle sheet-brass, 99. 
 
 Henry IV., statue of, 93. 
 
 Hooks, etc., cement for fastening, 230. 
 
 Horn silver, 53. 
 
 Horse-power, electrical, definition of, 
 323. 
 
 Hot blast-stoves, blast-pipes, blowing- 
 engines, etc., cement for, 229. 
 
 House bells, 87. 
 
 Hoyle’s alloy for pivot bearings, 91. 
 
 Hulot’s solder for aluminium bronze, 
 424. 
 
 Hydrate, nickel, 47. 
 
 Hydrochloric acid, 58, 59. 
 
 acid, gaseous, percentage of, at 
 different degrees Be., 59. 
 acid, use of as a flux, 418. 
 
 Hydrocyanate of gold, 54. 
 of silver, 53. 
 
 Hydrocyanic acid, 61. 
 
 Hydrogen, definition of, 37. 
 
 specific gravity and chemical and 
 electro-chemical equivalent of, 
 323. 
 
 sulphuretted, apparatus for the 
 preparation of, 44. 
 sulphuretted, precipitates with, 43- 
 45. 
 
522 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Hydrogen, symbol and atomic weight 
 of, 40. 
 
 Hydrosulphate of ammonia, 62. 
 
 Hyposulphite, silver, 53, 54. 
 
 Hydroxide, definition of a, 35. 
 
 Imitation gilding, 348. 
 silver alloys, 102, 103. 
 
 Incrustations, 277, 278. 
 
 India-rubber, 62, 63. 
 
 Indivisible weights, definition of, 41. 
 
 Ink for writing on tin, 492. 
 for writing on zinc, 492. 
 
 Innes, Max, varnish for metals, accord¬ 
 ing to, 413. 
 
 Inoxidizing process for cast-iron, 296, 
 297. 
 
 process, Ward’s, 296. 
 
 Insects and flowers, metallic coating 
 upon, by the galvanic way, 393. 
 
 Instruments, mechauical, metal for, 
 
 SS. 
 
 optical, to lacquer, 404-406. 
 philosophical, lacquer for, 403—404. 
 
 Insulating coverings for steam-pipes, 
 etc., 492, 493. 
 
 mass, flexible for electrical con¬ 
 duits, 493. 
 
 mass for steam-boilers, etc., 493. 
 material for electrical conduits, 
 493. 
 
 material for steam-pipes, 493. 
 
 Iodine, symbol and atomic weight of, 
 40. 
 
 Iridium, symbol and atomic weight of, 
 40. 
 
 Iron alloy, 118. 
 amalgam, 125. 
 
 and steel articles, copper baths for, 
 
 329-331. 
 
 and steel, Barff’s process for pre¬ 
 serving from rust, 297, 298. 
 and steel, black varnish for, 410. 
 and steel, brush-coppering for, 
 334, 335. 
 
 and steel, chemical change pro¬ 
 duced in, by electric welding, 
 440, 441. 
 
 and steel, improvements in temper¬ 
 ing and hardening, 146, 147. 
 and steel, method of ascertaining 
 the quality of, 75, 76. 
 and steel objects, cleansing of, 
 270. 
 
 and steel, polishing of, 268. 
 and steel, preparation of, for nickel- 
 ling, 354. 
 
 and steel, sawing of, 481-483. 
 
 Iron and steel, small articles of, to blue, 
 so as to leave portions of them 
 bright, 183. 
 
 and steel, tinning articles of, by 
 boiling, 381, 382. 
 and steel, to color blue, 182. 
 aud steel, to color gray, 182. 
 and steel, to copper, 336. 
 and steel, to damaskeen with plati¬ 
 num, 281. 
 
 and steel to fire-gild and fire- 
 silver, 347. 
 
 and steel, to nickel polished objects 
 of, without a battery, 363, 364. 
 and steel, to protect from rust, 
 407. 
 
 and steel, ungilding of, 485, 486. 
 and steel wire, coating which does 
 not readily oxidize upon, 473. 
 and steel wire, table indicating 
 size, weight and length of, 461. 
 articles, cement for fastening in 
 stone, 231. 
 
 articles, desilvering of, 488. 
 articles, small, to blacken in bulk, 
 180, 181. 
 
 articles, to coat with copper, brass 
 or bronze, 336, 337. 
 articles, to coat with other metals, 
 according to Newton, 393, 394. 
 asphalt lacquer on, 401. 
 baths, 349-351. 
 black, 51, 163. 
 black coating for, 406, 407. 
 brass, copper, nickel bath for, 358. 
 brazing of, 417. 
 
 brown-black coating with bronze 
 lustre on, 181. 
 
 burnt, examination of, 76, 77. 
 cast and wrought, and steel, ready 
 distinction of, 75. 
 cast, fusing point of, 82. 
 cast, inoxidizing process for, 296, 
 297. 
 
 cast, malleable, 476—179. 
 cast, to bronze, 154. 
 cast, to harden, 131, 132. 
 castings, annealing of, 126, 127. 
 cement for, 231. 
 
 cement which stands red heat, 
 
 229. 
 
 cements or rust joints, 228-231. 
 chief difficulty in welding, 430. 
 combination of sulphur with, 39, 
 40. 
 
 combustibility of, 505, 506. 
 connecting parts of, exposed to 
 heat, cement for, 230. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 523 
 
 Iron, copper bronze on, 149. 
 glass enamel for, 303. 
 glycerin cement for, 233. 
 gold bronze of great lustre on, 154. 
 how to copper, 335, 336. 
 improved method of covering arti¬ 
 cles of, with lead, 352, 353. 
 in nickel, determination of, 74. 
 lacquer for blacksmiths, lock¬ 
 smiths, and founders, 403. 
 lustrous black on, 181. 
 minium, 46. 
 objects, enamel for, 299. 
 or steel, bronze-like surface on, 
 154, 155. 
 
 painting of, 408, 409. 
 patterns, to prevent rusting of, 227. 
 patterns, varnish for, 412, 413. 
 plates, to cut out with the assist¬ 
 ance of sulphuric acid, 499. 
 pots and pans, cement for mending, 
 231, 232. 
 
 preparations, 45, 46. 
 pyrites, composition of, 40. 
 to free from ingrained rust, 246. 
 rods, etc., cement tor fastening, 230. 
 sesquioxide of, 46. 
 sheet, galvanizing of, 388-392. 
 silvering of, according to Rinmann, 
 378. 
 
 soft, to harden, 132. 
 specific gravity and chemical and 
 electro-chemical equivalent of, 
 323. 
 
 stoves, cement for, 230, 231. 
 surfaces, cement for uniting, 229. 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 testing for, 68. 
 to cement, to iron, 231. 
 to cement, to wood or stone, 234. 
 to fasten leather upon, 236, 237. 
 to fasten paper labels to, 237. 
 to give a silver-like appearance 
 with high lustre to, 181, 182. 
 to steel, or steel to steel, to weld, 
 433. 
 
 to zinc in the cold way, 387, 388. 
 Weil’s process of producing iri¬ 
 descent copper precipitates on, 
 164, 165. 
 
 wire, to copper, 464, 465. 
 work, varnish for, 412. 
 wrought, fusing point of, 82. 
 wrought, ornamenting of, by burn¬ 
 ing on, 205, 206. 
 
 wrought, to case-harden, 128-131. 
 Iserlohn sheet brass, 99. 
 tombac, 98. 
 
 Iserlohn, turned brass castings from, 99. 
 
 Japan, black, for tin lanterns, 400, 401. 
 
 Japanese bell metal, 86. 
 bells, 86. 
 bronze, 95. 
 silver, 102. 
 
 swords, how made, 489-491. 
 
 Japanning, black grounds for, 400. 
 tin, 397-400. 
 
 vermilion ground for, 400. 
 
 Jemappes sheet brass, 99. 
 
 Jeweler’s or Armenian cement, 240, 241. 
 red, 256. 
 
 table of proportion of various metals 
 in gold alloys used by, 101. 
 
 Jewelry, new alloy for the manufac¬ 
 ture of, 119, 120. 
 tombac for, 98. 
 
 Joint, how to make a permanent and 
 durable, 238, 239. 
 wiped, definition of a, 415. 
 
 Joints, cement for filling in, 229. 
 cement for making, 232. 
 number of, per mile, of railroad, 507. 
 
 Kamper’s & Wittle’s arrangement for re¬ 
 moving superfluous zinc in gal¬ 
 vanizing wire, 466. 
 
 Karmarsch’s Britannia metal, 109. 
 
 Keller’s Britannia metal, 109. 
 
 Kettles, to tin, 385. 
 
 Klauke C., of Miincheberg, near Ber¬ 
 lin, barbed wire manufactured 
 by, 454, 455. 
 
 Knife blades, sharp surgical instru¬ 
 ments, etc., nickellingof, 360, 361. 
 
 Knitting needles, scouring and polish¬ 
 ing of, 243. 
 
 Knives, to make, from old files, 491. 
 and forks, bath for silvering, 368. 
 and forks, cement to fasten in their 
 handles, 237. 
 
 bath used in tempering and heat¬ 
 ing, 144. 
 
 Labels, cement for fastening on polished 
 nickel, 237. 
 
 Lace, to mould, in cast-iron, 200, 201. 
 
 Lacquer, asphalt, on iron, 401. 
 for steel, 404. 
 for tinfoil, 404. 
 
 gold colored, for brass watch cases, 
 402. 
 
 gold, for metallic articles, 402. 
 gold, for tin-plate, 402. 
 green, 403. 
 
 Lacquering brass, 401, 402. 
 
524 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Lacquering optical instruments, 404- 
 406. 
 
 Lacquers for brass, 402. 
 for gold, 403. 
 
 for philosophical instruments, 403, 
 404. 
 
 paints and varnishes, 397-413. 
 
 Lamps, petroleum, bismuth cement for 
 cementing the glass parts on, 240. 
 
 Lancets, bath used in tempering and 
 heating, 144. 
 
 Laps,illustrated and described, 480, 481. 
 
 Larch, specific gravity of, 227. 
 
 Laws of combination of the elements, 
 40, 41. 
 
 Lead, acetate of, 42, 49, 
 
 and antimony alloys, polishing of, 
 
 269. 
 
 baths, 351. 
 
 black, 63. 
 
 carbonate, 49. 
 
 chloride, 39, 49, 50. 
 
 chloride, dry, soldering with, 425. 
 
 chromate, 50. 
 
 contraction of, in casting, 191, 192. 
 determination of, 68, 69. 
 
 -foil, to distinguish tin-foil from, 73. 
 fusing point of, 82. 
 green bronze on, 149. 
 improved method of covering arti¬ 
 cles of iron with, 352, 353. 
 in tin, to detect, 73. 
 lapping, 479-481. 
 
 pipe, resistance of, to calcium hy¬ 
 drate, 77. 
 
 pipe, to cast, free from flaws, 213, 
 214. 
 
 pipes, tinned, to prepare, 386. 
 pipes, to protect, 408. 
 plate, resistance of, to calcium hy¬ 
 drate, 77. 
 
 plates, to tin, 385, 386. 
 powdered, solidification of, 505. 
 (Saxonia), resistance of, to calcium 
 hydrate, 77. 
 
 specific gravity and chemical and 
 electro-chemical equivalent of, 
 323. 
 
 sugar of, 42, 49. 
 sulphate, 50. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 tin and bismuth, preparations of, 
 49, 50. 
 
 to coat metals with, 351, 352. 
 to give to, the capacity of firmly 
 adhering to other metals and to 
 amalgamate with them, 500. 
 to separate from zinc, 4S9. 
 
 Lead, to test enamel for, 75. 
 white, 49. 
 
 Leading, hot, alloys for, 354. 
 
 Leyson’s process of, 353, 354. 
 Leather, dirty polishing, to cleanse, 276, 
 277. 
 
 to fasten upon iron, 236, 237. 
 Lechesne, 108. 
 
 Lemarquand’s non-oxidizable alloy, 
 119. 
 
 Leyson’s process of leading, 353, 354. 
 Lightning rods, metal roofs, etc., to pro¬ 
 tect from rust, 407, 408. 
 
 Lime for polishing, 255. 
 
 tree wood, specific gravity of, 227. 
 Lining for furnaces, 495. 
 
 Lipowitz’s alloy, 83. 
 
 metal, amalgam of, 123. 
 
 Litmus paper, preparation of, 42. 
 
 tincture, preparation of, 42. 
 
 Little’s speculum metal, 97. 
 
 Liver of sulphur, preparation of, 292. 
 Loam, Windsor, 397. 
 
 Locksmiths, blacksmiths, and founders, 
 iron lacquer for, 403. 
 
 Locomotive axles, bearings for, 88. 
 brass castings, 89, 90. 
 cylinders, contraction of, in casting, 
 191. 
 
 Locomotives, bearing metals for, 89. 
 Dewrance’s patent bearing for, 91. 
 Fenton’s alloy for axle-boxes of, 91. 
 London or old English wire gauge, 460. 
 Louis XIV., Keller’s statue of, 93. 
 Lubricant for wire-drawing, recom¬ 
 mended by Chas. H. Morgan, 451. 
 Lubricants used in wire-drawing, 450, 
 __ 451. 
 
 Lubricator, oil of mustard as a, 495. 
 Lucerne, ordnance bronze of, 84. 
 Liidenscheid, brass from, 99. 
 
 sheet brass, 99. 
 
 Lunar caustic, 52, 53. 
 
 Lustre, metallic, alteration in, 34. 
 Lutecine or Paris metal, 119. 
 
 Lutes, 396, 397. 
 
 and flaxes, 394-397. 
 fat, 397. 
 
 Machine bronze, 87-92. 
 
 Machines, cements for parts of, 237, 238. 
 rapidly running, approved compo¬ 
 sitions for bearings of, 89. 
 wrought-iron parts of, to harden, 
 132, 133. 
 
 Magnesia (calcinedl, 64. 
 formation of, 35. 
 
 Magnesium, determination of, 67. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 525 
 
 Magnesium monoxide, formation of, 35. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 Magnets, to temper, 148. 
 
 Mahogany, Honduras, specific gravity 
 of, 227. 
 
 Malleable brass, 119. 
 
 Britannia metal, 109. 
 bronze, 95, 96. 
 cast-iron, 476-479. 
 
 Manganese alloys, 110-112. 
 bronze, sheet from, 100. 
 silver, 111. 
 steel, 111, 112. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 testing for, 6S. 
 
 Manholes and flanges, Schiefer’s pack¬ 
 ing rings for, 239. 
 
 Mannheim gold, 98. 
 
 Maple, specific gravity of, 227. 
 
 Marble, cement for fastening metal let¬ 
 ters upon, 235. 
 
 Marley’s non-oxidizable alloy, 119. 
 Marsh’s apparatus illustrated and de¬ 
 scribed, 70. 
 
 Marteaux and Robert’s cement, 233. 
 Mastic, Serbat’s, 232, 233. 
 
 Matrix mass for the reproduction of 
 medals, coins, etc., 495. 
 
 Medals and coins, to brown, 188, 189. 
 cleansing of, 245. 
 
 metal suitable for impressions of, 
 83. 
 
 to bronze, 156,157. 
 
 Medium wheel, 257. 
 
 Meidinger’s battery, 322. 
 
 Mercuric chloride, 52. 
 nitrate, 52. 
 
 Mercurous nitrate, 52. 
 sulphate, 52. 
 
 Mercury and silver, preparations of, 
 52-54. 
 
 determination of, 67, 68, 69. 
 fusing point of, 82. 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 Metal, Aich’s, 99. 
 albata, 114. 
 
 apparatus for casting, illustrated 
 and described, 224, 225. 
 Ashberry, 109, 110. 
 
 Babbitt’s anti-attrition, 90, 91. 
 Biddery, 109, 110. 
 
 British plate, 114. 
 cliche, 83. 
 
 for spoons, forks, etc., 114. 
 gun or ordnance, 84. 
 industry, the most important me¬ 
 tallic preparations and the chemi¬ 
 cals used in the, 45-66. 
 
 Metal industry, various chemicals and 
 substances used in the, 61-66. 
 -leaf, combustion of in chlorine, 37. 
 letters upon glass, marble, wood, 
 etc., cements for fastening, 235. 
 method for producing drawings in 
 relief upon, 316. 
 minofor, 110. 
 
 Newton’s, 83. 
 
 parts upon glass lamps, cement for 
 fastening, 234. 
 
 photo-cheuiical process of decorat¬ 
 ing, 294, 295. 
 
 pipes, manufacture of, 491. 
 plates, to cement onto wooden 
 boxes, 234. 
 
 preparation of chills for casting, 225. 
 Prince’s, 99. 
 
 readily fluid, suitable for impres¬ 
 sions of plaster of Paris moulds, 
 etc., 83. 
 
 Robierre’s, 100. 
 
 roofs, lightning rods, etc., to pro¬ 
 tect from rust, 407, 408. 
 
 Rose’s, 83. 
 
 -sheets, thin, to cement, 234. 
 to cement glass into, 235, 236. 
 to gild articles of, 347, 348. 
 to secure enamel and glass to, by 
 the electric current, 307. 
 upon glass, cement for fastening, 
 235. 
 
 Warne’s, 102. 
 white, 87, 111. 
 white, definition of, 83. 
 
 Metallic articles, gilt, to detach gold 
 from, 499, 500. 
 
 articles, gold-colored coating upon, 
 166, 167. 
 
 articles, gold lacquer for, 402. 
 articles, to recognize light gilding 
 upon, 71, 72. 
 
 coating upon flowers and insects by 
 the galvanic way, 393. 
 cement, 83. 
 cement, Evans’s, 240. 
 chlorides, definition of, 37. 
 chlorides, preparation of, illus¬ 
 trated and described, 37, 38. 
 gold color, 404. 
 
 mountings, to fasten upon glass, 
 porcelain, etc., 234. 
 objects, dipping or pickling of, 
 250-254. 
 
 preparations, the most important, 
 and the chemicals used in the 
 metal industry, 45-66. 
 salts, 41-43. 
 
526 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Metallic wire and wire cloth, to gild, 
 468-470. 
 
 Metallochromy, 163, 164. 
 
 Metallography, 316. 
 
 Metals and alloys, resistance of, to 
 calcium hydrate, 77. 
 approved coatings for, 165, 166. 
 base, 36. 
 
 beautiful steel gray for, 166. 
 behavior of, towards oxygen, 34- 
 36. 
 
 black coat for, 165, 166. 
 black or colored coat for, 165. 
 changes iu, in alloying, 79. 
 chemical relations of, 33-45. 
 cleansing of, by means of acids 
 with the use of a galvanic current, 
 242,243. 
 
 cleansing of, with the sand blast, 
 241, 242. 
 
 casting on to other, 204, 205. 
 coins, etc., matrix mass for the 
 reproduction of, 495. 
 colored coatings for, 167, 168. 
 combinations of, with chlorine, 36- 
 39. 
 
 combinations of, with sulphur, 
 39, 40. 
 
 combustion of, 35. 
 
 contraction of in casting, 191, 192. 
 
 definition of, 33. 
 
 directions for the determination of 
 impurities of the most important, 
 66-78. 
 
 drawing properties of, 445. 
 enamelling of, 298, 299. 
 for bearings, 88, 89. 
 freeing of, from grease, 318. 
 fusing point of principal, employed 
 in alloys, 82. 
 
 general method of determining, 
 66, 67. 
 
 general rule for fusing, in making 
 alloys, 81, 82. 
 
 goldeu-yellow to brown coat for, 
 165. 
 
 green varnish for, 412. 
 how to prepare a rough surface in 
 grounding, for subsequent decora¬ 
 tion, 295, 296. 
 
 improved process of tinning, 384, 
 
 385. 
 
 iridescent colors upon, 283. 
 
 methods of bronzing, 148. 
 
 new method of decorating, 287, 
 
 288. 
 
 new protecting coat on, 294. 
 noble, 36. 
 
 Metals, phenomena in the treatment of 
 with acids, 42. 
 
 polishing of the separate, 268, 
 269. 
 
 powdered, solidification of, 505. 
 preliminary conditions, necessary 
 for the electro-deposition of, 317, 
 318. 
 
 rouge for polishing, 274, 275. 
 shrinking of, in casting, 189-192. 
 soft alloy for coating, 122, 123. 
 soft, polishing agent for, 270. 
 solution of, 66. 
 
 speed of saws for cutting, 482. 
 spinning of, illustrated and de¬ 
 scribed, 495-499. 
 
 terms used iu the electrolytic depo¬ 
 sition of, 323. 
 
 to be nickelled, preparation of, 
 354-356. 
 
 to coat iron articles with other, 
 according to Newton, 393, 394. 
 to coat with lead, 351, 352. 
 to coat with platinum in a cheap 
 way, 367, 368. 
 to fasten on wood, 234, 235. 
 to give to, the capacity of firmly 
 adhering to other metals, and to 
 amalgamate with them, 500. 
 to polish, 254, 255. 
 to prevent from rusting, 500. 
 used by the metal worker, 33. 
 varnish for, according to Max 
 Iunes, 413. 
 
 which cannot be amalgamated, to 
 fire-gild and fire-silver, 347. 
 white, testing of, 74. 
 
 Middleton W. B., invention of weld¬ 
 ing steel by, 435, 436. 
 
 Mills, white metal bearings for, 89. 
 
 Minargent, 108. 
 
 Mineral green, 48. 
 
 Mining picks, to temper, 145. 
 
 Minofor metal, 110. 
 
 Miscellaneous, 474-507. 
 
 Mitis castings, 214-217. 
 
 metal, analyses of, 215, 216. 
 
 Moen, machine for barhed wire,patented 
 by, illustrated and described, 
 455. 
 
 Moire, colored on tin-plate, 285. 
 metallique, 283-285. 
 on brass, 285, 286. 
 
 Moreau’s reducing flux, 396. 
 
 Morgan, Chas. H., lubricant for wire¬ 
 drawing recommended by, 451. 
 
 Mosaic gold, 99, 161,162. 
 gold, composition of, 39. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 527 
 
 Most important metallic preparations, 
 and the chemicals used in the 
 metal industry, 45-G6. 
 
 Mottled enamel, 301, 302. 
 
 Moulding and moulds, 193-196. 
 
 sand for castings of ingot iron, 192. 
 sand, to prevent the baking of, 192, 
 193. 
 
 Moulds for pressed glass, alloy for, 116. 
 plaster of Paris, metal suitable for 
 impressions of, 83. 
 
 Mopsset’s silver alloy, 102. 
 
 Mudge’s speculum metal, 97. 
 
 Muffles for articles to be nielled or 
 enamelled, illustrated and de¬ 
 scribed, 290, 291. 
 
 Muller’s soldering liquid, 419, 420. 
 Munich bronze, 93. 
 
 Muntz metal, 99. 
 
 Music plates, 116. 
 
 Musket-barrels, to harden the bores of, 
 141.. 
 
 Mustard, oil of, as a lubricator, 495. 
 
 Napoleon I., statue of, 93. 
 
 Needles, to scour and polish, 243, 244. 
 Neogen, 108, 109. 
 
 Neunert, hardening of gun-barrels, ac¬ 
 cording to, 140, 141. 
 
 Neustadt brass wire, 99. 
 
 New alloys, 119, 120. 
 
 imitations of gold and silver, 120, 
 121. 
 
 Newton and Ames, hardening of steel, 
 according to, 136. 
 
 Newton’s metal, 83. 
 
 process of coating iron articles with 
 other metals, 393, 394. 
 
 Nickel alloys, 112-115. 
 
 and cobalt, preparations of, 46, 47. 
 and copper alloys, 112. 
 and steel, alloys of, 114, 115. 
 bath, the most simple, 356. 
 baths, 354-360. 
 
 baths for special purposes, 358, 359. 
 baths, new, 359. 
 chloride, 47. 
 coins, 112. 
 
 copper and zinc alloys, 112-114. 
 determination of, 67, 68. 
 fusing point of, 82. 
 hydrate, 47. 
 nitrate, 47. 
 
 plated articles, to remove rust from, 
 247. 
 
 Nickel-plating, regulation of current in, 
 359, 360, 
 
 salt, Adams’, 486. 
 
 Nickel-plating, to imitate, 364,365. 
 
 Nickel, polished, cement for fastening 
 labels on, 237. 
 
 specific gravity and chemical and 
 electro-chemical equivalent of, 
 323. 
 
 sulphate, 47. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 testing of, 74. 
 
 to recover from old solutions, 486, 
 487. 
 
 various colors upon, 170. 
 waste, utilization of, 486. 
 watch movements, to freshen up, 
 247. 
 
 Nickelling, brassing, coppering, gal¬ 
 vanizing, gilding, silvering, tin¬ 
 ning, electro-plating, etc., 317- 
 394. 
 
 cheap articles, baths for, 357, 358. 
 composition of the baths for, 356. 
 of knife blades, sharp surgical in¬ 
 struments, etc., 360, 361. 
 of wire, 470, 471. 
 
 phenomena, which may occur in, 
 and means of avoiding them, 
 361-363. 
 
 polished objects of steel and iron 
 without a battery, 363, 364. 
 solution, Pott’s, 356, 357. 
 solution, Weston’s, 356. 
 solutions, Powell’s, 357. 
 to improve defective, 363. 
 
 Nicking saws, manufacture of, 481, 482. 
 
 Niel, composition and preparation of, 
 288 289 
 
 Nielled silver, 288-291. 
 
 work, to imitate by the galvanic 
 method, 292. 
 
 Niello, Corvin’s, 278, 279. 
 
 Nitrate, bismuth, 50. 
 cobaltous, 47. 
 copper, 48. 
 mercuric, 52. 
 mercurous, 52. 
 nickel, 47. 
 of silver, 52, 53. 
 
 Nitric acid, 57, 58. 
 
 acid, anhydrous, percentage of, at 
 different degress Be., 58. 
 
 Nitrogen, svmbol and atomic weight of, 
 40. 
 
 Nitro-muriatic acid, 59, 60. 
 
 Non-magnetic alloys for watches, 121. 
 
 Non-oxidizable alloy, 122. 
 
 Niirnberg gold, 109. 
 
 graining powder, 374. 
 tombac, 98. 
 
528 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ocker cast brass, 99. 
 sheet brass, 99. 
 tombac, 98. 
 
 Ohms, definition of, 323. 
 
 Oil cement, Grouvelle’s, 232. 
 cement, Stephenson’s, 232. 
 of mustard as a lubricator, 495. 
 of vitriol, 56, 57. 
 
 Olszewskv’s and de Bernados’ method 
 of electric welding, illustrated and 
 described, 440-444. 
 
 Optical instruments, to lacquer, 404- 
 406. 
 
 Ordnance bronze, composition of, of 
 various times aud countries, 84. 
 or gun-metal, 84. 
 
 Ormolu, 96. 
 
 Oroide, 98. 
 
 Otto’s speculum metal, 97. 
 
 Oven-doors, cement for, 239. 
 
 Oxalic acid, 61. 
 
 Oxidation, definition of, 35. 
 
 Oxide, argentic, 53. 
 cobaltous, 47. 
 
 cupric and cuprous formation of, 35. 
 ferric, 255, 256. 
 zinc, 51. 
 
 Oxides, cupric and cuprous, 49. 
 Oxidized silver, 292-294. 
 
 Oxygen, behavior of metals towards, 
 34-36. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 Oxyhydrogen, definition of, 37. 
 
 Paint for preserving ^inc roofs, 410. 
 for sheet-iron roofs, 409, 410. 
 for wheel patterns, 226. 
 
 Paints, Lacquers, and Varnishes, 397- 
 413. 
 
 Painting of iron, 408, 409. 
 
 Palladium and gold alloys,-118. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 Pans and pots, iron, cement for mend¬ 
 ing, 231, 232. 
 
 Paper labels, to fasten to iron, 237. 
 Paris clock bells, 87. 
 
 metal, or lutecine, 119. 
 mint, bronzing in, 151, 152. 
 Parisian polishing powder, 269. 
 
 Patina, bronze-like, upon tin, 184. 
 
 imitation of genuine, 171-173. 
 Pattern-makers, glue for, 228. 
 
 Patterns, black-leading of, 226, 227. 
 iron, to prevent from rusting, 227. 
 iron, varnish for, 412, 413. 
 painting and varnishing of, 225,226. 
 small alloys for, 117. 
 to mend, 227, 228. 
 
 Patterns, varieties of wood most suitable 
 for, 227. 
 
 Pear-tree wood, specific gravity of, 227. 
 Pen knives, bath used in tempering 
 and heating, 144. 
 
 Peruvian bronze, 96. 
 
 Petroleum, steel, to harden in, 133. 
 
 to cleanse guns with, 244, 245. 
 Pewter, 109. 
 
 Philipp’s method of purifying gold, 501. 
 Philosophical instruments, lacquers for, 
 ' 403, 404. * 
 
 Phosphate, ammonium, 61, 62. 
 Phosphates, use of, as fluxes; 418. 
 Phosphide of copper, preparation of, 91. 
 
 of tin, preparation of, 91. 
 
 Phosphor bronze, 91, 92. 
 
 resistance of, to calcium 
 hydrate, 77. 
 various kinds of, 92. 
 Phosphorescent enamel, 307. 
 Phosphoric acid, use of, as a flux, 418. 
 Phosphorized bronze or brass wire, 456. 
 Phosphorus, fusing point of, 82. 
 
 symbol aud atomic weight of, 40. 
 Photo-chemical process of decorating 
 metal, 294, 295. 
 
 Pickle, fat, for wire-drawing, 451. 
 for a dead lustre, on brass, 319. 
 for a dull-grained surface on brass, 
 319. 
 
 for bright lustre on copper alloys, 
 composition of, 319. 
 for German silver, 319. 
 for wrought-iron or cast-iron arti¬ 
 cles, 250. 
 
 preliminary for copper alloys, com¬ 
 position of, 319. 
 
 Piano wire, steel, to harden, 473. 
 Pickling or dipping of metallic objects, 
 250-254. 
 
 polishing, cleansing, grinding, 241- 
 277. 
 
 Pinchbeck for fancy articles, 98. 
 
 Pine, American, specific gravity of, 227. 
 Pipe-conduits, not exposed to heat, 
 cement for, 238. 
 
 Pipes, cast-iron, enamel for, 302. 
 contraction of, in casting, 191. 
 iron, glaze for, 302, 303. 
 metal, manufacture of, 491. 
 
 Piston packing rings, metal for, 89. 
 rings, metal for, 88. 
 
 Pistons and stuffing boxes of steam- 
 engines, cement for packing, 238. 
 Pivot bearings, Hoyle’s alloy for, 91. 
 Plaster of Paris moulds, metal suitable 
 for impressions of, 83. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 529 
 
 Plated and silvered ware, polishing of, 
 268. 
 
 Plates, manner of electrically welding, 
 444. 
 
 Platinic chloride, 55. 
 
 Platinizing by the wet method, 366, 
 367. 
 
 copper, 366. 
 
 Platinoid, 122. 
 
 Platinum, ammonio-chloride of, 55. 
 and gold, preparations of, 54, 55. 
 Birmingham, 117. 
 baths, 365, 366. 
 bronze, 122. 
 chloride of, 39, 55. 
 determination of, 69. 
 fusing point of, 82. 
 recovery of, from platinum solu¬ 
 tions, 488. 
 
 solutions, recovery of platinum 
 from, 488. 
 
 specific gravity and chemical and 
 electro-chemical equivalent of, 
 323. 
 
 spongy, 55. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 tetrachloride of, 55. 
 to coat metals in a cheap way with, 
 367, 368. 
 
 to damaskeen iron and steel with, 
 281. 
 
 to make adhere to gold, 429, 430. 
 welding of, 436. 
 
 Platoso-ammonium chloride, prepara¬ 
 tion of, 365. 
 
 Plough steel, 446. 
 
 Plumbago, 63. 
 
 Plumbers’ sealed solder, 420. 
 
 Polishing agents, 269-274. 
 
 application of, 257. 
 balls for silver, 271. 
 cartridges (Putzpatronen), 274. 
 cleansing, grinding, pickling, 241- 
 277. 
 
 files, 257. 
 
 leather, dirty, to cleanse, 276, 277. 
 of the separate metals, 268, 269. 
 paste for brass, 272. 
 paste for silver, 271. 
 pomades (Putz), 274. 
 powder, Belgian, 270. 
 powder for gold articles, 272. 
 powder for gold-workers, 272. 
 powder, Parisian, 269. 
 powders for silver, 270, 271. 
 rags, 270. 
 soaps, 272, 273. 
 stock, 257. 
 
 34 
 
 Polishing water, 273, 274. 
 
 with" the burnisher or burnishing 
 stone, 259 -262. 
 
 Poplar, white, specific gravity of, 
 227. 
 
 Porcelain, glass, etc., metallic mount¬ 
 ings, to fasten upon, 234. 
 
 Potash, caustic, 64. 
 
 red prussiate of, 46. 
 white prussiate of, 64. 
 yellow prussiate of, 46. 
 
 Potassium bitartrate, 65, 66. 
 carbonate, 64. 
 cyanide, 64. 
 ferroeyanide, 46. 
 hydrate, formation of, 34. 
 hydroxide, 64. 
 nitrate, 64. 
 oxidation of, 34. 
 
 sodium and calcium sulphides, 62. 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 Potin, 99. 
 
 Pots and pans, iron, cement for mend¬ 
 ing, 231, 232. 
 
 Potts’ nickelling solution, 356, 357. 
 Powells’ nickelling solutions, 357. 
 Precipitates with sulphuretted hydro¬ 
 gen, 43-45. 
 
 Preparations, copper, 47-49. 
 iron, 45, 46. 
 
 of cobalt and nickel, 46, 47. 
 of gold and platinum, 54, 55. 
 of lead, tin and bismuth, 49, 50. 
 of mercury and silver, 52-54. 
 of zinc, antimony and arsenic, 51, 
 52. 
 
 the most important metallic, and 
 the chemicals used in the metal 
 industry, 45-66. 
 
 Prince’s metal, 99. 
 
 Protocliloride of tiu, 50. 
 
 Protoxide, definition of, 35. 
 
 Prussia, ordnance bronze of, 84. 
 
 white metal bearings for railroads 
 in, 89. 
 
 Prussiate of gold, 54. 
 
 of silver, 53. 
 
 Prussic acid, 61. 
 
 Pump barrels, metal for, 88. 
 
 Pumps and pump chambers, metal for, 
 89. 
 
 for the conveyance of milk of lime, 
 best metals for, 77. 
 
 Punches, metal for, 88. 
 
 Purple of Cassius, 55. 
 
 Putzpatronen, 274. 
 
 Putz pomades, 274. 
 
 Pyrites, 40. 
 
530 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Queen’s metal, 109. 
 
 Quick flux, 396. 
 
 Quicksilver water, 349. 
 
 Railroad car axles, bearings for, 
 
 88 . 
 
 rails and fastenings per mile of, 
 507. 
 
 Railroads, white metal bearings for, 
 
 89. 
 
 Rails and fastenings per mile of rail¬ 
 road, 507. 
 
 old steel, to make new, 435, 436. 
 
 Ramsden’s method of hardening wire, 
 illustrated and described, 456- 
 459. 
 
 Razors, bath used in tempering and 
 heating, 144. 
 
 Recovery of copper, 483, 484. 
 
 of gold and silver from sweepings, 
 etc., 485. 
 
 of gold from gold baths, 484, 
 485. 
 
 of platinum from platinum solu¬ 
 tions, 488, 
 
 of silver from old cyanide plating 
 solutions, 487. 
 
 Red-brass, 87, 111. 
 
 and similar alloys, table of com¬ 
 position of, 98. 
 bearings, 88. 
 
 turnings, utilization of, 483. 
 
 Red bronze, 149. 
 
 prussiate of potash, 46. 
 
 Refining flux, 396. 
 
 Reichenhall, alarm-bell at, 86. 
 
 Resist, composition of, 375. 
 
 Richardson’s speculum metal, 97. 
 
 Riley, Edward, analyses of mitis metal 
 by, 215, 216. 
 
 Rinmann, silvering of iron, according 
 to, 378. 
 
 Ripping blocks, 452. 
 
 Robb, J., hardeniug mixture, patented 
 by, 135. 
 
 Robert’s and Marteaux’s cement, 233. 
 
 Roberts’ apparatus for removing super¬ 
 fluous zinc in galvanizing wire, 
 466, 467. 
 
 apparatus for galvanizing wire, 
 illustrated and described, 465, 
 466. 
 
 Robierre’s metal, 100. 
 
 Rockline’s method of bronzing, 159. 
 
 Roebling’s, John A., Sons Co., of Tren¬ 
 ton, N. J., tables relating to wire, 
 by, 459-463. 
 
 wire gauge, 460. 
 
 Roll of a wire-rod mill, construction of 
 the grooves of a, 448. 
 
 Roman speculum metal, 97. 
 
 Roofs, sheet-iron, paint for, 409, 410. 
 
 zinc, paint for preserving, 410. 
 Rose’s metal, 83. 
 
 Rosthorn’s sterro-metal, 100. 
 
 Rouen, alarm-bell at, 86. 
 
 Rouge, 46, 256. 
 
 for polishing metals, 274, 275. 
 Roughing wheel, 257. 
 
 Rubber, vulcanized, 63. 
 
 India, 62, 63. 
 
 Russia, ordnance bronze of, 84. 
 
 Rust, Barff’s process for preserving iron 
 and steel from, 297, 298. 
 ingrained, to free iron from, 246. 
 new preventive, 407. 
 to extract from steel, 246, 247. 
 to protect iron and steel from, 
 407. 
 
 to protect lightning-rods and metal 
 roofs from, 407, 408. 
 to remove from nickel-plated 
 articles, 247. 
 
 to remove from polished steel arti¬ 
 cles, 246. 
 
 joints or iron cements, 228-231. 
 Rusting in of screws, to prevent, 500. 
 to keep steel from, 500. 
 to prevent iron patterns from, 227. 
 to prevent metals from, 500. 
 
 Sal ammoniac, use of, as a flux, 418. 
 
 auri Figuieri, 54, 55. 
 
 Sallit’s speculum metal, 97. 
 
 Salt cake, 396. 
 
 of sorrel, 61. 
 
 Saltpetre, 64. 
 
 Salts, definition and characteristics of, 
 42. 
 
 haloid, definition of, 43. 
 insoluble in water, 43. 
 metallic, 41—43. 
 
 Sand blast, cleansing metals with the, 
 241, 242. 
 
 blast, illustrated and described, 
 241, 242. 
 
 blast, process of sharpening files 
 with the, 503. 
 
 moulding, for castings of ingot iron, 
 192. 
 
 moulding, to prevent the baking 
 of, 192, 193. 
 
 Savoy, ordnance bronze of, 84- 
 Sawing iron and steel, 4S1—483. 
 
 Saws and springs, to harden, 137-139. 
 hardening and tempering of, 482. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 531 
 
 Saws, nicking, manufacture of, 481,482. 
 small, bath used in tempering and 
 heating, 144. 
 
 speed of, for cutting metals, 482. 
 to solder, 428, 429. 
 
 Scalpels, bath used in tempering and 
 heating, 144. 
 
 Schaefer’s, Adam, fluid for hardening 
 steel, 141. 
 
 packing rings for manholes and 
 flanges, 239. 
 
 Schniewindt’s apparatus for half-round 
 wire, illustrated, 453. 
 
 Schweinfurt green, 52. 
 
 Scratch-brush lathe, illustrated and de¬ 
 scribed, 266, 267. 
 
 Scratch-brushes, circular, illustrated 
 aud described, 266, 267. 
 
 -brushes, hand, illustrated and de¬ 
 scribed, 263-265. 
 
 -brushing, 263-268. 
 
 Screws, casting brass nuts ou, 203, 204. 
 rusted, to loosen, 500. 
 small, to clean, 246. 
 to prevent rusting in of, 500. 
 
 Selenium, symbol and atomic weight 
 of, 40. 
 
 Serbat’s mastic, 232, 233. 
 
 Sesquioxide of iron, 46. 
 
 Shakdo, 122. 
 
 Sheet and wire, brass for, 97. 
 
 -brass, to cut by chemical means, 
 499. 
 
 -brass, to roughen for painting, 
 499. 
 
 for pressed articles, metal for, 88. 
 -iron, galvanizing of, 388-392. 
 
 -iron roofs, paint for, 409, 410. 
 metal, colored varnish for, 411, 
 412. 
 
 metals, bright asphalt varnish for, 
 411. 
 
 Sheffield German silver, 113. 
 
 Shepherd, statue of, 93. 
 
 Ship sheathing, metals for, 99, 100. 
 
 Shoder, 494. 
 
 Shovels, metal for, 88. 
 
 Shrinking of metals in casting, ISO- 
 192. 
 
 Sideraphtite, 122. 
 
 Side rods, brasses for, 89. 
 
 Silicon brass, 92. 
 bronze, 92. 
 
 Silicium, symbol and atomic weight of, 
 40. 
 
 Silver alloy, Mousset’s, 102. 
 alloy resembling, 102, 108. 
 amalgam, 125. 
 
 Silver aud gold, alloys of, with copper, 
 100 - 102 . 
 
 and gold, engraving on, 308-310. 
 and gold, new imitations of, 120, 
 121 . 
 
 and gold, recovery of, from sweep¬ 
 ings, etc., 4S5. 
 
 and mercury, preparations of, 52- 
 54. 
 
 aud plated ware, polishing of, 268. 
 baths, 368-370. 
 bell metal, 87. 
 bronze, 148, 149. 
 bronze powder, genuine, 162. 
 bronze powder, imitation, 162. 
 carbonate, 53, 
 chloride of, 39, 53. 
 cleansing articles of. 245. 
 copper, brass, etc., gildiDg powder 
 for, 348. 
 
 copper or German silver, ungilding 
 articles of, 486. 
 cyanide of, 53. 
 determination of, 69. 
 dipping of, 319. 
 etching on, 311. 
 fusing point of, 82. 
 
 German, table of composition of 
 various kinds of, 112, 113. 
 granulated, mode of making, 487. 
 gray, 102. 
 
 hydrocyanate of, 53. 
 hyposulphite, 53, 54. 
 imitation alloys of, 102, 103. 
 Japanese, 102. 
 manganese, 111. 
 milled, 288-291. 
 nitrate, 52, 53. 
 objects, to fire-gild, 346, 347. 
 or gold, damaskeening with, 281, 
 282. 
 
 oxidized, 292-294. 
 polishing balls for, 271. 
 polishing of, 268. 
 polishing paste for, 271. 
 polishing powders for, 270, 271. 
 prussiate of, 53. 
 
 recovery of, from old cyanide plat¬ 
 ing solutions, 487. 
 soap, English, 271. 
 soap, rose-color, 271. 
 solders, 426, 427. 
 
 specific gravity and chemical and 
 electro-chemical equivalent of, 
 323. 
 
 sulphate, 53. 
 sulphide, 53. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 
532 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Silver, test-water for, 72, 73. 
 to burnish, 263. 
 
 -ware, cleansing of, 270. 
 
 -ware, fineness of, 100. 
 
 -ware, gilded, ungilding of, 485, 
 486. 
 
 white alloy closely resembling, 
 103. 
 
 Silvering, alloy for, 379, 380. 
 
 Bessemer steel and utensils of it, 
 378, 379. 
 
 Birmingham, 377, 378. 
 brassing, coppering, galvanizing, 
 gilding, nickelling, tinning, 
 electro-plating, etc., 317-394. 
 by contact, 370, 371. 
 by dipping, 371. 
 cold, 372, 373. 
 light, to recognize, 72. 
 mechanical, according to Bertrand, 
 378. 
 
 of iron, according to Kinmann, 
 378. 
 
 Silveroid, 96. 
 
 Similor, 98. 
 
 Sleigh bells, table bells, clock bells, 
 etc., 86, 87. 
 
 Smee’s battery, 322. 
 
 Soap, English silver, 271. 
 
 Soaps, polishing, 272, 273. 
 
 Soda, bibasic phosphate of, 65. 
 caustic, 64. 
 
 tribasic phosphate of, 64, 65. 
 Sodium biborate, 62. 
 bicarbonate, 64. 
 hydroxide, 64. 
 phosphate, 64, 65. 
 potassium and calcium sulphides, 
 62. 
 
 pyrophosphate, 65. 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 Soft solder, 83. 
 
 Solder, bismuth, 421. 
 
 for enamelled work, 426. 
 for girdlers, 422. 
 half-white, readily fusible, 422. 
 hard, according to Volk, 422. 
 malleable, 422. 
 readily fusible, 422. 
 refractory, 422. 
 silver, 426, 427. 
 soft, 83. 
 
 soft, for aluminium bronze, 424. 
 soft, to color. 429. 
 very ductile, 422. 
 very refractory, 422. 
 white, 422. 
 
 Soldering and solders, 413-430. 
 
 Soldering cast-iron, 424, 425. 
 cast-iron objects, 425. 
 cold, alloy for, 427, 428. 
 copper wire, 428. 
 fat, 419. 
 
 iron, preparation of, 414, 415. 
 
 liquid, Gauduin’s, 420. 
 
 liquid, Miller’s, 419, 420. 
 
 liquid, new, 420. 
 
 liquid, preparation of, 418, 419. 
 
 of aluminium bronze, 423, 424. 
 
 paste, 419. 
 
 saws, 428, 429. 
 
 with dry lead chloride, 425. 
 
 without a soldering iron, 429. 
 
 Solders and soldering, 413-430. 
 argentan, 424. 
 for aluminium, 423. 
 for aluminium bronze jewelry, 424. 
 gold, 425, 426. 
 hard, 421, 422. 
 hard, definition of, 413. 
 hard, tables showing the composi¬ 
 tion of, 422. 
 soft, definition of, 413. 
 soft, preparation of, 421. 
 soft, table showing the composition 
 of, 420. 
 
 soft, testing of, 73. 
 
 Sorrel, salt of, 61. 
 
 Speculum metal, 96, 97. 
 
 metal, standard alloy, 97. 
 
 Spelter, 417. 
 
 solder, 421, 422. 
 
 Spence’s metal, 65. 
 
 Spikes, number of, per mile of railroad, 
 507. 
 
 Spinning of metals, illustrated and de¬ 
 scribed, 495-499. 
 tools, illustrated, 496, 497. 
 
 Spirits of hartshorn, 61. 
 
 Splices, number of, per mile of rail¬ 
 road, 507. 
 
 Spoons, alloy for, 102. 
 
 forks, etc., metal for, 114. 
 
 Spring steel, coating for bars of, not 
 acted upon by acids, alkalies, 
 etc., 406. 
 
 Springs and saws, to harden, 137-139. 
 large, bath used in tempering and 
 heating, 144. 
 
 Stain, deep black blue, on brass, 178. 
 
 Stains, gold and orange, for brass, 
 179. 
 
 Stamps, book binders’, cast brass for, 
 
 99. 
 
 Stannic sulphide, 50. 
 
 Stannous chloride, 50. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 533 
 
 Statuary bronze, 92-94. 
 
 bronze, table of colors of alloys for, 
 93. 
 
 Statues, best bronze for, 94. 
 
 table of the composition of a few 
 celebrated, 93. 
 
 Steam boilers, etc., insulating mass for, 
 493. 
 
 -engines, cement for packing, stuff¬ 
 ing boxes and pistons of, 238. 
 -pipes, cement for, 238. 
 
 -pipes, insulating material for, 493. 
 -pipes, etc., insulating coverings 
 for, 492, 493. 
 
 -whistles, metal for, 88. 
 
 Steel, Adam Schaefer’s fluid for hard¬ 
 ening, 141. 
 
 agents for hardening, improving 
 and welding, 142, 143. 
 
 American welding compound for, 
 433. 
 
 and glass, etching names on, 312, 
 313. 
 
 and iron articles, copper baths for, 
 329-331. 
 
 and iron, BariFs process for pre¬ 
 serving from rust, 297, 298. 
 and iron, hlack varnish for, 410. 
 and iron, brush-coppering for, 334, 
 335. 
 
 and iron, chemical change pro¬ 
 duced in, by electric welding, 
 440, 441. 
 
 and iron, improvements in temper¬ 
 ing and hardening, 146, 147. 
 and iron, polishing of, 268. 
 and iron, preparation of, for nick- 
 elling, 354. 
 
 and iron, method of ascertaining 
 the quality of, 75, 76. 
 and iron, sawing of, 481-483. 
 and iron, small articles of, to blue, 
 so as to leave portions of them 
 bright, 183. 
 
 and iron, tinning articles of, by 
 boiling, 381, 382. 
 and iron, to color blue, 182, 
 and iron, to color gray, 182. 
 and iron, to copper, 336. 
 and iron, to damaskeen with pla¬ 
 tinum, 281. 
 
 and iron, to fire-gild and fire-silver, 
 347. 
 
 and iron, to nickel polished objects 
 of, without a battery, 363, 364. 
 and iron, to protect from rust, 
 407. 
 
 and iron, ungilding of, 485, 486. 
 
 Steel and iron wire, coating which does 
 not readily oxidize upon, 473. 
 and iron wire, table indicating size, 
 weight and length of, 461. 
 and nickel, alloys of, 114, 115. 
 and wrought-iron, Thierault’s proc¬ 
 ess for coloring, 182, 183. 
 articles, baths used in tempering 
 and heating, 144. 
 
 articles, fluids for hardening, 134, 
 135. 
 
 articles, polished, to remove rust 
 from, 246. 
 
 basic open-hearth, manufacture of, 
 474, 475. 
 baths, 349-351. 
 
 Bessemer, silvering of, 378, 379. 
 bronze or Uchatius bronze, 85. 
 cast-iron and wrought-iron, brass 
 bath for, 327. 
 
 Damascus, imitation of, 279, 280. 
 effect of temperature on, 144, 145. 
 etching on, 311, 312. 
 for casting, improved method of 
 treating, 228. 
 
 for wire, amount of carbon permis¬ 
 sible in, 446. 
 fusing point of, 82. 
 general rule in welding, 431. 
 glyphogene or etching fluid for, 
 314. 
 
 guns, damaskeened surface upon, 
 282, 283. 
 
 hard, to make a hole in, 499. 
 hardened, manner of cutting, 482, 
 483. _ 
 
 hardening compound for, 135. 
 hardening of, according to Newton 
 and Ames, 136. 
 hardening water for, 134. 
 improvement in treatment of, 492. 
 instruments and files, to harden, 
 139. 
 
 instruments, to harden, 139, 140. 
 lacquer for, 404. 
 lustreless surface on, 276. 
 manganese, 111, 112. 
 new way of annealing, 127. 
 objects, to give the appearance of 
 gold or good bronze to, 155. 
 objects, to polish, 275, 276. 
 or case-hardened articles, tinning 
 of, 383, 384. 
 
 or iron, bronze-like surface on, 154, 
 155. 
 
 pens, Cooper’s alloy for, 117. 
 piano wire, to harden, 473. 
 plates, thin, how to harden, 135,136, 
 
534 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Steel rails, old, to make new, 435, 436. 
 sheet, to blue small articles of, 183. 
 soft, analysis of, 475. 
 soft, tensile strain of, 475. 
 sources of danger in welding, 431, 
 432. 
 
 tempering colors of, 143, 144. 
 to avoid cracks, curving and warp¬ 
 ing in hardening, 135. 
 to extract rust from, 246, 247. 
 to gild, 346. 
 
 to harden, by pressure, 133. 
 to harden in petroleum, 133. 
 to harden in sealing-wax, 136, 137. 
 to harden so that the exterior is 
 hard and interior soft, 133, 134. 
 to keep from rusting, 500. 
 to make soft, so it can be worked 
 like copper, 127. 
 to polish, 275. 
 
 to temper by electricity, 145. 
 tools, burnt, to restore, 502. 
 to weld iron or steel to, 433. 
 two ways of annealing, 127. 
 with steel, to unite by welding, 
 434. 
 
 wrought-iron and cast-iron, ready 
 distinction of, 75. 
 
 Stephenson’s oil cement, 232. 
 Stereo-plates, casting of, by the paper 
 process, 217, 218. 
 
 Sterling metal, English, 99. 
 Sterro-metal or Aich metal, 99. 
 
 metal, Rosthorn’s, 100. 
 
 Stolba’s method of tinning, 382, 383. 
 Stollberg sheet brass, 99. 
 
 Stone, cement for fastening iron articles 
 in, 231. 
 
 or wood, iron, to cement to, 234. 
 Stourbridge clay, 397. 
 
 Stoves, iron, cement for, 230, 231. 
 
 tools, etc., to coat, 296. 
 
 Stubs or Birmingham wire gauge, 460. 
 Stuffing boxes and pistons of steam- 
 engines, cement for packing, 238. 
 boxes, metal for, 88. 
 
 Suboxide, definition of, 36. 
 
 Substances and chemicals, various, 
 used in the metal industry, 61- 
 66 . 
 
 Sugar of lead, 42, 49. 
 
 Sullage-piece or dead-head, 84. 
 Sulphate, ammonio-ferrous, 45. 
 cupric, 47, 48. 
 cupro-diammonium, 48. 
 ferric, 46. 
 ferrous, 45. 
 lead, 50. 
 
 Sulphate, mercurous, 52. 
 nickel, 47. 
 of copper, 47, 48. 
 silver, 53. 
 zinc, 51. 
 
 Sulphide, ammonium, 62. 
 cuprous, formation of, 39. 
 ferrous, 40. 
 of copper, 48. 
 of tin, formation of, 39. 
 silver, 53. 
 stannic, 50. 
 
 Sulphides of calcium, potassium and 
 sodium, 62. 
 
 Sulphur, 65. 
 
 combination of, with iron, 39, 40. 
 combinations of metals with, 39, 
 40. 
 
 constitution and properties of, 39. 
 fusing point of, 82. 
 liver of, preparation of, 292. 
 svmbol and atomic weight of, 
 '40. 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen, apparatus for 
 the preparation of, illustrated 
 and described, 44. 
 
 precipitates with, 43-45. 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 56, 57. 
 acid, fuming, 56. 
 acid, Nordbausen, 56. 
 acid, percentage of anhydrous, at 
 different degrees Be., 57. 
 acid, to cut out iron plates with the 
 assistance of, 499. 
 
 Sulphydrate of ammonia, (>2. 
 
 Super-oxides, definition of, 35. 
 
 Surgical instruments, bath used 
 tempering and heating, 144. 
 instruments, knife blades, etc., 
 nickelling of, 360, 361. 
 
 Swiss clock bells, 87. 
 
 Swords, bath used in tempering and 
 heating, 144. 
 
 Japanese, how made, 489-491. 
 
 Sycamore, specific gravity of, 227. 
 
 Symbols and atomic weights of the 
 most important.? elements, 40. 
 how formed, 41. 
 
 Table bells, sleigh bells, clock bells, 
 
 etc., 86, 87. 
 
 knives, bath used in tempering and 
 heating, 144. 
 
 for preparing aqua regia, 59. 
 of alloys exhibiting greater density 
 than their constituents, 80. 
 of alloys exhibiting less density 
 than their constituents, 80. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 535 
 
 Table of percentage of anhydrous nitric 
 acid at different degrees Be., 58. 
 
 of percentage of anhydrous sul¬ 
 phuric acid at different degrees 
 Be., 57. 
 
 of percentage of gaseous hydro¬ 
 chloric acid at different degrees 
 Be., 59. 
 
 of the most important elements 
 with their symbols and atomic 
 weights, 40. 
 
 Tables relating to wire, by John A. 
 Roebling’s Sons Co., of Trenton, 
 N. J., 459-463. 
 
 Talmi gold, 98. 
 
 Tam tam, 86. 
 
 Taps and dies, to temper, 145, 146. 
 
 Tartar, 65, 66. 
 
 emetic, 51. 
 
 Tartaric acid, 60. 
 
 Telegraph wire, 92. 
 
 Telephone wire, 92. 
 
 Tellurium, fusing point of, 82. 
 
 Temperature, effect of, on steel, 144, 
 145. 
 
 of galvanic baths, 320. 
 
 Temperatures, high, colors expressing, 
 506. 
 
 Tempering and hardening saws, 482. 
 
 colors of steel, 143, 144. 
 
 Tempering, hardening and annealing, 
 126-147. 
 
 or “patenting” of wires, 452. 
 
 Terra merita, 403. 
 
 Test-water for silver, 72, 73. 
 
 Tetrachloride of platinum, 55. 
 
 Thallium, symbol and atomic weight 
 of, 40. 
 
 Thierault’s process for coloring 
 wrouglit-iron and steel, 182, 183. 
 
 Thompson, Prof. Silvanus P.,platinum 
 bath recommended by, 366. 
 
 Prof. Elihu, electric welding in¬ 
 vented by, 436. 
 
 Thurston’s tough, strong brass, 99. 
 
 Tiers argent, 102. 
 
 Ties for cotton bales, electric welding 
 of, 439. 
 
 Tin amalgam, 125, 126. 
 
 and copper, alloys of, 83-97. 
 
 and copper, contraction of, in cast¬ 
 ing, 191. 
 
 and its alloys, sepia-brown on, 184, 
 185. 
 
 articles, polishing of, 268, 269. 
 
 baths, 380, 381. 
 
 bismuth and lead, preparations of, 
 49, 50. 
 
 Tin, bronze-like patina upon, 184. 
 
 cast-iron or zinc, to coat with cop¬ 
 per, 337. 
 
 contraction of, in casting, 192. 
 determination of, 69. 
 dipping of, 319. 
 
 -foil, lacquer for, 404. 
 
 -foil, to distinguish from lead-foil, 
 73. 
 
 fusing point of, 82. 
 green-bronze upon, 149. 
 ink for writing on, 492. 
 japanning of, 397-400. 
 lanterns, black japan for, 400, 401. 
 or Fahlun brilliants, 118. 
 phosphide of, preparation of, 91. 
 -plate, colored moire on, 285. 
 
 -plate, gold lacquer for, 402. 
 
 -plate, to decorate, 286, 287. 
 polishing agent for, 270. 
 powdered, solidification of, 505. 
 protocbloride of, 50. 
 pure, resistance of, to calcium hy¬ 
 drate, 77. 
 
 -putty, 257. 
 
 recovery of, from tin-plate waste, 
 489. 
 
 -salt, 50. 
 
 specific gravity and chemical and 
 electro-chemical equivalent of, 
 323. 
 
 sulphide of, formation of, 39. 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 testing of, 73. 
 to bronze, 155. 
 to detect lead in, 73. 
 to give to, the capacity of "firmly 
 adhering to other metals, and to 
 amalgamate with them, 500. 
 Tinned lead pipes, to prepare, 386. 
 Tinning, brassing, coppering, galvaniz¬ 
 ing, gilding, nickelling, electro¬ 
 plating, etc., 317-394. 
 by boiling articles of iron and 
 steel, 381, 382. 
 by contact, 381. 
 by dipping, 381. 
 cold, 383. 
 
 Eisner’s bath for, 382. 
 hard steel or case-hardened arti¬ 
 cles, 383, 384. 
 kettles, 385. 
 lead plates, 385, 386. 
 metals, improved method of, 384, 
 385. 
 
 of wire and wire-gauze, 471-473. 
 small brass or copper objects, 382. 
 Stalba’s method of, 382, 383. 
 
536 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Tires and axles, electric welding of, 439. 
 
 Tissier’s metal, 98. 
 
 Titanium, symbol and atomic weight 
 of, 40.' 
 
 Tombac and similar alloys, table of 
 composition of, 9S. 
 brass and copper, to give a bril¬ 
 liant appearance to, 254. 
 composition, characteristics, and 
 properties of, 97. 
 
 copper, brass, and German silver, 
 polishing of, 26S. 
 dipping of, 31S. 
 pickling of, 251. 
 
 Tools, burnishing, illustrated and de¬ 
 scribed, 260, 261. 
 spinning, illustrated, 496, 497. 
 stoves, etc., to coat, 296. 
 to harden, 140. 
 to sharpen, 504. 
 
 Tournay’s metal, 98. 
 
 Trichloride, antimony, 51. 
 
 Tripoli, 256, 257. 
 
 Tubes and wire bars, Elmore process 
 of electro-depositing copper for, 
 331-334. 
 
 Tucker bronze, 154. 
 
 Tula niel, composition of, 289. 
 
 Tumbling drum, illustrated and de¬ 
 scribed, 258, 259. 
 
 Tungsten, symbol and atomic weight 
 of, 40. 
 
 Turkey, ordnance bronze of, 84. 
 
 Turkish damask, illustrated, 2S0. 
 
 Turpentine, use of, as a soldering agent, 
 41S. 
 
 Tutania, 109. 
 
 Type metal, table of composition of, 
 115, 116. 
 
 Uchatius bronze or steel bronze, So. 
 
 Ungilding, 485, 4S6. 
 
 United States, composition of ordnance 
 bronze in the, 84. 
 method for cleaning brass parts 
 in the, 253. 
 
 nickel coins of the, 112. 
 
 Uranium, symbol and atomic weight of, 
 40. 
 
 Ure, Dr., rule for calculating the specific 
 gravity of alloys, by, SO. 
 
 Utensils, cast-iron, to enamel, 299-301. 
 
 Various alloys, 116-123. 
 
 Varnish, black, for iron and steel, 410. 
 black, for zinc, 410, 411. 
 bright asphalt, for sheet metals, 411. 
 colored, for sheet metal, 411, 412. 
 
 Varnish for bronzing, 148. 
 for common work, 412. 
 for iron patterns, 412, 413. 
 for iron work, 412. 
 for metals, according to Max 
 Innes, 413. 
 
 green, for metals, 412. 
 green transparent, 412. 
 
 Varnishes, paints and lacquers, 397— 
 413. 
 
 Verdigris, French, 49. 
 
 German, 49. 
 
 Vienna German silver, 112. 
 lime, 255. 
 sheet brass, 99. 
 
 Vitriol, blue, 42, 47, 48. 
 green, 45. 
 oil of, 56, 57. 
 white, 51. 
 
 Vogel, F., fat pickle for wire-drawing 
 recommended by, 451. 
 
 Vogt’s arrangement for closing vessels 
 in galvanizing wire, 466. 
 
 Volt, definition of, 323. 
 
 Wagner’s Britannia metal, 109. 
 Wagons, Fenton’s alloy for axle-boxes 
 of, 91. 
 
 Wagon-wheels, metal for boxes of, 88. 
 Walker’s chemical bronze, 159. 
 
 Ward’s inoxidizing process, 296. 
 
 Ware, silvered and plated, polishing 
 
 of, 26S. 
 
 Warne’s metal, 102. 
 
 Waste, nickel, utilization of, 486. 
 
 tin-plate, recovery of tin from, 4S9. 
 Watch cases, brass, gold-colored lac¬ 
 quer for, 402. 
 
 -dials, enamelling of, 306, 307. 
 -movements, nickel to freshen up, 
 247. 
 
 -parts, graining of, 373-377. 
 -springs, bath used in tempering 
 and heating, 144. 
 
 Watches, gold baths for parts of, 376. 
 
 non-magnetic alloys for, 121. 
 Water for galvanic baths, 320. 
 
 -pipes, cements for, 240. 
 
 -proof and fire-proof cement, 233. 
 reservoirs, iron cement for joints 
 of, 230. 
 
 Watts, definition of, 323. 
 
 Wax-mass for copper engravers, 310. 
 soft, for engravers, 310. 
 to get a copper deposit on, 334. 
 Webster’s aluminium alloys, 107. 
 Wedding on the results of examina¬ 
 tions of burnt iron, 76, 77. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 537 
 
 Weights, metal for, 88. 
 
 Weil’s process of producing iridescent 
 copper precipitates on iron, 164, 
 165. 
 
 Welding and welding compounds, 430- 
 444. 
 
 cast-steel, 432, 433. 
 compound, American, for welding 
 steel to steel, 433. 
 compound to weld steel to wrought- 
 iron, 433. 
 
 compounds and welding, 430- 
 444. 
 
 electric, 436-444. 
 
 electric, apparatus used in, 436- 
 438. 
 
 electric, applications of, 439. 
 electric, process of, 438, 439. 
 electric, under water, 441. 
 improved method of, 434, 435. 
 steel to wrought iron, compound 
 for, 433. 
 
 wrought-iron to wrought-iron, com¬ 
 pound for, 433. 
 
 Weston’s nickelling solution, 356. 
 
 Westphalische Union, of Hamm, 
 barbed wire manufactured by, 
 455. 
 
 West, Thomas D., on casting alumini¬ 
 um bronze and other strong 
 metals, 211-213. 
 eel, fine, 257. 
 medium, 257. 
 patterns, paint for, 226. 
 roughing, 257. 
 
 Wheels, buff, 257. 
 
 chilled, manufacture of, 219-223. 
 polishing by means of, 255. 
 
 White arsenic, 51, 52. 
 flux, 395, 396. 
 lead, 49. 
 metal, 87, 111. 
 metal bearings, 89. 
 metal, definition of, 83. 
 metals, testing of, 74. 
 prussiate of potash, 64. 
 table bells, 87. 
 vitriol, 51. 
 
 Willow, specific gravity of, 227. 
 
 Windsor loam, 397. 
 
 Wiped joint, definition of, 415. 
 
 Wire and sheet, brass for, 97. 
 
 and wire-cloth, metallic, to gild. 
 468-470. 
 
 and wire gauze, to tin, 471-473. 
 annealing of, 451, 452. 
 barbed, manufacture of, illustrated 
 and described, 453-455. 
 
 Wire, barbed, Moen’s machine for the 
 manufacture of, illustrated and 
 described, 455. 
 
 bars and tubes, Elmore process of 
 electro-depositing copper for, 331- 
 334. 
 
 binding, for soldering, 414. 
 brass, 99. 
 
 brass, method of making, 464. 
 cables,.electric welding of, 439. 
 copper, weight per mile of, 463. 
 copper, weight per 1000 feet of, 462. 
 -drawers’ soap and grease, 450, 451. 
 -drawing drums, sizes of, 452. 
 -drawing, lubricant for, recom¬ 
 mended by Chas. H. Morgan, 451. 
 -drawing, lubricants used in, 450, 
 451. 
 
 -drawing mill, essential features of 
 a, 449, 450. 
 
 -drawing mill, illustrated and de¬ 
 scribed, 450. 
 
 -drawing, Vogel’s fat pickle for, 
 451. 
 
 -drawing, what it consists in, 445. 
 galvanizing, Vogt’s arrangement 
 for closing vessels in, 466. 
 gauges, 460. 
 
 gauze and wire, to tin, 471-473. 
 half-round, illustrated, 453. 
 hardening of, 456-459. 
 iron and steel, table indicating 
 size, weight, and length of, 461. 
 iron, to copper, 464, 465. 
 manufacture, brassing, coppering, 
 electro-plating, galvanizing, etc., 
 of, 445-473. 
 
 mill, treatment of wire-rods in the, 
 449. 
 
 phosphorized, bronze or brass, 456. 
 Ramsden’s method of hardening, 
 456^59. 
 
 Roberts’ apparatus for galvanizing, 
 illustrated and described, 465,466. 
 Roberts’ apparatus for removing 
 superfluous zinc in galvanizing, 
 466, 467. 
 
 -rod mill, Garrett’s, near Chicago, 
 447. 
 
 -rod mill in England, 447. 
 
 -rod roll, construction of grooves 
 of a, illustrated, 448. 
 
 -rods, length of, finished, 449. 
 
 -rods, treatment of, in the wire-mill, 
 449. 
 
 steel and iron, coating which does 
 not readily oxidize upon, 473. 
 
 I steel piano, to harden, 473. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 538 
 
 Wire, tables relating to, by John A. I 
 Roebling’s Sons Co., of Trenton, 
 N. J., 459^163. 
 telegraph, 92. 
 telephone, 92. 
 
 to brass, in the galvanic way, 463, 
 464. 
 
 to electro-brass, 464. 
 to galvanize, 465—167. 
 to nickel, 470, 471. 
 
 Wittle’s and Kiimper’s arrangement 
 for removing superfluous zinc in 
 galvanizing, 466. 
 
 -work, continuous electric welding 
 of, 439. 
 
 Wires, breaking strength of, 447. 
 definition of qualities of, 446. 
 tempering or patenting of, 452. 
 uses of, 445, 446. 
 
 Wolfram,symbol and atomic weight of, 
 40. 
 
 Wood, cement for fastening metal let¬ 
 ters upon, 235. 
 
 engravings, metal suitable for im¬ 
 pressions of, 83. 
 
 or stone, to cement iron to, 234. 
 to fasten metals to, 234, 235. 
 varieties of, most suitable for pat¬ 
 terns, 227. 
 
 Woods, specific gravity of, 227. 
 
 Wood’s alloys, 83. 
 
 Wrought-iron and steel, Thierault’s 
 process for coloring, 182, 183. 
 -iron, cast-iron and steel, brass bath 
 for, 327. 
 
 -iron castings, 214-217. 
 
 -iron or cast-iron articles, pickle 
 for, 250. 
 
 -iron, ornamenting of, by burning 
 on, 205, 206. 
 
 -iron parts of machines, to harden, 
 132, 133. 
 
 -iron, steel, and cast-iron, ready 
 distinction of, 75. 
 
 -iron, to case-harden, 128-131. 
 
 -iron to wrought-iron, compound 
 for welding, 433. 
 
 Yellow prussiate of potash, 46. 
 
 Zach’s method for producing drawings 
 in relief upon metals, 316. 
 
 Ziegenhain, alarm bell at, 86. 
 
 Zinc amalgam, 126. 
 
 and copper, alloys of, 97-100. 
 antimony and arsenic, preparations 
 of, 51, 52. 
 
 articles, copper bath for, 330. 
 
 1 Zinc baths, 386, 387. 
 
 black varnish for, 410, 411. 
 
 brass bath for, 326, 327. 
 
 bronze-color on, 186. 
 
 bronzing liquids for, 158. 
 
 casting of, 223, 224. 
 
 castings, nickel bath for, 358. 
 
 chloride of, 51. 
 
 chloride of, formation of, 38. 
 
 chloride of, use of, as a flux, 418. 
 
 coloring of, 185-187. 
 
 contraction of, in casting, 191, 192. 
 
 copper and nickel alloys, 112-114. 
 
 copper-bronze on. 149. 
 
 copper-red on, 186. 
 
 dipping of, 319. 
 
 etching on, 313. 
 
 fusibility of, 35. 
 
 fusing point of, 82. 
 
 gray-coating on, 1S5, 186. 
 
 green bronze on, 149. 
 
 green coating on, 186. 
 
 ink for writing on, 492. 
 
 marbling of, 186. 
 
 ornaments, colored cement for re¬ 
 pairing, 239, 240. 
 oxide, 51. 
 
 oxide, formation of, 35. 
 plates, to copper, 337, 338. 
 polishing of, 269. 
 powdered, solidification of, 505. 
 preparation of, for batteries, 324, 
 325. 
 
 red-brownish color on, 187. 
 roofs, paint for preserving, 410. 
 specific gravity and chemical and 
 electro-chemical equivalent of, 
 323. 
 
 sulphate, 51. 
 
 sulphate and cupric sulphate, brass 
 bath from, 326. 
 
 symbol and atomic weight of, 40. 
 tin or cast-iron, to coat with copper, 
 337. 
 
 to bronze, 155, 156. 
 to give to, the capacity of firmly 
 adhering to other metals, and to 
 amalgamate with them, 500. 
 to harden, 142. 
 to pickle, 253, 254. 
 to prepare for painting, 296. 
 to separate lead from, 489. 
 wares, nickel bath for, 358. 
 white, 51. 
 
 yellow-brown shades on, 187. 
 Zincking copper and brass without a 
 battery, 387. 
 
 iron in the cold way, 387, 388. 
 

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