The Rise and Progress of Greek and Roman Art Library M. F. A. Boston i THE Rise and Progress OF Greek and Roman Art. PUBLISHED BY A. W. Elson & Co., 146 Oliver Street, Boston, U. S. A. 1899. Price 15 Cents. The Rise and Progress of Greek and Roman Art. This series of carbon prints has been especially selected to show the development in each successive period of Greek art; for use in art museums, libraries, universities and colleges, high and normal schools, and other educa- tional institutions. The illustrations in this book are half tones copied from the large carbons. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2014 https ://arch i ve. org/detai Is/i 1 1 ustratedcatalOOtarb Illustrated Catalogue of Carbon Prints Greek and Roman Art. WITH DESCRIPTIONS BY PROF. F. B. TARBELL, of the University of Chicago, AND AN INTRODUCTION BY T. W. HEERMANCE, of Yale University. THIRD EDITION. Tolman Reference Library M. F. A. Boston BOSTON, U. S. A. A. W. ELSON & CO., Publishers, 146 OLIVER STREET, 1899. ON Copyright, 1897, 1898, and 1899, By A. W. Elson & Co., Boston Press of American Printing & Engraving Co. Boston PUBLISHERS' NOTICE. ART IN THE SCHOOLS. It has become a settled fact that the walls of schools throughout the United States are to be used for art educational purposes. It is the earnest wish of every one to see that in this, as in all other educational work, the end sought shall be reached, and that vast sums of money shall not be uselessly expended. If we stop to consider what we are really aiming to do, it certainly will be more likely that we shall be satisfied with our results than if we are uncertain and indefinite in our plans. It has seemed to us that the end in view is to raise the public appre- ciation of the best in art, so that there may be wise judges of the work of those who are following art as a profession, encouraging the best, and discriminating between the products of the genius and the tyro. The existence of such a fine, discriminating general judgment made possible and stimulated the art life of Athens in the age of Pericles, and of Florence in the days of Michael Angelo. If we are to have a finer architecture, finer public statues, better in- terior decoration, it can only be brought about by creating a general public demand for it and appreciation of it. This can be done largely by reaching those who are in a formative condition — the school chil- dren. The aim being settled, how is the end to be brought about ? In the study of art the historical method is the natural one. Appre- ciation of art cannot be cultivated by an indiscriminate hanging side by side of all sorts of pictures of different periods and schools of art, having no connection with each other. No idea is conveyed in this way and nothing can be taught. Pictures of a single period showing its rise and development should be hung together. With these principles as our foundation, we have worked to produce a series of pictures for Art in Schools, illustrating the greatest period in art the world has ever known. The series is entitled " The Rise and Progress of Greek and Roman Art," and is fully illustrated in this cata- logue. Series covering other periods of art will be published from time to time. The subjects which follow have been carefully selected, and the descriptions written by Professor Tarbell, of the University of Chicago. The introduction is by T. W. Heermance of Yale Univer- sity. 5 CONTENTS. Page. What is a Carbon Print ? 7 List of Subjects 8, 9 Introduction 10-16 Books of Reference 17-19 Illustrations and Descriptions 20-99 Prehistoric Period 20-25 Greek Architecture . . . . 26-41 Roman Architecture '." . 42-45 Greek Sculpture Archaic 46-50 Fifth Century 51-73 Fourth Century 74-80 Hellenistic 81-96 Roman Sculpture 97~99 Prices and Ordering 102 6 WHAT IS A CARBON PRINT? Many are not familiar with exactly what a carbon print is. We therefore give the following short description, that all who receive this catalogue may understand the character of the work. A carbon print, or carbon photograph, both terms being often used, is made by exposing to the action of light a tissue which is composed of gelatine mixed with finely ground particles of car- bon. A negative is imposed on the tissue, in the same manner as it is in making a silver-print, or photograph. The film of gelatine is supported by a backing of paper. Before exposing under the negative, however, the gelatine is sensitized by washing with a solution of bichromate of potash or ammonia. When gelatine is sensitized in this way, it acquires the quality, after being exposed to the action of light, of becoming hard and more or less insoluble in water, and acquires this quality in different degrees, according to the amount of light which has been allowed to strike upon the surface of the gelatine. If, therefore, we expose the gelatine, or carbon tissue, under a neg- ative, it will have been acted upon by the light in different degrees in the various parts, in accordance with the modeling of the nega- tive. In other words, where the negative is dense (the high lights of the picture), little or no light will have passed through the negative and reached the carbon tissue beneath. Where the glass is clear or nearly so in the negative (the shadows of the picture), the light has been obstructed in no way and has fallen directly upon the tissue. In the half-tones between the extreme shadows and the high lights, the light will have passed through the nega- tive in varying amounts, according to the strength of the tone. After a proper exposure under the negative, the tissue is re- moved and plunged into warm water. The result of this is that the gelatine will dissolve in different amounts, leaving different thicknesses of the carbon tissue and thereby giving a modeling which makes the picture. After the soluble gelatine is thoroughly washed out, no further action of any kind takes place, and carbon prints, therefore, are absolutely fadeless, because the material of which they are composed is chiefly carbon matter on which light has no action whatsoever, and therefore cannot change. It is as permanent as an engraving. By this method it is possible to preserve a softness and all of the fine gradations of tone which a negative possesses with a truthfulness that no other process preserves. 7 LIST OF CARBON PRINTS IN "The Rise and Progress of Greek and Roman Art." PUBLISHED BY A. W. ELSON & CO., 146 Oliver Street, Boston, U. S. A. The subjects given below have been carefully selected by Prof. F. B. Tarbell, and are fadeless carbon prints from negatives made directly from the originals, and not from casts. The advantage of a carbon print over all others is : — 1st. — That it is absolutely fadeless. 2d. — That all the delicate modeling is accurately preserved, it being possible in carbon printing to obtain a delicacy and subtlety of ?nodeling not attainable by any other method. 3d. — As carbon tissues can be made in a variety of colors and shades, the one best suited to the original can be chosen. The following subjects are included in the series, nearly all of them being now ready for delivery. PREHISTORIC (1600 b. c. to 600 B. a). Page. South End of Citadel of Tiryns 21 Gallery in the Eastern Wall of Citadel of Tiryns 23 Lion Gate of Mycenae 25 ARCHITECTURE. Greek. The Great Temple (so-called Temple of Posidon) at Paestum . 27 The Theseum, Athens, from Southwest 29 The Parthenon, Athens, from Southeast 31 The Propylaea, Athens] 33 The Temple of Victory, Athens 35 The Erechtheum, Athens, from East 37 The Erechtheum, from Northwest 39 Caryatid (South) Porch of the Erechtheum 41 Roman. The " Maison Carree," Nimes, France 100 The Colosseum, Rome 43 The Arch of Constantine, Rome 45 GREEK SCULPTURE. Archaic (600 b. c. to 480 b. a). Grave Stele of Aristion (Athens, National Museum) .... 47 Archaic Female Figure (Athens, Acropolis Museum) .... 49 The Apollo of Tenea (Munich, Glyptothek) 50 Fifth Century (480 b. c. to 400 b. a). Dying Warrior from ^Egina Temple (Munich, Glyptothek) . . 51 Harmodius and Aristogiton (Naples Museum) 53 The Discobolus, after Myron (Rome, Lancellotti Palace), in preparation. Apollo from West Pediment of Temple of Zeus Olympia (Olympia Museum) . . 54 8 LIST OF CARBON PRINTS. 9 Theseus, from East pediment of Parthenon (British Museum) . 57 Three Fates from same (British Museum) 57 Metope from Parthenon (No. 307 in Catalogue of British Museum) 59 Metope from Parthenon (No. 310 in Catalogue of British Museum) 61 Portion of Slab of the East Frieze of the Parthenon (Athens, Acropolis Museum) 63 Two Slabs of the North Frieze of the Parthenon (British Museum) 65 The Velletri Athena (Paris, Louvre) 67 Doryphorus (Naples Museum) 69 Wounded Amazon (Lansdowne House, London) 71 Caryatid from South Porch of the Erechtheum (British Museum) 73 Fourth Century to the Death of Alexander (400 b. c. to 323 B. a). Hermes of Praxiteles (Olympia Museum) 75 Slab of Mausoleum Frieze (British Museum) 77 Sarcophagus of the Mourning Women (Constantinople Museum) 79 The Rondanini Alexander (Munich, Giyptothek) 80 The" Marble Faun" (Rome, Capitoline Museum),/;/ preparation. Hellenistic Period (323 b. c. to 100 b. a). The Borghese Warrior (Paris, Louvre) 81 The Alexander Sarcophagus (Constantinople Museum) ... 83 Aphrodite of Melos (Paris, Louvre) 85 Otricoli Zeus (Rome, Vatican) 87 Apollo Belvedere (Rome, Vatican) 89 Victory of Samothrace (Paris, Louvre) 91 Laocoon (Rome, Vatican) .... 93 The Dying Gaul (Rome, Capitoline Museum), in preparation. Group with Zeus from Altar of Pergamon (Berlin Museum) . . 95 Group with Athena from Altar of Pergamon (Berlin Museum) . 95 ROMAN SCULPTURE (100 b. c. to 300 a. d ). Portrait of Roman Orator : the so-called Germanicus (Paris, Louvre) 97 Augustus from Prima Porta (Rome, Vatican) 99 Relief from the Arch of Titus (Rome), in preparation. The carbons are published in two sizes, and mounted on heavy card- board, as follows : — Size A. About 20 x 32 inches ; mounting board, 30 x 44 Size B. „ 17x24 „ „ „ 24x30 The exact sizes vary according to the individual subjects. For Prices and Ordering, see page 102. At time of going to press, we have been unable to secure original negatives of the Sarcophagus of the Mourning Women, and of the " Alexander " Sarcophagus. These two subjects are reproduced from photographs, and are the only two in the series which arc not from original negatives in our possession. The Rise and Progress of Greek and Roman Art. BY T. W. HEERMANCE, YALE UNIVERSITY. To cultivate a proper appreciation of the best art is as impor- tant as the acquirement of a taste for the best literature, and in no better way can either be accomplished than by the study of the masterpieces, whether of art or literature. The prime reason why we feel drawn toward Greek art is because it appeals to our feeling for beauty, and satisfies it. It is this all-pervading beauty which distinguishes it from other early national arts, and makes it " a standard for all time." Not mere sensuous beauty is it, but that attempered by intellectual and moral qualities, which make it noble and elevating to him who becomes imbued with its spirit. Sculpture is the most important, and at the same time the most perfect, of the different forms in which Greek art found expres- sion. It has had the greatest influence in both ancient and modern times. Naturally, therefore, sculpture is placed in the foreground of any general study of Greek art, though we must not forget that under the term " Greek art " are included : archi- tecture, which often depends on sculpture to adorn it ; painting, whose loss for us is nearly complete ; and the minor branches of engraved gems, coins, decorative metal work, and jewelry. Marble and bronze were the two materials most used for Greek sculpture, the latter being much more in use than we would be led to infer from the number of bronze statues preserved. The best marble for statuary came from the island of Paros and from Mt. Pentelicus, in Attica. The Greeks at all periods, strange as it seems to us, applied paint to portions of both their architecture and their sculpture. The eyes, eyebrows, hair, perhaps the lips, and certain parts of the drapery, particularly to indicate a pattern, were painted. Many of the newly discovered statues show this very plainly. THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF GREEK AND ROMAN ART. I I The original Greek sculpture, which has escaped the destruc- tion of centuries of greed and ignorance, is but a small fraction of what once existed. The sculpture we have is very largely made up of Roman copies and adaptations of famous earlier works. It is part of the task of the student to compare these and dis- cover the traits of the lost originals. The chief uses to which Greek sculpture was put are the following: (1) Cult images of the gods for their temples. (2) Dedi- catory offerings in or near temples, most frequently representing the god worshiped, or the person who made the dedication. Most statues of victorious athletes were dedicated in this way. (3) Grave monuments, usually a relief representing the deceased alone or with some of his family. (4) Honorary statues of dis- tinguished men. (5) In the decoration of temples and other public buildings. The Doric metopes and the continuous Ionic frieze were well adapted for reliefs, while the gables were filled with elaborate compositions and single statues (rarely groups) often placed as acroteria. PREHISTORIC PERIOD. (FROM 1600 B. C.) * During the last twenty years much has been learned regarding the Greek prehistoric epoch, often called from its center of activity in the latter centuries (from 1600 b. c), the Mycenaean period. Its study is exceedingly fascinating, but so few links connect it with the historical epoch that we can at present leave it at one side and pass on to what more immediately concerns us. ARCHAIC PERIOD. (600-480 B. C.) f It is hard to know just what date to assign to the beginning of the archaic period in Greek art. Nothing that has come down to us can be called older than 600 b. c. Rough as the sculptures of this period are, they are far removed from the first attempts in art ; the real beginnings are further back still. Many of the works of the archaic period have in them little to attract, but others are charming in their naivete, and in them we can detect many signs of promise. Some of the defects in archaic statuary are the general stiffness * Examples from this period are given on pages 20, 22, and 24. t Typical works of this period are illustrated on pages 46 and 48. 12 THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF GREEK AND ROMAN ART. of pose, inability to render drapery otherwise than as a sort of metallic envelope, and ignorance of anatomy, making the hips too narrow and the body and sides too flat. The eyeballs protrude, the cheek bones are too high, the chin is apt to be over-promi- nent, the ears are set higher than they should be (a feature only very gradually modified), and in the desire to give expression to the face the mouth is curved in a vacant smile. Yet in the finished statues there is the greatest care displayed, the faults being those of incapacity, not of slovenliness, and this care is rewarded by the very rapid progress which can be noted in this century. The end of the archaic period is now generally put at 480 b. c, when Athens was sacked by the Persians under Xerxes. For Athenian work this date is of the most value, as it draws a sharp line between the old and the rebuilt city and its monuments. In other parts of Greece the division at this date is less sharp. FIFTH CENTURY. (480-400 B. C.) * After the Archaic period, and extending to the middle of the century, comes what is often called the transitional period, in which the last restraints of archaism are thrown off, and the artist becomes full master over his material. To this age can be assigned the Attic group of the tyrant slayers Harmodius and Aristogiton. (See page 52.) Here, too, belong the metopes and pediment sculptures from the Zeus temple at Olympia, whose finest single figure has been chosen for reproduction in this series. We find in these a conventional treatment of drapery, and in the east pediment a stiffness of composition, which suggest the period just passed, but the archaic smile is gone, and is replaced by a calm dignity. Myron was the most renowned artist of this period. The transitional period is the prelude to the age of Pericles, that of the greatest literary and artistic splendor Athens ever knew. The greatest architectural achievement of the age was the Parthenon, whose sculptural adornment is richer than that on most temples. The name of Phidias will always remain attached to this, though we cannot state what share belonged to him either in plan or in execution. Some of the metopes are below the stan- dard of the rest of the sculpture, but the best of it, including the ♦Typical illustrations of this period will be found on pages 52 to 72. THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF GREEK AND ROMAN ART. 1 3 pediment groups, is so uniform in style and so fine that one nat- urally attributes it to Phidias on the ground of his known con- nection with Periclean building operations. We have no statement to show that the Athenians ranked the sculptures of the Parthe- non high as works of art, they probably thought of them simply as part of the temple. It is because we have lost what they pos- sessed — single masterpieces — that the Parthenon marbles have acquired a significance they never had before. In place of the hardness of earlier work there is a softness, yet firmness, of modeling which well reproduces the flesh of a well- developed man. The clinging drapery reveals rather than con- ceals the forms beneath, its texture perfectly rendered, and every fold studied in relation to all the others. The same qualities of restraint and sublimity seen in the literature of the period can be detected in these sculptures. Both are intellectual products, both may seem to a careless observer cold and emotionless. To the same general building period as the Parthenon, of which Ictinus was the architect, belong the so-called Theseum (page 28), the temple of Wingless Victory (page 34), the never completely finished Propylaea (see page 32), and the somewhat later Erechtheum (see page 36), with its unsurpassed delicate archi- tectural details. Phidias had a celebrated contemporary in the slightly younger Polyclitus, of Argos. His best-known work, the Doryphorus (see page 68), we have in a number of copies. It was also known as the Canon, for in it Polyclitus embodied his ideas as to the cor- rect proportions of a perfectly developed man. One of the several types of wounded Amazons also can claim Polyclitus as its originator. (See page 70.) FOURTH CENTURY. (4OO-323 B. C.) * In the fourth century Athens is no longer the political head in Greece, though still the intellectual and artistic center. But art and literature are not what they were before the Peloponnesian War, and both have experienced the same changes. From now on they give fuller and freer expression to men's passions and emotions, and have replaced the older majesty and seriousness by a more graceful beauty and more tender sentiment. The old * Typical works of this period are illustrated on pages 74, 76, and 78. 14 THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF GREEK AND ROMAN ART. faith has fallen a prey to scepticism, and in consequence the gods are represented as less divine and more human. Art no longer depicts types, but individuals swayed by varying moods, which are shown in the faces, no longer calm, but mobile and sensitive. Fourth century art is cosmopolitan ; the school distinctions of Attica and Argos have practically broken down, and one set of types has been, evolved, to be modified, as may be, by the styles of individual artists. Only three sculptors out of many can be selected for mention here. The first is Praxiteles, who has acquired a new interest since the discovery at Olympia of his " Hermes with the infant Diony- sus," the finest Greek statue we possess (see page 74). It is this statue which enables us to judge of the finish attained by a fourth- century original. The dreamy joyousness which is visible in much of the work of Praxiteles is a contrast to the qualities which Scopas, his con- temporary, displays. Passion and energy are what Scopas excels in depicting, and his works have a " tragic intensity of expression unknown to earlier Greek art." This is got, in part, from a pecul- iar and characteristic treatment of the eye and the adjacent part of the face. Scopas, perhaps Praxiteles, and two or three other sculptors, were employed in the decoration of the mausoleum at Halicar- nassus, but it is very difficult to distribute the different parts among them. The finest portion of the Mausoleum is the Ama- zon frieze (see page 76), and its contrast with that of the temple at Bassae can be seen in the more slender figures of the former, and the openness of the composition. This is also to be noted in other fourth century work. Lysippus of Sicyon, a generation after Scopas and Praxiteles, was the author of a new canon of proportions, departing deliber- ately from that of Polyclitus, and making the body slenderer and the head smaller, and suggesting litheness rather than mere strength of muscle. The calling of Greek artists to build the Mausoleum showed that Greek culture was working its way eastward, and thus pay- ing back what it had received from the East in such large measure hundreds of years before. The truly Greek sarcophagi recently discovered at Sidon (see illustrations of two of these, pages 78 THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF GREEK AND ROMAN ART. I 5 and 82), of various dates, are a part of this same movement, which the conquests of Alexander only accelerated. HELLENISTIC PERIOD. (323-IOO B. C.) * Alexander's death, in 323 b. c, is a fitting date with which to begin the new era, when the artistic supremacy of Greece was transferred to Pergamum, Ephesus, Rhodes, and Alexandria, where distinct schools of art sprang up under the patronage of the Diadochi. The date of the close of the period. 100 b. c, is an approximate figure. Art in the Hellenistic period, still less than in the fourth century, was the handmaid of religion, and the tendencies of that age toward realism were given full rein, and this and sensationalism predominate. Variety of design and brilliancy of execution were the chief ends kept in view. Children were now for the first time chosen as worthy of a sculptor's best skill. Genre subjects, like an old fisherman, a peasant woman carrying a lamb to market, a tipsy old woman, and many reliefs frequently representing pas- toral scenes, or those of mythology, both with elaborate landscape backgrounds, have their beginnings in this period, particularly at Alexandria. Of another type are the creations of the school of Pergamum, which came into prominence in the second half of the third cen- tury b. c. Among the specimens we have of its work is the Dying Gaul, or Galatian, wrongly known as the Dying Gladiator (included in this series). This is a copy of one of a group set up by Attalus I. to commemorate his victory over the invading barbarians. For later Pergamene art we have as its best piece the immense frieze of the great altar erected at Pergamum by Eumenes II. (pages 94 and 96). A marvel of violent and tempestuous motion and complicated design, its technique is wonderful, and their very ability tempts the artists to transgress the bounds set to proper subjects for sculptural representation. The Rhodian school is known chiefly for the group of Laocoon (see page 92) and his sons, which reflects clearly the influence of the art of Pergamum. There are a number of famous single statues which belong, some probably and others certainly, to this Hellenistic period, * For works of this period see pages 82 to 96. 1 6 THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF GREEK AND ROMAN ART. as the Victory of Samothrace (see page 90), and the Aphrodite of Melos (page 84). ROMAN PERIOD. (lOO B. C. to 300 A. D.) * After the Hellenistic comes the Roman period of Greek art, ex- tending to about 300 A. d. Rome herself has little native art to boast of. In early times the Etruscans, gradually becoming in- fluenced by Greek art, supplied Roman demands. Then Greek art itself came into vogue and Greece was robbed repeatedly of its art treasures, while Greek workmen manufactured thousands of statues to meet the call for them on the part of wealthy Romans who wished to adorn their villas and palaces. Not only at Rome, but throughout North Italy and beyond the Alps as well, was this taste for Greek art prevalent. It is from this period that most of our extant Greek sculpture dates, much of it of very mediocre execution, mechanical, and lacking the vitality of original work, though the anatomy may be perfectly correct. At times there seems to have been a reaction in favor of what was old, and the archaistic statues of our museums were called forth by this movement. It is a period of decadence in art in that it produced little that was new, and confined itself so largely to copying earlier works. Perhaps the best work was done in the line of portraiture, as is clearly shown by the two subjects chosen — the Augustus (see page 98), and the Roman Orator. The reliefs on the columns of Trajan, on that of Marcus Aurelius, on the arches of Titus, Sep- timus Severus, of Constantine (see page 44) are more distinctly Roman than most single pieces of sculpture. Their value, how- ever, is more historical than artistic, and they have been compared to the reliefs of Egypt and Assyria for their pictorial nature and lack of sculptural qualities. Such is the barest outline of the rise and progress of Greek art. Those who pursue its study will find that their labor is not without its reward. The whole tendency of the study of Greek art is exerted toward a broader culture, a nobler conception of art, and a deeper sympathy with beauty in all its aspects. * Examples of Roman architecture are shown on pages 42 and 44. A typical example of the sculpture of this period is illustrated on page 98. List of Books on Greek Art. Note. — In the case of books translated into English the translation alone is referred to. I. General Works. A. Baumeister : Denkmaler des klassischen Altertums, Munich, Old- enbourg, 7885-/888. 3 vols. A most useful and trustworthy cyclopaedia of ancient architecture, sculpture, etc. M. Collignon : Manual of Greek Archaeology. Translated by J. H. Wright, New York, 1886. Brief, but good for all branches of Greek art. A. S. Murray : Handbook of Greek Archaeology, New York, 1892. K. Sittl: Archaologie der Kunst (Vol. VI. of I. Miiller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft), Munich, 1895. The latest and fullest work of the kind. F. B. Tarhell : History of Greek Art, Meadville, 1896. The best brief history ; particularly good for sculpture ; less full on architecture and painting. II. Sculpture. H. Brunn : Geschichte der griechischen Kiinstler, Braunschweig, i8jj, 1839, reprinted at Stuttgart, 1889. Vol. I. contains the sculptors. A classic ; though old, is still valuable to the advanced student. H. Brunn : Griechische Kunstgeschichte, Book 1, Munich, 1893. Book 2, edited after Brunn's death by A. Flasch, Munich, 1897. M. Collignon : Histoire de la sculpture grecque, Paris. Vol. I.> 1892. Vol. II, 1897. Delightful reading ; clear in statement and well illustrated. E. A. Gardner : Handbook of Greek Sculpture, London and New York. Part 1, 1896. Part 2, 1897. Most recent and very good ; neither diffuse nor over-brief ; the introduction is partic- ularly valuable. Mrs. Lucy M. Mitchell : History of Ancient Sculpture (Students' edition), New York, 1883. In parts out of date, but interesting and full. 17 i8 LIST OF BOOKS ON GREEK ART. A. S. Murray : History of Greek Sculpture, London. Second edition, 1890. 2 vols. J. Overbeck : Geschichte der griechischen Plastik, Leipzig. Fourth edition, 1893, 1893. 2 vols. Full and scholarly ; the standard work in German. P. Paris : Manual of Ancient Sculpture. Translated and augmented by Miss Harrison, London and Philadelphia, 1890. W. C. Perry : Greek and Roman Sculpture, London, 1882. L. E. Upcott : Introduction to Greek Sculpture, Oxford, 188 j. Literary Sources, Catalogues, etc. H. Stuart Jones : Select Passages from Ancient Authors Illustrative of the History of Greek Sculpture, London, 1895. Briefer than the following, but translates the passages collected. J. Overbeck : Die antiken Schriftquellen zur Geschichte der bilden- den Kiinste, Leipzig, 1868. Indispensable to the advanced student. E. Loewy : Inschriften griechischer Bildhauer, Leipzig, 1883. With many facsimiles. C. Friedrichs : Gipsabgiisse antiker Bildwerke : Bausteine zur Ge- schichte der griechischromischen Plastik. Revised by P. Wolt- ers, Berlin, 1885. The catalogue of the collection of casts in the Berlin Museum. Is equivalent to a full history of Greek sculpture taken piece by piece ; with full bibliographies ; very useful . E. Robinson : Catalogue of Casts of Greek and Roman Sculpture in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Revised edition, 1896. Briefer than the preceding, but excellent. W. Helbig : Guide to the Public Collections of Classical Antiquities in Rome. Translated by J. F. and F. Muirhead, Leipzig, 189J, 1896, 2 vols. So many important statues are preserved at Rome that this is an extremely serviceable handbook. Books on Part of the Subject. A. Furtwangler : Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture. Translated and edited by Miss Sellers, London and New York, 1893. The translation is practically a second edition of the original. Brilliant and sugges- tive, but not a book for beginners. C. Waldstein : Essays on the Art of Pheidias, Cambridge and A T ew York, 1885. Popularly and interestingly written. LIST OF BOOKS ON GREEK ART. 19 III. Architecture. J. Durm : Die Baukunst der Griechen, Darmstadt, Second edition, 1892. F. VON Reber : History of Ancient Art. Translated and augmented by J. T. Clarke, New York, 1882. IV. Painting. P. GlRARD : La peinture antique, Paris, 1892. A. Woltmann and K. Woermann : History of Painting. Edited by Sidney Colvin, New York, 1880. Part 1 includes Greek paint- ing. V. Ceramics. O. Rayet and M. Collignon : Histoire de la ceramique grecque, Paris, 1888. H. von Rohden : Article Vasenkunde in Baumeister's Denkmaler. pp. i93f-2orr. An excellent outline. VI. Numismatics. P. Gardner : Types of Greek Coins, Cambridge, 1883. Treats numismatics in relation to art and archaeology. B. V. Head : Historia nummorum, Oxford, 1887. Comprehensive and authoritative. VII. Prehistoric Period in Greece. G. Perrot and C. Chipiez: Histoire de Part dans l'Antiquite, Tome VI., La Grece primitive, Paris, 1894. Especially valuable for its full collection of material and illustrations ; the English translation is inaccurate. C. Scuchhardt: Schliemann's Excavations. Translated by Miss Sellers, London, 189 1. A good summary and discussion. C. Tsountas AND I. Manatt : The Mycenaean Age, Boston and New York, 189J. Up to date ; handsomely published. 20 PREHISTORIC. 21 South End of Citadel of Tiryns. SECOND MILLENNIUM B. C. The citadel, or acropolis, of Tiryns occupies a long, low hill in the Argive plain, near the head of the Gulf of Argolis. This hill is highest at the southern end, where it attains an elevation of fifty-nine feet above the plain, or seventy-two feet above the sea level. The enclosing wall of the citadel is the classic example of Cyclopean masonry, i. e., masonry constructed of huge, irregular blocks, not accurately fitted together. This style of masonry in Greece is always early. No cement was used to bind the blocks together, but the interstices were filled with small stones and clay. The openings seen in the nearer portion of the fortress are store chambers, which originally were embedded in the thickness of the wall, but are now exposed, owing to the falling down of the outer blocks. At the right may be seen the end of a gallery con- necting a similar series of store chambers. (See page 23.) 22 PREHISTORIC, 23 Gallery in Eastern Wall of Citadel of Tiryns. SECOND MILLENNIUM B. C. This gallery, situated in the thickness of the citadel wall of Tiryns, communicated by means of a stairway with the interior of the citadel above, and served to render accessible a series of six store chambers, the doorway into one of which may be seen at the right. The character of Cyclopean masonry may be dis- tinctly observed. The method of bridging a void should also be noted. The stones lie on approximately horizontal beds, and the upper courses are pushed further and further inward until they meet. This is not a genuine vault, but is sometimes called a cor- belled vault. THE LION GATE OF MYCEN^. 24 PREHISTORIC. 25 The Lion Gate of Mycenae. LATTER HALF OF SECOND MILLENNIUM B. C. The citadel of Mycenae is situated in Argolis, on a spur of the mountains which shut in the plain of Argos on the north. Our print shows the principal entrance to this citadel. The wall is constructed of blocks of breccia, for the most part laid in Cyclo- pean fashion, like the wall of Tiryns; but at a few points, as here in the neighborhood of the Lion Gate, the blocks of the outer face are approximately rectangular, and are laid in approx- imately horizontal courses, while on the inner face the masonry is Cyclopean. There are also at other points some pieces of what is called polygonal work, in which the blocks are of irregular shapes, but are fitted with close joints. This work also is limited to the outer face, and it is thought to belong to comparatively late repairs of the fortress. The gateway is formed by two huge stone posts, surmounted by a colossal lintel, about fifteen feet long by seven feet thick by three and a half feet high in the middle. The opening was orig- inally provided with heavy gates. Above the lintel the blocks of the wall are so arranged as to form a relieving triangle, and this space is filled by a comparatively thin slab of limestone, on whose outer face is carved a relief. Two feline creatures, appar- ently lionesses rather than lions, front each other in heraldic fashion. Their fore paws rest on what should, perhaps, be called a pair of altars. Between them is a downward-tapering column of characteristic Mycenaean form, surmounted by what seems to be a suggestion of a timber roof. The lionesses are modeled with considerable truth to nature. Their heads were made of separate pieces and attached, but are now missing ; they probably fronted outward. The precise significance of the design is not known. 26 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 27 The Great Temple of Paestum. SIXTH CENTURY B. C. Posidonia, " city of Posidon," called Paestum by the Romans, was a Greek colony in Southern Italy. Its ruins, consisting prin- cipally of a wall of fortification and three Doric temples, are sit- uated in a low, marshy tract, bordering on the Gulf of Salerno, southeast of Naples. Our print shows the largest of the three temples (the so-called Temple of Posidon). This building shares with the Theseum in Athens the distinction of being the best-preserved columnar Greek edifice in existence. The material of which it is built is a coarse limestone, which was covered with a fine, hard stucco. This stucco has mostly disappeared, and the limestone has taken on a rich golden tint. The columns are of more massive proportions than those of a Doric temple of the fifth century, such as the Parthenon, and the echinus of the capitals is somewhat mere widely flaring. The view is taken from the southeast. 2i GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 2 9 The Theseum from the Southwest. CIRCA 460 B. C. This most perfectly preserved of all Greek temples is situated on the end of a low hill to the northwest of the Acropolis of Athens, and which overlooks to the east what was the ancient Agora, or market-place. The view shows the temple as a Doric peripteros of very usual proportions — six columns on the ends and thirteen on the sides (counting, as always, the corner columns as belonging equally to both ends and sides). The lowest of the three steps is of ftoros, the two upper and the rest of the building of Pentelic marble. Investigations made within recent years have established as a certainty that the pediments were once filled with sculpture, and a study of the dowel holes and other indications enable conjectures to be made as to the composition of these groups, though every fragment of them has perished. The extant sculpture of the temple is much mutilated, and consists in the first place of the ten metopes placed on the east — the front — end and of the four metopes on each side adjacent to this east front. The subjects represented are the labors of Heracles and of Theseus. The re- maining metopes of the temple were perhaps decorated with painted designs. There are also two continuous (Ionic) sculptured friezes, one on each end of the cella. The frieze on the east is longer than the width of the cella, and reaches across on either side to the archi- trave of the outer columns — a unique feature. The exact sub- ject of this frieze has caused much discussion. In general, however, it represents a combat in the presence of the deities. The western frieze represents the battle of the Lapiths and Athenians against the Centaurs. Though the name " Theseum," temple of Theseus, will prob- ably always remain attached to this edifice, it is almost certainly an incorrect identification. The most probable of the numerous suggestions is that which makes it the temple of Hephaestus, per- haps associated with Athena. In the early Christian centuries the temple was, as so often happened, converted into a church, and was dedicated to St. George. T. W. Heermance. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 31 The Parthenon from the Southeast. 447-438 B. C. The Parthenon, on the Athenian acropolis, was dedicated to Athena, the guardian goddess of Athens. It is, and doubtless always was, the most perfect example of the Doric style of temple archi- tecture. Its finer perfections can be appreciated only on atten- tive study of the original, and of drawings to scale, but our print conveys some impression of the severe and noble simplicity and harmony of the building. Phidias, the great Athenian sculptor, is said to have had a gen- eral superintendence of all the artistic works executed under Pericles. The architect of the Parthenon was Ictinus, assisted, according to one account, by Callicrates. Its sculptured decora- tion consisted principally of two pediment groups, ninety-two metopes in high relief, and a continuous frieze in bas-relief. Having been converted into a Christian church, and later into a Mohammedan mosque, the building was blown up by an explosion in 1687. To this event its present ruinous condition is chiefly due. The material of the building is Pentelic marble. A general view of the Acropolis, Athens, will be found on page 10 1. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 33 The Propylaea of the Athenian Acropolis. 437-432 B. C. Propylaea is the ancient Greek name for an elaborate form of gateway, which was used especially as an entrance to a sacred precinct. The most important example of the kind is that which gave admission to the Athenian acropolis. Our view is taken from outside the western front or the building, looking northeast. The Propylaea proper have this form : — ■ ■ W The print shows four of the Doric columns of the western hexastyle front, and one of the six Ionic columns which helped to support the flat ceiling. The central passageway was for quadru- peds, and the two doorways at each side served for human beings on foot. Besides the Propylaea proper, this building has wings on the north and south sides. The north wing appears in our print on the left. The whole edifice was designed by the architect Mnesicles. It was never completely carried out according to the architect's de- sign, partly on account of objections made to the plan, and partly on account of the interruption occasioned by the Peloponnesian War. The chief material used is Pentelic marble. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 35 The Temple of Victory from Northeast. SECOND HALF OF FIFTH CENTURY B. C. As one ascends the Acropolis of Athens, just before the Propy- laea is reached there appears on a projecting bastion at the right this beautiful little temple dedicated to Athena Victory. Includ- ing the porches at the front and back, it covers an area of only eighteen by twenty-seven feet. Its material is Pentelic marble. The columns are of the Ionic order and form a porch on either end. From the porch on the east (shown in the print), that toward the Propylaea, one gains access to the interior. The continuous sculptured frieze which ran around the temple is only partially preserved. Some of it is /// situ on the temple, and some is in the British Museum. That in the latter place is replaced on the tem- ple itself by a cast, which in the print shows darker than the original slabs. The frieze, which is but seventeen and one half inches high, represents a scene of battle waged in the presence of the gods. The exact date of the temple is not known from literature, and no absolute information can be drawn from the mutilated sculpture of the frieze. It belongs, however, to the building operations of the age of Pericles. In the seventeenth century the temple was still standing, then it was torn down and the material used by the Turks for the construc- tion of fortifications. In 1835-36 these were destroyed and the temple rebuilt as it now stands, with but few stones missing from the lower part. To the right of the temple is visible in the distance Phalerum and the hill of Munychia, beyond which is the Piraeus, the sea- port of Athens. T. W. Heermance. 36 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 37 The Erechtheum from the East. CIRCA 415 B. C. This view shows the eastern or principal front of the Erech- theum, as well as the north and south porches. The missing cor- ner column of the front was removed early in this century, by the agents of Lord Elgin, and is now in the British Museum. To the left of the temple may be seen the inner or western fagade of the Propylaea, and, beyond, the island of Salamis. 38 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 39 Erechtheum from the Northwest. CIRCA 41 5 B. C. The name " Erechtheum " means " Temple of Erechtheus," but although the Attic hero of that name was worshiped here, other cults also were carried on under the same roof. The building, of Pentelic marble, stands on the summit of the Athenian acropolis, to the north of the Parthenon. It is known to have been nearly completed before 409 b. c. It must not be regarded as a typical Greek temple in plan, being, in fact, of unique irregularity. Of all known works of architecture in the Ionic style, this is the most exquisite. The proportions of the members, the profiles of the moldings, and the sculptured ornaments, all are of the utmost possible refinement, both in design and in execution. 4 o GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 41 South Porch of Erechtheum. CIRCA 41 5 B. C. For the general facts concerning the Erechtheum, see the pre- ceding number. The south porch, or porch of the Caryatids, has for its most characteristic feature six female figures — maidens, as they are called in a contemporary inscription — used in place of columns. The three maidens nearest the west end of the porch rest their weight chiefly on the right leg ; those nearest the east end, chiefly on the left leg. Otherwise all six are closely similar in general appearance, but there are numerous differences in detail, showing that the figures were not executed mechanically from a finished model. The second figure from the nearer corner is a terra-cotta substitute for the original, removed by Lord Elgin. (See page 73.) Furthermore, some modern pieces, easily recogniz- able by their freshness of look, have been inserted in the high base and the entablature. 42 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 43 The Colosseum. CIRCA 80 A. D. This building is situated on the low ground between the Pala- tine and Esquiline hills of Rome. Its original and proper name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, the Flavian amphitheatre. Begun by the Emperor Vespasian, it was opened for use by his son and successor, Titus, in 80 A. d. The upper story, which seems to have been originally of wood, was destroyed by fire in 217, and soon rebuilt in stone. The name " Colosseum " or " Coliseum " can be traced as far back as the eighth century. The amphitheatre was a peculiarly Roman type of building, designed for gladiatorial contests, and contests of wild beasts with one another and with men. The Colosseum is the largest example of the kind; it is said to have afforded seats for eighty-seven thousand spectators. The exterior is divided into four stories, three of them with open arches and engaged columns, Tuscan in the lowest story, Ionic in the second, and Corinthian in the third; above comes a closed story with Corinthian pilasters. The archi- tectural details are poor. The merits of the building lie in the skilful adaptation to practical requirements, especially in the ar- rangement of corridors and stairways, with which it is honey- combed. From the fourteenth to the seventeenth century inclusive, the building was treated as a quarry; to this its ruinous condition is principally due. The west end of the Arch of Constantine appears at the right of the print. 44 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 45 The Arch of Constantine in Rome. 315 A. D. This arch stands across the Via di San Gregorio, between the Palatine Hill and the Colosseum. The view is taken from the south. This is one of the best preserved and best proportioned of the numerous arches of triumph scattered over the Roman empire. It may be described as a free-standing block of masonry, set across a roadway, and pierced with three arched passages. It is divided by its superficial decoration into a main story and an attica. The main story exhibits a characteristic Roman adapta- tion and perversion of Greek architectural elements. Four Corin- thian columns, having no necessary architectural function, deco- rate each main facade. They are raised upon high bases, and above them the entablature is " broken," t. e., bent outward at right angles and back again. This peculiarly Roman treatment of the entablature is here turned to account to support pedestals for statues of barbarian captives. Directly behind the columns there are Corinthian pilasters. An inscription on the middle of the attica, on each front, shows that the monument was erected to commemorate the victory of Constantine over Maxentius in 312. Short inscriptions above the side passages appear to indi- cate 315 as the year of completion. On the top there was originally a statue of the emperor, standing with a terrestrial globe in one hand and a lance in the other. Some of the architectural members, and the greater part of the sculpture of this arch were taken from unidentifiable buildings of the second century (reigns of Trajan and the Antonines). These are far superior in execution to the clumsy work of Constantine's time. There has been some modern restoration. Thus one of the statues of barbarians and the heads and hands of the others are modern. GRAVE STELE OF ARISTION. 46 ARCHAIC PERIOD. 47 Gravestone of Aristion. LATE SIXTH CENTURY B. C. Athens, National Museum. Pentelic marble. Found at Velanideza on the east coast of Attica in 1838. No restorations. This is the finest extant example of an archaic sculptured gravestone from Attica. Its form is that of a narrow slab or stele, slightly tapering upward. The upper end is broken off. The deceased, Aristion, whose name appears on the base (not visible in our print) into which the stele is set, is represented in low relief. He is accoutered as a warrior, wearing a cuirass over his short chiton, greaves on his legs, and a helmet on his head, while his left hand grasps a spear. There are some imperfections in the modeling, but these are not due to carelessness. On the contrary, the work is executed with scrupulous care. The formal- ism in the arrangement of hair and drapery should be noted, as well as the fact that the eye is represented nearly as in front view, though the face is in profile. These points are character- istic of the art of the period. The stele was once liberally painted, and considerable traces of color may still be seen, even on the print. The name of the sculptor, Aristocles, is engraved immediately below the feet of the warrior: i Py0 v 'a P io-i0eou 'E^eo-io? eTrotei). The date of the inscription, and hence of the statue, cannot be very far from 100 b. c. The old name of Gladiator for this figure was unquestionably wrong. The statue represents a Greek warrior in the state of ideal nudity commonly adopted by Greek sculptors for such sub- jects. On the left arm is the central handle of a shield, and the shield itself, made of bronze, was attached by means of rivets, but is now missing. The right hand probably held a short sword. The indications are that the statue did not form part of a group, but was intended by Agasias to be complete in itself. Neverthe- less, its motive is intelligible only by reference to an antagonist, apparently a mounted antagonist, against whom the warrior is de- fending himself. He guards with his shield arm against a threat- ened blow from above, and seeks an opportunity to deliver a thrust of his sword. The figure is remarkable as an anatomical study, the tense muscles being rendered with masterly knowledge, and with even exaggerated distinctness. 82 HELLENISTIC PERIOD. 33 The " Alexander" Sarcophagus (so called). LATE FOURTH CENTURY B. C. Constantinople Museum. Pentelic (?) marble. Found in 1887, in one of a group of communicating subterranean burial chambers near Saida, the ancient Sidon. Essen- tially unrestored. This sarcophagus is one of the most beautiful works of Greek sculpture in existence. The six reliefs which adorn the four sides of the receptacle and the gables of the cover represent historical events in a style half realistic, half idealistic. On one of the long sides is a battle between Greeks and Persians; Alexander the Great, recognizable by the lion's skin which he wears, like his mythical ancestor Heracles, in lieu of a helmet, is seen at the extreme left, while an elderly general, probably Parmenion, occu- pies the corresponding position at the right. The battle intended is probably the Battle of Issus. On the other long side is a hunting scene. This sarcophagus is unique in the completeness and freshness with which it has preserved its color. The nude parts of the human figures, as well as the horses, are of an ivory tint, while garments, armor, saddle-cloths, and other accessories have re- ceived a variety of delicate hues. The effect is exquisitely beautiful. Nothing is certainly known as to the person buried in this sarcophagus. It was not Alexander the Great, whose remains found a resting place in Alexandria. APHRODITE OF MELOS. 8 4 HELLENISTIC PERIOD, 8 S Aphrodite of Melos (Venus of Milo). FOURTH CENTURY B. C. OR LATER. Paris, Louvre. Parian marble. Found on the island of Melos (Milo), in 1820; acquired by the Marquis de Riviere, ambassador of France at Constantinople, and by him pre- sented, in 1821, to Louis XVIIL, of France. Restorations (in plaster): end of nose, end of great toe of right foot, and other small bits. The ancient plinth is let into a circular modern plinth. That this statue represents Aphrodite, the goddess of Love, is highly probable, though not certain. Numerous attempts have been made to explain the pose of the figure and to supply the missing parts, but no one of these attempts commands the general assent of archaeologists. All that is reasonably certain is that some object of considerable height stood at the goddess' left side. It may be that the right hand was holding up the drapery. An armlet of metal, perhaps gold, was once attached to the right upper arm, and there were earrings which at some time were violently pulled away. Several pieces of sculpture were found together with the Aphrodite. Among them was a fragment of a plinth, bearing the signature of an artist from Antioch on the Maeander. This im- portant fragment is now lost. If it could be proved to have belonged to the Aphrodite, it would fix the date of the statue rather late in the Hellenistic period. The connection is, however, very doubtful. There is nothing, then, but the style of the work upon which to base an inference as to date. The partial nudity of the goddess probably indicates a period not earlier than the fourth century b. c, and it is most likely that the statue is a later adaptation (not a copy) of an original of that period. At all events, this is the noblest existing embodiment of Aphrodite. OTRICOLI ZEUS. 86 HELLENISTIC PERIOD. 8? Otricoli Zeus. FOURTH CENTURY B. C. OR LATER. Rome, Vatican. Carrara marble. Found in the latter part of the eighteenth century at Otricoli, a village some thirty-five miles to the north of Rome. The antique part was a mere mask, i. e., it consisted of the face, and the immediately adjacent hair. Restorations : tip of nose, a piece of left side of face with hair, and some bits of beard. The back of the head and the bust are also modern. The material of this colossal mask, Carrara marble, shows that it was not executed before the time of Augustus. But in all probability it was copied from a Greek original, although no simple proof can be offered for this belief. The supposed original is assigned by some authorities to the middle of the fourth cen- tury, by others to the Hellenistic period. The sculptor has sought to express the intellectual strength, the benevolence, the power of will, and the dignity of the supreme god of the Greek religion, and he has achieved his purpose with a success not rivaled by any other extant treatment of the same subject. The deep setting of the eyes, the more than human prominence and loftiness of the forehead, the more than human abundance of the mane-like hair, are means to his end. The Zeus of Phidias, of which this mask was once fancied to be a copy, is now known to have produced its overwhelming effect of majesty by simpler means, with greater artistic self-restraint. APOLLO OF THE BELVEDERE. as HELLENISTIC PERIOD, s 9 Apollo of the Belvedere. FOURTH CENTURY B. C. OR LATER. Rome, Vatican. Carrara (?) marble. Existent in the Belvedere of the Vatican since 1503 KesTcraiTors : left hand, right forearm and hand, upper part of tree trunk and quiver, small pieces of drapery, and legs. This is probably a Roman copy of a lost bronze statue, which is generally assigned to the Hellenistic period. At any rate, the excessive elegance of the slender figure and the elaborate coiffure stamp the work as belonging to a post-Phidian age. The god was represented apparently as having just shot an arrow from his bow. His sole garment is the chlamys, fastened by a brooch on the right shoulder. A quiver strap crosses his body. At one time this statue was regarded as one of the supreme masterpieces of ancient sculpture. VICTORY OF SAMOTHRACE. 90 HELLENISTIC PERIOD. 9 T Victory of Samothrace. CIRCA 300 B. C. Paris, Louvre. Parian marble. The statue was found by M. Champoiseau in 1863, on the island of Samothrace, in upwards of a hundred fragments. These fragments were conveyed to France and pieced together in the Louvre. The pedestal was not removed from Samothrace till 1879. Restorations (in plaster) : left half of chest, right wing, small pieces of left wing. From certain coins of Demetrius Poliorcetes, on which a figure closely similar to this appears, it can safely be inferred that this statue was set up by Demetrius soon after 306 b. c, in commem- oration of a naval victory won by him in that year over Ptolemy I., the ruler of Egypt. The coin type gives also the restoration of the statue. The goddess of victory has alighted on the prow of a galley. With her right hand she held a trumpet to her lips, as if blowing a blast of triumph ; in her left hand was an object in the form of a cross, commonly interpreted as a trophy frame. She wears a thin chiton or shift, folded over from the top and girded under the breasts; also a mantle or oblong shawl of thicker stuff, a corner of which hangs loosely over the left shoulder, while the rest passes across the back and around the right leg to the front. The vessel is conceived as under way, and the draperies are blown backward in tumultuous folds, so as to reveal the superb figure. THE LAOCOON GROUP. 92 HELLENISTIC PERIOD. 93 The Laocodn Group. FIRST (?) CENTURY B. C. Rome, Vatican. Greek marble. Found in Rome in 1506, on the site of the palace of the Emperor Titus. Restorations : right arm of Laocoon with adjacent parts of the snake ; right arm of the younger son with coil of the snake around it ; right hand and wrist of the older son, and some unimportant bits here and there. The elder Pliny, who died in 79 A. D., mentions a group of " Laocoon and his sons, and admirable coiling serpents," as stand- ing in the house of Titus. This was executed, he says, by three Rhodian artists, Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus. It is probable that the Vatican group is the very one mentioned by Pliny. The study of Greek inscriptions has shown that two brothers, Agesander and Athenodorus, Rhodians, of whom the latter at least was a sculptor, lived in the first half of the first century b. c. There is considerable likelihood that these two men were two of the sculptors of the Laocoon group. The third, Polydorus, may have been another brother. If this identification is correct, the work is somewhat later than the lower limit usually set for the Hellenistic period. Nevertheless, it cannot well be separated from the creations of that age. Laocoon was a Trojan priest, who had grievously sinned against the god Apollo. His punishment was long delayed, but came at last in terrible shape. On a certain occasion, when he was sacri- ficing with the assistance of his two sons, they were suddenly attacked by two miraculous serpents. In the sculptured group, the father, sunk upon the altar, seeks in mortal agony to free him- self from the serpents' coils. His right arm, incorrectly restored, should be bent at the elbow, so as to bring the hand near the back of the head. The younger son is already helpless and dying. His right arm should fall limply instead of being held erect. The older son, not yet bitten but probably not destined to escape, strives to free himself, and at the same time looks with sympathetic horror upon his father's sufferings. Though it is possible to read a moral meaning into this group, the purpose of the sculptors seems to have been to present a scene of physical suffering. This purpose they have achieved with great technical skill. The anatomy of Laocoon is specially masterly. The serpents, on the other hand, are entirely untrue to nature. 94 HELLENISTIC PERIOD. 95 Group of Zeus and Other Figures from the Altar of Pergamon. Group of Athena and Other Figures from the Altar of Pergamon. EARLY SECOND CENTURY B. C. Berlin Museum. Bluish-white marble. Found in the course of the German explora- tions on the site of Pergamon, 1878-80. No restorations. The Altar of Pergamon in Asia Minor was, properly speaking, an altar-platform, a construction of great size and great archi- tectural magnificence. Its exterior was adorned with a con- tinuous frieze in high relief, seven and one half feet in height, and something like four hundred feet in total length. To this figure belong the slabs shown in our two prints. The subject of the entire composition is the gigantomachy ; or battle of the gods against the rebellious sons of earth. The group containing Zeus was clearly intended to be the most im- portant of all. Here the greatest of the gods, recognizable by the thunderbolt in his outstretched right hand, and the aegis on his left arm, is pitted against three antagonists. The one at the left has been disabled by a huge thunderbolt which has transfixed his thigh. Another has fallen upon his knees and seems also past resistance. The third, a monster with animal ears, and legs that pass into snakes, still fights desperately. In the second group, which immediately adjoined the preced- ing, the goddess, Athena, moving to right, grasps a youthful, winged giant by the hair, while at the same time a serpent strikes its fangs into his right breast. Below, at the right, the Earth goddess, mother of the giants, recognizable by her horn of plenty and her position, half buried in the ground, vainly pleads for mercy. Above a flying Victory reaches out her hand to crown Athena. This frieze lacks the simplicity and restraint of Greek work of the best period, but it is a creation of astonishing dramatic power. c a <: o w Ph o H O w H