PRACTICAL 
 
 TRADE MARK 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 Price 35^ 
 
 AMERrCAN PHOTOGRAPHIC PUB- 
 LISHING COMPANY- BOSTON.MASS 
 
 8 
 
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Softness 
 
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 Round ness 
 
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 Perfect Balance 
 
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 Sparkling Hidhlidhts 
 
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 platinum — tissue — ^um — collodion 
 are found in 
 
 The Many-in-One Printing Medium for 
 Professional and Amateur work of 
 highest quality. 
 
 ANSCO COMPANY 
 
 BINGHAMTON, N. Y. 
 
PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY, NO. 8 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 Edited by 
 
 FRANK R. FRAPRDE, S.M., F.R.P.S. 
 
 Editor of American Ptiotosrraptiy 
 
 THIRTIETH THOUSAND 
 Revised and Enlarged 
 
 AMERICAN PHOTOGRAPHIC 
 PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 BOSTON. MASSACHUSETTS 
 1919 
 
COPTRIGHT, 1912, BY 
 FRANK R. FRAPRIE 
 
 Copyright, 1919, by 
 
 AMERICAN PHOTOGRAPHIC 
 PUBLISHING CO. , 
 
 Stanbope prtx 
 
 F. H. GILSON COMPANT 
 BOSTON, U.S.A. 
 
 THE GETTY CEtiXES 
 LIBRARY 
 
The Elements of Photography 
 
 THIS little book is intended for the beginner, 
 and we shall endeavor to express ourselves in 
 as simple and concise a manner as possible. 
 Nevertheless, it is more than probable that the amateur 
 photographer who has had some experience with the 
 camera may find in its pages some useful information. 
 Our idea has been to condense as much practical advice 
 as is possible within the limits of these pages. 
 
 A Little about the Chemistry of Photography. — 
 This heading may seem at first glance to be taking up 
 photography at the wrong place, but anyone who is 
 just beginning to take pictures will find it especially 
 helpful to obtain first of all a good general idea of the 
 chemical principles involved in the various processes. 
 In this way he will be enabled to work more intelli- 
 gently and to avoid some of the mistakes that he might 
 make if working in the dark, using the term metaphori- 
 cally as well as literally. 
 
 Many years ago it was observed that certain sub- 
 stances containing silver were blackened when exposed 
 to the light for some time. Later it was found that 
 when some of these substances were exposed for a very 
 short time, so short, in fact, that no blackening could 
 be noticed, nevertheless a change took place which 
 caused them to darken when treated with certain 
 chemicals. The whole art of modern photography is 
 
 3 
 
4 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 based on these observations. If we should prepare 
 one of these silver compounds, mix it with gelatine so 
 as to form a thick paste, spread it on a glass plate and 
 let it dry, what we would have would be practically 
 the ordinary dryplate. When the sensitive coat or 
 emulsion, as it is called, is spread upon a thin trans- 
 parent sheet of celluloid, we have the film. This is the 
 principle of the whole thing, though the practical part 
 is more difficult. Some of these silver compounds are 
 much more sensitive to the light than others, and the 
 plate manufacturer has to make up his emulsion so as 
 to get just the right degree of sensitiveness, and then 
 spread it uniformly and evenly on the glass. 
 
 Exposing a Plate. — Now, what happens when we 
 make an exposure ? You know that white sunlight is 
 composed of several different kinds of light, the seven 
 colors of the rainbow. Some kinds of light, such as 
 the violet, have a very marked influence on the silver 
 compounds, while the red, on the other hand, has but 
 very little effect. For this reason we load the plates 
 into the holder by ruby light. Then we make the 
 exposure, perhaps for fifteen seconds, perhaps for a 
 hundredth of a second. The light, passing through 
 the lens, acts on the sensitive silver film, the amount 
 of action depending, of course, on the amount of light. 
 The amount of light reflected from a white house, for 
 example, would have much more effect than would the 
 light from a green tree. 
 
 Purpose of the Developer. — We take the exposed 
 plate into the darkroom and look at it. It looks just 
 as it did before the exposure. Apparently there has 
 been no change. But that a change of some kind has 
 taken place will be evident as soon as we put the plate 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 5 
 
 into the developer. The developer contains a re- 
 ducing agent, that is to say, some chemical which has 
 the power of converting the silver compound into 
 metallic silver. But, and here is the important part of 
 it all, the developer can act only on that part of the 
 sensitive compound which has been already acted on 
 by the light. If we should put an unexposed plate 
 into the developer it would have, for a very long time, 
 no action on it at all. Wherever the strongest light 
 has struck the plate, there the developer acts most 
 strongly, and vice versa. Hence, when we develop we 
 get a very black deposit of finely divided metallic 
 silver where the white house was, and very little 
 blackening for our green tree. 
 
 Fixation. — After developing the plate, we have, 
 then, a certain amount of metallic silver deposited in 
 it, but we have also a good deal of the sensitive silver 
 compound which has not been acted on by the light, 
 and consequently has not been reduced by the de- 
 veloper. It would spoil the plate to take it out into 
 the light with this still on it, so we must get rid of it. 
 This we can do by means of hyposulphite of soda in 
 the fixing bath. The hypo unites with the silver com- 
 pound, which is insoluble, to form a soluble compound 
 which dissolves out in the hypo solution. Then we 
 wash all of the hypo out of the film and dry it. This 
 gives us a negative. 
 
 Principle of Toning. — The chemical changes which 
 take place in printing are about the same as those just 
 mentioned. If we are using gaslight paper, for ex- 
 ample, just the same things happen that did in the 
 case of the dryplate, and we develop and fix in a simi- 
 lar way. With printing-out paper, however, things 
 
5 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 are a little different. This paper is coated with a 
 different silver compound which darkens in the light 
 without the use of a developer. Hence, when this is 
 exposed under a negative, we get the picture in its full 
 strength without development. But, since the paper 
 is not so sensitive as the plates, we have to do this in 
 stronger light, generally in direct sunlight. We might 
 now, if we wished, fix the print in hypo and wash it, 
 and our picture would be completed. But the reddish 
 ■color obtained in this way is not especially pleasing, 
 so we resort to toning, which consists in replacing the 
 silver image by one of gold, that is, in reality we gold- 
 plate the picture. 
 
 The Camera. — The cameras used in photography 
 all combine, in their construction, three elements. 
 First, they consist of a lightproof box; second, they 
 have at one end a lens, and third, at the opposite end 
 a plateholder. The lens casts an image on the photo- 
 graphic plate or film in the holder, and this image or 
 light affects the sensitive surface of the plate, an in- 
 visible picture being produced thereon. 
 
 The Choice of a Camera. — This is usually the first 
 question which perplexes the beginner, unless a camera 
 has been presented to him. Assuming that a camera 
 is to be purchased, the first decision must be as to 
 whether plates or films are to be used. With the 
 present perfection of photographic processes and 
 apparatus, there is no doubt that the obstacles to be 
 overcome will be fewer and the chances of initial suc- 
 cess greater if a film camera is purchased. The opera- 
 tions of loading, focusing and developing are all 
 Tendered as simple as possible by improved "all by 
 daylight " methods, and it is almost impossible not to 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 7 
 
 produce perfect pictures with a kodak and a developing 
 tank. If, on the other hand, more of the theory of 
 photography is wanted, there are more obstacles to be 
 overcome, and more things to be learned when a plate 
 camera is used. Some study of optics and chemistry 
 is indispensable to the satisfactory manipulation of a 
 plate camera, so that its educational value may be 
 greater. 
 
 If a film camera is to be purchased, the nearest 
 dealer will give all necessary advice. The principal 
 thing is to make as large an outlay as possible and get 
 the most elaborate model you can afford, because 
 sooner or later you will change for the better camera 
 if not purchased at first. If economy, however, is 
 necessary, you may purchase even a Brownie or a 
 Buster Brown, with entire confidence that it will do 
 perfectly the work for which it is intended. The 
 cheaper models are fitted with single lenses and have 
 only one speed of snapshot exposure, hence they can 
 be used successfully only in bright sunlight between 9 
 and 3 o'clock. One of their advantages is that they 
 do not require focusing or setting the shutter. The 
 box forms are simplest of all, but the cheaper folding 
 forms are more convenient in the larger sizes. Those 
 models which have to be focused and are fitted with 
 rapid rectilinear lenses and shutters with many speeds 
 are, however, capable of doing much better work if one 
 is willing to learn to use them properly. 
 
 If a plate camera is desired, a large variety is offered 
 by the numerous firms which advertise in the columns 
 of American Photography. Catalogs of their cameras 
 may be had from any firm on request, and they will be 
 glad to refer you to their nearest agents. The size is 
 
8 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 a matter that depends on the pocketbook of the pur- 
 chaser, but should usually not be smaller than 3 j x 4^. 
 If possible, get the folding style with focusing attach- 
 ment, a rectilinear lens, a shutter with a fair number of 
 speeds and iris diaphragm, and a rising front and 
 swingback. 
 
 We shall now endeavor to show the advantage of 
 getting an instrument embodying these features. A 
 camera smaller than 3! x 4j becomes unsatisfactory 
 for contact prints after the beginner has advanced a 
 little, as they are too small to frame or exhibit. A 
 folding camera with groundglass for focusing enables 
 one to see the picture full size on the plate, and to com- 
 pose it with more accuracy. The folding camera is 
 more convenient to carry, taking up less room than 
 the box variety. 
 
 Of course, if one uses a small camera, it is possible 
 to have bromide enlargements made from the nega- 
 tives and such enlargements are often as good as direct 
 prints made with a larger camera. The majority of 
 amateurs, however, use the 4 x 5 or 3j x 5I, which are 
 now recognized as standard sizes. 
 
 Rigidity in the camera is the most essential thing. 
 Many cameras are altogether too flimsy in construc- 
 tion, hard use quickly reducing one of them to an old 
 rattletrap box which will work in a dead calm, but is 
 only too likely to go back on you at a critical moment. 
 Great improvement in other styles has been made in 
 recent years, but the improved view camera still re- 
 tains, for serious work, the first position. The long 
 focus hand and stand style is more compact, and, in 
 the best makes, almost as rigid and strong. Some 
 cameras are handicapped by poor plateholders. In 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 9 
 
 general, those having metal springs to be drawn down 
 by the finger are to be avoided, because they almost 
 always allow the plate occasionally to slip off enough 
 to block the slide, in which case a trip to a darkroom 
 must be made to save the exposure. This defect could 
 easily be overcome by making a tiny metal tongue at 
 right angles to the face of the spring. In any case, 
 however, the holder one uses is governed by the make 
 of camera selected, so it is advisable to choose for good 
 holders as much as for a good box. Another most im- 
 portant point is that the light trap must be absolutely 
 efficient. This is the device for preventing light from 
 leaking into the plateholder when the slide is with- 
 drawn or inserted. 
 
 Having, then, a solid view box with suitable holders 
 (and simple but perfectly efficient wooden kits for 
 smaller plates if desired), one is provided with a 
 splendid camera for indoor and copying work, day- 
 light enlarging and other applications, besides its 
 primary use for landscapes. Perhaps the best type is 
 that having both front and back focus, as this kind 
 permits the use of a wide angle lens when necessary. 
 Having this much, the next consideration is the lens. 
 
 The Lens. — A rectilinear lens is the best all around 
 lens for the beginner, although more expensive lenses, 
 known as anastigmats, may be had at various prices. 
 Catalogues may be had from all photographic dealers. 
 If one's resources are ample, one of these modern 
 anastigmats is the thing to get. All are capable of 
 giving critical definition to the corners, a quality 
 which is of the utmost value when needed. The com- 
 mon rapid rectilinear, convertible or symmetrical, will 
 not always cover its plate with the large stop. As a 
 
lo THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 rule, the corrections for spherical aberration and flat- 
 ness of field do not extend to the margin of the plate, 
 and one must stop down to U. S. i6 or 32 to get good 
 covering power. This takes much of the atmosphere 
 and roundness out of the picture. An anastigmat, on 
 the other hand, actually working at its full aperture, 
 gives these qualities, and needs to be stopped down 
 only to get depth or to sharpen the foreground properly. 
 With the cheap lens one must use rapid plates which 
 have little latitude; with the anastigmat one can use 
 the slow brands, particularly the red-sensitive plates, 
 without having to resort to long time-exposures. 
 
 There are three anastigmats which lend themselves 
 very well to the production of pictorial work with 
 softer definition. The Dallmeyer is so calculated that 
 by unscrewing one of the lenses a uniform softening of 
 the image takes place through the introduction of a 
 small amount of spherical aberration. The Cooke 
 also has this property when the front glass is loosened. 
 The normal lenses, notwithstanding, will give micro- 
 scopic sharpness when this is desired. The Wollensak 
 Velostigmat/ : 4.5 has a diffusing device in the larger 
 sizes. Special lenses are also made for soft effects, 
 such as are desired by more advanced workers who 
 prefer not to have too much detail in the unimportant 
 parts of the picture. An old single landscape lens 
 works well if opened up to a larger diaphragm, and 
 can often be picked up very cheaply. Certain special 
 lenses, generally known as "soft-focus," or semi-achro- 
 matic lenses, are particularly designed to possess an 
 unusual amount of spherical aberration. 
 
 Other Parts of the Camera. — The shutter is in- 
 dispensable in these days of snapshot photography, 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY ii 
 
 and the speeds should be at legist as follows: Time, 
 bulb, I sec, I sec, ^ sec, ^ sec, ^ sec, y^^ sec 
 The stops, of course, are part of the shutter and are 
 nearly as necessary. If an anastigmat lens is pur- 
 chased, it is advisable to buy the best shutter one can 
 afford, in order to be able to do speed work up to tW» 
 Tjixr or even ^^^ second and higher. It is best to test 
 the speeds at frequent intervals, to know what the 
 values really are. All shutters will change in speed, 
 from dust, rust, friction or change of temperature, and 
 in some cases, a change of position of the camera intro- 
 duces marked variations. In fact, the inaccuracy of 
 shutter markings and variability of speeds are de- 
 serving of far more attention than most makers have 
 given them. 
 
 The rising front enables one to eliminate an objec- 
 tionable foreground without tipping the camera up. 
 If, when photographing a high object, it is found neces- 
 sary to tip the camera in order to get the entire object 
 on the plate, the swingback comes into play and evens 
 up the picture, as will be explained later. 
 
 For a tripod choose a solid, well made wooden one, 
 in three or more sections, which with large cameras 
 will pack into the space provided in the carrying case. 
 A metal or wooden tripod stay is often useful, and it is 
 a good plan to see that the legs of the tripod are pro- 
 vided with some device which makes their accidental 
 detachment impossible. The writer's is fitted with 
 brass turnbuckles which spread out the legs rigidly 
 against their pins and strengthen the top remarkably. 
 
 The last, but not the least important, part of the 
 outfit is a good exposure guide. Exposure meters 
 which measure the value of the light by the time re- 
 
12 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 quired to darken sensitive paper are also useful guides 
 to correct exposure, and help one most in conditions 
 unsuitable for the use of calculators or tables. Early 
 or late in the day, when the light is changing rapidly, 
 they are indispensable, and their use in interiors is 
 strongly urged. The use of a meter saves one a great 
 many plates. Then, if one uses reasonable care in 
 selecting subjects which are worth while and will make 
 permanently interesting photographs, the expense 
 account becomes very slight. 
 
 The Darkroom. — If plates are to be used, a dark- 
 room is usually necessary' for loading and developing. 
 For those who wish to use the tank, however, there is a 
 most convenient changing bag on the market. This 
 allows holders to be loaded and unloaded and the tank 
 filled with exposed plates, etc. It is of the greatest 
 value on tour, as plates can be changed anywhere in 
 broad daylight. It is easily possible quickly to change 
 a dozen plates inside the bag in full summer sunshine. 
 The essentials for a darkroom are the absolute shutting 
 out of all outside light, and the providing of a safe 
 light. It is well to choose as large a room as possible, 
 for the sake of ventilation; but a moderately large 
 closet will do, and usually is chosen because of its lack 
 of windows. A part of the cellar may be partitioned 
 off and will be found warm in winter and cool in sum- 
 mer. The light may be placed on a shelf outside. If 
 a room with a window is taken, the easiest way to 
 darken it is to make a light frame which will fit closely 
 inside the window casing. Over this tack two thick- 
 nesses of very thick wrapping paper on each side. 
 Dark felt or black silesia may be used instead. Enough 
 material must be used wholly to exclude light. The 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 13 
 
 cracks around the door must be looked to and strips of 
 felt tacked around the edges if necessary. When all 
 is ready, no light should be seen after being in the 
 room in the dark for five or ten minutes. 
 
 The light used to illuminate the darkroom is red. 
 This is used because the plates are least sensitive to it, 
 but it should be carefully borne in mind that no light 
 is absolutely safe, and that even a red light will spoil 
 a plate if it is left exposed to it long enough. The 
 ruby lamps commonly sold are usually too small, and 
 it is better to make a lantern. Dr. John Nicol de- 
 scribed his as follows in the American Amateur Photog- 
 rapher: "One I have had in constant use for more 
 than twenty years was a wooden box which cost ten 
 cents — not to the grocer, who gave it, but to his boy 
 for bringing it home. Its size, roughly, is about 22 x 14 
 X 12 in. I first secured a good kerosene lamp with a 
 l-in. wick, and in the bottom of the box cut an opening 
 10 in. square, so that the flame should be about oppo- 
 site its center. On sides and bottom of this opening 
 were fastened pieces of wood with three grooves, one 
 for groundglass, one for ruby — a plate of the ' copper- 
 flashed ' variety, which I was fortunate enough to get 
 in Chicago — and one for a plate of pretty deep 
 orange. The cover, which is now at the back, was 
 hinged, the whole placed on four legs 2 in. high, and in 
 the bottom, which is an end of the box, a number of 
 I -in. holes were drilled to secure ventilation. A 
 tinsmith made a chimney fitted to slide tightly through 
 a hole in the top and come down to be just over the 
 chimney of the lamp, and bent twice at right angles in 
 the usual way. This sliding chimney I consider a very 
 great improvement on the ordinary form, which just 
 
14 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 enters at the top, as it prevents both smoke, if there 
 should be any, and heat from lodging in the box, 
 making it very hot, and smoking the colored glass. I 
 rarely employ anything but the groundglass (for its 
 diffusing effect) and the ruby; but even with orange 
 added I can read fine print within some feet of the 
 lamp, and every part of my lo x 8 ft. room is suffi- 
 ciently light to enable me to find easily anything I 
 want." 
 
 To test whether the glass used is safe or not, put an 
 unexposed plate in your plateholder, draw the slide 
 half out, and expose it to the light of the lamp at a dis- 
 tance of 2 ft. for five minutes. Then develop. If the 
 two halves are alike, you can safely develop at 2 ft. 
 from the lamp. If one half develops darker than the 
 other, you must get another red glass, or add a sheet 
 of orange glass or paper, or you will fog your plate 
 when developing at this distance. 
 
 Loading the Camera. — The loading of a film 
 camera is accomplished in daylight, and full directions 
 accompany each camera when sold. The details vary 
 somewhat for different types of cameras, but are easily 
 learned. If you buy a second-hand film camera, send 
 ten cents to the maker of it and ask for an instruc- 
 tion book. Be sure to give the exact name of the 
 camera as stamped on the inside of the removable 
 back. 
 
 Plates must be loaded in the darkroom. The opera- 
 tion should be performed as far from the light as 
 possible, and it is well to learn to do it in absolute 
 darkness, so that it may easily be done in any acces- 
 sible dark place when away from home and the ruby 
 light, if the changing bag is not carried. The changing 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 15 
 
 bag is most useful, for one can readily learn to load 
 entirely by touch. The empty plateholders should be 
 piled up carefully together, and it is well to draw out 
 all the slides and dust out the holders before opening 
 the box of plates. A wide, soft brush is generally used 
 for this purpose and should never be employed for 
 anything else. It should be used gently, especially in 
 cold weather, or the electricity generated by friction 
 will attract dust instead of removing it. 
 
 When all is ready, open the plate box by passing a 
 knife or the thumbnail around the four sides to break 
 the paper seal. Take off the outer box, turn upside 
 down and take ofif the next box. The plates will now 
 be found wrapped in black paper. They are packed 
 face to face in pairs. The sensitive side is duller when 
 light is reflected from it. This side should be out in 
 the plateholder. Dust each plate gently, and lay it 
 in the plateholder, forcing back the end spring if neces- 
 sary, so that the plate will drop into place. Then put 
 in the slide, taking care that the white side of the 
 wooden end is out. This denotes an unexposed plate. 
 After exposure, the slide is replaced with the black 
 side outermost, thereby preventing double exposures. 
 After the holders are loaded, the plate box should be 
 closed and all sensitive material carefully put away 
 before the door is opened. 
 
 The plateholders should be numbered, and a careful 
 record kept of each exposure, with full details of light, 
 time, etc. This will be of great help in developing; 
 and if the records are carefully studied in conjunction 
 with the negatives, a good knowledge of exposure, one 
 of the most difficult subjects in photography, will soon 
 be gained. 
 
i6 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 The Parts of the Camera. — A camera is a light- 
 tight box arranged so that the plate may be placed at 
 the proper distance from the lens. This is usually 
 accomplished by making the sides of flexible leather 
 called the bellows. The bellows folds up like an ac- 
 cordion for convenience in carrying and may be ex- 
 tended so as to bring the lens to the proper distance 
 from the plate. This distance is ascertained by look- 
 ing at the image as projected on a groundglass which 
 forms the back of the camera and occupies the same po- 
 sition as the plate will when the plateholder is inserted. 
 The back of the camera is usually provided with a swing- 
 back which allows the plateholder to be held in a ver- 
 tical position even when the camera is somewhat tilted. 
 
 At the front of the camera is the lens, through which 
 rays of light enter and are brought to a focus on the 
 surface of the sensitive plate. It is provided with a 
 set of diaphragms or stops, which allow the amount of 
 light passed to be diminished at will and also, to get 
 better definition, confine the light used to that which 
 passes through the center of the lens, which forms the 
 most perfect image. At present almost all lenses are 
 provided with iris diaphragms, which may be opened 
 and closed by moving a lever or a ring on the outside 
 of the lens mount. 
 
 In order to regulate the time of exposure, a shutter 
 is used which may be opened or closed at pleasure and 
 may be set to give automatically exposures of various 
 lengths. The lens may usually be moved up and 
 down, and sideways, for certain special purposes. The 
 front of the camera is also often fitted with a focusing 
 scale and a finder, to be used instead of the ground- 
 glass in instantaneous work. 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 17 
 
 Focusing. — In taking your first picture with plates, 
 do not select the family group, the dog, the cat, or the 
 baby. While they are probably of absorbing interest 
 to you, they are all very difficult subjects, and you had 
 better postpone them until you are a little more pro- 
 ficient. With a film camera, you may be able to get 
 such subject early in your career, if you choose a 
 bright day, and keep them still while you snap. The 
 pictures are very likely to be entirely devoid of com- 
 position, however, and interesting only to the family. 
 
 Assuming that you have a plate camera, start to 
 take some convenient stationary object, partly well 
 lighted and partly in shadow. Let us assume that it 
 is a house with the sun on one side and shadow on the 
 other. Set your camera up at a convenient distance, 
 probably across the street. Do not get exactly in 
 front of the center, but take it cornerwise. This gives 
 a much more interesting picture, because it shows two 
 sides, each in receding perspective. Screw the camera 
 to the tripod, extend the bellows until the pointer is at 
 100 on the focusing scale, set the shutter to time and 
 open it. The largest opening of the diaphragm should 
 be used. Now cover your head with the focusing 
 cloth and look on the groundglass at the back. You 
 will see the image on, not through, the groundglass, and 
 upside down. It will probably be almost sharp. 
 Move the lens slowly forward and backward until 
 perfect sharpness is obtained. It will sometimes hap- 
 pen that the foreground and background will not both 
 come sharp at once. This can be improved by using a 
 smaller stop, but it is sometimes necessary and often 
 desirable to focus on the principal object and leave 
 other planes a little out of focus. For technical excel- 
 
1 8 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 lence, however, it is usually necessary to focus as 
 sharply as possible all over the plate. 
 
 If there is a house or tall building at hand go as close 
 to it as possible still to get the entire width on the 
 plate, level the camera and focus. You will at once 
 notice that the top of the house is not on the ground- 
 glass. To get it there you will have to tip the camera. 
 The top of the house will now appear narrower than 
 the bottom. This is a case where the swingback comes 
 into play. Use the swingback to make the ground- 
 glass exactly upright, and focus again. The rising 
 front, the swingback and the stops are three things 
 that are the least understood and the least employed 
 by the majority of amateurs. The proper use of them 
 would improve many pictures. 
 
 Use of the Focusing Scale. — The viewfinder neces- 
 sary with fixed focus cameras is also used on folding 
 cameras. In fact, it is used on all amateur cameras 
 and on many professional cameras, too, for it is not 
 always convenient to put the camera upon a tripod 
 and focus it through the back, so we use this miniature 
 camera, which we call a viewfinder, in conjunction 
 with the scale on the side of all folding cameras. We 
 put the pointer opposite the number of feet we think 
 the object being photographed is distant from the 
 camera^ and then find our subject in the finder, set our 
 shutter, withdraw the slide from the plateholder and 
 snap the shutter. If the camera is fitted with an 
 automatic shutter we do not need to set it, because it is 
 always ready to snap. Or, if we are using a film 
 camera, such as a Kodak or an Ansco, we have no slide 
 to withdraw from the plateholder because our film is 
 always ready to be exposed, after having been wound 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 19 
 
 into proper position immediately after each expo- 
 sure. 
 
 Care of the Camera. — The lens should receive as 
 much care as possible. Treat it as a man does his eye- 
 glasses. In most cameras the frontboard is re- 
 movable, the lens and shutter coming off in one piece. 
 Have a box made, lined with black velvet, to hold 
 these, and you will be repaid later for the extra care 
 taken. In cleaning or dusting the lens, remember 
 that the surface of the glass is comparatively soft and 
 highly polished. Clean your lens with Japanese tissue 
 paper, as this will not scratch the glass. Remember 
 that the lens is the eye of the camera and must be 
 treated as the most delicate part. 
 
 The shutter will need very little attention if not 
 roughly handled, but if it gets out of order should be 
 repaired by a reliable dealer or sent direct to the maker. 
 
 The camera needs a trifle more attention. The 
 bellows requires frequent dusting inside and out 
 with a damp cloth, or your negatives will show 
 specks. The bellows should be tested now and then 
 for pinholes by closing the shutter and placing a 
 plate in a holder in the camera and withdrawing the 
 slide. Let the camera stand for, say, ten or fifteen 
 minutes in bright sunlight. If there are any leaks 
 anywhere they will show in development of the plate. 
 Should the plate develop up clear, you may consider 
 the camera safe. Another method is to place an 
 electric light bulb on a flexible cord inside the camera 
 in a dark room. Not only holes, but thin places, can 
 then be easily found for timely repair. 
 
 Taking the First Picture — Films. — For taking pic- 
 tures after we have chosen a camera, how shall we go 
 
20 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 to work ? There are two answers, according as we have 
 a film or plate camera. As the first camera of most 
 people is a film camera, we will consider this first. 
 Before loading the camera, or having it loaded, first 
 let us see how the shutter works. Open the camera, 
 according to the directions which will be found in the 
 instruction book, and then snap the shutter several 
 times, watching its operation both from the back and 
 from the front. Move the slide or lever which con- 
 trols the stops. The largest one is used in all but 
 exceptional cases. Now find out how to make time 
 ■exposures, or those in which the shutter is left open 
 for a considerable period compared to the usual snap- 
 shot exposure, as for instance in a dark interior. 
 
 Having become perfectly familiar with the use of 
 the shutter and learned what all the projections on 
 the outside of the camera are for, it is time to load. 
 Open the camera, if not already open. You will 
 find an empty spool at one side, on which to wind 
 the film. Your full spool is marked "top " on one 
 end. Be sure that this is at the top of the camera 
 when you put it in. Directions for this operation 
 will be found in the book of instructions, and the guides 
 for the film in the camera are marked so that there 
 is no possibility of mistake. Roll the black paper 
 one or two turns on the empty spool, and close the 
 camera. Now you may, if you desire, turn the film 
 by the key on the outside of the box until the number 
 "i " appears through the red window in the back 
 of the camera, but it is wise not to do this until you 
 are ready to take the first picture, and in this way 
 avoid the danger of accidentally exposing the first 
 film by snapping the shutter too soon. 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 21 
 
 Do not leave the camera in the full light of the 
 sun any more than is necessary. Of course, the 
 makers have made it as nearly light-tight as possible, 
 but there never was a construction of wood and 
 leather that the sun could not find a way through 
 in a moderate time. So, if you go yachting, put the 
 camera in the cabin, or keep it well covered, instead 
 of leaving it in the stern sheets all day. 
 
 The cheaper film cameras are intended for use only 
 on a bright day. The shutter is set to a speed that 
 will give good results on ordinary landscapes on sunny 
 days in summer from 9 to 3 o'clock, with the largest 
 stop. Before and after these hours, fasten the 
 camera on a tripod and use the smallest stop and the 
 quickest possible "time " or "bulb " exposure. This 
 may be tried between 8 and 10 and 3 and 5 o'clock, 
 but the results will be uncertain. Before and after 
 these hours, longer time exposures will have to be 
 given, and the proper times can be learned only by 
 experience, or by reference to the American Photog- 
 raphy Exposure Tables or the exposure meter. If 
 pictures are to be taken in sunlight on the water, use 
 the medium stop for the four middle hours of the 
 day, and the large stop for two hours before or after 
 these limits. Water pictures with the sun covered 
 need about the same exposure as a landscape with 
 the sun out. Landscapes with the sun covered will 
 require, at noon, a small stop and quickest time- 
 exposure you can give, or a slow snap at stop U.S. 4 
 (or/8). For interior work no rules can be given^ 
 but the smallest stop should be used, to secure the 
 sharpest picture possible, and the time will range 
 from 20 to 40 seconds in the middle of the day to 
 
22 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 two minutes or more in the morning or late afternoon. 
 Exposures in the winter have to be twice as long as 
 in summer. 
 
 Of course, if a time exposure is to be given, it 
 will not be possible to hold the camera in the hand, 
 as the result would be a blur. If a tripod is not at 
 hand, a box, a fence, seat, or stone may be used as 
 opportunity offers, but some support is necessary. 
 When the roll of film is used up, it is rolled com- 
 pletely off the spool, and the camera is opened and 
 a new roll substituted. The exposed roll should be 
 wrapped around with rubber bands very securely or 
 the end pasted down, and it should not be carried 
 in the light. Keep it in a dark place until it is 
 developed, or light may creep in at the ends of the 
 roll and the film be fogged on the edges. The film 
 is now ready for development. Most beginners have 
 their developing done, but the appearance of the 
 image is so interesting and instructive that you will 
 lose one of the best parts of the picture-making if 
 you do not learn to develop your own negatives. 
 
 The First Picture with Plates. — The beginner who 
 possesses a plate camera may have one with a fixed 
 focus lens and a single-speed shutter, in which case 
 the manipulation, as far as the exposure goes, is not 
 different from that of a film camera. If the camera 
 is of the "hand and stand " type, a tripod is necessary, 
 and it should be a firm one. For quick work, such 
 as marine views, street scenes, etc., the camera may 
 be focused by the scale, and the picture located in the 
 finder. Whenever it is possible, as in landscapes, 
 portraits and architectural views, the tripod should 
 be used, and the focusing done on the groundglass. 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 23 
 
 In taking high buildings, it may be necessary to tip 
 up the front of the camera in order to get the whole 
 of the building in the view. When this is done, it 
 will be necessary to tip the swingback enough to 
 keep the plate in a vertical position, otherwise the 
 lines of the building will converge toward the top, 
 making the structure appear to be falling backward. 
 If the swingback is used, a small stop is required in 
 order to bring the whole plate into focus, as the 
 top of the plate has been brought nearer the lens 
 than the bottom, and they cannot both be in focus 
 at the same time with a large stop. The exposure 
 is greatly lengthened by this, but in a crowded street 
 an exposure of several seconds with a very small 
 stop is often desirable, as no trace then appears on 
 the plate of the persons who had walked rapidly 
 across the field of view, and the street appears to be 
 empty. 
 
 In taking pictures toward the sun, be sure that 
 the rays of the sun do not fall on the lens, whether 
 it or its reflected light can be seen on the ground- 
 glass or not. Shade the lens with the hand or a 
 card until the shadow covers the lens, taking care 
 that the shade itself does not appear in the picture. 
 An adjustable lens shade can be bought for a small 
 sum, and is a valuable addition to the camera. 
 
 Exposure. — The problem of exposure with a shut- 
 ter of many speeds is one which will require much 
 study, and it is impossible in the space remaining 
 at our disposal to enter thoroughly into this ques- 
 tion. The best way to learn exposure is to buy and 
 study carefully No. i of this series, The Secret of 
 Exposure, or to use regularly the American Photog- 
 
24 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 raphy Exposure Tables. In either case, you should 
 keep a careful record of all exposures and the results. 
 You will then be able to locate errors of exposure, to 
 allow for the variations of your shutter from the 
 marked speed, and after some time to feel reasonable 
 confidence in your own ability to gauge varying con- 
 ditions of light. 
 
 Stops or Diaphragms. — With regard to the stops, 
 it may be said that there are two systems in use for 
 numbering them. The Uniform System is used on 
 all cheap cameras made in the United States, and in 
 this system the area of each stop is inversely pro- 
 portional to the number. U.S. i6 is twice as large 
 as U.S. 32, admits twice as much light and requires 
 half the exposure. U.S. 16 is the same as / : 16, 
 but in the / system / : 32 is one-fourth as large in 
 area as/ : 16, and requires four times the exposure. 
 
 The meaning of the numbers given to the stops is 
 very simple. The stop marked / : 8 has a diameter of 
 opening one-eighth of the focal length of the lens, that 
 is, one-eighth the distance from the optical center of 
 the lens to the groundglass. Those numbered / : 16, 
 /:32, and/: 64 are, respectively, tV> 7V and ^\ of the 
 same distance. If the distance between the ground- 
 glass and the lens is 8 in., then the diameter of /: 8 
 will be about i in.; that of /: 16, ^ in.,/: 32, I in., 
 and /: 64, i in. 
 
 It will be noticed that although / : 8 is twice the 
 diameter of /: 16, we multiply the necessary exposure 
 for / : 8 by four, in order to obtain the correct one 
 / : 16. The reason for this is, that the area of / : 8 
 is four times that of / : 16, and the amount of light 
 admitted is therefore four times as much with the 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 25 
 
 larger stop. This is a matter which is not under- 
 stood by most amateurs, and in many cases where 
 it is understood, the exposure is seldom given in rela- 
 tion to the stop used. We give here the correct 
 exposure for each stop, supposing / : 8 to require one 
 second; / : 8, one second; / : 11, two seconds; / : 16, 
 four seconds; / : 22, eight seconds; / : 32, 16 seconds; 
 / : 45, 32 seconds; / : 64, 64 seconds. 
 
 When possible, stop down, so as to increase the 
 exposure. This can only be done when photograph- 
 ing stationary objects. The reason for this is, that 
 if you have a subject the correct exposure for which 
 is one second, and you overexpose by giving i^ sec- 
 onds, you have given 50 per cent more than correct 
 time. If the correct exposure is only j second, and 
 you overexpose by giving ^ second, you have given 
 100 per cent more than correct time. Therefore, the 
 longer exposure gives you more latitude and you are 
 not so liable to make mistakes. 
 
 If you have a symmetrical lens and remove the 
 front half to get a picture twice as large, the ex- 
 posure must be four times as long. If you use a 
 color-screen and isochromatic plates, you must give 
 from three to five times the normal exposure, accord- 
 ing to the depth of the screen. This increase, or 
 factor, is supplied by the maker of all good screens. 
 
 Overexposure Preferable. — We are in favor of over- 
 exposure rather than underexposure, for the following 
 reasons: An overexposed plate, if treated as such in 
 development, can be made to give a good picture, 
 unless it is too badly overexposed. An underexposed 
 one has parts, for instance, the details in the shadows, 
 which are practically unacted upon by the light, and 
 
26 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 no developer known will create detail where none 
 exists. 
 
 In calculating the exposure always do so with the 
 lens wide open, forming your judgment by the 
 amount of light in the shadows. Disregard the 
 highlights; they will come out all right in the de- 
 velopment. When you have focused and decided 
 on the exposure as above, stop down to get the 
 required sharpness, and figure your exposure for 
 that particular stop as given by the Tables or by 
 the meter. 
 
 Developing the Picture. — After we have taken 
 the first batch of pictures and got home with them, 
 we are naturally anxious to see the result of our 
 efforts. For this purpose, we must develop the 
 plates or films, and so must have a darkroom. Not 
 all of us have the space to spare for a specially con- 
 structed darkroom, and so we must employ some 
 makeshift. If we can restrain our impatience until 
 nightfall we will find that almost any room in the 
 house is, or can be made, dark enough to allow of 
 developing in it. We will, if possible, choose a room 
 which has running water in it, such as the kitchen or 
 laundry. It is not absolutely necessary to have run- 
 ning water in the darkroom, for the plates are insen- 
 sitive to light when they arrive at the stage of wash- 
 ing, but much water is used in photography, and it 
 is convenient to have it always at hand. 
 
 The darkroom must be illuminated with light of 
 a color which will affect the plates as little as pos- 
 sible, and this is, generally speaking, red. Cheap 
 red lanterns are usually a bad bargain, and it will 
 be better either to purchase a really good one at a 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 27 
 
 fair price, or to make one according to the directions 
 given on page 13 of this book. As a makeshift 
 when a lantern is not to be had, proceed as follows: 
 Buy a candle and a sheet or two of orange postoffice 
 paper, which may be had of any large dealer in 
 photographic supplies. Roll this into a cylinder 
 about 5 inches in diameter and 18 inches high, using 
 preferably two thicknesses of paper. Then light the 
 candle, place it on the developing table, and put 
 the roll of paper around it. In this way the writer 
 has developed many hundred plates, and found it 
 perfectly safe for ordinary plates or films. It should 
 not be used with an uncovered tray when developing 
 orthochromatic plates or films. For these, and very 
 rapid plates, keep the tray covered during the whole 
 progress of development, examining the plates as 
 little as possible. In fact, it is better to do this 
 with any plate and light. Some light shines out of 
 the top of the cylinder, but if the ceiling is moder- 
 ately high, and not too white, no harm results from 
 this. If possible, in a darkroom, have the light out- 
 side, as this keeps the temperature lower and the air 
 much purer. In this case, or for a homemade lan- 
 tern, use one sheet of ruby glass and one of orange 
 paper, renewing this latter at least once in six months. 
 Having settled the question of light, we may pro- 
 ceed to develop our plates. It is no longer usual 
 amateur practice to develop films in the darkroom, as 
 the developing tank does the work better and much 
 more quickly in daylight. If, however, it is desired to 
 inspect the process of development, the simplest way 
 is to develop the film in a long strip, passing it 
 backward and forward through a deep dish of de- 
 
28 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 veloper, meanwhile holding it by clips made for the 
 purpose. Before this is done, the film may be soaked 
 in water until it is limp, to avoid streaks. The 
 light must be very dim for this purpose, as modern 
 films are orthochromatic, and it is far safer to develop 
 them mechanically, as thereby the danger of fogging 
 is avoided. If it is desired to develop the films 
 singly, cut them apart in accordance with directions 
 on instruction sheet packed with the films. 
 ■ As to the developer to be used for plates, there 
 are many excellent ones. The best plan for the 
 beginner is to use the developer recommended by 
 the maker of the plates, the formula of which is 
 enclosed in the box. The maker is usually interested 
 in having his plates do the best possible work, and 
 has expert chemists in his employment to determine 
 the best developer for his emulsions. Every emul- 
 sion requires a suitable developer, and if you buy 
 somebody's prepared developer, you may get satis- 
 factory results, and you may not. 
 
 Mix your own developer. If yoii have no scales, 
 take the formula to your druggist and let him pre- 
 pare it for you. As soon as you can, however, if 
 you intend to stay in photography, buy a balance 
 and mix your own solutions. You will soon save 
 enough to pay the cost of the scales. If you must 
 buy a prepared developer, get one made by a reliable 
 maker from chemicals guaranteed to be chemically 
 pure. Metol-hydrochinon is the most popular of 
 all developers, but metol is poisonous to a few people, 
 so if your fingers swell up and itch after developing, 
 stop using metol. Metol poisoning may be avoided 
 by thoroughly rubbing lanolin into the skin of the 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 29 
 
 fingers, especially around and under the nails, before 
 developing, so as to render the skin waterproof. 
 
 When ready to begin development, make sure that 
 the darkroom is free from outside light, and lay the 
 plate, after dusting it, in the developing tray. The 
 developer should be in a measuring glass or tumbler, 
 using about four ounces for a 4 x 5 tray, and is to 
 be poured over the plate so that it will cover the 
 whole surface at one sweep. With a little practice 
 you will be able to do this without trouble. If the 
 plate is not all covered at once, some portions of the 
 image may appear sooner than the rest, leaving 
 markings which cannot be eradicated, as the parts 
 which start later will never catch up in density. 
 
 As soon as the plate is covered with developer, 
 go over the surface with a tuft of cotton to break 
 any air bubbles which may have formed, which would 
 otherwise cause transparent spots in the negative. 
 Now, as the plate lies in the developer, after a little 
 while you will see dark spots appear on the creamy 
 surface of the plate in the places where the strongest 
 lights have acted on the silver compounds. Soon the 
 outlines of the subject will appear, and then the 
 halftones and the details in the shadows. By the 
 time all the details in the shadows come out, if the 
 plate is properly exposed, the picture will seem to 
 "bury" itself and will be covered up, as it were. 
 When this occurs, take the plate from the dish and 
 look at the back. If the highlights of the picture 
 show on the back, development is complete, and the 
 plate may be rinsed in clean water and fixed. 
 
 Incorrectly Exposed Plates. — If a plate is not 
 properly exposed, it will not behave normally in the 
 
30 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 developer. An underexposed plate will come up very 
 slowly, and the details on the shadows will not come 
 out as they should. There is really no way to save 
 an underexposure. The usual way of continuing the 
 development until the highlights are all blocked up, 
 in the vain hope of forcing more details, is the worst 
 thing that can be done. The prints from such a 
 negative will be very hard — "soot and whitewash," 
 as they are generally called. The only remedy for 
 great underexposure is to take the picture again. 
 
 Overexposure is recognized by the image flashing up 
 quickly as soon as the developer is poured on. The 
 usual tendency here is to take the plate out as soon as 
 the image is buried, and fix. The result is a thin, flat 
 negative which is good for nothing. The best way to 
 save the plate is to take it out of the developer as soon 
 as it flashes up and wash it well under the tap. Then 
 put it back into a strong developer with plenty of 
 bromide for a minute or two and a passable negative 
 may be obtained. If the overexposed plate is de- 
 veloped in normal developer for the normal length of 
 time, it will give a negative with full gradation, but so 
 dense that it will take a very long time to print. 
 
 Factorial Development. — This is a system invented 
 by Alfred Watkins, an Englishman, and has many 
 advocates. As the result of many experiments made 
 by two Englishmen, Hurter and Driffield, it has been 
 established that the character of the negative is fixed 
 by the exposure, and that no modification of the de- 
 veloper will change this. Working from this principle, 
 Watkins found that there is for every developer a 
 factor, which, multiplied by the time it takes the image 
 to appear, will give the correct time for development. 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 31 
 
 For example, the factor of hydrochinon is 5. If you 
 cover an exposed plate with hydrochinon developer 
 made up in any proportions or of any strength, and 
 count the number of seconds which elapse before the 
 first trace of darkening appears on any part of the 
 plate, and then multiply this number of seconds by 
 five, it will give the number of seconds the plate must 
 be left in the solution to get the best possible negative. 
 If the image appears in 40 seconds, for instance, you 
 must develop for 200 seconds from the time of pouring 
 the developer on the plate. The factor for metol- 
 hydrochinon is about 14; for metol, 30; for ortol, 10; 
 for eikonogen, 9; for pyrocatechin, 9. Many makers 
 now publish the factors for their powdered developers 
 or for the formulas recommended for their plates. 
 "The Watkins Manual " gives full particulars of 
 " time " development as well as of the factorial system. 
 Tank Development. — Although factorial develop- 
 ment is very popular it requires close attention and 
 continuous observation in the red light, which many 
 people find trying to eyes and nerves. There is 
 another application of Hurter and Driffield's principle, 
 which has not yet attained all the popularity it de- 
 serves. This is the method known as tank or stand 
 development. For this method it is necessary to have 
 a box in which the plates may be developed in a verti- 
 cal position. There are now many convenient tanks 
 on the market. The plates are usually held in a basket 
 which can be easily withdrawn for the purpose of 
 examination. Fixing boxes, of glass or rubber, while 
 they serve equally well for development, offer no facili- 
 ties for examination of the plates, which is sometimes 
 necessary, though very good average results are ob- 
 
32 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 tained by developing for a fixed time (depending on 
 the temperature) with a standard developer. 
 
 The pyro tank powders sold by the Eastman Kodak 
 Company for 20-minute development are the most 
 convenient, particularly on vacation trips, etc., but 
 negatives of the most perfect quality are easily ob- 
 tained by using the following formula: 
 
 Pyro-Metol Solution 
 
 Water to make 29 oz 
 
 Metol ^ oz 
 
 Potassium metabisulphite 120 gr 
 
 Pyro 275 gr 
 
 Water to make 29 oz 
 
 Sodium sulphite, anhydrous 3 oz 
 
 Sodium carbonate, anhydrous 2 oz 
 
 For use as a 20-mmute developer for speed films and 
 film packs, at 65 degrees F., take i oz. of each and 
 22 oz. of water. 
 
 The developer for tank development may be very 
 dilute, so that the process of development, instead of 
 taking a few minutes, may last from one to ten hours. 
 The time of development may be regulated by the 
 dilution of the developer used. The developer can be 
 made so weak as to take all day or all night for develop- 
 ment if desired ; but if this is done, the proper developer 
 to use is glycin. In fact, many people think this the 
 best developer for tank development. It certainly 
 gives excellent results. A suitable formula is: 
 
 Water I oz. 
 
 Sodium carbonate, anhydrous i gr. 
 
 Sodium sulphite, anhydrous I gr. 
 
 Glycin i gr. 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 33 
 
 Any desired quantity may be made up in these 
 proportions. 
 
 Thermo Development. — Mr. Alfred Watkins, the 
 inventor of the factorial system, perfected the time 
 and temperature method by furnishing complete tables 
 of the relative development speeds of plates. He 
 classes them from WQ (very very quick) to VS (very 
 slow). For instance, at 60 degrees Fahrenheit, in a 
 standard M.-Q., the WQ plate takes if minutes and 
 the VS plate ii| minutes to reach the same stage of 
 contrast. "The Watkins Manual " gives complete 
 formulas and directions, including a method by which 
 any user can draw up for himself a table of the times 
 of development for all temperatures for his pet de- 
 veloper and any plate. The code letters indicating 
 development speeds are given on the speed card issued 
 with Watkins meters. Only a brief explanation can 
 be given here, as space will not permit a full treatment. 
 The American Photography Thermo Development Card, 
 price 25 cents, gives full instructions, development 
 speeds and formulas, for preparing developing solu- 
 tions. 
 
 Development being entirely by temperature, no 
 inspection of the plate is needed, so no ruby light is 
 required. The developer is mixed to suit the develop- 
 ment speed of the plate and flowed over it in darkness. 
 The tray is then covered and left until the required 
 time is up, when it is removed in darkness (or ruby 
 light if preferred) to the fixer. The thermometer, a 
 watch, and a set of tables take the place of judgment; 
 yet the user can control the contrast to suit his own 
 taste by simply classing the plate higher or lower in 
 the scale. The advantages of this plan are so great 
 
34 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 that few who try it with care and compare the uni- 
 formity of results with the uncertainties of the old 
 methods ever wish to return to the latter. It is 
 the only satisfactory method of handling panchro- 
 matic or other highly color-sensitive plates, as the 
 danger of light-struck plates is entirely ehminated. 
 It applies to all makes of plates and films in either 
 tray or tank. 
 
 Film Development. — The day of developing films 
 by hand is past. The developing tank sounded its 
 knell. With this device, films are developed in full 
 daylight anywhere. The roll of film is taken out of 
 the camera and the black paper cautiously unwound, 
 taking care not to let the roll loosen, until the gummed 
 paper on the end of the strip of film can be seen; this 
 is then wet and fastened to the black paper backing, 
 and the film wound up again. The end of the black 
 paper on the roll of film, which has been inserted in the 
 carrier of the changing box which accompanies the 
 tank, is thrust through the split rod, and the crank 
 turned to wind the paper off the roll and on the rod 
 until the mark "Stop " on the roll is reached. The 
 celluloid apron is then fastened on the rod, the cover 
 placed on the box, and the handle steadily turned until 
 the film is wound up inside the apron. The whole is 
 now removed from the box and lowered slowly and 
 steadily into the tank of developer, moved up and 
 down once or twice to dislodge possible air bubbles, 
 and then the tank is covered. 
 
 Development takes t\venty minutes at 65 degrees, 
 the tank being turned upside down two or three times 
 to ensure even development, and the film is then 
 washed and fixed. 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 35 
 
 Fixing. — To fix a plate or film, we immerse it in a 
 solution of hyposulphite of soda, usually called 
 "hypo," until all the unchanged silver bromide, the 
 yellow part of the film, is dissolved away. This takes 
 ten or fifteen minutes in a solution of one ounce of 
 hypo to four of water, or a good commercial acid fixing 
 bath, such as is put up by several reliable firms. The 
 plate is not fixed when all the yellow color is gone, but 
 must be left some minutes longer. This is because 
 the hypo first changes the yellow compound to a color- 
 less one which will not dissolve in water, and then 
 changes this to another colorless one which water will 
 dissolve. Time must be allowed for this second 
 change, which requires as long as the first one. 
 
 Washing. — The plate is now no longer sensitive to 
 light and has become a negative. It must be thor- 
 oughly washed, which operation may be done in day- 
 light. The washing should last an hour in running 
 water, or the water should be changed twelve times at 
 intervals of five minutes. It is the best kind of 
 economy to buy a good washing box for plates. The 
 permanency of the negative is dependent upon thor- 
 ough fixing and washing, and these processes should 
 not be slighted. 
 
 Washing and Drying Films. — The best way to 
 wash a strip of film is to fasten it with push pins to a 
 board longer and wider than the strip and to float the 
 whole, film down, in about a foot of water in a bath- 
 tub, changing the water four times at intervals of 
 fifteen minutes. Another good plan is to make a 
 trough of the board by nailing strips along the edge to 
 confine the water, and then hanging the board by one 
 end under the cold water faucet. The flow can be 
 
36 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 regulated so as completely to cover the film, when 20 
 minutes' washing of each side should sufifice to remove 
 every trace of hypo. 
 
 Non-curling films are coated on the back with gela- 
 tine, so nothing must be allowed to touch them while 
 they are drying. The strip may be pinned to a shelf 
 away from the wall and a metal clip attached to the 
 lower end to keep it straight. Before hanging it up, 
 pass the film between the fingers (or, better, use a 
 rubber squeegee) to remove all drops and superfluous 
 moisture, and thus ensure good, even drying without 
 marks or streaks. It is best to dry films in a current 
 of air in a place quite free from dust, but not in too hot 
 a place. 
 
 Drying Plates. — After glass plates are washed they 
 are cleaned carefully, front and back, with a wad of wet 
 absorbent cotton to get all the surface water off, and 
 are then stood up to dry. Economy dictates the use of 
 a good drying rack, which can be bought for about 25 
 cents. The plates should not be nearer together than 
 I inch or, better, 2 inches, or they will dry too slowly. 
 Set the rack where there is no dust, but at the same 
 time in a good current of air, never in the sun or too 
 near artificial heat. 
 
 The process of development is one of the greatest 
 stumbling blocks to the amateur. Even if the plate 
 has been exposed correctly, it may be spoiled in de- 
 velopment, fixing, washing, or drying, so be careful. 
 Use only fresh chemicals and do not allow too much 
 light from the ruby lamp to strike the film before the 
 plate has started developing. Our lO-cent booklet. 
 Practical Development, contains many points for the 
 beginner. 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 37 
 
 Printing Processes. — After the negative is dry, 
 the next step is making the print. For this there 
 are innumerable processes of varying grades of com- 
 plexity. Among these may be mentioned blueprint, 
 self-toning, gelatino-chloride or printing out paper, 
 and the various gaslight papers, as suitable for the 
 beginner; while collodion, bromide, platinum, car- 
 bon, gum-bichromate and bromoil are much prac- 
 tised by those who have had longer experience. We 
 will confine our present remarks to the four first 
 mentioned. 
 
 Blueprinting. — This is the easiest of all printing 
 processes, and gives good results from broad, sketchy 
 negatives. It is especially good for cloud and sea 
 views, but is less suitable for subjects with much fine 
 detail. It is also much used for making proofs, to see 
 whether the negative is worth printing on a more 
 expensive medium. 
 
 The paper can be bought in sheets of any desired 
 size. It comes in tin cans, which should be kept 
 tightly closed, as dampness soon injures the paper. 
 The side to be printed on is light green or yellow in 
 color, and should be placed in the printing frame 
 in contact with the film side of the negative. Print 
 in direct sunlight until the shadows are a deep bronze 
 color, examining the print in the shade by opening 
 one-half of the printing frame. One or two trials 
 will show the exact depth necessary to print. Then 
 place the print in cold water, face down, for a few 
 minutes, wash in running water for about twenty 
 minutes, and pin up to dry or lay on a clean photo- 
 graphic blotter, face up. 
 
 The paper is easily and cheaply prepared at home. 
 
38 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 Almost any kind of well-sized paper without ruled 
 lines may be used. Good writing paper is very sat- 
 isfactory. The solutions are made at follows: 
 
 A 
 
 Water 4 oz. 
 
 Red prussiate of potash 6 dr. 
 
 B 
 
 Water 5 oz. 
 
 Citrate of iron and ammonia 7i dr. 
 
 Keep the solutions well corked and in a dark place. 
 To use, mix equal parts of A and B and apply to 
 the paper with a tuft of cotton, coating the paper 
 iirst in one direction, which will make it look streaky, 
 and then across the first lines, smoothing out the 
 ■streaks. This should be done quickly, and the 
 paper dried in a warm place where daylight cannot 
 reach it. Gaslight or lamplight will not affect it. 
 The best results will be obtained by using the paper 
 while fresh. 
 
 Gelatine Papers. — To get a sharper and clearer 
 print than that given by the blue paper, with a 
 glossy surface in addition, the paper to use is what 
 is often called P.O.P., or printing out paper. There 
 are many brands on the market, and there is little 
 choice as to results. As each brand has its own 
 peculiarities, however, it is better to adopt one make 
 and get used to it. 
 
 The paper is printed the same as blueprint paper, 
 except that thin negatives should be printed in the 
 shade or under tissue paper. The paper is con- 
 siderably faster than blueprint paper, and should 
 be examined and handled only in a subdued light. 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 39 
 
 If this precaution is not observed the highlights may- 
 be degraded or darkened. The printing has to be 
 considerably darker than desired for the finished 
 print, as the image becomes lighter in the subsequent 
 operations. The exact shade must be learned by 
 experience, and as it varies somewhat with different 
 papers, this is another argument for sticking to one 
 brand and learning its peculiarities. 
 
 When the prints are made, they should be put in 
 a dark place until enough are done to make it worth 
 while to tone them; at the same time they should 
 not be kept more than a day before this is done, as 
 the paper spoils if kept too long after printing, and 
 will not tone evenly. 
 
 Toning. — The object of toning is to improve the 
 color of the print by substituting gold for the original 
 silver of the print. It thus becomes brown or purple 
 instead of the foxy red color of an untoned print. 
 The first step is to wash the prints thoroughly in 
 ten or a dozen changes of water to remove all the 
 free silver. This causes the wash water to assume 
 a milky appearance at first, and washing should be 
 continued until this no longer appears. This wash- 
 ing is of the utmost importance, and may last about 
 half an hour. 
 
 To make the gold stock solution, buy a fifteen- 
 grain vial of chloride of gold and dissolve the con- 
 tents in fifteen ounces of water. This solution will 
 keep a long time, and one ounce contains exactly one 
 grain of gold. For the alkali solution dissolve one 
 ounce of borax in eight ounces of water. This will 
 also keep for a long time. To prepare the toning 
 bath, take one pint of distilled water and add to it 
 
40 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 four drams of the gold solution and about two drams 
 of the alkali solution. Put in a piece of red litmus 
 paper, and if the bath is right it will turn the red 
 litmus blue in about four minutes. If the paper does 
 not turn in this time, add a few more drops of alkali 
 and test again. Be careful not to get in too much 
 alkali, as if you do you will have to neutralize with 
 acid. The bath should be made up the day before 
 and thus allowed to "ripen." When ready to tone, 
 place the washed prints in the bath, one at a time, 
 and keep them moving, continually taking the bot- 
 tom print out and placing it on top. Thus uneven 
 toning is prevented. Do not have more than five or 
 six prints in the bath at a time. The toning should 
 be finished in about ten minutes. If it takes much 
 less, add more water. In hot weather the prints are 
 likely to blister if the solutions are not kept cool. 
 Ice may be used for this purpose, or a few drops of 
 saturated solution of alum may be added to the 
 wash water, taking care not to use too much. 
 
 After the print has reached the desired color, it 
 must be fixed. For this purpose use a solution of 
 one ounce of hypo in twenty ounces of water, and 
 keep the prints well separated in this bath for twenty 
 minutes. Then wash well in running water, an hour 
 at least, or fifteen five-minute soaks, keeping the 
 prints well separated, in as many changes of water. 
 
 The Combined Bath. — While the combined bath 
 as ordinarily made up, containing salts of lead, gives 
 beautiful tones, even after the gold is exhausted, the 
 prints made with it are not permanent, and it is not 
 to be recommended if prints are desired to last more 
 than a few months. 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 41 
 
 Glazing. — If prints with the smoothest possible 
 surface are wanted, they should be squeegeed to a 
 ferrotype plate and allowed to dry in contact. When 
 thoroughly dry they will peel off easily with a perfect 
 polish. The ferrotype plate should be absolutely 
 clean. A thorough washing with soap and water 
 and rinsing with clean water will usually ensure this 
 condition, but if the prints stick, it may be necessary 
 to rub the plates with a solution of wax in benzol or 
 parafifine in benzine. Only a little should be used, 
 and then well rubbed off. The wet prints, which 
 take a better surface and are less likely to stick if 
 dried before glazing, are laid on the plate and rubbed 
 into perfect contact with a rubber roller. It is ad- 
 visable to la)^ a clean blotter over them during this 
 process to absorb the superfluous water squeegeed 
 out by the roller. The plate is then left to dry in a 
 warm place, and when completely dry the prints will 
 spring off easily when the point of a knife is inserted 
 under one corner. Squeegeed prints should be in- 
 serted in a slip-in mount, as the polish is lost if they 
 are mounted with a wet mountant. 
 
 Self -toning Paper. — Some very satisfactory papers 
 are made with gold already in the coating, so that 
 they require fixing in hypo only. It is only neces- 
 sary to print them somewhat deeper than required, 
 immerse them in weak hypo for a few minutes, wash 
 thoroughly, and dry. Full directions accompany 
 every package, and the paper is almost as simple as 
 blueprint to work, and gives much more pleasing 
 results. It can be had in the form of postcards, as 
 can all the papers previously mentioned. 
 
 Developing Papers. — The popularity of develop- 
 
42 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 ing paper is mainly due to the fact that it enables 
 the user to obtain prints from their negatives by- 
 artificial hght. Its manipulation is very simple. A 
 sheet of the paper is placed, face downwards, on a 
 negative in the frame, this operation being carried 
 on in subdued gaslight. The exposure, which varies 
 with the density of the negative, will last from ten 
 seconds to five minutes before a bright lamp or gas 
 jet. The paper is then developed like a plate, the 
 image appearing somewhat more quickly, and when 
 the desired color is obtained, an immersion of ten 
 to fifteen minutes in an acid hypo bath to fix the 
 image completes the operation. The usual washing, 
 of course, follows. Perhaps the greatest proportion 
 of failures results from improper exposure. 
 
 Use Test Strips. — The best way to ensure success, 
 no matter what the printing light, is to test each and 
 every negative with strips of paper before attempt- 
 ing full size prints. Lay the strip on the negative 
 so as to cover the most critical parts, the highest 
 light and the darkest shadow. Make a trial exposure 
 and develop. Do not proceed to regular printing 
 until an exposure which brings out the details in the 
 whites is found. 
 
 It is better to cut a sheet of 4 x 5 paper into several 
 strips and use them all in tests than it is to print 
 the whole sheet and have to throw it away because 
 the whites are yellow or the blacks dirty in tone. 
 
 Developer for Gaslight Paper. — In every package 
 of developing paper you buy you will find a formula 
 for making your own developer. "M.Q." developer 
 is good for any paper of this kind. It comes in tubes 
 in powder form; also bottled in liquid form. The 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 43 
 
 tubes are so cheap that many prefer to buy them in- 
 stead of making up their own developer. Amidol 
 gives a beautiful blue-black, but does not keep well. 
 
 Trimming and Mounting. — The final steps in the 
 making of a photograph, the trimming and mount- 
 ing, are by no means the easiest. The exercise of 
 due neatness and skill will make itself ful'y repaid in 
 these final operations. 
 
 It may be that after washing and drying the print, 
 it has curled so much as to interfere with the trim- 
 ming. Such prints may be easily straightened by 
 drawing the edge of a ruler across the back of the 
 print, from corner to corner, lifting the print as the 
 ruler is moved along. If the paper is very thin, or 
 has a tender film, it is better to use a round pencil 
 rather than the sharp edge of a ruler, which would 
 be likely to cause cracks in the film. 
 
 Most beginners trim their first prints with scissors. 
 Unless large shears are used and the cut is made 
 with skill, the result will be anything but a straight 
 line. If you are not the fortunate possessor of a 
 regular trimming board, the next best thing to use 
 is a sharp knife. Lay the print on a piece of smooth 
 glass or on a piece of zinc and guide the knife by a 
 ruler or by a glass form, which is sold for the purpose. 
 This will ensure a clean cut. 
 
 Having settled upon some satisfactory way to trim 
 the prints, the next question is, "How much shall I 
 trim off ? " The beginner usually errs in taking off 
 too little rather than too much. Often the effect of 
 the picture is spoiled by having too much of it taken 
 up by a plain, uninteresting foreground. Whatever 
 may have been the cause of this, such as neglect to 
 
44 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 raise either the lens or the camera itself, the only 
 remedy now is the use of a ruthless hand in trimming. 
 Much of this can be avoided by a more careful study 
 of the picture on the groundglass. In trimming, 
 care should be taken also that the edges of the picture 
 are square with one another and the horizon line if 
 this is visible. 
 
 Mounts. — Regarding the choice of mounts, the 
 general taste nowadays is toward quiet colors, gray 
 being the favorite. It is usually held that the object 
 of mounting a print is to separate it from its surround- 
 ings so that the entire attention of the observer is con- 
 centrated upon the print itself; consequently, the 
 mount or the frame should be so chosen as not to in- 
 terfere with this effect. But if possible, the mount 
 ought to go further than this, and enhance the good 
 features of the photograph. The possible effect of 
 placing different colors, or light and dark, side by side, 
 should not be neglected. A print always looks darker 
 when mounted on a light background, and vice versa. 
 
 Mounting. — Anyone who is going to mount a large 
 number of prints will probably prefer to make his own 
 paste, but for mounting an occasional print it is better 
 to use the ready-made variety. That which comes in 
 collapsible tubes is very convenient, as a small amount 
 can be used at a time without having it dry on the 
 surface. 
 
 Most prints are best mounted while wet. Some 
 kinds of paper will curl when soaked in water and re- 
 quire to be "flattened." Lay a clean piece of glass in 
 the bottom of a tray, cover it with water, lay the prints 
 face down on the glass, pressing them firmly down 
 with one hand, remove the glass with the prints, stand 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 45 
 
 it up on edge for about five minutes to drain and the 
 prints will give no more trouble. Squeegeed prints 
 are best mounted dry, as wetting them will remove the 
 gloss. It is best, however, to wet the print slightly on 
 the back, as the paste then goes on more smoothly and 
 the print will stick to the mount with less rolling. The 
 roller should never be applied directly to the face of 
 the print, since it may carry paste from one to another, 
 but a piece of waxed paper or a pure photographic 
 blotter should be laid over the face of the print to 
 protect it. Always go over the dry print, if not 
 squeegeed, with a damp cloth to remove any paste 
 that may have been transferred to it. A good flour- 
 paste may be made by mixing a little flour with cold 
 water, and then pouring boiling water on it. 
 
 Dry mounting tissue is an excellent m.ountant, as it 
 will not cause even the thinnest mount to curl. It is 
 placed between the print and the mount and fastened 
 by pressing with a hot iron. 
 
 Finally. — You may find it necessary to read this 
 little booklet several times before you start out to take 
 your first picture. After a while you may purchase 
 books a little more advanced. Every amateur should 
 subscribe to at least one photographic magazine, such 
 as American Photography. You will find it a constant 
 help and stimulus in your work, and the editors are 
 always glad to answer any questions you may ask 
 about your difficulties. 
 
 By the time you have become familiar with the 
 operation of your camera and have a fair idea of the 
 processes of exposure and development to enable you 
 to obtain a negative, and of printing and toning to 
 enable you to obtain a finished photograph, you will 
 
46 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 want to know more about indoor and outdoor work. 
 We have, therefore, selected three subjects to speak 
 of more fully, viz.: portrait work, landscape work and 
 interior work. 
 
 Portraiture at Home — The Lighting. — In por- 
 traiture the question of illumination is all-important. 
 If this question of lighting is a problem demanding 
 serious consideration on the part of the professional 
 worker with his spacious gallery and ample skylight, 
 it will readily be seen how vexatious a question it is to 
 the amateur who is usually obliged to be content with 
 the light from an ordinary window. This light may 
 be sufhcient in intensity, it is true, but it is a concen- 
 trated light, which is greatly emphasized on one side 
 of an object while hardly penetrating the shadow on 
 the other side. 
 
 Yet by proper management of this source of light 
 surprising results can be obtained. Better results 
 can usually be secured in a room than outdoors 
 because the light outside is such a broad, open one 
 that it is impossible to get those fine gradations of 
 light and shade which are so essential to a pleasing 
 portrait. If possible, a room with a north window 
 should be chosen, since the light will vary less during 
 the day. The higher up the window is placed the 
 better, since it gives more top light. If it is neces- 
 sary to work near a low window, a better lighting of 
 the face and shoulders may be secured by covering 
 the lower part of the window with a dark shawl. 
 
 In an Ordinary Room. — A good window lighting 
 may be secured as follows. The sitter should be 
 placed the same distance from the window that it 
 measures in width and on a line with the side of the 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 47 
 
 window casing farthest from the camera. Now cover 
 the window with a shawl or opaque blind, with its 
 upper edge level with the top of the sitter's head. 
 Bring the camera about half the distance from the 
 window that the subject is, i.e., work nearer the 
 window so as to take more of the lighted than of the 
 shaded side of the face. Having focused, ask the 
 sitter to turn the head slowly away from and then 
 slowly towards the window. A good position is 
 with the light falling strongest on the forehead but 
 crossing the bridge of the nose and lighting the cheek 
 on the shaded side. In this position the shadow of 
 the nose will come about half-way down the upper 
 lip. If you can see the color of the flesh in the 
 deepest shadow, a reflector is not needed, but if you 
 cannot see color on both sides of the face it is best 
 to hang cheesecloth over the window and use a sheet 
 as reflector until the flesh tints are plainly visible on 
 both sides. 
 
 Test the light with the Watkins meter and give 
 the full exposure indicated, and you will never say 
 that a studio light is necessary for good results. 
 
 A Simple Studio. — For the portrait work that 
 the writer has done he has used a corner of the car- 
 riage house. This makes a very good studio, as any 
 amount of light can be secured by opening the large 
 sliding doors, which are about twelve feet high, and 
 by screening the lower part a fairly good " top light " 
 can be obtained. The window is generally covered 
 with a dark cloth. The sitter is placed about four 
 feet in front of the background and about five feet 
 from the door and about the same distance behind it. 
 By the use of the reflector (white cloth tacked to a 
 
48 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 wooden frame, or even a sheet on a chair), light 
 may be thrown upon the shadow side of the face. 
 The camera may be easily moved about so as to give 
 any desired view. 
 
 Background. — The minor accessories needed are 
 easily made or purchased. Cameras with short bel- 
 lows can be helped by using an extra "portrait lens." 
 For bust pictures a small background mounted on a 
 roller or a frame can be cheaply obtained. For a 
 longer background a gray blanket or colored felt 
 hung in folds over a line stretched behind the sitter 
 is good. A regular background is much to be pre- 
 ferred to wall paper. 
 
 Place the sitter far enough from the background 
 to avoid the appearance of being pasted on it. Three 
 or four feet will be about right. Regulate the dis- 
 tance from the window by the amount of light, and 
 also to a certain extent by the character of the sub- 
 ject. It is often impossible to work in a subdued 
 light because the necessary exposure is rendered too 
 long. By working nearer to the window the light 
 will be stronger, but at the same time is liable to 
 cause too harsh contrasts. If necessary the window 
 should be screened with thin muslin. Do not use 
 any but a large stop. It is sometimes better for 
 portions of the subject to be a trifle out of focus, as 
 it gives more roundness. Always get the little sparks 
 of light in the eyes — the catch-lights — sharp, and 
 then soften the focus, if that is thought to be desir- 
 able, by racking the lens out (or the back of the camera 
 to the rear) so as to bring the sharpness forward and 
 let the back of the head and the ground be less dis- 
 tinct. The modern soft-focus lens is excellent for 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 49 
 
 portraiture, because of its speed and the fact that its 
 spherical errors soften skin defects and make it un- 
 necessary to retouch if the Hghting is good. 
 
 The Pose. — The arrangement of the figure or the 
 pose in a portrait is usually regarded as a difficult 
 matter, because the worker lacks that confidence in 
 himself which comes from experience and from a 
 knowledge of his subject. A bust portrait is gener- 
 ally undertaken because it is the easiest. The usual 
 difficulty in a pose of this kind comes from an un- 
 natural relation between the head and the body. If 
 the subject is comfortably seated the head will often 
 assume a natural and easy attitude. As a general 
 thing, the less the photographer handles or manipu- 
 lates his subject, the more unconstrained and easy 
 will be the expression obtained. 
 
 Look out for Big Hands. — Above all things avoid 
 what is called distortion. You have often seen pic- 
 tures, perhaps of a horse taken from in front, in which 
 the horse's head looked very large, the rest of his 
 body far away. This illustrates what is meant by 
 distortion. The farther away you place the subject 
 from the camera the less likelihood there will be of 
 your getting a distorted picture. Be careful that 
 the subject's head is not too far forward or the hands 
 too far to the front. 
 
 Use of Supplementary Lens. — By using one of the 
 supplementary portrait lenses on the market better 
 effects may be obtained. These little lenses fit over 
 the front of the regular lens, and are made for fixed 
 focus cameras, kodaks and regular folding plate 
 cameras. 
 
 Other Hints. — Do not use a low chair with wide 
 
50 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 projecting arms; a piano stool is much better. Stout 
 people are better taken standing than sitting. 
 
 Take special notice of the eyes. Have them fol- 
 low in general the line of the face, turned toward 
 rather than from the camera, and avoid all fancy or 
 strained positions. 
 
 One more point — and a by no means unimportant 
 one. Have everything ready as far as possible 
 before posing the sitter, so that the time of waiting 
 may be as short as it can be made. Too long a 
 wait distracts the attention. This is especially nec- 
 essary where old people or children are to be photo- 
 graphed. There are many other things to learn 
 about portrait work and about the improvement of 
 negatives for portrait work, and the subjects are 
 treated more fully in No. 6 and No. 9 of this series, 
 How to Make Portraits and How to Retotwh Nega- 
 tives. 
 
 Landscape Photography. — Landscape photog- 
 raphy, even if it did nothing more for its followers 
 than to lead them outdoors into the bright sunshine 
 and fresh air, would be of great service. But it does 
 far more than this. It teaches something of the 
 beauty of nature, it enlarges the horizon, it shows 
 things of beauty which were never observed before. 
 For the aim of the enthusiastic landscape photog- 
 rapher is not an exact portrayal of what is before 
 him, but the production of a picture, of a composi- 
 tion which shall convey some thought or story. 
 
 Scenes Right Around Us. — First let it be stated 
 emphatically that it is not necessary to make long 
 journeys for the purpose of securing beautiful land- 
 scapes. There is plenty of artistic material right at 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 51 
 
 our doors. It is one of the chief benefits of this 
 branch of photography that it teaches us to see 
 beauty in the quiet pool or the little nook that we 
 once passed by as commonplace. One who cannot 
 find these opportunities at home will not find them 
 at a distance, that is sure. 
 
 As landscapes are seldom seen to the best ad- 
 vantage under the bright glare of a noonday sun, 
 photographs taken under the same circumstances are 
 not usually the most pleasing. Furthermore, the re- 
 sult will be even worse than the original from the 
 tendency of photography to exaggerate contrasts of 
 light and shade. Hence it is better as a general 
 thing to avoid taking views when the sun is at its 
 height, but to take them in the morning or the even- 
 ing when the shadows are longer or else while the 
 sky is covered with fleeting clouds which vary the 
 distribution of light from moment to moment. 
 
 Care in Selection. — The point of view from which 
 the picture is taken should be studied carefully for 
 the best results. It is seldom that the one which 
 seems the most convenient and natural is the best. 
 It is not always possible to tell which views will look 
 best until they are examined on the groundglass; 
 it may be necessary to stand more to the right, more 
 to the left, higher or lower, but all this is most excel- 
 lent practice even if no picture be the result. Do 
 not be deceived by beauty due to different colors, 
 since this will be all lost in the photograph. To avoid 
 this it is sometimes a good plan to view the scene , 
 through smoked or blue glass. 
 
 The foreground often constitutes the picture, and 
 this fact should be given due prominence in arrang- 
 
52 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 ing it; middle ground and distance are insufficient 
 alone to form a picture, but combined with the fore- 
 ground make an artistic and pleasing whole. The 
 center of the picture is the weakest portion of it, 
 therefore none of the objects which are really promi- 
 nent should be placed in the exact center. The 
 direction of the principal lines, too, should be taken 
 into consideration. 
 
 It is a good plan to make a view-meter by cutting 
 a hole the same proportions as your plate in a piece 
 of dark card. Tie a string to one end and in the 
 string place knots at distances equal to the foci of 
 your lenses. Then by placing the right knot against 
 the cheek-bone and sighting with one eye you will 
 see the composition as it would look on the plate. 
 
 Beauty in Little Things. — There is great beauty 
 oftentimes in trifling objects. Shrubs and vines, 
 rocks and logs often can be carelessly arranged so as 
 to break up the monotony of the foreground and 
 give it an entirely different expression. Anything 
 that breaks the level and changes the stiff" lines gives 
 pleasure to the eye, because of the character it gives. 
 Scarcely anything can mar the effect so much as an 
 unbroken foreground, such as a long expanse of grass 
 of uniform lighting. The artistic photographer will 
 change his position to avoid it, or if this is impossible, 
 will place some objects where they will aid his lines. 
 
 Introduce Figures. — Many ordinary views need 
 only proper lighting, and perhaps the introduction 
 of a figure or two, to make a most pleasing picture. 
 In introducing figures, however, take care that they 
 are not placed looking directly at the camera, as is 
 often done. If the view is one of a little woodland 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 53 
 
 lake, for example, would it not be better to have a 
 man leaning against a tree looking at the scene and 
 apparently unaware of the photographer's presence, 
 than to have him standing with his hands by his 
 sides, looking directly at the camera ? Figures which 
 are not appropriately dressed or occupied should be 
 left out entirely or else banished to the mid-distance. 
 
 Finally, never be satisfied with "good enough." 
 If not confident that the view is the very best you 
 can get, do not take it. Wait perhaps for another 
 opportunity; study it. By doing this you will soon 
 discover at what hour the effect is best and can 
 choose that time for your work. Accordingly your 
 picture will surpass in a corresponding measure that 
 of a hasty or superficial person who takes the view 
 as he finds it. 
 
 Seashore and Marine Work. — We must say some- 
 thing about making exposures at the seashore and 
 on the water, as amateurs spoil thousands of rolls of 
 film and boxes of plates every summer simply because 
 they do not realize that the light on the water and on 
 the sands is much more intense than elsewhere on 
 account of the reflection. On a bright day an ex- 
 posure on the water does not require more than one- 
 quarter what you would give an average inland land- 
 scape at the same time. Look out for overexposure 
 in this work, therefore. Use a medium opening of 
 the diaphragm and study your exposure table care- 
 fully. 
 
 Non-halation plates are very good to use in this 
 work. They do not cost much more than the regular 
 plates and certainly give greater satisfaction. In 
 fact, for any subject where the reflection of light is 
 
54 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 very strong, it is better to use non-halation plates. 
 Many of the best workers use only the double-coated 
 ortho plates for all classes of work, and the plan has 
 many very great advantages. 
 
 Interior Photography. — Most of the difficulties 
 which make interior photography harder than out- 
 door work can be traced directly to one or two causes, 
 either the limited amount of space available or the 
 concentration of the light, and of the two, the second 
 is probably the worse. Out of doors there is a great 
 abundance of light and it is scattered or diffused in 
 every direction, so that the question of illumination 
 does not often require extended consideration. In a 
 room the conditions are very different. The light is 
 not so thoroughly diffused and there is not a great 
 deal at best. Since the light enters the room through 
 a limited number of comparatively small openings, 
 the tendency is for it to be concentrated in certain 
 spots to the exclusion of others. 
 
 Lighting. — For this reason the problem of illumi- 
 nation does not resolve itself into the simple question 
 of how much to lengthen the exposure, but requires 
 some study of the source and distribution of the 
 light. In regard to the first point, much can be done 
 by the exercise of good taste and the skilful handling 
 •of materials. While it is true that an ordinary room 
 is much smaller than the bit of woodland that we 
 might choose for an outdoor view, it is for this very 
 reason much more convenient and practicable to 
 change it to suit our own ideas of what an interior 
 should be. It is manifestly impossible to include the 
 four sides of a room in one picture; indeed, most of 
 us, having only a medium or narrow-angle lens, will 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 55 
 
 fall far short of it ; for this reason it is best to choose 
 some particular corner which offers the least difficulty 
 in the way of windows, drapery, etc. Remember, 
 too, that the scope of the lens decreases quite sensibly 
 with the distance, so that it is not of much use to 
 try to photograph too small a room. 
 
 Arrangement of Furniture. — When you have de- 
 cided upon a particular corner, do not think that all 
 the furniture in the room must be piled in that corner. 
 Do not change it at all, for it probably looked quite 
 well at the beginning, otherwise you would not have 
 chosen it. And, by the way, do not think that the 
 foreground must be absolutely bare space. Let the 
 corner of a chair or table project a little into the field 
 of the lens; if it is not too near the camera, it will 
 improve the picture. Endeavor to have the room 
 look inhabited. If a sofa is shown, have the cushions 
 somewhat tumbled rather than propped up with 
 mathematical precision; if a table, have a half-open 
 book placed carelessly upon it; a violin, for example, 
 with its bow and the sheet of music laid across it, 
 apparently as if the musician had but just left it, 
 will illustrate just the effect which we wish to pro- 
 duce. Those who have seen the old-fashioned 
 country parlor or "best room " with its black hair- 
 cloth furniture primly arranged and everything scru- 
 pulously symmetrical will understand what it is de- 
 sirable to avoid. 
 
 What to Avoid. — Whenever a mirror or picture 
 is included in the field of view, look out for reflec- 
 tions or perhaps more will be shown than was origi- 
 nally intended. It is also desirable to avoid strong 
 contrast. This is one of the evils consequent upon 
 
56 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 the concentration of light and can often be avoided 
 by lessening the amount of light which is admitted 
 to the room and giving a longer exposure. Try to 
 get a uniform lighting, even if you have to darken the 
 room so much that an exposure of an hour or two 
 is needed. A supplementary flash can often be used 
 with advantage. In this connection a word of cau- 
 tion may not be amiss, and that is, when giving a 
 lengthened exposure, first secure the door and thus 
 be safe from interruption. A dull day is often better 
 than a sunny one, as the diffusion of light inside the 
 room is more even. 
 
 General Hints. — Having now settled the main 
 points, a few brief suggestions may be of help: 
 
 A view into another room is often to be preferred 
 to a blank expanse of white door. 
 
 Place your eye near the lens and look carefully 
 for reflections from mirrors, glass-covered pictures, 
 etc. 
 
 If the room is dark, focus on a candle or lamp- 
 flame or rub a little glycerine on the groundglass. 
 
 Focus sharply on a point about one-third of the 
 extreme distance from the camera. 
 
 If the floor is slippery, stick the points of the tripod 
 into corks, or use a tripod-stay. 
 
 Use non-halation or backed plates if possible, pref- 
 erably double-coated ortho. 
 
 The exposure for an interior is best determined 
 by the use of an exposure meter. Mr. Watkins 
 recommends to use such a stop that the camera 
 exposure and the meter test shall be equal. One- 
 sixteenth, one-quarter, or the whole tint may be 
 used, according to the plate and the stop used. Do 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 57 
 
 not overdevelop interiors. More water in the de- 
 veloper and care to take the plate out before all the 
 image is through to the back are essentials. 
 
 Finally, take plenty of time; do not let your friends 
 hurry you. Look everything over after things are 
 all ready and you are about to make the exposure. 
 If the writer had done this once he might have 
 noticed that the large advertisement card that he 
 had focused on was still the most prominent thing in 
 the room (and likewise the picture). 
 
 Enlarging. — In these days of the popularity of 
 the miniature camera, to say nothing about enlarging 
 in a manual of this kind would be a serious omission, 
 for the effectiveness of pictures made with, for in- 
 stance, a Vest Pocket Kodak or an even smaller 
 camera, depends very much upon their being en- 
 larged. And enlarging is not at all difficult or com- 
 plicated, hardly more so than contact printing, so 
 there is no reason why an amateur should hesitate 
 to undertake it. Enlarging is merely rephotograph- 
 ing. The small negative from which an enlargement 
 is required is simply photographed on a piece of 
 bromide paper or other similar sensitive substance, 
 and the size of the enlargement is governed by the 
 distance between the lens and the projected image. 
 An enlarger, in essence, consists of an arrangement 
 for holding the negative that is to be enlarged and a 
 lens and a camera for photographing it. The box- 
 form enlargers are the most convenient, but the chief 
 drawback to their use is the fact that the relative 
 positions of the negative, the lens and the sensitive 
 paper being fixed once and for all, the degree of 
 enlargement is unalterable. When enlarging with a 
 
58 THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 lantern, either by daylight or by artificial light, the 
 size of the enlargement can be varied at will by alter- 
 ing the relative distances. Full descriptions of ap- 
 paratus and more complete instructions as to their 
 use may be had by referring to Practical Photography 
 No. 5, How to Make Enlargements, and a practical 
 photographer should not regard his photographic 
 education as complete unless it includes some actual 
 experience in making enlargements. 
 
 Flashlight. — Another subject that will be found 
 not only useful but interesting is that of photog- 
 raphy by artificial light. This branch of the work 
 should appeal to the amateur as a new outlet for 
 pictorial effort with small outlay but with infinite 
 possibilities. The work is interesting to the photog- 
 rapher interested in portraiture because it places in 
 his hands a means whereby he can indulge in endless 
 experiments in lighting that would otherwise be de- 
 nied him. It is interesting too, because by means 
 of flashlight pictures can be secured under "home" 
 conditions that would be otherwise impossible, and 
 subjects and scenes can be photographed which could 
 never be represented at all if daylight were the sole 
 illumination. Flashlight can be used at times when 
 daylight is poor to augment daylight and in winter, 
 more especially, a knowledge of its capabilities is 
 likely to be welcome to photographers who would 
 otherwise regard their occupation as gone during the 
 darkened months of the year. 
 
 There are several varieties of flashlight apparatus 
 on the market, ranging from the simple and compara- 
 tively cheap lamp or the Eastman flashsheet or cart- 
 ridge holder, to the expensive and elaborate flash-bag 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 59 
 
 operated by electricity. The magnesium, "blow- 
 through " variety of lamp is inexpensive and con- 
 venient in use. A flash-sheet, used with its proper 
 holder, is very convenient and quite efficient. A 
 lamp which uses flash powder, ignited by means of a 
 percussion cap, is even better on some occasions be- 
 cause the flash is practically instantaneous and there 
 is very little risk of movement during the exposure. 
 Flash powder, sheets or cartridges must always be 
 handled with great care. They are safe enough 
 under proper conditions, but might be dangerous if 
 handled carelessly. 
 
THE AMERICAN PHOTOGRAPHY 
 EXPOSURE-TABLES 
 
 are the most convenient and practical help in determining the correct exposure 
 for any subject, in any part of the world. 
 
 The new edition (90th Thousand) has been carefully revised to include all the 
 films and plates on the American market. In every instance the speed has been 
 determined by scientific tests by a renowned expert. 
 
 The Tables assign to each factor concerned in exposure — subject, stop, light, 
 hour and plate — a number. These are found in the Tables and added. No mul- 
 tiplication is necessary. The sum is then looked out on a final table, and opposite 
 this number is found the exposure in fractions of a second, minutes, or hours. 
 
 The Tables are Absolutely Reliable 
 
 and will save their cost (35 cents) on the first roll of film or box of plates. 
 Thousands of experienced advanced photographers depend on them for all their 
 exposures, indoors and out. 
 
 Ask your dealer for them or send 35 cents to 
 
 AMERICAN PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 221 Columbus Ave. BOSTON. MASS. 
 
 It's all in the Exposure ! 
 
 The fate of your negative is irrevocably sealed when you snap the shutter. Every 
 tone and gradation which can exist in the negative is at that moment locked in 
 the plate. No change or modification of the developer can give you more detail. 
 
 THE PRACTICAL 
 EXPOSURE DISC 
 
 will indicate for you, under any conditions, the exposure which will give you 
 perfection of detail and proper contrast. It covers every possible change of con- 
 ditions and you can set it in five seconds or less. Thus you make sure of the 
 exposuie at which you may never have another chance. It is the only exposure 
 meter constructed for daylight saving time. Pocket size, in two colors, on heavy 
 celluloid, with plate speeds and instructions. Price, $1.00. Ask your dealer. 
 
 AMERICAN PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 221 Columbn. Ave. BOSTON, MASS. 
 
^auscli [omb 
 
 photographic j^enses 
 
 are again in the market — backed 
 by the prestige which attaches to 
 successful war service in any sig- 
 nificant capacity. 
 Our release from this service is of 
 course gradual. As the demands 
 made upon us by the government 
 are lessened from month to 
 month, however, we are enabled 
 to increase deliveries proportion- 
 ately to our other patrons. 
 
 Write for our popular booklet, "What 
 Lens Shall I Buy ? " — a concise, illus- 
 trated dictionary of lens usages and ap- 
 plications; also for revised price list, 
 indicating those numbers which we are 
 now able to offer. 
 
 Bausch ^ Ipmb Optical ©^ 
 
 689 ST. PAUL ST., ROCHESTER, N. Y. 
 
 NEW YORK CHICAGO SANFRANCiSCO WASHINGTON LONDON 
 
 Leading American ^Makers of Pliotograpliic Lenses, Microscopes, Projection 
 
 Apparatus (Baloptieons), Ophthalmic Lenses and Instruments, Photo- 
 
 micrographic Apparatus, Range Finders and Gun Sights for Army 
 
 and Navy, Searchliglit Reflectors, Stereo-Prism Binoculars, 
 
 Magnifiers and Other High-Grade Optical Products. 
 
PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 THIS number of Practical Photography shows the aim of the Editors in pub- 
 lishing the series — to give in each volume the practical information needed 
 to master a definite branch of photographic work. Useless, impractical theories 
 are not included, the whole purport of the series being to give up-to-date, usable 
 information that will be immediately helpful in the field or workroom. Illustra- 
 tions are used wherever necessary to make the test entirely clear but not solely 
 because of their artistic value. Whether in paper or cloth binding, the size will 
 be uniform — • handily fitting the pocket. In paper, per copy, 35 cents, or 83.50 by 
 subscription for twelve numbers. In cloth, per copy, 75 cents, or $7.50 by sub- 
 scription for twelve numbers. 
 
 No. 1. The Secret of Exposure. If exposure is correct, all other steps in the 
 makin'? of a good negative are purely mechanical. This number discusses exposure 
 thoroughly and gives a complete system, with full directions, for obtaining correct 
 exposure under all conditions, using any plate on the American market. 
 
 No. 2. Beginners' Troubles. This number contains an enormous amount of 
 practical help for every worker, novice, or expert. Its primary purpose is to show 
 the cause of common failures, but in general it is a manual of photographic work 
 dealing with the production of a perfect negative and a print from it. 
 
 No. 3. How to Choose and Use a Lens. Every successful worker inust know 
 what his lens can do and how it may be used to best advantage. This number 
 explains the particular qualities of each type of lens now used in photography and 
 deals particularly with the more modem types, their differences and relative ad- 
 vantages. 
 
 No. 4. How to Make Prints in Colors. The desirability of making prints in 
 colors led to the publishing of this number, a careful choice of the best methods being 
 made for the guidance of our readers. The toning of a standard black and white 
 print to every possible hue is explained, while the special manipulating processes 
 and the latest developments in natural color photography are clearly described. 
 
 No. 5. How to Make Enlargements. No worker who advances beyond the 
 plane of the tyro can produce consistently satisfying results without an enlarger. 
 This volume tells the v/hy of the enlarging process, and follows it with full and clear 
 information regarding the practical side of enlarging, including the construction 
 and use of different types of enlargere. 
 
 No. 6. How to Make Portraits. Making portraits in the home is a branch of 
 photography of interest to every owner of a camera. This volume tells in detail 
 how to make portraits of your family and friends, which will be more satisfactory 
 to you than the conventional portrait made in a studio. You need no other source 
 of information than this book to make portraits of any size, by contact or enlarging 
 methods. 
 
 No. 7. How to Make Lantern Slides. An exhibit of slides from your own nega- 
 tives is a treat for your family and friends. In this volume the subject of slide 
 making is thoroughly covered. Slides in black and white, toned, or in natural colors 
 can be made by any camera user. A copy of this book will tell you how to make 
 them. 
 
 No. 8. The Elements of Photography. An elementary manual for the beginner, 
 giving a concise but thorough description of the fundamentals of photography with 
 film and plate cameras. 
 
 The books of this series may be had from dealers in photographic supplies, news 
 stands, booksellers, or the publishers. 
 
 American Photographic Publishing Co. 
 
 221 Columbus Ave. Boston, Mass. 
 
THE LARGEST 
 
 AND MOST COMPREHENSIVE 
 
 CATALOGUE 
 
 EVER OFFERED TO 
 
 CAMERA ENTHUSIASTS 
 
 Your copy is ready. Send in your name and address, right 
 now, while you have this notice before you. 
 
 CAMERAS — KODAKS — LENSES AND SUPPLIES 
 
 of every description are Hsted in this catalogue, at the very 
 lowest possible prices. 
 
 EVERY ITEM GUARANTEED 
 
 Besides, you have the privilege of testing what you purchase, 
 10 days. After which time, if unsatisfactory, you can return 
 and we will refund in full. 
 
 REMEMBER TOO: — 
 
 that WE PREPAY TRANSPORTATION on all orders call- 
 ing for new Cameras, Kodaks, or Lenses, excluding View out- 
 fits, and supplies. 
 
 WE HAVE HUNDREDS OF 
 
 unsolicited testimonials from customers who are pleased with 
 our service as well as merchandise. We can do likewise for 
 you. 
 
 WE BUY OR TRADE OUTFITS 
 
 Perhaps you have one you wish to trade or sell. Send in a 
 complete description of it, and we will make you the very best 
 offer in cash or trade. 
 
 ASK FOR OUR SPECIAL BOOK 
 
 of used BARGAINS. Issued free on request. 
 
 Central Camera Company 
 
 Dept. A-22, 124 S. Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111. 
 
Your Success In 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 EVERY reader of this volume is seriously interested in the success 
 of his photographic efforts. Of this we feel assured — otherwise 
 he would not have purchased this book to secure information 
 that brings successful results. Information! That is the secret of 
 good results — backed by experience. Information must be up-to- 
 date, authentic, and to be valuable the useless facts must be weeded 
 out from the practical "meaty" matter, and the net result presented 
 to the reader. This is what the Editors are doing, not only in this 
 series of books, but in our monthly .magazine AMERICAN PHO- 
 TOGRAPHY as well. For more than twenty -five years this maga- 
 zine has served the American photographic public, and endeavored 
 to be all that its name implies — the standard American photo- 
 graphic magazine. It covers the whole field of photography, for 
 amateur, professional and commercial workers, publishing each 
 month forceful articles on the best current practice and latest ad- 
 vances in each of these classifications. The monthly departments 
 include two monthly Competitions, with criticism of pictures; 
 "Shop Notes;" "Exchange List," for the exchange of prints; "Read- 
 ers' Forum," for the general correspondence of readers; "The Market 
 Place," listing the most recent information as to firms buying pict- 
 ures; "Notes and News" of clubs, new material, books and manu- 
 facturing activities. In short, we publish a readers' magazine, and 
 in addition place our Editorial Staff at the service of our friends, to 
 help them with perplexing problems. This means you! 
 
 Does a magazine published along such lines meet your ideas of 
 good service? We think it does, for we try to put ourselves in our 
 readers' positions when we consider a change in the makeup of the 
 magazine. Join our steadily increasing circle of readers and friends. 
 The subscription price is but $2.00 per year, including personal Ed- 
 itorial help when you need it. Send your subscription today and look 
 forward to twelve numbers of the best photographic literature that 
 you have ever read. 
 
 American Photographic Publishing Go. 
 221 Columbus Avenue Boston, Mass. 
 
PLEASE TELL 
 YOUR FRIENDS 
 
 YOU who have bought goods 
 from us from time to time 
 and have figured out the 
 BONA FIDE SAVING 
 you have made and know 
 just what the goods you 
 have bought from us are 
 like — you can do your 
 friends a great deal of good 
 by telling them about us, 
 our METHODS and our 
 POLICIES, 
 
 THEY MIGHT LIKE TO HAVE US MAIL THEM 
 a copy of our Sensational Money-Saving Catalog. If 
 they will write for it or if you will send us their name and 
 address wc shall be glad to send them one. We know 
 they will appreciate your telling them all about our prices 
 and our service and we, too, will appreciate it. 
 
 EVERYTHING PHOTOGRAPHIC 
 
 DAVID STERN COMPANY 
 
 IN BUSINESS SINCE 1885 
 
 CHICAGO, U.S.A. 
 
 I SATISFACTION GUARANTEED OR YOUR | 
 I MONEY BACK | 
 
 'jlf^oy/////////////////////////////////////////////^^^ 
 
 Every Order Shipped within 24 Hours 
 
 MAY WE SERVE YOU? 
 
CHEMISTRY FOR 
 PHOTOGRAPHERS 
 
 Wm. R. Flint 
 
 As soon as the purely mechanical processes of making 
 prints by contact and enlarging methods have been 
 mastered, the photographer who is ambitious looks about 
 him for new methods and mediiims. It is safe to say that 
 his success will be of a mediocre degree unless he under- 
 stands the chemical laws and reactions which govern the 
 processes by which a permanent image is produced on the 
 photographic medium with which he is working. 
 
 The author of this volume is an expert photographic 
 chemist. He has developed a logical series of experiments 
 which cover the chemical reactions that take place in 
 producing negative and print on all kinds of mediums. 
 The reader who follows the experiments carefully — 
 either actually conducting them or else studying the re- 
 actions given by the author — will have a thorough knowl- 
 edge of the underlying chemical principles which govern 
 all photographic processes. He will be in a position to 
 work intelligently in any medium, and to conduct experi- 
 mentary photographic work. 
 
 The volume is a comprehensive treatise on photography 
 from a chemical standpoint, but is complete with formulae 
 for standard photographic solutions and emulsions, which 
 are given at the same time as the chemical experiments so 
 that their relation can be easily understood. The ap- 
 pendix is unusually informative, a large number of useful 
 tables being added. The cross index is extensive. 
 
 Bound in red cloth; lettered in gold; two hundred 
 pages. Price, $2.00. For sale by 
 
 American Photographic Publishing Go. 
 221 Columbus Ave. Boston, Mass. 
 
 Please mention Practical Photography when writing Advertisers 
 
TWO DIMES WELL SPENT 
 
 Two practical little handbooks, just the kind you like to keep handy in the dark- 
 room for reference when you need a special formula or help with a puzzling point 
 in the making of a negative or print. 
 
 PRACTICAL DEVELOPMENT 
 HOW TO MAKE GOOD PRINTS 
 
 Each, one dime. And they are dime savers, too ! 
 
 Our stock of these is running low. As you know, this series is being discontinued 
 and there will be no reprints. Send us two dimes — while your money is good. 
 
 American Photographic Publishing Co. 
 
 221 Columbus Ave.. Boston, Mass. 
 
 PICTORIAL LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 By JOHN A. HODGES, F.R.P.S. 
 
 Here is a useful book that gives the principles of landscape photography in a 
 nutshell. The chances are that after reading it, you can study your pictures and 
 make them more artistic by selective treatment. The illustrations will give you 
 some standard by which you can judge your own efforts to see where they can be 
 improved. Bound in paper covers, 35c. 
 
 American Photographic Publishing Co. 
 
 221 Columbus Ave., Boston, Mass. 
 
optics for Photographers 
 
 Translated from the German of 
 
 HANS HARTING, Ph.D. 
 
 By FRANK R. FRAPRIE, S.M.,F.R.P.S. 
 
 The writer of this book starts with the 
 fundamental laws of the propagation of light, 
 and carefully and logically carries the reader 
 through the principles of geometrical optics to 
 a complete explanation of the action of all types 
 of photographic lenses, and a description of 
 their qualities and defects. Only the simplest 
 mathematics is used, and this sparingly. The 
 book is brilliantly worked out and is indispensa- 
 ble in the photographic library, being the only 
 modern and comprehensive work on the subject 
 in English. The author is the calculator and 
 inventor of a well-known series of high grade 
 anastigmat lenses; he has the happy faculty of 
 expressing himself in such clear, simple lan- 
 guage that no one will have the least difficulty 
 in understanding his exposition of the subject. 
 
 220 pages, bound in red cloth, 
 ntmierous illustrations, $2.00 
 
 American Photographic Publishing Go. 
 221 Columbus Ave. Boston, Mass. 
 
 . Please mention Practical Photography when writing Advertisers 
 
With the 
 
 Kodak 
 
 Portrait 
 
 Attachment 
 
 objects within arm's length of the Kodak may 
 be brought into sharp focus — '*close-ups," 
 whether they be head and shoulder portraits 
 or pictures of relatively small objects, com- 
 prise the Kodak Portrait Attachment's own 
 particular field. 
 
 It is simply an extra lens which may be 
 slipped on or off in a twinkling and neither 
 prolongs exposure nor affects the operation of 
 the Kodak in any way. 
 
 The price is fifty cents. 
 EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY, 
 
 ROCHESTER, N. Y. 
 
 ^t your dealer's. 
 
"KODAK 
 
 is our registered and common- 
 law Trade Mark and cannot be 
 rightfully applied except to goods 
 of our manufacture. When a 
 dealer tries to sell you under the 
 Kodak name a camera or films, 
 or other goods not of our manu- 
 facture, you can be sure that he 
 has an inferior article that he is 
 trying to market on the Kodak 
 reputation. 
 
 // it isn't an Eastman, it isn't a Kodak. 
 
 ?5 
 
 EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY, 
 
 ROCHESTER, N. Y. 
 
PANORAM KODAK 
 
 A different kind of a Kodak that 
 makes a different kind of a print. 
 The lens automatically swings through 
 a wide arc during exposure, thus in- 
 cluding all the view — all the group — 
 in a long, narrow picture that you 
 will like. 
 
 THE PRICE 
 
 No. 1 Panoram Kodak, scope 112 degrees, picture 
 
 size, 2% X 7 inches ------ $14.40 
 
 No. 4 Panoram Kodak, scope 142 degrees, picture 
 
 size, ZYz X 12 inches ------ 24.00 
 
 EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY, 
 
 ROCHESTER, N. Y 
 
 At your dealer's. 
 
Eastman 
 Tested Chemicals 
 
 This seal outside means that the 
 chemical inside is absolutely right. 
 Look for it and find it. 
 
 EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY, 
 
 ROCHESTER, N. Y. 
 
 At your dealer^. 
 
 ^^f-diis/0 
 
The freshness of spring — the 
 natural tints of grass and foliage are 
 realistically reproduced if you print 
 on 
 
 KODAK 
 
 After exposure by daylight, it 
 works exactly like Velox — and 
 nothing could be simpler. 
 
 For the occasional print — 
 a continual delight. 
 
 EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY, 
 
 ROCHESTER, N. Y. 
 
 At your dealer's. 
 
 GETTV CENTER LIBR4R' 
 
 3 3125 00019 0658 
 
'•■ 'i 
 
 Say 
 
 4i 
 
 VELOX" 
 
 To your dealer when you are buying your 
 supplies. 
 
 To your finisher when you are sending him 
 your negatives. 
 
 To your friend who wants a solution of 
 his printing troubles. 
 
 Say "Velox" always because it is the one 
 paper that best answers every amateur re- 
 quirement. 
 
 NEPERA DIVISION, 
 
 EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY, 
 
 ROCHESTER, N. Y., The Kodak City. 
 At your dtaler't.