MANUAL 
 
 B Y 
 
 ALFRED SPITZLI 
 
 THIRD EDITION. 
 

A 
 
 MANUAL 
 
 MKNflGERS, DESIGNERS, WESVERS, 
 
 ALL OTHERS CONNECTED WITH THE MANUFACTURE 
 OF TEXTILE FABRICS, 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 DEFINITIONS, DERIVATIONS i EXPLANATIONS 
 
 OF TECHNICAL TERMS, 
 
 THE USE MADE OF MANY SUBSTSNCES ; 
 
 Rules, Tables, and some Elementary Instructions 
 for Beginners. 
 
 ALFRED SPITZLI. 
 
 WEST TROY, N. Y., U. S. A.: 
 
 A. & A. F. SPITZLI, PUBLISHERS. 
 1881. 
 
C-C /V S 
 
 T 5 
 
 /•m 
 
 S7L 
 
 mi 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1881, by 
 ALFRED and ADOLPHUS FERDINAND SPITZLI, 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C. 
 
 Wm. H. Young, 
 
 STATIONER, TROY, N. Y. 
 
 THE OETTY CENTER 
 LIBRARY 
 
E RRATA. 
 
 Second word, fourth line, page fourteen, read “ weaving” instead 
 of “ wearing.” 
 
 Second line, page 166, read— 
 
 o, * and © for raisers, □ and O for sinkers. 
 
PRICES, POST PAID. 
 
 IN NEAT PAPER COVERS. 
 Catalogue of Instruments, Books, &c., &c., 
 
 Catalogue and Manual, ----- 
 
 IN ELEGANT CLOTH BLNDLNG. 
 Catalogue and Manual, ----- 
 Manual only, (no Advertisements), 
 
 $ - 3 ° 
 
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 In Advance. 
 
The plan of this work necessarily involves the mention of 
 many business names, but its whole value obviously depends upon 
 the entirely disinterested character of that mention. The publish¬ 
 ers therefore wish it to be distinctly understood that no considera¬ 
 tion of any kind has governed the description or notice of places 
 of business of manufacturers in this work, except the single purpose 
 of giving the reader trustworthy information. Advertisements ap¬ 
 pear in their proper place as advertisements, but nothing in the 
 body of the work has been influenced by these advertisements, nor 
 is a mention in any instance an advertisement in disguise. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 One of the greatest needs of the Textile Interest in the line of 
 books is that of a thorough and exhaustive Lexicon, which is not 
 encumbered with details of other manufactures. The preparation 
 of such a work is a stupendous undertaking, one for which a life¬ 
 time is too short, unless it can be accomplished by aid of many 
 works which have gone before. 
 
 To supply a wqrk which will render some such aid, and in the 
 meantime furnish information needed by all connected with the 
 interest, in a form so convenient that it may be resorted to whenever 
 the memory fails to supply a fact with sufficient promptness, is the 
 object of the author. 
 
 There has been no effort to introduce new theories; on the con¬ 
 trary, the aim has rather been to furnish the best authenticated facts. 
 While the result is in many parts so unsatisfactory that the author 
 hopes to be able at some time in the near future to revise and 
 enlarge the work, it will be found that space has been made for a 
 more full discussion of the important subjects, by confining others to 
 a simple definition, or at most a few additional suggestions. Time 
 being of great value, the space taken for rules and tables will be 
 appreciated. The rules given are all such as can be easily analyzed, 
 since shorter ways may be adopted more understanding^ when 
 these are well comprehended and committed to memory. 
 
 The tables will save many computations and prove invaluable for 
 comparisons of measures, weights and values, which are continually 
 arising in a factory. 
 
 Finally, feeling that he has not been at liberty to devote to this 
 work the time which it really requires, the author respectfully sub¬ 
 mits the result of his labors to the most charitable consideration of 
 his fellow-craftsmen, with the firm belief that it will be of much 
 service to them, notwithstanding that it might be more complete. 
 
 ALFRED SPITZLI. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 In publishing another book for the benefit of the textile interest, 
 the object is not based upon the vain hope to displace others, or to 
 produce one which will in any way injure any work which has gone 
 before. Quite the contrary is the case with this work, intended as 
 it is to show the use of every book mentioned in it, rather than to 
 deter any one from the purchase of any or all of them. Three 
 principles have governed the compilation of this work : 
 
 First. Every book written with a good intent and purpose will 
 do some good. 
 
 Second. In this age of progress it is no longer possible to keep 
 apace with the world without much reading for the purpose of acquir¬ 
 ing the benefit of other’s experience, theories and opinions. There¬ 
 fore, while it is folly to place sole dependence upon book know¬ 
 ledge, it is ridiculous to claim ability to do as well without books 
 as with them. The interchange of knowledge through books, 
 periodicals and newspapers being a necessity, the more that can be 
 supported the better. 
 
 Third. A book of this kind, to be really useful to beginners and 
 experts, should be brief, filled with authenticated facts, convenient 
 in size and arrangement, and of such a character that it will injure 
 no one’s standing to claim or acknowledge constant use of it as a 
 reference. 
 
 The first and second principles require no comment; in behalf 
 of the third, it is quite proper to call attention to the facts that a 
 book written for the beginner and expert must contain much which 
 for a time will be beyond the beginner, and more which is so familiar 
 to the more advanced that they can hardly comprehend why such 
 “ stuff ” should be published. To the former we can recommend 
 nothing better than patience, perseverance and a determination to 
 surmount every obstacle ; to the latter, patience and charity ; with 
 the gentle hint that every man has in his time been brought up 
 solid by snags that afterwards proved but a trivial affair; that what 
 is easy to one is difficult for another; to serve many, the one who 
 serves, must depend upon the served, to bear shortcomings for 
 each other. As regards the convenience of this work, the size and 
 alphabetical arrangement of the subject matter is such as to com- 
 
IO 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 mend itself. The character of the book, while it gives elementary- 
 instructions, is not that of a primer, but rather of a compilation. 
 
 The principal contributors to the work are practical men, and the 
 author would have been better pleased had each consented to the 
 publication of his name, instead of honoring him with the result of 
 their labors. The authors quoted and consulted are those of the 
 best and deserved reputation. The books from which abstracts have 
 been taken are “ Ashenhurst’s Arithmetic,” Ashenhurst, Ashton, 
 Baldwin, Barlow, Burns, Gesner, Johnson, Langewald, Murphy and 
 others on Designing and Weaving ; Chevreul on Colors ; Crooks, 
 Dick, Napier, Gibson, Smith and others on Dyes and Dyeing; Baird, 
 Leigh and Webb on Cotton Yarn Warping, &c., &c.; Holdsworth, 
 Leroux and others on Worsted, Silk, &c., &c.; Ure’s Dictionary, 
 several Standard Encyclopedias and general Lexicons have been 
 depended upon for much more general matter pertaining to textile 
 manufactures. 
 
 The book which has been thus briefly introduced to the reader is 
 not a single man’s opinion but a collection of facts which should be 
 of some service to any and all. Confidently believing such to be the 
 case it is respectfully submitted, with grateful acknowledgement of 
 the great and unexpected encouragement already received by the 
 
 PUBLISHERS. 
 
THE MANUFACTURE OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 Whenever or however the conception of a fabric may have 
 originated, a definite idea of kind, character and appearance is the 
 first formal stage in the progress of manufacture, which will serve 
 as a starting point for a general discussion of this subject. From 
 here out the next step is like that of the origination of an architec¬ 
 tural piece of work, viz.: to produce working plans which shall in-‘ 
 elude all the specifications of materials required, the preparations 
 thereof, their construction, and finally the finishing process. Such 
 plans are called designs, and one who is competent to produce 
 them, and only such an one, can rightly be called a designer. 
 
 No man can claim a full and comprehensive knowledge of all 
 branches of textile manufactures; consequently the best work is 
 produced by those who devote their energies to one branch only ; 
 these receive the additional appellation of their respective branches, 
 as carpet, tapestry, silk, woolen, worsted, cotton, print, or emboss¬ 
 ing designers. Whether the designer of a fabric is entrusted with 
 other duties, or not, he should be able to produce the designs of 
 fabrics in his special line perfect and entire. This is not always 
 called for. There may be certain particulars or specifications in 
 the nature of the goods, or capacity of the factories, with which the 
 design must comply; but the ability to proceed from the beginning 
 should, nevertheless, be possessed before a position is ventured 
 upon. As an instance of limits within which a designer must work, 
 we will cite a factory where only certain kinds of yarn can be pro¬ 
 duced ; the stock and yarn in this case are points already settled, 
 and will appear as suqh in a design. The ability to make a design 
 which comprehends all the necessities of a fabric from first to last 
 can only exist when a thorough knowledge of the many branches 
 involved is possessed. To supply such knowledge for each branch 
 in print is a task so utterly without limit that every single effort to 
 furnish a share will be but a meagre tithe. Indeed, could all the 
 necessary knowledge be written—an utter impossibility—there would 
 even then remain a necessity for practice in the application, which 
 can be obtained only by practical contact with the work and detail 
 of every branch. Having shown how imperative and extensive the 
 requirements to fit any one for the duties of preparing the designs 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 t 2 
 
 of textile fabrics are, it may encourage many to furnish them with a 
 few suggestions. While preparing a design, one must bear in mind 
 that the pecuniary object of a deviation from plain goods is to 
 make a fabric conform to the customs and tastes of the consumers 
 for whom it is intended. To this feature must be added special 
 attractiveness, which pleases the senses of sight and feeling, and 
 sometimes even those of smelling and hearing. 
 
 As important as any, if not more so, is the consideration of the 
 cost of materials and labor required. If these exceed the probable 
 value of the fabrics complete, what object can there be in produc¬ 
 ing them? To exhibit a design, or to run the risk of losing the 
 money ? In estimating the probable cost of a piece of goods, the 
 designs for which are about to be made, the necessity of favoring a 
 large production should never be lost sight of; it is a very import¬ 
 ant feature of manufacturing in this country, and can only be neg¬ 
 lected when some other object than profits is in view. To favor 
 production the essential points are : stock that will produce yarn 
 readily, and of sufficient strength to endure the subsequent opera¬ 
 tions. Stock and yarn which will best produce the desired effects, 
 thus avoiding the manufacture of false effects in finishing, which cost 
 money and are never satisfactory. The matter of conforming the 
 texture to the yarn is of no little importance, especially where the 
 designer s duties are curtailed by specified yarns. A very important 
 requirement of the designer is that he produce designs which can 
 be successfully manufactured by the factory for which the design is 
 intended. This at first seems a needless statement, but a contempla¬ 
 tion of the many kinds of goods attempted by the greater proportion 
 of factories in this country, will convince the most incredulous that 
 there is a serious defect in the management of styles and patterns in 
 American mills. The fact must be admitted, however, that de¬ 
 signers cause but little of this trouble, that they are but a passive 
 factor, controlled by those who ought to have* a knowledge of tex¬ 
 tures and factories, and often lack them altogether. 
 
 As an illustration we have in mind a factory overfilled with 
 machinery purchased for the manufacture of a peculiar kind of 
 goods, but this particular kind having been unfashionable for several 
 years, an entirely different class of goods was introduced. The first 
 class required a firm thread, elasticity was of no great importance, 
 consequently the machinery purchased was such as would produce 
 the yarn in the most rapid manner possible. The yarn now 
 required for the goods in hand should be more perfect, and elasticity 
 is an imperative requisite to make the goods right, and for display- 
 
SPITZ LI’S MANUAL. 
 
 13 
 
 ing the stock used to the best advantage. In the same factory 
 three-fourths of the looms are so light that all heavy goods are, and 
 must be, woven with the warp very tight—a serious defect—as the 
 contrary should be the case with the above-mentioned fault in the 
 yarn. To show how utterly helpless the designer is here, it becomes 
 necessary to state that the employers have never been able to realize 
 much profit from this mill, consequently, whether they appreciate 
 the impossibility of making the goods right, and to the best advan¬ 
 tage or not, they do not feel disposed to spend twenty-five to fifty 
 thousand dollars in applying a remedy. The main source of trouble, 
 however, is in the manager of the goods in the market. A man who 
 seems to be utterly regardless or incapable of comprehending the fact 
 that no mill can make everything; that for some reason every mill 
 sooner or later gets into a sort of rut even with the best conveniences, 
 and once in it, can never be gotten out; in other words each mill 
 seems to be succesful with some particular kinds of goods, while 
 others at best prove but an indifferent success. Now, if this particu¬ 
 lar market man had some knowledge of factories and textures, he 
 would aid the designer in keeping the mill on the styles which are 
 least effected by the consequences of the factory defects. He would 
 long ago have discovered that several very staple styles have been 
 more than satisfactory from this mill, and that $25,000 per annum 
 profit every year from these is better than $50,000 one year and 
 $75,000 loss the next. In other words, he would keep the mill on 
 the fabrics which would build up its reputation and yield a steady 
 though smaller profit, instead of trying to make this factory, too 
 small for fancies, over-crowded, improperly fitted up, supply him 
 with the full assortment he wishes to show, which assortment should 
 be made up by five or six factories instead of one. Carpets are 
 carpets; shawls, shawls; but all silk goods, carpets, shawls, cassi- 
 meres, or worsted goods are not alike, nor can all kinds of either be 
 made successful by any one concern. 
 
 If then the designs are a want for the conveniences of the factory 
 as much as the factory is needed to carry out the designs, the pro¬ 
 cesses involved should be considered and understood by all who 
 have any authority in relation to the designs and styles used. 
 
 The order of processes is something as follows : The selection 
 of the raw material; the separation of the material from matter 
 which must not enter into the goods, and would injure the ma¬ 
 chinery, yarn and fabric; the color of the stock, if not right, must 
 be made so by dyeing, but this process is in some goods deferred 
 until the yarn or cloth can be dyed. Next comes the preparation 
 
H 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 of the stock for spinning, which includes all the processes of card¬ 
 ing and combing; also various others of lesser note, but of great 
 importance, which go before spinning; preparing the yarn for 
 weaving, wearing, and finally the finishing of the goods. The last 
 usually includes the cleansing of fabrics, as well as all the subse¬ 
 quent processes. 
 
 Silk and cotton are obtainable in such assortments that the stock 
 goes direct from the market to the machinery. Not so with wool 
 and many other animal fibers, which can be procured in market 
 classified or graded only. These grades must be assorted accord¬ 
 ing to their fineness, length and strength, into sorts or qualities, 
 which are usually numbered; they were formerly, and are yet by 
 some, named. This assorting is a branch which requires some 
 months of practice before any one can be entrusted with the work. 
 (See Assorting.) 
 
 The stock of the proper kind being ready, the washing and dye¬ 
 ing come next, when necessary, as with wool, hair, etc. Cotton is 
 not washed in the loose state. Silk is treated entirely different from 
 staples in the preparation processes. Before washing or scouring 
 wool, it is by some run through a machine called willow or duster 
 to free it of all dust, sand and short rubbish which can be shaken 
 out. This makes the scouring liquors do more service, and pre¬ 
 pares the wool in a measure by opening it for a more ready absorp¬ 
 tion of the liquors and final rinsing. The methods of scouring and 
 washing are briefly considered under the respective headings. 
 
 Some staples are subjected to machinery for opening and clearing 
 of burrs, seeds, etc., etc., in the raw state; others, later in their 
 progress, to the carding department. Several of these methods, as 
 well as the important processes of carding, spinning, weaving and 
 finishing are separately considered elsewhere. The only further 
 reference to them called for here is a special exhortation to give 
 each and all due consideration. No part of them can be slighted 
 or dispensed with if a thorough review and study is undertaken. 
 
 Having thus briefly drawn attention to the extent of the field of 
 research to be canvassed by those who wish to be prepared for the 
 duties of the designer, we must leave the matter with these sug¬ 
 gestions. The more thoroughly and practically that this prepara¬ 
 tion is attended to, the easier and better will the subsequent labors 
 prove. It will not do to fear a little grease upon the hands or sweat 
 upon the brow, nor yet some pain in the back, for some things can 
 be learned only when done, and done only at the cost of some 
 discomfort. 
 
A SHORT CHAPTER 
 
 OF 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO BEGINNERS. 
 
 As in every other art or science, all preliminaries in preparing 
 any one for the duties of a designer or general manager of a manu¬ 
 facturing establishment should have but one aim—to train and 
 discipline the mind, senses and abilities in the proper direction. 
 The powers of concentration and continued application must be 
 acquired by most men, and not a few find it a hopeless battle; yet 
 without such powers some other business would probably answer 
 better. The next important step is to become familiar with a large 
 variety of fabrics already in existence. In pursuing this requisite 
 study, the first suggestions are easily applied. The best method is 
 to obtain samples from every available source, dissect them with 
 care, and use each sample as a base of operations, until all the par¬ 
 ticulars are obtained. First, by studying out as many as possible ; 
 next, by inquiring for the balance. This method will aid the 
 student in asking direct questions, a feature in questioning which 
 is a great help to one who asks and the one who is to answer. 
 Nothing is more discouraging to a tutor than many questions which 
 show a lack of thought on the part of the questioner. Few men 
 can refrain from answering questions which show deep and intent 
 thought, and few care to be bothered with anything trivial. A little 
 further digression will be pardonable here. Young people often 
 flatter themselves with the idea that they are thinking, when in 
 reality they are only dreaming. The difference is so great that the 
 one almost always bears fruit, the other seldom. To obtain 
 samples is a matter so easy that they can at times be collected 
 much faster than properly dissected and studied. Such surplus is 
 not worthless because plenty. Discard worthless samples from the 
 first, and preserve good ones with care. 
 
 As each sample is dissected let it be neatly trimmed and fastened 
 in a durable book, all the drafts recorded in another, and all the 
 general information in regard thereto which has been gleaned from 
 any and every source, briefly and correctly recorded in a third, care 
 being taken to keep up a system of numbers and page references 
 
SPITZ LI’S MANUAL. 
 
 16 
 
 which will make search for particulars of any pattern easy. If any 
 beginner would realize the importance of this suggestion, let him 
 imagine if he can, what he would give for such a collection of books 
 compiled by some man of large experience. 
 
 These suggestions are written with the supposition that no one 
 will venture to begin designing without some adequate knowledge of 
 looms. Should this for any reason ‘have been neglected or post¬ 
 poned, it must be delayed no longer after the decision is fully con¬ 
 cluded to continue the study. 
 
 Good instruments are not only a great aid but much cheer to a 
 beginner; better have a few pieces only, and have such as will 
 warrant a commendable pride. Having good instruments, the next 
 point is to learn their use and application thoroughly. Some have 
 the impression that once in possession of the proper instruments all 
 will be easy, but like everything else, designers’ instruments require 
 much practice before their advantages can be known or shown. 
 
 Furthermore, designing being a calling which demands cultivation 
 of good taste, this cultivation should show itself in everything; the 
 person, books, instruments and surroundings. 
 
 From the earliest beginning the habit of keeping close vigil over 
 all processes by constant examination of goods ready for market is 
 an advantage that should never be missed if available. So com¬ 
 plete is the general supervision, that managers have been known to 
 direct the operations of the factory almost entirely from this point 
 of observation with tolerable success. Designing, dissecting, weav- 
 ing, etc., etc., are treated very minutely in another part; to those 
 parts reference may be made for special points of information. 
 
 Far the most common fault in manner and method of beginners 
 is the impatience they exhibit in everything; especially is this true 
 in younger persons. I he necessary time to do anything methodi - 
 cally is seldom taken, but the worst phase of this fault is that which 
 shows itself when anyone imagines that rapid work is sure evidence 
 of familiarity with, and special ability for, the work in hand 
 Such people have more or less deceit in them to commence with, 
 they would appear smarter than their own consciousness allows. 
 The result of such labor is almost invariably faulty, and the whole 
 principle of the method or habit is demoralizing in every sense of 
 the word. 
 
 Particularly in designing, or any kindred work, is the old saying 
 applicable, “ Anything that is worth doing at all, is worth doing 
 well.” Few things in the designing room can be done well without 
 the most thorough preparation. The outside duties, if any, which 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 17 
 
 compel a designer to slight his work are an injury to him and his 
 employers, hence we contend that manufacturers do not save so 
 much as they imagine when they make one man hold several such 
 positions. The wages of one man for a year is sometimes lost by 
 one neglect, one hurried piece of work, one error. Such losses are 
 attributed to other causes, even by the one who knows better, for 
 fear of consequences ; thus manufacturers go on losing money 
 faster than they can save it, at the same time making liars out of 
 young men per force. 
 
 To the beginner we would give this advice : Take your time, do 
 your work right, never mind what people say or think, lose twenty 
 positions because too slow, rather than one for errors or bad work, 
 and rather than be one of the many who falsely deny a fault, failing, 
 error or even inability, stay in the humblest position; there is more 
 honor and satisfaction in it. Large salaries, easy positions and 
 great reputations afford no comfort to him who holds his position by 
 trick or deceit. And to employers we would say, treat the young 
 men accordingly, so that they can be upright. 
 
 2 
 
Definition, Explanations and Instructions. 
 
 A. 
 
 Aba. —A woolen stuff or fabric manufactured in Turkey. 
 
 Abaca. —Commonly known as Manila hemp. “ A species of 
 fiber obtained in the Philippine Islands in abundance. Some 
 authorities refer those fibers to the palm tree known as the Abaca, 
 or Anisa textiles. There seem, indeed, several well known varieties 
 of fiber under this name, some so fine that they are used in the 
 most delicate and costly textures, mixed with fibers of the pine¬ 
 apple, forming Pina muslins and textures equal to the best muslins 
 of Bengal. Of the coarser fibers, mats, cordage and sail-cloth are 
 made. M. Duchesne states that the well known fibrous manufac¬ 
 tures of Manila have led to the manufacture of the fibres at Paris 
 into many articles of furniture and dress. Their brilliancy and 
 strength give remarkable fitness for bonnets, tapestry, carpets, net¬ 
 work, hammocks, etc.” (Ure’s Dictionary.) 
 
 Abb. —An old English term for warp yarn. 
 
 Abol’la. —A military robe of thick woolen stuff in use among 
 the ancient Greeks and Romans. 
 
 Acescent.—S ubstances which have a tendency to pass into the 
 acid state. 
 
 Acids. —Acids are a class of chemicals which have the property 
 of combining with and neutralizing the alkaline bases, thereby form¬ 
 ing salts. The acids of special interest here are : Acetic, Arseni- 
 ous, Carbonic, Chromic, Citric, Hydrocyanic, Malic, Muriatic, 
 Nitric, Oxalic, Phosphoric, Sulphuric, Tartaric. These are here 
 mentioned because important factors in tests, dyeing and printing. 
 
 Acetic Acid, in briefest terms, is Vinegar Acid. Acetimeter, 
 Acidimeter, Acetimetry and Acedimetry are terms easily con¬ 
 founded ; alluded to in this connection, their relations are easily 
 understood. Acetimeter being an instrument for ascertaining the 
 strength of Acetic Acid, an Acidimeter an instrument for determin¬ 
 ing the quantity of acid contained in a free state in liquids. Aceti¬ 
 metry being the art or method of testing acetic acid, Acidimetry 
 that of testing and estimating acids in general. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 19 
 
 Acidulous Salts —All salts containing acids—any saline compound 
 —of which the acetic is the acid constituent, is said to be Acetate. 
 Acetate of Copper is Verdigris, Aietate of Lead and Blue Vitrol. 
 
 Arsenious Acid —Arsenic.—The principal use made of it by the 
 manufacturer of textile fabrics is best expressed in the words of Mr. 
 Alfred E. Fletcher in a letter on the uses and advantages of aceto 
 arsenite of copper, commercially known as Emerald Green. In 
 reference to the dangers from evaporations from articles colored 
 with it, he says: 
 
 “ Were it true that such evaporation or dissemination went on, it 
 would indeed afford just cause for alarm, when we reflect that on the 
 walls of houses in this country (England) are displayed some hun¬ 
 dred millions of square yards of paper, most of which carries on its 
 surface a portion of arsenical coloring matter ; our books are bound 
 with paper and cloth so colored, cottons and silks, woolen fabrics 
 and leather are alike loaded with it.” 
 
 Carbolic and Carbonic Acids are easily confounded by those who 
 know nothing of their chemical nature. The former is an oily 
 liquid, colorless, a burning taste, resembles creosote and is obtained 
 from coal tar. Carbonic acid is composed of one part carbon and 
 two of oxygen. In its ordinary condition it is a gas, but may be 
 reduced to a liquid or solid state by cold and pressure. It is given 
 out by animals in breathing, by liquors while fermenting, by the 
 decomposition of all substances, and by the combustion of wood, 
 coal, etc. Water will absorb its own weight of it, and more under 
 pressure ; combined with lime it constitutes limestone, or common 
 marble and chalk. 
 
 Chromic Acid may be obtained nearly pure by adding to a boiling 
 saturated solution of bichromate of potash as much oil of vitriol as 
 will convert the potash into a bisulphate. Let the whole cool, then 
 wash with a little water, stir well and decant. 
 
 Citric Acid in crude crystals is used in calico printing ; is manu¬ 
 factured similarly to tartaric acid. 
 
 Hydrocyanic Acid is more commonly known as prussic acid. 
 
 Hydrochloric Acid. —Chemical name for muriatic acid. 
 
 Malic Acid. —The word malic pertains to apples, consequently 
 malic acid is understood to be acid made from the juice of apples. 
 Sometimes recommended by dyers in connection with certain states 
 of fermentation, but not in common use. 
 
 Muriatic Acid consists of one equivalent of hydrogen and one of 
 clorine; hydrochloric acid, formerly called “marine acid” or 
 “ spirit of salt ” because made of sea salt. Much used in dyeing. 
 
20 
 
 SPITZLI’S MAMUAL. 
 
 Nitric Acid. —Corrosive, contains five equivalents of oxygen and 
 one of nitrogen. 
 
 Oxalic Acid may be obtained by the action of nitric acid on vege¬ 
 table substances. Well washed sawdust, starch, gum, sugar or any 
 others containing no nitrogen, yield the most. Sugar has been com¬ 
 monly used. This is an important acid for dyeing. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid is recommended by some authors for many wants 
 of dyers and printers, but is not yet used extensively by the former. 
 Finely ground bone ash, digested with oxalic acid and water, yield 
 phosphoric acid. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid, or Oil of VitroL was formerly procured by the 
 distillation of dried sulphate of iron called green vitriol. This 
 method is now superseded by the combustion of sulphur with niter. 
 
 The affinity of sulphuric acid for water is very strong. An in¬ 
 teresting illustration is the fact that, when exposed to the atmos¬ 
 phere in an open saucer, it will imbibe one-third its own weight 
 in twenty-four hours. This acid is used in great quantities by 
 dyers. 
 
 Tartaric Acid is obtained from tartar. The method would be 
 very simple but for the great variation in tartar or argols. 
 
 Adulteration. —The debasing any product of manufacture, 
 especially chemical, by the introduction of cheap materials. 
 
 Affinity. —The chemical term denoting the peculiar attractive 
 force which produces the combination of dissimilar substances. It 
 is often called elective attraction, to distinguish it from corpuscular 
 or cohesive attraction, by which particles of like kinds of matter are 
 combined; and because it displays the power of selecting its prefer¬ 
 able associates. 
 
 Ageing. —The fixing of mordants by age. Instructions may be 
 found in Crook’s “ Handbook of Dyeing and Calico Printing,” pp. 
 280. 
 
 Albumen. —Animal and vegetable. Used in printing establish¬ 
 ments, sometimes in sizing and cements. No satisfactory substitute 
 has yet been found for all purposes. 
 
 Alcohol. —Alcohol is produced by distillation of vegetable 
 juices and infusions of a saccharine nature. Its principal use in 
 factories is that of a solvent. As the amount of water purchased in 
 the lower grades is out of proportion with the range of prices, it is 
 economy to buy the best and add water to suit. The spirits com¬ 
 mercially known as wood alcohol serve well for many purposes, and 
 such is the odor and taste that workmen are not so sorely tempted 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 2 I 
 
 to imbibe it. Some recommend the addition of methyl to alcohol 
 to prevent its use as a beverage either in full strength or dilluted. 
 This is no injury to the required properties of the spirits. For 
 many colors the addition of a little orange shellac is an advantage. 
 
 Alder (Anne. Fr. Erie. Germ. Aluns Glutinose, Lin.)—A tree, 
 different species of which are indigenous to Europe, Asia and 
 America. The wood of this tree, when properly seasoned, makes 
 the best “Top Rolls” for spinning and drawing frames. The 
 American Elder is another wood—a certain newspaper article to the 
 contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 Alkali. —Potash and soda were for some time confounded 
 together, and were hence called alkalis. Ammonia was subse¬ 
 quently distinguished as the volatile alkali , potash and soda being 
 fixed alkalis. 
 
 Alkalimeter. —An instrument for measuring the alkaline force or 
 purity of any of the alkalis of commerce. 
 
 Alkalimetry. —The object of alkalimetry is to determine the 
 quantity of caustic alkali or of carbonate of alkali contained in 
 the potash or soda of commerce. 
 
 Alizarin or Alizarine (or lizaric acid) is the most important 
 and the most valuable coloring matter contained in madder. It is 
 the only one which yields fast dyes capable of resisting the operation 
 of cleansing. By a series of experiments made by Schu^zenberger 
 with variously-mordanted cloths, submitted afterwards to dye-becks, 
 containing madder and its commercial preparations, it has been fully 
 proved that in these dyed shades—Turkey-red included—alizerin 
 alone is present. Hence, it is inferred that alizerin pre-exists in the 
 madder-root, and is not a product of any subsequent decomposition. 
 (Ure’s Dictionary.) 
 
 Alloy. —Alloy is the proportion of a baser metal mixed with a 
 finer or purer. 
 
 Aloe (Alois, Fr.; Glauindes aloe , Ger.)—In botany a genus of 
 the class Hexandria monogynia. There are many species, all natives 
 of warm climates, some furnishing useful fibers, others a dye. 
 
 Alpaca ( Alpaga , Fr.)—An animal of Peru,of the Llama species; 
 also the name given to a woolen fabric woven from the wool of this 
 animal. This fabric is now very successfully made in this country, 
 but the highest lusters are still imported. Fabrics made with other 
 fibers, made to resemble the genuine, are sold under the same 
 
 name. 
 
22 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 Alum (A/un, Fr.; Alaun, Ger.)— A saline body or salt, consist¬ 
 ing of alumina, or the peculiar earth of clay united with sulphuric 
 acid, and these again united with sulphate of potash or ammonia. 
 In other words, it is a double salt consisting of sulphate of alumina 
 and sulphate of ammonia. The common alum crystallizes in octa¬ 
 hedrons, but there is a kind which takes the forms of cubes. It 
 has a sour or rather subacid taste, and is peculiarly astringent. 
 (Ure’s Dictionary.) 
 
 Alumina. —The pure earth of clay, or argillaceous earth. It is 
 the oxide of the metal aluminum, the basis of the aluminous salts, 
 and the principal constituent of porcelain, pottery, bricks and tiles, 
 and not “frequently used in dye houses,” as stated in a recent work 
 on dyeing. 
 
 Alum, Native. —This term includes several compounds of sul¬ 
 phate of alumina with the sulphate of some other base, as magnesia, 
 potash, soda, the protoxides of iron, manganese, etc. 
 
 Alum Shale. —The chief natural source from which the alum of 
 commerce is derived in some countries. It occurs in a remarkable 
 manner near Whitby, in Yorkshire, and at Hurlet and Campsie, near 
 Glasgow. 
 
 Ama.—S axon word for the loom beam. 
 
 Amber. —The substance amber is of little account to textile 
 manufacturers, but the word is often used as the name of a beauti¬ 
 ful, delicate shade of yellow. 
 
 Amianthus.—A mineral in silky filaments, more commonly 
 known as Asbestus. 
 
 Ammonia. —A chemical compound, called also volatile alkali. 
 This substance, in its purest state, is a highly pungent gas, possessed 
 of all the mechanical properties of the air, but very condensable with 
 water. It consists of three volumes of hydrogen and one of 
 azote condensed into two volumes ; and hence its density is 0.591, 
 atmospheric air being 1000. By strong compression and refrigera¬ 
 tion it may be liquified into a fluid, whose specific gravity is 
 0.76, compared to water, 1000. Ammonia is generated in a great 
 many operations, and especially in the decomposition of many 
 organic substances, by fire or fermentation. Urine left to itself for 
 a few days is found to contain much carbonate of ammonia, and 
 hence this substance was at one time collected in great quantities 
 for the manufacture of certain salts of ammonia, and is still used for 
 its alkaline properties in making alum, scouring wool, etc. When 
 woolen rags, horns, bones and other animal substances are decom- 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 23 
 
 posed in close vessels by fire, they evolve a large quantity of 
 ammonia, which distils over in the form of a carbonate. The main 
 source of ammonia now in this country, for commercial purposes, is 
 the coal gas works. A large quantity of watery fluid is condensed 
 in their tar pits, which contains, chiefly, ammonia combined with 
 sulphureted hydrogen and carbonic acid. When this water is 
 saturated with muriatic acid and evaporated it yields muriate of 
 ammonia, or sal ammoniac, somewhat impure, which is afterwards 
 purified by sublimation. (Ure’s Dictionary.) 
 
 Amorphous (without shape ).—Said of mineral and other sub¬ 
 stances which occur in forms not easy to be defined. 
 
 Analysis. —The art of resolving a compound, substance, texture 
 or machine into its constituent parts. “ Every manufacturer should 
 so study this art, in the proper treatises, and schools of chemistry 
 or mechanics, as to enable him properly to understand and regulate 
 his business.” And designers have especial need to study the 
 analysis of the many textures with which they come in contact, as 
 this soon educates the mind to a quick perception of a texture 
 without the long and tedious method of dissecting every pattern 
 entirely. The analysis of colors is a study which properly belongs 
 to the designer as well as the dyer. 
 
 Aniline. —An organic compound, which may be procured in sev¬ 
 eral ways: First, when isatine is fused with solid hydrate of 
 potash ; second, when to an alcoholic solution of benzine a little 
 zinc and muriatic acid is added; but it is obtained best from coal 
 tar, which is to be distilled in a large iron retort, and the successive 
 products to be separately received, especially the latter and denser 
 ones. This heavy tar oil is to be strongly agitated along with 
 muriatic acid in a glass globe. The acid solution contains the 
 aniline, which, being of an alkaline nature, is called a volatile base. 
 It must be subjected to an operose process of purification with milk 
 of lime, etc., too complex to be detailed here, as no useful applica¬ 
 tion of it in the arts has hitherto been made. Dr. Hofmann has 
 written many elaborate papers upon aniline and its saline combina¬ 
 tions.—(Ure’s Dictionary). Gibson, in his remarks on “ Aniline 
 and Aniline Colors,” says : “As a general thing, we find that most 
 of the aniline colors are not soluble in water; the blues are the 
 most insoluble; the violets or purples come next; the reds are 
 sufficiently soluble for dyeing in boiling water. The solvents for 
 most of the aniline colors are alcohol, acetic, sulphuric and tartaric 
 acids. When alcohol is used as the solvent, its proportion we find 
 
24 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 variable with the kind of dye or substance it has to dissolve. I 
 find that thirty-five parts of alcohol to one of blue, and twenty-five 
 parts of alcohol to one of violet, are good proportions. The iodine 
 blues, where the iodine has been left (in the colors) will require a 
 less quantity of alcohol to dissolve them, and the same may be said 
 of the violets. All aniline colors will precipitate by adding a solu¬ 
 tion of tannin (sumach or nut galls) to them, but can be dissolved 
 again in -alcohol, acetic acid, or diluted oil of vitriol. There have 
 been several methods adopted to do away with alcohol as a solvent, 
 such as decoctions of certain roots, but these methods have not 
 been very successful. Concentrated sulphuric acid, with or with¬ 
 out the aid of heat, will dissolve the aniline blues or violets, and by 
 the addition of a large amount of water it will be rendered soluble 
 in hot water; but if you should have your oil of vitriol too hot 
 when dissolving the blue analine, it will impair their fastness. The 
 soluble blues or violets are colors that have been treated with sul¬ 
 phuric acid to make them more soluble, and I warn dyers against 
 them, as we all know that too much solubility is a detriment to 
 dyeing fast colors, but for yarns and flannels it is not so objection¬ 
 able. The colors obtained from phenic acid and napthaline are 
 often more soluble than those from aniline. The impurities in 
 aniline are, as a general thing, sugar, salt, arsenic, resinous and 
 tarry substances. Sugar and salt you will find in the reds and 
 violets mostly. To detect this fraud is simple: Put a small 
 
 quantity of the solid dye in a test tube, then add alcohol and shake 
 it well. Let it stand for a few minutes, then pour it off carefully, 
 leaving the residuum. Add some more alcohol, and so repeat the 
 operation until the dye is all dissolved, when the sugar or salt will 
 be found at the bottom of the test tube; those substances, not being 
 soluble in alcohol, will of course settle to the bottom.” 
 
 Annealing or Nealing (Le recuit , Fr.; das anlassen , Germ.)—A 
 process by which glass is rendered less frangible ; and metals, which 
 have become brittle, either in consequence of fusion or long- 
 continued hammering, are again rendered malleable. 
 
 Annotto. —This shrub was originally a native plant of South 
 America, but is now cultivated in St. Domingo and the East Indies. 
 It is called by botanists bixa orellana, and grows to the height of 
 eight or ten feet, and never exceeds twelve feet. The leaves are a 
 reddish brown color, about four inches long. The stems of the 
 leaves are made into ropes by the natives. According to Dr. John, 
 the following ingredients are the composition of annotto : 
 
SPlTZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 25 
 
 Coloring and resinous matters. 28.0 
 
 Vegetable gluten. 26.5 
 
 Lignine.20.0 
 
 Extractive coloring matter. 20.0 
 
 Matter resembling gluten and extractive. 4 -° 
 
 Aromatic and acidulous matter. x -5 
 
 100.0 
 
 Muriatic acid has no action upon annotto. Nitric acid will 
 decompose it and form several compounds. Sulphuric acid gives it 
 a blue color, resembling indigo, but will change from blue to a dark 
 purple. Alkalies give it a clear orange color. Chromic acid pre¬ 
 cipitates a deep orange tint. Annotto is easily dissolved in alkalies, 
 in which solution it is used in the dyehouse. The alkalies that are 
 most used to dissolve annotto are potash or soda-ash, and, if light 
 shades are wanted some dyers use soft soap in the solution. Some 
 keep a stock of liquor on hand, but I have found it to be better if 
 newly made. My mode of preparing annotto is this : To a barrel 
 of water take fifteen pounds of annotto, four pounds of carbonate of 
 soda, three pounds of soft soap; boil it until the annotto is all in solu¬ 
 tion (dissolved). The colors given by annotto are fugitive, if 
 exposed to the light and air. Acid or alkalies cannot completely 
 destroy the colors dyed by it. Good annotto is of a lively red color. 
 (Gibson.) 
 
 Anthracite. —A variety of coal containing a larger proportion 
 of carbon and less bituminous matter than common coal. (De la 
 Beche.) 
 
 Anti-Attrition or Anti-Friction Composition. —Various 
 preparations have been, from time to time, introduced for the pur¬ 
 pose of removing, as much as possible, the friction of machinery. 
 Black lead, or plumbago, mixed with a tenacious grease, has been 
 much employed. Peroxide of iron, finely divided haematite, etc., 
 have also been used. The manufactures of the Dixon Crucible Co. 
 of Jersey City, N. J., can safely be recommended for this purpose. 
 
 Anti-Friction Metal. —Tin and pewter in different proportions 
 are much used. Babbett’s metal, about fifty parts tin, five antimony 
 and one copper, is very common in this country. Another formula 
 for the same composition is : Melt four pounds of copper, add by 
 degrees twelve pounds of best Banca tin, eight pounds of regulus of 
 antimony and twelve pounds more tin. After four or five pounds 
 of tin have been added, reduce the heat to a dull red, then add the 
 remainder of the metal as above. This produces the composition 
 termed hardening ; of this take one pound and melt with two pounds 
 
26 
 
 SPITZLI'S MANUAL. 
 
 of Banca tin to produce the metal for use, which makes the complete 
 proportions one part copper and two parts of regulus antimony and 
 twenty-four parts tin. Tin, copper and spelter are used. When 
 compositions are too soft they will not do for heavy pressure. 
 
 Aqueous Tincture. —Solutions of solids diluted with water. 
 
 Archil. —This comes to the dyer in casks containing a violet or 
 crimsoned colored liquor and a large quantity of weed. This weed 
 is called Lichen Roccella , a species of sea weed or moss ; the best 
 sort comes from the Cape de Verde Islands, but it is found on the 
 coasts of Sweden, Ireland and Wales. The coloring matters of the 
 lichens are known in commerce as the following : First, as a pasty 
 matter called archil; second, as a red powder called cudbear. The 
 mode of preparing archil is by grinding them to a pulp with water; 
 they are then thrown into liquor containing quick lime and am¬ 
 monia; after standing a few days both the plant and liquor are put 
 into casks, and it is thus received by the dyer. When it is two 
 years old its coloring properties are fully developed; after that time 
 it begins to deteriorate. It gives very blooming but fugitive colors> 
 and is not much used in woolen dyeing, excepting for blooming 
 mulberries, dahlias, etc., and for bottoming for reds, safflowers and 
 cochineal colors, etc., it gives a depth and beautiful tint to the 
 colors so dyed. In 1857, Mr. Marnas of Lyons discovered a pro¬ 
 cess to make with this dyestuff a color that was beautiful and fast 
 and called the color French Purple; it was produced in the follow¬ 
 ing manner: “ Powdered lichens are macerated with lime water, 
 
 in order to render soluble the coloring matter, which combines with 
 the lime. After filtration, muriatic acid is added, which saturates 
 the lime and causes the coloring substance to separate in a gelatin¬ 
 ous state, which is washed and dissolved in hot ammonia. The 
 solution is very slow, as it requires from twenty to twenty-five days, 
 and a temperature of 153 0 Fahrenheit. The ammoniacal liquid, 
 which has become violet, is then precipitated by chloride of cal¬ 
 cium; a purple lake is then produced, which is the French Purple. 
 
 Acids change the color to a.Bright Red. 
 
 Alkalies “ “ “ .Blue. 
 
 Rock Salt gives it a.Crimson Tint. 
 
 Sal Ammoniac..Ruby Red Tint. 
 
 Crystals of Tin.Red Tint. 
 
 Bi-Sulphate of Copper.Cherry Brown color. 
 
 Argols.— Crude Tartar; an acidulous salt from which cream of 
 tartar is made. It exists in the juice of certain fruits, notably the 
 grape; is deposited from wines upon the sides of the casks. The 
 
SPITZLI'S MANUAL. 
 
 27 
 
 Germans call it Wein Stein (Wine Stone). It is very commonly 
 used in dyeing, in various forms. 
 
 Arras Tapestry. —A line of tapestry fabrics named from Arras 
 in France. 
 
 Assorting or “ Sorting.” —The sorting of various kinds of stock 
 is an important branch of manufacturing. In some staples it is done 
 before the raw material is offered for sale to the manufacturers, but 
 particularly in wools quite the contrary is the case, even the grading 
 or classifying being frequently very imperfectly done in these. The 
 assorting of wool is also the most intricate. When well done it im¬ 
 plies attention to the fineness, length, strength, state or condition, 
 and part of the fleece from which it came. For fineness alone it is , 
 customary to make from three to eight sorts. For length two to four 
 —according to the work for which it is assorted, or there may be a 
 short, medium and long sort. The assorting for strength is carried 
 on very differently in various places ; the most common practice is to 
 throw a tender lock into the short sorts ; in some mills they must 
 also be thrown to one grade lower in fineness than if they were full 
 up in strength. This is not a good practice, as a lot which 
 happens to have much tender wool will vary the quality of the sorts 
 too much. When such a lot is purchased it is better to make a 
 strong and a tender sort, to ascertain in what proportions the differ¬ 
 ence exists, giving the manager an opportunity to control the use of 
 it. The matter of “ State or Condition ” refers to the health and 
 cleanliness, the impurities being natural grease, burrs, seeds and 
 sand. The part of the fleece from which it came is also considered 
 first in relation to fineness, and then as to condition, for the wool 
 from different parts of the fleece is very different in its nature, some 
 of it being little better than hair. Of assorting wool the fact re¬ 
 mains, efforts to the contrary notwithstanding, that it is too import¬ 
 ant to be slighted by carelessness or false economy. Even work, 
 good work, and increased product, yield a return to which a few 
 pennies per pound are not a comparison*, and yet many mills suffer 
 throughout from this evil in the very beginning. Assorting yarn 
 is another important branch in manufactures, but only practical 
 here and there. An experienced hand can assort all the yarn 
 from quite a large factory, detect all that is imperfect, reject 
 that which has been made, and give proper notice that the defect 
 may be corrected and so save thousands of dollars; yet to save 
 $500 or $600 per year this duty is altogether dropped, given 
 into the hands of heedless youth, infirm or blinded age, or 
 perhaps to an overseer who has enough else to do. Assorting waste 
 
28 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 should not be neglected in any factory. The wages are returned 
 with a rich increase if this is attended and done judiciously. As¬ 
 sorting rags is a department of some woolen mills as well as paper 
 mills. When shoddy is made this is the first essential process. 
 Dark and light, all wool and part cotton, thick and thin, old and 
 new, must all be separated to attain the best results. Rags contain¬ 
 ing silk threads are usually thrown with those containing cotton. 
 
 Astrakhan. —The name of a country, but sometimes used as a 
 name for yarn made of Astrakhan wool. 
 
 Avoirdupois Weight. —The standard avoirdupois pound of the 
 United States is the weight of 27.7015 cubic inches of distilled 
 water, at 39.83° Fahr., the barometer being at 30 inches. 
 
 Avoirdupois Weight —Equivalents of in Troy Weight. 
 
 Avoirdupois. Lbs. 
 
 Oz. 
 
 Dwt. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 x Ton = 2922 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 i Cwt. = 146 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 I Qt. = 34 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 1 Lb. = 1 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 1 Oz. 
 
 
 18 
 
 Si 
 
 1 Dr. = 
 
 
 I 
 
 3 H 
 
 Avoirdupois Weight — Equivalents 
 
 of in Apothecaries' 
 
 1 - Apothecaries — 
 
 _ 
 
 Avoirdupois. Lbs. Oz. 
 
 Di 
 
 r. Scr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 I Lb. = I 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 O 
 
 I Oz. = 
 
 7 
 
 O 
 
 I 7 i 
 
 i Dr. = 
 
 
 I 
 
 7 B 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Avoirdupois Weight —Expressed in Grams or Metrical. 
 
 Avoirdupois. 
 I Ton 
 I Cwt. 
 i Qt. 
 i Lb. 
 
 1 Oz. 
 
 1 Dr. 
 
 Grams. 
 
 = 1,015,938.84 = 1,016 Milliers. 
 
 = 50,796.94 = 5,080 Myriagrams. 
 
 = 12,699.23 = 1,270 Myriagrams. 
 
 = 453-54 = 4.535 Hectograms. 
 
 = 28.34 = 2,834 Dekagrams. 
 
 = 1-77 
 
 Axminster Carpet. —The manufacture of Axminster carpets is a 
 mere modification of the Persian method, for the worsteds are only 
 knotted to the warp threads. They derive their name from a town 
 in Devonshire, but the seat of manufacture has long been removed 
 to Wilton. 
 
 Aylesham Cloth. —The linen manufacture became well estab¬ 
 lished in Norfolk, and Aylesham became noted for its flaxen fabrics. 
 “The Fine Cloth of Aylesham,” “ The Aylesham Linens” and the 
 “Aylesham Webs,” are frequently mentioned in old records. Eng¬ 
 lish weavers, it is said, knew how to work artificially designed and 
 well figured webs. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 2 9 
 
 B. 
 
 Backing. —This word is frequently used as an abbreviation for 
 Backing Fabric, Backing Yarn, etc., etc. 
 
 Backing Fabric. —Backing Fabrics are rare, except on woolen 
 and worsted goods. There are many other goods having several 
 fabrics one upon another, not for the purpose of backing, but to 
 keep certain yarns practically out of sight when not needed to com¬ 
 plete the face fabric. In other words, parts of all the fabrics are 
 necessary to make the face fabric complete. A backing fabric is 
 merely an addition to increase the weight without changing the face 
 fabric. The elementery principles involved in adding backing 
 fabrics are illustrated under the head of Textures. A few common 
 textures, with a backing filling tacked into the fabric are repre¬ 
 sented below. Warp yarn may be put in, in a similar manner, but 
 as the yarn is hard, and the number of threads greatly increased, 
 the result is not satisfactory. 
 
 Backing Yarn. —Backing yarn is usually made of a cheaper 
 grade of stock, but it will not pay to have the stock so poor as to 
 go bad, whether in warp or filling Neither is it safe to be careless 
 about evenness, twist or color. The matter of uneven backing yarn 
 is serious, because the effects of it usually show through. The 
 trouble may not be so serious if in the warp, but in the filling it is 
 very bad. The makeshift commonly resorted to—more shuttles— 
 is frequently unavailable if the face calls for several also. The 
 matter of twist is quite as important for backing as face. On most 
 goods it should be as soft as possible, and still have the yarn weave 
 good. The color of backing is often of little account in the esti¬ 
 mation of manufacturers, but specky, rusty or faded backs will con¬ 
 demn a piece, sometimes even before a customer has seen the 
 face. 
 
 Balance of Cloth. —This is a term which is capable of wide 
 interpretation. The general interpretation which is put upon it is 
 the proportion in which the warp and weft stand to each other. 
 But. if definite rules were laid down according to this interpreta¬ 
 tion, one cloth might be perfection, and another cloth, according to 
 the same rule, might be anything but perfection. Yet to all appear¬ 
 ance, and for the different purposes to which they were to be 
 applied, and according to the principles upon which the two cloths 
 were constructed, one might be as perfect a sample of a cloth as 
 the other. Again, the interpretation may be a wider one, and it 
 may be said that a properly balanced cloth is one in which the 
 
30 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 warp threads are set at a certain distance from each other, accord¬ 
 ing to their diameter and weight, and the proportion of weft to 
 warp which existed in the cloth. This interpretation would be a 
 perfectly correct one, and might be carried out in its entirety, but 
 the particular distance of the threads from each other, or the pro¬ 
 portion of weft and warp, which might be taken as a basis,/could 
 only be taken for the one particular class of fabric to which it 
 applied, because although that proportion may be all that could be 
 desired for one fabric, experience teaches us that it could not be so 
 for all fabrics, therefore no fixed rule could possibly be laid down 
 which would be applicable to all cases; but, the rule being found 
 for any one class of fabric, it would be applicable to all fabrics of 
 that class. Suppose we are dealing with a plain cloth, in which the 
 warp and weft are both of the same material, and that the warp is 
 so set in the reed that the diameter of the thread and the space 
 between the threads are equal, the weft threads are equal in thick¬ 
 ness or counts to the warp threads, and there are the same number 
 per inch both ways. Then the cloth may be truly said to be equally 
 balanced; and whether the material be woolen, cotton or linen, the 
 cloth will be perfect in its construction and will be made on the 
 truest principle. But it frequently happens that to produce special 
 efforts this principle must be departed from. For instance, it may 
 be desired to produce a corded effect, the cord to run either length¬ 
 wise or across the piece, a different method must necessarily come 
 into operation. We will wish to make a poplin, in which it is 
 desired to have a decided cordy character, the cords running across 
 the piece ; instead of the warp threads having a space between them 
 equal to the diameter of the threads, they must be set very closely 
 together, and the weft threads must be some distance apart, other¬ 
 wise the clear cord could not be preserved. But although it is 
 necessary that the weft threads be some distance apart, that dis¬ 
 tance must not be too great or the cord will again be destroyed. 
 Then from this it must be concluded that the warp threads must be 
 set as closely as possible without being too crowded, and the weft 
 threads must be driven as close together as the crossing of the weft 
 threads will permit, and the more carefully this is observed the 
 more perfect will the appearance of the cord be, and this will be 
 materially increased if the weft be proportionately thicker than the 
 warp. But it having been determined what sett of reed for a given 
 count of yarn will produce the best result, it is easy to determine 
 what reed will suit any other count of yarn to produce the same 
 results. Then suppose that the cord, instead of running across the 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL, 
 
 31 
 
 piece, is intended to run the length of the piece, the procedure will 
 be the reverse of the previous one—that is, the warp threads must 
 be further apart, and the weft as close together as possible ; and if 
 the bulk and distance apart of the warp threads be increased, and 
 the bulk and distance apart of the weft threads diminished in a 
 proportional degree, the clearness and boldness of the cord will be 
 increased accordingly, so that in both cases the proposition laid 
 down will hold good. From these two examples another conclusion 
 must be drawn. In the first the warp preponderates largely on the 
 surface of the fabric, and in the second the weft preponderates; and 
 we have seen that as the warp or the weft preponderates it must 
 be increased in quantity, and that which is least seen must be de¬ 
 creased in quantity—that is, in the number of threads per inch. 
 This rule holds good, not only for plain cloths but also for any 
 other make of cloth. If we turn, for example, to twilled cloths, in 
 which some quantity of warp and weft are visible on the face, and 
 in which the warp and weft are of the same material and thickness, 
 then the same rule applies as in plain cloths, viz., that there should 
 be the same number of threads one way as the other. But twilled 
 cloths differ very materially from plain cloths in this respect, viz.: 
 that from the very construction of the cloth the threads must 
 be closer together for the same thickness of thread than for plain 
 cloth, because in a plain cloth the warp and weft threads cross each 
 other, and are interwoven at every pick ; whereas in a twill cloth 
 they may pass over a number of threads before they are interwoven; 
 therefore the greater the number which are passed over before the 
 interweaving, the closer or thicker the threads must be to pro¬ 
 duce an approximate firmness of texture. Hence it is that twilled 
 cloths are so much better adapted for producing heavy, bulky 
 fabrics. In making twilled cloths, the warp or the weft may be 
 made to preponderate on the face of the fabric in two distinct ways : 
 
 First—In the same manner as in plain cloths, by bringing the 
 warp threads closer together and putting in fewer picks, at the same 
 time decreasing the thickness of one thread and increasing the 
 thickness of the other, or by increasing the distance apart of the 
 warp threads, and putting more picks, again increasing the bulk of 
 one and decreasing that of the other. 
 
 Second—By bringing one or the other more to the surface in the 
 order of working, it must also preponderate in a like degree in the 
 number of threads per inch, or in the actual quantity of the 
 materia], and it is only when that is done that the cloth can be 
 properly balanced. We can have no better illustration of this rule 
 
3 2 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 than in some of the best examples of satin cloths, in which the rule 
 will be found to be observed to the last degree. In any cloth in 
 which this is not done, not only will the cloth have an unpleasant 
 appearance, but the effect of the pattern is marred considerably also. 
 These observations apply more especially to fabrics in which the 
 warp and weft are of the same materials, but they apply also to 
 fabrics in which the warp and weft are of different materials; in the 
 latter case, however, attention must be paid to the nature of the 
 material, their density, and their adaptability to blend or assimilate 
 with each other, because the relative proportion of warp and weft, 
 thickness, ends per inch, etc., in one material may be quite correct, 
 if both warp and weft are the same, but if the warp be of one 
 material and the weft of another, then a decided change may take 
 place in their combination. Not only will this be so if one of the 
 threads be vegetable and the other animal substance, but it may be 
 equally so if they are both either animal or vegetable. The com¬ 
 bination of a woolen thread with a cotton thread would produce a 
 very different effect from the combination of worsted with cotton, 
 although in both cases it is a combination of animal and vegetable.” 
 (Ashenhurst.) 
 
 Bandanna. —A style of calico, in which white or brightly colored 
 spots are produced upon a red or dark ground. It seems to have 
 been practised from time immemorial in India, by binding up firmly 
 with thread, those points of the cloth which were to remain white or 
 yellow, while the rest of the surface was freely subjected to the dyeing 
 operations. The European imitations have now far surpassed, in 
 the beauty and precision of the design, the oriental pattern ; having 
 called into action the refined resources of mechanical and chemical 
 science. (Ure’s Dictionary.) 
 
 Banding or Bands. —The cordage used to drive spindles. All 
 bands on a machine and on like machines in the same factory 
 should be made of the same yarn, twisted and gauged with care. 
 The practice of using all kinds of old odd yarns for bands has 
 caused much uneven work that could not otherwise be accounted 
 for. To keep the tension on bands throughout the machinery per¬ 
 fectly even, and alike, requires constant watching, not by children, 
 but by competent and responsible persons. To renew bands regu¬ 
 larly is another necessity if even work is wanted. After many 
 bands are badly worn the difference of new ones (which never draw 
 the same as the old) will soon make bad work. It is better to 
 change the whole set. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 33 
 
 BACKING FILLING TACKED INTO FABRIC. 
 
 (See “ Backing Fabric,”29.) 
 
 B 
 
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34 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 Bar Loom. —The looms known by this name are considered the 
 first power looms that proved successful. 
 
 Barwood. —A hard resinous wood brought principally from 
 Sierra Leone. Is of similar nature for use in dyeing as camwood 
 and sanders. Is used in a ground state, gives a permanent coloring 
 matter, with or without mordants, is employed for deep sombre 
 colors and requires much boiling to extract the dye. 
 
 Baudekin or Baldekin. —A rich cloth used in Mediaeval times, 
 named from Baidak or Bagdad. 
 
 Bayeux. —A well known tapestry which was said to have been 
 the work of Matilda, the wife of the Conqueror, and her assistants. 
 Some fabrics having a faint resemblance to the above are occasion¬ 
 ally given this name. 
 
 Bead Lams and Standards. —Old time mounting of bead 
 harnesses, for gauze or cross weaving, on hand looms. 
 
 Bead Loom.—A loom fitted up for cross weaving by means of 
 beads in the harnesses. 
 
 Beaming. —This is the process of putting the warp yarn upon 
 beams. When beaming from chains it is necessary to pass the yarn 
 through a set of reeds. With the more recent machinery for warp¬ 
 ing, chains are dispensed with, consequently this precaution is now 
 seldom necessary except for certain kinds of work. Great care 
 must be taken to lay out the warp just right in width, to fit between 
 the heads of the beams, unless the latter are adjustable, in which 
 case the adjustment is a nice point often neglected. The speed 
 while beaming should be very regular; if not, some fabrics will 
 show the unevenness. Belt slipping is the most common cause of 
 such unevenness in speed, and should be prevented. 
 
 Beavers. —Beavers are a class of heavy woolen goods, fine cloth 
 face, and when made right are very nice and durable. The color 
 is an important feature in the attractions of a beaver. Thorough 
 fulling, cropping, boiling and gigging are points in the finish of 
 first-class beavers, which cannot be neglected without injury. The 
 warp should always be of sound stock, not necessarily of the long¬ 
 est staple, but such as will make a strong thread without twisting 
 too hard. The filling, while it should be soft and short stock, must 
 endure much work on the face ; the stock used should be selected 
 accordingly. 
 
 Bedford Cord. —A ribbed cloth of great strength, commonly 
 drab. Used very extensively for working garments in England. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 35 
 
 Beesley’s Ribbon Shuttle Motion. —An interesting chapter on 
 Ribbon Shuttles will be found in Barlow’s “ History of Weaving,” 
 pp. 294, which also describes this invention thoroughly. 
 
 Beir. —This term, when applied to reeds, represents a certain 
 number of splits—most commonly twenty. Its application to yarn 
 refers to this, 20 splits per inch, and 2 threads per split make the 
 40 threads called a Beir. (See rules.) 
 
 Blanket. —Thomas Blanket was a famous clothier connected 
 with the introduction of woolens into England about 1340. From 
 him the well known name for certain woolen goods is supposed to 
 have been taken. Blanket binding is a term sometimes heard from 
 old men, but they disagree as to the exact texture meant. 
 
 Belts. —That the arc of contact has more to do with the driving 
 power of belts than the area, is shown by the wire rope, where the 
 area of contact is so small as to be neglected in calculation, while a 
 large arc of contact is absolutely necessary. Belts have a tendency 
 to sag edgewise and to leave their proper place upon their pulleys. 
 This is more particularly the case with belts transmitting motion 
 between vertical shafts. When two shafts are not in parallel align¬ 
 ment, the belt from one to the other will tend to work off one of the 
 two pulleys. There are four ways of remedying this : First, by 
 properly aligning the shafts; second, by placing unyielding guides 
 at the edges of the belts; third, by using special tighteners ; and 
 fourth, by giving excessive crown to the pulleys. When belts are 
 used to transmit motion between vertical shafts, the tendency of the 
 belt to work off is aggravated by its own weight, and this tendency 
 must be met in one of three ways—by throwing the shafts out of 
 correct line, by guiding the edge of the belt, or by the use of special 
 tighteners. Between horizontal shafts the weight of the belt trans¬ 
 mitting motion tends to cause or increase adhesion. This is not 
 the case between vertical shafts, the belts of which require to be 
 strained by tighteners. The tighteners may be swinging or sliding, 
 and when properly designed and made, the former should be pro¬ 
 vided with an adjustment by which the pulley can be moved in the 
 plane of its axis, and the housing piece should be pivoted so that 
 the axis may be given an oblique position. The experiments of 
 J. FI. Cooper show that the influence of air upon the belt is simply 
 nothing. The influence of surface upon the adhesion of a belt may 
 be shown by a very simple experiment: Placing pulleys of different 
 diameters in a vice, putting a piece of belting over them, loading 
 both sides alike, and then adding weights on one side till slipping 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 3 6 
 
 just commences. It will be seen that on the largest pulley the slip 
 will be least, other things being equal. One experiment of this kind 
 spoken of in the “American Machinist,” October 9, 1880, gave the 
 
 following results: The pulleys 
 
 used were cones, 
 
 and the 
 
 table 
 
 below gives the distance of slips 
 
 in one minute: 
 
 
 
 
 Pulley 
 
 Pulley 
 
 Pulley 
 
 
 No. 1 . 
 
 No. 2 . 
 
 No. 3 . 
 
 Diameter, inches. 
 
 
 9i 
 
 7 i 
 
 Distance slips in one minute, inches. ... 
 
 . if 
 
 H 
 
 4 
 
 Belts should be wide and long enough to do the work without 
 being run too tight. Uneven speed from slipping belts is bad 
 everywhere. Belts running perpendicularly have to be kept too 
 tight to last long, unless much wider than when running horizon¬ 
 tally. 
 
 Belt Grease. —That a leather belt should be kept pliable with 
 grease is not doubted, but the kind of grease and manner of apply¬ 
 ing it, is a question of much controversy. The result desired is not 
 always obtained, because the compounds used are not of a nature to 
 produce it. A list of good compounds might be given, but only one 
 can be tested properly at a time, and such compounds are brought 
 to the notice of manufacturers frequently by other means. Almost 
 every one has used several kinds, observations from which will be 
 useful for comparison. A compound now sold by the Dixon Cruci¬ 
 ble Co., which is very good, indeed, when judiciously used, should 
 be tried before condemning all kinds of belt grease. 
 
 Belt Lace. —For fastening the ends of belts together when they 
 cannot conveniently be lapped and cemented there is as yet no 
 better way than to lace them with a good tough, flexible strip of 
 leather. Rawhide is very good, excepting in places where there is 
 much steam. There are special tannings which do much better in 
 such places, but some kinds of metallic fastenings are preferred by 
 many. To use lacing economically some responsible person should 
 be entrusted with the selection of the sides, also with the cutting, 
 which is done best by machinery; keeping a memorandum of every 
 bunch of lacings given out will soon show by whom and where the 
 most lacings are used, when the matter can be sifted. The greatest 
 waste of lacings may be traced to operatives who will not use them 
 as long, or as many times, as they might. Overseers are usually to 
 blame for slackness in this particular; it devolves upon them to see 
 that laces are drawn instead of cut; and if somewhat worn, or too 
 short, that they are used in his or another department on lighter 
 belts. The trouble is, that few men can mind trifles, when they 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL, 
 
 37 
 
 belong to others. Could every operative in a mill reduce the waste 
 and loss he causes by carelessness to the lowest minimum, wages 
 might be raised many per cent, and profits be much increased 
 besides. The best way to lace a broad belt is by lacing a lap piece 
 on the outside. 
 
 Benzole. —Benzine, benzene, benzal, hydruret of phenyle, (C 18 
 H 2 ). The more volatile portion of coal naptha has been shown by 
 Monsfield to consist chiefly of this substance. It is produced in a 
 great number of reactions in which organic bodies are exposed to 
 high temperatures. It may be at once obtained in a state of purity 
 by distilling benzoic acid with excess of quick lime. (Ure’s 
 Dictionary.) 
 
 Bichloride of Tin. —Double Muriate of Tin. 
 
 Bichromate of Potash. —Red Chrome of Potash, Chrome. 
 
 Bi- Sulphate of Copper. —Blue Vitriol, Blue Stone. 
 
 Bi-Sulphuret of Iron.—I ron pyrites. 
 
 Binders. —Many parts of machines or mechanisms are called 
 binders, because they unite or hold in place certain parts, viz.: 
 Box binders or shuttle binders keep the shuttle stationary while 
 in the box. The threads in fabrics which unite texflures or tie them 
 down in places are as often called binders as binding threads, 
 which see. 
 
 Binding. —A word used by some in place of texture. 
 
 Binding Fabrics. —Intermediate fabrics used for the purpose of 
 binding others together. 
 
 Binding Threads or Yarn. —Serving the same purpose as 
 binding fabrics, but in a manner more independent of each other. 
 Some effects on face fabrics are also produced by what are termed 
 binding threads, binding yarn, yarn used for binding threads; also 
 for tying hanks or skeins. The yarn left in the harnesses by the 
 weaver, for the purpose of tying or twisting to it the next warp, to 
 be woven with said harnesses. 
 
 Binding Plans. —Texture designs on chain and drawing in 
 drafts. 
 
 Bird Eye Patterns. —Formerly applied only to a particular 
 little diamond pattern, made with four -harnesses, but now applied 
 to any similar effect, made with any number of harnesses. 
 
 Bleaching is the process by which the textile filaments—cotton, 
 flax, hemp, wool, silk, and the cloths made of them, as well as 
 various vegetable and animal substances—are deprived of their 
 

 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 natural color and rendered nearly or altogether white. For some 
 materials the processes are very simple, but others are in themselves 
 a science. The subject is worthy of thorough and extensive study, 
 beginning with the chemicals and their applications. 
 
 Bobbins. —Bobbins are of many shapes and kinds for the many 
 classes of work. To describe shapes would require too much 
 space for the allowance here. Suffice it to say that bobbins should 
 be plenty about a factory, the place for storing them convenient, 
 dry, and large enough so that no box need ever be heaped. From 
 heaping boxes some bobbins fall, only to be trodden under foot or 
 picked up and thrown in the wrong box. The wood, which wears 
 rough, splits easily, warps, or is too soft, is not cheap at any price. 
 The best are the cheapest. Steaming yarn on the bobbin may be 
 necessary, but it is destructive to the latter beyond all other wear 
 and tear. Bobbins should fit all the spindles upon which they must 
 be used; if not, they will be split either by stuffing if too large, or 
 abuse if too small. 
 
 Boilers. —Of the many kinds of boilers used about factories, 
 those which generate steam for power and heating are of the most 
 importance. Boilers for yarn cloth and bleaching are known by 
 more common names. 
 
 Boilers (Land) should be set at an inclination of .5 inch in 10 
 feet. 
 
 Grates (Coal).—They should have a superficial area of 1 square foot 
 for every 15 pounds of coal required to be consumed per hour, at a 
 rapid rate of combustion, and they should be set at an inclination 
 toward the bridge wall of r inch in every foot of length. When, 
 however, the rate of combustion is not high, in consequence of the 
 low velocity of the draught of the furnace, or the fuel being insuf¬ 
 ficient, this proportion must be increased to 1 square foot for every 
 12 pounds of fuel. With Wood as the fuel, their area should be 1.25 
 to 1.4 that for coal. The width of the bars should be the least 
 practicable, and the spaces between them from .5 to .75 of an inch, 
 according to the fuel used. 
 
 Ash-pit .—The transverse area of it, for a like combustion of 15 
 pounds of coal per hour, should be .25 the area of the grate surface 
 for bituminous coal, and .33 for anthracite. The velocity of the 
 current of air entering an ash-pit may be estimated at 12 feet per 
 second. 
 
 Furnace or Chamber (Coal).—The volume of it should be from 
 2.75 to 3 cubic feet for every square foot of its grate surface. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 39 
 
 ( Wood.) The volume should be 4.6 to 5 cubic feet. Combustion 
 is the most complete with firing or charges at intervals of from 15 to 
 20 minutes. The volume-of air and smoke for each cubic foot of 
 water converted into steam is from coal 1780 to 195° cubic feet, and 
 for wood 3900. 
 
 Bridge-wall (Flue boilers).—The cross section of the flues or 
 tubes should have an area of 1.7 to 2 square inches for each pound 
 of coal consumed per hour, or from 22.5 to 26 square inches for 
 each*square foot of grate, for a combustion of 13 pounds of coal per 
 hour ; the difference in the area depending upon the character of 
 the conformation of the section of, and the length of the passage of 
 the gases ; the area being inversely with the diameter, and directly 
 as the length of the flues, tubes or spaces between them. Thus, in 
 Horizontal tubular bpilers, the area should be increased to 27.5 and 
 31 square inches; in Vertical tubular, to 32.5 and 36 square inches ; 
 and when a Blast is used, the area may be decreased to 15.5 and 
 and 20.5 square inches. The temperature of a furnace is about 
 iooo°, and the volume of air required for the combustion of 1 
 pound of bituminous coal, together with the products of combustion, 
 is 154.81 cubic feet, which, when exposed to the above temperature, 
 makes the volume of heated air at the bridge wall from 450 to 470 
 cubic feet for each pound of coal consumed upon the grates. 
 Hence, at a velocity of the draught of about 36 feet per second, 
 the area over a bridge wall, required to admit of this volume being 
 passed off in an hour, would be .5 of a square inch, but in practice 
 it should be 2 square inches. When 13 pounds of coal per hour are 
 consumed upon a square foot of grate, 13x2=26 square inches are 
 required, and in this proportion for other quantities. The tempera- 
 ture of the heated air at the end of the flues should be about 500°, 
 and their area, and that of the base of the chimney, should be .75 
 of that over the bridge wall, or 1.5 square inches for each pound of 
 coal consumed per hour. When the area of the flues is determined 
 upon, and the area over the bridge wall is required, it should be 
 taken at from .7 to .8 the area of the lower flues for a natural 
 draught, and from .5 to .6 for a blast. 
 
 Flues .—Their area should decrease with their length, but not in 
 proportion with the reduction of the temperature of the heated air, 
 their area at their termination being from .7 to .8 that of their 
 calorimeter or area immediately at the bridge wall. Large flues 
 absorb more heat than small, as both the volume and intensity of 
 the fieat is greater with equal surfaces. The temperature of the 
 base of the chimney, or the termination of the flues or tubes, is esti- 
 
40 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 mated at 500° ; and the base of the chimney, or the calorimeter, 
 should have an area of 1.33 square inches for every pound of coal 
 consumed per hour. With tubes of small diameter, compared to 
 their length, this proportion may be reduced to 1 inch. The 
 admission of air behind a bridge wall increases the temperature of 
 the gases, but it must be at a point where their temperature is not 
 below 8oo°. 
 
 Evaporation .—One square foot of grate surface, at a combustion 
 of 13 pounds of coal per hour, will evaporate 2 cubic feet of‘salt 
 water per hour. A square foot of heating surface, at the above 
 combustion of fuel, will evaporate from 4.33 to 5.33 pounds of salt 
 water per hour; and at a combustion of 40 pounds of coal per hour 
 (as upon the Western rivers of the United States), from 10 to 11 
 pounds of fresh water, exclusive of that lost l^y blowing out from 
 the boilers. Twelve to 15 square feet of surface will evaporate 1 
 cubic foot of salt water per hour at a combustion of 13 pounds of 
 coal per hour per square foot of grate. 
 
 The relative evaporating powers of iron, brass and copper are as 
 1, 1.25 and 1.56. 
 
 Water Surface .—At low evaporations, 3 square feet are required 
 for each square foot of grate surface, and at high evaporation 4 to 5 
 square feet. 
 
 To compute the heating and grate surface required for a given 
 evaporation, or volume of cylinder and revolutions : 
 
 Operation. —Reduce the evaporation to the required volume of 
 cylinder, number of revolutions of engine, pressure of steam and 
 point of cutting off; then reduce these results to the range of con¬ 
 sumption of fuel per square foot of grate, pressure of steam, and 
 number of revolutions given for the several c^ses at pp. 593 and 
 594, in Haswell’s Engineers’ and Mechanics’ Handbook, and multi¬ 
 ply them by the units given for the surfaces required. {Note .—The 
 work just referred to should be in every manager’s possession.) 
 
 Illustration. —There is required an evaporation of 492.24 
 cubic feet of salt water per hour, under a pressure of steam of 17.3 
 pounds per square inch, stroke of engine 10 feet, cutting off at 4 
 stroke, revolutions 15 per minute, and consumption of fuel (coal) 
 13 pounds yer square foot of grate per hour, in a marine boiler hav¬ 
 ing internal furnaces and vertical tubes. 
 
SlTTZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 41 
 
 Volume of steam at this pressure compared with water, 833. 
 
 492.24 x 833-^-60=6833.93 cubic feet of cylinder per minute. 
 
 6833.934-15X2 = 227.79 cubic feet of cylinder at half stroke. 
 
 227 79 x 17.3 
 
 Then-=197.04 cubic feet at 17.3 lbs. pressure, and 
 
 20 
 
 r 97-°4 X =147.78, which x 66, the unit for heating surface for a 
 
 20 
 
 vertical tubular boiler at 20 lbs. pressure and 20 revolutions=9753. 
 48 square feet. 
 
 And 147.78 X2 = the unit for grate under like condition=295_56 
 square feet. 
 
 To compute the consumption of fuel in the furnace of a boiler. 
 The dimensions of the cylinder, the pressure of the steam, the 
 point of cutting off, the revolutions, and the evaporation of the 
 boilers per pound of fuel per minute being given : 
 
 Rule. —Ascertain the volume of water expended in steam, and 
 multiply it by the weight of a cubic foot of the water used ; divide 
 the product by the evaporating power of the fuel in the boiler under 
 computation in pounds of water, and add thereto the loss per cent, 
 by blowing off. 
 
 Boiler Plates and Bolts .—Tensile strength of wrought iron plates 
 and bolts ranges from 45,500 to 62,500 pounds per square inch for 
 plates, 59,000 for English bolts, and 65,000 for American, being 
 increased when subjected to a moderate temperature. The mean 
 tensile strength of steel plates and bolts ranges from 80,000 to 
 96,000 pounds. Kirkaldy gives 85,966 as a mean. 
 
 Bursting and Collapsing Pressures .—The computation for plates 
 and bolts should be based, so far as may be practicable, upon their 
 exact tensile strength. Whenever, then, the strength of plates is 
 ascertained, there should be deducted therefrom one-half for single 
 riveting and three-tenths for double riveting, and the remainder 
 divided by a factor of safety of three. When the exact strength can 
 not be ascertained, a factor of six should be used both for plates and 
 bolts. The resistance to collapse of a flue or tube is much less than 
 the resistance to bursting; the ratio can not well be determined, as 
 the resistance of a flue decreases with its length, or that of its 
 courses. With an ordinary cylindrical boiler, 4 feet in diameter, 
 single riveted, 20 feet in length, with flues 154 inches in diameter, 
 shell T \ thick, flues 4 inch, the relative strength are : Bursting, 350 
 pounds; collapsing, 152 pounds.— Haswell. 
 
42 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 Heating Feed- Water .—As some doubts seem to exist among 
 steam users about the advantages of heating the feed water, it might 
 be appropriate to give a few figures about the economy to be 
 obtained thereby. To heat a pound of water from zero to the boil¬ 
 ing point, and convert it into steam at a certain pressure, a certain 
 amount of heat has to be imparted to it. A “ unit of heat ” is the 
 amount necessary to raise one pound of water one degree in tem¬ 
 perature. Then 
 
 At 15 pounds above atmosphere 1191 units are necessary. 
 
 “ 30 
 
 (« 
 
 44 
 
 1198 
 
 “ 45 
 
 it 
 
 <( 
 
 1203 
 
 “ 60 
 
 ii 
 
 it 
 
 1208 
 
 “ 75 
 
 H 
 
 ll 
 
 1212 
 
 “ 90 
 
 ii 
 
 a 
 
 1214 
 
 Taking 1,200 as an average, and assuming the average natural 
 temperature of water at about 50°, we have to impart 1x50 units of 
 heat to every pound of water to convert it into steam. A feed- 
 water heater will thus, for every ioo° the feed-water is raised in 
 temperature, effect a saving of 
 
 100 X 100 
 
 -- 8.7 per cent.; 
 
 1150 
 
 the greatest economy would be attained if the feed could be heated 
 to the boiling point. Taking the latter at 212", the gain would 
 then be 
 
 (212 — 50) X 100 
 
 H5o 
 
 14 per cent. 
 
 In condensing engines the feed-water is taken from the hot well, 
 whicji generally is kept at- 120° to 130°, as a higher temperature 
 would impair the vacuum, and thus neutralize what is gained by a 
 higher temperature of feed. In some marine engines the feed-water 
 has been heated to a higher degree by taking it from the hot well 
 into the top of the condenser, or around and through the exhaust 
 pipe, to expose it to the steam coming out of the cylinder, before it 
 is condensed. Considerable gain has been claimed by inventors of 
 these plans, but as they have not been adopted to any extent it may 
 be doubted whether their advantage is universally acknowledged. 
 For stationary condensing engines the so-called economizers have 
 found extensive application ; they consist of coils or rows of tubes, 
 located in the back flue of the boiler; the feed-water is forced 
 through them, and can thus be heated to very near the boiling 
 point. Some of these were shown in the British section, in the 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 43 
 
 southeast corner of Machinery Hall, in the Centennial Exhibition, 
 and very elaborate and costly structures they were. Their vertical 
 tubes had a slow-moving set of scraping rings around them, to keep 
 them from any soot that might impair their conductive power. 
 Taking the temperature of the hot well at 120°, and assuming that 
 the feed is heated to 200, the gain would be 
 
 (200 — 120) X 100 
 -- 7.4 per cent. 
 
 1200 — 120 
 
 For non-condensing engines, where the feed would have to be 
 
 raised from 50, the gain would be 
 
 (200 — 50) x 100 
 -- 13 per cent. 
 
 1200 — so 
 
 For non-condensing engines the simplest way to heat the feed is 
 by the exhaust from the cylinder, either passing it into the feed- 
 water tank, which is done in locomotives sometimes, or by forcing 
 the feed-water through a coil of pipes surrounded by the exhaust 
 steam. Or the feed, in its way to the boiler, is forced through a 
 cylindrical vessel, and the exhaust steam conducted through it in 
 small tubes, after the manner of a surface condenser. If these 
 arrangements are provided with sufficient heating surface, the feed 
 may be heated to 180° or 200°, but care should be taken to provide 
 ample and unobstructed passage to the exhaust, so as not to in¬ 
 crease the back pressure, for if the latter is only one pound per 
 square inch higher, the loss, especially where the steam is greatly 
 expanded, may come very near the gain by feed-heating. In a 
 Corliss engine, working with sixty pounds pressure, cutting off at 
 J ff th, the mean pressure is about 14^ pounds per square inch ; if 
 the back pressure is raised one pound, the mean pressure would 
 only be 13I, showing a loss of 
 
 /I X XOOs 
 
 |-) = 7 per cent. 
 
 The cost of heating the feed is represented by the interest on 
 the first cost of the heater and its cost of maintenance, and will 
 vary somewhat according to construction, etc. On an average the 
 net gain by heating the feed may be assumed as about five pet cent, 
 for condensing, and ten per cent, for non-condensing engines. 
 By J. Haug, M.E., in Polytechnic Review. 
 
 Boiling— Boiling goods to produce lustre is a common necessity, 
 but it is not always best to boil; a gentle steeping may serve the 
 purpose better and prove less injurious to the mateiial. 1 he false 
 
44 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 impression that the liquor is not doing the work unless greatly 
 agitated, prevails, but not so extensively as twenty years ago. The 
 secret of success is frequently in the rolling, the exposure, gradual 
 cooling or in the nature and character of the fabric. When woolen 
 goods have been excessively boiled, exposed to great heat, or cooled 
 too suddenly, they are invariably made 'harsh. When the machine 
 which rolls the goods is not powerful enough to draw the goods 
 quite steadily, with the utmost strain necessary, look out for water 
 marks. If the goods are not clean when boiled, clouds and dark 
 edges may show themselves. If the colors in the goods'are not fast 
 they will sometimes be less so after boiling for lustre. 
 
 Bois Rouge. —See Camwood. 
 
 Bombazine. — {Bombazet, Bombazette , Bombazine , Bombasine.) —A 
 sort of thin woolen cloth. Bumbazeen. n. [Fr.y bombasin and 
 basin ; Sp., bombasi; It., bambagno; Lat., bombacinium, bomba- 
 cinium, from Lat. bombycinus of silk or cotton. Bombycinum, a 
 silk^or cotton texture from Bombyt. Gr., Bou^By silk, cotton; 
 It.', bombazio.] A twilled fabric, of which the warp .is silki and the 
 weft' worsted ; formerly black, for mourning garments, but now 
 made of various colors. [Sometimes spelled bombasin-.]— Tomlinson. 
 
 Bombazine was first made at Norwich, England, in 1875. 
 
 Bonchon, M.—M. Bonchon, in 1725, (twenty-seven years before 
 the birth of Jacquard,) employed a band of pierced paper, pressed 
 by a hand-bar against a row of horizontal wires, so as to push for¬ 
 ward those which happened to be opposite the blank spaces, thus 
 bringing the loops at the lower extremity of vertical wires in con¬ 
 nection with a comb-like rack below, etc. It will thus be seen that 
 Jacquard was not the inventor of the first principles of the kind of 
 looms now known the world over by his name. 
 
 Books. —The books required by the designer are few and simple; 
 but large, must be thoroughly made, and are therefore expensive. 
 The principal ones are design, pattern and record books. Books of 
 instruction should perhaps be included, as no designer can now 
 afford to refrain from much reading on subjects kindred to his call¬ 
 ing. {For description , see Design Books , Pattern Books , Record 
 Books and Books of Instruction.) The different kinds of books 
 should be procured uniform in size if possible; this is a saving in 
 shelf room, and adds much to the appearance of a library of this 
 kind, great or small. Design Books should be gotten up to suit the 
 designs to be recorded, the paper very heavy and binding first-class. 
 
SPITZ LI’S MANUAL. 
 
 45 
 
 Pattern books can be got very cheap, but it is not economy to buy 
 such; they have to be replaced too often, look bad and are gener¬ 
 ally unsatisfactory. The records are simple, and may be like the 
 regular account books known by that name, of a size to match the 
 others. Books of Instruction are expensive, but a necessity, 
 acknowledged more and more every day. 
 
 Book of Ties. —To be able to apply any given pattern to the 
 looms was formerly considered as being one of the “ mysteries” of 
 weaving, for the weaver was expected to tie up or arrange his loom 
 to .produce satins, twills, spots and small figures. He was accord- 
 > ingly provided with various diagrams or plans, showing him how to 
 do so; and if he was a careful man, he would have a number of the 
 most prevailing patterns drawn in his “ Book of Ties,” which was 
 the name given to the memorandum book for that purpose. A cen¬ 
 tury ago there were in this country no printed works on weaving; 
 therefore, it may be interesting to describe a fair specimen of a 
 weaver’s pocketbook of that period, for it is questionable whether 
 many of them remain in existence at the present time. A book of 
 this kind is now before us ; it is an ordinary long-shaped pocket- 
 book, and contains about eighty different “ ties ” or patterns clearly 
 drawn; each pattern has its particular name, such as “ bird’s eye 
 or diamond handkerchief,” “ twelve lam diaper,” “ Barcelona twill,” 
 “ Florentine,” “ Long cut velvet,” “ shamrock gauze,” “ rocktabby,” 
 “velveret,” “ wild-worm-warp-away,” and other curious names, for 
 weavers centuries ago were perfectly aware of the effect of a new 
 name.— Barlow. 
 
 Books of Instruction. —There is no question more frequently 
 asked by beginners than “ Which is the best book for me to get ?” 
 The fact is that many are apt to expect too much of a book. In 
 these days it is no longer possible for even the most advanced to 
 hold his vantage ground without much reading; but he who thinks 
 to post himself entirely from books, or he who otherwise places 
 too much dependence upon rules and precepts which cannot be 
 otherwise than arbitrary, must fail. A beginner should get some 
 experienced person to pick out a plain, simple book on some par¬ 
 ticular branch to begin with; this will prepare him for more 
 difficult work; finally standard works treating in general upon sub¬ 
 jects kindred to his special branch will afford most profitable read¬ 
 ing. We advise a beginner to purchase this manual first, because 
 the price is reasonable and much aid may be derived from it; the 
 selection of other works is also made easy. Ashton, Langewald, 
 
46 
 
 SPITZLI'S MANUAL. 
 
 Ashenhurst, Barlow, Chevreul, on colors, procured in the order 
 mentioned, if not altogether, is money well spent. Ashton treats 
 elementary points very satisfactorily to the beginner. Langewald 
 supplies the largest collection of chain drafts and tables convenient 
 in a woolen mill. Ashenhurst’s work is very instructive to any one 
 who has had a little start. Barlow is very interesting and important 
 to those who wish general knowledge of weaving and its history. 
 
 Borate of Soda. — Borax. 
 
 Borax. Biborate of soda; a salt formed by a combination of 
 boracic acid with soda. It was originally obtained from a lake in 
 Thibet, and was sent to Europe under the name.of tincal. It is of 
 a white'color or sometimes grayish, or with a shade of blue or 
 green. 
 
 Bord or Burda. A striped cloth. Burd Alisaunder, the oldest 
 known design for any textile fabric. . 
 
 Bow.—A device on the point of a shuttle to separate the shed. 
 Used when the warp threads are inclined to stick together. It is 
 usually made of horse hair or very fine wire. 
 
 Bowed Gorgia Cotton. —“ Bowed Gorgia” takes its name from 
 . a mode of cleaning which has long been in disuse. This operation 
 was performed by means of a bow-string, which being raised by the 
 hand, and suddenly released, struck upon the cotton with consider¬ 
 able force, and thereby served both to separate the gins and to open 
 the cotton, rendering it more fit for the processes which followed. 
 “ it has long since been abandoned for other and more rapid 
 methods of cleaning.”—(Baird.) What is now called “ Bowed 
 Gorgia ” has been cleaned by a machine called a saw-gin. 
 
 Boxes. —Shuttle boxes on looms are often troublesome, because 
 supported by a crooked spindle. The position in relation to the 
 race.board, when the shuttle is to pass in or out, is of great import¬ 
 ance, and varies on looms of different construction sometimes to the 
 extent of ^ inch. Some weavers claim that a box should never be 
 level, but aim downwards a little; the advantages claimed for this 
 mode of setting are that it keeps the shuttle from flying out, and 
 catches the shuttle gradually on its coming in. This theory is not 
 accepted by others who are equally successful. Timing the motion 
 of the boxes is a nice point, but carelessly done by a large propor¬ 
 tion of loom fixers. The cleanliness of boxes should be scrupulously 
 attended to. 
 
 Box Motion. — I he mechanism on looms for raising and lowering 
 
SPITZLI'S MANUAL. 
 
 47 
 
 the shuttle boxes is an important part of the whole. This has led 
 to many inventions, some good, others almost worthless, and many 
 which conflict with each other in claims of inventors. The very 
 motion that we would recommend is in controversy. 
 
 Bow Cords. —The term used to designate the cords between the 
 raising lever or couper, and the harness or leaf of certain kinds of 
 hand looms. 
 
 Brazil Woods. —There are several varieties of this wood, which 
 are distinguished from each other by the name of the place where 
 they are obtained—Pernambuco, Japan, Hypernic wood, Nicaragua, 
 etc., and they all give a handsome red ; and in relation to dyeing, 
 may be considered as only different names for dyestuffs producing 
 similar coloring effect, and only differing in some little particulars. 
 In the dyehouse they are often all called peachwood. The wood 
 known in commerce as Pernambuco is most esteemed, and has the 
 greatest quantity of coloring matter. The kind termed Hypernic 
 or Lima wood is the same in quality. A decoction of Lima wood 
 presents a rich crimson color, which acids and acidulous salts will 
 change to orange, and v alkalies turn to purple. The salts of potash, 
 soda and ammonia change the solution into a rose color, which soon 
 passes away by standing. Solutions of tin throw down a bright red 
 colored lake, and alum precipitates slowly a bright and clear red. 
 Nicaragua or peachwood (sometimes called Santa Matha wood) is 
 much used in the dyehouse, and for many shades of red is pre¬ 
 ferred, although the coloring matter is not so great. It gives a 
 bright dye. It is better adapted to coloring reds than Lima wood, 
 and this latter is better for garnets, rubies, maroons, etc., on ac¬ 
 count of its deep crimson-colored solution. But all the colors 
 obtained from any of these woods are of a fugitive nature, losing 
 their brilliancy by exposure to the air. The sun has a very pow¬ 
 erful influence upon colors dyed by these woods. Bv a short ex¬ 
 posure the red color assumes a blackish tint, passes into a brown, 
 and fades away into a light dun color. The best preparations for 
 reds from these woods is alum and tartar—the tartar about one- 
 eighth the weight of alum. The best temperature to commence 
 dyeing these colors is about i8o°, and bring up to a boil as soon as 
 possible, and boil no longer than to get the shade required. 
 
 Brushes. —The brushes needed by a designer are two in num¬ 
 ber—one of the best bristle clothes brushes for brushing samples, 
 not too large or stiff, not too limber ; also, a small brush for clear¬ 
 ing the projecting threads when dissecting. Factory brushes are 
 
48 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 more numerous in kinds, for brushing cloth, gigg slats, warps, etc., 
 etc.; also for dabbing the stock into the circles -on combs and other 
 like work. The very best brush bristles are cheapest. 
 
 Brocade. —A cloth with figures woven with gold or silver 
 threads. 
 
 Brush Wheels. —In light machinery, wheels are sometimes made 
 to turn each other by means of bristles fixed in their circumference ; 
 these are called brush wheels. The term is sometimes applied to 
 wheels which move by their friction only.—(Ure’s Dictionary.) 
 
 Bungoes. —A peculiar kind of shawls first made at Strathbungo 
 near Glasgow, Scotland. Sometimes applied to other fabrics sup¬ 
 posed to resemble the texture and character of these shawls. 
 
 Brussels Carpet. —Brussels and other pile carpets are made 
 upon the same principle as velvet, but generally the pile is not cut, 
 consequently round wires are used instead of grooved ones, and 
 they are drawn out from the sides of the cloth. There are two 
 descriptions of Brussels, one in which the pile threads have the 
 pattern printed upon them previous to weaving, and the other in 
 which the threads are used dyed in separate colors. The first kind 
 is known as tapestry carpets, patented in 1832, by Mr. Whytock of 
 Edinburgh, and forms a comparatively simple and cheap manufac¬ 
 ture when compared to Brussels carpets. 
 
 Buckram. —A coarse linen cloth stiffened with glue, named from 
 buco, a hole, or from Bokkara. 
 
 Burel.—A coarse stuff used during the thirteenth century. 
 
 C. 
 
 Calcium. —The metallic base of lime. 
 
 Calculations. —Mathematical calculations are numerous in and 
 about the factory. Those which fall to the designers’ lot frequently 
 include estimates of cost, as well as quantity of yarn and stock 
 needed for separate orders. Many of the more important calcula¬ 
 tions are treated in other parts for the sake of clear connections. 
 To be methodical in all things should be the aim of all, designers in 
 particular; it is a useful as well as commendable virtue. To give 
 the necessary methods for all factory calculations would require a 
 large volume, and the best would be incomplete. The better way is 
 to supply, in the proper places, elementary rules, and urge every 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 49 
 
 one to reduce all their calculations to a systematic method; to 
 decide on some good way to proceed for the various kinds of mathe¬ 
 matical problems which come up frequently, and make use of such 
 method until it can be abandoned for a better one in earnest; never 
 employ too many ways to solve the same kind of problems. It is 
 well to know several ways, as they may be used for proving work, 
 but an unmethodical use of such knowledge is demoralizing. Most 
 of the examples given in this work will be found with the rules. 
 The impossibility to collect even in small districts of England 
 statements of any number which agree, on the subject of mathemati¬ 
 cal terms and methods in textile calculations, on account of the great 
 diversity of methods employed, verifies the preceding remarks. 
 (See Barlow and Ashenhurst.) The latter is quoted as good author¬ 
 ity, and to show how utterly impossible it is to create order out of 
 the chaos existing in some districts, the quotation is in another part 
 in connection with “Yarn Counts or Numbers.” 
 
 Calico Printing is the art of producing a pattern on cotton 
 cloth by printing in colors, or mordants, which become colors when 
 subsequently dyed. Calico derives its name from Calicut, a town 
 in India formerly celebrated for its manufactures of cotton cloth, 
 and where calico was also printed. Other fabrics than cotton are 
 now printed by similar means, viz., linen, silk, wool and mixtures of 
 wool and cotton. Linen was formerly the principal fabric printed, 
 but since modern improvements have produced cotton cloth at a 
 comparatively cheap rate linen fabrics are now sparingly used for 
 printing, and then principally for handkerchiefs, linen cloth not 
 producing such beautiful colors, in consequence of the small affinity 
 of flax for mordants or coloring matters. Silk printing also is 
 chiefly confined to handkerchiefs, but the printing of woolen fabrics 
 or mousseline delaines is an important branch of the art. (Ure’s 
 Dictionary.) 
 
 Cambric. —A cotton cloth. No doubt the name is derived from 
 Cambray. 
 
 Callenders. —Callenders are machines with two or more cylin¬ 
 ders, now generally heated by steam, used in some of the finishing 
 processes ; also by the calico printers to prepare the surface of the 
 goods. The complete and perfect callender is a large and expen¬ 
 sive machine, and may be much modified for certain fabrics. It is 
 always best, however, to have one so fitted that it may be worked 
 with any degree of pressure between the rolls, from that which 
 simply insures regular contact to that which will produce a glaze on 
 4 
 
50 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 almost any fabric. A very good use for Callenders, but by no means 
 common, is that made of it by a few manufacturers of worsted 
 goods of the heavier classes. After pressing it is necessary to take 
 off the glaze with steam; if the goods are immediately dried on a 
 callender after this steaming, all firmness given the goods by press¬ 
 ing remains; if not, the moisture gradually penetrates the goods 
 and an undesirable result is the consequence. 
 
 Camwood. —This is another species of the red woods, and grows 
 in Sierra Leone and those countries adjacent to the Bight of Benin. 
 Its chemical properties and nature are very similar to barwood 
 and sanders, being called by botanists bois range. It contains more 
 coloring principle, and the color is more permanent than sanders or 
 barwood. It comes to the dyer in a ground state, same as barwood 
 and sanders. The precipitates from a solution of this wood are of 
 a more yellow cast, which explains why the colors dyed by it are so 
 much more intense and rich than colors from the other red woods, 
 its color being more of a decided red. It is more extensively 
 used in woolen dyeing than either of the other red woods, for 
 the reasons given above. It will give a permanent color either 
 with or without a mordant. Camwood gives out its color with 
 great reluctance, but by taking the plan laid down for barwood 
 and adding to the color-bath one-half ounce of soda-ash (Na 2 C 0 3 ) 
 for every twelve pounds of camwood used, just as the wool is to be 
 entered for coloring, will make a great difference in the quantity of 
 color obtained, and the wool will not feel so harsh, but will work 
 more open than if the soda-ash had not been used. Camwood 
 naturally gives a harsh feeling to wool, but not so much so as san¬ 
 ders. Reagents give the following results: Sulphate of iron 
 (FeS 0 4 ) gives a plum color; muriate of tin (ShCl 2 ) gives a bright 
 carmine-red color; sulphate of copper (CuS 0 4 ) gives a handsome 
 looking claret; alum (A 1 S 0 ) gives the solution a beautiful red color ; 
 acetate of copper (IC 4 0 3 H 3 2Cu) gives a light reddish brown; 
 nitrate of iron (3No 8 2Fe) gives a reddish brown. None of the 
 salts of lime seem to produce desirable results upon it as a mor¬ 
 dant. The sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) gives the best results, 
 or effects, upon the color of this wood, and appears to be the most 
 effectual mordant for it, especially if using it for browns.— Gibson. 
 A light bath of camwood before dyeing prevents wool from felting 
 somewhat. 
 
 Cards. —This term has many meanings in the textile world. We 
 card cotton and wool with cards. The patterns on Jacquards and 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL, 
 
 5 1 
 
 some other looms are produced by the pattern cards. We have 
 pattern cards for another purpose also; upon these we paste 
 samples of goods. Railroad cards are simply from six to twelve 
 cotton cards connected by what are termed railroads ; these are a 
 trough in which a strap carries the slivers from all the cards to a 
 series of rollers ; the slivers are delivered into a can. after passing 
 through the rollers. These devices for saving labor are of great 
 value as they make better work by more doubling. 
 
 Carding. —The carding of stock is very important. What can 
 be learned from books should be studiously sought; but experi¬ 
 ence is indispensable to any one who is to have charge of the pro¬ 
 cess. There are many good books to be had, and, unlike works on 
 weaving, most of them are sold at very low prices. Leroux’s re¬ 
 marks on this subject are very valuable. Baird in his work on cotton 
 manufacture says : “Cards are used to disentangle the fibres of cotton, 
 and lay them lengthwise and parallel with each other. Carding consists 
 in the reversed action of two opposite surfaces, which are studded 
 with angled wire hooks. These hooks must be made of good, hard- 
 drawn iron wire, to render them stiff and elastic. In former years, 
 cards were merely made of small straight boards, studded with 
 •■sharp wire points, and having handles; these were operated by 
 hand : now, they are encased cylinders, driven by steam or water 
 power. These machines consist of one large, and often of many 
 small cylinders. If the large cylinder is partially surrounded by 
 small cylinders, the card is intended for coarse yarn, or coarse wool 
 or cotton ; if it contains but one or two .small cylinders, it is used 
 for fine cotton and fine yarn. This machine receives the coil of lap 
 from the spreading-machine, which is as wide as the card, and forms 
 it into a lamina, in which the fibres of cotton are more or less 
 parallel, according to the work. Coarse yarn requires the cotton to 
 be carded but once ; but, for fine yarn, it is necessary to repeat the 
 operation.” 
 
 Carpets. —Carpets are no longer a luxury enjoyed by the wealthy 
 alone, their use has become so general that many kinds are now 
 needed to meet the varied demands. These kinds or classes are so 
 commonly known by their names that it is quite needless to 
 enumerate them. It would be quite as unsatisfactory to consider each 
 as briefly as space here would require. The fact is, an exhaustive 
 work on the manufacture of carpets is greatly needed, so much so 
 that anything short of it will not be acceptable. The subject is 
 
52 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 pretty extensively treated by Barlow, and many illustrations make 
 this part of the work quite instructive to those who are making the 
 methods of producing textile fabrics a general study. Ashenhurst 
 is also thorough in the chapters devoted to carpets, but has not 
 made use of illustrations so profusely as Barlow. 
 
 Cashmere or Cachemere. —The genuine fabrics of this class, at 
 one time the only goods sold under this name, were formerly pro¬ 
 duced in the Kingdom of Cashmere. They are now made to greater 
 perfection in Europe. The material of the cashmere shawls is the 
 downy wool found on parts of the Thibet goat (only a small percent¬ 
 age of their coats by weight). The Oriental Cashmere shawls are 
 the results of extremely slow weaving processes. The Jacquard 
 loom produces better goods at much less cost. 
 
 Cassimeres or Kersimeres. —Almost any woolen cloth that has 
 not for some special reason another name is conveniently classed 
 among cassimeres by the trade. Really this class of goods includes 
 only plain and fancy cassimeres, both being woolen goods that have 
 been milled—the difference between the plain and fancy being in 
 the appearance. Plain cassimeres may be made of any texture 
 which will look smooth and plain on the face ; even twills are classed 
 in this line, when not too large ; diagonals can not be. This class 
 must also be of one color or mixture only. When more than one 
 color, large or fancy diagonals, or otherwise fancy effects or textures 
 are used, the goods are properly fancy cassimeres. “ Cotton warp 
 fancy cassimeres ” is a trade name to pass off fancy effects of a 
 cheaper grade (made as the name implies in part of cotton), for 
 which there is no more appropriate name in common use. Some 
 “ Union cassimeres ” are of this order. 
 
 Catechu. —“ This is another substance containing a great deal of 
 tannin or astringent principle. It is a dry extract, prepared from 
 the wood of a sensitive plant called Terra Japonica. It grows in 
 the mountainous districts of Hindostan. Catechu is dark brown or 
 chocolate color, with an astringent taste, but no odor or smell. It 
 contains about 50 per cent, of tannin principle ; gum, 8; extractive 
 matter, 35 ; impurities, 7 :=ioo. 
 
 Proto-sulphate of Iron gives olive brown precipitates. 
 
 Chloride of Tin and Bi-sulphate of Copper gives yellowish brown 
 precipitates. 
 
 Bichromate of Potash gives a deep, rich, red brown precipitate. 
 
 There are different qualities as well as kinds of catechu in the 
 market. The Bombay comes to us in square masses, of a reddish 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 53 
 
 brown color. Its composition is: Tannin, 50; extractive matter, 
 35; gum, 8; impurities, 7: = ioo. 
 
 The Bengal catechu is found in market in flattish round lumps. 
 The outside color is a light brown ; the inside, dark brown. Its 
 composition is: Tannin, 48.9 ; extractive matter, 37.0 ; gum, 7.5; 
 impurities, 6.6: = ioo. 
 
 The Malabar catechu we receive in large masses. The color is 
 of a light brown outside, but dark colored inside, and covered with 
 leaves. Its composition is : Tannin, 45.3 ; extractive matter, 39.5 ; 
 gum, 8.5 ; impurities, 6.7 :=ioo. 
 
 Catechu is adulterated with sand, clay and ochre. The adultera¬ 
 tion can be easily detected by dissolving some of it in water, and 
 these impurities will settle, as good catechu is all soluble in water, 
 and gives a clear solution, of a beautiful reddish brown color, which 
 acids will brighten and alkalies darken, and the shade deepen by 
 standing. The tannin that is contained in catechu is not so easily 
 converted by exposure into gallic acid as nutgalls are, but is sub¬ 
 ject to oxidation. When catechu is oxidized, there is a formation 
 of an acid nearly like that of gallic acid; but this acid is only 
 formed when a solution of catechu is treated with an alkaline 
 matter. Catechu is now used in almost all the compound colors on 
 raw cotton and cotton yarns—blacks, browns, drabs, fawns and 
 greens; and its permanency causes it to be of such high estimation 
 in the coloring of raw cotton at the present time.”— Gibson. 
 
 Chenille Weft. —To produce an imitation of pile or velvet 
 goods chenille weft or filling serves well. It is made by weaving a 
 fabric that may be cut into narrow strips, the raw edges of which 
 when twisted afford the projecting fibers. To make the strips fine 
 or narrow it is necessary to cross-weave them; this binds the short 
 pieces of threads more firmly. Elegant shawls, cloakings, carpets 
 and robes are made with this filling. There are looms built 
 especially for weaving many kinds of chenille weft. 
 
 Chloride of Calcium. —Lime and muriatic acid. 
 
 Chinchilla. —These goods are used for cloaks and sometimes 
 for overcoatings. It may be presumed that some fabric of this class 
 at one time had some resemblance to the fur of an animal by this 
 name, but few of the goods now sold under it can be said to retain 
 the resemblance. Chinchilla goods must be of stock and texture to 
 permit a long full nap. The disposal of the nap varies. Some 
 kinds are curled, others are made wavy, yet others straight, etc., etc. 
 The whipping machine is a necessity in the finishing of these goods. 
 
54 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 Circles. — Circular Swivels or Lappets and Circular Shuttle 
 'Boxes are subjects described by Barlow and many other writers 
 on looms and weaving. To write understanding^ about them 
 requires the use of illustrations and considerable space. Comb 
 circles are more easily described. They consist of a brass or 
 composition base, in circular form to fit the combing machines, 
 from 4 inch to f inch in thickness, according to the work they are 
 intended for. Through this base pins are driven in rows, the size 
 of the pins, shape and their number also depends on the kind of 
 work. The pins should not be too soft or too hard, as hooked 
 points or broken pins make bad work. Neither should the pins be 
 set any closer together than is absolutely necessary to clear the 
 wool. When close set, the stock must be fed very light or the 
 dabbing brush will not be sufficient to force it between the pins. 
 
 Cloth. —The word cloth is frequently used instead of fabric, 
 erroneously. Almost any textile fabric may be cloth, but the more 
 common use of the word is for heavier goods, and particularly those 
 made of wool, like broadcloth, beavers, etc., etc. 
 
 Cloth Finish is a term used to designate that finish on woolens 
 similar to broadcloth. 
 
 Cochineal. —“ This is a small insect, called coccus cacti. It is a 
 native of those parts of South America bordering on the Gulf of 
 Mexico, of St. Domingo, Cuba and several other of the West India 
 Islands, in which places it is sometimes found wild.” It produces 
 the finest known shades of crimson, red, scarlet, etc., for woolen or 
 silk. Some cultivators use steam for killing the insect, and the 
 different appearances of the cochineal are caused by the different 
 modes of killing the insect. The best sorts are those that appear 
 as if dusted with white powder, and are of a slate color ; but this 
 appearance is not a sure criterion to go by, as the dealers very often 
 dust the cochineal with powdered talc, .to deceive the purchaser. 
 There are two kinds of cochineal, the silver and the black cochi¬ 
 neal. The latter, as a general rule, is inferred to be the most valu¬ 
 able, but this is a nice distinction, and only holds good when the two 
 kinds present the same specific resemblance, for a bold, clear silver 
 is preferable to a black of opposite appearance. In making choice 
 of cochineal, you must observe that each grain exhibits a bright, 
 free, clear, bold and large appearance; whether the whole mass be 
 free from dust or small abraded parts of the insect, or matters 
 
% 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 55 
 
 foreign to its nature; and whether a quantity of it has a certain 
 weight or specific gravity, which any person much accustomed to 
 testing weights can distinguish with the greatest nicety. Cochineal 
 is the richest in coloring principle of all the known dyestuffs, having 
 50 per cent, of pure crystalizable coloring principle; its clear and 
 filtered solution, with the different mordants or mineral salts, etc., 
 also in solution, present the following results : 
 
 Tannin does not throw down any precipitate. 
 
 Boracic acid does not change the color, but rather reddens it 
 more. 
 
 Nitrate and nitro-muriate of per-oxide of iron precipitates a 
 chocolate colored lake, the nitro-muriate the brightest. 
 
 Bi-sulphate of copper, a red purple deposit, a portion of the color 
 remains in solution. 
 
 Potash, Soda and Ammonia change it to a crimson violet. 
 
 Protoxides of Tin produce the same effect. 
 
 Per-oxide of Tin changes it to a yellowish red. 
 
 Chlorine turns it yellow. 
 
 Sulphate of magnesia, no precipitate, the solution unaffected. 
 
 Lime gives scanty precipitates of a violet or deep lilac color. 
 
 Oxalic acid turns the solution orange color. 
 
 Citric acid similar effects, but of a redder hue. 
 
 Super-tartrate of potash brightens up the solution, causing it to 
 assume a fine scarlet color, and a slight precipitate falls of a red 
 color. 
 
 Super-oxalate of potash produces more decided effects of the 
 same character as the preceding. 
 
 Alum gives the liquor a fine crimson appearance and a moderate 
 precipitate of the same color takes place, the liquor still retaining 
 considerable coloring matter, which a solution of nitro-muriate of 
 tin precipitates of a more decided scarlet, leaving the liquor of a 
 pale fawn color.”— Gibson. 
 
 Color. —In many fabrics the colors are quite as important as the 
 texture, consequently it behooves the designer to acquire a thor¬ 
 ough knowledge of the laws which govern their harmony. This can 
 be done only when the nature of colors is thoroughly compre¬ 
 hended. The whole combined is a science of which Ashenhurst 
 says : “ The science of color teaches the nature and causes of 
 
 colors, their distinctions, their relations to each other, their classifi¬ 
 cation, the mental effects that attend them, and the causes and laws 
 of harmony. It also includes the modifications of colors arising 
 
56 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 from varying sensibility of the eye, and the peculiarities of color 
 vision which are found to exist in different individuals.” So 
 important is the science that it would be folly to undertake a brief 
 lucidation of it, consequently the reader is referred to “ Chevreul on 
 Color,” a work of the highest merit, and one which cannot fail to 
 interest any one who has the real requisites of a designer. The 
 harmony of colors, the influence of one color over another when 
 placed in close proximity to each other, are subjects which can 
 only be really understood after much preparatory study. For any 
 one who cannot at once interest himself in so thorough a work as 
 Chevreul’s we recommend the concluding chapter of Ashenhurst’s 
 work on “ Weaving and Designing ”—a brief and lucid description 
 of the science of color and very important suggestions as to their 
 application in textile fabrics. The following remarks from Chris¬ 
 topher Dresser, may aid some beginners who have other necessary 
 expenses to meet at present and must defer the purchase of the 
 books mentioned : “ There are few objects to which color may not be 
 applied, and many articles which are now colorless might be 
 colored with advantage. Our reasons for applying color to objects 
 are twofold, and here, in fact, we see its true use. First, Color 
 lends to objects a new charm—a charm which they would not 
 possess if without it; and, second, Color assists in the separation of 
 objects and parts of objects, and thus gives assistance to form. 
 These, then, are the two objects of color. Mark, first, it is to 
 bestow on objects a charm, such as they could not have in its 
 absence. In the hands of the man of knowledge it will do so—it 
 will make an object lovely or lovable, but the mere application of 
 color will not do this. Color may be so applied to objects as to 
 render them infinitely more ugly than they were without it. 
 Knowledge will enable us to transmute base materials into works of 
 marvelous beauty, worth their weight in gold. Knowledge, then, is 
 the true philosopher’s stone ; for, we may almost say, if possessed 
 by the artist, it does enable him to transmute the baser metals into 
 gold. But a little knowledge will not do this. In order that we 
 produce true beauty, we require much knowledge, and this can only 
 be got by constant and diligent labor, as I have before said ; but the 
 end to be gained is worth the plodding toil. The second object of 
 color is that of assisting in the separation of form. If objects are 
 placed near to one another, and these objects are all of the same 
 color, the beholder will have much more difficulty in seeing the 
 boundaries or terminations of each than he would were they vari¬ 
 ously colored; he would have to come nearer to them in order to 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 57 
 
 see the limits of each, were all colored in the same manner, than he 
 would were they variously colored : thus color assists in the separa¬ 
 tion of form. This quality which color has of separating forms is 
 often lost sight of, and much confusion thereby results. Color is 
 the means by which we render form apparent. Colors ; when 
 placed together, can only please and satisfy the educated when com¬ 
 bined harmoniously, or according to the laws of harmony. What, 
 then, are the laws which govern the arrangement of colors ? and 
 how are they to be applied ? We shall endeavor to answer these 
 questions by making a series of statements in axiomatic form, and 
 then we shall enlarge upon these propositions. 
 
 General Considerations. —i. Regarded from an art point of view, 
 there are but three colors— i. e., blue, red and yellow. 
 
 2. Blue, red and yellow have been termed primary colors ; they 
 cannot be formed by the admixture of any other colors. 
 
 3. All colors, other than blue, red and yellow result from the ad¬ 
 mixture of the primary colors. 
 
 4. By the admixture of blue and red, purple is formed ; by the 
 admixture of red and yellow, orange is formed ; and by the admix¬ 
 ture of yellow and blue, green is formed. 
 
 5. Colors resulting from the admixture of two primary colors are 
 termed secondary : hence purple, orange and green are secondary 
 colors. 
 
 6. By the admixture of two secondary colors a tertiary color is 
 formed : thus, purple and orange produce russet (the red tertiary); 
 orange and green produce citrine (the yellow tertiary); and green 
 and purple, olive (the blue tertiary) ; russet, citrine and olive are 
 the three tertiary colors. 
 
 Contrast —7. When a light color is juxtaposed to a dark color, 
 the light color appears lighter than it is and the dark color darker. 
 
 8. When colors are juxtaposed they become influenced as to their 
 hue. Thus, when red and green are placed side by side, the red 
 appears redder than it actually is, and the green greener ; and when 
 blue and black are juxtaposed, the blue manifests but little altera¬ 
 tion, while the black assumes an orange tint or becomes “ rusty.” 
 
 9. No one color can be viewed by the eye without another being 
 created. Thus, if red is viewed, the eye creates for itself green, and 
 this green is cast upon whatever is near. If it views green, red is 
 in like manner created and cast upon adjacent objects; thus, if red 
 and green are juxtaposed, each creates the other in the eye, and the 
 
5 » 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 red created by the green is cast upon the red, and the green created 
 by the red is cast upon the green; and the red and the green be¬ 
 comes improved by being juxtaposed. The eye also demands the 
 presence of the three primary colors, either in their purity or in 
 combination ; and if these are not present, whatever is deficient 
 will be created in the eye, and this induced color will be cast upon 
 whatever is near. Thus, when we view blue, orange—which is a 
 mixture of red and yellow—is created in the eye, and this color is 
 cast upon whatever is near; if black is in juxtaposition with the 
 blue, this orange is cast upon it, and gives to it an orange tint, thus 
 causing it to look “ rusty.” 
 
 io. In like manner, if we look upon red, green is formed in the 
 eye, and is cast upon adjacent colors ; or, if we look upon yellow, 
 purple is formed. 
 
 Harmony. —n. Harmony results from an agreeable contrast. 
 
 12. Colors which perfectly harmonize improve one another to the 
 utmost. 
 
 13. In order to perfect harmony, the three colors are necessary, 
 either in their purity or in combination. 
 
 14. Red and green combine to yield a harmony. Red is a 
 primary color, and green, which is a secondary color, consists of 
 blue and yellow—the other two primary colors. Blue and orange 
 also produce a harmony, and yellow and purple, for in each case 
 the three primary colors are present. 
 
 15. It has been found that the primary colors in perfect purity 
 produce exact harmonies in the proportions of eight parts of blue, 
 five of red and three of yellow; that the secondary colors har¬ 
 monize in the proportions of thirteen of purple, eleven of green and 
 eight of orange ; and that the tertiary colors harmonize in the 
 proportions of olive twenty-four, russet twenty-one, and citrine 
 nineteen. 
 
 16. There are, however, subtleties of harmony which it is difficult 
 to understand. 
 
 17. The rarest harmonies frequently lie close on the verge of 
 discord. 
 
 18. Harmony of color is, in many respects, analogous to harmony 
 of musical sounds. 
 
 Qualities of Colors. —19. Blue is a cold color, and appears to 
 recede from the eye. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 59 
 
 20. Red is a warm color, and is exciting; it remains stationary as 
 to distance. 
 
 21. Yellow is the color most nearly allied to light; it appears to 
 advance toward the spectator. 
 
 22. At twilight blue appears much lighter than it is, red much 
 darker, and yellow slightly darker. By ordinary gaslight blue be¬ 
 comes darker, red brighter, and yellow lighter. By this artificial 
 light a pure yellow appears lighter than white itself, when viewed in 
 contrast with certain other colors. 
 
 23. By certain combinations color may make glad or depress, 
 convey the idea of purity, richness or poverty, or may affect the 
 mind in any desired manner, as does music. 
 
 Teachings of Experience. —24. When a color is placed on a gold 
 ground, it should be outlined with a darker shade of its own color. 
 
 25. When a gold ornament falls on a colored ground, it should 
 be outlined with black. 
 
 26. When an ornament falls on a ground which is in direct har¬ 
 mony with it, it must be outlined with a lighter tint of its own color. 
 Thus, when a red ornament falls on a green ground, the ornament 
 must be outlined with a lighter red. 
 
 27. When the ornament and the ground are in two tints of the 
 same color, if the ornament is darker than the ground, it will re¬ 
 quire outlining with a still darker tint of the same color; but if 
 lighter than the ground, no outline will be required.” 
 
 The surest and readiest method of acquiring a practical knowl¬ 
 edge of colors and their effects in textile fabrics, is to analyze a 
 large collection of samples. Fashion controls the designer to a great 
 extent; and fashion moves in cycles. Exhaustive collections of the 
 most fashionable colors and combinations of each season, with a 
 proper record of particulars, will not only add to one’s stock of 
 knowledge, but any one who is at all observant will, after a while, be 
 enabled to prognosticate coming demands of fashions, with consid¬ 
 erable accuracy. The value of this ability needs no comments, 
 every designer has suffered more or less from a lack of it, both in 
 himself and in those who assume the control of the patterns in the 
 market. 
 
 Combing and Combing Machinery. —Combing is an old branch 
 of textile manufactures, but the perfection of the machinery 
 employed is the result of many inventions within the last fifty 
 years. Camel hair, cotton, flax, silk and wool are extensively 
 combed. The best work on wool combing, etc., is Leroux’s 
 
6o 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 “ Manufacture of Worsted and Carded Yarns.” The works on 
 these subjects are still very few, in the English language. 
 
 Combs or Comber Boards are the parts of Jacquards through 
 which the leashes pass, and by which they are kept in regular order 
 and separate. 
 
 Cords. —This term, when used to designate certain effects in 
 fabrics, is erroneously applied in many cases. Ribs of various 
 kinds running either lengthwise or crosswise are given this appella¬ 
 tion by different designers, but the best authorities seem to agree 
 that the only effect that can properly be called a cord is a rib 
 lengthwise of the goods, evenly and entirely covered by regular floats 
 of the filling. That there may be variations no one will deny, 
 but reps should not be called cords nor cords reps. 
 
 Cotton. —Cotton is a fibrous down, which invests the seeds of a 
 peculiar plant, called gossypium by Linnaeus. It has a cup-shaped 
 calix, with five obtuse teeth, enclosed in an exterior calix having 
 three clefts. Botanists describe thirteen species of this plant, which 
 furnish the very dissimilar staples found in commerce. The length, 
 flexibility, tenacity and thickness of the fibres of the different de¬ 
 scriptions of cotton form the basis for estimating the value of the 
 article. When examined through a good microscope, the fibres of 
 cotton are seen to be more or less flat and twisted, and to have a 
 breadth varying from of an inch in the Smyrna, or candle-wick 
 cotton, to asVo of an inch in the finest Sea Island. The fineness of 
 the cotton, where No. 500 is spun, is apparent from the following 
 circumstance. It is said that a house in Manchester, England, is 
 preparing a fabric for the Great Industrial Exhibition of London, 
 which is to be spun from a pound of cotton, and to extend in length 
 238 miles and 1120 yards. There are in the warp eighty layers of 
 a yard and a half each, with seven warps to the hank and 500 hanks 
 in the pound of cotton. This is a thread which is finer than the 
 finest silk, and cannot contain more than three or four fibres of the 
 finest Sea Island cotton. The main distinction between the various 
 kinds of cotton in the pod is the black seeded and the green seeded. 
 The first separate from the fibre very easily, while the latter adhere 
 to it with great tenacity and require the aid of the gin to separate 
 them from it. After the cotton is separated from the seed, it is 
 packed in strong presses and formed into bales of from 200 to 500 
 pounds each. Bales of American cotton generally weigh about 500 
 pounds each.— Baird . (See Baird's Cotton Spinner for description 
 of different kinds.) 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 6i 
 
 Crape Silk. —Barlow says “ the process of making it (crape silk) 
 consists in extra spinning, sizing and stoving, and not in any peculi¬ 
 arity in weaving.” Imitations are made to appear like real silk 
 crape in the finishing processes, such as running the fabric through 
 heavy size and crimping machinery. 
 
 Cross Drawing. —The definition of this term is already given in 
 an allusion to it under the head Draw. The beginner is always im¬ 
 patient to master this mysterious part of designing. Mysterious : 
 first, because some men foolishly think they add to their own im¬ 
 portance if they can be mysterious about their labors. Second, 
 because many are very unsystematic about the arrangement of their 
 drafts, or even worse, do their work without thoroughly understand¬ 
 ing the principles. However this may be, the secret of success is 
 not so much in great skill as in perseverance and practicability. 
 Neither is there any serious complexity about it, as one would think 
 from the awe it has inspired. The principle is one and simple. 
 Whenever the drawing in hand comes to a thread which is to work 
 the same as a previous one, it must be drawn in on the same 
 harnesses. That is: threads which work exactly alike may be 
 governed by one and the same harness. To reduce a full draft to 
 working drafts, is the most confusing part of the work. It is not 
 always best to follow to the letter the above cited principle, and yet 
 it is desirable to use as few harnesses as possible. The few 
 examples selected for illustrations involve the principles completely, 
 and are so simple as to be easily understood. The alphabetical order 
 of headings brings them into the first part of the book, while simple 
 textures are illustrated further on. The latter should be well 
 understood before going on with these. (See Textures.) No. 37 is 
 a texture that can be woven on any loom that will produce a 4 leaf 
 twill, simply by drawing in the threads on 4 harnesses in the order 
 specified by the drawing-in draft. We will suppose that Jhe full 
 draft has been obtained by dissecting a sample. Begin at the left 
 hand, examine every column of squares (columns represent warp 
 threads, lines filling). The first is to be marked No. 1, the second 
 works differently, it cannot therefore be drawn on the same harness 
 as the first thread, consequently we assign to it the second harness 
 and mark it 2. The third thread is marked 3 for the same reason, 
 and the fourth, 4. But the fifth thread is like the first again, there¬ 
 fore, it may be drawn on the same harness as the first thread—and 
 is marked 1 ; the sixth thread is marked 2 ; the seventh 3; the 
 eighth 4 4, for the same reason. The ninth thread is like the second; 
 
62 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 consequently marked 2 ; the tenth like the first and marked 1 ; the 
 eleventh, 4; and the twelfth, 3 ; and so on the end, the entire fabric 
 being a repetition of the first 4 threads, but in different order. 
 After marking each thread below as per upper line of numbers by 
 the above method, we have only to write these numbers in the form 
 most convenient for the drawing in hand, for really this line of 
 numbers is the drawing-in draft. We have found that only 4 
 harnesses are necessary for this texture ; therefore, we confine the 
 drawing in draft to 4 columns of squares, and copy the line of 
 numbers into these columns, always putting the figures, in the 
 respective column. The form employed here puts only one figure 
 on a line, this avoids all confusion, but it takes a little more paper 
 than putting such figures as come in consecutive order on the same 
 line each time. Again, some designers instead of writing the 
 figures in the Drawing-in draft, use only a mark, this answers the 
 purpose when understood. The Drawing-in draft having been 
 deduced, the chain draft is next in order. Copy the first column 
 from the full draft in another place on the paper, find the second by 
 the row of numbers below, copy it next to the first, the same with 
 the third and fourth. The result is the chain draft, a plain 4-harness 
 twill, which, by the way, could be seen complete and intact on the 
 first 4 threads of the full draft. By examining the other examples it 
 •will be noticed that this is not always the case; the representative 
 harnesses being less regular in their order of occurrence in 
 some of them. Let us suppose that we have a fancy loom 
 to weave this fabric on; that we may employ eight harnesses, 
 which is desirable when there are many threads in the warp. 
 Let the student give the full draft a little thought; he will see 
 that it has eight threads with the twill to the right, eight with 
 the twill to the left, eight with a broken twill; eight with twill 
 to the right again, eight with twill to the left again, and eight with 
 a basket texture. We will, therefore, divide it evenly and produce 
 a systematic draft by taking four harnesses for the right hand twill, 
 four more for the left hand twill, and divide 'the threads of the 
 broken twill and the basket texture among these two sets. The 
 second row of figures below the draft is the manner in which the 
 work can thus be divided among eight harnesses. The student 
 should see if these figures have been put down correctly, and draw 
 off the working drafts; then compare with the one (B) given; in 
 this way practice is at once applied. No. 40 can be woven on four 
 harnesses, as is shown by the working drafts (B) deduced ; but some 
 designers recommend five harnesses, thinking that the hafnesses 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 6 3 
 
 work better in the loom. [See Drafts “A.”] But if any harnesses 
 are to be added, it would seem that “ C ” would be far better. They 
 all produce the same thing. The student should reduce the full 
 draft to each of them, and thereby learn that cross draws are only 
 limited by the number of harnesses employed ; that in reality they 
 are made use of for the purpose of producing the full draft with 
 less harnesses than it would require were one harness given to each 
 thread of the texture or pattern, regardless of the many which would 
 work alike, and could therefore be spared. On the jacquard there 
 is no cross-drawing, as the threads of a texture or pattern are all 
 provided for by an independent mail and corresponding cord. Nos. 
 38 and 39 are given for practice of the beginners; they involve the 
 same principles, but, being larger, look a little more difficult. 
 
6 4 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 NO. 37. 
 
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SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 69 
 
 Cross Weaving. —By cross weaving—that is, by twisting the warp 
 threads around each other—the fabrics called gauze are produced. 
 The process of weaving these crossed fabrics should be somewhat 
 slower than for straight work, and the yarn must be strong enough 
 to bear considerable extra strain and chafing. The threads to be 
 crossed must always pass through the same dent of the reed, unless 
 the crossing is done by a needle bar before the reed, some of the 
 warp threads coming through it without going through the reed. 
 The needle bar mechanism is quite complicated ; there are several 
 patents in England, and one in this country issued to J. G. Spitzli 
 some years ago. When the crossing is done by harnesses, one thread 
 passes through a regular heddle and a doup or false heddle on a 
 separate frame; the next thread passes between these two heddles, 
 but not through them, and over the other thread. To produce this 
 gauze elfect in combination with other textures requires more com¬ 
 plicated arrangements. In connection with the jacquard head, 
 most elegant fabrics of this class are produced. This subject is 
 exhaustively treated by Ashenhurst and Barlow. The principle is 
 very useful when inside selvages must be made on a wide loom 
 weaving several widths of narrow goods ; by thus twisting a few 
 of the selvage threads the goods may be cut apart; while they 
 will still have a “ raw edge,” the outside threads will not ravel out. 
 
 Crystals of Tin. —Salts of tin, or muriate of tin crystallized. 
 
 Cudbear. —This coloring matter is archil in a very dry and 
 powdered state. The color given by cudbear is perhaps less bright, 
 but more permanent than that from archil, but still very fugitive. 
 Although the colors given by it are fugitive, it is used consider¬ 
 ably in woolen dyeing for giving the indigo shade to logwood blues, 
 blooming up the dahlia shades and all colors that require a purple 
 shade to them, such as mulberries, peachblows, puces, etc. It is 
 also used with camwood at the present time to bottom for indi¬ 
 go blues, so as to save indigo. The following recipe is used by 
 most dyers for bottoming 200 pounds clean wool, or 400 pounds in 
 the grease : Bail up 30 pounds of camwood, 15 pounds of cudbear; 
 enter the wool and boil one hour ; then draw off the tub, take out 
 the wool and extract; it is then ready for the blue vat. Cudbear 
 has all the characteristics of archil, and reagents produce the same 
 results on both. Tartar, (CH 2 0 2 ) is the only mordant that is of 
 any account for cudbear ; it brightens up the color and enables it 
 to resist the fulling and scouring much better. Colors, when archil 
 and cudbear enter into their composition, should be dried in the 
 
70 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 shade and preserved from the rays of the sun. Cudbear should be 
 mixed with water into a paste before putting into the dye-bath, 
 otherwise it would float on the surface ; it requires no boiling before 
 the wool or cloth is entered into the solution. 
 
 D. 
 
 Damask. —Was formerly made of silk only, now of wool or 
 worsted, and fabrics part cotton, with figured texture like the 
 genuine article, are by no means uncommon in the trade under this 
 name, derived from Damascus. 
 
 Dandy Looms. —The original Dandy was a hand-loom invented 
 by Wm. Radcliffe, an Englishman. His latest improvements were 
 added to the loom about the year 1802, some time after several 
 power looms had been in successful operation. The general use 
 made of this loom even at that late date shows how difficult it was 
 for many manufacturers to realize the advantage of power looms. 
 Some of the principles which made Mr. Radcliffe's loom noteworthy 
 are still employed on many power looms of recent manufacture. 
 
 Dead Spindles. —What are known as dead spindles are but 
 modifications of the live spindles, for the purpose of attaining 
 greater speed. The difference in quality of work from the two 
 kinds is in favor of the live spindle, which seldom performs more 
 than 4,000 revolutions, and is consequently being superseded by 
 much more rapid working devices. 
 
 Designs. —W. Dunlap says : “ Design, in its broadest significa¬ 
 
 tion, is the plan of the whole; in its limited sense it denotes merely 
 drawing—the art of representing form.” There may be a design of 
 the texture, or a design for the arrangement of colors, but a design 
 of a textile fabric, when complete, is a perfect working plan, descrip¬ 
 tive and illustrative of the arrangement and character of all the com¬ 
 ponent parts and processes. It designates the kind and quality of 
 the materials, the color, size and character of each kind of yarn, as 
 well as the arrangement, quantity and proportion thereof. It illus¬ 
 trates the construction of the texture, and describes special pro¬ 
 cesses. It provides thorough working instructions for each depart¬ 
 ment. To be complete and perfect, it should be so comprehen¬ 
 sive that any good manager could from it produce the desired 
 fabric without further instructions. It should with all be an artistic 
 piece of work. If it is proper to produce working plans for a build- 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 7 1 
 
 ing with taste, neatness and precision, surely these requisites are 
 much more necessary in a design which should originate from a per¬ 
 fect knowledge of that which pleases the human sense of sight. 1 he 
 practical use of a complete design is that of a chart of instructions, 
 which remains at headquarters for reference and future use. The 
 several departments are given copies of their respective parts of the 
 design. Many designers object to furnish copies of designs for 
 future use, under the foolish impression that by this means they 
 enhance their own value. A more ridiculous theory would be hard 
 to find; worse than this, the design is the result of labor for which 
 the designer is usually well paid, it therefore belongs to the em¬ 
 ployer, and the designer should take every pains to make it legible 
 to any good workman, in order that it could be produced at any 
 time without the aid of the originator. We are aware that this is 
 not a popular doctrine among a certain class of designers, but it is 
 none the less sound. Without reference to unnecessary detail or 
 decoration of designs, the statement may be safely made, that a 
 design in its appearance on paper should exhibit skill and taste 
 quite as much as the fabric for which it is executed. To this end, 
 some education and practice is an absolute necessity. The simplest 
 design may, without waste of time, be a specimen of neat and in¬ 
 telligent workmanship. 
 
 Designers. —For a time many manufacturers of this country 
 thought to economize by dispensing with designers and requiring 
 the overseers of the weaving rooms or the superintendent to do the 
 work. They found many ambitious and jealous workmen to en¬ 
 courage this move, but a large proportion have learned that the 
 change was not all clear gain, and have already re-engaged de¬ 
 signers. Some few have also profited by former lessons, and never 
 allow the ambition of a designer or the jealousy of a superintendent 
 to get the mastery over them. The prevention is simple ; the super¬ 
 intendent and designer are given clear instructions as to their 
 authority and relation to each other, and the matter of promotion 
 is also positively qualified. The designer has no reason to hope for 
 the superintendent’s position if the latter vacates his place for any 
 other reason than such as can in no way reflect any suspicion of 
 intrigue upon the designer or his friends. The designer is not 
 above, but under the superintendent, and can be removed by 
 him. Under these circumstances it is an easy matter to regulate 
 both, and should ill feeling arise the power and influence is not 
 equal. The designer cannot revenge himself by working out the 
 superintendent, nor is the latter tempted to proceed any differently 
 
72 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 in discharging the designer than he should do with any other 
 workman. That the labors of a designer can be thoroughly at¬ 
 tended to by one who has other duties to occupy his mind and time 
 is out of the question, unless the amount of designing to be done is 
 very limited. The designer should have no other operatives under 
 his special authority than his assistants and the pattern weavers; he 
 should, however, have a most influential voice in decisions relative 
 to designs, patterns, colors, finish and such matters as materially 
 affect the result of his labors, subject always to the superintendent’s 
 decision as to the possibility and practicability of carrying out such 
 details as he may suggest, in the factory in question. As regards 
 the education of designers, it must be acknowledged that America 
 is yet far in the wake of England, France and Germany. Too 
 much dependence has been placed upon the natural adaptability of 
 American citizens to almost any convenient calling. The special 
 and thorough training under the direction and supervision of prac¬ 
 tical as well as expert tutors has but of late awakened attention, 
 and even now many of those who should be the most forward in 
 aiding every effort to supply this want are carefully pinching their 
 dollars and waiting for some one else to bear the brunt of the 
 battle. But schools for the practical education of the rising genera¬ 
 tion must be established in this country, else the ground lost by the 
 lack of them will be greater and greater, as mechanical genius in¬ 
 creases the demands upon mental ability. 
 
 Designing is a branch of textile manufacturing of such import¬ 
 ance and peculiar requirements, that it can be performed thoroughly 
 and correctly by those only, who have more or less natural qualifi¬ 
 cations for it. It is exceedingly tedious and trying work under the 
 most favorable circumstances. When the designer seems to be idly 
 staring into vacancy he is perhaps laboring in a most trying manner. 
 He must develop a design in his mind, to a certain extent, before he 
 can proceed to commit it to paper. Designing a texture is not 
 enough ; a complete design comprehends everything pertaining to 
 the manufacture of the finished fabric; neither does designing stop 
 here. The design will be almost useless if it calls for expendi¬ 
 tures so great that the manufacture of the fabric will yield no 
 revenue to the manufacturer. In designing a fabric then, the details 
 of all the processes, the nature of material, dyes and effects must be 
 considered. To fit the young designer not only to perform these 
 duties in their entirety, but to train his mind to a realizing sense of 
 the importance of every detail, requires far more time at present 
 than need be spent in preparations. The cost of time and impossi- 
 
SPlTZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 73 
 
 bility of obtaining ready encouragement in many instances deters 
 really promising young men from making a determined attempt to 
 master this art. 
 
 Design Books. —A careful record of designs, however familiar 
 they may seem, is a great advantage in after years. Notwithstand¬ 
 ing this matter is sadly neglected by many it is of paramount im¬ 
 portance. For this purpose design books are supplied. To be con¬ 
 venient they should contain design paper, ruled or printed (or both), 
 to suit the character of designs to be recorded ; by this means a 
 somewhat tedious task is made easier, and the result is much more 
 satisfactory. We know of old men who have made designs enough 
 in their day to be now worth several thousand dollars if they had been 
 properly recorded. As an instance of special ruling for design 
 books, those now to be had for designs of fancy cassimeres will 
 serve well. The pages should be ruled in sections. There may be 
 either two, four or six sections, or even more in the width of a 
 page ; each section to be about as wide as 30 columns of squares. 
 The length of the section is not so arbitrary ; yet, when too long the 
 book becomes inconvenient and space is wasted, when too short 
 many designs will be too long and have to be continued in the next 
 sections, which is very inconvenient. These sections are ruled alike 
 horizontally, but only each alternate one is ruled perpendicularly to 
 make “ quadrille.” The left hand or first one (ruled only one way) 
 is for the record of warp and filling, and the other for the Drawing-in 
 draft and chain draft. By being careful to keep the enumeration of 
 the threads of the warp on the same lines with the numbers of the 
 respective harnesses, and the enumeration of the filling threads upon 
 the same lines with the respective bars of the chain draft, much 
 trouble and confusion will be avoided, and neatness will be a marked 
 feature of the book with a little care. 
 
 Design Paper. —The selection of design paper being now possi¬ 
 ble, it is no longer economy to use one kind only. For large pat¬ 
 terns—particularly jacquard designs—the fine lithographic paper is 
 a necessity. Even this comes in large varieties, that the designer 
 may use paper to suit his work. Different sizes of squares and 
 blocks, different colors of print and qualities of paper are the essen¬ 
 tial differences. Ruled paper cannot be made so fine and regular 
 as the printed paper, but it comes comparatively cheaper. If 
 for the large designs, we use finer ruled paper, and for the smaller 
 ones coarser ruled, the convenience in writing and reading will 
 be very remarkable. Large designs on finer paper, although 
 
74 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 they must be wrought much finer, are easier to work and read, be¬ 
 cause the area is not so large as on coarser paper, and the latter 
 when used for smaller patterns will still be kept within convenient 
 boiyids and make reading easier. Different sizes of sheets are also 
 very essential. Woolen mills which have a set way of writing their 
 drafts can save much paper by having their design paper ruled to 
 order. The form of ruling suggested for Design Books is very good. 
 Design paper should never be kept rolled up It is the best way to 
 transport it in small quantities, but if kept so will get out of shape. 
 Pads are very good on this account. 
 
 Designing Rooms. —That designers should have rooms, well 
 lighted and ventilated, large, convenient, quiet and inaccessible to 
 any one but those who have important business there, is a fact, but 
 the importance of it does not seem to penetrate some craniums. 
 Designing is work which requires the closest application of mind 
 possible ; if a mind is thus engaged, interruptions, inconveniences 
 and unnecessary difficulties not only cost time but a far greater tax 
 upon the mental powers. A poorly lighted room, therefore, is a loss 
 to the employer and an injury to the persons who must work in 
 it. A designing room should not be on the first floor of a 
 building closely surrounded by others of the same or greater 
 height. East, west and north windows, with convenient curtains 
 and blinds for modifying or shutting out the light, are neces¬ 
 sary. If only one side can be lighted the north light is usually pre¬ 
 ferred. The matter of ventilation in rooms where persons must stay 
 for hours at a time is now pretty generally understood, but sadly 
 neglected. Few designers can do their best when cramped for 
 room ; this will be appreciated by those only, who have had many 
 designs to keep track of, sometimes several in hand, and those who 
 know how many conveniences and apparatus are needed, which 
 should have convenient places provided for their storage as well as 
 use. Perfect quiet is a great help ; for this reason, the designing 
 room should be separate from all else ; the pattern room, where the 
 racket and jar of the pattern looms seldom ceases, is no place for 
 close application of mind. To keep those out who love to impose 
 their presence wherever or whenever they are not wanted is quite a 
 task in a factory if the arrangements of the rooms cannot in a 
 measure be depended upon. The furniture of the room is a matter 
 of no little importance, but few designers agree in the details they 
 require. A large table, a low and a high desk, shelves and drawers 
 in abundance; also, racks for sample yarns should always be sup- 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 75 
 
 plied. Chairs or stools are a matter of choice, best left to the one 
 who is to occupy them. 
 
 Dissecting. —Is dissecting or “ picking out ” necessary ; if so, 
 what is the best manner of procedure? To answer this double 
 question it will be necessary to consider what is understood by dis¬ 
 secting ; if getting at the texture is all, there are many patterns 
 which need but a glance to satisfy one who has had much experi¬ 
 ence. But if dissecting in its full comprehension is considered, the 
 character of the finish, colors, threads and fibers must be ascer¬ 
 tained, as well as the particulars of the texture. How any one can 
 do all this with the naked eye, or without picking to pieces even to 
 the very fibers, and not jump at some conclusions, is a problem the 
 solution of which will probably never appear. One needs to read 
 few notices like the one from which the following quotation is taken 
 to become convinced that the time has arrived when the means of 
 distinguishing fibers are imperative : “ Mr. Gideon Hamilton has, 
 
 after much research and experimenting, succeeded in discovering a 
 chemical process by which the fundamental difference between 
 animal hair and wool fibre is actually removed. It is well known 
 that the difficulty of employing wool and cotton or hair simultane¬ 
 ously for textile purposes arises from the fact that both materials 
 cannot be homogeneously spun and milled or fulled. The cause of 
 the difficulty exists in the different natural structure of the two 
 kinds of fibre : the animal hair being straight and slippery, while 
 the wool fibre is curly and crisp. The point of the new invention 
 is this, that by the agency of certain chemical substances the animal 
 hair is so efficiently curled that it permanently retains its altered 
 structure during all the manipulations of manufacturing cassimeres, 
 cloakings, felt goods, etc., and can be dyed equally fast together 
 with wool by one and the same process. The importance of this 
 invention is obvious. First, an organic combination of animal hair 
 and wool fibre is produced; secondly, a splendid substitute for 
 shoddies and artificial wools is found.” But it is not only to find 
 the kind of material used in a sample to be dissected, that fibers 
 must be examined as never before. 1 he character of a fiber, the 
 effects of various processes upon it; the direction and amount of 
 twist and many other details are often necessary to produce 
 a peculiarity in appearance which may be the only special merit of 
 the piece of goods in hand. The less a man knows about special 
 requirements of his calling, the louder is his ridicule of all their 
 claims as a necessity to perfect work; but the time has passed and 
 gone for designers of this kind. Manufacturers are rapidly awaken- 
 
76 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 ing to the realization of the fact that to compete with Europe the 
 designers employed must be of the most advanced kind. The 
 best operatives, stock and machinery can be employed to the best 
 advantage, only when the factory is supplied with the most accurate 
 plans, in which economy, product and good effect are well com¬ 
 bined. Having given sufficient evidence of the need of dissecting 
 in its entirety, some suggestions as to method will be in order. 
 Few who ask to be shown the method have any inclination to be 
 methodical, yet this is one of the most prominent characteristics 
 which must be practiced and developed. We recommend that the 
 texture be ascertained first, because while doing this threads are 
 drawn out; these, if carefully preserved in their proper order, may 
 themselves be dissected in due time without further mutilation of a 
 sample, be the sample large or small; this is a saving of time, if 
 nothing more. Gesner gives no instructions for dissecting the text¬ 
 ure, but says : 
 
 “ Every woven fabric is composed of two sets or systems of 
 threads or yarn. If it is necessary to follow a certain specimen in 
 hand, the following questions present themselves : 
 
 (i.) Which are the warp and which the filling threads? 
 
 (2.) Of what material are they made, and what are their special 
 characteristics ? 
 
 (3.) How many warp and filling threads are necessary ? 
 
 a . Which are the warp threads and which the filling ? 
 
 (1.) If on the sample in hand there is a bit of selvage the question 
 is readily answered, since the selvage always runs in the direction of 
 the warp. 
 
 (2.) Are the threads one way doubled and twisted, and the others 
 single, it is almost safe to take the twisted threads for warp. 
 
 (3). If the threads one way are single or double cotton and the 
 others single woolen yarn the cotton is almost invariably the warp. 
 
 (4.) Do the threads of one set or system produce a regular or set 
 effect, the other less prominent and irregular, the first are the warp, 
 the latter the filling threads without doubt. 
 
 (5.) Are the threads one way sized, the others not, the latter must 
 be the filling, the warp having been sized before or while weaving. 
 
 (6.) Do the threads one way appear straight and regular, the other 
 way loose, rough, displaced or not strictly regular in their own 
 direction, the straight yarn may be safely assumed to be the warp. 
 
 (7.) Reed marks of any kind will show which is the warp. 
 
 (8.) The nap, if any, is very reliable, as it is supposed to lay in the 
 same direction with the warp. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 77 
 
 (9.) The twist in the yarn is often the best means of answering 
 this question, the hardest and strongest thread is the warp. 
 
 Exceptions to these instructions occur but seldom. In many 
 fabrics the difference and the reasons for said difference in the yarn 
 are so clear as to require little examination. That the warp 
 thread is usually the smoothest, strongest, also of the longest and 
 best material is a very safe rule to follow. 
 
 b. Of what material are they made? 
 
 While examining the yarns to decide the first question, the answer 
 to this is often obtained without further effort. The size and twist 
 of the yarn should have especial consideration. To distinguish the 
 material requires perfect familiarity with the peculiarities of all kinds 
 of materials, raw and manufactured. Even when such experience 
 or knowledge is possessed, careful comparisons are the safest in a 
 final decision of importance. 
 
 c. How many warp and filling threads are necessary? 
 
 The density of the fabric is altogether controlled by the texture 
 and required weight and thickness. The manner of designating 
 this density by special and appropriate terms has been very diversi¬ 
 fied by the different systems of calculations employed in different 
 localities. The Technological schools now so numerous are doing 
 much to establish a uniform system of calculations by which the 
 density of yarn in fabrics is estimated by the number of threads and 
 dents in reed per inch or centimeter.” 
 
 To dissect the texture proceed as follows : 
 
 First—Determine either by the nap or by the difference in the 
 strength of threads drawn from each side, which is warp and which 
 is filling. Many patterns display the fact so clearly that the above 
 precautions are unnecessary. 
 
 Second—Shear the nap from the back and face as far as neces¬ 
 sary at the right hand lower corner. For this purpose use curved 
 scissors; shaving is dangerous, the threads are so easily weakened ; 
 neither is singeing advisable, for the smut even from the smoke of a 
 spirit lamp is disagreeable, and it is more than likely that too large 
 a surface will be bared, the colors affected by the heat, or, even 
 worse, the thread charred so much as to break when being drawn 
 out. Of course experience will teach one to do almost anything, 
 but the safest way is best for most people. 
 
 Third—Having thus prepared the sample proceed to cut out a 
 little piece of the lower right hand corner, as shown in figure No. 1 
 by the lines ABC. Save this little piece, it may be of use after- 
 
78 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 wards. Next turn the sample until the cut corner is at the upper 
 left hand, as in the illustrations. The corner to be cut is designated 
 as the lower left hand corner, because it is taken for granted that 
 having found the warp and filling, the sample will be held in such a 
 way as to have the warp in the perpendicular direction, the filling 
 horizontal or lateral, and if the cloth has a nap, that the nap lay 
 downward as worn in a garment, and that it will always be so held, 
 when under consideration, unless reversed as above directed. The 
 reversing is an obvious precaution after one has observed how much 
 easier a filling thread comes out with the nap than against it. 
 
 Fourth—Make a straight cut from D to F ; this should be in the 
 third pattern from the cut corner. To make the counting of patterns 
 easy let some prominent or conspicuous thread, if there be any, 
 remain as the first thread ; elongate or shorten the space, A B C, to 
 obtain this desideratum. 
 
 FIG. NO. 1. 
 
 Note. —The engraver has failed to be systematic in his work. The cut D E F 
 should be in the same place in all three figures at the beginning of the third 
 pattern ; it need not be so wide, or always so long. In No. 3 the marked threads 
 are not represented as regular as they ought to be. 
 
 Fifth—Fasten the sample to a piece of card board (or one of the 
 sample stretchers which can now be purchased very cheap) with a 
 few but firm stitches. Then the card is slipped under the stage 
 springs. All this and some of the following is to be omitted when 
 no instrument is used, in which case the sample is held stretched 
 over the left forefinger, by the thumb at one end and by the second 
 finger at the other end. 
 
 Sixth—Next ascertain which lens is necessary to give a clear 
 view of the threads, always bearing in mind that as soon as the lens 
 is so strong as to magnify the fibers too much they come into 
 prominence sufficiently to be really a confusing trouble. To ascer¬ 
 tain which lens to use will fix the focus as well. 
 
 Seventh—Having the microscope and sample in readiness, draw 
 out with the greatest care one filling thread after the other until all 
 
SPITZLI'S MANUAL. 
 
 79 
 
 the space is clear, as in figure No. 2. This should always be done 
 under a magnifying lens, even while a lack of practice makes the 
 task slow and more difficult. Use a pair of forceps to draw the 
 threads if possible ; they do not split warp threads like the needles. 
 The great difficulty occasioned by threads which have been split 
 or untwisted by the needle in this necessary preliminary process will 
 soon teach one to take every precaution to avoid the difficulty ; 
 one of the results of such a lesson is that the aid of a microscope 
 will be courted for this part of the work, even when it can be dis¬ 
 pensed with further on. The threads drawn out should be saved in 
 their regular order; this will afford much aid in determining the 
 order of the filling threads, serve as samples of the yarn for dis¬ 
 section, and to be used as guides for the dyer, etc., etc. 
 
 Eighth—The projecting warp threads should now be examined ; 
 if there are not several threads especially conspicuous, on account 
 of color, size or kind, some of them should be marked either by » 
 
 FIG. NO. 2. 
 
 staining or shortening to serve as tally threads in keeping the count 
 correct. Brush out all the loose fibres in the projecting threads. 
 This done, draw forward the first filling thread just enough to 
 loosen it from the fabric, when the sample should appear about like 
 figure No. 3. All these preliminaries are tedious, and one is 
 tempted to slight them, but this should never be done; many 
 seconds spent in preparing will save long minutes in the work to 
 follow, to say nothing of discouraging annoyances. 
 
 Ninth—To prepare the paper for the reception of the draft, as 
 taken from the sample, should be next attended to ; mark off as 
 many perpendicular columns of squares as there are projecting 
 warp threads in two repetitions of the pattern, each of these per¬ 
 pendicular columns will then represent a warp thread, and should 
 be marked at the top if any of the threads have been marked, or 
 are otherwise conspicuous. Always ascertain if there are any back¬ 
 ing warp threads ; if so, also, the order in which they occur, and 
 mark the respective columns on the paper. 
 
8o 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 Tenth—Examine the sample and paper 'carefully to make sure 
 that every detail has been observed and complied with. Mentally 
 assign the lateral lines of squares upon the paper to represent 
 filling-threads, for they are next to be filled in the same order as 
 would be adopted in common writing. 
 
 Eleventh—Everything is now in readiness to read off the texture; 
 note how the warp threads cross the loosened filling thread, whether 
 over or under it; if over it, prick two holes in the corresponding 
 square, one if under, noting each warp thread in its regular order (a 
 very important point, wherein the inexperienced meet the most 
 difficulty) ; having filled all the spaces of the first lateral line of 
 squares as far as previously marked off, if sure there is no error, the 
 filling thread may be taken out entirely, the loose fibers brushed out, 
 and the next filling thread loosened; the lateral line of squares 
 represent the filling threads in their proper order as the same 
 squares in perpendicular lines or columns represent the warp 
 threads. Thus, proceed with each filling thread, marking each line 
 at the left hand if any difference exist among them in color, size or 
 
 FIG. NO. 3. 
 
 stock. When enough has been picked out is a matter which each 
 man’s experience will teach him. Some can tell after the first few 
 threads how the rest will run, but the beginner should continue 
 until the pattern begins to repeat the second time. When some one 
 is ready and willing to write the marks into the squares as called off, 
 much time is saved. Some drop the dissecting needle to pick up 
 pen or pencil rather than prick the paper, or they use a slate or 
 pegging board, but this is all a matter of choice. Some textures 
 can hardly be dissected from the filling sides, but these are excep¬ 
 tional cases ; when they occur, reverse the sample and proceed as if 
 the warp were the filling. The marks will then be right on the paper 
 only when also reversed, as in Ashton’s instruction. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 8l 
 
 Twelfth—The next move will be to deduce the drafts from the 
 memorandums taken from the sample. To do this, proceed as in 
 deducing drafts from designs originated. (See Textures.) As re¬ 
 gards the use of instruments, little need be said; they make a way 
 into every thinking man’s favor with little help. While some 
 authors recommend magnifying glasses for cotton only, others reject 
 all optical aid. While some advise a shawl pin for a dissecting 
 point, others call for a coarse needle in a piece of wood for a handle. 
 Indeed, so many opinions have already been expressed, and so 
 arbitrarily, to say more seems to be adding to the confusion. 
 By calling attention to points not brought to notice by others some 
 good may be done. First, then, as regards optical aid, we hold that 
 the strongest eyes cannot endure the tax of picking out continu¬ 
 ously for any length of time, but by the use of instruments suited 
 to the work and the eyes, this time may be prolonged and the work 
 done with greater ease and accuracy. In place of proper dissecting 
 needles the shawl pin may do for Scotch cheviots and the like; the 
 coarse needle may be an improvement upon the pin, but neither of 
 these are a credit to a man who follows a calling, the life and soul 
 of which is a natural disposition to habits of taste and neatness 
 which alone can beget the same characteristics in designs. Further¬ 
 more, a dissecting needle should not have a point like a pin or 
 sewing needle, but should taper regularly from the point to within 
 one-third of the length from the base, and nearly all of this one- 
 third should be taken into a delicate but firm and strong needle 
 holder, which will permit a change of needles to suit the work. 
 Four or five different kinds of needles should always be at hand, 
 three sizes of round pins, one or two sizes of straight flat needles, 
 and at least one size of bent flat needles. The flat needle has the 
 advantage of affording strength and less obstruction to the view 
 than a round one, while a bent one allows a different angle for the 
 holder, sometimes necessary when working with a short focus instru¬ 
 ment. The other instruments which are almost as indispensable as 
 the needles are a pair each of very fine, delicate, curved, elbow and 
 straight scissors, a pair of good stage forceps, at least one good dis¬ 
 secting knife, and some linen provers to use separately or with 
 microscope. The curved scissors admit the blades close to any flat 
 surface; with the elbow scissors one may make a cut in a mounted 
 sample when on the stage, while the straight ones are always needed. 
 The forceps will pick up a fiber, thread or even a bit of flocks that 
 would be too small for the most delicate fingers ; when once accus¬ 
 tomed to them they will be found so convenient that they will be in 
 6 
 
82 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 constant use when dissecting. The dissecting knife is often needed 
 to cut where or what the scissors cannot reach. Linen provers, 
 with or without lenses, are nothing more or less than gauges where¬ 
 by the threads may be correctly spaced and counted. 
 
 Other methods are recommended by various authors; one of the 
 instructions recently made public, direct the operator to fasten the 
 sample to a circle made by pasting the two ends of a strip of card 
 board together, but fails to point out any advantages in favor of this 
 novel contrivance for filling the hands with unnecessary articles. 
 A better method when a sample is to be dissected for the texture 
 without optical aid, is to sew the sample to a round ball of convenient 
 size upon the end of a suitable handle. The ball, when smoothly 
 covered with a knit fabric, is a good foundation upon which the 
 sample may be fastened quickly. There is no trouble in procuring 
 these ready-made. Ashton recommends the following order of pro¬ 
 ceedings : “ When a draft is required, examine the cloth to see if 
 
 there is any nap on the back of it; if there is, it should be burned 
 off by means of a lighted match, care being taken not to burn the 
 threads. If the sample should be a cotton pattern, a magnifying- 
 glass must be used. Next, remove as many of the filling-threads as 
 will leave about one-eighth of an inch fringe. If there are any 
 double and twist threads in the warp or filling, always commence 
 with them. Remove as many of the warp threads as of the filling. 
 When raising the threads be careful not to split those of the warp. 
 Now, having the sample prepared, take it in the left hand between 
 the forefinger and thumb, holding it so that the second finger may 
 secure the threads as they are picked out. Commence at the right- 
 hand side of the sample. Note down on the designing paper all the 
 threads on the filling, and call them so many threads on ; and all the 
 threads under the filling, call them so many threads off. Leave as 
 many blank checks as there are threads under the filling. Continue 
 to work thus, until the pattern repeats itself in both warp and filling, 
 and the draft is complete. Sometimes, however, there are repeats in 
 samples ; these can be found by taking out two threads more than 
 the pattern so called, and if both repeat, then the draft is correct, 
 but if only one repeats, trace the draft until both warp and filling 
 repeat. The next thing is to reduce the draft. At this point, do 
 not forget that it is the filling that has been picked out, therefore, 
 after the draft is complete, turn it round one square from right to 
 left, and let the reduction begin at those lines representing the 
 warp. Strict care must be taken that the threads are drawn into the 
 heddles as indicated in each harness, otherwise the work will be a 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 83 
 
 failure.” Burns gives instruction in more minute details, but very 
 similar in general principles. Baldwin differs more, and is by many 
 considered more clear and to the point than the other two. The 
 fact is, each has some good features to be commended, and all 
 should be studied after the beginner has made progress enough to 
 be able to judge them fairly. 
 
 Dissecting the Yarn is now necessary. The information which is 
 to be ascertained is important; therefore, no pains should be spared 
 nor any part of the work hurried. The size of the threads, the 
 amount of twist, stock and colors, if a mixture, are the principal 
 points. The nature of the color should also be investigated. To 
 find the correct size of the threads in a sample there is but one 
 way positively sure, that is to pick out 36, 72, or 144, just one inch 
 long without tearing them in the least. Weigh these; having thus 
 found the weight of one, two or four yards of yarn, the size is easily 
 estimated. But the difficulty lies in getting these threads. Some¬ 
 times it is impossible ; at all times too slow if one has acquired a 
 good judgment of sizes and the allowances necessary for the take- 
 up of yarn by the curvature caused in each thread by the fabric. 
 Precision and accuracy are best attained by much practice with 
 samples, the size of which is positively known. Be the size ascer¬ 
 tained by weighing, judgment, or guess work, it must not be taken 
 for granted, but proved by estimating the weight of one yard of 
 cloth from it. To do this the threads per inch each way must be 
 found. The threads per inch in the warp must be multiplied by 
 the number representing the width of the finished goods, the threads 
 per inch in the filling by the number representing the width of 
 the warp in the reed, in inches. The proportion of each kind 
 of yarn in a pattern being known, the same proportion holds good 
 in a full yard of the goods : when found, the quantity of each 
 kind of yarn per yard is found in ounces by means of the yarn 
 number, (ascertained in either of the three ways above mentioned.) 
 Add all the weights together. If the sum of the weight per yard, 
 with proper allowances for shrinkages, etc., proves correct, or as 
 wanted, the estimate of the size number is right; if not, proceed to 
 revise the numbers until the work does so prove itself. In count¬ 
 ing the threads on a piece of cloth, it is a common practice to use 
 a fraction of an inch as a gauge. The errors which are liable to 
 creep in this way are worth a moment’s consideration. Let us sup¬ 
 pose a ^-inch linen prover or pick glass is used; a portion of a 
 thread projects within the gauge ; it is only a small portion, say one- 
 fourth of the thread, but it is dropped; this makes one thread 
 
8 4 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 missing per inch; in 54 inches it is 54 threads, quite an item. 
 Larger gauges, then, are a decided advantage, particularly when 
 counting coarse yarn; when counting the threads by patterns or 
 fractions thereof, a two or three inch gauge should be used. The 
 amount of twist is easily counted by laying a thread under a gauge 
 upon a card, and placing them under a microscope. The fibers 
 in each thread may also be counted under a good glass, and the 
 proportions of mixtures ascertained to a certainty, the nature of the 
 colors will be obtained at the same time. The stock is a matter of 
 consideration requiring a deal of sound judgment, but the micro¬ 
 scope is a great aid in discovering peculiarities. The stock in the 
 sample should be known even when another class of stock is to be 
 used in the imitation, else how can a fair judgment of the final dif¬ 
 ference be attained. In dissecting threads the fibers are sometimes 
 unruly on account of electricity upon clear cold days; a very little 
 moisture applied to the stage of the microscope or the card upon 
 which the sample threads lay, does away with this difficulty. 
 
 Dobby Loom. —The peculiarity of the dobby loom is in the appli¬ 
 cation of a small Jacquard motion to work the harnesses. The 
 Crompton Loom Works have turned out large numbers of light, 
 rapid looms under this name during the last few years; in these 
 the pattern is put upon the loom in a peg chain. 
 
 Doffer. —Upon a carding-machine the cylinders which deliver 
 the stock to the combs or condensers. In the spinning-room the 
 operative who doffs the bobbins. The card doffer should always 
 be kept in the best of order, the wire should be fine and of good 
 quality. 
 
 Domeck. —An English name for an inferior grade of damask. 
 
 Doubling. —Doubling the stock, while in the several slivers, has 
 for its object regularity and evenness. It takes but little thought to 
 comprehend the advantage of as much doubling as can be done 
 judiciously; there would indeed be no such thing as excessive 
 doubling if to double many times the slivers did not need to be of 
 certain sizes not always suitable to the stock, to say nothing of extra 
 labor, destruction of material, waste, etc. Doubling yarn is resorted 
 to, to gain strength and regularity. The ring and cap frames are the 
 most rapid doubling-machines, but the quality of the work is not 
 equal to that from flyer frames. The doubling from mules, well 
 fitted up for the purpose, is the most perfect work of this kind at 
 present attainable. It is a matter of much comment that the best 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 85 
 
 manufacturers of France and Belgium can spin and double many 
 kinds of yarn more evenly than the same class in England or 
 America. The secret is largely in the fact that they do their best 
 work with mules ; and yet many of their mules are built in England. 
 
 Double Cloth. —Double cloth is referred to, and some textures 
 given under the head of Textures, but Ashenhurst’s remarks on the 
 subject are so interesting that we quote a few leading paragraphs 
 here : “ Double cloth is a branch of fancy weaving which is not 
 
 practised generally, being confined to the woollen and carpet manu¬ 
 factures chiefly, and very little used in the cotton, silk or worsted 
 manufacture, except occasionally in the latter branch for coatings, 
 in which case a woollen back is woven on for the purpose of giving 
 weight and warmth. Double cloth is for the most part composed of 
 similar fabrics, which are sometimes interwoven at intervals and 
 formed into a diversity of patterns, the two cloths being of different 
 colors, the one color forming a pattern on the other. Double 
 cloths are of three kinds, one formed with one warp and having two 
 weft surfaces, the second formed with one weft and having two warp 
 surfaces, and the third being two distinct cloths.” 
 
 Double Velvet. —This term alludes to the manner in which the 
 goods are woven rather than to any special peculiarity of the 
 finished goods. Two fabrics are woven together face to face; 
 afterwards severed with a knife; the ends of the threads cut to 
 separate the goods, constitute the pile or plush on each. It is diffi¬ 
 cult to make the pile even in this way. Numerous inventions to 
 aid the weaver in this difficulty are extant, but as yet none that 
 insure the perfection that may be obtained by weaving the goods 
 single. 
 
 Dusters. —Also called Willows, or Willeys, are used for opening 
 stock and removing dust, sand, etc. They are provided with a 
 cylinder revolved at a high speed containing pegs, pins or teeth ; 
 under the cylinder is a screen which allows the fine rubbish to pass 
 through it into a receptacle underneath the machine. The stock is 
 thrown out by the cylinder, either continually, or when the case is 
 opened for the purpose. 
 
 Drafts or Draughts. —The word draft is made use of for such 
 a variety of meanings in textile factories that its true application 
 and derivation seems to be a matter of doubt. For convenience 
 the two ways of spelling are separately employed in this work, Draft 
 being used for the applications under this head, while other defini- 
 
86 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 tions and remarks maybe found under the word Draught. Per¬ 
 haps it would have been better to adopt one word, but even in this 
 way, each will have several definitions; certainly, as regards the 
 convenience, there can be no doubt. The same words being fre¬ 
 quently used in these pages, it may be well to state that draught is 
 used only in connection with the draught or drawing of yarns, while 
 draft is used in various connections with designs. The use of this 
 word, instead of the more correct verb, dissect, by several authors 
 has misled many. The true application of the word is, no doubt, 
 in direct connection with the sketch of a texture made while dis¬ 
 secting, and may without great error be extended to preparatory 
 sketches of designs. Custom has established the use of the word for 
 parts of designs as well. This custom is so universal in this coun¬ 
 try that it is adopted in this work without hesitation. Under the 
 head of designs will be found the remark that the design is not 
 given into the works complete, but in sections or parts commonly 
 called drafts. These drafts are variously executed, and of course 
 depend very much on the kind of goods and factory. A few of 
 them are here explained in the order delivered in some first-class 
 woolen factories. 
 
 Spoolers' Drafts specify the number and kind of spools, quantity 
 of yarn on each, and how to be prepared for the warper. The 
 threads or ends upon each spool should always be given, if more 
 than one. If several kinds of yarn are to be put on one spool, the 
 number of threads of each should be stated ; also, any other par¬ 
 ticulars necessary to make the preparations of the yarn for the 
 warper clear and correct. 
 
 Warpers' Drafts are very similar to the spoolers, but have, in 
 addition particulars of the divisions, sections or smallbeams, the 
 width of the warp, the yards per piece, and the number of pieces or 
 cuts total. The number of patterns per section, the number of 
 threads per pattern, and their regular order is, of course, necessary. 
 
 Drawing-In Drafts .—These are the instructions to the drawing 
 in hands, by which they may readily see in what order to take the 
 heddles upon the several harnesses for the purpose of drawing the 
 threads into them. These drafts should be written on a large 
 quadrille paper. For the designer the finer quadrille is much the 
 most convenient, but when the mind and hands are occupied with 
 tangled heddles, it saves time and errors, if the instructions can be 
 read with ease. 
 
 Chain Drafts .—The chain draft shows how the several harnesses 
 must be moved for each pick. They are written on quadrilled 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 87 
 
 paper (the larger the better for chain builders), each little square 
 represents a respective harness, the first perpendicular column is 
 devoted to the first or front harness ; the next for the second, and 
 so on, until each harness required for a fabric has such a perpen¬ 
 dicular column to represent it; by making the first pick of all the 
 columns come on a line, we are enabled to read on each line the 
 position of all the harnesses when the shuttle is going through, thus 
 in the following examples of one pick we would read the marks : 
 
 1—* 
 
 i2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 
 
 One raiser, two sinkers, three raisers, four sinkers, three raisers, 
 two sinkers, one raiser ; because the heavy marks are put in to rep¬ 
 resent the ball, button, peg or any other device put upon the bars 
 or cards of the chain, to govern the jack which lifts the harness. 
 The light marks show when the device for lowering the harnesses is 
 to be operated. As each line of the draft represents a pick it also 
 represents a bar or card of the chain. Chain drafts should be 
 written on heavy paper (quadrilled on one side only) with a wide 
 margin on all sides, because, being often handled by the edges, 
 they become soiled and should be trimmed before filing. The 
 chain draft is written directly under the drawing-in draft, and 
 to the right of the filling draft in a complete set of drafts, and in 
 the design. When copying drafts for the several departments 
 (especially upon the chain draft) any special thread or threads, 
 which must always appear in the same pick or harness, should be 
 legibly marked ; from the above arrangement of the entire design 
 this is very easy. The columns or harnesses should be numbered 
 at the bottom from left to right. On the left sides the lines or 
 picks should be consecutively numbered, some begin at the top, 
 others at the bottom to bring the beginning of each set of figures in 
 the same corner. 
 
 The Filling Drafts are made out in many ways; designers 
 seldom do more than give the order of threads per pattern and 
 number of picks per inch in loom. But a filling draft should also 
 show the working of the shuttle box motion. As different box 
 motions require different kinds of chains or devices for governing 
 them, the variety of filling drafts is great. Some designers, how¬ 
 ever, designate the number of shuttles to be used and the order in 
 which the respective boxes are to be brought to the shed level. 
 
 This is simple when the boxes are numbered, the shuttles lettered 
 
 ^ , # # 
 
 or named by the kind or color they carry. The instructions for 
 
88 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 raw material—those to the dyer, carder and spinner—may all be 
 copied from the complete design, but they can not be called drafts. 
 
 The word draft has yet another significance in factories ; its influ¬ 
 ence on different kinds of work varies, but in cotton or woolen 
 factories a draft is at all times bad in the carding and spinning 
 rooms. Especially in worsted drawing rooms should the ventila¬ 
 tion be such as to keep the temperature even and the air good 
 without a draft from any source. Leroux says: “ These work 
 
 rooms should be well closed to prevent drafts from modifying the 
 temperature, which should be as uniformly as possible—about 20° 
 of the centigrade thermometer. Besides varying the temperature, 
 a draft will increase the evaporation of necessary moisture, and 
 difficulties from electricity, besides blowing about the stock and 
 small particles of waste. 
 
 Drafting. —This appellation, instead of “ dissecting ” or “ pick¬ 
 ing out,” is common in some districts and used even by some 
 authors, but it is not strictly correct, as will be readily understood 
 by a careful study of the proper application of the word “ draft.” 
 No doubt the word is misapplied from causes arising altogether 
 through misinterpretation of the words “draught,” “draughtsman ” 
 and “draughting.” 
 
 Draught. —The draught of a drawing or spinning frame, or any 
 other machine, is the process of drawing the stock, whether in a 
 web, sliver or roving. Also the mechanical devices for drawing, and 
 the distance or amount of drawing done. The calculations of 
 draughts are very nice in some yarns, while in others a pretty good 
 guess does very well. Each one who has any drawing of stock to 
 look after should be well acquainted with the various ways of pro¬ 
 ducing desired results in the most accurate manner. Much experi¬ 
 ence is required to know stock well enough to judge the amount of 
 draught it will endure or require. 
 
 Drawing. —The Textile Designer should by all means be able to 
 draw. While dealing with elementary textures the work is very 
 simple, but larger designs can not, be executed neatly, when no 
 artistic skill is at command. “ Drawing is the A B C of the archi¬ 
 tect, engineer and surveyor.” (Sir Isambarn Brunnel.) “ Drawing 
 supplies us with a power whereby long descriptions and pages of 
 writing are at once superseded, and thus it is a condensed short¬ 
 hand as well as a universal language.” (R. Redgrave, R. A.) Since 
 every textile design like the work of the architect, must be wrought 
 out with mathematical precision, the production thereof may 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 89 
 
 properly be classed under the head of Mathematical Drawing. 
 Without discouraging any ambition to free hand drawing, we would 
 recommend a thorough practice with mathematical instruments 
 first. The best method for those who can not place themselves in 
 the hands of a good tutor is to buy a standard work on mathemati¬ 
 cal drawing, mathematical instruments and drawing materials. The 
 first book of our choice would be “ Mathematical Drawing Instru¬ 
 ments and How to Use Them,” by F. Edward Hulme, F. L. S., F. 
 S. A. A book of this kind is as great a necessity as any the beginner 
 can procure. 
 
 Drawing Materials. —Of drawing materials quite a variety are 
 needed to complete a designer’s outfit; on the subject of paper, 
 pencils, etc., etc., the book above recommended contains very val¬ 
 uable information. 
 
 Drawing In. —This term refers to drawing the ends of the warp 
 threads through the heddles, mails, etc. This work is sometimes 
 given into the hands of children, or grown persons who are worse 
 than many children, to save wages. It is a poor economy ; errors 
 made here are seldom discovered until the cloth shows it; the time 
 and expense to make it right are usually a serious tax. Drawing in 
 should be done with a hook, which will not strain the eye of a new 
 heddle. First, because the eye of a new heddle should have the 
 best shape possible; second, because the hook, to strain the heddle, 
 must bind ; if a thread happens to get between the hook and wire 
 it will probably be broken or cut, causing delay and a knot, both of 
 which should be avoided everywhere. To draw in a cross draw, 
 the operative must read the draft frequently; the sole dependence 
 upon memory, after reading the draft a few times, is something 
 people like to boast about, but it is not the best method even with a 
 good memory. The drawing in is sometimes done on the loom by 
 twisting the ends of a new warp to those of the old ; but the prac¬ 
 tice is not so common as it once was. 
 
 Draw Boy Machines. —These are devices employed to assist 
 the draw boy in raising the “lingoes,” which, when many in number, 
 were very heavy. This device, as well as the looms upon which 
 they were used, are very fully explained and illustrated by Barlow. 
 
 Draw Looms. —The draw loom is fully explained by Barlow, 
 whose introduction of the subject alone is very instructive. Ashen- 
 hurst has also several pages of interesting matter on this subject. 
 
90 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 Drawing Frames. —There are so many kinds needed for the dif¬ 
 ferent kinds of work, and opinions vary so much, that* we quote 
 Baird on cotton drawing frames and Leroux on worsted : 
 
 “ Drawing or doubling is the next operation through which the 
 cotton has to pass after it has been carded. The ends, bands or 
 slivers, as they come from the card, are exceedingly tender and 
 loose, the fibers of cotton not being yet arranged in the parallel 
 form requisite for good spinning. Before any twist is given to the 
 bands, the fibers should be in a proper position for the manufacture 
 of smooth yarn. The doubling and drawing out of the bands, 
 which accomplishes this perfectly, is done on the drawing-frame. 
 Some drawing-frames are constructed with three pair of rollers, and 
 some with four pair; the latter having the advantage of doing more 
 work in the same time. The rollers in a drawing-frame are gener¬ 
 ally so adjusted, that the drawing is done between the first and third 
 roller, the middle roller having but little influence on the result, so 
 far as the stretching is concerned. Where there are three or four 
 rollers, the drawing is performed twice ; each pair of rollers draws a 
 certain amount. The distance between the rollers is so adjusted, 
 that the longest fiber of the cotton does not reach from the centre 
 of one roller to the centre of the other ; this prevents the rollers 
 from tearing the fibers, because the first pair of rollers pulls the 
 fibers, while the second holds them fast. If, on the other hand, the 
 distance between the rollers is too great, the filaments of cotton 
 separate in unequal thicknesses, and the result is unequal yarn. It is 
 more preferable to have the rollers too close together, than to have 
 them too far apart, provided they are always so far distant as not to 
 injure the staple. The principal object to be attained in drawing 
 the bands is, to reduce their thickness after they have been doubled. 
 Doubling and drawing effects the two-fold purpose of stretching the 
 fibers of cotton, and equalizing the bands. The more a band is 
 doubled and eliminated, the more perfect should be the yarn spun 
 from it; but this process of drawing can, nevertheless, be carried 
 too far. Excessive drawing, as well as excessive picking and card¬ 
 ing, tends to weaken the fiber, and finally renders it brittle and 
 rotten. Still, if the machinery is kept in such perfect order as not 
 to injure the cotton, it may be considered impossible to eliminate 
 the fibers to too great an extent. The sliver from the last drawing- 
 head should be of a silky lustre, and its component fibers should lie 
 perfectly parallel with the band and with each other. But little 
 cotton is wasted in this operation ; the waste consists principally of 
 those parts which have to be broken off in consequence of their 
 
SPITZLI'S MANUAL, 
 
 9 1 
 
 running singly, or when the attendant, through negligence or inadver¬ 
 tence, misses a can, and gets behind-hand with the rollers.”— Baird. 
 
 “ The preparatory machines consist of a series of drawing frames 
 of different sizes, in which the number of rollers varies; for, each 
 machine being called upon to reduce the slivers, the numbers of 
 cylinders ought to go on increasing in proportion to the amount of 
 thinning the slivers have to undergo. The drawing process has for 
 its object to reduce the volume of a certain quantity of wool slivers, 
 while it preserves their original weight, with the exception of a 
 slight loss in flyings and wastings, resulting from the drawing; for, 
 during that process, either loose filaments become detached from 
 the slivers or bits of wool are separated and get wound round the 
 comb. When this latter case occurs the waste is carefully col¬ 
 lected and a skilled workman draws it by hand so as to repass it 
 the next time; but the waste which falls on the machine or the floor 
 is generally so short and poor that it is almost impossible to subject 
 it to that operation, and we must be satisfied to shake it up in a 
 basket or wicker work cylinder, and employ it for carded products. 
 Before operating with the preparatory machines, we must first con¬ 
 sider what work we have to do, and dispose of our material accord¬ 
 ing to the special kind of wool to be converted inte yarn. We 
 begin by— 
 
 Fi rst —Properly lubricating the movable parts of the machine. 
 
 Second—Arranging the parchments. 
 
 Third—Regulating the intervals. 
 
 Fourth—Regulating the weights of the top rollers. 
 
 Fifth—Regulating the draught. 
 
 All the rollers of these machines are supplied with weights and 
 levers, exerting a certain pressure on the top rollers. The arms of 
 the levers are movable throughout their entire length, and their 
 power may be modified by means of weights.’ 
 
 Dresser. —This name is given to a warping machine on which 
 sizing is applied to the warp, to machines for applying sizing, etc., 
 to fabrics as well as yarns, to some kinds of finishing machinery, 
 and to the men who attend them ; also to sizing, etc. 
 
 Dressing. —The dressing in many instances is the composition 
 or ingredients used, the manner or means of application, and often 
 only the result or appearance of an operation. 
 
 Drying. —When drying was done in the open air or in rooms, the 
 temperature of which never exceeded ioo° Fahr., the process was 
 
92 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 not of so much moment as now. The machinery in use at the 
 present time is nearly all devised to dry quickly; to a certain 
 extent this is accomplished by rapid circulation of air, but cold air 
 will not carry the moisture as well as hot air; hence, the latter is 
 employed too freely in many cases. If the operators of machines 
 could only comprehend the danger of overheating some materials, 
 no doubt there would be less fault found with the machinery ; it is a 
 noteworthy fact that even those who are supposed to know better, 
 pay too little attention to the matter of regulating the heat. With 
 silks and woolens particularly is it necessary to watch closely, not 
 only the temperature, but the condition of the goods before drying. 
 If woolens are too wet, when dried they are stiff, as if starched, if 
 not clean they will come from the drying-machine in a state difficult 
 to rectify, the colors dingy, perhaps cloudy, etc., etc. (See Tenter 
 Bars.) 
 
 Dyes.—A few of the most common dyes and dyewoods are men¬ 
 tioned in this work, with the hope of awakening here and there a 
 desire to investigate further a line of study that should occupy the 
 designer, manager and dyer during many spare hours. It is only 
 by understanding the nature of ingredients and compounds that 
 they can be used intelligently. 
 
 E. 
 
 Edges. —The importance of perfect sides or edges, be the selvage 
 wide or narrow, is seldom fully appreciated by operatives; indeed, 
 even overseers are frequently either ignorant or regardless of the 
 consequences of crooked, short, long, rolling, thick, thin, imperfect 
 or rough sides. Some of the causes are here enumerated : Crooked 
 edges are almost invariably caused by uneven tension on the filling 
 while weaving, either on account of bad or too long bobbins, 
 crooked shuttle spindle, shuttle eye in wrong place, or anything 
 else showing itself by a difference in tension on full and nearly 
 empty bobbins. Uneven yarn will also make crooked edges, but 
 this is easily traced if the goods are examined while wet or by look¬ 
 ing through them toward a strong light. Uneven picks, from what¬ 
 soever cause, will sometimes produce this trouble. Crooked edges 
 are only the beginning of a worse evil—cockles. Short edges are 
 usually caused by the warper, and may also be done in beaming. 
 Long edges are a difficulty arising from high sides on the warp 
 beam ; whip rolls or lathes which give in the middle ; worn breast 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 93 
 
 beam; also by the warp reel when so frail as to sag between the 
 sides and spiders, or by putting waste and bobbins in at the sides 
 on the cloth beams. When all these matters are correct there may 
 still be a difference in the length of the sides from different looms, 
 sometimes on the same piece; this is often owing to uneven pick¬ 
 ing, or on account of a peculiar lodgment of the shuttles. A very 
 common trouble with looms having a single box on one side and a 
 number on the other. Temples have much to do with the sides, 
 but any trouble from them should be apparent to any careful 
 observer. Rolling edges are caused by a difference in back and 
 face, usually on such goods as are made with warp largely on one 
 side, filling on the other ; whichever side shrinks most readily will 
 roll inwards. With woolens, the fuller and gigger suffer most from 
 this trouble, and upon the fuller devolves the duty of sparing others 
 the annoyance which rolling edges prove to be in all subsequent 
 operations. In sewing for the fulling mill, make short stitches; if 
 possible, sew that side out which naturally rolls in ; if impossible 
 for the entire process, one-fourth of the time at least, either first 
 or last, will help very much. 
 
 Thick and Thin edges are made'in the loom; the tension of the 
 filling and t?he temples must be looked to first. 
 
 Imperfect a?id Rough edges are frequently the result of careless¬ 
 ness and neglect either on the part of the weaver or loom fixer. 
 When the shed is not good at the sides, the time of picking incor¬ 
 rect, or one shuttle delivering loose filling, another tight, look out 
 for imperfect and rough sides, they will certainly show on thread¬ 
 bare goods when finished, if not before. 
 
 Electricity. —Electricity has not as yet proved very successful 
 in applications of it to the textile manufacturing processes. Some 
 very ingenious inventions exist; but, for some reason, they do not 
 come forward and into general use. Among these are electricity 
 applied to the Jacquard loom and punching machines, to cutting 
 velvet plush, etc., etc. But electricity, as an annoyance or diffi¬ 
 culty, is very common, particularly in factories, where wool is used. 
 This is more especially the case in carding and spinning; weaving 
 in a cold, dry room is also difficult on account of it. Of the many 
 devices employed to prevent troubles from electricity in carding 
 there is perhaps none which can be covered by one word better 
 than “ moisture.” Moisture in the stock or in the atmosphere is all 
 that is necessary. A little escape of steam in the vicinity of a card 
 giving trouble has remedied the matter, but a better way is to apply 
 it to the stock. 
 
94 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 Electricity is almost sure to be troublesome when wool has been 
 exposed to great heat in drying, if an insufficient quantity of oil is 
 used, or if the colors either from excessive use of acid, alkali or heat 
 in boiling, have attacked those properties of the staple which wool 
 requires to convey its true nature to the fabric. There is also 
 much electricity in factories altogether generated by friction. This 
 is especially a serious trouble in the card ; and, no doubt, the pro¬ 
 cess of carding does generate some electricity. Condensing rollers 
 or drawing rollers, when set too close, bring about this evil in the 
 very spot where it is the greatest nuisance. There are some ten 
 pages on this subject in the book called “ Queries and Replies,” 
 taken from the Industrial Record. Like everything else in this book 
 the information is all direct from the workroom and is, therefore, 
 very valuable, as it gives the varying success of different remedies. 
 The electric light is without doubt a grand success in factories. 
 Several hundred of them are already in use, and in one or two 
 instances are used with the best results in shops running night and 
 day. 
 
 Emery. —The emery used for grinding cards is of various sizes 
 and qualities. Nos. 3 and 4 are good sizes, and are preferable to 
 finer kinds. It must be perfectly free from rotten ?>r pounded 
 stone and all ingredients not belonging to it. Emery may be tested 
 by laying some of it on a flat piece of iron and attempting to bruise 
 it with a flat-faced hammer; if good and hard, it will resist the ham¬ 
 mer; if soft or mixed with any improper matter, it will yield easily, 
 and should be rejected. Coarse emery cuts and grinds quicker 
 than fine, and also sinks in among the points of the teeth, cleans 
 them, and cuts off any roughness, barbs or hooks that may be on 
 them, and prevents them from rubbing on each other. If the 
 emery is too 'coarse, it causes rings or grooves and ridges around 
 the cylinders. Some carders wash the emery in warm water, when 
 the chips and dust will rise to the surface, and may be washed off; 
 after this the emery must be dried. It can sometimes be suffi¬ 
 ciently cleared by sifting. 
 
 To cover rollers, have them turned perfectly true, and a sufficient 
 quantity of glue in readiness. The glue must be of a medium con¬ 
 sistency ; if it is too thick, it will not adhere to or spread evenly on 
 the rollers; it must be applied as quickly as possible, while the roll 
 or cylinder is in motion, particular care being taken not to miss any 
 part, especially the ends, as it is there they first begin to give way. 
 As soon as the roller is covered with glue quickly strew on the 
 emery, letting it fall from a height of two feet to make it stick, and 
 
I 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 95 
 
 lay it around the ends of the rollers by hand in order to make it 
 adhere to those places. The rolls should be allowed to dry during 
 the night; the next day receive a second coat, applied as the first 
 except that the glue may be somewhat thinner; they should again 
 be left over night to dry. The next day all the glue and waste 
 emery adhering to the ends should be scraped off, tried with a 
 straight edge, the emery rubbed off the high places, and the whole 
 made as level and true as possible ; next apply a wash composed of 
 2\ ounces of glue and one pint of water; this wash unites all the 
 coats firmly together, and does not prevent the emery from cutting. 
 The rolls should be revolved while this wash is hardening. 
 
 Many forms of hand emeries are also employed. To cover them 
 the same principles are involved as in covering rolls. The emery 
 used for grinding shears, etc., etc., is necessarily very fine, and best 
 applied when mixed with a heavy oil to the consistency of lard that 
 will just run. 
 
 Ends. —The ends of warp threads are called ends. The use of 
 the word for threads in general is very common. 
 
 English and French Methods for spinning worsted yarns are 
 often alluded to. The difference is mainly in the manner of draw¬ 
 ing from the sliver to the thread. Leroux has given full descrip¬ 
 tions of both methods in his work on the manufacture of worsted 
 yarns. The information he gives should be well understood by all 
 who use or make worsted yarns. 
 
 Estimates. —It is often necessary to estimate the probable cost 
 of an intended fabric before proceeding to make it; the calcula¬ 
 tions necessary are the same as those treated under the head of Cal¬ 
 culations and in Yarn Numbers, Reeds, &c. But to make these 
 estimates reliable requires quite as much judgment as mathematical 
 ability ; indeed, the latter is useless without the influence of the 
 former. 
 
 F. 
 
 Fabric. —The word fabric is very frequently used instead of 
 texture. Webster’s definitions of the word are as follows : 
 
 1. The structure of anything; the manner in which the parts of 
 anything are united by art and labor; workmanship; texture; 
 make; as cloth of a beautiful fabric. 
 
 2. That which is fabricated; (a) framework, structure, construc¬ 
 tion, edifice, building, (b) Manufactured cloth. “ Silks and other 
 fine fabrics of the East.”— Henry. 
 
96 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 An effort has been made to use the words fabric and texture inde¬ 
 pendently of each other in this work, as a combined use of them is 
 often confusing to the beginner. There is hardly an exception to 
 the rule in this book—fabric being used for “manufactured cloth;” 
 texture, for the structure or construction of the fabric. 
 
 Fallers. —On some drawing frames the gills are propelled by a 
 screw; when they reach the end of the screw they fall into another 
 which carries them back to the other end again. This falling gives 
 these several bars carrying the gills this name. 
 
 Fancy. —The cylinder on a card which raises the stock from the 
 main cylinder, that the doffer may take it. The wire should be 
 long, set and bent very regularly and accurately, since the fancy 
 should not be ground much. If the fancy wire is soft it will soon 
 lay down irregularly and always after prove a nuisance. 
 
 Fancy Diagonals. —Some English writers seldom use the word 
 diagonal, and would therefore head this paragraph with Fancy 
 Twills. Whatever they call it, the English writers and weavers un¬ 
 derstand the application and variation of twills thoroughly, as may 
 be seen by the several quotations under the head of twills. Fancy 
 diagonals are nothing more or less than very large patterns of the 
 same family of textures as twills, but the long floats are frequently 
 tied down in a manner to produce fancy effects. 
 
 Feeders. —The employees, the machines or parts of machines 
 which feed or enter stock of any kind, to the machinery. On 
 wool washing-machines the feeder is a boy or man who lays the 
 wool on an apron which is in constant motion toward the bath, into 
 which it finally drops the wool. On wool, cotton and other pickers 
 the stock is still fed by hand. On cotton cards the matter of feed¬ 
 ing is very simple because the stock comes to the card in laps, but 
 to woolen cards the stock is brought in a loose open state from the 
 picker. Many woolen cards are still fed by hand, but very perfect 
 machinery is now being largely introduced to do the work cheaper 
 and better. 
 
 Felt or Felt Cloth. —These goods are made by applying heat, 
 moisture and friction to webs of various kinds of animal fibers. 
 The stock is mixed and picked for the cards; carded; from the 
 card it goes to the felting machinery in an open but web-like state; 
 from the felting machine some kinds are taken to the fulling mills, 
 and some kinds of goods undergo various other processes to pro¬ 
 duce the requisite density and characteristics. The colors and 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 97 
 
 finish applied are also many in kind, according to the ultimate pur¬ 
 pose of the goods. 
 
 Fibers, or Fibres. —The fibers used in the manufacture of tex¬ 
 tile fabrics are described as follows, by Gesner: “ The material used 
 in textile fabrics may be animal, mineral or vegetable. The most 
 common are wool, silk, cotton, hemp, flax. Properly classified, 
 they appear in the order below : 
 
 A.— Vegetable. (1) Fibers from the Stems of Plants. 
 
 (a) Chinese Grass or Nettle ( Urtica , Nivia) is a perennial plant, 
 the stem of which bears broad, oval leaves; the upper side is 
 smooth and of a beautiful green color, while the lower side is cov¬ 
 ered by a white woolly down. The plant grows in East India, Siam. 
 Cochin China, Japan, China, and on many of the islands of the 
 Indian Archipelago. In its wild state it is called Rhea, and is 
 usually found in almost impenetrable masses or thickets. The 
 fiber of the cultivated plant has a length of 120 millimeters, and 
 possesses a wonderful strength, (some tests having shown a strength 
 two or three times as great as that of Russian hemp.) 
 
 (b.) Ramm&e is a sort of nettle thriving best upon several islands 
 of the Indian Archipelago, where it grows to a height of one to two 
 meters. It is of a yellowish white color, about as fine as a fail- 
 quality of flax, lusterless and very stiff. 
 
 (e.) Jute is a native of China and East India, but successfully 
 cultivated in other parts. It yields a brownish, coarse, long fiber, 
 used largely in the manufacture of twine, burlap, etc., etc. The 
 fiber may be improved by the hackle and other manipulations until 
 a fine lustre is attained, but is always very brittle. 
 
 (el.) Nettle. Several plants of this species yield useful fibers. 
 
 (2.) Fibers from the leaves of plants. 
 
 (a.) The New Zealand Flax (Phormium Tenax). This plant, 
 native of New Zealand, produces a leaf from £ to i T ' 5 meters long 
 and 1 to 3 ctm. wide, which contains great numbers of fibers 
 from 5 to 11 millimeters long. This material resembles hemp, but is 
 not so soft and flexible, although producing very durable fabrics. 
 
 (b.) Manila or Manila Hemp (Abaca) is more extensively used for 
 ropes than fabrics, but does occasionally enter into various kinds of 
 the latter. 
 
 (c.) Ananas Hemp (Bromelia Ananas) comes from the West 
 Indies and South America. The fibers of the roots are long and 
 
 7 
 
9 8 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 tough, furnishing a material with which the Indians produce a sort 
 of coarse linen. 
 
 (3.) Fibers from Shells or Husks : 
 
 (a.) The Cocoa fibers possess remarkable elasticity and strength.; 
 and are used for carpets, mats and various kinds of plaited goods. 
 
 (b.) Of the many other vegetable substances that may be woven. 
 Wood, straw, etc., etc., are probably the most common. 
 
 B. —Animal Fibers, (a.) Cashmere or Kashmere Wool is the 
 fine wool-like hair of the goat (Capra Hircus , Varietas Lahigra). 
 This goat thrives best upon the Himmaleh mountains at an alti¬ 
 tude of 5,000 meters. The higher the altitude, the finer, softer and 
 thicker the coat of hair is found to be. Nearly all of this staple is 
 manufactured into shawls in Cashmere. What little is sent to other 
 markets may be said to be of three kinds or colors—white, grey 
 and brown. The word cashmere is also used to designate certain 
 fabrics made of wool or silk warp and goat hair, or fine merino wool 
 filling. Cashmere Satin (woolen satin) is a smooth, lustrous fabric, 
 the warp and filling of which are of combed wool or worsted. 
 Cashmere Muslin, (wool muslin, mousseline-laine) ; the warp and 
 filling of this fabric have little twist and are woven very loose. In 
 Mousselin-deim-laine the warp is cotton, the filling combed wool or 
 worsted. Cashmeret is a fabric more like cloth in its manufacture 
 and appearance. The warp of the best kinds is of a peculiar floss 
 silk, woolen filling. These fabrics are fulled, gigged and shorn. 
 
 (b.) Vigogue wool is a sort of curly hair from a peculiar sheep to 
 be found in the mountains of Peru, Chili and Mexico. 
 
 (e.) Alpaca wool is the downy hair of a goat in Peru, is very fine 
 and comes to market brown, black and white. (Alpagnapaco.) 
 
 (d.) Mohair is procured from the Angora goat of Asia Minor. 
 This staple is largely spun from carded stock, and used as filling for 
 several fabrics, which by fulling, etc., readily yield a nap resembling 
 plush. 
 
 (e.) Camel hair is the downy hair of certain camels ; is used for 
 combed and carded yarns. 
 
 (/.) Cow hair is spun into coarse yarns, woven into carpets and 
 other coarse fabrics. (Seldom spun alone, but is carried by a more 
 suitable fiber like wool, etc.—Ed.) 
 
 (£-.) Horse hair, dog hair and even human hair finds its way into 
 various textures. 
 
 C. —Mineral Fibers. («.) Metallic wire is woven for sieves, and 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 99 
 
 sometimes is introduced into fabrics to represent gold and silver 
 threads. 
 
 (£.) Gold and silver threads are frequently woven in as orna¬ 
 ments or fancy effects. 
 
 (a) Glass threads are now produced and used but for little else 
 than millinery goods. 
 
 Figured Weaving. —Is practised as a handicraft process, or the 
 weaver is assisted by the aid of machines. The process of orna¬ 
 mental weavings as used at the present time in India, is perhaps the 
 same as it has been practised there from the most remote times. It 
 consists in interlacing differently colored threads of various sub¬ 
 stances and thickness; and this is done by inserting them in the 
 warp as in plain weaving. By this means the effect is produced by 
 the different colors and materials, rather than by the ornamental 
 decussations of the threads, in which the skill of the weaver is 
 shown. When assisted by mechanical contrivances the art at once 
 assumes a new feature, for by this means, with only one or two 
 colors or varieties of thread, endless effects can be produced on the 
 surface of the cloth. (Barlow.) 
 
 Filling or Weft. —Filling is a word which in textile terms is 
 used for the yarn which fills the warp. This passive and active dis¬ 
 tinction between the warp and the yarn which is combined with it 
 to make a fabric probably arises from the fact that the warp is 
 opened by the harness motion, the filling being passed through and 
 left in these successive openings. The filling is quite as important, 
 often more so than the warp ; yet because it is not subjected to so 
 much wear and strain in weaving, it is often made of stock too poor 
 to produce the desired effect, or to endure the subsequent processes, 
 all of which are more trying to the filling than the warp. This is 
 only another evidence that it will not do to slight anything in pre¬ 
 paring the work for a fabric. Several other allusions are made to 
 the important part of filling under different headings. 
 
 Fines. —Fines are instituted to aid overseers to enforce rules 
 without discharging, but it , is demoralizing to fine so much or so 
 injudiciously as to impress the operatives with a wrong idea of the 
 motive. Frequent and heavy fines are better avoided then imposed, 
 the only true way to avoid them is to discharge the culprit. 
 
 Flavine. —This is a coloring matter that has superseded 
 quercitron bark and fustic in dyeing oranges, scarlets and yellows 
 
IOO 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 The quantity of coloring matter is greater than that of quercitron 
 or fustic, one pound of flavine being equal to ten pounds of bark or 
 thirty pounds of fustic. The best mordant for flavine is alum, 
 tartar and nitro-muriate of tin. A solution of flavine will produce 
 the following reactions with the different metallic salts : 
 
 Potash Sulphate of Alumina—a very rich yellow. 
 
 Nitro-muriate of Tin—a yellow orange. 
 
 Muriate of Tin—a sulphur-colored yellow. 
 
 Proto-sulphate of Iron—a deep greenish black. 
 
 Acids lighten the color of the solution, and alkalies deepen it, 
 causing it to assume more of a red shade. 
 
 Flocks. —Woolen stock ground very fine. Those caused by the 
 gigg and shear are distinct from those cut or ground purposely. 
 Flocks are used principally to increase the weight and firmness of 
 woolen goods ; when so used they are applied in the fulling mill, 
 that the short particles of stock may penetrate into the fabric and 
 be in a measure fastened there by the shrinkage of the goods- 
 Flocks made of old rags have but little of the requisite properties 
 left, and are not cheap at any price. The rags are often colored to 
 make the flocks appear like new stock, but the microscope will aid 
 any one, after a little practice, to discover this deception. Caustic 
 Potash may be used to discover vegetable substances, which are a 
 dead loss in flocks. The method is to boil a small quantity of 
 flocks previously weighed in a liquor made of one gill of water and a 
 piece of the caustic potash about the size of a common bean, this 
 will dissolve the animal fibers and leave the vegetable, which should 
 be washed out (care being taken to lose none), dried and weighed. 
 Use a glass bowl, sand bath, and spirit lamp. A simple test of the 
 cleanliness of flocks is to spread a small quantity on a sheet of paper 
 or glass, then pass over it or stir with a steel point which has been 
 charged with electricity by brisk rubbing with a clean, very dry 
 woolen cloth. Clean fibers will attach themselves to the point. By 
 re-charging several times the sample of flocks may be robbed of all 
 the perfectly clean fibers. Those loaded with grease or chemically 
 retained moisture will remain. Flocks are sometimes used to fill 
 card clothing on the cards instead of depending upon the leather to 
 sustain the wires in position : a practice now seldom resorted to. 
 
 Flyers. —On spinning frames and twisting machines, the thread 
 guide placed upon the spindle over the bobbin. There are usually 
 two or three eyes or places for the thread to pass through on its 
 way from the rolls to the bobbin or spool. There is no doubt that 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 lOI 
 
 the flyer twisters make the most even twist; but as they are slow 
 machines, other devices are more common. 
 
 Friction on Warp Beams. —The warp beam should be supplied 
 with means to allow the warp to be delivered at either a given rate 
 of speed or with a constant and even tension upon it. All that 
 can be expected, is to be able to maintain an equal tension, also 
 regulating the friction of the beam that no more strain shall be 
 thrown upon the threads when the beam is nearly empty than when 
 it is full. Upon the tension of the warp while weaving, many 
 fabrics depend for their peculiarities. A fabric that is to be at all 
 elastic should be woven with the warp as loose as possible, at the 
 same time getting in the right number of picks and making a clear 
 shed. A part of the tension of the warp may be regulated by the 
 take-up motion. The two should be worked in relative unison, 
 with due consideration of the effect desired in the fabric, the weight, 
 and the amount of strain the warp yarn will endure. 
 
 Fulling. —Fulling is a process applied to certain fabrics com¬ 
 posed in part or entirely of animal fibers. It shrinks, thickens and 
 makes the goods more compact. The fibers must be of a peculiar 
 nature or construction to possess the necessary properties which 
 make this result both possible and permanent. This property is 
 found in the fine merino wools in the highest degree. Some hairs 
 , have nearly as little of it as vegetable fibers. The nearer a wool 
 approaches hair in nature and construction, the less of the property 
 will it possess. The artificial means employed to produce the result 
 above mentioned are heat, moisture and friction. With these alone 
 it is possible to full some woolen fabrics, but nearly all show better 
 results when some soap is used with the moisture ; short staple will 
 not endure the friction produced by the machinery necessary, with¬ 
 out soap. The machinery which produces the friction and retains 
 the heat generated by it, and the soap, by means of which the goods 
 are at once moistened and lubricated, are the two principal factors 
 employed. 
 
 The machines are considered under the head of Fulling Mills ; 
 the kind of soap in its proper place. The application and prepara¬ 
 tions of the process are alone to be considered here. The appli¬ 
 cation of the soap is an important feature—too much makes the 
 goods clammy ; too little, spongy. The soap being too strong will, 
 with the heat of the mill, not only affect colors but the nature of 
 the fibers. It must be gradually and evenly put upon the goods ; 
 this is best done by any means which will allow a small stream of 
 
102 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 it to be directed upon the goods while in motion. The quantity of 
 soap used must be governed by the time the goods are in the mill, 
 the stock in the goods, and the density of fabric required. When 
 goods composed of short stock (like shoddy) have too little soap in 
 the mill, they will surely chafe, a loss and damage that cannot after¬ 
 wards be fully repaired. If the soap is not rich enough for the 
 amount of friction and time required, chafing is a sure consequence. 
 If there is much free grease, or dirt, or dye in the goods, the soap 
 must overcome it or be overcome and prove little better than water. 
 
 In Rotary Mills of every kind there must be a contrivance to jam 
 the goods together lengthwise, else the goods will not shrink in 
 length, and goods not shrunk in length in the fulling mill, will do so 
 in sponging and in the garment. Almost every one has had experi¬ 
 ence with goods of this kind, and the consequent annoyances. The 
 contrivance is most commonly applied in the form of a trap box, 
 called “ clappers,” “ crimping-box,” “ jam,” and many other terms 
 by different fullers. The goods running continuously in wrinkles, 
 unless frequently taken out, opened and stretched, will after a while 
 full more in some parts than others, notably those least exposed to 
 the surrounding atmosphere; this is the cause of mill streaks, 
 wrinkles, clouds and rows. There are also other causes for each 
 of these, but when similar effects are caused by uneven appliance of 
 soap, running of colors, excessive grease, dirt, or flocks, or by uneven 
 yarn they are really different, and should not be designated by the 
 above appellations. The time required by fulling can be regulated 
 in part by the frequency of this cooling, opening or stretching, by 
 the amount of cold air admitted into the mill and by the pressure 
 applied. 
 
 Opinions vary much in regard to the time required to produce the 
 results, largely due to the fact that different circumstances have been 
 differently observed and accounted for. For instance, two factories 
 may produce the same fabric from the same stock and size of yarn, 
 but one produces the full weight from the loom, in the other, goods 
 from the loom are not up in weight and must be shrunk in length 
 until the weight per yard is right or filled with flocks. It is a great 
 help to the product to weave the goods a little light and gain the 
 weight in the fulling mill, it is true that in reality the loom has to 
 throw about the same number of picks, but the time saved is in the 
 work which goes much better in the loom. To fill cheaper grades of 
 goods with flocks is a common practice, and a little of it on some 
 is a real benefit. The goods to be flocked should have the selvages 
 closely sewed together, with the side to be flocked outside ; if not 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 103 
 
 washed before fulling run dry a few minutes before adding the 
 flocks, a few minutes after, and then wet out with the soap. This 
 makes the goods a little more pliable, gets the flocks more evenly on 
 all parts of the piece before the closing up of the fabric begins. If 
 many flocks are to be put into the goods, fresh flocks should 
 occasionally be added during the process. The slack method of 
 putting in a few baskets full at once and for all has much in it 
 to condemn, principally that the more goods have been fulled the 
 harder they take the flocks; from a lot of flocks put into the mill the 
 goods will take the best first; therefore, after the flocks begin to go 
 in slowly there is only poor flocks left to go in. The practice of 
 mixing good and bad flocks is erroneous. The better way is, to put 
 the desired proportion of the poorer kind into the mill first, and at 
 the right time add good flocks. 
 
 The best method to govern the gain of weight per yard by shrink¬ 
 ing is given us by a fuller who has had good opportunities to test the 
 rule. Ascertain the weight total of a piece in the grease, after wash- 
 ing, gigging and shearing. Note the difference or loss in each and 
 all these processes. Multiply the number representing the yards in 
 length of the entire piece by the number showing the actual weight 
 per yard in ounces after shearing; divide the product by the weight 
 per yard desired ; the quotient is the number of yards in the piece 
 after it has been sufficiently shortened by shrinkage. The differ¬ 
 ence between this and the length, before shrinkage, shows the length 
 to lose. Whatever proportion of the piece this may be, the same 
 proportion per yard or any number of yards must be taken up. 
 Now by putting two pieces of tape or string in the selvage of the 
 piece any known distance apart it is only necessary to measure this 
 space to ascertain if the proper proportion is taken up. For instance, 
 a piece 36 yards long weighs 18 ounces per yard after washing and 
 shearing; if kept out in length it would weigh say only 16 ounces, 
 but should weigh 18 ounces. It is, therefore, 2 ounces light. To 
 gain 2 ounces per yard, how much must the piece be shrunk ? 
 Thirty-six yards clean, weighing 16 ounces per yard, the total weight 
 is 36 x 16=576 ounces, it will take as many yards of 18 ounces each 
 to make 576 ounces as 18 is contained in that number=32. The 
 piece must be shrunk from 36 yards to 32—a shrinkage of 4 yards, 
 or of the whole. Now, if the whole piece must shrink ■£§ of its 
 own length, each yard or any number of yards, in any part of the 
 piece, must shrink in the same proportion. To make the calcula¬ 
 tions easy, measure off as many inches between tapes as there are 
 yards in the piece, then you have only to shrink this marked space 
 
104 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 the same number of inches as the number of yards the piece is to be 
 shrunk, viz., in the above example you would measure 36 inches, 
 and this would have to be reduced to 32 inches. It is a good plan 
 to mark two or more places in different parts of the piece. By care¬ 
 fully noting on the first piece how long the felting-box or clapper 
 was applied a safe guide for others of the same kind is obtained. 
 Goods should always be washed as soon after fulling as possible. 
 If they must lay over night let them be well spread out. 
 
 Fulling Mills. —The machines for fulling cloth are termed full¬ 
 ing mills. There are many varieties which are very similar; they 
 may be divided into three or more kinds—the fulling stocks or 
 hammers, the broad rotary mills, and the narrow rotary or German 
 mills. The fulling stocks are now almost superseded, not because 
 they are not good, but that the power and time required is greater 
 than in rotary mills of the best patterns. There are some goods, 
 however, that have not yet been fulled just right in anything but 
 stocks. The broad rotaries are so called because the rolls between 
 which the goods pass continuously are long, making the machine so 
 wide as to admit two, three or even four pieces side by side; while 
 this is an advantage in one way, it is quite the contrary in another, 
 for too much space forbids raising the temperature of the atmos¬ 
 phere within it to the proper degree without the introduction of 
 heating apparatus, steam, etc. The rolls in the narrow mills are 
 only wide enough fo/ a single piece. Some have several of these 
 rolls on one shaft side by side. The narrow mills, being a more 
 recent invention, have in many parts improvements on the older 
 kinds. The many builders of these are all making the best. It is 
 safest, therefore, to inquire of those who have given them a trial 
 before investing in them, if the machine must do some particular 
 work just right. 
 
 Fustic. —The tree from which this dyestuff is prepared is known 
 by botanists by the name of Morus Tinctoria, it grows spontane¬ 
 ously in Brazil and West India Islands, (that from Cuba is the best.) 
 The wood is the color of sulphur, with orange colored veins ; it 
 contains two coloring principles, the one resinous and insoluble in 
 water, the other very soluble in water, giving a deep yellow color 
 with a light orange cast to the solution. Fustic requires more boil¬ 
 ing than logwood to extract its coloring matter, but not so much as 
 camwood, barwood or sanders. 
 
StlTZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 105 
 
 G. 
 
 Ganters. —The beams to support jacquard machines. 
 
 Gauze (See Cross Weaving .)—There are many kinds of gauze, 
 but all real gauze has at least some of the warp threads crossed. 
 When gauze is made right, it will endure considerable washing with¬ 
 out displacement of the threads be it ever so open. Imitations, 
 however, have the threads held in place by a heavy sizing. When 
 washed they are, of course, a shapeless mass. 
 
 Gaws.—A Scotch term for thin places in cloth. In some sections 
 the term “thin rows,” in others “cheats ” are used. 
 
 Giggs.— Giggs are used for raising or producing the nap in the 
 process of finishing woolens. Upon the single gigg the cloth passes 
 from a roller at the bottom to one at the top and back again a 
 sufficient number of times to produce the desired result, the fabric 
 being held to or from the teazle cylinder by means of adjustable 
 rolls, about eighteen inches from the cloth rolls and nearly three 
 feet from each other in a perpendicular line. Single giggs are also 
 built in a way to touch the cylinder in more than one place. The 
 double gigg is so called because it has two cylinders ; the goods on 
 these may be made to pass back and forth or continuously in one 
 way ; in the latter case the gigg is termed “ rotary,” whether it has 
 one or more cylinders. The principle of adjusting rolls is similarly 
 applied as on single machines. The Cross Giggs are a complicated 
 combination of the other giggs, and the addition of separate motion 
 for drawing nap from the warp, or working sideways also, by means 
 of vibrating slats or bands set with teazles, which run from side to 
 side in alternate order, the first in one direction, the next in the 
 opposite. These machines are so complicated that quite a number 
 stand idle to-day, because no one can be secured to run them suc¬ 
 cessfully; but the principle of drawing nap from the sides is very 
 good, and for some work absolutely necessary. In setting up the 
 machines care must be taken to get all the rolls, cylinders, etc., 
 parallel to each other, otherwise uneven work will be the result, 
 particularly if the goods cannot be reversed several times. For 
 single giggs the manner of putting on the leaders is of no small 
 importance; if very long leaders are used this point is not so 
 serious, but with short leaders the practice of fastening with a few 
 hooks only is bad, as it makes the tension on the width of the goods 
 uneven at the ends. As leaders are constantly wearing at the ends, 
 frequent trimming is a natural consequence, and carelessness in 
 
io6 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 attaching them will complete the rejection of a leader sooner than 
 when a little pains has been taken. The slats must not be put into 
 the cylinder in such a way as to bring the cross bars of the several 
 slats directly in a line, as this will sometimes cause streaks in the 
 nap. If the .cylinder vibrates far enough, this trouble is in a meas¬ 
 ure overcome, but prevention is better than cure. Teazles are 
 almost universally used on giggs to supply the points with which to 
 penetrate the nap or threads of the fabric. They should be as 
 small as the finish called for will permit; of whatsoever size, they 
 must be uniform and set even to do good work, and firm to insure 
 durability. When in use the slats should be dried frequently. To 
 clean slats a brush should be provided; hand cards destroy the 
 teazles. 
 
 Gigging. —The process of producing a nap on cloths. To know 
 the amount or kind of gigging necessary to produce any desired 
 finish requires an extensive experience on the part of a close 
 observer. Rules are of little use ; sound judgment is everything. 
 The points to be considered and borne in mind throughout, the 
 operation, may be given in part; first, the treatment necessary to 
 produce the desired finish ; second, will the goods produce the 
 desired finish? third, will the strength of the goods permit it? finally, 
 the stock, twist and texture of the fabric in hand. By frequently 
 reversing the piece in order to gigg both ways a full and soft nap is 
 obtained. To do the work nearly all one way makes the nap lay 
 down and cover the threads better, but it will be correspondingly 
 stiff and harsh, when the hand is drawn against the nap, neither will 
 the nap be so full as when the first mentioned method it adopted. 
 The goods should be cropped both ways before the gigging is com¬ 
 pleted ; this results in a more even nap and aids the gigg in its work 
 by making the penetration of the teazles easier. Cloth which has a 
 backing woven on, especially when of different stock or color from 
 the face fabric, should always be gigged on the back first; this 
 clears the face of many penetrating fibers which would otherwise 
 show. Poor slats, that is, such with badly worn or missing teazles, 
 should not be put into a wet gigg. The presumption that anything 
 is good enough for the wet gigg is erroneous. To get a nap clean 
 and smooth to the very bottom, use slats which are well broken in 
 but not worn out. Poor slats will make a curly nap or mottled sur¬ 
 face. When the fabric contains considerable silk it is a good plan 
 to use brush slats; after the piece has been wet out give it a good 
 brushing on the wet gigg, to give the silk a lustre not otherwise 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 107 
 
 obtainable. Steaming goods on the gigg is sometimes practiced on 
 beavers and like fabrics, but the irregular tension so easily produced 
 by the cheap labor usually employed to run giggs will sometimes 
 cause water marks and other variations in the character of the finish 
 on the same piece, and different pieces will not come out alike. 
 
 Gill Box. —After the second carding the wool is carried to the 
 machine known as the gill box. This apparatus brings the fibers of 
 the wool into a condition of parallelism. The wool is first caught 
 by three cylinders, which deliver it to the moving combs. The 
 gills, armed with two rows of pins, approach the drawing roller, and 
 one by one sink into a groove which carries them to a second pair 
 of screws; the sliver, after leaving the drawing roller, is rolled off 
 into a spool. Under some machines a steam pipe distributes steam 
 to the compartments intended to receive the wool in its passage. 
 The wool, passing over the heated parts, becomes smooth, and is 
 drawn out without catching. 
 
 Gin. —The cotton gin is a machine for clearing the staple of rub¬ 
 bish. The roller gin has long been in use, but it is so slow, and, 
 being suitable for a few kinds of cotton only, it is being superseded 
 by later inventions, of which the saw gin is one. This machine does 
 little injury to the staple. 
 
 Gingham. —Gingham is a plaided or checked cotton fabric suit¬ 
 able for dress goods, etc. 
 
 Glauber Salts. —Sulphate of Soda. 
 
 Green Vitriol. —Copperas. 
 
 Grinding— The matter of grinding cards or shears is very im¬ 
 portant ; as easily overdone as neglected, and although easy enough 
 to describe, by no means a process to be learned entirely from 
 books. 
 
 “In setting the emery rollers to grind the cards, do not set them to 
 bear too hard or too heavy on the wire, for this will heat, soften 01- 
 break the wire, if it is not very good and tough. The emery rollers 
 should be seven or eight inches in diameter, and always two or three 
 inches wider than the card cylinders, so that they may traverse an 
 inch each way on the cylinder, and not leave any of the wire bare. 
 Traversing is effected by means of a waving pulley, about 5^ inches 
 in diameter; the outer rim or edge of the pulley runs in a slot at¬ 
 tached to the stand of the roller; or the traversing is produced by a 
 crooked strap, which, fitting between the rims of the pulley, will 
 
io8 
 
 SPITZLi’S MANUAL. 
 
 move the emery roller longitudinally and around at the same time. 
 
 I he traverse motion may be also produced by a waving pulley at 
 the emery roller. The emery roller must be kept on the cylinders 
 until they are ground perfectly true, and until the greater portion 
 of the teeth are ground to a point. The perfect rotundity of the 
 cylinder may be ascertained by the sound it produces on the emery 
 roller as it runs; the sight may also be of service in this respect, 
 either when the cylinder is in motion or by stopping it and giving 
 it a careful examination. When the surface of a card cylinder has 
 been sufficiently ground it will have a blackish appearance, while 
 those parts that are not ground enough will appear more or less 
 clear and bright. As long as a considerable quantity of white teeth 
 appear the grinding must be continued. One day will be sufficient 
 to grind up a new card, if the emery is in tolerably good order.” 
 — Baird. 
 
 “ AH the rollers covered with card clothing are ground, with the 
 exception of the fancy alone. The object of this operation is to 
 equalize the teeth, render the surface of the cards perfectly cylindri¬ 
 cal, and to give the necessary sharpness to the teeth. The sharp¬ 
 ness of card clothing is more apparent in the finer qualities than in 
 the coarser. 
 
 Giinding is ceitainly more readily performed when the roller is 
 perfectly cylindrical, the teeth and leathers of the clothing both 
 uniform throughout, and the emery-covered cylinder well rounded. 
 In order to grind either a main cylinder or a doffer, two movable 
 pedestals are placed on the parallel sides of the frame for support¬ 
 ing the grinding roller, on the axle of which is fixed a pulley one- 
 fourth or one-fifth the diameter of the roller itself, so that the grind¬ 
 ing roller has four or five times as great a circumference velocity as 
 the pulley. * 
 
 I o set the grinding roller in motion, a pulley is thrown into 
 gear on the side opposite that of the one intended to drive the roller 
 to be ground. This pulley is driven by that of the drum. 
 
 “ If, for, instance, a doffer is to be ground, it must be made to re¬ 
 volve slowly, whereas the grinding roller turns very rapidly. This 
 latter roller is then brought towards the doffer very gradually, as 
 there is a greater loss than gain in too much haste. If we approxi¬ 
 mate the rollers too closely, the teeth to be sharpened will only 
 break off, so that we had better never hurry the work. The two 
 rollers work in the same direction. 
 
 “ Among the instruments invented to improve the operations of 
 grinding and straightening the teeth, we must mention that of Mr. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 109 
 
 Moriceau, of Mouy. It consists of a grindstone, either of sandstone 
 or emery, driven with a traverse motion. The cards treated by this 
 apparatus are in no way injured, but on the contrary their teeth are 
 better sharpened. 
 
 “ For grinding the cards of workers and strippers we generally use 
 a turned cast iron cylinder, covered with one or more coats of 
 emery and mounted on a cast iron frame, on which may also be 
 fixed three or four of the small rollers to be ground. These work¬ 
 ers and strippers are arranged around the grinding cylinder and the 
 apparatus set in motion, so that several small rollers can be ground 
 at once. 
 
 “xAfter being ground in this way, the rollers are subjected to the 
 action of a cloth covered with fine emery powder (canvas emery). 
 
 “ We can easily make canvass emeries for ourselves by adopting 
 the following plan : 
 
 “ Dissolve (by the heat of a water bath) in one litre of water— 
 Isinglass, - 200 grammes, 
 
 Good glue, - - - 100 
 
 Spread the canvas to be covered on a table, and by means of a 
 brush paint it over with this glue; then sift fine emery powder over 
 the glue thus spread out, equalize the surface with a smooth roller, 
 and after drying, the material will be ready for use. 
 
 “This cloth is usually mounted on two quarter circles, bound to¬ 
 gether by two parallel cross pieces. 
 
 “ The process of grinding is terminated by exposing the card 
 clothing of the roller, while revolving, to the action of the canvas 
 emery thus mounted, and then giving a last finish by the application 
 of a leather, mounted in the same manner as the canvas emery and 
 smeared with oil and grindstone dust.”— Leroux. 
 
 Shear grinding is quite another matter ; this is done with very fine 
 emery for a time, but after a while the revolver, ledger-blade and rests 
 should be sent to the makers to be trued, or else, what is better, a 
 machine for the purpose should be at hand and used once or twice 
 every year. In the book, “ Queries and Replies,” already several 
 times referred to, may be found directions for grinding shears, said 
 to be those sent out by a firm of shear-builders. More minute in¬ 
 structions, written expressly for this work by an expert shearer, are 
 here given, partly because on some points he takes issue with the 
 above, on others he is more explicit. In preparation for grinding, 
 back off the ledger so far that a light wrapping paper may be drawn 
 between the blade and revolver. Next ascertain the relative posi¬ 
 tion of the revolver and blade ; this is most accurately done by use 
 
I IO 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 of a try square and straight edge. Place the angle of the square 
 upon the centre mark made on the boxes of the revolver by the 
 makers. Lay the straight-edge on the ledger-blade letting the end 
 project to meet the square. The revolver will doubtless be found 
 too' high ; if so, drop it to its proper place, when there, about T ' s inch 
 of the square should be visible under the straight-edge. Some 
 advise setting up the blade instead, but this will not be of much use 
 if the blade is properly set. (It should not be under the revolver 
 too much.) By dropping the revolver further, a deeper concave may 
 be made. This is not desirable, because it will not retain sharp 
 edges so long. Let up the blade to within the thickness of tissue 
 paper. Next, cover the brushes and rest to protect them from 
 oil and emery. Put the belt on to reverse the revolver. Having 
 mixed flour of emery and oil to the consistency of cream, apply it 
 with a large paint brush. The advantages of a brush over those of a 
 strap are obvious to any thinking mind. While applying the emery 
 set the blade closer from time to time but only a very little at a time. 
 When the grinding is completed polish the ground surface by thin¬ 
 ning the emery with oil, then follow with clear oil, or a little oil and 
 plumbago. The revolver should next be taken out, everything well 
 cleaned and the ledger blade honed to turn the edge toward the 
 bevel. Never hone enough to make a bevel on the face. Now, let 
 the blade down to the rest to make sure that they correspond in 
 setting; replace the revolver and give it a.few turns to cut off the 
 rough edge which was turned over by honing. If the grinding has 
 been successfully accomplished it should now cut tissue paper 
 smooth in all parts without further setting. If this test proves all 
 correct, it is not well to alter the relative position of the blade and 
 revolver until it is necessary to grind again. To bring the edges 
 closer together raise the revolver a trifle. 
 
 Grist. A Scotch term for the size of a sliver, slubbing, roving 
 or yarn. 
 
 Ground or Ground-work. —The plain texture surrounding the 
 fancy effects in fancy or figured cloth. 
 
 Guipure. —This word is sometimes used to designate some kinds 
 of lace, again for pointed lace or lacework in general. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hackel or Hatchel. —A comb-like device for straightening 
 and separating flax, &c. A sort of hackel was employed when wool 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 I I I 
 
 was combed by hand. In some parts gills are still called hackels, 
 and fallers hackel bars. 
 
 Hair Cloth. —The original hair cloth was no doubt that at one 
 time made because woolen goods were not allowed in the Temple. 
 The goods now known in the trade as hair cloth are of such mate¬ 
 rial as to fit them for no other use than furniture coverings and the 
 like. 
 
 Hair Lines. —Hair line fabrics are those in which the color and 
 texture are so combined as to produce a fine line. The following 
 Hair Line Drafts will serve the beginner well in making experi¬ 
 ments. It is an easy matter to vary the yarn colors and arrange¬ 
 ment without violating the principle of hair line weaving. 
 
 HAIR LINE DRAFTS. 
 
 A 
 
 Warp Draft. Drawing-In Draft. 
 
 i Mix 1 
 
 i Black 2 
 
 2 threads per pattern. 
 
 Filling Draft. 
 
 i Mix 
 
 1 Dark Blue 
 
 2 threads per pattern. 
 
 Chain Draft. 
 
 2 D% 
 
 !*□ 
 
 I 2 
 
 Warp Draft. 
 
 B 
 
 Drawing-In Draft. 
 
 2 Mix 
 
 2 Black 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 threads per pattern. 
 
 Filling Draft. ,- 
 
 2 Mix 400 %% 
 
 stum** 
 
 2 Black 2**n(i] 
 
 !**□□ 
 1 2 3 4 
 
 -Chain Draft.-n 
 
 or 4*DC]* or 4D*D* 
 
 3DD** 3lHD** 
 
 2 n**n 2 *d*d 
 
 !**□□ !**□□ 
 
 1234 1234 
 
 Warp Draft. 
 
 C 
 
 Drawing-In Draft. 
 
 1 Mix 
 1 Black 
 1 Mix 
 1 Black 
 x Mix 
 x Black 
 1 Black 
 1 Mix 
 1 Black 
 1 Mix 
 x Black 
 1 Mix 
 
 12 threads per pattern. 
 
I I 2 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 Filling Draft. 
 
 i Mix 
 
 1 Black 
 
 2 threads per pattern. 
 
 zQ>k 
 !*□ 
 I 2 
 
 -Chain Draft.- 
 
 or i Mix. 
 
 i Black. 
 
 i Mix. 
 
 i Black. 
 
 1 Mix. 
 
 2 Black j. 
 
 i Mix. 
 
 i Black. 
 
 i Mix. 
 
 i Black . 
 
 i Mix. 
 
 12 threads per pattern. 
 
 I2D* 
 
 ion* 
 9*D 
 80* 
 ■ 7*0 
 . 6 D* 
 5*0 
 4d* 
 3*n 
 2D>|c 
 !*□ 
 I 2 
 
 'Fhe principle is simply this: To make a hair line lengthwise of 
 the goods, use the same color of filling as that of the warp threads 
 which are down in every shed. To make cross lines, use filling of 
 the same color as that of the warp threads up in each shed. At 
 least two colors in the warp, and two corresponding ones in the fill¬ 
 ing, also a plain texture to suit, are needed to make a real hair line. 
 The hair lines made with a line in the warp only, the filling being 
 all one color, are not the genuine, but imitations. 
 
 By a texture to suit, is meant one which will confine the floats of 
 the warp and filling threads over the respective colors. 
 
 The principle of hair lines may be extended to large patterns, but 
 as soon as the fine line is augmented into what may fairly be termed 
 a stripe, the name hair line is no longer applicable. 
 
 Hair Looms. —The looms for weaving hair cloth differ from 
 others mainly in the contrivances necessary to fill the goods. Bar- 
 low describes some of them very fully. 
 
 Harness, Leaf, Wing or Shaft. —The harness, when com¬ 
 plete, implies the presence of heddles: without them it is the har¬ 
 ness frame or harness rods, &c. The harnesses are attached to the 
 harness or head motion of a loom by means of harness straps, wires 
 or cords, and the jacks. 
 
 Heddles. Ilealds, Harness Eyes , Gears or Leash Eyes, were for¬ 
 merly made of twine, thread, hair, catgut, &c., &c. The wire hed- 
 dle has superseded all these, except on a few kinds of goods, where 
 the stain of metal and a few other similar peculiarities are objection¬ 
 able. I he glass mail makes a good thread eye, because it is not so 
 quickly worn by the thread as metal. The twine harnesses are still 
 in use; the twine is heavily coated to make it smooth and durable. 
 Wire heddles were quite universally condemned at first by manufac¬ 
 turers of fine goods, because the eye was too large and not always 
 to be depended upon; but the machinery for producing them has 
 been improved and perfected until any shape and size of eye de- 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 1J 3 
 
 sired can be produced, and so firmly made that no thread can slip 
 into the twist. The convenience of wire heddles needs no com¬ 
 ment. In factories making one kind of goods the year around, this 
 is not appreciated, but in others where every warp varies in number 
 of threads, the saving is a large item. 
 
 I. 
 
 Imitation Furs and Skins. —These goods at times are very 
 popular for cloakings. Of this kind also are many robes and mats. 
 In relation to this subject Ashenhurst says: 
 
 “ The length of pile is a very important matter, especially if the 
 object is to imitate the skins of animals. The length of pile must 
 be in accordance with the nature of the skin to be imitated. Take, 
 for instance, the sealskin, which is very largely imitated, sometimes 
 by the warp pile principle, and sometimes by the weft pile principle. 
 The pile or nap of a sealskin is of the medium length, from a quar¬ 
 ter inch to about half an <inch, somewhat longer than an ordinary 
 velvet, while an imitation dog skin of the long curly or wavy kind 
 has a very long pile or nap, ranging up to an inch in length. In 
 both these kinds of skins there are important features to be ob¬ 
 served, quite apart from the weaving. Seal skins are very often 
 made with a sort of tan-colored ground, and the tips of the pile are 
 colored a very dark brown, which gradually gradates down towards 
 the ground, thus giving it an exceedingly rich appearance. This 
 tipping, as it is termed, is done after the pile is woven and cut, and 
 is really a part of the finishing process. In the imitation dogskin 
 the curl or waviness is produced by a preparation of the pile warp 
 before weaving. The yarn is crimped, the length of crimp being 
 regulated by the amount of waviness it is desired to give. The 
 crimping is set in the yarn by a steaming process, the yarn is then 
 made into a warp, and woven over wires and cut. The moment it 
 is cut it falls into the crimps again, and thus produces that wavy 
 shagginess. No matter what the effect on the face may be, if the 
 pile is a warp pile the principle of making is the same. If the pile 
 is of a material which is very likely to pull out easily it is more 
 firmly bound into cloth by interweaving, and vice versa , but all 
 other effects, such as curliness, waviness, coloring, etc., are produced 
 in the preparation of the yarn before weaving, or in the finishing. 
 Numbers of various effects in imitation skins might be given, all 
 produced by different processes, but the object of this work is to 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 114 
 
 deal with weaving only, and to lay down the principles so that they 
 may be applied to all classes of trade, and not to detail the manner 
 in which any particular cloth is made, otherwise there might be no 
 limit to the work, and a vast amount of information might be con¬ 
 tained in it which would be of no value except to those engaged in 
 that special branch of trade. Weft piles are produced by the 
 material of which the pile or nap consists being thrown in as weft 
 instead of warp. The appearance of a weft pile is usually totally 
 different to that of a warp pile, inasmuch as the warp pile being 
 woven over a wire and cut down, the pile is made all of a length, 
 and unless in the case of a very long pile, or when the yarn has 
 previously undergone a preparation for the purpose of producing 
 some special effect, all warp piles present a smooth even surface, 
 the tips of the pile only being presented to view. But in the weft 
 piles this evenness cannot be well maintained, partly in consequence 
 of the manner in which the pile must be bound into the ground 
 cloth, and partly in consequence of the method of cutting making 
 it almost a matter of impossibility for both sides of the loop to be 
 cut of an equal length. There are ong or two exceptions to this 
 which will be mentioned, but they are only in special makes, and 
 have each peculiar characteristics.” 
 
 India Shawls. —The materials of which the shawls are made is 
 wool called touz , procured from a goat of a particular species, fre¬ 
 quenting the valley of Cashmere and the neighboring mountains of 
 Thibet. The fur of this goat is of two sorts : the touz, which is a 
 soft, woolly undercoat of greyish hair, and an outer coat of long, 
 silken hairs. To make a shawl a yard and a half square requires 
 the touz of ten goats. The different parts of it are afterward sewn 
 together with great skill. When busily engaged the artisan can 
 earn at the utmost four annas, or eight cents of our money, per day. 
 India shawls are named Dacca, Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, Umritzer, 
 &c., after the districts in which they are made. The labor, how¬ 
 ever, is what chiefly determines the value of a shawl, even when the 
 texture is not the finest. 
 
 Indigo. —“ This is a vegetable color, and belongs to a leguminous 
 plant found in India, Africa and America, named Indigo Fera. 
 There are about sixty species of this genus, and ail yield indigo. 
 The species from which it is extracted are the/, anil, the I. argentea, 
 and the /. tinctorial 
 
 “ When indigo was first introduced, only a small quantity was 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 I 15 
 
 added to the woad, by which the latter was much improved. More 
 was afterwards gradually used, and at last the quantity became so 
 large that the small admixture of woad served only to revive the 
 fermentation of the indigo. Germany thus lost a production by 
 which farmers, merchants and others acquired great riches. In 
 consequence of the sales of woad being so much injured, a prohibi¬ 
 tion was issued against the use of indigo in Saxony in the year 1650 ; 
 and in the year 1652, Duke Ernest the Pious caused a proposal to 
 be made to the Diet by his envoy, that indigo should be entirely 
 banished from the empire, and that an exclusive privilege should be 
 granted to those who dyed with woad. This was followed by an 
 imperial prohibition of indigo on the 21st of April, 1654, which was 
 enforced with the greatest severity in his domains. The same was 
 done in France ; but in the well-known edict of 1669, in which Cal- 
 bert separated the fine from the common dyers, it was stated that 
 indigo should be used without woad; and in 1737, dyers were left 
 at liberty to use indigo alone, or to employ a mixture of indigo 
 and woad.”—(Barlow’s “ Manufactures and Machinery of Great 
 Britain.”) 
 
 “ The indigo plant which grows in Bengal is small and straight, 
 with thin branches which spread out in the form of a turf. The 
 average height is about four feet. The leaves are soft, and like 
 those of the common clover, and the blossoms are of a blue purple 
 color, and when the plant is in full blossom it yields the greatest 
 amount of indigo. 
 
 For the mode of extracting the indigo from the plant, see Barthol- 
 let on the “ Elements of Dyeing ; Dr. Ure’s “ Dictionary of the Arts 
 of Manufactures and Dr. Thomson’s “ Vegetable Chemistry.” 
 
 The impurities in indigo are iron, clay, lime, magnesia and silica 
 of a substance somewhat like gluten. 
 
 Each chest you will find to contain a quantity of dust which 
 sometimes amounts to eight or ten pounds. This dust is an adul¬ 
 teration composed of starch or white lead mixed with powdered 
 indigo, and is put in the chest in order to increase its weight. 
 
 The principal varieties of indigo in commerce are the Bengal, 
 Guatemala, Madras and the Manilla. 
 
 The varieties of the Bengal indigoes are numerous, the best varie¬ 
 ties are : 
 
 First—The superfine or light blue. This is in a cubical form, 
 light and soft to the touch, of a clean fracture, and will give a 
 beautiful copper color on being scraped with the nail. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 116 
 
 Second—Is called superfine with a violet color by being scraped. 
 The thirteenth variety is an ordinary and low copper-colored 
 indigo, with a copper-colored blue or red cast, and hard to break. 
 
 The indigoes of Guatemala are of various kinds. The best are a 
 bright blue color and very light and fine. These indigoes are 
 equal to the best Bengal. The inferior kinds are a violet color and 
 as a general thing are more mixed than the Bengal kinds. 
 
 The Madras indigoes have a rough fracture. These indigoes 
 when of the best quality, have great lightness, but are not equal to 
 the Bengal or Guatemala. The middling kinds have a very slight 
 copper color. The inferior kinds have a dark or muddy blue, 
 black, or even gray, and greenish color. The Manilla indigoes are 
 of a finer and lighter color than those of Madras, but not so fine as 
 those of Bengal. The middling kinds are of a violet color, but are 
 inferior to the violet of Bengal. 
 
 The tests for indigo are too numerous to insert in a book of this 
 kind, besides being too tedious and difficult for most dyers, they 
 not having the facilities to carry out such delicate operations as that 
 of testing indigoes, and for more light upon this subject, dyers must 
 consult, “ Dr. Thomson’s Vegetable Chemistry,” and the other 
 works mentioned in this article. 
 
 Ingrain. —This term is particularly applied to certain carpets, 
 and implies that the wool was colored before manufacturing. This 
 it implies, we say, because it is no longer really true of ingrain 
 carpets, they being now largely dyed in the yarn. To all intents 
 and purposes the same, as coloring in the wool as regards the nature 
 of the goods. 
 
 Inkle Loom. —A ribbon loom. 
 
 Irregular Fabrics. —By irregular fabrics we understand goods 
 which are not a straight piece of cloth; indeed, in some instances 
 they are a garment almost complete, such as underwear, skirts, 
 corsets, etc. 
 
 The corset is woven so that the warp encircles the body; hence 
 the top and bottom are the edges of the web as it comes from the 
 loom. The gores required to give necessary shape are therefore on 
 each side of the web, the middle, or waist part, being smallest. The 
 warp is composetl of 36 independent sections, so arranged as to play 
 off warp only where filling has .been left in the shed, or so far as the 
 shed extended; hence, when a filling thread has been inserted 
 through the entire width of the cloth, they all give warp, but in 
 weaving the gores, where the filling was inserted into but a few 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 117 
 
 inches of the fabric, only those sections on the corresponding space 
 allow the warp to advance. 
 
 To produce the shed in the right place to weave the double cloth 
 for the pockets, and to produce the neat fancy effects of the weav¬ 
 ing, requires a Jacquard head, but both this and the sectional let-off 
 motion, though perfect in operation, would result in shapeless goods, 
 and prove uncontrollable, if the ingeniuous take-up motion here 
 applied were not used. This consists, first, of a wooden bar inset 
 with points so as to retain all that is fed to it. Whatever portion of 
 the web has been filled by any pick is slackened by the next beat of 
 the lathe, and the take-up motion consisting of a rubber apron 
 closely adjusted, draws up such slack, the above mentioned bar 
 retaining all that is drawn, always leaving the web before the reed 
 square, though the amount of cloth woven at the selvages, or top 
 and bottom of the corset, is about double that in the middle. 
 
 A very ingenious contrivance for taking up all slack in the filling 
 by the shuttle is employed here, and is indispensable for this work. 
 It would be impossible to do it justice without a diagram. Suffice it, 
 therefore, to say that it not only takes up all the filling necessarily 
 extended at every pick, from the web to the shuttle, at its destina¬ 
 tion on either side, but also equalizes the tension to perfection. 
 This improvement, added to other shuttles, would, as in this case, 
 obviate great waste or uneven selvages or kinks along the sides of 
 the goods, as is often the case, even in plain goods. It is very evi¬ 
 dent that with a loom so well adapted to eccentric shapes irregular 
 weaving must have a great field, and there is no reason why other 
 garments, such as hosiery, under-clothing, skirts, etc., should not be 
 as successfully produced. 
 
 Italian Cloths. —A cotton warp and worsted filling lining 
 cloth. Most of these goods are piece dyed. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jacks. —In the textile interest we have two jacks of importance, 
 beside the many which do not amount to much. The loom jack is 
 a part of the harness motion. Murphy speaks of jacks as a part of 
 the hand looms in his 1831 edition. The spinning jacks are being 
 superseded by genuine mules or by cheaper machines, an imitation 
 of the mule called self-operators. 
 
 Jacquards. —Such thorough and finely illustrated descriptions 
 
118 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 of these machines may be found in Ure’s Dictionary, Ashenhurst's, 
 Barlow’s or Gesner’s works, that it seems superfluous to repeat them 
 in an abbreviated form here. The later improvements are numer¬ 
 ous, each builder having some to present as his special claim to 
 patronage, and each will be liberal in supplying the necessary in¬ 
 structions to accompany them. 
 
 Jute. —A substance resembling hemp, being the fiber of the 
 corchorus obitorius used for making gunny cloth ; also mats, coarse 
 carpets, etc., etc. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kaleidoscope. —An instrument very useful to the designers of 
 oil-cloths, carpets, tapestry, etc. When the colors in it are of the 
 right shades, it supplies an endless variety of changes for the same 
 colors, which, with a little modification or correction, will apply 
 well to many textile fabrics. 
 
 Kentucky Jeans. —A peculiar cotton warp and wool-filling 
 fabric. When made right and honestly, a very serviceable cloth, 
 formerly in color something similar to the cadet and Oxford mix¬ 
 tures, but now made in many variations of color. 
 
 Kerseys. —The common Kersey of to-day is a cheap woolen 
 cloth of a twilled texture from which is derived the name Kersey 
 twill. Simmonds is quoted in the latest editions of Webster’s 
 Dictionaries as follows : “ A species of coarse woolen cloth, usually 
 
 ribbed, woven from long wool. [Scot., Corsage j D., Karsai; Fr., 
 Carisel , Cariset , Creseau ; Sp., Carisea ; Ger., Kersey, Kirsei ; Sw., 
 Kersing j Cf. Gael & Ir., Ceart , Ceirt. A rag, old garment.] 
 
 Kerseymere. —A woolen cloth of the finest wools— Cassimere. 
 
 Kilogrammetre. —The weight of one kilogramme raised to the 
 height of one foot in one second of time. 
 
 Knickerbocker Goods. —Are a woolen fabric in part or entirely 
 made of Knickerbocker yarns. 
 
 Knickerbocker Yarns. —These yarns are lumpy, spotted or 
 striped, sometimes in several colors, produced in several ways, some 
 of which are described in the following abstract from the Industrial 
 Record, Queries and Replies. “ The wool intended for knots is 
 taken from the picker without oiling, and run through the first 
 breaker with the comb idle, and workers and fancy set off accord- 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 HQ 
 
 ing to size of knots wanted. The best knots drop between main 
 cylinder and doffer. To make a lot of 500 pounds, red spots in 
 black, first run 12^ pounds of red knots with 37! pounds of the 
 black wool, through the first breaker, then run through the same 
 card the remaining 450 pounds of black, and in 48 spools for feed¬ 
 ing second breaker use 9 of the first lot (knotted spools) and 39 of 
 the black, running the 9 with knots in the top row of creel. To 
 make silk spotted Knickerbockers, run equal portions of silk and 
 wool through first breaker, and use only 3 spools at a time on sec¬ 
 ond breaker. Besides setting the workers off from the cylinder, 
 the doffer must be set back—in fact, set clear away from the cylin¬ 
 der. This allows the wool to remain on the cylinder till the naps 
 are rolled, so that they fall away, or rather are flung from the cylin¬ 
 der by centrifugal force. The distance at which the workers are set 
 from the cylinders regulates the size of the naps, but if the doffer 
 be close enough to catch the wool, then you are carding, not nap¬ 
 ping. If the naps are too hard rolled, they will drop off in the 
 spinning and carding; so they must be left with a beard sticking 
 out to incorporate them thoroughly. Again, if you want the naps 
 all one size, never take wool from the picker to nap, but run it 
 through your first breaker and open it out thoroughly, not partially 
 between the picker and the regular carding or napping.” 
 
 Knitting. —Knitting is a process of producing a fabric by inter¬ 
 twining the yarn, instead of weaving it together. It is now almost 
 entirely done by machinery. The goods produced are sold as 
 hosiery. It is a distinct and separate branch of textile manufac¬ 
 tures. 
 
 L. 
 
 Lace and Lace Looms is such a complicated subject that space 
 cannot be afforded for the needed illustrations. The subject is well 
 considered by several authors. 
 
 Lam.—A heddle or leaf. 
 
 Lamps. —Lamps have been almost entirely superseded in factories 
 where gas is available. The lamps to be considered here interest 
 the student more than the manufacturer. Of the many men who 
 will hold important positions in the course of another decade, not a 
 few are obliged to do all their studying by lamp light, in their 
 rooms at home or at the boarding house; a large proportion of 
 
I 20 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 them can get no other time to practice dissecting, &c. To these a 
 lamp which will supply an abundance of light on the work and pro¬ 
 tect their eyes, is a boon which they cannot fail to appreciate if 
 they will for a moment consider the many men who have ruined 
 their sight for life for the want of a good lamp to study by. 
 
 Lathe, Lay or Batten. —The frame in which the reed and 
 shuttle boxes are fastened. Its use on the loom is to supply a race- 
 board for the shuttles to travel on, and to beat up the picks during 
 the changes of the sheds. 
 
 Laying Out. —In woolen mills the term laying out is very com¬ 
 mon ; it is more particularly applied to laying out lots, yarns, 
 designs, etc., and refers to the necessary calculations referred to in 
 their respective places. 
 
 Lease, Lea or Leas. —By alternately crossing the threads of a 
 warp their regular succession may be retained by means of lease 
 rods or cords. The above terms are used for the cross of threads 
 so made. 
 
 Lino or Linau.—M urphy describes this as a species of gauze. 
 
 Lingoes. —The weights used on the bottom of jacquard leashes. 
 As there is nothing but these weights to draw down the lower sheds 
 upon a jacquard loom, their importance is obvious. 
 
 Live Spindles. —Although now rather too slow, it must be still 
 acknowledged the best for even and smooth work. Live and dead 
 spindles are more particularly known by these names in connection 
 with throstles and cotton spinning. 
 
 Logwood. —“ The logwood tree is known to botanists by the name 
 of Hozmatoxylon Compeachianum. Its bark is thin and smooth, but 
 furnished with thorns; its leaves resemble the laurel. The wood is 
 hard, compact and capable of taking a fine polish. Its specific 
 gravity is higher than water, in which it will sink. 
 
 Like many other valuable dyestuffs, logwood was used a long time 
 before the real nature of the coloring principle was known. 
 
 “ Chevreul made a chemical examination of logwood, and found 
 that it contained a distinct coloring substance, which he called 
 hematine, a name which has been changed to hsematoxyline, to 
 avoid any confusion with a substance having a similar name, con¬ 
 tained in blood.” 
 
 Logwood contains resin and oil, sulphate of lime and alumina 
 besides the coloring matter. The ingredients vary in different 
 woods, some having more than others. 
 
SPlTZLl’S MANUAL. 
 
 I 2 I 
 
 A solution of this wood is easily changed from its natural color, 
 by alkalies to a purple, by acids to an orange. Almost all the 
 metallic and earthy salts cause abundant precipitates or lakes, with 
 its solutions, the colors of which vary from violet to black, and in all 
 cases retaining a tinge of the violet hue ; so that a solution of log¬ 
 wood always throws down a compound color, whose proportions of 
 red and blue vary with the different metals used, and each gives 
 deeper shades, according as it is more or less oxidized. 
 
 Tin alone, of all the metals, gives it the property of resisting acids, 
 and by taking a proper course with a mordant of tin, you can obtain 
 a purple as durable as indigo blue. Alum always gives violet- 
 colored shades. 
 
 Logwood enters into all colors that have any tinge of the violet in 
 their composition, such as drabs, lead, slates and all the violet 
 shades, plums, some dark browns, etc.; but its principal consump¬ 
 tion is in logwood blues and in blacks, to which it communicates a 
 softness and glossy lustre, unequalled by any other material. 
 
 If a well saturated decoction of logwood be evaporated, a deep 
 plum-colored magma, of a very tough and tenacious consistency, is 
 obtained : this is called extract of logwood, hematine, or hsematoxy- 
 line. Chevreul’s process for obtaining the extract of logwood is to 
 digest logwood chips in water at 120° or 180° Fahrenheit, after¬ 
 wards filtering the liquor and evaporating to dryness. What 
 remains is put into alcohol for a day ; this is again filtered, and the 
 clear liquor evaporated until it becomes thick. To this is added a 
 little water, and evaporated anew. It is then left to itself, and the 
 coloring matter crystallizes. 
 
 The extract possesses the same properties as the decoction, and is 
 in comparative strength to good logwood chips as 1 is to 5 : that is, 
 one pound of the extract is equal to five pounds of the chips. 
 
 Logwood grows in the West Indies and on the eastern shores of 
 the Bay of Campeachy ; that which comes from Campeachy is the 
 best.”— Gibson. 
 
 Looms. —There are now so many kinds of looms that several of 
 the many builders require large books to furnish all the particulars 
 of their manufacture alone. How useless then would be the 
 attempt to describe them all briefly. For a general account of the 
 construction of the more common looms most builders may be 
 depended upon. For the construction of the Jacquard lace loom, 
 etc., etc., the reader is referred to standard works on Weaving, 
 Barlow, Ashenhurst, Gesner, &c., &c. Some of the most common 
 
122 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 names may be profitably enumerated : Roller, cam, tappet, chain, 
 draw, open shed, close shed, positive shuttle motion, ribbon and 
 tape looms. 
 
 The roller loom proper is so called because the harnesses are ' 
 raised and lowered by means of straps passing over rollers which are 
 worked by an eccentric motion. 
 
 A cam loom, tappet loom and chain looms are so called because 
 the harness motions are governed either by cams, tappets or pattern 
 chains. 
 
 The open shed and close shed looms are names used to designate 
 looms which close the shed at every pick, be the next shed entire 
 or in part the same ; and those which do not change the position of 
 the harness until the change is called for of necessity by a different 
 shed. Much is said in favor of both which is true, and nearly as 
 much which is exaggerated. There is no doubt that the open shed 
 loom is easiest upon the yarn, but in some textures it makes a rough 
 surface, in others the picks cannot be beaten in fully. The fact is, 
 a loom which can readily be changed from one motion to the other 
 without much trouble is wanted, that the shed may be made as 
 required by the work. Such a loom will doubtless soon be pro¬ 
 duced in a high state of perfection at the Crompton Loom Works. 
 
 M. 
 
 Madder. —“ This plant or shrub, Rubia Tinctorum, rivals indigo as 
 a dye drug, both from the beauty and permanence of the colors given 
 by it, and also from the numerous shades that can be dyed by it. 
 Madder is raised or cultivated in France, Holland, but mostly in 
 Holland and the Levant. The Levant or Turkish madder is the 
 best. In France and Holland the roots are gathered every three 
 years, in Smyrna and Cyprus they are gathered every five years. 
 When the roots are taken from the ground they are carefully 
 cleansed and spread on the ground to dry; it is then ground to a 
 fine powder and put into casks ; in this state it is received by the 
 dyer. Madder should be kept in a dry place, as it easily absorbs 
 moisture which is an injury to it; when kept dry it improves by age, 
 its age can be ascertained by the appearance of the head of the cask, 
 if it is two or more years, old the head will be swelled out by the 
 swelling or growing of the madder. The quality of madder is 
 judged by the taste and smell, the good will have a heavy sweet 
 smell, with an earthy flavor, its taste is a sweet bitter; when 
 exposed to moisture its color will pass from the orange tint to a deep 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 123 
 
 red. Madder is sometimes adulterated with brick dust, red or yel¬ 
 low ochres, sand, clay, sawdust from mahogany, powdered logwood, 
 and sandal wood, etc. The mineral impurities may be detected by 
 putting some of the madder in a glass jar and pouring boiling water 
 upon it, the madder will float and the sand, brick dust, clay, etc., 
 will sink to the bottom.”— Gibson. 
 
 Mails. —Mails, glass or metal, are thread eyes used on jacquards, 
 and sometimes harnesses. Some glass eyes or mails have also been 
 shown of late in wire heddles. 
 
 Mathematical Instruments. —How to use these instruments 
 may be learned from much more satisfactory works than a para¬ 
 graph in this or any other book. Especially do we recommend the 
 beginner to purchase one of standard authority. The selection of 
 instruments in purchasing, is very practically treated in the intro¬ 
 duction of such a work by F. E. Hulmer, F. L. S. 
 
 Measuring. —Measuring in whatsoever part of the factory or 
 processes, should at all times be done with the greatest care and 
 accuracy. The little allowances here and there often lead to greater 
 errors. Measuring machines, wherever they can be applied, if right 
 good, are always better than hand measuring. 
 
 Meltons. —Woolen cloth that has been well fulled, but not 
 gigged. As the nap on these goods is developed entirely in the 
 fulling mill, and because meltons are very generally made into gar¬ 
 ments with raw edge seams, it is highly important that the stock be 
 short, fine, sound, (of good fulling quality,) that the yarns be fine, 
 not too hard, the texture not too open, and the fulling process just 
 right. 
 
 Merinos. —Many fabrics have from time to time been given this 
 name, sometimes honestly; more often to deceive the trade, by 
 falsely implying that they were made of Spanish or merino wool. 
 
 Microscope. —The microscope is an optical instrument, which 
 should have more than a simple definition here. But so important 
 has its use become that some standard treatise on the subject is 
 more advisable than a brief abstract. Its use in the designing 
 room, however, is a subject which calls for some consideration. It 
 is only of late years that the more advanced designers of textile 
 fabrics have discovered the great aid they may obtain from optical 
 instruments. The old saying, “ Don’t use glasses as long as you 
 can see better without them,” seems to have been interpreted as a 
 general warning against optical aid. T. he fact that few can see well 
 
124 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 without some practice with any instrument, has perhaps led many 
 to think they could still see better without. The microscope, when 
 used properly, is a great help to any designer, those with the very 
 healthiest eyes not excepted. When the proper power is applied in 
 the right place, when the instrument suits the work, and the operator 
 has learned the necessary points in regard to adjustment, etc., there 
 will never more be a doubt of the benefits afforded by the use of 
 optical instruments. Another reason why many have been discour¬ 
 aged in attempts to use instruments, even after impaired sight was 
 cause enough to resort to them, has been the impossibility to get 
 the right instruments convenient in shape and power for the work. 
 Another difficulty has been the ignorance of optics among those 
 who should make the science a study. The compound microscope 
 supplies a field of suggestions to the Jacquard designer which he 
 can fill in no other way. With it he may see the most wonderful 
 arrangement of particles in substances of every kind; it opens to 
 him the endless book of designs which excel all human possibili¬ 
 ties, but afford unlimited numbers of suggestions which are more 
 graceful, more pleasing to the eye than those from any other source. 
 As an instance, we would cite a sectional view of many kinds of 
 hair. Almost invisible to the naked eye, under the microscope they 
 are most magnificent designs in gauze. But its use is not confined 
 to suggestions alone. After having become familiar with its powers, 
 one may distinguish the different textile fibers quickly and with a 
 certainty. One may count the fibers in a thread, thus get at the 
 grade of stock and yarn ; also ascertain the exact proportion of 
 mixtures. Indeed, there is not room in all this book to tell of all 
 its uses and benefits to manufacturers. T. he single microscope is 
 no less important because it costs less money; indeed, for some 
 work it is infinitely superior to any compound microscope. Take, 
 for instance, the most common use for it, dissecting the texture. If 
 strong, a mingling of fibers is the consequence; one is confused 
 rather than aided; but with a power that is adapted to the work, 
 one can see every thread clear and distinct; can work for hours 
 without unusual fatigue to the eyes, notwithstanding the threads do 
 not look like so much cord wood, as some expect to see it if they 
 venture five dollars on a magnifying glass. The principal necessity 
 is that of having the instruments constructed to suit the work. 
 This opticians could do if they understood the work, but the time 
 required they cannot spare to learn it. Consequently a good instru¬ 
 ment from a good manufacturer may need reconstruction before it 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. I 25 
 
 is right for the use of the textile interest. Full instructions for the 
 care and management should accompany each instrument. 
 
 Mixing. —When mixing different qualities, to produce mixtures of 
 materials, if the several kinds go into the works at hap-hazard 
 trouble will ensue. When cotton is mixed with wool, the mixing 
 should be done after the wool has been oiled, if oiled at all. 
 When waste or other short fibers are mixed with longer staples, the 
 mixing before the picker is not enough, it will fall unevenly mixed 
 in coming out of the picker; the lighter fibers will not fly like 
 the heavier, or a solid lock like one more open. For fancy mixtures 
 the mixing should not end with picking; the cards must be ad¬ 
 justed to do their share of the work also. When long and short 
 stock are mixed, the two doffers must be adjusted to take stock 
 evenly, or one may take long stock and the other short. In 
 fact, mixing stock is quite a scientific process. To mix colors to 
 produce certain shades is an easy matter for a designer who is 
 properly fitted out and understands the harmony of colors. 
 
 Mixtures. —Mixtures of textures are several textures combined 
 or compounded rather irregularly; (not a proper term, but quite 
 common in some districts.) By mixed fabrics, we mean those in 
 which the materials used are several distinct kinds, as cotton 
 warp and wool filling, silk warp and worsted filling, etc., etc.; 
 sometimes, also, fabrics into which inferior stock has been mixed 
 to deceive the purchaser. Mixtures of the stock are common 
 for various purposes. Better stock may be mixed with a lower 
 grade to make it spin to the desired number, the latter may be used 
 in this way to cheapen the goods, or to give the necessary peculiari¬ 
 ties to the yarn or fabric. Again stock of several colors may be 
 mixed to produce what is known by the names mixture, mixes and 
 mixings, in different parts. These kinds of mixtures are confined 
 almost altogether to woolens. They are used alone, in combination 
 with each other, and with other colors. There are certain mixtures 
 like the Cadet, Oxford, etc., etc., which are supposed to be made 
 nearly alike at all times and all places, but this is not the case. 
 There is a great deviation of percentage, or shade, from any one 
 sample one may take as a standard. To reproduce mixtures it is 
 necessary to examine the fibers of a sample and count them (this is 
 only possible with the microscope); by this means an accurate esti¬ 
 mate may be formed of the colors, quantity and proportions needed. 
 Much depends upon a good combination of colors ; if the necessary 
 colors do not combine right, it is well to put in a small percentage 
 of a color which will make uthe defect. A black to be mixed 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 I 26 
 
 with white should be a blue black, if not, a small percentage of blue 
 should be added to give the blue tone. A blueish red looks well in 
 black, but it must be quite blue to look even decent in a brown. A 
 small percentage of orange in a dark blue blends well. 
 
 Mohair. —“ The silvery fleece.” Mohair (Angora fleece) is not 
 a substitute for sheep's wool, but occupies its own place among the 
 textile fabrics. It has the aspect, feel and luster of silk without its 
 suppleness. It differs materially from wool in the want of the felt¬ 
 ing quality, so that the stuffs made of it have the fibers distinctly 
 separated and are always brilliant. They do not retain dust or 
 spots, and are thus particularly valuable for furniture goods. The 
 fibre is dyed with great facility, and is the only textile fibre that 
 takes equally the dyes destined for all its tissues. On account of 
 the stiffness of the fibre it is rarely woven alone; that is, when used 
 for filling, the warp is usually of cotton, silk or wool, and the re¬ 
 verse. It is not desired for its softness in addition to silkiness— 
 such qualities as are found in Cashmere and Mauchamps wool—but 
 for the elasticity, luster and durability of the fibre, with sufficient 
 fineness to enable it to be spun. Those who remember the fashions 
 of thirty or forty years ago, may call to mind the camlets so exten¬ 
 sively used for cloaks and other outer garments, and will doubtless 
 remember that some were distinguished for their peculiar luster and 
 durability, which was generally attributed to the presence of silk in 
 the tissue. These camlets were woven from mohair. Its luster and 
 durability peculiarly fit this material for the manufacture of braids, 
 buttons and binding, which greatly outwear those of silk and wool. 
 The qualities of luster and elasticity peculiarly fit mohair for its 
 chief use, the manufacture of Utrecht velvets commonly called 
 furniture plush, the finest equalities of which are composed princi¬ 
 pally of mohair, the pile being formed of mohair warps, which are 
 cut in the same manner as silk warps in velvets. Upon passing the 
 finger lightly over the surface of the best mohair plushes, the 
 rigidity and elasticity of the fibre will be distinctly perceived. The 
 fiber springs back to its original uprightness when any pressure is 
 removed. The best mohair plushes are almost indestructible. 
 They have been in constant use on certain railroads in this country 
 for twenty years without wearing out. They are now sought by all 
 the best railroads in the country as the most enduring of all cover¬ 
 ings—an unconscious tribute to the remarkable qualities of this 
 fibre. Mohair yarn is employed largely in Paris, Nismes and Lyons, 
 and in Germany, for the manufacture of laces, which are substituted 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 127 
 
 for the silk face fabrics of Valenciennes and Chantilly. The shawls 
 frequently spoken of as made of Angora wool are of a lace texture, 
 and do not correspond to the Cashmere or Indian shawls. Ihe 
 shawls known as Llama are made of mohair. One of these, valued 
 at $80, weighed only two and one-third ounces. Mohair is largely 
 consumed at Bradford, England, in the fabrication of light, summer 
 dress goods. These goods are distinguished by their lustre and by 
 the rigidity of the fabric. Mohair is now extensively used to form 
 the pile of certain styles of plushes used for ladies’ cloakings ; also, 
 for the pile of the best fabrics styled Astrakans.— Hayes. 
 
 Moreens. —A certain fabric with a watered finish. 
 
 Mules.— Mules are without doubt the best machinery available 
 for spinning cotton, wool and worsted, when fine even yarn is the 
 first and great requisite. 
 
 Muslin. —Named from Mosul in Asia. 1 here are plain and 
 figured muslins, some nearly as close as cambric, but much finer, 
 yet others almost as open as gauze. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nap.—T he ends of the fibers of which a fabric is composed being 
 drawn out by means of a gigg or napper are called the nap; those 
 worked out on the surface by the fulling process are also called nap, 
 but this nap cannot be made to stand or lay down in such smooth 
 and regular order as when gigged out. 
 
 Natural Grease in Wool. —This grease is very variable in 
 different wools as regards quantity, but the nature is similar in all 
 breeds. The soluble part of it is produced by the secretion of the 
 sweat; the insoluble is the product of the soil and surrounding cir¬ 
 cumstances. Some wools contain from 5° to 75 P^ r c ^nt. of their 
 weight in grease, others only from 15 to 20 per cent. To 1 id the 
 wool of this grease without attacking the fiber with the chemicals 
 employed, is one of the secrets of success in scouring. The soluble 
 grease is easily saponified, not so with the insoluble, which can be 
 carried off by water only because soluble grease is the agent which 
 retains the insoluble upon and in the wool. 
 
 Needles. —There are many kinds of needles used in factories. 
 Beside the large variety of sewing needles, there are those which on 
 some kinds of looms are necessary to convey the pattern from the 
 pattern chains or cards to the lifting parts. Dissecting needles are 
 perhaps the most interesting subject here. They should be as fine 
 
128 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 as possible, care being taken to have them strong and long enough 
 for the work and instrument used. They should not have a blunt 
 point like a shawl pin, but taper gradually to the point. At least 
 six kinds of dissecting needles should be conveniently at hand- 
 three or four sizes of round ones, two or three sizes of the flat kinds ; 
 of the latter, at least one should have a bend edgewise, to be con¬ 
 venient under a short-focus instrument. 
 
 Neutral Colors. —The effect of these tints and colors are im¬ 
 portant in textile designs. Ashenhurst says : 
 
 “ Suppose we have alternate stripes of red and green, or if we 
 have red figures on a green ground, or vice versa , the eye could not 
 rest long upon them without experiencing an unpleasant sensation ; 
 the two colors would begin to swim into each other, as it were, and 
 the longer the eye rests upon them the stronger and more un¬ 
 pleasant will this swimming sensation become; but if the two colors 
 be separated by black or white, or some tertiary or neutral color, 
 then this swimming sensation will be entirely prevented, and yet 
 perfect harmony will prevail. In the same manner, if blue and 
 orange be juxtaposed the swimming sensation will result, but it may 
 again be prevented by the introduction of neutral. If purple and 
 yellow are placed together the effect is not quite so unpleasant, be¬ 
 cause ^ the two colors, although complementary, are more nearly 
 allied to light and darkness respectively. Yet even in this case the 
 effect is much improved by the presence of tertiary or neutral 
 colors. Therefore, at all times colors which are complementary to 
 each other should either be present in subdued form or separated 
 from each other by the presence of some neutral color. In addition 
 to this quality of modifying the effect of complementary colors, 
 neutral colors also possess the property of modifying the effect upon 
 each other of colors which possess the same common element. As 
 has been shown, colors which possess the same common element, if 
 placed in juxtaposition, have the effect of detracting from each 
 other, but if separated by black, by white, or by neutral color, this 
 mutual detraction is prevented or modified. If, for example, we 
 place blue and green together, one color will partly destroy the 
 other, and the point of junction of the two will scarcely be dis¬ 
 cernible, but if we separate the two by either a black or white line 
 we shall find the effect materially improved. In the same manner 
 we may deal with red and orange, or with any other two powerful 
 or bright colors, and the result will invariably be the same. In 
 speaking of neutral colors, the peculiar properties of gold as a 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 I 29 
 
 neutral may be pointed out. Although the appearance of the color 
 of gold is decidedly yellow, yet it is one of the most neutral colors 
 to be met with. Not only will it harmonize with any or all colors, 
 but it will modify the effect of any two colors, or compositions of 
 color, upon each other. It is for this property as much as for its 
 peculiar richness that gilded frames are so much preferred for pic¬ 
 tures, the richness and neutrality of the color of the gold not only 
 tending to improve the effect of the coloring of the picture, but at 
 the same time effectually preventing the interference in an undue 
 degree of any surrounding colors. Gold is a color which is very 
 rarely used in textile fabrics, yet it may sometimes be used with 
 advantage, and whenever it is used this peculiar property may be 
 borne in mind.” 
 
 Numbers. —A systematic method of numbering everything about 
 a factory that can be numbered to advantage saves much confusion. 
 The method of numbering yarns is given under yarn numbers. A 
 good system of numbering styles is to have two sets of numbers, one 
 to designate the series, another the variation of the series. For 
 example, a pattern is ordered in eight variations. Call this pattern, 
 series No. 1, the several changes, variations, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 
 and 8. The term series may be improved upon, also the word 
 variations. Separate lots of stock laid out for certain orders, the 
 batches colored by the dyer, the warps made by the warper, the cuts 
 by the weaver, and every sample, remnant or other piece of goods 
 finished should be recorded with a series of numbers. The number¬ 
 ing of wool, yarns, etc., is exhaustively treated by Leroux. 
 
 Nut Galls. —Nut galls are an excrescence which grows upon 
 certain species of the oak. (Quercus infertoria .) They contain 
 gallic acid and tannin. There are several kinds of nut galls from 
 East India, Smyrna and Aleppo, differing mainly in ripeness of the 
 nuts. Some are black, others green or white. When mixed they 
 are called natural galls. The Blue Aleppo are best for most dyes, 
 the Smyrna come next. They must be ground before they can be 
 used for dyeing. 
 
 O. 
 
 Oil. —Many kinds of oil are used in and about factories. At one 
 time the varieties were very few, sperm oil for lubricating machinery, 
 olive, poppy or some similar vegetable oil on stock. Mineral oils 
 
 9 
 
130 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 are now largely used for lubricating machinery, and are in many 
 respects better than animal oils, although in some few points they 
 are not equal to them. Consequently oils are mixed in different 
 proportions. When well mixed, and according to the work to be 
 done, there is no doubt, the best results can be attained in this way. 
 Of the animal and fish oils used sperm, lard, tallow, red and elaine 
 are the most important, and olive, cotton seed, poppy seed and 
 palm of the vegetable oils. Kerosene and paraffine are the two 
 mineral oils in common use. The following table of comparative 
 weights, clipped from a periodical, is interesting : 
 
 Naphtha. 
 
 Kerosene 
 
 Paraffine. 
 
 Castor ........ 
 
 Linseed, boiled 
 
 Menhaden, light. 
 
 dark. 
 
 Cotton seed. 
 
 Whale. 
 
 Fish. 
 
 Olive. 
 
 Lard. 
 
 Neatsfoot. 
 
 Palm. 
 
 Sperm, natural.. 
 
 “ bleached 
 Manchester. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 Baume. 
 
 Per Gal. 
 
 68 to 73 
 
 5 t 
 
 45 
 
 6± 
 
 24 
 
 7 i 
 
 27 
 
 7f 
 
 30 
 
 7 i 
 
 33 
 
 7 i 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 7 \ to 8^ 
 
 19 
 
 7 i 
 
 21 
 
 7 i 
 
 20 
 
 7 i 
 
 21 
 
 7 i 
 
 ri 
 
 7 i 
 
 21 
 
 7 i 
 
 22 
 
 7 i 
 
 22 
 
 7i 
 
 23 
 
 7 i 
 
 23 
 
 7 i 
 
 25 
 
 7 i 
 
 29 
 
 7 i 
 
 29 
 
 7 i 
 
 23* 
 
 7 i 
 
 u Oiling wool is effected by means of a greasy substance, suffi¬ 
 ciently fluid to afford elasticity to the wool. The liquid oils are, 
 therefore, the most suitable, and the more liquid they are the better. 
 Oil possesses the property of rendering the wool supple and adapted 
 to carding, the ‘ moist ’ process, on the contrary, destroys the quali¬ 
 ties of the wool by the repeated jarring and stretching produced by 
 carding.”— Leroux. 
 
 From 3 to 6 quarts of oil per cwt. of wool seem to be the most 
 common quantities used. Stock to be worked into shoddy must be 
 oiled ; it is found that a good saponified oil is best for this purpose. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 131 
 
 Leroux recommends a mixture of oleine and olive oil and gives a 
 good formula for a composition which we do not feel at liberty to 
 publish. The entire subject of oiling is treated in his work and 
 would be well worth the price of the work to some who are sorely in 
 need of advice on this subject. 
 
 “ Of the elements which analysis shows these oils and greases to 
 consist of, two only may be considered as bearing on their use in 
 woolen manufacture, namely, stearine and oleine, and their value 
 for wool and soap depends largely on the relative proportions of 
 these substances contained in them. The principles which are here 
 suggested as governing their application may be expressed thus : 
 
 First—That the successful results obtained in oiling wool will be 
 directly as the oleine in the oil predominates over the stearine. 
 
 Second—That the amount of felt or solidity obtained in fulling 
 will be directly as the excess of stearine over oleine in the oil or 
 grease of which the fulling-soap is made. 
 
 Third—That the cleanliness of the goods will be directly as the 
 oleine in the oil or grease from which the soap is made is in excess 
 of the stearine. 
 
 As to the first proposition, a perfect wool oil must have body 
 enough to protect the barbs or serratures of the fiber and prevent 
 waste, it must be diffusive enough to spread well, and it must scour 
 out of the cloths with ease. Oleine, or so-called elaine, if an honest 
 article could be obtained, would fill these conditions better than any 
 other oil. The next best, when not too costly, is olive (oleine, 72 ; 
 stearine, 28 ;) and after it lard oil (oleine, 62 ; stearine, 38). 
 
 As to the second proposition, the value of the different oils and 
 fats for fulling-soaps would be in the following order: Tallow 
 (stearine, 70 ; oleine, 30); lard (stearine, 38; oleine, 62 ;) palm 
 (stearine, 31 ; oleine, 69). In the above enumeration cotton-seed 
 oil is omitted, as its composition and properties have not yet been 
 well enough ascertained to make its use alone in a fulling-soap 
 advisable. It may be used mixed with tallow, for economy’s sake, 
 on goods that do not require an extreme felt. 
 
 As to the third proposition, the best scouring-sbap is that made 
 from oleine. The value of the other oils and greases will be in 
 order reversed from that of their value for fulling-soaps. The rea¬ 
 son for this is probably that the oleic acid has not the same affinity 
 for the lime salts in the water as the stearic acid. 
 
 The greater the proportion of stearine in the soap the greater will 
 be the liability to decomposition of the soap and formation of in- 
 
i 3 2 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 soluble stearates in the cloths, and consequent soapy smell. In¬ 
 soluble, because the best known solvent for them, glycerine, is still 
 too costly for use. The same evil is caused by the use of the stearic 
 oils on wool, because the salts used in dyeing and the iron from 
 card grinding will also form these insoluble compounds with stearic 
 acid. 
 
 The above suggestions are the result of efforts to ascertain the 
 causes of the different action of the various oils and soaps in practice. 
 It is not claimed for them that they are indisputable, but the results 
 obtained in an extensive practice based upon them seem to justify 
 the writer in the conclusion that they are in the main correct.— 
 R. A. Clog her, in a Letter to the Bull etui of National Wool Associa¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Oil Spots on Finished Goods. —Instruct every hand to watch 
 closely for oil spots, and the moment one is detected let every 
 measure to obviate a repetition of the occurrence be attended to ; 
 also let the goods be detained in their progress until the existing 
 damage has been rectified ; moreover, let no such piece of goods lay 
 in folds, that the oil spots may not come in contact with clean 
 portions of the goods, or, if left in folds, let thick paper be placed 
 between the single folds to prevent multiplication. To extract the 
 oil from cloth, many erroneous methods and ideas are employed, 
 and generally with unsatisfactory results ; in consequence, thousands 
 of yards are given away by manufacturers to parties who can easily 
 remove the grease and sell the goods for perfect. The simplest and 
 surest process for extracting oil spots is to saturate the oil spot with 
 benzine, then place two pieces of very soft blotting paper under and 
 two upon it, and press well; in some cases a hot iron is necessary, 
 in others a high pressure, without heat is sufficient. By this means 
 the fat is dissolved and entirely absorbed by the paper. To rub the 
 oil spot with a sponge saturated with turpentine or benzine only 
 spreads the grease. 
 
 Organzine. —Silk warp threads, the filling being called tram, from 
 Trama , Latin for weft. Organzine is an Italian technical term 
 meaning extra-spun or machined. The organzine silk, commonly 
 used for silk mixtures (cassimeres), is said to have 260,000 to 280,- 
 000 yards per pound of 14 ounces. 
 
 Orleans Cloth. —Certain thin fabrics, cotton warp, worsted fill¬ 
 ing. 
 
 Overcoatings. —Overcoatings, whether thick or thin, coarse or 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 fine, should always be an elastic fabric that is as much so as well- 
 fulled woolen goods can be. When hard or “ boardy” they never 
 make a graceful garment. The special goods made for overcoats 
 are nearly all soft fabrics. Long nap in fancy effects have been very 
 fashionable, but the cloth finish seems to be reclaiming its former 
 popularity. 
 
 P. 
 
 Paint for Spool Drums. —Spirits of turpentine, 2 parts; linseed 
 oil (boiled with litharge), 1 part; Venice turpentine, 1 part; Black 
 oil varnish, 1 part. 
 
 Paramattas. —Fine cloths originally made of Paramatta wool 
 filling and silk warp. 
 
 Pattern. —The word pattern is variously used for design, char¬ 
 acter and parts of designs, but the use of it in this work has been 
 confined to represent the limits of one complete design in the 
 fabric. Thus, a fancy fabric may be many repetitions of the pattern. 
 
 Pattern Books. —Are used in great variety as the best means of 
 preserving samples of cloth, yarn and colors. (See books recom¬ 
 mended in outfit catalogue.) A pattern book should open flat 
 and when full be of an equal thickness back and front; the paper 
 should be heavy enough to keep straight and not pucker (pains 
 being taken to place samples of uniform size in exactly the same 
 place on each leaf will permit lighter paper); samples should never 
 be kept in books made of highly colored paper. If the harmony of 
 colors is well understood special colors for peculiar samples may be 
 an advantage, but such book should be made to order and not used 
 at random. Almost any color looks well on manila; many will not 
 look well on pure white. Book paper or natural tint is very good. 
 We advise heavy manila for common use, and white or natural tint 
 for very nice books. It does not pay to buy machine-stitched 
 books ; they appear well, are cheaper and do well if not much 
 used, but they lack durability. 
 
 Pattern Rooms. —All first-class mills keep one or more looms 
 weaving sample pieces ; in nearly every case this work is done in a 
 separate room, often in the designing room. The pattern room 
 should be for nothing else, however, than for producing sample 
 pieces, and for cutting them up into patterns to keep and to send 
 to market. When the pattern room is dispensed with, it is almost 
 
134 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 invariably at the expense of interference with regular work else¬ 
 where. Good pattern looms, a large assortment of pattern yarns 
 and many of the conveniences of the designing room*are needed. 
 Pattern yarns are not always attainable in the factory in sufficient 
 variety ; or novelties in yarn may be wanted which had better be . 
 paid for liberally than attempted at the mill. There are a number 
 of reliable houses who furnish yarns of every description. Such 
 an one we consider Messrs. Tingue, House & Co. Many other 
 firms might be mentioned. 
 
 Peach Wood. —(See Brazil Wood.) 
 
 Pencils. —When sketching for an elaborate design, nearly all 
 grades of artists’ pencils are called for ; to do more ordinary work 
 the usual five grades of any good make will suffice. When a pencil 
 sketch must afterwards be inked as little erasing as possible should 
 be done, a mark to show that a dot or line should have been 
 erased, often answers the purpose and will disappear when the 
 whole is cleaned of lead. If erasure is necessary three precautions 
 will save bad results : First, a pencil which does not disturb the sur¬ 
 face fibers of the paper or make a crease, and will not smut. The 
 smut from some pencil-marks can never be cleaned off the paper 
 entirely; second, use smooth paper with good finish; third, always 
 use clean pure gum. A neat draughtsman or designer will take 
 great pains to keep his rubber clean. To sharpen a pencil cut wood 
 well back then reduce the lead to a point with a pencil file or pad. 
 
 In this way a clean, long, sharp point is made and no lead wasted by 
 breaking. 
 
 Peg Board. —An invention for the convenience of designers in 
 working out small ground fabrics, used instead of a slate or design 
 paper, at one time very common in Scotland. Other devices for 
 the same purpose are now supplied, and are, without doubt, superior 
 to the most improved pegging board. For instance, blocks either 
 cube or thin to cover an equal area each. These may be colored 
 in great variety ; thus aid the designer to keep tally of the disposi¬ 
 tion he wishes to make of several kinds of yarn. The ruled slate, 
 however, has many advantages, especially a double one, which can 
 be closed like a book. 
 
 Persian Carpets. —Persian carpets, whether wrought in Persia, 
 India or elsewhere, are formed upon a vertical frame, on which 
 warp threads are arranged. Upon these tufts of woolen yarns are 
 knotted, and over each row of these tufts a wool thread is passed 
 
SPITZLI'S MANUAL. 
 
 135 
 
 to bind them. Turkey carpets are made in the same manner, and 
 some French tapestries; only in the latter a shuttle needle is used 
 in attaching the woolen threads to the warp. 
 
 Pick.—A throw of the shuttle, also one filling thread, are tech¬ 
 nically termed a pick. 
 
 Pick Counters. —This term is used for a variety of applications. 
 The person who goes about the weave-room counting the picks is, 
 in some mills, honored with this title ; while in others he may have 
 a different appellation, and the instrument he uses for a guage is 
 called pick counter. Some looms have an automatic machine for 
 indicating the number of picks that have been woven during the 
 day ; these devices also have this name. Linen provers are some¬ 
 times so called. While on this subject of counting it will be well to 
 suggest that it is better to have a two-inch guage than a quarter 
 inch. 
 
 Pickers. —This word is used for various meanings. There are 
 Wool, Cotton, Waste, Rag, Burr Pickers, &c.; Loom Pickers. As- 
 sorters are also called pickers in some districts. 
 
 The Wool Picker is a very simple machine, and is used for open¬ 
 ing the wool for the cards. It is speeded very high, and the teeth 
 are far apart in order to do the work without tearing the wool. 
 
 Cotton Pickers are much more complicated, larger and more 
 expensive. 
 
 Burr Pickers are used by woolen mills to extract the burrs from 
 the wool. There are several good machines in the market for this 
 purpose. The chemical process for extracting vegetable substances 
 from the wool is dangerous unless well understood. 
 
 Rag and Waste Pickers are machines which convert rags and 
 yarn waste into shoddy. 
 
 Loom Pickers are made of rawhide, sole leather, wood, etc., etc. 
 The picker or picking stick, being driven by cams or arms for the 
 purpose, drives the picker and it the shuttle. 
 
 Picking Out. —Picking out is a common term for dissecting; 
 also, when a weaver has to pick back to take out filling on the 
 loom, he is said to be picking out. 
 
 Picking Motion. —All the parts of a loom which combined 
 throw the shuttle. 
 
 Pirn. —A quill, reed or small shuttle. 
 
136 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 Plaiting. —Plaiting was doubtless the beginning of weaving. 
 The remains of this class of weaving have been found in the lakes 
 of Switzerland among the lake dwellings which belong to the stone 
 age. 
 
 Poplin. —Poplins proper are made with silk and worsted. Fab¬ 
 rics entirely of worsted are sometimes so named by the trade. 
 
 Porcupines. —Some comb circles are called porcupines. The 
 name is also used for coarse gills in some places. 
 
 Presses. —Many fabrics must be pressed one or more times dur¬ 
 ing the finishing process. Formerly this was all done with hand- 
 screw presses. Now the hydraulic press is used or the more recent 
 inventions by means of which goods are pressed between a roll and a 
 metallic concave plate, the goods being run through quite rapidly 
 while in the other style of presses they must be folded between 
 layers of press paper, the several pieces built up into a pile in the 
 press with hot plates between them. Here they must remain several 
 hours at least, and often the processes must be repeated. The 
 press papers should be of very good stock, smooth and tough. 
 
 Prevention of Knots in Wool. —“ In carding there are often 
 found knots in the wool, and the foreman should be aware of the 
 source of this defect, for a material loses much of its value in which 
 it is found to exist to any great extent. 
 
 The causes producing knots are : 
 
 Too much moisture in the wool. 
 
 Irregularities in the surface of card clothing. 
 
 Unnecessary coarseness of card clothing. 
 
 Dullness of the teeth of the card clothing. 
 
 Faulty adjustment of intervals between the rollers ; and especially, 
 the fancy being too far off. 
 
 When this case occurs, the fancy is brought nearer the main 
 cylinder, but not too near, however, or by its velocity it will carry 
 away the wool from the surface of the main cylinder. 
 
 The fancy ought to lightly touch the wool on the surface of the 
 cards of the main cylinder, so as to smooth, straighten and prepare 
 it to be hooked by the doffer. 
 
 The harder and stronger the wool, the more it should be sub¬ 
 jected to the action of the fancy ; and, on the other hand, the finer 
 it is, the less it should be so treated. For this reason fancies are 
 made of different sizes, and it may be well to add, that though 
 many machine builders make them, only a few make them properly. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 137 
 
 Fancies are sometimes liable to the important defect of carrying 
 off the wool from the main cylinder, and throwing it forcibly into 
 the air. This imperfection is called “ spitting,” and results either 
 from shortness or stiffness of the teeth, from their being too thickly 
 set, or from the dullness of those of the main cylinder. It may be 
 remedied by slightly flattening the teeth of the fancy, if too stiff, 
 and sharpening those of the main cylinder, when dull. 
 
 To obtain a good and advantageous result from carding, we must 
 have : 
 
 First—Perfectly oiled wool. 
 
 Second—Very little moisture in the wool. 
 
 Third—No irregularities in the teeth. 
 
 Fourth—Card clothing to suit the nature of the wool. 
 
 Fifth—Cards always well ground. 
 
 Sixth—A proper adjustment of the intervals, especially in the 
 case of the fancy. 
 
 Seventh—The velocity of the doffer regulated to suit the product. 
 
 Eighth—The journals of each roller frequently oiled when in 
 motion. 
 
 Ninth—A temperature of 18 0 to 20° Centigrade. 
 
 Tenth—Clean belts. 
 
 We may add, however, that a temperature of 25 0 C. would do no 
 harm in carding, but, on the contrary, would enable the wool, which 
 is very elastic when warm, to be more easily drawn out. Leroux. 
 
 Print Cloth. —Raw cotton goods woven expressly for prints. 
 
 Prints. —Cotton goods printed, or calico. 
 
 Printed Dress Goods. —Ihese are made in many ways, but the 
 name was first given to cotton warp and worsted filling goods, or 
 a sort of delaine when printed. 
 
 Pulled Wool or Pelt Wool. —The wool which is taken from 
 the pelt of slaughtered sheep is known by these names and several 
 others. There are various ways of pulling wool—not exactly of the 
 pulling, but of the manner of loosening the wool in the skin. Sev¬ 
 eral of the chemical processes (notably the lime process) are very 
 much quicker than sweating, but much more unsafe, besides leaving 
 so much lime in the wool as to make it difficult to scour. Even 
 with sweating the healthiest wool is easily injured, and often the 
 damage is not fully developed until the wool has been subjected to 
 scouring or even dye liquors. The purchase of pulled wool then, 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 138 
 
 is decidedly precarious; even tolerable experts are frequently 
 deceived. When wool has been well handled in pulling, washing 
 and drying, there is no reason why it should be inferior to 
 clipped wool of the same quality and grade, which has been 
 clipped when the sheep would naturally shed much of its wool; 
 the proper time for clipping is a point of importance often for¬ 
 gotten. There is no doubt that wool cut while it still has a firm 
 root in the skin is healthier and stronger than when it has attained 
 its full growth and ripeness, as it were; but the growers dislike to 
 lose four or five weeks’ growth, and therefore wait. As sheep are 
 seldom slaughtered at this time, the inference is that pelts in gen¬ 
 eral have “firm wool” on them. The sweating process of pulling 
 is simple but slow. One very successful wool-puller selects the 
 pelts, exposes them on a large field, flesh side up, a few hours on a 
 fair day, then piles them in his storehouse, taking pains to thor¬ 
 oughly salt the flesh side before rolling up each fleece separately. 
 When ready to pull, the pelt is washed and prepared as usual, taken 
 to the sweating pit, allowed to remain there until the wool is begin¬ 
 ning to loosen on some pelts ; these are then taken out, and the 
 others as fast as they reach the same stage. The pullers next pull 
 the wool, throwing the wool very similar to the manner of wool 
 sorters. If the skin is in good condition the wool pulls freely and 
 without bits of skin coming with the wool. It must be now quickly 
 dried or it will heat, become yellow and tender. It is here that 
 many pullers lose the benefit of great pains in other stages of the 
 processes. Pulled wool containing much lime is much more readily 
 and thoroughly scoured if oiled with some good saponified oil, 
 picked and allowed to lay ten or twelve hours covered up before 
 scouring. The quantity of oil used and the time of laying must 
 be governed by the temperature and condition of the atmosphere at 
 the time and place of its being done, as well as by the amount of 
 lime present in the wool. One to two gallons of oil in double the 
 quantity of water are safe limits to give. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quadrilled. —A foreign term used for “ checkered,” not com¬ 
 mon except in trade. Quadrilled design paper is the proper name 
 for counter ruled, like cross section paper. This quadrilled paper, 
 to be accurate, requires much pains and time in preparing the 
 ruling machinery, consequently perfect paper costs far more than 
 
SPITZLPS MANUAL. 
 
 139 
 
 the same quality ruled one way only. Nearly all reliable houses 
 keep only a very good quality of paper, which also enhances the 
 price; they can, however, readily furnish cheaper paper and com¬ 
 mon cross-ruling to order. 
 
 Quercitron Bark. —The inside bark of black oak (.queacus 
 nigra). It was formerly used, after being ground or bruised, for 
 dyeing yellow, etc., but is superseded by flavine. 
 
 Quill. —A weft bobbin. 
 
 R. 
 
 Raising Machine; or , Raising Engine .—Scotch and English 
 terms for the machine we call gigg. 
 
 Recess. —A crease in a pattern or fabric caused by adjoining 
 threads worked in a manner to produce a sharp depression in the 
 surface. 
 
 Receipts. —The many receipts which may be given for com¬ 
 pounds and compositions, soaps and dyes, etc., etc., have all a 
 proper place and use, but are really practical only when prepared 
 and used in a practical manner. In other words, only an average 
 formula can be given ; variations in stuff used, in the process of 
 preparation, and uses made of the receipts, can not be allowed for; 
 they must be left altogether to the judgment of the operator. 
 Dick’s Encyclopedia of Practical Receipts should be in every 
 manager's and overseer’s library. Like books, also others quite 
 different yet very valuable, and a host of receipts for dyeing, are 
 extant, all containing many valuable receipts, while not a few are 
 worthless. 
 
 Record Books; or, Memorandum Books for Designers, Superin¬ 
 tendents, etc., should be of convenient size, good quality paper, 
 plain ruling, and pages numbered. Account books will answer, but 
 the size of book, excepting thickness or number of pages, should 
 be same as the design and sample books. To keep a record of 
 everything one learns, is a trivial task; the benefits afforded there¬ 
 by may be inestimable. The difficulty some experience in acknowl¬ 
 edging new accessions to their stock of knowledge is a serious 
 matter, and no credit to any one. In keeping a record, write con¬ 
 cisely, never hastily. The arrangement of the book should be a 
 specimen of systematic habits. It is sometimes necessary to make 
 
140 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 a memorandum hastily ; have a special book for this, and copy from 
 it at leisure. 
 
 Reeds. —Reeds are a series of narrow strips of metal, between 
 which the threads of the warps pass in the loom. The purpose of 
 the reed is two-fold—to keep the threads evenly divided and to 
 strike the filling in many places in beating up. The derivation of 
 the name is from the material used for the narrow strips years ago, 
 viz., split reeds. The writer has a very fine .reed of this description 
 still in possession. The origin of the word split, for dent, is also 
 explained by this allusion to the original material used for reed 
 making. The coarser the reed, to a certain extent, the easier the 
 picks go into the fabric. The finer the reed the smoother the 
 goods, and with perfect reeds the less reed marks. Reeds may be 
 unevenly set; the wires may not stand parallel with the warp ; the 
 wire may be too thick, thin, wide or narrow for the work in hand ; 
 indeed, a perfect reed is not so easily found as needed. The thread 
 in each dent should be such as to be the same in each repeat of the 
 pattern. Threads riding each other may often be remedied by a 
 different number of threads per dent, or by taking different threads 
 of the pattern in the same dent. Some patterns look best with all 
 the threads of the same texture together in the same dents ; others 
 are much improved by a different division. Reeds are damaged 
 more by careless handling and abuse than by actual wear and tear 
 necessary. Flat steel wire is now considered the best material for 
 reeds; brass and iron are too soft, and once bent do not spring 
 back into shape and place. Rules for estimating reeds may be found 
 further on, under the head of Rules. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 141 
 
 TABLE OF REEDS, 
 
 Showing the Threads per Dent, No. of Reed, and Threads per Inch. 
 
 Number of Reed. 
 
 2 Threads per Dent. 
 
 Threads per Inch. 
 
 3 Threads per Dent. 
 
 Threads per Inch. 
 
 4 Threads per Dent. 
 Threads per Inch. 
 
 5 Threads per Dent. 
 
 Threads per Inch. 
 
 6 Threads per Dent. 
 
 J Threads per Inch. 
 
 2 and 3 Threads per Dent. 
 
 Threads per Inch. 
 
 3 and 4 Threads per Dent. 
 
 Threads per Inch. 
 
 3 and 5 Threads per Dent. 
 
 Threads per Inch. 
 
 j 4 and 5 Threads per Dent. 
 
 j Threads per Inch. 
 
 5 and 6 Threads per Dent. 
 
 Threads per Inch. 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 42 
 
 17.5 
 
 24.5 
 
 28 
 
 31.5 
 
 38.5 
 
 7.5 
 
 15 
 
 22.5 
 
 30 
 
 37.5 
 
 45 
 
 18.75 
 
 26.25 
 
 30 
 
 33.75 
 
 41.25 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 24 - 
 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 48 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 44 
 
 8.5 
 
 17 
 
 25.5 
 
 34 
 
 42.5 
 
 51 
 
 21 25 
 
 29.75 
 
 34 
 
 38.25 
 
 46.75 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 27 
 
 36 
 
 45 
 
 54 
 
 22.5 
 
 31 5 
 
 36 
 
 40.5 
 
 49.5 
 
 9.5 
 
 19 
 
 28.5 
 
 38 
 
 47 5 
 
 57 
 
 23 75 
 
 33.25 
 
 38 
 
 42.75 
 
 52.25 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 55 
 
 10.5 
 
 21 
 
 31.5 
 
 42 
 
 52.5 
 
 63 
 
 26.25 
 
 36 75 
 
 42 
 
 47.25 
 
 57.75 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 33 
 
 44 
 
 55 
 
 66 
 
 27.5 
 
 38.5 
 
 44 
 
 49.5 
 
 60.5 
 
 11.5 
 
 23 
 
 34.5 
 
 46 
 
 57.5 
 
 69 
 
 28.75 
 
 40.25 
 
 46 
 
 51.75 
 
 63.25 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 36 
 
 48 
 
 60 
 
 72 
 
 30 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 54 
 
 66 
 
 12.5 
 
 25 
 
 37 5 
 
 50 
 
 62.5 
 
 75 
 
 31.25 
 
 43.75 
 
 50 
 
 56.25 
 
 68.75 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 39 
 
 52 
 
 65 
 
 78 
 
 32 50 
 
 45.5 
 
 52 
 
 58.5 
 
 71.5 
 
 13.5 
 
 27 
 
 40.5 
 
 54 
 
 67.5 
 
 81 
 
 33.75 
 
 47.25 
 
 54 
 
 60.75 
 
 74.25 
 
 14 
 
 28 
 
 42 
 
 56 
 
 70 
 
 84 
 
 35 
 
 49 
 
 56 
 
 63 
 
 77 
 
 14.5 
 
 29 
 
 43.5 
 
 58 
 
 72.5 
 
 87 
 
 36.25 
 
 50.75 
 
 58 
 
 65.25 
 
 79.75 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 90 
 
 37.5 
 
 52.5 
 
 60 
 
 67.5 
 
 82.5 
 
 15.5 
 
 31 
 
 46.5 
 
 62 
 
 77.5 
 
 93 
 
 38.75 
 
 54 25 
 
 62 
 
 69.75 
 
 85.25 
 
 16 
 
 32 
 
 48 
 
 64 
 
 80 
 
 96 
 
 40 
 
 56 
 
 64 
 
 72 
 
 88 
 
 16.5 
 
 33 
 
 49.5 
 
 66 
 
 82.5 
 
 99 
 
 41.25 
 
 57.75 
 
 66 
 
 74.25 
 
 90.75 
 
 17 
 
 34 
 
 51 
 
 68 
 
 85 
 
 102 
 
 42.5 
 
 59.5 
 
 68 
 
 76.5 
 
 93.5 
 
 17.5 
 
 35 
 
 52.5 
 
 70 
 
 87 5 
 
 105 
 
 43.75 
 
 61 25 
 
 70 
 
 78.75 
 
 96.25 
 
 18 
 
 36 
 
 54 
 
 72 
 
 90 
 
 108 
 
 45 
 
 63 
 
 72 
 
 81 
 
 99 
 
 18.5 
 
 37 
 
 55.5 
 
 74 
 
 92 5 
 
 111 
 
 46.25 
 
 64.75 
 
 74 
 
 83.25 
 
 101.75 
 
 19 
 
 38 
 
 57 
 
 76 
 
 95 
 
 114 
 
 47.5 
 
 66.5 
 
 76 
 
 85.5 
 
 104.5 
 
 19.5 
 
 39 
 
 58.5 
 
 78 
 
 97.5 
 
 117 
 
 48.75 
 
 68.25 
 
 78 
 
 87.75 
 
 107.25 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 120 
 
 50 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 no 
 
 20.5 
 
 41 
 
 61.5 
 
 82 
 
 102.5 
 
 123 
 
 51.25 
 
 71.75 
 
 82 
 
 92.25 
 
 112.75 
 
 21 
 
 42 
 
 63 
 
 84 
 
 105 
 
 126 
 
 52.5 
 
 73.5 
 
 84 
 
 94.5 
 
 115.5 
 
 21.5 
 
 43 
 
 64.5 
 
 86 
 
 107.5 
 
 129 
 
 53.75 
 
 75.25 
 
 86 
 
 96.75 
 
 118.25 
 
 22 
 
 44 
 
 66 
 
 88 
 
 110 
 
 132 
 
 55 
 
 77 
 
 88 
 
 99 
 
 121 
 
 22.5 
 
 45 
 
 67.5 
 
 90 
 
 112.5 
 
 135 
 
 56.25 
 
 78.75 
 
 90 
 
 101.25 
 
 123.75 
 
 23 
 
 46 
 
 69 
 
 92 
 
 115 
 
 138 
 
 57.5 
 
 80.5 
 
 92 
 
 103.5 
 
 126.5 
 
 23.5 
 
 47 
 
 70.5 
 
 94 
 
 117.5 
 
 141 
 
 58.75 
 
 82.25 
 
 94 
 
 105.75 
 
 129.25 
 
 24 
 
 48 
 
 72 
 
 96 
 
 120 
 
 144 
 
 60 
 
 84 
 
 96 
 
 108 
 
 132 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 125 
 
 150 
 
 62.5 
 
 87.5 
 
 100 
 
 112.5 
 
 137.5 
 
 26 
 
 52 
 
 78 
 
 104 
 
 130 
 
 156 
 
 65 
 
 91 
 
 104 
 
 117 
 
 143 
 
 27 
 
 54 
 
 81 
 
 108 
 
 135 
 
 162 
 
 67.5 
 
 94.5 
 
 108 
 
 121.5 
 
 148.5 
 
 28 
 
 56 
 
 84 
 
 112 
 
 140 
 
 168 
 
 70 
 
 98 
 
 112 
 
 126 
 
 154 
 
 29 
 
 58 
 
 87 
 
 116 
 
 145 
 
 174 
 
 72.5 
 
 101.5 
 
 116 
 
 130.5 
 
 159.5 
 
 30 
 
 60 
 
 90 
 
 120 
 
 150 
 
 180 
 
 75 
 
 1 105 
 
 120 
 
 135 
 
 165 
 
SHOWING THE GREATEST POSSIBLE PRODUCT OF A LOOM IN TEN HOURS, 
 
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SHOWING THE GREATEST POSSIBLE PRODUCT OF A LOOM IN TEN HOURS. 
 
144 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 Reels. —Mensuring Reels are used principally by spinners and 
 designers to measure samples of yarn before weighing to ascertain 
 the size number. This machine, although small, is expensive ; to be 
 really useful it must be accurate, well made and finished. There 
 are many kinds with registering dials, etc., which add to the cost. 
 A measuring reel for measuring cloth as it comes from the loom 
 was invented not long ago, but the inventor has withheld it for 
 further improvements. 
 
 Yarn Reels , for winding the yarn from bobbins, are also used in 
 great variety. Some very complete machines of this kind are 
 made by a firm in Pawtucket, R. I. It is economy to use a good 
 reel; the character of the skein is an important point when it 
 becomes necessary to wind or spool the yarn again. In tieing the 
 parts of skeins together care should be taken to tie with binding 
 yarn that will not break too easily, making knots that will not untie, 
 at the same time tieing loosely that the dyer may easily slip the 
 binding yarn several times while in the kettles (necessary to get 
 some colors even on the skein). The binding yarn used to tie 
 several skeins together should be stronger still and tied more 
 loosely ; the dyer must lift this yarn by these ties several times while 
 the yarn is very wet and consequently heavy. It is well to have 
 two distinct kinds of binding yam for these two purposes. The 
 ends of knots should not be longer than one inch on the binding 
 yarn. When the skeins must be taken apart, it is a loss of time if 
 the binding yarn is so strong that it cannot be readily broken by 
 the operative. 
 
 Dye-house Reels are in many instances clumsy, inconvenient con¬ 
 trivances, some driven by hand, others by belts and only here and 
 there as they ought to be by shafting and clutches. A man to turn 
 the reel is very expensive power. The reels should be almost 
 round if goods are injured by bar marks in draining. The writer 
 has seen, in one dye-house, drums two feet in diameter; they were 
 so arranged as to be turned at slow or high speed in either direction 
 by simply throwing in a different clutch. The slow speed was used 
 for winding up and passing the goods through the liquor, the quick 
 motion was applied when the goods were upon the reel after the 
 dyeing process was finished. Before starting the high speed a sort 
 of cap or screen was dropped over the reel; the rapid revolution of 
 the reel extracted the dye liquor in the goods, the screen was so 
 arranged as to keep it from flying about the room and cause it to 
 drip into the kettle. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 145 
 
 Repellants. —This class of goods was at one time known as 
 Water-Proof Cloaking. Very few pieces sold as such, however, 
 were water-proof. Cotton warp and woolen filling are the materials 
 used. From 3600 to 5600 threads in the warp and from two-run to 
 seven-run filling are the limits within which the writer has made a 
 large variety of these goods. The size of cotton warp and the tex¬ 
 ture are varied to suit the demands of the market, varying very 
 much in weight and the amount of cotton to be shown on the face. 
 In using low stock for filling great care must be taken to keep with¬ 
 in due bounds, or tender goods will be the result. We give four of 
 the most common textures: 
 
 4 DDD* 
 
 3DD*D 
 
 !*□□□ 
 
 1234 
 
 B 
 
 4DDD* 
 
 3 d*nn 
 
 !*□□□ 
 1 2 3 4 
 
 c 
 
 sonna* 
 
 4D%DDD 
 
 3ann*n 
 
 **□□□□ 
 
 123456 
 
 D 
 
 6DDDDD* 
 
 5nn*non 
 
 4DDDD*D 
 
 3D*DDDD 
 
 !*□□□□□ 
 
 123456 
 
 As regards the finish of these goods, we would say, full thor¬ 
 oughly, as quickly as possible, without allowing the goods to get 
 very warm; heat and soap permanently fix the stain upon cotton 
 which comes from the colors of the filling. To get a good mill nap 
 some finishers gigg lightly before fulling, but it must be done very 
 evenly and with great care or the goods will be tender. If the cot¬ 
 ton must not be very white the goods may be steamed or boiled. 
 
 Ribbons. —“The original meaning of the word ribbon is a long 
 web of silk, worn for ornament or use. Ribbons of linen, worsted, 
 gold or silver thread were formerly included in the term.” Ribbon 
 in French is rub an ; in German and Swedish, band; Danish, baand. 
 Silk was early wrought into ribbons, and for centuries one web was 
 * made at a time ; great numbers may now be made at the same time 
 in the same loom. The shuttle of the ribbon loom is not thrown, 
 but is governed by positive motion. It is in this particular method 
 of the shuttle motion and the other necessary arrangements for nar¬ 
 row webs that the loom differs from others. 
 
 Ribs —Narrow raised stripes in fabrics are called ribs. Some¬ 
 times wide ones also, but the proper application of the term is to 
 small or narrow effects of this kind. 
 
 Roving or Roping. —The untwisted strand of fiber ready for the 
 spinning machine. All strands in machinery before that producing 
 roving are called slivers, slubbing, rolls, etc., etc. Some rovings 
 are not twisted at all, while others must have considerable twist. 
 
 10 
 
146 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 This difference is due altogether to the kind of machinery used, and 
 the variations in amount of twist to the kind and condition of the 
 stock in hand. The size of the roving is almost always larger than 
 the thread to which it is to be spun ; the difference is also con¬ 
 trolled by the machinery, kind and condition of the staple. 
 
 Rubbers. —The condensing rolls on a card. Rubber springs on 
 many machines. The kinds of rubber needed by the designer are: 
 First, a piece of pure gum; second, some sponge rubber; other 
 kinds for erasing may be added for special work. 
 
 Rules.— Yarn Calculations: To find the quantity of yarn 
 required for a warp, in runs— 
 
 {a) Multiply the number of ends by the length in yards and 
 divide by 1600. 
 
 Example. —3,200 ends X 300 yards=96o,ooo yards-r-1600 yards = 
 600 runs. 
 
 ( 1 ) Multiply the number of biers by the length in yards and 
 divide by 40. 
 
 Example.— 80 biers x 300 yards=24,000-7-40=600 runs. 
 
 To find the size of a woolen thread when composed of several 
 minor threads—the size numbers of the single threads being known. 
 
 (a) Divide the product of the size numbers by their sum. 
 
 Example. —A 2-run and 3-run thread being twisted together, 
 what is the size of the two-fold yarn ? 
 
 2 x 3-4-2 +3 —6-=~5 =i^ runs. 
 
 Example. —A 2-run, 4-run and 6-run thread being twisted 
 together, what is the size of the three-fold yarns ? 
 
 2 X442 + 4=8-4-6 =i§- Runs, 
 if x6-ri| + 6=8 -j-7 |==i , J T Runs. 
 
 ( 1 ) Find the actual weight of the several single threads per yard 
 in grains ; divide 7000 by their sum to find the yards per pound. 
 Divide the yards per pound by the number of yards per pound of 
 No. 1 yarn ; the quotient will be the correct size. 
 
 Example.— 2-run and 3-run together. 
 
 A 2-run thread weighs gf ^ of an ounce per yard. 
 
 a „ it u u u << it 
 
 O 3 0 0 
 
 •joo + 3Eo' = f ounce per yard. 7000-^=8400 yards per pound. 
 
 8400-4-1600=54 Runs, or 8400-^-840=^. 10 (Cotton.) 
 
 To ascertain the number of threads in a warp, the number per 
 inch in finished goods being known, multiply the threads per inch 
 by the number representing the finished width in inches. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 147 
 
 To ascertain the quantity of each kind of yarn in a warp, the 
 length, number of ends per warp, and the threads in each pattern 
 being known, add the number of threads of each kind of yarn per 
 pattern together; the sum will be the total number of threads per 
 pattern. Divide the total number of ends in warp by the ends per 
 pattern ; the quotient will show the number of patterns per warp. 
 Multiply the number of each kind of threads per pattern by the 
 number of patterns per warp; the several products will show the 
 ends of each kind of yarn per warp. Multiply the ends of each 
 kind of yarn per warp by the length of the warp in yards; the sev¬ 
 eral products will show the yards of yarn required of each kind. 
 To ascertain the quantity of filling required for one yard of cloth, 
 multiply the threads or picks per inch by the number of inches 
 representing the width of the goods; the product is the quantity of 
 filling required in yards.* 
 
 Reed Calculations .—The threads per warp and threads per inch 
 being known, find the width by dividing the total number of threads 
 by the threads per inch. 
 
 The threads per warp and the width being known, find the threads 
 per inch, by dividing the threads per warp by the width in inches. 
 
 The threads per inch and width being known, find the total num¬ 
 ber of threads by multiplying the two known quantities. 
 
 When the threads per dent are regular, to find the threads per inch, 
 multiply the threads per dent by the dents per inch. 
 
 When the threads per dent vary, find the average number of 
 threads per dent, and proceed as above. 
 
 Example. —What are the threads per inch when the warp is 
 reeded as follows in a No. 15 Reed: 
 
 2, 4, 4, 2, 3, per dent, (making 5 dents per set.) 
 
 2+4 + 4 + 2 + 3=i5^-5==3 threads for the average. 
 
 3X 15=45 threads per inch. 
 
 It frequently happens that the average number of threads in¬ 
 cludes an inconvenient fraction ; to avoid one calculation with this 
 fraction, multiply the sum of the contents of the dents, by the dents 
 per inch, and then divide by the dents per set. 
 
 * Note. —The shrinkage of the goods must always be borne in mind, and in¬ 
 cluded in estimates. Allowances for “ take-up of yarn in weaving, waste, etc., 
 must be taken into account. Arbitrary rules in relation to these allowances are 
 of little use ; there is much variation in different mills and under different circum¬ 
 stances. The convenience of minute records on such subjects is apparent. 
 
148 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 Example. —What are the threads per inch when the warp is 
 reeded as follows in a No. 15 Reed : 
 
 3, 4, 4, 3, 3, per dent, (making 5 dents per set.) 
 
 3 +4 + 4 + 3 + 3=17 X 15=255-^-5=51 threads per inch. 
 
 To Estimate the number of Heddles required upon each Harness .— 
 Multiply the number ol threads on each harness per pattern by the 
 number of patterns in the entire warp. Example—Warp, 4,800 
 threads. Drawing in draft reads as follows : 
 
 I 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 — 
 
 — 5 
 
 — 7 
 
 8 
 
 910 — 
 
 _ 
 
 I 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 — 
 
 6 — 
 
 _ 
 
 — — II 
 
 910 — 
 
 I 2 
 
 I 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 5 
 
 6 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 10 11 
 
 I 2 
 
 No. of 
 Harness. 
 
 
 
 Th’ds per 
 Patterns. 
 
 
 Patterns 
 per Warp. 
 
 
 I . 
 
 
 
 .... 3 
 
 X 
 
 l6o = 
 
 480 
 
 2 ..._ 
 
 
 
 .... 3 
 
 X 
 
 l6o = 
 
 480 
 
 3 .. 
 
 
 
 .... 3 
 
 X 
 
 l6o = 
 
 480 
 
 4- 
 
 
 
 - 3 
 
 X 
 
 l6o = 
 
 480 
 
 5- 
 
 
 
 _ 2 
 
 X 
 
 l6o = 
 
 32° 
 
 6. 
 
 
 
 . .. 2 
 
 X 
 
 l6o = 
 
 320 
 
 7- 
 
 
 
 _ 2 
 
 X 
 
 160 = 
 
 320 
 
 8_ 
 
 
 
 . „ _ 2 
 
 x 
 
 I 60 
 
 320 
 
 480 
 
 Q_ . 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 X 
 
 l6o = 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 IO_ 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 X 
 
 l6o = 
 
 480 
 
 II __ , 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 X 
 
 l6o = 
 
 320 
 
 12_ 
 
 
 
 .. .. 2 
 
 X 
 
 l6o = 
 
 320 
 
 Total Threads_ 
 
 .... 30 
 
 
 
 4800 
 
 When the drawing-in draft is very irregular this method is con¬ 
 venient because so easily proved. 
 
 S. 
 
 Samples. —It is highly important that every factory preserve 
 samples of all the kinds and variations of goods made, also samples 
 of the stock, yarn or colors which cause the variations, with lucid 
 records. If it is important for the factories, it is doubly so for man¬ 
 agers, designers and overseers. Sample books are perhaps not to be 
 depended upon as evidence of much knowledge, however well 
 filled ; but they may show an extensive experience, and their con¬ 
 dition will indicate many habits of the compiler. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 I49 
 
 Sample Yarns. —Ashton recommends that a collection of samples, 
 accurately numbered, be used for comparison until great familiarity 
 with yarns makes them unnecessary ; he advises washed yarns only. 
 The better way is to take a liberal portion of the samples of each 
 size, wash it thoroughly, when dry (let the skein hang loose while 
 drying) label it with the numbers, showing the then actual weight 
 and size, by all the most common systems of numbering ; to the 
 clean skein tie the remainder of the skein of raw yarn, similarly 
 labeled. If then the raw yarn is numbered by the spinner, and the 
 washed yarn is renumbered after shrinkage, the comparative shrink¬ 
 age of different sizes will also be exhibited by the difference in 
 marks upon the labels, clean and raw. Other comparative memo¬ 
 randums may be attached, all of which is little trouble. The bene¬ 
 fit in return is inestimable. 
 
 Sanders or Saunders. —This is the wood of a tree grown in 
 the East Indies. Is harder and more resinous than Barwood or 
 Camwood, but considered by many as a species of Barwood. As¬ 
 tringents such as sumach, galls, etc., help to extract the coloring 
 matter. Alcohol will extract it entirely. This wood requires more 
 boiling than any other dyewood to extract the color. 
 
 Satin. —Real satin is a silk fabric in which the warp is allowed 
 to float over the filling in a manner covering it entirely and present¬ 
 ing a smooth, lustrous face. 
 
 Satinets. —Are part woolen fabrics, in which the face shows 
 only the woolen filling, the cotton warp being less prominent or out 
 of sight. A good satinet is a very serviceable piece of goods, and 
 many a workman would be content with a satinet suit if well made; 
 but few satinets can now be produced without the introduction of 
 an excessive amount of short staple, the ruling market prices being 
 so low. 
 
 Satinettes. —A cheap imitation satin. 
 
 Scouring. —Scouring implies a more severe treatment than wash¬ 
 ing. Scouring wool and woolen goods is an exceedingly important 
 branch of woolen manufactures ; besides requiring, on the part of 
 those in charge, a thorough knowledge of chemistry, as far as applica¬ 
 ble, it also demands a wide experience. The water should be 
 analyzed, the nature of the chemicals used and their action upon 
 the material and impurities thoroughly understood. 
 
 Selisia. —A cotton fabric quite firm, with a gloss finish upon the 
 face side, used for lining. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 150 
 
 Selvages. —The selvage is a narrow band woven on the edges or 
 sides of goods,'and, in some way, made to ornament rather than 
 detract from the general appearance of the piece when right and as 
 they ought to be. To neglect this is quite common among opera¬ 
 tives; for this there is the excuse of ignorance of the importance of 
 selvages, but there is no excuse for those who have had better 
 advantages to observe the benefit of handsome effects. Handsome 
 because clean, clear, perfect and in proper contrast of colors or 
 fabric or both. The selvages must endure more chafing from the 
 shuttle and reed than the body yarn, consequently, they should 
 always be made of yarn a little stronger than that used in the main 
 fabric, unless there is special and good reason for the contrary. 
 Selvages are made long and short, etc., for the same reason as the 
 edges (which see), but all troubles of this kind are usually worse in 
 selvage than further in. There is another cause for long and short 
 selvages, which is independent of the body goods, and that is the 
 difference of texture between selvage and cloth adjoining, which will 
 occasionally make the warp and selvage yarn take up differently. 
 It is sometimes necessary to weave two or more widths in one loom, 
 in which case it will be necessary to bind the outside selvage 
 threads where two selvages adjoin, or the selvage will ravel out 
 easily. This is done by means of a pair of lace heddles for each 
 inside selvage. Selvages should be neat and show good taste. 
 Ugly selvages on a good piece of cloth may be compared to an old 
 hat and boots on a person otherwise well dressed. 
 
 Sets. —Certain complements of machinery or parts thereof, 
 threads, patterns, etc., etc. The “ set ” of cards includes all the 
 cards through which the same stock must pass to complete the pro¬ 
 cess. For woolen carding three cards, differing only in the manner 
 of entering and delivering, size of wire and speed of certain parts, 
 complete the most common set. In worsted cards or scribblers the 
 several cylinders are usually all combined by one frame, thus 
 making one machine of what at one time were separate parts of a 
 set. The number of cards in a cotton set vary very much. (See 
 Sett.) 
 
 Sett. —A term used in England “ to indicate the pitch or the 
 fineness, or the distance apart of the warp threads as they are 
 separated or distributed over the fabric by the reed. By the Lock- 
 port system the sett is indicated by the number of reeds or splits 
 per inch ; and the number of ends through each split is understood 
 to be two, unless when otherwise expressed; consequently.what 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 15 I 
 
 would be termed a thirty sett would represent 60 ends per inch. 
 The great variety of setts used in England is well set forth in the 
 following quotation from Thomas R. Ashenhurst: 
 
 “ If we leave Stockport and take what is known as the Manchester 
 and Bolton system we have something totally different. By this 
 system what is termed the sett is the number of Beers of 40 ends 
 each in 24^ inches. If we leave Lancashire and enter Yorkshire 
 we find different systems again in use. At Huddersfield the old 
 sett system was based upon the number of Beers of 38 ends each 
 in 30 inches, but I understand many of the firms have abandoned 
 this and adopted the reeds per inch as their sett. If we go from 
 Huddersfield to Holmfirth, a distance of some six or seven miles, 
 we find their system is based upon 10 ends per foot, so that if there 
 are twenty times ten ends, or assuming two ends in each split, 
 twenty times five reeds in one foot, it would be termed a twenty 
 sett, or if reduced to the same system as the others it would be the 
 number of Beers of 40 ends each in 48 inches. If we take other 
 woolen districts we shall find the calculation based upon the num¬ 
 ber of Portits, Porties, or Porters, as they are variously known, in a 
 given number of inches (the Portit and the Beer are the same thing 
 known by the different names in different districts.) The Portits, 
 as well as Beers, are variable quantities according to the custom of 
 the district, and the number of inches which is taken as the basis 
 is different also in each district. If we leave the woolen district 
 and come into the Bradford worsted district, we find the sett system 
 based upon the number of beers of 40 ends each in 36 inches. In 
 Scotland the sett is reckoned by the number of reeds in 37 inches, 
 thus if there are 1200 reeds in 37 inches it would be called a twelve 
 hundred reed, and there are always two ends through each split un¬ 
 less otherwise expressed, consequently a twelve hundred set means 
 2400 ends in 37 inches. In some of the silk manufacturing dis¬ 
 tricts the sett is indicated by the number of reeds in the width of 
 the piece, and the ends through each split stated at the same time; 
 thus there may be 1200 reeds in 18 inches, and eight threads in 
 each split. It would then be called twelve hundred eight thread, 
 eighteen inches ; or if the piece was 24 inches wide it might still be 
 a twelve hundred eight thread. But in the one case there would be 
 66f splits per inch or 533^ ends per inch, and in the other case 
 there would be 50 splits or 400 ends per inch. I have enumerated 
 only a few of the systems in use ; it would not be very difficult to 
 increase the list considerably, but those I have named will be 
 sufficiently representative for our purpose. To convey a little more 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 J 52 
 
 clearly to your minds what these different systems represent I will 
 make a few comparisons. Most people engaged in the Bradford 
 manufacturing trade are familiar with the term 60 sett. 
 
 By Bradford system 60 sett represents 66f ends per inch. 
 
 “ Stockport 
 
 60 “ “ 120 
 
 U 
 
 << 
 
 
 “ Huddersfield “ 
 
 60 “ “ 76 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 
 “ Holmfirth 
 
 60 “ “ 50 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 
 “ Bolton 
 
 60 “ “ 9 8 U 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 
 Or to enable me to 
 
 include the Scotch and 
 
 silk 
 
 trades in 
 
 the 
 
 comparison, I will take 
 
 a Bradford 60 sett and 
 
 I find it will 
 
 be 
 
 equal to Bolton 
 
 4 °t 5 2 
 
 
 
 
 Stockport 
 
 33 i 
 
 
 
 
 Huddersfield 
 
 52 on the old system. 
 
 
 
 
 Huddersfield 
 
 331J on the new system. 
 
 
 
 
 Holmfirth 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 Scotch 12 
 
 33 i 
 
 
 
 
 Silk 800 two thread 24 inches.” 
 
 Shed. —The separation or opening in the warp threads on the 
 loom, made by means of the harnesses or the jacquard machine for 
 the shuttle to pass through, at the same time leaving a thread in the 
 shed which is beaten up to the cloth by the lathe. The shed is 
 then changed for the next passage of the shuttle ; each such passage 
 is called a pick. Upon the correct timing of the opening and clos¬ 
 ing of the shed, upon a perfect, clear, neither too high or too low, 
 too tight or too loose a shed much depends. Open the shed too 
 late or close it too early the shuttle is more or less obstructed m its 
 passage. The evil may be so bad as to throw the shuttle out, or 
 only to make the warp go bad at the sides, but to whatever degree 
 this evil exists, rough and imperfect edges in the goods is a sure con¬ 
 sequence. Too high or too low a shed is often the result of heed¬ 
 lessness in starting a warp, sometimes the loom fixer tinkers with 
 the shed motion to make the shuttle behave, when the trouble is in 
 the picking or box motion, which must be timed correctly as well as 
 the harness mechanism. Tight or loose sheds are not altogether 
 produced by the take-up and let-off motions. If the whip roll and 
 breast-beam are both too high, the lower shed will be tight, the 
 upper one loose, the contrary position of these two pieces or parts 
 will reverse the effect on the shed. When only one of them is out 
 of line the evil is not so perceptible in the shed unless there are 
 many harnesses, in which case the harnesses near or far away from 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 153 
 
 the part in wrong position will be differently affected, which will 
 cause an uneven shed. These are points which prove seriously 
 troublesome in some goods, while in others they must be made use 
 of to produce the right effect or to humor a warp. 
 
 Shoddy. —Stock which has been recovered from yarn or cloth by 
 conversion into staple sufficiently good to spin again. There is a 
 great difference in the success of different operators with the same 
 stock and machinery. Shoddy is very useful, almost indispensable 
 in some kinds of goods ; it will yield a better nap than longer stock. 
 Shoddy made of old rags is not good, being lifeless, lustreless and 
 cannot give goods the proper character or strength ; it is from ex¬ 
 cessive and fraudulent use of this class of stock that the prejudice 
 against shoddy has arisen. Good shoddies may also be used to 
 excess, and the goods weakened thereby, but the expert manufac¬ 
 turer discovers the difficulty before the goods are made by the 
 reduction of product—a serious matter in American manufacturing. 
 Flocks are not shoddy, in the present use of the word. 
 
 Shoddy Pickers. —These are only a variation of the waste 
 pickers to adapt them to the more difficult work of unraveling 
 cloth instead of yarn. 
 
 Shellac. —“ Shellac or lac is a resinous substance which, in 
 India, flows from certain trees in the form of lucid tears, in conse¬ 
 quence of punctures made upon their branches by a small insect. 
 Shellac is very apt to be adulterated with common resin, and hence, 
 unless when a pale lacquer is required, most artisans prefer seed lac. 
 When lac is mixed with a little resin and colored with vermillion or 
 ivory black it forms sealing wax. Shellac is soluble in alcohol but 
 not in turpentine. It is also soluble in alkaline solutions, including 
 ammonia. A solution of borax in water dissolves it readily, and the 
 resulting solution has been used as a cement, as a varnish, and as a 
 basis for indelible ink. It is much used by hatters as an insoluble 
 cement .”—Workshop Companion. 
 
 Shuttles.— Shuttles are the vehicles for carrying the filling into 
 and through the warp shed. Upon the employment of the proper 
 shape and weight in shuttles much depends in the running of 
 looms. In the particular of quality and kind of wood used in shut¬ 
 tles Europe is far in advance of this country, and American manu¬ 
 facturers suffer not a little, from the false economy exhibited in the 
 purchase of cheap shuttles. 
 
 Silk Mixtures. —Any fabric in part made of silk may properly 
 
154 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 be called a silk mixture ; but the goods known by this trade name 
 are cassimeres wherein fine lines or dots are produced by the intro¬ 
 duction of a small percentage of silk threads, with or without twist¬ 
 ing the silk with a woolen thread. Silk mixtures cannot be fulled 
 so much as some other goods, and should be cautiously cleared on 
 the gigg> not depending upon the shear for anything but to shorten 
 or cut off the nap. 
 
 Sizing— Sizing upon goods and yarn are applied for various 
 purposes. In goods to give weight, to afford a proper base for 
 printing, on some worsted fabrics, for a preparation to subsequent 
 cleansing, etc. On yarn to weight it, to fit it for the wear and tear 
 it must be subjected to in weaving, etc. Many recipes for sizing 
 may be found in works on Warping in the “Queries and Replies,” 
 Webb’s “Warp Sizing,” Dick’s “ Encyclopedia of Practical Recipes,” 
 &c. 
 
 Soap. —The manufacture of soap for use in factories is a branch 
 of no little moment; the opportunities to deceive are so great that 
 the most unscrupulous practices are common, so much so that it 
 behooves manufacturers to trust to no recommendation except 
 extensive tests and trials under the most careful supervision in their 
 own works. We give a common formula for a cheap oil soap that 
 may be varied to suit many kinds of work. This in particular, 
 because it is a soap that may be made and used in many factories : 
 
 For 6 barrels of red oil fulling soap, 50 pounds of soda ash, 6 
 pounds of rosin, 36 pounds of saponified red oil; water to boil be¬ 
 fore putting in soda ash, then rosin, then oil. Boil four hours. For 
 scouring soap same as above, except 60 pounds of soda ash, 6 pounds 
 of rosin, 14 pounds of saponified red oil. The more oil the heavier 
 body of soap. Some boil in one-third of the water, and add balance 
 when nearly done. 
 
 Spinning.— Of spinning little more can be said than of carding. 
 The subject is at this time being very extensively discussed in 
 journals devoted to manufacturing interests. The consideration 
 thereof is therefore deferred for the time when a revised and en¬ 
 larged edition of this work will permit a thorough and exhaustive 
 treatise. 
 
 Splits.—T he dents in a reed are called splits quite as often and 
 commonly as dents. 
 
 Spontaneous Combustion— The frequent recurrence of fires 
 from this cause has led to many theories and some scientific in¬ 
 vestigations of the subject. Clean, dry stock of any kind seldom 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 T 55 
 
 ignites ; but, as the use of oils and dyes are indispensable about a 
 factory, the greatest caution is not always sufficient to avoid this 
 danger. 
 
 Spooling. —Spooling yarn implies that the yarn or stock is being 
 put upon spools. In the carding room the sliver is sometimes taken 
 from one card in coils, a number of which are put upon a large 
 spool, from which the stock passes into the next card ; this or any 
 other process of spooling sliver or drawings in carding and spinning 
 is being rapidly superseded by more convenient methods of trans¬ 
 ferring the stock. Yarn is spooled in many different ways according 
 to the purpose for which it is done. There is spooling from the 
 skein, from bobbins, or from spools. There are machines for 
 putting one thread upon each spool, yet others for 20 to 120. On 
 machines of this latter kind there is usually a measuring device that 
 the exact quantity upon the spool may be known or regulated. 
 Upon even and careful spooling the subsequent process of warping 
 is very dependent for good results. The process seems simple, but 
 it is so important that the common practice of placing it in charge 
 of ordinary ability causes a greater loss in waste than is gained in 
 wages. 
 
 Spools. —This term now implies a barrel and two heads ; the 
 variety of spools is legion, and for each kind there are many ways 
 of making and fastening the heads. The most durable are the 
 best, provided the wood is such as to wear smooth. Too much 
 economy in bobbins and spools costs many mills more than the 
 price of a full set every year. The principle that by keeping the 
 factory in want of bobbins is the best method to keep down the 
 surplus stock, may deceive some, but they had better apply more 
 beneficial methods, and produce the result in a less costly manner, 
 if it must be done, which is altogether a question relative to the 
 character of the surplus. 
 
 Stop Motions for Looms. —These are devices for stopping the 
 loom when a shuttle fails to reach its box; others when the filling 
 breaks or runs out, and yet others when a warp thread breaks. 
 The first are now on all power looms in some form. The second 
 are quite common for plain looms, and being introduced for fancy 
 looms. These stop motions are both expensive and not always a 
 saving, since they have been known to do much damage by marking 
 the goods; this is, however, owing to a failing in adjustment of the 
 feelers-, or the peculiar kind of goods woven. They must be well 
 understood to prove satisfactory. The warp stop motions are not 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 156 
 
 yet adopted in general use, the mechanism required being so deli¬ 
 cate and complicated that the device will serve better as a curiosity 
 than anything else. Notwithstanding this fact, however, the in¬ 
 ventors have displayed an unusual amount of perseverance and 
 ingenuity. 
 
 Strippers.— The small cylinders upon the carding machines 
 which strip the stock from the workers. This name is also applied 
 to other devices for the same work, to the persons who clean cards, 
 to the hand cards used in cleaning, etc., etc. The last-mentioned 
 are made in many ways ; what is called the English pitch is much 
 preferred by most carders now, but some have become prejudiced 
 against the English pitch on account of failures in American imita¬ 
 tions, the leather used being poor or the bend in the wire being in¬ 
 correct. 
 
 Stripping Cards. —To unclog the teeth it is not enough to rub 
 the hand card over the roller, for evidently we should only injure 
 the teeth without reaching all the wool kept in the card clothing. 
 The hand card is taken in the hand, the teeth nearest the handle 
 placed upon the teeth of the roller, and the wool pricked by raising 
 the head of the card ; a slight motion is then given it, which draws 
 out the wool. After having stripped all the cylinders of the breaker, 
 they are treated with emery and finishing cloths. For stripping the 
 teeth of a fancy, a comb with steel needles has been successfully 
 used. 
 
 Sumach. —A native plant of Syria, now cultivated in many other 
 parts, notably in Spain, Italy, Portugal and Sicily. It is brought to 
 market in a powdered state. The odor, when a decoction of it is 
 boiling, is not unlike that of good tea; the color, fawn drab; acids 
 make it more yellow, and the alkalies more brown, or toward 
 orange. Ground Sumach contains about one-sixth of its own weight 
 of tannin. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tables. —The use of tables is to save time and labor; there are 
 unlimited opportunities of increasing their number and the useful¬ 
 ness of many extant. Several pages of this work are devoted to 
 tables in daily need by many. They are not so elaborate as some, 
 but on the other hand they are simple, convenient, accurate and 
 large enough for many purposes. Lawson’s reed table is more 
 complete in detail than those herein contained, and is in the form 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 157 
 
 of a sheet which may be framed or mounted, a feature desirable in 
 some instances; indeed, some prefer this form to those found in 
 books because the entire table is in full view ; on the other hand, it 
 cannot be used so conveniently in combination with other tables or 
 stored away as a book may be. Some of the tables are also to be 
 found in other forms elsewhere, but the table of the capacity of 
 looms is new, and when well understood will be in constant use. 
 
 Tapestry. —Tapestry is an ornamental figured textile fabric of 
 worsted or silk for lining the walls of apartments; the term also 
 includes carpets and other fabrics, for household decorations. 
 The manufacture of tapestry, such as carpets, oil-cloths and lace, is 
 localized in peculiar districts in a remarkable manner. Kidder¬ 
 minster, Wilton, Glasgow and Halifax contain extensive factories 
 solely engaged in the production of the various descriptions of car¬ 
 pets in ordinary domestic use. The application of the power loom 
 to the carpet manufacture is recent, and its use is extending. 
 There are a great variety of combinations of materials, many of 
 which indicate a remarkable departure from the ordinary method of 
 manufacturing carpets and similar objects. One of these is a 
 species of mosaic tapestry, where the cut wool is fixed to a ground 
 or foundation of caoutchouc. 
 
 Tappets. —Changeable cams used on looms for various purposes, 
 the tappets for the box and harness motions being the most com¬ 
 mon. When the cams are fixed so that no others can be con¬ 
 veniently put in their place the looms are commonly called cam 
 looms. When the cams are changeable they are called tappets, and 
 consequently the loom a tappet loom. 
 
 Teasing, Teaseling, Teaselling or Teasel. —The Scotch and 
 English use this word for the operation here called gigging. This 
 accounts for the name of teasels. 
 
 Teasels. —“[A-S., tcesel, tsesel, the fuller’s herb; O. H. Ger., 
 zeilala, id.] [Written also tassel, tazel, teasle and teazle.] 
 
 x. (Bot.) A plant of the genus depsacus, of which one species 
 (D. fullonum) bears a large burr or flower head covered with stiff, 
 prickly-hooked awns or bracts, which, when dried, is used for rais¬ 
 ing a nap on woolen cloth. 
 
 2. The burr of the plant. 
 
 3. Any contrivance intended as a substitute for teasels in dressing 
 cloth.”— Webster's Dictionary. 
 
 For further particulars of using and setting, see gigging. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 158 
 
 Teasers. —English and Scotch for giggs, for the people who 
 operate them, and in some sections for wool pickers also. 
 
 Temples. —If a weaver understands setting them up, and attends 
 to it faithfully, the old-fashioned bar temples will do most excellent 
 work. But weavers are not disposed to be bothered with temples 
 if any automatic contrivance will do the work. The rapidity of 
 power looms makes it difficult for a weaver to see imperfections on 
 the small space of goods between the bar temples and the shed. 
 There can be no worse temple for any kind of goods than a pair of 
 dilapidated hooks connected by a miserable strap, 40 or 50 pounds 
 of old castings, said strap running down over the end of the breast- 
 beam with nothing better to keep it in its place than the groove it 
 has worn. To have 4 or 6 hooks in the end of a strap, 2 to 3 inches 
 wide next to the cloth, about three-eighths of an inch wide, from 
 within 4 inches of the cloth to the weights, running over a pulley as 
 near the lathe as possible, and at least two feet from the cloth; 
 weights which will answer to draw the cloth to its proper width, 
 but occupying little space as possible, and treadles to lift and let 
 them down gradually when setting, may all help to make this class 
 of temples answer, but at best they are not perfection. An auto¬ 
 matic temple is wanted, which will do all kinds of work, require little 
 repair and be easily adjusted. The nearest approach to a perfect 
 temple that has come to our notice is an English invention ; if we 
 should speak of it here as we think, our remarks would read very 
 much like an advertisement. There is this about it, however, it is 
 somewhat complicated and troubles many weavers at first. A 
 little perseverance is needed. 
 
 Temple Marks. —When strap or bar temples are not regularly 
 and frequently set, hold the goods too wide or not wide enough, 
 draw too much in the direction toward the cloth beam, chafe or tear 
 the goods ; or if the goods are slazy, temple marks are pretty cer¬ 
 tain to occur. They show much more on some goods than on 
 others, but ought not to exist. After picking out, a weaver sets up 
 temples to take up the slack at the sides. A temple mark is an 
 almost sure consequence. Automatic temples will mark the goods 
 principally by chafing and slipping. The temple needs much 
 attention, but when once right it is easily kept there if closely 
 watched. 
 
 Tenter Bars. —Notwithstanding all the many ingenious inven¬ 
 tions on the drying machines in use, there are some points in which 
 all are yet inferior to the tenter bar, when gotten up and fitted out 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 159 
 
 with the best and latest improvements. The stretching is on no 
 machine under such accurate control. Since the introduction of 
 Lacy’s tenter clothing the edges cannot come from any machine in 
 better shape and condition than the bars having this almost in¬ 
 destructible clothing, instead of the old-fashioned tenter hooks. 
 The slow process of drying on bars may not be the cheapest as 
 regards the cost of labor, but the effect on some goods is worth 
 many times the cost of the extra labor. 
 
 Texture. —Texture is a term used to designate the binding or 
 interlacing of threads necessary to produce a fabric. Texture does 
 not, therefore, mean the fabric, nor yet the yarns whereof it is made, 
 but the construction whereby it is made with the yarn. The 
 simplest texture requires four threads, two each way, one pair being 
 at right angles to the other. By constructing a few of the simplest 
 textures with pieces of tape, any one who must learn the nature of 
 textures from the very foundation will be much benefited. Pro¬ 
 ceed as follows: Take 4 pieces of tape, each 1 inch long, lay two 
 parallel (side by side) upon the table ; call these the warp threads; 
 the ends toward you we will suppose to be pointing toward the 
 cloth beam ; these should be pasted to a pieces of paper. The 
 other ends toward the warp beam ; these are better to be left loose. 
 The left hand one, mark No. x, the other No. 2. You are now 
 ready to put in the first pick, which is easily done by slipping one 
 of the remaining pieces of tape over the end of warp tape No. x, 
 and under No. 2, next to the paper. The second pick put in at 
 the other end, but contrary to the manner of the first; that is, under 
 No. 1 and over No. 2. The result is a fabric of the simplest 
 texture possible. But this is not only the simpelst texture, the 
 fabric is about as limited in size as in texture. A fabric may con¬ 
 tain more threads each way, in which case they must, of course, be 
 longer. The increased number of threads are bound into a larger 
 fabric, but the texture remains the same, being simply repeated. 
 Let the student prove this and learn several points by the operation. 
 Cut 12 pieces of tape, each 3 inches long, paste the ends of 6 
 upon a strip of paper 2 inches long by i inch wide, so that the 
 6 pieces of \ inch tape (side by side) will have equal spaces 
 between them. Upon two other papers paste the other 6 pieces, 3 
 on each, leaving about inch space between the pieces of tape ; 
 place the paper with 6 pieces next to yourself, the free ends pointing 
 away from you, this will again represent the warp. At the right 
 hand lay 3 of the filling threads, at the left the other 3. Number 
 
i6o 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 the warp threads, from the left, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ; the filling threads 
 number alternately, the nearest left hand No. 1, the nearest right 
 hand one No. 2, the next left hand one No. 3, and so on. Now 
 enter No. 1 filling thread, over No. 1 warp thread, under 2, over 
 3, under 4, over 5, under 6, next to the paper. From the other side 
 enter filling thread No. 2, next to No. 1, over warp thread No. 6, 
 under 5, over 4, under 3, over 2, under 1. Filling thread No. 3 
 enter like the first next to No. 2, No. 4 like No. 2, No. 5 like No. 1 
 again, No. 6 like No. 2. This constitutes a fabric with three repeti¬ 
 tions of the texture each way, technically speaking three “ repeats” 
 each way ; and it has been constructed just as the loom must do it 
 in principle. The loom is more practical with its contrivances, 
 having mechanism for lifting all thread simultaneously, another for 
 passing a shuttle through the opening between the raised threads 
 and those left down, said shuttle carrying with it a coil, or bobbin of 
 filling in such a way as to leave a thread behind it, in the said open¬ 
 ing, properly called shed. To represent the shuttle coming from 
 each side, alternately, the tapes have been entered from both sides, 
 to keep the tapes in their proper order it has been necessary , to 
 fasten the ends ; in the loom this is done by the heddles and reed. 
 The heddles lift and lower the warp threads, and the reed beside 
 keeping the yarn evenly spread next to the cloth, is brought up 
 against the cloth after each pick has been entered, which forces the 
 filling threads together. The construction of the simplest texture 
 being understood, the application of the principle to produce large 
 fabrics by many repetitions of the pattern or single textures being 
 comprehended, the student is prepared to proceed to other tex¬ 
 tures. The same tapes will answer for many; longer ones, and more 
 of them may be prepared in a similar manner, or the frames made 
 for the purpose purchased with instructions or made from the fol¬ 
 lowing description : A frame something like the frame of a slate in 
 appearance has tapes stretched one way, as close together as con¬ 
 venient, in number according to the size of frame—12 inches will 
 admit about 40. The filling tapes are fastened by one end at the 
 sides. These frames are very convenient, and can be made or pur¬ 
 chased without much trouble. The next step is to represent tex¬ 
 tures on paper; this is quite simple after a little practice with the 
 tape. Take quadrilled design paper; the rows of squares up and 
 down, as the paper lays before the student, represent warp threads. 
 The lines of squares, horizontally, represent filling threads. Since 
 fabrics are made up of repetitions of the texture, and the loom 
 duplicates the application of it to the threads, it is necessary to rep- 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 161 
 
 resent a texture only once on the paper, such representation forms 
 the part of a complete design designated by the term chain draft, 
 because by it, the pattern chain is built, whether the chain be of 
 paper, wood or iron. In writing a draft, its beginning and ending 
 must be the same as if another repetition of the draft were to be 
 placed on either side of it. This is necessary because such is 
 really the case in the goods, when the directions of a perfect draft 
 are carried out by the loom. Below are representations of some of 
 the elementary textures; any one of them is a complete chain draft: 
 
 No. i. 
 
 2*0 
 
 iO* 
 
 I 2 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 4*0 
 
 3 *o 
 
 iO* 
 
 T 2 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 io*0 
 
 9*o 
 
 8*0 
 
 ?*o 
 
 6*o 
 
 so* 
 
 40* 
 
 30* 
 
 20* 
 
 Id* 
 
 No. 4. No. 10. 
 
 3*00 4 *ddd 
 
 20*0 3 D*od 
 
 ioo* 200*0 
 
 123 iOOO* 
 
 1234 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 3D** 
 
 2 * 0 * 
 
 i**D 
 
 123 
 
 No. 11. 
 
 4O*** 
 3*0** 
 2 ** 0 * 
 1***0 
 12 3 4 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 6*oo 
 
 50*0 
 
 400* 
 
 3*OD 
 
 200 * 
 
 !□*□ 
 
 123 
 
 No. 7. 
 
 6D** 
 5 *n* 
 4* * n 
 
 5 D** 
 2**D 
 !*□* 
 I 2 3 
 
 No. 8. 
 
 6*nn 
 
 sD** 
 4 **n 
 3 DD* 
 2**0 
 !□□* 
 1 2 3 
 
 No. 9. 
 
 6 **□ 
 5 □□* 
 4 **□ 
 3 □** 
 2 
 
 1 D>lc* 
 
 123 
 
 No. 12. 
 
 4 ***D 
 
 3 D*** 
 
 2**D* 
 
 1234 
 
 No. 13. 
 
 4**no 
 
 3 **na 
 
 son** 
 
 !□□** 
 
 I234 
 
 No. 14. 
 
 4**00 
 
 3 d**o 
 
 2DO** 
 
 I * 00 * 
 
 1234 
 
 No. 15. 
 
 4*0*0 
 
 3**00 
 
 20 * 0 * 
 
 iOO** 
 
 1234 
 
 No. 16. 
 
 **00 
 
 0**0 
 
 *□□* 
 
 DO** 
 
 1234 
 
 No. 17. 
 
 5*0000 
 
 40*000 
 
 300*00 
 
 2000*0 
 
 lOOOO* 
 
 1234s 
 
 No. 18. 
 
 50**** 
 
 4*0*** 
 
 3**0** 
 
 2 *** 0 * 
 
 i ****0 
 
 12345 
 
 No. 19. 
 
 5**000 
 
 .40**00 
 
 300**0 
 
 2000 ** 
 
 1 * 000 * 
 
 12345 
 
 No. 20. 
 
 500 *** 
 
 4 * 000 * 
 
 3 ** 00 * 
 
 2***OD 
 
 iO***0 
 
 12345 
 
 No. 21. 
 
 5****D 
 
 4**0** 
 
 3O**** 
 
 2 *** 0 * 
 
 1*0*** 
 
 1234s 
 
 No. 22. 
 
 6 * 0 * 0*0 
 
 5*0*0*0 
 
 4 * 0 * 0*0 
 
 30*D*D* 
 
 20*D*0* 
 
 iD*D*D* 
 
 123456 
 
 No. 23. 
 
 6***OOD 
 
 5***OOD 
 
 4 ***ooo 
 
 3000 *** 
 
 2000 *** 
 
 iOOD*** 
 
 123456 
 
 No. 24. 
 
 6**n*oo 
 
 5***OOD 
 
 40 ** 00 * 
 
 300*0** 
 
 2000 *** 
 
 x-X-D 0**0 
 
 123456 
 
 No. 25. 
 
 6 * 000 ** 
 5**000* 
 4***OOD 
 3O ** * O D 
 200***0 
 '□□□*** 
 123456 
 
 No. 26. 
 
 6 *D 0**0 
 5 ** 0*00 
 4***ODO 
 3***OOD 
 20 ** 00 * 
 100*0** 
 
 123456 
 
 11 
 
162 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 No. i represents the plain texture first illustrated by the experi¬ 
 ments with tape. This texture is called “ cotton weave,” “ sheet 
 weaving,” “ plain cloth ” and by many other appellations, the 
 derivation of which is almost self-evident. From this base one may 
 branch out into many variations. No. 2, for instance, is like No. 1, 
 but two lines being alike, the respective picks in weaving will have 
 the same shed opened for them, consequently the filling threads will 
 be doubled in each shed. This is called weaving with 2 picks in a 
 shed. It is done for various effects and purposes. No. 3 is an 
 extension of the same idea to 5 picks in a shed, such a chain with 
 the proper yarn would produce a fabric called “ repp,” or “ cross 
 cord.” No. 4 is already an enlargement of the first texture repre¬ 
 sented and cannot be made to look entirely plain because the change 
 from thread to thread, of the one harness up, causes a diagonal 
 effect. While such effects are small but distinct, they are termed 
 twills. No. 4 is then a 3-harness twill. The filling shows much 
 more than the warp on the face. Therefore, this is a filling-face 
 twill. No. 5 is the same, but because two-thirds of the warp yarn 
 passes over the filling it is called a warp-face 3-harness or 3-leaf 
 twill. No. 6 is like No. 4 for 3 picks, the other 3 picks being 
 really the same texture, but applied in a different order. This is a 
 variation of the No. 4 texture which, with some yarns, makes a face 
 that appears to be almost plain, therefore, it is sometimes called 
 “ plain 3-leaf cloth.” The same difference is exhibited between 
 No. 6 and No. 7 as between No. 4 and No. 5. One being a filling- 
 face the other a warp-face. Already the student will have noted 
 that to be a filling-face texture the warp threads must go down in 
 the larger proportion and vice versa. Such observations give the 
 cue to quick comprehension of special characteristics in more 
 elaborate texture, and particularly in combinations of textures. 
 No. 8 and No. 9 are the first steps at combination. These chain 
 drafts combine the texture of No. 1 and No. 4 in No. 8 ; of No. 1 
 and No. 5 in No. 9. The student should now examine the texture 
 of the individual warp threads or harnesses, also the filling threads 
 or picks, and study out the combination principle without aid. 
 No. 10 is similar to No. 4, but with one more harness and pick per 
 pattern. Were the fifth harness in No. 17 like the first it would be 
 the same 4-harness twill as is represented in No. 10, with one thread 
 too many. This thread might be the one of another repetition of 
 the texture, in which case it would be wrong to have it appear on 
 the draft; but it might for certain effects be desirable to have 5 
 threads in the pattern—the first and last to work alike when it 
 
SPITZLI'S MANUAL. 
 
 163 
 
 would be proper to leave it on the draft, but not really necessary, 
 because there is another way of producing the same result, namely : 
 to have only 4 harnesses, when the fifth thread is reached in draw¬ 
 ing the threads into the heddles, draw it into a heddle on the first 
 harness, then the first one of the next pattern would have to be 
 drawn on the first harness also, the second on the second, and so on 
 until the fifth is reached again, which is to be placed on the first 
 every time, as before. This slight digression will admit a little 
 light on the cross draw principle, which is duly considered else¬ 
 where. No. 11 and No. 12 are the same texture, but the order of 
 the threads is changed. No. 13 is the same as No. 1, but doubled 
 every way. No. 23 is the same, but has 3 threads working alike 
 each way. This variety of textures are called “basket weaves,” 
 probably because the several threads working alike lay side by side 
 and give the appearance of narrow strips that have been plaited. 
 No. 14 is another 4-harness twill. It is a very common texture, 
 often named from the class of goods made with it—“ Kersey 
 twill,” “cassimere weave,” “double treadle twill,” etc. Nos. 15 
 and 16 are the same as No. 14, but the twill is broken by a different 
 order of the threads working the same. Broken twills are much 
 used for mottled effects. Nos. 24 and 26 are of this order. No. 21 
 is also sometimes called a broken twill, but in reality it is a double 
 twill. It is commonly called the doeskin weave. It is needless to 
 encumber space here with further illustrations ; most complete col¬ 
 lections of textures are procurable. Besides studying such collec¬ 
 tions, the student should give much time and attention to work out 
 the principles here illustrated in larger effects, with more harnesses, 
 without aid, and when such a task is completed compare notes with 
 some one or with the same thing as given in some of the collections 
 referred to. So far the textures considered have all been single. 
 Combinations may be called compound fabrics, if a name must be 
 produced. Double fabrics are such as have two textures, one above 
 the other. Triple fabrics are the same, with three textures. In 
 this class the textures may be separate, here and there tacked to¬ 
 gether, or so incorporated in each as to be one solid mass or inter¬ 
 changeable in their appearance in either by parts. In taking up 
 double textures only the simplest kinds are illustrated here, elaborate 
 designs of this kind must not be attempted until the principles and 
 elements underlying them are fully comprehended. When this 
 point is reached a large collection is of more use than a few 
 examples, and more could not be given here. We begin again with 
 texture No. 1 by doubling it. No. 27 represents this texture 
 
164 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 separate ; that is : if this chain were used, the loom would simply 
 make two pieces of cloth, one above the other. No. 28 shows one 
 way of tacking the two together, this is done by raising the back 
 warp (harness No. 2 and harness No. 4) for the face filling shed. The 
 addition to the draft to produce this result is in a different charac¬ 
 ter from the others (©) not because it must be different or of particu¬ 
 lar shape or kind, but because it is very convenient always to mark 
 this place usually called the “ binder” and the threads so used to 
 bind fabrics and textures together, called binding threads. In 
 No. 29 the two textures are the same, but bound together differ¬ 
 ently. In No. 28 the back warp threads were raised to let a face 
 filling thread go under them ; in No. 29 the face warp threads are 
 lowered when a back filling thread is going through ; thus it is incor¬ 
 porated into the back fabric, besides doing regular service on the 
 face fabric, consequently binding the two together. To be systema¬ 
 tic some designers never call a face thread the binder, always the 
 backing thread which helps to make the union. iVccording to this 
 in No. 28 the back warp threads would also be binding threads; in 
 No. 29 the back filling threads. The difference between No. 27 
 and No. 29 is designated by a cipher (o) in the space which should 
 otherwise be a blank square, (□) and must be considered a “sinker.” 
 It is very common not to bind textures together so frequently, as will 
 be seen further on. The principal feature of a double cloth draft 
 is, that for the face pick only those harnesses are raised which rep¬ 
 resent threads that must pass over face filling. All the others must 
 be let down. This lets down all of the back warp and a part of the 
 face warp. When the back pick is to go through all of the face 
 warp and some of the back warp must be raised, leaving only such 
 threads down as must pass under the respective back pick. Back¬ 
 ing is sometimes attached not as a separate fabric, but as backing 
 only, (for instructions see Backing.) No. 30 is a double cloth 
 with the same twill on back and face as texture No. 14. No. 31 is 
 the same as No. 30, but shows one of the many ways of attaching 
 the two fabrics to each other. No. 32 is the same as No. 27, but by 
 a different arrangement the binding is regular and one which is 
 usually very safe because not so close as Nos. 28 or 29, and not 
 showing through so badly. It also does away with the little dimple 
 other bindings make in some fabrics. The back and face texture 
 are not always alike, neither is the yarn always the same. No. 33 
 illustrates a double texture of this kind, the face being like texture 
 No. 25, a plain 6-harness twill, the back like No. 5, a plain 3-harness 
 twill filling back. The warp face of the back fabric being under 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 165 
 
 the face fabric. The density of the threads also differs in this, 
 there being two face threads to each back thread. In such fabrics 
 it is customary to use fine yarns in the face fabric, coarser in the 
 back fabric. No. 34 illustrates that the double cloth texture need 
 not be confined to twills but can be applied to any texture. The 
 fact that more harnesses being required for double than for single 
 textures must be borne in mind. No. 34 is a basket face and a 
 broken twill back. Note that the binding is done in both ways in 
 this draft: 
 
 
 No. 30. 
 
 No. 33. 
 
 No. 27. 
 
 840000040 
 
 9*4**ooaao 
 
 
 7404«4«40 
 
 80a**4#D00 
 
 44- 4-4* O 
 
 640400000 
 
 7*44444404 
 
 3 an«n 
 
 5 *a*n*«*# 
 
 60aa*4**00 
 
 
 4004040QQ 
 
 5aooaa*#4# 
 
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 34»40404« 
 
 4*04444444 
 
 1234 
 
 200004040 
 
 3*OOaOD*4* 
 
 
 !*•*•*□*□ 
 
 2#4*DOOaa* 
 
 
 12345678 
 
 1 4>)c 4: >)< □ 4 >)c 
 
 123456789 
 
 
 No. 31. 
 
 No. 34. 
 
 No. 28. 
 
 84DODOa4D 
 
 
 7404«0«4D 
 
 
 44 44C] 
 
 640400000 
 
 ”404444400044 
 
 3 DD«© 
 
 s40404»0» 
 
 «>•□•□•©□□□□□□ 
 
 24 IH 44 
 
 4D0404000 
 
 944404440444D 
 
 !#©□□ 
 
 30040404* 
 
 8*©#o*aaooooo 
 
 1 2 3 4 
 
 
 7444440444000 
 
 
 i4*0*4040 
 
 6oooaaa#a*a#a 
 
 
 12345678 
 
 54D0D44404444 
 
 4oaaooo*a*a*© 
 
 3404440444044 
 
 No. 29. 
 
 No. 32. 
 
 2 oaaaoa*©#a*a 
 
 *444000*44440 
 
 I 2 D 444 D 444 
 
 1x04000400 
 
 1 2 3 4 5 6 789101112 
 
 44400 
 
 1040040004 
 
 
 300»0 
 
 944044404 
 
 840404444 
 
 20044 
 
 804000400 
 
 !•□□□ 
 
 700040044 
 
 700004440 
 
 1234 
 
 604440444 
 
 640444440 
 
 
 504000400 
 
 500444000 
 
 
 400044004 
 
 444444040 
 
 
 344044404 
 
 344400000 
 
 
 2040D0400 
 
 2444D4D44 
 
 
 iD044DDD4 
 
 *40000044 
 
 
 12345678 
 
 DO 
 
 O 
 
 ■'t’ 
 
 ro 
 
 Many of the more elaborate designs can be produced by a t com- 
 bination of several textures. Notably ingrain carpet, two-ply and 
 three-ply. In such goods the yarn, when not required in the face 
 fabric, is bound into a texture on the back which at once adds 
 firmness, warmth and durability. Other goods are made with a 
 face and a back fabric, and any yarn or threads not needed in the 
 face or back allowed to float between the two; they are there out of 
 sight and the danger of being drawn or pulled in finishing or weav¬ 
 ing. In woolen goods that must be fulled, it will not do to allow 
 these floats to be too long or many, as they roll together and make 
 uneven thickness in shrinking. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 166 
 
 The characters used in the foregoing drafts are : 
 
 * and © for raisers, □ and • for sinkers. 
 
 Tickings. —A heavy cotton fabric, most commonly blue and 
 white checks or stripes, and a warp twill texture. 
 
 Ties. —This word has many erroneous applications. It is used 
 by some in place of fabrics, the arrangement of harnesses, com¬ 
 pound fabrics, etc. The proper use for the word is now generally 
 acknowledged to be limited to the manner or peculiar ways of fas¬ 
 tening several fabrics together into one, when this is done with a 
 special arrangement of the threads for the purpose. The manner 
 of tying the back and face together is illustrated by Texture 
 Drafts Nos. 23 to 35. The manner of making double and triple 
 cloth, and having the yarn interchange in the several fabrics, is 
 also exemplified. 
 
 Thread-Bare. —A name for the finish on goods which leaves no 
 nap. 
 
 Throstle Frame. —For cotton the frame in its transverse section 
 is similar to the throstle frame used for combed wools. A cylinder, 
 bearing the roving, is at the summit of the frame. The roving in 
 its descent becomes engaged between two drawing rollers at a 
 proper distance apart, and surmounted with top rollers. The 
 drawn out roving passes through a fly terminated by a tube, and is 
 wound off and twisted by the rotation of a spindle. Each spindle 
 receives its motion from a drum placed underneath the frame. 
 
 Tools. —Tools are a great necessity of the present day. Manu¬ 
 facturers are sometimes compelled to be stingy in supplying them, 
 because the workmen they employ are either dishonest, careless or 
 incapable. It would seem that this would be a good criterion by 
 which to judge employees, and we contend that it is; that the best 
 and cheapest workmen are those who can be entrusted with good 
 tools. But workmen must become accustomed to tools to make the 
 best use of them; if, then, they were to find tools different when¬ 
 ever they changed places their beginning would not be so satisfac¬ 
 tory. Some tools they should Own and take with them, and manu¬ 
 facturers should encourage it by replacing tools lost or damaged in 
 their service, without a fault on the part of the owner. From the 
 designer down to the most common laborer, the best results are at¬ 
 tained at the least cost of material, time and exertion only when the 
 best attainable tools are employed by workmen who have sufficient 
 intelligence to make good use of them. The following quotation 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 1 67 
 
 from the Boston Journal of Commerce agrees with these remarks 
 and cites the same facts in yet another light: 
 
 “There is an old saying to the effect that ‘it takes a good work¬ 
 man to make a good job with poor tools.’ So it does, and there 
 have been many triumphs, recorded and unrecorded, of brain and 
 skill over seemingly insurmountable obstacles. It is a satisfaction 
 to compass a result with apparently inadequate means, and the 
 mechanic who does it is justly proud of his success. But working 
 with poor tools is never certain to produce good results, however 
 great the skill and inventive the brain. Misses are made as well as 
 hits, and even the most self-assured workman feels safer with good 
 and applicable tools. No workman can afford to risk his reputation 
 and success with poor tools ; there is so much risk of a failure, and 
 such anxiety for the result, that even if success is attained it has 
 been at the expense of time, thought, muscle and trouble that robs it 
 of half its gratification. The time has gone by when the workman 
 was expected to ‘ make something out of nothing,’ when one imple¬ 
 ment or appliance was made to do duty for another, and ‘ make- 
 
 t t • 
 shifts,’ their origination, use, and application to the job in hand 
 
 were part of the kit of the workman. Even in hand tools the im¬ 
 provement is obvious to the slightest observation. In every depart¬ 
 ment of industry these improvements have made their mark. They 
 have saved time and labor and produce more satisfactory results. It 
 is a wise economy to reject imperfect tools, and, as the patent- 
 medicine men advertise, ‘ use the best. Whenever an improved 
 implement is put into the market—one that will do the work better 
 or quicker, it is economy to buy it, even if the old one is intact and 
 serviceable.” 
 
 Travelers. —On spinning and twisting frames, short pieces of 
 flat steel wire, bent to make almost a complete circle, but the ends 
 do not quite meet. They are sprung upon the ring on which they 
 travel around the bobbins ; the threads to be spun or twisted passing 
 through them on their way to the bobbins, and the tension upon the 
 threads being largely governed by the weight or size of the travelers. 
 
 Treatment of Wool Before Carding. —Wool should be 
 open and free to scour well ; it is impossible to do justice to wool 
 when submitted to scouring in the condition the sorters leave it in. 
 Hot or strong scouring liquors are a decided injury to wool, but 
 when too weak or too cold, wool is not got clean quick enough, and 
 is consequently either scoured improperly or felted. Much hand- 
 
spitzlfs manual. 
 
 i 68 
 
 ling while in any liquor felts wool. Sal Soda felts wool more than 
 soda ash, soap more than sal soda, yet sal soda and soap must be 
 used under certain circumstances. Many men cannot get wool 
 through the squeezing rolls of a washing machine from a perfectly 
 clear water. The best temperature for scouring wool either by hand 
 or machine is from iio° to 130° F. The chemicals used, the 
 temperature of liquor and time of saturation should always be 
 governed by the kind of wool in hand, and no attempt with a large 
 lot should be made until a small sample has been got clean in a 
 pail. By this method one soon learns to judge accurately by small 
 experiments, a great saving. Tag locks and cotted wool should be 
 subjected to a sweating. 
 
 Tweeds. —Twilled woolen fabrics, at one time only those cassi- 
 meres with regular four-leaf twill, but now applied to almost any 
 twilled goods resembling the original tweeds. English and Scotch 
 tweeds differ in stock and character. The English goods of this class 
 are usually finer than the Scotch. The finer grades are made of Aus¬ 
 tralian, New Zealand, Cape, Buenos Ayres, Port Natal, German and 
 Saxony wools. The coarser kinds or cheviots are made of Scotch, 
 Slavonian, Chilian, Transylvanian and Colonial crossbred wools. 
 Inferior wools from other countries are also used for this latter class. 
 The wools of this country which give the best result in cheviots 
 come from Maine. Canada wool does well also. It is necessary to 
 spin this coarse stock twice to get it fine enough for many styles. 
 Yarn dyed cheviots when the colors are fast enough to full a little, 
 resemble the foreign goods much more than goods made of raw 
 yarn. Crabbing improves the firmness of many pieces which would 
 otherwise seem slazy. As a reliable work on Scotch tweeds that 
 written by Robert Johnson may be cheerfully recommended. (The 
 name is “ Scotch Tweed Designers’ Hand-Book.”) 
 
 Twills. —Twills are fine diagonals of the plainest kind. Used 
 largely in many woolen fabrics, and frequently employed as the 
 ground texture of larger designs. In plain woolen goods the finer 
 twills are used for light weight goods single, for heavy goods by 
 adding a backing. In all materials the proportion, twist and size 
 of yarn are important factors in the production of certain appear¬ 
 ances of twills. If the warp and filling are the same size and twist, 
 and the threads are equal in number, the filling will usually pre¬ 
 dominate, because it is almost impossible to weave the warp yarn as 
 slack as the filling with the best tension devices. The warp yarn is 
 generally twisted harder than the filling ; therefore, if of the same 
 
spitzli’s Manual. 
 
 169 
 
 weight, and being woven tighter as well, the warp twill would sink in 
 still more. To reverse this, the warp yarn may be made a little coarser 
 than the filling, or the number of threads made greater. By making 
 the direction of (she twist conform to the direction of the twill, 
 further effects are attained ; the above statements are all made upon 
 the supposition of like twist in both warp and filling, say right 
 hand. If such yarn be woven into a twill running to the right, the 
 twill will run with the twist of the warp and against the twist of the 
 filling, consequently the filling twill will stand out more; if the 
 twill be turned to the left, the warp twill will come up and the fill¬ 
 ing twill sink down. The warp being the hardest yarn, the goods in 
 this case will feel softer when the filling predominates, the qualities 
 and size of the yarn being the same. By reversing the twist of the 
 filling and making it more prominent in that way the goods are 
 made still softer, provided the stock in the filling is as fine or finer 
 than the warp. For many goods, therefore, it is well to have the 
 • warp against, and the filling twist with the twill, for others the con¬ 
 trary may be better, and when the warp and filling are of the same 
 twist, intermediate effects are produced. 
 
 Twist. —The amount and direction of twist, in yarn, plays an 
 important part in fabrics ; in the preparation of a design, in dis¬ 
 secting, and in the general management of a factory it should never 
 be lost sight of or overlooked. The word twist is sometimes used 
 instead of double and twisted yarn, manifold yarns, etc. In single 
 or manifold yarn the evenness of twist is also important, but when 
 unevenness of twist appears on the same bobbin it is usually the 
 effect of uneveness in the size of the yarn, where it has either been 
 strained by too much tension or was never drawn even. The twist 
 runs to the finest places first and most. 
 
 Twitts. —Twitts in yarn are fine places that may be caused by 
 irregular or excessive drawing. By overdrawing we mean drawing in 
 some part of the process more than the stock will endure. Twitts 
 may be discovered in yarn by taking a number of bobbins—say ten 
 —laying them at one end of a sheet of paper, the color of which is 
 a strong contrast to that of the yarn ; draw the threads from the 
 bobbins slowly over this sheet of paper, side by side, letting none 
 cross others, and having them all about equal distances apart, not 
 more than one inch at one end of the sheet, not less than one-six¬ 
 teenth at the other. This is a very severe test for any yarn. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 I 70 
 
 U. 
 
 Upland Cotton. —A species of sea island cotton produced in 
 the inland counties of V irginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, Tennessee, 
 Alabama, Louisiana and several other States. It is a light, weak 
 and uneven staple. Of the various kinds of cotton, Baird gives 
 some ten pages of most useful information. 
 
 Unit of Power. —One-horse power is by some writers given as 
 the unit of power. “ One-horse power is equal to 75 kilogrammetres.” 
 (Leroux’s work.) Haswell says: “Its estimate is the elevation of 
 33,000 pounds avordupois one foot in height in one minute, and is 
 nominated as being the nominal, indicated or actual.” 
 
 Unsworth Needle Looms —The peculiarity of this loom con¬ 
 sists of two sets of weft carriers and points in lieu of shuttles. The 
 principle is employed on fringe looms. 
 
 V. 
 
 Velvet. —Velvet may be made in many ways; the plush may 
 be of silk and the body fabric linen or cotton. When the material 
 is all cotton the goods are called velveteen. The fabric, as it 
 comes from the loom, before the plush is cut is most commonly 
 known by the name of a class of goods of this order : “ Fustian.” 
 The cutting, dressing and finishing processes are clearly described 
 by Dr. Ure in his “ Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures,” from 
 which the following and many other paragraphs in this work are 
 quoted : “ After the fustian cloth is taken from the loom-beam, it 
 
 is carried to the cutter, who rips up the surface threads of weft, and 
 produces thereby a hairy-looking stuff. After being thus ripped up, 
 it is taken to the brushing or teazeling machine, to make it 
 shaggy; after they are brushed in the machine the goods are 
 singed by passing their cut surface over a cylinder of iron, laid in a 
 horizontal direction, and kept red hot by a flue. They are now 
 brushed again by the machine, and once more passed over the 
 singeing surface. The brushing and singeing are repeated a third, 
 or even occasionally a fourth time, till the cord acquires a smooth 
 polished appearance. The goods are next steeped, washed and 
 bleached by immersion in solution of chloride of lime. They are 
 then dyed by appropriate chemical means, after which they are 
 padded (imbued by the padding machine of calico printers) with a 
 solutive of glue, and passed over steam cylinders to stiffen them. 
 Smooth fustians, when cropped or shorn before dyeing, are called 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 I 71 
 
 moleskins ; but when shorn after being dyed, are called beaverteen : 
 they are both tweeled fabrics. Cantoon is a fustian with a fine cord 
 visible upon the one side, and a satiny surface of yarns running at 
 right angles to the cords upon the other side. The satiny side is 
 sometimes smoothed by singeing. The stuff is strong, and has a 
 very fine aspect. 
 
 Velvet Finish. —This term means a finish which has a resem¬ 
 blance to velvet. In woolens this finish is frequently required and 
 consists of a short, thick nap standing up as straight as possible. 
 This effect is produced by gigging almost equally both ways, and 
 allowing no subsequent operation to lay down the nap. 
 
 W. 
 
 Warp. —The yarn which passes through the harnesses and reed. 
 The character of this yarn should be altogether governed by the 
 fabric for which it is to be used; but the product of a loom largely 
 depends upon the strength of the yarn, be the fabric what it may. 
 If for any reason the yarn of a warp is not strong enough for the 
 work it must endure to produce the right texture, there is often a 
 way open to change the texture slightly to relieve it with less 
 damage than that caused by a small product and imperfect goods. 
 Much may be done to humor a warp by various changes in the 
 loom. When the warp is being woven very tight the opening of the 
 shed is an extra strain upon the threads ; if the shed is not at the 
 right level this strain will be greatest upon one shed or the other. 
 Sizing applied to warp yarn will make it work much better in many 
 fabrics. This was at one time done altogether in the loom, but is 
 now done by machinery while preparing the warps. 
 
 Warping. —The collection of yarn into a warp is a process seem¬ 
 ingly very simple, but one which has brought out many new de¬ 
 velopments in machinery, and is still very imperfect in some par¬ 
 ticulars. The silk and cotton manufacturers have advanced far 
 beyond the woolen in this department. This may be accounted for 
 by the fact that no subsequent process with them will hide the 
 defects in warping, while in woolen goods the shrinkage and the 
 nap have covered and must to-day cover many sins. The manu¬ 
 facturers of worsted goods have of late turned their attention in 
 this direction ; and well they may, since nearly all the requirements 
 of cotton warps hold good in relation to worsted, and the finish is 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 I 72 
 
 such as can not be depended upon to conceal anything. Even 
 tension in all parts of the warp, equal length of all the threads, and 
 even dressing when applied, are the three great requisites of warp¬ 
 ing. Other important points will intrude on every hand, but none 
 assume the importance of these. In silk and cotton it is now the 
 common practice to put the yarn upon separate beams, from the 
 small bobbins or spools, then to take alternate threads from these 
 beams, from four to twelve in number, for the warp. The 
 machinery, especially that for applying the sizing or dressing, and 
 for drying the same, is now very perfect. These machines, or modi¬ 
 fications of them, are being introduced for worsted work, and are 
 really a necessity. The manner of warping woolen warps is still 
 very primitive in many mills, and the best machines in use are 
 not what they should be, because manufacturers will not pay the 
 price of better ones. A greater folly can hardly be found in the 
 entire manufacturing interests than this. The warp being well pre¬ 
 pared, good work and plenty of it is a natural consequence—the 
 opposite side is too ridiculous to mention. The necessary remedy 
 lies principally in better machinery, (manufacturers should do their 
 utmost to stimulate development;) next in more pains and labor 
 with what machinery is now in use. In warping for fancy goods 
 the number of threads are fixed by two limits—the pattern and the 
 weight, both of which must sometimes be modified to bring them 
 within present facilities for warping. Whether the warp is made 
 from section beams or in sections upon a reel, the first calculation 
 necessary is to find the number of threads in each section, and if 
 possible make them conform to the threads in a pattern. That is, 
 the threads of a section should be a multiple of the threads in a 
 pattern. Making several different sized sections, or running one 
 straight, the next reversed, (with a twist,) are almost sure methods 
 of making section stripes ; the matter of damage is only doubtful 
 when there is a question whether the kind of goods happen to show 
 them or not. Having found the threads of the sections in con¬ 
 formity to above instructions, the number of patterns per section 
 will necessarily be known; the number of threads of each kind of 
 yarn per section is now obtained by multiplying the number of each 
 kind of threads in a pattern by the number of patterns per section; 
 the total number by multiplying this product by the number of 
 sections, and the total amount of each kind of yarn in yards by 
 multiplying the last product by the length of the warp in yards. 
 To ascertain the weight from the yards, see Yarn Table and Rules. 
 For dressing or sizing, see Sizing. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 *73 
 
 Waste. —Too much attention cannot be paid to the matter of 
 waste in a factory. Not only waste of material, yarn and cloth, but 
 time and supplies. The manner of assorting, preserving and pack¬ 
 ing waste is of importance. To keep the waste clean it must be 
 kept off the floors as much as possible, what falls to the floor should 
 be picked up, not swept along with other sweepings. 
 
 Waste Pickers. —The many machines under this name made to 
 pick or ravel waste to recover as much staple fibers as possible from 
 refuse yarn, need little comment. The Kitson & Parhurst pickers 
 for the purpose are well known, and probably have the lead in the 
 market. 
 
 Weaving. —Such elaborate articles on this subject may be found 
 in the opening chapters of nearly all books on Weaving and Design¬ 
 ing that it is superfluous to add to or repeat what has been thus 
 published at the present writing. 
 
 Weft. —Filling. 
 
 Weights. —The convenience of standard weights- of all kinds, as 
 well as many special weights, for test weighing and the like, is a sub¬ 
 ject beyond comment. T he surest way to get accurate weights is 
 to have them made by responsible parties, who are provided with 
 the exceedingly sensitive scales necessary to test weights. With 
 care and patience very good weights may be made. Baird gives 
 instructions (pp. 192) that the amateur in the manufacture ol 
 weights will do well to heed. 
 
 Willowing. —This process is one that comes under the head of 
 separating the staple from refuse matter. It is practised very gen¬ 
 erally by the best woolen mills. The cotton gin serves the best 
 purpose for cotton, but has more to do and under greater diffi¬ 
 culties. In further cleansing stock, each kind of textile fiber must 
 be treated differently in the early cleansing processes. That which 
 interests the most men, because they are engaged in that branch, 
 is wool washing and scouring, and perhaps there is no other staple 
 so troublesome from the many variations required. 
 
 Winding. —By winding we understand that a process similar to 
 that of spooling is implied, but that the receptacle of yarn in this 
 case is a bobbin, not a spool. Much that may be said of spooling 
 applies here, especially the allusions to precaution ; good work in 
 winding is more imperative, because a badly wound bobbin cannot 
 be used without loss of time and material, particularly in the shut- 
 
1 74 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 tie, the most common destination of a bobbin of yarn. In winding 
 bobbins great care should be taken to adjust the machinery to form 
 the taper to suit the peculiarities of the yarn wound. For instance, 
 slippery yarn should have a long taper, tender woolen yarn a short 
 one, and in all cases should the guide which forms the taper work 
 smoothly and regularly. The tension should be so applied that the 
 yarn will draw a little harder when winding next to the wood than 
 when at the large end of the taper; few machines will do this, but 
 it is a point of great advantage. There should never be a dwell in 
 the guide motion, or an irregular traverse, as the yarn will certainly 
 come off with irregular tension if this is not attended to. The 
 faults of and remedies for over-run, too full, large, hard or soft 
 bobbins are obvious. In some parts all spools and bobbins are 
 given this one name, but in this country the term bobbin is now 
 almost universally applied only to a barrel with one head. Bobbins 
 should be made of wood which wears smooth, whatever the first 
 cost. Maple is very good. Steaming yarn on the bobbin is very 
 destructive of the bobbin, however much it benefits the yarn. Set¬ 
 ting the twist by heating in an oven is quite as bad for wood ; when 
 either course is practiced many bobbins are split. Of the shape of 
 bobbins little can be said save that the bobbin should be made to 
 suit the yarn. Cone bobbins are those which have a cone next to 
 the head, because the building motion upon the machines used for 
 winding the yarn upon the bobbin requires it; the same require¬ 
 ment usually extends to the shape of the cone. Ribs or depres¬ 
 sions, or creases upon the barrel, prevent the yarn from sliding off 
 in a body, but the rib adds considerable friction and consequently 
 cannot be used on some kinds of work, the difference in the tension 
 of the yarn when beginning to unwind a bobbin, and at the last 
 being too great. 
 
 Wo ad. — 1 he plant (/safes Glastumn or Isastis Tinctorial) when 
 made into fermented paste is known as woad. It is a native plant 
 of England, its coloring properties having been used by the ancient 
 Britons more than 2,000 years ago. It is also cultivated in Europe. 
 Its use in the blue vat is very important and requires much skill 
 and experience. The nature and application of this substance 
 should be studied by all who should understand colors, their nature, 
 peculiarities and relations. 
 
 Wool. —Wool, strictly speaking is a cutaneous secretion taking 
 place through the epidermic pores of the animal. These pores are 
 all of the same diameter, and, at equal intervals upon the epidermis 
 
SPITZLI'S MANUAL. 
 
 1 75 
 
 of the same sheep. They vary according to species, and are nar¬ 
 row, straight or tortuous, and, consequently, the wool fibers will be 
 fine, smooth or undulating, according to the shape of the pores by 
 which they are gauged. Wool, if kept in a well-ventilated place, 
 undergoes very little change. Under the influence of heat, wool 
 decomposes, giving carbonate of ammonia and much oil. Acids act 
 but feebly upon it; caustic alkalies and their solutions dissolve it 
 entirely. Wool is classified and valued by the length of its staple, 
 the diameter of its fiber, its suppleness, elasticity and strength. The 
 fineness of wool is determined by the number of undulations in a 
 given length of staple—a very wavy staple should double its length 
 by stretching, and then return to its original dimensions. There 
 are two principal sorts of wool, namely : short or carding wool and 
 long or combing wool. These two sorts give rise to four very dis¬ 
 tinct classes : 
 
 First—Fleece wool for combing ; 
 
 Second—Fleece wool for carding ; 
 
 Third—Pulled wool (mortling) for combing ; 
 
 Fourth—Pulled wool (mortling) for carding. 
 
 Fleece wool is all that is shorn from the living animal; and 
 pulled wool (pelt wool, mortling), that pulled from the skin of the 
 animal after death. The latter is less valuable than the former. 
 These two sorts differ in their stoutness and softness. Both are 
 generally white, though sometimes black or brown. The skins 
 supplying the pulled wool are of two classes : 
 
 First—The skins of animals killed on farms. 
 
 Second—The skins of animals killed in slaughter houses. 
 
 According to its degree of fineness pulled wool is sorted into fine, 
 medium and common. This kind of wool, never having reached 
 maturity, and, moreover, being weakened and impaired by the lime 
 used in stripping the skin, is lighter and weaker than fleece wool. 
 
 Woolens.—T he term woolens is used by the trade, and includes 
 as a class, all woolen goods for men’s wear, flannels, etc., etc. 
 
 Worsted. —The essential difference between worsted and woolen 
 yarn is that the former is combed, the long fibers being all laid 
 parallel, the short fibers separated and taken away, while in the 
 latter the fibers, long and short, must go together, and they cannot 
 be so thoroughly straightened out. The reduction of the sliver or 
 tops, as it comes from the combs to yarns, is also different from the 
 process of spinning woolen yarn. The stock must, of course, be 
 suitable to the process, hence the wools that are long and strong 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 I 76 
 
 enough to produce good worsted yarns are graded into combing 
 and delaine wools. Unless the drawing is done on machines that 
 do not twist the slivers, and the spinning on a very long draught 
 machine like the mule, the yarn will be hard and wiry, lacking elas¬ 
 ticity. This is the disadvantage the English process in the manu¬ 
 facture of worsted yarns has over the French. Having produced 
 the right yarn, the production of the texture is similar to other 
 goods, but far more trying to the weaver; because of its costliness, 
 the necessity of avoiding the smallest imperfection becomes impera¬ 
 tive, and on account of the peculiarity of the fabrics every imper¬ 
 fection is easily seen. The process of finishing and dyeing worsted 
 goods is far more difficult than any one unacquainted with the 
 nature of the difficulties can imagine. The treatment of a few 
 kinds of worsted fabrics from the loom to the case would be a 
 capital subject for a large book. 
 
 X. 
 
 Xerga. —A Spanish name for a peculiar woolen blanket. Our 
 common market term, “ Serge,” is derived from this name. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yama-Mai, or Oak Tree Silkworm. —The Yama-mal is a 
 species of silkworn common in Japan, which derives its sustenance 
 from the leaves of oak trees. 
 
 Yarn. —Any spun thread may be called yarn, but the term in its 
 strictest sense implies spun wool. 
 
 Uneven Yarn .—The causes of uneven yarn are numerous and 
 varied, the consequences invariably imperfect goods, almost always 
 a reduction of product, and much waste. There are a variety of 
 terms used to designate the kind of unevenness. What is under¬ 
 stood by uneven yarn, is that caused by uneven stock or roving, 
 tight or loose bands, worn drawing rolls, etc., etc. Uneven twist is 
 often mistaken for uneven yarn, but by careful weighing one may 
 ascertain which it is. The uneven twist when not caused by 
 irregular size or tension of spindle bands is usually the effect of 
 irregular tension between the roving spool and the yarn bobbin. 
 To watch every set of bobbins as they are taken off is an important 
 duty that some one who is competent should be entrusted with. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 I 77 
 
 Twitty yarn may be caused by poor carding and combing, improper 
 adjustment of drawing rolls, uneven speed, slipping belts, etc., etc. 
 If the stock in the roving is examined frequently there should be no 
 difficulty in deciding whether the trouble is in the spinning or 
 before. The spinner cannot make good yarn with poor roving or 
 machinery which is not adapted to the work. 
 
 Yarn Numbers, or Counts. —The numbers of woolen yarn most 
 commonly used in this country are those regulated by the run and 
 grain systems. By the run system, No. i, or i-run yarn, has 1600 
 yards per pound; No. 2^, or 2^-run yarn, has 4000 yards per pound, 
 etc., etc. This is very convenient, because so easily estimated per 
 ounce, each number representing the number of times 100 yards 
 are needed to weigh an ounce. The grain system of numbering 
 woolen yarn is quite different, the most common measure or basis 
 being 20 yards. Whatever 20 yards of any kind of yarn weighs in 
 grains is the number given by this system. If 20 yards of any yarn 
 weighs 13 grains, it is called 13 grain or No. 13 yarn; if the same 
 
 measure weighs 30 grains, then the yarn is designated as 30 grain 
 
 or No. 30 yarn. 
 
 Yarn Tables and Weights. —The avordupois pound and ounce 
 are the correct weights for yarn calculations, but finer denomina¬ 
 tions are necessary; the pennyweight and grain of the Troy weights 
 being convenient, they are sometimes employed in expressing 
 smaller divisions of an avordupois ounce. 
 
 24 grains= 1 dwt. 
 
 437! “ or 28 H “ — 1 ounce. 
 
 7000 “ “ 291I “ or 16 “ = 1 pound. 
 
 Table of Common Fractions of Ounces in Grains. 
 
 1 
 
 10 0 
 
 of 
 
 1 
 
 ounce= 4! 
 
 grains. 
 
 sVo 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 (( 
 
 = 8£ 
 
 C 6 
 
 ■sVV 
 
 6 i 
 
 1 
 
 U 
 
 == 12^ 
 
 U 
 
 To 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 = 43t 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 87I 
 
 u 
 
 i 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 =I °9l 
 
 a 
 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 =i45l 
 
 u 
 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 =2x8f 
 
 u 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 = I 9 I f 
 
 u 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 << 
 
 =3 28 s 
 
 u 
 
 If 0 f an ounce or 4-f grains are put into one shell of a balance 
 scale, the number of any woolen yarn in runs may be ascertained 
 by the number of yards it takes to balance the 4 |dgrains. 
 
 12 
 
1 7 8 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 For the grain system of numbering woolen yarns the weight of 20 
 yards of any yarn in grains being used as the number of the yarn, 
 all that is required is a good scale and set of grain weights to ascer¬ 
 tain the number. 
 
 For cotton yarn use for an ounce or 8^ grains and for 
 worsted yarns use of an ounce or 125 grains to ascertain the 
 number of the yarn. 
 
 Worsted and cotton numbers for yarns are derived from the 
 number of hanks required per pound, but the size of reel used 
 differs, therefore, the number of hanks per pound must be different. 
 The cotton reel is taken at 54 inches in circumference, the worsted 
 reel at 36 inches or 1 yard for a basis. 
 
 Cotton Table. 
 
 54 inches=i thread=i-J yards. 
 
 80 threads=i lea or knot=i2o yards. 
 
 7 leas or knots=i hank=84o yards. 
 
 Worsted Table. 
 
 36 inches=i thread=i yards. 
 
 80 threads=i lea or knot=8o yards. 
 
 7 leas or knots=i hank=56o yards. 
 
 Some woolen mills number their yarns by cuts. The number 
 given indicates the cuts per pound : 
 
 Two hundred and forty yards per cut. 
 
 Eight cuts per head. 
 
 Six heads per spindle. 
 
 Street’s tables for grading yarns are highly recommended. 
 
 F. T. Ashton of Pittsfield, Mass., publishes a Spinner’s Guide, 
 well thought of by many, for yarn calculations. 
 
 The following tables are very convenient for those who must 
 make comparative estimates of yarns numbered by the different 
 systems. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 179 
 
 YARN TABLE. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Yards . 
 
 1,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 20 Y’ds 
 
 Holes . 
 
 16.66 
 
 33.33 
 
 50.00 
 
 66.66 
 
 83.33 
 
 10.00 
 
 11.66 
 
 13.33 
 
 15.00 
 
 Grains . 
 
 Runs . 
 
 .625 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.875 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.125 
 
 3.75 
 
 4.375 
 
 5.00 
 
 5.625 
 
 87.50 
 
 1 
 
 10.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 40.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 60.00 
 
 70.00 
 
 80.00 
 
 90.00 
 
 70.00 
 
 14 
 
 8.00 
 
 16.00 
 
 24.00 
 
 32.00 
 
 40.00 
 
 48.00 
 
 56.00 
 
 64.00 
 
 72.00 
 
 58.83 
 
 n 
 
 6.66 
 
 13.33 
 
 20.00 
 
 26.66 
 
 33.33 
 
 40.00 
 
 46.66 
 
 53.33 
 
 60.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 it 
 
 5.71 
 
 11.42 
 
 17.20 
 
 22.91 
 
 28.62 
 
 34.33 
 
 40.11 
 
 45.82 
 
 51.53 
 
 43.75 
 
 2 
 
 5.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 15.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 35.00 
 
 40.00 
 
 45.00 
 
 38.88 
 
 34 
 
 4.44 
 
 8.88 
 
 13.33 
 
 17.77 
 
 22.22 
 
 26.66 
 
 31.11 
 
 35.55 
 
 40.00 
 
 35.00 
 
 34 
 
 4.00 
 
 8.00 
 
 12.00 
 
 16.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 24.00 
 
 28.00 
 
 32.00 
 
 36.00 
 
 31.81 
 
 34 
 
 3.63 
 
 7.27 
 
 10.90 
 
 14.54 
 
 18.17 
 
 21.81 
 
 25.44 
 
 29.08 
 
 32.72 
 
 29.16 
 
 3 
 
 3.33 
 
 6.67 
 
 10.00 
 
 13.33 
 
 16.67 
 
 20.00 
 
 23.33 
 
 26.67 
 
 30.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 34 
 
 2.86 
 
 5.71 
 
 8.57 
 
 11.42 
 
 14.28 
 
 17.14 
 
 20.00 
 
 22.84 
 
 25.71 
 
 21.87 
 
 4 
 
 2.50 
 
 5.00 
 
 7.50 
 
 10.00 
 
 12.50 
 
 15.00 
 
 17.50 
 
 20.00 
 
 22.50 
 
 19.43 
 
 44 
 
 2.22 
 
 4.44 
 
 6.66 
 
 8.88 
 
 11.11 
 
 13.33 
 
 15.55 
 
 17.77 
 
 20.00 
 
 17.50 
 
 5 
 
 2.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 6.00 
 
 8.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 12.00 
 
 14.00 
 
 16.00 
 
 18.00 
 
 15.90 
 
 54 
 
 1.81 
 
 8.63 
 
 5.45 
 
 7.27 
 
 9.08 
 
 10.90 
 
 12.71 
 
 14.54 
 
 16.35 
 
 14.57 
 
 6 
 
 1.66 
 
 3.33 
 
 5.00 
 
 6.66 
 
 8.33 
 
 10.00 
 
 11.66 
 
 13.33 
 
 15.00 
 
 13.45 
 
 64 
 
 1.53 
 
 3.07 
 
 4.61 
 
 6.15 
 
 7.69 
 
 9.22 
 
 10.76 
 
 12.30 
 
 13.84 
 
 12.50 
 
 7 
 
 1.42 
 
 2.85 
 
 4.28 
 
 5.71 
 
 7.14 
 
 8.57 
 
 10.00 
 
 11.42 
 
 12.85 
 
 11.66 
 
 74 
 
 1.33 
 
 2.66 
 
 4.00 
 
 5.33 
 
 6.66 
 
 8.00 
 
 9.33 
 
 10.66 
 
 12.00 
 
 10.93 
 
 8 
 
 1.25 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.75 
 
 5.00 
 
 6.25 
 
 7.50 
 
 8.75 
 
 10.00 
 
 11.25 
 
 10.28 
 
 84 
 
 1.17 
 
 2.35 
 
 3.52 
 
 4.70 
 
 5.88 
 
 6.05 
 
 8.23 
 
 9.40 
 
 10.58 
 
 9.71 
 
 9 
 
 1.11 
 
 2.22 
 
 3.33 
 
 4.44 
 
 5.55 
 
 6.66 
 
 7.77 
 
 8.88 
 
 10.00 
 
 8.75 
 
 10 
 
 1.00 
 
 2.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 6.00 
 
 7.00 
 
 8.00 
 
 9.00 
 
 7.95 
 
 11 
 
 .90 
 
 1.81 
 
 2.72 
 
 3.63 
 
 4.54 
 
 5.45 
 
 6.36 
 
 7.27 
 
 8.18 
 
 7.28 
 
 12 
 
 .83 
 
 1.66 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.33 
 
 4.16 
 
 5.00 
 
 5.83 
 
 6.66 
 
 7.50 
 
 Some years ago the author published the above yarn table. 
 It has since been published by several other parties, which is suffi¬ 
 cient evidence that the table is worth the space it occupies here. 
 It is not convenient to any one who is not in the habit of using 
 decimals in calculations of this kind. But to any one who has become 
 thoroughly conversant with the convenience of the decimal point, 
 it will be of great service in estimating stock required, yarns, 
 spooler measures, etc. It is applicable to both the run and grain 
 systems of numbering, and by using other tables of this work for 
 comparison of numbers it will answer tolerably for worsted also. 
 The original explanation of the table is also given : 
 
 “ The yarn table herewith is intended to cover several points. 
 First, to find the weight in ounces of any number of threads, one 
 yard in length, or, in other words, any number of yards of yarn. 
 Second, to find the measure in runs ; and, thirdly, in holes, of any 
 number of yards. The size of the thread being designated both in 
 grains and runs, in the two first columns. The yards in the first 
 line, holes in the second, runs third, and ounces in all subsequent. 
 The yards are given in thousands, for convenience sake ; for a less 
 
i8o 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 number it is only necessary to divide by ten, one hundred, or one 
 thousand, as the case may be, by removing the decimal point to the 
 left one, two or three spaces. The table is based as follows: 100 
 yards of one-run yard weigh one ounce ; 1,600 yards or one run in 
 length weighing one pound ; 60 yards one hole.” 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zig-Zag. —In some parts, particularly in England, herring bone 
 textures are called by this name. The texture effects which the 
 writer classes as zig-zags are those in which the twills reverse in a 
 much more irregular order. One sometimes meets muslins and 
 gauze of this class, reminding one of chain lightning. 
 
SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 181 
 
 INDEX 
 
 To the Subject Matter of the Manual which is 
 not Alphabetically Arranged . 
 
 Note.—T he work contains 162 pages of names and terms with definitions and 
 derivations, also elementary instructions on many important subjects involved, all 
 arranged in alphabetical order. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Alpaca Wool. 98 
 
 Ananas Hemp. 97 
 
 Animal Fibers. 9® 
 
 Boiler Ash-pits, Furnaces and Grates. 3§ 
 
 Boiler Bridge-wall. 39 
 
 Cam Looms. . 122 
 
 Camel Hair. 9® 
 
 Card Grinding.. . io 7 
 
 Chain Drafts. 86 
 
 Chain Drafts for Backing. 33 
 
 Chain Drafts for Double Cloth. ... 165 
 
 Chain Drafts for Repellants. 145 
 
 Chain Looms. 122 
 
 Chinese Grass. 97 
 
 Close Shed Looms. 122 
 
 Cocoa Fibers. 97 
 
 Computations of Fuel, Steam, &c. 4° 
 
 Contrast of Colors . 57 
 
 Dissecting Instruments. 81 
 
 Drafts Illustrating Cross Drawing. 64 
 
 Drafts Illustrating Simple Textures. 161 
 
 Drawing-in Drafts. 86 
 
 Draw Loom.. • 122 
 
 Dye-house Reels. . I 44 
 
 Emery Rollers. 94 
 
 Estimate of Heddles. 148 
 
 Evaporation of Water in Boilers. 46 
 
 Filling Drafts. 87 
 
 Fixed Alkalies... 21 
 
 Flax. 97 
 
 General Consideration of Colors. 57 
 
 Glass Threads. 99 
 
 Gold and Silver Threads. • • • 99 
 
182 
 
 SPITZLI’S MANUAL. 
 
 Hair Line Drafts. m 
 
 Harmony of Color. 58 
 
 Heating Feed Water for Boilers . 42 
 
 Imperfect Edges. 93 
 
 Introduction. 9 
 
 Jute. 97 
 
 Manila Hemp. 18 
 
 Mineral Fibers. 98 
 
 Nealing. 24 
 
 Nettle. 97 
 
 Open Shed Looms. r22 
 
 Pelt Wool. 137 
 
 Picking Out. 75 
 
 Positive Shuttle Motion Looms. 122 
 
 Qualities of Colors. 58 
 
 Ramm6e. 97 
 
 Reducing or Deducing Drafts. 160 
 
 Reed Calculations. 147 
 
 Reed Tables. ... 141 
 
 Roller Looms. 122 
 
 Rough Edges. 93 
 
 Ribbon Looms. 122 
 
 Rule for Shrinkage in Fulling . 103 
 
 Shear Grinding. 109 
 
 Spooler Drafts. 86 
 
 Suggestions to Beginners. 15 
 
 Tables Showing Product of Looms ..... 142-143 
 
 Table of Oils—Comparative Weights . 130 
 
 Tape and Tappet Looms... ... 122 
 
 Teachings of Experience Relative to Colors. 59 
 
 Tenter Clothing. 159 
 
 The Manufacture of Textile Fabrics. 11 
 
 The Needle-bar Mechanism. 69 
 
 The Preparation of the Sample for Dissecting. 78 
 
 Uneven Yarn.. 176 
 
 Vegetable Fibers. 97 
 
 Volatile Alkali. 21 
 
 Warpers’ Drafts. 86 
 
 Water Surface of Boilers. 4 ° 
 
 Yarn Reels. 144 
 

GETTY CENTER LIBRARY 
 
 3 3125 00140 2847 
 
 HOBBY SHOP!