Short French Grammar I Ulrich Middeldorf Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2014 https://archive.org/details/shortfrenchgrammOOgran_0 Ibeatb's flDoî>ern Xanouaoe Series A SHORT FRENCH GRAMMAR BY C. H. GRANDGENT Professor of Romance Languages in Harvard University, formerly director of modern language instruction in the Boston Public Schools D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO Copyright^ j8q4, By C. H. GRANDGENT. PREFACE. The world is so full of French grammars that the author who brings out a new one really owes the public some kind of an apology. Hence, in putting this little volume on the market, I feel bound to excuse its existence as best I can, by calling attention to any features that may distinguish it from other books. I will say, then, that my purpose in writing this Grammar has been to produce an elementary werk that should combine the following advantages: (i) brevity without undue conciseness, (2) treatment of the subject from the standpoint of the American pupil, (3) a strictly systematic arrangement, and (4) a scien- tific but easily intelligible study of French pronunciation. Brevity. — Although this book is very small, readers will find that the various parts of speech are discussed here with unusual fulness. My aim has been, in fact, to attain brevity, not through compression, but through the exclusion of useless and extraneous matter. Vocabu- lary and the translation of idioms belong to the dictionary, not to the grammar. The same thing is true of invariable words — prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, and adverbs ; although the description of the use of some of these forms lies naturally in the province of syntax. As to syntax itself, I do not believe that very much of it can ever be learned from a text-book : the student must, in the main, become acquainted with constructions through his own observation of the spoken and written language. Only when he is tolerably familiar with the subject will he be able to make intelligent use of a complete set of rules, which will then help him to give definiteness and system to the knowledge he has acquired. In my Grammar, therefore, no attempt has been made to furnish anything like a thorough-going presentation of French syntax ; invariable words have, for the most part, been left out of account ; but the agreement of participles, the values of the iii iv PREFACE. moods and tenses, the agreement and position of adjectives, the uses of articles, and some other important matters are treated in such a way as at least to indicate to the pupil the direction in which he should turn his attention. Point of view. — Nearly all French grammars that I know are constructed without regard to the intelligence, habits, and previous training of the American schoolboy ; most of them, indeed, are little more than collections of rules taken from French grammars written by Frenchmen for French children. Hence our pupils, on beginning the language, are confronted with a strange style, a foreign conception of grammatical principles, and a new, confusing, and often senseless terminology ; for a long while they cannot get their bearings, and the knowledge they have gained through the study of English is of no benefit to them. Experience has convinced me that the use of such expressions as " partitive article," "past definite," and "past indefinite" is a source of endless misunderstanding, and almost invariably causes the absolute waste of a great deal of valuable time. I have tried to make my book, as far as possible, a natural continuation of the ordinary 'grammar school course. At every step I have taken pains to compare French with English, so that students may readily grasp the character- istics of the new language and understand more thoroughly than ever before the structure of their own. The common nomenclature of English grammar has been used as far as it goes ; for the imperfect and preterit I have ventured to coin new names, "descriptive past" and " narrative past," which designate the nature of both and the func- tion of each. The French equivalents of the English " potential mood " have been carefully explained. Arrangement. — As methods of modern language teaching improve, the grammar will doubtless come to be regarded more and more as a guide and reference-book, and less and less as a collection of detached lessons. Moreover, whatever be the use to which the grammar is put, no really intelligent work can be expected of a class unless the French inflections are so displayed and the principles of the language are so exposed as to show clearly their relations to one another. For these reasons I have tried to arrange my Grammar according to a strictly logical scheme. I begin with verbs and end with nouns. In attacking PREFACE. V a strange language, a student can do but little until he has been intro- duced to the highly inflected parts of speech, but he can accomplish a great deal without having made any special study of words that are nearly or quite invariable. Pronunciation. — It seems to me that the time has come for a more scientific description of pronunciation in popular text-books. I have attempted to furnish this without the use of any unfamiliar terms and with almost no mention of the positions of the unseen vocal organs. I have, in fact, in characterizing the individual French sounds, relied almost entirely on English key-words, but these words have been selected with such care that the correspondences are sufficiently accurate. Of course my descriptions are offered as a supplement to oral instruction by the teacher, not as a substitute for it. Through- out the Grammar the pronunciation of French words and inflected forms has been clearly and consistently indicated. My phonetic notation is exceedingly simple: an intelligent person who knows French can read the transcription without any explanation ; while beginners will, I think, find it a great help in studying French speech. To any phoneticians who may think I ought to have given less importance to the written forms, I would say that I agree entirely with the opinion expressed by H. Morf, Phonetische Studien, VI., i, pp. 112-113, on tne comparative value of pronunciation and spelling to the student of a foreign language ; for Americans, indeed, isolated as they are, he might have put the case still more strongly. Authorities consulted. — Wishing to make my little book as original as possible, I have used other grammars very sparingly. Never- theless, I got some help from Da Costa's Cours supérieur and Edgren's Compendious French Grammar, and I found some welcome suggestions in Notes on the Teaching of French, by Professor F. C. de Sumichrast (contained in Methods of Teaching Modern Languages, published by D. C. Heath & Co.). I take pleasure in acknowledging my indebted- ness to Professor Sheldon, of Harvard, who was kind enough to read and criticise my manuscript ; I am under great obligations, also, to Professor Lang, of Yale, Professor Matzke, of Stanford University, and Professor Rambeau, of Johns Hopkins, who assisted me in revis- ing the proofs. For pronunciation I have consulted the well-know™ vi PREFACE. works of Paul Passy, Franz Beyer, and Rousselot, the still unfinished dictionary of Hatzfeld and Darmesteter, and Ph. Wagner's Franzbsisehe Quantit at ; in the matter of assimilation I have followed G. Rollin, Phonetische Studien, VI., 2, p. 220, and Jean Passy, Maître phonétique, February, 1893, pp. 28-29. In a few cases where Paul Passy is at vari- ance with other authorities — for instance, as to the quality of the vowel in mais and in ces, les, mes, ses, tes — I have not chosen his pronunciation. I have, moreover, kept the / of il and Us: in the slow and labored utterance of beginners the clipped forms of rapid conversation are disagreeably incongruous. On the other hand, as students are so likely to drawl or distort the "mute I have con- sidered this vowel as really silent in all cases where it is not usually audible in actual speech. My treatment of the u in lui is open to criticism on theoretical grounds, as it is not consistent with the rest of my scheme ; I have found, however, by experiment, that it is the only practical method for our school-children : any suggestion of a resemblance between this u and w is fatal to success. The wise and long-needed reforms in French orthography recently adopted by the French Academy have not yet met with recognition enough to entitle them to consideration in an elementary text-book ; in fact, so far as I know, they have never been fully and officially announced : I have therefore been obliged — much against my will — to leave them out of account. Suggestions to Teachers. — As the Short French Grammar calls for methods of instruction that are new to many American teachers, the following practical suggestions may not be found superfluous: — 1. Do not try to use the Grammar, in a class of beginners, with- out the accompanying Lessons and Exercises, or some equivalent. — The First and the Second Year's Course for Gram?nar Schools are suited to very young children, and call for no previous knowledge of technical English grammar; as these grammar school exercises can be used independently of the Grammar, they will not be bound with it. The First Year's Course for High Schools is intended for beginners who have just entered the high school. The First Year's Course for Colleges is adapted both to mature beginners, and to ordinary high school pupils in their second year of French. Some PREFACE. vii college classes may profitably complete the two latter courses in one year. All these schemes are constructed on the basis of three reci- tations a week. In schools where four or five hours per week are given to French, teachers may pursue either one of the fol- lowing methods : (i) They may have a grammar lesson at every recitation, thus finishing the course before the end of the year, and leaving several weeks free for translation and oral or written composition ; or (2) they may confine the grammar to three hours a week, and devote the other hour or hours to reading and to such oral and written work as is furnished in my French Compo- sition and in my Materials for F?'ench Composition (D. C. Heath & Co.). 2. Follow closely the directions given in the prefaces of the Les- sons and Exercises, and do not deviate, without good reason, from the schemes of lessons indicated in those courses. — Remember that most pupils can never acquire a good pronunciation unless they form it at the very outset. The use of a phonetic notation, wherever it has been tried (and the experiment has now been made in a great many places), has proved to be a wonderful help to the pupil. Teachers should, therefore, be willing to give themselves the little trouble required to make them thoroughly familiar with the extremely easy system employed in this book ; unless they have had exceptional opportunities for learning French, they will probably find their own pronunciation considerably strengthened and improved by the use of this method. 3. Do not be alarmed at the somewhat novel character of the exercises in the First Year's Course for High Schools. — English- French and French-English exercises of the traditional kind have here been purposely avoided. As for English-French exercises, the best modern authorities agree in condemning the mechanical trans- lation of English sentences into French by very young pupils who have no acquaintance with the French tongue. Not until the school- boy has gained, through reading and speaking, some insight into the structure of the foreign language, should he attempt to write it ; and çvçn then his efforts should be confined, for some time, to the close viii PREFACE. imitation of connected French prose that he has carefully studied. With regard to old-fashioned French-English exercises, it is hardly necessary to point out that they are inferior, in every respect, to a well-chosen consecutive French text that interests the pupil, furnishes useful vocabulary, and shows the grammatical principles in natural operation. 4. Use a good reading-book, with high school and college classes, from the very beginning of the first year's course. — Only a part (perhaps two-thirds) of each recitation hour should be given to the grammar work laid out in the Lessons and Exercises of these grades ; the rest should be devoted to reading. During the first few weeks, all or nearly all translating must, of course, be at sight ; this exer- cise should proceed briskly, the teacher lifting the pupil over the hard places and showing him how to find his way through the rest. When scholars have mastered the verbs, they can easily prepare translation lessons ; but sight work should never be entirely neg- lected. Several excellent reading-books are available : among them are Super's French Reader, Joynes's French Fairy Tales, Snow and Lebon'siT^jry^m/^andLaboulaye's Contes B leus (D. C. Heath & Co.). 5. In using the Grammar with classes that do not exactly cor- respond to any of the grades for which courses are provided, adapt the lessons and exercises to the special needs of the scholars. — For instance, third-year high school pupils who are just beginning French can first take the First Yearns Course for High Schools, covering two or more lessons at a time, and then make use of a large part of the First Year's Course for Colleges. High school children, after their second year of French, and college students, after their first year, do not need any regular exercises in grammar : they should, instead, devote some time every week to exercises based on the French texts they are reading, and, later, to free composition work, using the Grammar as a book of reference. Cambridge, January, 1894. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGES, LESSONS AND EXERCISES. :. First Year's Course for High Schools .... Appendix I ii. First Year's Course for Colleges Appendix II GRAMMAR 1. Pronunciation and Spelling i-i i Pronunciation i-io Vowels 1-3 Consonants 3-7 Accent 7-8 Quantity 8-9 Intonation 10 Spelling io-n 2. Verbs I2 ~77 Introduction 12-20 Voice, Mood, Tense 12-18 Person and Number 19-20 Simple Tenses 20-47 General Rules 20-23 Regular Verbs 23-32 First Conjugation 23-28 Second Conjugation 29-30 Third Conjugation 30-32 Irregular Verbs 32-47 List of Irregular Verbs 33~3& Ten Verbs Conjugated in Full 37~47 Compound Tenses 47-48 Passive Voice 48-50 Interrogative and Negative Forms S°~^3 Interrogation 50—54 Negation 54-63 Reflexive Conjugation 63-66 ix X CONTENTS. PAGES Impersonal Verbs 0 . 67-69 Auxiliary Verbs 69-77 3. Personal Pronouns 78-91 Conjunctive Forms 81-88 Disjunctive Forms 89-91 4. Possessives 92-96 Possessive Adjectives 9 2_ 94 Possessive Pronouns 94-96 5. Relative Pronouns 97-101 6. Interrogatives 102-106 Interrogative Adjectives 103 Interrogative Pronouns 103-106 7. Demonstratives 107-m Demonstrative Adjectives 107-108 Demonstrative Pronouns 108-m 8. Articles 1 12-120 Definite Article 112-118 Form 112-113 Use 113-1 18 The 113-116 Some and Any 116-118 Indefinite Article 118-120 9. Adjectives 121-138 Form 121-125 Agreement 125-127 Position 127-129 Comparison 129-132 Adjectives of Quantity 132-134 Numerals I 35~ I 3^ 10. Nouns 139-143 Number 140-141 Gender 142-143 Index 145-150 A SHORT FRENCH GRAMMAR. i. PRONUNCIATION AND SPELLING. 1. A language is written phonetically when the spelling of every word clearly indicates its pronunciation. With English and French this is far from being the case ; for almost every letter has several different values, and many of the written letters are not sounded at all. In this book, therefore, the pronunciation of French will be shown by means of a special phonetic notation, which will always be enclosed in parentheses, so that students may not confound it with the usual orthography. For instance, " quarter = quart (Kar)" means that the French word for quarter is spelled quart and pronounced kar. 2. We can distinguish the following French vowels : — VOWELS. Usual Spelling. Sound. (a) (â) (à) (e) (é) (è) a; à â; a an; am; en; em é ; e ; ai è ; ê ; e ; ai ; ei e nearly like a in part nasal (a) ; see § 2, £ nearly like u in fur between a in pat and a in part nearly like e in bed nasal (è) ; see § 2, 3. nearly like a in bakery 1 2 PRONUNCIATION AND SPELLING. Usual Spelling. Sound. (ë) : eu ; œu ( ë) : un ; um (i): i; î; y rounded (è) ; see § 2, a nasal (ë) ; see § 2, b (ô) : ô ; o ; eau ; au nearly like ea in eatable nearly like o in popery (ô) : o ; au (ô) : on ; om (ô) : eu ; œu (ù): u; û between u in hut and o in hot nasal (ô) ; see § 2, b rounded (é) ; see § 2, a rounded (i) \ .see%2 y a nearly like 00 /« booby (u) : ou ; oû ; où All French vowel sounds except (e), whether they are accented or unaccented, are always pronounced sharply and distinctly ; they are neither drawled nor slurred. As a rule, they are shorter than English accented vowels. It is to be noted that most of the English " long vowels " are really diphthongs, while the French long vowels are simple sounds : English rose, rave are nearly (rôuz), (rèiv) ; but French * rose/ * rêve 1 are (rôz), (rèv). a. To pronounce (iï), (ô), (ë), round or pucker the lips, as for whistling, and try to say (i), (é), (è). Rounded (i) = (u), rounded (é) = (6), rounded (è) = (ë). Ex. : pu (pu), tu (tu), vu (vu) ; deux (dô), eux (o), peu (po) ; bœuf (bëf), œuf (ëf), seul (sël). b. To pronounce (â), {e), (ë), (: r ; rr see § 4, a (S): c before e, i, y 1 ; ç; s; ss ; t 2 ; x ss in hiss (t): t; tt; th t in pity (v): V v in never (w): o ; ou w in woo (y): ill; il; 113; 13. y; i y inye (z): s between vowels ; z ; x s in easy These consonants should never be mumbled, but should all be articulated as clearly as possible. A consonant sound that is pronounced at the end of a word should be uttered with special force and distinctness. Ex. : patte (pat), ville (vil). A single consonant between two vowels always belongs to the same syllable as the second vowel. Ex.: témérité«(té-mé-ri-té). See § 13. a. The hardest sound for an English-speaking person to acquire is (r). It may be pronounced in either one of two ways : (1) by drawing the tongue into the back of the mouth, and letting the uvula vibrate against it ; (2) by making the point of the tongue vibrate against the upper front teeth. The latter (r) is sometimes used in English by elocutionists and singers. Students should select one of these, and practise it constantly until they can produce it without difficulty. Ex. : reine (rèn), rare (rar), rire (rir), sur (sur), porter (por-té), armée (ar-mé\ gros (grô), très (trè), drôle (drôl), prix (pri). 1 See § 5, c. 2 See § 5, d. 3 After i. CONSONANTS: §5. 5 b. The consonant sounds (w) and (y) are usually more vigorous in French than in English. Ex.: oui (wi), toi (tvva), briller (bri-yé), fille (fly). c. In forming (d), (1), (n), (t), let the point of the tongue touch the backs of the upper front teeth. Ex. : nous te le donnons (nu-tel-do-m)). d. In pronouncing (n), press the point of the tongue against the backs of the lower front teeth. Ex. : Isigny (i-zi-ni), besogne (be-zôiï). e. When a final (1) or (r) is preceded by (b), (d), (f), (g), (k), (p), (t), or (v), it should never be allowed to form a separate syllable, but should be spoken very quickly and in a whisper. Ex. : peuple (pëpl), quatre (Katr) ; compare English people (pip-1). Final (m) preceded by (s) should be whispered also. Ex. : prisme (prism). 1 5. Examples : — ( b ) : abbé (a-bé), bu (bu). (n) : ne (ne), bonne (bon), (ch) : chose (choz), tâche (tâch). (n) : agneau (a-no), vigne (vin). ( d ) : dans (d S r > ph> ply P r > thy tr y vr<2> belong to the follow- ing vowel : com-bler y ar-bre y a-chat y bâ-cler, vain-cre y pou-dre y a-gneau, sif-fler, of-frir, ré-gler y ai-gre y né-nu-phar, soti-ple y â-pre y a-thé e, vi-tre y ou-vrir. Other groups of two con- sonant letters are generally divided in the middle : ab- besses ac-centy ad-mi-rer y al-ler y bon-heur y es-pé-ran-ce y sitg- gé-rer. 14. Capitals are used, as in English, at the beginning of a sentence and in proper names. In the following cases small letters should be employed : (1) in adjectives derived from proper nouns; (2) generally in words that indicate rank or office; (3) in the names of the days and months ; (4) in the pronoun ' je,' meaning /. Ex. : George is in France — Georges est en France ; a French book = un livre français ; 3 Queen Victoria == la reine Victoria ; / shall come Tuesday = je viendrai mardi. 15. See § 3, a y b y c y d y ^,/and § 5, a y b y c y d. 1 In 'êtes' and in the verbal endings -âmes, -âtes, -lines, -ties, -ûmes, -ûtes the vowel is short: z and û are sometimes short in a few other words. 2 Of these groups, ch, gn,ph, th denote simple sounds, and in all the others the second element is / or r. 3 The Frenchman is 'le Français'; French, meaning the French language, is Me français.' 12 VERBS. 2. VERBS. Voice, Mood, Tense. 16. In French, as in English, a verb may be either active or passive. English verbs form their passive by means of the auxiliary to be ; in French the auxiliary is ' être ' (èètr), which means to be. Ex. : active, he finds = il trouve (il-truuv); passive, he is found = il est trouvé (i-lè-tru-vé). 1 a. The French are not fond of the passive, and avoid it in many cases where it would naturally be used in English. Ex. : / have been found — so7nebody has found me — on m'a trouvé. For the use of 6 on ' see §64 and §64, a. b. An English passive infinitive dependent on the verb to let, ' laisser,' or the verb to cause, ' faire,' is translated by the active infini- tive in French. Ex. : he lets hi7nself be deceived '— il se laisse tromper ; / cause it to be proclaimed — je le fais proclamer. 17. In French, as in English, an infinitive may be either present or perfect. Ex. : present, to find = trouver (tru-vé) ; perfect, to have found = avoir trouvé (a-vwar- tru-vé). The part of a verb that is given in dictionaries is the present active infinitive. a. Sometimes, in English, to is omitted before an infinitive ; but it must be remembered that a verb immediately dependent on another verb, whether to is expressed or not, is in the infinitive, and must be translated by that mood in French. Ex. : he must go = il doit partir; you can walk — vous pouvez marcher ; we see them come — nous les voyons venir. b. The proper translation of to before an infinitive must be learned by observation. It differs according to the word on which the infini- 1 In colloquial English, to get is often used, instead of to be y as auxiliary of the passive; it got broken — it was broken = il fut cassé. VOICE, MOOD, TENSE: § 18. 13 tive depends, and according to the idea conveyed by to: sometimes the to is rendered by 'de, 1 by 'à, 1 or by 'pour,' and sometimes it is not translated at all. To meaning in order to is nearly always 'pour.' Ex. : he promises to do it = il promet de le faire ; ready to go — prêt à partir ; / work to earn my living = je travaille pour gagner ma vie ; she has co7tie to see me = elle est venue me voir. c. To come and do something and to go and do anything are expressed by 'venir 1 and 'aller 1 followed by a dependent infinitive. Ex. : he ca7ne and asked me to go and get a book — he came to ask trie to go to get a book — il est venu me prier duller chercher un livre. 18. In French, as in English, a participle may be prese7it, past, or perfect} Ex. : present, findings trouvant (tru-vi) ; past, found — trouvé (tru-vé) ; perfect, having found = ayant trouvé (è-y ^-tru-vé). The present active participle always ends in -ant {a). a. The forms given above are those of the masculine singular ; they are used when the participle agrees with a word that is singular and masculine, and also in cases where the participle is invariable. The feminine form of participles is found by adding silent e to the mascu- line ; if the masculine ends in a silent consonant, this consonant is pronounced in the feminine. The plural of each gender is made by adding a silent s 2 to the singular ; but if the masculine singular ends in s, no s is added for the masculine plural. Ex. : sing, fait (fè) faite (fèt), plur. faits (fè) faites (fèt) ; sing, pris (pri) prise (priiz), plur. pris (pri) prises (priiz). 3 b. Real present participles are invariable in French : she went away, singing — elle s^loigna en chantant. But adjectives with participial form agree, like other adjectives, in gender and number with the words they modify : a singing voice — une voix chantante. See §§ 11 7-1 19. c. The past participle of a passive verb, or of an intransitive verb whose auxiliary is ' être, 1 to be, must agree in gender and number with 1 In a few English grammars the present participle is called " imperfect," the past parti- ciple is called " perfect," and the perfect participle is called " compound." The English verbal form in -trig, in such constructions as after doing this, is sometimes called an infini- tive; but in most English grammars and in this book it is, for the sake of convenience, classed as a present participle. * See §6 and §6, (1). 8 For a few irregular forms see § 3e. 14 VERBS. the subject of the verb. See §§ 117-119. Ex. : he is found = il est trouvé, she is found = elle est trouvée ; he is come = il est venu, they are come = ils sont venus. The past participle of an intransi- tive verb whose auxiliary is ' avoir,' to have, is invariable : we have slept — nous avons dormi ; they had been = ils avaient été. d. The past participle of an active, transitive verb does not agree with the subject, but it sometimes does agree with the direct object: (1) if the direct object precedes the verb, the past participle agrees with it in gender and number; (2) if the direct object follows the verb, the past participle is invariable. Ex. : what books has he given me — quels livres m'a-t-il donnés ? he has given you the books that I have found — il vous a donné les livres que j'ai trouvés [see § 86] ; he has cut his hand — il s'est coupé la main ; they have cut themselves = ils se sont coupés. There are two apparent exceptions to this rule : (A) the past participle of ' faire' [see § 18, t] is invariable before a dependent infinitive ; (B) a past participle never changes its form to agree with the pronoun 'en' [see § 65]. Ex. : he has had thein come — il les a fait venir ; / looked for them and found some — je les ai cherchés et j'en ai trouvé. e. After a preposition the English present participle must be trans- lated by the French infinitive : without finding = sans trouver ; after having found = après avoir trouvé. But when the preposition is by or through, rendered in French by 6 en,' the present participle is used in French as in English : by finding = en trouvant. f When, in English, while is used or can be understood before the present participle, the phrase is translated by 'en' with the present participle in French : [while'] saying this, he looks at me — en disant cela il me regarde. g. An English present participle is often equivalent to a relative clause : the laughing man — the man who laughs = l'homme qui rit ; ifs a child crying — if s a child that is crying — c'est un enfant qui pleure. h. An English present participle preceded by the verb to see, 'voir,' or to hear, 'entendre,' is generally translated by the present active infinitive in French : / see them coming — je les vois venir ; we hear him speaking — nous l'entendons parler. t. An English past participle preceded by a verb meaning to hear, 'entendre,' to see, 'voir,' or to have [signifying to cause], ' fair e,' is translated by the present active infinitive in French : / have heard it VOICE, MOOD, TENSE: §19. 15 said = je l'ai entendu dire ; we have seen the7n eaten — nous les avons vu manger ; she has it made — elle le fait faire ; I had it given to him — je le lui fis donner. 19. Aside from the infinitive and participle, French verbs have four moods : the indicative, the imperative, the conditional, and the subjunctive. a. The indicative and the imperative are used as in English : he comes here — il vient ici, she pays attention — elle fait attention ; come here — viens ici ! pay attention — faites attention ! b. The French conditional is used to translate the English forms with should or would in the following two cases : (i) in the conclusion of a conditional sentence ; (2) in a clause in indirect discourse the verb of which, in direct discourse, would have been future. — Ex. (1) : if 1 had it, I should give it to you = si je Pavais, je vous le donnerais ; if he ca?ne, he woidd find me = s'il venait, il me trouverait ; / should like to go there [that is, if I could] = je voudrais y aller. — Ex. (2) : they had told him that she would come [that is, they had said to him : "She will come"] = on lui avait dit qu'elle viendrait. c. The French subjunctive is not like any English mood. In cases where the French language requires the subjunctive, the English has generally the indicative, but sometimes the infinitive, and sometimes the compound forms with should, would, might, or may. The French subjunctive is found occasionally in principal, but much oftener in subordinate clauses. Although the uses of this mood must be learned by practice, the main principles governing its occurrence will be briefly stated here : — In principal clauses : A. The present subjunctive is employed independently to express a wish or command : so be it — ainsi soit-il ; let them come — qu'ils viennent. — B. The. past perfect subjunctive is sometimes used instead of the perfect conditional : he would have saved her — il l'eût sauvée, for il l'aurait sauvée. — In subordinate clauses the subjunctive is present or present perfect if the verb of the main clause is present, present perfect, future, or future perfect ; the subjunctive is past or past perfect if the verb of the main clause is past, past perfect, or in the conditional. — A. The subjunctive is generally employed in a clause dependent (1) on a word or phrase denoting causation, concession, desire, fear, joy, prevention, sorrow, surprise, or uncertainty, followed by the conjunction ' que ' (Ke), i6 VERBS. that: I want you to do it = je veux que vous le fassiez, we feared he was ill — nous craignions qu'il ne fût malade, you dortt believe she is coming = vous ne croyez pas qu'elle vienne ; 1 (2) on a superlative or a word meaning first, last, only, no, nothing, or nobody : if s the best we can do — c'est le mieux que nous puissions faire, he was the only one that had stayed — il était le seul qui fût resté ; (3) on an imper- sonal verb : 2 it is necessary for them to write — il faut qu'ils écrivent, it is right for you to be punished = il est juste que vous soyez puni. — B. The subjunctive is used after conjunctions meaning although, before, for fear, provided, so that [indicating purpose], supposing, unless, until, without, and generally in dependent clauses expressing conces- sion, purpose, or restriction : although you speak very loud, I do not hear you — quoique vous parliez très fort, je ne vous entends pas ; no matter who you are, come in = qui que vous soyez, entrez. — C. The past perfect subjunctive, with or without ' si,' if, s is occasion- ally used, instead of the indicative with ' si,' in a condition contrary to fact : if I had seen him — si je l'eusse vu, for si je l'avais vu ; had he wished to do so — eût-il voulu le faire, for s'il avait voulu le faire. 20. In English we distinguish in the indicative three simple tenses : the present, the past, and the future. Ex. : Iam — )t suis (je-siii); Iwas = j'étais (jé-tè) or je fus (je-fù) ; / shall be = )Q serai (j es-ré). The French indicative has a present, a future, and two past tenses, which we shall call the descriptive past and the narrative past. The sub- junctive has only two simple tenses : a present and a past. The imperative and the conditional have neither past nor future. a. In English, simple present and past time are expressed in several ways: (1) by the simple present and past tenses; (2) by the present participle combined with the auxiliary to be, (3) by the infinitive com- bined with the auxiliary to do. In French only the first of these 1 But / believe she is coming— \ç. crois qu'elle viendra. Verbs of thinking and believing are followed by the subjunctive when used negatively or interrogatively, by the indicative when used affirmatively. 2 This rule does not apply to phrases meaning it is true or it is because. Ex.: it is be- cause you do not know him = c'est que vous ne le connaissez pas. 3 The i of ' si ' is elided before ■ il,' he or tt f and ' ils,' they, but not before any other word. VOICE, MOOD, TENSE : §21. 17 methods is used. Hence I speak, I am speaking, and / do speak are all translated by 6 je parle'; / spoke, I was speaking, I did speak, and also / used to speak all correspond to 4 je parlais. 1 b. The difference between the descriptive and the narrative past is to a certain extent implied in their names. Use the descriptive past: (i) in clauses of a descriptive or explanatory nature where the past would be used in English, as it was eight o ^ clock, the wind was blowing, it was very cold — il était huit heures, le vent soufflait, il faisait très froid, or he gave me the ring that he wore = il me donna la bague qu'il portait ; (2) to tell what was going on or how things were when something happened, as in I was speaking when he came in — je par- lais lorsqu'il entra ; (3) to represent a past state or action as habitual, repeated, or protracted, as in / spoke to him every day = je lui parlais tous les jours ; (4) in conditional clauses where the past indicative or subjunctive is or might be used in English, as if he were here, I should see him — s'il était ici, je le verrais, or if he should speak [that is, if he spoke] to me, I should answer him — s'il me parlait, je lui répondrais. In all other cases use the narrative past. See, however, § 21, b. 1 c. In subordinate clauses relating to the future and introduced by a conjunction of time, we generally use the present tense in English, but the future tense must be employed in French. Ex. : when he comes here, he will see me — quand il viendra ici, il me verra. d. For the use of tenses in the subjunctive see § 19, c. In colloquial French the subjunctive past is generally avoided, the present being used in its stead; the forms belonging to the first conjugation [see §§28, 29] are particularly unpopular. 21. In French, as in English, we find in the indicative three compound tenses : the present perfect, the past per- feet, and the future perfect? Ex. : / have been = j'ai été (jé-é-té) ; I had been = j'avais été (ja-vè-zé-té) ; / shall have been = j'aurai été (jô-ré-é-té). The subjunctive has a pres- ent perfect and a past perfect; the conditional has a 1 Usually the descriptive past is called the " imperfect," and the narrative past is called the " past definite" or the " preterit." 2 In French grammars the present perfect is generally called " past indefinite " or " per- fect," the past perfect is nearly always called " pluperfect," and the future perfect is called " future anterior." i8 VERBS. perfect ; the imperative has no compound tense. For the infinitive and the participle see §§ 17, 18. Most French verbs form their compound tenses by combining their past participle with the auxiliary ' avoir ' (a-vwaar), to have ; but all reflexive verbs and many in- transitive verbs use, instead of 'avoir/ the auxiliary 'être' (èètr), to be. Ex. : she has cut it = elle l'a coupé (èl-la- KU-pé); she has cut herself — elle s'est coupée (èl-sè-KU-pé) ; she has cut her finger — she has cut herself the finger = elle s'est coupé le doigt (èl-sè-KU-pél-dwa) ; she has stayed = elle est restée (è-lè-rès-té). a. The proper auxiliary to be used with intransitive verbs must be learned, to a certain extent, by practice. The commonest intransitive verbs conjugated with ' être ' are : aller, arriver, descendre, entrer, monter, mourir, naître, partir, rentrer, rester, retourner, revenir, sortir, tomber, venir. 6 Passer ' and some other verbs are conjugated some- times with ' être ' and sometimes with ' avoir.' See § 18, c, and § 34, (2). b. In colloquial French the narrative past is always replaced by the present perfect: I saw him last year — je l'ai vu Tan dernier. This construction is frequently used also in the literary style. The French present perfect corresponds, therefore, both to the English present perfect and to the English past: 'j'ai donné' may mean either / have given or I gave. c. The usual form of the past perfect is made by combining the descriptive past of the auxiliary with the past participle of the main verb: I had been — j'avais été; / had gone — j'étais allé. A second form of the past perfect is constructed from the narrative past of the auxiliary and the past participle of the verb ; this combination is used after expressions meaning as soon as: as soon as I had spoken — aussitôt que j'eus parlé. 1 d. When an action is represented as having taken place and as still continuing in the present or in the past, the English uses the present perfect or past perfect tense, the French the simple present or descrip- tive past : / have been here for two years = je suis ici depuis deux ans. 1 This second form of the past perfect is often called the " past anterior," PERSON AND NUMBER: §§22,23. 19 Person and Number. 22. French verbs have special endings for the different persons, both in the singular and in the plural ; and every French finite verb must agree in person and number with its subject, whether that subject be expressed or under- stood. Ex.: / give = je donne (je-dôn), we give =5 nous donnons (nu-dô-n^), you give = vous donnez (vu-dô-né), they give = ils donnent (il-dôn) ; lets give = donnons (dô-n 00» (u), (urn), (ut), (iiiir) = (as), (as), (a), (asy c, d. Regular Verbs. 28. Regular verbs are divided into three conjugations, according to the ending of the present active infinitive : verbs in -er belong to the first, those in 4r to the second, and those in -re to the third conjugation. 1 If the infinitive of a regular verb is known, the other principal parts can be constructed from it : — First Conj. : drop final er, and add ant, é, e, ai. Second Conj. : drop final ir, and add issant, i, is, is. Third Conj. : drop final re, and add ant, u, s, is. Ex.: donner, donnant, donné, je donne, je donnai; grandir -, grandissant, grandi, je grandis, je grandis; rompre, rompant, rompu, je romps, je rompis. 29. The verb ' donner/ to give, will serve as a model of the first conjugation : — To give — donner (dô-né), giving — donnant (dô-n^), given = donné (dô-né). 1 Many grammarians make of a few verbs in -oir another regular conjugation, which they call the third; the conjugation in -re they call the fourth. In this book the verbs in -oir are all classed at irregular. 2 4 VERBS. / am giving or / give you are giving or you give he is giving or he gives we are giving or we give you are giving or you give they 1 are giving or they give Present. je donne (je-dôn) tu donnes (tu-don) il donne (il-dôn) nous donnons (nu-dô-n and § 12. As samples of these two classes of verbs we shall take ' placer, 1 to put, and 6 manger/ to eat. In the future, the conditional, and the present subjunctive there is no ending that begins with a or 0. (1) Placer (pla-sé), piaf ant (pla-s#), placé (pla-sé). (2) Manger (m#-jé), mangeant (mâ-jâ), mangé (m#-jé). 1 Also / should be giving. 2 See §§23, 24. 3 No translation of the subjunctive forms has been given, as the meaning of these forms varies according to the context. See § 19, c. 26 VERBS. je place (je-plas) tu places (tû-plas) il place (il-plas) nous plaeons (nu-pla-sÀ) vous placez (vu-pla-sé) ils placent (il-plas) Present. je mange Qe-mâd]) tu manges (tii-m««j) elle mange (h\-mââ]) nous mangeons (nu-mtf-jtive Past. je choisissais (je-chwa-zi-sè) tu choisissais (tii-chwa-zi-sè) elle choisissait (èl-chwa-zi-sè) nous choisissions (nu-chwa-zi-sy*)) vous choisissiez (vu-chwa-zi-syé) elles choisissaient (èl-chwa-zi-sè) Descrii / was choosing or > / used to choose y you were choosing or ) you used to choose y she was choosing or > she used to choose > we were choosing or ) we used to choose y you were choosing or ) you used to choose y they were choosing or ) they used to choose y Narrative Past. I chose je choisis (je-chwa-zi) you chose tu choisis (tli-chwa-zi) he chose il choisit (il-chwa-zi) we chose nous choisîmes (nu-chwa-zim) you chose vous choisîtes (vu-chwa-zit) they chose ils choisirent (il-chwa-ziir) 30 VERBS. Future. / shall choose you will choose she will choose we shall choose you will choose they will choose je choisirai (je-chwa-zi-ré) tu choisiras (tii-chwa-zi-ra) elle choisira (èl-chwa-zi-ra) ' nous choisirons (nu-chwa-zi-n)) vous choisirez (vu-chwa-zi-ré) elles choisiront (èl-chwa-zi-n?) . Conditional. / should choose you would choose he would choose we should choose you would choose they would choose je choisirais (je-chwa-zi-rè) tu choisirais (tii-chwa-zi-rè) il choisirait (il-chwa-zi-rè) nous choisirions (nu-chwa-zi-ryÀ) vous choisiriez (vu-chwa-zi-ryé) ils choisiraient (il-chwa-zi-rè) Imperative. choose lefs choose choose choisis (chwa-zi) choisissons (chwa-zi-s (3)- F° r the variations of the past participle see § 18, c. Below will be found a synopsis of the entire passive of ' oublier,' to forget. 1 The past participle of this verb is ' tombé,' ' tombée,' ' tombés,' or ' tombées,' according to the gender and number of the French name of what has fallen. See § 18, c . PASSIVE VOICE: § 35. 49 To be forgotten — être oublié (è-tru-bli-é), to have been forgotten = avoir été oublié (a-vwa-ré-té-u-bli-é) ; being forgotten = étant oublié (ê-td- tu-bli-é), having been forgotten — ayant été oublié (è-ya-té-té-u-bli-é). 1 Ind. Pres.: / am forgotten or I am being forgotten. je suis oublié (je-slii-zu-bli-é) Ind. Pres. Perf. : / have been forgotten or / was forgotten? j'ai été oublié (jé-é-té-u-bli-é) Descr. Past : / was forgotten or / was being forgotten. j'étais oublié (jé-tè-zu-bli-é) Ind. Past Perf.: I had been forgotten. z j'avais été oublié (ja-vè-zé-té-u-bli-é) Nar. Past: I was forgotten. je fus oublié (je-fu-zu-bli-é) Future: I shall be forgotten. je serai oublié (jes-ré-u-bli-é) Future Perf.: I shall have been forgotten. j'aurai été oublié (jo-ré-é-té-u-bli-é) Conditional : / should be forgotten. je serais oublié (jes-rè-zu-bli-é) Cond. Perf. : / should have been forgotten. j'aurais été oublié (jo-rè-zé-té-u-bli-é) Imperative, second person singular: be forgotten. sois oublié (swa-zu-bli-é) 1 The past participle is 'oublié/ ' oubliée,' 'oubliés,' or 'oubliées,' according to the gender #nd number of the French name of what is forgotten. See § 18, c. 2 See § ax, b. 8 .See §21, VERBS. Subjunctive Present. je sois oublié (je-swa-zu-bli-é) Subjunctive Present Perfect. j'aie été oublié (jè-é-té-u-bli-é) « Subjunctive Past. je fusse oublié (je-fli-su-bli-é) Subjunctive Past Perfect. j'eusse été oublié (jii-sé-té-u-bli-é) INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE FORMS. 36. In English we often construct interrogative and negative sentences with the help of the word to do ; the French language has no such auxiliary. Ex. : do we speak = speak we — parlons-nous (par-l^-nu) ? when does he go = when goes he = quand part-il (K ne . . plus (ne plii) no more, not any rnore > not 1 ne . . pas (ne pâ) ( ne . . point (ne pw^) 2 nowhere, not anywhere ne . . nulle part (ne nul-paar) only, but ne . . que (ne Ke) 1 See, however, §41, a. 2 The difference between * pas' and ' point' is that * point' forms a somewhat stronger negation than ! pas.' At all, after not or nothing, is ' du tout' (dii-tu). NEGATION : § 39. 55 (2) Pronouns : — hardly any, scarcely any nobody, not anybody > no one, not anyone > no more, not any more none, not any nothing, not anything not one n'en . . . guère (nâ Gèèr) ne . . . personne (ne pèr-sôn) n'en . . . plus (nâ plu) n'en . . . pas (nâ pâ) . n'en . . . point (nâ pw^) ne . . . rien (ne ryè) ne . . . aucun (ne ô-Kè) 1 (3) Adjectives : — hardly any, scarcely any no, not any no more, not any more not a, not an only ne . . . guère de (ne Gèrd) ne . . . pas de (ne pâd) . ne . . . point de (ne pwM) ne . . . plus de (ne pliid) ne . . . aucun (ne ô-Kë) 1 ne . . . nul (ne mil) ne . . . que (ne Ke) a. Of the pronouns mentioned above, those containing there have been, there was, there were. il y a eu (i-lya-u) Descr. Past: there was, there were, there used to be. il y avait (i-lya-vè) Past Perf. : there had been. il y avait eu (i-lya-vè-tli) Nar. Past: there was, there were. il y eut (i-lyii) 1 See, however, §63, B, (1), (2). VERBS. Future : there will be. il y aura ( i-lyo-ra) Fut. Perf. : there will have been. il y aura eu (i-lyô-ra-u) (2) Interrogative : — Pres. : is there , are there ? y a-t-il (ya-til) Pres. Perf. : has there been, have there been, was there , were there y a-t-il eu (ya-ti-lii) Descr. Past: was there, were there, did there use to be ? y avait-il (ya-vè-til) Past Perf.: had there been ? y avait-il eu (ya-vè-ti-lii) Nar. Past: was there, were there? y eut-il (yu-til) Future : will there be ? y aura-t-il (yo-ra-til) Fut. Perf.: will there have been ? y aura-t-il eu (yô-ra-ti-lu) (3) Negative: — Pres. : there isn't, there aren't. il n'y a pas (il-nya-pâ) Pres. Perf. : there hasn't been, there haven't been, etc. il n'y a pas eu (il-nya-pâ-zii) AUXILIARY VERBS : § 50. 69 Descr. Past: there wasn't, there weren't. il n'y avait pas (il-nya-vè-pâ) Past Perf. : there hadn't been. il n'y avait pas eu (il-nya-vè-pâ-zii) Nar. Past: there wasn't, there weren't. il n'y eut pas (il-nyu-pâ) Future : there will not be. il n'y aura pas (il-nyo-ra-pâ) Fut. Perf. : there will not have been. il n'y aura pas eu (il-nyô-ra-pâ-zii) a. 'Il y a' means literally it has there. In the English expressions there is, there are, etc., there is merely an adverb, and the subject of the verb is some following word ; in the French phrases 6 il y a,' etc., on the other hand, the subject is always 'il, 1 it, and so the verb is always singular. Ex. : there are seven days — il y a sept jours. b. When the pronoun 'en' is used with one of these phrases, it stands between the i y ' and the verb : there is none — il n'y en a pas. See §39, (2). AUXILIARY VERBS. 50. We have already noted the following facts : — (1) The passive voice, formed in English by means of to be, is made in French with the help of ' être ' : he is loved by everyone = il est aimé de tout le monde. See § 16 and § 35. (2) Compound tenses, constructed in English with the aid of to have, are formed in French in some cases with 'avoir,' in others with ' être ' : you have been in France = vous avez été en France ; they had gone to Germany = ils étaient allés en Alle- magne. See § 21 ; § 21, a ; § 34. 7o VERBS. (3) The future and the conditional, which in English require the help of shall and will, should 1 and would, need no auxiliary in French : / shall sleep = je dormirai ; she would come = elle viendrait. See § 26, i. (4) The English " progressive form," consisting of the present participle preceded by some part of the verb to be, does not exist in French : you are eating = vous mangez ; we were drinking = nous buvions. See § 20, a. (5) An English infinitive preceded by used to, or by would meaning used to, is generally translated by the descriptive past : whenever they used to see us, they would call us = toutes les fois qu'ils nous voyaient, ils nous appelaient. See § 20, a. (6) The French language has nothing corresponding to the English auxiliary to do : why don't you read this book = pourquoi ne lisez-vous pas ce livre? I do read it = je le lis. See § 20, a, and § 36. (7) The English expression to have a thing done, meaning to cause it to be done, is rendered by i faire 1 followed by the active infinitive : he has had it sent = il l'a fait envoyer ; 7ve shall have them come = nous les ferons venir ; she is having it made = elle le fait faire. See §18, ù (8) To be going to do anything is expressed in French by ' aller ' with an infinitive : who is going to sing = qui va chanter ? what was I going to say = qu'est-ce que j'allais dire? See p. 37, note 1. (9) To be willing to do something corresponds to ' vouloir' accompanied, in the affirmative forms, by the adverb ' bien ' : he is willing to help us — il veut bien nous aider. See p. 46, note 1. (10) To know how to do anything, or to be able meaning to know how, is to be translated by ' savoir ' with an infinitive : do you know how to dance = savez-vous danser? / can't read = je 1 In a condition, should with the infinitive must be translated by the descriptive past: if we should write — if we wrote — si nous écrivions; if he should come = if he came = s'il venait. AUXILIARY VERBS: §51. 71 ne sais pas lire. See p. 43, note 1. For 'ne saurais/ etc., see § 41, a- (11) To have just done something is rendered by ' venir de 9 followed by an infinitive : she had just seen them = elle venait de les voir. See p. 44, note 1. 51. We have in English the following modal auxiliaries : can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, zvill, zvould. One of these words and an infinitive without to constitute a compound form that is often called the " potential mood." The modal auxiliaries express three sets of ideas: (1) abil- ity, possibility, or permission, denoted by can} could} may, and might ; (2) necessity or obligation, denoted by must, shall? and should;' 1 (3) desire, expressed by will* and would? All these words are really defective verbs : they are not conjugated in full, but have only certain tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods ; the forms that they lack are supplied by other verbs, such as be able to} be allowed to, have to, ought to, am to, want to, like to. Ought to and am to are themselves defective. (1) Can, could, may, might, be able to are represented in French by the verb pouvoir,' to be able: see § 33, (6). But when may has the sense of being allowed, the idea should be ex- pressed by some form of ' permettre/ to permit. Ex. : may we speak = is speaking permitted = is it permitted to speak = est-il permis de parler ? may I go there = do you allow me to go thei-e = me permettez-vous d'y aller? you may write to me = I permit you to write to me = je vous permets de m'écrire. (2) Must, shall, should, have to, ought to, am to are expressed by e devoir/ to have to} and by the impersonal verb ' falloir/ to be necessary : see § 32 and § 33, (5). 1 But can, could, be able to may mean also know how to : see § 50, (10). 2 Shall, should, will, would are used also to form the future and the conditional: see § 5°» (3)» Would sometimes means used to : see § 50 (5). 8 1 Devoir ' means also to owe. 72 VERBS. (3) Will, would, want to, like to 1 correspond to the verb 'vouloir/ to want: see § 33, (10). 52. 'Pouvoir/ 'devoir/ ' falloir/ and ' vouloir ' are not so defective as the corresponding English verbs : hence the mood and tense of the compound are expressed in these auxiliaries, and not in the dependent infinitive. Below will be found a synopsis of the indicative and con- ditional of ' pouvoir voir ' (pu-vwar-vwaar), to be able to see, ' devoir parler ' (de-vwar-par-lé), to have to speak, and 'vouloir chanter' (vu-lwar-ch^-té), to ivant to sing; the first will be conjugated affirmatively, the second interrog- atively, the third negatively. Notice that no preposition intervenes between these auxiliaries and the dependent infinitive. (1) To be able to : can, could, may, might. Ind. Pres. : I can see or I am able to see? je peux voir (je-po-vwaar) Ind. Pres. Perf. : I could see or I was able to see? j'ai pu voir (jé-pii-vwaar) Descr. Past : / could see or / was able to see? je pouvais voir (je-pu-vè-vwaar) Ind. Past Perf. : / had been able to see? j'avais pu voir (ja-vè-pii-vwaar) I Nar. Past: I was able to see or I succeeded in seeing. \ je pus voir (je-pii-vwaar) 1 To like to is rendered, in most cases, by ' aimer à.' 2 Also / may see. 3 Also / have been able to see and, in dependent clauses, / can have seen or / may have seen. 4 Also / might see and / used to be able to see. 5 Also, in dependent clauses, / could have seen or / might have seen. AUXILIARY VERBS: §52. 73 Future: I shall be able to see or I can see, je pourrai voir (je-pu-ré-vwaar) Future Perf. : / shall have been able to see, j'aurai pu voir (jo-ré-pii-vwaar) Conditional: I could see or I might see. je pourrais voir (je-pu-rè-vwaar) Ccnd. Perf. : I could have seen or / might have seen, j'aurais pu voir (jô-rè-pii-vwaar) (2) To have to : am to, must, ought to, shall, should, Ind. Pres.: must I speak or am I to speak or shall I speak ? x dois-je parler (dwaj-par-lé) Ind. Pres. Perf.: did I have to speak or have I had to speak ? 2 ai-je du parler (èj-du-par-lé) Descr. Past : did I have to speak ? 3 devais-je parler (de-vèj-par-lé) Ind. Past Perf.: had I had to speak ?* avais-je dû parler (a-vèj-dii-par-lé) Nar. Past: did I have to speak ? dus-je parler (duj-par-lé) Future: shall I have to speak or must I speak or am I to speak ? devrai-je parler ( de- vrèj -par-lé) Future Perf. : shall I have had to speak ? aurai-je dû parler (ô-rèj-dii-par-lé) 1 Also, in colloquial English, have I got to speak ? 2 ' J'ai dû parler ' means also / must have spaken. 3 ' Je devais parler ' means also / used to have to speak. 4 ' J'avais dû parler ' means also / must have spoken. 74 VERBS. Conditional: ought I to speak or should I speak ? devrais-je parler (de-vrèj-par-lé) Cond. Perf. : ought I to have spoken or should I have spoken ? aurais-je dû parler (6-rèj-du-par-lé) (3) To want to : like to, will, would. 1 Ind. Pres. : / will not sing or / wont sing or / don 7 want to sing, je ne veux pas chanter (jen-vo-pâ-ch^-té) Ind. Pres. Perf. : /wouldn't sing or I didn't want to sing. 2 je n'ai pas voulu chanter (jné-pâ-vu-lli-ch^-té) Descr. Past: I wouldn't sing ox I didn't want to sing. je ne voulais pas chanter (jen-vu-lè-pâ-ch4-té) Ind. Past Perf.: / hadr't wanted to sing. je n'avais pas voulu chanter (jna-vè-pâ-vu-lu-cha-té) Nar. Past: I wouldn't sing ox I didn't want to sing? je ne voulus pas chanter (jen-vu-lii-pâ-cha-té) Future: I shall not want to sing. je ne voudrai pas chanter (jen-vu-dré-pâ-chi-té) Future Perf.: I shall not have wanted to sing. je n'aurai pas voulu chanter (jno-ré-pâ-vu-lu-chi-té) Conditional : /shouldn't like to sing or / wouldn't sing. je ne voudrais pas chanter (jen-vu-drè-pâ-ch^-té) -Cond. Perf.: / wouldn't have sung.* je n'aurais pas voulu chanter (jnô-rè-pâ-vu-lii-ch^-té) 1 * Vouloir ' means also to be willing: see § 50, (9). 2 Also / haven't wanted to sing. 8 ' Je voulus chanter ' means also / tried to sing. 4 ' J'aurais voulu chanter ' means also / should have liked to sing or; in colloquial English, /should like to have sung or / should have liked to have sung. AUXILIARY VERBS : § 53. 75 53. When the subject of English must or have to is a noun or a personal or possessive or demonstrative pro- noun, ' falloir' may be used in French. This verb is always in the third person singular, and its subject is invariably ' il/ it. 1 Falloir ' may be followed either (1) by an infinitive or (2) by i que ' with the subjunctive : / must go = (1) it is necessary for me to go — il me faut aller (ilm- fo-ta-lé), or (2) it is necessary that I go = il faut que j'aille (il-fÔK-jaay). If the subject of the English must or have to is a personal pronoun, either of these two constructions may be used in French ; but the infinitive is generally preferred. If, on the other hand, the subject of the English auxiliary is a noun or a possessive or demonstra- tive pronoun, ' falloir ' must be followed by the subjunctive. (1) When a dependent infinitive is employed, ' falloir' is usually preceded by an indirect object-pronoun [see §§ 56-69], which is of the same person and number as the subject of the English must or have to : we must speak = it is necessary for us to speak = il nous faut parler ; he must write = it is necessary for him to write = il lui faut écrire. This object is, however, omitted in the following three cases : when the statement is general ; when ' falloir ' is accompanied by a negative ; and commonly when the infinitive is itself preceded by a pronoun. Ex. : we or you or they [that is, people in general^ must have patience = il faut avoir de la patience ; you micstn't do that = il ne faut pas faire cela ; we must explain ourselves = il faut nous expliquer. If this omission would cause any ambiguity, the subjunctive construction muet be used. (2) When i falloir' is followed by the subjunctive, the subject of the English must or have to becomes, in French, the subject of the dependent verb : John must see them = it is necessary that John see them == il faut que Jean les voie. If ' falloir * is in the present, the present perfect, the future, or the future perfect, the dependent subjunctive must be in the present tense ; but if 7 6 VERBS. < falloir ' is in the past, the past perfect, or the conditional, the past tense of the subjunctive must be used : she has to come = il faut qu'elle vienne ; she had to come = il fallut qu'elle vînt. 1 a. i Falloir 1 has been conjugated in § 33, (5). b. When, in English, mustn't is used, the negative, in French, is combined with 'falloir, 1 although it seems to belong logically to the dependent verb : you mustn't laugh = il ne faut pas rire ; she mustn't know of it = il ne faut pas quelle le sache. Compare § 40, B, a. 54. Examples of the use of 'falloir/ both with the in- finitive and with the subjunctive, are given below: — Ind. Pres.: /mustn't do it. il il ne faut pas le faire (iln-fo-pâl-fèèr) ne faut pas que je le fasse (iln-fô-pâK-jel-fas) Ind. Pres. Perf. : you have had to go away. il il t'a fallu partir (il-ta-fa-lu-par-tiir) a fallu que tu partes (i-la-fa-luK-tii-part) Descr. Past : he used to have to work. il il lui fallait travailler (il-lui-fa-lè-tra-va-yé) fallait qu'il travaillât (il-fa-lè-Kil-tra-va-ya) Ind. Past Perf. : she had had to remain. il il lui avait fallu rester (il-lui-a-vè-fa-lii-rès-té) avait fallu qu'elle restât (i-la-vè-fa-lii-Kèl-rès-ta) Nar. Past: we had to go out. il il nous fallut sortir (il-nu-fa-lii-sôr-tiir) fallut que nous sortissions (il-fa-luK-nu-sôr-ti-sy-narbr), a tree, which is masculine, we must say 'il est grand' (i-lè-gr<4), it is tall, 'je le vois' (jel-vwa), I see it ; but referring to 4 la maison' (la-mè-z] are often equivalent to a verb of telling. Persons. Things. Nominative : who or that Possessive : whose Objective : whom or that which or that whose which or that 9 8 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. larly pronounced (dot) : the ticket that has been given me = le billet qu'on m'a donné (le-bi-yè-K^-ma-dô-né) ; the play that he is speaking of = la pièce dont il parle (la-pyès-d Feminine \ ^ e + Jf ~ ^ e * a ^\^} X de + les = des (dè) ( de + T = de Y (del) ) v J Singular. Plural. Masculine 5 à. + Je = au (ô) > à + les = aux (ô) ( à + P = à r (al) y w Feminine j à + la = à la (a-la) > à + les = aux (ô) { à -f- l 1 — à î 1 (3,1) y Before a word beginning with a vowel sound ' des ' and ' aux ' are pronounced (dèz) and (6z). Ex. : of the son = du fils, to the father = au père, of the man = de l'homme, to the child = à l'enfant, of the hero = du héros ; of the daughter = de la fille, to the mother = à la mère, of the wife = de l'épouse, to the hedge = à la haie ; of the cousins = des cou- sins, to the aunts = aux tantes, of the une tes = des oncles, to the friends = aux a ai is. a. It is only the article Me' or Mes' that combines with the prepo- sition ; the personal pronoun remains unchanged : I want to see it = j'ai envie de le voir. The. 107. In general, whenever the occurs in English, the definite article must be used in French. a. In English we often insert the between Book, Chapter, or the name of a ruler, and a following numeral, which is then always an 114 ARTICLES. ordinal ; in such cases the French omit the article and almost invaria- bly use the cardinal numeral ; Book the Third — Livre trois ; Henry the Fourth — Henri quatre. But the First after the name of a ruler is 6 premier' (pre-myé), feminine ' première 1 (pre-myèèr) : Napoleon the First = Napoléon premier. b. Before a noun placed in apposition to a preceding noun or pro- noun, about which it tells something that the reader or hearer is supposed not to know, we often use the definite article in English ; but the French regularly leave it out : they invited Mr. H., the author of several novels = on invita Monsieur H., auteur de plusieurs romans; we are reading the story of Ajax, the son of Telamon — nous lisons l'histoire d'Ajax, fils de Telamon ; / saw Albert, the king of Saxony = j'ai vu Albert, roi de Saxe. Compare § 113, (2). c. The more . . . the more ... is i plus ' . . . 6 plus ' . . . (plii plii) ; the less . . . the less ... is * moins ' . . . ' moins ' . . . (mw^ mw^) : the more I see you, the more I love you = plus je vous vois, plus je vous aime. 108. In the following six cases the definite article is required in French, though not needed in English : — (1) Before an abstract or collective noun or one used to denote all of the thing or class that it names : vice is odious = ie vice est odieux, man is mortal = l'homme est mortel, / like coffee = j'aime le café, children like to play = les enfants aiment à jouer, dogs are more faithful than cats = les chiens sont plus fidèles que les chats. (2) Before names of continents, countries, provinces, states, mountains, streets, squares, and parks ; except after the preposi- tion ' en ' {a), meaning in or to: 1 North America = l'Amérique du nord, through Massachusetts = à travers le Massachusetts, Mont Blanc = le Mont-Blanc, Richelieu St. = la rue Richelieu, Vendôme Square = la place Vendôme, Central Park = le parc Central ; but in Spain = en Espagne, to Switzerland = en Suisse. 2 1 1 En' is used with these meanings before the unmodified names of continents, countries, and provinces, provided these names are feminine. 2 In certain cases the article is often omitted after * de ' : the King of Prussia = le roi de Prusse. DEFINITE ARTICLE: § 108. 115 (3) Before a title followed by a proper noun ; unless the title is Mr, = 'Monsieur' (me-syo), Mrs, = ' Madame ' (ma-dam), Miss = 'Mademoiselle' (mad-mwa-zèl), or the old-fashioned Master = ' Maître ' (mèètr) : Count Kostia = le comte Kostia, Prince Zilah = le prince Zilah, King Humbert = le roi Humbert, General Boulanger = le général Boulanger ; 1 but Mr, Carnot = Monsieur Carnot, Mrs. Adam = Madame Adam. (4) Before a proper noun modified by an adjective : little Fadette = la petite Fadette, great Corneille = le grand Corneille. (5) Before an adjective of nationality used as the name of a language; except after the preposition 'en' (a), in, into, or the verb 'parler' (par-lé), to speak: I know English = je sais l'an- glais, he is studying German = il étudie l'allemand ; but she wrote in Italian = elle écrivit en italien, speak French = parlez fran- çais. But the article is sometimes used after ' parler.' (6) Before the names of the days of the week ; unless next or last is expressed or understood : he comes Fridays = il vient les vendredis, people don't work on Sunday = on ne travaille pas le dimanche, Monday talks — causeries. du lundi; but Fil see you [next] Saturday = je vous verrai samedi, it rained [last] Wednes- day and Thursday = il a plu mercredi et jeudi. a. In the above cases the article — unless required in English — is not employed in French when the noun in question is used for direct address or is modified by a possessive, interrogative, or demonstrative adjective or an adjective of number or quantity 2 : this vice — ce vice ; O France — o France ! yes, captain = oui, mon capitaine ; his little Paid = son petit Paul ; she doesn't know much English — elle ne sait pas beaucoup d'anglais ; it has rained five successive Thursdays — il a plu cinq jeudis de suite. b. In a list or rapid enumeration, where several nouns are used in succession, the article is sometimes omitted in Frenches in English: liberty, equality, fraternity = liberté, égalité, fraternité. 1 In direct address ' monsieur,' ' madame,' or ' mademoiselle ' is prefixed to the title: good morning, Duke — bon jour, monsieur le duc. 2 The adjectives of number are the cardinal and ordinal numerals: see §§ 127, 128. For adjectives of quantity see § 126, (1), (2), (3), (4), a, b, c, d> e,f,g, h y n6 ARTICLES. c. The article is used in French in a number of current phrases where it is idiomatically omitted in English. Ex.: at school =à l'école ; in church — à Téglise ; last year = Pan dernier or Fan passé ; / haven't time — je n'ai pas le temps ; towards evening = vers le soir. Some and Any. 109. Some and any, used to modify a noun, are gener- ally translated by a definite article preceded by 4 de/ 1 Ex. : we have some bread = nous avons du pain ; give me some meat = donnez-moi de la viande ; they have drunk some water = ils ont bu de l'eau ; have you eaten any strawberries = avez-vous mangé des fraises? a. When some and any are nearly equivalent to an indefinite article, they are translated either by ' quelque 1 (KèlK), some, or by 'un' (2), a, feminine ' une ' (un) : some thief has stolen it — quelque voleur Pa pris ; have they any father = ont-ils un père ? But after the negative words ' guère,' 'jamais,' ' pas,' 'plus,' 'point,' 2 any meaning a or an corresponds to 'de'; and after 'sans' (sa or sdz), without, it is not translated at all : she hasn't any mother — elle n'a pas de mère ; with- out any teacher = sans maître. b. Some meaning a few is ' quelques ' (KèlK or Kèl-Kez) : some friends were waiting for its — quelques amis nous attendaient. For a few used as a pronoun see § 126, t. c. Any meaning no matter what is 'quelconque' (Kbl-KooK) or ' n'importe quel ' (n er (èèr) > et(è) ) et(èt) > eur (èe'r) * (0 gu (Gii) ien, yen (yè) x {silent) Feminine. asse (âs) que (k) elle (èl) ère (èèr) ette (èt) 1 euse (ooz) 2 ve (v) guë (Gii) ienne, yenne (yèn) se (z) Examples. low = bas, basse public — public, publique cruel — cruel, cruelle ( light — léger, légère ( dear — cher, chère ( younger — cadet, cadette c clear — net, nette flattering — flatteur, flatteuse new — neuf, neuve sharp — aigu, aiguè* ancient = ancien, ancienne happy = heureux, heureuse (3) Some of the following adjectives have an irregular femi- nine, and all of them have double forms in the masculine sin- gular : — Masculine. Feminine. beautiful : beau (bo), bel (bel); belle (bèl) new : nouveau (nu-vo), nouvel (nu-vèl); nouvelle (nu-vèl) old: vieux (vyô), vieil (vyèy); vieille (vyèy) crazy : fou(fu), fol (fol); folle (fol) soft : mou (mu), mol (mol) ; molle (mol) 1 But ' complet,' ' concret,' ' discret,' ' inquiet,' ' replet,' ' secret ' form their feminine in -ète (èt) : complete = m. complet (K^-plè),_/. complète (K^-plèt). 2 But ' majeur,' ' meilleur,' ' mineur,' and all adjectives in -érieur form their feminine reçularly in -enre (è'è'r): better ■ = m. meilleur (mè-yèe'r) ,f. meilleure (mè-yëër). 'Plusieurs' and the possessive ' leur' make no change for the feminine. FORM: § 115. 123 Of the masculine forms, those in the second column are used before a noun beginning with a vowel sound, those in the first column under all other circumstances. Ex. : he is handsome = il est beau, a fine gentleman = un beau monsieur, a fine-looking man = un bel homme, a fine woman = une belle femme ; ifs old = c'est vieux, an old hat = un vieux chapeau, an old coat = un vieil habit, an old boot = une vieille botte. For the demonstrative adjective ' ce 9 see § 97. (4) Some other adjectives form their feminine irregularly ; the commonest ones — aside from possessives — are given be- low : — Masculine. Feminine. itihîfp blanc (bl a > b y c » d > e 'y 103, A; 103, A, (1), (2); 103, c; 113, (1), b. Qz — he, she, they: 63, a; 113, (1) ,*. Ce- it: 48; 63; 63, A, B; 63, B, (1), (2); 74, £; 103, c. Ce = that: 103, A; 103, A, (1), (2) - Ce qui, ce que, ce dont: 87; 87, a» h 95 ; 95» Est-ce que : 37, B, (2) ; 37, C, (2) ; 94; 95î 95» c > d - Ceci : 103; 103, d, e. Cedilla: 12; 29, a. Cela : 103; 103, d y e. Chaque : 109, d. Chez : 129, b. Ci : 98; 98, a; 102. Combien: 126,(4); I2 6, a, b. Comme: 121, a; 125, Comparison : see Adjectives. Compound Tenses : 17; 18; 21; 21, a, b,c 9 d; 26; 26, iii.; 34; 41; 41, c; 50, (2); 55. Condition: 19; 19, <:; 20, b; 21; 50, (3), note. Conditional: 19; 19, b; 20; 21; 26, i, (2); 32, a; 50, (3); 55. Conjugation: 25-49. First: 29; 29, a, b, c> d. Second: 30. Third: 31. Irregular: 25-26; 32-33. Passive: 35. Interrogative: 38; 44. Negative: 43; 44. Reflexive: 47. Impersonal: 49. See Auxiliaries of Mood, Compound Tenses, Derivation of Tenses, Personal Endings, Principal Parts. Conjunctive Pronouns: see Per- sonal Pronouns. Consonants: 4; 4, a, b, c, d, e; 5; 5, a, b, c, d; 6; 6, (1), (2), (3); 6, a; 12; 13; 115. Contraction : see A and De. Could: see Auxiliaries of Mood. Dates: 128, a. Davantage : 124, e. De: 17, b; 39, (3); 39, Ô, c, d; 40, A, (2); 41, B, (2); 56, a, note; 81; 85, (1); 86, c\ 90, (1); 100, e\ 106; 108, (2), note 2; 109-111; 112, a; 114, d; 117, d; 120, b; 125, a, c\ 126; 126, (1), (2), (3), (4); 126, c, d, e, /, h\ 127, (4), b; 129; 129, a, b, c. De = than: 125, a. D'où : 86, c. Contraction: 81; 85, (1); 90, (1); 106. Elision : 39, d; III, a. Partitive: 1 09-1 11. Possessive: 129; 129, a, INDEX, 147 Definite Article : see Articles. Demi : 1 26, / Demonstratives: 56, 6 3, B, (2); 74, b; 83. Faire: 16, b; 18, i; 33, (4); 50, (7); 61, a; 68,3. Falloir: 33, (5); 40, a; 51, (2); 53; 53, (0, (2); 53, 54; 54, a; 55, a. Feminine : see Gender. Future: 20; 20, c; 25; 26, i., (i); 32, a; 50, (3); 55. Future Anterior : see Future Per- fect. Future Perfect : 21; 34. Gender: see Adjectives, Arti- cles, Nouns, Participles, Pronouns. Grand' chose: 132, a. Guère: 39-44. H: 5, a; 6; 6, a; 97; 117, e; 123, (1); 127, (1), c,d. Half: 126, f. Hyphen: 37, B, (1); 37, C, (i); 130, c. II ( = there) : 63, c . Il y a : 49. Imperative: 19; 19, a; 20; 21; 24; 26, ii., (2); 26, iv., (2); 46. Imperfect : see Descriptive Past. Impersonal Verbs: 48-49; 53; 54- Indefinite Article : see Articles. Indefinite Pronouns: 16, a; 42, c; 64; 64, a, 3; 65; 65, (1); 65, a; 91, 3; 95, /; 99; 99, 3; 100, e; 103, all; 1 1 7, d; 124, 126, a, h, i. Indicative: 19; 19, a; 20; 21. Indirect Object: 46; 56-58; 69, A. Indirect Questions: 84, 3, note; 94; 95; 95» a > e > Infinitive: 17; 17, a, 3, c; 18, e; 26; 28; 40; 41, c; 52; 53; 53, (0. Interrogation: 36-38; 44. 148 INDEX. Interrogatives : 37, A; 84, £; 89- 95; 122, (1), a. Adjectives: 89-91; 122, (1), 0. Pronouns: 89-90; 92-95. Intonation: n. Inversion: 37, B, (1); 37,0,(1), (3) ; 37. Irregular Verbs : 32-33. //.• 48; 56; 62-63; 65; 65, (1); 65, a. Its: 76; 78; 80, d; 81. Jamais: 39~44- Là: 66, a; 98; 98, a; 102. Laisser : 16, b; 68, b. Le (= so) : 63, e. Letters: 12-15. Liaison: 6; 6, (1), (2), (3); 6, a; 60; 64; 65; 71; 78; 85; 90, (2); 97; 105; 106; 109, a; 112; 1 16; 116, (4) ; 123, (1 ) ; 123, d; 124, £; 127, (1), b; 127, (2), b\ 129, A L'un L'autre : 42, c ; 46, b ; 1 26, j. Masculine : see Gender. May : see Auxiliaries of Mood. Même: 74,0; 98, 100, d; 86. Form: 18; 18, a; 32; 33; 115, a, b. Position: 41; 41, A, B; 41, c- y 122, (2), b. Use: 18, e, f,g t h, i; 34; 35. Partitive Article : 1 09- 1 1 1 . Pas: 39-44- Passive: 16; 16, a, b; 35; 50,(1); 55; 64, a. INDEX. 149 Past {indicative): ^Descriptive Past and Narrative Past. Past {subjunctive): 19, c; 20; 20, d; 26, v., (2). Past Anterior : see Past Perfect. Past Definite : see Narrative Past. Past Indefinite : see Present Per- fect. Past Perfect: 21; 21, c, d; 34. Perfect : see Present Perfect. Person {verbs) : 22-26. Personal Endings {verbs) : 22-26. Personal Pronouns: 16, a; 23; 37» B ; 37» B > (0» ( 2 ); 40, A, B; 40, A, (1); 41; 46; 48; 48, a; 53; 53, (i); 56- 75; 79» c\ 80; 8o » a > b > c > d 'y 83; 101; 106, a\ in, (1), c; 129, b, note. Conjunctive: 60-70; 80; 80, a, b, c f d; 106, a; III, (i), c. Disjunctive: 71-75; 79, c\ 83; 129, b 1 note. Position: 67-69; 73. Personne: 39-44; 132,0; 132, (i),#. Peu : 126, (4) ; 126, a, b. Phonetic Spelling : i; 2; 4. Plupart : 126, e. Pluperfect : see Past Perfect. Plural : see Number. Plus: 39-44; 107» c \ I2I > a \ I2 3; 123, (I), (3); 123,/; 124, c; 125, a; 126, (4); 126, a, b. Point: 39-44- Position: see Adjectives, Ad- verbs, Negation, Partici- ples, Personal Pronouns, Prepositions. Possessives: 76-83; 122, (1), a. Adjectives: 76-80; 122, (1), a. Pronouns: 76-77; 81-83. Potential Mood: see Auxiliaries of Mood. Pour : 1 7, Pouvoir: 33, (6); 51, (1); 52; 52, (0; 55» Prepositions : see À, Chez, De, En, Par, Pour, Sans. Position: 85, £; 89,0. Present: 20; 20, a, c, d; 21, d; 25; 26; 26, ii., (1), (2), (4); 26, iv., (1), (2); 32, b. Present Perfect : 21; 21, b,d; 34. Preteiit : see Narrative Past. Principal Parts : 26; 28. Progressive Form : 20, a; 50, (4) ; 55- Pronouns : see Demonstratives, Indefinite Pronouns, In- terrogatives, Personal Pronouns, Possessives, Relative Pronouns. Pronunciation: 1-11; 12, a, b. Quantity {expressions of); see Ad- jective Phrases. Quantity {vowel) : 9-10. Que {conj. or adv.) : 39-44; 84, a; 91» h 95»/ h \ 121, a; 125; 125, b, c; 126, d. Que {pron.): see Interrogatives and Relative Pronouns. Quelque: 109, a, b; HJ, d; 126,*'. Quelque chose: 117, d; 132, a. Quelqu'un: 126, z; 132, d; 3; 3, a, b, c } d, e, /; 6, (2); 6, a; 9-10; 12; 12, a, b. Will: see Future and Auxiliaries of Mood. Would: see Conditional and Aux- iliaries of Mood. Y {adv. and pron.) : 40, A, B; 41; 46; 49, (1), (2), (3); 49, a, b; 66; 66, a, by 68; 68, A; 69; 69, A; 75. Position: 49,^; 68; 68, A; 69; 69, A. Appendix 1 FRENCH LESSONS AND EXERCISES First Year's Course for High Schools PREFACE. These lessons and exercises are to be used, in schools, with my Short French Grammar, during a first year's course in French. I mean to construct at least one more set of the same grade, in order that the work may be varied from year to year. There are a hundred lessons and twenty exercises — that is to say, materials for three recita- tions a week during forty weeks. Classes that have French four times a week can use profitably a part or the whole of the extra hour in oral or written work based on their reading-book. Most of the lessons have been made very short, so that at least fifteen or twenty minutes of every recitation hour may be left for translation. The lessons consist of references to the Grammar, The numbers indicate paragraphs ; they are not intended to include any detached subdivisions that are not expressly mentioned, but they do cover all tables, paradigms, and examples. Numbers in heavy-faced type repre- sent portions that are to be thoroughly studied; the others stand for paragraphs that should be carefully read. The teacher would do well to go over each lesson with the pupils beforehand, pronouncing for them all the French words, and calling their attention especially to the examples. The exercises, which illustrate the grammatical points discussed in the preceding lessons, are based on a French story (pages I to 10 next following), a selection from Sur l'Eau, by Guy de Maupassant. This text is printed both in ordinary and phonetic spelling, and is provided with an interlinear translation and notes ; it is to be used for practice in pronunciation and for grammatical analysis. I hope the exercises may prove to be more acceptable, both to teachers and to pupils, than the customary English sentences. FRENCH LESSONS AND EXERCISES. FRENCH TEXT. [When several English words are required to render one French word, and when the order of words in a phrase cannot be preserved in translation, the words of the English interlinear version are connected by hyphens. Words that are superfluous in English are enclosed in parentheses. A list of French verbs and verbal forms is to be found at the end of this text.] i. Je. pris le train de quatre heures 1 pour aller dîner avec un / took the four-d* clock-train to go to-dine with a ami dans la principauté de Monaco. 2 Je voudrais avoir le loisir friend in the principality of Monaco. I should-like to-have the leisure de parler longuement de cet État surprenant, 3 moins 4 grand qu'un So speak at-length of this surprising-state, not-so big as a village de France, 5 mais où l'on trouve 6 un souverain absolu, 3 French-village , but where you-fnd an absolute-sovereign, des évêques, une étiquette plus cérémonieuse que celle de feu {some) bishops, an etiquette more ceremonious than that of the-late Louis XIV, des principes d'autorité plus despotiques que ceux Louis XIV., (some) principles of authority more despotic than those de Guillaume de Prusse, 7 joints à une tolérance magnifique 3 pour of William of Prussia, joined to a magnificent-tolerance for les vices de l'humanité, dont vivent 8 le souverain, les ministres, the vices of (the) humanity , on-which live the sovereign, the minister l'armée, la magistrature, tout le monde. 9 the army, the magistrates, everybody. 1 Literally, train of four hours. ° The tiny principality of Monaco is an independent state, situated on the southern shore of France, near Nice. It contains about eight square miles, and has some 10,000 inhabitants. Not far from the town of Monaco (3000 inhabitants) is the Casino of Monte Carlo, a famous gambling establishment. 3 Notice that French adjectives very often follow their nouns. 4 Less. 5 Village of France. 6 One finds. I 2 FRENCH LESSONS AND EXERCISES. 7 The present emperor of Germany. 8 ' Dont vivent ' may be translated freely, which support. The prince and the government of Monaco are supported by the receipts of the Casino. 9 Literally, all the world. 2. Saluons 1 ce bon roi pacifique 2 qui, sans peur des invasions Let-us-do-homage-to this good-peaceful-king, who, without fear of {the) invasions et des révolutions, règne en paix sur son heureux petit peuple and of {the) revolutions, reigns in quiet over his happy little people, au milieu des cérémonies d'une cour où sont conservées intactes in-the midst of the ceremonies of a cotirt where are preserved intact les traditions des quatre révérences, des vingt-six baisemains, et the traditions of the four bows, of the twenty-six hand-kissings, and de toutes les formules usitées autrefois autour des 3 Grands of all the formulas used of-old in-the-presence-of great Dominateurs. Ce monarque pourtant n'est point 4 sanguinaire rulers. This monarch, however, is-not-at-all sanguinary ni vindicatif ; et quand il bannit, car il bannit, 5 la mesure nor vindictive; and when he banishes, — for he does-banish, — the Punishment est appliquée avec des ménagements infinis. 6 is inflicted with {some) endless-mitigations. 1 Literally, let us salute. 2 ' Bon ' = good, ' roi 1 = king, * pacifique ' = peaceful. 3 * Autour de ' = around ; literally, * autour des ' means around the. 4 * Est ' = is. ' Ne ' . . . ' pas ' = not. 4 Ne ' ... * point 1 = not at all. * Ne ' loses its e before a vowel sound. 5 ' II bannit ' means he banishes, he is banishing, and he does banish. How shall we say he is reigning? Give three translations of 1 je bannis ' ('je ' = 7). 6 Freely, ' avec des ménagements infinis ' = ?nost considerately. 3. En faut-il 1 donner des preuves? Un joueur obstiné, dans {Of-it) must-/ give {some) proof {s) ? An obstinate-gambler, in un jour de déveine, insulta le souverain. Il fut expulsé par décret. a day of bad-hick, insulted the sovereign. He was expelled by decree. Pendant un mois il rôda autour du 2 Paradis défendu, craignant le During a month he prowled around-the forbidden-paradise , fearing the glaive de l'archange, sous 3 la forme du sabre d'un gendarme. Un sword of the archangel, in the form of the sabre of a policeman. One jour enfin il s'enhardit, 4 franchit la frontière, gagne en trente day at-last he takes-courage, crosses the frontier, reaches in thirty FRENCH TEXT. 3 secondes le cœur du pays, pénètre dans le Casino. Mais soudain seconds the heart of -the country , penetrates into the Casino. But all-at-once un fonctionnaire l'arrête 5 : " N'êtes- vous pas 6 banni, monsieur?" an official stops-him : " ArenH-you banished, sir?" "Oui, monsieur, mais je repars 7 par le premier train." " Yes, sir, but I am-going-away-again by the first train." " Oh ! en ce cas, fort bien, monsieur, vous pouvez entrer." Et "Oh/ in that case, very well, sir, you may come-in." And chaque semaine il revient ; et chaque fois le même fonctionnaire every week he returns; and every time the sam* official lui pose 8 la même question à laquelle il répond de la même façon. asks-him the same question, to which he replies in the same way, La justice peut-elle être plus douce 9 ? Can-justice-be milder ? 1 * Il faut ' = it is necessary ; ' faut-il ' = is it necessary ? 2 See Paragraph 2, note 3. 3 Under. 4 Literally, emboldens himself. 1 Enhardit ' = emboldens. ' Se ' = himself; ' se ' loses its e before a vowel sound. ' S'enhardir ' is a reflexive verb. 5 * Arrête ' = stops. ' Le ' = him ; ( le ' loses its e before a vowel sound. Notice the position of the pronouns * se ' and ' le.' 6 See Paragraph 2, note 4. 7 See Paragraph 2, note 5. 8 ' Pose ' = puts. * Lui ' = to him. 9 Literally, (the) justice can it be more mild? 'Justice' is feminine. ' Peut-elle ' = can she. Nearly all French adjectives form their comparative by prefixing ' plus ' to the positive, and their superlative by prefixing the definite article to the comparative : doux, plus doux, le plus doux. 4. Mais, une des années dernières, 1 un cas fort grave et tout But a-few-years-ago a case, very grave and entirely nouveau se produisit 2 dans le royaume. Un assassinat eut lieu. 3 new, presented-itself in the kingdom. A murder occurred. La Cour suprême se réunit 4 pour juger ce cas exceptionnel, et le The Supreme Court met to judge this exceptional-case, and the misérable fut condamné à mort à l'unanimité. Le souverain wretch was condemned to death unanimously. The indignant- indigné ratifia l'arrêt. Il ne restait plus qu'à 5 exécuter le sovereign ratified the sentence. Nothing-remained but to execute the criminel. Alors une difficulté surgit. Le pays ne possédait ni 6 criminal. Then a difficulty arose. The country possessed-neither bourreau ni guillotine. 7 Que faire 8 ? Sur 9 l'avis du ministre executioner nor guillotine. What to do ? At the suggestion of -the minister 4 FRENCH LESSONS AND EXERCISES. des affaires étrangères, le prince entama des négociations avec of ( the) foreign-affairs, the prince entered-upon {some) negotiations with le gouvernement français 10 pour obtenir le prêt d'un coupeur de the French-government to obtain the loan of a head- têtes 11 avec son appareil. chopper with his apparatus, 1 Literally, one of the last years. ' Dernières 9 = last. 2 Produced itself. See Paragraph 3, note 4. 3 Took place. 4 Eut ' = had. 4 United itself See Paragraph 3, note 4. 5 Literally, there remained now only to. 4 Ne 9 . . . ' que ' = only ; 4 que 1 loses its e before a vowel sound. ' Ne ' . . . 1 plus ' = no more or no longer. 4 Ne * . '.. . 4 plus que ' = no more than or nothing more but. Compare Paragraph 2, note 4. 6 ' Ne ' . . . ' ni ' s= neither. 7 In France, criminals condemned to death are beheaded with a guillotine. 8 Freely, what was to be done ? 9 On. 10 Notice that French adjectives of nationality begin with small letters. 11 Cutter of heads. 5. De longues délibérations eurent lieu 1 au ministère à Paris. {Some) long deliberations took place at-the minister' s-office in Paris. On répondit 2 enfin en envoyant la note des frais pour déplacement They answered finally by sending the list of-the expenses for moving des bois et du praticien. Le tout montait à seize mille francs. {of) the wood and {of) the operator. The whole amounted to sixteen thousand francs. Sa Majesté songea que Topération lui coûterait 3 bien cher; His Majesty reflected that the operation would-cost-him very dear; Tassassin ne valait certes pas 4 ce prix. Seize mille francs pour the murderer was-surely-not-worth this price. Sixteen thousand francs for le cou d*un drôle ! Ah ! mais non. 5 On adressa alors 6 la the neck of a scoundrel ? I-should-think-not ! They then-addressed the même demande au gouvernement italien. Un roi, un frère same request to-the Italian-government. A king, a brother, ne se montrerait pas 7 sans doute 8 si exigeant qu'une république. would-not-show-himself, certainly, so exacting as a republic. 1 Compare Paragraph 4, note 3. 2 One replied. Compare Paragraph 1, note 6. 3 * Lui f = to him. Compare Paragraph 3, note 8. 4 4 Valait ' = was worth. * Certes ' = surely. See Paragraph 2, note 4. FRENCH TEXT. 5 5 Ah ! but no ! 6 One addressed then. Compare Paragraph I, note 6. French adverbs, unless they begin the sentence, nearly always follow their verbs. 7 See Paragraph 2, note 4; and Paragraph 3, note 4. 8 Without doubt. 6. Le gouvernement italien envoya un mémoire qui montait à The Italian-government sent an estimate which amounted to douze mille francs. Douze mille francs ! Il faudrait 1 prélever twelve thousand francs. Twelve thousand francs / It would-be-necessary to-levy un impôt nouveau, un impôt de deux francs par tête d'habitant. 2 a new-tax, a tax of two francs per-capita. Cela suffirait pour amener des troubles inconnus dans l'État. That would-be -enough to cause (some) unknown-disturbances in the state. On songea 3 à faire décapiter le gueux 4 par un simple soldat. They thought of having-the-rascal-decapitated by a common soldier. Mais le général, consulté, répondit en hésitant 5 que ses hommes But the general, on-being-consulted , replied reluctantly that his men Savaient peut-être pas 6 une pratique suffisante de l'arme blanche 7 had-not-perhaps enough-practice with the sword pour s'acquitter 8 d'une tâche demandant une grande expérience to acquit-themselves of a task requiring a vast experience dans le maniement du sabre. in the use of the sabre. 1 See Paragraph 3, note x. 2 By head of inhabitant ; that is, for every inhabitant. 3 See Paragraph 5, notes 2 and 6. 'On' means one or people, or we, you, or they, used in an indefinite or a general way. Its verb is always in the third person singular. 4 Literally, to make decapitate the rascal. To have anything done is translated by 'faire' with the active infinitive. 5 Hesitating. 6 * Avaient ' = had. See Paragraph 2, note 4. 7 White weapon. 8 See Paragraph 3, note 4. 7. Alors le prince convoqua de nouveau la Cour suprême et Then the prince assembled once-more the Supreme-Court, and lui soumit 1 ce cas embarrassant. On délibéra 2 longtemps, sans submitted-to-it this embarrassing-case . They deliberated a-long-while, without découvrir 3 aucun moyen pratique. Enfin le premier président discovering any practicable-method. At-last the first president 6 FRENCH LESSONS AND EXERCISES. proposa de commuer la peine de mort en celle de prison proposed to commute the penalty of death to that of imprisonment perpétuelle, et la mesure fut adoptée. Mais on ne possédait pas de 4 for-life, and the measure was adopted. But they-had-no prison. Il fallut 5 en 6 installer une, et un geôlier fut nommé, prison. It was-necessary (of them) to-fit-up one, and a jailer was appointed, qui prit livraison du prisonnier. who took charge of-the prisoner. 1 See Paragraph 5, note 3. 2 See Paragraph 6, note 3. 3 * Découvrir ' means really to discover. In French the infinitive, and not the present participle, is used after all prepositions except 4 en.' For an example of the preposition 4 en' see the second sentence of Paragraph 5. 4 For 1 on ' see Paragraph 6, note 3. * Ne ' ... ' pas de 1 = no; ' de ' loses its e before a vowel sound. Compare Paragraph 2, note 4. 5 Freely, they had. See Paragraph 6, note I. 6 The pronoun 1 en ' means of it or of them : see the beginning of Para- graph 3. ' II fallut en installer une ' = it was necessary to fit up one {of them), that is, a prison. Compare the sentence: 'je n'ai pas de frère, mais vous en avez deux' == / have no brother, but you have two {of them), that is, two brothers. 8. Pendant six mois tout alla bien. Le captif dormait tout For six months all went well. The captive slept all le jour sur une paillasse dans son réduit, et le gardien en 1 (the) day on a straw-mattress in his retreat, and the guardian (of it) faisait autant 2 sur une chaise devant la porte en regardant 3 did the-same on a chair before the door, (while) watching passer les voyageurs. Mais le prince est économe, c'est là son the-travellers-pass-by. But the Prince is economical — that is (there) his moindre défaut, et il se fait rendre 4 compte des plus petites least fault — and he has-rendered-to-him an-account of-the smallest dépenses accomplies dans son État (la liste n'en est pas longue 5 ). expenditures made in his state. The list of-them-is-not-long. On lui remit donc la note des frais relatifs à la création de They handed-him, then, the bill for-the expenses connected with the creation of cette fonction nouvelle, à l'entretien de la prison, du prisonnier this new-offi.ee , with the keeping of the prison, (of) the prisoner, et du veilleur. Le traitement de ce dernier grevait lourdement 6 and (of) the watchman. The salary of this latter was-a-heavy-burdenfor le budget du souverain. the finances of the sovereign. FRENCH TEXT. 7 1 See Paragraph 7, note 6. 2 'Autant' = as much. 'Le gardien en faisait autant ' = the guardian did as much (of it), that is, of sleeping; in other words, the guardian slept likewise. 3 See Paragraph 7, note 3. 4 See Paragraph 6, note 4; and Paragraph 3, note 4. 'Se' means here to himself 5 For ' en ' see Paragraph 7, note 6. For 'ne* ... ' pas ' see Paragraph 2, note 4. 6 Burdened heavily. 9. Il fît d'abord la grimace 1 ; mais quand il songea que cela At-flrst-he-grinned-and-bore-it; but when he reflected that it pouvait durer toujours (le condamné était jeune), il prévint son might last forever {the convict was young), he warned his ministre de la justice d'avoir à 2 prendre des mesures pour minister 0/ {the) justice that-he-must take {some) measures to supprimer cette dépense. Le ministre consulta le président du suppress this expense. The minister consulted the Chief tribunal, et tous deux 3 convinrent qu'on supprimerait 4 la charge Justice, and both agreed to-do-away-with the offi.ce de geôlier. Le prisonnier, invité à se garder 5 tout seul, of jailer. The prisoner, when-asked to watch-himself all alone, ne pouvait 6 manquer de s'évader, 5 ce qui résoudrait la question could-not fail to run-away, which would-solvt the problem à la satisfaction de tous. to the satisfaction of all. 1 Literally, he made first the grimace, that is, at first he made up a face. 2 Literally, to have to. 3 Literally, all two. 4 Literally, that one should suppress the office of jailer, that is, that the office of jailer should be suppressed. 5 Compare Paragraph 3, note 4. 6 ' Ne ' is used here with the sense of ' ne ' . . . ' pas/ 10. Le geôlier fut donc rendu à sa famille, et un aide de The jaiUr was therefore restored to his family, and a kitchen- cuisine 1 du palais resta chargé 2 simplement de porter, matin hand in-the palace remained with-orders simply to carry, morning et soir, la nourriture du coupable. Mais celui-ci ne fit 3 i., ii., iv., v. ; 28 ; 31, as far as Future. LESSON 34. Rompre : 31, all. LESSON 35. Donner, rompre : 29, all ; 31, all. LESSON 36. Choisir : 28 ; 30, all. 20 FRENCH LESSONS AND EXERCISES. LESSON 37. First conjugation : 29, a, 6, c, d. LESSON 38. Avoir : 26 ; 26, i., ii., iv., v. ; 33, (2), as far as Future. LESSON 39. Avoir : 33, (2), all. LESSON 40. Être : 26 ; 26, i., ii., iv., v. ; 27 ; 33, (3), as far as Future. LESSON 41. Être: 33, (3), all. LESSON 42. Regular verbs : 29, all ; 30, all ; 31, all. LESSON 43. Compound tenses: 21; 21,0; 34, (1), conjugate * avoir sauté* in full LESSON 44. Compound tenses : 21 ; 21, a] 34, (2), conjugate 'être tombé* in full. EXERCISE I. Paragraph 1 of the French text. — Let every pupil construct from each one of the following phrases five sentences containing verbs in compound tenses : ( 1 ) prendre 1 le train de quatre heures ; (2) aller 2 dîner avec un ami; (3) avoir le loisir de parler; (4) parler longuement de cet État surprenant; (5) trouver un souverain absolu. 1 The past participle of prendre,' to take, is ' pris ' (pri). 2 ' Aller,' to go, is conjugated with ' être.' LESSONS. 21 LESSON 45. Passive : 16 ; 18, a, c ; 35. LESSON 46. Passive : 35, conjugate ' être oublié ' in full. EXERCISE Ii. Paragraph 2. — Give ' les traditions sont conservées intactes,' ' toutes les formules sont usitées,' and ' la mesure est appliquée ' in all the tenses of the indicative and conditional, — Conjugate in full the passive of' bannir.' LESSON 47. Personal pronouns : 56 ; 56, a, b ; 57 ; 57, (1), (2), (3), (4) ; 58 ; 59 ; 60. LESSON 48. Conjunctive personal pronouns : 60 ; 61 ; 62 ; 63 ; 63, A, B ; 64 ; 64, a ; 65 ; 66 ; 67 ; 68 ; 68, A ; 68, a ; 69 ; 69, A. LESSON 49. Disjunctive personal pronouns: 71; 72; 73; 74; 74, (1), (2) ; 75. EXERCISE III. Paragraphs 1 and 3. — Answer the following questions in French, using as many personal pronouns as possible : ( 1 ) avec qui 1 dînez- vous 2 ? (2) avec qui ont-ils dîné 2 ? (3) avec qui dînions-nous 2 ? (4) avec qui avait-il dîné 2 ? (5) avec qui dînerai- je 2 ? (6) avec qui dîneraient-elles 2 ? (7) avec qui aurait-elle dîné 2 ? (8) en donnent-ils des preuves? (9) qui en donnerait des preuves 2 ? (10) en avez-vous donné des preuves? (11) qui insulta le souverain 2 ? (12) nous avait-il insultés? (13) m'insulte- 1 The interrogative pronoun ' qui' (ici) means whom or who. 2 Let the different pupils give different answers to this question. 22 FRENCH LESSONS AND EXERCISES. rez-vous? (14) les arrêterait-on? (15) qui l'aura arrêtée 1 ? (16) m'auraient-elles arrêté? (17) qui lui pose la même ques- tion 1 ? (18) leur posait-elle la même question? (19) me poserez- vous la même question? (20) vous posèrent-ils la même question? LESSON 50. Personal pronouns: 58; 59; 60; 67; 68; 68, A; 68, a; 69; 69, A; 71 ; 74 ; 74, (1), (2); 75. EXERCISE IV. Paragraphs 3 and 4. — Answer the following questions in French, using as many personal pronouns as possible 2 : (1) à qui posait- il la question 3 ? (2) à qui ont-elles posé la question 3 ? (3) Q u i jugera ce cas? (4) qui a été condamné à mort? (5) qui fut condamné à mort ? (6) qui avait ratifié l'arrêt ? (7) qui était resté? (8) qui exécuterait le criminel? (9) qui possède une guillotine 4 ? (10) avec qui auriez- vous entamé des négociations 5 ? LESSON 51. Interrogation : 36 ; 38. LESSON 52. Interrogation : 37 ; 37, A, B with (l) and (2), C with (1) and (2) and (3). EXERCISE V. Paragraphs 4 and 5. — Make questions out of the following sen- tences* : (1) nous jugeons ce cas ; (2) vous auriez ratifié l'arrêt; (3) j'avais entamé des négociations; (4) je répondis; (5) tu songes; (6) vous m'avez adressé la même demande; (7) ils se 1 Let the different pupils give different answers to this question. 2 Let the different pupils give different answers, using different pronouns. 3 Give eight answers using disjunctive forms for the indirect object, and six answers using conjunctive forms for both objects. 4 Form the answers after this model: j'en possède une, I possess one {of them), 5 Use ' en,' some, in place of ' des négociations.' 6 Give two forms for every question. LESSONS. 23 montreraient exigeants; (8) un assassinat a eu lieu; (9) le misé- rable fut condamné; (10) le souverain ratifia l'arrêt; (n) une difficulté surgit; (12) le prince avait entamé des négociations; (13) de longues délibérations 1 eurent lieu; (14) on répondra enfin; (15) le tout montait à seize mille francs; (16) Sa Majesté 1 songea; (17) l'opération 1 lui aurait coûté cher; (18) l'assassin valait ce prix; (19) on adresse la même demande au gouverne- ment italien; (20) un frère ne se montrerait pas si exigeant. LESSON 53. Possessives : 76 ; 77 ; 78 ; 78, a ; 79. LESSON 54. Possessive adjectives : 78 ; 79 ; 80 ; 80, a, b, C, d. LESSON 55. Possessive pronouns : 81 ; 82 ; 83 ; 83, a. EXERCISE VI. 2 Paragraph 5. 3 — Use with every noun in the paragraph the possessive adjectives of all the different persons. — Substitute for every noun in the paragraph all the different possessive pronouns that might represent it. — Give eight answers, containing disjunc- tive object-pronouns, to the following question : à qui est le prix ? — Give six answers, containing conjunctive object-pronouns, to this question : à qui coupera-t-on le cou 4 ? LESSON 56. Negation : 36 ; 43. 1 Feminine noun. 2 In performing this exercise, pupils must be sure they understand the meaning or mean- ings of every French form they use. 3 Of the nouns in this paragraph, we have seen that ' délibérations ' and * opération ' are feminine; the gender of some is indicated by an article or an adjective; the others are all masculine. * ' Couper ' means to cut. 24 FRENCH LESSONS AND EXERCISES. LESSON 57. Negation : 39 ; 44. LESSON 58. Negation: 39, (1), (2), (3),^; 40; 40, A, B ; 41; 41, A, B ; 41, (3); 42. EXERCISE VII. Paragraphs 6 and 7. — Make the following sentences interroga- tive as well as negative: (1) ils n'avaient pas une pratique suffi- sante de l'arme blanche; (2) on ne possédait pas de prison. — Turn the following sentences into negative statements and negative questions: (1) je l'envoyai; (2) tu montais; (3) cela suffirait; (4) nous les amenons ; (5) vous y songez ; (6) ils l'ont décapité ; (7) il fut consulté; (8) elle a répondu; (9) elles avaient hésité; (10) je m'en serais acquitté ; (11) vous la demanderez; (12) il le lui soumit; (13) elle est adoptée; (14) on en possède; (15) j'ai été nommé. — Give the imperative} positive and nega- tive, of these verbs: (1) les amener; (2) y songer; (3) me consulter 2 ; (4) lui répondre; (5) me la demander. 2 — In the following sentences, use a negation with the infinitive : (1) je lui propose de convoquer la Cour suprême ; (2) on proposera de délibérer longtemps ; (3) ils proposèrent de la commuer ; (4) nous avons proposé de l'adopter; (5) vous proposiez de le nommer. LESSON 59. Relative pronouns : 84 ; 84, a, b ; 85 ; 85, (1) ; 86 ; 87. LESSON 60. Relative pronouns : 85 ; 85, (1) ; 85, a, b ; 86 ; 86, (1), (2), a ; 87 ; 87, b. 1 See § 68, A. 2 Omit the first person plural. LESSONS. 25 EXERCISE VIII. Paragraphs 6 and 7. — Supply the French relative pronouns in the following sentences: (1) envoyez- moi what vous avez; (2) c'est un mémoire that y ai envoyé; (3) il faut prélever un impôt which monte à douze mille francs ; (4) il faudrait le faire décapiter, which amènerait des troubles inconnus dans l'État ; (5) j'ai what me suffit ; (6) ce sont les troubles à which nous songeons; (7) songez à what vous faites; (8) est-ce le gueux who sera décapité? (9) c'est un soldat that on a décapité; (10) envoyez-moi le soldat whom vous avez consulté; (11) est-ce le général à whom vous songez? (12) what il répond suffirait pour amener des troubles ; (13) il s'acquitte de what ne demande pas une grande expérience; (14) est-ce une tâche of which ils s'acquitteront? (15) elle me demande what vous m'avez envoyé; (16) ce sont des tâches à which vous ne songez guère ; (17) c'est une tâche pour which ils n'avaient pas une pratique suffisante ; (18) est-ce le prince who convoque la Cour suprême? (19) le prince convoqua la Cour, à which il soumit ce cas embarrassant ; (20) ce fut la Cour suprême that délibéra; (21) c'est un moyen à which on ne songe plus; (22) le prince, à whom on avait pro- posé ce moyen, n'hésita plus ; (23) est-ce le prisonnier whose on a commué la peine? (24) c'est la Cour of which j'ai été nommé président ; (25) c'était le prisonnier of whom il avait pris livraison. LESSON 61. Numerals : 127, (1) ; 127, (1), a, 6, c, d. LESSON 62. Numerals: 127, (2); 127, (2), a, b, c, d ; 127, (3); 127, (3) , a. LESSON 63. Numerals: 127, (4); 127, (4), 6; 128; 128, (l), (2), (3), (4) , a. 26 FRENCH LESSONS AND EXERCISES. EXERCISE IX. Paragraph 8. — Pronounce the following phrases, and write out the French names of the numbers : 6 mois, 6 États ; 2 captifs, 2 États ; i jour, i État ; 4 paillasses, 4 États ; 3 gardiens, 3 États ; 5 chaises, 5 États; 7 portes, 7 États; 10 voyageurs, 10 États; 8 princes, 8 États ; 9 défauts, 9 États ; 20 dépenses, 20 États ; 31 listes, 31 États; 45 notes, 45 États; 80 prisons, 80 États; 83 prisonniers, 83 États; 87 veilleurs, 87 États; 100 souverains, 100 États; iog mois, 102 États; 200 captifs, 200 États; 288 jours, 288 États; 1000 gardiens; 9000 chaises; 1000000 voya- geurs. — Put ordinal numerals with the following nouns, using different numerals with the different words : les mois 1 ; le captif; le jour ; la paillasse ; son réduit ; la chaise ; la porte ; les voya- geurs 1 ; le prince; son défaut; le compte; les dépenses; son État ; la liste ; la note ; les frais 1 ; la création ; cette fonction ; l'entretien 1 ; la prison ; le prisonnier ; le veilleur ; le traitement ; le budget ; le souverain. LESSON 64. Reflexive verbs : 45 ; 45, a ; 46 ; 46, a, à, c ; 47, (1). LESSON 65. Reflexive verbs : 46 ; 47, (1), (2), (3) ; 18, a, d. EXERCISE X. Paragraphs 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. — Conjugate the present indica- tive singular of ' s'enhardir,' the present indicative plural of ' se réunir à Paris,' the present pafect indicative of i s'adresser au gouvernement italien,' the singular of the descriptive past of ' se montrer exigeant,' the plural of the descriptive past of ' s'acquitter de la tâche,' the past perfect indicative of ' se pro- poser de trouver un moyen pratique,' the narrative past of ' se regarder,' the future of 1 s'en rendre compte,' the conditional 1 Masculine. LESSONS. 27 singular of i se garder tout seul,' the conditional plural of ' s'évader.' — Give the imperative, positive and negative, of * s'acquitter de la tâche.' LESSON 66. Derivation of tenses : 25 ; 26 ; 26, i., ii. LESSON 67. Derivation of tenses : 26, i., ii., iv., v. ; 27. EXERCISE XI. Paragraph 8. — Conjugate in full the tenses represented by 'dormait' and 6 remit.' — Describe the following words, and give all forms that can be constructed from them : allai ; regardant ; passer ; fais ; rendre. LESSON 68. Devoir : 32 ; 32, a, b ; 32, Devoir (p. 34), construct the whole verb. LESSON 69. Voice and mood: 16; 16, a; 17; 17, a, b, c; 18; 18, a, b, c, d, e, f ; 19 ; 19, a, b ; 19, c. LESSON 70. Tense, person, and number: 20; 20, a, b; 21; 21, a, b ; 21, c, d; 22 ; 22, a, b ; 23 ; 24. EXERCISE XII. Paragraphs 7, 8, 9, 10. — Describe and account for all verbal forms in these paragraphs \ Pay particular attention to infinitive constructions. For irregular forjns see List of Verbs in this book. LESSON 7 1. Aller: 33, (l), all. 28 FRENCH LESSONS AND EXERCISES. LESSON 72. Dire : 32, Dire (p. 34), construct the whole verb. LESSON 73. Personal pronouns : 56 ; 56, a, b ; 57 ; 57, (l), (2), (3), (4) ; 58; 59; 71; 72; 73; 74; 74, (1), (2) ; 75. EXERCISE XIII. Paragraphs 10 and 11. — Reply in French to the following questions, giving eight answers, with different personal pronouns, to every question: (1) à qui vous rend-on? (2) qui vit-on arriver 1 ? (3) à qui évitons-nous une course 2 ? (4) à qui vient- il? (5) à qui songe-t-elle 3 ? (6) avec qui mange-t-il? (7) qui allait faire un tour 4 ? (8) qui a gagné 5 ? (9) à qui s'ofïrent-ils ? (10) qui est-ce? LESSON 74. Personal pronouns : 58 ; 59 ; 60 ; 61 ; 62 ; 62, a ; 63 ; 63, A, B ; 63, B, (1), (2) ; 63, c ; 64 ; 64, a, b ; 65 ; 65, (l) ; 66 ; 66, a, b ; 67 ; 68 ; 68, A ; 69 ; 69, A. EXERCISE XIV. Paragraph 12. — Translate the first clause in two entirely different ways. — Give the imperative, positive and negative, of these verbs : (1) lui répondre; (2) les trouver ; (3) le condam- ner à mort; (4) la lui enlever; (5) me chasser du pays. 6 — Answer the following questions in French, using, whenever it is possible, pronouns and adverbs instead of nouns or phrases: (1) ai-je été condamné à la prison perpétuelle? (2) a-t-on voulu 1 Use no verb in the answers to this question. 2 Use two indirect object-pronouns in every answer to this question. 3 For ' songer ' see Paragraph 9. 4 Use two subject pronouns in every answer to this question. 5 Make the answers emphatic. 6 Omit the first person plural. LESSONS. 2 9 me chasser du pays? (3) est-il resté à Monaco? (4) m'avez- vous enlevé mon gardien? (5) combien de prisonniers ont-ils? (6) voulait-on condamner le prisonnier à mort? (7) auriez-vous voulu chasser le geôlier du pays? (8) les condamna-t-on 1 ? (9) vous chasseront-ils 1 ? (10) ai-je signifié cet arrêt au prison- nier? (11) a-t-on enlevé au prisonnier ses gardiens? (12) s'est-il dit qu'il restera? (13) m'avez-vous trouvé des gardiens? (14) la prison est-elle à Monaco? (15) combien de prisonniers reste-t-il? LESSON 75. Faire: 33, (4), ail. LESSON 76. Voir: 32; 32, a, b ; 32, Voir (p. 36), construct the whole verb. LESSON 77. Articles: 105; 106; 106, a; 108, (1), (2), (3), (4), (5), (6); 108, a; 112; 112, a; 113, (1), (2), (3), (4). LESSON 78. Articles: 109; 110; 110, a; 111; 111, a; 111, (1); 111, (l),a, 6; 111, (2); 111, (2), a. EXERCISE XV. Paragraphs 10, 11, 12. — Supply the lacking French words in the following sentences : (1) vous êtes a juge; (2) il dîne at the hôtel; (3) on n'a pas any prison; (4) je suis a cuisinier; (5) il a eu . . . bons juges ; (6) je n'ai pas any famille ; (7) avez-vous . . . mains? (8) il s'offre . . . bons dîners; (9) vous êtes a pri- sonnier; (10) il n'a guère any aliments; (11) ont-ils any gar- diens? (12) ce sont . . . bons prisonniers ; (13) ils n'ont pas any amis ; (14) . . . criminels n'entrent pas into the Casino ; (15) nous n'avons plus . . . gardiens; (16) voit-on . . . criminels à Monte- Give a negative answer. 30 FRENCH LESSONS AND EXERCISES. Carlo? (17) the geôlier n'a point any prisonniers ; (18) ce sont . . . situations difficiles; (19) nous n'avons pas any nourriture; (20) a-t-on condamné any criminels? (21) il est chargé de them lui porter; (22) the famille of the geôlier resta dans the cuisine; (23) the aide de cuisine portait some nourriture to the coupable ; (24) ils ont fait . . . tentatives pour reconquérir . . . liberté ; (25) a ami of the aide de cuisine arriva at the palais ; (26) the gens de service portent . . . aliments to the famille of the geôlier; (27) on a fourni . . . aliments to the ami of the cuisinier ; (28) c'est pour éviter a course to the gens de service ; (29) the cuisinier a the habitude de venir to the palais porter . . . nourriture to the amis of the coupables ; (30) the ami of the prisonnier a pris the habi- tude de venir manger at the palais, pour éviter a course to the aide de cuisine. LESSON 79. Vouloir: 33, (10), all. LESSON 80. Valoir : 32 ; 32, a, b ; 32, Valoir (p. 36), construct the whole verb. LESSON 81. Nouns: 129; 129,0,^; 130; 130, (l), (2), (3) ; 130,(4); 131, a; 132; 132, (1), (2), (3); 132, (3), M- EXERCISE XVI. Paragraphs 10, 11, 12, 13. — Give the plural of all singular nouns {except proper names) in these paragraphs, using the definite article with all forms y both singular and plural} — Make from the words in Paragraphs 12 and i^five phrases or sentences illustrat- ing the possessive construction described in § 129. LESSON 82. Pouvoir : 33, (6), all. 1 ' Mort ' is feminine. * LESSONS. 31 LESSON 83. Partir : 32, Partir (p. 35), construct the whole verb. LESSON 84. Adjectives: 114; 114, c, d\ 115; 115, (1), (2), (3), (4); 117 ; 118 ; 120, b. LESSON 85. Adjectives: 116; 116, (1), (2), (3), (4), (5); 122; 122, (l),a; 122, (2), a, b, (4) ; 13^ a > b \ 132 ; I 3 2 > a ; 132 > i 1 ), ( 2 ) ; l 3 2 > (3) ; J 3 2 ? (3)> <*> b - 1 Use ' faire.' 2 Use reflexive construction. 3 Or = • ou/ 34 FRENCH LESSONS AND EXERCISES. EXERCISE XXIV. A. — Use the indefinite article and the proper form of the adjective 'bas,' 6 blanc/ 'bon/ 'épais,' 'gros,' 'long,' 'pareil' with ' mur,' m., wall, and ' muraille,' f., wall. Use the word for some and the proper form of ' doux ' and ' frais ' with : ' vin,' m., wine ; 'eau,' f., water; 'melons,' m., melons; 'poires,' f., pears. B. — Pronounce and study Paragraph 1 1. Translate into French the following sentences based on Paragraphs 10 and n. ' Franc ' is masculine. i. It's the nicest family in 1 Monaco. — 2. How much did you win? — 3. This food is better than the jailer's. — 4. Has he eaten many walnuts 2 ? — 5. There are not knives 3 enough: you must bring us some. — 6. My nephews 4 have just risked a five franc piece. 5 — 7. Our dinners are worse than the servants'. — 8. You had just won more than five francs at the Casino. — 9. They will bring us but little food. — 10. I have risked less than a franc. — 11. The convicts have more food than the jailers horses. 6 — 12. The situation is growing more awkward every day. 7 — 13. She has less liberty than he. — 14. The culprit's friend is the silliest cook in 1 the palace. — 15. The judge hasn't so many servants as 8 the jailer. — 16. They have few friends ; / have many more. — 17. You used to eat less than I. — 18. The convicts have as much food as the servants. — 19. He has saved her many 9 journeys. — 20. I am going to dine at the judge's. — 21. The criminals eat more than the servants. — 22. He does it much better than I. — 23. We have too many judges. — 24. How many francs have they won? — 25. I have had enough of it. — 26. The cook's friends have eaten too much. — 27. The judge's horses 6 are better than mine. — 28. The jailer's nephew 4 has won many 9 times. — 29. It is worse than that. — 30. The convicts haven't food enough. LESSON 52. Partir, valoir, voir : 32, Partir, Valoir, Voir. 10 1 Use ' de.' 2 Walnut = * noix,' f. 3 Km/e= 1 couteau/ m. 4 Nephew = * neveu.' 6 Piece = ' pièce,' f. 6 Horse — ' cheval,' m. 7 A II the days. 8 As = ' que.' 9 Translate many in two ways. 10 1 Partir ' = to go away, 6 valoir,' = to be worthy ' voir ' = to see. LESSONS. 35 LESSON 53. Interrogatives : 89 ; 89, a ; 90 ; 90, (1), (2) ; 91 ; 91, a ; 92 ; 93 ; 94 ; 94, a, LESSON 54, Interrogatives: 90; 90, (1), (2); 91; 92; 93; 94; 95; 95, a, c,