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■ ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLEh^ -^^^ 
 
 C A R P E N T 
 
 CHIEFLY COMPOSED mOlI THE STANDARD WORK OF 
 
 THOMAS TREDGOLD, C.E. 
 
 WITH ADDITIONS, ALTERATIONS, AXD CORRECTIONS FROIM THE 
 WORKS OF THE MOST RECENT AUTHORITIES 
 
 AKD A TREATISE ON 
 
 JOINERY 
 
 COKTAIMKG 
 
 A DETAILED ACCOUNT of the VAniOUS OPEBATIOXS of th^ JOINER 
 
 1 , e ' J- o^. 3 3 i o 1 •', ) ' >*i ' a' ^ ^ » • » 1 > ' 
 
 Edited by E. WYNDHAM TARN, M.A.,' Architect 
 
 AUTHOR CF *'TII^ S'^IENGF OF PUIir>TyC," "PRiCT^rAL GEOMETRY 
 - ' fpR ^IrCE ArjCriIlECt,,ENGINEIiR, >1:^TC , 
 
 LONDON 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND CO. 
 
 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL 
 1880 
 
(Cf* The ATLAS of thirfy-fivf J^ngraving-s to acccm^f xny 
 and illustratf} ihis Volume, price 6s, , or strongly 
 lound, 7*. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The former edition of this Treatise, forming one of 
 Weale's Rudimentary series, gave a brief outline of 
 the Carpentry of floors and roofs, together with a 
 popular account of the action of forces in the several 
 pieces which compose a truss. The present edition, 
 whilst it retains a considerable portion of the former 
 one, is also greatly enlarged, and is in the main an 
 abridgment of Tredgold's folio w^ork on Carpentry. 
 Alterations, additions, and corrections have been made 
 wherever the advanced knowledge of the strength of 
 materials and the science of Carpentry proved such to 
 be necessary. The mode of calculating the strains on 
 the parts of a truss by geometrical diagrams is ex- 
 plained, and an example given ; the tables of scant- 
 lings for the timbers of roofs being calculated by the 
 help of this process. The subject of Joinery, which 
 was altogether omitted in the former edition, has a 
 considerable space allotted to it, and is made an im- 
 portant feature in the present work ; the various 
 technical terms and modes of operation adopted by 
 
 A 2 
 
 ? 1^ 
 
vi 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 the Joiner being explained as far as tlie limits of the 
 work would permit. 
 
 The book is illustrated with numerous engravings, 
 so as to render it, as far as possible, complete in itself ; 
 but frequent reference is made in its pages to an Atlas 
 of Plates, published, as formerly, in a separate volume, 
 in which will be found a large number of examples of 
 the various works which come under the denominations 
 of Carpentry and J oinery . 
 
 E. W. T. 
 
 11, Beaufort Buil-dings, Strand. 
 Janua^'i/f 1873. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 rAOK 
 
 Introduction 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ox THE PROrEIiTIES, rPvESERYATIOX, AND STRUCTURE OF TIMBPR. 
 
 Section I.— On the Nature and Fropcriies of Timber, 
 
 1. Timber 11 
 
 2. Growth of trees . 12 
 
 3. The life of trees . 15 
 
 4. Felling timber 15 
 
 5. Season for felling 17 
 
 6. Barking trees . 18 
 
 Section 2. — Scr- zoning Timber. 
 
 7. Treatment of timber 19. 
 
 8. \Yater seasoning 21 
 
 9. Steaming or boiling timber 22 
 
 10. Smoke-drjdng timber — scorching and charring . . . 23 
 
 11. Weight of timber in different states, and times of seasoning 24 
 
 Section 3. — Decay and Fresei'vation of Timber, 
 
 12. Effects of drjTiess and moisture 27 
 
 13. Effects of continued moisture with heat .... 28 
 
 14. Fungus on rotten wood . . . . . . .31 
 
 15. Timbers most Liable to rot 31 
 
 16. Warmth and moisture assist decay 32 
 
 17. Building timber into new walls a cause of decay . . 33 
 
 18. Effect of painting unseasoned wood 33 
 
 19. Prevention of decay ........ 34 
 
 20. Drying new buildings before they are finished ... 35 
 
 21. Prevention of rising damp 35 
 
 22. Impregnation with salt or seawater ..... 36 
 
 23. Impregnation with sulphate of iron and quicklime . . 37 
 
 24. Kyanizing 37 
 
 25. Repairs of buildings affected with rot .... 39 
 
 26. Protection of the surface of timber 40 
 
viii 
 
 CONTEXTS. 
 
 TAGS 
 
 27. Ravages of worms and insects . . . . . .42 
 
 28. Teredo navalis, tholas, and lepisma 42 
 
 29. The worm in timber ........ 44 
 
 30. White ant 45 
 
 31. Durability of timber in a wet state ..... 45 
 
 32. Do. do. buried in the earth . r . . 46 
 
 33. Do. do. fi^amed in buildings . , o . 47 
 
 34. Relative durability of different woods . . . .47 
 
 Section 4. — The Structure a)id Classijicatioi} of Woods. 
 
 35. Characters of woods . . . . . . . .49 
 
 36. Properties of wood: cohesive force, modulus of elasticity, 
 
 permanent alteration, stiffness, hardnCiS, and toughness . 51 
 
 37. Description of woods. Class 1. 53 
 
 38. Division I.— Oak 53 
 
 39. Di^dsion II. of Class 1 58 
 
 40. Beech 58 
 
 41. Alder - . 60 
 
 42. Plane 60 
 
 43. Sycamore . . . . . . . . . .61 
 
 44. Class 2. Division 1 62 
 
 45. Chestnut 63 
 
 46. Ash 64 
 
 47. Elm 65 
 
 48. Common acacia ......... 67 
 
 49. Division II. of the second class 68 
 
 50. Mahogany .......... 69 
 
 51. Walnut 70 
 
 52. Teak 71 
 
 53. Poena 72 
 
 54. Turtosa or African teak 73 
 
 55. Poplar 73 
 
 56. Division III. of the second class 74 
 
 57. Cedar of Lebanon or great cedar 74 
 
 58. Red or yellow fir 75 
 
 59. White fir or deal 77 
 
 60. W^eymouth pine . . . 79 
 
 61. Yellow pine 80 
 
 62. Pitch pine 80 
 
 63. Silver fir 80 
 
 64. Cluster pine or pinaster 80 
 
 65. Larch 81 
 
 66. Cedar or juniper 83 
 
 67. Cowrie 84 
 
 CHAPTER IT. 
 
 ^TRAtKS OK REAMS AND FRAMES, AND HESTSTANCE OF Tiill'.ER. 
 
 Section 1. — Strains On l^eams and Frames. 
 
 63. Application of the laws of mechanics 85 
 
 69. Theory of carpentry 85 
 
CO]STENTS. IX 
 
 TAG-a 
 
 70. Composition and resolution of forces ..... 86 
 
 71. Combination of pressures 88 
 
 72. Direction of strain 94 
 
 73. Relation between the angles wLicb timbers make with each 
 
 other and the strains ....... 95 
 
 74. Strains represented by lines 96 
 
 75. Proportion of pressures in framings is not affected by the 
 
 form of the joints ........ 98 
 
 76. Application to a common roof 99 
 
 77. A frame of carpentry may be considered as a solid body . 101 
 
 78. Strains propagated through a piece of framing . . . 103 
 
 79. Maxwell's diagram of stress applied to a king-post roof . 108 
 
 80. To find the scantlings of the timbers in a trussed roof . Ill 
 
 Section 2. — Resistance of Timber. 
 
 81. Laws of the resistance of timber. 112 
 
 82. Eesistance to tension 113 
 
 83. Tables of the cohesive force of woods 114 
 
 84. Stiffness of beams subject to cross strains . . . . Ii5 
 
 85. Experimental data for deflexion of beams . . . .117 
 
 86. Table of experiments on the stiffness of oak . . .118 
 
 87. Do. do. do. fir ... . 118 
 
 88. Do. do. do. various woods . 119 
 
 89. Do. do. do. oak from the royal 
 forests 119 
 
 90. Formula for stiffness 120 
 
 91. liules for the stiffness of beams 120 
 
 92. Rules for bearas supported at one end . . . . .122 
 
 93. Strength of beams to resist cross strains, and tables of ex- 
 
 periments on various woods . . . . . .122 
 
 94. Resistance to detrusion or crushing across close to a fixed 
 
 point 127 
 
 95. Strength of bent timber 127 
 
 96. Resistance to compression, and strength of pillars . .129 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OK THE FRAMING OF TIMBERS. 
 
 Section 1. — Floors. 
 
 97. Naked flooring, description of various kinds . . .131 
 
 98. Single-joisted floor, scantling of timbers .... 133 
 
 99. Framed floors, scantling of timbers ..... 134 
 
 100. Binding joists and bridging joists ..... 139 
 
 101. Ceiling-joists, scantlings for different lengths . . . 139 
 
 102. General remarks respecting floors . . . . ,140 
 
 Section 2. — Roofs. 
 
 103. The object of a roof; various forms of roofs, and modes of 
 
 framing Ill 
 
 104. Domical or cylindrical roofs ...... 149 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 TAOR 
 
 lOo. Gothic roofs 150 
 
 106. Examples of modern tie-beam roofs of large span . .155 
 
 107. Roofs witli curved ribs 161 
 
 108. Proportions of the parts of roofs, scantlings of timbers for 
 
 various spans . . . . . . . . .164 
 
 109. Construction of timber domes and cupolas . . . .168 
 
 110. Conical roo'^s and spires . , . . . . .171 
 
 Section 3. — Construction of Partitions and Frame Houses, 
 
 111. Construction of timber partitions , . . . ,172 
 
 112. Frame Houses .176 
 
 CHAPTER TV. 
 
 CENTERINGS, BRIDGES, JOINTS, (fcC 
 
 Section 1. — Centerings, 
 
 113. Centerings for stone bridges . ♦ . ♦ » ,178 
 
 114. Designing frames for centres . . . , , ,182 
 
 115. Construction of centres . . . . , , .185 
 
 116. Computing strength of centres 188 
 
 Section 2. — Wooden Bridges. 
 
 117. Examples of wooden bridges 190 
 
 118. Design of wooden bridges 196 
 
 119. Piers for bridges T 200 
 
 120. Timber frames for bridges 202 
 
 121. Roadways of bridges 211 
 
 122. Scantlings of the timbers 212 
 
 Section 3. — Joints, Scarfing^ and Straps. 
 
 123. Joints of timber frames 213 
 
 124. Scarfing pieces of timber 223 
 
 125. Straps for strengthening joints 227 
 
 Section 4. — Scaffolding^ Shoring, Coffer-dams^ Bressummers. 
 
 126. Gantries, staging, scaffolding 230 
 
 127. Shorinj^, needling, strutting ...... 232 
 
 128. Coffer-dams 234 
 
 129. Bressummers, story-posts, lintels 235 
 
 CHAPTER y. 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 Section 1. — Technical Terms. 
 
 130. Operations of Joinery , 237 
 
 131. Grooving or ploughing 238 
 
CONTEXTS. f '^^^^ 
 
 132. Rebating or rabbeting . . . • \v • x • 2SV^> 
 
 133. Mortising \<x . V/>23S'^ 
 
 134. Tongueing Vy<>- '^^^^ 
 
 135. Mitres . 73^ 
 
 136. Shooting 
 
 137. Dovetailing 
 
 138. Arris 240 
 
 139. Clamping . . . . . . , . . .240 
 
 140. Blockings 241 
 
 141. Housing 241 
 
 142. Bracketing . . . .241 
 
 143. Angle-statls 241 
 
 144. Battening 241 
 
 145. Matched-boarding 242 
 
 146. Feather-edged boards 242 
 
 147. Fnrrings 242 
 
 148. Fillets 242 
 
 149. Heading-joints 242 
 
 150. Veneers 243 
 
 151. Halving 243 
 
 152. Plugs 243 
 
 153. Scribing 243 
 
 154. Bevilling and splaying 243 
 
 155. Wedges 244 
 
 156. Throating 244 
 
 157. Raking 244 
 
 158. Framing 244 
 
 Section 2. — Floors and Shirtings. 
 
 159. Floors 245 
 
 160. Folding-floors 246 
 
 161. Straight-joint do 246 
 
 162. Tongued do 246 
 
 163. Dowelled do 246 
 
 164. Parquetry do 247 
 
 165. Skirtings 247 
 
 106. Dado 248 
 
 Section 3. — Doors, Framing, SJmtters, Gates* 
 
 167. Doors, led2:ed-doors . 249 
 
 108. Door-frames 250 
 
 169. Framed doors ... 250 
 
 170. Folding do 251 
 
 171. Door-linings 252 
 
 172. Swing-doors ......... 252 
 
 173. Sash-doors 252 
 
 174. Sliding do 252 
 
 175. Panels 253 
 
 170. Locks 253 
 
 177. Framing 253 
 
 178. Folding-shutters 254 
 
 179. Lifting-shutters 255 
 
 180. Movable do 255 
 
xii CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGM 
 
 181. Kevolving-shutters 255 
 
 182. Gates 256 
 
 183. Lock-gates 257 
 
 Section 4.^ — JVindows. 
 
 184. Sashes 258 
 
 185. Sash frames .258 
 
 186. Fixed sashes 258 
 
 187. Casements 258 
 
 188. Hung sashes 260 
 
 189. Swing sashes 262 
 
 190. Sash-bars 262 
 
 191. Venetian frames 262 
 
 192. Skylights 263 
 
 193. Fanlights 263 
 
 Section 5. — Mouldings, Columns^ Staircases. 
 
 194. Mouldings 263 
 
 195. Cornices , . 266 
 
 196. Columns , . 266 
 
 197. PHasters 267 
 
 198. Staircases 267 
 
 199. Handrails . . .271 
 
 200. Ballusters 273 
 
 Seotion 6. — L'onrnongery, 
 
 201. Ironmongery 273 
 
 202. Nails 273 
 
 203. Screws. . . . , 277 
 
 204. Hinges 278 
 
 205. Locks , .... 280 
 
 206. Bolts 284 
 
 207. Window-fittings 284 
 
 208. Miscellaneous 286 
 
INTEODTJCTIOX. 
 
 Carpentry is the art of adapting timber to structural 
 purposes generally. It is to be distinguished, how- 
 ever, from two closely-allied arts — those of the joiner 
 and of the cabinet-maker ; though all these arts are 
 conversant with timber as their objective material. 
 
 Joinery, though often popularly confounded with 
 carpentry, is properly confined to the art of working 
 in woods, and adapting these in the interior, or some- 
 times exterior, fitments of dwelling-houses or other 
 buildings. Doors, panelling, sashes, shelving, and 
 numberless like things are within its scope, which 
 occasionally also, but with specialities added, ramifies 
 into other crafts, such as pattern-making for foundry 
 purposes, &c. 
 
 Cabinet-making, as all know, though uniting at cer- 
 tain points with joinery, is properly confined to the 
 production in wood, united with other materials, of the 
 furniture and movables, internal or external, of dwell- 
 ings or other buildings. It, too, has its goings forth 
 into closely-joined arts, as, for example, that of the 
 pianoforte-maker, w^hose instrument-cases are cabinet- 
 makers' work of a very high class. 
 
 The practical methods and manipulations, and even 
 the tools, of all these relatives of the joinery family 
 have much in common. The nail and screw, glued 
 joints, the tenon, the dovetail, the rabbet, are common 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 IXTRODrCTlON. 
 
 to all. Less directly conjoint are other arts which, 
 work in wood, and become auxiliary or ministrant to 
 the joiner or cabinet-maker, the pattern-maker, or the 
 pianoforte-maker alike — such are wood-turners and 
 wood-caryers. 
 
 Carpentry, though in general to be defined as the 
 art of working and adapting timber to structural pur- 
 poses, whateyer these may be, is commonly and use- 
 fully limited to that which refers to the structures of 
 architecture and of engineering, while the carpentry of 
 floating structures, or ship-carpentry, is commonly 
 called nayal architecture ; though more properly this 
 term should express much more — yiz., all that refers 
 to the theory and practice of the shape, capabilities, 
 motions, construction, &c., of all sorts of ships, whether 
 of wood or other material, while ship-carpentry is pro- 
 perly limited to the adaptation and working of wood 
 into the structure of timber-built ships. 
 
 Besides this distinction, which the yast modern pro- 
 gress of ship-building and the adaptation of iron to it 
 haye rendered necessary, a separation would probably 
 be found adyantageous of carpentry proper into three 
 classes of structural art, yiz. : — • 
 
 1. The carpentry of architecture. 
 
 2. The carpentry of ciyil engineering, or of struc- 
 tures in timber, partly or wholly designed for utility, 
 and not for ornament. 
 
 3. The carpentry of mechanical engineering, or that 
 of heayy machines or engines. 
 
 Within the two latter of course are comprised the 
 special forms which belong to the military art — such 
 as palisades, military bridges (not floating), to the 
 second; and gun-carriages, &c., as also common cart 
 or waggon-building, and agricultural implement-mak- 
 ing (so far as wooden), to the third. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 3 
 
 As we remarked of joinery, so we may say of car- 
 pentry throughout this wide triple range, embracing 
 along with ship-carpentry so vast an extent of objects, 
 that the constructive principles, the practical methods, 
 and even the majority of the tools, are common to 
 them all. 
 
 The cathedral roof, the roof or floors of the house or 
 villa, the timber viaduct or bridge, the centering that 
 enables the stone arch to be erected, the wind-mill, the 
 water-wheel, the timber-crane, the tall admiral and 
 her smallest cockboat, rest, for their union of parts, for 
 the means by which these are united rib by rib, or bit 
 by bit, for the tools mainly by which these are effected, 
 and for the principles upon which they all depend, 
 upon almost common ground. 
 
 Underlying all these, and ministering to all alike in 
 the crude supply of their great staple, timber, and in 
 the first gross fashioning of the natural vegetable 
 trunk into regular forms, such as balks or planks, are 
 the lumberer and the felling-axe, the sawyer and pit- 
 saw, and in modern days the saw-mill. 
 
 Machinery and tools also for working in wood, of 
 the utmost ingenuity and beauty, have within the last 
 quarter-century been adapted, with special variations 
 suited to each, to every one of the entire range of sub- 
 jects which we have above classified. 
 
 Block-making, once a mere tedious handicraft, as 
 part of ship- carpentry, has, since the days of Maudslay 
 and the elder Brunei, been almost entirely performed 
 by machinery. Joseph Bramah (the inventor of the 
 lock and hydraulic press which bear his name), before 
 this century, produced a machine for planing wood, 
 still effective and at work in our arsenals. 
 
 Since that, many eminent houses of manufacturing 
 mechanical engineers have devoted themselves, in 
 
 B 2 
 
4 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 America, England, and France, to the production of 
 machines by which every form and fashioning that 
 timber requires, to be put together for structural use, 
 can be performed. 
 
 Rabbeting, grooving, tonguing, morticing, tenon 
 forming, boring, moulding making, feather-edging, all 
 are performed by machines that have abridged time 
 and cost, and the hard muscular labour before demanded 
 from the skilled workman, to an amazing extent ; — 
 thus at once improving his condition and that of 
 society together, by leaving the workman's skill to be 
 applied, as it should ever be, mainly through his brain, 
 as a thinking and specially educated being, and not by 
 the wrenching toil of his muscles alone, like a mere 
 brute. 
 
 As an adjunct, too, to carpentry in connection with 
 architecture, machinery has been adapted to the wood- 
 carver's art, and to that of the fret-cutter, or sawyer 
 of perforated wood ornaments, by which the beautiful 
 creations of the artist's mind, whether the wood-carver, 
 the modeller, or the sculptor, may be copied with 
 fidelity, and indefinitely. All these are as applicable 
 to joinery and cabinet-making as to architecture. 
 
 These, and many other directions, in which the 
 working in wood of one class or of another has con- 
 nected itself with other arts, and derived immense help 
 from them, we can but barely notice in the opening 
 pages of a work so elementary as this. 
 
 Carpentry, in its largest sense, is one of the most 
 ancient pedigree amongst the family of human arts. 
 Five thousand years ago a state had grown old upon 
 the banks of the Nile, and had then nurtured a high 
 and artificial civilization and a complicated system of 
 religion and priesthood, which ordained, at that remote 
 epoch, the burial of the embalmed Egyptians in coffins, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 5 
 
 hollowed by the hand of the carpenter from blocks of 
 sycamore, carved and ornamented in a way (to say 
 nothing of the embalmments they contained) ' which 
 proves that probably ages before that time, the use 
 of these wood-wrought coffins had become an estab- 
 lished rite. 
 
 In a still more eastern and more ancient land, ship- 
 carpentry was practised upon the Tigris and Euphrates, 
 and carpentry proper in the huge trabeation of the 
 roofs of the palaces of Assyrian kings. The pri- 
 mary tools even of the carpenter's art, the saw, the axe, 
 the auger, are so old, that the most archaic Greek 
 mythology attributed their invention, at a remote and 
 unknown epoch, to the demigods and heroes of its 
 traditional history. In Isaiah's day, the measure 
 (rule), the chalk line, or its equivalent, the plane, the 
 compass, and unquestionably many cutting tools, were 
 such old and common things as to serve to point an 
 apothegm. 
 
 Some of the habits of taste or of hand, of the car- 
 penters of these old worlds, so much lost to history or 
 even to tradition in the lapse of ages, have even come 
 down to our own daj^, though often strangely changed, 
 so that none but the patient archaeologist can trace 
 back and recognise their originals. Thus the trighjphs 
 that at intervals adorn the frieze of every Greek Doric 
 portico are but the semblance in stone of the three 
 V-shaped cuts or indentations that a rude art of work- 
 ing in wood produced on the ends of the flat roof (tye) 
 beams, where these appeared through upon the outside 
 of the breast- summer ; and the guttcn beneath are the 
 representatives of the dovetails by which the former 
 were secured to the latter at their seats. 
 
 Joinery, as we have before remarked, is the name 
 given to the art of joining pieces of wood together to 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 form the internal finishings of buildings, and requires 
 more accurate and careful workmanship than carpentry. 
 Being used chiefly for decorative purposes, the joints 
 have to be fitted and the surfaces finished with the 
 utmost care. Whilst, therefore, carpentry may be 
 considered as a highly scientific branch of building, 
 joinery. ought to be looked upon rather as a branch of 
 the fine arts, combining the useful with the orna- 
 mental. The use of machinery is also more frequent 
 in executing joiners^ work than carpenters^ work ; in 
 fact, nearly the whole of the joinery in large workshops 
 is prepared in that way, and requires very little skilled 
 manual labour ; there are, however, some processes 
 which can only be done by hand, such as fixing hinges, 
 locks, bolts, or other fastenings, getting out the curved 
 portions of handrails, the framing of staircases, &c., 
 all of which require the hand of the skilled artizan. 
 
 For the more extended study of the subject, those 
 larger and more important works, of which a list, 
 which might be greatly extended, is subjoined, may be 
 consulted :— — 
 
 Airy. — On the Strains in the Interior of Beams. By G. B. Airy. 
 With Plates. 4to. London, 1862. 
 
 Ardent (Colonel). — Sur la Charpente a Grand Portees. Folio. 
 Fans, 1853. 
 
 AsHPiTEL. — The Carpenter's Xew Guide ; or, Book of Lines for 
 Carpenters ; comprising all the Elementary Principles essential 
 for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on Peter 
 Kicholson's standard work. A New Edition, revised by Arthur 
 Ashpitel, together with Practical Rules on Drawing, hy George 
 Pyne. With 74 plates. 4to. Zockwood, London. 
 
 Ashpitel. — Treatise on Handrails and Staircases. By A. Ashpitel. 
 4to. London, 1852. 
 
 Banks. — Instructions in Staircasing and Handrailing. By L. Banks. 
 3 vols. 4to. London, 1849-63. 
 
 Barlow. — Treatise on the Strength of Timber, Cast Iron, Malleable 
 Iron, and other Materials. New Edition. Edited by WiUiam 
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INTRODLXTIOIS'. 
 
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 Biddle's Young Carpenter's Assistant ; being a 
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 Brandon.— Open Timber Eoofs of the Middle Ages. By E. and J. 
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 Burn (R. Scott). — New Guide to Carpentry, 
 
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 Chapman. — On the Preservation of Timber. 
 
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 struction of Staircases and Handrails, Plans of the various Forms 
 of Stairs, &c. &c. By R. A. Cupper. With 29 plates. 4to. pp. 
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 4to., and folio Atlas of Plates. Tar is, 1836-41. 
 
 Emy. — Description d'un nouveau Systeme d'Arcs pour les grandes 
 Charpentes. Par A. R. Emy. Folio. I'aris, 1828. 
 
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 Planning and Constructing Staircases and Handrails. By W. 
 P. Esterbrook and J. H. Monckton. Oblong 4 to. Kexo York, 
 1859. 
 
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 Whittaker, London, 1853. 
 
 FouRNEAu. — L'Art du Trait de Charpenterie. Four Parts, folio. 
 Faris, 1802-26. 
 
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 entirely new Principles. By J. Gastjjin. 4to. 
 
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 GiRARD. — Traite Analytique de la Resistance des Solidcs. 
 
 Graffenreid et Stuerler. — Architecture Suisse. Folio. B€r)ie 
 1844. 
 
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8 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
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 1863. 
 
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 Leduc, Yiollet. — Dictionnaire Raisonne de rArchitocturc. 
 
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INTKODUCTION. 
 
 9 
 
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 Telford. -Article "Bridge," in "Edinburgh Encyclopa3dia." 
 
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 B 3 
 
10 
 
 INTRODUCTION, 
 
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 WiEBEKiNG. —Construction of Bridges. 
 
 Young. 
 
 . — Natural Philosophy. 
 
 By Dr. Thomas Young. 
 
ELEMENTAEY PEINCIPLES 
 
 OF 
 
 CAEPENTRY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ON THE rilOPERTIES, PRESERVATION, AND STRUCTUJIE OF 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 Section I. — On the Nature and Properties of Timber, 
 
 1. Timber bcmg the material out of which all the 
 works of the carpenter and joiner are executed, it 
 becomes of great importance to those artizans that 
 they should have some acquaintance with the mode of 
 growth, nature, causes of decay, and other peculiarities 
 of the various kinds of wood on which they have to 
 employ their skill, in order that they may be able to 
 turn their materials to the best account. 
 
 Wood is that substance which forms the principal 
 part of the roots, trunks, and branches of trees and 
 shrubs. The woods of different trees differ much in 
 strength, hardness, durability, and beauty ; and, con- 
 sequently, in their fitness for the various purposes to 
 which they are applied. The wood which is felled and 
 seasoned for the purpose of building is called timber, 
 from the Saxon word timbriany signifying to build ; 
 and in stating the properties of woods, we shall con- 
 sider those only which are fit for timber, or for build- 
 ing purposes generally. 
 
12 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 2. Growth of Trees. — Most of the timbers are 
 derived from the class of trees which botanists de- 
 nominate Exogens, a term signifying outward growers, 
 from the fact of the new wood being added each year 
 to the outside of that previously formed. All the 
 timber trees which grow in temperate and cold climates, 
 as well as many found in the tropics, belong to the 
 class of Exogens. The mode of growth may be briefly 
 described as follows : — The first year's growth of the 
 plant consists of a stem, of which the centre is a soft 
 substance called the pith, and is surrounded by a thin 
 coating of wood, over which is the hark. In the second 
 year the inner part of the bark separates from the 
 wood, and sap forms between the wood and the bark, 
 the new sap-wood being connected with the pith by 
 means of the medullary rays, which are cross passages 
 extending from the pith to the outside, and by which 
 the secretions pass horizontally from outside to the 
 centre. The chief use of the root is to absorb juices 
 from the soil and convey them to the woody fibres im- 
 mediately surrounding the pith, by which they are 
 carried upwards and dispersed through all the branches 
 to the remotest leaves, by means of which much of the 
 water contained in the fluid is evaporated, and a com- 
 plete change therein efiected. The fluid descends from 
 the leaves through a series of tubes in the inner part 
 of the bark, and is deposited so as to form the new 
 wood, bark, &c. The pith connects the root with the 
 leaf-buds, to which it conveys nourishment ; it is at first 
 green, and filled with fluid, but loses its colour as it 
 dries up and the tree gets old. This is the first part 
 that decays in the live tree ; and many trees which 
 appear sound on the outside will be found when cut up 
 to have decayed at the centre or pith ; it also shows 
 itself in the dead knots frequently met with in certain 
 
ON THE NATURE AND PROPERTIEi OF^lMB^VlS 
 
 kmds of wood. The cellular mass\ the/'-^te 
 pressed into plates of various thicl^^^es ' tl^| 
 wedges of wood which are formed witn^^^o^'l^.t^' 
 when a transverse section is made of the sb&aj. ^ th ^g^ 
 plates appear as a number of lines radiating from the 
 centre, which have received the name of medullary rays. 
 The medullary sheath consists of spiral vessels sur- 
 rounding the pith, projections of which pass through it 
 into the medullary rays, and by means of this sheath 
 oxygen is conveyed to the leaves, being obtained by 
 the decomposition of water or of carbonic acid. Sur- 
 rounding this medullary sheath is the tvood, properly 
 so called, and consists of concentric layers formed by 
 successive deposits, year after year, of the nutriment 
 which descends from the leaves. In countries which 
 have a winter and summer, each layer of wood is the 
 produce of a single year's growth ; the secretions are 
 found most abundant in the oldest layers, and when 
 these become filled up they cease to perform any vital 
 function, and form what is termed licart-wood. The 
 bark which covers and protects the newly formed wood 
 is composed of several concentric layers, and is in- 
 creased by additions to its inner layers, so as to allow 
 for the gradual distension of the wood beneath : the 
 outer bark does not increase, but splits ofi", and a new 
 one takes its place. The bark serves the double pur- 
 pose of being a protection to the new wood and also 
 a filter through which the descending juices pass. 
 The circulation of the sap will continue after the outer 
 bark has been removed ; but if the stem is cut entirely 
 through the inner bark, the descent of the sap will be 
 stopped, and the tree will soon die. 
 
 If the stem or trunk of a tree is cut across, the wood 
 is found to be made up of numerous concentric layers 
 or rings, very dibtinct in some trees, but less so in 
 
14 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 others. One of tliese layers is commonly formed every 
 year in temperate or cold climates, consequently their 
 number corresponds nearly with the age of the tree. 
 In tropical climates, however, the growth is more 
 rapid, and more than one ring may be formed in each 
 year. Each layer consists, in general, of two parts — 
 the one solid, hard, heavy, and dark-coloured ; the 
 other of a lighter colour, porous and soft, which ren- 
 ders the lines of separation betw^een the annual layers 
 distinct. Scarcely any two layers of the same tree are 
 precisely alike, either in the proportion of the hard 
 part, or in the thickness of the layers, as the layers 
 vary in thickness according to the degree of vegetation 
 which took place in the years of their formation ; and 
 also in the same tree they vary in thickness, either 
 according to the situation of the principal roots, or the 
 aspect ; the annual layers being always thicker on that 
 side of the tree which has been favourable to the 
 growth of the roots, or that which has had the advan- 
 tage of a good asjoect. 
 
 The sap-wood is softer, and generally lighter 
 coloured, than the heart-wood, and contains a con- 
 siderable portion of vegetable matter, which partakes 
 of the nature of the sap, and which descends through 
 it. It is found to decay rapidly, and is also very 
 subject to worms. The reason is obvious, for it con- 
 tains the food which they live upon, the most of 
 which is absorbed or evaporated from the heart- 
 wood. 
 
 The proportion of sap-wood in different trees varies 
 very much : Spanish chestnut has a very small pro- 
 portion of sap-wood, oak has more, and fir a still larger 
 proportion than oak ; but the proportions vary accord- 
 ing to the situation and soil. Three specimens of a 
 medium quality gave the following 
 
ON THE NATUEE AND iPROPEKTIES OF TIMBER. 15 
 
 Chestnut, whole age 58 years, inches diameter, 7 years' sap-wood, 
 J inch thick. 
 
 Oak, whole age 65 years, 17 inches diameter, 17 years' sap-wood, IJ 
 inch thick. 
 
 Scotch fir, 24 inches diameter, sap-wood 2^ inches thick. 
 
 Therefore, if the diameter be unity, or 1, that part 
 of it which is sap-wood will be, in the chestnut, 0*1 ; 
 in the oak, 0-294 ; and in the Scotch fir, 0-416. The 
 Scotch fir was the produce of the Mar Forest. 
 
 3. The Life of Trees, like that of men, has been 
 commonly divided into three stages — infancy, maturity, 
 and old age. In the first, the tree increases from day 
 to day ; in the second, it maintains itself without 
 sensible gain or loss ; but in the third, it declines. 
 These stages vary in every species, according to the 
 soil, the aspect, the climate, or the nature of the indi- 
 vidual plant ; oak and chestnut trees decay sooner in 
 a moist soil than in a dry and sandy one, and their 
 timber is less firm ; the sap vessels being expanded 
 with moisture without the necessary quantity of nourish- 
 ing matter, the general texture becomes necessarily 
 less firm. Such wood splits easily, and is very liable 
 to shrink and swell with the changes of the weather. 
 Trees of the same kind arrive at the greatest age in 
 that climate which is best adapted to their nature. 
 The common oak, the fir, and the birch thrive best 
 towards the northern, the ash and the olive tree thrive 
 best towards the southern, parts of Europe. 
 
 The decline of trees appears to be caused by the 
 decay of the heart-wood. In trees that have not 
 arrived at maturity, the hardness and solidity of the 
 wood are greatest at the heart, and decrease tow^ards the 
 sap-wood ; but in the mature or perfect tree the heart- 
 wood is nearly uniform ; while that of a tree on the de- 
 cline is softer at the centre than it is next the sap-wood. 
 
 4. Felling Timbek should take place in the vigour 
 
16 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 and perfectioii-'of the trees. When a tree is felled too 
 soon, the greater part of it is sap-wood, and in a young 
 tree eten- the heart-wood has not acquired its proper 
 degree of hardness ; indeed the whole tree must par- 
 take so much of the nature of sap-wood, that it cannot 
 be expected to be durable. And when a tree is not 
 felled till it be on the decline, the wood is brittle and 
 devoid of elasticity, tainted, discoloured, and soon 
 decays. But in trees that have arrived at a mature 
 age, the proportion of sap-wood is small, and the 
 heart-wood is nearly uniform, and is hard, compact, 
 and durable. It is true the proper age for each 
 species has not been satisfactorily determined ; but it 
 is a point where great accuracy is not necessary ; for 
 half a dozen years in the age of a tree will not make 
 much difference, provided it be not cut too soon. It is 
 cutting trees before they have arrived at maturity that 
 should be guarded against; and as it is most likely 
 to happen from interested motives, it is the more 
 necessary to caution the carpenter in this respect. 
 Trees increase slowly in size after they arrive at a 
 certain age, therefore it is the interest of the timber 
 grower to fell them before they arrive at maturity : 
 because it is his object to obtain the greatest possible 
 quantity of timber, without regard to the quality. But 
 when the carpenter is sensible of the inferior quality 
 of young timber in respect to duration, it is his pro- 
 vince to check this growing evil, by giving a better 
 price for timber that has acquired its proper degree of 
 density and hardness. 
 
 The period generally allowed for an oak tree to 
 arrive at maturity is 100 years, and the average 
 quantity of timber produced by a tree of that age is 
 about 1| loads, or 75 cubic feet. In some instances oak 
 trees arrive at maturity in a less time than 100 years, 
 
ON THE NATURE AND PROPERTIESl OF TJC^BERI^^JKT 
 
 and in others not till after tliat perioofe^s a v^Iq. it^ 
 age should never exceed 200 years, noiS^^iild i^>be 
 felled at a less age than 60. It is much to b^^j^f^tti^^ 
 that in districts where the oak flourishes it issSdl9m 
 suffered to attain a mature age ; being often cut before 
 the trees will produce 50 feet of timber each. The 
 ash, larch, and elm should be cut when the trees are 
 between 60 and 100 j^ears old ; and between 30 and 50 
 is a proper age for poplars. The Norway spruce and 
 Scotch pine are generally cut when between 70 and 
 100 years old in Norway. 
 
 5. Season for Felling. — In order that timber 
 may be durable, it is also necessary to attend to the 
 proper season of the year for felling. But on this 
 point there is much difiercnce of opinion, and the 
 question is only to be decided by attending to the 
 state of trees at different seasons of the year. The 
 best period for felling timber is undoubtedly that in 
 which it is most free from extraneous vegetable matter ; 
 or such matter as is intended to be expended in form- 
 ing leaves and buds, w^iich is in a more fluid state, 
 and of a more saccharine and fermentable nature 
 than the proper juices, or such as form the wood. A 
 tree deposits in the sap-w^ood a portion of matter to be 
 dissolved by the descending sap, and at the period 
 when the leaves arc putting forth, the wood must be 
 filled with matter in a state ready for germination ; 
 consequently the timber cut at that period must be 
 easily ac^ed upon by heat and moisture, and subject to 
 rapid decay, or to be destroyed by worms. Of all 
 periods of the year the spring must be the w^orst, 
 because the tree then contains the greatest quantity of 
 matter in a state fit for germination. 
 
 On the other hand, the best time for felling timber 
 is in midwinter ; as at that time the vegetative powei s 
 
18 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 are at rest, altliougli in some kinds of trees a little 
 after midsummer appears to be decidedly the best 
 time for felling. Alder felled at that time is found to 
 be mucb more durable ; and beech, when cut in the 
 middle of summer, is better and less liable to be worm- 
 eaten ; particularly if a gash be cut to let out the sap 
 some time before felling. About Naples, and in other 
 parts of Italj% oaks have been felled in summer, and 
 are said to have been very durable. And as summer 
 felling is an advantage in some species, it seems reason- 
 able to conclude that it will be so in all. 
 
 6. Barking Trees. — In oak trees the bark is too 
 valuable to be lost ; and as the best period for the 
 timber is the worst for the bark, an ingenious method 
 has been long partially practised, which not only 
 secures the bark at the best season, but also materially 
 improves the timber. This method consists in taking 
 the bark off the standing tree early in the spring, and 
 not felling it till after the new foliage has put forth 
 and died. For by the production of new buds the 
 fermentable matter is expended, and the sap-wood 
 becomes nearly as hard and durable as the heart- wood, 
 both being less liable to decay and to be destroyed by 
 worms. The wood is materially improved by this 
 method of barking the trees standing in the spring, 
 and felling them about the end of October. "Where it is 
 essential to give durability to the sap-wood of oak, the 
 trees should be barked in the spring, and felled in the en- 
 suing winter ; also winter-felled heart- wood is less affected 
 by moisture, and likely to be the best and most durable. 
 
 When the bark of a tree is not of sufficient value to 
 defray the expense of stripping, the timber should be 
 felled during the months of December, January, or 
 February, in the winter, or during the month of July 
 in the summer. AVinter felling is better, chiefly ii] 
 
SEASONING TIMBER. 
 
 19 
 
 consequence of the timber being less liable to split or 
 twist in seasoning, from the drying being more gradual 
 wben it is cut at that time of the year. The advantage 
 of slow drying may, however, be easily given at any 
 season ; and it certainly is a great advantage in this 
 early stage of seasoning. According to Vitruvius, the 
 proper time for felling is between October and Feb- 
 ruary ; and he directs that the trees should be cut to 
 the pith, and then suffered to remain till the sap be 
 drained out. The effusion of the sap prevents the 
 decay of the timber ; and when it is all drained out, 
 and the wood becomes dry, the trees are to be cut 
 down, when the wood will be excellent for use. A 
 similar effect might be produced by placing the timber 
 on its end as soon as it is felled, and it would no doubt 
 compensate for the extra expense by its durability 
 in use. 
 
 Section II, — Seasoning Timber. 
 
 7. Treatment of Timber. — "When timber is felled, 
 the sooner it is removed from the forest the better : it 
 should be removed to a dry situation, and placed so 
 that the air may circulate freely round each piece, but 
 it should not be exposed to the sun and wind. Squared 
 timber does not rift or split so much as that which is 
 round ; and where the size of the trees will allow of it, 
 it is better to quarter them, after a period of very slow 
 drying in the whole tree. When beams are to be used 
 the full size of the tree, it would be a good preservative 
 against splitting to bore them through from end to 
 end, as is done in a water-pipe. It is irregular 
 drying which causes timber to split ; and this method 
 would assist in drying the internal part of the beam, 
 without losing much of its strength ; at the same time 
 it would lighten it considerably. It is a great advan- 
 
20 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 tage to set the timber iiprlglit, witli the lower end 
 raised a little from the ground ; but as this cannot 
 always be done, the timber-yards should be well 
 drained, and kept as dry as possible. Paved yards 
 are to be preferred, and the paving should have a con- 
 siderable fall, to prevent water standing. If the paving 
 were laid with ashes it would be better ; those from 
 a forge or foundry would be excellent : even an un- 
 paved yard would be improved by a coat of ashes, to 
 prevent anything growing among the timber. 
 
 If timber can be kept some time in a dry situation 
 before it is cut into scantlings, it is less subject to 
 warp and twist in drying ; but during the time it is 
 kept in the tree or log it should be carefully piled, so 
 as to leave space for a free circulation of air between 
 each piece, and also between the timbers and paving 
 or ground. In some yards the timber has been laid 
 upon cast-iron bearers, instead of being laid uj)on 
 refuse pieces of wood, as the refuse wood is often half 
 rotten, and must in some degree contribute to infect 
 the sound timber. Timber is too often suffered to lie 
 half buried in the ground, or grown over with weeds, 
 till it is covered with fungus, and impregnated with 
 the seeds of decay before it is brought into use. 
 
 When it is necessary to convert the timber into 
 smaller scantlings, it still requires attention ; as the 
 better it is seasoned, when brought into work, the 
 better the work will stand : it will also be more 
 durable. Such scantlings will dry soonest in an up- 
 right position, and the upper end dries more rapidly 
 than the lower one. But whether the pieces of timber 
 be piled on the end, or laid horizontally, a free space 
 should be left round each piece, and the situation 
 should be dry and airy ; yet not exposed to the direct 
 rays of the sun, nor to a strong current of air. If the 
 
SEASONING TIMBER. 
 
 21 
 
 scantlings be laid horizontallj^, short blocks should he 
 put between them, which will preserve them from 
 becoming mouldy, and will contribute much towards 
 rendering the sappy parts more durable. 
 
 Gradual drying, where the time can be allowed for 
 it in the natural process, is the most certain means of 
 giving durability to timber, by fixing those parts of it 
 which are most liable to be acted upon by heat and 
 moisture. It is well known to chemists that slow 
 drying will render many bodies less easy to dissolve ; 
 while rapid drying, on the contrary, renders the same 
 bodies more soluble : besides, all wood in drying loses 
 a portion of its carbon, and the more in proportion as 
 the temperature is higher. There is in wood that has 
 been properly seasoned a toughness and elasticity 
 which is not to be found in rapidly dried wood. This 
 is an evident proof that firm cohesion does not take 
 place when the moisture is dissipated in a high heat. 
 Also, seasoning by heat alone produces a hard crust 
 on the surface, which will scarcely permit the moisture 
 to evaporate from the internal part, and is very in- 
 jurious to the wood. 
 
 For the general purposes of carpentry, timber should 
 not be used in less than two years after it is felled ; 
 and this is the least time that ought to be allowed for 
 seasoning. For joiners' work it requires four years, 
 unless other methods be used; but for carpentry natural 
 seasoning should have the preference, unless the pressure 
 of the air be removed. The quantity of mj^tter which 
 ought to be evaporated from green oak is about one- 
 third or two-fifths of its weight ; the proportion, how- 
 ever, will vary according to the age and quality of the 
 timber and the nature of the soil that produced it. 
 
 ATEii Seasoning. — On account of the time 
 required to season timber in the natural way, various 
 
2:^ 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 metliods have been tried to effect the same purpose in 
 a shorter time. Perhaps the best of these is to immerse 
 the timber in water as soon as it is cut down ; and 
 after it has remained about a fortnight in water, 
 but not more, to take it out, and dry it in an airy 
 situation. Timber for the joiner's use is best put in 
 water for some time, and afterwards dried, as it renders 
 the timber less liable to warp and crack in drying ; but 
 where strength is required it ought not to be put in 
 water. Timber which has remained some time in 
 fresh water loses more of its weight in drying than 
 that which is dried under cover. 
 
 Timber that has been cut when the tree was full of 
 sap, and particularly when that sap is of a saccharine 
 nature, must be materially benefited by steeping in 
 water ; because it will undoubtedly remove the greater 
 part of the fermentable matter : the sap-wood of oak is 
 materially improved by it, being much less subject to 
 worm-eat ; and also the tender woods, such as alder 
 and the like, are less subject to the worm when water- 
 seasoned. Beech is said to be much benefited by 
 immersion ; and green elm, if plunged four or five days 
 in water (especially salt water), obtains an admirable 
 seasoning. 
 
 When timber is put in water it must be sunk so as to 
 be completely under water, as nothing is more destruc- 
 tive than partial immersion. Salt water is considered 
 best for ship- timber ; but for timber to be employed in 
 the construction of dwelling-houses fresh water is better. 
 
 9. Steaming or Boiling timber impairs its strength 
 and elasticity, but it gives another property, which for 
 some purposes is still more desirable than strength ; 
 for boiled or steamed timber shrinks less and stands 
 better than that which is naturally seasoned. There- 
 fore it may often be useful to season timber in this 
 
SEASONING TIMBER. 2i 
 
 manner where joiners' work is to be executegl in oak of ; 
 British growth, as without this precaution i%^tequiv^'^ *2l 
 long time to season it so as to be fit for such pii^^^s..^ j 
 The timber should not remain long in water or steeiiac^^^ 
 four hours will in general be quite suflBcient ; and after 
 boiling or steaming the drying goes on very rapidly, but . 
 it is well not to hasten the drying too much. Steamed 
 wood dries sooner than that which is boiled. 
 
 How far steaming or boiling afiects the dura- 
 bility of timber has not been satisfactorily ascer- 
 tained : but it is said that the planks of a ship, near 
 the bows, which are bent by steaming, have never been 
 observed to be affected with the dry rot. The changes 
 produced by boiling are not very favourable to the 
 opinion that it adds to the durability of timber. For 
 when a piece of dry wood was immersed in boiling 
 water, and afterwards dried in a stove, it not only lost 
 the water it had imbibed, but also a part of its sub- 
 stance; and when the experiment was repeated with 
 the same piece of wood, it lost more of its substance 
 the second time than it did the first. The same thing 
 takes place in green wood ; and tender woods, or those 
 of a middling quality, are more altered by these opera- 
 tions than hard woods, or those of a good quality. 
 Steeping long in cold water produces similar effects ; 
 but box, oak, and ash lose more weight by this process 
 than mahogany, walnut, or deal. Both cold and hot 
 water have therefore to a certain extent the power of 
 dissolving the woody fibre. 
 
 10. Smoke-drying has from very ancient times been 
 found to contribute much to the hardness and durability 
 of wood. But this method can only be effectually 
 applied on a very small scale ; yet sometimes^ for par- 
 ticular purposes, it may be useful to season in the smoke. 
 As a substitute for the smoke of an open chimney, fern. 
 
24 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 furze, straw, or shavings can be burnt under tlie timber, 
 wbicb would destroy any seeds of fungi, or worms, and 
 so embitter the external surface as to prevent any 
 further ill effect from either. It would be easy to 
 contrive the means of smoke-drying for the use of a 
 manufactory where much seasoned wood was used. 
 
 Scorching must do timber much harm when it is 
 done hastily, so as to cause rents and cracks in it; as 
 these become receptacles for moisture, and consequently 
 must be the cause of rapid decay. 
 
 Charring the surface is only useful in as far as 
 it destroys and prevents infection; and it should be 
 applied only to timber already seasoned : for when it 
 is applied to green timber, it only closes up the pores 
 at the surface, so that the internal sap and moisture 
 cannot evaporate. In that kind of decay which arises 
 from the constant evaporation of moisture, charring the 
 surface produces no effect, but as a preventive of infec- 
 tion by the dry rot, and of the worm in timber, it 
 appears to be very beneficial, and will no doubt be 
 assisted by impregnating the timber with the bitter 
 particles of smoke. 
 
 11. "Weight of Timber in Different States. — As 
 a suitable introduction to some remarks on seasoning, 
 we subjoin the following table of the weight of timber 
 in different states, from experiments made by Duhamel 
 on woods of French growth : — 
 
 Kind of Wood. 
 
 Weight of a cubic 1 Weight of a cub . foot 
 foot green. jone year afterwards. 
 
 Oak ... . 
 
 78-2o 
 
 68-3 
 
 Elm .... 
 
 57-1-i 
 
 47"5 
 
 Poplar .... 
 
 49-63 
 
 30-69 
 
 Walnut .... 
 
 54-43 
 
 41-08 
 
 Lfime .... 
 
 45-2 
 
 27-96 
 
 Beech .... 
 
 56-25 
 
 43-95 
 
 AVhite pine . 
 
 53-73 
 
 43-93 
 
 Norway pine, dry . 
 
 — 
 
 36' i 0 
 
SEASONING TIMBER. 
 
 25 
 
 The weiglit of a cubic foot of green oak varies from 
 62-5 to 66 pounds ; of a cubic foot of seasoned oak, 
 from 53*5 to 58 pounds; and a cubic foot of very dry 
 oak, from 44-6 to 47*3 pounds. The timber of very old 
 trees is often much lighter than this ; some specimens 
 from old trees did not exceed 38*5 pounds per cubic 
 foot when dry. The loss of weight in oak has been 
 found to amount to 40 per cent, in some cases. When 
 the specific gravity is very low it may be safely con- 
 cluded that it is the wood of an old tree, and that it 
 will be brittle and deficient both in strength and 
 toughness. 
 
 The following tables are compiled from experiments 
 made by Mr. Crouch at Plymouth Dockyard :™ 
 
 Kind of Wood. 
 
 Weight when 
 felled of a cub. 
 foot. 
 
 Weight 
 seasoned of a 
 cubic foot. 
 
 Shrinkage in 
 bulk by 
 seasoning. 
 
 Oak (butt-cncl) 
 
 Elm . . • . 
 
 Riga masts 
 Pitch pine, American 
 Yellow pine, ditto . 
 Spruce pine, ditto . 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 69 
 
 58i 
 Weight of a 
 cubic foot when 
 first imported. 
 
 42 
 
 47 
 
 42i 
 
 33 
 
 Pounds. 
 47^ 
 S(3J 
 
 40 
 
 464- 
 28| 
 32J 
 
 .1 
 
 7 2 
 
 1 
 ~4 0 
 
 1 
 
 1 ii 
 1 
 
 1 12 
 
 
 Kind of Wood. 
 
 1 
 
 Weight of a 
 cubic foot 
 when green. 
 
 Weight of a 
 cubic foot dry. 
 
 i 
 
 Loss per cent. ; 
 
 Oak sap-wood 
 Spanish chestnut . 
 Larch .... 
 AValnut .... 
 Acacia .... 
 
 rounds. 
 67-0 
 54-68 
 42-06 
 57*5 
 51-25 
 
 Pounds. 
 47-07 
 
 37- 91 
 30-99 
 
 38- 5 
 40-76 
 
 29- 8 
 
 30- 6 
 260 
 33-0 
 
 9-0 
 
 The following table gives the results obtained by 
 Wiebeking's experiments : — 
 
 c 
 
26 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 Kind of Wood. 
 
 "Weight of a 
 cul)ic foot fifteen 
 
 days after tlie 
 Yv ood was felled. 
 
 Weight of a 
 cuhic foot after 
 three months' 
 exposure to the 
 air. 
 
 Weight of a 
 cubic foot 
 when dry. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 (Jak .... 
 
 00/4: 
 
 Ob io 
 
 dy*z7 to od'oo 
 
 Larch 
 
 53-63 
 
 51-08 
 
 38-31 
 
 Pine (pinus sylvestris). 
 
 5P08 
 
 38-31 
 
 26-817 
 
 Pinaster 
 
 52-35 
 
 33-2 
 
 25-54 
 
 Fir (pinns picea) 
 
 1. - . . 
 
 33-2 
 
 29-37 
 
 25-22 to 25-54 
 
 Wood, when it is cut into small pieces, very soon 
 acquires its utmost degree of dryness. The sap-wood 
 of oak loses more weight in drying than the heart- 
 wood, in the proportion of 10 to 7 ; and the sap-wood 
 of larch loses two- fifths of its weight in drying. 
 
 Timber is used in two states ; that is, when it is dri/, 
 and when it is only seasoned. The term seasoned, how- 
 ever, is not very accurately defined ; timber has under- 
 gone what is termed a proper seasoning for common 
 uses when it has lost about one-fifth of the weight that 
 it had when felled. 
 
 Timber loses about one-third of its weight in be- 
 coming dry ; and such a degree of dryness being 
 sufficient for the joiner's purpose, timber may be con- 
 sidered dry when it has lost one-third of its weight. 
 
 Thus the terms dri/ and seasoned will have a more 
 ijertain meaning : and when drying is carried to its 
 r^eatest degree, the timber may be called perfectly dry, 
 JO distinguish it from that degree of dryness which 
 renders it fit for framing and joiners' work. 
 
 The long time which large pieces require to season 
 should render their use less frequent, without a proper 
 time can be allowed. In the following table is given 
 the times of drying and seasoning pieces of different 
 sizes in the open air, which shows at once the time 
 necessary to bring different scantlings to the same 
 
DECAY AND PRESERVATiON OF TIMBER. 
 
 27 
 
 degree of dryness ; the time under cover is shorter in 
 the proportion of 5 to 7 : — 
 
 Length in ft. 
 
 Breadth in ins. 
 
 Thickness in 
 ins. 
 
 Time of season- 
 ing in months. 
 
 Time of drying 
 in months. 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 29 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 39 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 48 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 57 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 25 
 
 66 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 29 
 
 76 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 32 
 
 86 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 36 
 
 96 
 
 Section III, — Dccai/ and Preservation of Timber. 
 
 12. Effects of Dryness and Moisture. — Timber, 
 when properly seasoned, is strong, tough, and elastic ; 
 but it does not long retain those properties in any state 
 or situation. Timber is often employed in situations 
 where it is continually dry, where it is constantly wet, 
 where it is alternately wet and dry, or where it is 
 exposed to heat and continued moisture. The effect of 
 each of these states is the next object of attention. 
 
 Timber that is constantly/ drtj^ or affected only by the 
 small quantity of moisture it absorbs from the air in 
 damp weather, has been known to last for seven or 
 eight hundred years; but even in this state, time pro- 
 duces a sensible alteration in its properties ; for it is 
 found to lose its elastic and coherent powers gradually, 
 and to become brittle. Hence it is unfit to sustain the 
 action of variable loads, though in a state of rest it may 
 endure for an immense length of time. 
 
 "Wood in its natural state is a very compound sub- 
 stance; a certain portion of its constituents is soluble 
 inwat:^r; another part maybe extracted by alcohol; 
 and the part remaining, after being treated with alcohol, 
 is the pure woody fibre, or Hgnin of chemists. After 
 
 c 2 
 
28 
 
 CAHPENTRY. 
 
 water has extracted all that is soluble by it from timber, 
 it is obvious that while the timber continues immersed 
 in water it may remain unchanged for an indefinite 
 period ; but if it be taken out and dried, it is found 
 to be brittle and effete ; or, to use the workman's 
 expression, ^^its nature is gone;'' and it dries, splits, 
 becomes light, and soon impairs. But though oak 
 timber taken from bogs is always found to be brittle 
 and in a state of decay, fir from the same bog is often, 
 if not always, in a much sounder state. 
 
 When timber is exposed to the action of alternate 
 dryness and moisture it soon decays. It has been 
 already noticed, that repeated steeping and drying 
 removes a sensible portion of the wood at each operation 
 (8, 9) ; and it is evident that at each drying a new 
 portion of soluble matter is formed, which either did 
 not before exist, or which is rendered soluble by a 
 change in its principles. This effect may be observed 
 in weather-boarding, fencing, and in any situation 
 where wood is constantly exposed to the vicissitudes of 
 the weather. When the timber has been thoroughly 
 seasoned, painting or any other kind of coating that is 
 capable of resisting moisture is the best means of pre- 
 serving it from this kind of decay (26). 
 
 13. Effects OF Continued Moisture with Heat. — 
 Wood, in common with other vegetable products, when 
 exposed to a certain degree of moisture, and at a 
 temperature not much under 45° Fahr., nor too high 
 to evaporate suddenly all the moisture, gradually 
 decomposes. This decomposition is called putrefaction 
 by chemical writers, but is called the 7'ot in common 
 language. It proceeds with most rapidity in the open 
 air, but the contact of air is not absolutely necessary. 
 Water is in all cases essential to the process ; indeed it 
 is a principal agent in all processes of dL^mposition. 
 
DECAY AND PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 29 
 
 As the rot goes on, certain gaseous matters are given 
 out ; chiefly carbonic acid gas and hydrogen gas. Pure 
 woody fibre alone undergoes this change slowly, but its 
 texture is soon broken down, and it is easily resolved 
 into new elements when mixed with substances more 
 liable to change. Any process that tends to abstract 
 carbonaceous matter from it must bring it nearer in 
 composition to the soluble principles, and this is done 
 by fermentation. Hence it is that the sap-wood is of a 
 more perishable nature than the heart-wood, for the 
 sap-wood abounds more in saccharine and fermentable 
 principles, and consequently sooner decomposes. 
 
 Quicklime, when assisted by moisture, has a powerful 
 effect in hastening the decomposition of w^ood, in con- 
 sequence of its abstracting carbon. Mild lime (car- 
 bonate of lime) has not this effect. But mortar 
 requires a considerable time to bring it to the state of 
 mild lime ; therefore, bedding timber in mortar, or 
 building it in walls where it will long remain in a 
 damp state in contact with mortar, is very injurious, 
 and often the cause of rapid decay. Wood in a per- 
 fectly dry state does not appear to be injured by dry 
 lime : of this we have examples in plastering-laths, 
 which are generally found sound and good in places 
 where they have been dry. Lime also protects wood 
 from worms. 
 
 Volatile and fixed oils, resins, and wax, are equally 
 as susceptible of decay as woody fibre under the same 
 circumstances ; hence we see the impropriety of 
 attempting to protect wood in any situation where the 
 coat of paint, &c., cannot be renewed from time to time : 
 and also, that woods abounding in resinous matter 
 cannot be more durable than others. 
 
 Decay sometimes commences in the growing tree; 
 for when it has stood beyond a certain age, decay at 
 
30 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 the heart has generally made some progress (3). 
 This has often been observed in large girders of yellow 
 fir, which have appeared sound on the outside, but by 
 removing some of the binding joists have been found 
 completely rotten at the heart. It is on this account 
 that the practice of sawing and bolting girders is 
 recommended. 
 
 It is usual to divide the rot into two kinds, the li'ct 
 rot and the dry rot ; the main distinction between them 
 being, that in the one the gaseous products are evapo- 
 rated, and in the other the greater part of them form 
 into a new combination which is a species of fungus. 
 Both, in a chemical sense, are produced by precisely 
 the same causes, with this exception, that a free evapo- 
 ration determines it to be the wet rot ; a confined 
 place, or imperfect evaporation, renders it the dry rot, 
 as timber must be decomposed in becoming the food of 
 a plant ; it is evidently the same with the putrefaction ^ 
 of chemists vrith different products. It is said that the 
 decay of a post placed in the ground, or in water, is an 
 example of the wet rot; and it is assumed that the 
 parts undergoing the process of decay are alternately 
 wet and dry; but the fact is, they are constantly 
 supplied with that degree of dampness which is 
 essential to putrefaction. For timber being composed 
 longitudinally of an assemblage of pipes or tubes, it is 
 only necessary that one end of a log of wood should be 
 placed in a damp or wet situation, to occasion the 
 moisture to be conveyed to the opposite end by capillary 
 attraction. Prevent a free change of atmospheric air, 
 and a post so circumstanced, it is well known, would 
 be affected with the dry rot. 
 
 When only the external part of a beam has been 
 seasoned, and the sap has never been evaporated from 
 the internal part, the rot will be an internal disease ; 
 
PECAY A^'D PrvESERVATION OF TIMBEU. 
 
 31 
 
 and where an internal decay of this kind is found, it 
 proves that the timber has never been properly seasoned. 
 
 14. Fungus on Eotten AVood. — In the first stages 
 of rottenness the timber swells and changes colour, is 
 often covered with mucor or mouldiness, and emits a 
 musty smell. Where the rottenness is internal, or the 
 timber is in a confined place, a ne.w substance is formed* 
 between the fibres, of a spongy consistency, resembling 
 the external coat of a mushroom: and the substance 
 itself has been ascertained to belong to the order Fungi 
 of the Cryptogamia class of plants. When the fungus 
 first appears on the sides and ends of timbers, it covers 
 the surface with a fine white and delicate vegetation, 
 called by shipwrights a mildew. These fine shoots after- 
 wards collect together, and the appearance then may be 
 compared to hoar-frost, and increases rapidly, assuming 
 gradually a more compact form, like the external coat 
 of a mushroom, but spreads alike over wood, brick- 
 work, stone, and plastering, in the form of leaves, being 
 larger or smaller most probably in proportion to the 
 nutriment the wood afibrds. The colours of the fungus 
 are various : sometimes white, greyish white, with 
 violet ; often yellowish brown, or a deep shade of fine 
 rich brown. In the more advanced stages of rotten- 
 ness the woody fibres contract lengthwise, and show 
 many deep fissures across the fibres, similar to a piece 
 of wood scorched by the fire. The woody fibres appear 
 to retain their natural form, but easily crumble into a 
 fine powder. In oak this powder is of a fine snufi*- 
 brown colour. The fungus, when it spreads upon the 
 surface of the wood, often becomes of a considerable 
 size, sometimes spreading over the adjoining walls, and 
 ascending to a considerable height. 
 
 15. Timbers most liable to Rot. — In timber of the 
 same kind, that of the most sappy and rapidly grown 
 
32 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 trees is tlie most subject to decay. The wood of trees 
 from the close forests of Germany or America is more 
 subject to it than that of trees grown in more open 
 situations ; and it is remarked that the timber brought 
 from America in the heated hold of a ship is inyariably 
 covered over, on being landed, with a complete coating 
 of fungus. Consequently, the timber must be infected 
 with the seeds of decay before it is brought into use. 
 Also the custom of floating timber in docks and rivers 
 injures it very much : it would be better to sink it 
 completely under water, as to half immerse in water is 
 the worst situation it can be placed in. Though 
 moisture be essential to the progress of decay, absolute 
 wetness will prevent it, especially at a low temperature. 
 In ships this has been particularly remarked, for that 
 part of the hold of a ship which is constantly washed 
 by the bilge- water is never aftected by dry rot. 
 I^'either is that side of the planking of a ship's bottom 
 which is next the water found in a state of decay, even 
 when the inside is quite rotten, unless the rot has 
 penetrated quite through from the inside. 
 
 16. Warmth and Moisture are the most active 
 causes of decay ; and provided the necessary degree 
 of moisture be present, the higher the heat the more 
 rapid is its progress. In warm cellars, or in any close 
 confined situations where the air is filled with vaj)our 
 without a current to change it, the rot proceeds with 
 astonishing rapidity, and the timber-work is destroyed 
 in a very short time. The bread-rooms of ships, 
 behind the skirtings and under the wooden floors or 
 the basement stories of houses, particularly in kitchens 
 or other rooms where there are constant fires, and in 
 general in every place where wood is exposed to warmth 
 and damp air, the dry rot will soon make its appear- 
 ance. All kinds of stoves are sure to increase the 
 
DECAY AND PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 
 
 33 
 
 disease, if moisture be present. The effect of heat is 
 also evident from the rapid decay of ships in hot 
 climates. And the warm moisture given out by par- 
 ticular cargoes is also very destructive, such as cargoes 
 of hemp, pepper, and cotton. 
 
 17. Building Timber into New Walls is often a 
 cause of decay, as the lime and damp brickwork are 
 active agents in producing putrefaction, particularly 
 where the scrapings of roads are used instead of sand 
 for mortar. Hence it is that bond-timbers, wall-plates, 
 and the ends of girders, joists, and lintels are so fre- 
 quently found in a state of decay. The old builders 
 used to bed the ends of girders and joists in loam, in- 
 stead of mortar. In this place it may not be amiss to 
 point out the dangerous consequences of building walls 
 so that their principal support depends on timber. The 
 usual method of putting bond-timber in walls is to lay 
 it next the inside ; this bond often decays, and of course 
 leaves the wall resting only upon the external course or 
 courses of bricks ; and fractures, bulges, or absolute 
 failures are the natural consequences. This evil is in 
 some degree avoided by placing the bond in the middle 
 of the wall, so that there is brick-work on each side, 
 and by not putting continued bond for nailing the bat- 
 tens to. 
 
 18. Effect of Painting. — There is another cause 
 that affects all wood most materially, which is the 
 application of paint, tar, or pitch before the wood has 
 been thoroughly dried. The nature of these bodies 
 prevents all evaporation, and confines the internal mois- 
 ture, which is the cause of sudden decay ; both oak and 
 fir posts maybe brought into a premature state of decay 
 by their having been painted prior to a due evaporation 
 of their moisture ; and painting affords no protection to 
 timber against dry rot. On the other hand, the doors, 
 
 c 3 
 
34 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 pews, and carved work of many old cliurclies have 
 never been painted, and yet they are often found to be 
 perfectly sound, after having existed for centuries. 
 
 Painted floor-cloths are very injurious to wooden 
 floors, and soon produce rottenness in the floors that 
 are covered with them ; as the painted cloth prevents 
 the access of atmospheric air, and retains whatever 
 dampness the boards may absorb, and therefore soon 
 causes decay. Carpets are not so injurious, but still 
 assist in retarding free evaporation. 
 
 19. Prevention oe Decay is best obtained by 
 a proper seasoning of timber, whatever the cause of 
 decay may be, and the time required for a complete 
 seasoning depends on the size of the pieces. But 
 however well timber may be seasoned, if it be em- 
 ployed in a damp situation, decay is the certain con- 
 sequence ; therefore it is most desirable that the neigh- 
 bourhood of buildings should be well drained, which 
 would not only prevent the rot, but also increase 
 materially the comfort of those who reside within them. 
 The drains should be made water-tight wherever they 
 come near to the walls ; as walls, particularly brick 
 walls, readily draw up moisture to a very considerable 
 height. Earth should never be suffered to rest against 
 walls, and the sunk stories of buildings should always 
 be surrounded by an open area, so that the walls may 
 not absorb moisture from the earth. To prevent mois- 
 ture rising from the foundation, some substance that 
 will not allow it to pass should be used at a course or 
 two above the footings of the walls ; sheets of lead or 
 coiDper have been used for that purpose ; to lay a few 
 courses of slates or slaty stones, that do not absorb 
 much moisture, would be useful ; but a better method 
 is to build a few courses in height with Portland cement, 
 instead of common mortar, and upon the upper course 
 
DECAY AND PRESEUYATION OE TIMBER. 6*5 
 
 to lay a bed of about an incli in thickness of cement. 
 As moisture does not penetrate this cement, it is an 
 excellent material for keeping out wet ; and it is also a 
 great improvement to a brick building to stucco it 
 on the outside with, any cement which keeps out mois- 
 ture, as brick absorbs quickly all the moisture which 
 comes in contact with it, and retains it for a length of 
 time. 
 
 20. Drying New Buildings. — The walls and prin- 
 cipal timbers of a building should always be left for 
 some time to dry after it is covered in. This drying is 
 01 the greatest benefit to the work, particularly the 
 drying of the walls ; and it also allows time for the 
 timbers to get settled to their proper bearings, which 
 prevents after-settlements and cracks in the finished 
 plastering. It is sometimes said, that it is useful be- 
 cause it allows the timber more time to season ; but 
 when the carpenter considers that it is from the ends 
 of the timber that much of its moisture evaporates, he 
 will see the impropriety of leaving it to season after it 
 is framed, and also the cause of framed timbers of un- 
 seasoned wood failing in the joints sooner than in any 
 other place. No parts of timbers require the perfect 
 extraction of the sap so much as those that are to be 
 joined. Also, when the plastering is finished, a con- 
 siderable time should be allowed for the work to get 
 dry again, before the skirtings, and floors, and other 
 joiner's works be fixed. Drying wdll be much accele- 
 rated by a free admission of air, particularly in favour- 
 able weather. 
 
 21. Prevention oe Rising Damp.- — When a build- 
 ing is thoroughly dried at first, openings for the admis- 
 sion of fresh air are not necessary where the precautions 
 against any new accessions of moisture have been 
 efiectual. Indeed such openings only afford harbour 
 
36 
 
 CARPEXTRY. 
 
 for vermm, as the current of air throiigli them is very 
 seldom capable of carrying off any considerable degree 
 of moisture ; for it is well known that air will not move 
 in a horizontal direction without a more considerable 
 change of density than can be obtained in such situations. 
 
 In floors next the ground we cannot easily prevent 
 the access of damp, but this should be done as far as 
 possible. All vegetable mould should be carefully re- 
 moved, and if the situation admits of it, a consider- 
 able thickness of dry materials, such as brickbats, dry 
 ashes, &c., but not lime, should be laid under the floor, 
 and over these a coat of smiths' ashes, or of pyrites, 
 where they can be procured. The timber for the joists 
 should be well seasoned ; and it is advisable to cut off 
 all connection between wooden ground-floors and the 
 rest of the wood-work of the building. 
 
 22. Impregnation of Timber. — It was long a 
 general opinion that timber might be secured against 
 the dry rot by impregnating it with some substance 
 that would resist putrefaction : this opinion produced 
 many schemes, and led finally to that recommended and 
 patented by Mr. Kyan. 
 
 Common Salt (chloride of sodium) is found to protect 
 the timber impregnated with it, when the proportion of 
 salt is considerable. The large wooden props which 
 support the roofs of the salt mines in Hungary, and 
 are perpetually moistened with salt-water trickling 
 down them, are said to have suffered no decay for many 
 centuries ; and the incrustations of salt upon the tim- 
 bers of vessels employed in carrying salt-fish, preserve 
 them a great number of years. There are, however, 
 strong objections to using solutions of salt, unless it be 
 where it is of no importance whether the wood be 
 drj^ or wet; for the attraction of salt for moisture 
 would keep the wood continually wet if moisture 
 
DECAY AND PRESERVATION of JHMfiS^^S. 37 
 
 should be present. Sea- water has bV^ foi^^ eff^&Jii^l 
 in clearing timber of fungus, by HSg^ersii^^ it 
 several months. But unless a solution oi^^lt, so^^olig 
 as to be objectionable from its attraction of^^mjer, c^hjl 
 be used, there appears to be no well- grounded 
 its being useful ; as it is well known that common salt 
 in small quantities assists the decomposition of vegetable 
 matter. 
 
 23. Impregnation with Sulphate of Iron appears 
 to be more likely to answer the purpose of resisting 
 putrefaction ; wood boiled for three or four hours in a 
 solution of sulphate of iron, and then kept some daj^s 
 in a warm place to dry, becomes so hard and compact 
 that moisture cannot penetrate it. 
 
 Quicklime, it has been already stated, assists putre- 
 faction when aided by moisture. But where a great 
 quantity of quicklime is present, often in contact with 
 the wood, so as to preserve it in a perfectly dry state, 
 by the rapid absorption of water, this hardens the sap, 
 and renders the wood very durable. Of this effect of 
 lime we have proofs in the vessels formerly employed 
 in the Sunderland lime trade, some of which were very 
 sound when forty years old. 
 
 24. Kyanizing. — From the preceding articles it 
 will be seen that the idea of preserving timber from rot 
 by impregnating it with certain substances, is not of 
 itself new ; nor is even the employment of the substance 
 itself recommended by Kyan, a^z., corrosive sublimate 
 (chloride of mercury), a novel application ; for Sir II. 
 Davy had before recommended a wash of a weak solu- 
 tion of this substance to check the progress of the rot 
 in places where it had commenced, and which were 
 under repair. Indeed corrosive sublimate had been long 
 known as possessing great antiseptic virtues, and has 
 been, as such, long employed by anatomists to prevent 
 
38 
 
 CAEPE^'THY. 
 
 the decay of the most delicate organic tissues and other 
 pa^ts liable, to putrescence; and by the application of 
 this metallic preparation they have been prevented 
 from going to decay, and have been preserved for very 
 long periods. 
 
 Kyan's process consists in applying this substance to 
 timber for the prevention of rot ; that is, cases of decay, 
 arising either from the action of the seed of crypto- 
 gamous plants vegetating in the wood, or from the 
 presence of the albuminous parts of the tree. In order 
 to carry it into practice, large trunks of wood are pre- 
 pared with cross beams, in order to wedge down the 
 timbers placed therein for immersion ; that is, the tim- 
 ber which is to undergo the process is first placed 
 therein, under those beams, and wedged down so as to 
 prevent it from rising whem the fluid, impregnated with 
 the corrosive sublimate, is introduced. In this state it 
 remains for about a week. The fluid is then pumped 
 off", the timber taken out and dried, and is thus con- 
 sidered to be secure against the action of the destructive 
 vegetation and decomposition which have been found 
 so injurious to every kind of timber structure, from the 
 smallest closet to the largest man-of-war. 
 
 There could be no doubt, from experiments that were 
 made, that the process which the difterent articles had 
 undergone acted as a preservative from the rot, under 
 the circumstances in which they had been placed ; and 
 the only doubt which seemed to hang over the inquiry 
 was, whether the eff'ect was permanent or temporary : 
 if the efi*ect were due to a simple impregnation, it might, 
 under difi'erent circumstances, be removed, whereby the 
 timber would be left in its original state, while a noxious 
 atmosphere might be generated, which would be ex- 
 tremely injurious to health in many cases, and particu- 
 larly in ships of war. It is therefore highly satisfactory 
 
DECAY AND PRESERVATION 
 
 to state that Dr. Faraday decided frorn^ 
 the effect is not that of a mere mechanical "3 
 but that a chemical combination takes pla 
 the corrosive sublimate and the albuminous matter of 
 the wood, forming thereby a new compound. This 
 question being thus settled, we may next inquire to 
 what depth the ejffect has taken place ; and it appears 
 that hitherto it has not been traced to more than about 
 half an inch from the surface : and it remains, therefore, 
 perhaps still doubtful whether it will be found fully 
 effective in large timbers. These indeed will be pro- 
 tected from contagion from other decayed wood ; but, 
 for anything at present shown, the rot may commence 
 in them internally ; still, however, if even this should 
 be the case, much has undoubtedly been effected. 
 
 Some question having arisen as to the effect of 
 Kyan^s process upon the strength of timber, experiments 
 were made on two pieces of ash, parted only by the saw, 
 two inches square and three feet long, and two pieces 
 of Christiana deal of the same dimensions ; one of each 
 was prepared, the other two unprepared, and they were 
 submitted to a trial of traverse strength and stiffness, 
 at a clear bearing distance of 34 inches, when it 
 appeared that the process diminished both the specific 
 gravity and the strength of the timber, but that it in- 
 creased its rigidity. 
 
 25. The Cure of Eot is very difficult, and would 
 be nearly, if not quite, as expensive a process as to put 
 in anew the timbers affected with it ; but when new 
 timber is put in, the old parts and the walls should 
 have every particle of fungus removed from them, or 
 killed by some wash for that purpose. External washes 
 perhaps are not much further useful than so far as they 
 hinder infection; but to produce that effect they are 
 perhaps the best application, because they can be applied 
 
40 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 with safety. A tiigli degree of heat, that is, about 
 300^, would destroy all power of reproduction, but it 
 cannot so well be applied : nevertheless, where pieces of 
 wood are not materially injured by the rot, an oven 
 might be contrived to expose them to a strong heat, 
 which would destroy all vegetable life in the fungus, 
 and they might then be washed with some of the solutions 
 mentioned below, and used again with perfect safety. 
 
 A solution of COREOSIVE SUBLIMATE {clilovide of mer- 
 cunj) would answer very effectually as awash. Avery 
 weak solution does not produce the desired effect ; there 
 should be an ounce of corrosive sublimate to a gallon of 
 water, and it should be laid on hot. No other metallic 
 solution should be mixed with it. 
 
 A solution of sulpliate of copper^ in the proportion of 
 about half a pound of sulphate to one gallon of water, 
 used hot, makes an excellent wash, and is cheaper than 
 the preceding one. 
 
 A strong solution of mlpliate of iron is sometimes used, 
 but is not so effectual as that of copper ; and sometimes 
 a mixture of the two solutions has been used. 
 
 Coal tar is said to have been found beneficial; but 
 its strong smell is a great objection to its use ; where 
 the smell is not of importance, it would assist in secur- 
 ing new timber which had been previously well dried. 
 
 Charring new wood can only be expected to prevent 
 infection ; decay may begin at the centre, and proceed 
 without ever appearing at the surface of the beam ; 
 and therefore if timber be not well seasoned, no per- 
 manent good can be obtained from charring. 
 
 26. Protectio]n of the Sueface of Timber. — When 
 timber is exposed to the alternate action of dryness 
 and moisture, the best means of securing it from decay 
 is the protection of the surface by a coat of some sub- 
 stance that moisture will not penetrate. 
 
DECAY A^'D PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 41 
 
 The Dutch, for the preservation of their gates, 
 drawbridges, sluices, and other large works of timber, 
 which are exposed to the sun and perpetual injuries of 
 the weather, coat them with a mixture of pitch and 
 tar, upon which they strew small piecv'^s of cockle and 
 other shells, beaten almost to powder, and mingled with 
 sea-sand, or the scales of iron beaten small and sifted, 
 which protects them in a most excellent manner. 
 Upon common painting, sanding is an excellent prac- 
 tice, where it is exposed to the weather, being much 
 more durable than common painting. 
 
 It has been proposed to apply a paint made of 
 sub- sulphate of iron (the refuse of the copperas pans), 
 ground up with any cheap oil, and rendered thin with 
 coal-tar oil, in which a little pitch had been dissolved. 
 In the nciglibourhoods of Newcastle and Glasgow the 
 refuse of the copperas pans may be easily procured. 
 
 Another method of protecting timber appears to be so 
 well calculated for the purpose, that in cases where it 
 can be applied a better cannot be employed. After the 
 work is tried up, or even put together, lay it on the 
 ground with stones or bricks under it to about a foot 
 high, and burn wood (which is the best firing for that 
 purpose) under it till you thoroughly heat, and even 
 scorch it all over ; then, whilst the wood is hot, rub it 
 over plentifully with Unseed oil and tar, in equal parts, 
 well boiled together, and let it be kept boiling whilst 
 you are using it ; and this will immediately strike and 
 sink (if the wood be tolerably seasoned) one inch or 
 more into the wood, close all the pores, and make it 
 become exceedingly hard and durable, either under or 
 over water. No composition should, however, be ap- 
 plied till the timber has been well seasoned : for to 
 inclose the natural juices of the wood is to render its 
 rapid decay certain. 
 
42 
 
 CAUPENTRY. 
 
 27. The Ravages oe Worms axd Insects are 
 among the principal causes of the destruction of timber ; 
 some woods are more subject to be destroyed by them 
 than others, such as alder, beech, birch, and, in general, 
 all soft woods, of which the juices are of a saccharine 
 nature. Against the common worm, oil of spike is said 
 to be an excellent remedy, and the oil of juniper^ or of 
 turpentine^ will prevent them in some degree. A free 
 use of linseed oil is a good preventive, and so is a 
 covering of copal varnish ; but these can be applied to 
 small articles onlj^ Another application is sulphur 
 which has been immersed in nitric acid, and distilled to 
 dryness, which, being exposed to the air, dissolves into 
 an oil : the parts to be secured from the worm are to 
 be anointed with this oil, which does not gi^^e an un- 
 pleasant odour to the wood. Lime is an excellent pre- 
 servative against the worm, and sap-wood should always 
 be impregnated with it when used in a dry situation. 
 As worms do not attack bitter woods, soaking wood in 
 an infusion of quassia has been tried, and is said to 
 have the desired effect. 
 
 28. Teredo, Tholas, axd Lepisma. — The bottoms of 
 ships, and timbers exposed to the action of the sea, are 
 often destroyed hy the pipe-worm, or Teredo navalis of 
 naturalists. This creature is very small when first 
 produced from the egg, but soon acquires a considerable 
 size, being often three or four inches in length, and 
 sometimes increases to a foot or more in length. Its 
 head is provided with a hard calcareous substance, 
 which performs the office of an auger, and enables it to 
 penetrate the hardest wood. When a piece of wood, 
 constantly under water, is occupied by these worms, 
 there is no sign of damage to be seen on the surface, 
 nor are the worms visible till the outer part of the 
 wood is broken or cut away ; yet they lie so near the 
 
DECAY ANT) PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 
 
 43 
 
 surface as to have an easy communicatioD. with the 
 water by a multitude of minute perforations. They 
 were originally brought from India to Europe. "Wood 
 is eaten by them till it becomes like a honeycomb, yet 
 there is an evident care in these creatures never to 
 injure one another's habitations, for the divisions be- 
 tween the worm-holes are entire, though often ex- 
 tremely thin. Fir and alder are the two kinds of wood 
 they seem to destroy with the greatest ease, and in 
 these they grow to the greatest size. In oak they 
 make slower progress, appear smaller and not so well 
 nourished. They never touch bitter woods, and in 
 solid or hard woods they make slow progress. Charring 
 the surface of wood is not found to be of any use. 
 
 A mixture of lime, mlpliiir, and colocynth, iciih pitch , 
 is found to be a protection to boards and the like. And 
 rubbing the wood imsonous ointments is a means of 
 destroying them. A mixture of tar, pitch, and the 
 animal hair separated in tanning was formerly applied, 
 with a sheathing of wood to keep it on, and lately the 
 hair has been felted to apply under copper. A cover- 
 ing of thin copper, with felting tarred between it and 
 the wood, is the best protection for the bottoms of ships 
 from all marine animals. 
 
 A species of tholas {Tholas striata) is another animal 
 which is very destructive, not to timber only, but to 
 stones, clay, &c., in water. They make their attack in a 
 similar manner to the pipe-worm, by burrowing when 
 young, the entrances of the holes only about one-fourth 
 of an inch in diameter ; and the animal, increasing in 
 growth as it advances, forms a larger hole, till it arrives 
 at maturity, when it ceases to bore. It derives its 
 sustenance from the water, and never bores so far that 
 it cannot reach the water with its proboscis. 
 
 The lepisma is also a destructive little animal, which 
 
44 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 begins to prey on wood in tlie East Indies as soon as 
 it is immersed in sea-water. The unprotected bottom 
 of a boat has been known to be eaten through by it 
 in three or four weeks : sheathing with copper or cover- 
 ing with felt are the most certain means of protection 
 against all these marine animals. Coal tar is also a 
 good protection against their depredations ; the pores 
 of the wood should be saturated as far as possible with 
 it ; and perhaps corrosive sublimate might be used with 
 advantage, by saturating the wood with a solution of it, 
 and letting it dry before the tar be laid on. Whale oil 
 is stated to be an efl'ectual remedy, and has been suc- 
 cessfully employed. 
 
 29. The Worm. — There is another kind of worm 
 very destructive to timber, which Mr. Smeaton ob- 
 served in Bridlington piers. The wood of these piers, 
 he says, is destroyed by a certain species of worm, dif- 
 fering from the common worm, whereby ships are de- 
 strojT-ed. This worm appears as a small, white, soft sub- 
 stance, much like a maggot ; so small as not to be seen 
 distinctly without a magnifying glass, and even then a 
 distinction of its parts is not easily made out. It does 
 not attempt to make its way through the wood longi- 
 tudinally, or along the grain, as is the case with the 
 common ship worm ; but directly, or rather a little 
 obliquely, inward. They do not appear to make their 
 way by means of any hard tools or instruments, but 
 rather by some species of dissolvent liquor, furnished by 
 the juices of the animal itself. The rate of progression 
 is such that a three-inch oak plank will be destroyed in 
 eight years by their action from the outside only. Fir 
 is more subject to be destroyed by this worm than oak. 
 To prevent the destructive effects of these worms, Mr. 
 Smeaton recommended that the timbers of the piers 
 should be squared, and made to fit as close together 
 
DECAY AND PRESERVATION OF TIMBEB. '^'n^ 45 
 
 as possible ; to fill all the openings left with;^^ar £^ 
 oakum, and level the face, and cover it with sn^^kjng,^ 
 as ships are covered. These worms do not live ex^pt 
 where they have the action of the water almost every 
 tide ; nor do they live in the parts covered with 
 sand. The wooden piles of embankments and sea-locks 
 suffer much from these worms ; and in the sea-dykes of 
 Holland they cause very expensive annual repairs. 
 The remedies that resist the ship worm would no doubt 
 be effectual against these. 
 
 30. The Termite, or White Ant, is the greatest 
 calamity of both Indies, because of the havoc they make 
 in all buildings of wood, in utensils, and in furniture ; 
 nothing but metal or stone can escape their destructive 
 jaws. They frequently construct nests within the roofs 
 and other parts of houses, which they destroy if not 
 speedily extirpated. The larger species enter under 
 the foundations of houses, making their way through 
 the floors, and up the posts of buildings, destroying 
 all before them. And so little is seen of their opera- 
 tions, that a well-painted building is sometimes found 
 to be a mere shell. Corrosive mhlimate is highly 
 poisonous to these ants ; therefore, to impregnate the 
 timber with a solution of it would prevent their ravages. 
 Arsenic is also very destructive to them, and they do 
 not destroy wood impregnated with oil^ particularly 
 essential oils ; cajeput oil was found effectual in de- 
 stroying the red ants of Batavia. 
 
 31. The Durability of Timbers which the car- 
 penter employs is a subject to which he cannot be 
 insensible ; nor can he be uninterested in any inquiry 
 into the probable extent of their duration. Of the 
 durability of timber in a wet state, the piles of the 
 bridge built by the Emperor Trajan across the Danube 
 are an example. One of these piles was taken up, and 
 
46 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 found to be petrified to tlie dej)t]i of three-fourtlis of 
 an incli ; but the rest of tbe wood was little different 
 from its ordinary state, tbougli it bad been driven 
 more tban sixteen centuries. The piles under the 
 piers of old London Bridge had been driven about six 
 hundred years, and were found to the last sufficiently 
 sound to support the superstructure. They were chiefly 
 of elm. 
 
 32. Buried Timber. — We have also some re- 
 markable instances of the durability of timber when 
 buried in the groimd. Several ancient canoes have 
 been found in cutting drains through the fens in Lin- 
 colnshire, which must have lain there for many ages. 
 Also, in digging away the foundation of old Savoy 
 Palace, London, which Vv'as built six hundred and fifty 
 years ago, the whole of the piles, consisting of oak^ elm, 
 beech, and chestnut, were found in a state of perfect 
 soundness ; as also was the planking which covered the 
 pile-heads. Some of the beech, however, after being 
 exposed to the air a few weeks, though under cover, had 
 a coating of fungus spread over its surface. A con- 
 tinued range or curb of timber was discovered in pulling 
 down a part of the Keep of Tunbridge Castle, in Kent, 
 which was built about seven hundred years ago. This 
 curb had been built into the middle of the thickness of 
 the wall, and was no doubt intended to prevent the 
 settlements likely to happen in such heavy piles of 
 building ; and therefore is an interesting fact in the 
 history of constructive architecture, as well as an 
 instance of the durability of timber. In digging for 
 the foundations of the present house at Litton Park, 
 near Windsor, the timbers of a drawbridge were dis- 
 covered about ten feet below the surface of the ground; 
 these timbers were sound, but had become black ; the 
 timber had been there about four hundred years. 
 
DECAY AND PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 47 
 
 33. The Durability of the Framed Timbers of 
 Buildings is very considerable. The fir trusses of the 
 old part of the roof of the Basilica of St. Paul, at Rome, 
 vv^ere framed in 816, and were sound and good in 1814. 
 The timber- work of the external domes of the Church of 
 St. Mark, at Venice, is more than eight hundred years 
 old, and is still said to be in a good state ; and the gates 
 of cypress to the Church of St. Peter, at Rome, were 
 whole and sound after being up five hundred and fifty 
 years. The inner roof of the chapel of St. Nicholas, 
 King's Lynn, Norfolk, is of oak, and was constructed 
 about four hundred and fifty years ago ; the large 
 dormitory of the Jacobins' Convent at Paris, executed 
 in fir, lasted four hundred years. The timber roof of 
 Crosby Hall, in London, was executed about three 
 hundred and sixty years ago ; and the roof of West- 
 minster Hall, which is of oak, is now above four hundred 
 and fifty years old. 
 
 34. The Relative Durability of Different 
 Woods. — The most odoriferous kinds of woods are gene- 
 rally esteemed the most durable ; also woods of a close 
 and compact texture are generally more durable than 
 those that are open and porous ; but there are ex- 
 ceptions, as the wood of the evergreen oak is more 
 compact than that of the common oak, but not nearly so 
 durable. In general, the quantity of charcoal afibrded 
 by woods ofiers a tolerably accurate indication of their 
 durability : those most abundant in charcoal and earthy 
 matter are most permanent ; and those which contain 
 the largest proportion of gaseous elements are the most 
 destructible. The chestnut and the oak are pre-emi- 
 nent as to durability, and the chestnut afibrds rather 
 more carbonaceous matter than the oak. But this is 
 not always the case, as we know from experience that 
 red or yellow fir is as durable as oak in most situations, 
 
48 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 Chestnut, perfectly sound. 
 Abele, sound. 
 Beech, sound. 
 Walnut, in decay. 
 Sycamore, much decayed. 
 Birch, quite rotten. 
 
 though it produces less charcoal by the ordinary process. 
 An 'experiment to determine the comparative dura- 
 bility of different woods is related in Young's Annals ol 
 Agriculture/' which will be more satisfactory than any 
 speculative opinion ; and it is much to be regretted 
 that such experiments have not been oftener made. 
 Inch-and-half planks of trees from thirty to forty-five 
 years' growth, after ten years' standing in the weather, 
 were examined and found to be in the following state : — 
 
 Cedar, perfectly sound. 
 Larch, the heart sound, but sap 
 
 quite decayed. 
 Spruce fir, sound. 
 Silver fir, in decay. 
 Scotch fir, much decayed. 
 Pinaster, quite rotten. 
 
 This shows at once the kinds that are best adapted to 
 resist the weather ; but even in the same kind of wood 
 there is much difference in the durability ; and it is 
 observed that the timber of those trees which grow in 
 moist and shady places is not so good as that which 
 comes from a more exposed situation, nor is it so close, 
 substantial, and durable. Also split timber is more 
 durable than sawn timber, for in splitting, the fissure 
 follows the grain, and leaves it whole, whereas the saw 
 divides the fibres, and moisture finds more ready access 
 to the internal parts of the wood. Split timber is also 
 stronger than sawn timber, because the fibres being 
 continuous, they resist by means of their longitudinal 
 strength ; but when divided by the saw, the resistance 
 often depends upon the lateral cohesion of the fibres, 
 which is in some woods only one-twentieth of the 
 direct cohesion of the same fibres. For the same reason 
 whole trees are stronger than specimens, unless the 
 specimens be selected of a straight grain ; but the dif- 
 ference in large scantlings is so small as not to be 
 deserving of notice in practice. 
 
THE STRUCTUKE AND CLASSIFICATION *^VO^|S, 4^f^ 
 
 Section IV,— The Structure and ClasslJicatidi^^fFoM^ 
 
 35. Characters of Woods. — To the cxperienNi^v; 
 of a workman the general appearance of each variety 
 of wood has become so familiar, and its most obvious 
 characters are so strongly impressed on his memory, 
 that he readily knows them one from another ; but, 
 nevertheless, the notice of some characters that arc 
 peculiar to certain kinds of woods may be of use even to 
 the initiated. In a section of a tree it clearly appears 
 that the wood is composed of separate layers, or rings, 
 regularly disposed round the pith, which is in general 
 nearly in the centre of the tree ; but the thickness of 
 these layers is seldom, if ever, perfectly regular. When 
 examined by a magnifier, the wood appears to consist of 
 fine divisions, like rays, spreading from the pith to the 
 bark, with pores between them, often empty, but 
 sometimes filled with some kind of vegetable matter. 
 In the resinous woods most of the pores are filled. 
 Besides the fine divisions, which are often scarcelj:^ to bo 
 distinguished by the naked eye, there are, in some 
 woods, other divisions that are larger, passing from 
 the pith to the bark ; these are generally of a light sil- 
 very colour, and are called the silver grain, or larger 
 transverse septa. AVhen a piece of wood is cut so as 
 to pass obliquely through the larger septa or silver 
 grain, it produces that fine flowered appearance so 
 well known in the oak. The fine divisions, or lesser 
 transverse septa, are common to all woods except the 
 palm, though in some way they are not very distinct. 
 But there are only some kinds that have the larger 
 septa, or silver grain ; therefore this forms a natural 
 character for distinguishing the kinds of Avood. And 
 they may be divided into two classes — one that has, and 
 the other that has not, the larger septa or silver grain. 
 
 D 
 
50 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 Again, in some woods each annual layer or ring 
 seems to be nearly uniform in its texture, and the line 
 of separation between the layers is not very distinct. 
 Mahogany is an example of this structure. But in 
 other woods one part of the layer is nearly compact, 
 and the rest of it presents the appearance of a circle of 
 empty pores ; of which we have an example in the ash. 
 There is a third kind, in which nearly all the pores 
 appear to be filled with resinous or gummy matter; 
 and one part of the layer consists of a compact, hard, 
 and dark-coloured substance, the other part is lighter 
 coloured and softer. All the resinous woods are of 
 this kind. 
 
 According to these distinctions, the arrangement of 
 the following table is made : — 
 
 m 
 P 
 
 8^ 
 
 Class I.— With 
 larger trans- 
 verse Septa. 
 
 Division 1. — Very dis- 1 
 
 tinct annual rings, I 
 
 one side porous, the i 
 
 other compact. J 
 
 Class II,— Ko 
 larger trans- 
 verse sepia. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Division 2. — Annual 1 
 rings not very dis- ! 
 
 Beech. 
 
 riLi^s xiuu \ ery uis- y Alder. 
 
 tinct, and their tex- f Plane, 
 ture nearly uniform. J Sycamore. 
 
 Division 1. — Annual Chestnut, 
 
 rings very distinct, I Ash. 
 
 one side pcrous, the | Elm. 
 
 other compact. J False acacia. 
 
 Division 2. — Annual 
 rings not very dis- 
 tinct, and their tex- 
 ture nearly uniform. 
 
 Division 3. — Annual 
 rings very distinct, 
 pores filled with re- 
 sinous matter ; one 
 part of the ring hard 
 and heavy, the other 
 soft and lighter co- 
 loured. 
 
 f Mahogany. 
 Walnut. 
 Teak. 
 Poona. 
 African teak. 
 Poplar. 
 
 Cedar of Lebanon. 
 
 Larch. 
 
 Yellow fir. 
 
 White fir. 
 
 American pine. 
 
 Cedar. 
 
 Cowrie. 
 
THE STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF WOODS. 51 
 
 36. The Properties of Wood which seem to re- 
 quire explanation are the cohesive force, the modulus 
 of elasticity, permanent alteration, the stiffness, the 
 hardness, and the toughness. The cohesive force of a 
 bar or beam is equal to the power or weight that would 
 pull it asunder in the direction of its length. The 
 weight that would pull asunder a bar of an inch 
 square of different kinds of wood has been ascertained 
 by experiments. Of these experiments we have taken 
 the highest and lowest result for each kind of wood. 
 The modulus of elasticity is the measure of the elastic 
 force of any substance. As it is the measure of the 
 elastic force, its use must be evident when it is con- 
 sidered that it is only the elastic force of timber that is 
 employed in resisting the usual strains in carpentry ; 
 and the constant numbers employed in the rules for 
 the stiffness of timber have for one of their elements 
 the modulus of elasticity. By means of the modulus 
 of elasticity the comparative stiffness of bodies can be 
 ascertained. For instance, its weight for cast-iron is 
 18,240,000 pounds, and its weight for oak is 1,714,500 
 pounds. Hence it appears that the modulus for cast- 
 iron is 10*6 times that of oak, and therefore a piece of 
 cast-iron is 10*6 times as stiff as a piece of oak of the 
 same dimensions and bearing. 
 
 Permanent alteration of structure takes place when a 
 certain degree of strain continues for above a certain 
 time ; and as this alteration is a partial fracture, or at 
 least failure of the material, it is of the greatest im- 
 portance that the strain should never be more than 
 that producing such alteration, and in timber this 
 appears to be about one-fifth of the cohesive force. 
 
 A hard body is that which yields least to any stroke 
 or impressive force ; and it may be shown, by the prin- 
 ciples of mechanics, that in uniform bodies the degree 
 
 D 2 
 
52 
 
 CARPENTKY. 
 
 of yielding is always proportional to the weight of the 
 modulus of elasticity ; therefore a table containing the 
 weights of the modulus of elasticity of such bodies 
 shows also their relative hardness and stiffness. The 
 relative hardness is determined with considerable ac- 
 curacy by means of the modulus of elasticity. As the 
 hardness follows the same laws as the stiffness, cast- 
 iron is 10*6 times as hard as oak; but when the sub- 
 stance is not uniform, the hardness thus found is that 
 of the hardest part. Thus, in fir, it is the darker part 
 of the annual ring that is the hardest, and which de- 
 termines the extent to which a beam will bend without 
 fracture. Dry wood is harder than green ; conse- 
 quently it is more difficult to work. The labour of 
 sawing dry oak is to that of sawing green as 4 is to 3, 
 nearly. 
 
 In respect to the toughness of woods, that wood is the 
 toughest which combines the greatest degree of streugth 
 and flexibility; hence that wood which bears the 
 greatest load, and bends the most at the time of frac- 
 ture, is the toughest. 
 
 The opposite to hardness is softness, the opposite to 
 toughness is brittleness, and the opposite to stiffness is 
 flexibility ; therefore, when the hardness, toughness, or 
 stiffness of a wood is ex23ressed by a low number, it 
 may be considered to have the opposite quality. 
 
 Oak in the following articles has been made the 
 standard of comparison ; its strength, toughness, and 
 stiffness each having been assumed to be 100 ; and in 
 so doing, the mean strength of oak is taken at 11,880 
 pounds per square inch, and its modulus of elasticity at 
 1,714,500 pounds for a square inch. 
 
 The above-mentioned properties determine the fit- 
 ness of woods for the different purposes of carpentry. 
 In some cases stiff woods are required, as in the joists 
 
THE STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF WOODS. 53 
 
 and rafters of a buildmg ; in otlier cases tough wood 
 should be employed, as for the shafts of carriages ; and 
 in other cases strength is necessary, as in ties and other 
 timbers strained in the direction of their length. 
 
 Tough woods, which are also hard, are the most 
 difficult to work, especially if cross-grained ; on the 
 contrary, brittle woods work easily ; and hard woods 
 preserve the best surface. 
 
 In general, where straightness is desirable, stiff 
 woods should be preferred ; where sudden shocks are 
 to be sustained, tough woods are the best ; where little 
 strength is required, but much labour is to be put upon 
 it, a soft brittle wood should be preferred ; and where 
 a fine surface is to be preserved, a hard wood should be 
 chosen ; so that it is not in carpentry alone that these 
 researches will be useful, for they are equally applicable 
 to any art where timber is employed ; and particularly 
 in that most important application of carpentry, Naval 
 Architecture. 
 
 37. Description of Woods. Class I. — The woods 
 of this class are compact, hard, and heavy ; never very 
 deep-coloured, the oak being the darkest-coloured of 
 the class. They are nearly free from smell, and never 
 resinous. 
 
 This class is formed into two divisions : one containing 
 those woods in which the annual rings are distinctly 
 porous on one side, and compact, or nearly compact, 
 on the other ; the other division contains those in 
 which the annual rings are sensibly uniform, and only 
 to be distinguished by a difference of colour. 
 
 38. Division I. — The Oak (Quercus) is a tree of 
 which there are several species, that produce valuable 
 timber. 
 
 Common British oak (Quercus rohur) is found 
 throughout the temperate parts of Europe, and is that 
 
54 
 
 CARPEKTllY. 
 
 whicli IS most commonly met with in the woods and 
 hedges of the south of England ; it grows to a very 
 large size. The wood of this species has often a reddish 
 tinge ; the larger septa are always very numerous, pro- 
 ducing large flowers ; the grain is tolerably straight 
 and fine, and it is generally free from knots ; some- 
 times closely resembling foreign wainscot. It splits 
 freely, and makes good laths for plasterers and slaters ; 
 and it is decidedly the best kind of oak for joists, 
 rafters, and for any other purposes where stiff and 
 straight-grained wood is desirable. 
 
 The sessile-fruited oak {Qiierciis sessiliflora) is a native 
 of the woods and hedges of the temperate parts of 
 Europe, and it aj)pears to be the common oak of the 
 neighbourhood of Durham, and perhaps generally of 
 the north of England. The wood is of a darker colour 
 than that of the robur, and the larger septa are not so 
 abundant ; sometimes there are very few septa. The 
 smoothness and gloss of the grain makes it resemble 
 that of chestnut. It is heavier, harder, and more 
 elastic than the wood of the robur, and is very subject 
 to Avarp and split in seasoning. It is very tough and 
 difficult to split, therefore not fit for laths. This is 
 most probably the reason that oak laths are so seldom 
 used in the north of England. In respect to the com- 
 parative durability of the woods of the two species, it 
 is a question that requires to be investigated. It ap- 
 pears, as far as can be determined from the structure 
 of the wood, that the fine oak found in old Gothic 
 roofs is of the sessile-fruited kind. At the same time 
 it must be owned that our means of judging are not so 
 satisfactory as to enable us to decide on this point 
 with certainty ; but we know that the old oak is very 
 durable. 
 
 The strength, elasticity, toughness, and hardness of 
 
THE STRUCTURE A:SD CLASSlf^ICATION OF WOODS. 65 
 
 the sessUe-fruited oak render it superior for ship- 
 building ; but it is both beavier and more difficult to 
 work than the robur ; bow far tbey may differ in 
 durability remains to be determined. 
 
 The following table shows the results of trials on 
 two pieces, each piece an inch square, and sustained 
 by supports 24 inches apart, the weight being applied 
 in the middle of the length : — 
 
 Species of oak. 
 
 Specific 
 gravity. 
 
 Weight of a 
 cubic foot 
 in lbs. 
 
 Comparative 
 stiffness or wt. 
 that bent the 
 piece seven- 
 twentieths of 
 an inch. 
 
 i 
 
 Compiirativc 
 streng'th or 
 
 vcight that 
 broke the 
 piece. 
 
 Quercus sessiliflora . 
 Qaercns robur 
 
 •807 
 •879 
 
 00-47 
 51-97 
 
 Tonnds. 
 
 1G7 
 119 
 
 rounds. 
 322 
 
 3 30 
 
 Both these specimens broke short without splitting; 
 therefore these experiments offer a very fair view of 
 the properties of the two species. The sessiliflora bent 
 considerably more at the time of fracture than the 
 robur, but it could not be measured with that correct- 
 ness which is necessary to render such data useful. 
 
 The following table contains the values of the co- 
 hesive force, and modulus of elasticity, calculated fi^om 
 the above experiments : — 
 
 Species of oak. 
 
 Cohesive force 
 of a sq. in. in lbs. 
 
 Wt. of modulus of 
 elasticity in lbs. for 
 a sq. in. 
 
 Comparative 
 toughness. 
 
 Quercus robur . 
 1 Quercus sessiliflora . 
 
 11,302 
 12,600 
 
 1,018,958 
 1,171,250 
 
 CO o 
 
 These pieces were hastily, and therefore imperfectly, 
 
66 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 seasoned ; but as tliey were treated exactly alike, this 
 would not affect the comparison. 
 
 There is another species, called the Durmast oak, 
 which is a native of France and the south of England ; 
 its wood is not so strong nor of so firm a texture as the 
 English oak, and it retains its foliage much later. The 
 Austrian oak is a taller tree than the English oak ; but 
 the wood is whiter, softer, and less valuable. Of the 
 American species the chestnut-leaved oak is a tall tree, 
 remarkable for the beauty of its form : the wood is 
 cross-grained, but is very serviceable, and is much used 
 for wheel carriages. 
 
 The mountain red oak (Quercus rubra) is a native of 
 Canada and the country west of the Alleghany moun- 
 tains. It is called the red oak, from the leaves chang- 
 ing to a red or purple colour before they fall off. It 
 is a large and fine tree, of 90 or 100 feet in height, 
 and of rapid growth ; the wood is useful for many pur- 
 poses, but it is light, spongy, and not very durable. 
 The white oak (Quercus alhci), so called from the white- 
 ness of its bark, is a native of the woods from New 
 England to Carolina, and acquires an immense size in 
 some of the middle States. Its wood is tough and 
 pliable, and it is preferred to all others in America 
 both for house and ship carpentry, being much more 
 durable than most other species. It is lees durable 
 than British oak, but it is of quicker growth. The 
 blunt-lobed iron oak {Quercus ohtusiloha) is another of 
 the American species that produces very valuable ship 
 timber. The wood is hard, and not liable to decay, and 
 is preferred for fencing. It is found in most of the 
 upland forests from Canada to Florida, and is a tree of 
 60 or 70 feet in height. But the live oak {Quercus 
 rirens) is esteemed the best of the American kinds for 
 ship timber. It grows to the height of 40 or 50 feet, 
 
THE STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF WOODS. 57 
 
 with wide-spreading branches, and the wood is very 
 durable. 
 
 Oak of a good quality is more durable than any 
 other wood that attains a like size. The more compact 
 it is, and the smaller the pores are, the longer it will 
 last ; but the open, porous, and foxy- coloured oak, 
 which grows in some parts of Lincolnshire, and in 
 some other places, is not nearly so durable. It is use- 
 ful for most of the purposes of the carpenter, and par- 
 ticularly in situations where it is exposed to the 
 weather. It makes the best wall-plates, ties, templets, 
 king posts, and indeed it is best suited for every pur- 
 pose where its warping in drying and its flexibility do 
 not render it objectionable ; but it is very subject 
 to twist and occasion cracks in the work it is em- 
 ployed in. 
 
 The colour of the oak is a fine brown, and is familiar 
 to every one. It is of different shades; that inclined to 
 red is the most inferior kind of wood. The larger 
 transverse septa are in general very distinct, producing 
 beautiful flowers when cut obliquely. Where the 
 septa are small and not very distinct the wood is much 
 the strongest. The texture is alternately compact and 
 porous ; the compact part of the annual ring being of 
 the darkest colour, and in irregular dots, surrounded 
 by open pores, producing beautiful dark veins in some 
 kinds, particularly in pollard oaks. 
 
 The young wood of English oak is very tough, often 
 cross-grained, and difficult to work, and does not com- 
 bine well with glue. Foreign wood, and that of old 
 trees, is more brittle and workable. Oak warps and 
 twists much in drying, and shrinks about one thirty- 
 second part of its width in seasoning. 
 
 The weight of a cubic foot of difiierent kinds, when 
 seasoned, is as follows : — 
 
 D 3 
 
58 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 English oalr, from • . . • . 45 to 58 lbs. 
 
 Riga oak 43 to 54 „ - 
 
 Red American oak . . • • .37to47„ 
 White American oak , . • . 50 to 56 „ 
 
 Adriatic oak 58 to 68 
 
 Representing the strength, stiffness, and toughness 
 of the common English oak {Qiierciis rohiir) each by 
 100, it may be compared with the other kinds as 
 under : — 
 
 
 Cora. Eng. 
 
 Riga. 
 
 American. 
 
 Danlzic. 
 
 Strength . 
 
 100 
 
 108 
 
 86 
 
 107 
 
 Stiffness . • 
 
 100 
 
 93 
 
 114 
 
 117 
 
 Toughness 
 
 100 
 
 125 
 
 64 
 
 99 
 
 The specimens of Riga and Dantzic oak were of the 
 best quality. 
 
 39. Division II. — In this division there are several 
 si3ecies ; but only four are here described — namely, 
 beech, alder, plane, and sycamore. The woods of this 
 division are very uniform in their texture, and very 
 durable in water : they are useful for piles and planking 
 in wet situations, but not aj)plicable to other kinds of 
 carpenters' work. Woods of this division do not warp 
 so much as those of the first division. 
 
 40. The Beech Tree {Fagus s^jlvatica) has but one 
 species, the common beech, the difference in the wood 
 proceeding from the difference of soil and situation ; 
 but owing to this difference the wood is distinguished 
 by the names brown or black, and white beech. It is 
 common in Europe, especially on a rich chalky soil. 
 The best beeches grow on a good soil, more dry than 
 moist J and the w^ood is whiter than that of those 
 
THE STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF ^VOODS. 59 
 
 grown in damp valleys, wliicli loses its strength in 
 drying, and becomes brittle. The mean size of the 
 trunk of the beech tree is about 44 feet in length and 
 22 inches in diameter. 
 
 Beech is durable when constantly immersed in 
 water, but damp soon destroys it. In a dry state it 
 is more durable, but is soon injured by worms, whether 
 it be in a damp or in a dry state. Water-seasoned 
 beech is much less subject to worms than that seasoned 
 in the common way ; and to preserve it from worms, 
 it ought to be cut about a fortnight after midsummer, 
 and planked immediately ; then the planks should be 
 put in water about ten days, and afterw^ards dried. 
 
 Beech is not useful in building, because it rots so 
 soon in damp places, but it is useful for piles in situa- 
 tions where it will be constantly wet ; and it is very 
 useful for various tools, for which its uniform texture 
 and hardness render it superior to any other wood. It 
 is also much used for furniture. 
 
 The colour of beech is a whitish brown, of dififerent 
 shades ; the darker kind is called brown, and some- 
 times black beech ; the lighter kind is called white 
 beech. The texture is very uniform ; the large septa 
 are finer, and do not extend so far in the length of the 
 wood as in oak ; therefore the flowers are smaller. The 
 annual rings are rendered visible by being a little 
 darker on one side than the other. It is very uni- 
 formly porous, and might be easily made to imbibe 
 some ingredient that would prevent the worms destroy- 
 ing it. It has no sensible taste or smell ; it is not 
 very difficult to work, and may be brought to a very 
 smooth surface. The white kind is the hardest, but 
 the black is tougher, and more durable than the white. 
 
 The mean cohesive force of a square inch of beech is 
 12,000 pounds ; the w^eight of its modulus of elasticity 
 
,60 CARPEXTRY. 
 
 IS about 1,316,000 joounds ; tlie weiglit of a cubic foot 
 dry varies from 43 to 63 pounds. 
 
 Eepresenting the strength of oak by 100, that of Leech mil be . 103 
 „ stifFneys of oak by 100, . 77 
 
 „ „ toughness of oak by 100, „ „ . 138 
 
 Hence it appears that oak is superior in stiffness, 
 but neither so strong nor so tough. 
 
 41. The Alder Tree [Behda alnns) is a native of 
 Europe and Asia, that grows in wet grounds and by 
 the banks of rivers. The tree seldom exceeds 40 feet 
 in height. The wood is extremely durable in water 
 or wet ground, but it soon rots when exposed to the 
 weather, or to damp ; and in a dry state it is much 
 subject to worms. On account of the durability of 
 alder in water, it is esteemed valuable for piles, plank- 
 ing, sluices, pumps, and, in general, for any purpose 
 where it is constantly wet. And for such purposes it 
 has been much cultivated in Holland and Flanders. It 
 is also used for turners' wares and other light purposes. 
 
 The colour of alder is a reddish yellow, of different 
 shades, and nearly uniform. The texture is very uni- 
 form, with large septa of the same colour as the wood, 
 therefore not very distinct, nor producing sensible 
 flowers. It is soft, and works very easily ; would cut 
 well in carving, and make very good models for casting 
 from. The cohesive force of a square inch of alder 
 varies from 5,000 to 13,900 pounds : its modulus of 
 elasticity is 1,086,750 pounds for a square inch ; and a 
 cubic foot weighs from 34 to 60 pounds in a dry state. 
 
 Eepresenting the strength of oak by 100, that of alder will be . 80 
 „ „ stiffness of oak by 100, . 63 
 
 „ toughness of oak by 100, . 101 
 
 42. The Plane Thee has several species ; the most 
 common are the oriental plane and the occidental 
 
THE STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION 
 
 plane. The oriental plane (Platanus 
 native of the Levant and other eastern 
 is considered one of the finest of trees, 
 about 60 feet in height, and has been known to 
 eight feet in diameter. Its wood is much like beech, 
 but more figured, and is used for furniture and 
 things of a like nature. The Persians employ it for 
 their furniture, doors, and windows. The occidental 
 plane (Platanus occidcntalis) is a native of North 
 America, and is perhaps one of the largest of the 
 American trees ; on the fertile banks of the Ohio and 
 Mississippi some of the trees exceed 12 feet in 
 diameter. The wood of the occidental plane is harder 
 than that of the oriental kind, but the occidental is 
 the most common in Britain, and to it only the rest 
 of this article applies. 
 
 The colour of the wood of the plane tree is nearly 
 the same as that of beech, and it also closely resembles 
 it in structure ; it difi^c^rs in the larger septa, as in the 
 plane the septa are more numerous, producing very 
 beautiful flowers when properly cut. It works easily, 
 and stands very well. 
 
 The cohesive force of a square inch is about 11,000 
 pounds ; its modulus of elasticity is 1,343,000 pounds 
 per square inch ; and it weighs from 40 to 46 pounds 
 per cubic foot when dry. 
 
 Kcprescniing the strength of oak by 100, that of plane tree will be 92 
 „ „ stiffness of oak by 100, " . 78 
 
 „ „ toughness of oak by 100, „ „ . 108 
 
 The wood of the occidental plane is very durable in 
 water, and on that account the Americans use it for 
 wooden quays in preference to any other kind. 
 
 43. The Sycamore, or Giieat Maple {Acer pseudo- 
 platanus)^ generally called the plane tree in the north 
 
62 
 
 CAKPEXTRY. 
 
 of England, is a native of the mountains of Germany, 
 and is very common in Britain. It is a large tree, of 
 quick growth, and thrives well near the sea ; the 
 mean size of its trunk is about 32 feet in length, and 
 29 inches in diameter. The wood is durable in a dry 
 state, w^hen it can be protected from worms ; but it is 
 equally as subject to be destroyed by them as beech. 
 It is used chiefly for furniture, and the white wood of 
 this tree is valuable for many ornamental articles. 
 
 The colour of sycamore is generally of a brownish 
 white ; sometimes of a yellowish white, or nearly 
 white in young wood, with a silky lustre. Its texture 
 is nearly uniform, and the annual rings not very 
 distinct. Its larger septa are small and close, and 
 perhaps it might be more correctly described as having 
 distinct smaller septa, and no larger septa. It is 
 in general easy to work, being less hard than beech. 
 The cohesive force of a square inch varies from 5,000 
 to 10,000 pounds ; its modulus of elasticity is 1,036,000 
 pounds for a square inch. A cubic foot of sycamore 
 weighs from 34 to 42 pounds when dry. 
 
 Representirig the strength of oak by 100^ that of sycamore is . 81 
 „ „ stiffness of oak by 100, » • . 59 
 
 „ „ toughness of oak by 100, „ „ . .111 
 
 44. Class II. contains all woods that have no 
 larger transverse septa. To this class many woods 
 belong, and of various colours and qualities. There 
 are three divisions : the first and second formed on the 
 same distinctions as the first and second in the first 
 class (37) ; the third division includes all the woods 
 of which the pores are filled with resinous matter. 
 
 Division I. — In the first division of the second 
 class the annual ring is nearly compact towards one 
 side, and porous towards the other ; and from this in- 
 equality the wood is very subject to w^arp in drying. 
 
THE STRUCTURE A^D CLASSIFICATION OF WOODS. 63 
 
 Four varieties are here described — the chestnut, ash, 
 elm, and false acacia. 
 
 45. The Chestnut (Fagics castanea) is commonly 
 called the sweet or Spanish chestnut. This tree is a 
 native of the warmer mountainous parts of Europe, 
 and was once very common in this country ; indeed it 
 appears to have been one of the chief timbers used in 
 earlier times. It is one of the largest and most long- 
 lived of European trees, sometimes enduring more 
 than a thousand years. The mean size of its trunk 
 is about 44 feet in length and 37 inches in diameter ; 
 and it is of a rapid growth. The chestnut contains 
 only a very small proportion of sap-wood, and there- 
 fore the wood of young trees is found to be superior 
 even to oak in durability. The roof of King's College, 
 Cambridge, may be cited as an example of its dura- 
 bility in a dry state ; also the roof of the Church of 
 Notre Dame at Paris. 
 
 Chestnut is useful for the same purposes as oak, when 
 the timber is not from old trees ; but the wood of old 
 trees is unfit for any situation where an uncertain load 
 is to be borne, as it is brittle, and often makes a fair 
 show outwardly when it is decayed and rotten within ; 
 it is also liable to rot when built in a wall, and there- 
 fore the ends of joists of this wood should have a free 
 space left round them. 
 
 The wood of the chestnut is nearly of the same 
 colour as that of the oak. In old wood the sap-wood 
 of chestnut is whiter and the heart- wood browner ; but 
 it is so much like oak that in old buildings they have 
 been sometimes mistaken the one for the other. Chest- 
 nut has no large transverse septa, which is its chief 
 distinction, and renders it easy to know it from oak, 
 whether the wood be old or not. The wood is hard 
 and compact ; young wood is tough and flexible ; old 
 
64 
 
 CAUP ENTRY. 
 
 wood is brittle, and often shaky. It does not shrink 
 and swell so mucli as other woods, and is easier to 
 work than British oak. 
 
 The cohesive force of a square inch of chestnut varies 
 from 9,570 to 12,000 pounds when dry. The weight 
 of a cubic foot dry is from 43 to 54'8 pounds. The 
 properties as determined from a piece of young wood in 
 a green state are as under. The cohesive force of a 
 square inch of green chestnut is 8,100 pounds; the 
 weight of the modulus of elasticity per square inch 
 of ditto is 924,750 pounds ; the weight of a cubic foot 
 of ditto, 54'68 pounds. 
 
 Representing the — 
 
 strength of dry oak by 100, that of green chestnut is . 68 
 
 stiffness of dry oak by 100, „ „ .54: 
 
 toughness of dry oak by 100, „ „ . 85 
 
 It bends more than oak at the time of fracture, and 
 therefore is tougher. Its toughness seems to permit it 
 to yield insensibly till every particle exerts its utmost 
 force, and then it gives way at once, more in the 
 manner of metals than in that of woods. 
 
 46. The Common Ash {Fraximis excelsior) is a 
 native of Europe and the north of Asia, and is the 
 most valuable of the genus. There are other species 
 both in America and other places ; but we know 
 nothing worthy of notice respecting their wood. The 
 ash is a very rapid growing tree, and, like the chestnut, 
 the young wood is much more valuable than that of 
 old trees. No timber differs more from a difference of 
 soil and situation than the ash. The mean size of the 
 trunk is 38 feet in length and 23 inches in diameter ; 
 but sometimes this tree attains an immense size. Ash 
 soon rots when exposed to either damp or alternate 
 dryness and moisture; but is tolerably durable in a 
 dry situation. 
 
THE STRL'CTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF WOODS. 65 
 
 Ash is superior to any otlier Britisli timber for its 
 tougtiness and elasticity ; and in consequencee of these 
 properties, it is useful wherever sudden shocks are to be 
 sustained ; as in various parts of machines, wheel car- 
 riages, implements of husbandry, ship blocks, tools, and 
 the like. It is too flexible for the timbers of buildings, 
 and not sufiiciently durable. 
 
 The colour of the wood of old trees is oak-brown, 
 with a more veined appearance, the veins darker than 
 in oak ; sometimes the wood is very beautifully figured. 
 The wood of young trees is brownish white, with a 
 shade of green. Its texture is alternately compact and 
 porous, the compact side of the annual ring being the 
 darker coloured, which renders the annual rings very 
 distinct. It has no larger septa, and consequently it 
 has no flowers. It has neither taste nor smell, and is 
 difEcult to work, except the wood of old trees, w^hich 
 is of a more brittle nature. 
 
 The cohesive force of a square inch varies from 6,300 
 to 17,000 pounds ; and the weight of its modulus of 
 elasticity is about 1,525/500 pounds per square inch. 
 The weight of a cubic foot dry varies from 34 to 52 
 pounds ; when the weight of a cubic foot is lower than 
 45 pounds, the wood is that of an old tree, and will be 
 found deficient both in strength and toughness. 
 
 Representing the strength of oak by 100, that of ash is . ,119 
 „ „ stiffness of oak by 100, „ j, • . 89 
 
 „ „ toughness of oak by 100, ?, ,> . • 160 
 
 It exceeds oak both in strength and toughness, 
 and in young wood the diflerence is still more con- 
 siderable. 
 
 47. The Elm Tree {Ulmus) has five species now 
 common in Britain, viz., the common rough-leaved elm, 
 the cork-barked elm, the broad-leaved elm or wych 
 hazel, the smooth-leaved or wych elm, and the Dutch 
 
66 
 
 CARPE^^TllY. 
 
 elm. The common rough-leayed elm ( Uhmts ccimpestris) 
 is common in scattered woods and hedges in the southern 
 parts of England ; it is harder and more durable wood 
 than the other species ; it resists moisture well, and is 
 therefore preferred for coffins. The cork-barked elm 
 (Ulmifs suherosa) is very common in Sussex ; the wood 
 is of an inferior kind, A^ery much resembling Dutch 
 elm. The broad-leaved elm or wj^ch hazel {Ulmus 
 montana) appears to be the most common species 
 throughout Europe ; it is frequent in the woods and 
 hedges of England, particularly in the northern coun- 
 ties. The smooth-leaved or wych elm (Ulmus glabra) 
 is common in England and Scotland. It grows to a 
 large size, and is much esteemed ; it is readily distin- 
 guished by its smooth, dark, lead-coloured bark, and 
 by its leaves being nearly smooth on the upper surface. 
 The wood is tough and flexible, and is stated to be pre- 
 ferred for naves of wheels. The Dutch elm {Ulmus 
 major) is a native of Holland, and its wood is very 
 inferior to the other species. The wych elm is the 
 largest tree, and the Dutch elm the smallest. The 
 mean size of the trunk of the elm tree is 44 feet in 
 length and 32 inches in diameter. The trunk of the 
 common rough-leaved elm is often rugged and crooked, 
 and the tree is of slow growth. 
 
 Elm has always been much esteemed for its durability 
 in situations where it is constantly wet ; and it is also 
 said to be very durable in a perfectly dry state, but not 
 when exposed to the weather. The piles upon which 
 old London Bridge stood were chiefly of elm, and 
 remained six centuries without material decay; and 
 several other instances of its durability in water have 
 been noticed. 
 
 Elm is not useful for the general purposes of build- 
 ing, but from its durability in water it makes excellent 
 
THE STllUCTUllE AND CLASSIFICATION OF WOODS. 67 
 
 piles and planking for wet foundations. It is also used 
 for water- works, sucli as pipes, pumps, and the like, 
 and it is mucli used for cofBns. The naves of wheels, 
 the shells of blocks for tackle, the keels of ships, and 
 sometimes the gunwales, are made of elm. 
 
 The colour of the heart-wood of elm is generally 
 darker than that of oak, and of a redder brown. The 
 sap-wood is of a yellowish or brownish white, with 
 pores inclined to red. Elm is in general porous and 
 cross-grained, sometimes very coarse-grained, and has 
 no large septa. It has a peculiar odour. It twists 
 and warps much in drying, and shrinks very much both 
 in length and breadth. It is difficult to work, but is 
 not liable to split, and bears the driving of bolts and 
 nails better than any other timber. The timber of the 
 English elm is generally esteemed the best ; that of the 
 wych elm is equally as good, but the Dutch elm is very 
 inferior. Elm shrinks about -Ath of its width in sea- 
 soning. 
 
 The cohesive force of a square inch of elm varies 
 from 6,070 to 13,200 pounds ; and the weight of its 
 modulus of elasticity for a square inch is about 1,343,000 
 pounds. The weight of a cubic foot dry is from 34 to 
 47 pounds ; seasoned, from 36 to 50 pounds. 
 
 Kepresenting the mean strength of oak by 100, that of elm is 82 
 „ stiffness of oak by 100, 78 
 
 „ „ toughness of oak by 100, „ 86 
 
 48. The Common Acacia, or American Locust Tree 
 (liobinia pseudo-acacia) y is a native of the mountains of 
 America from Canada to Carolina. It is a beautiful 
 tree, attains a considerable size, and is of very quick 
 growth. The mean size of its trunk is 32 feet in 
 length and 23 inches in diameter. The wood is much 
 valued for its durability : some of the houses built by 
 the first settlers in New England of this wood still con- 
 
68 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 tiniie firm and sound ; and in posts, stakes, and pales, 
 it is found to be one of the most durable kinds. - It is 
 adapted for any purpose to which oak is applied : it 
 makes excellent tree-nails for ships, and is valuable for 
 fencing. 
 
 The colour of the wood of the acacia is of a greenish 
 yellow, with a slight tinge of red in the pores. Its 
 structure is alternately nearly compact and very porous, 
 which marks distinctly the annual rings. It has no 
 large septa, and therefore no flowers. It has no sen- 
 sible taste or odour in a dry state. It will require 
 about the same degree of labour to work it as ash 
 does. 
 
 The cohesive force of a square inch varies from 
 10,000 to 13,000 pounds ; and the weight of a cubic 
 foot, seasoned, is from 49 to 56 pounds. Its other pro- 
 perties, determined from young wood in an unseasoned 
 state, are as under : — 
 
 "Weight of the Modulus of Elasticity for a Squahe Inch, 
 1,687,500 POUNDS. 
 
 Eepresenting the mean — 
 
 strength of oak by 100, that of unseasoned acacia is 95 
 
 stiffness of oak by 100, ,, „ 98 
 
 toughness of oak by 100, „ 92 
 
 Hence in a dry state it will be superior to oak in 
 these properties. 
 
 49. Division II. — In the second division of the 
 second class, the wood is uniformly porous ; the distinc- 
 tion of the rings is chiefly owing to a difierence between 
 the colours of the sides of each ring. To this uniformity 
 of texture may be referred the superiority of the woods 
 in this division in retaining their original form ; or, in 
 other words, it is the reason they stand so well in work. 
 The woods of this division are very numerous, but 
 many of them have little durability : only six are here 
 
THE STRUCTURE AND CLASSTFICATION OF 
 
 described; those are mahogany, walnut, t^^^ P^o^% 
 African teak, and poplar. ^ ^% 
 
 50. Mahogany (Swietonia mahocjoni) is a nl^^gf " 
 the West Indies, and the country round the Bay^-^E.^^."^ 
 Honduras in America. The tree is stated to be of very 
 rapid growth, and its trunk often exceeds 40 feet in 
 length, and 6 feet in diameter. 
 
 In a dry state mahogany is very durable, and not 
 subject to worms. It does not last long when exposed 
 to the weather. It is a kind of wood that would make 
 excellent timbers for floors, roofs, &c. ; but, on account 
 of its price, its use is chiefly confined to furniture and 
 doors for rooms ; for which purposes it is the best 
 material in use. It is sometimes used for some parts 
 of window-frames and for sashes ; but from its not 
 standing the weather well, it is not so fit for these pur- 
 poses. It has also been extensively used in the framing 
 of machinery for cotton mills, &c. 
 
 The colour of mahogany is a red brown, of different 
 shades, and various degrees of brightness ; sometimes 
 yellowish brown ; often very much veined and mottled 
 with darker shades of the same colour. The texture is 
 uniform, and the annual rings are not very distinct. 
 It has no large septa, but the smaller septa are often very 
 visible, with pores between them ; these pores are often 
 filled with a white substance in the Jamaica wood, but 
 generally empty in the Honduras kind. It has neither 
 taste nor smell, shrinks very little, and warps or twists 
 less than any other kind of wood. The variety called 
 Spanish mahogany is imported from Cuba, and some 
 other of the West Indian Islands, and in smaller logs 
 than the Honduras. The size of the logs is in general 
 about from 20 to 2G inches square, and about 10 feet 
 in length. The Spanish mahogany is close-grained 
 and hard, generally of a darker colour, and more beau- 
 
70 
 
 CARPJE^^TRY. 
 
 tifuUy figured, than Honduras. It is mucli used for 
 veneers and other works of the cabinet-maker, as well 
 as for hand-rails of stairs. 
 
 The Honduras mahogany (sometimes called bay- 
 wood) is imported in logs of a larger size, that is, from 
 2 to 4 feet square, and 12 or 14 feet in length ; some 
 planks have been got 6 or 7 feet wide. The grain o/ 
 the Honduras kind is generally very open, and oftea 
 irregular, with black or grey spots. It holds with glue 
 better than any other wood. 
 
 The cohesive force of a square inch of Spanish 
 mahogany is 7,660 pounds, and of Honduras mahogany 
 11,475 pounds. The weight of the modulus of elasticity 
 of mahogany is 1,255,500 pounds for a square inch for 
 Spanish, and 1,593,000 for Honduras. The weight of 
 a cubic foot of mahogany is from 35 to 53 pounds. 
 
 Kepresenting the — 
 
 strength of oak by 100, that of Span, mahog. is 67, of Hondr. 96 
 
 stiffness of oak by ]00, „ „ 73, „ 93 
 
 toughness of oak by 100, „ „ 61, „ 99 
 
 51. The Walnut Tree {Juglans regia) is a native 
 of Persia and the northern parts of China. The wood 
 is very beautiful, and its colour superior to the red 
 brown of mahogany. Walnut, on account of its 
 scarcity, is hardly ever used for the purposes of build- 
 ing ; indeed it is of too flexible a nature for beams, 
 though it appears to have been used for that purpose 
 by the ancients. The wood is durable, and not liable 
 to be destroyed by worms ; and it is much used for 
 gun-stocks, from having the advantage of not produc- 
 ing sensible chemical action on iron or steel. 
 
 The hickory, or white walnut {Juglans alba), is a 
 native of North America. It is a large tree, the trunk 
 sometimes exceeding 3 feet in diameter. The wood of 
 
THE STRUCTUUB AND CLASSIFICATION OF WOODS. 71 
 
 young trees is extremely tongh and flexible, making 
 excellent handspikes. 
 
 The black Virginia walnut {Jiiglans nigra) is also a 
 native of America, and is found from Pennsylvania to 
 Florida. It is a large tree, and for furniture the wood 
 is the most valuable of the walnut tree kind. It is of 
 a fine grain, and beautifully veined, receiving an excel- 
 lent polish. It is also durable, and not affected by 
 worms. The heart- wood of walnut tree is of a greyish 
 brown, with blackish brown pores, often much veined, 
 with darker shades of the same colour ; the sap-wood 
 is greyish white. The colours are much brightened, 
 and the veins rendered more distinct, by oiling. Its 
 texture is not so uniform as that of mahogany, the 
 pores being somewhat more thickly set on one side of 
 the annual ring. It has no large septa or flowers. It 
 has a slightly bitter taste when green, and a per- 
 ceptible odour. It does not work so easily as ma- 
 hogany, but may in general be brought to a smoother 
 surface. It shrinks very little. 
 
 The cohesive force of a square inch of walnut varies 
 from 5,3G0 to 8,130 pounds ; its modulus of elasticity 
 for a square inch is 837,000 pounds in a green state ; 
 the weight of a cubic foot varies from 40 to 48 pounds 
 in a dry state. 
 
 Eopresenting the — 
 
 strength of oak by 100, that of common Tvalnut is 74 
 
 stiffness of oak by 100, ,, „ 49 
 
 toughness of oak by 100, „ „ „ 111 
 
 These properties were ascertained from a green speci- 
 men ; the strength and stiffness would be greater in a 
 dry state. 
 
 52. Teak Wood {Tectona grandis) is obtained from a 
 tree which is a native of the mountainous parts of the 
 Malabar and Coromandel coasts, as well as of Java, 
 
72 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 Cej^lon, and oilier parts of the East Indies. -This tree 
 is of rapid growth, and the trunk grows erect, to a 
 vast height, with copious spreading branches. The 
 wood is by far the most useful timber in India ; it is 
 light, easily worked, and though porous, it is strong and 
 durable ; it requires little seasoning, and shrinks very 
 little ; it affords tar of good quality, and is rather of 
 an oily nature, therefore does not injure iron ; and is 
 the best w^ood in that country for ship timber, house 
 carpentry, or any other work where strong and durable 
 wood is required. Malabar teak is esteemed superior 
 to any other in India, and is extensively used for ship- 
 building at Bombay. 
 
 The cohesive force of teak wood varies from 13,000 
 to 15,000 pounds per square inch ; the weight of its 
 modulus of elasticity is 2,167,000 pounds per square 
 inch, according to Mr. Barlow^s experiments ; and the 
 weight of a cubic foot, seasoned, varies from 41 to 63 
 pounds. 
 
 Representing the strength of oak "by 100, thatof teak will be 109 
 „ stiiffiess of oak by 100, „ 126 
 
 „ „ toughness of oak by 100, „ „ 94 
 
 From which it appears that it is much superior to 
 oak in these properties, except in toughness ; but it is 
 to be remembered, that these proportions are drawn 
 from two or three experiments on select specimens of 
 teak ; whereas those for oak are from a mean specimen, 
 selected from pieces of oak of various qualities. 
 
 53. PooNA Wood is brought from the East Indies. 
 It very nearly resembles a dull-coloured and greyish 
 specimen of mahogany ; and would be useful for any 
 purpose to which such kind of mahogany is ap- 
 plicable ; besides having a greater degree of strength 
 and stiffness compared with its weight. Poena is used 
 for the decks, yards, and masts of ships, and it appears 
 
THE STRUCTrRE AND CLASSIFICATION OF ^yOOD5. 7r3 
 
 well adapted for these purposes, both by its strength 
 and lightness. Its texture is porous, but uniform ; and 
 the mean weight of a cubic foot in the dry state is 
 40*5 pounds. 
 
 The cohesive force of poena is from 10,000 to 14,700 
 pounds per square inch ; the mean weight of the 
 modulus of elasticity for a base of an inch square is 
 1,689,800 pounds. 
 
 54. TuRTosA, or African Teak, is imported from 
 Sierra Leone. It is adaj^ted to the same purposes as 
 oak, and has been rather extensively used in ship-build- 
 ing for the navy. The colour is a moderately deep 
 greyish brown. The texture is uniform, the annual 
 rings not distinct, but the smaller septa are strong and 
 numerous. It is dense, hard, and brittle. The taste is 
 bitter, but the seasoned wood has no sensible smell. 
 
 The cohesive force of a square inch of turtosa is 
 17,200 pounds ; and the weight of a cubic foot dry is 
 59*4 pounds; but it is variable from 58 to 61 pounds. 
 The weight of the modulus of elasticity of turtosa is 
 1,728,000 pounds for a square inch A bar one foot 
 long, and one inch square, supported at the ends, 
 breaks with 954 pounds applied in the middle ; and 
 bends tJo of its length, or one-fortieth of an inch, by a 
 w^eight of 100 pounds. 
 
 65. The Porlar Tree (Populus) has five species 
 common in England : the common white poplar, the 
 black poplar, the aspen or trembling poplar, the abele 
 or great white poplar, and the Lombardy poplar. The 
 wood of the aspen lasts long when exposed to the w^eather, 
 and most of the poplars prove very durable in a dry 
 state. 
 
 The wood of most of the species makes very good 
 flooring for bedrooms and places where there is not 
 much wear, and it has the advantage of not catching 
 
 E 
 
74 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 fire readily. The poplars produce woods sufficiently 
 strong for Hglit purposes, being soft, white, and easy to 
 work, and well adapted for carving ; but none of the 
 species are fit for large timbers. There is not much 
 difference in the wood of these species. The colour is 
 of a yellowish or brownish white, one side of the 
 annual rings being a little darker than the other, which 
 renders the growth of each year visible. They are of 
 an uniform texture, and are without the larger septa. 
 The Lombardy, the black, and the common white 
 poplar are the most esteemed. The Lombardy poplar 
 is sometimes recommended for cheese-rooms and farm- 
 houses in general, because neither mice nor mites will 
 attack it. The cohesive force of a square inch of 
 common white poplar is from 4,496 to 6,641 pounds, 
 and the others will not diflfer much from it ; the weight 
 of the modulus of elasticity for a square inch is, for 
 abele 1,134,000 pounds, and for Lombardy poplar 
 763,000 pounds ; the weight of a cubic foot dry is, for 
 abele 32 pounds, for common white poplar 33 pounds, 
 for Lombardy poplar 24 pounds, for aspen and for 
 black poplar 26 pounds. 
 
 Representing the — 
 
 strength of oak by 100, that of ahele is 86, that of Lorn. pop. is 50 
 stiffness of oak by 100, „ „ 66, „ 44 
 toughness of oak by 100, „ 112, ,, „ 57 
 
 56. Division III. — Li the third division of the 
 second class, the woods are distinguished by the pores 
 containing resinous matter. Some of the most useful 
 and the most durable kinds oi wood belong to this 
 division. The cedars and the different species of pine 
 belong to this division. 
 
 57. Cedar of Lebanon, or the Great Cedar. — 
 (^Pinus cedriis), is a cone-bearing tree, and an ever- 
 green. It grows to a considerable size ; the mean size 
 
THE STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF WOODS. 75 
 
 of the trunk is about 39 inclies in diameter, and 50 
 feet in length. The wood is said to be very durable ; 
 the timber-work of the most celebrated temples of an- 
 tiquity was in general executed in cedar, on account of 
 its extreme durability. 
 
 It has no perceptible larger transverse septa ; but 
 when it is planed where it has been cut across the 
 annual rings, the smaller septa present a very minute 
 and beautiful dappled appearance. The general colour 
 of cedar is a rich light yellowish brown ; the annual 
 rings distinct, each ring consisting of two parts, the 
 one part harder, darker coloured, and more compact 
 than the other. It is a resinous wood, and has a pecu- 
 liar and powerful odour, with a slightly bittef taste, 
 and is not subject to the worm. It is straight-grained, 
 and easily worked, but readily splits. 
 
 The cohesive force of a square inch of cedar is 7,400 
 pounds ; the weight of its modulus of elasticity for a 
 square inch is 486,000 pounds ; and the weight of a 
 cubic foot seasoned is from 30*5 to 38 pounds. 
 
 Representing the strength of oak by 100, that of cedar is 62 
 „ stiffness of oak by 100, „ ,, 28 
 „ „ toughness of oak by 100, „ „ 137 
 
 From these proportions it appears that it exceeds the 
 oak in toughness, but is vastly inferior in stiffness and 
 strength. 
 
 58. Red or Yellow Fir is the produce of the 
 Scotch fir tree (Pinus sijlvestris). It is a native of the 
 hills of Scotland and other northern parts of Europe, 
 and common in Russia, Denmark, Norway, Lapland, 
 and Sweden. The great forests of Norway and Sweden 
 consist almost entirely of Scotch fir and spruce fir. The 
 Scotch fir is exported from thence in logs and deals, 
 under the name of red- wood. Norway exports no trees 
 
 E 2 
 
76 
 
 CARPENTKY. 
 
 above 18 inches diameter, consequently there is much 
 sap-wood ; but the heart- wood is both stronger and 
 more durable than that of larger trees from other situa- 
 tions. Riga exports a considerable quantity under 
 the name of masts and spars ; those pieces from 18 to 
 25 inches diameter are called masts, and are usually 70 
 or 80 feet in length ; those of less than 18 inches dia- 
 meter are called sjjars. Yellow deals and planks are 
 imported from Stockholm, Gefle, Frederickshall, Chris- 
 tiana, and various other parts of Norway, Sweden, 
 Prussia, and Russia. 
 
 Tar, pitch, and turpentine are obtained from the 
 Scotch fir; and the tree is not injured by extracting 
 these products when it has acquired a certain age ; 
 indeed some suppose the wood to be improved by 
 it. It is the most durable of the pine species : and 
 it Was the opinion of Mr. Brindley that red Riga 
 deal, or pine wood, would endure as long as oak in all 
 situations. 
 
 Its lightness and stiffness render it superior to any 
 other material for beams, girders, joists, rafters, and 
 framing in general. It is also much used for masts 
 and other parts of vessels. For joiners' work it is also 
 much used, both for external and internal work, as it 
 is more easily wrought, stands better, is nearly if not 
 quite as durable, and is much cheaper than oak. The 
 colour of the wood of the different varieties of Scotch 
 fir differs considerably ; it is generally of a reddish 
 yellow, or a honey yellow, of various degrees of bright- 
 ness. It consists in the section of alternate hard and 
 soft circles ; the one part of each annual ring being 
 soft and light coloured, the other harder and dark 
 coloured. It has no larger transverse septa, and it has 
 a strong resinous odour and taste. It works easily 
 when it does not abound in resin ; and the foreign wood 
 
THE STRUCTUJIE AND CLASSIFICATION OF WOODS. 77 
 
 shrinks about one-tliirtletli part of its width in season- 
 ing from the log. 
 
 The cohesive force of a square inch of— 
 
 Foreign timber varies from . . 7,000 to 14, 000 lbs. 
 
 Mar Forest varies from . . . 7,000 to 10,000 
 
 English growth varies from . . 5,000 to 7,000 „ 
 
 The weight of a cubic foot of — 
 
 F'oroign fir, seasoned, varies from . . 29 to 40 lbs. 
 
 English growth, seasoned, varies from . 28 to 33 „ 
 
 Mar Forest, seasoned, varies from . .38 „ 
 
 The mean weight of the modulus of elasticity for a square inch of— 
 The foreign varieties of Scotch fir of a good quality is 1,687,000 lbs. 
 
 Mar Forest 845,000 „ 
 
 English 951,000 „ 
 
 The mean strength, stiffness, and toughness of oak 
 being each represented by 100, those of the different 
 varieties of Scotch fir will be represented by the num- 
 bers below : — 
 
 Strength of foreign timber 80, of Mar Forest ditto 61, of English 
 grown ditto 60. 
 
 Stifihess of foreign timber 114, of Mar F^orest ditto 49, of English 
 grown ditto 55. 
 
 Toughness of foreign timber 56, of Liar Forest ditto 76, of English 
 grown ditto 65. 
 
 69. White Fm, or Deal, is the produce of different 
 species of spruce fir ; that from the north of Europe is 
 produced by the Norway spruce {Pimis abies) ; but that 
 from America is produced either by the white spruce 
 (Pimis alba), or black spruce (Plnus nigra). It is 
 imported in deals or planks. The Norway spruce 
 is a native of mountains in various parts of Europe 
 and the north of Asia. The forests of Norway afford 
 it abundantly. A considerable quantity is imported 
 from Christiana in deals and planks, which are esteemed 
 the best white deals of any ; not so much, from the 
 superior quality of the tree, as the regular thickness of 
 the deals. The trees are usually cut into three lengths^ 
 
78 
 
 CARPENTRY, 
 
 generally of about twelve feet each, and are afterwards 
 cut into deals and planks by saw mills, each length yield- 
 ing three deals or planks. A tree requires seventy or 
 eighty years' growth before it arrives at perfection. 
 White deals are also imported from Frederickstadt, 
 Drontheim, and other ports in Norway ; and from 
 Gottenburg, Riga, and other of the Baltic ports. 
 
 White deal is very durable in a dry state, and is 
 much used for internal joiners' work, and for furniture. 
 It unites well with glue. 
 
 The American white spruce fir is a native of the 
 high mountainous tracts in the colder parts of North 
 America. The wood is not so resinous as that of the 
 Norway spruce, and it is tougher, less heavy, and 
 generally more liable to twist in drying. It is imported 
 in deals and planks. The American black spruce fir is 
 a native of the high mountainous tracts from the 
 northern parts of Canada to Carolina. The black and 
 white spruce are so named from the colour of the bark, 
 the wood of both kinds being of the same colour. The 
 black spruce is said to produce the best wood. The 
 colour of spruce fir, or white deal, is yellowish or 
 brownish white ; the hard part of the annual ring a 
 darker shade of the same colour ; often has a silky 
 lustre, especially in the American and British grown 
 kinds. Each annual ring consists of two parts, the 
 one hard, the other softer. The knots are generally 
 very hard. The clear and straight-grained kinds are 
 often tough, but not very difiicult to work, and stand 
 extremely well when properly seasoned : and they are 
 often used for topmasts. 
 
 The coliesive force of— 
 
 A square inch of Chi'istiana deal is from 8,000 to 12,000 lbs. 
 American white spruce . . . 8,000 to 10,000 „ 
 British grown Korway spruce is about 8,000 „ 
 
THE STiaCiUllE AND CLASSIFICATION OF WOODS. 79 
 
 The modulus of elasticity is 1,500,000 pounds for a 
 square inch, taking the mean of the three kinds. 
 
 A cubic foot of — 
 
 Christiana deal weighs from . 28 to 32 pounds when dry. 
 
 American white spruce . . .29 „ „ 
 
 Norway spruce (British grown) . .34 „ „ 
 
 Representing the strength, stiffness, and hardness of 
 oak, each by 100, 
 
 
 Christiana 
 deah 
 
 American 
 white spruce. 
 
 British grown 
 Norway spruce. 
 
 The strength, will be 
 
 104 
 
 86 
 
 70 
 
 The stiffness . 
 
 104 
 
 72 
 
 81 
 
 The toughness 
 
 104 
 
 102 
 
 60 
 
 CO. Weymouth Pine, or White Pi!>e {Finns sfrohiis), 
 is a native of North America, and is imported in large 
 logs, often more than 2 feet square and 30 feet in 
 length. It is one of the largest and most useful of the 
 American pines, and makes excellent masts. The wood 
 is light and soft, but is said to stand the weather 
 tolerably well. In joiners' work the wood is much 
 used for mouldings, and other work where clean 
 straight-grained wood is desirable ; but it is not durable, 
 nor fit for large timbers, being very liable to take the 
 dry rot. It has a peculiar odour. 
 
 The colour of the wood is a brownish yellow, the 
 texture is more nearly uniform than that of any other 
 of the pine species, and the annual rings not very dis- 
 tinct. It stands very well when seasoned, and is a very 
 good kind of wood for moulds for casting from, and for 
 some kinds of furniture ; but its softness renders it un- 
 fit for many purposes. Its strength and other proper- 
 ties are given in a table on page 81. 
 
80 
 
 CAEPEInTRY. 
 
 61. Yellow Pixe (Pinus variahilis) is a native of 
 the pine forests from ISew England to Georgia, and the 
 wood is much used for many of the carpenter's purposes, 
 and for shij^-building. 
 
 62. Pitch Pine (Pinus resiuGsa) is a native of 
 Canada, and is remarkable for the abundance and fra- 
 grance of its resin, and for the beauty of its grain- 
 ing. It is a very heavy wood, and not very durable : 
 it is also brittle when very dry. It is of a redder 
 colour than the Scotch pine, feels sticky, and is difficult 
 to plane. It has recently come largely into use for 
 joinery and cabinet work. 
 
 63. Silver Fir (Pinus picea) is a native of the 
 mountains of Siberia, Germany, and Switzerland, and is 
 common in British plantations. It is a large tree, and 
 produces the Strasburg turj^entine of commerce. The 
 wood is of a good quality, and much used on the Con- 
 tinent both for carpentry and shij)-building. The 
 harder fibres are of a yellow colour, compact, and 
 resinous ; the softer nearly white. Like the other 
 kinds of fir, it is light and stiff, and does not bend 
 much under a considerable load ; consequently floors 
 constructed of it remain permanently level. It is 
 subject to the worm. It lasts longer in the air than in 
 water, and it is therefore more fit for the upper parts 
 of bridges than for piles and piers. 
 
 64. Cll'ster Pixe {Pimis pinaster) is a native of 
 the rocky mountainous parts of Europe, and is some- 
 times cultivated in British plantations. It is a larger 
 tree than the Scotch pine, and produces both pitch 
 and turpentine ; and its wood is not of so red a colour. 
 The wood of the pinaster is more durable in water than 
 in air, is of a finer grain than either the pine or silver 
 fir, and contains less resin than either. 
 
THE STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF WOODS. 81 
 
 Table or Propehties or the Piieceding SrECiE«. 
 
 Kind. 
 
 "Weig-ht 
 of a cubic 
 foot. 
 
 Wt. of mod. 
 of elasticity 
 for a sq. in. 
 
 Cohesive 
 force of a 
 sq. in. 
 
 Stiff- 
 ness. 
 
 Strcn. 
 
 Tough- 
 ness. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 
 
 
 Weymo-ath. pine 
 
 28-J 
 
 1,033,500 
 
 11,835 
 
 95 
 
 99 
 
 103 
 
 Yellow pine 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pitch pine 
 
 41 
 
 1,252,200 
 
 9,796 
 
 73 
 
 82 
 
 92 
 
 Silver fir . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pinaster . 
 
 25 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 111 the fifth, sixth, and seventh columns, the stiff- 
 ness, strength, and toughness of oak are each suj)posed 
 to be represented by 100. 
 
 65. The Larch Tree has three species — one Euro- 
 pean and two American. The European larch tree 
 {Pinus larix) is a native of the Alps of Switzerland, 
 Italy, Germany, and Siberia. The variety from the 
 Italian Alps is the most esteemed, and has been intro- 
 duced to a considerable extent in the plantations of 
 Britain. The mean size of the trunk is 45 feet 
 in length and 33 inches in diameter. It is ex- 
 tremely durable in all situations, failing only where 
 any other kind would fail. In posts, and other situa- 
 tions w^here it is exposed to damp and the weather, it is 
 found to be very durable. In countries where larch 
 abounds it is often used to cover buildings, which 
 when first done are the natural colour of the wood, but 
 in two or three years they become covered with resin, 
 and as black as charcoal ; the resin forms a kind of im- 
 penetrable varnish which effectually resists the weather. 
 Larch is not attacked by common worms, and does 
 not inflame readily. The larch is preferable to the 
 pine, the pinaster, or the fir, for the construction of the 
 arches of wooden bridges ; and is useful for every pur- 
 pose of building, w^hether external or internal ; it 
 
82 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 makes excellent ship-timber, masts, boats, posts, rails, 
 and furniture. It is peculiarly adapted for flooring- 
 boards in situations where there is much wear, and 
 for staircases ; in the latter, its fine colour, when 
 rubbed with oil, is much preferable to that of the black 
 oaken staircases to be seen in some old mansions. It 
 is well adapted for doors^ shutters, and the like ; and 
 from the beautiful colour of its wood when varnished, 
 painting is not necessary. 
 
 The wood of the American black larch or Tamarack 
 (Ptniis 2)endi{Ia) is said to be nearly equal to that of the 
 European larch ; and that of the American red larch 
 {Pinus microcarjxi) is also of a very good quality ; but 
 they do not produce turpentine as the European kind. 
 
 The wood of the European larch is generally of a 
 honey-yellow colour, the hard part of the annual rings 
 of a redder cast ; sometimes it is brownish white. In 
 common with the other species of pine, each annual 
 ring consists of a hard and soft part. It generally has 
 a silky lustre, and its colour is browner than that of 
 the Scotch pine, and it is much tougher. It is more 
 difficult to work than Eiga or Memel timber ; but the 
 surface is better when once it is obtained. It bears 
 driving bolts and nails better than any other kind of 
 the resinous w^oods. When it has become perfectly dry 
 it stands well, but warps much in seasoning. 
 
 The cohesive force of a square inch is from 6,000 to 
 13,000 pounds ; the modulus of elasticity for a square 
 inch is 1,363,500 pounds ; and the w^eight of a cubic 
 foot of larch varies from 29 to 40 jpounds when dry. 
 
 Eepresenting the mean strength of oak Ly 100, tliat of larch is 103 
 „ „ stiffness of oak by 100, 79 
 
 „ „ toughness of oak by 100, „ „ 134 
 
 Of the larch wood there are two very distinct kinds, 
 differing much both in colour and quality; the one 
 
THE STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF "SVOODS. 83 
 
 being of a redder colour, harder, of a straigliter grain, 
 and more free from knots than the other, which is of a 
 white colour and coarse grain. The white kind is the 
 most common. 
 
 66. The Cedar Tree (Jtmiperus) has several species 
 that produce valuable wood. There are also several 
 other kinds of timber that are often called cedar. 
 Thus a species of cypress is called white cedar in 
 America ; and the cedar used by the Japanese for 
 building bridges, ships, houses, &c., is also a kind of 
 cypress, which is a beautiful wood, and lasts long with- 
 out decay. The Jiini2oenis oxyccdnis is a native of 
 Spain, the South of France, and the Levant ; it is 
 usually called the brown-berried cedar. The wood of 
 this species is supposed to have been the famous cedar 
 of the ancients, so much celebrated for its durability. 
 The Bermudian cedar (Jumperiis JBermiidiana), a native 
 of Bermuda and the Bahama Islands, is another species 
 that produces valuable timber for many purposes, such 
 as internal joiners' work, furniture, and the like, 
 
 The red cedar, so well known from its being used in 
 making black-lead pencils, is produced by the Vir- 
 ginian cedar (Jumperus Virginiana), a native of North 
 America, the West India Islands, and Japan. The 
 tree seldom exceeds 46 feet in height. 
 
 The wood of the red cedar is very durable, and is not 
 attacked by worms or insects. It is used for drawers, 
 wardrobes, and various kinds of furniture, for ship- 
 building, and for pencils. Its colour is a brownish red, 
 the sap-wood nearly white, texture nearly uniform : it 
 is brittle, very light, and has a strong and peculiar 
 odour, which renders it unfit to be employed in con- 
 siderable quantities for internal work. Its specific 
 gravity is -650. The cohesive force is 4,875 pounds 
 for a square inch. 
 
84 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 67. Cov/RiE Wood is brouglit from Kew Zealand, 
 and possesses many of the most esteemed qualities of 
 the pine species ; it is from a coniferous tree (the 
 Bammara AustraUs), and contains a considerable quan- 
 tity of resin. It appears to shrink very little, and 
 bears exposure to the effects of the weather very well ; 
 the mean diameter of the trunk of the tree is said to be 
 from 3 to 6 feet, and it is from 90 to 100 feet in height. 
 It is a close, even, and fine-grained wood, of a verj^ uniform 
 texture ; its colour is a light yellowish brown, the lustre 
 silky, the annual rings marked by a line of a deeper 
 tint of the same colour. It unites w^ell with glue, and 
 seems admirably adapted for internal joiners' work; it 
 is used for masts and yards of ships. The cohesive 
 force is from 9,600 to 10,960 pounds per square inch ; 
 the weight of the modulus of elasticity for a base an 
 inch square is 1,982,400 pounds; and the weight of a 
 cubic foot dry varies from 35 to 40^ pounds. 
 
CHAPTER IT. 
 
 STRAINS ON BEAMS AND FRAMES, RESISTANCE OF 
 TIMBER. 
 
 Section I. — Strains on Beams and Frames. 
 
 68. Application of the Laws of Mecpianics. — 
 In tlie present chapter our main aim will be to deduce 
 from the principles and laws of mechanics, and the 
 knowledge which experience and judicious inferences 
 from it have given us concerning the strength of 
 timber in relation to the strain laid on it, such maxims 
 of construction as will unite economy with strength 
 and efficacy. 
 
 This object is to be attained by a knowledge, 1st, of 
 the strength of our materials, and of the absolute strain 
 that is to be laid on them ; 2ndly, of the modifications 
 of this strain, by the place and direction in which it is 
 exerted, and the changes that can be made by a proper 
 disposition of the parts of our structure ; and, 3rdly, 
 having disposed every piece in such a manner as to 
 derive the utmost advantage from its relative strength, 
 we must know how to form the joints and other con- 
 nections, in such a manner as to secure the advantages 
 derived from this disposition. 
 
 69. The Theory of Carpentry is founded on two 
 distinct portions of mechanical science — namely, a 
 knowledge of the strains to which framings of timber 
 are exposed, and a knowledge of their relative strength. 
 
86 
 
 CAKPENTRY. 
 
 "We shall therefore attemjDt to bring into one point 
 of view the propositions of mechanical science that are 
 more immediately applicable to the art of carpentry. 
 From these propositions we hope to deduce such prin- 
 ciples as shall enable an attentive reader to comprehend 
 distinctly what is to be aimed at in framing timber, 
 and how to attain this object with certainty : and we 
 shall illustrate and confirm our principles by examples 
 of pieces of carpentry which are acknowledged to be 
 excellent in their kind. 
 
 70. The Composition and Eesolutiox of Forces is 
 the most imjDortant proposition of general mechanics to 
 the carpenter ; and we beg our practical readers to en- 
 deavour to form very distinct conceptions of it^ and to 
 make it very familiar to their miLd. "When accommo- 
 dated to their chief purposes, it may be thus ex- 
 pressed : 
 
 1st. If any body, or any part of a body, be at once 
 pressed in the two directions AB, AC (Fig. 1), and if 
 
 the intensity or force 
 of those pressures 
 be in the proportion 
 of these two lines, 
 the body is affected 
 in the same manner 
 as if it were pres- 
 sed by a single force 
 acting in the direction AD, which is the diagonal of 
 the parallelogram ABDC formed upon the two lines, and 
 whose intensity has the same proportion to the intensity 
 of each of the other two that AD has to AB or AC. 
 
 Such of our readers as have studied the laws of 
 motion, know that this is fully demonstrated. We 
 refer them to Paidimentary Statics and Dynamics,'^ 
 by Baker, vol. 97 of the series, where it is treated at 
 
STRAINS ON BEAMS AND FRAMES. 
 
 87 
 
 some length. The practitioner in carpentry will get 
 more useful confidence in the doctrine, if he will shut 
 his book, and verify the theoretical demonstrations by 
 actual experiments. They are remarkably easy and 
 convincing. Therefore it is our request that the stu- 
 dent, who is not so habitually acquainted with the sub- 
 ject, do not proceed further till he has made it quite 
 familiar to his thoughts. Nothing is so conducive to 
 this as the actual experiment ; and since this only 
 requires the trifling expense of two small pulleys and a 
 few yards of whipcord, we hope that none of our prac- 
 tical readers wdll omit it. 
 
 2nd. Let the threads A cl, AF h, and AE c (Fig. 2), 
 have the weights h, and c, appended to them, and let 
 two of the threads be laid 
 over the pulleys F and E. 
 By this apparatus the knot 
 A will be drawn in the direc- 
 tions AB, AC, and AK. If 
 the sum of the w^eights h and 
 c be greater than the single 
 weight d, the assemblage 
 will of itself settle in a cer- 
 tain determined form ; if you 
 pull the knot A out of its 
 place, it will always return 
 to it again, and will rest in 
 no other position. For example, if the three weights 
 are equal, the threads wall always make equal angles, 
 of 120 degrees each, round the knot. If one of the 
 w*eights be 3 pounds, another 4, and the third 5, 
 the angle opposite to the thread stretched by 5 
 pounds will always be square, &c. When the knot A 
 is thus in equilibrio, we must infer that the action 
 of the weight d, in the direction A rf, is in direct 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
88 
 
 CAUPENTRY. 
 
 opposition to the combined action of b, in the direc- 
 tion AB, and of c, in the direction AC. Therefore, 
 if we produce d A to any point D, and take AD to 
 represent the magnitude of the force, or pressure 
 exerted by the weight d, the pressures exerted on A by 
 the weights h and Cy in the directions AB, AC, are in 
 fact equivalent to a pressure acting in the direction AD, 
 whose intensity we have represented by AD. If we 
 nov/ measure off by a scale on AF and AE the lines 
 AB and AC, having the same proportion to AD that 
 the weights h and c have to the weight d, and if v/e 
 draw DB and DC, we shall find DC to be equal and 
 parallel to AB, and DB equal and parallel to AC ; so 
 that AD is the diagonal of a parallelogram ABDC. 
 We shall find this always to be the case, whatever are 
 the weights made use of ; only we must take care that 
 the weight which we cause to act without the interven- 
 tion of a pulley be less than the sum of the other two : 
 if any one of the weights exceeds the sum of the other 
 two, it will prevail, and drag them along with it. 
 
 Now, since we know that the weight d would just 
 balance an equal weight g, pulling directly upwards 
 by the intervention of the pulley Gr ; and since we see 
 that it just balances the weights h and c, acting in the 
 directions AB, AC, we must infer that the knot A is 
 affected in the same manner by those two weights, or 
 by the single weight g ; and therefore, that tivo pressures, 
 acting in the dircctionSy and icith the intensities, AB, AC, 
 are equivalent to a single pressure having the direction and 
 projjortion of AD. In like manner, the pressures AB, 
 AK, are equivalent to AH, which is equal and opposite 
 to AC. Also AK and AC are equivalent to AI, which 
 is equal and opposite to AB. 
 
 71. Combination of Pressukes. — Suppose an up- 
 right beam BA (Fig, 3), pushed in the direction of its 
 
STRAINS ON BEAMS AND FKAMES. 
 
 89 
 
 lengtli by a load B, and abutting on the ends of two 
 beams AO, AD, which, are firmly resisted at their 
 extreme points 0 and D, which rest on two blocks, but 
 are nowise joined to them : these two beams can resist 
 
 Tig. 3. 
 
 no way but in the directions CA, DA ; and therefore 
 the pressures which they sustain from the beam BA 
 are in the directions AO, AD. "We wish to know hov/ 
 much each sustains? Produce BA to E, taking AE 
 from a scale of equal parts, to represent the number of 
 tons or pounds by which BA is pressed. Draw EF and 
 EGr parallel to AD and AO ; then AF, measured on the 
 same scale, will give us the number of pounds by which 
 AO is strained or crushed, and AG- will give the strain 
 on AD. 
 
 It deserves particular remark here, that the length 
 of AO or AD has no influence on the strain, arising 
 from the thrust of BA, while the directions remain the 
 same. The eflects, however, of this strain are modified 
 by the length of the piece on v/hich it is exerted. This 
 strain compresses the beam, and will therefore compress 
 a beam of double leno^th twice as much. This may 
 
90 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 change the form of the assemblage. If AC, for example, 
 be very much shorter than AD, it will be much less 
 compressed : the line CA will turn about the centre C, 
 while DA will hardly change its position ; and the 
 angle CAD will grow more open, the point A sinking 
 down. The student will find it of great consequence 
 to pay very minute attention to this circumstance, and 
 to be able to see clearly the change of shape which 
 necessarily results from these mutual strains. He will 
 see in this the cause of failure in many yery great 
 works. By thus changing shape, strains are often pro- 
 duced in places where there were none before, and fre- 
 quently of the very worst kind, tending to break the 
 beams across. 
 
 The dotted lines of this figure show another position 
 of the beam AD. This makes a prodigious cha-nge, 
 not only in the strain on AD', but also in that on AC. 
 Both of them are much increased ; AGf is almost 
 doubled, and AF is four times greater than before. 
 This addition was made to the figure, to show what 
 enormous strains may be produced by a very moderate 
 force AE, when it is exerted on a very obtuse angle. 
 
 The 4th and 5th Figures will assist the most unin- 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 structed reader in conceiving how the very same strains 
 AF, AG, are laid on these beams, by a weight simply 
 
STRAINS ON BEAMS AND FRAMES. 
 
 91 
 
 hanging from a billet resting on A, pressing hard on 
 AD, and also leaning a little on AC ; or by an upright 
 piece AE, joggled on the two beams AO, AD, and 
 performing the office of an ordinary king-post. The 
 student will thus learn to call off his attention from the 
 means by which the strains are produced, and learn to 
 consider them abstractedly, merely as strains, in what- 
 ever situation he finds them, and from whatever cause 
 they arise. 
 
 We presume that every reader 
 will perceive, that the proportions 
 of these strains will be precisely 
 the same if everything be inverted, 
 and each beam be drawn or pulled 
 in the opjDOsite direction. In the 
 same way that we have substituted 
 a rope and weight in Fig. 4, or a 
 king-post in Fig. 5, for the loaded 
 beam BA of Fig. 3, we might have 
 substituted the framing of Fig. 6, 
 which is a very usual practice. In 
 this framing, the batten DA is 
 stretched by a force AGr, and the piece AC is com- 
 pressed by a force AF. It is evident, that we may 
 employ a rope, or an iron 
 rod hooked on at D, in 
 place of the batten DA, and 
 the strains will be the same 
 as before. 
 
 This seemingly simple 
 matter is still full of in- 
 struction ; and we hope 
 that the well - informed 
 reader will pardon us, though we dwell a little longer 
 on it for the sake of the student in this art. 
 
 rig. c. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
92 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 By changing the form of this framing, as in Fig. 7, 
 we produce the same strains as in the disposition repre- 
 sented by the dotted 
 lines in Fig. 3. The 
 strains on both the bat- 
 tens AD, AC, are now 
 greatly increased. 
 
 The same conse- 
 quences result from an 
 improper change of the 
 position of AC. If it is 
 
 \ 
 
 placed as in Fig. 8, the strains 
 on both are vastly increased. In \ 
 short, the rule is general ; that \^ 
 the more open we make the 
 
 angle against which the push \J 
 is exerted, the greater are the 
 strains which are brought on Fi^^-s. 
 the strutts or ties which form the sides of the angle. 
 
 The reader may not readily conceive the piece AC of 
 Fig. 8 as sustaining a compression ; for the weight B 
 appears to hang from AC as much as from AD. But 
 his doubts will be removed by considering whether he 
 could employ a rope in place of AC. He cannot : but 
 AD may be exchanged for a rope. AC is therefore a 
 strutt, and not a tie. 
 
 In Fig. 9, AD is again a strutt, butting on the block 
 
STRAINS ON BEA:^IS AND FrvA:MKS. 
 
 9a 
 
 D, and AC is a tie : and tlie batten AC may be re- 
 placed by a rope. AYliile AD is compressed by the 
 force AGr, AC is stretched by the force AF. 
 
 If we give AC the position represented by the 
 dotted line A.by the compression of AD is now AGr', 
 and the force stretching Ab is now AF' ; both much 
 
 J) c 
 
 I'ig. 0. rig. 10. 
 
 greater than they were before. This disposition is 
 analogous to Fig. 8, and to the dotted lines in Fig. 3. 
 Nor w^ill the student have any doubts of Ab being on 
 the stretch, if he consider w^hether AD can be replaced 
 by a rope. It cannot, but Ab may ; and it is there- 
 fore not compressed, but stretched. 
 
 In Fig. 10, all the three pieces, AC, AD, and AB, 
 are ties, on the stretch. This is the complete inversion 
 of Fig 3 ; and the dotted position of Ab induces the 
 same changes in the forces AF', AGr', as in Fig 3. 
 
 Thus have w^e gone over all the varieties which can 
 happen in the bearings of three pieces on one point. 
 All calculations about the strength of carpentry are 
 reduced to this case : for when more ties or braces meet 
 in a point (a thing that rarely happens), we reduce 
 them to three, by substituting for any tv/o the force 
 w^hich results from their combination, and then com- 
 bining this with another ; and so on. 
 
CAHPENTRY, 
 
 The tyro must be particularly careful not to mistake 
 the kind of strain that is exerted on any piece of the 
 framing, and suppose a piece to be a brace which is 
 really a tie. It is very easy to avoid all mistakes in this 
 matter by the following rule, which has no exception. 
 
 72. The Direction of the Strain in which the 
 piece acts is now to be noticed. Draw a line in that 
 direction frvm the point on which the strain is exerted ; 
 and let its length (measured on some scale of equal 
 parts) express the magnitude of this action in pounds, 
 hundreds, or tons. From its remote extremity draw 
 lines parallel to the pieces on which the strain is 
 exerted. The line parallel to one piece w411 necessarily 
 cut the other, or its direction produced : if it cut the 
 piece itself, that piece is compressed by the strain, and 
 it is performing the office of a strutt or brace : if it cut 
 its direction produced, the piece is stretched, and it is a 
 tie. In short, the strains on the pieces AC, AD, are to 
 be estimated in the direction of the points P and G 
 from the strained point A. Thus, in Fig 3, the up- 
 right piece BA, loaded with the weight B, presses the 
 point A in the direction AE : so does the rope AB in 
 the other figures, or the batten AB in Fig 5. 
 
 In general, if the straining piece is v/ithin the angle 
 formed by the pieces which are strained, the strains 
 which they sustain are of the oj)posite kind to that 
 which it exerts. If it be pushing, they are drawing ; 
 but if it be within the angle formed by their directions 
 produced, the strains which they sustain are of the same 
 kind. All the three are either drawing or pressing. 
 If the straining piece lie within the angle formed by 
 one piece and the produced direction of the other, its 
 own strain, whether compression or extension, is of the 
 same kind with that of the most remote of the other 
 two, and opposite to that of the nearest. Thus, in Fig. 9, 
 
STRAINS ON BEAMS AND FR 
 
 where AB is drawing, the remote piece 
 ing, while AD is pushing or resisting com^ 
 
 In all that has been said on this subject, we^ 
 spoken of any joints. In the calculations with which 
 we are occupied at present, the resistance of joints has 
 no share ; and we must not suppose that they exert any 
 force which tends to prevent the angles from changing. 
 The joints are supposed perfectly flexible, or to be like 
 compass joints ; the pin of which only keeps the pieces 
 together when one or more of the pieces draws or pulls. 
 The carpenter must always suppose them all compass 
 joints, when he calculates the thrusts and draughts of 
 the diflerent pieces of his frames. The strains on joints, 
 and their power to produce or balance them, are of a 
 difierent kind, and require a very different examination. 
 
 73. Eelation Between Angles and Strains. — 
 Seeing that the angles which the pieces make with 
 each other are of such importance to the magnitude 
 and the proportion of the excited strains, it is proper to 
 find out some way of readily and compendiously con- 
 ceiving and expressing this analogy. 
 
 In general, the strain on any piece is proportional to 
 the straining force. This is evident. 
 
 Secondly, the strain on any piece AC is proportional 
 to the sine of the angle which the straining force makes 
 with the other piece directly, and to the sine of the 
 angle which the pieces make with each other inversely. 
 
 For it is plain, that the three pressures AE, AF, and 
 AG, which are exerted at the point A, are in the pro- 
 portion of the lines AE, AF, and FE (because FE is 
 equal to AG). But because the sides of a triangle are 
 proportional to the sines of the opposite angles, the 
 strains are proportional to the sines of the angles AFE, 
 AEF, and FAE. But the sine of AFE is the same 
 with the sine of the angle CAD, which the two pieces 
 
96 
 
 CArvPENTKY. 
 
 AC and AD make with each other ; and the sine of 
 AEF is the same with the siDO of EAD, which the 
 straining piece DA makes with the piece AO. There- 
 fore w^e have this analogy, Sin. CAD : Sin. EAD = AE : 
 AF, and 
 
 AF = AE X fj^^-^n" sines of angles are most con- 
 
 veniently conceived as decimal fractions of the radius, 
 which is considered as unity. Thus, Sin. 30^ is the 
 same thing with 0*6, or |- ; and so of others. There- 
 fore, to find the strain on AC, arising from any load 
 AE acting in the direction AE, multiply AE by the sine 
 of EAD, and divide the product by the sine of CAD. 
 
 This rule shows how great the strains must be when 
 the angle CAD becomes very open, approaching to 180 
 degrees. But when the angle CAD becomes very 
 small, its sine (which is our divisor) is also very small ; 
 and we should exjDect a very great quotient in this case 
 also. But we must observe, that in this case the sine 
 of EAD is also very small ; and this is our multiplier. 
 In such a case, the quotient cannot exceed unity. 
 
 But it is unnecessary to consider the calculation by the 
 tables of sines more particularly. The angles are seldom 
 known any otherwise but by drawing the figure of the 
 frame of carpentry. In this case we can always obtain 
 the measures of the strains from the same scale, with 
 equal accuracy, by drawing the parallelogram AFCGr. 
 
 74. Stiiains Represented by Lines. — Hitherto we 
 have considered the strains excited at A only as they 
 aflect the pieces on which they are exerted. But the 
 pieces, in order to sustain, or be subject to any strain, 
 must be supported at their ends C and D ; and we may 
 consider them as mere intermediums, by which these 
 strains are made to act on these points of support: 
 therefore AF and AGr are also measures of the forces 
 
STRAINS ON BEAMS AND FKAMES. 97 
 
 which press or pull at C and D. Thus we learn the 
 supports which must be found for these points. These 
 may be infinitely various. We shall attend only to 
 such as somehow depend on the framing itself. 
 
 Such a structure as Fig. 11 very frequently occurs, 
 where a beam BA is strongly pressed to the end of 
 another beam AD, which is prevented from yielding, 
 both because it lies on another beam HD, and because 
 its end D is hindered from sliding backwards. It is 
 indifferent from what this pressure arises ; we have 
 represented it as owing to a weight hung on at B, 
 ^hile B is withheld from yielding by a rod or rope 
 aooked to the wall. The beam AD may be supposed at 
 full liberty to exert all its pressure on D, as if it were sup- 
 ported on rollers lodged in the beam HD ; but the loaded 
 beam BA presses both on the beam AD and on HD. 
 We wish only to know what strain is borne by AD ? 
 
 All bodies act on each other in the direction perpen- 
 dicular to their touching surfaces ; therefore the sup- 
 port given by HD is in a direction perpendicular to it. 
 
 Piff. 11. 
 
 We may therefore supply its place at A by a beam AC, 
 perpendicular to HD, and firmly supported at C. In 
 this case, therefore, we may take AE as before, to repre- 
 
98 
 
 CAEPENTRY. 
 
 sent the pressure exerted by tlie loaded beam, and draw 
 EG perpendicular to AD, and EF parallel to it, meeting 
 the perpendicular AO in F. Then AGr is the strain com- 
 pressing AD, and AF is the pressure on the beam HD. 
 
 75. FoEM or Joints. — It may be thought that, 
 since we assume as a principle that the mutual pressures 
 of solid bodies are exerted perpendicular to their touch- 
 ing surfaces, this balance of pressures, in framings of 
 timbers, depends on the directions of their butting 
 joints; but it does not, as will readily appear by con- 
 sidering the present case. Let the joint or abutment 
 of the two pieces BA, AD, be mitred, in the usual 
 manner, in the direction / A Therefore, if A 6 be 
 drawn perpendicular to A /, it will be the direction of 
 the actual pressure exerted by the loaded beam BA on 
 the beam AD. But the reaction of AD, in the opposite 
 direction A t, will not balance the pressure of BA ; 
 because it is not in the direction precisely opposite. 
 BA will therefore slide along the joint, and press on the 
 beam HD. AE represents the load on the mitre joint 
 A. Draw E e perpendicular to A e, and E / parallel to 
 it. The pressure AE will be balanced by the reactions 
 e A and /A; or, the pressure AE produces the pres- 
 sures A e and A / ; of which A / must be resisted by 
 the beam HD, and A e by the beam AD. The pressure 
 A/ not being perpendicular to HD, cannot be fully 
 resisted by it; because (by our assumed principle) it 
 reacts only in a direction perj)endicular to its surface. 
 Therefore draw fp, fi parallel to HD, and perpen- 
 dicular to it. The pressure A /will be resisted by HD 
 with the force 7; A ; but there is required another force 
 i A, to prevent the beam BA from slipping outwards. 
 This must be furnished by the reaction of the beam 
 DA. In like manner, the other force A e cannot be 
 frilly resisted by the beam AD, or rather by the jDrop 
 
STRAINS ON BEAMS AND THAMES. 
 
 99 
 
 D, acting by the intervention of tlie beam: fot the 
 action of that prop is exerted throngli tlie beam in tlie 
 direction DA. The beam AD, therefore, is premised to 
 the beam HD by the force A as well as by A /. To 
 find what this pressure on HD is, draw e g perpen- 
 dicular to HD, and e o parallel to it, cutting EGr in r. 
 The forces g A and o A will resist and balance A e. 
 
 Thus we see, that the two forces A e and A /, which 
 are equivalent to AE, are equivalent also to A ^, A i, 
 A 0, and A g. But because A / and e E are equal and 
 parallel, and E r and /^ are also parallel, as also e r 
 and fp, it is evident that if is equal to r E, or to o F, 
 and i A is equal r e, or to G g. Therefore the four 
 forces A g, A o, A A. ^, are equal to AG and AF. 
 Consequently AG is the compression of the beam AD, 
 or the force pressing it on D, and AF is the force press- 
 ing it on the beam HD. The proportion of these pres- 
 sures, therefore, is not affected by the form of the joint. 
 
 This remark is important ; for many carpenters think 
 the form and direction of the butting joint of great im- 
 portance ; and even the theorist, by not prosecuting the 
 general principle through all its consequences, may be 
 led into an error. The form of the joint is of no im- 
 portance, in as far as it affects the strains in the direction 
 of the beams ; but it is often of great consequence, in 
 respect to its own firmness, and the effect it may have in 
 bruising the piece on which it acts, or being crippled by it. 
 
 76. Application to a Roof. — The same compres- 
 sion of AB, and the same thrust on the point D by the 
 intervention of AD, will obtain, in whatever way the 
 original pressure on the end A is produced. Thus, 
 supposing that a cord is made fast at A, and pulled in 
 the direction AE, and with the same force, the beam 
 AD will be equally compressed, and the prop D must 
 react with the same force. 
 
 r 2 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 But it ofeh happens that the obliquity of the pres- 
 sure oii^A,D, instead of compressing it, stretches it ; and 
 V^we d'esif e to know what tension it sustains. Of this we 
 have a familiar example in a common roof. Let the 
 two rafters AC, AD (Fig. 12), press on the tie-beam 
 DO. We may suppose the whole weight to press 
 vertically on the ridge A, as if a weight B were hung 
 on there. ^ We may represent this weight by the 
 
 Hg-. 12. 
 
 portion A 5 of the vertical or plumb line, intercepted 
 between the ridge and the beam. Then drawing 
 and b g parallel to AD and AO, A g and A / will 
 represent the pressures on AO and AD. Produce AO 
 till OH be equal to A /. The j)oint 0 is forced out in 
 this direction, and with a force represented by this 
 line. As this force is not perpendicularly across the 
 beam, it evidently stretches it; and this extending 
 force must be withstood by an equal force pulling it in 
 the opposite direction. This must arise from a similar 
 oblique thrust of the opposite rafter on the other end D. 
 We concern ourselves only with this extension at pre- 
 sent ; but we see that the cohesion of the beam does 
 nothing but supply the balance to the extending forces. 
 It must still be supported externally, that it may resist, 
 and, by resisting obliquely, be stretched. The points 
 0 and D are supported on the walls, which they press 
 in the directions OK and DO, parallel to A b. If we 
 
STRAINS ON BEAMS AND FIIAt|e§, 'vSs 
 
 draw HK parallel to DO, and HI paralle^^CK'^^at'^ 
 is, to A i), meeting DC produced in I, it 
 the composition of forces, that the point C 
 supported by the two forces KG and IC. 
 manner, making DNzn: A ^, and completing the paral- 
 lelogram DMNO, the point D would be supported by 
 the forces OD and MD. If we draw g o and fk parallel 
 to DO, it is plain that they are equal to NO and OK, 
 while A 0 and A k are equal to DO and OK, and A 6 is 
 equal to the sum of DO and OK (because it is equal to 
 Ao + A/c). The weight of the roof is equal to its 
 vertical pressure on the walls. 
 
 Thus we see, that while a pressure on A, in the 
 direction A produces the strains A / and A g, on the 
 pieces AO and AD, it also excites a strain 01 or DM 
 in the piece DO. And this comj)letes the mechanism 
 of a frame ; for all derive their efficacy from the tri- 
 angles of which they arc composed, as will appear more 
 clearly as we proceed. 
 
 77. Frame of Carpentry. — But there is more to bo 
 learned from this. The consideration of the strains on 
 the two pieces AD and AO, by the action of a force at 
 A, only showed them as the means of propagating the 
 same strains in their own direction to the points of 
 support. But, by adding the strains exerted in DO, 
 we see that the frame becomes an intermedium, by 
 which exertions may be made on other bodies, in 
 certain directions and proportions ; so that this frame 
 may become part of a more complicated one, and, as it 
 were, an element of its constitution. It is worth while 
 to ascertain the proportion of the pressures OK and 
 DO, which are thus exerted on the walls. The simi- 
 larity of triangles gives the following analogies : 
 
 DO : DM = A^»: ^ D. 
 C I, or D ]M : C K = C ^ : A ^ 
 Therefore DO:CK = C^:^D 
 
102 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 Or, the pressures on the points G and D, in the direction 
 of the straining force, A 6, are reciprocally proportional 
 to the portions o/DO intercepted hy A b. 
 Also, since A is =. DO + CK, we have 
 
 : CK = C^ + ^iD (or CD) : ^D, and 
 A3 : DO = CD : Z/C. 
 
 In general, any two of the three parallel forces A h, 
 DO, OK, are to each other in the reciprocal proportion 
 of the parts of CD, intercepted between their directions 
 and the direction of the third. 
 
 And this explains a still more important oiEce of the 
 frame ADC. If one of the points, such as D, be sup- 
 ported, an external power acting at A, in the direction 
 A hy with an intensity which may be measured by A b, 
 may be set in equilibrio, with another acting at C, in 
 the direction CL, opposite to CK, or A 5, and with an 
 intensity represented by CK : for since the pressure 
 CH is partly withstood by the force IC, or the firmness 
 of the beam DC supported at D, the force KC will 
 complete the balance. When we do not attend to the 
 support at D, we conceive the force A 6 to be balanced 
 by KC, or KC to be balanced by A b. And, in like 
 manner, we may neglect the support or force acting at 
 A, and consider the force DO as balanced by CK. 
 
 Thus our frame becomes a lever, and we are able to 
 trace the interior mechanical procedure which gives it 
 its efficacy : it is by the intervention of the forces of 
 cohesion, which connect the points to which the 
 external forces are applied with the supported point or 
 fulcrum, and with each other. 
 
 These strains or pressures A h, DO, and CK, not 
 being in the directions of the beams, may be called 
 transverse. We see that by their means a frame of 
 carpentry may be considered as a solid body : but the 
 
I 
 
 STRAINS ON BEAMS AND FRAMES. 103 
 
 example whieli brought this to our view is too limited 
 for explaining the efficacy which may be given to such 
 constructions. We shall therefore give a general pro- 
 position, which will more distinctly explain the pro- 
 cedure of nature, and enable us to trace the strains as 
 they are propagated through all the parts of the most 
 complicated framing, finally producing the exertion of 
 its most distant points. 
 
 78. St]iains in Framing. — We presume that the 
 learner is now pretty well habituated to the conception 
 of the strains as they are propagated along the lines 
 joining the points of a frame, and we shall therefore 
 employ a very simple figure. 
 
 Let the strong lines ACBD (Fig. 13) represent a 
 frame of carpentry. Suppose that it is pulled at the 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 point A by a force acting in the direction AE, but that 
 it rests on a fixed point C, and that the other extreme 
 point B is held back by a power which resists in the 
 direction BF : it is required to determine the proportion 
 of the strains excited in its different parts, the propor- 
 tion of the external pressures at A and B, and the 
 pressure which is produced on the obstacle or fulcrum 
 0? 
 
 It is evident that each of the external forces at A 
 and B tend one way, or to one side of the frame, and 
 that each would cause it to turn round C if the other 
 
104 
 
 CAKPENTRY. 
 
 did not prevent it ; and that if, notwithstanding their 
 action, it is turned neither way, the forces in actual 
 exertion are in equilibrio by the intervention of the 
 frame. It is no less evident that these forces concur 
 in pressing the frame on the prop 0. Therefore, if the 
 piece CD were away, and if the joints 0 and D be 
 perfectly flexible, the pieces OA, CB would be turned 
 round the prop 0, and the pieces AD, DB would also 
 turn with them, and the whole frame change its form. 
 This shows, by the way, and we desire it to be carefully 
 kept in mind, that the firmness or stiffness of framing 
 depends entirely on the triangles bounded by beams 
 which are contained in it. An open quadrilateral may 
 always change its shape, the sides revolving round the 
 angles. A quadrilateral may have an infinity of forms, 
 without any change of its sides, by merely pushing two 
 opposite angles towards each other, or drawing them 
 asunder. But when the three sides of a triangle are 
 determined, its shape is also invariably determined; 
 and if two angles be held fast, the third cannot be 
 moved. It is thus that, by inserting the bar CD, the 
 figure becomes unchangeable ; and any attempt to 
 change it by applying a force to an angle A, imme- 
 diately excites forces of attraction or repulsion between 
 the particles of the stuff which forms its sides. Thus 
 it happens, in the present instance, that a change of 
 shape is prevented by the bar CD. The power at A 
 j)resses its end against the prop ; and in doing this it 
 puts the bar AD on the stretch, and also the bar DB. 
 Their places might therefore be supplied by cords or 
 metal wires. Hence it is evident that DC is compressed, 
 as is also AC ; and for the same reason, CB is also in a 
 state of compression ; for either A or B may be con- 
 sidered as the point that is impelled or withheld. 
 Therefore DA and DB are stretched, and are resisting 
 
STRAINS ON BEAMS AND IKAMES. 105 
 
 with attractive forces. AC and CB are compressed, 
 and are resisting with repulsive forces. DO is also 
 acting with repulsive forces, being compressed in like 
 manner : and thus the support of the proj), combined 
 with the firmness of DO, puts the frame ADBO into 
 the condition of the two frames in Fior. 8 and Fio:. 9. 
 Therefore the external force at A is really in equilibrio 
 with an attracting force acting in the direction AD, 
 and a repulsive force acting in the direction AK. And 
 since all the connecting forces are mutual and equal, 
 the point D is pulled or drawn in the direction DA. 
 The condition of the point B is similar to that of A, 
 and D is also drawn in the direction DB. Thus the 
 point D, being urged by the forces in the directions 
 DA and DB, presses the beam DO on the prop, and 
 the prop resists in the opposite direction. Therefore 
 the line DO is the diagonal of the parallelogram, whose 
 sides have the proportion of the forces which connect 
 D with A and B. This is the principle on which the 
 rest of our investigation proceeds. "We may take DO 
 as the representation and measure of their joint effect. 
 Therefore draw OH, 0G-, parallel to DA, DB, and HL, GO, 
 cutting AE, BF in L and 0, and DA, DB in I and M. 
 Oomplete the parallelograms ILKA, MO^TB. Then 
 DGr and AI are the equal and opposite forces which 
 connect A and D ; for GD =: OH, = AI. In like manner 
 DH and BM a,re the forces which connect D and B. 
 
 The external force at A is in immediate equilibrio 
 with the combined forces, connecting A with D and 
 with 0. AI is one of them : therefore AK is the other ; 
 and AL is the compound force with which the ex- 
 ternal force at A is in immediate equilibrium. This 
 external force is therefore equal and opposite to BO ; 
 and AL is to BO as the external force at A to the 
 external force at B. The prop 0 resists with forces 
 
 F 3 
 
106 
 
 CARPENTKY. 
 
 -- equal ib those which are propagated to it from the 
 points D, A, and B. Therefore it resists with forces 
 
 ^ OH^ CG:,: equal and opposite to DGr, DH ; and it resists 
 th% compressions KA, NB, with equal and oj)posite 
 forces C Z:^ 0 n. Draw k I, n o parallel to AD, BD, and 
 draw C / C 0 P : it is plain that k CH lis a paral- 
 lelogram equal to KAIL, and that C / is equal to AL. 
 In like manner C o is equal to BO. Now the forces 
 C k, CH, exerted by the prop, compose the force 0 / ; 
 and 0 n, CGr compose the force C o. These two forces 
 C ly C 0 are equal and parallel to AL and BO ; and 
 therefore they are equal and opposite to the external 
 forces acting at A and B. But they are (primitively) 
 equal and opposite to the pressures (or at least the 
 compounds of the pressures) exerted on the prop, by 
 the forces propagated to C from A, D, and B. There- 
 fore the pressures exerted on the prop are the same as 
 if the external forces were applied there in the same 
 directions as they are apj)lied to A and B. Now, if we 
 make CV, CZ equal to C / and C o, and complete the 
 parallelogram CVYZ, it is plain that the force YC is 
 in equilibrio with / 0 and o C. Therefore the pressures 
 at A, C, and B are such as would balance if applied to 
 one point. 
 
 Lastly, in order to determine their proportions, draw 
 CS and OR perpendicular to DA and DB. Also draw 
 Ad, B / perpendicular to CQ and CP ; and draw 
 C /7, C i perpendicular to AE, BF. 
 
 The triangles CPR and BP / are similar, having a 
 common angle P, and a right angle at II and/. 
 
 In like manner the triangles CQS and AQ d are 
 similar. Also the triangles CHR, CGS are similar, by 
 reason of the equal angles at H and G, and the right 
 angles at R and S. Hence we obtain the following 
 analogies ; 
 
Therefore, by equality, 
 
 Co:Cl= 
 BO:AL= 
 
 AdifB, or 
 C ^ : C i. 
 
 That is, the external forces are reciprocally proportional 
 to the perpendiculars drawn from the prop on the lines 
 of their direction. 
 
 This proposition (sufficiently general for our purpose) 
 is fertile in consequences, and furnishes many useful 
 instructions to the student. The strains LA, OB, OY, 
 that are excited, occur in many, we may say in all, 
 framings of carpentry, whether for edifices or engines, 
 and are the sources of their efficacy. It is also evident, 
 that the doctrine of the transverse strength of timber 
 is contained in this proposition ; for every piece of 
 timber may be considered as an assemblage of parts, 
 connected by forces which act in the direction of the 
 lines which join the strained points on the matter that 
 lies between those points, and also act on the rest of 
 the matter, exciting those lateral forces y/hich produce 
 the inflexibility of the whole. 
 
 Thus it appears that this proposition contains the 
 principles which direct the carpenter to frame the most 
 powerful levers ; to secure uprights by shores or braces, 
 or by ties and ropes ; to secure scaffoldings for the 
 erection of spires, and many other most delicate pro- 
 blems of his art. He also learns, from this proposition, 
 how to ascertain the strains that are produced, without 
 his intention, by pieces which he intended for other 
 offices, and which, by their transverse action, put his 
 work in hazard. In short, this proposition is the key 
 to the science of his art. 
 
108 
 
 CARPE^^TRY. 
 
 79. Maxwell's Diagram of Stress. — This method 
 enables any one who has had practice in ruling parallel 
 lines, and the use of scales and compasses, to measure 
 oflf accurately all the various strains to which each part 
 of a truss or assemblage of beams is subject; so as to 
 be able to determine what strength ought to be given 
 to each part of the framework. The principle itself is 
 explained in Tarn's Science of Building '' (page 3), 
 and an example of its application is also worked out 
 (page 104) ; we shall, however, give an example of its 
 application to a king-post roof truss in which the wind is 
 supposed to act as a strain upon one side only at a time, 
 an hypothesis which is more nearly correct than if sup- 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 posed to act as a vertical strain. Let Figure 14 repre- 
 sent the truss having a span of 20 feet, the rafters 
 inclined to the tie-beam at 30^, and the trusses supposed 
 10 feet from centre to centre ; the purlins will throw 
 the weight on the points A, H, C, E, and B. Assume 
 that 20 lbs. per square foot, measured on the slope, is the 
 weight of the roof timbers (except tie-beam and ceiling) 
 together with the covering and snow, then 4,600 lbs. is 
 the weight borne by each truss ; the weight of tie-beam 
 and ceiling 2,400 lbs. Let the force of the wind be 40 lbs. 
 per foot acting perpendicularly to the slope of the 
 rafters on one side only ; this will amount to 4,600 lbs. 
 uniformly distributed over one side of the roof and at 
 right angles thereto. Now when a continuous beam is 
 uniformly loaded and supported at the centre and two 
 
STRAINS ON BEAMS AND FRAMES. 109 
 
 ends, Aths of tlie load is borne at each, end and fths 
 at the middle. Hence the loads at A and B are 
 
 I X 4,600 = 430 lbs. ; at C, |. x 4,600 = 860 lbs. ; at 
 E and H, x 4,600 = 1,440 lbs. Also tlie weight of 
 tie-beam and ceiling produces a load of X 2,400 = 
 460 lbs. at A and B, and of f x 2400 = 1,500 lbs. at D. 
 
 o 
 
 The force of the wind on the right hand side produces 
 at B and C a pressure of x 4,600 = 860 lbs., and at E 
 
 4,600 = 2,880 lbs. 
 
 We have now to draw two stress diagrams, one 
 showing the stresses arising from the vertical forces, 
 and the other those produced by the pressure of the 
 wind acting at right angles to one side of the roof 
 
 Half the total weight of the roof is of course borne at 
 each end A and B, and amounts to 3,500 lbs., which is 
 the reaction at A and B. 
 
 To construct the diagram (Fig. 15) for vertical forces, 
 draw a vertical line c h, and measure a b representing on 
 any scale 480 lbs., the pressure at A or B ; take h c 
 equal to 3,500 on the same scale ; draw cd parallel to 
 AB, and ad parallel to AO. Measure ae equal to 
 1,440 lbs., the vertical pressure at E or H, draw ef 
 parallel to AC, and d f parallel to DH. Take e g equal 
 to 860 lbs., the load at 0, and draw g h parallel to DH. 
 Then cd, da represent in direction and magnitude the 
 stresses in AD, AH respectively, the former in tension 
 and the latter in compression ; df and/^?, those in HD, 
 HO, both in compression ; ///, the tension in the king- 
 post. Measuring these lines by the scale, we find 
 cd=. 4,500 lbs. the tension in AB ) da=. 5,250 lbs. the 
 
CARPENTKY. 
 
 comiDression in AH or BE ; (lf=. 1,400 lbs. tlie com- 
 pression in HD or ED ; fe =z 3,800 lbs. the compression 
 
 6 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 in EEC or EC ; fh =z 2,900 lbs., the tension in the king- 
 post CD. 
 
 We have now to find tlie stresses arising from tlie 
 wind acting in the direction of the arrows at B, E, and 
 0, at right angles to BC. The pressure at C is 860 lbs., 
 
 and produces a reaction at B equal to 860 x or 
 
 290 lbs. ; also a reaction at A of 860 x ?f , or 570 lbs. 
 
 The pressure at E is 2,880 lbs. and produces a reaction 
 
 at B of 2,880 lbs. x or 1,900 lbs. ; and a reaction at 
 
 A of 2,880 X or 970 lbs. Therefore the total reac- 
 
 Aid 
 
 tion at B is 860 + 290 + 1,900, or 3,050 lbs ; and at A it 
 is 570 + 970, or 1,540 lbs. Draw a line q I (Fig. 16) 
 parallel to CK, and take k I to represent 860 lbs., / m to 
 represent, on the same scale, 3,050 lbs. ; draw m n 
 parallel to AB, and Tx n to BC ; then m n represents the 
 tensile strain in AB, n k the compressive strain in BE. 
 
STUllKS ON BE.UrS AND FRAME: 
 
 Take k o equal to 2,880 lbs., and draw o p pa 
 J) n parallel to ED ; then 02^ represents the 
 produced by the force of the wind in EC, ai 
 in ED. Draw the vertical r, which is the sr 
 the king.post ; and draw r q parallel to AC, 
 the compression jproduce in that rafter. Measuring by 
 scale, we find rn n is 4,400 lbs., the tension in the tie- 
 beam ; n h is 3,800 lbs., the compression in BE ; ojy is 
 2,150 lbs., the compression in EC ; 2) n is 3,3301bs., the 
 
 T\^. IG. 
 
 compression in ED ; r is l,G501bs., the tension in the 
 king-post CD ; rj) is 2,660 lbs., the compression in AO. 
 
 Collecting the strains obtained by the two diagrams, 
 we have. 
 
 Tension in tie-beam = 4,500 + 4,400 =^ 8,900 ILs. 
 
 „ „ kiug-post r= 2,900 + 1,650 z= 4,550 „ 
 Compression in rafter — 5,250 + 3,800 z= 9,050 „ 
 „ „ strut = 1,400 + 3,330 = 4,730 „ 
 
 80. Scantlings of Eoof Timbers. — We can now, 
 by applying the rules given elsewhere for the strength 
 of timber, find the scantlings required in the case 
 before us. 
 
 Suppose the framing to be of Memcl fir, the safe 
 
112 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 tensile strain ofwliicli is 1/200 lbs. per square incb, 
 then the tie-beam need only have a transverse section 
 of 7i square inches, and the king-post of 3f square 
 inches ; as, however, each half of the tie-beam has to 
 carry a distributed load of 1,200 lbs., the tie-beam, if 
 made 7 inches deep, must be 2 inches thick. To find 
 the strength of the rafters and struts, we must consider 
 them as long pillars, and use the formula (page 129) — 
 
 = 2,.500 X 
 
 which is the safe load when d is the diameter in inches 
 and / the length in feet. Putting / = 6 feet, we find 
 the rafters must have a scantling of 3f inches square, 
 and the struts about 3J inches square. In these dimen- 
 sions, however, no allowance is made for cutting away 
 portions of the timber for mortises or for defective 
 portions of the wood ; and Tredgold's scantlings for 
 such a roof are as follows : — Tie-beam 9^ x 4, king- 
 post 4 X 3, rafters 4x4, braces 3| x 2 ; in which 
 the strength of the tie-beam is excessive, whilst that of 
 the braces is rather deficient ; a better arrangement 
 would be, tie-beam 7x3, king-post 2J x 3, rafters 
 4J X 3, braces 3J x 3. 
 
 Some examples of the application of this method of 
 calculating strains are given in a paper read at the 
 Eoyal Institute of British Architects (April 22, 1872), 
 by Capt. Seddon, R.E. ; and also in Eanken's Strains 
 in Trusses.'^ 
 
 Sectiox II. — Picsistance of Timber. 
 
 81. The Laavs of the Eesistaxce of Timber depend 
 on the manner in which the pieces are strained, and 
 may be divided into three kinds ; 
 
RESISTANCE OF TIMBER. 
 
 113 
 
 First, When the force tends to pull the piece 
 asunder in the direction of its length, or the resistance 
 to tension. 
 
 Secondly, When the force tends to break the piece 
 across, or the resistance to cross strains. 
 
 Thirdly, When the force tends to compress the body 
 in the direction of its length, or the resistance to com- 
 pression. 
 
 Stiffness is that property of bodies by which they 
 resist flexure or bending. Strength is that by which 
 they resist fracture or breaking. This distinction must 
 be carefully attended to, because the laws of strength 
 and stifihess are not the same. For instance, the stifi*- 
 ness of a cylinder, exposed to a cross strain, increases 
 as the fourth power of the diameter, but the strength 
 increases only as the cube of the diameter. If the 
 diameter of a cylinder be doubled, its stifihess will be 
 sixteen times as great, but its strength will only be in- 
 creased eight times. 
 
 In those members of carpentry that arc unavoidably 
 subject to cross strain, the comparative stifihess is of 
 much greater importance than the comparative strength, 
 as timbers are seldom exposed to strains that break 
 them. 
 
 All bodies may be extended or compressed ; and 
 within the limits useful in practice, the extension or 
 compression is directly as the force producing it : that 
 is, if a force of 100 pounds produce an extension of 
 one-tenth of an inch, 200 pounds will produce an ex- 
 tension of two-tenths of an inch, and so on. It is on 
 the truth of this principle that the greater part of the 
 following inquiry depends ; and it has been found by 
 experiment to be perfectly regular to an extent which 
 embraces all useful cases. 
 
 82. Resistance to Tension. — It is apparently the 
 
114 
 
 CAUPENTRY. 
 
 most Simple case of extension when a piece is pulled in 
 the direction of its length ; but this simplicity is con- 
 fined to the case when the line of strain corresponds 
 exactly with the centre of the section, otherwise it is 
 the most complicated, or at least the most difficult to 
 manage in a theoretical point of yiew. Yrhen a beam 
 is strained in the direction of its length, the extension 
 will obviously be directly proportional to the straining 
 weight, and to the length of the piece ; and inversely 
 proportional to its area, or to the product of its breadth 
 and depth when the piece is rectangular. 
 
 The strength to resist a weight that will produce 
 fracture in the direction of its length is as the area of 
 the section. Consequently, if we multiply the area of 
 the section in inches, by the weight that will tear 
 asunder a bar an inch square of the same kind of wood, 
 the product will be the weight in pounds the piece will 
 just support ; but the greatest constant load any piece 
 should be allowed to sustain ought not to exceed one- 
 fourth of this. The same rule applies to the cohesion 
 of timber when it is pulled asunder at right angles to 
 the direction of the fibres. 
 
 83. Tables of Cohesive Force. — The following 
 tables contain the results of the chief experiments that 
 have been made on the direct strength : — 
 
 Kind of wood, and 
 spec. gray. 
 
 Cohesion of a 
 sq. in. in lbs. 
 
 Kind of wood, and 
 spec. gray. 
 
 Cohesion of a 
 sq. in. in lbs. 
 
 Ocak, English -7 
 Oak . . . 
 Ditto . 
 
 Ditto, dry ) from . 
 
 English j to 
 Ditto, black ) 
 
 bog. .r^7 
 
 19,800 
 17,300 
 13,950 
 12,000 
 8,889 
 
 7,700 
 
 Beech . • 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 17,709 
 11,500 
 
 ^ Alder . 
 
 14,186 
 
 1 Sycamore . '69 
 
 13,000 
 
 ! Chestnut, Spanish 
 i Ditto . . -61 
 
 13,300 
 10,500 
 
 Beech . . -72 
 
 22,000 
 
IIESISTANCE OP TIMBER. 
 
 115 
 
 Kind of wood, and 
 spec. grav. 
 
 Cohesion of a 
 sq. in. in lbs. 
 
 Kind of wood, and 
 spec. gray. 
 
 Cohesion of a 
 sq. in. in lbs. 
 
 ( to . 
 
 Ditto . . 'o-i 
 Ditto . 
 
 17,850 
 15,784 
 16,700 
 12,000 
 
 Poplar. . -36 
 
 Ditto . 1!'^°^ 
 (to . 
 
 7,200 
 6,641 
 4,596 
 
 Norway pine -66 
 Petersburg do. -49 
 
 Fir . 
 
 Ditto . 
 Pitch pino . 
 Norv/ay pine 
 
 14,300 
 13,300 
 13,448 
 11,000 
 8,506 
 
 7,287 
 
 Elm . . "GO 
 Ditto . 
 
 14.400 
 13,489 
 
 Acacia. 
 
 Ditto . . 'So 
 
 16,000 
 
 JMahogaii y . "87 
 Ditto . 
 
 z 1 , o U J 
 
 8,000 
 
 j Larch . • , 
 1 Ditto . . -57 
 
 8,900 
 
 VV clllitlli • • 
 
 Ditto . . -59 
 
 8 130 
 7^800 
 
 1 Cedar . . '54 
 Ditto . 
 
 11,400 
 4,973 
 
 Teak . 
 
 Ditto, old . -53 
 
 15,000 
 8,200 
 
 Lance wood 101 
 
 23,400 
 
 The following table refers to wood pulled asunder in 
 a direction perpendicular to that of the fibres : — 
 
 Kind of AVood. 
 
 Cohesion of a sq. in. perpen- 
 dicular to fibres, in lbs. 
 
 Oak 
 
 2,316 
 
 Poplar ..... 
 
 1,782 
 
 Larch ..... 
 
 from 970 to 1,700 
 
 Mcincl fir . 
 
 510 to 840 
 
 Scotch fir . 
 
 562 
 
 84. Stiffness of Beams. — When a weight is laid 
 upon the middle of a piece of timber which is suppoiiied 
 only at the ends, it always bends more or less. When 
 the weight bends the piece in a very small degree, the 
 wood is said to be stifi" ; when the bending is consider- 
 able, it is called flexible. The stiffness of beams is 
 proportional to the space they are bent through by a 
 given weight, when the lengths are the same : but that 
 two pieces of different lengths may be equally stiff, the 
 
116 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 deflexion or bending should be proportional to tbeir 
 lengths. For a deflexion of one-fourth of an inch in a 
 joist 20 feet long would not be attended with any bad 
 eff'ect ; but if a joist 4 feet long were to bend one- fourth 
 of an inch, it would be totally unfit for its purpose. 
 
 When a beam is supported at the ends only, in a 
 horizontal position, and the weight rests upon the 
 middle between the poiuts of support, the law of de- 
 flexion is as follows : — Making L =1 the length of 
 bearing in feet, W =: the weight in pounds, B = the 
 
 breadth in inches, and D =: the depth in inches, "^^^j 
 
 is as the deflexion. 
 
 But in order that a beam may be equally stiff", 
 according to the definition of stiffness previously given 
 (Art. 81), the deflexion should be inversely as the 
 length ; consequently, the weight that a beam will 
 sustain, so that the deflexion shall be proportional to 
 the length, is as the breadth and cube of the depth 
 directly, and as the square of the length inversely ; or 
 
 ^ ^ - -^2 = W. That is, denoting the deflexion in inches 
 B X D'^ X ^ ^ constant number for the same 
 material. 
 
 The quality of timber being the same, a beam will 
 be stronger in proportion as its depth is greater ; but 
 there is a certain proportion between the depth and 
 breadth, which, if it be exceeded, the beam will be 
 liable to overturn, and break sideways. To avoid 
 which, the breadth should never be less than that given 
 by the following rule, unless the beam be held in its 
 position by some other means : Divide the length in 
 feet by the square root of the depth in inches, and the 
 quotient multiplied by the decimal 0*6 will give the 
 least breadth that should be given to the beam. When 
 
- 
 
 RESISTANCE OF TIMBEll. P 
 
 the depth is not determined by other circur^§i^nce^,jH^^^ "^-^ 
 nearer its form approaches to that determiii%> by tli^> 
 rule, the stronger it will be ; and, from the sam^.^:^, 
 another is easily obtained which will show the adv^B===^ 
 tage of making beams thin and deep. 
 
 To find the strongest form for a beam, so as to use 
 only a given quantity of timber, multiply the length 
 in feet by the decimal 0*6, and divide the given area in 
 inches by the product ; and the square of the quotient 
 will give the depth in inches. 
 
 The stiffest beam that can be cut out of a round tree 
 is that of which the breadth is half the tree's diameter, 
 or is to the depth as 1 is to the square root of 3, or as 
 1 is to 1*732, nearly ; or as *d8 is to 1. 
 
 85. Experimental Data. — Before these rules can 
 be applied, the value of a must be obtained from expe- 
 riments. It has been seen that the deflexion is as the 
 weight and cube of the length directly, and as the 
 breadth and cube of the depth inversely ; and conse- 
 quently, that the stiffness is as the latter directly, and 
 as the former inversely ; that is, the stiffness is as 
 
 -j^^-^-^ . Supposing, therefore, the deflexion d to have 
 
 been obtained experimentally in any material, we should 
 
 li^ve ^ ^ =z a constant quantity, which being 
 
 given, the deflexion in any other case might be found. 
 
 The constant a is found as follows : the length is 
 measured in feet, the other dimensions in inches ; and 
 the result is taken 40 times what the above formula 
 gives, viz., 
 
 40 X B X X ^ _ ^ 
 
 And by this formula, the numbers or values of a, in 
 the following tables, have been computed. 
 
118 CARPENXrvY. 
 
 86. Experiments on the Stiffness of Oak. 
 
 Kind of Oak. 
 
 grav. 
 
 L 
 in ft. 
 
 B 
 m ms. 
 
 D 
 m ms. 
 
 d 
 
 m ms. 
 
 W in 
 lbs. 
 
 Values 
 of a. 
 
 WIU. !5111|J LilliUci « • 
 
 •872 
 
 2*5 
 
 
 l 
 
 0*5 
 
 127 
 
 •00998 . 
 
 Odlr ■fTnm ^7•A^TnD' 'frpp 1 
 XV-ilig b J-jcii-igicj') J_LCi la ) 
 
 •863 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 237 
 
 •0105 
 
 Ocilr ■pi^nm "Rpmilipn H mi f 
 
 WCtiV U-Ulli _L)CcXLlJ,lC U.J XJ.tLJJ.LO 
 
 *616 
 
 2'5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 O'o 
 
 78 
 
 -0164 
 
 Ditto anotliGr speciinon • 
 
 '736 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 0*5 
 
 65 
 
 •0197 
 
 
 •625 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 0-5 
 
 103 
 
 •024 
 
 Oak from Riga . 
 
 •688 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 233 
 
 •0107 
 
 J-jJ-LwXXoli (Jctiv • • • 
 
 •960 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1-275 
 
 200 
 
 •0119 
 
 vyctHilLLJ-cULL Uttix • • • 
 
 '867 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1*07 
 
 225 
 
 •009 
 
 XyctHLZiiO VJctii. • • • 
 
 ♦787 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1'26 
 
 200 
 
 •0105 
 
 
 '948 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 150 
 
 •0193 
 
 J2jJLJ.^Xioi-l \Jcil\ • • • 
 
 "748 
 
 2"5 
 
 1 
 
 
 0-5 
 
 137 
 
 •00934 
 
 J^XLLUj giC/v^iJ. • • • 
 
 '763 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 
 0*5 
 
 96 
 
 •0133 
 
 Dantzic oak, seasoned 
 
 •755 
 
 2^5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 148 
 
 •0087 
 
 Oak, 6ea oned . 
 
 
 12^8 
 
 3'19 
 
 3-19 
 
 \ 1*06 
 ^[4-25 
 
 263 
 803 
 
 *008 
 •0105 
 
 Oak, green 
 
 
 6^87 
 
 5-3 
 
 5-3 
 
 •433 
 
 7587 
 
 •005^ 
 
 Oak, green 
 
 
 23^5S 
 
 5-3 
 
 5-3 
 
 2-7 
 
 706 
 
 '0095 
 
 Oak 
 
 
 8-52 
 
 5-06 
 
 6-22 
 
 0-709 
 
 4146 
 
 •0133 
 
 Oak (bois du brin) . 
 
 
 16-86 
 
 10-66 
 
 11-73 
 
 0-67 
 
 4559 
 
 •0213 
 
 Oak (qnercLis sessiliflora . 
 
 •807 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0'35 
 
 149 
 
 •0117 
 
 Oak (quercus robur) 
 
 •879 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0'35 
 
 167 
 
 •0104 
 
 87. Experiments 
 
 ON THE Stiffness of Fir. 
 
 
 Kind of Fir. 
 
 Spec, 
 grav. 
 
 L 
 in ft. 
 
 B 
 in ins. 
 
 D 
 in ins 
 
 d 
 
 in ins. 
 
 Win 
 lbs. 
 
 Yalues 
 of a. 
 
 Riga yellow fir, medium . 
 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 
 0-25 
 
 103 
 
 0-115 
 
 Yellow fir, from Long ) 
 Sound, Norway . . ) 
 
 •6398 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 261 
 
 •00957 
 
 Yellow fir, Riga 
 
 •480 
 •464 
 
 2^5 
 2-5 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 0-5 
 
 123 
 116 
 
 •0102 
 •Oil 
 
 Ditto, Memel, medium . | 
 
 •553 
 •544 
 
 2^5 
 2^5 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 0^5 
 0-5 
 
 143 
 115 
 
 •0089 
 •0033 
 
 American* pine, sup-"l 
 posed to be the Wey- > 
 mouth pine . . .j 
 
 •400 
 . -407 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 0-5 
 
 237 
 169 
 
 •0105 
 •0112 
 
 White spruce, Christiana 
 
 •512 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 261 
 
 •00957 
 
 White spruce, Quebec 
 
 •4650 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 180 
 
 •0138 
 
 Pitch pine .... 
 
 •712 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1-33 
 
 150 
 
 •016G 
 
 New England fir 
 
 •5fi0 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 •970 
 
 150 
 
 •0121 
 
 Riga fir ... . 
 
 •765 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 •912 
 
 150 
 
 •01137 
 
 Scotch fir, Mar Forest . 
 
 •715 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1-560 
 
 125 
 
 •0233 
 
 Larch, Blair, Scotland, dry 
 
 •622 
 
 2-5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 93 
 
 "0137 
 
 Ditto, seasoned, medium -| 
 
 •644 
 •554 
 
 2-5 
 2^5 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 0^5 
 
 101 
 112 
 
 •0126 
 •0111 
 
 Ditto, very young wood . 
 
 •396 
 
 2-5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0^5 
 
 45 
 
 •0284 
 
 Scotch fir . 
 
 •529 
 
 2^5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0^5 
 
 89 
 
 •01437 
 
 Spruce fir, British . 
 
 •555 
 
 2-5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 103 
 
 •0124 
 
 Fir (bois du brin) . 
 
 
 21-3 
 
 10^48 
 
 10-48 
 
 1-02 
 
 4.389 
 
 •0115 
 
 Fir (bois du brin) . 
 
 
 10-65 
 
 10-48 
 
 10^48 
 
 0-2245 
 
 4122 
 
 •022 
 
 Cowrie .... 
 
 •579 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 0-29 
 
 1680 
 
 •0088 
 
 Red pine .... 
 
 •544 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 0-36 
 
 1680 
 
 •0109 
 
 Y'ellowpine 
 
 •439 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 0-37 
 
 1680 
 
 •0112 
 
 * The reader will find an extensive table, containing the strength, 
 ^Lc, of various American woods, in vol. ii., Trans. Inst. Civ. Eugineers, 
 by Lieut. Dennison, R.E, 
 
RESISTANCE OF TIMBER, 119 
 
 88. Experiments ox the Stiffness of vAiiiors Woods. 
 
 Kind of "Wood. 
 
 Spec. 
 
 L 
 
 
 D 
 
 d 
 
 
 V ames 
 
 gray. 
 
 in ft. 
 
 in ms. 
 
 in ins. 
 
 in ins. 
 
 in lbs. 
 
 of a. , 
 
 Ash from young tree,) 
 white coloured . J 
 
 •811 
 
 2*5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0*5 
 
 141 
 
 •009 
 
 Ash from old tree, red) 
 coloured . . .i 
 
 •753 
 
 2*5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0"5 
 
 113 
 
 •0113 
 
 Ash, medium quality 
 
 •690 
 
 2-5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 78-5 
 
 •0163 
 
 
 •760 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1^27 
 
 225 
 
 •0105 
 
 Beech .... 
 
 •688 
 
 r 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1-025 
 
 150 
 
 •01277 
 
 
 •744 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1-276 
 
 300 
 
 •0076 
 
 roona (top) 
 
 •632 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 0-32 
 
 1680 
 
 •0097 
 
 Ditto (butt) 
 
 •658 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 0-25 
 
 1680 
 
 •0076 
 
 Elm . . . . j 
 
 •540 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1-42 
 
 125 
 
 -0212 
 
 •544 
 
 2-5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 99-5 
 
 •0128 
 
 Cedar of Lebanon . 
 
 •486 
 
 2-5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 36 
 
 •0355 
 
 Maple, common 
 
 •625 
 
 2^5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 65 
 
 •0197 
 
 Abele .... 
 
 •511 
 
 2-5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 84 
 
 •0152 
 
 Willow .... 
 
 •405 
 
 2-5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 41 
 
 •031 
 
 Horse chestnut 
 
 •483 
 
 2-5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 79 
 
 •0162 
 
 Lime tree .... 
 
 •483 
 
 2-5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 84 
 
 •0152 
 
 Walnut, green . 
 
 •920 
 
 2'5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 62 
 
 •020 
 
 Spanish chestnut, green . 
 
 *S75 
 
 2-5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 68-5 
 
 •0187 
 
 Acacia, ditto 
 
 •820 
 
 2^5 
 
 
 
 0-5 
 
 125 
 
 •0102 
 
 Plane, dry .... 
 
 •G48 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 99-5 
 
 •0128 
 
 Alder, ditto 
 
 '555 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 80-5 
 
 •0159 
 
 Birch, ditto 
 
 •720 
 
 2-5 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 90-5 
 
 •0141 
 
 Beech, ditto 
 
 •690 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 97-5 
 
 •0131 
 
 Wych elm, green 
 
 •763 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 92 
 
 •014 
 
 Lombardy i^oplar, dry 
 
 •374 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 56-5 
 
 •0224 
 
 Honduras mahogany 
 
 •560 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 118 
 
 •0109 
 
 Spanish ditto . 
 
 •853 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 93 
 
 •0137 
 
 Sycamore .... 
 
 •590 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 76 
 
 •0168 
 
 Pear tree, green 
 
 •792 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 59-5 
 
 -0215 
 
 Cherry tree, ditto 
 
 •690 
 
 2^5 
 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 92-5 
 
 •0138 
 
 89. Experiments ox Oak from the Royal Forests. 
 
 Xame of Forest. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Depression 
 LQcreased 
 with time 
 when loaded 
 to this 
 degree. 
 
 At the first 
 fracture. 
 
 lues of a. 
 
 lues of c. 
 
 
 Spec, 
 gray. 
 
 L 
 in ins. 
 
 B 
 in ins. 
 
 ! 
 
 D 1 W 
 in ins.'in lbs. 
 
 d 
 
 in ins. 
 
 in lbs. 
 
 I 
 
 in ins. 
 
 > 
 
 ci 
 > 
 
 High Meadow Forest 
 Ditto 
 
 Parkhurst Forest \ 
 (sawed) . . ) 
 Dean Forest . 
 Ditto 
 
 New Forest (cleft) . 
 Ditto (sawedj . 
 Ijcre Forest (sawed) 
 Ditto 
 Ditto 
 
 •79-26 
 •7563 
 
 •8770 
 
 -747 
 •799 
 -822 
 •723 
 •714 
 •732 
 •839 
 
 22 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 22 
 22 
 22 
 22 
 22 
 22 
 
 •97 
 •95 
 
 •98 
 
 •95 
 •97 
 
 1^0 
 
 1-0 
 
 1-0 
 
 1-0 
 
 1^0 
 
 •96 
 •95 
 
 •95 
 
 •95 
 •97 
 
 1^0 
 
 1-0 
 
 1-0 
 
 I'O 
 
 1-0 
 
 80 
 CO 
 
 90 
 
 70 
 
 SO 
 70 
 80 
 70 
 70 
 SO 
 
 0-25 
 0-162 
 
 0-235 
 
 0-18 
 
 0-155 
 
 0-21 
 
 0-112 
 
 0-155 
 
 0-1 
 
 0-14 
 
 400 
 390 
 
 370 
 
 340 
 410 
 410 
 415 
 360 
 477 
 380 
 
 2-9 
 2^4 
 
 2^6 
 
 1-15 
 
 1-45 
 
 4-0 
 
 1-35 
 
 1-15 
 
 1-5 
 
 1-1 
 
 -0175 
 •0143 
 
 •0138 
 
 •0137 
 •0112 
 •0195 
 •0091 
 •0142 
 •0093 
 •0113 
 
 826 
 835 
 
 770 
 
 730 
 820 
 751 
 760 
 660 
 875 
 698 
 
 Means 
 
 •0134 
 
 773 
 
120 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 90. Formula for Stiffness. — It has been stated 
 (85) that W ^ = ^ J therefore when it amounts 
 to iVth inch per foot, or 4:0 X d =. L, the formula 
 becomes =. a; and the following rules are con- 
 structed accordingly. When the deflexion is required 
 to be less than is here assumed, then multiply the con- 
 stant number a by some number that will reduce the 
 deflexion to the proposed degree ; for instance, if the 
 deflexion should be only half of one-fortieth, multiply 
 
 by 2 ; if one-third of one-fortieth, multiply a by 3, &c, 
 Also, if the deflexion may be greater than one-fortietK 
 per foot, divide a by 2, 3, or any number of times that 
 the proposed deflexion may exceed one-fortieth of an 
 inch per foot. 
 
 91. Rules for the Stiffness of Beams. — To find 
 the scantling of a piece of timber that will sustain a 
 given weight at the middle, when supported at the 
 ends in a horizontal position. 
 
 "Whex the Breadth is given, multiply the square 
 of the length in feet by the weight in pounds, and this 
 product by the value of a opposite the kind of wood in 
 the preceding tables ; divide the product by the breadth 
 in inches, and the cube root of the quotient will be the 
 
 T , T • 1 • • -u f\ T\ 3 L2 X X tab. No. 
 depth required m inches. Ur iJ zzz ^ ^ 
 
 Example, — A beam of Norway fir is wanted for a 
 24-feet bearing to support 900 pounds, and the 
 breadth to be 6 inches ; required the depth ? Here 
 2. X 2. X 900 X -009.57 ^ g^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ g,^ 
 
 is 9*38, the depth required in inches. 
 
 When the Depth is given, multiply the square 
 of the length in feet by the weight in pounds, and 
 
RESISTA^'CE OF TIMBEPv. 
 
 121 
 
 multiply this product by the value of a opposite the 
 name of the kind of wood in the preceding tables. 
 Divide the last product by the cube of the depth in 
 inches, and the quotient will be the breadth in inches 
 
 • 1 f\ 1 X w X tab. No. 
 required. Ur 6 zzz 
 
 Example. — The space for a beam of oak does 
 not allow it to be deeper than 12 inches ; to find 
 the breadth so that it may support a weight of 
 4,000 pounds, the bearing being 16 feet. Here 
 
 ^ 12 X 12^X 12 ^^^^ — inches nearly, the breadth 
 required. 
 
 The scantling of inclined beams will be found by the 
 following rule : — 
 
 Multiply together the weight in pounds, the length 
 of the beam in feet, the horizontal distance between the 
 supports in feet, and the constant number a for the 
 kind of wood ; divide this product by 0*6, and the 
 fourth root of the quotient will give the depth in 
 inches. The breadth is assumed to be equal to the 
 depth multiplied by the decimal 0*6. 
 
 Example, — Let the length of the beam be 20 feet, 
 and the horizontal distance between the points of sup- 
 port 16 feet, and the weight to be supported one ton, 
 or 2,240 pounds, by a beam of Elga fir. Then 
 
 l^i2J<^i^ XjOLi ^ 13,141 ; the fourth root of 
 
 13141 is lOf nearly, and 10| x -6 = 6| nearly ; 
 therefore the beam should be lOf inches by 6^ inches. 
 
 When the deflexion is caused by a weight that is 
 uniformly distributed over a beam supported at both 
 ends, it is shown by writers on the strength of mate- 
 rials that the deflexion produced by this weight 
 uniformly distributed would be to the deflexion pro- 
 
122 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 duced by the same weiglit collected in tlie middle of 
 tlie length as 5 : 8, or as 0-625 : 1. Therefore, in the 
 rules given above, it is only necessary to employ the 
 weight in pounds multiplied by 0*625 instead of the 
 whole weight, and the rest of the operation is the same 
 as in those rules ; therefore it will not be necessary to 
 repeat them. 
 
 92. A BEAM FIXED AT ONE END and loaded at the 
 other has the deflexion 16 times that produced by the 
 same weight at the middle of the same beam when sup- 
 ported at the two ends ; and if the load is uniformly 
 distributed the deflexion is three-eighths of that pro- 
 duced when the load is all at one end,* 
 
 Experiments on the Stiffness of Beams supported at one end. 
 
 Kind of Wood. 
 
 Spec, 
 gray. 
 
 L 
 in ft. 
 
 B 
 in ins. 
 
 D 
 in ins. 
 
 Deflexion 
 in ins. 
 
 Wt. producing 
 deflexion 
 in lbs. 
 
 Dantzic oak 
 
 •854 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2^5 
 
 112 
 
 English oak 
 
 •922 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1-176 
 
 11 '2 
 
 Ditto, another specimen . 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1-5 
 
 112 
 
 Riga fir . 
 
 •537 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1-34 
 
 112 
 
 Pitch pine .... 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1-12 
 
 112 
 
 Beech .... 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3-375 
 
 221 
 
 Riga fir ... . 
 
 •605 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1-02 
 
 1120 
 
 Red pine .... 
 
 •544 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1-42 
 
 1120 
 
 American sprnco 
 
 •504 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1-32 
 
 1120 
 
 Adriatic fir . . . 
 
 ■467 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1-00 
 
 1120 
 
 Cowrie .... 
 
 •626 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 •75 
 
 1120 
 
 Poona .... 
 
 •654 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 •62 
 
 1120 
 
 93. Strength of Beams to Resist Cross Strains. 
 —As it may sometimes be desirable to know the 
 greatest weight a beam will bear without fracture, the 
 following rules afford the means of obtaining it suffi- 
 ciently near for practical purposes. The effect of 
 deflexion is neglected, because it does not produce any 
 material difference, unless the depth be very small and 
 the length be considerable ; a case which can rarely 
 
 ^ Barlow's Strength of Timber." Lockwood & Co. 
 
RESISTANCE OF TIMBER. 
 
 happen in the construction of buildings : it is further 
 of importance to remark, that one-fifth of the breaking 
 weight causes the deflexion to increase with time, and 
 finally produces a permanent set. 
 
 It is shown by writers on the strength of materials, 
 that the strength of rectangular beams supported at 
 both ends is directly as the breadth and square of 
 the depth, and inversely as the length ; therefore, 
 
 = W, where c is a constant number to be 
 
 ascertained by experiment. 
 
 When a square beam is strained in the direction of 
 its diagonal, its strength is less in the proportion of 
 0-7071 to 1. 
 
 The strength of a solid cylinder is as the cube of its 
 diameter, therefore — 
 
 L X 1- 
 
 A hollow cylinder is both stronger and stiffer than a 
 solid one containing the same quantity of matter ; 
 therefore, when it is desirable to combine strength and 
 lightness, cylinders may be made hollow. In timber 
 this is rather too expensive an operation to be often 
 employed, but there are cases where it is useful. The 
 strength of a tube, or hollow cylinder, is to the strength 
 of a solid one as the difference between the fourth 
 powers of the exterior and interior diameters of the 
 tube, divided by the exterior diameter, is to the cube of 
 the diameter of a solid cylinder, the quantity of matter 
 in each being the same. 
 
 The strongest beam that can be cut out of a round 
 tree, is that of which the depth is to the breadth as the 
 square root of 2 is to 1, or nearly as 7 is to 5. And 
 the strength of a square beam cut from the same 
 cylinder, or round tree, is to the strength of the 
 
 G 2 
 
124 
 
 CAKPENTRY. 
 
 strongest beam nearly as 101 is to 110 ; but the square 
 beam would contain more timber, nearly in the ratio of 
 6 to 4-714. 
 
 Experiments on the Strength and Stiffness of Woods. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 flf flip 
 time 01 
 
 Wt. that 
 
 Values 
 
 JXlUCl OI VY OOu. 
 
 Spec. 
 
 L 
 
 B 
 
 D 
 
 broke 
 
 of the 
 
 gray. 
 
 in ft. 
 
 in ins. 
 
 in ins. 
 
 fracture 
 m ms. 
 
 the piece 
 in lbs. 
 
 con- 
 stant c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 urk, iLiig"iisii, young | 
 tree . . . f 
 
 •863 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1*87 
 
 482 
 
 964 
 
 DittOj old. sliip timber 
 
 *872 
 
 2^5 
 
 
 ]■ 
 
 1*5 
 
 264 
 
 660 
 
 Ditto, from old tree . 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1*38 
 
 218 
 
 
 Ditto, medium quality 
 
 •748 
 
 2^5 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 284 
 
 710 
 
 Ditto, gfreeii . 
 
 •763 
 
 2^5 
 
 
 
 
 219 
 
 547 
 
 Ditto, from Rig-a 
 
 •688 
 
 2 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 1*25 
 
 357 
 
 714 
 
 
 1*063 
 
 11^75 
 
 8^5 
 
 
 3*2 
 
 25812 
 
 595 
 
 Beecli, medium quality 
 
 '690 
 
 2-5 1 1 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 
 271 
 
 677 
 
 
 "555 
 
 2-5 1 1 
 
 
 
 212 
 
 530 
 
 X iciiit; Liuu • • , 
 
 '6-i8 
 
 2-5 1 1 
 
 
 
 243 
 
 607 
 
 Sycamore • • . 
 
 '590 
 
 2-5 i 1 
 
 
 
 214 
 
 535 
 
 f^'li ocf nn "f" fyTOATi 
 ^llL.oLJ_lLl.l', gXcLH . 
 
 '875 
 
 2-5 1 1 
 
 
 
 ISO 
 
 4c 0 
 
 A.s}i, from, young" tree 
 
 '811 
 
 2-5 i 1 
 
 
 2*5 
 
 324 
 
 810 
 
 Ditto, medium ciualiiv 
 
 '690 
 
 2-5 1 1 
 
 
 
 254 
 
 656 
 
 Ash . . . . 
 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 
 3"33 
 
 314 
 
 785 
 
 Jj^Xilly \jUliLxLL\Jil. • « 
 
 "544 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 
 
 216 
 
 540 
 
 Ditto, wych, green . 
 
 '763 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 1 
 
 - 
 
 192 
 
 480 
 
 Acacia, green . . 
 
 *8'^0 
 
 2*5 
 
 
 
 
 249 
 
 622 
 
 ]\Xaliogany, Spanish } 
 seasoned . . ( 
 
 •853 
 
 2*5 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 170 
 
 425 
 
 Ditto, Honduras, ) 
 seasoned . . ) 
 
 •560 
 
 2*5 
 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 255 
 
 637 
 
 '\^ alnut, green . , 
 
 •9"^0 
 
 2^5 1 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 195 
 
 487 
 
 I'oplar, Loml)ardy , 
 
 •374 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 131 
 
 327 
 
 Ditto, abelc 
 
 '511 
 
 2*5 
 
 
 1 
 
 1*5 
 
 228 
 
 570 
 
 Teak 
 
 '744 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 4*00 
 
 820 
 
 71 7 
 
 AVillow *. '. ! 
 
 •405 
 
 2*5 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 146 
 
 365 
 
 Dir'^li 
 
 "720 
 
 2*5 
 
 
 
 
 207 
 
 517 
 
 (yCdar of Lihanus, dry 
 
 •486 
 
 2*5 
 
 
 
 2*<o 
 
 165 
 
 412 
 
 Riga fir . 
 
 •'ISO 
 
 2*5 
 
 
 
 1*3 
 
 
 0<jU 
 
 IVIemel tir . . . 
 
 '553 
 
 2'5 
 
 
 
 1 -1 
 
 i iO 
 
 218 
 
 545 
 
 Norway fir, from / 
 IjOng Sound . ) 
 
 •639 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 1*125 
 
 396 
 
 792 
 
 Mar i' orest fir . 
 
 • / lo 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 360 
 
 315 
 
 Scotch fir, English I 
 growth . . i 
 
 •529 
 
 2*5 
 
 
 
 1*75 
 
 233 
 
 582 
 
 Ditto, ditto 
 
 •460 
 
 2*5 
 
 
 
 
 157 
 
 392 
 
 Christiana white deal 
 
 •512 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 •937 
 
 343 
 
 686 
 
 American white spruce 
 
 •465 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1*312 
 
 285 
 
 570 
 
 Spruce fir, British 1 
 growth . . i 
 
 •555 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 
 
 186 
 
 465 
 
 American pine, ) 
 Y\^eymouth . ) 
 
 •460 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1-125 
 
 329 
 
 658 
 
 Larch, clioice specimen 
 
 '640 
 
 2*5 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 253 
 
 632 
 
 Ditto, medium quality 
 
 '622 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 223 
 
 557 
 
 Ditto, very youug wood 
 
 'S96 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 
 1-75 
 
 129 
 
 322 
 
 Riga fir 
 
 •610 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 4530 
 
 670 
 
 Red pine . 
 
 •54 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 
 3780 
 
 560 
 
 Yellow pine 
 
 •439 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 2756 
 
 410 
 
 Cowrie 
 
 •579 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 4110' 
 
 610 
 
 Poona. 
 
 •632 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 3990 
 
 590 
 
RESISTANCE OF TlMBEJl. 125 
 
 Experiments made in the Eoyal Aiisexal, by P. Barlow. 
 
 iits. 
 
 
 
 
 hich 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cxperiii 
 
 Names of Woods. 
 
 '> 
 
 Si) 
 o 
 
 eg 
 
 .2 
 
 'S -3 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 'o 
 
 o 
 
 ft 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 U2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Acacia, Enn-lisli aroTx th . 
 
 710 
 
 
 1195 
 
 622 
 
 2 
 
 „ ditto 
 
 
 710 
 
 btre 
 
 1084 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 Oak, fast grown 
 
 
 903 
 
 GIjO 
 
 999 
 
 520 
 
 4 
 
 slow grown 
 
 
 856 
 
 414 
 
 677 
 
 353 
 
 5 
 
 fast grown 
 
 
 i>72 
 
 550 
 
 999 
 
 520 
 
 G 
 
 slow grown 
 
 
 835 
 
 439 
 
 943 
 
 491 
 
 7 
 
 superior quality, 
 in store . 
 
 2 "yi's-i 
 . i 
 
 748 
 
 896 
 
 1447 
 
 754 
 
 8 
 
 „ ditto, 16 ditto . 
 
 
 756 
 
 L'OU 
 
 1304 
 
 679 
 
 9 
 
 Tonqiiin Tjcan . . 
 
 'middle 
 
 1036 
 
 1388 
 
 2414 
 
 1283 
 
 10 
 
 ^outside 
 
 1080 
 
 1322 
 
 2228 
 
 1160 
 
 11 
 
 Locust . > . • 
 
 middle 
 
 972 
 
 1052 
 
 2116 
 
 1101 
 
 12 
 
 ^outside 
 
 936 
 
 940 
 
 2281 
 
 1189 
 
 13 
 14 
 
 Bullet tree 
 
 'middle 
 ^outside 
 
 1029 
 1029 
 
 1360 
 1332 
 
 1724 
 
 16G8 
 
 899 
 869 
 
 15 
 
 Grecniicart 
 
 'middle 
 
 1015 
 
 1332 
 
 1892 
 
 985 
 
 IG 
 
 ^outside 
 
 986 
 
 1388 
 
 1612 
 
 854 
 
 17 
 
 Cabacally . 
 
 middle 
 
 907 
 
 952 
 
 1668 
 
 869 
 
 18 
 
 outside 
 
 892 
 
 940 
 
 1556 
 
 810 
 
 19 
 
 
 middle 
 
 972 
 
 1168 
 
 1447 
 
 787 
 
 20 
 
 African oak . . <; 
 
 outside 
 
 972 
 
 1168 
 
 1657 
 
 863 
 
 21 
 
 middle 
 
 1015 
 
 1288 
 
 1643 
 
 856 
 
 22 
 
 
 outside 
 
 972 
 
 1097 
 
 1643 
 
 856 
 
 2-) 
 
 
 middle 
 
 648 
 
 775 
 
 1279 
 
 656 
 
 24 
 
 American black ^ 
 
 outside 
 
 633 
 
 775 
 
 915 
 
 477 
 
 25 
 
 bii ch, very dry 
 
 middle 
 
 048 
 
 644 
 
 1027 
 
 535 
 
 26 
 
 , outside 
 
 669 
 
 831 
 
 1433 
 
 750 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 Common birch . 
 
 'middle 
 outside 
 
 792 
 630 
 
 800 
 884 
 
 1164 
 1304 
 
 607 
 679 
 
 29 
 
 Ash, dry . 
 
 'middle 
 
 727 
 
 660 
 
 1304 
 
 679 
 
 30 
 
 outside 
 
 702 
 
 660 
 
 1304 
 
 679 
 
 31 
 
 Elm, ditto . 
 
 'middle 
 
 554 
 
 436 
 
 772 
 
 402 
 
 32 
 
 ^outside 
 
 532 
 
 324 
 
 660 
 
 344 
 
 33 
 34 
 
 Christiana deal, ditto 
 
 'middle 
 ^outside 
 
 698 
 680 
 
 856 
 772 
 
 1052 
 940 
 
 548 
 493 
 
 35 
 36 
 
 Memel deal, ditto . 
 
 'middle 
 outside 
 
 590 
 590 
 
 786 
 856 
 
 1108 
 1108 
 
 577 
 577 
 
 Kote. — ^In these experiments the bearing distance was 50 inches, and the bars 
 2 inches square. 
 
 To find the weight that would break a rectangular 
 beam when applied at the middle of its length, the 
 beam being supported at the ends ; multiply the 
 breadth in inches by the square of the depth in inches ; 
 divide this product by the length in feet ; then the 
 quotient multiplied by the value of c in the table corre- 
 
126 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 spending to the kind of Avocd, will give the weight in 
 pounds. 
 
 Example. — The length of a girder of Riga fir 
 between the supports is 21 feet, its depth is 14 
 inches, and breadth 12 inches. Find the weight that 
 would break it when applied in the middle. Opposite 
 Riga fir in the table we find c = 530 ; and 
 
 1- X 44 x^i4 x^30 _ gg^ggQ pQ^^ids, or aboYC 26 tons. 
 
 If a beam of the same scantling and length had been 
 supported at one end only, one-fourth of the weight 
 would have broken it if applied at the imsupported end. 
 
 To find the weight that would break a solid cylinder 
 when applied at the middle of its length, the cylinder 
 being supported at the ends ; find the yalue of c for 
 the kind of wood in the table, and diyide it by 1*7; 
 multiply the quotient by the cube of the diameter in 
 inches, and diyide the product by the length in feet ; the 
 quotient will be the weight in pounds that would break 
 the cylinder. 
 
 Example. — AVhat weight would break a solid cylinder 
 of ash, 12 feet long and 8 inches in diameter. For 
 ash the yalue of c is 635 in the table, therefcTO 
 
 1-y x~T2 — l'^j937 pounds. 
 
 If the weight be uniformly diffused oyer the length 
 of a beam, it will require to break it twice the weigh t 
 that would break it when applied at the middle of its 
 leng:th. 
 
 When the beam is fixed at one end and loaded at the 
 other, the breaking weight is one-fourth that where it 
 is supported at each end and loaded in the middle, or 
 the constant for beams supported at both ends must be 
 diyided by 4. And when the weight is uniformly 
 difi'used oyer the length, the beam will bear double 
 
TIESISTAXCE OF TIMBER. 
 
 127 
 
 the weight that would break it when all applied at the 
 end. 
 
 The strength of a beam fixed firmly at the ends is to 
 that of one merely supported, in the ratio of 3 to 2. 
 
 94. Resistance to Detrusion. — There is another 
 kind of cross strain which requires particular atten- 
 tion, as the strength of framing often depends upon it ; 
 that is, when a body is crushed across close to the 
 points of support. Dr. Young has called the resistance 
 to this kind of strain the resistance to detnisionJ' 
 This resistance appears to be exactly proportional to 
 the area of the section, and quite independent of its 
 figure or position, and when the force is parallel to the 
 fibres, the strength of fir to resist detrusion is from 
 556 to 634 pounds per square inch, or about one- 
 twentieth of its cohesive power in the direction of the 
 fibres. The resistance to being crushed across is, in all 
 cases, equal, or very nearly equal, to the cohesive force 
 of the body : and as in construction it is the lateral 
 cohesion of timber that is usually exposed to a detrud- 
 ing force, we may conclude that the numbers already 
 given will be sufficient, v/ith those above stated, to 
 assist the carpenter in proportioning the parts which 
 have to support this strain. 
 
 95. Strength of Bent Timber. — In naval archi- 
 tecture it is always necessary to make use of a great 
 quantity of bent timber. This, as far as can be done, 
 is selected out of natural grown pieces, as nearly as 
 possible of the required form, and is commonly known 
 in the dockyards by the term compass timber. The 
 great difficulty in obtaining compass timber led Mr. 
 Hookey to extend a method which he had long prac- 
 tised for bending boat timbers, to the bending of the 
 largest ship timbers, which was found to answer every 
 possible expectation that could be formed of it ; the 
 
128 
 
 CAEPEXTRY. 
 
 largest timbers, \iz., pieces 18 inches square, being 
 brougbt to any required curve in about fifteen minutes 
 after being placed upon the machine. 
 
 The method of preparing the timber is as follows : — 
 A fine saw-cut is made from one end, or both, according 
 to the form into which the timber is to be bent ; the 
 length of it being also different, according to the 
 length of the piece and the degree of curvature ; but 
 commonly, in a curve the height of which is about one- 
 sixth or one-eighth of the whole length, the saw-cut 
 from each end is about one-third of the length. Tlie 
 piece is then boiled for some hours, depending upon 
 its lateral dimensions, and placed upon the machine, 
 w^hen the screws, &c., being applied, the required curva- 
 ture is obtained, as above stated, in about twelve or 
 fifteen minutes ; after which it is screw-bolted, and 
 is then ready for use. 
 
 The advantages attending this method of bending 
 timber for the purposes of ship-building, are — 1. That 
 it dispenses with the use of compass timber, should it 
 again become very scarce ; and therefore no impedi- 
 ment would arise to the service if the necessary quan- 
 tity of timber of this kind could not be in any way 
 procured. 2. It saves a deal of the time and labour 
 necessary for unstacking and restacking piles of timber, 
 to procure pieces of requisite compass ; any piece of 
 the proper length and squarage being at once available 
 with the application of the machine. 3. It saves a 
 great quantity of timber, which is necessarily cut to 
 waste in bringing compass timber to its required 
 dimensions ; the conversion, in some cases, taking away 
 a considerable part of the original contents ; while, in 
 bending timber, the original and converted contents 
 are nearly the same. From the experiments of Mr. 
 Barlow, it appears that, taking the medium between the 
 
RESISTANCE OF TIMBER. 
 
 Tiatural grown pieces and those which are\: 
 partly grain-cut, no defect in point of stren^ 
 found on the side of those bent upon the above^ 
 and it also appears that, although there is an obvious 
 falling off in the strength of pieces boiled for a long 
 time, the defect is very small while the boiling or 
 steaming is not continued beyond the proportion of an 
 hour to an inch in thickness.* 
 
 96. Resistance to Compression. — "When timber is 
 subjected to a compressing force in the direction of its 
 length, it will break either by bending, or by the 
 crushing of the fibres, or by a combination of bending 
 and crushing. This will depend upon the relation 
 between the length and the diameter. If the length is 
 less than eight times the diameter, it will break by 
 crushing, expanding in the middle, and splitting into 
 several pieces. If the length is more than eight times 
 the diameter the force applied will cause it to bend 
 before it crushes. The most reliable experiments are 
 those made by Eaton Hodgkinson, and recorded in the 
 ^^Philosophical Transactions'' (1840), from which it 
 appears that the strength of pillars having the 
 length more than twenty-five times the diameter, 
 and which only break by flexure, is directly as the 
 fourth power of the diameter, and inversely as the 
 
 square of the length ; or W = ax y-, where W is the 
 
 breaking weight in pounds, d the diameter in inches, 
 I the length in feet, and a a constant, whose value is 
 24,500 for Dantzic oak, and 17,500 for red deal. The 
 safe permanent load should not exceed one-tenth of the 
 breaking weight. If the load does not act in the 
 direction of the axis of the timber, the resistance is 
 
 ♦ Barlow's "Strength of Materials." 
 G 3 
 
130 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 much dimmislied, and is only one-third if the force 
 acts down the diagonal instead of the axis. 
 
 For pillars less than twenty-five diameters in length 
 the resistance to crushing must be taken into account. 
 To find the strength in such cases first calculate the 
 strength by the above formula and call it and let c 
 be the crushing strength per square inch of the 
 material as given in the table below. Then the true 
 breaking weight is 
 
 The following table gives the resistance to crushing 
 per square inch of section in pounds of various kinds 
 of wood, the figures in the first column being for 
 specimens moderately dry, and those in the second for 
 specimens kept in a w^arm place two months longer 
 than the others after being turned. "Wet wood is 
 found to be, as a rule, much weaker than dry : — 
 
 Kind of "Word. 
 
 Crushing streng-lh per sq. in. 
 in lbs. 
 
 Alder 
 
 6831 
 
 6960 
 
 Ash 
 
 8683 
 
 9363 
 
 Baywood 
 
 7518 
 
 7518 
 
 Beech 
 
 7733 
 
 9363 
 
 Bhxh, English .... 
 Cedar 
 
 3297 
 
 6402 
 
 5674 
 
 5863 
 
 Deal, red 
 
 5748 
 
 6586 
 
 Ditto, white .... 
 
 6780 
 
 7293 
 
 Elm 
 
 
 10331 
 
 Fir, spruce .... 
 Hornbeam .... 
 
 6500 
 
 6820 
 
 4533 
 
 7290 
 
 Larch ..... 
 
 3200 
 
 5568 
 
 Maho,2:any .... 
 
 8198 
 
 8198 
 
 Oak, Quebc ^ .... 
 
 4230 
 
 5982 
 
 Ditto, English .... 
 
 6484 
 
 10058 
 
 Ditto, Dantzic .... 
 Pine, pitch .... 
 
 
 7730 
 
 6790 
 
 6790 
 
 Ditto, yellow .... 
 
 5375 
 
 5445 
 
 Ditto, red .... 
 
 5395 
 
 7518 
 
 Teak 
 
 
 12101 
 
 Walnut . . . 
 
 6063 
 
 7227 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 ON THE FRA]\J1XG OF TIMBERS. 
 
 Section /. — Floors, 
 
 97. Naked Flooring is the term applied in Car- 
 pentry to the timbers which support the flooring 
 boards and ceiling of a room. There are different 
 kinds of naked flooring, but they may be all comprised 
 under the three following denominations, viz. : — singlc- 
 joisted floors, double floors, and framed floors. 
 
 A sinrjle-joisted floor consists of only one series of 
 joists. Plate I., Fig. 1,* shows a section across the 
 joists of a single-joisted floor. Sometimes every third 
 or fourth joist is made deeper, and the ceiling joists 
 fixed to the deep joists, and crossing them at right 
 angles. This is an improvement in a situation where 
 there is not space for a double floor. Fig. 2 shows a 
 section of a floor of this kind. It increases the depth 
 of the floor very little, and will not allow sounds to 
 pass so freely as a single-joisted floor, and the ceilings 
 will stand better. The ceiling joists, a, a, are notched 
 to the deep joists h, h, by and nailed. 
 
 A double floor consists of three tiers of joists ; that 
 is, binding joists, bridging joists, and ceiling joists : 
 the binding joists are the chief support of the floor, 
 
 * See Atlas of Plates. 
 
'^132 
 
 CARrENTRY. 
 
 and tlie bridging joists are notched upon the upper 
 side of them ; the ceiling joists are either notched to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 rig. ir. 
 
 the under side, or framed between with chased mortises; 
 the best method is to notch them. A section of such a 
 
 floor is shown in Fi^^:. 17, 
 
 ^1 : 
 
 t| — :r 
 
 l ig. IS. 
 
 in which a is the floor- 
 ing, h the bridging joists, 
 c the binders, d the ceil- 
 ing joists. Fig. 18 shows 
 a transverse section of the same floor. 
 
 Framed floors differ from double fl.oors only in having 
 the binding joists framed into large pieces of timber, 
 called girders. In Fig. 19 is shown a section of a 
 
 Hg. 19. 
 
 II ^ ■ ^^J 
 
 floor of this description, r/, a being the girders, h the 
 binders, c the bridging or floor joists, d the ceiling 
 joists. 
 
 Single joisting makes a much stronger floor, with 
 the same quantity of timber, than a double or framed 
 floor, and may be constructed with equal ease to the 
 same extent of bearing; but the ceilings are more 
 subject to cracks and irregularities; consequently, 
 
FLOOES. 
 
 single-joisted floors of long bearings ca! 
 in inferior buildings. 
 
 When it is desirable to exhibit a perfe^ 
 ceiling of plaster, a double floor is used ; and 
 bearing is long, a framed floor becomes the most 
 convenient. 
 
 98. SixGLE-joisTED Floors. — In order to make a 
 strong floor with a small quantity of timber, the joists 
 should be thin and deep ; but a certain degree of thick- 
 ness is necessary, for the purpose of nailing the boards, 
 and two inches is perhaps quite as thin as the joists 
 ought to be made ; though sometimes they are made 
 thinner. 
 
 On account of flues, fire-places, and other causes, it 
 often happens that the joists cannot have a bearing on 
 the wall. In such cases a piece of timber, called a 
 trimmer, is framed between two of the nearest joists 
 that have a bearing on the wall. Into this trimmer the 
 ends of the joists to be supported are mortised. This 
 operation is called trimmuicj. 
 
 The two joists which support the trimmer are called 
 trimming joistSy and they should be stronger than the 
 common joists. In general it will be sufficient to add 
 one-eighth of an inch to the thickness of a trimming 
 joist for each joist supported by the trimmer. Thus, 
 if the thickness of the common joists be 2 inches, and 
 a trimmer supports four joists, then add four-eighths, 
 or half an inch ; that is, make the trimming joists each 
 2J inches in thickness. 
 
 When the bearing exceeds 8 feet, single joisting 
 should have herring-bone strutting, or slips of wood, 
 nailed across each other diagonally between the joists 
 to prevent them turning or twisting sideways, and also 
 to stiffen the floor ; when the bearing exceeds 12 feet, 
 two rows of struts will be necessary, and so on, adding 
 
134 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 anotlier row of struts for eacli increase of four feet 
 bearing ; these struts should be in a continued line 
 across the floor. 
 
 The relation between the breadth and depth of joists 
 must depend upon the length, and the following table 
 of scantlings is made on the supposition that the load 
 on each joist is 100 pounds per lineal foot, the calcula- 
 tions being based on the formula preyiously explained 
 (90 and 91) ; the scantlings are for fir joists : — 
 
 Leng-th of 
 joist in ft. 
 
 Depth, 
 4 ins. 
 
 Depth, 
 5 ins. 
 
 Depth, 
 C ins. 
 
 Depth, 
 8 ins. 
 
 Depth, 
 10 ins. 
 
 Depth, 
 12 ins. 
 
 
 Breadth 
 
 Breadth 
 
 Breadth 
 
 Breadth 
 
 Breadth 
 
 Breadth 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 in ins. 
 
 91 
 
 0 
 
 in ins. 
 
 U 
 
 in ins. 
 
 U 
 
 in ins. 
 
 in ins. 
 
 in ins. 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 3^ 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 15 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 2-.V 
 
 n 
 
 2 
 
 Ih 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3^ 
 
 For common purposes single joisting may be used to 
 any extent that timber can be got deep enough for ; 
 but where it is desirable to have a perfect ceiling, the 
 bearing should not exceed about 10 feet, on account of 
 the partial strains produced by heavy furniture, such 
 as bedsteads and the like, of which the greater part 
 may rest upon only two or three of the joists, and of 
 course bend these below the rest so as to break the 
 ceiling. Also, where it is desirable to prevent the 
 passage of sound, a framed floor is necessary. The 
 passage of sound may be reduced in a single-joisted 
 floor by putting rough boarding, nailed to slips, half 
 way down the joists, and laying a coat of rough 
 plaster called pugging thereon; 
 
 99. Framed Floors consist of girders, binding joists, 
 bridging joists, and ceiling joists. 
 
I'LOORS. 
 
 135 
 
 Girders are the chief supporters of a framed floor, 
 being placed across the room from wall to wall ; on 
 these the binders are framed, the distance apart of the 
 binders being about 6 feet, and that of the girders 
 10 feet. The weight of flooring sustained by the 
 girders depends to some extent on the number of 
 binders — thus in girders of 10 or 12 feet span there 
 will be only one binder, consequently half the weight 
 of the floor is borne directly by the walls, and half by 
 the girder ; in girders of 15 to 20 feet, having two 
 binders resting on them, they will carry two-thirds the 
 weight of the floor ; and in those of 24 feet three- 
 fourths of the weight ; and so on. The load upon the 
 girder will also increase with its length ; if we take 
 100 pounds as the load per square foot, the weight on 
 the floor will be 1,000 pounds for every foot length of 
 girder. Hence it will be manifest that the fixed rule 
 for calculating the scantlings of girders given by 
 Tredgold must be incorrect. The scantlings given in 
 the following table are calculated from the formula 
 previously given (90 and 91), allowing a load of 100 
 pounds per square foot of flooring, and the deflexion 
 not to exceed one-fortieth of an inch for every foot of 
 length. A slight additional thickness is given to allow 
 for framing the binders. 
 
 Length of 
 girder in ft. 
 
 Depth, 
 
 Depth, 
 
 Depth, 
 
 Depth, 
 
 10 ins. 
 
 12 ins. 
 
 15 ins. 
 
 18 ins. 
 
 
 Breadth 
 
 Breadth 
 
 Breadth 
 
 Breadth 
 
 
 in ins. 
 
 in ins. 
 
 in ins. 
 
 in ins. 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 H 
 
 18 
 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 u 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 8" 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 221 
 
 13 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 22i 
 
136 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 When the breadth of a girder is considerable, it is 
 often sawn down the middle and bolted together with 
 the sawn sides outwards ; the girders in the section, 
 Fig. 4,* are suj)posed to be done in this manner. This 
 is an excellent method, as it not only gives an opportu- 
 nity of examining the centre of the tree, which in 
 large trees is often in a state of decay, but also reduces 
 the timber to a smaller scantling, by which means it 
 dries sooner, and is less liable to rot. The slips put 
 between the halves, or flitches, should be thick enough 
 to allow the air to circulate freely between them. 
 
 When the bearing exceeds about 22 feet, it is very 
 difficult to obtain timber large enough for girders ; and 
 it is usual in such cases to truss them. The methods 
 in general adopted for that purpose have the appear- 
 ance of much ingenuity ; but, in reality, they are of 
 very little use. If a girder be trussed with oak, all the 
 strength that can possibly be gained by such a truss 
 consists merely in the difference between the compres- 
 sibility of oak and fir, which is very small indeed ; and 
 unless the truss be extremely well fitted at the abut- 
 ments, it would be much stronger without trussing. 
 All the apparent stiffness obtained by trussing a beam 
 is procured by forcing the abutments, or, in other 
 words, by cambering the beam. This forcing cripples 
 and injures the natural elasticity of the timber : and 
 the continual spring, from the motion of the floor, uj)on 
 parts already crippled, it maj" easily be conceived, will 
 soon so far destroy them as to render the truss a useless 
 burden upon the beam. This is a fact that has been 
 long known to many of our best carpenters, and w^hich 
 has caused them to seek for a remedy in iron trusses ; 
 but this inethod is quite as bad as the former, unless 
 there be an iron tie as an abutment to the truss ; for 
 * See Atlas. 
 
FLOORS. 
 
 137 
 
 the failure of a truss is occasioned by the enormous 
 compression applied upon a small surface of timber at 
 the abutments. The defects of ordinary trussed girders 
 are very apparent in old ones, as it is not simply strength 
 that is required, but the power of resisting the unceasing 
 concussions of a straining force capable of producing 
 a permanent derangement in a small surface at every 
 impression. 
 
 The principle of constructing girders of any depth is 
 the same as that of building beams, and when properly 
 conducted is as strong as any truss can be made of the 
 same depth. The most simple method consists in bolt- 
 ing two pieces together, with kej^s between, to prevent 
 the parts sliding upon each other ; the upper one of 
 hard compact wood, the lower of tough straight-grained. 
 The joints should be at or near the middle of the depth. 
 Fig. 5, Plate I.,* shows a beam put together in this 
 manner. The thickness of all the keys added together 
 should be somewhat greater than one-third more than 
 the whole depth of the girder ; and if they be made of 
 hard wood, the breadth should be about twice the 
 thickness. 
 
 Fig. 6 is another girder of the same construction, 
 excepting that it is held together by hoops instead of 
 bolts. The girder being cut so as to be smaller towards 
 the ends, would admit of these hoops being driven on 
 till they would be perfectly tight, and would make a 
 very firm and simple connection. 
 
 In Fig. 7 the parts are tabled or indented together, 
 instead of being keyed, and a king-bolt is added to 
 tighten the joints; the upper part of the girder being 
 in two pieces. The depth of all the indents added 
 together should not be less than two-thirds of the 
 whole depth of the girder. 
 
 * See Atlas. 
 
CAKPENTRY. 
 
 An6t|ter metliod of constructing a girder consists in 
 ^bje'tixiirig a piece into a curve, and securing it from 
 ■'^ringing back by bolts or straps. A girder constructed 
 in this manner is shown by Fig. 8. The pieces should 
 be well bolted, or strapped, and keys or tables inserted 
 to prevent any sliding of the parts. In this manner a 
 beam might be built of any depth that is necessary in 
 the erection of buildings, and, by breaking the joints, 
 of any length that is likely to be needed in the con- 
 struction of floors. 
 
 The following rule may be used for finding the 
 proper scantling or dimensions of these girders, viz. : — 
 Multiply times the area of floor the girder supports 
 in feet, by the length of bearing in feet ; divide this 
 product by the square of the depth in inches, and the 
 quotient will be the breadth of the girder in inches. 
 
 The thickness of the bent pieces may be about one- 
 fiftieth part of the bearing, and as many of them should 
 be added as will increase the depth to that proposed, 
 unless the whole depth of the curved pieces exceeds 
 half the depth of the girder ; and in that case straight 
 pieces should be added to the under side, so as to make 
 the whole depth of the straight parts exceed the depth 
 of the curved parts. When pieces cannot be got sufii- 
 ciently long for the girder, care should be taken to 
 have no joints near the middle of the length in the 
 lower half of the girder. 
 
 Fig. 8 shows a girder for a 40-feet bearing with the 
 lower half scarfed at a, with a plain butting joint in the 
 curved part at ft. 
 
 As the strain is always greatest at the middle of the 
 length of a girder, it would be well to avoid making 
 mortises there, if possible, either for binding joists or 
 for any other purpose ; and the most straight- grained 
 part of the beam should be put to the under side. 
 
rnm 
 
 FLOORS. 
 
 Also, timber girders should not be built intc 
 but an open space should be left round 
 either by laying a flat stone over them, or by turr 
 an arch to carry the wall above. 
 
 Girders should be laid from 9 to 12 inches into the 
 wall, according to the bearing. 
 
 100. Binding Joists are framed into the girders as 
 shown by Fig. 9 (Atlas, Plate I.). Great care should be 
 taken that both the bearing parts and 5, fit to the 
 corresponding parts of the mortise. This is the most 
 important part to be attended to ; the tenon should be 
 one-sixth of the depth, and at one-third of the depth 
 from the lower side. The scantlings will depend upon 
 the bearing and distance apart. In the following table 
 the binders are supposed G feet apart, and the weight 
 of floor 100 pounds per square foot ; the timber being 
 fir:— 
 
 Length of 
 binder in ft. 
 
 Depth, 
 6 ins. 
 
 Depth, 
 8 ins. 
 
 Depth, 
 10 ins. 
 
 Depth, 
 12 ins. 
 
 Depth, 
 15 ins. 
 
 
 Breadth 
 
 Breadth 
 
 Breadth 
 
 Breadth 
 
 Breadth 
 
 
 in ins. 
 
 in ins. 
 
 in ins. 
 
 in ine. 
 
 in ins. 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 
 2^ 
 
 2 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 G 
 
 3.V 
 
 2?,- 
 4I 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 13 
 
 7^ 
 
 3 
 
 lo 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 s" 
 
 4^ 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 17i 
 
 Oi 
 ^2 
 
 Bridging Joists will have the same scantlings as 
 those for single-jointed floors (98), allowance being 
 made for the notching on the binders. 
 
 101. Ceiling Joists which have no load to carry but 
 that of the lath and plaster need not be more than 1 \ 
 to 2 inches thick ; the scantlings for fir joists in the 
 table below are the smallest that should be given to 
 ceiling joists, and are calculated on the supposition 
 that the weight of the ceiling is about 12 pounds on 
 
140 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 every lineal foot of each, joist, wliicli should never bo 
 more than 11 inches apart, nor have more than 15 feet 
 bearing: — 
 
 Length of 
 ceiling- joist. 
 
 Depth, 
 3 ins. 
 
 DeDih, 
 4 ins. 
 
 Dep^h, 
 5 ins. 
 
 Depth, 
 0 ins. 
 
 
 Breadth 
 
 Breadth 
 
 Bread ih 
 
 Breidth 
 
 Ft. 
 
 in ins. 
 
 in ins. 
 
 in ins. 
 
 in ins. 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 9i 
 
 2 
 
 
 lo 
 
 
 z ^ 
 
 2i 
 
 2" 
 
 102. General Remarks Respecting Floors. — 
 Girders should never be laid over openings, such as 
 doors or windows, if it be possible to avoid it ; and 
 when it is absolutely necessary to lay them so, the wall- 
 plates, or templets, must be made strong, and long 
 enough to throw the weight upon the piers. It is, 
 however, a bad practice to lay girders obliquely across 
 the rooms ; it is much better to put a strong piece as a 
 wall-plate. 
 
 Wall-plates and templets should be made stronger as 
 the span becomes longer : the following proportions 
 may serve for brick walls : — 
 
 Ins. Ins. 
 
 Por a 20-feet bearing, Tvall-plates 4j by 3 
 „ 30 „ „ oi 4 
 
 „ 40 „ „ 6J 5 
 
 Floors should always be kept about three-fourths of 
 an inch, higher in the middle than at the sides of a 
 room when first framed ; and also the ceiling joists 
 should be fixed about three-fourths of an inch in 20 feet 
 higher in the middle than at the sides of the room ; as 
 all floors, however well constructed, will settle in some 
 degree. 
 
 In laving the floorino^, the boards should alwavs bo 
 
ROOFS. 
 
 141 
 
 made to rise a little under tlie doorways, in order that 
 tlie doors may shut close without dragging ; and at the 
 same time it assists in making them clear the carpet. 
 
 Section II. — Roofs. 
 
 103. The Object of a Eoof is to cover and protect 
 a building from the effects of the weather, and also to 
 bind and give strength and firmness to the fabric. To 
 effect these purposes it should neither be too heavy nor 
 too light, but of a just proportion in all its parts to the 
 magnitude of the building. 
 
 In carpentry, the term Eoof is applied to the framing 
 of timber which supports the covering of a building. 
 The Fitch of a roof, or the angle which its inclined 
 side forms with the horizon, is varied according to the 
 climate and the nature of the covering. The inhabitants 
 of cold countries make their roofs very high, while 
 those of warm countries, where it seldom rains or 
 snows, make their roofs nearly flat. But even in the 
 same climate the pitch of the roof has been subject to 
 many variations. Formerly roofs were made very high, 
 to prevent snow drifting between the slates, and per- 
 haps with the notion that the snow would slide off 
 easier : but where there are parapets, a high roof is 
 attended with bad effects, as the snow slips down and 
 stops the gutters, and an overflow of water is the con- 
 sequence : besides, the water in heavy rains descends 
 with such velocity that the pipes cannot convey it away 
 soon enough to prevent the gutters being overflown ; 
 and the drift of snow is prevented by the greater care 
 taken to render the joints close, and by boarding under 
 the slates instead of using laths. In high roofs the 
 action of the wind is one of the most considerable forces 
 they have to sustain, and it appears to have been with 
 
 I 
 
142 
 
 CAPvPENTRY. 
 
 a view of lessening their height that the Mansard or 
 curb roof was invented (Fig. 27, page 148). 
 
 The height of a roof at the present time is rarely 
 above one -third of the span or distance between the 
 walls which support it, and it should never be less than 
 one-sixth. The most usual pitch for slates is when 
 the height is one-fourth of the span, or when the angle 
 with the horizon is 26J degrees. 
 
 The kinds of covering used for timber roofs are copper, 
 lead, galvanized iron, zinc, slates of difierent kinds, 
 tiles, shingles, reeds, straw, and heath. Taking the 
 angle for slates to be 26J degrees, the following table 
 will show the degree of inclination that may be given 
 for other materials : — 
 
 Kind of Covering 
 
 Inclination | Height of | 
 to the roof in parts 
 horizon. of span. 
 
 Copper, lead, or zinc 
 
 Slates, large . 
 
 Ditto, ordinary 
 
 Stone slate 
 Plain tiles 
 Pantiles . 
 
 Thatch of stra^, reeds, 
 
 or heath 
 Force of wind docs not 
 
 generally exceed 
 
 Deg. Min. 
 
 3 
 
 50 
 
 .1 
 
 4 8 
 
 22 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 33 
 
 1 
 ¥ 
 
 20 
 
 41 
 
 2 
 7 
 
 29 
 
 41 
 
 
 2i 
 
 0 
 
 y 
 
 4-5 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Wt. upon a sq. ft. 
 of roofing. 
 
 ( copper I'OO lbs. 
 { lead " - - 
 
 I from 
 [to 
 
 •00 
 11-20 
 9"-00 
 
 5- 00 
 23-80 
 17-SO 
 
 6- 50 
 
 straw 6- 50 
 40-00 
 
 The simplest kind of roof is that called a lean-to or 
 shed-roof, in which a number of timbers called rafters 
 rest upon wall plates laid on two walls, one of which is 
 higher than the other, as shown in Fig. 20, and con- 
 sequently the rafters have a slop)e or fall towards the 
 lower wall. 
 
ROOFS. 
 
 14a 
 
 A very common form of roof in town liouses built in 
 rows is the V-roo/] or double lean-to, as shown in 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 Fig-. 20. 
 
 In this roof the rafters (r) rest at their feet upon 
 two bearers (b) carried from back to front of the house, 
 
 Fiff. 21. 
 
 and forming a trough-gutter (g) along the middle. 
 The upper ends of the rafters are supported by the 
 party-walls. 
 
 When the walls are both of one height the rafters 
 are generally put together in pairs, sloping upwards 
 from each wall to a ridge-piece (marked r) in the centre, 
 as shown in Fig. 22. The feet are spiked to the ends 
 
144 
 
 CARPENTKY. 
 
 of the ceiling joists (x), which act as ties to prevent the 
 rafters from spreading outwards. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 A Ilip-roof is one whose ends rise immediately from 
 the wall, having the same inclination to the horizon as 
 the sides have ; a hipped-roof is of a pyramidal form, 
 and the angles made by the meeting of the planes 
 which form the pyramid are called the hijJSj the timbers 
 which follow the line of the hips being called hip-rafters, 
 Jaclx-rafters are the short rafters rising from the walls 
 and framing into the hip-rafters. The length of the 
 hip-rafter is found by dropping a plumb-line from its 
 vertex to meet a horizontal line from its foot, then, 
 adding together the squares of the lengths of those two 
 lines, and taking the square-root of* their sum. 
 
 The wall plate on which the feet of the rafters rest 
 is laid all round the wall in a hip-roof, and is braced at 
 the angles by a diagonaUtie cocked down on each plate ; 
 framed at right angles into this is a short piece, called 
 a dragon-tie, which bisects the angle made by the wall 
 plates, and on which the heel of the hip-rafter rests. 
 
 A Valley is the opposite of a hip, being the internal 
 angle formed by the two planes of a roof. Valley- 
 hoards are boards laid on each side of the angle to 
 receive the lead, and are feather- edged. 
 
ROOFS. 
 
 145 
 
 Glitters are channels formed between the inclined side 
 of a roof and the adjoining parapet wall (C. Plate II.), 
 or between the two inclined sides of a double roof 
 (D. Plate II.). They are formed of longitudinal planks 
 laid upon transverse bearers nailed to the feet of the 
 rafters, having steps or drips of 2 or 3 inches every 10 
 or 12 feet length ; they are laid with a fall from end to 
 end, and consequently are wider at the upper than the 
 lower end, except in parallel or trough gutters (Fig. 21, 
 page 143) ; feather-edged boarding is laid up the sides 
 of the gutter on the feet of the rafters, about 9 inches 
 wide, to receive the lead lining, which turns up under 
 the slating. 
 
 In order to prevent the rafters of a roof from thrust- 
 ing out at the feet, a horizontal piece of timber called a 
 collar (marked 0, Fig. 
 22) is nailed across 
 each pair of rafters, at 
 any convenient height, 
 and halved on to them, 
 as shown on Fig. 23. 
 When this piece is 
 placed at the feet of the rafters it is called a tie-heam 
 (marked T), and in that case the roof has no outward 
 thrust on the wall. When the span of the roof is above 
 20 feet, the tie-beam will have a tendency to bend in 
 the middle ; to obviate which a piece of timber called a 
 hing-post (marked K, Fig. 24)* is introduced between the 
 heads of the rafters and the centre of the tie-beam ; into 
 the head of this post the rafters are framed, and thus hold 
 up the post, shoulders being formed in it for that pur- 
 pose, the king-post holding up the centre of the tie- 
 beam by means of a strap which is passed under it. 
 Such a combination of timbers is called a truss or 
 
 * See also Atlas, Plate II. 
 TI 
 
146 
 
 CARPEKTRY. 
 
 principal^ and is suitable for a roof of 20 to 30 feet span. 
 When two upright pieces (Fig. 25) are introduced to 
 hold up the tie-beam, they are called queen-posts 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 (marked Q), and the horizontal piece between their 
 heads is called the straining-beam (marked B) ; by this 
 
 
 1 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 B 
 
 a Q 
 
 
 
 '\ 
 
 II 
 
 
 1 // 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 beam the reactions of the heads of the rafters (D) are 
 made to balance each other. 
 
 In order to stiffen the main rafters, pieces of wood 
 called struts (marked S) are framed into the feet of the 
 king or queen-posts and also into the centre of the 
 
ROOFS. 
 
 147 
 
 rafters. In the king-post roof the opposite thrusts of 
 the struts counterbalance each other on the foot of the 
 king-post ; but in the queen-post roof their thrusts have 
 to be conveyed along a straining sill (A) placed be- 
 tween the feet of the queen- 
 posts upon the top of the tie- 
 beam. This kind of truss is 
 suitable for roofs over 30 feet 
 span. When the span exceeds 
 45 feet, a truss, of the form 
 shown in Plate III.,* Fig. 1, 
 will best answer the purpose. 
 The mode of framing the 
 feet of the rafters into the tie-beam is shown in 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 When a roof is framed in either of the foregoing 
 methods, the trusses do not themselves directly carry 
 the slates or other covering, but are placed about 10 feet 
 apart, and receive longitudinal beams, called purlins 
 (marked P), notched down upon the principal rafters (D) 
 of each truss, about 5 feet apart ; upon these purlins are 
 notched the common rafters (marked C), about 11 inches 
 apart, on which the boarding or battening to receive 
 the covering of slates, &c., is nailed. The feet of the 
 common rafters are spiked upon a piece of timber laid 
 upon the wall or upon the ends of the tie-beam, which 
 is called the pole-plate (marked E). 
 
 When the covering for the roof is to be lead or zinc, 
 the rafters must be laid over with close-boarding, on 
 which the metal is secured by means of rolls of wood 
 placed every 2 feet or 3 feet apart, and fixed from bottom 
 to top, and over which the metal is dressed. If slate 
 or tile is the material of the covering, battens or laths 
 are nailed horizontally along the rafters, at distances 
 
 * See Atlas. 
 H 2 
 
148 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 apart regulated by tlie gauge of the slates or tiles. At 
 the eaves of a slated roof, an' eaves-board is generally 
 laid, to give solidity to the slating at that part ; and in 
 order to check the rush of water into the gutter at the 
 eaves, the slates are tilted up there by means of a strip 
 of wood called a tiltin g -fillet ; similar fillets are also laid 
 along the edges of valleys, and wherever the slating 
 abuts against a wall. 
 
 When the ridge or hips are to be covered with lead 
 or zinc, a rounded roll of wood is spiked to the w^hole 
 length of hip-rafter or ridge piece, and is called a 
 ridge-rolL When there is a parapet wall at the eaves 
 of the roof, a gutter has to be formed by means of 
 horizontal pieces called hearers, spiked to the feet of the 
 rafters, and on which the gutter-hoards are laid to receive 
 the lead. 
 
 A CuRB-ROOF, or Mansarde, is one in w^hich the 
 rafters on each side are in two separate lengths, and 
 
 3E 
 
 Eig. 27. 
 
 form an external angle (A) at their junction, as in 
 Fig. 27. A collar-beam (C) is introduced at the junction 
 of the two sets of rafters. The feet of the lower rafters 
 are secured to the ends of the ceiling-joists of the floor 
 
ROOFS. 
 
 149 
 
 below. The object of this form of roof is to obtain 
 space for rooms, of wbicb the collars (C) forms the ceil- 
 ing joists. 
 
 Roofs may have the feet of their rafters prevented 
 from thrusting outwards without employing horizontal 
 tie-beam, as shown in Figs. 28, 29, 30. 
 
 rig". 28. Fig. 29. Fig. 30. 
 
 104. Domical or Cylindrical roofs may be con- 
 structed of timber, on the jDrinciple suggested by 
 Philibert de Lorme, as shown in Fig. 31. In this 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 method a series of curved ribs are placed so that their 
 lower ends stand upon a curb at the base, and the upper 
 ends meet at the top, diagonal struts being introduced 
 between them. These ribs are formed of planks put 
 together in thicknesses, with the joints crossed, and well 
 bolted together ; there should be at least three thick- 
 
160 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 nesses in eacli rib, not bent, but applied flat together in 
 a vertical plane, and tbeir edges cut to tbe proper 
 curvature ; the layers of the ribs may be held together 
 without bolts, by merely the horizontal rings or purlins, 
 which pass through a mortise hole in the middle and 
 have themselves a slit into which a wooden key is 
 driven on each side of the rib, as shown in the figure. 
 Examples of this form of roof can be seen in the Town 
 Hall and Corn Exchange at Farnham, Surrey, built by 
 
 4 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 Mr, Tarn. Sometimes the main ribs are formed of 
 planks bent to the sweep, and bolted one on the other, 
 as in the roof of the Great Northern Station, King's 
 Cross, which has a span of 105 feet ; part of this roof, 
 however, has been replaced by iron ribs 
 
 105. CoLLAR-KOOFS are frequently used over Gothic 
 buildings of moderate span, as shown in Fig. 32. In 
 this form of roof the collar is placed high up, tenoned 
 into the rafters, and secured thereto with oak pins. 
 
ROOFS. 
 
 161 
 
 Diagonal pieces, called braces^ are also tenoned into 
 both the collar and the rafters, and secured with pins. 
 The foot of each rafter is framed into a horizontal toall- 
 piece, which lies across the whole thickness of the wall, 
 and is notched down on the wall-plate ; into the inner 
 end of this wall-piece a vertical strut is framed, and 
 also into the rafter itself. By this arrangement the 
 
 Fig-. S3. 
 
 outward thrust on the wall is greatly counteracted, and 
 the weight thrown nearly vertically upon it. 
 
 Hammer-beam roofs are sometimes found over 
 old Gothic buildings, and their form is shown in 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 In this kind of roof we may suppose that the feet 
 of the rafters are first prevented from spreading by 
 being framed into a tie-beam ; the middle part of the 
 
152 
 
 CARPE^'TP.Y. 
 
 tie-beam is afterwards cut away, and tlie remaining 
 parts (marked H) are called hamincr-heams. To pre- 
 vent these beams from tlirusting outwards, a diagonal 
 strut (marked S) is framed into its inner end, and also 
 into a vertical wall-piece (W), wbicb is itself framed 
 
 Og. 34. 
 
 into the under side of the bammer-beam. A vertical 
 strut (marked S') is also placed between the rafter and 
 the end of the hammer-beam. By this means a con- 
 siderable amount of the thrust of the rafters is thrown 
 vertically down the walls. There will, however, always 
 remain sufficient horizontal thrust to push out the 
 
TvOOFS. 
 
 153 
 
 walls, if they are not built very strong, or supported 
 by external buttresses. 
 
 One of tbe lightest and best combined specimens of 
 timber framing for an open roof is in the chief apart- 
 ment of the episcopal palace of Auxerre, which is now 
 changed into the Prefecture for the department. In 
 the engraving on page 152 (Fig. 34) will be re- 
 marked between the tie-beam B and the stay D, a 
 series of curves CCO intended to receive oak planking 
 or shingles, to form a circular vaulting slightly de- 
 pressed in the centre. The king-post I passes down 
 the centre of the half section of a circle, as it were, 
 and suspends the tie-beam. The purlins, rafters, and 
 main couples are tied together, and the former to the 
 ridge-tree by cross pieces. The planking is nailed to 
 the circles and the joints hidden by mouldings, which 
 also serve to give strength and stability to the framing. 
 The whole of the wood- work is as light as it is solid, 
 and no particle of material has been allowed to remain 
 that was not necessary. Several examples remain of a 
 modification of this system, but with interior vaulting 
 preserved. In some cases, the use of the tie-beam 
 is dispensed with, and the rafters in each pair tied 
 together by cross pieces as described above. In 
 others, where the tie-beam is retained, the top stay 
 is deflected from the horizontal, and made to form a 
 portion of the circle to support the planking of the 
 vaulting. 
 
 The most remarkable specimen of hammer beam 
 roof, as well as the largest and most magnificent, is 
 that of Westminster Hall (Fig. 35). 
 
 The angle of the roof is formed in what workmen 
 still term common pitch, the length of the rafters being 
 about three-fourths of the entire span. The cutting of 
 the girders, or the beams, which, crossing from wall to 
 
 n 3 
 
154 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 wall in common roofs, restrain all lateral expansion, 
 was the first circumstance peculiar to this construction. 
 To provide against lateral pressure, we find trusses, or 
 principals, as they are technically called, raised at the 
 distances of about eighteen feet throughout the whole 
 
 Fig. 33 
 
 length of the building. The trusses abut against the 
 solid parts of the walls between the windows, which 
 are strengthened in those parts by arch buttresses on 
 the outside. Every truss comprehends one large arch, 
 springing from corbels of stone, which project from 
 
KOOFS. 
 
 155 
 
 the walls at twenty -one feet below tlie base line of the 
 roof, and at nearly the same height from the floor. 
 The ribs forming this arch are framed at its crown into 
 a beam which connects the rafters in the middle of 
 their length. A small arch is turned within this largG 
 one, sj)riuging from the base line of the roof, and sup- 
 ported by two brackets or half arches issuing from the 
 springers of the main arch. By this construction of 
 the trusses, each one acts like an arch ; and by placing 
 their springers so far below the top of the walls, a more 
 firm abutment is obtained ; subordinate timbers co- 
 operate to transfer the weight and pressure of inter- 
 mediate parts upon the principals ; and thus the whole 
 structure reposes in perfect security, after more tban 
 four centuries from its first erection.* 
 
 106. Examples of Tie-Be am Eoofs of Large 
 Span. — Fig. 36 is the roof of the chapel of the 
 Royal Hospital at Greenwich, constructed by Mr. 
 S. Wyatt. 
 
 The trusses are seven feet apart, and the whole is 
 covered with lead, the boarding being supported by 
 horizontal ledgers, A, of six by four inches. 
 
 This is a beautiful roof, and contains less timber 
 than most others of the same dimensions. The parts 
 are all disposed with great judgment. Perhaps the 
 iron rod is unnecessary ; but it adds great stifihess to 
 the whole. 
 
 The iron straps at the rafter feet would have had 
 
 * The principle of the construction of these kinds of roofs is founded 
 on that property of the triangle, that whilst the lengths of the sides 
 remain the same, the angles are unchangeable ; and, in this case, all 
 the pieces (of timber) are arranged to form the sides of triangles, and 
 thus all the joints are rendered fixed and immoyablo. Thus what 
 would at first sight have the appearance of being a weight upon the 
 roof, is, in fact, its strength and safety. Our ancestors did not attempt 
 to conceal these roofs with a ceiling ; but justly proud of their in- 
 genuitj^ in construction, exposed the whole to view, carved and orna- 
 mented on all the more prominent parts. 
 
156 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 more effect if not so oblique. Those at the head of 
 the post are very effective. 
 
 We may observe, ho'vever, that the joints between 
 
 i X X X X X X 
 
 ^ O O O CD O 
 
 X 
 
 a 
 
 *3 
 
 Pi 
 
 O 
 
 S3 
 
 Pi 
 
 02 
 
 3 r" 
 
 bo 
 
 • M P 
 
 P ^ CD ^ 
 
 O ^ pj 
 
 o 
 
 a o 03 a 
 
 O O »5 ^ 
 
 !5 2 ^ ? 
 
 <^ o p pii^ ci^ K w 
 
 the straining beam and its braces are not of the best 
 kind, and tend to bruise both the straining beam and 
 the truss beam above it. 
 
ROOFS. 
 
 157 
 
 Fig. 37 IS the roof of St. PauFs, Covent Garden, 
 constructed by Mr. Wapshot in 1796. 
 
 Inch, scantling. 
 
 AA, Tie-beam, spanning oO feet 2 inches . . . IGxl^ 
 
 B, Queen-post 9X8 
 
 C, Tmss-Leam 10x8 
 
 D, King-post (14 at the joggle) X 8 
 
 E, Brace 8 X 7J 
 
 FF. Principal brace (at bottom) 10X8^ 
 
 HH, Principal rafter (at bottom) 10x8} 
 
 g Studs supporting the rafter 8x3 
 
 This roof far excels the original one put up by Inigc 
 Jones. One of its trusses contains 198 feet of timberc 
 One of the old roof had 273, but had many inactive 
 timbers, and others ill-disposed. The internal truss 
 FOP is admirably contrived for supporting the exterior 
 rafters, without any pressure on the far projecting ends 
 of the tie-beam. The former roof had bent them 
 greatly, so as to appear ungraceful. 
 
 We think that the camber (six inches) of the tie- 
 beam is rather hurtful ; because, by settling, the beam 
 lengthens ; and this must be accompanied by a con 
 siderahle sinking of the roof. This will appear by 
 calculation. 
 
 Fig. 38 is the roof of the Birmingham Theatre, con- 
 structed by Mr. George Saunders. The span is 80 feet 
 clear, and the trusses are 10 feet apart.* 
 
 * See also Atlas, Plate II. 
 
1S8 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 Fig". 38. 
 
 Inch, scantling. 
 
 A, is an oak cor"bel 9 x ^ 
 
 B, Inner plate 9x9 
 
 C, Wall plate 8xo| 
 
 D, Pole plate 7 X '5 
 
 E, Tie-beam .15x15 
 
 F, Straining beam .12x9 
 
 G, Oak king-post (in the shaft) . , . . .9x9 
 
 H, Oak queen-post (in the shaft . . . . .7X9 
 
 I, Principal rafters 9x9 
 
 K, Common ditto 4X^J 
 
 L, Principal braces . . .... 9 and 6 X 9 
 
 M, Common ditto . c . , . . . .6X9 
 
 N, Purlins , . . .7X5 
 
 Q, Straining sill 5J X 9 
 
 The roof is a fine specimen of English, carpentrj^, 
 and is one of the boldest and lightest roofs in Europe. 
 The straining sill Q gives a firm abutment to the 
 principal braces, and the space between the posts is 
 19^ feet wide, afibrding roomy workshops for the car- 
 penters and other workmen connected with a theatre. 
 The contriyance for taking double hold of the wall, 
 which is very thin, is excellent. There is also added a 
 beam (marked E), bolted down to the tie-beams. The 
 intention of this was to prevent the total failure of so 
 bold a trussing, if any of the tie-beams should fail at 
 the end by rot. 
 
ROOFS. X^'^T* 
 
 Akin to this is Fig. 39,* the roof ^^^^ry ^^a^e^^ 
 theatre, 80 feet 3 inches in the clear, and ^I^O^^sses ^ 
 15 feet apart, constructed by Mr. Edwaro^^^jg 
 Saunders. 
 
 Inch, scantling. 
 
 A, Tie-beams 10x7 
 
 B, Rafters 7x7 
 
 C, King-posts 12X7 
 
 D, Struts , .5x7 
 
 E, Purlins 9x5 
 
 Gr, Pole plates 5x5 
 
 I, Common rafters . . . . . . . .5X4 
 
 K, Tie-beam to the main truss 15 X 12 
 
 L, Posts to ditto 15X12 
 
 M, Principal braces to ditto . . . .14 and 12 X 12 
 
 N, Struts. 8X12 
 
 P, Straining beams 12x12 
 
 The main beams are trussed in the middle space with 
 oak trusses 5 inches square. This was necessary for its 
 width of 32 feet, occupied by the carpenters, painters, 
 &c. The great space between the trusses affords good 
 store-rooms, dressing-rooms, &c. 
 
 It is probable that this roof has not its equal in the 
 world for lightness, stiffness, and strength. The main 
 trusses are so judiciously framed, that each of them will 
 safely bear a load of near 300 tons ; so it is not likely 
 that they will ever be quarter loaded. The division of 
 the whole into three parts makes the exterior roofings 
 very light. The strains are admirably kept from the 
 walls, and the walls are even firmly bound together by 
 the roof. They also take off the dead weight from the 
 main truss one-third. 
 
 The intelligent reader will perceive that all these 
 roofs are on one principle, depending on a truss of 
 three pieces and a straight tie-beam. This is indeed 
 the great principle of a truss, and is a step beyond the 
 roof with two rafters and a king-post. It admits of 
 
 * See also Atlas, Plate IV. 
 
ROOFS. 
 
 161 
 
 much greater variety of forms, and of greater extent. 
 We may see that even the middle part may be carried 
 to any space, and yet be flat at top ; for the truss beam 
 may be supported in the middle by an inverted king- 
 post (of timber, not iron), carried by iron or wooden 
 ties from its extremities : and the same ties may carry 
 the horizontal tie-beam K ; for till K be torn asunder, 
 or M, M, and P be crippled, nothing can fail. 
 
 The roof of St. Martin's church in the Fields is 
 constructed on good principles, and every piece pro- 
 perly disposed. But although its span does not exceed 
 40 feet from column to column, it contains more timber 
 in a truss than there is in one of Drury Lane Theatre. 
 The roof of the chapel at Greenwich, that of St. PauPs, 
 Oovent Garden, that of Birmingham and that of 
 Drury Lane Theatres, form a series gradually more 
 perfect. 
 
 To avoid a large expanse of roof, the truss shown in 
 Plate IV., Fig. 1 (Atlas), may be used for a span of 55 
 to 65 feet. 
 
 107. Roofs with Curved Eibs. — There is a con- 
 siderable degree of difficulty in executing a roof when 
 there are a great number of joints, and the timbers of 
 large dimensions ; and the shrinkage of the king or 
 queen-posts often produces considerable derangements 
 in the truss. It is obvious, that to make principal 
 rafters in a continued series of pieces abutting end to 
 end against one another would remedy these defects. 
 These pieces would then form a kind of curve, and, 
 according to the degree of neatness required, might be 
 made regular, or left with projecting angles, as is 
 shown by Fig. 1, Plate V.* These pieces might either 
 be bolted, or mortised and put together with wooden 
 keys, as represented in Fig. 2. The length of the 
 * See Atlas. 
 
162 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 pieces would be determined by the form of the curve ; 
 ..Grooked timber would be preferable for the ribs where 
 it could be procured, as the joints should be as few as 
 possible, and they should be crossed, like the joints in 
 stone work. 
 
 Plate v.. Fig. 3, shows a roof constructed in this 
 manner. Each of the supports for the tie-beam marked 
 S, S, &c., consists of two pieces, one put on each side of 
 the rib, and notched both to the rib and to the tie- 
 beam. The pieces are bolted together, as is shown by 
 a section to a larger scale, through one of these pairs 
 of suspending pieces, in Fig. 4. This plan of con- 
 struction admits of a much firmer connection with the 
 tie-beam than is procured by the ordinary mode, and 
 the number of suspending pieces may be increased at 
 pleasure. The best situation for the suspending pieces 
 is at the joints of the curved rib. 
 
 The weight of the roof being very nearly uniformly 
 distributed, the form of the curved rib should be a 
 parabola ; and as this curve is easily described with 
 sufficient accuracy for this purpose, it is best to adopt 
 it ; because in that case, the strain from the weight of 
 the roof and ceiling will have no tendency whatever to 
 derange the form of the rib ; and its depth will always 
 be sufficient to withstand any partial force to which a 
 roof is ever likely to be exposed. Consequently, when 
 the rib is of a parabolic form, diagonal braces will be 
 unnecessary as regards the constant strain ; neverthe- 
 less, if they be added, they will increase the strength to 
 resist any partial strain in a very considerable degree. 
 
 To construct the parabola, let AB, Fig. 5, be drawn 
 for the upper side of the tie-beam, and AC, CB, for 
 the under side of the common or small rafters. Then 
 divide AC and CB each into the same number of equal 
 parts (an even number is to be preferred) ; and join 
 
ROOFS. / 
 
 the points 1 and 1, 2 and 2, &c. ; flL 
 formed by these intersecting lines will h 
 required. 
 
 But it will be found that this curve scarcelyrBsiQSi- 
 from a circular arc that rises half the height of the 
 roof: therefore either may be used. 
 
 If a lantern or any other structure is to be raised on 
 the top, a hyperbolic curve should be adopted ; whicli 
 admits of a considerable increase of pressure at the 
 crown. For an easy mode of drawing a hyperbola, see 
 Tarn's Practical Geometry." 
 
 Smaller roofs might be constructed in a similar 
 manner, at a comparatively small expense. But in 
 these, instead of forming the rib of short pieces, it 
 might be bent by a method somew^hat similar to that 
 used for bending ship timber. If the depth of a piece 
 of timber does not exceed a hundred and twentieth part 
 of its length, it may be bent into a curve that will rise 
 about one-eighth of the span without impairing its 
 elastic force. And if two such pieces be laid one upon 
 the other, and then bent together by means of a rope 
 fixed at the ends, they may be easily brought to the 
 form of the required curve, by twisting the rope as a 
 stone sawyer tightens his saw, or as a common bow saw 
 is tightened. The pieces may then be bolted together ; 
 and if this operation be performed in a workmanlike 
 manner, the pieces will spring very little when the rope 
 is gently slacked ; and it is advisable to do it gradually, 
 that the parts may take their proper bearing without 
 crippling. Otherwise, a piece of about one-sixtieth part 
 of the span in thickness may be sawn along the 
 middle of its depth, with, a thin saw, from each end 
 towards the middle of the length, leaving a part of 
 about 8 feet in the middle of the length uncut. The 
 pieces may then be bent to the proper curve, and bolted 
 
164 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 as before. In either ease the rise of the ribs should be 
 half the height of the roof ; and they should be bent 
 about one-fourth more, to allow for the springing back 
 when the rope is taken off. A roof of this kind for a 
 30 feet span is shown by Plate V., Fig. 6.* The sus- 
 pending pieces are notched on each side, in pairs, and 
 bolted or strapped together, as shown by Fig. 4. 
 
 The advantages of this roof consist in the small 
 number of joints in the truss, in being able to support 
 the tie-beam at any number of points, in admitting of 
 a firm and simple connection with the tie-beam, and in 
 avoiding the ill effects attending the shrinking of king 
 or queen-posts. 
 
 108. The Proportions of the Timbers of a 
 PooF depend so much on the design of the framing, 
 that it would be impossible to furnish rules which 
 should apply directly to all cases. Nevertheless, by 
 considering a few combinations, the method that may 
 be adopted will be seen, and consequently may be 
 applied to designs made on other principles than those 
 already shown. 
 
 The King-post is intended to support the ceiling, 
 and by means of the braces to support part of the 
 weight of the roof. The weight suspended by the king- 
 post will be proportioned to the span of the roof, and 
 will be half the weight of the tie, the other half being 
 carried by the walls. 
 
 QuEEN-posTS AND SUSPENDING PiECES are strained 
 in a similar manner to king-posts, but the load upon 
 them is only proportional to that part of the length 
 of the tie-beam held up by each suspending piece 
 or queen-post ; in queen-posts the part suspended by 
 each is generally one-third the span, as one-third of 
 the weight of the tie is borne directly by the walls. 
 * See Atlas. 
 
KOOFS. 
 
 165 
 
 A Tie-Beam is affected by two strains — the one in 
 the direction of the length from the thrust of the 
 principal rafters ; the other is a cross strain from its 
 own weight and that of the ceiling below. In esti- 
 mating the strength, the thrust of the rafters need not 
 be considered when there is a ceiling to carry, because 
 the beam must in that case be abundantly strong to 
 resist this strain ; and when a beam is strained in the 
 direction of the length, it rather increases the strength 
 to resist a cross strain. Therefore the pressure, or the 
 weight supported by the tie-beam, will be proportional 
 to the length of the longest part of it that is unsup- 
 ported. But there are two cases — one where the weight 
 is merely the weight of the ceiling ; the other where 
 there are rooms in the roof, in which case the scantling 
 of the tie-beam must be that of a girder or binder of 
 the same span (99). 
 
 In estimating the strength of Principal Eafters, 
 we may suppose them to be supported by struts, either 
 at or very near all the points which the purlins rest 
 upon. The pressure on a principal rafter is in the 
 direction of its length, and is in proportion to the 
 magnitude of the roof ; but the effect of this pressure 
 does not bear the same proportion to the weight when 
 there is a king-post, as when there are queen-posts. 
 
 A Stuaining Beam is the horizontal piece between 
 the heads of the queen-posts, and the pressure is in the 
 direction of its length, and is the same as that sustained 
 by the rafters. In order that this beam may be 
 the strongest possible, its depth should be to its thick- 
 ness as 10 is to 7. 
 
 That part of a roof which is supported by a Strut or 
 Brace is easily ascertained from the design, but the 
 effect of the load must depend on the position of the 
 brace. When it is square from the back of the rafter, 
 
166 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 the strain upon it will be the least ; and when it has 
 the same inclination as the roof, the same strain will 
 be thrown on the lower part of the principal rafter as 
 is borne by the strut. If a piece intended for a brace, 
 a principal rafter, or a straining beam, be curved, the 
 convex side should be placed upwards. 
 
 The stress upon 2^^^^^^^^^ is proportional to the dis- 
 tance they are apart ; and the weight being uniformly 
 diffused, the stiffness is reciprocally as the cube of the 
 length, and the scantling may be found by the rules for 
 binders (99). 
 
 Purlins should always be notched down upon the 
 principal rafters, and should be put on in as long 
 lengths as they can be conveniently got, as the strength 
 is nearly doubled by this means. The old method of 
 framing the purlins into the principal rafters, not only 
 renders the purlins weaker, but also wounds the j)rin- 
 cipal rafter, and consequently renders it necessary to 
 make the rafters stronger. 
 
 There is no part of a roof so liable to fail as the 
 purlins ; indeed there are few cases where they have 
 not sunk considerably ; and in some instances so much 
 as to deform the external appearance of the roof. 
 Weak purlins might be much strengthened by bracing 
 them — a practice which was once very common among 
 the builders in this country. Blocks should be spiked 
 to the upper face of the rafter, against which the side of 
 the purlin can rest so as to be prevented from twisting. 
 
 Common Rafters are uniformly loaded, and the 
 breadth need not be more than from 2 inches to 2J 
 inches. The strength may be ascertained from the 
 rules for the stiffness of beams, as in the case of single- 
 jointed floors (98). 
 
 Foreign fir of straight grain makes the best common 
 rafters and purlins, because it is not so subject to warp 
 
ROOFS. 
 
 167 
 
 and twist witli the heat of roofs m summer as oak ; 
 much, however, depends on the quality of the timber ; 
 oak from old trees often stands very well. 
 
 No general rules can be given for the scantlings of 
 the timbers of framed roofs, but they must be calculated 
 in each particular case by the method previously 
 explained (79, 80). The following tables give the 
 scantlings obtained by that method in roofs of various 
 spans having a pitch of about 30"^ : — 
 
 Scantlings of Fie, Timbers foe. King-post Roofs. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Tie-beam. 
 
 King- 
 post. 
 
 Principal 
 rafter. 
 
 Struts. 
 
 Purlins. 
 
 Common 
 rafters. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 1 20 
 24 
 
 i 28 
 30 
 
 Ins. 
 7X3 
 8X 3J 
 9X4i 
 9X5 
 
 Ins. 
 2iX 3 
 3JX 3 
 
 5 X3 
 
 Ins. 
 
 4^X 3 
 
 HxH 
 H X 44 
 
 5X0 
 
 Ins. 
 
 3^X3 
 3^X31 
 4iX 3 
 5X3 
 
 Ins. 
 7X3 
 8 X 3 
 9X4 
 9X5 
 
 Ins. 
 
 31 X 2 
 4iX2 
 5 X2i 
 51x24 
 
 The scantlings of the common rafters here given are 
 on the supposition that there is only one purlin on the 
 centre of the principal rafter ; but if there are more 
 purlins the scantling of the common rafters can be 
 reduced. If there is no ceiling to be carried by the 
 tie-beam, its depth may be reduced to one-half that 
 given in the tables. 
 
 Scantlings of Fir Timbers for Queen-post Roofs. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Tie-beam. 
 
 Q,ueen- 
 post. 
 
 Principal 
 rafter. 
 
 Straining- 
 beam. 
 
 Struts. 
 
 Pur- 
 lins. 
 
 Common 
 rafters. 
 
 Pt. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Ins, 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 32 
 
 7X4 
 
 4 X 3 
 
 44 X 4 
 
 6X4 
 
 4x3 
 
 7 X 3 
 
 31 X 2 
 
 36 
 
 8 X 41 
 
 H X 3 
 
 5 X 44 
 
 7 X 41 
 
 41 X 3 
 
 8 X 3 
 
 4"^ X 2 
 
 40 
 
 9x5 
 
 5 X 34 
 
 54 X 5 
 
 8 X 5 
 
 5^ X 4 
 
 9 X 4 
 
 44 X 2 
 
 45 
 
 9 X 54 
 
 54 X 4 
 
 6 X 54 
 
 9 X 54 
 
 54 X 44 
 
 9X5 
 
 5 X24 
 
 50 
 
 11 X 6 
 
 6X5 
 
 7 X 6 
 
 10 X 6 
 
 6 X5 
 
 9X6 
 
 54x24 
 
. ' \ CAKPENTRY, 
 
 These \goantlings for common rafters are given on 
 the supposition that there are only two intermediate 
 gUfifiis on each side of the roof, at equal distances 
 -apart ; if there are more purlins, the scantlings of the 
 common rafters can be reduced. 
 
 The strength of common rafters, whether attached to 
 a truss or used alone and merely fixed at top and 
 bottom, should be about one-half that given for the 
 bridging joists of a floor, varying with the length of 
 bearing without intermediate support ; if a very heavy 
 covering has to be borne, the strength must be propor- 
 tionately increased, but as the pressure of the wind is 
 the chief load to be sustained, the kind of covering 
 makes but little difference in the strain. 
 
 109. A Dome or Cupola is a roof, the base of which 
 is a circle, an ellipsis, or a polygon ; and its vertical 
 section a curved line, concave towards the interior. 
 Hence, domes are called circular, elliptical, or poly- 
 gonal, according to the figure of the base. The most 
 usual form for a dome is the spherical, in which case its 
 plan is a circle, the section a segment of a circle. The 
 top of a large dome is often finished with a lantern^ 
 which is supported by the framing of the dome. 
 
 The interior and exterior forms of a dome are not 
 often alike, and in the space between, a staircase to the 
 lantern is generally made. According to the space left 
 between the external and internal domes, the framing 
 must be designed. Sometimes the framing may be 
 trussed with ties across the opening ; but often the 
 interior dome rises so high that ties cannot be in- 
 serted. 
 
 Accordingly, the construction of domes may be 
 divided into two cases, viz., domes with horizontal ties, 
 and those not having such ties. 
 
 A truss for a dome where horizontal ties can be 
 
ROOFS. 
 
 inserted is shown by Fig. 1, Plate VII.* In' 
 AA is the tie ; BB posts, which may be con 
 form the lantern; 0, 0 are continued curbs i 
 thicknesses, with the joints crossed and bolted together 
 DD, a curved rib to support the rafters. This design 
 is calculated for a span of about 60 feet, and may be 
 extended to 120 feet. Two principal trusses may be 
 placed across the opening, parallel to each other, and at 
 a distance equal to the diameter of the lantern apart, as 
 AB, CD, Fig. 2,t with a sufficient number of half- 
 fcrusses to reduce the bearing of the rafters to a conve- 
 nient length. Or, the two principal trusses may cross 
 each other at right angles in the centre of the dome, 
 the one being placed so much higher than the other as 
 to prevent the ties interfering. This disposition is 
 represented in Fig. 3 ; and is the same that is adopted 
 for the Dome des Invalids, at Paris, of which the 
 external diameter is nearly 90 English feet. 
 
 The construction of domes without horizontal cross- 
 ties is not difficult, where there is sufficient tie round 
 the base. The most simple method, and one which is 
 particularly useful in small domes, is to place a series 
 of curved ribs so that the lower ends of those ribs stand 
 upon the curb at the base, and the upper ends meet at 
 the top, with diagonal struts between the ribs. 
 
 When the pieces are so long, and so much curved 
 that they cannot be cut out of timber without being cut 
 across the grain so much as to w^eaken them, they 
 should be put together in thicknesses, with the joints 
 crossed and well nailed together ; or, in very large 
 domes, they should be bolted or keyed together. The 
 manner of forming these ribs has been already described 
 as applied to roofs (105). This method of making 
 curved ribs in thicknesses has been used in the con- 
 
 * See Atlas. 
 
 I 
 
 t Ibid. 
 
170 
 
 CARPENTEY. 
 
 struction of centres for arches from the earliest period 
 of arch building ; and it was first applied to the con- 
 struction of domes by Philibert de Lorme, who gives 
 the follo\ying scantlings for different sized domes : — 
 
 For domes of 2-4 feet diameter, 8 inclies by 1 inch. 
 
 5? )> J> JJ 1^ » if 
 
 5> 5> 60 )> )> 13 )> 2 „ 
 5, „ 108 J, 13 „ 3 „ 
 
 These ribs are formed of two thicknesses, of the 
 scantlings given above, and are placed about two feet 
 ^Dart at the base. The rafters are notched upon them 
 for receiving the boarding, and also horizontal ribs are 
 notched on the inside, which gives a great degree of 
 stiffness to the whole. Fig. 4* is a section of a dome 
 constructed in this manner ; and Fig. Sf a projection 
 of a part of the dome, with the rafters and inside ribs. 
 
 If the dome be of considerable magnitude, the curve 
 of equilibrium should pass through the middle of the 
 depth of the ribs, particularly if a heavy lantern rests 
 upon them. Otherwise the curve must fall within the 
 curve of equilibrium, and struts must be placed between 
 the ribs, to prevent them bending in. Or, if it be 
 necessary for the external appearance of the dome that 
 the curvature of the ribs should be without the curve of 
 equilibrium, then an iron hoop may be put round about 
 one-fourth of the height to prevent the dome bursting 
 outwards. This latter method was adopted in the 
 external dome of the Church della Salute, at Venice, the 
 outside dimensions of which are 80 feet diameter, 
 40-5 feet high, and the lantern 39 -5 feet high ; but the 
 lantern is supported by a brick dome, which is con- 
 siderably below the wooden one. The ribs of this dome 
 are ninety-six in number, and each rib is in four thick- 
 
 * See Atlas, Plate YII. 
 
 t Ibid. 
 
ROOFS. 
 
 171 
 
 nesses ; the four together making 5*5 inches, so that each 
 rib is 8*5 inches by 5'5 inches. The iron hoop is 4*5 
 inches wide, and half an inch in thickness, and is 
 placed at one- third of the heighi of the dome. 
 
 When a dome is intended to support a heavy lantern, 
 it may require the principal ribs to be stronger than 
 can be obtained out of a piece of timber ; but the 
 framing may always be made sufficiently strong by 
 using two ribs, with braces between, and tied together 
 with radial pieces across from rib to rib. A truss of 
 this form is shown by Fig. 6, which would sustain a 
 very heavy lantern, if the curve of equilibrium were to 
 pass in the middle between the ribs, as 
 the dotted line does in the figure. 
 
 Where a light dome is wanted, with- 
 out occupying much space, the ribs may 
 be placed so near to each other that the 
 boards may be fixed to them without 
 rafters, or short struts may be put be- 
 tween the ribs, as shown by Fig. 7. 
 
 110. Conical Eoofs and Spires are 
 framed in a somewhat similar manner to 
 cupolas, a curb being securely fixed on 
 the top of the wall from which the spire 
 is to spring, and into this are framed the 
 main ribs following the slope of the 
 spire ; if it is octagonal on plan, there are 
 eight main ribs, one at each angle ; these 
 ribs are all framed at their upper ends 
 into a vertical mast, which goes down the 
 centre of the structure, and is secured 
 by horizontal ties at the base, which are 
 framed into the curb ; horizontal ribs or 
 purlins are introduced at several places up the spire, 
 according to the height, and framed into the sides of 
 
 I 2 
 
172 
 
 CAHPENTRY. 
 
 the mam ribs (Fig. 40). In very lofty spires there will 
 also be cross strutting, to prevent the framework from 
 bending by the force of the wind. Intermediate ribs 
 or rafters are framed into the purlins, and on these the 
 boarding is nailed to receive the covering. When pro- 
 perly framed, and of well-seasoned timber, these spires 
 will last for centuries. 
 
 Numerous examples of ancient wooden sj)ires, or 
 flechesj are to be found on the Continent, especially in 
 Germany. In England the most remarkable is that of 
 Chesterfield Church, which is covered with lead, and 
 has become warped and twisted by the action of the 
 sun, which is more powerful on the south than on the 
 other sides. In modern times several timber spires 
 have been built, as that of All Saints' Church, 
 Margaret Street, London, which stands on a brick 
 tower, and the top is 220 feet from the ground. 
 
 Section III, — The Construction of Partitions and 
 Frame Houses, 
 
 111. Partitioxs, in carpentry, are frames of timber 
 for dividing the internal parts of a house into rooms ; 
 they are usually lathed and plastered, and sometimes 
 the spaces between the timbers are filled with brick- 
 work, which is termed brick-nogging. 
 
 In modern carpentry there is no part of a building 
 so much neglected as the partitions. A square of 
 partitioning is of considerable weight, seldom less than 
 half a ton, and often much more ; therefore a parti- 
 tion should have an adequate support : instead of which 
 it is often sufiered to rest on the floor, which, of 
 course, settles under a weight it was never intended 
 to bear, and the partition breaks from the ceiling 
 above. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF PARTITIONS AND FRAME HOUSES. 173 
 
 If it be necessary to support a partition by means of 
 tbe floors or roof, it should rather be strapped to the 
 floor or roof above it, than be suffered to bear upon the 
 floor below ; because in that case the cracks along the 
 cornice Avould be avoided ; and in such cases the 
 timbers of the floor or roof must be made stronger. 
 A partition ought, however, to be capable of support- 
 ing its own weight ; for even when doorways are so 
 placed that a truss cannot be got the whole depth, it 
 is almost always possible to truss over the heads of the 
 doors. 
 
 Partitions that have a solid bearing throughout their 
 length do not require any braces ; indeed they are 
 better without them, as it is easy to stiffen them by 
 means of struts between the uprights, and thus the 
 shrinking and cross strains occasioned by braces are 
 avoided. When braces are introduced in a partition 
 they should be disposed so as to throw the weight upon 
 points which are sufficiently supported below, other- 
 wise they do more harm than good. 
 
 But though it be often practicable to give a parti- 
 tion a solid bearing throughout, it is better not to do 
 so, because all walls settle ; therefore the partition 
 should always be supported only by the w^alls it is con- 
 nected with, in order that it may settle with them. If 
 the partition have a solid bearing, and the walls settle, 
 fractures must necessarily take place. 
 
 Also, when a partition is supported at one end by 
 the wall of a high part of the building, and by the 
 wall of a lower part at the other end, it will always 
 crack, either close by the walls, or diagonally across. 
 
 In a trussed partition the truss should have good 
 supports, either at the ends or other convenient places, 
 and the framing should be designed accordingly ; that 
 is, so that the weight may not act on any other points 
 
174 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 than those originally intended to bear it. The best 
 points of support are the walls to which the plastering 
 of the partition joins. 
 
 Partitions are made of different thicknesses, according 
 to the extent of bearing ; for common purposes, where 
 the bearing does not exceed 20 feet, 4 inches is suffi- 
 cient ; or generally the principal timbers may be 
 made of the following scantlings : — 
 
 4 inches by 3 inches for a bearing not exceeding 26 feet. 
 
 5 )) 3J 30 
 
 ^ }) ^ 9) >J »5 ^0 J> 
 
 And partitions should be filled in with as thin stuff 
 as possible, provided it be sufficient to nail the laths to. 
 Two inches is quite a sufficient thickness. When these 
 fiUing-in pieces are in long lengths — that is, when they 
 exceed 3 or 4 feet — they should be stiffened by short 
 struts between them; or, which is much better, w^e 
 may notch a continued rail across the uprights, nailing 
 it to each. 
 
 The thicknesses above-mentioned apply only to par- 
 titions that have no other than their own weight to 
 bear. When a floor is to be supported by a partition, 
 it must be prepared for that purpose. It would, how- 
 ever, be impossible to give any rules for such partitions, 
 as the design must be varied according to circum- 
 stances, which differ so materially in almost every case 
 as to render particular rules useless. 
 
 When partitions of considerable strength are required, 
 another simple method of constructing them may be 
 employed with advantage, particularly where it is 
 desirable to prevent the passage of sound. 
 
 Let the truss be formed of such strong timbers as 
 may be necessary, nearly as in the usual method ; but 
 instead of filling in the pieces for nailing the laths to 
 betw^^ii the timbers, let them be nailed, in the manner 
 
COiNSTRUCTION OF PAUTITIONS AND FRAME HOUSES. 175 
 
 of battens, upon eacli side of the truss. A partition 
 done in this manner occupies a little more space, but to 
 compensate for this, it has the advantage of strength 
 and lightness, besides preventing the passage of sound 
 better than the common mode of construction. 
 
 The following data will assist in forming an estimate 
 of the pressure on the framing of partitions : — 
 
 The weiglit of a square of] 
 
 partitioning may be taken > from 1,480 pounds to 2,000 pounds per 
 at ) square. 
 
 The weight of a square of] 
 
 single-joisted flooring, with- > 1,260 2,000 
 out counter-flooring . . ) 
 
 The weight of a square of] 
 framed flooring, with coun- [• 2,500 „ 4,000 
 ter-flooring . . . ) 
 
 As great nicety is not required in calculating the 
 scantlings, the highest numbers may be taken for long 
 bearings, and the lowest for short ones ; as the one 
 gives the weight in large mansions, the other that in 
 ordinary houses. 
 
 The shrinkage of timbers, and still more often im- 
 perfect joints, cause considerable settlements to take place 
 in partitions, and consequently cracks in the plastering ; 
 therefore it is essential that the timber should be well 
 seasoned, and also that the work should be well framed, 
 as a slight degree of settlement in a partition is attended 
 with worse consequences than those produced by a like 
 degree of settlement in any other piece of framing. 
 
 Fig. 1* shows a design for a trussed partition with a 
 doorway in the middle ; the tie or sill is intended to 
 pass between the joisting under the flooring boards. 
 The strongest positions for the inclined pieces of the 
 truss is shown by the figure, as the truss would have 
 been much weaker with the same quantity of materials, 
 * See Atlas, Plate YIII. 
 
176 
 
 CAEPENTRY. 
 
 if they had been placed in the position shown by the 
 dotted lines. The inclination of the trussing pieces 
 should never greatly differ from an angle of 40 degrees 
 with the horizon. The horizontal pieces, a a, are in- 
 tended to be notched into the uprights, and nailed : in 
 partitions for principal rooms, one on each side might 
 be used. 
 
 When a doorway is near to the side of a room, 
 which is often necessary, in order to render the room 
 either convenient or comfortable, the partition should be 
 trussed over the top of the door, as shown in Fig. 2. 
 The posts, A, B, should be strapped to the truss, and 
 braces may be put in the lower part of the truss in the 
 common way ; but it would be better to halve those 
 braces into the uprights, which would bind the whole 
 together. 
 
 In order to save straps, the posts. A, B, are often 
 halved into the tie CD ; in that case, the tie should be 
 a little deeper; and as the tie may be always made 
 strong enough to admit of halving, perhaps this is the 
 l)est method. 
 
 112. Frame Houses are rectangular structures formed 
 entirely of timber framing, very much on the same 
 principle as quarter partitions, except that they have to 
 carry the weight of the roof, while their own weight 
 is borne by the ground on which they are placed. 
 These houses are made so that they can be readily taken 
 to pieces and removed to another locality, and the mode 
 of framing is arranged especially with this in view. 
 The framing consists of four strong upright posts, which 
 form the angles of the structures, and are framed into 
 horizontal heads and sills ; the heads are further 
 strengthened by intermediate uprights on each side; 
 these help to support the rafters of the roof, which are 
 notched and spiked on the heads as upon a w^all-plate. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF PARTITIONS AND FRAME HOUSES. 177 
 
 Intermediate horizontal rails are framed into the up- 
 rights to prevent bending, and the spaces are filled 
 with quartering, as in a framed partition. The walls 
 are usually covered on the outside with weather- 
 boarding, and on the inside with lath and plaster or 
 matched-boarding. The roof is formed in the usual 
 manner with rafters and collars or tie-beams, and 
 covered with weather-boarding, slate, or zinc. The 
 sills should not be allowed to rest on the earth, but 
 upon a few courses of bricks or stones, so as to prevent 
 them from rotting. The internal divisions are made 
 by means of ordinary quarter partitions. 
 
 The ancient timber houses found in some parts of 
 England and the Continent are constructed in a some- 
 what similar manner, but with very strong timbers, as 
 they consist of several stories of rooms. The upper 
 stories generally overhang the lower ones, the framing 
 being corbelled out by means of the joists or girders of 
 the floor, which are carried the required distance 
 beyond the wall of the lower storey, and on these the 
 sill of the framing for the upper storey is laid. The 
 main timbers were usually left exposed on the outside, 
 and the spaces between filled with lath and plaster upon 
 intermediate quarterings. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 CE^s^TERINGS, BRIDGES, JOINTS, SCAEFINGS, SHORING, &C. 
 
 Section L — Centerings. 
 
 113. A Centre is a timber frame, or set of frames, 
 for supporting the arch-stones of a bridge during the 
 construction of the arch. The qualities of a good centre 
 consists in its being a sufficient support for the weight 
 or pressure of the arch- stones, without any sensible 
 change of form throughout the whole progress of the 
 work, from the springing of the arch to the fixing of 
 the key-stone. It should be capable of being easily 
 and safely removed, and designed so that it may be 
 erected at a comparatively small expense. 
 
 In navigable rivers, where a certain space must be 
 left for the passage of vessels, and in deep and rapid 
 rivers, where it is difficult to establish intermediate 
 supports, and where much is to be apprehended from 
 sudden floods, the frames should span the whole width 
 of the archway, or be framed so as to leave a consider- 
 able portion of the archway unoccupied. In such cases 
 a considerable degree of art is required to make the 
 centre an efiectual support for the arch- stones, particu- 
 larly when the arch is large. But in narrow rivers, 
 and in those where the above-mentioned inconveniences 
 do not interfere with the work, the framing may be 
 constructed upon horizontal tie-beams, supported in 
 
CE^sTERINGS. 
 
 179 
 
 several places by piles, or frames fixed in the bed of the 
 river ; and the construction is comparatively easy. 
 
 In large arches, when the arch-stones are laid to a 
 considerable height, they often force the centre out of 
 form, by causing it to rise at the crown; and it is 
 sometimes necessary to load the centre at the crown to 
 prevent such rising ; but this is a very imperfect 
 remedy. 
 
 Centres are composed of several separate vertical 
 frames or trusses, connected together by horizontal 
 ties, and stiffened by braces. When the frames have 
 to span the whole width of the archway, the offsets of 
 the stonework afford a most substantial abutment for 
 the support of the centre. The frames or trusses of 
 centres are generally placed from four to six feet apart, 
 according to their strength, and the pressure they have 
 to support. In general there is one frame under each 
 of the external rings of arch-stones, and the space be- 
 tween is equally divided by the intermediate frames. 
 
 A bridge of three arches will require two centres, 
 one of five arches requires three centres, &c. 
 
 Before proceeding to investigate the disposition and 
 stiffness of centres, the point must be determined 
 at which the arch-stones first begin to press upon the 
 centre ; and also the pressure upon it at different 
 periods of the formation of the arch. It has been 
 found by exj)eriment, that a stone placed upon an in- 
 clined plane does not begin to slide till that plane has 
 an inclination of about 30 degrees from the horizontal 
 plane ; and till a stone would slide upon its joint, or 
 bed, it is obvious that it would not press upon the 
 centre. Also, when a hard stone is laid with a bed of 
 mortar it will not slide till the angle becomes from 34 
 to 36 degrees. A soft stone bedded in mortar will 
 stand when the angle which the joint makes with the 
 
180 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 horizon is 45 degrees, if it absorb water quickly ; 
 because in that case the mortar becomes partially set. 
 Similar results have been obtained by other experimen- 
 talists ; therefore we may consider the pressure in 
 general to commence at the joint which makes an angle 
 of about 32 degrees with the horizon. 
 
 This angle is called the angle of repose, and if we 
 suppose the pressure to be represented by the radius, 
 the tangent of this angle will represent the friction ; 
 hence, considering the pressure as unity, the friction 
 will be 0-625. 
 
 The next course above the angle of repose will press 
 upon the centre, but only in a small degree ; and the 
 pressure will increase with each succeeding course. 
 The relation between the weight of an arch-stone, and 
 its pressure upon the centre, in a direction perpen- 
 dicular to the curve of the centre, may be determined 
 from the following equation : W (sin. a — /cos a) =P. 
 
 Where W is the weight of the arch-stone, P = the 
 pressure upon the centre, /= the friction, and a= the 
 angle which the plane of the lower joint of the arch- 
 stone makes with the horizon. 
 
 When the angle ^^hich the joint \ 3, (j.^,,.., P - -04 W 
 
 P = -08 W 
 P = '12W 
 P = -17W 
 P = -21W 
 P = -25 W 
 P = -29 W 
 Prr'33W 
 P = -37W 
 P = -40 W 
 P = -41 W 
 P = -48 W 
 P z= 02 W 
 P = -54 W 
 
 But when the plane of the joint becomes so much 
 inclined that a vertical line passing through the centre 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 « > 
 
 
 38 
 
 
 > » 
 
 40 
 
 >> > 
 
 > >> 
 
 42 
 
 
 > it 
 
 44 
 
 » » 
 
 f » 
 
 46 
 
 
 » » 
 
 48 
 
 » > 
 
 
 50 
 
 '** > 
 
 > » 
 
 52 
 
 » ? 
 
 
 54 
 
 )J 5 
 
 > 5> 
 
 56 
 
 ?> 5 
 
 > 5> 
 
 53 
 
 >> > 
 
 > 
 
 CO 
 
CENTEBINGS. 
 
 181 
 
 of gravity of tlie arch-stone does not fall within the 
 lower bed of the stone, the whole weight of the arch- 
 stone may be considered as resting upon the centre, with- 
 out material error. We have thus an easy method of 
 estimating the weight upon a centre, at any period of 
 the construction, or when any portion of the arch-stone 
 is laid, as well as when the whole weight it has to sus- 
 tain is upon it. 
 
 It is evident from an inspection of the table, that 
 the pressure increases very slowly till the joint begins 
 to make a considerable angle with the horizon ; and it 
 is of importance to bear this in mind in designing 
 centres, because the strength should be directed to the 
 parts where the strain is greatest. For instance, at 
 the point where the joint makes an angle of 44 degrees 
 with the horizon, the arch-stone only exerts a pressure 
 of one-fourth of its weight upon the centre ; where 
 the angle of the joint is 58 degrees, the pressure 
 exceeds half the weight ; but near to the crown the 
 stones rest wholly upon the centre. Now it would be 
 absurd to make the centre equally strong at each of 
 these points; besides, by such a method there would 
 not be the means of applying the strength where it is 
 really required, without interfering with ties and braces, 
 which are only an incumbrance to the framing. 
 
 When the depth of the arch-stone is nearly double 
 its thickness, the whole of its weight may be considered 
 to rest upon the centre at the joint which makes an 
 angle of about 60 degrees with the horizon. If the 
 length be less than twice the thickness, it may be con- 
 sidered to rest wholly upon the centre when the angle 
 is below 60 degrees ; and if the length exceed twice the 
 thickness, the angle will be considerably above 60 degrees 
 before the whole weight will press upon the centre. 
 
 When the arch-stones are small, the pressure upon 
 
182 
 
 CARPE^'TRY. 
 
 the centre is greater tlian when tliey are large ; and 
 as an arch-stone will seldom be smaller than would 
 extend one degree of the arch, the pressure in that 
 case may be assumed as sufficiently accurate : the error 
 being always in excess till the arch-stones are less 
 than one degree each. 
 
 114. The Design of Frames eor Centres.— 
 There are two things which require particular atten- 
 tion ; the centre should be sufficiently strong to sup- 
 port any part, or the whole of the pressure ; and it 
 should be capable of supporting any part without a 
 sensible change of form. To accomplish, the first ob- 
 ject, the strains must not act very obliquely upon the 
 supporting pieces ; and the magnitude of the parts 
 must be proportional to the strain upon them. The 
 second object will be obtained by disposing the parts so 
 that the stress may prevent any part rising, instead of 
 causing it to rise, as is too commonly the case in centres. 
 
 Centering for arches of small span is easily managed ; 
 and when it is possible to obtain intermediate supports 
 at a comparatively small expense, even large centres 
 are not difficult. The centering of Conon Bridge, of 
 which the span is 65 feet, and rise 21 '8 feet, is a good 
 example of this kind of construction. See Atlas, Fig. 1, 
 Plate IX. 
 
 Smeaton designed the centre. Fig. 3, Plate VIIL 
 (Atlas), for Coldstream Bridge, which was of stone, 
 25 feet wide from outside to outside ; the centering con- 
 sisted of five frames, or ribs, framed in the manner 
 represented in Fig. 3. The span of the centre arch 
 was 60 feet 8 inches, and the dimensions of the prin- 
 cipal timbers are figured upon the design. 
 
 But where intermediate supports cannot be obtained, 
 centres require to be constructed with more care ; more 
 attention is also necessary in forming the design. It 
 
CENTERINGS. 
 
 183 
 
 is obvious that laying a load upon the haunches must 
 have a tendency to raise the centre at the crown, unless 
 the frame be so contrived that it cannot rise there 
 under the effect of any force that it may have to sus- 
 tain at the haunches. This principle has not been 
 properly understood by some engineers, and some of 
 their centres have, in conseq[uence, undergone a change 
 of form with every course of stones that was laid upon 
 them. We cannot perhaps show better the importance 
 of the principle of preventing any change of form by 
 the disposition of the framing, than by pointing out the 
 defects of the centre designed by Perronet for the 
 Bridge of Neuilly, and comparing it with some others 
 that have been employed. Fig. 2, Plate IX. (Atlas), 
 represents the centre of the Bridge at Neuilly. It is 
 obvious that such a centre, loaded at A and B, must 
 rise at C ; and the timbers being nearly parallel, the 
 strains produced by a weight resting on any point 
 must have been prodigious ; consequently, the yielding 
 at the joints was very considerable. It is a kind of 
 framing well enough adapted to support an equilibrated 
 load, distributed over its whole length ; but is one of 
 the worst that can be adopted for a centre, or for sup- 
 porting any variable load. It must have consumed an 
 immense quantity of timber without possessing the 
 advantage of connection. The quantity is crowded 
 into so small a space that it has a light appearance, 
 and consequently has obtained the approbation of those 
 who are incapable of penetrating further than the 
 apparent surface of the things they pretend to examine. 
 The centres for the bridges of Nogent, Cravant, St. 
 Maxence, and Nemours, were designed on similar 
 principles, and were found to be equally defective. 
 
 Fig. 3 represents the centre of Waterloo Bridge. 
 In this centre, by a better disposition of its timbers, a 
 
184 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 load at A could not cause the centre to rise at C, without 
 reducing the length of the beam DE, and the one 
 opposite to it. There is an excess of strength in some 
 of its parts, and it is complicated in the extreme ; but 
 on the whole it is a very judicious combination. The 
 centre of the late Blackfriars Bridge appears to have 
 been taken as the ground- work ; and there are some 
 improvements, both in form and construction, which 
 do much credit to the able engineer who made them. 
 
 Let the line ACA', Fig. 1, Plate X., represent the 
 curve of an arch ; and let us suppose the arch-stones to 
 begin to press upon the centre at B, B', where the 
 joints make an angle of 32 degrees with the horizontal 
 plane; and that the laying of the arch-stones proceeds 
 alike on each side. Now if two trussed frames, EDH, 
 E'D'H, abut against each other at C, the point C 
 cannot rise in a sensible degree from the pressures at 
 D, D', and much additional security may be obtained 
 by adding the piece FF', with the pieces FI, F'l'. 
 
 The framing of this centre commences on each side, 
 nearly at the point where the arch-stones first begin to 
 press upon the centre ; the curved rib must be strong 
 enough to bear the parts between BD and DC, but the 
 bearings may be shortened by making the abutting 
 blocks at D, D' longer. The beams EC, E'C will act 
 as ties till the arch-stones are laid beyond the points 
 D, ; they will then begin to act as struts, and will 
 continue to act as struts after that, till the whole is laid. 
 
 This disposition cannot be employed where the span 
 is large, because it then requires very long pieces of 
 timber ; and the points of support for the curved rib 
 become too far apart to be supported by timbers of the 
 usual dimensions. 
 
 Let the built beams EF, FF', and F'E^ Fig. 85, 
 Plate X., be each trussed, and abut against each 
 
CENTERINGS. 
 
 185 
 
 other at F and ; then it is obvious, that when the 
 loads press equally at D, J)\ they will have no ten- 
 dency to raise the beam FF' in the middle, unless it be 
 not sufficiently strong to resist the pressure in the 
 direction of its length ; and as it is easy to give it 
 any degree of strength that may be required, a centre 
 of this form may, with a little variation in the trusses, 
 be applied with advantage to any span which will 
 admit of a stone bridge. When timber is not to be 
 had of sufficient length, the beams EF, FF', and F'E', 
 may be built in the manner directed for building beams. 
 
 In the new London Bridge the arches are of very 
 considerable span, the centre one being 150 feet, with 
 a rise of only 29*5 feet ; but by supporting the centre 
 from the bed of the river, the skill required to span a 
 large opening was avoided. The ribs consisted of 
 trussed frames, and were supported by well-driven 
 piles, so as to leave the central part of the arch open 
 for the navigation. 
 
 115. Construction of Centres. — The principal 
 beams of a centre should always abut end to end when 
 it is possible. It is a very good method, where timbers 
 meet at an angle, to let them abut into a socket of cast 
 iron, as has been done in the centre of Waterloo Bridge. 
 (See Fig. 3, Plate IX. Atlas.) The timbers should in- 
 tersect one another as little as possible, as every joining 
 causes some degree of settlement, and halving the tim- 
 bers together always destroys nearly half their strength. 
 The pieces which tend towards the centre, and which 
 perform a similar office to the king-post of a roof, should 
 be notched upon the framing ; and they should be in 
 pairs, that is, one on each side of the frame, and well 
 bolted together. Most of the braces may also be applied 
 in the same manner with much advantage. Ties should 
 be continued across the frames in different parts, par- 
 
186 
 
 CARPEISTRY. 
 
 ticularly at any point where many timbers meet.; and 
 diagonal braces across the frames are also necessary, to 
 secure them from lateral motion. 
 
 The frames or principal supports of a centre should 
 be placed upon double wedges, or sometimes they may 
 be placed upon blocks with wedge-formed steps cut in 
 them ; and when the centre is to be eased, the wedges, 
 or wedge-formed pieces, are driven back so far as to 
 suffer the centre to descend regularly. This operation 
 should be very leisurely performed, in order that the 
 arch, in taking its proper bearing, may not acquire any 
 sensible degree of velocity, as it would be a dangerous 
 experiment to let it settle too rapidly. 
 
 The centre should always be eased a little, as soon as 
 the arch is completed, in order that the arch-stones 
 may take their proper bearings before the mortar 
 becomes hard. If the mortar be suffered to dry before 
 the centre be lowered, the arch will break at the joints 
 in settling, and the connection of the arch will be 
 destroyed. 
 
 In small centres the wedges are driven back with 
 mauls, men being stationed at each pair of wedges for 
 that purpose. But in larger Avorks a beam is mounted, 
 as a battering ram, to drive the wedge- formed blocks 
 back. Before driving back the wedges, it is a good 
 precaution to mark them, so that it may be easy to 
 ascertain when they are regularly driven. 
 
 The centres of the late Blackfriars Bridge and of 
 Waterloo Bridge were placed upon blocks, with wedge- 
 formed steps cut in them, as is shown in Fig. 3, Plate IX. 
 Another method consists in forming the steps on beams 
 that reach across the whole width of the bridge, passing 
 between the feet of the trussed frames and the posts 
 that support them. In Fig. 1, Plate X., the centres are 
 supposed to be done in this manner. The frames being 
 
CENTERINGS. 
 
 187 
 
 thus placed upon continued wedges, the centre may be 
 struck without its being necessary to have workmen 
 beneath : it is therefore less dangerous, and can be 
 done with a less number of men. 
 
 In the erection of the Chester Bridge, finished in 
 1832, an entirely different principle was adopted in the 
 construction and the mode of relieving the centre. 
 This arch is the segment of a circle of 140 feet radius ; 
 the span is 200 feet, and the rise 42 feet. The centre 
 consisted of six ribs in width, and the span of the arch 
 was divided into four spaces, by means of three nearly 
 equidistant piers of stone built in the river, from which 
 timbers spread like a fan towards the soffit, so as to 
 take their load endwise. The lower extremity of these 
 radiating beams rested on cast-iron shoe-plates on the 
 tops of the piers, and their upper ends were bound 
 together by two thicknesses of 4-inch planking, bend- 
 ing round as nearly as they could be made in the true 
 curve of the arch. On the rim thus formed, the 
 lodging or covering, which was 4J inches thick, was 
 supported over each rib by a pair of folding wedges 
 15 or 16 inches long by 10 or 12 inches in breadth, 
 and tapering about IJ inch : for every course of arch- 
 stones in the bridge, therefore, there were six pairs of 
 striking wedges. The horizontal timber in the centre 
 was only 13 inches deep, and the six ribs were tied 
 together transversely near the top by bolts of inch iron 
 which passed through. 
 
 This centre thus differs essentially from any other 
 hitherto employed ; each rib, instead of forming one 
 connected piece of frame-work, consists here of four 
 independent parts, and little or no transverse strain 
 has to be resisted. Moreover, as the wedges are in 
 this construction borne by the centre, instead of the 
 centre being borne by them, it is obvious that the 
 
CAKPENTRY. 
 
 bearings may thus be gradually relieved or tigbtened 
 at one place and slackened at another, according to the 
 symptoms shown by the arch, as its support is remoyed, 
 and the stone-work comes to its bearing. (For further 
 information relative to this erection, see Vol. i. Trans. 
 Inst. Civ. Eng. p. 207.) 
 
 116. Computing the Strength of Centres. — It 
 fortunately happens that simple designs are best cal- 
 culated for centres ; for it would be very difficult to 
 form anything like an accurate estimate of the strength 
 of a complicated one. We will here show some ap- 
 proximate methods of fixing upon the proper scantlings 
 for the timbers for the designs which have been given ; 
 and add to one of them some examples in numbers, 
 which will serve to illustrate the subject. 
 
 In the centre. Fig. 1, Plate X., the stress may be 
 considered, in as far as it tends to strain the frame 
 EDH ; also the stress upon the pieces EH, H'E', when 
 the whole load is upon them ; and, lastly, the strain 
 upon the posts GK, Q'K\ 
 
 First, let the pressure of the arch-stones between 
 B and C be calculated. Consider half this weight as 
 collected at D, and acting in the direction DF, which 
 will be sufficiently accurate for our present purpose. 
 Then the strains in the directions of each of the beams 
 composing the frame EDH can be found; and the 
 dimensions of the pieces which would resist them are 
 to be determined by the rules for the stifihess of beams. 
 
 Secondly, compute the pressure of the arch between 
 D and C, and consider it as acting at C in a vertical 
 direction ; then the strain on the beams EH, H'E', 
 will be found by the rules above referred to. 
 
 Lastly, let the whole pressure of the arch-stones 
 between B and C, together with half the weight of the 
 centre itself, be considered as acting at the point E 
 
CENTERINGS. 
 
 in a vertical direction, and find the dinie\ 
 supports KG, K'G', that would resist the 
 
 But in these calculations it must be observe? 
 the length of any of the pieces in feet be not gr^ 
 than 1*25 times the breadth, or least dimension in 
 inches, it will cripple at the joint rather than bend. 
 Thus, if a piece be 8 inches in breadth, then its length 
 must be l*2o x 8, or 10 feet; otherwise it will sink at 
 the joint rather than bend. 
 
 Therefore, when the length between the points where 
 it is braced is less than in this proportion, instead of 
 finding the scantlings by the rules for the stiflfness 
 of beams, they must be determined by the following 
 rule : — 
 
 Rule. The pressure upon the beam in pounds 
 divided by 1,000 gives the area of the piece in inches, 
 or that of the least abutting joint, if that joint should 
 not be equal to the section of the piece. 
 
 As all long pieces in a centre may be rendered 
 secure against bending by cross braces or radial pieces 
 notched on and bolted to them, this rule may, in nearly 
 all cases, be applied for centres, instead of the rules in 
 Chap. II. 
 
 In the centre. Fig. 2,* the beams EF, FF^ and F'E', 
 constitute the chief support; the arch is an ellipsis, 
 and consequently a considerable part of it will bear 
 almost wholly upon the centre. But from what has 
 been shown respecting the pressure of the arch-stones, 
 it will appear that if we take the whole weight of the 
 ring between D and 0, and consider it to act in the 
 direction HF at the joining F, it will be the greatest 
 strain that can possibly occur at that point from the 
 weight of the arch-stones. Produce the line HF toy; 
 and make h f to represent the pressure. Draw h e 
 * Atlas, PJato X. 
 
190 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 parallel to the beam EP. Then, as li / represents the 
 pressure of the arch between D and 0, h e will repre- 
 sent the pressure in the direction of the beam FE ; 
 and e f the pressure in the direction of the beam FF' ; 
 and these beams must be of such scantlings as would 
 sustain these pressures. 
 
 Let the weight of the arch from H to H' be estimated, 
 and if two-thirds of this weight be considered to act 
 at C in a vertical direction, it will be the greatest load 
 that is likely to be laid at that point, and the dimen- 
 sions for the parts of the truss FCF' must be found so 
 as to sustain that pressure. 
 
 The frame, EDF, may be calculated to resist half 
 the pressure of the arch-stones between B and H. 
 
 The whole weight of the arch-stones from D to 0, 
 together with the weight of the centre itself, may be 
 considered as acting in a vertical direction at E, and 
 the supports at GE should be sufficient to sustain the 
 action of this pressure. 
 
 To determine the scantlings of the ribs which sup- 
 port the weight between H and 0, or D and H, &c., 
 calculate the weight of that part of the arch which 
 rests upon them, and consider it as a weight uniformly 
 diffused over the length. The proper scantlings can 
 then be found by the previous rules (91). These bear- 
 ings maybe much shortened by lengthening the blocks 
 against which the inclined beams of the truss abut. 
 
 Section IL— Wooden Bridges. 
 
 117. Examples of Bridges. — The oldest wooden 
 bridge of which we have any account is the Bridge of 
 Sublicius, which existed at Rome in the reign of Ancus 
 Marcius, about 600 years before the Christian era. 
 The next in point of antiquity was that erected by 
 
WOODEN BRIDGES. 
 
 191 
 
 Julius CoGsar for the passage of his army across the 
 lihine. The bridge built by Trajan over the Danube 
 appears also to have been of timber, except the piers, 
 which were of stone. The roadway of this bridge 
 appears to have been supported by three concentric 
 curved ribs of timber, connected by radial pieces, and 
 is certainly a good specimen of the art of building 
 timber bridges at that early period. Trajan^s bridge 
 consisted of twenty or twenty-two stone piers, with 
 wooden arches, each arch above 100 feet span. 
 
 In the middle ages, when bridges began to be esta- 
 blished at the passages over the principal rivers, they 
 were almost always constructed with piers, from 15 
 to 20 feet apart, consisting of one or more rows of 
 piles. These piers were generally defended by a kind 
 of jetta to break the ice, which also protected the 
 piers from the shock of bodies borne down by the cur- 
 rent ; nevertheless, in process of time, and from the 
 frequent repairs that were necessary to protect the 
 piers, the w^ater-way generally became almost wholly 
 blocked up ; and, consequently, the bridge soon became 
 incapable of sustaining the pressure of water which 
 accumulated in high floods. 
 
 The whole of the construction of these bridges was 
 of that kind where abundance of material is made to 
 supply the skill of the artist ; yet there are cases 
 where a similar but lighter kind of wooden bridge may 
 be employed with much advantage ; that is, in places 
 not subject to floods, or for raising a road across a 
 valley ; and, generally, for any situation w^here the 
 piers can be kept light. 
 
 A bridge that was built by Palladio over the Brenta, 
 near Bassano, is a good example of this kind of bridge. 
 (See Atlas, Plate XI., Fig. 3.) Also, the Bridge of 
 St. Clair, on the Ehone, built by Morand. In the 
 
192 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 latter bridge the piers were not constructed in the 
 usual manner, but shorter piles were driven, and cut 
 off a little below low-water mark. On the heads of 
 these piles horizontal pieces were placed, so as to 
 receive the posts to sustain the beams of the roadway, 
 to which these horizontal pieces were secured with 
 straps. As that part of the pier which is alternately 
 wet and dry is subject to very rapid decay, this method 
 renders it easy to repair it without disturbing the 
 lower piles. 
 
 Palladio, in his " Treatise on Architecture, has given 
 several designs for bridges, which display a consider- 
 able degree of knowledge of the subject ; indeed, many 
 of the designs of the present time are merely improve- 
 ments of the principles exhibited in his valuable work. 
 Palladio appears to have been the first among the 
 moderns who attempted a species of construction that 
 would render numerous piers unnecessary, and so as to 
 avoid exposing any part of the timber-work to the 
 shock of bodies carried down by the current. The 
 bridge he erected over the torrent of Cismone, near 
 Bassano, was of this kind, and the span 108 English 
 feet. (See Plate XI., Fig. 1.) 
 
 Among the designs for wooden bridges given by 
 Palladio, the most remarkable is that exhibited by 
 Fig. 2 ; as it appears to have been the first idea of 
 constructing a system of what may be termed framed 
 voussoirSy similar to the arch-stones of a stone bridge ; 
 a principle that has since been adopted with much 
 success both in timber and in iron bridges. 
 
 Of the modern methods of construction, the best 
 appears to be that of forming curved ribs for the sup- 
 port of the road- way ; and this principle seems to have 
 been first applied to bridges by Mr. Price, in his 
 Treatise on Carpentry.'' Mr. Price's method may be 
 
AVOODEN BRIDGES. 
 
 193 
 
 stated as follows : He pro^DOses the curved rib to rise 
 about one-sixth of the opening, and to divide it into a 
 convenient number of equal parts, according to the 
 span, or to suit the lengths of the timber. For a 
 bridge of 36 feet span, he proposes to make the ribs 
 of pieces of oak in 5 lengths, and 3 inches in thick- 
 ness ; each rib to consist of two thicknesses, one 12 
 inches deep, and the other 9 inches deep ; the joints 
 crossed, and the thicknesses keyed together with wooden 
 keys. Two of these ribs with joists framed between, 
 he says, will be sufficient to support the roadway. 
 
 The famous wooden arch of 250 feet span, across 
 Portsmouth River, in North America,* is put together 
 w^ith wooden keys similar to those proposed by Mr. 
 Price ; indeed it is precisely his method of construction 
 applied to a larger span, excepting a little difference in 
 the form of the keys. 
 
 In Switzerland several excellent wooden bridges 
 have been erected ; one of the most celebrated was 
 that of Schaffhausen, constructed in 1757. It was 
 composed of two arches, the one 172 feet, the other 
 193 feet span, supported by abutments at the ends, and 
 by a stone pier in the middle, which remained when the 
 stone bridge was swept away in 1754. The construction 
 is ingenious, and the principle is shown in Fig. 4, 
 Plate XIII. (Atlas.) 
 
 The construction of bridges with stone ribs has been 
 much improved by Wiebeking. Instead of forming 
 the ribs of short lengths, he employs pieces of consi- 
 derable length, and bends them to the form of the 
 curve. This method has many advantages over that in 
 which short pieces are used : it lessens the number of 
 joints, consequently the ribs are more firm, and less 
 liable to decay. The Bridge of Freysingen, on the 
 
 » See Atlas, Plate XI., Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. 
 K 
 
194 
 
 CAKPENTRY. 
 
 Isar, in Bavaria, is one that was constructed according 
 to Wiebeking's method, in the years 1807 and J808. It 
 consisted of two arches of 153 feet span, with a rise of 
 11*6 feet; and the width of the roadway was 25 feet. 
 See Plate XII., Figs. 1 and 2 (Atlas). 
 
 The ribs which supported the roadway consisted of 
 two parts, the one more curved than the other ; that 
 which was most curved was built with three courses of 
 beams, of from 12*6 to 14*5 inches in thickness, and 
 about 46 feet in length ; each beam having been bent 
 to the proper curve by screws or levers, and scarfed 
 and bolted to the rest. The upper part of the rib 
 consisted of only two courses of beams of 15*5 inches 
 each. 
 
 Each of the abutments was 21*25 feet in thickness, 
 and rested on 68 piles. The piles were from 30 to 38 
 feet long, and 15*5 inches square ; and they were 
 driven from 17*4 to 19*4 feet into the ground, with a 
 ram of 1,486 pounds weight. The straighter parts of 
 the curved ribs abutted against 5 piles, which were 
 driven within about three feet of the back of the abut- 
 ment ; these piles were 12*6 inches square, and had 
 20 feet hold of the ground, and were also further 
 strengthened by building the abutment round them. 
 In the elevation of the bridge. Fig. 94, the abutment 
 to the left of the figure is supposed to be cut through, 
 to show how the two parts of the rib abut into it. 
 
 Each arch consisted of three curved ribs, which 
 were bonded together at seven places, by cross ties, 
 each consisting of several pieces of timber laid one 
 upon another : and these ties supported seven ranges 
 of beams, laid in the direction of the length of the 
 bridge, with diagonal braces between them, and the 
 joisting of the roadway laid across them. 
 
 In the spaces between the springing of the arches 
 
WOODEN BRIDGES. 
 
 195 
 
 and tlie first cross tie, inclined braces were fixed cross- 
 ing one another, and similar braces were fixed between 
 the cross ties on each side of the crown of the arch, 
 serving to strengthen the bridge against any lateral 
 strain. The upper part of the ribs was continued into 
 the abutments for the same purpose. 
 
 The pier, which sustained the arches in the middle, 
 consisted of nine vertical piles of 17*5 inches diameter, 
 driven about 17*5 feet into the bed of the river ; and 
 two inclined piles about 46 feet long. The base of the 
 pier was surrounded by a bed of large gravel stones, 
 with the joints filled with water cement. The ends of 
 the ribs abutted into vertical posts, which rested upon 
 horizontal sills, that were secured to the piles by bolts 
 and straps. A lining of strong oak planking was 
 placed between the vertical posts and the piles, and the 
 spaces formed between the planking and the piles were 
 filled with beton, or concrete. Fig. 3 is a section across 
 the bridge close to the pier. 
 
 In order to preserve the timbers, the mortises and 
 tenons of the vertical posts were soaked in hot oil ; and 
 small gutters were made near the lower ends of the 
 curved ribs and braces to cause the water to run ofi*, 
 instead of settling into the joints. To all the principal 
 timbers two coats of pitch and tar were applied. 
 
 The exterior of the bridge was covered with boarding, 
 painted, and dark lines drawn for the joints, so as to 
 imitate a stone bridge. 
 
 The Bridge of Bamberg, on the Regnitz, in Germany, 
 is another example of Wiebeking's methods of construc- 
 tion ; the widest span that has been executed according 
 to his principle. It was built in 1809. 
 
 It consists of one arch of 208 feet span, with a rise 
 of 16*9 feet, and the width of the roadway is 32 feet. 
 (See Atlas, Plate XII., Figs. 3, 4.) A stone bridge 
 
 K 2 
 
196 
 
 CAEPENIHY. 
 
 liad formerly been erected on the same site ; but its 
 heavy piers contracted the waterway so much, that the 
 water in a flood accumulated to such a height as to 
 overturn the bridge by its pressure. In consequence 
 of this accident the wooden bridge was made to span 
 the whole width of the river. 
 
 In the middle of the width of the bridge, three ribs 
 are placed side by side, the middle one being five beams 
 in depth at the abutments, but only three in depth at 
 the crown ; but the ones on each side of it are three 
 beams in depth throughout. On each side of the bridge 
 there are two ribs placed side by side, and bolted 
 together ; these each consist of five beams in depth to- 
 wards the abutment, and three beams in depth at the 
 crown. The depth of the beams are from 13-5 to 15-5 
 inches. The three compound ribs are united together 
 by cross ties, with diagonal stays or braces between, as 
 in the Freysingen Bridge; also the roadway is con- 
 structed in the same manner. 
 
 In the elevation. Fig. 3, the boarding is supposed to 
 be removed from one-half of the bridge, and the abut- 
 ment cut through, to show the manner of framing the 
 timbers. Fig. 4 is a section across the bridge at A A 
 on the elevation, to a larger scale. 
 
 The joints of all the parts built into the abutments 
 were well soaked in hot oil, and also covered with sheet 
 lead. The ribs and joists are of fir, the cross ties and 
 plates of oak. 
 
 118. The Design of Wooden Bridges. — The 
 principal objects to be attended to in designing a 
 bridge are, first, the choice of a proper situation ; 
 secondly, the width of the roadway ; thirdly, the 
 waterway which ought to be left for the river ; and 
 fourthly, the span of the arches. Each of these is 
 chiefly determined by local circumstances. 
 
WOODEN BRIDGES. 
 
 197 
 
 The cliolce of situation depends mucli upon local 
 circumstances, and should be that which is most con- 
 venient to the public, and so that the means of access 
 are commodious. The bridge should always cross the 
 stream as nearly as possible at right angles. A correct 
 section of the river bed must be made, and the depth 
 of water ascertained at different seasons of the year. 
 
 The width of roadway may be from 18 to 45 feet, 
 where carriages have to pass over, and from 5 to 8 feet 
 for foot-bridges. 
 
 The waterway must be sufficient to give free passage 
 to the highest floods, which must regulate the height 
 and width of the arches. 
 
 The extent of the span is in some degree determined 
 by the quantity of waterway. The span of the arch, 
 however, must also be regulated by the form of the 
 banks, the height of the highest floods, the depth and 
 rapidity of the river, and the kind and dimensions of 
 the timber that can be procured. 
 
 In rivers which are tranquil, of little depth, and not 
 subject to high and rapid floods, the number of piers 
 may be augmented without inconvenience, provided 
 they do not interrupt the navigation of the river, nor 
 contract too much the waterway. 
 
 But if the bridge have to cross a torrent, the least 
 possible number of supports should be placed in the 
 stream. When the banks are not too low, and the 
 width of the river does not exceed 300 feet, the 
 engineer should give the preference to one arch. 
 When more than one arch is required, much expense 
 cannot be saved by making the span of the arches 
 large, because the piers in such cases require to be 
 carefully constructed, and there wdll be much addi- 
 tional labour, and consequently expense, both in the 
 arches and piers. But if the opening be not greater 
 
198 CARPENTRY. 
 
 than can be spanned with one arch, it would certainly 
 be the best method to do it so, especially if the banks 
 be high on each side. 
 
 The rise of the arch or arches is generally limited 
 by the form of the roadway and the height of the 
 highest water-line, as that line should be the springing 
 of the arch. The roadway should always be of as easy 
 an ascent as circumstances will admit of ; ascending 
 from each side to the middle in a rise of about one part 
 in 36, gives the bridge a slight curvature, v/hich 
 improves its appearance ; but it ought not to rise at a 
 quicker rate than one part in 12. 
 
 Wiebeking names a rise of one in 24 as that which 
 may be used without inconvenience; but he observes 
 that in timber bridges the settlement is generally 
 about one part in 72 ; that is, if a timber bridge of 144 
 feet span rise one foot in the middle when first framed, 
 it will settle so as to become nearly horizontal ; there- 
 fore, when it is intended that the bridge shall have an 
 ascent of one in 24 when finished, it must be framed so 
 as to have a rise of one in 18. 
 
 But when the rise of an arch or truss is limited, 
 whether it be by the form of the roadway or any other 
 local circumstance, the span is also limited ; for if the 
 span does not bear a certain proportion to the rise, the 
 bridge will not support its own weight. This pro- 
 portion depends on the radius of curvature of the curve 
 of equilibrium, and from the length of this radius we 
 may also determine to what extent a single arch may 
 be constructed. The largest span of which we have 
 any correct account being executed with timber, is the 
 bridge over the Limmat, near Wettingen ; this span is 
 390 feet, the whole rise about 43 feet, and the radius of 
 curvature of the curve of equilibrium about 600 feet. 
 
 It has been found by experiment that the force 
 
WOODEN BRIDGES. 
 
 199 
 
 required to crush, a square inch of oak is 5,147 pounds ; 
 and suppose one-fifth of this force to be a sufficient 
 load to trust upon each square inch in a bridge, this 
 force would be equivalent to the weight of a column of 
 the same material 2,950 feet high. And it is shown 
 by writers on the strength of materials, that in an arch 
 of the same material, of which the radius of curvature 
 is equal to the height of this column, the parts of the 
 arch will be pressed with the same force as the weight 
 of the column. 
 
 Consequently, in a bridge constructed of oak, the 
 radius of curvature should never exceed 2,950 feet; 
 and for fir it should not exceed 3,000 feet. 
 
 But then the construction is similar to a framed 
 lever ; the abutments being secured by a horizontal 
 tie, the radius of curvature of the curve of equilibrium 
 of the compressed part of the frame, when it is suffi- 
 ciently loaded with its own weight, will be only half 
 the height of the column that would produce an equal 
 pressure on the same base, because in this kind of con- 
 struction there is at least double the weight of materials. 
 Therefore, in a bridge with horizontal ties, the radius 
 of curvature should not exceed for oak 1,475 leet^ for 
 fir 1,500 feet. 
 
 These numbers only give the radius when the frames, 
 or ribs, are sufficiently loaded with their own weight ; 
 but there is the roadway and the timbers connected 
 with it, which add nothing to the strength of the 
 bridge. But the radius of curvature of a bridge 
 which will be sufficiently loaded when the whole 
 weight to be laid upon it is taken into consideration, 
 niay be found by the following proportion : — 
 
 As the whole weight of the bridge 
 
 Is to the weight of the supporting frame ; 
 
 So is the radius of curvature above determined 
 
 To the radius required. 
 
200 
 
 CARPE^sTRY. 
 
 These calculations suppose the parts of the bridge 
 to be accurately balanced, according to the principles 
 of equilibrium; and it is obvious that any defect in 
 this respect must render it necessary to increase the 
 curvature. 
 
 Wiebeking gives some proportions for the rises for 
 different spans, but not from principles ; his propor- 
 tions being founded entirely upon the observations he 
 had made in practice. As far as regards appearance, 
 he states one-tenth of the span to be the best propor- 
 tion for the rise of an arch ; but as it is in general 
 desirable to keep bridges low, he gives the following 
 proportions : — 
 
 From 100 to 150 feet span make the rise 0% 
 200 „ „ -A 
 
 300 „ „ A 
 
 400 „ „ 
 
 500 „ „ A 
 
 600 „ „ A 
 
 119. Piers for Slpporting Bridges may, in simple 
 cases, be constructed by driving a single row of piles 
 for each pier in a line with the current of the river. 
 The piles may be from 10 to 14 inches square, and 
 placed at from 2 to 4 feet distance from one another. 
 The piles should be strengthened by oblique braces. 
 Fig. 8, Plate XI., represents a pier of this kind. 
 
 In a deep river, or where the height of the roadway 
 is much above the surface of the water, it is difficult to 
 get piles of sufficient length. In such a case the piles 
 may be driven and cut off a little below low-water; 
 mark, and upon these piles posts may be placed for 
 supporting the roadway. The joinings should be secured 
 by means of horizontal pieces well bolted together. 
 A, B, and C, Fig. 1, Plate XV., show the way in which 
 the upper and lower parts of the pier should be con- 
 nected. The piers of the Bridge of St. Clair, at Lyons, 
 
WOODEN BRIDGES. 
 
 201 
 
 are constructed nearly in this manner, and it has the 
 advantage of giving good hold to the piles, besides 
 rendering them much easier to drive ; it also cuts off the 
 connection between the part of the pier which is con- 
 stantly wet, and of long duration, and that which is 
 alternately wet and dry ; consequently, it is much 
 easier to repair or renew the posts, which will, from 
 their situation, often require it. 
 
 But when the depth of the river is very considerable, 
 it would not be safe to trust to a single row of piles ; 
 in that case the lower part should consist of a double 
 row of piles, BB (Fig. 2, Plate XV.), at about 3 feet 
 distance from middle to middle, connected by the hori- 
 zontal beams EE, and the cross pieces DD, for sup- 
 porting the posts. In order to secure the feet of the 
 posts, they must be clasped by two horizontal ties, 
 0, 0, and the whole well bolted together. Fig. 8, 
 Plate XL, and Fig. 6, Plate XIL, show how the posts 
 may be braced ; and when their height is considerable, 
 one or more courses of horizontal ties will be required 
 besides the inclined braces. 
 
 Instead of driving piles for the piers or supports of a 
 wooden bridge, Telford adopted another method with 
 perfect success on the river Severn, about eight miles 
 below Shrewsbury. He made choice of any convenient 
 situation on the banks of the river for constructing the 
 pier, which consisted of an upright frame having a 
 grated frame attached so as to form its base, the base 
 extending on each side of the upright frame. The 
 framing was then sunk in its proper situation, the 
 bottom having been carefully levelled to receive it. 
 Through the spaces in the grated frame short piles 
 were driven to keep the whole secure in its place. The 
 sides of the upright frame were covered with planking, 
 and in order to add to the stability the lower parts were 
 
 K 3 
 
 1 
 
202 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 filled with gravel and small stones. To prevent ice, or 
 other bodies carried down by the current, from injuring 
 the piers, the edges of the frames which face the stream 
 may have triangular pieces of cast iron fixed upon 
 them. Fender piles are also sometimes driven so as to 
 form a triangle at a little distance above and opposite 
 to each pier. 
 
 When a river is subject to ice floods, the piers should 
 be protected by ice-breakers, which should be detached, 
 in order that the bridge may not be injured by the 
 shock of bodies descending by the current. The ice- 
 breaker, A, B, Fig. 6, Plate XII., consists of a single 
 row of piles, connected by two horizontal beams, with 
 an inclined capping, the edge of which is protected by 
 a triangular prism of cast iron. 
 
 Fig. 3, Plate XV., is a plan and side elevation of an 
 ice-breaker, consisting of two rows of inclined piles, 
 the heads of which abut against an inclined capping, 
 protected with iron as before. The inclined sides to 
 be covered with planking, which is not shown on the 
 engraving. 
 
 120. Timber Frames for Bridges. — Before pro- 
 ceeding to specify the modes of construction adapted to 
 particular cases, a few observations on the general 
 principles of construction will perhaps render the 
 advantages of the methods proposed more evident. 
 
 Let AB, Fig. 1, Plate XIII., be a solid beam resting 
 upon the supports A and B. If we suppose this beam 
 to be the support of a roadway, it will, besides its own 
 weight, have to support the planking and road, as well 
 as that of any heavy body moving over it. 
 
 A beam may be made stronger, with the same quan- 
 tity of timber, by making it deeper in the middle, and 
 less at the ends, as in Fig. 2 ; for a strain at C will 
 have less effect \n bending that beam, than one at the 
 
WOODEN BRIDGES. 
 
 203 
 
 middle of tlie length. And, however the weight may 
 be distributed, if it be sufficiently great it will cause 
 the beam to bend ; and when a beam bends, it is ob- 
 served that the fibres at the upper side d are com- 
 pressed, and that those on the lower side e are extended. 
 Also that there may be a line drawn at the middle of 
 the depth a c h, where the fibres are neither extended 
 nor compressed, but remain in their natural state. But 
 all the fibres between c and d are compressed, and all 
 those between c and 6 are stretched ; though not equally 
 so, because the nearer a fibre is to the points d or e the 
 more it is strained. Now, as the middle part of the 
 depth of the beam is very little strained, in comparison 
 with the upper and lower sides, it is clear that we can 
 employ the same quantity of timber in a more effectual 
 manner, by using a deeper beam, cutting it down the 
 middle, and framing the parts together, as is shown in 
 Fig. 3 ; because we have seen that the middle part 
 exerts very little force, and its weight is a considerable 
 load on the beam. 
 
 If we now attend to the forces exerted by the parts 
 of the beam, it will be found that the upper part, 
 a m d n h, is wholly compressed in the direction of its 
 length, and that the lower part, ares b, is wholly 
 extended in the direction of its length ; and it is well 
 known that timber offers the greatest degree of resist- 
 ance when strained in the direction of its length, pro- 
 vided the necessary degree of security can be given to 
 the joints. 
 
 From these considerations we are naturally led to 
 the kind of construction shown by Fig. 4, where it is 
 obvious that the same pressures obtain as in the perforated 
 beam above described ; the only diff'erence being, that 
 here the tie beam is supported, as otherwise it would 
 fail in large spans. The celebrated bridges of Schaff- 
 
204' " " ../^\ % CARPENTRY. 
 
 ,iLausen, Zuricli, Landsberg, and AVettingen are con- 
 structed on'.tliis principle. In the bridge oiP SchafF- 
 hausen .the disposition of the timbers is nearly the 
 same -as" is shown by Fig. 4. The continued tie AB 
 retaining and being an abutment for the compressed 
 beams, the frame requires only to be supported, and 
 has no other thrust on the abutments of the bridge 
 than a solid beam would have. Framed bridges, such 
 as that designed by Palladio, Fig. 1, Plate XI., may bo 
 referred to the same principle. 
 
 It is easy to conceive that the tie might be entirely 
 removed, provided the abutments were made capable of 
 sustaining the thrust. This, without any other change, 
 leads us to the kind of construction represented in Fig. 5, 
 which has been adopted by Joseph Eitter for a bridge 
 across the torrent of Kandel, in the canton of Berne. 
 
 But as long pieces of timber require to be of a pro- 
 portionate depth and breadth, consequently are not 
 easily procured, and in scarfing much of their strength 
 is lost, a kind of construction where short timbers only 
 can be procured is desirable. Fig. 6 represents a 
 combination which may be used in such cases with 
 advantage. Such combination has been often em- 
 ployed ; we have an example in that of Palladio across 
 the Brenta (see Plate XL, Fig. 3) ; and the Bridge of 
 St. Clair, over the Rhone at Lyons, is of the same kind. 
 
 We cannot, however, derive much benefit from 
 shortening the beams, by dividing the span into shorter 
 lengths, because the angles of junction become more 
 obtuse or open, and of course the strain in the direction 
 of the pieces is much increased. And, however strong 
 such a bridge might be, in respect to a constant load 
 distributed over it, the w^eight of any load moving upon 
 it would soon derange it ; because the strength of such 
 a system to resist a variable load must depend wholly 
 
WOODEN BRIDGES. 
 
 on the strength of the joinings, to wh\ 
 to give much strength. Nevertheless^ 
 been both designed and executed on such 
 is represented by Figs. 7 and 8. The 
 Fig. 7, resembles the Bridge of Mulatiere, at Lyons, 
 over the Saone ; and Fig. 8 is combined nearly in the 
 same manner as the arches of the bridge at Walton, 
 which was found in a state of decay in twenty years. 
 The Bridge of Sault, on the Rhone, was also on the 
 same principle as Fig. 8, and failed within thirteen years. 
 
 From combinations of the kind last noticed, the 
 continued curved rib naturally succeeds, which possesses 
 advantages not to be found in a series of beams 
 merely abutting end to end. For when the rib is 
 built of short lengths wath the joints crossed, and the 
 different thicknesses firmly bolted together, it becomes 
 as one solid beam. If we suppose the straining force 
 to be applied at D, Fig. 9, then the force must be sufii- 
 cient to fracture the rib at 0, D, and E ; therefore, 
 when the strength of the rib is capable of sustaining 
 the strains of C, D, and E, and the curve is a proper 
 curve of equilibrium to the constant load, this is at 
 once a simple and effectual combination. The use of 
 curved ribs of thiV kind has been extensively 
 employed in the constructiG::> of bridges, and it has 
 been further improved by bending xne' pieces w^hich 
 form the ribs. A rib composed of bent beams is shown 
 by Fig. 10. 
 
 As a bridge with a curved rib, when the span is con- 
 siderable, yields at D, 0, and E (Fig. 10) when the 
 load is applied at the middle, the strength must of 
 course be increased, by increasing the depth of the 
 rib ; and consequently a framed rib, such as is shown 
 Fig. 11, is the next step in the progress of improve- 
 ment. Here, however, it must be observed that the 
 
206 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 two curved ribs must be continuous, and put together 
 so as to resist either extension or compression, as in 
 Fig. 10. For when a load is placed at D, the lower 
 rib will be extended at and compressed at C and E ; 
 while the upper one will be compressed at D, and 
 extended at c and e. And a weight applied at any 
 other point would produce a similar effect. When the 
 span becomes so great that two curved ribs can be 
 introduced without being made smaller than is required 
 for the firm connection of the parts of each rib, then 
 framed ribs would be a vast addition to the stability of 
 the bridge. 
 
 In timber, however, where we have nothing to fear 
 from expansion, it is losing one of the greatest advan- 
 tages of the material to interrupt the connection of the 
 parts ; besides, numerous joints should always be 
 avoided, both on account of the difficulty of making 
 them fit, so as to bring every part alike into action, 
 and the difficulty of preventing decay at such join- 
 ings. 
 
 In some instances it is difficult to form abutments, 
 and also desirable to keep the roadway as low as pos- 
 sible ; in such cases. Fig. 12 shows a kind of construc- 
 tion that may be used. It is peculiarly adapted to a 
 situation where the banks of the river are low, and 
 where there is no navigation to interrupt. Where the 
 width of the bridge is considerable, a rib may rise in the 
 middle of the width, so as to divide the roadway into 
 two parts. Sometimes a double rib might be placed in 
 the middle, with a footway between. But where there 
 is much attention paid to architectural effect, bridges 
 with framing to rise above the roadway will seldom be 
 adopted. As cross ties will be necessary at the top, the 
 middle parts might be covered with a roof to protect 
 them; also a continued coping, a a, d d, might be put 
 
WOODEN BRIDGES. 
 
 207 
 
 over each truss, which would improve the appearance, 
 as well as protect the framing. 
 
 When the distance of the abutments, or piers, does 
 not exceed 16 feet, a bridge may be constructed by 
 simply laying beams across the opening of about 15 
 inches deep, by 8 inches in breadth, and about 2 feet 
 apart. For foot-bridges this kind of construction may 
 be extended to 18 feet, with the same scantlings. 
 When the extent of bearing for a bridge for carriages 
 does not exceed 35 feet, the kind of bridge shown by 
 Fig. 3, Plate XI. (Atlas), may be adopted. When 
 there are more openings than one, any of these simple 
 forms might be much strengthened by continuing the 
 beams over more than one opening, when the timber is 
 long enough ; and when it is not, by scarfing the 
 beams together at the points of support. Also, short 
 pieces of timber may be placed under each beam, 
 extending from 5 to 7 feet on each side of the cap 
 of the pier, as at AA, Fig. 3. The bridge of Bassano is 
 here given as an example of this kind of construction. 
 It was erected at a place where the river was 194 
 English feet wide, which was divided into five equal 
 spaces by the piers. Each pier consisted of eight piles 
 30 feet in length and 18 inches square, placed 2 feet 
 apart. The width of the bridge was 26 feet. 
 
 As it has been shown that curved ribs are preferable 
 to other methods of spanning a wide opening, it will 
 only be necessary to select two or three cases as 
 examples. If the span is not more than 50 feet, each 
 rib may be composed of two or three thicknesses of 
 planks of a convenient length, bolted together, and the 
 joints crossed ; one of three thicknesses is preferable. 
 The ribs should rise as much as an attention to the 
 form of the roadway and other circumstances will 
 allow; and they should be about from 6 to 9 feet 
 
208 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 apart, with the roadway supported by upright pieces 
 in pairs, notched and bolted to the ribs. As the weight 
 of the roadway presses in a vertical direction, and it 
 may be considered as a general principle, that each 
 piece (when possible) should be placed in the same 
 direction as the force that it is intended to sustain 
 acts in ; therefore the reason for placing them uj)right 
 is evident. The distance of the upright pieces should 
 never exceed 15 feet, and horizontal cross ties should 
 be placed at the same points, with diagonal braces, to 
 prevent the bridge from vibrating sideways when 
 heavy loads are moving over it. Diagonal pieces 
 should also be inserted between the road timbers, as 
 lateral motion should as far as possible be prevented. 
 
 In spans exceeding 60 feet, there will be difficulty in 
 obtaining timber deep enough for the ribs ; therefore 
 they should be built the contrary way, and bent to the 
 required curve, so as to increase the depth. The beams 
 forming the ribs should be scarfed at the joinings ; the 
 form of the scarf should be such as would resist either 
 pressure or tension, and the scarfs should be kept as 
 distant from one another as possible. The number of 
 thicknesses in each rib must depend on the size re- 
 quired for the span, and the dimensions of the timber 
 that can be procured ; and the whole should be well 
 bolted together. 
 
 Fig. 1, Plate XIV., represents a bridge designed for 
 a 200 feet span : Fig. 2 is a section across at CD to a 
 larger scale. This bridge is sustained by four ribs, each 
 rib 18 inches thick and 4 feet deep ; the ribs to be two 
 thicknesses in width, and either 3 or 4 feet in depth, 
 according to the size of the timber ; the lengths of 
 timber should be disposed so as to cross the joints as 
 much as possible, and the joints should be scarfed. One 
 of the most simple scarfs will be the best adapted for 
 that purpose. The pieces composing a rib must be well 
 
WOODEN BRIDGES. 
 
 209 
 
 bolted together, and keys, in the joints would be a 
 further means of preventing any sliding of the parts. 
 
 The vertical pieces which support the roadway are 
 intended to be put on in pairs, notched to the ribs, and 
 bolted together, and not more than 18 feet apart. And 
 at each pair a double tie is intended to cross both the 
 back and the under side of the ribs, notched on to the 
 ribs, and bolted to the vertical pieces. 
 
 Between the timbers which carry the joists of the 
 roadway diagonal braces should be framed so as to 
 secure the bridge from lateral motion. A series of 
 braces for the same purpose might be framed over the 
 back of the ribs ; but one of these methods, if well 
 executed, will be sufficient. 
 
 The bridge is intended for a gravel or paved road- 
 way, and is calculated to sustain two loaded waggons 
 at its weakest point without Injur3^ This kind of 
 bridge is adapted to any span that is usual in bridge 
 building. The ribs should not be more than 8 feet 
 apart. The curvature to be given to the beams will be 
 sensibly uniform, and the degree of uniform curvature 
 which may be given to a beam is inversely as its depth, 
 or the radius of curvature will be as the depth. "Wie- 
 beking observed, that when several pieces of wood were 
 placed one upon another, they would curve much more 
 without fracture than a single piece would do. Wooden 
 bridges, however well constructed, will always settle a 
 little immediately after being built, and this settlement 
 Avill increase in a small degree with time. 
 
 As the be<vms are intended to be bent to the form of 
 the rib, it v/ill be prudent to ascertain whether such a 
 degreo of curvature may be given to the beams without 
 imp^aring their elastic force. 
 
 The degree to which a beam can be bent without de- 
 stroying its elasticity is found as follows, E being the 
 radius of curvature : — 
 
210 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 For English oak -05 X R = the depth of the beam in inches. 
 ForEigafir . -035 x 11= „ „ „ 
 
 For larch . . -077 X = „ „ „ 
 
 If the span be greater than 250 feet, instead of 
 single curved ribs it would be an advantage to make 
 frames, each consisting of two curved ribs, with radial 
 pieces, and crosses between, as shown in Fig. 3, Plate 
 XIV. The ribs should be formed in the manner above 
 described. The radial pieces should be notched on to the 
 ribs, in pairs, and bolted together ; the diagonal pieces, 
 or crosses, halved together in the middle, and made to 
 abut end to end between the radial pieces. Fig. 4 
 shows a plan of the framing, and Fig. 5 a section across 
 at the middle. 
 
 At AB, Fig. 3, horizontal ties are notched and bolted 
 to the vertical supports, so as to brace them in both 
 directions; and a series of diagonal braces might be 
 applied upon the horizontal cross ties, which would be 
 very effectual in stiffening the bridge against lateral 
 motion. The braces shown by dott>ed lines in Fig. 5 
 need be applied only at four or five places in the whole 
 length of the bridge. The roadway to be formed and 
 supported as in the preceding examples. 
 
 Table of the Least Eise for Differext Spans 
 
 Span in feet. 
 
 Least rise in feet. 
 
 Span in feet. 
 
 Least rise in feet. 
 
 30 
 
 0-5 
 
 180 
 
 11 
 
 40 
 
 0-8 
 
 200 
 
 12 
 
 60 
 
 1-4 
 
 220 
 
 14 
 
 60 
 
 2 
 
 240 
 
 17 
 
 70 
 
 
 260 
 
 20 
 
 80 
 
 3 
 
 280 
 
 24 
 
 90 
 
 4 
 
 300 
 
 28 
 
 100 
 
 5 
 
 320 
 
 32 
 
 120 
 
 7 
 
 350 
 
 39 
 
 140 
 
 8 
 
 380 
 
 47 
 
 160 
 
 10 
 
 400 
 
 53 ^ 
 
 ll 
 
WOODEN BRIDGES. 211 
 
 It must be remembered that a small rise should be 
 avoided if possible, because it requires a much greater 
 quantity of timber to make the bridge equally 
 strong. 
 
 121. The Roadways of bridges are constructed in 
 various ways ; but the most usual one is to pave upon 
 gravel ; sometimes gravel only is used, and some prefer 
 planking only. 
 
 The planking in small bridges is often laid imme- 
 diately upon the principal beams, which in such cases 
 are placed about 2 feet apart ; but it is better in 
 resj)ect to durability to lay cross joistings for support- 
 ing the planking ; these joists should be about 2 feet 
 apart, and the planking laid upon them, which may be 
 from 3 to 4 inches thick. The cross joints admit the 
 air to circulate more freely round the principal tim- 
 bers, and therefore render them more durable. Figs. 1 
 and 5, Plate XIV., show the latter of these modes of 
 construction. 
 
 Where bridges are intended for wheel carriages, 
 there should be a separate footpath, which may be 
 paved with flag-stones. Footpaths are made from 2 
 feet to 6 feet wide, according to the number of the 
 passengers. The carriage-way may be paved upon a 
 bed of gravel of about 12 inches in depth ; the paving 
 to rise in a curve across the road. The gravel should 
 contain a considerable portion of tempered clay, so as 
 to bind it firmly together ; but if there be too much 
 clay, it will shrink and crack in drying. Belidore 
 states that paved bridges are the most durable.* 
 
 If the roadway should be covered only with gravel 
 or broken stone, it should be from 12 to 18 inches 
 deep in the middle, and from 9 to 14 inches deep at 
 tlie sides, according to the traffic over the bridge. 
 * Sciences des Ingenieurs, p. 364, edit. 1814. 
 
212 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 Whether the roadway be paved or gravelled, means of 
 conveying off the water should be provided. 
 
 As the moisture which passes the gravel or broken 
 stone soon rots the planking, it is supposed to be better 
 to lay an additional thickness of planking, and no 
 gravel or paving. In that case the upper planking 
 should lay across the bridge to prevent the feet of 
 horses sliding. It would be easy to renew such a 
 roadway ; but we do not see any other advantage it 
 possesses. The planking of the roadway might be 
 protected very much by a coat of pitch, tar, sand, or 
 asphalt e. 
 
 Parapets or balustrades are made from 3*5 feet to 
 6 feet in height above the footpath ; 4 feet is enough 
 for protection. The railing is stayed by braces on the 
 outside. Iron railing is sometimes used. 
 
 122. ScAN'TLiNGS OF THE TiMBERS. — The greatest load 
 likely to rest uj)on a bridge at one time would be that 
 produced by its being covered with people. It should 
 be such that the crowded procession may move along 
 in perfect safety ; and it is easily proved that this is 
 about the greatest load a bridge can possibly have to 
 sustain, as well as that which creates the most ap- 
 palling horror in the case of failure. Such a load is 
 about 120 lbs. per foot, and, together with the weight 
 of the framing and gravelled roadway, would be 
 about 300 lbs. on a superficial foot, or 0*14 of a ton. 
 And as this load may be supposed to be uniformly 
 diffused over the bridge, half the load upon it will be 
 expressed in tons by 0*14 tc x Sy where s = half the 
 span, and tv is equal to the width of the bridge. 
 
 If the bridge be only planked without gravel, as a 
 foot bridge, the greatest probable load will be expressed 
 in tons by 0*09 w x 5. 
 
 Now, as the load is sensibly uniform, the curve of 
 
JOINTS, SCARFING, AND STRAP 
 
 equilibrium will be a common parabola ; w^^^^the 
 rib is of this form any uniform load woof^^avevjia 
 tendency to produce any derangement or otS^^ ^strain 
 in the rib than that which is propagated in tli^^^^^- 
 tion of the curve. Therefore the first object mustOB^ 
 to determine the size of the ribs^ so that they may be 
 capable of resisting this pressure without being more 
 compressed than is consistent with the stability of the 
 structure. 
 
 Eiga timber suffers a compression in the direction 
 of its length of about one fifteen hundredth part of 
 its length under a load of 64 tons upon a square 
 foot ; and oak bears about the same load with the 
 same degree of compression. Under such a pressure 
 the curved rib of a bridge 200 feet in length would 
 shorten rather more than 1*6 inches: and as it is a 
 material that soon decays, this will not appear too 
 low an estimate of its strength. 
 
 Rule for bridges that are gravelled. — Multiply the 
 width of the bridge by the square of half the span, 
 both in feet; and divide this product by the rise in 
 feet multiplied by the number of ribs ; the quotient, 
 multiplied by the decimal 0 0011, will give the area of 
 each rib in feet. 
 
 Rule for bridges where the roadway is only planked. 
 — This rule is the same, except multiplying by the 
 decimal O'OOOT, instead of O'OOll. 
 
 Section III.- — Joints, Scarfing, and Straps. 
 
 123. The Joints of Timber Frames, having to sup- 
 port whatever strains the pieces joined are exposed 
 to, should be formed in such a manner that the bearing- 
 parts may have the greatest possible quantity of sur- 
 
214 
 
 CAEPENTRY. 
 
 face ; provided tliat surface be made of the best form 
 for resisting the strains. 
 
 The effect of the shrinkage and expansion of timber 
 should also be considered in the construction of joints. 
 On account of the shrinkage of timber, dovetail joints 
 should never be used in carpentry, as the smallest 
 degree of shrinking allows the joint to draw out of its 
 place ; and, consequently, it loses all its effect in hold- 
 ing the parts in their proper situation. Dovetail joints 
 can only be used with success when the shrinkage of the 
 parts counteract each other ; a case which seldom hap- 
 pens in carpentry, but is common in joinery and cabi- 
 net-making. 
 
 Joints should also be formed so that the contraction 
 or expansion may not have a tendency to split any part 
 of the framing. The force of contraction or expansion 
 is capable of producing astonishing effects where the 
 pieces are confined, and may sometimes be observed in 
 framing which has been wedged too tightly together 
 in improper directions. 
 
 Where the beams stand square with each other, and 
 the strains are also square with the beams, and in the 
 plane of the frame, the common mortise and tenon is 
 the most perfect junction. A pin is generally put 
 through both, in order to keep the pieces united, in 
 opposition to any force which tends to part them. 
 Every carpenter knows how to bore the hole for this 
 pin, so that it shall draw the tenon tight into the 
 mortise, and cause the shoulder to butt close, and make 
 neat work ; and he knows the risk of tearing out the 
 bit of the tenon beyond the pin, if he draw it too 
 much. We may just observe, that square holes and 
 pins are much preferable to round ones for this pur- 
 pose, bringing more of the wood into action, with less 
 tendency to split it. The ship carpenters have an in- 
 
JOINTS, SCARFING, AND STRAPS, 
 
 215 
 
 genious metliod of making long wooden bolts, which 
 do not pass completely through, take a very fast hold, 
 though not nicely fitted to their holes, which they must 
 not be, lest they should be crippled in driving. They 
 call it foxtail tcedging. They stick into the point of 
 the bolt a very thin wedge of hard wood, so as to pro- 
 ject a proper distance ; when this reaches the bottom of 
 the hole by driving the bolt, it splits the end of it, and 
 squeezes it hard to the side. This may be practised 
 with advantage in carpentry. If the ends of the 
 mortise are widened inwards, and a thin wedge be put 
 into the end of the tenon, it will have the same efiect, 
 and make the joint equal to a dovetail. But this risks 
 the splitting the piece beyond the shoulder of the 
 tenon, which would be unsightly. This may be avoided 
 as follows : — Let the tenon T, Fig. 41, have two very 
 
 thin wedges, a and c, 
 
 stuck in near its angles, V ^ ' ? 
 
 projecting equally ; at a 5 \ IK 
 
 very small distance with- ^ 
 
 in these, put in two 
 shorter ones, h, d, and 
 more within these if ne- 
 cessary. In driving this 
 tenon, the wedges a and 
 c will take first, and split 
 ofi* a thin slice, which 
 will easily bend without breaking. The wedges 5, d, 
 will act next, and have a similar efi*ect, and the others 
 in succession. The thickness of all the wedges taken 
 together must be equal to the enlargement of the mortise 
 toward the bottom. 
 
 "When the strain is transverse to the plane of the two 
 beams, the principles laid down will direct the carpenter 
 in placing his mortise. Thus the mortis© in a 
 
 Tig. 41. 
 
216 
 
 CARPENTEY. 
 
 girder for receiving the tenon of a binding joist of 
 a floor should be as near the upper side as possible, 
 because the girder becomes concave 
 on that side by the strain. But as 
 this exposes the tenon of the bind- 
 ing joist to the risk of being torn 
 ofij we are obliged to mortise farther 
 down. The form, Fig. 42, generally 
 given to this joint is extremely judi-' 
 cious. The sloping part, a b, gives a 
 very firm support to the additional 
 bearing, e d, without much weakening 
 of the girder. This form should be 
 copied in every case where the strain has a similar 
 direction. 
 
 The joint that most of all demands the careful atten- 
 tion of the workman is that which connects the ends of 
 beams, one of which pushes the other very obliquely, 
 putting it into a state of extension. The most familiar 
 instance of this is the foot of a rafter pressing on the tie- 
 beam, and thereby draiving it away from the other wall. 
 "When the direction is very oblique (in which case the 
 extending strain is the greatest), it is difficult to give 
 the foot of the rafter such a hold of the tie-beam as to 
 bring many of its fibres into the proper action. There 
 would be little difficulty if we could allow the end of 
 the tie-beam to project to a small distance beyond the 
 foot of the rafter ; but, indeed, the dimensions which 
 are given to tie-beams, for other reasons, are always 
 sufficient to give enough of abutment when judiciously 
 employed. Unfortunately this joint is very liable 
 to failure by the efiects of the weather. It is much 
 exposed, and frequently perishes by rot, or becomes so 
 soft and friable that a very small force is sufficient, 
 either for pulling the filaments out of the tie-beam, or 
 
JOINTS, SCAKFING, AXD STRAPS. 217 
 
 for crushing them together. We are therefore obliged 
 to secure it with particular attention, and to avail our- 
 selves of every circumstance of construction. 
 
 One is naturally disposed to give the rafter a deep 
 hold by a long tenon ; but it has been frequently 
 observed in old roofs that such tenons break off. Fre- 
 quently they are observed to tear up the wood that is 
 above them, and push their way through the end of the 
 tie-beam. This, in all probability, arises from the first 
 sagging of the roof, by the compression of the rafters 
 and of the head of the king-post. The head of the 
 rafter descends, the angle with the tie-beam is dimi- 
 nished by the rafter revolving round its step in the 
 tie-beam. By this motion the heel or inner angle of 
 the rafter becomes a fulcrum to a very long and power- 
 ful lever much loaded. The tenon is the other arm, 
 very short, and being still 
 fresh, it is therefore very 
 powerful. It therefore forces 
 up the wood thai is above 
 it, tearing it out from be- 
 tween the cheeks of the 
 mortise, and then pushes 
 it along. Carpenters have 
 therefore given up long Fig.<i3. 
 tenons, and give to the toe of the tenon a shape which 
 abuts firmly, in the direction of the thrust, on the 
 solid bottom of the mortise, which is well supported on 
 the under side by the wall-plate. This form has the 
 further advantage of having no tendency to tear up 
 the end of the mortise. It is represented in Fig. 43. 
 The tenon has a small portion, a h, cut perpendicular to 
 the surface of the tie-beam, and the rest, h c, is per- 
 pendicular to the rafter. 
 
 But if the tenon is not sufiiciently strong (and it is 
 
218 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 not so strong as tTie rafter, which, is thought not to be 
 stronger than is necessary), it will be crushed, and then 
 the rafter will slide out along the surface of the beam. 
 It is therefore necessary to call in the assistance of the 
 whole rafter. It is in this distribution of the strain 
 among the various abutting parts that the varieties of 
 joints and their merits chiefly consist. It would be 
 endless to describe every nostrum, and we shall 
 only mention a few that are most generally ap- 
 proved of. 
 
 The aim in Fig. 44 is to make the abutments exactly 
 perpendicular to the thrusts. It does this very pre- 
 cisely ; and the share which the tenon and the shoulder 
 have of the whole may be what we please, by the por- 
 tion of the beam that we notch down. If the wall- 
 plate lie duly before the heel of the rafter, there is no 
 risk of straining the tie across or breaking it, because 
 
 the thrust is made direct to 
 the point where the beam is 
 supported. The action is the 
 same as against the joggle 
 on the head or foot of a king- 
 post. We have no doubt but 
 that this is a very effectual 
 ^ joint. It is not, however, 
 
 much practised. It is said 
 that the sloping seam at the shoulder lodges water ; 
 but the great reason seems to be a secret notion that it 
 weakens the tie-beam. If we consider the direction 
 in which it acts as a tie, we must acknowledge that 
 this form takes the best method for bringing the whole 
 of it into action. 
 
 Fig. 45 exhibits a form that is more general, but 
 certainly worse. The part of the thrust that is not 
 borne by the tenon acts obliquely on the joint of the 
 
JOINTS, SCARFING, AND STRAPS. 
 
 219 
 
 shoulder, and gives the whole a tendency to rise up and 
 slide outward. 
 
 The shoulder-joint is sometimes formed like the 
 dotted line ah c d ef g of Fig. 45. This is much more 
 
 their bases b d, d /. Pig. 45 
 
 Fig. 46, No. 1, seems 
 to have the most general approbation. It is the 
 joint recommended in all books of carpentry as the 
 true joint for a rafter foot. The visible shoulder- 
 joint is flush with the upper surface of the tie-beam. 
 The angle of the tenon at the tie nearly bisects the 
 obtuse angle formed by the rafter and the beam, and is 
 
 therefore somewhat oblique to the thrust. The inner 
 shoulder a c is nearly perpendicular to h d. The lower 
 angle of the tenon is cut off horizontally, as at e d. 
 Fig. 47 is a section of the beam and rafter foot, show- 
 ing the different shoulders. 
 
 We do not perceive the peculiar merit of this joint. 
 The efiect of the three oblique abutments a a c, e dy 
 
 agreeable to the true prin- 
 ciple, and would be a very 
 perfect method, were it not 
 that the intervals b d and d f 
 are so short that the little 
 wooden triangles h c d,d e f, 
 will be easily pushed off 
 
 Pig. 46.-1. 
 
 Fig. 46.-2. 
 
 L 2 
 
220 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 is undoubtedly to make the whole bear on the outer end 
 of the mortise, and there is no other part of the tie- 
 
 Fig. 46.-3. Fig. 47. 
 
 beam that makes immediate resistance. Its only ad- 
 vantage over a tenon extending in the direction of the 
 thrust is, that it will not tear up the wood above it. 
 Had the inner shoulder had the form e c i, having its 
 face / c perpendicular, it would certainly have acted 
 more powerfully in stretching many filaments of the 
 tie-beam, and would have had a much less tendency to 
 force out the end of the mortise. The little bit c i 
 would have prevented the sliding upwards along e c. 
 At any rate, the joint a h being flush with the beam, 
 prevents any sensible abutment on the shoulder a c. 
 
 Fig. 46, Xo. 2, is a simpler, and a preferable joint. 
 TTe observe it practised by the most eminent carpenters 
 for all oblique thrusts ; but it surely employs less of the 
 cohesion of the tie-beam than might be used without 
 weakening it, at least when it is supported on the other 
 side by the wall-plate. 
 
 Fig. 46, Xo. 3, is also much practised by the first 
 carpenters. 
 
 Fig. 48 is proposed by Mr. Xicholson as preferable 
 to Fig. 46, No. 3, because the abutment of the inner 
 part is better supported. This is certainly the case ; 
 but it supposes the whole rafter to go to the bottom of 
 
JOINTS, SCARFING, AND STRAPS. 
 
 221 
 
 tte socket, and the beam to be thicker than the rafter. 
 Some may think that this will weaken the beam too 
 much, when it is no broader than the rafter is thick ; 
 
 in which case they think that it requires a deeper 
 socket than Nicholson has given it. Perhaps the ad- 
 vantages of Nicholson's construction may be had by a 
 joint like Fig. 48, No. 2. 
 
 Whatever is the form of these butting joints, great 
 care should be taken that all parts bear alike, and the 
 joiner will attend to the magnitude of the different sur- 
 faces. In the general compression, the greater surfaces 
 will be less compressed, and the smaller will therefore * 
 change most. When all has settled, every part should 
 be equally close. Because great logs are moved with 
 diiOSculty, it is very troublesome to try the joint fre- 
 quently to see how the parts fit; therefore we must 
 expect less accuracy in the interior parts. This should 
 make us prefer those joints whose efficacy depends 
 chiefly on the visible joint. 
 
 It appears from all that we have said on this subject 
 that a very small part of the cohesion of the tie-beam 
 is sufficient for withstanding the horizontal thrust of a 
 roof, even though very low pitched. If, therefore, no 
 other use is made of the tie-beam, one much slenderer 
 may be used, and blocks may be firmly fixed to the 
 
 Fig. 48.-- 1. 
 
 Fig'. 43.— 2. 
 
222 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 ends, on wliicli the rafters might abut, as they do 
 on the joggles on the head and foot of a king-post. 
 Although a tie-beam has commonly floors or ceilings to 
 carry, and sometimes the work-shops and store-rooms of 
 a theatre, and therefore requires a great scantling, yet 
 there frequently occur in machines and engines very 
 oblique stretchers, which have no other ofiice, and are 
 generally made of dimensions quite inadequate to their 
 situation, often containing ten times the necessary 
 quantity of timber. It is therefore of importance to 
 ascertain the most perfect manner of executing such a 
 joint. We have directed our attention to the principles 
 that are really concerned in the eff'ect. In all hazard- 
 ous cases, the carpenter calls in the assistance of iron 
 straps ; and they are frequently necessary, even in 
 roofs, notwithstanding this superabundant strength of 
 the tie-beam. But this is generally owing to bad con- 
 struction of the wooden joint, or to the failure of it by 
 time. Straps will be considered in their place. 
 
 There needs but little to be said of the joints at a 
 joggle worked out of solid timber ; they are not nearly 
 
 so difficult as the last. 
 When the size of a 
 log will allow the 
 joggle to receive the 
 whole breadth of the 
 abutting brace, it 
 ought certainly to be 
 made with a square 
 shoulder; or, which 
 is still better, an arc 
 of a circle, having 
 the other end of the brace for its centre. Indeed, this 
 in general will not sensibly differ from a straight line 
 perpendicular to the brace. By this circular form, the 
 
JOINTS, SCARFING, AND STRAPS. 
 
 223 
 
 settling of tlie roof makes no change m the abutment; 
 but when there is not sufficient stuff for this, we must 
 avoid bevel joints at the shoulders, because these always 
 tend to make the brace slide off. The brace in Fig. 49 
 must not be joined as at but as at 5, or some equiva- 
 lent manner. 
 
 When the very oblique action of one side of a frame 
 of carpentry does not extend but compress the piece on 
 which it abuts, there is no difficulty in the joint. In- 
 deed a joining is unnecessary, and it is enough that the 
 pieces abut on each other ; and we have only to take 
 care that the mutual pressure be equally drawn by all 
 the parts, and that it do not produce lateral pressures, 
 which may cause one of the pieces to slide on the 
 butting joint. A very slight mortise and tenon is suffi- 
 cient at the joggle of a king-post with a rafter or 
 straining beam. It is best, in general, to make the 
 butting plain, bisecting the angle formed by the sides, 
 or else perpendicular to one of the pieces. In Fig. 50, 
 
 where the straining beam a h cannot slip away from 
 the pressure, the joint a is preferable to h, or, indeed, 
 to any uneven joint, which never fails to produce very 
 unequal pressures on the different parts, by which some 
 are crippled, others are splintered off, &c.* 
 
 124. Scarfing, or the mode of lengthening timber, 
 
 * For various modes of forming the joints of framing, see Atlas, 
 Plates XYI. and XYII. 
 
224 
 
 CA11PE2\TRY. 
 
 can be performed as represented in Fig. 51, Wos. 1 and 2. 
 If considered merely as two pieces of wood joined, it is 
 plain that, as a tie, it has but half the strength of an 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 entire piece, supposing that the bolts (which are the 
 only connections) are fast in their holes. ISTo. 2 requires 
 a bolt in the middle of the scarf to give it that strength ; 
 and, in every other part, is weaker on one side or the 
 other. 
 
 But the bolts are very apt to bend by the violent 
 strain, and require to be strengthened by uniting their 
 ends by iron plates ; in which case it is no longer a 
 wooden tie. The form of No. 1 is better adapted to the 
 office of a pillar than No. 2 ; especially if its ends be 
 formed in the manner shown in the elevation No. 3. 
 By the sally given to the ends, the scarf resists an 
 effort to bend it in that direction. Besides, the form of 
 No. 2 is unsuitable for a post ; because the pieces, by 
 sliding on each other by the pressure, are apt to splinter 
 off the tongue which confines their extremity. 
 
 Figs. 52 and 53 exhibit the most approved form of a 
 scarf, whether for a tie or for a post. The key repre- 
 sented in the middle is not essentially necessary ; the 
 two pieces might simply meet square there. This form, 
 without a key, needs no bolts (although they strengthen 
 
JOINTS, SCATIFING, AND STRAPS. 
 
 225 
 
 it greatly) ; but, if worked very true and close, and 
 with square abutments, will hold together, and will resist 
 bending in any direction. But the key is an ingenious 
 and a very great improvement, and will force the parts 
 together with perfect tightness. The same precaution 
 must be observed that we mentioned on another occa- 
 sion, not to produce a constant internal strain on the 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 parts by over-driving the key. The form of Fig. 52 
 is by far the best ; because the triangle of Fig. 53 is 
 much easier splintered off by the strain, or by the key, 
 than the square wood of Fig. 52. It is far preferable 
 for a post, for the reason given when speaking of Fig. 
 51, Nos. 1 and 2. Both may be formed with a sally at 
 the ends equal to the breadth of the key. In this shape 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 Fig. 52 is very well suited for joining the parts of the 
 long corner posts of spires and other wooden towers. 
 I Fig. 52, No. 2, differs from No. 1 only by having three 
 ' keys. Thvj principle and the longitudinal strength are 
 the same. The long scarf of No. 2, tightened by the 
 three keys, enables it to resist a bending much better. 
 
 None of these scarfed tie-beams can have more than 
 one- third of the strength of an entire piece, unless with 
 
 L 3 
 
226 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 the assistance of iron plates ; for if the key be made 
 thinner than one-third, it has less than one-third of the 
 fibres to pull by. 
 
 We are confident, therefore, that when the heads of 
 the bolts are connected by plates, the simple form of 
 Fig. 51, No. 1, is stronger than those more ingenious 
 scarfings. It may be strengthened against lateral 
 bondings by a little tongue, or by a sally ; but it cannot 
 have both. 
 
 The strongest of all methods of piecing a tie-beam 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 would be to set the parts end to end, and grasp them 
 between other pieces on each side, as in Fig. 54. This 
 is what the ship- carpenter calls Jishing a beam ; and is 
 a frequent practice for occasional repairs. M. Perronet 
 used it for the tie-beams or stretchers, by which he 
 connected the opposite feet of a centre, which was 
 yielding to its load, and had pushed aside one of the 
 piers aboye 4 inches. Six of these not only withstood 
 a strain of 1,800 tons, but, by wedging behind them, he 
 brought the feet of the truss 2^ inches nearer. The 
 stretchers were 14 inches by 11, of sound oak, and could 
 have withstood three times that strain. M. Perronet, 
 fearing that the great length of the bolts employed to 
 connect the beams of these stretchers would expose 
 them to the risk of bending, scarfed the two side pieces 
 into the middle piece. The scarfing was of the trian- 
 gular kind, and only an inch deep, each face being 
 two feet long, and the bolt passed through close to the 
 angle. Various modes of scarfing are shown on Plates 
 XV. and XVI. of the Atlas. 
 
JOINTS, SCARFING, AND STRAPS. 
 
 227 
 
 The following maxims will be sujfficiently accurate 
 for practical purposes : — 
 
 1. In oak, ash, or elm, the whole length of the scarf 
 should be six times the depth or thickness of the beam, 
 when there are no bolts. 
 
 2. In fir the whole length of the scarf should be 
 about twelve times the thickness of the beam, when 
 there are no bolts. 
 
 3. In oak, ash, or elm, the whole length of a scarf 
 depending on bolts only should be about three times 
 the breadth of the beam ; and for fir beams it should 
 be six times the breadth. 
 
 4. When both bolts and indents are combined, the 
 whole length of the scarf for oak and hard w^oods may 
 be twice the depth ; and for fir, or soft woods, four 
 times the depth. 
 
 Beams to resist cross strains require to be lengthened 
 more frequently than any others ; and from the nature 
 of the strain, a different form must be adopted for the 
 scarf from that which is best for a strain in the direc- 
 tion of the length. It w^ould be a great advantage in 
 such beams to apply hoops or straps of iron instead of 
 bolts ; and it would be easy to form the scarf so that 
 the hoops might be driven on perfectly tight. There 
 is no part of carpentry which requires greater correct- 
 ness in workmanship than scarfing, as all the indents 
 should bear equally, otherwise the greater part of the 
 strength will be lost. Hence w^e see how very unfit 
 some of the complicated forms showm in the old works 
 on carpentry were for the purpose. 
 
 125. Straps. — When it is necessary to employ iron 
 straps for strengthening a joint, considerable atten- 
 tion is necessary, that we may place them properly. 
 The first thing to be determined is the direction of the 
 strain. This is learned by the observations which have 
 
228 
 
 CARPE^'TEY. 
 
 been previously made. We must tlien resolve this 
 strain into one parallel to each piece, and another 
 perpendicular to it. Then the strap which is to be 
 made fast to any of the pieces must be so fixed that it 
 shall resist in the direction parallel to the piece. Fre- 
 quently this cannot be done ; but Tve must come as near 
 to it as we can. In such cases we must suppose that 
 the assemblage yields a little to the pressures which act 
 on it. We must examine what change of shape a small 
 yielding will produce. We must now see how this will 
 affect the iron strap, which we have already supposed 
 attached to the joint in some manner that we thought 
 suitable. This settling will perhaps draw the pieces 
 away from it, leaving it loose and unserviceable (this 
 frequently happens to the plates which are put to secure 
 the obtuse angles of butting timbers, when their bolts 
 are at some distance from the angles, especially when 
 these plates are laid on the inside of the angles) ; or it 
 may cause it to compress the pieces harder than before ; 
 in which case it is answering our intention. But it may 
 be producing cross strains, which may break them ; or, 
 it may be crippling them. We can hardly give any 
 general rules ; but the reader will do well to read what 
 is said in the volume on Roofs. He will there see the 
 nature of the strap or stirrup, by which the king-post 
 carries the tie-beam. The 
 strap that we observe most 
 generally ill-placed is that 
 which connects the foot of 
 the rafter with the beam. It 
 only binds down the rafter, 
 but does not act against its 
 horizontal thrust. It should 
 be placed farther back on the beam, with a bolt 
 through it, which will allow it to turn round. It should 
 
JOINTS, SCARFING, AND STRAPS. 
 
 229 
 
 embrace the rafter almost horizontally near the foot, and 
 should be notched square with the back of the rafter. 
 Such a construction is represented in Fig. 55. The 
 strap at the foot of a principal rafter is intended to 
 form an abutment for it, in case the end of the tie- 
 beam should fail; but if placed too upright it will 
 become loose when the roof settles. 
 
 In Fig. 1, Plate XVII. of Atlas, s shows a strap for 
 suspending the tie-beam to a king or queen-post : its hold 
 of the post may be improved by turning the ends, as at 
 d dy in the section E ; these, when well fitted, with the 
 addition of bolts, give the strap a firm hold ; or staples, 
 as in Fig. 2, may be used for a slight roof. The 
 strengths of straps for difierent bearings are stated 
 below. When the longest unsupported part of the 
 tie-beam is 
 
 10 feet, the strap may be 1 incli wide by iij- inch thick. 
 20 2 J „ 
 
 These dimensions are quite sufficient for common 
 purposes ; but where the machinery of a theatre, or 
 other heavy loads, are to be borne by the tie-beams, the 
 straps must be made stronger in proportion to the load. 
 In bolting on straps they ought to be drawn tight. 
 
 The use of straps at the feet of rafters is sometimes 
 obviated by bedding the end of the tie-beam on the 
 wall in a cast-iron shoe, which serves the purpose of 
 protecting the timber from the damp of the wall ; and 
 by having the back of the shoe as high as the depth 
 of the tie-beam, all danger of the abutment to the rafter 
 giving way is obviated, and it is only necessary to 
 secure the foot of the rafter by a bolt passing through 
 it and the tie-beam ; this bolt should also pass through 
 the under side of the shoe, so as to hold all three firmly 
 together. 
 
230 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 Section IV* — Scaffolding, Shoring, Coffer-dams, 
 Bressummers. 
 
 126. A Gantry or gawntree is a staging or scaffolding 
 formed of whole timber, erected around a building whicb 
 is to be constructed or faced with hewn stone. This is 
 framed with uprights or standards 10 or 15 feet apart, 
 supporting longitudinal pieces or runners laid on the top 
 of them, the bearing being strengthened by means of 
 struts as shown on Fig. 60 (page 223). A capping of 
 wood is placed between the top of each standard and the 
 runner, to prevent it from injuring the latter ; and the 
 lower ends of the standards are either let several feet 
 into the ground, down to a solid foundation, and firmly 
 wedged in their places, or else tenoned into a horizontal 
 sill laid along the ground. On the longitudinal pieces a 
 rail is generally laid for a travelling windlass, or traveller, 
 to move along, by which heavy stones can be lifted and 
 carried to any part of the building. When the scaffold- 
 ing is of very great height it is divided into stages by 
 horizontal pieces, or transoms, and is strutted at each 
 stage by making the ends of the transoms project 
 beyond the outer standards. The uprights should also 
 be strutted from the ground, in the manner of raking 
 shores, in order to prevent them from being forced out 
 of perpendicular, and to check vibration. 
 
 The scaffolding erected for the purpose of building 
 the Nelson Monument at Charing Cross, London, was 
 of the kind above described. The total height was 
 180 feet ; and was divided into seven stages varying in 
 height ; the lowest stage being 48 feet high and the 
 topmost one 21 feet. The uprights were tenoned a 
 short distance into the transoms, which latter projected 
 6 feet beyond the outer uprights to support the flying 
 wind-braces, by which the whole framework was 
 
SCAFFOLDIXG, SHORING, COFFEll-DAMS, BRESSUMMERS. 231 
 
 stiffened. In constructing these scaffoldings care is 
 taken to cut and injure the timber as little as possible, 
 so that when taken down it can be sawn up and used 
 for building purposes with but little waste of material. 
 
 A large amount of framed scaffold- 
 ing was erected around the New 
 Houses of Parliament, and some 
 very ingenious contrivances were 
 adopted for carrying up the towers 
 and larger pinnacles. Fig, 56 
 shows the scaffolding by means of 
 which the stones were hoisted in 
 their places for the four great pin- 
 nacles of the Victoria Tower. 
 
 This frame-work or cradling was 
 entirely independent of the masonry 
 which was erected within it, and 
 derived its support from a skeleton 
 framed platform a a, whose timbers 
 passed horizontally through aper- 
 tures on each side of the octagonal 
 pinnacle ; these were bolted together 
 and supported at each angle by 
 raking-struts, a b, bearing upon 
 the stone cornice below. On this 
 platform the scaffolding was carried 
 up in three stages, with eight up- 
 rights slightly inclined inwards. Fig. 56. 
 strengthened with cross-bracing 
 and horizontal ties at each stage. The height of the 
 stone-work from the cornice to the top of the pinnacle 
 is 84 feet. A full account of the scaffolding used at 
 the Houses of Parliament will be found in a paper 
 read by Mr. Charles Barry at the Royal Institute of 
 Architects, June 15, 1857. 
 
232 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 Turning -SCAFFOLDS are sometimes used for repairing 
 or decorating tlie inside of domes or vaults. These are 
 formed by attacliing a platform to a pair of revolving 
 masts, like the radii of a circle, which can be raised or 
 lowered as required by means of ropes and pulleys ; and 
 can also be moved horizontally by the same means. 
 The platform for the workmen is secured to the masts 
 by means of hooks, so as always to be kept in a 
 horizontal position. 
 
 A HoTST is a very simple kind of scaffold, in frequent 
 use in some of the stone districts, and consists of a pair 
 of masts placed a few feet apart, and braced together 
 so as to form a skeleton frame. This is placed on 
 a pair of grooved iron wheels, which run upon a 
 horizontal bar laid on the ground parallel with the 
 front of the building to be erected. On the top of this 
 framework is a jib with a pulley, over which the chain 
 or rope from the windlass below is passed. The hoist 
 is secured by means of guide ropes, and is moved with 
 great ease to any part where heavy stones have to be 
 raised. When the stone has to be lowered upon the 
 wall the guides are slackened, and the hoist allowed to 
 lean forward so that the jib projects over the wall. 
 
 127. Shoring is a rough framing of timber erected 
 against a wall for the purpose of securing it from fall- 
 ing. The mode of construction is as shown on Fig. 57 ; 
 a plank, AB, is first fixed against the wall by means of 
 the needles 0, driven through it to the inside of the 
 wall, the ends being left projecting out a short 
 distance to receive the tops of the shores. Raldng 
 shoreSy D and E, are then fixed firmly on a template 
 or footing, H, which is bedded on the ground, the tops 
 of the shores being firmly w^edged under the projecting 
 ends of the needles 0. When the wall is very high, a 
 third shore, F, is fixed about halfway up the outer 
 
SCAFFOLDING^ SHORING, COFFER-DAMS, BRESSUMMERS. 233 
 
 shore E, the foot resting on a timber, G, which carries 
 the pressure down to the footing. If the timbers are 
 very long they are sometimes stif- 
 
 fened by the struts K. As the object 
 of shoring is to convey the pressure 
 from the wall down the axis of the 
 timbers, and thereby down to the 
 ground, the angle of inclination of 
 the shores to the horizon should be 
 as small as possible, or the footing 
 H should be as far off the wall as 
 circumstances will permit. 
 
 Needling is another kind of 
 shoring, and is used when a wall is 
 perfectly upright, and when altera- 
 tions have to be made in the lower 
 story, such as the putting in a 
 bressummer for a shop-front. Hori- 
 
 zontal timbers, called ncecUcSy of ; 
 
 large scantling, are driven at short 57, 
 
 intervals through the wall, the ends 
 
 projecting 2 or 3 feet on each side; vertical shores are 
 
 fixed under these, by which the whole weight of the 
 
 wall above is carried down to the ground during the 
 
 alterations. 
 
 Strutting with timber is used for various purposes 
 in building. When the walls of two buildings lean 
 towards each other on opposite sides of a narrow street, 
 or if a deep excavation is being made in the road, struts 
 of horizontal pieces of timber are placed across from 
 wall to wall, the ends being let into vertical planks, or 
 templates, placed against the wall ; and, to prevent the 
 shores from bending under the pressure, they may be 
 stiffened by slanting struts abutting against the upper 
 and lower parts of the templates, in the manner shown 
 
2m 
 
 carpe:ntry. 
 
 on Fig. 60. A similar mode of strutting is employed 
 wlien a deep and long excavation has to be made for a 
 sewer or railway, to keep the earth from falling in, 
 " and save the necessity of sloping it back on each side. 
 128. Coffer-dams, being formed of timber, may be 
 considered as part of the carpenter's business. They 
 are watertight enclosures erected during the building 
 of walls or piers whose foundations are under water, 
 the water being pumped out of the coffer-dam before 
 the building is commenced. They consist of rows of 
 timbers, called piles, shod at the bottom with iron, 
 which are driven down into the bed of the river as close 
 together as possible, the interstices being filled in with 
 clay-puddle. The piles in the first row are driven some 
 feet apart, and serve as a guide to those of the inner rows, 
 hence they are denominated guide-piles ; inside these are 
 fixed horizontal beams or tvaling- pieces, generally four in 
 number, to keep the inner rows of piles from getting 
 out of place. The inner and outer rows of piles are 
 bolted together, and the space between them puddled 
 with clay. 
 
 When it was required to build a river wall for the 
 new Houses of Parliament at Westminster, a coffer- 
 dam was constructed in the river Thames with piles 
 12 inches square and 36 feet long. The piles were 
 driven 2 feet into the clay under the bed of the river, 
 after a trench had first been formed by dredging in the 
 line of the dam. The toj)s of the piles when driven 
 rose 4 feet 6 inches above high water at spring-tides. 
 To these were fixed waling-pieces and an outer row of 
 sheet-piling, also formed of whole timber sawn per- 
 fectly square ; these were driven close together and 
 firmly bolted to the waling-pieces. An inner row of 
 sheet piling formed of half timber was then driven, 
 and on the top of these two rows of piles horizontal 
 
SCAFFOLDING, SHORIXG, COFFER-DAMS, BII 
 
 pieces were securely fastened with bol 
 braces between the piling and the old 
 introduced throughout the whole length 
 as to resist the horizontal pressure of the 
 outer and inner rows were bolted together, and the 
 space between them filled up with stiff clay. This dam 
 was 920 feet in length. 
 
 For building the piers of London Bridge, coffer-dams 
 elliptical on plan, were constructed. The main dam 
 consisted of two rows of piles, leaving a space of 5 feet 
 between each row, with the tops 5 feet above high 
 spring- tides. These piles were connected by means of 
 three rows of double walings secured with two-inch 
 bolts and wooden cleats 12J inches square and 3 feet 
 long. A third and outer row of piles was also driven 
 
 6 feet beyond the second row, the heads of which were 
 
 7 feet below the others. These piles were connected 
 by walings, as above described, and secured to the 
 main dam by iron bolts and wooden cleats. The 
 spaces between the rows were filled with clay, the 
 exterior joints caulked and coated with pitch. All the 
 above-named timbers were of icliole timber. Sets of 
 cross and diagonal braces formed of half timber were 
 used to connect the rows of piles together ; and the 
 whole dam was braced longitudinally and transversely 
 with double and single braces of ichole timber, con- 
 nected with iron straps and ties. 
 
 129. Bressummers are beams placed over wide 
 openings to carry the wall above, as in shop-windows 
 or openings for bay-windows. In shops, the ends of 
 the bressummer usually rest upon two or more upright 
 pieces of timber, called stori/-])os(s, which are tenoned 
 into it, the lower ends of the posts resting upon stone 
 bases or templates. To find the load that such a beam 
 of fir will safely bear, when uniformly distributed over 
 
236 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 its entire length, multiply the breadth by the square 
 of the depth, and divide by the length of bearing ; the 
 result, multiplied by 2300, gives the safe l^ad in lbs., 
 all the dimensions being in inches. It is usual to saw 
 the beam down the middle, reverse the ends, and bolt 
 the pieces together, or else to use two flitches^ and bolt 
 them together. It may also be strengthened by a truss 
 of iron placed between the flitches, or by a thin flitch 
 of wrought iron. The strength of the story']posts de- 
 pends much uj)on the height of the bressummer from 
 the ground, the distance ajDart of the posts, and the 
 load to be carried above ; but, as a rule, the thickness 
 should not be less than half the breadth, and the 
 breadth is that of the bressummer to be supported. 
 
 Lintels are pieces of wood laid across an opening 
 for a door or window, to carry the wall above ; they 
 should rest at least 9 inches on the wall at either side, 
 and the thickness varies from 3 to 6 inches, according 
 to the sjoan of the opening, the breadth being always 
 equal to that of the wall above. When timber lintels 
 are placed over wide openings they are denominated 
 bressummers, as described above. 
 
 Bond timbers are pieces of w^ood sometimes laid 
 longitudinally in brick walls for the purpose of bonding 
 the work together; they are generally the thickness 
 and breadth of a brick, namely, 4i ins. by 3 ins., and 
 if returned round two walls at right angles to each 
 other are dovetail halved and spiked at the angles. As 
 timber in this position is liable to rot, and thereby cause 
 settlemeuts in the wall after the lapse of several years, 
 it is usual now to substitute iron hooping for timber 
 bond. 
 
A.N ELEMENT AEY TEEATISE ON 
 JOINEEY. 
 
 UY E. WYNDHAM TAHN, M.A. 
 
 Section I. — Technical Terms. 
 
 130. The Operations of Joinery require greater 
 accuracy than those of Carpentry, since the work is 
 nearer to the eye, and subject to closer inspection ; the 
 joints must be accurately fitted, and all the exposed sur- 
 faces rendered perfectly even and smooth. These opera- 
 tions consist of forming surfaces of various kinds, both 
 plain and curved, grooving, rebatingj tongueing, mi- 
 tring, dovetailing, mortising, and tenoning; also the 
 joining of pieces together so as to form a frame or 
 solid piece of v/ork ; each of which operations will be 
 described in the following pages. The wood used by 
 joiners is called stuff, which must be carefully selected 
 and free from all defects, such as sap, dead-knots, 
 shakes, or cracks ; and must also be thoroughly 
 seasoned and dried, as described in Carpentry (7). 
 This stuflf consists of planlcs or hoards, deals, and battens, 
 so named according to their widths ; battens vary from 
 2 inches to 7 inches in width, deals are 9 inches, and 
 planks 11 inches ; the thickness in the rough is 2^ 
 and 3 inches. The stuff is sawn or ripped by the 
 joiner to the thickness he requires ; and if the width 
 is insufficient, two or more boards of the same thick- 
 ness are glued together at the edges. 
 
 The technical terms employed by joiners apply 
 
238 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 equally to every part of their work; we shall. there- 
 fore give an explanation of those terms before pro- 
 ceeding to describe the chief operations of Joinery. 
 
 131. Grooving, or Ploughing, is the forming a 
 rectangular channel, or groove, of uniform width in a 
 piece of wood, as in Fig. 68, marked G ; this is done in 
 
 rig. 58. Fig. 59. 
 
 order to receive a tongue, or tenon, attached to another 
 piece so as to fit the two together. 
 
 132. Eebating, or Rabbeting, is the cutting a rect- 
 angular strip, called a 7rJ)ate, or rabbet, out of one side 
 of a piece of wood, as in Fig 69, marked E, to receive 
 another piece, as in the hanging of doors or shutters. 
 
 133. Mortising is the cutting a rectangular cavity, 
 or 77iortise, within the surface of a piece of wood, in 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
 order to receive a corresponding rectangular piece, 
 called a tenon, projecting from another piece of wood, 
 as in Fig. 60, M being the mortise, and T the tenon ; 
 the solid pieces on each side of the mortise are called 
 the cheeks, and the parts (S) from which the tenon pro- 
 
TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 239 
 
 jects are called the shoulders. Two pieces that are mor- 
 tised together usually have the grain of one at right 
 angles to that of the other. Mortises are also cut in 
 the framework of doors to receive locks, &c. 
 
 134. ToNGUEiNG is the insertion of a thin slip of 
 wood or iron, called a tongue, into grooves previously cut 
 
 ov ploughed in two pieces 
 
 of wood, for the purpose 
 of keeping their faces 
 in one continuous plane, 
 as in Fig. 61, T being 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 
 the tongue ; when the tongue is cut across the grain 
 of the wood, it is called a feather-tongue. The tongues 
 are glued into their places, and the pieces forced 
 close together with a cramp or by blows from a mallet. 
 135. A Mitre is the diagonal joint which two pieces 
 
 of wood make with each 
 
 other when meeting at an 
 angle, as M in Fig. 62. A 
 mitred border is put round 
 the hearths of fireplaces, to 
 separate them from the wood 
 floor. 
 
 136. Shootixg is the term 
 a]3plied to the making a 
 straight edge to a board, which is then said to be shot. 
 This is done to make two boards fit accurately together 
 at their edges. 
 
 137. Dovetailing is the joining two boards by in- 
 denting them together, the sections of the projection 
 and hollows being in the form of a dovetail, as shown 
 in Fig. 63. 
 Dovetailing 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 IS 
 
 of 
 
 common 
 
 three kinds — common, lap, 
 shows the form of the pro- 
 
 and mitre ; the 
 jections, and also of the excavations made to receive 
 
240 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 them. Lajo dovetailing conceals the dovetails, but 
 shows the thickness of the lap in the return side, 
 which appears like the edge of a thin board. Mitre 
 dovetailinp: conceals the 
 
 dovetails, and shows only 
 a mitre on the edges of 
 the planes at their surface 
 of concourse ; that is, the 
 edges in the same plane, 
 the seam or joint being in 
 the concourse of the two 
 faces, making the given 
 angle with each other. This mode is used in fixing 
 very wide boards together, where the seam or line of 
 junction is in the concourse of the two faces, and the 
 fibres of the wood of each board are perpendicular to a 
 plane passing through such line. 
 
 Concealed dovetailing is useful where the faces of 
 the boards are intended to form a salient angle ; but 
 where they form a re-entrant angle, common dovetail- 
 ing is best, as it is strongest and cheapest, and is 
 entirely concealed, the dovetails only showing on the 
 salient angle. 
 
 138. Arris is a term used to denote the sharp edge 
 or external angle made by joining two pieces of wood 
 the surfaces of which are not in the same plane. When 
 the arris is cut off" by a plane to a uniform width it is 
 said to be chamfered, 
 
 139. Clamping is fastening several boards together 
 to form one plane surface, by means of another board, 
 or clamp, fixed transversely to the others at each end 
 by means of mortise and tenon, or by a groove and 
 tongue. If the clamp forms a mitre at each angle 
 with the two outer boards, it is then said to be mitre- 
 damped. 
 
TECHNICAL TEK:\rS. 
 
 241 
 
 140. Blockings are small pieces of wood fitted and 
 glued to the interior angle of two boards, in order to 
 strengthen the joint, as in the junction between the 
 treads and risers of stairs. 
 
 141. Housing is the cutting a piece out of the face 
 of one board for the insertion of the end of another, 
 in order to fasten the two together, as in letting the 
 ends of stairs into the strings. 
 
 142. Bracketing is a rough kind of framework, 
 consisting of a number of small pieces of board an 
 inch or more in thickness-, placed at equal distances 
 apart (about 12 inches) in the angles formed by the 
 ceiling and walls of a room, so as to be partly on each, 
 and at right angles thereto ; to these pieces the laths 
 for the cornice are nailed; the angle-brackets placed 
 so as to bisect the angles of the room, and must be made 
 larger than the others in the proportion of the diagonal 
 of a square to its side. 
 
 143. Angle-staffs are vertical slips of wood fixed 
 to plugs driven into the exterior angles of the walls of 
 rooms that have to be plastered, the outer faces of the 
 angle-staff's being flush with that of the finished 
 plaster ; they are placed there to prevent the edge of 
 the plaster from being broken. "When the walls are 
 intended to be covered with paper, the angle-staffs are 
 square, or only slightly rounded at the outer edge ; but 
 when they are to be painted, the staffs are made with a 
 quirked- bead on the outer edge. 
 
 144. Battening consists in fixing narrow slips of 
 wood, called battens, to walls, for the purpose of nailing 
 the plaster laths thereto, so as to keep them off" the 
 wall itself. This method is often adopted when the 
 walls are liable to damp coming through from the out- 
 side. The battens are about 2 inches wide, and f inch 
 thick, placed about 12 inches apart, and nailed either to 
 
 M 
 
242 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 plugs driven into tlie wall, or to bond timbers built in 
 as the wall goes up ; wbere they are fixed against flues 
 iron holdfasts must be used to secure them to the wall. 
 
 145. Matched-boarding is a name given to a framing 
 or partition formed of a number of boards exactly 
 matched to an equal width, with a bead and tongue 
 worked on one edge, and a groove on the other ; the 
 tongue of one board is then made to fit into the groove 
 of the next, and the whole are secured together by 
 ledges at the back. Matched-boarding is often used 
 for the lining of walls, instead of plaster. 
 
 146. Feather-edged boards are those which are 
 thicker at one edge than the other ; they are used for 
 covering the walls and roof of frame-houses (112), the 
 thick edge of one board lapping over the thin edge of 
 the one below ; this is termed weather-hoarding. They 
 are also used for forming fences between fields, and are 
 then fixed upright against horizontal rails. In common 
 houses feather- edged boards are sometimes used for the 
 treads of stairs, the thick edge forming the nosing (196). 
 
 147. FuRRiNGS are pieces of wood used for bringing 
 up any piece of carpentry to a uniform level where 
 it has become out of level by the bending or sagging 
 of the timbers, or where there is an insufiicient depth ; 
 as in the case of floor or ceiling-joists, which often 
 have to be furred in order to make the floor boards 
 perfectly level. 
 
 148. Fillets are narrow slips of wood used for 
 various purposes in joinery ; thus icater-filJets are fixed 
 over the joints of lodged flaps or doors exposed to the 
 weather, to prevent the rain getting in through the 
 joints. Tilting-fiUets are slips of wood nailed to the 
 rafters of a roof, to lift or tilt up the slating where it 
 abuts against a wall. 
 
 149. Heading-joints are the joints made by the meet- 
 
TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 243 
 
 mg of the ends of two or more boards or pieces of wood, 
 and are at right angles to the direction of the fibres 
 of the wood ; they are usually ploughed and tongued. 
 
 150. Veneer is a thin layer of wood glued over a 
 wooden backing, to give it a superior finish, or in 
 order to form a curved surface ; veneers are generally 
 cut from expensive woods remarkable for the beauty of 
 their grain and colour, such as Spanish mahogany, 
 oak, satin-wood, walnut, rose- wood, &c. The panels 
 of doors, hand-rails, and other parts of the joinery of 
 a house, are often finished in this way. 
 
 151. Halving isa method of joining two pieces of wood 
 by cutting away each of them half its depth, and letting 
 the remaining half of one into the part cut away in the 
 other ; the pieces are generally of the same thickness, 
 and when they are halved together both the surfaces of 
 each piece will be flush with one another. The width 
 of the part cut away in one is equal to the width of 
 the other piece, so that they exactly fit together. 
 
 152. Plijgs are pieces of wood inserted in a wall, 
 and cut ofi* flush with its face, to which wood linings 
 are nailed. 
 
 153. Scribing is the cutting away of the edge of a 
 board in order to make it fit exactly to a plane surface ; 
 this is usually done with the bottom edge of skirtings, 
 which are scribed to the floor. 
 
 154. Bevilling is joining two surfaces so as to make 
 an oblique angle, or bevil ; the term is also applied to 
 cutting away the angle made by two surfaces. Splay- 
 ing is a similar operation to bevilling, and is applied 
 to cutting a board so as to make it thinner at one edge 
 than the other, or fixing it so that it forms an obtuse 
 angle with the piece that it joins, as the linings of a 
 window, which are often fixed on the splai/, or not 
 square with the face of the wall. 
 
 M 2 
 
241 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 155. Wedges are pieces of wood wider at one end 
 than the other, which are much used in tightening up 
 the framework in all kinds of joinery, being driven into 
 mortise holes in order to press the tenons closely to 
 their places. They are generally dipped in glue before 
 being driven. In order to make the tenon fix tight 
 into the mortise, the end is sometimes split, and a pro- 
 jecting wedge inserted ; it is then driven into the mor- 
 tise, the pressure against the bottom of which drives 
 the wedge into the tenon, and expands it in width, so 
 as to be firmly compressed against the sides of the 
 mortise. This mode is called foxtail-wedging, 
 
 156. Throating is cutting a groove underneath a 
 projecting piece of wood, as a sill, or bottom rail of a 
 casement or sash ; this is done to prevent water which 
 might run down the face from returning under the 
 bottom. Throatings are shown by the letter T in 
 Fig. 64. 
 
 157. Eaking is a term applied to any piece of work 
 fixed out of a horizontal or vertical line, such as the 
 top- rail of spandrel- framing which fills up the triangular 
 space under a staircase, or the mouldings of a pediment. 
 
 158. Framing is a term applied to the mortising 
 together of a number of pieces (at least three) ; the 
 mortises and tenons are first accurately fitted and then 
 glued all at once, and wedged into their places by the 
 help of a cramp ; this forms the skeleton framing, and 
 the filling-in pieces are called panelSy which are gene- 
 rally thinner than the framing, and are let into grooves 
 cut in the frame before it is put together. When the 
 framing has to be ornamented with mouldings, they 
 are usually fixed afterwards, and mitred at the angles. 
 When a surface is not all in one plane, or a straight 
 edge does not touch it along its whole length in what- 
 ever direction it is placed, the surface is said to wind ; 
 
FLOORS AND SKIRTINGS. 
 
 245 
 
 but wLen the straight-edge touclies every part, how- 
 ever it is placed, the surface is all in one plane, and is 
 said to be out of ivinding. When two pieces of a frame 
 have their surfaces in the same plane, they are said to 
 be flush. 
 
 Section II. — Floors and Skirtings. 
 
 159. Floors in joinery are boards which are laid 
 close together upon the top of the joists previously 
 fixed by the carpenter ; they vary in thickness from 
 half-an-inch to 3 inches, according to the require- 
 ments of the case ; either battens, deals, or planks are 
 used for flooring, but it is generally considered that 
 the narrower the boards are the better is the floor, 
 narrow battens being less likely to split, warp, or 
 shrink than planks or deals. Deal floor-boards are cut 
 out of 2|-inch or 3-inch stuff*, and are often described 
 according to the number of saw- cuts required to give 
 the necessary thickness ; thus, if 3-inch stuff" is divided 
 by one saw-cut down the middle of its thickness, the 
 boards are called one-cut or IJ-inch ; and if by two saw- 
 cuts, they are termed two-cut or 1-inch, and so on. 
 The actual thickness of the floor-boards when laid is 
 about one-eighth of an inch less than that by which 
 they are denominated, as they have to be planed on 
 one side as well as sawn, both which processes occasion 
 a slight loss of thickness. The floor-boards are fixed 
 to the joists with nails called floor-brads, which in thin 
 floors are driven straight through from the surface of 
 the boards ; but where the thickness of the boards is 
 sufficient to allow it, they may be edge-nailed, or nailed 
 at the edges in a slanting direction, so that no nail- 
 heads appear on the surface. This, however, can only 
 be done at one edge of the board. A square of flooring 
 
246 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 is 100 superficial feet. There are several kinds of 
 floors, whicli are named according to the mode adopted 
 in laying the boards ; as folding-floors, straight-joint 
 floors, tongued-floors, do welled- floors, and parquetry- 
 floors. 
 
 160. FoLDixG-FLOOP.s are laid by placing four boards 
 together of equal length, which are shot as nearly as 
 possible to flt a given space, and then forced downwards, 
 folding into their places, as shown by Fig. 1.* These 
 are the cheapest kind of floors. 
 
 161. Straight-joint floors have the boards laid 
 carefully the length of the room in regular straight 
 joints, and then tightened together by means of a cramp 
 (Fig. 2) ; t the ends of the boards, ov licacUjig-joints, are 
 either splayed (Fig. 6),+ ploughed, and tongued (Fig. 7), § 
 or jointed, as Fig. 8, || taking care to break the joints at 
 proper distances. 
 
 162. ToxGUED-FLOORS have the longitudinal edges 
 all ploughed and fastened with wood or iron tongues 
 (Fig. 7);^ or else mortised and tenoned (Fig. 8),** a 
 groove being ploughed on one edge and a tenon on the 
 other, in Avhich case they are nailed on one edge, the 
 other edge being held down by the tongue, so that 
 only half the quantity of nails is used of what is 
 required for floors nailed from the top. 
 
 163. DowELLED-FLOORS are laid straight and joined 
 with wood or iron dowels, or pegs let into the edges of 
 the boards to keep them down, instead of nails from 
 the face (Figs. 3, 4, 5). ft If the boards are of oak, iron 
 dowels are used; and with deal boards, dowels of beech 
 or some hard wood. The dowels are 6 inches to 8 inches 
 apart. 
 
 In first-class floors it is usual to lay a common deal 
 
 * See Atlas, Plate XXIII. f Ibid. X Ibid. § Ibid. || Ibid. 
 ^ Ibid. - ** Ibid. ff Ibid. 
 
FLOORS AND SKIllTINGS. 
 
 247 
 
 floor first, and the finishmg floor on the top of it, but 
 in the direction at right angles to the former. 
 
 164. PATtQUETRY-FLOOiis are those which are formed 
 of variously coloured woods, such as oak, walnut, ma- 
 hogany, and other hard woods ; these are laid in geo- 
 metrical patterns upon a common deal floor previously 
 laid on the joists. There are two kinds of parquetry, 
 veneered and solid ; the former consists of veneers about 
 one- eighth of an inch thick of the expensive woods 
 glued upon a basis of deal or wainscot ; and the latter is 
 formed of solid wood about 1 inch in thickness, the 
 pieces being glued and tongued together. 
 
 165. Skirtings are the narrow^ boards fixed u]3right 
 against a wall or partition round the margin of the 
 floor, and forming a plinth for the base of the dado 
 (see Plate XIX., Atlas), or simply a plinth for the 
 room itself, where there is no dado above. When the 
 skirting is placed close to the wall, it is nailed to a 
 narrow horizontal slip of wood called a sldrting-g round y 
 which has been previously nailed to plugs let into the 
 wall, so as to form a stop for the plaster. When the 
 skirting stands forward from the face of the wall, it is 
 sometimes let into a groove cut in the floor, as shown in 
 Plate XIX. For large rooms requiring a deep skirting, 
 it is made in two heights, the upper part setting back 
 a little from the face of the lower part, and rebated into 
 its top edge, so as to form a double plinth. The angles 
 of skirtings are usually mitred and tongued. 
 
 If a skirting has no moulding on the top, it is called 
 sqiiare-sldrting ; if the moulding is a quirked-bead, as 
 shown on Plate XIX., it is termed a torus-skirting. 
 Where other mouldings are used as cappings to the 
 skirting, they are made sej)arate from it, and fixed 
 upon the top of the skirting, as the base of the dado in 
 Plate XIX. 
 
248 
 
 JOINERY, 
 
 166. A Dado is a very deep skirting, the top of 
 which is as high as the back of a chair, but the term is 
 technically applied to the plane surface between the 
 skirting and the surbase, or chair-rail, which goes 
 round a room, as shown on Plate XIX. 
 
 The dado proper is made of deal boards, glued 
 lengthwise edge to edge, with the heading joints 
 ploughed and tongued, and the back keyed with keys 
 tapered in their width and let into the back by a trans- 
 yerse groove. The mode of forming the dado is shown 
 on Plate XXVIII. ; by means of the narrow grounds K, 
 tongues I, and keys Gr, the dado hangs unconfined, the 
 joints being also secured by slips ploughed and glued 
 into the back, as at H, and dovetailed pieces inserted 
 at regular distances, as at M ; the top and bottom of 
 the dado not being confined, and the joints thus secured, 
 there will be no danger of the joints opening, even 
 should the deal shrink. The tongues I, through the 
 grounds K, should be about 3 feet apart, as also the 
 keys Gr, which must be about 3 inches wide at the 
 bottom. B shows the common mode of rebating the 
 dado into the grounds, but is not recommended. E is 
 the fillet in the floor to secure the plinth, and F shows 
 how it ought to be grooved into the floor. The internal 
 angles of all dados should be grooved and tongued, and 
 the external ones mitred. The dado is sometimes 
 framed in panels. 
 ♦ The base of the dado is the moulding rebated on the 
 top of the plinth. The surbase, or chair-rail, is the 
 moulding on the top of the dado, and is fixed to grooved 
 grounds attached to the wall behind (see Plate XIX.). 
 
 When a dado is fixed to a cylindrical surface, it has 
 to be formed by bending and glueing several veneers 
 of thin boards together ; the first upon a mould or upon 
 brackets, with their edges in the surface of the cylinder, 
 
DOOUS, FRAMING, AKD SHUTTERS. 249 
 
 and parallel to its axis. This may be effected by having 
 two sets of brackets fixed on a board, with a hollow 
 cylindrical space between them, wide enough to take in 
 the veneers, with double wedges for confining them ; 
 but as the wood has a tendency to unbend itself, the 
 curved surface upon which it is glued should be rather 
 quicker than that of the required cylinder. Another 
 mode is to form a hollow cradle, and, bending the 
 veneers into it, confine their ends with wedges, which 
 compress them together ; the glue is forced out of the 
 joint by rubbing with a hammer. Boards of the re- 
 quired thickness may also be bent by cutting grooves 
 at equal distances across, and bending them round a 
 cradle with the grooves outwards, which are afterwards 
 filled with slips of wood glued in; when the glue is dry 
 these slips are planed down to the surface of the 
 cylinder ; the cylinder may be stiffened by glueing 
 canvas at the back. 
 
 These methods of bending boards apply equally to 
 all cylindrical surfaces, as the soffits of circular-headed 
 windows or doors. 
 
 Dados are not much in use in modern buildings, but 
 in old houses they are frequently found. 
 
 Sectiox III. — Doors, Framing, and Shutters. 
 
 167. Docks are pieces of framework made to fit an 
 opening in a wall, and hung so as to open and close at 
 pleasure. The simplest form is the ledged-door, con- 
 sisting of boards placed together upright, edge to 
 edge, or w^ith the edges tongued one into the other, 
 and fastened together by transverse pieces of wood, 
 called ledges, nailed to the boards ; the edges of the 
 upright boards are usually beaded or chamfered. 
 Coach-house and church doors are generally made 
 
 M 3 
 
250 
 
 JOINEKY. 
 
 after this fashion, but with the upright pieces at each 
 edge thicker than the rest and framed into the ledges ; 
 diagonal bracing is used to strengthen the ledges. 
 Ledged-doors are usually hung to the door-frames 
 with cross-garnet hinges, which are in the form of a T, 
 and are screwed on one side of the door and frame. 
 Heavy doors, such as those used for coach-houses and 
 churches, are hung with long iron bands, turning on a 
 hook which is run with lead into a block of stone built 
 into the wall. 
 
 168. DooR-FKAMES cousist of three, and sometimes 
 four pieces of wood, framed together so as to leave an 
 opening equal to that of the door to be hung thereto. 
 They are usually fixed to the outer doors of a building, 
 and consist of a lintel, about 18 inches longer than the 
 clear opening, and two uprights, called side-posts, or 
 jamhsy tenoned into the lintel (see Fig. 1, Plate XXVII., 
 Atlas) ; sometimes there is a wood sill at the bottom, 
 into which the jambs are framed, or they are tenoned 
 into the stone sill or floor boards. If there is to be a 
 fanlight over the door, then a horizontal piece, called 
 a transom, is framed into the jambs to cut off the space 
 to be allowed for the fanlight, and forms the top of 
 the door-opening. The door-frame is usually rebated 
 about half an inch in depth to receive the door, and is 
 also beaded all round ; the width of the rebate is always 
 equal to the thickness of the door. 
 
 169. Framed Doors consist of vertical and hori- 
 zontal pieces, mortised into each other so as to form 
 rectangular openings, called panels, which are filled in 
 with thinner stuff let into grooves cut in the edges of 
 the framework. The horizontal pieces are called rails, 
 and the vertical ones utiles ; if there are three rails, 
 the lowest is called the bottom rail, the middle one 
 the lock rail, and the upper one the to^) rail ; if there 
 
DOORS, FRAMING, AND SHUTTERS. 
 
 251 
 
 are four rails, the highest but one is called the frieze 
 rail. When the door is more than one panel in width, 
 the uprights between the panels are called miintings 
 mountings. The mode of framing doors is shown on 
 Plates XYIII. and XXVII. of the Atlas. 
 
 Doors are named according to the number of panels 
 they are framed in, as one-panel, two-panel, four-panel, 
 six-panel doors. "When there are no mouldings planted 
 round the panels, and the framing simply projects 
 before them with a square edge or arris, the door is 
 termed square (Fig. 3, Plate XXVII.) ; if a moulding is 
 planted round the edge of the panel, it is called a 
 moulded door (Fig. 5, Plate XXVII.) ; if the face of the 
 panel is in the same plane on either side as that of 
 the stiles and rails, it is called 2i flush-panel door ; bead- 
 butt when the flush panel has beads struck along two 
 parallel edges (Fig. 4, Plate XXVII.) ; bead-flush when 
 the beads are struck on the edges of the stiles and rails 
 next the panels. "When the edges of the stiles and 
 rails are pared off round the panels, the framing is said 
 to be chamfered ; and if the chamfer stops short of the 
 two ends, then it is said to be stop- chamfered. 
 
 When the moulding round the panels projects be- 
 yond the face of the stiles and rails it is called bolection- 
 moulded. Raised panels are formed by making the 
 middle of the panels thicker than the sides next the 
 framing, and sloping them all round. (See Plate XXVI. 
 Atlas.) The mouldings must always be bradded to the 
 framing, and the brads must pass through the edges 
 of the panels, otherwise the moulding will be drawn 
 away from the framing when the panel shrinks, and 
 spoil the appearance of the door. 
 
 170. FoLDiNG-DOORS are those Y\^hich are hung in 
 two or more leaves, or folds ; if not intended to swing 
 both ways, they are made with a rebate down the edge 
 
252 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 of each outer stile, so as to form a lap wlien they meet, 
 and a quirked-bead is planted on the opposite side of 
 each door to that on which the rebate is cut. 
 
 Folding-doors that are made to swing both ways 
 have no rebate, but are slightly rounded at both the 
 outer edges of the stiles. (See Plates XX. and XXI. 
 Atlas.) 
 
 171. Door-linings. — The doors for rooms are 
 usually hung to rebated linings, consisting of two jambs 
 framed into a soffit, which are fixed to the openings in 
 the wall or partition. The doors are hung with hutt- 
 lunges scvewed to the rebate of the linings and also to 
 the edge of the door, the knuckle of the hinges pro- 
 jecting before the face of the door ; a piece of wood, the 
 size and thickness of one-half the hinge, is cut out of 
 the jamb and the edge of the door, and the hinge let 
 into the sinking. 
 
 172. Saving-doors. — Where doors are required to 
 swing both ways, as in public buildings, shops, &c., 
 the linings are slightly hollowed, and the edges of the 
 doors rounded ; the doors are hung with pivots, or 
 centres, let into the top and bottom of the door, the 
 bottom centre being connected with a powerful spring 
 sunk in the floor. 
 
 173. Sasii-doors are those which have the upper 
 panels rebated to receive a sheet of glass instead of a 
 wooden panel. When much light is required to pass 
 through the upper panels, they are made wider than 
 the lower ones by reducing or diminishing the width of 
 the stiles ; the joints which the stiles make with the lock 
 rail are then cut on a slant instead of being vertical. 
 
 174. Sliding-doors are those which, instead of 
 being hung upon hinges, are made to run upon metal 
 wheels, fixed either at the top or bottom of the doors, 
 and running upon iron rails. 
 
DOORS, FRAMING, AND SHUTTERS. 
 
 263 
 
 175. Panels are slabs of wood let mto grooves in the 
 stiles and rails of framed doors, and are generally thinner 
 than the framing. In common doors they should not be 
 made wider than can be got out of the width of the wood 
 without joining it ; this is 11 inches in deal, which is 
 as wide as a panel ought to be made, otherwise the 
 door becomes weakened by not having enough stiles 
 and rails, and is liable to wind in consequence. 
 
 176. Locks for doors are of various kinds ; but 
 there are only two ways of fixing them, either by 
 screwing them on the outside of the lock rail, or by 
 letting them into a mortise cut therein. The former 
 plan is used for common doors, especially if there is 
 not thickness enough to allow of a mortise being cut ; 
 the latter mode is used for doors not less than 2 inches 
 thick, and where a superior class of finish is required. 
 The knobs by which the bolt of the lock is shot back- 
 wards and forwards, called the furniture^ are fitted on 
 a spindle which passes through a hole drilled in the 
 door ; except in the case of draw-back locks, usually 
 fixed on outer doors. 
 
 Escutcheons are plates or thin rims of metal fixed 
 round the key-holes cut in the sides of doors. 
 
 177. Framing is the term applied to all kinds of 
 joinery that are made up in panels with stiles and 
 rails, doors being one particular branch of framing. 
 Framed partitions are sometimes used to separate 
 rooms, and are made with larger and thicker panels 
 than are usual in doors. 
 
 Sjoanclril'framing is that which incloses any trian- 
 gular space, such as that between a flight of stairs and 
 the floor below, or wherever there is a raking top rail, 
 in which case the heads of the top panels are cut to 
 the rake of the top rail. The linings to window backs 
 and elbows are generally framed in panels ; and some- 
 
254 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 times the linings of doors are panelled, where the wall 
 is of sufficient thickness to allow it. 
 
 178. Shutters to windows are generally framed in 
 the same way as doors. Folding- shutters are those 
 which are hung in two or more widths, or folds, to the 
 hanging stile, or back of the sash-frame, on each side 
 of the window, the part that is hung to the stile being 
 called the shutter, and the folding part which is hung 
 to it the hack'flapy the edge of each being rebated to 
 receive that of the other. Fig. 8, Plate XXVII. (Atlas), 
 shows the mode of hanging shutters to the sash-frame ; 
 and, when open, they are concealed in a box, and are, 
 therefore, called hoxmg-shtitters. The part marked L is 
 the boxing^ which is splayed, to allow the shutter to fall 
 more easily into the box. H is the back lining, which 
 may be plain or panelled, as shown in the figure. E 
 is the principal shutter, and forms the side or jamb of 
 the window-opening when the shutters are open ; this 
 is hung to the window- frame with butt hinges. F 
 and G are the back- flaps, hung to the shutter with 
 back-flap hinges, each edge being rebated. In this 
 example the shutter and back-flaps are supposed to be 
 framed in the usual way, with panels moulded on one 
 side and bead-butt on the other. There will be a cor- 
 responding set on the opposite side of the window, 
 and, when closed, they are fastened by an iron bar, 
 generally hung by a pivot to one of the back-flaps, and 
 swinging across two or more of the divisions. In 
 order to keep the shutters close into the box, the outer 
 edge of the front shutter has sometimes a spring catch, 
 which locks into the edge of the boxing, L. Where 
 the thickness of the wall does not admit of carrying 
 out the above plan^ the boxings must be projected 
 forward as much as is necessary from the face of the 
 wall, or else the shutters made to fall back upon the 
 
DOORS, FRAMING, AND SHUTTERS. 
 
 255 
 
 wall itself, the shutter being hung to a narrow piece 
 having a quarter-round edge or rule-joint and fitting 
 behind the ground of the architraye. Plates XXIX. and 
 XXXI. (Atlas) show the mode of hanging folding- 
 shutters to a bay-window ; as, however, they seldom 
 fit w^ell in such a case, sliding or lifting- shutters with 
 balance weights are to be preferred, and these we shall 
 proceed to describe. 
 
 179. Lifting-shutters are those which are hung 
 with cords, pulleys, and balance- weights, and slide up 
 and down in a groove or pulley-stile, behind which is 
 the balance-weight passing over a pulley in the top of 
 the pulley- stile and attached to the edge of the shutter. 
 These shutters are usually hung in two heights, and 
 slide one behind the other, being secured, when closed, 
 by a thumbscrew passing through both. When the 
 shutters are opened, they slide down below the window- 
 sill and behind the framed wandow back, the top of 
 the shutters being then concealed by a flap, which falls 
 down and covers up the opening; rings are let into 
 the top of each shutter for drawing it up when re- 
 quired to be closed. Similar shutters are frequently 
 hung on the outside of shop windows, and slide dow^n 
 behind a framed casing. 
 
 180. Movable Shutters are those which are com- 
 monly used to the outside of shops, and are framed in 
 several parts, each rebated at the edge to receive the 
 others. They are fixed by sliding them in a horizontal 
 groove at top and bottom of the window (Plate XXII. 
 Atlas), and secured together by iron bars, going the 
 whole length of the window, and iron screws-bolts let 
 through at each end to the inside. 
 
 181. Revolving-shutters are those that are made 
 to coil upon a roller either at the top, or bottom, or on 
 the side of thewindow, the roller being placed out of 
 
356 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 sight, and concealed by a lining, whicli is made movable 
 for access to the machinery. They are formed of strong 
 laths about 2| inches wide, made of wood or iron, 
 which are fixed together by hinges, so that they can 
 be easily wound over a roller, which is turned by a 
 worm and wheel gearing, or else by a chain winding 
 round it. For windows which are circular on plan these 
 shutters are wound horizontally, the roller being placed 
 vertically at one side of the window. These shutters 
 work up and down in metal grooves fixed on each side 
 of the window, and they can be used either on the outside 
 or the inside of the window. In preparing for coiling- 
 shutters it is necessary to fix the lintel a sufiicient 
 height above the clear opening of the window, to allow 
 space for the laths to coil on the roller, the amount of 
 which depends upon the height of the w^indow. Shutters 
 with laths of wood require a clear space for coiling of 
 9 inches in windows 5 to 7 feet high, of 11 inches for 
 those from 7 to 10 feet high, and 13 inches for 
 windows from 10 to 12 feet in height. When the 
 laths are of iron the space required is 2 or 3 inches 
 less. 
 
 In preparing for coiling-shutters, provision must be 
 made for the easy removal of all linings that enclose 
 any part of the machinery, so as to allow of access 
 thereto for oiling, cleaning, and rej)airs, w^hich are 
 frequently required. 
 
 182. Gates are pieces of framing hung to the 
 openings in fences or divisions between different pro- 
 perties, or at the entrance to private grounds. The 
 width of a gate depends upon the use made of the 
 roadway or path which it crosses. If it is only for 
 foot-passengers or riding-horses, the width will be from 
 3 to 5 feet ; but if for carriages or other vehicles, the 
 width should not be less than 8 feet. The height 
 
DOORS, FRAMING, AND SHUTTERS. 
 
 257 
 
 depends upon tlie requirements of the place ; but ought 
 never to be less than 4 or 5 feet. Gates are framed of 
 timber in various ways ; the simplest consisting of 
 four pieces, framed in the form of a square or rect- 
 angle, with top and bottom rail and two stiles, or up- 
 rights, to which may be added a fifth piece, or brace, 
 placed diagonally across to stifien the framing and 
 prevent it from getting out of shape. A sixth piece, or 
 second brace, is also sometimes placed across the first, 
 and halved upon it. The openings between the piece 
 forming this frame are filled with upright or horizontal 
 bars, or else the whole is close boarded ; the edges of the 
 framing are sometimes stop-chamfered, and the stiles are 
 carried above the top rail and rounded or ornamented. 
 
 In ornamental gates the lower half is sometimes 
 framed in panels like a door, and filled in with narrow 
 battens, chamfered at the edges and tongued ; the 
 upper part may be left open, with cross bracing or open 
 panels. Gates for wide openings are generally made 
 in two leaves, one hung to each gate-post and meeting 
 in the middle, with a rebated edge, as the folding-doors 
 of a house. They are often framed up in panels, as in 
 house-doors, as shown by Plate XXVI. (Atlas). Gates 
 are usually hung with long iron bands, bolted on one 
 side of the top and bottom rail, and turning on crooks 
 let into the piers. 
 
 Field-gates consist simply of a rectangular frame, 
 with a diagonal brace and several horizontal bars 
 nailed across the frame. 
 
 183. Lock-gates for canals, docks, or rivers, are 
 very strong framings of timber, made to fold one 
 against the other, the meeting edge being rounded ofi*, 
 and the back covered with stout boards tongued 
 together. These gates are usually curved on plan, so 
 as to resist the pressure of the water, and, when closed, 
 
^58 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 they fit tigh/tly against a curved sill ; they are "opened 
 / and closed by help of machinery. 
 
 ; \ : V^'- Sectio2^ 1 V. — Windows. 
 
 184. Sashes are the wooden frames which hold the 
 glass by which the openings of windows are filled. 
 They are of various kinds and forms, some being fixed 
 immovably in the opening, as in shop windows; 
 others are hung with hinges like doors, and are called 
 casements, or French windows ; and another kind are 
 made to slide up and down in grooves, with balance- 
 weights to keep them from falling when open, and to 
 assist in opening and closing them. 
 
 185. Sash-frames are the wooden frames which are 
 fixed into the openings in the wall, and in which the 
 glazed sashes are fitted ; these are either made solid, 
 and rebated to receive the sashes, or else they are cased 
 of thin stuff* in the form of a long box, with beads on 
 each side to keep the sashes in their places. 
 
 186. Fixed Sashes consist merely of top and bottom 
 rail and two side pieces, or stiles, framed together with 
 mortise and tenon, and if the space is too large for 
 one square of glass, it is divided by sash-bars tenoned 
 into each other and into the stiles and rails; all the 
 mouldings to the sash and bars are mitred at the 
 angles. In small windows the sash is moulded on the 
 inside all round, and rebated on the outside to receive 
 the glass, which is puttied into it. In shop windows, 
 however, the moulding is on the outside of the sash, 
 and the rebate on the inside, the glass being secured 
 by movable beads screwed into the sash-bar at the 
 back of each square (Fig. 69). Frequently these sash- 
 bars are made of thin brass laid over a core of wood. 
 
 187. Casements are sashes that are hung with 
 butt-hinges to the sash-frame, as in the manner of 
 
render 
 
 WINDOWS. 
 
 doors, in which case the frame is usuallj 
 wood, and rebated the depth of the sash^ 
 are made to open either inwards or our 
 latter method being the best adapted to 
 weather, especially in exposed situations, 
 those which open inwards weather-proof, the stiles are 
 grooved and a small projecting fillet is fixed on the 
 side of the frame, which fits into the groove in the 
 sash when it is closed ; sometimes india-rubber tubing 
 is used for this purpose, and, by making a tight joint 
 between the sash and frame, it serves to keep out wind 
 as well as rain. As it is generally at the junction of 
 the sash with the sill of the frame that the weather 
 drives in, the bottom rail of the casement should have 
 a projecting piece of wood, or weather-board, to throw 
 ofi" the rain w^hich runs down the glass. A method of 
 making a weather-proof joint between the bottom rail 
 of a casement opening inwards and 
 the sill is shown on Fig. G4 ; T, T, T, 
 being throatings. A hollow is made 
 on the inner part of the sill to receive 
 any water that may drive in, and this 
 is carried ofi" by means of holes 
 drilled through to the bottom of the 
 sill. In making casements great 
 care is needed to have the wood 
 and seasoned, and the joints all accu- 
 When casements are made to fold in 
 two leaA^es, and to open inwards, those of a suj)erior 
 kind are fastened with an esjyagnolette'holt, going from 
 top to bottom of the sashes, and hooking the two firmly 
 together at top and bottom. There is also another 
 mode by means of a metal tongue, shooting backwards 
 and forwards the whole height of the casement, which 
 also serves to keep out weather. 
 
 ^§0/ Casein ent. 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 
 well shrunk 
 rately fitted. 
 
260-'". :A '^^'-^ JOINERY. 
 
 " 188:- HiJN^ Sashes are those which are mostly used 
 iri private houses in this country, and have many ad- 
 
 ,-VantagG#'6ver casements, especially in being weather- 
 tight, .and allowing of being opened, in either a small 
 
 . -or glreat degree, at top or bottom, so that the venti- 
 lation of a room can be better effected than with case- 
 ments. Sashes of this kind are always placed in cased 
 frames, the sashes being in two sheets, called top and 
 bottom sash, and hung so as to pass one another in 
 sliding up or down. The frame is made like a long 
 box, with a front, back, and two sides, forming the 
 soffit and the two jambs, the bottom being a solid sill, 
 generally of oak, resting upon the stone sill of the 
 window, and weathered outwards. The face of each 
 jamb, towards the opening, is formed into grooves, 
 called pulley ~2neccSy the exact width of the sash, divided 
 by a parting'Slip, to keep the sashes from touching each 
 other, and prevent them from getting out of place when 
 open. The sides of the case project in front of the 
 pulley-pieces so as to form two grooves for the sashes 
 to run in. The outer side of the case is called outside- 
 lining; the side next the room, the inside'lining; that next 
 the wall is the back-lining. A plan of this case is shown 
 at Fig. 8, Plate XXVII. (Atlas), where % ^, are the 
 inside and outside linings ; see also Plates XXIV., 
 XXV., and XXX. The pulley-pieces should be tongued 
 into the linings, and the back-lining into the outside- 
 lining, and nailed to the edge of the inside-lining ; a 
 groove is cut all round the frame, on the inside, for fixing 
 the internal finishings. A long piece is cut out near the 
 bottom of each pulley-stile to admit the balance-weights 
 after the frame is fixed ; this is filled in with a piece of 
 wood, called a pocket-piece, which can be easily removed 
 when the sash-line happens to break. Brass axle- 
 pullies are fixed at the top of the pulley- stiles, and 
 
WINDOWS. 
 
 over these the sash-line is passed, and al| 
 end to the weight, which hangs down behij\ 
 piece, and by the other end to edge of 
 which a groove is cut to receive it. When tl 
 doiihie'lmngy that is, both sheets are made to 
 there should be a parting-slip between the weights, to 
 prevent them from catching against each other as they 
 move up or down. When only one sheet or sash is hung, 
 the window is said to be single-hung. Iron weights are 
 generally employed in hanging sashes ; but if very 
 heavy, and the space small, lead, having a greater specific 
 gravity, is used instead (Plate XXX). The bottom 
 rail of the lower sash rests on the top of the oak sill, 
 which is sloped or weathered outwards, the bottom rail 
 being bevilled to fit the weathering. (See Atlas, Fig. 9, 
 Plate XXVII., and Plate XXIY.) On the top of the 
 sill and inside of the sash is a bead tongued to the sill, 
 which keeps the weather from driving under ; the sill 
 is double-sunk, the edge of the top sinking being 
 hollowed to prevent weather from driving up ; there 
 should be also a slight groove, or throating, cut in the 
 under side of the bottom rail of the sash. Hung 
 sashes, when closed, are fastened by a catch at the 
 meeting rails, or by a thumbscrew passing through the 
 meeting rails. 
 
 There is another mode of hanging sliding-sashes in 
 cases where there is no room for balance-weights ; 
 namely, by making one sheet or sash balance the 
 other, so that when the lower sash is pushed up the 
 upper one descends, and vice-ursd. The sashes, in this 
 case, are hung with lines in the usual way ; but the 
 same cord passes round both the pulleys, and under a 
 third pulley concealed in the case, and is attached at 
 each end to one of the sashes. 
 
 A wmdoiV'bottom, or capping-head, is tongued into 
 
262 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 the inside of the sill, and a soffit into the head of the 
 frame ; the jamb-linings, or the back-linings, of the 
 boxings for the shutters, if any, are tongued into the 
 inside-linings of the frame, and the shutter itself is 
 hung thereto. 
 
 189. Swing-sashes. — There is another mode of 
 opening sashes, which is employed in certain kinds of 
 windows ; namely, by swinging them upon centres, or 
 pivots, fixed on the middle of each side of the sash, 
 and turning in plates let into the frame. The upper 
 part of the sash falls inwards, when open, and the 
 lower part is pushed outwards ; the inside lining of the 
 frame is cut across, at a slant, about the middle of the 
 sash, the lower part serving as a stop to the sash when 
 closed, and the upper part opening with it. It is usual 
 
 Jass 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 Pig. 66. 
 
 to open and close such sashes by means of a cord 
 passing over a pulley fixed on the top of the frame. 
 Sometimes the centres are fixed at top and bottom of 
 the sash, which then opens vertically. 
 
 190. Sash-bars are moulded in various forms, such 
 as the simple chamfer (Fig. 65), the hollow (Fig. 66), 
 the ovolo (Fig. 67), the lamVs tongue, or douhle-ogee 
 (Fig. 68), and the astragal and hollow, which has a quirked 
 bead in front and a hollow on each side (Fig. 69). 
 
 191. Yexetian-frames are those in which the 
 opening of the window is divided into three parts by 
 vertical pieces, called mullions ; the side divisions are 
 usually about half the width of the middle one. If the 
 sashes are hung sliding, it is common to fix the sashes 
 
MOULDINGS, COLUMNS, STAIRCASES. 
 
 263 
 
 in the side lights, and only hang the middle cne, carrying 
 the lines over two axle-pulleys, and letting the weights 
 hang in the part of the frame next the wall ; the 
 mullions are then made solid with a lining on each 
 side and parting-slip in the middle. If it is required 
 to hang the sashes in all three lights, then the mullions 
 must be cased, and made wide enough to receive the 
 weights. 
 
 192. Skylights are sashes placed over openings in 
 the roof, and are commonly constructed in one plane 
 following the slope of the roof, and sometimes made to 
 slide up and down in grooves, or to lift up on hinges. 
 Other kinds of skylights are of a pyramidal, conical, 
 spherical, or ellipsoidal form, and elevated above the 
 roof. A curb is fixed to the rafters, or joists, round 
 the opening, and on this the skylight itself is fixed. 
 For circular or elliptical openings the curb is in two 
 thicknesses. 
 
 193. Fanlights are sashes placed above an outside 
 door, being let into a rebate cut in the door-frame and 
 transom ; they are usually fixed, but are sometimes 
 made to open on centres. 
 
 Section F. — 3IouIdings, Columns, Staircases, 
 
 194. Mouldings are curved surfaces employed for 
 the purpose of ornamenting various parts of the joiner's 
 work, and are generally made by means of a moulding 
 plane ; but in some cases they are cut out by hand. 
 Architraves are mouldings usually placed against the face 
 of a wall round the openings for doors or windows, and 
 are mitred at the angles. A flat piece of wood, called 
 a ground f is generally first fixed to the wall, and rebated 
 to the lining round the opening (as at C, Plate XVIII., 
 Atlas). This ground is fixed before the plastering is 
 
2CA 
 
 JOINEnV. 
 
 done, which is floated up to it, and the face of the 
 work finished in the same plane with that of the 
 ground. The architrave moulding is nailed on the face 
 of the ground, so that part of it shall conceal the joint 
 between the ground and the plaster (D, Plate XVIII., 
 and M, Fig. 10, Plate XXYII.) Sometimes the architrave 
 is worked out independently of the ground, which it 
 entirely covers, as shown at 0, Figs. 3, 4, and 5 
 (Plate XXYIL, Atlas), and at M, Fig. 8 ; but in that case 
 the plane portions are usually separate pieces from the 
 moulding, and are made in two thicknesses (or more) 
 for large doors, the outer edge of each thickness being- 
 moulded (Plate XXXIY.) 
 
 Mouldings are used to form the base and surbase of 
 dados (Plate XIX.), and are also fixed on the top of 
 skirtings where there is no dado. They are planted 
 round the panels of doors and other framing, as before 
 described, and, in fact, wherever a superior kind of 
 finish is required in joinery. Cornices over shop 
 windows or inside doors are constructed of wooden 
 mouldings, each member of which is worked separately, 
 and the whole glued, nailed, or screwed together, as 
 shown on Plates XXI. and XXII. (Atlas). 
 
 There is a large variety of mouldings used in joinery; 
 but these are, for the most part, made up of a few 
 simple forms. The simplest form of moulding is the 
 rounding of a projecting edge, so as to make a half- 
 circle for its section ; if this is made more than half a 
 circle, it forms a quirked-head, or torus (A, Plate XIX.) 
 The ovolo (Fig. 67), page 262, is a segment of a circle, or 
 ellipse, with a fillet at each end of the curve, as shown by 
 the section of the pilaster A, B, Plate XXI. The ogee 
 (Fig. 68) is a curve of contrary flexure, and is usually 
 struck by two arcs of circles meeting at the line join- 
 ing their centres ; but a better form would be obtained 
 
MOULDINGS, COLU^INS, STAIRCASES. 
 
 265 
 
 by using mathematical curves of contrary flexure (see 
 Tarn's Practical Geometry''). The top member of 
 the cornice (Plate XXII.) is an ogee. 
 
 An astragal (Fig. 69) is a moulding having nearly a 
 complete circle for its section, or a bead quirked on 
 both sides. Reeding is sinking two or more vertical 
 beads adjoining each other upon a plane or curved 
 face, the beads being semi-circles on section sunk 
 below the surface, and appearing like an assemblage of 
 reeds (Fig. 70). Flatings are the reverse of reedings, 
 being hollow channels cut side by side in a plane or 
 curved face, the section of each being a semi-circle or 
 other curve, and generally meeting in a narrow fillet 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 Fig. 68. Fig. 69. Fig. 71, 
 
 (Fig. 71). Eeedings and flutings are often worked on 
 the surface of columns and pilasters. 
 
 A Cavetto is a hollow formed with any curve for its 
 section, the circle or ellipse being most commonly 
 used. 
 
 The most complicated mouldings are usually made 
 by combining some, or all, of the varieties above de- 
 scribed, each moulding being got out of a separate 
 piece of wood. For the best modes of drawing the 
 contours of mouldings, the reader is referred to Tarn's 
 " Practical Greometry." 
 
 Mouldings which have to go round a curved surface 
 must be got out by hand, in short lengths to suit the 
 required curve, and the joints should be do welled 
 
 N 
 
266 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 together witli iron or hard wood to keep them from 
 becoming distorted. 
 
 RaMng-mouJclings are those of which the arrises are 
 inclined to the horizontal at any given angle, as the 
 mouldings of a pediment. "When a horizontal mould- 
 ing has to be continued as a raking moulding, its 
 section will be the projection of the horizontal one on 
 a plane perpendicular to the line of the rake ; all cir- 
 cular mouldings of the horizontal will be elliptical on 
 the rake. 
 
 195. Wood Cornices, such as are placed over shop 
 windows, are usually formed of several pieces in the 
 manner shown on Plate XXII. (Atlas). The frieze is of 
 narrow battens, keyed at the back in the same way as 
 a dado, above described (164), and the joints are 
 feather-tongued ; this is fixed against a cradling of 
 upright pieces of timber, or quartering, bracketed out 
 from the bressummer, or from the wall above it ; the 
 mouldings of the cornice are fixed to the upper part of 
 the frieze, which is carried up as high as the top member. 
 
 196. Columns are sometimes framed of wood for 
 ornamental purposes. When the diameter is consi- 
 derable, they are usually made hollow, the real work of 
 supporting the superstructure being done by an iron 
 or timber pillar in the axis of the column, about 
 which it is fixed. The mode in which such columns are 
 constructed is shown by Plates XXXII. and XXXIII. 
 (Atlas) ; in which a number of long staves are glued 
 up together to form the contour of the shaft ; sixteen 
 staves are prepared in the above example, and a circle 
 is drawn having the diameter of each end of the shaft, 
 on which is circumscribed and inscribed polygons of 
 16 equal sides, those of the inner polygon being parallel 
 to those of the outer one ; the distance between the 
 polygons must be equal to the thickness of the staves ; 
 
MOULDINGS, COLUMNS, STAIRCASES. 
 
 267 
 
 lines drawn from the centre of the circle to each angle 
 of the outer polygon will give the mitres of the staves 
 where they are to be united. Two staves, having been 
 cut as marked out, are then glued together, and block- 
 ings glued at the back to strengthen them ; then a 
 third stave is joined and blocked at the back, and so 
 on all round the column. When there is a core in 
 the middle to support the superstructure, the column 
 must be glued up in two halves, w^hich are dowelled 
 together, and the joints filled with white lead ; they are 
 then forced together by means of a rope round each 
 end, tightened by twisting with a lever. If the column 
 is to be fluted, the joints of the staves should be in 
 the fillets between the flutings rather than in the 
 hollows. The mouldings to the base and cap are con- 
 structed of thin slabs of wood in four or more pieces, 
 glued together with blockings as above described, each 
 moulding being got out of a separate slab. (See 
 Plate XXXIII.) The abacus of a capital, such as the 
 Corinthian, is glued up in parts with vertical joints, 
 and the ornaments fixed thereto. 
 
 197. Pilasters are formed with the front and 
 sides of separate pieces mitred and tongued together at 
 the angles, with blocks glued at the back down each 
 angle; the front is sometimes framed into panels, as 
 shown on Fig. 3 (Plate XXVIII.) 
 
 198. Staircase is the term applied to the whole set 
 of steps or stairs by which persons are enabled to 
 ascend or descend from story to story in a building. 
 When the story is of considerable height, it is usual to 
 divide the stairs into two flights by forming a resting- 
 place halfway up ; this is called a qiiarfer'Space when a 
 quadrant of a circle has to be turned from one flight 
 to the other, and a lialfspace when a semi-circle has 
 to be described. Staircases have several varieties of 
 
 N 2 
 
268 
 
 structure, dependent ctiefly on tlie arrangement and 
 use of the building in which they are placed. Geo- 
 metrical stairs are those ^yhich are supported by one 
 end being fixed to the wall, and every step having an 
 additional support from that immediately below it, the 
 lowest step being supported by the floor. 
 
 Bniclcet stairs are those that have an opening or well, 
 with strings and newels, and are supported by landings 
 and carriages, the brackets mitring to the end of each 
 riser, and fixed to the string-board, Avhich is moulded 
 below like an architrave. 
 
 Dog -legged stairs are those that have no well-hole, 
 the rail and balusters of both flights falling in the 
 same vertical plane, the steps being fixed to strings, 
 newels, and carriages ; in common stairs the ends of 
 the steps terminate upon the side of the string without 
 any housing. 
 
 In many of the old Elizabethan mansions the stair- 
 cases are made in three fli^rhts at rio:ht ano:les to each 
 other on three sides of the well-hole. Handsomely 
 carved newels, of great size, are placed at each turn or 
 angle of the staircase, and the handrail is framed into 
 the newels. Examples of these staircases will be found 
 in Richardson's Old English Mansions.*' 
 
 The several portions of a wooden staircase are the 
 steps, the strings, the carriages, the newels, the hand- 
 rail, and the ballusters. 
 
 The stejos consist of the treads, which are horizontal, 
 and receive the foot of the passenger, and the risers, 
 which are the upright pieces supporting the front of 
 the treads. The proportion between the height and 
 width of the step varies according to circumstances. 
 The width of the tread should never be less than 9 
 inches, from 9 to 12 inches being the usual limit ; the 
 height from tread to tread ought never to exceed 7J 
 
MOULDINGS; COLUMNS, STAIRCASES. 
 
 269 
 
 inclies ; but the greater the width of the tread, the less 
 should be the height of the riser, and a tread of 12 
 inches ought not to be more than 6 inches above the 
 lower one. The length of the steps ought never to be 
 less than 3 feet, so as to allow of furniture being 
 carried conveniently from floor to floor. The front 
 edge of each tread is usually made to hang over the face 
 of the riser, and to have a rounded edge or nosing, 
 under which there is generally a moulding planted 
 (Plate XXXV., Atlas). The riser is tongued into 
 the under side of the tread above, and let into a groove 
 in the tread below ; blockings are glued inside the 
 angle made by the tread and riser. The steps of a 
 flight of stairs which continue of the same width and 
 are all parallel to each other are called ^^^r^ ; those 
 which turn round a solid newel or circular well-hole 
 are called tvindcrs, the treads being narrower at one 
 end than the other. The bottom step of a flight is 
 often finished with a scroll end called a curtail (H, 
 Plate XXXV.) ; the riser of this scroll is made by 
 bending a veneer round a solid block and wedging it 
 to the straight part of the riser. The thickness of 
 treads ought never to be less than inch, and that of 
 the risers 1 inch. 
 
 Strings are raklng-boards placed at each end of the 
 flyers, and by which the whole flight of steps is sup- 
 ported. The walUstring is that which holds the ends 
 of the steps next the wall ; the steps are sometimes 
 housed into the wall-string and bracketed underneath, 
 but often the string is cut away to receive each tread 
 and riser, the ends of which completely cover it. The 
 wall-string is nailed to plugs or grounds fitted to the 
 wall, the bottom end resting on the floor joists. The 
 outer-string is the board which supports the outer ends 
 of the flyers, and rests at the lower end on the floor below, 
 
270 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 the upper end being framed into tlie newel in the case of a 
 dog-legged staircase, or pitching-jncce of the landing 
 above in a well staircase. In common stairs the ends 
 of the steps are housed into the string, but in the better 
 kind it is usual to cut away the string for each tread 
 and riser, mitring the string to receive the edge of 
 the riser, and returning the nosing of the tread round 
 the outside of the string ; carved brackets are usually 
 placed under the returned ends of the nosings (B, 
 Plate XXXV.) 
 
 String-boards round circular openings are glued 
 up in thicknesses, with the fibres following the line of 
 the steps ; sometimes they are glued up in vertical 
 slips, as in the mode adopted for wooden columns (136). 
 Strings are never less than 1^- inch in thickness, and 
 in common stairs would be cut out of an 11-inch 
 plank. 
 
 Carriages are pieces of timber placed underneath the 
 treads and risers of the flyers, to strengthen them and 
 prevent them from bending under the weight of pas- 
 sengers (0, Plate XXXV.) ; the winders have framed 
 and blocked carriages, the plan of which is shown at 
 F, and G, (Plate XXXV.) The top ends of the 
 carriages are framed into a horizontal piece of wood 
 called an apron-pieee or ^^itching-piece, which goes across 
 from wall to wall ; the apron- lilting is the thin slab of 
 wrought wood which covers the pitching-piece. 
 
 The newel is the post round which the steps turn in 
 dog-legged staircases, and into which the outer string 
 is framed ; the ends of the winders are also framed 
 into the newel. The lower part of the newel is gene- 
 rally made square, and finished with a carved pendant, 
 and the upper part turned and ornamented. 
 
 The neivel-cap is a moulded piece of wood, circular or 
 polygonal on plan, into which the handrail is mitred, 
 
MOULDINGS, COLUMNS, STAIRCASES. 
 
 271 
 
 the moulding of the cap corresponding in section witlitliat 
 of the handrail. In the old mansions the newels were 
 often handsomely carved and surmounted with figures. 
 
 199. The Handrail of a staircase is a bar following 
 the pitch of the stairs, placed so as to protect the outer 
 edge of the stairs, and of sufiicient height therefrom to 
 assist persons in ascending or descending from one 
 story to another. Handrails should be made of a size 
 and section best suited to be grasped by the hand, as 
 their name implies ; those for dog-legged stairs, having 
 no winders, are made straight from end to end, and 
 housed into the newel at top, the lower end being 
 bent upwards so as either to mitre it into a newel-cap 
 or attach it to a scroll- end. In ancient mansions the 
 handrail is always straight and framed into the newels 
 at each end. It is usual in common staircases to form a 
 bend called a ramp in the upper end of the handrail when 
 it has to mitre into a newel-cap, giving it a kind of ogeo 
 form, but without turning it round to the right or left. In 
 well-hole stairs tlie handrail is usually made continuous, 
 and the portion which goes round the end of the well is 
 called a lorithe^ being a curve of double-curvature, 
 formed by wrapping a line in a spiral direction round 
 a cylinder. The accurate formation of handrails to 
 well- stairs is one of the most delicate parts of the 
 joiner's business, and is generally executed by skilled 
 workmen specially trained to the work, as moulds have 
 to be prepared upon geometrical principles in order to 
 make the writhes fit accurately in their places. The 
 methods usually adopted are founded on the well« 
 known mathematical principles, thai the section of a 
 cylinder cut obliquely by a plane is an ellipse, that the 
 section parallel to the axis is a rectangle, and the 
 section parallel to the base is a circle. If a hollow 
 cylinder is cut by an oblique plane, the section obtained 
 
272 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 will be bounded by two concentric and similar ellipses, 
 and will be greatest in breadth at each extremity of 
 the greater axis, and least at that of the lesser axis, so 
 that in every quadrant there will be a continued 
 increase of breadth from the extremity of the lesser 
 to that of the greater axis. Let the height of the 
 handrail at any three points of the writhe be marked 
 on the cjdinder, whose internal diameter is that of the 
 well, and thickness that of the handrail, and a plane 
 passed through those points, then the section will be 
 a figure equal and similar to the face-mould of the 
 required rail. Also by cutting the cylinder by a plane 
 parallel to the first, and at a distance equal to the 
 depth of the rail, the portion of the cylinder thus cut 
 out will represent the rail itself with its A^ertical sur- 
 faces already wrought ; and if the back and lower 
 surfaces of this are squared to vertical lines on either 
 side through two parallel lines drawn by a thin piece 
 of wood bent upon that side, the moulds for the hand- 
 rail will be completed. The first business of the hand- 
 rail worker is to find the moulds for cutting a rail out 
 of a flat piece of wood. 
 
 The face-monldj or raclxing-mould, is that which is 
 applied to the faces of the plank so as to be vertical 
 when the plank is placed in its natural position. The 
 falling-mould is a parallel one bent to the side of the 
 rail-piece for drawing the back and lower surface. 
 The upper surface of the rail is called the hcicl\ The 
 several parts of a handrail are joined with square head- 
 ing joints fastened together with handrail' scretcs let 
 into the end of each piece. The bottom end of a 
 handrail is often finished with a scroll called a curtail^ 
 the moulds for which are made by drawing an outer 
 and inner spiral, the space between them being the 
 breadth of the rail. For methods of describing suitable 
 
IRONMONGERY. 
 
 273 
 
 spirals for curtails the reader is referred to Tarn's 
 Practical Greometry.'' 
 
 In some cases handrails are got out in an inferior 
 wood and then veneered over with ornamental woods ; 
 a superior appearance is thus obtained, and no heading 
 joint appears on the rail. 
 
 200. Baltjjsters are slender upright posts which 
 support the handrail of a staircase, and are housed 
 into the top of the treads or the edge of the outer 
 string; they are of various forms and designs, plain 
 square, octagonal, or chamfered, turned with mouldings, 
 twisted or otherwise ornamented. In old Elizabethan 
 mansions the ballusters were very solid and elaborately 
 carved. 
 
 Section VL — Ironmongery. 
 
 201. Ironmongery is the name given to the various 
 iron and brass fittings which are used by the joiner in 
 the execution of his work. Under this title are in- 
 cluded all the varieties of nails, screws, bolts, pulleys, 
 hinges, door springs, swing-centres, locks, door fur- 
 niture, sash and shutter fastenings, hooks, knobs, 
 latches, &c. 
 
 There are many other articles of hardware which are 
 included under the term Ironmongery, but here we 
 have only to deal with those which are fixed by the 
 joiner in order to complete his work in a building. 
 
 202. Nails are small strips of iron or other hard 
 metal used for the purpose of either holding pieces of 
 wood together, or of attaching articles of metal to the 
 wood. Nails are always driven in by means of a 
 hammer, and consist of two parts, namely, the head and 
 the shank. The shank is the long slip of metal, gene- 
 rally pointed at one end, which enters the wood and is 
 
 N 3 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 heldrtHerein /by th forces of cohesion and friction ; the 
 fieacl^ is the broadest part, upon which the hammer 
 strikes wh driving the nail, Nails are various in 
 for^n, .tod receive different names according to the uses 
 . for'which they are intended, or the shape given to their 
 heads or shanks. They are sold either by the thousand 
 (per M.), which is generally about 900 nails, or else 
 according to w^eight (per cwt.) which is the most com- 
 mon mode. 
 
 Iron Nails are of three distinct kinds, namely : 1. 
 Wrought nails, which are made entirely by hand ; 2* 
 Machine-made nails, which are either cut or forged 
 by machinery ; 3. Cast nails, which are, as their name 
 implies, formed of iron cast in a mould. Each of these 
 varieties has its especial value according to the require- 
 ments of the joiner, some parts of his work requiring 
 one sort of nail, and some another. The machine-made 
 nails are those which are mostly in use, owing to their 
 being cheaper than those made by hand, and in most 
 cases equally well adapted for the purposes of joinery. 
 There are, however, some parts of the joiner's work in 
 which the other varieties of nails are employed. 
 
 Wrought-iron Nails. — The nails under this deno- 
 mination are made by hand from slips of metal ham- 
 mered out to the required shape upon an anvil. Tachs 
 are a small kind of hand-made nails with flat heads and 
 sharp points, and are from f ths to fths of an inch in 
 length ; they are often tinned over by being dipped in a 
 bath of moulten tin to preserve them ; those which are 
 not tinned are subjected to a process called blueing , 
 which partly protects them from rusting. Clouts are 
 hand-made nails with rounded and pointed shank 
 and large flat circular head ; they are used for fixing 
 iron- work upon wood, and vary from 1 inch to 6 inches 
 in length. Brads are tapering slips of iron, blunt- 
 
IRONMONGEUY. 
 
 pointed, the top being widened out witli 
 jection on one side, whicli answers the 
 a head ; some brads are made by hand, a 
 kind of flooring-brads, used to nail the 
 to the joists. Brads are used by the joiner for lay 
 ing floors, and for fixing skirtings and other fittings 
 to the wood bricks; they are of all sizes, from J an 
 inch up to 3 inches, those used for floors being from 
 2 to 3 inches in length, according to the thickness 
 of the boards. Rose nails are sometimes made by hand 
 and have a flat-sided or wedge-shaped shank, with a 
 chisel-point and a rose-shaped head ; they are used for 
 driving into hard woods, brickwork, &c., and vary in 
 length from inches to 3 inches. SpiliCS, or large 
 spiked nails, are usually hand-made, and are used by 
 the carpenter for fixing the timbers of roofs, floors, and 
 partitions, or as deck nails for nailing plank floors to 
 the joists ; they are usually from 5 to 7 inches long. 
 Holdfasts and icaU-hoolcs arc large nails for driving 
 into walls, in order to hold woodwork thereto ; the 
 former are flattened out at the top, and have a hole 
 drilled therein for a small clout nail to be driven into 
 into the woodwork. 
 
 Machine-made Nails. — By far the largest quantity 
 of nails in use are made by help of machinery, which 
 has cheapened them to a very great extent. The 
 machines for nail-making vary considerably, according 
 to the kind of nail to be produced, some nails being cut 
 and others forged or wrought by the machine. Rose 
 nails, which have been described above, are largely 
 made by machinery. These are not cut, but forged, and 
 are harder and stronger than those forged by hand ; 
 consequently they are better adapted for driving into 
 hard woods, brick or stone walls, and wherever there 
 is great resistance to be encountered. Brads are also 
 
276 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 generally macliine-made ; they are rougher than those 
 made by hand, but for most purposes of the joiner the 
 cut brads answer equally as well as the more expensive 
 hand- wrought nails. Clasj) nails are made with sharp 
 points and arrow-shaped heads for clasping the wood ; 
 they are cut by machinery, and much used by the 
 joiner for fixing his work. Clasp nails are designated 
 threepenny, fourpenny, sixpenny, eightpenny, tenpenny, 
 &c., according to their weight per m ; one thousand of 
 the first weighing 2 lbs., of the second 31bs., of the third 
 5 lbs., of the fourth 7 lbs., of the fifth 10 lbs., and so 
 on. Lath nails, used by plasterers to attach their laths 
 to the joists and quarters, are made with flat heads, 
 and are about 1 inch in length ; they are often cut 
 by machinery. Brass-headed nails have a wrought- 
 iron shank with sharp point, and a rounded or flat 
 head of brass, sometimes of an ornamental character, 
 the heads always being intended to be seen in the 
 work to which they are fixed ; they vary in length from 
 I an inch to 3 inches. 
 
 Cast-iron NAiLs.—These are generally very rough 
 in the shank, but on that account they aflbrd a good 
 hold to the material into which they are driven. Since 
 the extensive introduction of machinery into the manu- 
 factu?r^ of nails, cast nails have been generally superseded 
 by cut nails. Lath nails of the cheaj)est kind are cast, 
 but would seem to be more liable to split the laths than 
 the cut nails. Wall nails, used by gardeners for train- 
 ing plants against brick walls, are of cast-iron. 
 
 Galvanizing is a process employed for preserving 
 iron nails from rusting by dipping them in a bath of 
 melted zinc ; nails, spikes, and holdfasts which are 
 exposed to damp should undergo this process, otherwise 
 they will rapidly decay, and become useless for the 
 purpose they are intended to fulfil. 
 
ItlOXMONGERY. 
 
 277 
 
 Gilt-head nails are small flat-headed nails, having 
 a wash of gold on the top, and are used for fittings of 
 an ornamental character. 
 
 Brass nails are small tacks having both head and 
 shank of brass, and are used for fixing the escutcheons 
 and finger-plates on inside doors. 
 
 Lead-iieaded nails are clouts having the heads dipped 
 in lead, and are used for driving into lead on roofs. 
 
 Copper and Zixc nails are used chiefly by slaters 
 lor fixing slates to the battens of a roof. Copper 
 nails are also used to nail down the edge of lead when 
 used as a lining to cisterns, or as a covering to wooden 
 stairs. They have flat heads, like a clout nail, and are 
 blunt pointed ; they vary in length from f ths of an 
 inch to 2 inches. 
 
 203. ScRE^vs are small cylinders of iron having a 
 spiral thread cut upon them. Like nails, they consist of 
 two parts, the shank and head ; the former is a long 
 cylinder of small diameter as compared with the 
 length, having the spiral thread above mentioned cut 
 upon it from the lowest end, and extending about half 
 way up towards the head. The head, which is circular on 
 plan, and either flat or spherical, has a groove cut across 
 along a diameter of the circle, for the purpose of insert- 
 ing the edge of the screw-driver, by which the screw 
 is driven into the hole previously made for it in the 
 wood, by turning from left to right, or in the direction 
 of motion of the hands of a watch ; when the screw has 
 to be drawn out, the turning must be in the direction 
 opposite to that in which the hands of a watch move. 
 Nearly all ironmongery, such as hinges, bolts, locks, &c., 
 are fixed on the woodwork with screws, flat-headed 
 screws being used for hinges, and spherical-headed for 
 bolts, locks, &c. Screws are of all lengths from | an 
 inch up to 4 inches. 
 
27& 
 
 JOINEKY. 
 
 Gilt'Jiead sciws are those whicli have a wash of gold 
 on the top of the head, and are used for fixing brass 
 work, as hinges, sash fastenings, &c. 
 
 Some screws are made with square heads, and have a 
 nut, in which a female screw has been tapped, working 
 upon the end. These are used when any piece of iron- 
 mongery has to be secured on the opposite side of the 
 woodwork to which it is attached, and the nut enables 
 the joiner to screw it up with any degree of tightness, 
 as in fixing door-knockers, plates, knobs, &c. Brass 
 and iron knobs, knockers, and door-plates, are usually 
 fixed upon doors, drawers, &c., with a nut and screw in 
 the manner above described. Brass dresser-hooks, for 
 fixing upon the edges of shelves, &c., have an iron shank 
 with a screw tapped upon it for driving into the wood. 
 
 Thumbscrew is an iron screw with a brass head made 
 flat to be held by the thumb and finger, and is driven 
 into a nut or female screw fixed in a shutter or sash. 
 
 204. Hinges are metal fastenings by which doors, 
 shutters, flaps, lids, &c., are hung to fixed frames or 
 stiles, and upon which they turn in opening and 
 closing. There are many kinds of hinges ; but the 
 m.ain principle is the same in all, namely, that of being 
 in two distinct parts, one fixed and the other turning 
 upon it by means of a pin passing through the hmclde 
 or projecting part of the hinge. The knuclde consists 
 of two equal and hollow cylinders, each of which is 
 attached to a flat piece or strap in which there are screw- 
 holes for fixing, indented one into the other so as to 
 form one complete cylinder, made up of three, four, or 
 five pieces, all of which are connected by means of a 
 cylindrical pin passing down the axis of the hinge. 
 Doors, &c., are always hung with two or more hinges, 
 whose axis must be fixed in the same straight line, 
 which is called the line of the hinges. 
 
Butt hmges are those in which the Muckl^ only is 
 visible when the door or shutter to which the^ 
 attached is closed ; the straps being screwed ijtitp'^^nK-^ 
 ings cut at the edge of the door and of the hanging 
 stile, frame, or lining to which it is hung. If a door 
 has to be hung so as to clear a projection when thrown 
 back, projecting butts are used, in which the knuckle 
 has a considerable projection from the face of the door. 
 Butt hinges are made of cast and wrought iron, and 
 also of brass. The sizes vary from 1 inch in height up 
 to 6 inches. 
 
 Rising butt hinges are those in which the knuckles 
 are cut so that the parts work upon each other in a 
 spiral direction, and lift the door as it opens, so as to 
 clear a thick carpet ; doors hung with these hinges will 
 fall-to of their own accord when released. These hinges 
 are made of both iron and brass, from 3 to 6 inches in 
 height. 
 
 Back'flap hinges are used for hanging the back-flaps 
 of shutters, and are very similar in construction to butts, 
 only having wider straps, which are screwed to the face 
 of the shutters instead of the edge, as is done with butts, 
 by which means the shutters when opened out are all 
 in the same plane, and when closed in their boxings 
 can fall flat against each other. 
 
 Cross-garnets are made in the form of the letter 
 the cross piece being screwed to the fixed frame, and 
 the strap at right angles to it screwed to the face of 
 the door or flap, so that the whole hinge is visible when 
 the door is closed. They are made of iron, and are 
 sometimes japanned. 
 
 H and H-L hinges, of brass or iron, are somewhat 
 similar to cross-garnets, and of the form of the letters 
 which designate them ; Parliament hinges are of this 
 form, and used when it is required to hang a shutter 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 outside a winiJow, so that it shall fall back against the 
 wall when open and clear the reveal. 
 
 Gate hinges are made with a long strap of cast or 
 wrought iron, which is bolted or screwed to the rail of 
 the gate, and has a hollow cylinder at the outer end, 
 which turns on a solid iron cylinder fixed to the gate- 
 post ; the best are made with a spherical or cup-and- 
 ball bearing, so as to move on each other with as little 
 friction as possible. 
 
 Sjmng hinges are those made to close a door when 
 released from the hand by means of a spring, and are 
 of various forms and descriptions. Rhing spring hinges 
 are similar to the rising butts, having in addition a 
 coiled spring to bring the door quickly back ; these are 
 generally used for room-doors. 
 
 Spring-centres are mostly used for swing-doors of 
 public buildings, shops, banks, offices, &c. ; these are 
 fixed at top and bottom of the door, which turns upon 
 them as pivots, the bottom pivot being connected with 
 a powerful spring in a brass case sunk flush with the 
 floor ; with these the door can be made to swing one 
 way or two. 
 
 Door-springs are attached to the side of a door which 
 has been hung in the usual manner with butts. The 
 spring is contained in a small cylinder fixed on the 
 frame or hanging stile, to which is attached a movable 
 iron rod, having a small wheel at the outer end, which 
 runs on a slip of iron let into the door-rail ; the spring 
 presses the iron rod firmly against the door, so as to 
 close it when it has been opened. 
 
 Vulcanized india -rubber springs are also used for the 
 same purpose ; they are stretched by the opening of 
 the door, and their elasticity enables them to pull the 
 door to when released. 
 
 • 205. Locks are fastenings or spring bolts attached 
 
IRONMONGERY. 
 
 to doors, &c., in order to preveiit^h^ 
 opened except by means of the keys ^^icl 
 to them. 
 
 There is an endless variety of lock iii^ usof'-but 'we 
 shall only notice those especially adapted to jt)iners' 
 work, referring the reader for fuller information on 
 the subject to the *^ Treatise on Locks/^ by 0. Tomlinson 
 (No. 83** in the Rudimentary series). Locks are 
 distinguished according to the nature of their internal 
 construction as well as their outside appearance, and 
 the uses to which they are applied. 
 
 They consist in general of a case formed of iron, 
 brass, or wood, which contains a bolt to be shot into a 
 staple or box, and it is the shooting of this bolt which 
 forms the whole mechanism of the lock. There is a 
 hole on one or both sides of the lock-case into which 
 the key is inserted, the turning of which upon a pivot 
 or small cylinder moves the bolt backwards or forwards. 
 In order that no other key but the right one may be 
 used to shoot the bolt, a series of thin projections 
 called ivards, in the form of concentric circles, are fixed 
 round the pivot upon which the key turns ; the key 
 having clefts cut in the bitf or flat part to correspond 
 with the wards. It is evident that if any key which 
 has not these clefts is introduced into the lock, it 
 cannot be turned on account of the projection of the 
 wards. 
 
 Master-liey is a key which has the bitt so formed 
 that it will turn in the wards of several differently 
 warded locks, so that a person possessing such a key 
 can open any of them, although the key belonging to 
 one will not fit another lock. 
 
 Back-spring lock is the commonest description, con- 
 sisting of a bolt with two notches on the under side, 
 acted on by a spring pressing the notches down upon 
 
282 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 a projection, the action of the key being to lift the 
 bolt from one notch to the other. 
 
 Tiimhler locks are made with levers called tumhicrs, 
 which fall into the bolt and prevent it from being 
 moved until raised by the key. 
 
 In ordinary locks there is usually but one tumbler, 
 but in the superior kind there are several, which render 
 the lock more difficult to pick. 
 
 Lever locks are similar in principle to tumbler locks, 
 but in the former the tumbler carries a stud which 
 secures the bolt, and in the latter the stud is carried 
 by the bolt and pressed upon by the lever. 
 
 There are numerous patented locks of various degrees 
 of complexity and security, which can only be exj)lained 
 in a sej)arate treatise on the subject. 
 
 Drmv-back lock is one which is fixed on entrance- 
 doors, the bolt being pulled back by the pressure of the 
 hand on a knob placed on the inside of the door, or 
 shot by means of a key passed in from the outside ; the 
 key will also shoot the lock further into the box when 
 it is required to double-lock the door. These are some- 
 times denominated stock locks, and vary from 7 to 12 
 inches in length; there are other stock locks which 
 have no draw-back knob, but are only w^orked by a key, 
 and have an iron or a wooden case. 
 
 Iron-rim lock consists of a japanned iron case, w^hich 
 contains the mechanism, and is screwed on the side of a 
 room-door. This lock has two or three separate bolts, 
 one of which is acted on by a knob turning a spindle, 
 another is shot in the usual way by a key, and the 
 third is a small bolt shot by pressure of the finger ; a 
 lock which has all these bolts is called three-holt lock, and 
 one in which the small bolt is omitted, a tico-holt lock. 
 An iron hox is screwed on to the door jamb, into which 
 the bolts are shot. 
 
IRONMONGERY. 
 
 283 
 
 BrasS'Case lock is similar to the above, the case being 
 of brass instead of iron, and the mechanism generally 
 superior in finish. 
 
 Mortise lock is one that is enclosed in a thin case of 
 iron with a brass face-platey and is let into a mortise 
 cut in the lock-rail of the door, so that only the face- 
 plate is visible, which is flush with the door edge, and 
 is screwed thereto with brass or gilt head screws. 
 These locks are always used for room-doors of the 
 better class ; they are either two or three-bolt. 
 
 Dead lock is one which has only a single bolt shot 
 by a key, as those used for cupboards, drawers, &c. 
 Locks are denominated right or left handed according 
 as they are made to be fixed on the right or left edge 
 of the door looked at from the outside. 
 
 Furniture is the term applied to the knobs fitted to 
 room-doors for turning the spindle which shoots or 
 draws back the bolt of the lock ; these are made of 
 brass, china, glass, ebonj^, oak, or other material, and 
 are fitted to a square spindle passing through the door. 
 The common mode of fixing the knobs to the spindle is 
 by a screw through the neck of the knob into a notch 
 or hole in the spindle ; as, however, from constant use 
 this screw gets loose, several better methods of attach- 
 ing the knobs have been invented. 
 
 Eseiitcheon is a piece of metal which is fixed round 
 the keyhole of a door, and serves as a guide to the 
 entrance of the key. It is of various forms, but com- 
 monly consists of a flat plate with a hole for the key in 
 the middle, w^hich is nailed or screwed to the wood- 
 work. A thread escutcheon is a narrow slip of metal 
 w^hich fits exactly into the keyhole. Escutcheons are 
 often provided with a drop or cover to prevent dust 
 from entering the lock. 
 
 Latch is a simple form of lock, intended merely for 
 
284 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 keeping a door closed, but so that it can be opened at 
 pleasure on either side. There are several varieties, as 
 the thumhy the Norfolk and the Suffolk latch, which are 
 opened by means of a lever lifting up the latch from 
 the catch into which it falls by its own weight when 
 the door is closed. There is also the bote latch, which 
 is lifted by a knob and spindle, and pressed down hy a 
 spring ; the mortise latch is similar to a mortise lock, 
 but with only one bolt moved by a knob and spindle. 
 Turnhiickle is a simple form of latch for closet-doors, 
 being a thin slip of iron placed on the inside of the 
 door and turned by a brass knob on the outside. 
 
 206. Bolts maybe considered as locks of the simplest 
 form, being rods of iron shot backwards and forwards 
 by hand. Barrel bolts have the rod working in a 
 hollow cj^linder of iron or brass by means of a project- 
 ing knob, which shoots them into a staple fixed to the 
 door-frame. Flush bolts are those in which the bolt 
 works at the back of a flat plate of metal, which is let 
 in so as to be flush with the face or edge of the door. 
 
 Bolts for coach-house and other large folding doors 
 are fitted with a spring to prevent them from falling 
 down by their own weight when shot vertically, and 
 have a long handle attached so as to come within reach 
 of a man's hand. 
 
 207. WiNDOW^-FiTTiNGS. — Huug sashes are usually 
 secured by a spring latch fixed on the bottom rail of 
 the upper sash and turning on a pivot so as to pass 
 under a hook on the top rail of the lower sash. There 
 are several varieties of these fastenings, but all are 
 similar in principle. Another mode of securing sashes 
 is by driving a tlmmhscreio through the two meeting 
 rails. Heavy lifting sashes are provided with brass 
 lifts screwed to the bottom rail of the lower sash, so as 
 to form a hold for the fingers. 
 
IRONMONGERY. 
 
 285 
 
 Casements are secured either by a small latch turning 
 on a pivot and dropping into a hook fixed on the frame, 
 or, if hung folding in two leaves, the best kind are 
 fitted with an Espagnolette bolt, consisting of a vertical 
 rod the whole height of the casement, which is fixed at 
 the meeting edge of one fold and hooked at top and 
 bottom into the other, being worked by means of a 
 handle at the middle of its height. There is also a 
 weather-tight fastening for casements, consisting of a 
 brass tongue let into the edge of one fold and shooting 
 into a groove in the edge of the other. 
 
 Lifting shutters are provided ^ith.sunh flush rings let 
 into the top edge, for the purpose of raising them, and 
 are secured by means of a thumbscrew passing through 
 both top and bottom shutter. Folding shutters are 
 secured with a locking bar of wrought iron fastened on 
 one fold, and latched upon a knob or spring catch 
 screwed to the other fold. 
 
 Axle-pulleys are fixed in the cases of lifting sashes 
 and shutters for the cords to pass over ; they consist of 
 an iron or brass grooved wheel working on an axle in 
 an iron or brass frame or face-plate. 
 
 Cahin-liook is a fastening used for securing a case- 
 ment when open, so as to prevent it from falling to. 
 It consists of a simple hook and eye, one part screwed 
 to the frame and the other to the casement. Cabin- 
 hooks are also employed for holding open doors or 
 flaps. 
 
 Casements are often held open by means of a stay, 
 consisting of a flat rod of brass or iron passing through 
 a fixed eye, having holes drilled at short intervals, 
 into which a pin or screw is dropped, so that the case- 
 ment can be fixed open at any required angle. The 
 bar is also sometimes made to hook on by one of the 
 holes to a stub fixed on the window-sill. 
 
286 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 208. Miscellaneous. There are several other articles 
 of ironmongery which the joiner has to fix upon a 
 building, of \Yhich we shall enumerate a few. Brass 
 and japanned iron buttons are fixed upon closet doors by 
 means of a screw passing through the middle, but left 
 sufiiciently loose to allow of their being easily turned 
 with the finger and thumb. Knobs of brass, iron, 
 china, mahogany and other hard woods, are fixed on 
 doors or drawers by means of an iron or wooden screw, 
 and sometimes with a nut screwed on the inside to 
 prevent them from drawing out of the wood. Hat and 
 cloak pins are made of brass, japanned iron, or wood ; 
 those of metal being either double or single, and 
 screwed by means of a plate at the base to a wooden 
 rail ; pins of wood are screwed into the rail by a screw 
 tapped on the end. Stubs and plates are fixed upon 
 the bottom of movable shop shutters, the stub being a 
 projection of iron which fits into a hole in the 2^Iate. 
 Brass ei/es are fixed at the junction of the treads and 
 risers of a staircase, through which the brass rods are 
 passed for keeping the carpet in its place. Flush-rings 
 are those which are let into a mortise cut in a piece of 
 joinery, and have the top of the ring flush with its 
 surface ; when required to be used the ring is drawn 
 out by the finger and thumb. Flush- lifts are handles 
 let into wood framing so as to give a hold for the ends 
 of the fingers in raising it. Meat-hooks are large 
 wrought-iron hooks, generally tinned over, having a 
 screw on one end, which is driven into a beam in the 
 ceiling of a larder. 
 
 Blind-rollerSy for raising and lowering inside blinds, 
 are worked in. various ways ; the commonest method is 
 by a pulley made of hard wood or brass screwed to 
 one end of the roller, which turns on pivots in either 
 brackets or thimbles ; over the pulley a cord is passed 
 
IRONIVIONGERY. 
 
 287 
 
 whicli also goes round a small pulley on a rack below, 
 by which means the cord can be tightened at pleasure, 
 and by pulling the cord the roller turned, and the blind 
 which is fixed thereto raised or lowered. Spring-rollers 
 are those which have a coiling spring in a box attached 
 to one end of the roller, and by pulling a cord loosely 
 attached to a lever the spring is released and the blind 
 coils itself up. 
 
 Chain and barrel fastenings are fixed on outer doors 
 so as to allow of them being opened only a few inches 
 if required ; the chain is screwed by a plate to the 
 door frame, and a long barrel having a slit cut along 
 it is fixed on the door. Into this is inserted a knob 
 attached to one end of the chain, which slides in the 
 barrel, and cannot be drawn out except at the end at 
 which it was inserted, and when the door is quite 
 closed. Knockers for outer doors are of iron or brass, 
 and are screwed on by means of nuts attached on the 
 inside to screws passed through the door. Boor-plates 
 are fastened on doors with screws and nuts in the same 
 way as knockers are fixed, the screws being soldered 
 to the back of the plate. 
 
 Brass pictiire-rods are fixed round the top of rooms 
 in first-class houses for the purpose of hanging pictures 
 thereto by means of hooks moving loosely along the 
 rods, and prevent the necessity of injuring the walls 
 by driving in nails. These rods are held by brass 
 brackets screwed into a deal ground previously fixed 
 in the wall before being plastered, so that its face is 
 flush with the plaster, and is covered over with the 
 paper hangings. 
 
 Brackets for supporting shelves are made of cast or 
 wrought iron and brass; they are screwed to the 
 underside of the shelves, and also into a plug or ground 
 of wood let into the wall. 
 
288 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 Fmger-jMes are fixed above and below the lock of a 
 room door, to prevent the paint from being soiled or 
 rubbed ofi* by tbe band in opening and closing it. They 
 are made of an ornamental character in brass, china, 
 or glass, and are fixed by means of small nails or 
 screws driven through holes made in their edges. 
 
 Sash-lines, for hanging sashes or shutters, are usually 
 made of flax or hemp twisted in a peculiar manner, 
 and generally known as patent line. Leather and 
 copper lines are sometimes used, and also brass chains 
 where the sashes are very heavy, 
 
INDEX. ^.-^ 
 
 ABUTMENTS for joints ^ 18 
 Acacia wood 67 
 
 - strength of ,124 
 
 Alder wood 60 
 
 •" crushing strength 130 
 
 Angle of repose 180 
 
 Angle staffs 241 
 
 Apron-lining 270 
 
 piece , . . . 270 
 
 Arches of timber „ 193 
 
 Architraves ,263 
 
 Arris 240 
 
 Arsenic on timber 45 
 
 Ash wood . . . . • 64 
 
 crushing strength 130 
 
 Aspen wood . . . . ' 73 
 
 Astragal 265 
 
 Aiixerre, roof at .153 
 
 Axle-pullies 285 
 
 BACK flap 254 
 _ hinges 279 
 
 spring lock ......... 281 
 
 Ballusters 273 
 
 Bamberg Bridge 195 
 
 Bark of a tree " 12 
 
 Barking trees 18 
 
 Barrel bolts . , . . 284 
 
 Base of a column . . , v 267 
 
 Base of dado .248 
 
 Battens 237 
 
 Battening 241 
 
 Bead-butt, bead-flush 251 
 
 Bearers of gutters 148 
 
 Beech wood 58 
 
 strength of ........ 60 
 
 Bending boards 249 
 
 Bent timber 127 
 
 Bevilling .243 
 
 Binding joists 139 
 
 Birch wood, strength of ,124 
 
 crushing strength 130 
 
 Bii-mingham Theatre roof 157 
 
 Blind rollers 28Q 
 
 Blockings , ^ » , 241 
 
 O 
 
290 INDEX. 
 
 Pahe 
 
 Blueing 274 
 
 Boiling timber 22 
 
 Bolection moulding . . , 251 
 
 Bolts .284 
 
 Bond timber . . 236 
 
 Boxing shutters 254 
 
 Braces 151 
 
 Brackets 287 
 
 Bracket stairs . . . . , 268 
 
 Bracketing . .241 
 
 Brads 274 
 
 Brass-case lock 282 
 
 headed nails 276 
 
 nails 277 
 
 Brenta Bridge 191 
 
 Bressummers . . . . . . . . . .235 
 
 Bridges of timber 190 
 
 centres for 178 
 
 Bridging joists 139 
 
 Building beams 137 
 
 Buried timber 46 
 
 Butt hinges 279 
 
 Butting joints 98 
 
 Buttons 286 
 
 CABIN hooks . 285 
 
 Cajeput oil on timber 45 
 
 Cambering a beam 136 
 
 Carriages of staii^s 270 
 
 Casements 258 
 
 Cast-iron nails . . , 276 
 
 Cavetto moulding 265 
 
 Cedar wood 83 
 
 crushing strength of 130 
 
 Cedar of Lebanon 74 
 
 strength of 124 
 
 Ceiling joists 139 
 
 Centerings for arches . . . . ^ . . . .178 
 
 Chair rail 248 
 
 Chamfer 251 
 
 Chain and barrel 287 
 
 Characters of woods c ... 40 
 
 Charring timber ...» 24 
 
 Chestnut wood 63 
 
 strength of 124 
 
 Cliloride of mercury . » . . . . . . .37 
 
 Clamping ........... 240 
 
 Clasp nails 276 
 
 Classification of woods . 49 
 
 Cloak pins 286 
 
 Clout nails , .... 274 
 
 Cluster piae. .......... 80 
 
 Coal-tar on timber 40 
 
 Coffer-dams 234 
 
INDEX. 291 
 
 Page 
 
 Cohesive forco . . t 51 
 
 taWoof 114 
 
 Coiling shutters 255 
 
 Collar beam 145 
 
 roofs 150 
 
 Columns, strength of . , . . . . . . .129 
 
 framing of ........ • 266 
 
 Compass timber . . . . . . • • . .127 
 
 Composition of forces 86 
 
 Compression of wood . . . . . . . . .129 
 
 Conical roofs 171 
 
 Conon Bridge centre . . . . . . . . .182 
 
 Copper nails .......... 277 
 
 Copper covering to roofs 142 
 
 Cornices of wood ......... 266 
 
 Corrosive sublimate . . . . . . . • .37 
 
 Covent Garden Church roof . . . » . . .157 
 Cowrie wood .......... 84 
 
 strength of 124 
 
 Cradling 231 
 
 Cross garnet hinges 279 
 
 Cross strains . . . . . . • . . .122 
 
 Crushing strength . . . . • . . . .130 
 
 Cupolas 168 
 
 Curb 263 
 
 roof 148 
 
 Cure of rot 39 
 
 Curtail 269 
 
 Curved ribs to roofs ......... 161 
 
 bridges 207 
 
 Cylindrical roofs 149 
 
 surfaces in Joinery ... .... 248 
 
 DADO 248 
 
 Dead knots 12 
 
 locks 283 
 
 Deal 77 
 
 Deals 237 
 
 Decay of timber 27 
 
 ■ prevention of ......... 34 
 
 Decline of trees . . .15 
 
 Decomposition of wood 28 
 
 Deflexion of beams ......... 115 
 
 De Lorme's roofs 149 
 
 Description of woods 53 
 
 Design of centres 18? 
 
 Detrusion 12?^ 
 
 Diagonal tie 144 
 
 Diagrams of stress . . . . . , . , .108 
 
 Dog- legged stairs 268 
 
 Domes of timber .......... 168 
 
 Doors 249 
 
 Door frames ^ . . , .250 
 
 linings » . 252 
 
292 INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 
 Door-plates . « . 287 
 
 springs 280 
 
 Double flooring . . . . . , . . . 131 
 
 hung sashc3 2G1 
 
 Dovetailing 239 
 
 Dowellcd floors 246 
 
 Dragon tie 144 
 
 Draw-back lock 282 
 
 Dresser hooks 278 
 
 Drury Lane Theatre roof .159 
 
 Dryness of timber . . , 27 
 
 Dry rot 30 
 
 Durability of timber 45 
 
 EAVES-board 148 
 
 Edge- nailing to floors 245 
 
 Elasticity ........... 61 
 
 Elm wood ........... 65 
 
 strength of 124 
 
 crushing strength of 130 
 
 Escutcheon .283 
 
 Exogens ........... 12 
 
 Espagnolette bolts 285 
 
 Experiments on cohesive force 114 
 
 crushing force . . . . . . .130 
 
 strength 124 
 
 Eyes for stair-carpets 286 
 
 FACE-mould \ . . .272 
 
 Falling ditto 272 
 
 Fanlight 263 
 
 Feather-edged boards 242 
 
 tongue 239 
 
 Felling timber 15 
 
 Field gates 257 
 
 Fillets 242 
 
 Finger-plates . . 287 
 
 Fir wood 75 
 
 strength of 124 
 
 crushing of 130 
 
 Fishing a beam 226 
 
 Fixed sashes 258 
 
 Fleches 172 
 
 Floor-boards 245 
 
 Flooring, naked * .131 
 
 Flush bolts 284 
 
 panels . . . . . . . . . .251 
 
 rings . . . , 285 
 
 Flyers to stairs 269 
 
 Flutings 265 
 
 Folding-doors 25 1 
 
 floors 246 
 
 shutters 254 
 
 Fox-tail wedging, in Carpentry 215 
 
 in Joinery . » * . , . . 244 
 
INDEX. 293 
 
 Page 
 
 Frame houses , 176 
 
 Frames for doors 250 
 
 Framed doors 250 
 
 floors 134 
 
 partitions ......... 253 
 
 Framing, in Joinery 253 
 
 timbers 131 
 
 Freysingen Bridge . . . . . • • • .191 
 
 Frieze 266 
 
 rail 251 
 
 Fungus on wood .......... 31 
 
 Furniture 283 
 Furrings ........... 2-12 
 
 GALVANIZED nails 276 
 
 Gantries .230 
 
 Gates 256 
 
 Gate hinges 280 
 
 Geometrical stairs 268 
 
 Gilt-head nails 277 
 
 screws ......... 278 
 
 Girders ........... 134 
 
 Gothic roofs 150 
 
 Greenwich Hospital roof 15o 
 
 Grooving ........... 238 
 
 Grounds 26 -j 
 
 Growth of trees 12 
 
 Guide piles 234 
 
 Gutters 145 
 
 H -hinges . 279 
 Half-space of stairs . . . . . . . .267 
 
 Halving 243 
 
 timbers .......... 145 
 
 Hammer beam .......... 151 
 
 Handrail 271 
 
 Hardness of wood . . . . . . . . .52 
 
 Heading-joints 242 
 
 Heart wood .......... 13 
 
 Herring-bone strutting . . . . . . . .133 
 
 Hinges 278 
 
 Hip-roof 144 
 
 Hoist ............ 232 
 
 Holdfasts 27o 
 
 Honduras mahogany . . . . . . . .69 
 
 strength of 124 
 
 Houses of Parliament, scaffolding for 231 
 
 coffer-dam for 234 
 
 Housing , .241 
 
 Hung sashes 260 
 
 shutters 255 
 
 ICE-BREAKEES to bridges 202 
 Impregnation of timber 36 
 
 Insects in timber 4! 
 
 0 2 
 
294 INDEX. 
 
 Pagis 
 
 Tronmongery ... t -..».- . 273 
 
 Iron nails 274 
 straps . . . -r . . . . , . 227 
 
 TACK rafters 144 
 
 V Joinery , . . . . 237 
 
 Joints, fomi of 98 
 
 of frames 213 
 
 Joists for floors 131 
 
 ceilings . . . . . . . . . 139 
 
 Juniperus S3 
 
 KEY of a lock 281 
 
 Keys in scarfing 224 
 
 King-post 145 
 
 Knobs 286 
 
 Knockers 287 
 
 Kjiot-s in wood . . . . . . » . . .12 
 
 Kyanizing ........... 37 
 
 LAMB'S tongue sash 2G2 
 
 Laixh 81 
 
 strengtli of 124 
 
 • cnisMng strength of 130 
 
 Latch 283 
 
 Lath nails 276 
 
 Lead covering to roofs 142 
 
 headed nails ......... 277 
 
 Lean-to roof 142 
 
 Lebanon, cedar of 74 
 
 Ledges 249 
 
 Ledged door 249 
 
 Lev(rlock 282 
 
 Lepisma ........... 43 
 
 Life of trees 15 
 
 Lifting-shutters 255 
 
 Lifts . _ 284 
 
 Lime on timber .......... 29 
 
 Linings of doors 252 
 
 Lintels 236 
 
 Locks 280 
 
 Lock-gates 257 
 
 rail of a door 250 
 
 London Bridge coffer-dam 235 
 
 MACHINE-made nails 275 
 
 Mahogany 69 
 
 stiffness of 70 
 
 " crushing strength of 130 
 
 Mansard roof 14 8 
 
 Mar forest fir, strength of .124 
 
 Master key -281 
 
 Matched hoarding 242 
 
 MaxTvell's diagram of strains 108 
 
 Meat hooks . .280 
 
iJs^DEX. 295 
 
 Pagb 
 
 Mechanics, laws of 85 
 
 Medullary rays . . 13 
 
 sheath • . , 13 
 
 Memel timber, strength of 124 
 
 Mitre 239 
 
 Modulus of elasticity 51 
 
 Moisture, eflfect of 28 
 
 Mortise lock 283 
 
 Mortising ........*.. 238 
 
 Mouldings 263 
 
 Movable shutters 255 
 
 MulHons 262 
 
 Muntings 251 
 
 NAILS 273 
 
 Nailing floors 246 
 
 Naked flooring 131 
 
 NeedHng 233 
 
 Nelson's Column, scaffolding for 230 
 
 Neuilly Bridge centre . 183 
 
 Newel 270 
 
 cap 270 
 
 Norway timber .......... 75 
 
 Nosing 269 
 
 OAK 53 
 
 stiff'ness of 124 
 
 crushing strength of . . . . . . .130 
 
 Ogee moulding 264 
 
 Outer string 269 
 
 OyoIo moulding 264 
 
 PAINTING timber 33 
 
 Panels 253 
 
 Parallelogram of forces 86 
 
 Parliament hinges ......... 279 
 
 Parquetiy floor . . . . , 247 
 
 Parting slip 260 
 
 Partition, framed . . 253 
 
 timber 172 
 
 Permanent alteration 51 
 
 Picture rods 287 
 
 Piers of bridges . , . , 200 
 
 Pilasters . . .237 
 
 Piles 234 
 
 Pillars, strength of 129 
 
 Pinaster , 80 
 
 Pine wood . . . . , 79 
 
 stiff'ness of 124 
 
 — ^ crushing strength of 130 
 
 Pipe worm 42 
 
 Pitch of a roof .......... 141 
 
 Pitching piece 270 
 
 Pilch pine 80 
 
 — crushing strength of . , 130 
 
296 IM3EX. 
 
 Pith . . ♦ . , - . 12 
 
 Plane tree CO 
 
 ■ strength of . .124 
 
 Planks 237 
 
 Ploughing .238 
 
 Plugs 243 
 
 Pocket piece 260 
 
 Poena wood 72 
 
 strength of 124 
 
 Poplar tree .73 
 
 strength of 124 
 
 Prevention of decay 34 
 
 of rising damp ........ 35 
 
 Principal rafters .147 
 
 Protection of timber ......... 26 
 
 Pulley-pieces 260 
 
 Purlins 147 
 
 QUARTERIXO 177 
 
 Quarter- space of stairs 267 
 
 Quassia, infusion of 42 
 
 Queen-post 146 
 
 Quicklime on timber ......... 29 
 
 Quirked bead 264 
 
 EABBETIXa 238 
 
 Packing mould .272 
 
 Rafters 142 
 
 Pails of doors 251 
 
 Raised panels 251 
 
 Rake 266 
 
 Raking mouldings 266 
 
 shores 232 
 
 Ramps 271 
 
 Ravages of animals on timber . . . . . . .42 
 
 Red fir 75 
 
 Reedings 265 
 
 Relative durability of woods 47 
 
 Resistance to compression . . , . . . . .129 
 
 cross strains 122 
 
 detrusion 127 
 
 deflexion 115 
 
 tension ......... 113 
 
 Resolution of forces 86 
 
 Revolving-shutters 255 
 
 Ribs of roofs 149 
 
 bridges 205 
 
 Ridge piece . 14 S 
 
 roll 148 
 
 Riga fir, strength of . 124 
 
 oak, ditto 58 
 
 Rim-lock 282 
 
 Rings, annual, in trees . . . . . . . .14 
 
 liise of arches . . 198 
 
INDEX. 297 
 
 Pagh 
 
 Hiscra . ^ 268 
 
 Roadway of bridges .211 
 
 Roofs 141 
 
 Root of a tree 12 
 
 Rose-nails 275 
 
 SALT on timber 36 
 
 Sap 12 
 
 Sapwood . o 14 
 
 Sash . 258 
 
 bars 262 
 
 doors 252 
 
 . frames .......... 258 
 
 lines 288 
 
 Scaffolding 230 
 
 Scantlings, calculation of Ill 
 
 of roof timbers 167 
 
 Scarfing 223 
 
 Schaffhaueon Bridge 193 
 
 Scorching timber 24 
 
 Scotch fir 75 
 
 . — ■ strength of . . 124 
 
 Screws 277 
 
 Scribing 243 
 
 Scroll 269 
 
 Season for felling timber 17 
 
 Seasoning timber 19 
 
 Sea-water on timber 37 
 
 Septa of woods 49 
 
 Settlement of bridges 198 
 
 Shed-roof 142 
 
 Ship- worm 42 
 
 Shooting 239 
 
 Shoring . ^ 232 
 
 Shrinkage of timber 24 
 
 Shutters , . 254 
 
 Shutter-bars 285 
 
 Silver fir 80 
 
 grain 49 
 
 Single hung gashes 261 
 
 joisted floor 133 
 
 Skirtings 247 
 
 Skylights 263 
 
 Slating, weight of .142 
 
 Sliding-doors 252 
 
 ' Bashes 260 
 
 Smoking timber 23 
 
 Spandril framing . , . . . . . . ,253 
 
 Spanish mahogany 69 
 
 strength of 124 
 
 Spikes 275 
 
 Spires of timber 171 
 
 Splay 243 
 
 Spring centres . . . , 280 
 
298 INDEX. 
 
 spring-hinges ' . ^280 
 
 Spruce fir 77 
 
 Square framing . . . . . . . . . . 251 
 
 skirting 247 
 
 of flooring 245 
 
 Staging 230 
 
 Staircases 267 
 
 Stays for casements ......... 285 
 
 Steaming timber 22 
 
 Steps .268 
 
 Stiffness of beams . . 115 
 
 rules for 120 
 
 Stiles 251 
 
 Story posts .235 
 
 Stop chamfer .......... 251 
 
 Straight-joint floor 246 
 
 Straining beam 165 
 
 Strains on beams and frames ....... 85 
 
 Straps 227 
 
 Strength of timber ' . . .124 
 
 centres 188 
 
 Strings of stairs 269 
 
 Structure of woods .49 
 
 Struts 165 
 
 Strutting 233 
 
 Stubs 286 
 
 Stuff 237 
 
 Sulphate of iron on timber . . . . . . . .37 
 
 Surbase of dado 248 
 
 Swing-doors .......... 252 
 
 sashes 262 
 
 Sycamore wood 61 
 
 — strength of 124 
 
 rPACKS 274 
 
 J_ Tarring timber 33 
 
 Teak wood 71 
 
 strength of 124 
 
 crushing strength of 130 
 
 Tension, resistance to . . • . . . . .113 
 
 Teredo navalis 42 
 
 Termites •. . . 45 
 
 Thatch, weight of 142 
 
 Tholas 42 
 
 Thread escutcheon 283 
 
 Throating 259 
 
 Thumbscrew 278 
 
 Tie-beam . . , 145 
 
 roofs .......... 155 
 
 Tiles, weight of 142 
 
 Tilting fillets 148 
 
 Timber 11 
 
 frames for bridges 202 
 
 Tinned nails 274 
 
IKDEX. 299 
 
 Page 
 
 Tongued floors . . 246 
 
 Tongueing 239 
 
 Torus skirting 247 
 
 Toughness of wood 52 
 
 Traveller 230 
 
 Treads of stairs 268 
 
 Treatment of timber 19 
 
 Trees, felling of . . . . . . . . . .15 
 
 growth of .......... 12 
 
 life of 15 
 
 Trimmers 133 
 
 Truss 145 
 
 Trussed girders . . . 136 
 
 Tumbler lock . 282 
 
 Turnbuckle . 284 
 
 Turning scaffolds 232 
 
 Turtosa wood 73 
 
 V-roof 143 
 
 Valley of roof 144 
 
 Veneers 243 
 
 Venetian frames . . . . . . . . . .262 
 
 Ventilation of floors ......... 35 
 
 Voussoin of bridges 192 
 
 Vulcanized india-rubber 280 
 
 WALING-pieces 234 
 
 Wall-hooks 275 
 
 nails 276 
 
 piece 151 
 
 plates 144 
 
 strings of stairs . ...... 276 
 
 Walnut wood 70 
 
 strength of 130 
 
 Wards of locks 281 
 
 Warmth, efl'ect of .32 
 
 Waterloo Bridge centre 185 
 
 Water seasoning 21 
 
 Weather boarding 242 
 
 Wedges in centres 186 
 
 joinery 244 
 
 Weight of timber . . 24 
 
 Well-hole stairs 268 
 
 Westminster Hall roof 153 
 
 Weymouth pine 79 
 
 Whale oil on timber 44 
 
 White ants 45 
 
 fir 77 
 
 pine ::. .V >.;!>^':. ^ v. '. .: :-/.;*-.**T:*7S) : 
 
 Wind, force of : :% ; : :. :ii;q : 
 
 Winders . : \ * .* * * ' ' . * *. *269 
 
 Winding 245 
 
 Window . . t]:;.:::. rj: ;:. /c53 
 
 • 'fittings . . : :. :.:^4 
 
300 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Wooden bridgefl 190 
 
 Worms in timber .44 
 
 Writhe of handrail 271 
 
 W'rought-iron rails 274 
 
 YELLOW fir 75 
 pine 80 
 
 ZINC nails . . , 277 
 roofing ! 142 
 
 THE END. 
 
PHILADELPHIA, 1876 
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 No. ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ETC. 
 
 16. ' ARCHITECTURE— ORDERS— TYiQ Orders and their Esthetic 
 
 Principles. By W. H. Leeds. Illustrated, is. 6d. 
 
 17. ARCHITECTURE— STYLES— Thii History and Description of 
 
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 23. BRICKS AND TILES, Rudimentary Treatise on the Manufac- 
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 A 25. MASONRY AND STONECUTTING, Rudimentary Treatise 
 
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 42. COTTAGE BUILDING, By C. Bruce Allen, Architect. 
 
 Ninth Edition, revised and enlarged. Numerous Illustrations, is. 6d. 
 
 J4S. LIMES, CEMENTS, MORTARS, CONCRETES, MASTICS, 
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 83**. CONSTRUCTION OF DOOR LOCKS, Compiled from the 
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 Am. ARCHES, PIERS, BUTTRESSES, &^c, : Experimental Essays 
 
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 Architecture, Building, etc., continued, 
 1 1 6. THE ACOUSTICS OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS; or, The 
 
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 Builder. By T. Roger Smith, M.R.I.B.A., Architect. Illustrated, is. 6d. 
 V124. CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS, Treatise on the, as regards 
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 127. ARCHITECTURAL MODELLING IN PAPER, the Art of. 
 
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 128. VITRUVIUS—THE ARCHITECTURE OF MARCUS 
 
 VITRUVIUS POLLO. In Ten Books. Translated from the Latin by 
 Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A., F.R.A.S. AVith 23 Plates. 5s. 
 130. GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE, An Inquiry into the Principles 
 of Beauty in ; with an Historical View of the Rise and Progress of the Art in 
 Greece. By the Earl of Aberdeen, is. 
 The two -preceding Works in One handsome Vol., half bound, entitled "Ancient 
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 \ 132. DWELLING-HOUSES, a Rudimentary Treatise on the Erection 
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 182. CARPENTRY AND JOINERY— Thy. Elementary Prin- 
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 82*. CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. ATLAS of 35 Plates to 
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 187. HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. By George Wight- 
 
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 188. HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND SIGN 
 
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 United Kingdom. By D. KiNNEAR Clark, M. I. C. E., Author 
 of ' Railway Machinery,' &c., in one vol. 8vo, with numerous Illus- 
 trations and thirteen folding Plates, iSs, cloth. 
 ** All interested in tramways must refer to it, as all railway engineers have turned 
 to the author's work ' Railway Machinery.' " — The Eitgineer. 
 
 " Mr. Clark's book is indispensable for the students of the subject." — The Builder. 
 
 PIONEER ENGINEERING. A Treatise on the Engineering 
 Operations connected with the Settlement of Waste Lands in New 
 Countries. By Edward Dobson, A. I.C.E. With Plates and 
 Wood Engravings. Revised Edition. i2mo, <^s. cloth. 
 
 "A workmanlike production, and one without possession of which no man should 
 start to encounter the duties of a pioneer engineer." — Athejicetim. 
 
 TEXT-BOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. By T. M. 
 GooDEVE, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, Author of *'The Principles 
 of Mechanics," "The Elements of Mechanism," &c. Third 
 Edition. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, (ys. cloth. 
 
 " Professor Goodeve has given us a treatise on the steam engine, which will bear 
 comparison with anything written by Huxley or Maxwell, and we can award it no 
 higher praise." — Engineer. 
 
 " Mr. Goodeve's text-book is a work of which every young engineer should pos- 
 sess himself." — Mining Journal. 
 
 Steam, 
 
 THE SAFE USE OF STEAM : containing Rules for Unpro- 
 fessional Steam Users. By an Engineer. 4th Edition. Sewed, 6^. 
 ** If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart, boiler explosions would 
 become sensations by their rarity." — English Mechafiic. 
 
 Mechanical Engineering', 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING : a Practical Treatise on. 
 Comprising Metallurgy, ^loulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Work- 
 shop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of the 
 Steam Engine, &c. By Francis Campin, C.E., Author of 
 '* Materials and Construction," (S:c. With Numerous Illustrations. 
 l2mo, 3^-. cloth boards. [Just published. 
 
 Works of Construction. 
 
 MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION : a Theoretical and 
 Practical Treatise on the Strains, Designing, and Erection of 
 Works of Construction. By Francis Campin, C.E., Author of 
 *'A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engineering, «S:c." i2mo, 
 3J-. 6d. cloth boards. 
 
 Iron Bridges, Girders, Roofs, (jfc. 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE APPLICATION OF IRON 
 TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGES, GIRDERS, 
 ROOFS, AND OTHER WORKS. By F. Campin, C.E. iimo^y. 
 
 Tramways 
 
 Steam 
 
6 WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC., 
 
 Oblique Arches, 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION of 
 OBLIQUE ARCHES. By John Hart. 3rd Ed. Imp. 8vo, 8j-.cloth. 
 
 Obliqne Bridges, 
 
 A PRACTICAL and THEORETICAL ESSAY on OBLIQUE 
 BRIDGES, with 13 large Plates. By the late GeO. Watson 
 BucK,M.I.C.E. Third Edition, revised by his Son, J. H.Watson 
 Buck, M.I.C.E. ; and with the addition of Description to Dia- 
 grams for Facilitating the Construction of Oblique Bridges, by 
 W. II , Barlow, M. I. C. E. Royal 8vo, 1 2s. cloth. 
 
 "The standard text book for all engineers regarding skew arches is Mr. Buck's 
 treatise and it would be impossible to consult a better."— 
 
 Gas and Gasworks, 
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF GASWORKS AND THE 
 MANUFACTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF COAL-GAS. 
 Originally written by Samuel Hughes, C.E. Sixth Edition. 
 Re-written and much Enlarged, by William Richards, C.E. 
 With 72 Woodcuts. i2mo, 5 J. cloth boards. 
 
 Waterworks for Cities and Towns, 
 
 WATERWORKS for the SUPPLY of CITIES and TOWNS, 
 with a Description of the Principal Geological Formations of Eng- 
 land as influencing Supplies of Water. By S. Hughes. 4J'. ^d. cloth. 
 
 Locoinotive- Engine Driving, 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE-ENGINE DRIVING ; a Practical Manual for 
 Engineers in charge of Locomotive Engines. By Michael 
 Reynolds, M. S.E., formerly Locomotive Inspector L. B. and 
 S. C. R. Fourth Edition, greatly enlarged. Comprising A 
 KEY TO THE LOCOJMOTIVE ENGINE. With Illustra- 
 tions and Portrait of Author. Crown 8vo, a^. 6d. cloth. 
 " Mr. Reynolds has supplied a want, and has supplied it well. We can confidently 
 
 recommend the book not only to the practical driver, but to every one who takes an 
 
 interest in the performance of locomotive engines." — Engineer. 
 
 TJie Engineer, Fireman, and Engine-Boy, 
 
 THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, FIREMAN, 
 AND ENGINE-BOY : comprising a Historical Notice of the 
 Pioneer Locomotive Engines and their Inventors, with a project 
 for the establishment of Certificates of Qualification in the Running 
 Service of Railways. By Michael Reynolds, Author of 
 " Locomotive- Engine Driving." Crown 8vo, 4^. 6d. cloth. 
 " From the technical knowledge of the author it will appeal to the railway man of 
 to-day more forcibly than anything written by Dr. Smiles." — English Mechanic. 
 
 Stationary Engine Driving, 
 
 STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVING. A Practical Manual for 
 Engineers in Charge of Stationary Engines. By Michael Rey- 
 nolds C'Thc Engine-Driver's Friend"), Author of "Locomo- 
 tive-Engine Driving/' (S:c. With Plates and Woodcuts, and Steel 
 Portrait of James Watt. Crown 8vo, 4J'. 6d, cloth. 
 
 Engine- Driving Life, 
 
 ENGINE-DRIVING LIFE ; or Stirring Adventures and Inci- 
 dents in the Lives of Locomotive Engine-Drivers. By Michael 
 Reynolds. Crown 8vo, 2s, cloth. [J test published. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 
 
 Construction of Iron Bemns, Pillars, &c. 
 
 IRON AND HEAT ; exhibiting the Principles concerned in the 
 construction of Iron Beams, Pillars, and Bridge Girders, and the 
 Action of Heat in the Smelting Furnace. By J. Armour, C. E. '^s. 
 
 Fire Engineering. 
 
 FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE BRIGADES. With 
 a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Manage- 
 ment ; Remarks on Fire-Proof Buildings, and the Preservation of 
 Life from Fire ; Statistics of the Fire Appliances in English 
 TowTis ; Foreign Fire Systems ; Hints on Fire Brigades, &c., &c. 
 By Charles F. T. Young, C.E. With numerous Illustrations, 
 handsomely printed, 544 pp., demy 8vo, l/. 4^. cloth. 
 " We can most heartily commend this book." — EngiJieering. 
 
 **Mr. Young's book on 'Fire Engines and Fire Brigades' contains a mass of 
 information, which has been collected from a variety of sources. The subject is so 
 intensely interesting and useful that it demands consideration." — Buildiii^ News. 
 
 Trigonometrical Stcrveying, 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A 
 TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, for the Formation of Geo- 
 graphical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Military Recon- 
 naissance, Levelling, &c., with the most useful Problems in Geodesy 
 and Practical Astronomy. By Lieut. -Gen. Frome, R.E., late In- 
 spector-General of Fortifications. Fourth Edition, Enlarged, and 
 partly Re-written. By Captain Charles Warren, R.E. With 
 19 Plates and 115 Woodcuts, royal 8vo, i6s, cloth. 
 
 Tables of Cttrves, 
 
 TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES and MULTIPLES 
 for setting out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By Alexander 
 Beazeley, M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition. Printed on 48 Cards, 
 and sold in a cloth box, waistcoat-pocket size, 3J". (id. 
 *' Each table is printed on a small card, which, being placed on the theodolite, leaves 
 the hands free to manipulate the instrument." — Efigineer. 
 
 " Very handy ; a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two of these 
 cards, which he puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest behind." — 
 
 Engineering Fieldwork. lAthemrum. 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF ENGINEERING FIELDWORK, 
 applied to Land and Hydraulic, Hydrographic, and Submarine 
 Surveying and Levelling. Second Edition, revised, with consider- 
 able additions, and a Supplement on WATERWORKS, SEWERS, 
 SEWAGE, and IRRIGATION. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. 
 Numerous folding Plates. In I Vol., demy Svo, i/. ^s., cl. boards. 
 
 Large Tnnnel Shafts, 
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE TUNNEL SHAFTS. 
 A Practical and Theoretical Essay. By J. H. Watson Buck, 
 M. Inst. C.E., Resident Engineer, London and North- Western 
 Railway. Illustrated with Folding Plates. Royal Svo, \2s. cloth. 
 *' Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the mason, and the 
 observations on the form of arch, the rules for ordering the stone, and the construc- 
 tion of the templates, will be found of considerable use. We commend the book to 
 the engineering profession, and to all who have to build similai- shafts." — BuiUiirig 
 News. 
 
 "Will be regarded by civil engineers as of the utmost value, and calculated to save 
 much time and obviate many mistakes." — Colliery Guardian. 
 
8 WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC., 
 
 Survey Practice, 
 
 AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE : for Reference in Surveying, 
 Levelling, Setting-oit and in Route Surveys of Travellers by Land 
 and Sea. With Tables, Illustrations, and Records. By Lowis 
 D'A. Jackson, A-M.I.C.E. Author of Hydraulic Manual and 
 Statistics," <S:c. Large crown, 8vo, \2s. 6^., cloth. 
 "Mr. Jackson has produced a valuable vade-inecian for the surveyor. _ We can 
 recommend this book as containing an admirable supplement to the teaching of the 
 accomplished surveyor." — Athenceuvi. 
 
 "A general text book was wanted, and we are able to speak with confidence of 
 Mr. Jackson's treatise. . . . We cannot recomroeEd to the student who knows 
 something of the mathematical principles of the subject a better course than to fortify 
 his practice in the field under a competent surveyor with a study of Mr. Jackson's 
 useful manual. The field records illustrate every kind of survey, and will be found 
 an essential aid to the ?,\.ud.Qut."— Building News. 
 
 " The author brings to his work a fortunate union of theory and practical expe- 
 rience which, aided by a clear and lucid style of writing, renders the book both a very 
 useful one and very agreeable to read." — Builder. 
 
 Sanitary Work. 
 
 SANITARY WORK IN THE SMALLER TOW^NS AND 
 IN VILLAGES. Comprising : — I. Some of the more Common 
 Forms of Nuisance and their Remedies ; 2. Drainage ; 3. Water 
 Supply. By Chas. Slagg, Assoc. Inst. C. E. Crown 8vo, .3^. cloth. 
 *'A very useful book, and may be safely recommended. The author has had 
 practical experience in the works of which he treats." — Builder. 
 
 Loco7notives. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES, A Rudimentary Treatise on. Com- 
 prising an Historical Sketch and Description of the Locomotive 
 Engine. By G. D. Dempsey, C.E. W^ith large additions treat- 
 ing of the Modern Locomotive, by D. Kinnear Clark, C.E. , 
 M.I.C.E., Author of " Tram w^ays, their Construction and Working," 
 &c., &c. With numerous Illustrations. i2mo. 3^. 6cZ. cloth boards. 
 **l he student cannot fail to profit largely by adopting this as his preliminary text- 
 book." — Iron and Coal Trades Review. 
 
 " Seems a model of what an elementary technical book should be." — Academy. 
 
 Fuels and their Economy, 
 
 FUEL, its Combustion and Economy ; consisting of an Abridg- 
 ment of "A Treatise on the Combustion of Coal and the Prevention 
 of Smoke." By C. W. Williams, A. I. C.E. With extensive 
 additions on Recent Practice in the Combustion and Economy of 
 Fuel— Coal, Coke, Wood, Peat, Petroleum, &c. ; by D. KiN- 
 near Clark, C.E., M.I. C.E. Second Edition, revised. With 
 numerous Illustrations. i2mo. 4^. cloth boards. 
 " Students should buy the book and read it, as one of the most complete and satis- 
 factory treatises on the combustion and economy of fuel to be had." — Engineer. 
 
 Roads arid Streets. 
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND STREETS. In 
 Two Parts. I. The Art of Constructing Common Roads. By 
 Henry Law, C.E. Revised and Condensed. II. Recent 
 Practice in the Construction of Roads and Streets : includmg 
 Pavements of Stone, Wood, and Asphalte. By D. Kinnear 
 Clark, C.E., M.L C.E. Second EdiL, revised. i2mo, 5j-. cloth. 
 
 *' A book which every borough surveyor and engineer must possess, and which will 
 o ron>iTri arable Service to architects, builders, and property owners crenerallv "— 
 Building News. x- • ^ j- 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 
 
 Sewing Machine {The). 
 
 SEWING MACHINERY ; being a Practical Manual of the 
 Sewing Machine, comprising its History and Details of its Con- 
 struction, with full Technical Directions for the Adjusting of Sew- 
 ing Machines. By J. W. Urquhart, Author of "Electro 
 Plating: a Practical Manual;" "Electric Light: its Production 
 and Use." With Numerous Illustrations. i2mo, 2s, 6d, cloth 
 boards. 
 
 Field-Book for Engineers, 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, and CON- 
 TRACTOR'S FIELD-BOOK. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. 
 Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of 
 Systems, and Use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and Plotting 
 the Work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set 
 Square only; Levelling with the Theodolite, Casting out and Re- 
 ducing Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections in the ordinary 
 manner; Setting out Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential 
 Angles and Multiples with Right and Left-hand Readings of the 
 Instrument; Setting out Curves without Theodolite on the System 
 of Tangential Angles by Sets of Tangents and Offsets ; and Earth- 
 work Tables to 80 feet deep, calculated for every 6 inches in depth. 
 With numerous Woodcuts. 4th Edition, enlarged. Cr. 8vo. I2J". cloth. 
 
 "The book is very handy, and the author might have added that the separate tables 
 of sines and tangents to every minute will make it useful for many other purposes, the 
 genuine traverse tables existing all the same." — Athenctum. 
 
 " Cannot fail, from its portability and utility, to be extensively patronised by the 
 engineering profession." — Mining Jour7iaL 
 
 Earthwork, Measurement and Calculation of, 
 
 A MANUAL on EARTHWORK. By Alex. J. S. Graham, 
 C.E., Resident Engineer, Forest of Dean Central Railway. With 
 numerous Diagrams. iSmo, 2s, 6(/. cloth. 
 ** As a really handy book for reference, we know of no work equal to it ; and the 
 railway engineers and others employed in the measurement and calculation of earth- 
 work will find a great amount of practical information very admirably arranged, and 
 available for general or rough estimates, as well as for the more exact calculations 
 required in the engineers' contractor's offices." — Artizan. 
 
 Drawing for Engineers, &c. 
 
 THE WORKMAN'S MANUAL OF ENGINEERING 
 DRAWING. By John Maxton, Instructor in Engineering 
 Drawing, Royal Naval College, Greenwich, formerly of R. S. N. A., 
 South Kensington. Fourth Edition, carefully revised. With upwards 
 of 300 Plates and Diagrams. i2mo, cloth, strongly bound, 4^. 
 " A copy of it should be kept for reference in every drawing office." — Engituering, 
 •* Indispensable for teachers of engineering drawing." — Mechanics* Magazine, 
 
 Weales Dictionary of Terms. 
 
 A DICTIONARY of TERMS used in ARCHITECTURE, 
 BUILDING, ENGINEERING, MINING, METALLURGY, 
 ARCHEOLOGY, the FINE ARTS, &c. By John Weale. 
 Fifth Edition, revised by Robert Hunt, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining 
 Records, Editor of '* Ure's Dictionary of Arts." i2mo, 6j. cl. bds. 
 ** The best small technological dictionary' in the language." — Architect. 
 *• The absolute accuracy of a work of this character can only be judged of after 
 extensive consultation, and from our examination it appears very correct and very 
 complete." — Mining JournaL 
 
WORKS IN MIKING, METALLURGY, ETC., 
 
 MINING, METALLURGY, ETC. 
 
 Metallife7^ous Minerals and Mining. 
 
 A TREATISE ON METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND 
 MINING. By D.C. Davies, F.G.S., author of ''A Treatise on 
 Slate and Slate Quarrying." With numerous wood engravings. 
 Second Edition, revised. Cr. 8vo. \2.s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " Without question, the most exhaustive and the most practically useful work we 
 have seen ; the amount of information given is enormous, and it is given concisely 
 and intelligibly." — Mining- Journal. 
 
 " The volume is one which no student of mineralogy should be -wiihont."— Collie )y 
 Guardian. 
 
 *' The author has gathered together from all available sources avast amount of 
 really useful information. As a history of the present state of mining throughout 
 the world this book has a real value, and it supplies an actual want, for no such infor- 
 mation has hitherto been brought together within such limited space." — AtheJiCEtim. 
 
 Slate and Slate Qnarrying. 
 
 A TREATISE ON SLATE AND SLATE QUARRYING, 
 Scientific, Practical, and Commercial. By D. C. Davies, F. G.S., 
 Mining Engineer, Szc. With numerous Illustrations and Folding 
 Plates. Second Edition, carefully revised. i2mo, 3^". 6^/. cloth boards. 
 " Mr. Davies has \\Titten a useful and practical hand-book on an important industry-, 
 with J. 11 the conditions and details of which he appears familiar." — Engineering. 
 
 " The work is illustrated by actual practice, and is unusually thorough and lucid. 
 . . . jNIr. Davies has completed his work with industry and skill." — Builder. 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE METALLURGY OF IRON : con- 
 taining Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of 
 Assay, and Analyses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of 
 Iron and Steel, &c. By H. Bauerman, F.G.S., Associate of the 
 Royal School of Mines. With numerous Illustrations. Fourth 
 Edition, revised and much enlarged. i2mo, cloth boards, 5 J. 
 " Has the merit of brevity and conciseness, as to less important points, while all 
 material matters are very fully and thoroughly entered \xi\.Q."—Sta7tdard. 
 
 Manual of Mining Tools. 
 
 MINING TOOLS. For the use of Mine Managers, Agents, 
 Mining Students, &c. By William Morgans, Lecturer on Prac- 
 tical Mining at the Bristol School of Mines. Volume of Text. 
 i2mo, 3 J. With an Atlas of Plates, containing 235 Illustrations. 
 4to, 6 J. Together, (^s. cloth boards. 
 ..." Students in the Science of Mining, and Overmen, Captains, Managers, and 
 viewers may gain practical knowledge and useful hints by the study of Mr. 
 Morgans' Masiual."— Collier)^ Guardian. 
 
 THE MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S COM- 
 PLETE GUIDE, comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining 
 Surv-eying, with new Traverse Tables ; and Descriptions of Im- 
 proved Instruments ; also an Exposition of the Correct Principles 
 of Laymg out and Valuing Home and Foreign Iron and Coal 
 Mmeral Properties. By William Lintern, Mining and Civil 
 Engmeer. With four Plates of Diagrams, Plans, &c., l2mo,4J. cloth. 
 Contams much valuable mformation given in a small compass, and which, as far 
 we^have tested it, is thoroughly trustworthy. "—/r^« and Coal Trades Review. 
 
 Ihe above, bound with Thoman's Tables. (See pa^e 20.) 
 ncc 7j. dd. cloth. ^ ^ ' 
 
 Metallurgy 
 
 Valuing. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. ii 
 
 Coal and Coal Mining. 
 
 COAL AND COAL MINING : a Rudimentary Treatise on. By 
 Warington W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S., &c., Chief Inspector 
 of the Mines of the Crown. Fifth edition, revised and corrected. 
 i2mo, with numerous Illustations, 45-. cloth boards. 
 ** Every portion of the volume appears to have been prepared with much care, and 
 as an outhne is given of every known coal-field in this and other countries, as well as 
 of the two principal methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very 
 large number of readers." — Mining Journal. 
 
 Underground Pitmping Machinery, 
 
 MINE DRAINAGE ; being a Complete and Practical Treatise 
 on Direct-Acting Underground Steam Pumping Machinery, with 
 a Description of a large number of the best known Engines, their 
 General Utility and the Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode 
 of their Application, and their merits compared with other forms of 
 Pumping Machinery. By Stephen Michell, Joint-Authorof "The 
 Cornish System of Mine Drainage." 8vo, 15^. cloth. [J tist published. 
 
 \^kYAL ARCHITECTURE, NAVIGATION, ETC. 
 
 Pocket Book for Naval A rchitects & Shipbuilders. 
 
 THE NAVAL ARCHITECT'S AND SHIPBUILDER'S 
 POCKET BOOK OF FORMULA, RULES, AND TABLES 
 AND MARINE ENGINEER'S AND SURVEYOR'S HANDY 
 BOOK OF REFERENCE. By Clement Mackrow, M. Inst. 
 N. A., Naval Draughtsman. With numerous Diagrams. Fcap., 
 \2s. 6d., strongly bound in leather. 
 *' Should be used by all who are engaged in the construction or design of vessels." 
 — Engineer. 
 
 ** There is scarcely a subject on which a naval architect or shipbuilder can require 
 to refresh his memory which will not be found within the covers of Mr. Mackrow's 
 book." — Eftglish Mechanic. 
 
 " Mr. Mackrow has compressed an extraordinary amount of information into this 
 useful volume." — Atke?icei(m. 
 
 Grantham s Iron Ship-Building, 
 
 ON IRON SHIP-BUILDING ; with Practical Examples and 
 Details. Fifth Edition. Imp. 4to, boards, enlarged from 24 to 40 
 Plates (21 quite new), including the latest Examples. Together 
 with separate Text, also considerably enlarged, i2mo, cloth limp. 
 By John Grantham, M. Inst. C.E., &c. 2/. 2s. complete. 
 
 **Mr. Grantham's work is of great interest. It will, we are confident, command an 
 extensive circulation among shipbuilders in general. By order of the Board of Admi- 
 ralty, the work will form the text-book on which the examination in iron ship-building 
 of candidates for promotion in the dockyards will be mainly based." — Engineering. 
 
 Pocket-Book for Marine Engineers, 
 
 A POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL TABLETS AND FOR 
 MUL^ for MARINE ENGINEERS. By Frank Proctor, 
 A. I.N. A. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. Royal 32mo, 
 leather, gilt edges, with strap, 4^. 
 
 ** A most useful companion to all marine engineers." — United Service Gazette. 
 
 '* Scarcely anything required by a naval engineer appears to have been for- 
 gotten." — Iron. 
 
12 
 
 WORKS IN NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, ETC., 
 
 Li^ht- Houses. 
 
 EUROPEAN LIGHT-HOUSE SYSTEMS ; being a Report of 
 a Tour of Inspection made in 1873. By Major George H. 
 Elliot, Corps of Engineers, U.S.A. Illustrated by 51 En- 
 gravings and 31 Woodcuts in the Text. 8vo, 2 1 J", cloth. 
 
 Surveying {Land and Marine). 
 
 LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING, In Reference to the 
 Preparation of Plans for Roads and Railways, Canals, Rivers, 
 Tov.ns' Water Supplies, Docks and Harbours ; vidth Description 
 and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. Davis Haskoll, C. E. 
 With 14 folding Plates, and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo, \2s.()d. cloth. 
 
 "A most useful and well arranged book for the aid of a student." — Builder. 
 
 '* Ol the utmost practical utihtj', and may be safely recommended to all students 
 who aspire to become clean and expert surveyors." — Mining Journal. 
 
 Storms. 
 
 STORMS : their Nature, Classification, and Laws, with the 
 Means of Predicting them by their Embodiments, the Clouds. 
 By William Blasius. Crown 8vo, los. 6d. cloth boards. 
 
 Rudimentary Navigation. 
 
 THE SAILOR'S SEA-BOOK: a Rudimentary Treatise on Navi- 
 gation. By James Greenwood, B. A. New and enlarged edhion. 
 By W. H. RossER. i2mo, 3^-. cloth boards. 
 
 Mathe7natical and Nautical Tables. 
 
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES, for Trigonometrical, Astronomical, 
 and Nautical Calculations ; to which is prefixed a Treatise on 
 Logarithms. By Henry Law, C. E. Together with a Series of 
 Tables for Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. By J. R. 
 Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics in Belfast College. 
 New Edition. i2mo, a^. cloth boards. 
 
 Navigation (^Practical), zvith Tables. 
 
 PRACTICAL NAVIGATION : consisting of the Sailor's Sea- 
 Book, by James Greenwood and W. H. Rosser ; together 
 with the requisite Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Work- 
 ing of the Problems. By Henry Law, C.E., and Professor 
 J. R. Young. Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings and 
 Coloured Plates. i2mo, *js. strongly half bound in leather. 
 
 WEALE'S RUDIMENTARY SERIES. 
 
 The following hooks i?t Naval Architecture, etc., are published in the 
 above series. 
 
 MASTING, MAST-MAKING, AND RIGGING OF SHIPS. By 
 
 Robert Kipping, N.A. Fourteenth Edition. i2mo, 2s. 6d, cloth 
 SAILS AND SAIL-MAKING. Tenth Edition, enlarged. By Robert 
 
 Kipping, N.A. Illustrated. i2mo, 3^. cloth boards. 
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. By James Peake. Fourth Edition, 
 
 with Plates and Diagrams. i2mo, 4^-. cloth boards. 
 MARINE ENGINES, AND STEAM VESSELS. By Robert 
 
 Murray, C.E. Seventh Edition. i2mo, 3^. td. cloth boards. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 13 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ETC. 
 Construction. ' — * — 
 
 THE SCIENCE of BUILDING: An Elementary Treatise on 
 the Principles of Construction. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., 
 Architect. With 47 Wood Engravings. Demy 8vo, %s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 ** A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all students." — Builder. 
 
 ** No architectural student should be without this hand-book." — Architect, 
 
 Villa Architecture, 
 
 A HANDY BOOK of VILLA ARCHITECTURE ; being a 
 Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. W^ith 
 Detailed Specifications and Estimates. By C. WiCKES, Architect, 
 Author of "The Spires and Towers of the Mediaeval Churches of Eng- 
 land," 8^c. 31 Plates, 4to, half morocco, gilt edges, i/. is. 
 Also an Enlarged edition of the above. 61 Plates, with Detailed 
 Specifications, Estimates, &c. 2/. 2s. half morocco. 
 *'The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic 
 ar- hitect, and they will prove very valuable and suggestive." — Building News. 
 
 Use/tcl Text- Book for Architects, 
 
 THE ARCIHTECT'S GUIDE : Being a Text-book of Useful 
 Information for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors, Contractors, 
 Clerks of Works, &c. By Frederick Rogers. Author of 
 ''Specifications for Practical Architecture," &c. Cr. 8vo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 ** As a text-book of useful information for architects, engiiieers, surveyors, &c., it 
 would be hard to find a handier or more complete little volume." — Standard. 
 
 Taylor and Cresys Rome. 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURAL ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. By 
 the late G. L. Taylor, Esq., F.S.A., and Edward Cresy, Esq. 
 New Edition, thoroughly revised, and supplemented under the 
 editorial care of the Rev. Alexander Taylor, M.A. (son of 
 the late G. L. Taylor, Esq.), Chaplain of Gray's Inn. Tkis is 
 the only book which gives on a large scale, and with the precision 
 of architectural measurement, the principal Monuments of Ancient 
 Rome in plan, elevation, and detail. Large folio, with 130 Plates, 
 half-bound, 3/. 35-. 
 *** Originally published in two volumes, folio, at 18/. i8j. 
 
 VitriLvins' Architecture, 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURE OF MARCUS VITRUVIUS 
 POLLIO. Translated by Joseph G^V1LT, F.S.A., F.R.A.S. 
 Numerous Plates, i2mo, cloth limp, 5J'. 
 
 The Young Architect' s Book. 
 
 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. By George Wight- 
 wick, Architect. New Edition, revised and enlarged. By G. 
 PIusKLSSON GuiLLAUME, Architect. i2mo, cloth boards, 4$-. 
 **Will be found an acquisition to pupils, and a copy ought to be considered as 
 necessary a purchase as a box of instruments." — Architect. 
 
 " A large amount of information, which young architects will do well to acquire, if 
 they wish to succeed in the everyday work of their profession." — English Mechanic. 
 
 Drawing for Builders and Students. 
 
 PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING for the OPERATIVE 
 BUILDER and YOUNG STUDENT in ARCHITECTURE. 
 By George Pvne. With 14 Plates, 4to, 7^. dd. boards. 
 
WORKS IN ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ETC, 
 
 The Hottse-Owner s Estimator. 
 
 THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR ; or, What will it 
 Cost to Build, Alter, or Repair? A Price-Book adapted to the 
 Use of Unprofessional People as well as for the Architectural 
 Surveyor and Builder. By the late James D. Simon, A.R.I.B. A. 
 Edited and Revised by Francis T. W. Miller, A.R.I.B. A., 
 Surveyor. Third Edition, carefully Revised.. Crown 8vo, 3J-. 6^., 
 cloth. [y^-^^ published. 
 
 "In two years it will repay its cost a hundred times over." — Field. 
 "A very handy book for those who want to know what a house will cost to build, 
 alter, or repair."— Mechanic. 
 
 Boiler and Factory Chimneys, 
 
 BOILER AND' FACTORY CHIMNEYS ; their Draught -power 
 and Stability, with a chapter on Lightnitig Conductors. By R0BER.T 
 Wilson, C.E., Author of "Treatise on Steam Boilers," &c., &c» 
 Crown 8vo, 3J. dd. cloth. 
 
 Civil and Ecclesiastical Btnlding, 
 
 A BOOK ON BUILDING, CIVIL AND ECCLESIASTICAL, 
 Including Church Restoration. By Sir Edmund Beckett, 
 Bart., LL.D., Q.C., F.R.A.S., Chancellor and Vicar-General 
 of York. Author of "Clocks and Watches and Bells," &c. 
 Second Edition, i2mo, 5^. cloth boards. 
 *' A book which is always amusing and nearly always instructive. Sir E. Beckett 
 
 will be read for the raciness of his style. We are able very cordially to recommend 
 
 all persons to read it for themselves. The style throughout is in the highest degree 
 
 condensed and epigrammatic." — Times. 
 
 *' We commend the book to the thoughtful consideration of all who are interested 
 
 in the building ^xl."— Builder. 
 
 Architecture, Ancient a7id Modern. 
 
 RUDIMENTARY ARCHITECTURE, Ancient and Modem. 
 Consisting of VITRUVIUS, translated by Joseph Gwilt, 
 F.S.A., &c., with 23 fine copper plates; GRECIAN Archi'- 
 tecture, by the Earl of Aberdeen ; the ORDERS of 
 Architecture, by W. H. Leeds, Esq. ; The STYLES of Archi- 
 tecture of Various Countries, by T. Talbot Bury ; The 
 PRINCIPLES of DESIGN in Architecture, by E. L. Garbett. 
 In one volume, half-bound (pp. 1, 100), copiously illustrated, \2s. 
 Sold separately, iJi iivo vols., as follows — 
 ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. Containing Gwilt's Vitruvius 
 and Aberdeen's Grecian Architecture. Price 6j. half-bound. 
 
 ^."^.— This is the only edition of VITRUVIUS procurable at a 
 moderate price. 
 
 MODERN ARCHITECTURE. Containing the Orders, by Leeds ; 
 The Styles, by Bury; and Design, by Garbett. 6s. half-bound. 
 
 House Painting, 
 
 HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND 
 SIGN WRITING : a Practical Manual of. W^ith 9 Coloured 
 Plates of Woods and Marbles, and nearly 150 Wood Engravings 
 By Ellis A. Davidson, Author of "Building Constmction," &c. 
 ^ Third Edition, carefully revised. i2mo, 6s. cloth boards. 
 • Contams a mass of information of use to the amateur and of value to the practical 
 man. —Efi^lish Mechanic. ^ 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWC 
 
 Plumbing, 
 
 PLUMBING; a Text-book to the Practice of th( 
 Pltimber. With chapters upon House-drainage^ 
 latest Improvements. By W. P. Buchan, 
 Second Edition, enlarged, with 300 illustrations, I2m^ 
 ** The chapters on house-drainage may be usefully consulted, not only b^^pkli^bers, 
 but also by engineers and all engaged or interested in house-building." — Iron. ■ 
 
 Handbook of Specifications. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS ; or, Practical 
 Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surv^eyor, and Builder, in drawing 
 up Specifications and Contracts for Works and Constructions. 
 Illustrated by Precedents of Buildings actually executed by eminent 
 Architects and Engineers. By Professor Thomas L. Donald- 
 son, M.I.B.A. New Edition, in One large volume, 8vo, with 
 upwards of 1000 pages of text, and 33 Plates, cloth, i/. \\s. 6d. 
 *' In this work forty-four specifications of executed works are given. . . . Donald- 
 son's Handbook of Specifications must be bought by all architects." — Builder. 
 
 Specifications for Practical ArcJiitectitre, 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE : 
 A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder ; with 
 an Essay on the Structure and Science of Modern Buildings. By 
 Frederick Rogers, Architect. 8vo, i5j-. cloth. 
 
 %* A volume of specifications of a practical character being greatly required, and the 
 old standard work of Alfred Bartholomew being out of print, the author, on the basis 
 of that work, has produced the above. — Extract from Preface. 
 
 Designing, Measuri7ig, and Valuing. 
 
 THE STUDENT'S GUIDE to the PRACTICE of MEA- 
 SURINGand VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORKS ; containing 
 Directions for taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing 
 the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of Constants, and copious 
 Memoranda for the Valuation of Labour and Materials in the re- 
 spective Trades of Bricklayer and Slater, Carpenter and Joiner, 
 Painter and Glazier, Paperhanger, &c. With 43 Plates and Wood- 
 cuts. Originally edited by Edward Dobson, Architect. New 
 Edition, re-written, with Additions on Mensuration and Construc- 
 tion, and useful Tables for facilitating Calculations and Measure- 
 ments. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., 8vo, ioj-. dd. cloth. 
 
 ** Well fulfils the promise of its title-page. Mr. Tarn's additions and revisions have 
 much increased the usefulness of the work," — Engineering. 
 
 Beaton s Pocket Estimator. 
 
 THE POCKET ESTIMATOR FOR THE BUILDING 
 TRADES, being an easy method of estimating the various parts 
 of a Building collectively, more especially applied to Carpenters' 
 and Joiners' work, priced according to the present value of material 
 and labour. By A. C. Beaton, Author of "Quantities and 
 Measurements." Second Edition. Waistcoat-pocket size. ij". dd. 
 
 Beaton' s Builders' and Surveyors Technical Guide. 
 
 THE POCKET TECHNICAL GUIDE AND MEASURER 
 FOR BUILDERS AND SURVEYORS: containing a Complete 
 Explanation of the Terms used in Building Construction, Memo- 
 randa for Reference, Technical Directions for Measuring Work in 
 all the Building Trades, &c. By A. C. Beaton, is. 6d. 
 
 * 
 
WORKS IN CARPENTRY, TliVIBER, ETC., 
 
 Builders and Cont7^actors Price Book. 
 
 LOCKWOOD & CO.'S BUILDER'S AND CONTRACTOR'S 
 PRICE BOOK, containing the latest prices of all kinds of Builders' 
 Materials and Labour, and of all Trades connected with Building, 
 &c., &c. The whole revised and edited by F. T. W. Miller, 
 A.R.I.B.A. Fcap. half-bound, 4J. 
 
 CARPENTRY, TIMBER, ETC. 
 
 Tredgold's Ca7'pentry, new and cheaper Edition. 
 
 THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY : 
 a Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the 
 Resistance of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches, 
 Bridges, Roofs, Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which 
 is added an Essay on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &c., 
 with Descriptions of the Kinds of Wood used in Building ; also 
 numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Timber for different purposes, 
 the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By Thomas Tredgold, 
 C.E. Edited by Peter Barlow, F.R.S. Fifth Edition, cor- 
 rected and enlarged. With 64 Plates (11 of which now first appear 
 in this edition), Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In 
 I vol., 4to, published at 2/. 2s. ^ reduced to i/. 5^-. cloth. 
 *' Ought to be in every architect's and every builder's hbrary, and those who 
 do not already possess it ought to avail themselves of the new issue." — Builder. 
 
 "A work whose monumental excellence must commend it wherever skilful car- 
 pentry is concerned. The Author's principles are rather confirmed than impaired oy 
 time. The additional plates are of great intrinsic value." — Building News. 
 
 Grandys Timber Tables. 
 
 THE TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANT'S, 
 and BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By Richard E. 
 Grandy. Comprising : — An Analysis of Deal Standards, Home 
 and Foreign, with comparative Values and Tabular Arrangements 
 for Fixing Nett Landed Cost on Baltic and North American Deals, 
 including all intermediate Expenses, Freight, Insurance, &c., &c. ; 
 together with Copious Information for the Retailer and Builder. 
 2nd Edition. Carefully revised and corrected. i2mo, 3J. 6^. cloth. 
 '* Everything it pretends to be : built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a 
 treenail, and throws in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, colunms, 
 cisterns, &c.— all that the class to whom it appeals requires." — English Mechanic. 
 
 Timber Freight Book. 
 
 THE TIMBER IMPORTERS' AND SHIPOWNERS' 
 FREIGHT BOOK : Being a Comprehensive Series of Tables for 
 the Use of Timber Importers, Captains of Ships, Shipbrokers, 
 Builders, and all Dealers in Wood whatsoever. By William 
 Richardson, Timber Broker. Crown 8vo, 6j. cloth. 
 
 Tables for Packing-Case Make7^s. 
 
 PACKING-CASE TABLES ; showing the number of Superficial 
 Feet m Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six inches square and 
 upwards. By W. Richardson. Oblong 4to, y. 6d. cloth. 
 
 • Will save much labour and calculation to packing-case makers and those who use 
 packme-cases. -^Grocer. " Invaluable labour-saving X2i\AQS."—Iro9tmonger. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 17 
 
 Norton s Measurer, 
 
 THE COMPLETE MEASURER ; setting forth the Measure- 
 ment of Boards, Glass, &c. ; Unequal-sided, Square-sided, Oc- 
 tagonal-sided, Round Timber and Stone, and Standing Timl^er. 
 With just allowances for the bark in the respective species of 
 trees, and proper deductions for the waste in hewing the trees, 
 &c. ; also a Table showing the solidity of hewn or eight-sided 
 timber, or of any octagonal-sided column. By Richap.d Horton. 
 Third edition, with considerable and valuable additions, i2mo, 
 strongly bound in leather, ^s, 
 
 Horton s Undei^iuood and Woodland Tables. 
 
 TABLES FOR PLANTING AND VALUING UNDER- 
 WOOD AND WOODLAND ; also Lineal, Superficial, Cubical, 
 and Decimal Tables, &c. By R. Horton. i2mo, 2s. leather. 
 
 Nicholson s Carpenter s Gtiide, 
 
 THE CARPENTER'S NEW GUIDE; or, BOOK of LINES 
 for CARPENTERS : comprising all the Elementary Principles 
 essential for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentiy. Founded on the 
 late Peter Nicholson's standard work. A new Edition, revised 
 by Arthur Ashpitel, F.S.A., together with Practical Rules on 
 Drawing, by G forge Pyne. With 74 Plates, 4to, i/. u. cloth. 
 
 Dowsing' s Timber Merchant's Companion, 
 
 THE TIMBER MERCHANT'S AND BUILDER'S COM- 
 PANION ; containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced 
 Weight and Measurement of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, from 
 One to a Thousand Pieces, also the relative Price that each size 
 bears per Lineal Foot to any given Price per Petersburgh Standard 
 Hundred, &c., &c. Also a variety of other valuable information. 
 By William Dowsing, Timber Merchant. Third Edition, Re- 
 vised. Crown 8vo, 3J". cloth. 
 •'Everything is as concise and clear as it can possibly be made. There can be no 
 doubt that every timber merchant and builder ought to possess it." — Hull Advertiser. 
 
 Practical Timber Merchant, 
 
 THE PRACTICAL TIMBER MERCHANT, being a Guide 
 for the use of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, &c., 
 comprising useful Tables for all purposes connected with the 
 Timber Trade, Essay on the Strength of Timber, Remarks on the 
 Growth of Timber, &c. By W. Richardson. Fcap. 8vo, 3^. 6^/. cl. 
 
 Woodzvorking Alachinery, 
 
 W^OODW^ORKING MACHINERY; its Rise, Progress, and 
 Construction. With Hints on the Management of Saw Mills and 
 the Economical Conversion of Timber. Illustrated with Examples 
 of Recent Designs by leading English, French, and American 
 Engineers. By M. Powis Bale, M.I.M.E. Large crown 8vo, 
 1 2 J", dd. cloth. 
 
 *' Mr. Bale is evidently an expert on th- subject, and he has collected so much 
 information that his book is all-sufficient for builders and others engaged in the con- 
 version of timber."— y=l rc/z/V^r/. 
 
 "The most comprehens've compendium cf wood-working machinery we have 
 seen. The author is a thorough master of his subject." — Bitildine: Ncivs. 
 
 "It should be in the otfice of every wood-workuig (diCtory.'*— English MecJianic. 
 
i8 
 
 WORKS IN MECHANICS, ETC., 
 
 MECHANICS, ETC. 
 Turning. — * — 
 
 LATHE- WORK: a Practical Treatise on the Tools, Appliances, 
 and Processes employed in the Art of Turning. By Paul N. Has- 
 LUCK. With numerous Illustrations drawn by the Author. 
 Crown 8vo, 5^. cloth. ijiist published. 
 
 " Evidendy written from personal experience, and gives a large amount of just 
 that sort of information which beginners at the lathe x^(\\i\x^" —Builder . 
 
 " Expounds the art and mystery of the turner in an informative fashion." — Scots7nan. 
 " Mr. Hasluck's book will be a boon to amateurs. "--^r^/rzVtr/'. 
 
 Mechanic s Workshop Companion, 
 
 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP COM- 
 PANION, and THE SCIENTIFIC GENTLEMAN'S PRAC- 
 TICAL ASSISTANT. By W. Templeton. 12th Edit., with 
 Mechanical Tables for Operative Smiths, Millwrights, Engineers, 
 &c. ; and an Extensive Table of Powers and Roots, l2mo, ^s. bound. 
 " Admirably adapted to the wants of a very large class. It has met with great 
 success in the engineering workshop, as we can testify ; and there are a great many 
 men who, in a great measure, owe their rise in life to this little work. " — Building News, 
 
 Engineers and Machinist's Assistant, 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, and MACHINIST'S 
 PRACTICAL ASSISTANT ; comprising a Collection of Useful 
 Tables, Rules, and Data. By Wm. Templeton. i8mo, 25. 6d. 
 
 "A more suitable present to an apprentice to any of the mechanical trades could not 
 possibly be made." — Building News. 
 
 Snperficial Measurement. 
 
 THE TRADESMAN'S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEA- 
 SUREMENT. Tables calculated from i to 200 inches in length, 
 by I to 108 inches in breadth. For the use of Architects, Engineers, 
 Timber Merchants, Builders, &c. By J. Hawkings. Fcp. 3^-. 6^/. cl. 
 
 The High-Pressure Steam Engine, 
 
 THE HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM ENGINE ; an Exposition 
 of its Comparative Merits, and an Essay towards an Improved 
 System of Construction, adapted especially to secure Safety and 
 Economy. By Dr. Ernst Alban. Translated from the German, 
 with Notes, by Dr. Pole, F.R.S. 8vo, 16^. 6^. cloth. 
 
 Steam Boilers, 
 
 A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS : their Strength, Con- 
 struction, and Economical Working. By R. Wilson, C.E. 
 Fifth Edition. i2mo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 " The best work on boilers which has come under our notice." — Engi7teeri7ig. 
 "The best treatise that has ever been published on steam boilers." — Etigineer. 
 
 Pozuer in Motion. 
 
 POWER IN MOTION: Horse Power, Toothed Wheel Gearing, 
 Long and Short Driving Bands, Angular Forces, <S:c. By James 
 Armour, C.E. With 73 Diagrams. i2mo, 3^., cloth. 
 
 Mechanics. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. By Dionysius 
 Lardner, D.C.L. New Edition, Edited and considerably En- 
 larged, by Benjamin Loewy, F.R. A.S., &c., post 8vo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 " Studiously popular .... The application of the various branches of physics to 
 the mdustnal arts is carefully s\iow n."—Mming Jotcrnal. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 19 
 
 MATHEMAT ICS, T ABLES, ETC. 
 Gregory s Practical Mathematics, 
 
 MATHEMATICS for PRACTICAL MEN ; being a Common- 
 place Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly 
 for the Use of Civil Engineers, Architects, and Surveyors. Part 1. 
 PaRE Mathematics— comprising Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, 
 Mensuration, Trigonometry, Conic Sections, Properties of Curves. 
 Part II. Mixed Mathematics — comprising Mechanics in general, 
 Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, Pneumatics, 
 Mechanical Agents, Strength of Materials. With an Appendix of 
 copious Logarithmic arid other Tables. By Olinthus Gregory, 
 LL.D., F.R.A.S. Enlarged by Henry Law, C.E. 4th Edition, 
 revised by Prof. J. R. Young. With 13 Plates. 8vo, i/. \s. cloth. 
 
 ** The engineer or architect will here find ready to his hand, rules for solving nearly 
 every mathematical difficulty that may arise in his practice. The rules are in all cases 
 explained by means of examples clearly worked out." — Btulder. 
 
 The Metric System, 
 
 A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British 
 Standard Measures and Weights are compared with those of the 
 Metric System at present in use on the Continent. By C. H. 
 DOWLING, C.E. 2nd Edit, revised and enlarged. 8vo, lOJ. 6d. cl. 
 "Their accuracy has been certified by Prof. Airy, Astronomer-Royal." — Builder. 
 
 Inwood's Tables, greatly enlarged and improved. 
 
 TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING of ESTATES, Freehold, 
 Copyhold, or Leasehold; Annuities, Advowsons, &c., and for the 
 Renewing of Leases held under Cathedral Churches, Colleges, or 
 other corporate bodies ; for Terms of Years certain, and for Lives ; 
 also for Valuing Reversionary Estates, Deferred Annuities, Next 
 Presentations, &c., together with Smart's Five Tables of Compound 
 Interest, and an Extension of the same to Lower and Intermediate 
 Rates. By William In wood. Architect. The 21st edition, with 
 considerable additions, and new and valuable Tables of Logarithms 
 for the more Difficult Computations of the Interest of Money, Dis- 
 count, Annuities, &c. By M. Fedor Thoman. i2mo, 8x. cloth. 
 
 " Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of 
 compensation cases, as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c., will 
 find the present edition of eminent service." — Efigifieering. 
 
 Geometry for the A rchitect, Engineer, &c. 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the Architect, Engineer, and 
 Mechanic. By E.W. Tarn, M. A., Architect. Demy 8vo, 12^.6^^^. cl. 
 
 Mathematical Instritmcnts. 
 
 MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS: Their Construction, 
 Adjustment, Testing, and Use ; comprising Drawing, Measuring, 
 Optical, Surveying, and Astronomical Instruments. By J. F. 
 Heather, M.A. Enlarged Edition. i2mo, ^s. cloth. 
 
 Weights, Meas2L7'es, Moneys, &c. 
 
 MEASURES, WEIGPITS, and MONEYS of all NATIONS, 
 and an Analysis of the Christian, Hebrew, and Mahometan 
 Calendars. Entirely New Edition, Revised and Enlarged. By 
 W. S. B. WooLHOUSE, F.R.A.S. i2mo, 2s, 6d. cloth boards. 
 
20 
 
 WORKS IN MATHEMATICS, ETC., 
 
 Covipound Interest and A nnuities, 
 
 THEORY of COMPOUND INTEREST and ANNUITIES; 
 with Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of 
 Interest, Discount, Annuities, &c., in all their Applications and 
 Uses for Mercantile and State Purposes. By Fedor Thoman, 
 of the Societe Credit Mobilier, Paris. 3rd Edit , i2mo, 4^. 6d. cl. 
 *' A very powerful work, and the Author has a very remarkable command of his 
 &\x\j]ttcx.."—Pro/essor A. de Morgan. 
 
 Iron and Metal Tirades Calculator, 
 
 THE IRON AND METAL TRADES' COMPANION : 
 licing a Calculator containing a Series of Tables upon a new and 
 comprehensive plan for expeditiously ascertaining the value of any 
 goods bought or sold by weight, from 15. per cwt. to Ii2i-. per 
 cwt., and from one farthing per lb. to \s. per lb. Each Table ex- 
 tends from one lb. to 100 tons. ByT. Downie. 396 pp., 9^., leather. 
 " A most useful set of tables, and will supply a want, for nothing like them before 
 existed. " — Building- Ne^vs. 
 
 Iron and Steel, 
 
 * IRON AND STEEL ' : a Work for the Forge, Foundry, 
 Factory, and Office. Containing Information for Ironmasters and 
 their Stocktakers ; Managers of Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheet RolUng 
 Mills ; Iron and Metal Founders ; Iron Ship and Bridge Builders ; 
 Mechanical, Mining, and Consulting Engineers ; Architects, Builders, 
 c\:c. By Charles Hoare, Author of *The Slide Rule,' &c. Eighth 
 Edition. With folding Scales of "Foreign Measures compared 
 with the English Foot," and "fixed Scales of Squares, Cubes, 
 and Roots, Areas, Decimal Equivalents, &c." Oblong, 32mo, 6j". , 
 leather, elastic-band. 
 " For comprehensiveness the book has not its equal." — IroJi. 
 
 Comprehensive Weight Calcnlator, 
 
 THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR, being a Series of Tables 
 upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at one Reference 
 the exact Value of any Weight from lib. to 15 tons, at 300 Pro- 
 gressive Rates, from i Penny to 168 Shillings per cwt., and con- 
 taining 186,000 Direct Answers, which, with their Combinations, 
 consisting of a single addition (mostly to be performed at sight), 
 will afford an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers ; the whole being 
 calculated and designed to ensure Correctness and promote 
 Despatch. By PIenry Harben, Accountant, Sheffield. New 
 Edition, Royal 8vo, i/. 5^. , strongly half-bound. 
 
 Co7nprehensive Discount Guide, 
 
 THE DISCOUNT GUIDE : comprising several Series of Tables 
 for the use of Merchants, Manufacturers, Ironmongers, and others, 
 by which may be ascertained the exact profit arising from any mode 
 of using Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and 
 the method of either Altering a Rate of Discount, or Advancing a 
 Price, so as to produce, by one operation, a sum that will realise 
 any required profit after allowing one or more Discounts : to which 
 are added Tables of Profit or^Advance from I J to 90 per cent., 
 Tables of Discount from to 98I per cent., and Tables of Commis- 
 sion, &c., from \ to 10 per cent. By Henry Harben, Accountant. 
 New Edition. Demy 8vo, i/. 5^., half-bound. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOC«) & OX 21-. , 
 
 SCIENCE AND ART. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 T/ie Constrtiction of the O^^gan. 
 
 PRACTICAL ORGAN BUILDING. By W. E. Dickson, 
 M. A., Precentor of Ely Cathedral. Crown 8vo, ^s. cloth. 
 In many respects the book is the best that has yet appeared on the subject. We 
 
 cordially recommend it."— ii";/.^^^-^'^'^ 
 
 " Any practical amateur following the instructions here given might build an 
 organ to his entire satisfaction." — Leeds Meicufy. 
 
 Dejttistry. 
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. A Practical Treatise on the 
 Construction of the various kinds of Artificial Dentures. Com- 
 prising also Useful Formulx, Tables, and Receipts for Gold 
 J'late, Clasps, Solders, etc., etc. By Charles Hunter. ^Vith 
 numerous Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, ^s. 6(L cloth. 
 
 " The work is very practical." — Monthly Revieiv of Dental Surgery. 
 
 "An authoritative treatise We can strongly recoinnriend Mr. Hunter's 
 
 treatise to all students preparing for the profession of dentisiry, as well as to every 
 mechanical dentist." — Dnblin Jourjial 0/ Medical Science. {and Circular. 
 
 "The best book on the subject with which we are acquainted." — Medical Pre^^. 
 
 Brewing. 
 
 A HANDBOOK FOR YOUNG BREWERS. By Herbert 
 Edwards Wright, B.A. Crown 8vo, 3.9. 6d. cloth. 
 
 ** A thoroughly scientific treatise in popular language. It is evident that the 
 author has mastered his subject in its scientific aspects." — Mortiing Advertiser. 
 
 ** We would particularly recommend teachers of the art to place it in every pupil's 
 hands, and we feel sure its perusal will be attended with advantage." — Breiver. 
 
 Gold and Gold-Working. 
 
 THE GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK : containing full instruc- 
 tions for the Alloying and Working of Gold. Including the Art of 
 Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Colouring, Collecting and Refining. 
 The processes of Manipulation, Recovery of Waste, Chemical and 
 Physical Properties of Gold, with a new System of Mixing its 
 Alloys ; Solders, Enamels, and other useful Rules and Recipes, &c. 
 By George E. Gee, Goldsmith and Silversmith. Second Edition, 
 considerably enlarged. i2mo, 6d. cloth boards. 
 ** The best work yet prmted on its subject for a reasonable price. ' — Jeiveller. 
 *' We consider that the trade owes not a little to Mr. Gee, who has in t«vo volumes 
 
 compressed almost the whole of its literature, and we doubt n it that many a young 
 
 beginner will owe a part of his future success to a diligent study ot the pages which 
 
 are peculiarly well adapted to his use." — Clerketnuell Press. 
 
 " Essentially a practical manual, well adapted to the wants of amateurs and 
 
 apprentices, containing trustworthy information that only a practical man can 
 
 supply." — English, M echanic. 
 
 Silver and Silver Working, 
 
 THE SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK, containing full In- 
 structions for the Alloying and Working of Silver, including the 
 different modes of refining and melting the metal, its solders, the 
 preparation of imitation alloys, &c. By George E. Gee, 
 jeweller, &c. i2mo, 3J-. 6^/. cloth boards. 
 
 *' The chief merit of the work is its practical character. The workers in the trade 
 will speedily discover its merits when they sit down to study it." — English Mechanic. 
 
 "This work forms a valuable sequel to the author's Practical Goldivorker, and 
 supplies a want long felt in the silver trade." — Silversmith's Trade Journal. 
 
22 
 
 WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC., 
 
 Electric Lighting', 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT : Its Production and Use, embod>'ing plain 
 Directions for the Working of Galvanic Batteries, Electric Lamps, 
 and Dynamo-Electric iNLachines. By J. W. UrqUHART, C. E., 
 Author of " Electroplating : a Practical Handbook." Edited by 
 F. C. Webb, M.LC.E., M.S.T.E. With 94 Illustrations. 
 Crown 8vo, Js. 6d. cloth. 
 " It is the only work at present available, which gives a general but concise history 
 
 of the means .which have been adopted up to the present time in producing the 
 
 electiic Wghi."— Metropolitan. 
 
 "An important addition to the literature of the electric light. Students of the 
 
 subject should not fail to read it," — Colliery Guardian. 
 
 Electroplating, &c. 
 
 ELECTROPLATING: A Practical Handbook. By J. W. 
 
 Urquhart, C.E. Crown 8vo, 5^. cloth. 
 " A large amount of thoroughly practical information." — Telegraphic Journal. 
 " An excellent practical manu:il." — Engineering. 
 
 " The information given appears to be based on direct personal knowledge. . . . 
 Its science is sound, and the scyle is always c\&?iT." —Athe?i.(eu7n.^ 
 
 "Any ordinarily intelligent person may become an adept in electro-deposition 
 with a very little science indeed, and this is the book to show him or her the way." 
 — Btcilder. 
 
 "The volume is without a rival in its particular sphere." — Design a7id Work. 
 
 Electrotyping, &c. 
 
 ELECTROTYPING: a Practical Manual on the Reproduction 
 and Multiplication of Pnnting Surfaces and Works of Art by the 
 Electro-deposition of Metals. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. 
 Crown 8vo, 50. cloth. \_Jiist published, 
 
 "Will serve as a guide, not only to beginners in the art, but to those who still 
 practise the old and imperfect methods of electrotyping." — Iro7i. 
 
 "The book throughout is entirely practical, is lucid and clear in style, and the 
 minutest details are so stated that amateurs will find no difficulty whatever in follow- 
 ing them out. We have no hesitation in recommending it as a reliable work." — 
 Paper and Printing Trades jfournal. 
 
 The Military Sciences. 
 
 AIDE-MEMOIRE to the MILITARY SCIENCES. Framed 
 from Contributions of Officers and others connected with the dif- 
 ferent Services. Originally edited by a Committee of the Corps of 
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 Officer of the Corps, with many additions ; containing nearly 350 
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 cloth boards, and lettered, 4/. lOJ". 
 
 Field Fortification. 
 
 A TREATISE on FIELD FORTIFICATION, the ATTACK 
 of FORTRESSES, MILITARY MINING, and RECON- 
 NOITRING. By Colonel I. S. Macaulay, late Professor of 
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 E^ye- Wares and Colours. 
 
 THE MANUAL of COLOURS and DYE-WARES : their 
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 For the Use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c. By J. 
 W. Slater. Post 8vo, ^s. ed. cloth. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 23 
 
 The Alkali Trade — Sulphuric Acid, &c. 
 
 A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE, including the 
 Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching 
 Powder. By John Lomas, Alkali Manufacturer, Newcastle-upon- 
 Tyne and London. With 232 Illustrations and Working Draw- 
 ings, and containing 386 pages of text. Super-royal 8vo, 
 2/ I2S. 6d. cloth. \jfust published. 
 
 This work provides (i) a Complete Handbook foriiite^idtng Alkali and SnlpJmric 
 Acid Majiu/acturers, and for those already in the field luho desire to improve their 
 pla7tt, or to become practically acquainted 'with the latest processes and dcvelopmejits 
 of the trade ; (2) a Handy Volume which Mannfactiirers can pict into the Jiaiids of 
 their Mafiagers and Foremen as a nseficl guide in their daily 7'onnds of duty. 
 
 Synopsis of Contents. 
 
 Chap. I. Choice of Site and General 
 Plan of Works — II. Sulphuric Acid — 
 III. Recovery of the Nitrogen Com- 
 pounds, and Treatment of Small Pyrites 
 —IV. The Salt Cake Process-V. Legis- 
 lation upon the^ Noxious Vapours Ques- 
 tion — VI. The Hargreaves' and Jones' 
 Processes — VII. The Balling Process — 
 VIII. Lixiviation and Salting Down — 
 
 IX. Carbonating or Finishing — X. Soda 
 Crystals — XI. Refined Alkali — XII. 
 Causiic Soda — XIII. Bi-carbonate of 
 Soda — XIV. Bleaching Powder— XV. 
 Utilisation of Tank Waste — XVI. General 
 Remarks — Four Appendices, treating of 
 Yields, Sulphuric Acid Calculations, Ane- 
 mometers, and Foreign Legislation upon 
 the Noxious Vapours Question. 
 
 "The author has given the fullest, most practical, and, to all concerned in the 
 alkali trade, most valuable mass of information that, to our knowledge, has been 
 published in any language." — Engi7iccr. 
 
 " This book is written by a manufacturer for manufacturers. The working details 
 of the most approved forms of apparatus are given, and these are accompanied by 
 no less than 232 wood engravings, all of which may be used for the purposes of con- 
 struction. Every step in the manufacture is very fully described m this manual, and 
 each improvement explai-ned. Everything which tends to introduce economy into 
 the technical details of this trade receives the fullest attention. The book has been 
 produced with great completeness." — Athcna'um. 
 
 "The author is not one of those clever compilers who, on short notice, will *read 
 up' any conceivable subject, but a practical man in the best sense of the word. We 
 find here not merely a sound and luminous explanation of the chemical principles of 
 the trade, but a notice of numerous matters which have a most important bearing 
 on the successful conduct of alkali works, but which are generally overlooked by 
 even the most experienced technological authors. This most valuable book, which 
 we trust will be generally appreciated, we must pronounce a credit alike to its author 
 and to the enterprismg firm who have undertaken its publication." — Chemical 
 Review. 
 
 Chemical Analysis. 
 
 THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK of CHEMICAL ANA- 
 LYSIS ; or Practical Instructions for the determination of the In- 
 trinsic or Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, 
 in Trades, and in the Arts. By A. Normandy, Author of Prac- 
 tical Introduction to Rose's Chemistry," and Editor of Rose's 
 "Treatise on Chemical Analysis." N'ei.v Edition. Enlarged, and 
 to a great extent re-written, by Henry M. Noad, Ph. D., F.R.S. 
 With numerous Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, \2s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 "We recommend this book to the careful perusal of every one ; it may be truly 
 affirmed to be of universal interest, and we strongly recommend it to our readers as a 
 guide, alike indispensable to the housewife as to the pharmaceutical practitioner." — 
 Medical Times. 
 
 " Essential to the analysts appointed under the new Act. The most recent results 
 are given, and the work is well edited and carefully written." — Nature. 
 
24 
 
 WORKS IN ijciiLNCE ANO ART, ETC., 
 
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 Price £1 \s., in a new and elegant cloth binding, or handsomely 
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 OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
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PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 25 
 
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 Dr, Lardner s Handbook of Astronomy, 
 
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 panion to the "Handbooks of Natural Philosophy." By DiONV- 
 sius Lardner, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy 
 and Astronomy in University College, London. Fourth Edition. 
 Revised and Edited by Edwin Dunkin, F.R.S., Royal Observa- 
 tory, Greenwich. With 38 Plates and upwards of lOO Woodcuts. 
 In I vol., small 8vo, 550 pages, gj-. 6^/., cloth. 
 
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 pendious and well-arranged a form — certainly none at the price at which this is 
 offered to the public." — Athenceum. 
 
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 Lardner. With 520 Illustrations. New edition, small 8vo, 
 cloth, 732 pages, 7^. 6d. 
 ** We have no hesitation in cordially recommending it."— Educational Times. 
 
26 
 
 WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC., 
 
 Z?r. Lardners School Handbooks, 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Lardner. 
 
 328 Illustrations. Sixth Edition. I vol. 3J-. 6^. cloth. 
 " Conveys, in clear and precise terms, general notions of all the principal divisions 
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 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Lardner. 
 
 With 190 Illustrations. Second Edition. I vol. y. 6d. cloth. 
 "Clearly written, well arranged, and excellently illustrated." — Gardeners' Chronicle, 
 
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 Edition. Revised and Re-written, by E. B. Bright, F.R. A. S. 
 140 Illustrations. Small 8vo, is. 6d. cloth. 
 * ' One of the most readable books extant on the Electric Telegraph."— Mechanic. 
 
 Electricity, 
 
 A MANUAL of ELECTRICITY ; including Galvanism, Mag- 
 netism, Diamagiietism, Electro-Dynamics, Magneto -Electricity, and 
 the Electric Telegraph. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.C.S. 
 Fourth Edition, with 500 Woodcuts. 8vo, i/. 4J". cloth. 
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 Text-Book of Electricity, 
 
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 Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. New Edidon, care- 
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 1 2 J. ^d. cloth. 
 
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PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 27 
 
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 A CLASS-BOOK OF GEOLOGY: Consisting of Physical 
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 With more than 250 Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo, 5^-. cloth. 
 
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 A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA ; being a Treatise on 
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 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE on CLOCKS, and WATCHES, 
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28 
 
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PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOO^ 
 
 AGRICULTURE, GARDENIN 
 
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PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 31 
 
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32 
 
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