LONDON: 
 
 JOHN RIPBR, rKtMTBR, 
 14, Bartholom«w Clos«, 
 
THE 
 
 HOUSE PAINTER; 
 
 OR, 
 
 DECORATOR’S COMPANION: 
 
 BEING 
 
 A COMPLETE TREATISE 
 
 ON THE 
 
 ORIGIN OF COLOUR, THE LAWS OF HARMONIOUS COLOURING, THE 
 MANUFACTURE OF PIGMENTS, OILS, AND VARNISHES; 
 
 AND THE AKT OF 
 
 HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, AND MARBLING. 
 
 TO WHICH IS ADDED, 
 
 A HISTORY OF THE ART IN ALL AGES. 
 
 BY W. MULLINGAR HIGGINS, ESQ. 
 
 ARCHITECT, 
 
 Formerly Professor of Mechanical and Experimental Philosophy at Guy's Hospital, 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 THOMAS RELLY, PATERNOSTER ROW, 
 
 AND SOLD BY ALL BOOKSELLERS. 
 
 MDCCCXLI. 
 
IV 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 by the house-painter; thirdly, the mechanical processes in house-painting, 
 and the imitation of woods and marbles. 
 
 The reader may, perhaps, at the commencement of the work, imagine that 
 we have entered with too much minuteness into the philosophy of colour, and 
 the circumstances under which it is produced; but we feel convinced that it 
 is only hy the habit of philosophical investigation that the painter can arrive 
 at ■ excellence in his art. Many persons who are in the daily habit of using 
 pigments for the sake of colour, are c[uite unable to give a philosophical 
 reason for the effect produced; and to them the simple explanations we have 
 offered will, it is hoped, be interesting and valuable. The origin of colour 
 in its influence upon the human, mind, and the principles of harmonious 
 combination, are subjects of equal interest and importance, and have been 
 discussed as essential branches of knowledge to the house-painter. 
 
 The manufacture of pigments, varnishes, and other articles employed by 
 the painter, has been described in familiar terms, separated, as much as 
 possible, from the technicalities of chemical science. An attempt has also 
 been made to point out the relative values of different pigments, and the 
 means by which the adulterations can be detected. 
 
 Ample directions have been given in the third part of the work to instruct 
 the student in the mechanical operations of his profession; and we have 
 entered with some minuteness into a description of the modes of imitating 
 woods ' and marbles. The work closes with a history of house-painting, as 
 practised hy the nations of antiquity and in modern ages. 
 
 The volume is illustrated with specimens of graining and marbling, all 
 of which are the Productions of the Brush, and may be safely studied as 
 admirable specimens of art, and excellent imitations of the woods and marbles 
 they are intended to represent. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Among all ranks of society there is a strong desire for the adoption of an 
 elegant and suitable style of internal domestic decoration. But although this 
 feeling is now so general, House Painting, upon which all varieties of deco¬ 
 ration depend, holds no higher place in the public estimation than that of the 
 meanest of the mechanical arts. We are far from wishing to depreciate this 
 important profession; but we are, at the same time, compelled to admit that 
 it deserves no higher character, as practised by the majority of those persons 
 who have adopted it as a means of employment. This fact, how humiliating 
 soever it may be, will he admitted by all who are engaged in the art of 
 building, and, if we are not greatly mistaken, by the house-painters themselves. 
 A consciousness of the low state of the art is a foundation for the intro¬ 
 duction of a better taste, which must be established upon a more extensive 
 acquaintance with the principles on which it depends. There is not, however, 
 in the English language, and we believe in no other, a work which can 
 be called a complete treatise on the subject; and it was under the hope of 
 supplying this deficiency that the present work was undertaken. 
 
 The work as it is now presented to the public, contains a general 
 description of all those branches of knowledge which seem necessary for 
 an accurate acquaintance with, and practice of. House Painting; a term 
 which we do not confine to the mere circumstance of covering the surface 
 of wood or plaster with paint, but extend to the choice of suitable and 
 harmonious colours, and the decoration of apartments in the highest 
 style of art. 
 
 The subject naturally divides itself into three parts:—first, the origin of 
 colours, and the circumstances under which they impress us with pleasing 
 emotions; secondly, the manufacture of colours, varnishe.s, and tools employed 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER .. ^ 
 
 CHAP. I. THE PHILOSOPHY OF COLOUR. S 
 
 11. THE HARMONY OF COLOURS. 17 
 
 III. THE ORIGIN OF THE PLEASURE DERIVED FROM A PERCEPTION 
 
 OF COLOUR. 27 
 
 IV. THE QUALITIES OF COLOURS, AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN 
 
 DECORATION . 32 
 
 V. COMMON ERRORS IN HOUSE PAINTING. 40 
 
 VI. THE PRODUCTION OF COLOURS .‘.48 
 
 VII. THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND MANUFACTURE OF COLOURS 63 
 
 VIII. THE MANUFACTURE OF OILS AND VARNISHES. 110 
 
 IX. MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES EMPLOYED BY THE HOUSE PAINTER 139 
 
 X. THE MANUFACTURE OF THE HOUSE PAINTER’S COMBS AND 
 
 BRUSHES . 144 
 
 XL HOUSE PAINTING IN PLAIN COLOURS. 149 
 
 XII. THE IMITATION OF WOODS AND MARBLES . 154 
 
 XIII. THE HISTORY OF HOUSE PAINTING. 176 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS . 227 
 
 D 
 
V 
 
 \ 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 WOODS. 
 
 MARBLES. 
 
 No. I. 
 
 WAINSCOT. 
 
 II. 
 
 ROSEWOOD. 
 
 III. 
 
 MAHOGANY. 
 
 IV. 
 
 POLLARD OAK. 
 
 V. 
 
 SATIN WOOD. 
 
 VI. 
 
 MAPLE. 
 
 VII. 
 
 SYCAMORE. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 ZEBRA WOOD. 
 
 IX. 
 
 DARK OAK. 
 
 X. 
 
 WALNUT. 
 
 XI. 
 
 TULIP WOOD. 
 
 XII. 
 
 ASH. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 CEDAR. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 HARE WOOD. 
 
 XV. 
 
 KING WOOD. 
 
 No. I. DOVE MARBLE. 
 
 II. VERDE ANTIQUE. 
 
 III. A VARIETY OF SIENNA MARBLE. 
 
 IV. JASPAR. 
 
 V. EGYPTIAN GREEN. 
 
 VI. BLACK AND GOLD. 
 
 VII. BROCATILLA. 
 
 VIII. NORWEGIAN SLATE. 
 
 IX. SIENNA. 
 
 X. AGATE. 
 
 XI. GREY GRANITE. 
 
 XII. WHITE VEINED MARBLE. 
 
 XIII. NAPOLEON. 
 
 XIV. GREEN LAVA. 
 
 XV. RED PORPHYRY. 
 
2 
 
 suggested the application of earth to the surface of wood, as a means of preserva¬ 
 tion. But whatever observation or discovery led to the use of colours, there is 
 abundant recorded evidence of their application in house painting, among the 
 earliest nations of mankind. 
 
 That which was commenced as a matter of necessity was afterwards universally 
 adopted as a source of refined pleasure. Earths of different colours were found, 
 and means were discovered of so applying them to the surfaces of different sub¬ 
 stances, as to represent forms in a manner highly pleasing to the eye; the mere 
 presence of colours, arranged in an order similar to that observed in nature, 
 being a source of mental gratification. New modes of applying these colours 
 were from time to time invented, and other colours were discovered by the 
 studious inquiries of those who devoted their attention to the improvement of the 
 art, and a fertile source of amusement and instruction was thus opened to the 
 human mind. The art commenced in the necessity of preserving wood, one of the 
 most useful substances in nature to the builder and mechanist, from the many 
 sources of decay to which it is exposed; hut it soon expanded under the control of 
 man’s inventive powers, and, in a comparatively short period, called into active 
 operation the latent energies and capacities of imitation, by which the human race 
 has been hastened from one state of civilization to another, till at last it has been 
 blessed with all the social and mental enjoyments of which an intellectual nature 
 is capable. 
 
 In all nations possessing a distinctive architecture, colour has been applied, in 
 house painting, not only to materials which would otherwise he liable to perish, 
 from the action of the atmosphere and other sources of decomposition, but also to 
 those which are used in situations where chemical decomposition is not easily 
 effected. There are, however, hut few substances which are not rendered more 
 durable by protection from the atmosphere, which is at once secured by a coating 
 of paint. Among the improvements introduced in the art of building at an early 
 age, the use of plaster for the ceilings of walls and apartments, may he particularly 
 mentioned. But this substance, although admirably adapted for the purpose to 
 which it is applied, has the property of absorbing moisture, so that it is unfit for 
 exposure to a humid atmosphere, unless it he made in some way impervious to the 
 aqueous particles with which the air is loaded. By the application of colour the 
 plaster is protected; an unwholesome atmosphere, occasioned by the alternate 
 processes of absorption and vaporisation, is prevented, and the material itself is 
 
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 
 
 House Painting is of great antiquity, being, in all probability, nearly coeval 
 with the art of building. The first houses erected by men, when they began 
 to till the soil and associate together for mutual protection and support, were 
 formed of wood. These were rude in construction, and merely intended as 
 temporary shelters from the tropical storms and fierce heats of the country their 
 builders inhabited, being at the same time a protection from prowling beasts of 
 prey, and the inquisitive impertinence of their fellow-men. In fact, these dwellings 
 formed the homes of the aborigines of the human race; and being rude in their 
 construction, as the first efi’orts of mind towards a state of social life must neces¬ 
 sarily have been, their permanence was a matter of small importance. At a very 
 early period, however, in the history of nations, the use of burnt clay or bricks 
 was discovered, and the means of uniting them together by a “ slime,” or mortar. 
 The durability of these materials may he supposed to have induced a greater care 
 in the arrangement and construction of the houses of the settlers; while the 
 absolute wants and conveniences of a state of life requiring a continued residence 
 upon a particular spot, for the purposes of agriculture or trade, being better known, 
 would be suitably provided for. As the use of wood could not be rejected 
 altogether in the art of building, the pifrishable nature of the material demanded 
 some artificial means of preservation, which was found in the application of colour. 
 The circumstances which led to the use of certain mineral substances as colours 
 are not recorded, even in fables, and we will not therefore attempt to trace the 
 probable discovery, by following that course of reasoning which may be sup¬ 
 posed to have arisen in the mind of an intelligent individual; although it is by 
 no means improbable that the manufacture of an artificial stone capable of resisting 
 the effects of the atmosphere, and not liable to a rapid decomposition, may have 
 
 B 
 
4 
 
 5 ^ 
 
 employed by the house painter, forms the second part of the work. An attempt 
 has been made to convey useful information to the reader on these subjects in so 
 simple a form, that those persons who are ignorant of the science of chemistry 
 may follow the descriptions without difficulty, and even acquire an amount of 
 information on that science which will greatly facilitate the study of other branches 
 of the art of building in which it is also required. All the works hitherto pub¬ 
 lished on the manufacture of colours, are utterly useless to the general reader, being 
 for the most part collections of formulae; and the greater number have been so 
 carelessly written by their authors, or so disfigured by editors, as to be unworthy 
 of confidence. These errors, either in theory or practice, have been pointed out 
 and corrected, and the whole subject has been so simplified, that the student will 
 no longer find himself perplexed with empirical assertions, and dogmas having no 
 foundation in experimental science. 
 
 The theory of colour, and the manufacture of pigments and vehicles being fully 
 illustrated, the reader will be prepared for the study of the mechanical processes 
 employed by the house painter, together with the modes of graining, marbling, and 
 varnishing. In the remarks made upon these subjects, the young artist will find 
 directions to guide him under all circumstances, and the most approved modes of 
 practice. It has not been thought sufficient to state what is done, but to explain 
 why it is done; and to point out, where necessary, the defects of present modes of 
 operation, when adopted without a suitable foundation in the principles of nature 
 and science. 
 
 A history of the art of house painting from the earliest period to the present 
 time, has been added; and the work closes with a few remarks upon the manner 
 in which the house-painter’s work is valued. 
 
 The illustrations, which have been prepared under the immediate inspection of 
 the author, are of a novel character, but peculiarly interesting and useful. They 
 are chiefly specimens of graining and marbling, and have been executed by a 
 talented artist, who has long devoted his time and energies to this branch of his 
 profession. They are not impressions from blocks, but have been painted 
 expressly for the work, so that each example is the actual production of the brush, 
 and may be safely studied as a correct imitation of the wood or stone it is intended 
 to represent. 
 
3 
 
 rendered more durable. The use of colour in this manner, at once suggests the 
 propriety of employing it as a means of decoration, which has been done success¬ 
 fully both in ancient and in modern times. 
 
 From these remarks it will appear that house painting may be considered both 
 as a mechanical and a fine art, but in our own day it has in the latter sense sunk in 
 public estimation, from a want of knowledge and taste too evident among those 
 by whom it is practised as a profession. The opinions which are entertained of 
 any pursuit, by a community, may be generally traced to the estimate formed by 
 those who regard it as their employment; and this is strictly true in reference to 
 house painting, for it has been degraded to the meanest of the mechanical arts by 
 the painters themselves. From this condition it can be raised only by the diffusion 
 of knowledge among the artisans, and by giving to them a higher standard of 
 excellence than that they have adopted. Under the hope of aiding the accomplish¬ 
 ment of these desirable objects, this volume has been written. No subject has 
 hitherto been so much neglected by the profession to which the author has the 
 honour to belong, for there is not a complete work in the English language, 
 or probably in any other, upon the subject. A few essays upon the manufacture 
 of colours have been written, and some excellent publications on the harmony 
 of colours have recently appeared in France, as well as in this country; but no 
 attempt has yet been made to furnish the house painter with a systematic treatise 
 on his art. 
 
 The author of the following pages is not unconscious of the difficulty of the 
 task he has undertaken, but still hopes that his work will be found less imperfect 
 than any other which has hitherto appeared. He has attempted to collect all the 
 facts, both in theory and practice, which are necessary to the student; and so to 
 arrange them, that the reader may be led from one branch of the subject to 
 another, without impediment or confusion. In the first portion of the work, the 
 production of colour has been explained as arising from the decomposition of light. 
 The origin of harmony in colours has been then briefly stated, and the importance 
 of the subject has been urged, as it must be the foundation of every arrangement 
 suited to please the eye, by the production of variety without gaudiness or discord. 
 The errors into which the house painter is liable to fall have also been mentioned, 
 and the means by which those errors are to be corrected have been pointed out. 
 
 The description of the manufacture of colours, oils, varnishes, and even the tools 
 

 AK 
 
6 
 
 we can with propriety refer to these, a few introductory remarks will be necessary, 
 for the information of those who have not made themselves acquainted with the 
 elementary principles of that most wonderful of all the subjects of modern experi¬ 
 ment, the science of optics. 
 
 Light moves in right lines when traversing an uniform medium, but when it 
 passes from one medium to another, having different densities, it is bent out of its 
 straight course; or, to use the phraseology of science, is refracted. It is difficult 
 to fix upon any natural transparent substance which can be said to have, throughout 
 its entire mass, an uniform density. The atmosphere by which the earth is sur¬ 
 rounded is not an uniform medium; for, as is well known, its density decreases 
 from the surface of the planet to the very limit of its existence wherever that limit 
 may be, and hence the progress of light through it is not in right lines. The 
 waters which rest in the hollows of the earth, and form rivers, lakes, seas, and 
 oceans, more nearly approximate to an uniformity of density; but we cannot 
 discover, such is the condition of natural substances, any state of, matter in 
 which light can have a long-continued progress in right lines. Refraction is a 
 phenomenon constantly observed as attending the passage of light from one 
 medium into another, and is the more striking according to the difference in 
 density. Every one who has not been altogether inattentive to natural phe¬ 
 nomena, must have observed the broken appearance of all objects which are 
 placed in a vertical position, being partly in air and partly in water, when viewed 
 on the banks of a river, or by the sea-shore. This appearance is so striking that 
 an observer may be deceived by it, but it is readily explained by the doctrine 
 of refraction. 
 
 To make this subject more familiar to the reader, a simple but interesting 
 experiment may be mentioned. Place a basin upon a table, and at the bottom of 
 the vessel fix a coin, a shilling for example. Then walk from the table, keeping 
 the eye fixed on the coin until it can no longer be seen, the edge of the basin 
 intercepting the sight. In this position remain with the eye fixed, keeping the 
 head in the same posture, neither leaning forward nor backward. Let some 
 person near the table then pour water into the vessel, and the shilling will again 
 appear; for the ray of light by which it is illuminated, is broken or refracted, 
 causing the coin to have a greater apparent elevation than it had when air was 
 the medium. The stars and other celestial objects also, appear to have a greater 
 elevation than they really possess, on account of the refraction of light by the 
 atmosphere, and the perception of every object in that direction in which the 
 ray from the object strikes the eye. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE PHILOSOPHY OF COLOUR. 
 
 As it is our intention to give a full description of the nature of colours, and 
 their use by the house painter, so as to satisfy the inquiries of our readers upon 
 all subjects connected vrith them, it will be desirable to commence with a brief 
 account of the origin of colour, and to explain those natural laws, or principles, 
 upon which it depends. This appears to he the more necessary, as many persons 
 still entertain the erroneous opinion that colour is an inherent property of bodies, 
 and as necessary to their existence as gravitation or form. This, however, is by 
 no means the case, for colour is hut an accidental quality, entirely dependent 
 on physical conditions; and the possession of one colour in preference to all 
 others, is no more a necessary property of one kind, species, or variety of matter, 
 than a certain degree of hardness, which, as every one is aware, is regulated in 
 most cases by its temperature. To prove this statement it will be necessary to 
 explain those experiments by which scientific men have ascertained the composition 
 of light, and the influence of bodies upon it, in the production of colour. 
 
 The natural light which we enjoy upon the surface of the earth, and by which 
 we are able to see the objects around us, is white. It is in conversational phrase 
 spoken of as proceeding from the sun, and was once considered an emanation from 
 that body; but this theory has been abandoned by modern philosophers, although 
 it is still acknowledged that light, in its active qualities, is dependent on the sun, 
 for which cause it is called solar light. If a ray of this light be allowed to pass 
 into a darkened room through a small opening in a window shutter, and be 
 received on a suitable screen, it will appear as a white spot; and yet if it illuminate 
 an apartment, every object will have a particular colour, by which, in connexion 
 with other properties, that object is under ordinary circumstances known. The 
 question then at once arises—To what cause can the colour of substances be 
 traced?' The labours of Sir Isaac Newton, and those who have followed him in 
 the experimental investigation of light, supply a satisfactory answer; but before 
 
 c 
 
8 
 
 simple, or, to use a scientific term, a homogeneous substance, hut consists of 
 differently coloured rays, which, although intimately combined in nature, maybe 
 separated by experiment. This may be at any time done by the aid of a glass 
 prism, when the sun is shining brightly ; hut it is best accomplished by admitting 
 a beam of bright light into a darkened apartment. The following description 
 will assist the reader in performing the experiment. 
 
 A beam of light, B, is supposed to pass through an aperture. A, in a window 
 shutter, and if no substance intervened to turn it from its path, it would move in a 
 rectilinear direction, and fall upon the opposite wall or screen as a bright white 
 spot. But let a triangular glass prism, P, be so placed as to intercept the light, 
 care being taken to present it in such a manner that the light may emerge from 
 one surface at the same angle as it enters the opposite. The first thing we 
 observe is, that the direction of the light is changed, for it is refracted; Imt at 
 
 the same time a more 
 remarkable phenome¬ 
 non is witnessed, for 
 instead of the bright 
 white spot, a series of 
 vivid colours are form¬ 
 ed, commonly known 
 as the solar or pris¬ 
 matic spectrum. This 
 oblong image always 
 consists of the same 
 
 rB 
 
 colours, seven in number, and ranged in the same order, red, orange, yellow, 
 green, blue, indigo, and violet. Hence then, it may be supposed, white light 
 
 is a compound of these coloured rays, a fact capable of proof by a diversity 
 
 of experiments. Concerning the deductions to be drawn from the discovery, and • 
 
 the influence of the fact upon the progress of optical science, we have not here 
 an opportunity of speaking, as the mere fact is all that is necessary to be known 
 by the reader for the understanding of the questions to which his attention will 
 be presently directed. 
 
 Newton having succeeded in the decomposition of white light, next attempted 
 its composition by the union of the several coloured rays. This may be 
 
 effected in various ways, but it will be sufficient to mention one. Having 
 
 performed the experiment represented in figure 1, take a second prism, P, 
 formed of the same kind of glass, and with the same angles, and place it against 
 
V 
 
 Upon this subject it would be easy to enlarge by a more detailed explanation 
 of the facts just mentioned, and the enumeration of the many natural appear¬ 
 ances and physical deceptions occasioned by the refraction of light; but sufficient 
 has perhaps been said to explain the fact that light is bent out of a straight 
 line by the interception of a transparent substance, having a different density to 
 that of the medium in which it before moved; and to add further illustration 
 would expose us to censure for deviating from the main object of this work. 
 
 Glass is a transparent substance, or, in other words, one through which light 
 can pass; but, as its density is much greater than that of atmospheric air, light 
 is always refracted in its passage from one of these media to the other. The path 
 of a ray of light, however, through glass, varies according to the form of the 
 surface, the light being in some cases collected in a point, when it is said to 
 be converged, and in others diffused. In the year 1666, Newton, who may he 
 dishnguished, without disparaging the genius or labours of others, as The 
 Philosopher, applied himself, to use his own words, “ to the grinding of optic 
 glasses of other figures than spherical;” and among various forms obtained a 
 triangular glass prism, through which he passed a ray of light. In using glasses 
 of a convex shape a spot of white light was thrown upon a prepared screen, at a 
 greater or less distance, hut with the prism an oblong figure composed of seven 
 different colours was obtained. The description which Sir Isaac gave of his ex¬ 
 periments to the secretary of the Eoyal Society, is too interesting to be passed over 
 without an extract. “ Having darkened my chamber,” he says, “ and made a small 
 hole in my window-shutters to let in a convenient quantity of the sun’s light, I 
 placed my prism at its entrance, that it might thereby be refracted to the opposite 
 wall. It was at first a very pleasing diversion to view the vivid and intense 
 colours produced thereby, hut after a while applying myself to consider them 
 more circumspectly, I was surprised to see them in an oblong form, which, 
 » according to the received laws of refraction, I expected would have been circular’ 
 They were terminated at the sides by straight lines, hut at the ends the decay of 
 light was so gradual that it was difficult to determine justly what was their 
 figure, yet they seemed semi-circular.” The illustrious author then proceeded to 
 inquire into the origin of the form of the coloured spectrum produced by the 
 glass prism; and, after many experiments, discovered that the several colours 
 or rays of which the beam of white light was composed had different degrees of 
 refraction, so that one was more bent than another, which was, in his opinion, 
 the cause of their being separated. 
 
 From these remarks it will appear that the white light of the sun is not a 
 
prompt the inquiries of His intelligent creatures, by adapting physical existence to 
 their powers of investigation. Knowing that in the formation of natural agencies 
 there was no waste of creative power, scientific men assumed, that as three colours 
 were sufficient to produce all others, there could not be more than three primitive 
 colours in the solar spectrum. Mayer, in his Essay “De Affinitate Colorum, 
 maintains that red, yellow, and blue, are the primitive colours, and that all others 
 are formed by their union, in different proportions, the white being a neutral 
 mixture of all the rays, and black a negation of light. But the first proof of the 
 existence of but three primitive colours, was probably obtained by Mr. Hay of 
 Edinburgh, whose work on the laws of Harmonious Colouring, is worthy of the 
 highest respect, not less for the perspicuous and unaffected style in which it is 
 written, than for the valuable information it contains. Of this writer, who is 
 practically acquainted with the subject we are attempting to explain, we feel bound 
 to take public notice, for the labours of such men have a more than ordinary interest* 
 to those who are engaged in similar pursuits. 
 
 “After having tried every colour in succession,” says Mr. Hay, speaking of the 
 prismatic rays, “ and finding that none of them could be separated into two, I 
 next made a hole in the first screen in the centre of the blue of the spectrum, and 
 another in that of the red. I had, thereby, a spot of each of these colours upon a 
 second screen. I then, by means of another prism, directed the blue spot to the 
 same part of the second screen on which the red appeared, where they united, and 
 produced a violet as pure and intense as that upon the spectrum. I did the same 
 with the blue and yellow, and produced the prismatic green; as also with the red 
 and yellow, and orange was the result. I tried in the same manner, to mix a 
 simple with what I thought a compound colour, but they did not unite, for no 
 sooner was the red spot thrown upon the green, than it disappeared.” 
 
 By these experiments we are undoubtedly led to the conclusion that the solar 
 spectrum consists of three primitive rays, red, yellow, and blue, by the union of 
 which in different proportions, the intervening colours are formed, as by the com¬ 
 plete combination of the three, white light is produced. Dr. Brewster, whose 
 name is intimately associated with every inquiry in optical science, has given 
 additional proof of the fact already stated by an examination of the spectra formed 
 by different substances. 
 
 The attention of the reader has hitherto been confined to the decomposition of 
 light by refraction, but a few remarks must now be made upon the production of 
 the same effect by absorption. When light falls upon any substance, it is either 
 refracted, reflected, or absorbed. It has been ascertained by experiment, that the 
 
9 
 
 the former one in an opposite position, so that the two may make a transparent 
 medium of a rectangular shape, the opposite surfaces being parallel as shown in 
 the diagram. The white light which is decomposed by one prism, P, will now 
 he re-composed by the other, and a spot of white light, W, will be formed; for 
 the refraction on one surface will be corrected by the refraction on the other. 
 This experiment will be more interesting and illustrative if a thick plate of oil 
 of cassia be placed between the two parallel surfaces of glass, for the spectrum 
 formed by the first prism will then be distinctly visible, and the re-combination 
 of the rays may be observed. 
 
 There are also other methods of proving that the coloured rays, in certain 
 proportions, produce white light. Thus, for example, if seven powders having 
 the colours of the prismatic spectrum, and in quantities proportional to the 
 coloured spaces, be mixed together, they will produce a white powder, or more 
 •properly, a greyish white, as the prismatic colours cannot be accurately obtained. 
 For the same reason a circular disc, if painted to imitate the colours and pro¬ 
 portions of the solar spectrum, will appear quite white when put into a state of 
 rapid rotation. 
 
 Having proved, both by analysis and synthesis, that white light consists of seven 
 differently coloured rays united in certain proportions, Newton next endeavoured to 
 ascertain whether these rays were homogeneous, or compounded of rays more 
 simple than themselves. For this purpose he made such an arrangement, that he 
 could submit either of the coloured rays to the action of a second prism, and by 
 experimenting upon them separately, in the same manner as he had previously done 
 upon white light, he found that they were incapable of decomposition, and conse¬ 
 quently came to the conclusion that they were primitive or homogeneous rays. 
 The same experiments have been made by other philosophers, with the same 
 results, but they have, notwithstanding, formed a different opinion of the constitu¬ 
 tion of colours in the prismatic spectrum. Although it is quite true that none of 
 these colours can be decomposed in the same manner as white light, it does not 
 follow that they must be homogeneous, as was at first supposed. Indeed some of 
 the most eminent philosophers and artists have indulged a contrary opinion, and 
 that before any scientific proof of the accuracy of such a supposition had been 
 given, but merely upon the evidence of the painter, who asserted that all colours 
 could be produced from three. Those who had been accustomed to the investiga¬ 
 tion of nature well knew, that in the formation of matter, and in the establishment 
 of the laws by which it is governed, the Creator had adopted means the most 
 simple, for the accomplishment of His ulterior purposes; as though He desired to 
 
 D 
 
and other purposes in wliich utility and ornament are combined. The blue’ of this 
 substance is not, as he says, a simple homogeneous colour like the blue of the 
 spectrum, but is a compound of all the rays not absorbed by the glass; and the 
 colours which the glass has absorbed, are those which the blue wants of white 
 light, or which, when mixed with this light, would form white light. In order to 
 determine what these colours are, first look at a circular aperture in the shutter of 
 a darkened room through a prism, and the spectrum already described will be seen. 
 Let the blue glass be now interposed between the eye and the prism, and a remark¬ 
 able spectrum will be observed,—one which is deficient in a certain number of the 
 differently coloured rays. A particular thickness absorbs the middle of the red 
 space, the whole of the orange, a great part of the green, a considerable part of 
 the blue, a little of the indigo, and very little of the violet. The yellow 'space, 
 which has not been much absorbed, has increased in breadth. It occupies part 
 of the space formerly covered by the orange on one side, and part of the space 
 formerly covered by the green on the other. Hence it follows, that the blue 
 glass has absorbed the red light, which, when mixed with the yellow light, 
 constituted orange; and also the blue light, which, when mixed with the yellow, 
 constituted the part of the green space next to the yellow. We have, therefore, by 
 absorption, decomposed green light into yellow and blue, and orange light into 
 yellow and red, and it consequently follows, that the orange and green rays of the 
 spectrum, though they cannot be decomposed by prismatic refraction, can be 
 decomposed by absorption, and actually consist of two different colours possessing 
 the same degree of refrangibility.” 
 
 From what has been said, the reader will be able to understand the composition 
 of white light, and the means by which it may be decomposed, not only into the 
 seven coloured rays of the prismatic spectrum, but also into the three primitive 
 colours, which, by their admixture, form the others. It now only remains for us 
 to explain in this chapter, the reason why bodies have colour when viewed by 
 the aid of white light. 
 
 That colour is not an inherent property of matter, is proved ^by the fact, that 
 wdiatever may be the colour which naturally belongs to a substance in white light, it 
 will assume the hue of any of the prismatic rays in which it may be placed, although 
 that one will be most vivid which approaches nearest to the colour of the substance 
 m white light. Sir John Herschel, in the illustration of this fact, takes vermilion 
 as an example, which substance will have the colour of any part of the spectrum 
 m which it may be placed, but while it presents the most vivid red when placed 
 in the red rays, it has a dark and dull appearance in the green, from its inaptitude 
 
amount of reflected and refracted light from any transparent body, is less than 
 the amount of light which falls upon it, a certain portion being in some way lost. 
 One cause of this loss is, without doubt, the irregular reflection which scatters 
 a portion of the incident light, but the more important cause is the absorption of 
 some rays in a greater or less degree, by the particles of the transparent body. 
 
 A body is said to be transparent when the rays of light pass through it, and it is 
 more or less transparent according to its power of transmitting light without 
 decomposition, or according to the smallness of the impediment thrown in the way 
 by its physical structure. No substance is perfectly transparent, for light has 
 always a diminished intensity when it has traversed a medium which does in small 
 spaces decompose it, but the greater the extent of the medium, the greater will be 
 the absorption. When light falls upon a body of water, it enters, for the medium 
 is transparent, but it is scarcely probable that a ray ever reached the depths of the 
 ocean. It is a well-known fact, that more stars can be seen on the summit of a 
 high mountain, than on the plains beneath it, which can only be accounted for by 
 supposing their light to be absorbed by the lower strata of the atmosphere. Light 
 is also lost in passing through the lenses of a telescope, as is well known to those 
 who have paid any attention to the construction of that instrument. From these 
 facts it must appear that the most transparent substances in nature are not 
 possessed of this property in perfection; and on the other hand we may state that 
 it is not altogether wanting in any body, how dense soever it may be. Gold may be 
 beaten so thin as to become transparent, and other substances which are generally 
 supposed to be impervious to light, do admit its entrance to a certain depth beneath 
 their surfaces. Every substance may therefore be said to absorb light in some 
 degree, although certain varieties of matter, from a peculiar physical constitution, 
 cannot, in the usual acceptation of the term, be called transparent. 
 
 Substances may be transparent without being so in an equal degree to all 
 the coloured rays, so that white light is decomposed by a greater absorption of 
 one coloured ray than of the others, a fact which accounts for the colours 
 presented by certain media when observed by transmitted light. Now, as all 
 transparent substances have a preference, if we may so speak, for one colour, it 
 follows as a consequence that white light is decomposed by absorption, and the 
 thicker the medium, the greater the amount of absorption. This also accounts for 
 the change of colour presented by certain media when transmitting light varying 
 with the thickness of the transparent body. Dr. Brewster in illustrating this 
 subject in his Treatise on Optics, has taken as an example the phenomena observed 
 when looking through a piece of that blue glass generally used for finger glasses. 
 
14 
 
 This theory was adopted hy Euler, one of the most celebrated mathema¬ 
 ticians of the day, and is now almost universally received hy opticians as offering 
 a better explanation of facts than any other, although it cannot be denied hy its 
 wannest supporters, that, under many circumstances, there are great difficulties in^ 
 its application. 
 
 ' Sir Isaac Newton rejected this theory, and maintained that light was not the 
 result of undulations produced in a fluid medium, but that it proceeded from a vast 
 number of exceedingly small particles thrown out hy a repulsive force from every 
 luminous body, and that these particles move with an amazing velocity in right lines. 
 That the rays of light move in straight lines is proved hy the circumstance, that if 
 an opaque body pass directly between the eye and a luminous point, the light is 
 hidden or eclipsed; whereas, in any other position, the progress of the light is not 
 impeded. There are three different circumstances under which light may be 
 deflected from its course, and these are denominated refraction, reflexion, and 
 inflexion; and in all these cases, colour is frequently produced. Light, however, 
 may undergo another process, called absorption or extinction, to which allusion 
 has been already made. 
 
 That the particles of light are exceedingly small is evident; for through an 
 aperture one-hundredth part of an inch in diameter, nearly the whole hemisphere 
 may he seen, and particles of light reflected from every portion of an extensive 
 prospect pass through that small aperture, and form an image of it upon the retina 
 of the eye. If another reason were required for the opinion that the particles of 
 light are exceedingly small, we might urge the fact that they cross each other 
 without undergoing the slightest alteration, a fact which is still more astonishing 
 when we recollect their almost instantaneous progress. 
 
 The ancient philosophers maintained that the progress of light was instan¬ 
 taneous. This is expressly stated hy Aristotle; and Chrysippus the Stoic, who was 
 the successor of Zeno, taught the same doctrine, and illustrated the assumed fact, 
 by the motion of a long rod, which, he said, being moved at one end, is at the 
 same instant of time pushed forward at the other. 
 
 That light moves with an amazing velocity has been admitted by all modern 
 philosophers ; hut we are indebted to M. Ecemer, a native of Arthusen in Jutland, 
 for the absolute measurement of its velocity, to which he was led hy some observ¬ 
 ations on the satellites of Jupiter. When the earth is between Jupiter and the 
 sun, an eclipse of the satellites of that planet is seen eight minutes thirteen 
 seconds earlier than the calculated period. When the sun is between the earth 
 and Jupiter, an eclipse happens eight minutes thirteen seconds later than the 
 
13 
 
 to reflect the green light, and in the blue, indigo, and violet, it presents a still 
 more imperfect colour. On the other hand, a piece of Prussian blue has an extra¬ 
 ordinary richness and depth of colour in the indigo rays, hut has little power of 
 reflecting the red. 
 
 The colour of a body in white light depends on the colour of the rays which 
 It reflects. When light falls upon any substance, it is either chiefly refracted or 
 reflected; hut in both cases a portion is generally absorbed. It is by the reflected 
 light that the body is viewed, and according to the colour of the reflected rays will 
 be that of the substance itself. If all the rays are equally reflected, it will be 
 white; if they are all equally absorbed, and no reflection attends the process. 
 It will appter black. This simple principle affords a philosophical explanation 
 of the origin of colour in bodies, but no explanation can be given of the property 
 or arrangement of matter, by which rays of one colour are absorbed, and those of 
 another reflected. 
 
 As It IS our intention to explain, in a subsequent chapter, the various circum¬ 
 stances under which colour is produced, a few general remarks concerning the 
 nature of light, and the phenomena it presents, will, perhaps, be interesting to 
 those who are for the first time brought to the consideration of this important 
 branch of knowledge. Nor is this subject unconnected with the object of our 
 work, which is, to teach those facts relating to colour necessary for the practice 
 of house decoration; for colour, in what manner soever it may be produced, is to 
 he traced to some modified condition of its agent, light. 
 
 The question, “ What is light ?” has been long attentively considered by philo¬ 
 sophers, and every reply has been carefully, if not candidly investigated. Men 
 have thus been led to the discovery of many important facts; hut an unanimity of 
 opinion has not, even in the present day, been attained. 
 
 The great similarity of the effects of light and sound upon the organs which 
 they severally influence, induced many of the philosophers of the last two centuries 
 to believe that their production may he explained by similar hypotheses. Now it 
 has been long known that sound is produced by undulations excited in the sound¬ 
 ing, body, and propagated by the air as a conducting medium; and it has been 
 supposed that light is occasioned by undulations excited in an ether of extreme 
 rarity. These undulations, according to Descartes, are produced by the action of 
 the sun on the medium, and they, acting upon the eye, instantaneously cause that 
 sensation which is called light. A similar hypothesis was proposed by Aristotle ; 
 for he supposed light to he occasioned by the action of a subtile, pure, and homo¬ 
 geneous matter or ether which the sun put in motion. 
 
 £ 
 
16 
 
 perhaps observe that as yet we have not decidedly explained what colour is. This 
 question, like the definition of light and the eye, we would for the present evade, 
 and would appeal to our inquiry itself, where we have circumstantially shown how 
 colour is produced. We have therefore only to repeat, that colour is a law of 
 nature in relation with the sense of sight. We must assume, too, that every one 
 has this sense, that every one knows the operation of nature on it, for to a blind 
 man it would he impossible to speak of colours. 
 
 “ That we may not, however, appear too anxious to shun such an explanation, 
 we would re-state what has been said, as follows; colour is an elementary 
 phenomenon in nature, adapted to the sense of vision; a phenomenon, which, like 
 all others, exhibits itself by separation and contrast, by commixture and union, by 
 augmentation and neutralization, by communication and dissolution: under these 
 general terms, its nature may be best comprehended.” 
 
 From this brief statement of the theories which have been adopted to account 
 for the origin of light, it will be evident that much uncertainty still exists as to 
 its nature. Of its actions, or the phenomena it presents under varied circum¬ 
 stances, we can speak more confidently, and especially in the production of colour, 
 a branch of optical science which has been minutely investigated by modern 
 philosophers. Solar light, as we have already stated, is white or colourless, but 
 by refraction, absorption, and other means, it is decomposed, and colour appears. 
 Blit we have many means of obtaining artificial lights, all of which possess more 
 or less colour, and consequently change to a certain extent, the hues of those 
 bodies which they illuminate, a fact of the greatest importance to, though little 
 considered by, those who have the management of domestic decorations. In a 
 subsequent chapter an attempt will be made to explain the circumstances under 
 which colour is produced, and to trace those changes to which light is subject in 
 its action upon bodies. But previous to entering upon this inquiry, it is desirable 
 that the reader should be acquainted with those principles by which the har¬ 
 monious combination of colours is regulated. 
 
15 
 
 calculated time. These variations can only be accounted for by assuming the 
 progressive motion of light, and that light requires sixteen minutes twenty-six 
 seconds to perform its passage across the orbit of the earth, which is 190,000,000 
 miles. Light is, therefore, said to move with a velocity of 200,000 miles in a 
 second. 
 
 The importance of this subject leads us to notice a theory proposed in youth, to 
 which we are still inclined to give some credence, and it may he stated in almost 
 the same words in which it was first announced. The particles of light which are 
 commonly supposed to be in themselves lucid, are not so in fact; and this will 
 appear evident by considering that the effect is produced in the organ of vision. 
 The effect is mistaken for the cause. The particles of light may be of an opaque 
 and dark nature, and yet excite the organ of vision and cause a perception of light. 
 Every one is aware that the sensation may he at any time produced by pressing 
 with the finger upon the eye, which will produce not only light, hut colour, a fact 
 which leads to the conclusion, that whenever the visual organ is sufficiently irri¬ 
 tated, the sensation of light is produced. 
 
 Since this work was prepared for the press, Mr. Eastlake has published a trans¬ 
 lation of Goethe’s valuable “ Theory of Colour,” of which we are now able to avail 
 ourselves only in part. The theory adopted by this extraordinary man, is not likely 
 to obtain general credence, hut is at least worthy of notice. “ The eye,” he says, 
 “ sees no form, inasmuch as light, shade, and colour together, constitute that which to 
 our vision distinguishes object from object, and the parts of an object from each other. 
 From these three, light, shade, and colour, we construct the visible world, and thus, 
 at the same time, make painting possible, an art which has the power of producing 
 on a flat surface, a much more perfect visible world, than the actual one can he. 
 
 “The eye may be said to owe its existence to light, which calls forth, as it were, 
 a sense that is akin to itself; the eye, in short, is formed with reference to light, 
 and to be fit for the action of light; the light it contains corresponding with the 
 light without. 
 
 “ This immediate affinity between light and the eye, will he denied by none; to 
 consider them as identical in substance, is less easy to comprehend. It will be 
 more intelligible to assert that a dormant light resides in the eye, and that it may 
 be excited by the slightest cause from within or from without. In darkness, we 
 can, by an effort of imagination, call up the brightest images; in dreams, objects 
 appear to us as in broad daylight; awake, the slightest external action of light is 
 perceptible, and if the organ suffers an actual shock, light and colours spring forth. 
 Here, however, those who are wont to proceed according to a certain method, may 
 
18 
 
 produce a pleasing effect upon an observer. In doing this it will be necessary 
 frequently to refer to the science of music by way of illustration; for it is a 
 remarkable fact, that there is a great similarity between the laws of harmony, 
 as regards sounds and colours. Writers who have preceded us have traced 
 this relationship, and have founded their explanations upon the well-known 
 principles of concord in sounds; nor can we imagine any better mode of instruc¬ 
 tion than by making one science the key to the other. 
 
 But before we proceed any further, it will be necessary to define the terms 
 which must he used. Much error and misconception have frequently been 
 occasioned by not giving a precise meaning to technicalities; and upon exami¬ 
 nation it has heen found, that the contrary statements which have heen considered 
 as differences of opinion, or as the result of an ignorance of truth, have arisen 
 from the application of a different meaning to common terms or phrases. To 
 prevent the rise of error and misunderstanding from this cause, we will endeavour 
 to fix a precise meaning to the technical terms of that branch of science which 
 we are about to explain. 
 
 There are in music seven distinct notes, but there are only three fundamental 
 sounds, which have been denominated by the letters C, E, and Gr. So in the 
 chromatic scale, or prismatic spectrum, there are seven distinct colours, but of 
 these only three are primitive, uncomposed, or fundamental; red, yellow, and 
 blue. In every musical composition there is a key note, or tonic, to which 
 every other note has a relation; and if this relationship be broken, discord is 
 the necessary result. Thus is it with the combination of colours, for in every 
 painting there should be a key or tonic, to which all the several parts have a more 
 or less direct relation, and hence it is that artists speak of the tone of a painting. 
 The word tone thus used has a different meaning from that given to the same 
 word in music; for it is there universally applied to a single note, and not to 
 a combination of musical sounds. The word is also applied to the human voice 
 or a musical instrument. Thus we speak of a rich, soft, or sweet tone; and 
 the same term is equally applicable to a colour. It would indeed be desirable 
 to give a new application to the word in painting, although this is at all times 
 difficult, and frequently causes much more serious inconvenience and error than 
 arise from the use of an inappropriate phrase, or an injudicious construction. 
 
 Although there are but few distinct colours, there is an infinite variety of 
 tints, shades, and hues, which variously influence the eye, and give the artist a 
 sufficient variety for the production of the effect he may desire. 
 
 The word tint is applied to colours in relation to their lightness, or, in other 
 
17 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE HARMONY OF COLOURS. 
 
 The arrangement of colours is, in the estimation of many persons, a mere 
 matter of taste; and to this erroneous opinion may be traced the continuance 
 of a mode of house painting in the highest degree offensive to the educated eye. 
 It is true that the style of decoration is a matter of taste; for while some persons 
 prefer the bright or gaudy, others choose the less attractive and more chaste 
 colours; the effect produced upon the mind being, in all cases, according to 
 the peculiar temperament of the observer. The eye is an organ which excites 
 sensations in the human mind not less powerful than those called into existence 
 by the ear; and the nature of the sensation, in both cases, depends on the 
 mental constitution of the individual. That a certain combination of sounds does 
 not similarly affect all persons, is evident from the preference which is given to 
 different styles of musical composition. One man is most pleased with the 
 solemn majesty of Haydn, another with the scientific and almost mathematical 
 precision of Pixis; a third with the wild genius of Weber; while others, who 
 are unaffected by all these varieties of style, are overpowered by the artless 
 expression of a national ballad. It will not, however, he imagined that no fixed 
 laws regulate the combination of sounds in the production of harmony, because 
 ' there are all these varieties of taste. It is on the other hand well known, 
 that when certain notes are struck together, or even so as to follow each other, 
 a discord is produced, and a well-tuned, not to say a cultivated ear, is strangely 
 distressed. There are principles, then, by regard to which sounds may be so 
 arranged as to produce harmony; and there are also laws for the arrangement 
 of colours: and as harmonious sounds delight the hearer, so harmonious colours 
 captivate the observer. 
 
 In this chapter we shall attempt to explain the principles of harmonious 
 colouring, so as to guide the house painter and decorator in the choice and 
 application of those colours which will so blend one with the other as to 
 
 F 
 
20 
 
 From the union of the tertiaries, other colours are produced, called browns; 
 but of these it is not here necessary to speak. When the three primaries are 
 united in certain proportions, they produce black, as is well known to every 
 person who has been accustomed to the use of colours. To form a perfect black, 
 blue must be the predominating colour; and the yellow must be subordinate 
 to the red. By the union of the same colours in different proportions, greyish 
 tints, varying according to the quantity and intensity of the colours, are formed. 
 Black and white are the extremes of every chromatic scale, and may be con¬ 
 sidered the negations of colour. 
 
 These few remarks will explain to every reader the formation of colours; and we 
 will now' attempt to show the manner in which these colours should be arranged, 
 so as to produce a pleasing impression upon the mind of an observer. It is scarcely 
 necessary to state that colours placed in contact with each other without regard 
 to any principle, that is in a miscellaneous manner, are not calculated to satisfy 
 or please the eye; for if the reader has not been already convinced of the fact 
 by the observation of numerous displeasing combinations, it will be only necessary 
 to examine attentively the decorations commonly introduced into our dwelling- 
 houses. Any two of the primitive colours, for instance, form a combination of 
 this kind; and even when the three are presented at the same time to the eye, 
 they produce a sensation to which it will perhaps be difficult to give a name, 
 but one which is not perfectly satisfactory. There are, however, other colours 
 which, when brought into contact with the three primaries, in a certain order, 
 give instantly the relief that is required, so that every one admits that they 
 are in harmony. 
 
 The word harmony, in its general use, signifies a relationship, or union of 
 effect. There is a harmony between sounds, which causes two .or more notes 
 of a particular class, when struck at the same moment, to he heard with pleasure; 
 while others of another class, produced in the same manner, and with the 
 same relations as to time, so affect the ear, as to cause a sensation of discord. 
 So two or more colours when brought into contact, and acting upon the eye at 
 the same moment of time, create effects similar to those produced by sounds, 
 whether of harmony or of discord. 
 
 When any combination of colours is pleasing, it is said to be harmonious; 
 but the word harmony, as applied by painters to the principles which regulate 
 the arrangement of colours, is, we fear, but little understood, and, as now used, 
 is certainly calculated to mislead the student; so that it is necessary to give it a 
 more definite meaning. If employed to express a general result, it cannot be 
 
19 
 
 words, their gradation from the most perfect or intense state, to that in which 
 the colour is lost, and white is obtained. 
 
 By shade is meant the relation of colours to darkness, or their gradation from 
 the most perfect state to that in which they approach nearly to black. 
 
 Hue is the aspect of any colour, not being a primary, as changed by an 
 alteration in the proportion of its compounds. A primary colour, that is either 
 red, yellow, or blue, may vary in tint or shade, hut it cannot in hue; for the 
 addition of any other colour will entirely change it, and give it another name. 
 The colours formed by the union of the primaries, may be changed almost 
 
 without end, by mixtures in various proportions ; so that their hues are 
 
 innumerable. Orange, for example, is composed of yellow and red, and 
 
 according to the predominance of one of these over the other, so will he its 
 
 hue; and green may in the same manner vary from that which is most yellow 
 to that which is most blue. The more compound the colour in its formation, 
 the greater will he the number of its hues. 
 
 Although a variety of colours are made and used by painters, they may all he 
 formed, and of any hue, tint, or shade, from the three simple indecomposable 
 colours, red, yellow, and blue. To show the manner in which this may he 
 done, so that the science may be made intelligible to the meanest capacity, is 
 our first object. 
 
 From the union of the three primary colours in pairs, are produced three 
 others, called secondaries, as shown in Fig. 2. The mixture of yellow and 
 red gives orange; of red and blue, purple; and of blue and yellow, green; 
 the hue inclining to that one of its component colours, which happens to 
 abound in its formation. 
 
 From the secondary colours, another class, called tertiaries, may he produced. 
 Purple and green when united form olive ; green and orange, citrine; purple and 
 orange, russet; as shown in Fig. 3. 
 
22 
 
 in the prismatic spectrum, which is exhibited by nature on a large scale in the 
 rainbow; but they are not there in contact, for they are separated by the 
 secondary colours produced by the intermixture of the primaries, and these 
 secondary colours melodise the various characters of the primaries, and cause 
 the entire combination of colours to he harmonious. The secondaries are in 
 this instance the melodising colours; and it will he instantly admitted, that no 
 combination in nature or art is more delightful to the eye, than that presented 
 in the rainbow. This then is the harmony of series or succession, and it 
 essentially consists in so blending two or more colours, not in themselves 
 harmonious, that the eye rests upon them with perfect satisfaction and pleasure. 
 In the instance we have selected, the yellow is melodised by the green on 
 one side and the orange on the other; the blue by the green and the purple; 
 and the red by the purple and orange. 
 
 Let us now proceed to explain the harmony of composition, or of colours 
 opposite to each other in the chromatic scale. By examining the chromatic 
 scale, consisting of the primary and secondary colours, as shown in fig. 2, it 
 will be observed that any two opposite colours contain the three primitives; 
 for one being a primitive colour, the other will be a secondary produced by 
 the union of the other two. Thus the red is opposed by the green, which is 
 formed of yellow and blue; the yellow by the purple, which is compounded of 
 red and blue; and the blue by the orange, which is formed of yellow and red. 
 
 It wiU now be perceived that it is because the colours which are in harmony 
 are also in opposition to each other in the scale, that the phrase harmony of 
 opposition, has been employed by painters. From this it will evidently 
 appear, that for the production of harmony in any composition, the three 
 primitive colours must be present; for the eye is so constructed with regard 
 to light, that when two of the primitive colours are presented to the eye, 
 the third must be exhibited for harmony sake: and two of them must he in 
 composition, or in other words, form a secondary colour. Hence it is that we find 
 purple to harmonize with yellow, green with red, and orange with blue. This 
 also explains why it is that the colours, which by admixture destroy each 
 other, producing black, or a greyish tint, according to their strength, are in 
 harmony. 
 
 It is a curious fact, that the colours which are opposite to each other 
 when file chromatic series is arranged in a circular form, should consist of the 
 three primary colours; hut it is worthy of more attention than a mere matter 
 
21 
 
 miiitaken, for when it is said that the colouring of a picture is harmonious, every 
 person would suppose that the colours had been so applied as to produce, when 
 viewed in combination, a pleasing effect. But the production of this effect 
 depends on the observation of certain discovered laws, and in the explanation 
 of these, artists are accustomed to speak of the harmony of succession, and the 
 harmony of opposition. It is to the latter expression that we object. The 
 words harmony and opposition have, in ordinary phraseology, contrary meanings. 
 When we speak of two things being in opposition, it will be supposed, not only 
 that they have no relation to each other, but that they are also, in nature, 
 decidedly opposed. But this is not the meaning which the painter gives to the 
 word in the phrase harmony of opposition, for it is evident no two colours can 
 be in harmony, because they are thus opposed. A student, however, meeting with 
 this expression, would naturally infer, strange as the supposition must appear to him, 
 that because two colours are essentially different in their natures, and form the 
 strongest possible contrast, they may be so applied as to have an harmonious effect. 
 But those who first used the phrase merely wished to state, that the colours 
 which are opposite to each other in a particular arrangement of the chromatic 
 scale, are in harmony. It seems, therefore, desirable to reject this phraseology, 
 which is not only ambiguous, but is calculated to create an exceedingly erroneous 
 impression. The same objection cannot be urged against the phrase harmony 
 in series or succession; for this instantly conveys to the mind an idea, that 
 some discovered series or succession of colours is harmonious, and consequently 
 pleasing. The very words convey a meaning not to be misunderstood, so that 
 the task of explanation is greatly facilitated. It is not easy, perhaps it is 
 impossible, to find a phrase which would be less objectionable than the expression 
 hannony in opposition. The phrase harmony in composition might be employed, 
 although it does not convey a meaning incapable of being mistaken. But 
 when the student is impressed with the fact, that there can be no harmony 
 between any two or more colours in which the three primaries are not present, 
 as they may be in two colours, one of which shall be a primary, and the 
 other a secondary, composed of the other two primaries, the propriety of the 
 phrase will be instantly perceived. 
 
 A few general remarks will now be sufficient to illustrate the principles of 
 harmony, as exhibited by colours, both in succession and in composition. 
 
 It has been already stated, that the three primitive colours, red, yellow, and 
 blue, if placed in contact, would not be satisfactory to the eye; but rather form 
 a combination somewhat unpleasant. These three colours, however, are found 
 
 G 
 
24 
 
 one of the candles a piece of green glass of a deep hue, and a most curious 
 phenomenon will he observed, for one of the images will instantly become red, 
 and the other will appear green, which is the complementary colour. 
 
 Many other instances of the production of the complementary or accidental 
 colour, both in nature and in art, might be mentioned; but we shall allude 
 to only one other, which may have escaped the attention of some of our readers. 
 When a room painted in strong colours is illuminated by the direct rays of the 
 sun, the white objects will, if the coloured light does not fall upon them, 
 exhibit the complementary colours. 
 
 A strong analogy exists between the production of the accidental colour in 
 the experiments we have mentioned, and the harmonies which are known by 
 musicians to attend every fundamental sound. Those who are accustomed to 
 play on stringed instruments, and have an accurate ear, are well aware, that when 
 a string is put into vibration, and especially when touched on certain parts, 
 harmonic sounds are produced, subservient to the fundamental note. They will 
 scarcely be detected by an uneducated ear, but they are sufficiently distinct 
 in bells. 
 
 From what has been now said, the reader will perceive that there can be no 
 hamony of colours unless the three primaries are present, either in a simple 
 or compound state; and it is equally evident, that there can be no harmonious 
 combination without the adoption of some one colour as a tonic, which must 
 be used in the same manner as a key note in music. 
 
 The tertiary colours are formed from the secondaries, in the same manner as 
 the secondaries are produced by the combination of the primary; and the colours 
 which are opposite in series, are in harmony, as may be seen by reference to 
 fig. 3. The entire subject is placed in a very interesting aspect by an author, 
 who describes the production of colours from white light as a violence done to 
 unity; so that it is in restoring this unity without violating the relations or 
 lesser unities, that the various harmonies are produced. In other words, that 
 combination of colours which approaches nearest to the uni ty of colours, in 
 what may be termed perfect light, is most pleasing. Colours which when united 
 would not produce a neutral tint, cannot be in harmony. The more intimately 
 the primaries are combined, the more perfect is the harmony; as is evident 
 from the circumstance, that the educated eye is more gratified by a harmonious 
 arrangement of the tertiary, than of the primitive colours. The uncultivated 
 eye, however, is best pleased with the simple relations which are easily dis¬ 
 tinguished in the combinations of the primaries. But it must be borne in mind. 
 
23 
 
 of curiosity. From an investigation of the phenomena of colour, it has been 
 discovered, that when the eye is strongly impressed with a primitive ray, it 
 has the power of producing the harmonizing, or, as the philosophers term it, 
 the accidental colouu. This may be easily proved by experiment. If a red spot be 
 painted on a white ground, and the eye he then intently fixed upon it, a border of a 
 green colour will, after a short time, appear to surround it. If the spot he blue, 
 the border will be orange; and if yellow, it will he surrounded by purple. In 
 each case the accidental colour is presented, and all the three homogeneous rays, 
 two of them in composition, are perceived. The experiment may also he made 
 by turning the eye to a sheet of white paper after it has been intensely fixed 
 on the coloured spot; for the accidental colour, sometimes called the ocular 
 spectrum, will then appear. The spectra of different colours may be easily 
 ascertained by using wafers of the colours whose spectra are required. 
 
 It has been stated, that if the eye, when it has been strongly impressed with 
 a colour, he turned towards a sheet of paper, or any other white surface, a 
 similar object, in the complementary or accidental colour, will he observed. A 
 red wafer or spot, for example, being used, the complementary colour wfil be 
 green. Dr. Brewster accounts for this by supposing the retina impressed by 
 the red image to be for a time deadened by its continued action. The sensibility 
 to red light being thus diminished, the eye is not acted upon by the led 
 rays of the white light proceeding from the paper; so that it is impressed by 
 all the rays which form white light, except the red. These rays are the 
 yellow and blue, which form the complementary colour, green. This theory 
 also explains why white is complementary to black. If a black wafer be 
 placed on a white ground, and the eye be fixed intently on it, the part of the 
 retina covered by it will be protected from all rays, for black is caused by the 
 absorption of all the rays of white light, so that none reach the eye from such^ a 
 surface. Let the eye be then turned from the object and be fixed upon a white 
 ground, and it will then be observed that a white circle is formed corresponding 
 to the black image on the retina; for while one part of the retina was protected 
 by the black wafer, the surrounding parts were deadened by the white light. 
 
 Another curious experiment may be here mentioned, as evidently resulting 
 from the peculiar action of the eye in producing ocular spectra. Take any 
 object with a sharp outline, and suspend it before a screen of white paper, so that 
 by placing two candles in a convenient situation, two images of the same object 
 may be formed with nearly the same degree of strength ; then place before 
 
26 
 
 always necessary in house painting, for on the other hand it is frequently 
 desirable that there should he a difference in this particular, so as to give one 
 colour a suitable prominence, and to quiet or enliven an arrangement. 
 
 The art of harmonious colouring is not of recent discovery. The Egyptians 
 were well acquainted with it, and by them it was, in all probability, first 
 applied in house painting. The Romans greatly esteemed the art, and practised it 
 with eminent success, as is evident from the remains of Pompeii and Hercu¬ 
 laneum; they were even accustomed to employ the most intense and brilliant 
 colours, made necessary by the peculiar construction of their dwellings, and 
 yet maintained the harmony. It is only in modern times that a knowledge of 
 the harmony of colours has been dispensed with by decorators, and chiefly in 
 England; for the French are better informed, and the Italians have adopted 
 a system by which they give a peculiarly pleasing effect to their houses. 
 
 In applying the rules of harmony, the house painter must not forget the 
 necessity of melody. A celebrated French author cautions his readers against 
 the choice of colours fiercely opposed to each other, as they will appear, at a 
 distance, like the colours upon our court cards, and they are to he especially 
 avoided where they cannot be modified by shade, or by toning down. This 
 remark is most worthy of observation, for in the decoration of houses it is always 
 difficult so to harmonize and melodize the colours that every part shall be in 
 some degree dependent on the others. No error of arrangement is so easily 
 detected as the introduction of a brilliant unconnected colour. 
 
 The strongest possible contrast is that of two primaries, and by this the eye 
 is greatly distressed, if the effect he not in some way relieved. The orange 
 and the purple, and the orange and green, in which the yellow rays greatly 
 predominate, are also strong contrasts, but not so powerful as the primaries. 
 There are certain circumstances under which colours not harmonious may be 
 introduced, as discords are sometimes allowable in music; hut it is only a master 
 in his art who can in either case introduce them with effect. 
 
25 
 
 that “there is a bound to this refinement of harmony, when the relations of 
 the primaries as principles become so remote or complex, that indistinguish¬ 
 ableness ensues: and this bound is sameness or monotony. To what extent 
 the power of vision may reach in this direction, or how far nature has gone, 
 may be difficult to determine; but it is evident, in her works, that she delights 
 most in the latter harmonies, and distributes the former with a sparing hand. 
 Consonant to this also, has been the practice of those artists who have coloured 
 best, in steering equally clear from the extremes of crudeness and monotony: 
 accordingly, in nature and the best pictures, the broad harmony of landscape 
 lies in the latter relations, while the more confined harmonies of flowers belong 
 to the former.” 
 
 The importance of this subject to the house painter is so evident, that a few 
 remarks on its application will be sufficient. A knowledge of the principles of 
 harmony in colours is, if possible, more valuable to the house painter, than to 
 the artist who is engaged in painting from nature; for he has no means of 
 relieving the strong contrast between two colours, by the introduction of lights 
 and shades. It is very difficult, as artists are well aware, to introduce a light 
 blue in a composition, so that it may be harmonious. Orange is its contrasting 
 or accidental colour; but both are brilliant, and calculated to attract the eye. 
 To meet this difficulty, attention must be paid to the tone. Suppose that the 
 blue is to be the predominating colour, the orange may be of the gravest tone, 
 but it is by a judicious introduction of light and shade that all the discordances 
 of colouring are avoided. The house painter, on the other hand, has not 
 generally an opportunity of obtaining effect in this manner, and, consequently, 
 the selection of colours and hues is all-important to him. 
 
 A complete harmony of colours cannot be obtained without regard to the 
 tint. A slight reflection will convince the reader, that however well two colours 
 may be chosen as to hue, they cannot be in harmony if their tints be disregarded. 
 Let us suppose the intensity of colours to be represented by a scale, in which 0 
 shall represent the greatest strength, and 100 the greatest degree of dilutation. 
 It must be quite evident that there cannot be harmony between any two colours, 
 however well chosen in other particulars, which differ greatly in the intensity 
 of their tints, being, for instance, at the opposite extremes of the scale. We do 
 not mean to assert that the difference of a few tints would destroy the harmony 
 of any composition; for if such were the case, the pictures of the masters could 
 never have attained their present value in the estimation of living artists. 
 Nor must it be supposed, from what is here stated, that a similarity of tint is 
 
 H 
 
28 
 
 intended to guard against dangers which would, without its aid, he unperceived, 
 and consequently destructive, but is also so formed as to be a channel of 
 continued gratification, resulting from the perception of external nature. The 
 adaptation of the eye to the constitution of light and colour, is so perfect, that 
 when the organ of sight has been strongly impressed with any ray, it has the 
 power of producing the compensating colour, and of restoring that sensibility 
 which had been momentarily destroyed. 
 
 This general adaptation of the eye in its formation to the constitution of light 
 and combination of colour, does not prevent the existence of individual peculiarities. 
 Although the principles of harmony in colours are as unchangeable as the laws 
 which sustain the combinations of matter, and the existence of the universe, the 
 same arrangement is not equally suited to please all persons, so that we frequently 
 observe, both in individuals and nations, an attachment to one colour in preference 
 to all others. To trace the origin of these individual and national peculiarities 
 will not he found an uninteresting task. 
 
 It is exceedingly probable that the dislike evinced by some persons for 
 particular colours, may he occasioned by a disorganised condition of the eye. 
 These cases, however, are of rare occurrence, so that the emotions commonly 
 produced upon the mind by colours must he traced to some more general 
 cause. We shall in the first instance endeavour to ascertain the causes of a 
 preference for certain colours in individuals, and then attempt to discover the 
 origin of national peculiarities. 
 
 Nearly all the visible qualities of bodies as well as the pleasing or disagreeable 
 effects of localities or scenes, have an intimate relation to the colours of those 
 bodies, or the lights in which the scenes were observed. The mind consequently 
 becomes accustomed from habit, to associate the existence of a colour with the 
 scene in which it has been most frequently observed; and by a natural transition 
 the impressions produced by the one are called into existence by the other. 
 Blue is the colour of a serene sky, and diffuses over the mind an unusual 
 quietude, and at the same time gives an idea of coolness and distance. 
 Gieen is the colour of vegetation, and is connected with the ideas which are 
 called into existence by the season it represents, and the hours in which its 
 refreshing hues are most enjoyed. Red is the ordinary colour of flame, and 
 is always spoken of as possessing a great degree of warmth and comfort. 
 White is in the same manner the representative of light, and is cheerful to 
 the eye , while black corresponds with darkness, and is expressive of sorrow, 
 gloom, and fear. Hence then it appears that the most common ideas of colour, 
 
27 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF THE PLEASURE DERIVED FROM THE PERCEPTION OF 
 
 COLOUR. 
 
 The eye is the most important means of communication between external 
 nature, and the internal sensibilities of man. To it we are indebted, and 
 especially when it has been judiciously cultivated, for our most refined pleasures; 
 many of which are scarcely less intense than those derived from the organ of 
 hearing. The eye is equally active in communicating to the mind beautiful 
 forms, and harmonious colouring; but it is from colour we receive the higher 
 gratification. Eorms, however graceful and elegant, are tame and lifeless, 
 divested of colour; and the most exact representations of the most pleasing 
 objects little interest the uneducated eye when divested of that natural 
 attribute. To this cause, more than any other, may be assigned the comparative 
 neglect of sculpture in the present age by all European countries. The ancients 
 were strongly impressed with the value of colour in the communication of 
 elegant forms and appropriate designs to the public mind, and consequently 
 coloured nearly all their works of art. 
 
 The extreme sensibility of the eye to the impression of colour, is singularly 
 evinced in the earnestness with which it is viewed by children and uncivilized 
 men. It is reported by those who have visited countries inhabited by bar¬ 
 barous tribes, that they are ready to barter their most valued commodities 
 for articles which have no other attraction than some strong and glaring 
 colour. The more positive the colour, the more eagerly it is sought; 
 and if an article of motley colours can be obtained, it is still more prized. 
 Children, we know, have the same passionate attachment to gaudy colours ; and 
 if they do not prize them above all other things, they at least retain an interest 
 for them when other toys are forgotten. 
 
 In the formation of all the organs of sense, through which the mind is affected 
 by external objects, the Creator has provided for the pleasures as well as the 
 necessities of life. The eye, considered in reference to its uses, is not only 
 
30 
 
 purposes, or from their appropriation to persons enjoying particular offices or 
 stations in society. In this country black is the emblem of death and mourning ; 
 white of purity and marriage; purple of royalty; and scarlet of war. Hence it is 
 that colours, to use the words of an excellent writer, “ become significant to us of 
 many interesting or affecting qualities, and excite in us some degree of the emo¬ 
 tions which such qualities in themselves are fitted to produce.” 
 
 If we inquire into the predilections of other countries for colour, we shall find 
 that they considerably differ from our own. Black in Spain and Venice is a dis¬ 
 tinguishing mark of rank, and consequently highly esteemed. White, which is to 
 us cheerful and pleasant, the appropriate emblem of chastity, is in China the em¬ 
 blem of mourning. Bright yellow, which is not a pleasant colour for dress in our 
 estimation, is held in great respect by the Chinese, because it is the imperial 
 colour, and is associated with an idea of royalty. Hence, then, it would appear 
 that colours do not please “ from any original fitness in the colours themselves to 
 produce a mental effect, but from certain pleasing associations. 
 
 The choice of colours greatly depends on the mental characteristics of communi¬ 
 ties. The French, and other nations distinguished by a lively and energetic spirit, 
 prefer intense and active colours; the English and Germans, who are sedate and 
 thoughtfid, select those which are more quiet and retiring; while the Spanish and 
 Italians, who are anxious to maintain a becoming gravity and dignity, and yet 
 possess much energy of mind and great elasticity of spirit, employ bright colours 
 on the passive side. 
 
 Climate, also, has some effect in determining the national preference for colours. 
 In northern countries, where the cold prevails, and the atmosphere is frequently 
 heavy and dark, colours are but little studied, and may be almost said to have been 
 banished. In southern countries, under a warm and cloudless sky, the brightest 
 colours are generally preferred. This is especially remarkable in the dresses of 
 the women, who, with their bright-coloured bodices and ribbons, seem to make a 
 necessary part of every rural scene. 
 
 In enumerating the causes of national predilections for colour, the infiuence of 
 religious opinions and ceremonies, and the dresses of the priesthood, must not be 
 forgotten. In some forms of religion certain colours are more esteemed than 
 others, and some are absolutely forbidden, as being entirely appropriated to sacred 
 uses. The colours of the vestures worn during the times of worship are associated 
 in all minds, more or less, with the sacred duties then performed. 
 
 The national manufactures may also be mentioned as having a great influence 
 upon the adoption of colours. In those countries where silk is obtained at a low 
 
29 
 
 as entertained by individuals, may be traced to the emotions produced by some 
 objects or scenes in which those colours commonly predominate. 
 
 The use of colours by individuals may probably be traced to either a practical 
 observation of their suitability and harmony, or the influence of fashion. 
 
 To the former cause we may attribute the frequent use of the rose hues by 
 young females, and of violet and dark green by those more advanced in age. 
 The fair-haired beauties select, with great propriety, violet as their favourite 
 colour, especially for decorating the hair; but the brunettes choose blue. There 
 are some females who have a passionate attachment for positive colours, and 
 use them freely in their dress, but soon find that their complexions, indifferently 
 good at the best, are much injured by the contrast. In this dilemma they 
 adopt the artifice of creating a complexion for their ornaments, instead of 
 choosing suitable ornaments for their complexion. 
 
 The choice of colours in dress, and the formation of taste in this respect, are 
 determined by fashion, which has a wonderful effect in creating an attachment 
 to particular colours. Instances will be readily called to mind of the introduction, 
 especially in silks and other articles of ladies’ apparel, of colours common to some 
 of the meanest objects in nature—colours which, before they were chosen by those 
 who guide the fashions, were altogether unnoticed, or only mentioned as producing 
 an unpleasant effect upon the eye. As soon as these colours can be recommended 
 as fashionable, an effort is made to view them with pleasure, and when they have 
 been examined a few times, no doubt is left in the mind that they are exceedingly 
 beautiful. 
 
 Colours thus chosen under the guidance of fashion do not long retain their hold 
 upon the public approbation. Those which at one time appeared beautiful 
 may at another fail to produce any pleasing emotion, or be even the objects of 
 dislike. The colours, for example, which were selected by our ancestors appear to 
 us so unsuited for garments, that the very idea of wearing a coat of the colour 
 which best pleased our grandfathers, excites a smile. But some fanciful person, 
 desiring singularity, chooses to adopt it. He is quickly followed by those who 
 like himself love to be singular, and afterwards by the modest and retiring; 
 and at last all persons agree in pronouncing it one of the most beautiful and 
 appropriate, and in applauding the taste of former generations. 
 
 There are national as well as individual predilections for colour. These may be 
 traced to a variety of causes, such as immemorial usage, national characteristics, 
 climate, religious peculiarities, and facilities of manufacture. 
 
 Colours derive a character in all nations from their accidental uses for particular 
 
 I 
 
32 
 
 CHAPTEK IV. 
 
 THE QUALITIES OF COLOURS, AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN DECORATION. 
 
 In the preceding chapter we have attempted to prove that the attachment 
 shown hy individuals and nations to particular colours arises from some mental 
 associations in themselves pleasing or painful. But it must not on this account 
 be supposed that colours have no decided qualities of their own, for it is 
 admitted hy all who have studied their effects, that they are calculated to 
 produce different sensations. They have therefore been distinguished from each 
 other by the supposed possession of qualities analogous to certain properties of 
 physical existence, and affections of the mind. They are thus said to be light 
 or dark, warm or cold, powerful or retiring, gay or gloomy. 
 
 The origin and propriety of these terms may be easily explained. All colours 
 may, in one sense, be said to he comprehended between the two extremes of 
 light and darkness, so that white is the boundary on one hand, and black on 
 the other. The first colour which appears on the one side is yellow, which 
 is distinguished as a light, warm, powerful, and gay colour. Blue is its opposite 
 and antagonist colour, being the other extreme; and is said to be dark, cold, 
 retiring, and gloomy. Red is the intermediate colour, and is distinguished by 
 the possession of strong, active qualities. 
 
 By the intermixture of the three primitive colours, yellow, red, and blue, 
 all others are produced, and their qualities must depend upon the proportions in 
 which the primitives enter into their composition. An infinite variety of tints, 
 as is evident, may he obtained, and their qualities will essentially differ, according 
 as the darker or lighter, the colder or warmer, may prevail. Hence then it 
 will appear, that when the active principle is in excess, as for example, in 
 yellow and orange, the colour will be powerful; when the passive, as in blue 
 and violet, the colour will be retiring. The red, as already remarked, is an 
 intermediate colour, and as its hues approach to yellow or blue, so will he 
 its qualities. 
 
31 
 
 price, the bright colours are common in women’s dress, if the climate and mental 
 characteristics of the people are suitable. If woollen goods be the staple article of 
 manufacture, the more quiet colours are introduced. The Germans, it is said, 
 very commonly wear blue, because it is a permanent colour in cloth. 
 
 From these and similar considerations, it must appear that the choice of colours 
 is regulated by the circumstance or thing with which it is associated in our minds. 
 We should not, perhaps, be justified in asserting that no colour is essentially beauti¬ 
 ful ; hut it is certain that the pleasing emotions which they call into existence have 
 their birth in some mental associations ; although those that have no claim to our 
 admiration are sometimes admitted into favour, and are for a time approved and 
 adopted. In the same manner colours are adopted as the badges or representatives 
 of employment or profession; and although ridiculous and disgusting to those who 
 are not accustomed to them, they are pleasing to those who wear them, and 
 soon become so to those who entertain a respect for the office. 
 
 The application of this subject to house-painting is so evident that it is 
 scarcely necessary to make any remarks in illustration. National prejudices are 
 scarcely likely to be invaded, for the painter himself indulges them as strongly 
 as other persons; but he must be careful to ascertain the individual prejudices 
 of those by whom he is employed. This will not always be an easy task, for 
 he may have many tastes to please, and will frequently meet with those, who, 
 being destitute of all knowledge of colour, will be unable to give any direct 
 information for his guidance. Indirectly, however, he may gather sufficient to 
 prevent him from choosing colours which are offensive to those by whom he is 
 employed, and his own taste must direct their application in such a manner that 
 they may appear pleasing to the more cultivated as well as the uneducated eye. 
 
 
34 
 
 which can be called harmonious. The hue and tint of a complementary colour 
 must therefore be studied; for the mere introduction of a colour and its 
 opposite, will not produce the effect desired. In this and in all cases the 
 artist must interrogate nature either by a close observation of the natural 
 production of colour, or by experiments. 
 
 This remark leads us to offer another important caution. The decorator 
 too frequently indulges in the use of positive colours, a practice which must he 
 severely reprimanded. It is not thus in nature; for the strong colours are 
 subdued, and blend or mingle with each other, producing the secondary and 
 tertiary, which are much more pleasing and satisfactory to the educated eye. 
 
 These are some of the most obvious principles which ought to guide the 
 decorator in the choice and application of colours. An ignorance or neglect of 
 them must occasion a failure in any attempt to please the man of taste. With 
 all these in remembrance, the artist may fail in producing a pleasing effect; 
 hut if they are not made the foundation of his practice, he cannot succeed. A 
 few remarks on the colours individually may he a further guide to those to 
 whom the volume is particularly addressed. 
 
 White. White, as we have already had occasion to remark, is an impression 
 produced upon the mind hy the action of perfect light upon the eye, as colours 
 are formed from its decomposition. It is the correlative of black, both being 
 the negation of colour; for one is occasioned, considered in reference to the 
 action .of direct light upon bodies' not viewed by transmission, by the reflection 
 of all the rays, and the other by absorption. Strictly speaking, we cannot be 
 said to have any knowledge of a purely white light, for all light, as it is 
 brought to the retina of our eyes, is possessed, in some degree, of the property 
 of colour. A pure undecomposed ray never reached the human retina. 
 
 White harmonises with all the colours, and is melodised by yellow, which 
 is the brightest and nearest allied to light; but when brought into proximity 
 to it, all its powerful qualities are subdued, as the blaze and gorgeous brilliancy 
 of an intense artificial illumination is extinguished by the rising sun. 
 
 White is generally spoken of as a colour, and several varieties are enumerated 
 by artists and authors; yet it is evident there can be but one. Those colours 
 which are called its varieties are light tints of certain colours, which may be 
 easily proved by bringing them in contact with a pure white. Thus, for example, 
 the colour which is called French white, is the lightest tint of purple. 
 
 Pure white was, a few years since, a common colour in house painting, but 
 
33 
 
 There are but few positive colours, but the number of hues and shades is 
 almost infinite. It must therefore be remembered, that in the description 
 given in the few following pages of the primary and secondary colours, the 
 author refers to them severally in their purest state. It is also worthy of 
 remark, that the impression produced by any colour depends on the material 
 in which it is exhibited. Silk and wool, although they may have received 
 precisely the same dye, have by no means the same appearance. Every substance 
 in nature is distinguished, not by its colour only, but also by an indefinable 
 structure upon which that colour acts. It is not simply a roughness or smoothness, 
 qualities which have a great effect upon colour, but some innate property which 
 cannot be defined, and is but little understood. Colours in nature are, if the 
 expression may be allowed, individualised; and hence it is that so much difficulty 
 is felt in the attempt to imitate them. 
 
 The qualities of colours being known, their application and union in the art 
 of decoration may be studied with some hope of success. These will be referred 
 to in the subsequent descriptions of the several colours, but one or two general 
 remarks will not be misplaced. 
 
 The passive colours, such as red and green, become grave, when introduced 
 with black in any composition, but when conjoined with white, present a greater 
 gaiety than otherwise belongs to them. So on the other hand, the active colours 
 appear the more lively when associated with black, and lose some of their gaiety 
 from a proximity to white. 
 
 The cool colours are injured by artificial light, but the warm are improved. 
 Of this several examples will be given in a subsequent page. 
 
 The warm colours are naturally allied to light; the cool to shade, a principle 
 which may be exemplified from the works of any artist, but constantly forgotten 
 by the house decorator. 
 
 In the application of colours in decorative house painting, the designer must 
 constantly bear in mind the principles of harmonious colouring, as already 
 explained in a former part of this work. By reference to the diagrams introduced 
 for the explanation of this subject, the compensating colour may be instantly 
 -ascertained, but the artist may still fall into great error in its application. The 
 colours when introduced in diagrams are made of an equal intensity, but the 
 compensating colour formed upon the retina is always less vivid than the colour by 
 which it was excited. So also it is never of the same tint or shade, being always 
 either lighter or darker. Should any two opposite or complementary colours 
 be contiguous, in pure hues of equal intensity, they will not produce an effect 
 
 K 
 
36 
 
 be observed, that scarlet is an approach towards yellow, and crimson towards 
 purple. 
 
 Red is a colour which has so much warmth, that it communicates the quality 
 to every hue in which it is a component part; and it might be said to every 
 colour with which it is brought into contact. It is the intermediate between 
 yellow and blue, and possesses intermediate qualities, differing from both. 
 Green is its harmonizing colour; and it melodises with orange and purple. 
 Russet is the tertiary in which red predominates. 
 
 Red, in its deep tints, has all the majesty and dignity of age, and in the 
 lighter the grace and attractions of youth. Neither red nor scarlet can be 
 extensively used in decoration, being too strong for the eye; nor indeed ought 
 they ever to be employed by the house painter in masses, without great attention 
 to the toning. It has been remarked by Mr. Hay, that when the light of a 
 room is thrown directly on the floor, and not on the walls, bright scarlet may 
 be used with an effect which is greatly heightened by the judicious introduction 
 of gilding. Crimson is a generally useful colour in decoration, and exceedingly 
 rich. It is a good ground for pictures, and the gilding of the frames is 
 well relieved. Mr. Hay says, that the crimson associates well with gilding, 
 because it partakes in a small degree of the property of purple as well as 
 of red; the one being the contrasting colour to yellow, and the other the 
 melodising colour to orange; the colour of gold in its lights and shadows 
 producing these two. Crimson is preferable to scarlet, from its being more 
 cool and mellow. 
 
 Many of the flocked papers now so extensively used in domestic decoration, 
 are of a crimson colour, but not a few that are so called might with more 
 propriety be termed scarlet. There are others which have a crimson pattern 
 and pink ground, and these are to be especially avoided; for while the colour 
 of the ground is diminished in intensity, by age and exposure, the flocked 
 pattern is darkened. In these remarks it is not intended to object to the 
 introduction of rose colours with crimson in general decoration, for they may 
 be employed with great advantage, but only to their use in flocked papers. 
 Great luxuriance and beauty of effect is obtained by the judicious use of pink 
 and rose colours in cool-toned compositions. 
 
 Green is the harmonising colour to red, but much care is required in its 
 application, or the contrast will be too violent. Russet, the tertiary in which 
 red predominates, is a very useful colour to the decorator, especially in aU 
 warm-toned compositions, and is the contrasting colour to green. 
 
35 
 
 is now almost entirely superseded by colours. It is, however, well suited for 
 bed-rooms, especially in country situations, being exceedingly light, and having 
 the appearance of great cleanliness. The colours which are introduced with 
 it should be cool and light; the light greys, greens, or primrose yellow will 
 be found most suitable. The warm and deep colours, and even approximations 
 to them, must be most carefully avoided. It seems scarcely necessary to remark, 
 that the furniture should be of the lightest wood, and the drapery be marked 
 by the same general character. 
 
 Yellow is the brightest of all colours, and when introduced in strong tints, 
 and large masses, it is far from pleasing to the eye; yet in its nature is 
 gay, and slightly exciting. In combination with red it forms orange, and with 
 blue green. These secondaries are therefore its melodising colours. With purple 
 it harmonizes, and with black forms a powerful contrast. In the composition 
 of citron, which is the lightest of all the tertiary colours, and one of the most 
 pleasing, yellow predominates; for it is formed of orange and green, in both of 
 which yellow is present. 
 
 Although yellow cannot be extensively used in a satisfactory manner by the 
 house painter, it is an exceedingly agreeable and imposing colour for hangings, 
 but requires suitable relieving hues, that it may not be oppressive to the eye. 
 The lighter tints may be introduced with great effect, with crimson or purple. 
 It is also well suited in small masses for bed-rooms, and places where a cheerful 
 appearance is required. The effect produced by yellow much depends on its 
 purity; for when it tends to green, as in sulphur, it is not only an unpleasant, 
 but almost a disgusting colour. Compare with this the colour of a piece of 
 polished gold, or a rich yellow satin. The mention of the latter substance 
 suggests the remark, that the effect of this colour in any fabric will also depend 
 upon the fineness or coarseness of the material. 
 
 Red is a warm and lively colour, and in many of its tints extremely 
 pleasing, although it produces a strong impression upon the eye. Scarlet, for 
 example, is a colour almost universally admired: it has the brightness of the 
 yellow, and the warmth of the pure red. It is extremely difficult to convey 
 to the mind of the reader an idea of the colour which is signified by red, 
 and it is not uncommon to hear the same term applied to very different 
 pigments. Red, scarlet, and crimson, are terms frequently misapplied; nor 
 is it perhaps easy to distinguish them by a written description, but it may 
 
38 
 
 French white, which is the lightest hue of purple, may be used in a 
 drawing-room as a leading colour; all other colours, whatever they may be, 
 being kept light and cool. In this case the forniture should be of satin wood, 
 or of some other light-coloured material. 
 
 Green is formed from the union of yellow and blue, which are its melodising 
 colours. Red is its contrasting colour. Its hues are various, but they all retain 
 the same name, being distinguished by some epithet, which is a singular 
 circumstance, as all other colours receive new names aS they approach to one 
 extreme or the other; but whether the proportion of blue or yellow be the 
 greater, the colour is still called green. 
 
 This colour is, more than all others, satisfying to the eye. In the largest 
 masses it does not produce a feeling of satiety, but on the other hand seems 
 to refreshen the more the longer it is viewed. It is the colour of the earth’s 
 vesture, and by its counteracting power the eye is enabled to bear the reflection 
 of the sun’s most intense rays. The wonderful adaptation of nature to the 
 physical condition of man, is in this, as in all other phsenomena, so evident, 
 that it cannot fail to attract the attention of the thoughtful. The earth is spread 
 out as a green plain, encircled by a canopy of clear blue, and these two colours 
 are brought together by the warm and neutral grey of distance, while the 
 innumerable reflections of light, in the air, and on the surface of the earth, 
 throw an extraordinary warmth over the entire scene. 
 
 Green is an invaluable colour to the decorator, not only as a means of giving 
 greater value by its rich tones to all arrangements of warm colours, but also 
 as a leading colour in large masses. There is one objection to its use, that 
 it loses its character when viewed by an artificial light. Mr. Hay gives an 
 instance of its application, which is worthy of notice. “ A rich hue of green 
 upon the walls of a drawing-room, accompanied by cream colour, French white, 
 and gilding on the comice, ceiling, and wood work, with damask hangings 
 of giraffe and gold colour, and a suitable carpet, never fails to produce a pleasing 
 and splendid effect in any light. When this arrangement is inverted, that is, 
 when the hangings and chair-seats are green, and the walls of a warm tone, 
 the effect is equally beautiful in day-light; but in artificial light it is injured 
 by the green being neutralized, and the warm tone on the wall rendered more 
 effective; thus making that which is principal in the arrangement, and of the 
 smallest quantity, recede, while that which ought to retire and he subordinate, 
 is brought forward.” 
 
37 
 
 Blue is an intense colour, and the extreme of coldness as red is of warmth. 
 It communicates a coolness to every hue into which it enters as a component 
 part. It has the nearest relation to shade as yellow has to light. When the 
 eye has been fully impressed by it, an anxious, restless, and susceptible impression 
 is left. It has a peculiar effect; and, as Goethe says, is a kind of contradiction 
 between excitement and repose. “As the upper sky and distant mountains 
 appear blue, so a blue surface seems to retire from us. But as we readily follow 
 an agreeable object that flies from us, so we love to contemplate blue, not because 
 it advances to us, but "because it draws us after it.” 
 
 The quiet retiring effect of blue, and its pleasing influence upon the mind, 
 will account for its not unfrequent introduction in various styles of internal 
 decoration. It is used with most propriety in rooms which have a southern 
 aspect, and in summer residences. In nature, blue is more abundant than either 
 of the other primitive colours, and especially during the warmer seasons of the 
 year; and from this circumstance the decorator may learn how he should apply 
 the colour. When it is a leading colour it always gives an idea of greater extent. 
 
 Orange is the contrasting colour to blue, and green and purple the melodising; 
 but green and blue, when brought into contact, are found to produce a less 
 perfect melody than any other similar composition in the chromatic scale: they 
 are therefore usually connected by a semi-toned colour. Olive, formed of purple 
 and green, the tertiary in which blue predominates, is a soft colour, and invaluble 
 to the decorator, especially in warm-toned arrangements. 
 
 Purple is a secondary colour, composed of red and blue, which are therefore 
 its melodising colours. It is more active than blue, but is still retiring; it has 
 a degree of liveliness, but without gladness. It has a singular variety of hues, 
 according as it approaches to red or blue; being bounded on the one hand 
 by crimson, and on the other by indigo. Its various tints are distinguished 
 as lilac, peach blossom, and other terms, derived from flowers and fruits. 
 
 Purple is not often used as a leading colour in decoration, for however 
 pleasing it may be when viewed in a natural, all its effect is lost in an artificial 
 light. The reason of this is evident: the flame of a candle or lamp is yellow, 
 and this is the contrasting colour of purple, which is consequently partly 
 neutralized. Purple may be used in small masses, with the warmest tones 
 of yellow as a contrasting colour, and is found to give great effect. When 
 combined with green it forms olive, and with orange a russet; the former of 
 which is a soft, and the latter a strong and powerful colour. 
 
 L 
 
40 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 COMMON ERRORS IN HOUSE PAINTING. 
 
 Having explained the principles of harmony, and the relations of colours 
 to each other, it will he necessary to show the application of these subjects 
 to the art of decoration, and to point out some of the errors into which the 
 house painter is liable to fall, either from a partial or total neglect of the facts 
 which ought to regulate the choice and arrangement of colours. No person 
 having the slightest pretension to taste, or being in any degree acquainted with 
 the science of chromatics, can have failed to observe the extreme want of propriety 
 which characterises the decoration of modern dwellings. From the palaces of 
 princes to the cottages of peasants the same neglect or ignorance of the established 
 laws and examples of nature may be observed, and the eye is constantly offended 
 either by a destitution of pleasing variety, or by a daring attempt to produce 
 effect without regard to the principles which regulate the combination of colours 
 in nature. So rarely indeed is it our good fortune to meet with a specimen of 
 house painting free from one of these glaring faults, that works of no talent, but 
 unimpaired by great errors, meet with an unqualified and warm approval. 
 
 That we have not over-stated the low and degraded condition of house-painting 
 as an art, all who have paid any attention to the subject, in connexion with 
 the science of colour, can bear witness. Nor can we feel a moment’s hesitation 
 in assigning the cause which has produced a state of decorative art so much 
 to be deplored; for it is undoubtedly to be traced to an extreme and general 
 ignorance of the existence of any established principles. Those to whom the 
 execution of house painting is generally intrusted, are governed by what is 
 called their taste; and if a reason were asked for the choice of one colour in 
 preference to all others, none could be given, having a stronger claim to our 
 confidence, than that “ it was expected to have a better effect.” It is true, that 
 the habit of observation, and an eye naturally sensitive to the impression of 
 harmonious colouring, may so far instruct the painter, that in the majority of 
 
39 
 
 Orange is composed of yellow and red, with which it melodises. It 
 harmonises with blue. In combination with green it produces citron, and 
 with purple russet. 
 
 Orange is a colour which excites the sensations of warmth and gladness. 
 It is associated in our minds with one of the most splendid of natural 
 phenomena, the setting sun. 
 
 Pure orange is rarely introduced in decorations, hut may, under certain 
 conditions, he used; and produces a gorgeous effect. When yellow predominates 
 in its composition, purple must be employed as its complementary colour instead 
 of blue, and when red predominates, green will harmonize with it. 
 
 Black is the negation of colour. In its introduction in any decorative 
 composition the greatest possible skill and judgment is required ; and this is so 
 well known, that such an attempt is rarely made. It should only be intro¬ 
 duced in cool arrangemehts, and should then be perfectly transparent. The 
 Eomans had the art of employing it with bright and intense colours, as we 
 know from the remains of Pompeii and Herculaneum, and succeeded in producing 
 most splendid effects. No other evidence is required of the perfect knowledge 
 of colour possessed by the ancients, hut it must be remembered, that the style 
 of building among the Romans, and their habits of life, required a mode of 
 decoration, and admitted of the introduction of a positive colouring, altogether 
 unfit for modem times. 
 
 In concluding this chapter, it may be desirable to take some notice of the 
 necessity of studying the application of colours in those instances where coloured 
 or fancy woods are introduced. The decorator must, in such cases, carefully 
 ascertain to what colour the wood is analogous, and then proceed in the usual 
 manner in the choice of the harmonious and melodising colours. Thus, for 
 instance, oak may be considered as a citron, and mahogany as a russet. 
 

The errors which unfortunately distinguish the present modes of house-painting 
 are exceedingly numerous, and the attention of the reader would he exhausted hy 
 such a statement as would fully expose them; we shall therefore mention only 
 those which are most glaring and at the same time the most common, and this 
 seems absolutely necessary for the assistance of those persons who may study the 
 art from these pages. 
 
 A disregard of uses may he considered one of the most glaring faults committed 
 hy the house-decorator. It is essential to a perception of beauty that the objects 
 which claim the possession of this quality should be in every respect suited for the 
 purposes to which they are to be applied. A want of adaptation is not to be com¬ 
 pensated by any individual excellence which the object may possess. A painful 
 emotion is produced by an inappropriate display of qualities which are calculated 
 to please when introduced under suitable circumstances. The first thing, there¬ 
 fore, to be considered hy the house-painter, before he can determine upon the 
 decoration to be adopted, must he the use to which the place or apartment is to 
 be applied. There are some apartments in which lively and even gay colours 
 may be employed; there are others in which a quiet but rich colouring would he 
 more effective ; while in other situations unobtrusive colours are to be preferred. 
 We have an illustration of this in the modern dwelling-house, every part of which 
 should have a peculiar character of its own, and one suited to the purpose for 
 which it was erected. That this subject may he brought more fully before the 
 attention of the reader, it will be desirable to take a brief survey of the characters 
 which should distinguish the various apartments of a well-finished dwelling- 
 house, and as the remarks will be general, so they may be applied in all circum¬ 
 stances ;—to the largest and mo'st sumptuous edifices, as well as to the smallest 
 erected with any pretension to taste. 
 
 There are in all houses rooms which are intended for general and constant 
 use, and others inhabited only on special occasions, and intended for the reception 
 of visitors. A distinction is generally made between these in the mode of decora¬ 
 tion, much more lavish expenditure being thought necessary for the latter than 
 for the former. The character of an apartment of any class cannot, however, 
 be changed, although a degree of grandeur may be admitted in one used only on 
 special occasions, not appropriate in one designed for constant use. 
 
 A drawing-room should be distinguished by a cheerfulness and gaiety of colour¬ 
 ing. It is a place appropriated to the elegancies of social life, and should be so 
 distinguished from every other apartment, that vulgarity might here at least blush 
 at itself. The colours to be chosen in the decoration of a drawing-room, so as to 
 
41 
 
 cases he may be tolerably correct in his judgment, though he can never, vrith 
 propriety, feel a sufficient confidence in his opinions; but will always be left 
 in doubt, if he possesses the modesty which is the common attendant of talent, 
 and too frequently fail in his best works in maintaining the complete harmony 
 of his colours. 
 
 These remarks are not mdlle with a censorious disposition, hut from a sincere 
 desire to correct a great evil,—the depreciation of an important and difficult 
 art. The house painter is not himself conscious that he should occupy the 
 rank of an artist, and is consequently satisfied with his knowledge and his 
 performances, if he can so handle his brush as to cover a piece of joiner’s 
 or plasterer’s work evenly with any prepared pigment, and produce a tolerable 
 imitation of ornamental woods and marbles. With this most inadequate conception 
 of the art, he cannot feel surprised that it should be still more depreciated 
 by those who intrust to him the decoration of their houses for the same reason 
 that they employ a labourer in digging the foundations, not because they would 
 find any difficulty in doing the work as well themselves, but because they would 
 rather pay another than undergo the personal inconvenience and fatigue. We 
 are quite convinced that this is the popular feeling, and for its existence the painter 
 himself is to blame, having degraded his art to the rank of an employment which 
 only requires patient endurance of monotonous labour. 
 
 We are here bound in candour to state, that some blame, in this matter, 
 may be properly given to architects for neglect and indifference, if not for 
 ignorance. It is true, that the larger portion of painter’s work, executed in 
 modern dwellings, is not under the superintendence of professional men, and 
 they are not therefore, in one sense, responsible for its character or style; but 
 on the other hand it cannot be denied, that if they devoted more attention and 
 exercised more skill in the direction of the works placed under their control, 
 the taste of those to whom is intrusted the execution of the work, and who 
 have, in the absence of the architect, the design also, would be proportionally 
 improved. In the internal decoration of large buildings, and places of public 
 importance, architects are accustomed to exercise their knowledge and skill, 
 and in talent they are not wanting ; but works of lesser magnitude, to which class 
 the residences of the great mass of the people belong, do not receive an adequate 
 degree of attention. That this censure is much deserved may be proved by the 
 present state of decorative art, and the existence of a separate class of persons, 
 who, exercising jointly the occupations of the tradesman and the artist, have 
 assumed the name of house-decorators. 
 
 M 
 
44 
 
 readers, and it -will be quite unnecessary to make any attempt to prove that 
 it is often neglected. Nothing is more common than a dining-room painted in 
 powerful tints and strong colours, as if it were to he the scene of the revels of the 
 most degraded of our species, rather than of hospitality and social concourse. 
 Parlours and ordinary sitting-rooms are either painted with an uniform monotonous 
 and heavy colour, calculated to depress the spirits and excite melancholy; or in 
 positive and strongly contrasted colours, which oppress the eye and distress the 
 mind. The correction of these errors demands immediate attention, and it will he 
 easily accomplished when the house-painter is convinced of the propriety of a 
 change. In everv case the purpose for which the apartment was built must be 
 considered, and the artist must hear in mind that he has to sustain by associations 
 those pleasurable feelings, of whatever class they may be, which are supposed 
 to be there indulged. 
 
 In making choice of colours it is also necessary to consider the periods 
 
 when the apartment is most likely to be used, for there are some colours 
 
 which are destroyed or have an entirely different appearance when viewed 
 
 by an artificial light. Yellow, for instance, loses much of its intensity, and 
 green, a colour in some of its tints well suited for decoration, becomes dull and 
 gloomy. 
 
 The aspect of a room is also well worthy the regard of the painter; for if it he, 
 in this country, towards the south or west, the colours may be.of a cooler tint than 
 would be allowable if exposed to the north or east. The situation of the house, 
 in town or country, is also to he considered; the rank and taste of the proprietor; 
 and even the character of the natural scenery by which it is surrounded. It may 
 appear altogether unnecessary to enter into such particulars as these, and a practice 
 so contrary to that now adopted, will not, in all probability, be readily received. 
 The house-painters of the present day will, for a time, continue the common and 
 almost invariable disregard to these considerations; but, as information is extended 
 and the true principles of decoration are made known, so the minds of practical 
 men will he directed to the subject, and a better state of art be produced: with 
 this hope the present volume has been written. In every application of colours 
 it should be remembered that, when used by the aid of science and under the 
 hand of a master, they are a language to the eye as music is to the ear; not a 
 limited phraseology belonging to a particular class or race of men, but an 
 universal language, suited to create and perpetuate pleasing emotions. House¬ 
 painting may be an inferior branch of the art of design; but it is one upon 
 which the comfort, elegance, and even mental progress of society is, in some 
 
43 
 
 have the effect we have described, must be rich and striking, but should be 
 chosen of such tints that a glaring or gaudy appearance may not be produced. 
 A contrast of considerable strength is desirable, and gilding may be appropriately 
 employed, as it will give an increased liveliness and elegance to the general 
 effect. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that the walls are not to be 
 made the principal objects in the room, but are in all cases to be subordinate to the 
 furniture. 
 
 The same costliness and brilliancy of colouring is not allowable in dining¬ 
 rooms, which ought on the other hand to be characterized by a degree of 
 warmth and quietude suited to the more massive furniture, and the substantial or 
 festive board. The contrasts must be less striking, and richness of effect must 
 be obtained without the slightest approach to gaudiness. The Gothic architects, 
 who thoroughly understood the decoration of a dining-hall, obtained relief by 
 the introduction of rich and appropriate carvings. 
 
 There are sitting-rooms in which neither of these characteristic modes of colour¬ 
 ing would be suitable. Parlours should be distinguished more by negative than 
 positive qualities. The style of colouring in these important apartments should be 
 quiet and unobtrusive. The rooms appropriated to the ladies of the house for the 
 reception of company, and as ordinary sitting rooms for work or amusement, should 
 be light and elegant. Libraries must have a grave and quiet colouring: they 
 admit of a greater monotony of tint than any other apartment, the richly and 
 variously bound volumes giving a sufficient diversity. Indeed, no decoration 
 should be introduced that is not so applied as to give a more imposing appearance 
 to the books with which the room is furnished. 
 
 Halls and vestibules should be painted in cool colours; so that, while they 
 favourably impress the mind with the taste and wealth of the proprietor of the 
 house, they may not by their splendour destroy the effect which would otherwise 
 be produced by the various apartments. Staircases should be distinguished by an 
 appearance of solidity, and a degree of grandeur proportioned to the extent and 
 importance of the edifice in which they are introduced. They should always be 
 so placed as to attract attention, and especially when they lead to richly decorated 
 rooms, and may then be painted in warmer and brighter colours than would 
 otherwise be allowable. 
 
 Bed-rooms should have a cheerful and airy appearance, and to obtain this 
 effect, light tints must be employed. In the decoration of these apartments, 
 stronger contrasts are allowable than in any others. 
 
 The propriety of this choice of characters will be apparent to all our 
 
46 
 
 considering the propriety of ca style of colouring, as suited to a particular 
 apartment, and without reference to the choice or execution of architectural 
 design, we may mention several common errors to be carefully avoided. 
 
 The want of a leading colour is the cause of great confusion, and destroys 
 every attempt to obtain harmony in house-painting. In musical compositions 
 there is a key-note to which every sound has a certain relation, and a disregard 
 of it would cause discord. So in the art of painting, a key is required to which 
 every other colour should have its proper relations. Without this it is impossible 
 to introduce any suitable contrast, and the choice of one coloui in preference to 
 another is the mere result of caprice or a fancied superiority of taste. 
 
 In the choice of the key in decorative painting, regard should he had to the 
 prevailing colour of the furniture, and this cannot he neglected without the 
 commission of a great fault. The artist will frequently have some difficulty in 
 making a selection on account of the various colours which are introduced in 
 modern furniture. He will find it, in many instances, impossible to avoid the 
 commission of some fault j and his ingenuity will he exercised in the selection of 
 the least. The object of the house-painter should be to give the furniture of 
 the room he decorates as much importance as possible, and to present it to notice 
 in the most favourable light. The eye should not be attracted by strong and 
 various colours upon the walls; but all parts of the room should he in harmony 
 with the moveable articles in it, so that no one colour can individually attract 
 attention. The strangely gaudy paper-hangings, so commonly introduced even 
 in well-furnished houses, destroy the effect of the rooms in which they are used; 
 and have probably done more to prevent the introduction of a chaste and correct 
 style of house-painting than any other fashion or contrivance of ancient or modern 
 times. The bright yellows and reds, with which so many carpets abound, are 
 equally injurious to the decoration of the rooms in which they are introduced, 
 for the eye is attracted by them, a gaudy appearance is given to the apartment, 
 and the harmony of the whole is disturbed. With the choice of these the house- 
 painter has, it is true, no opportunity of interfering; but, if they are chosen 
 before his work commences, he may do something to relieve the effect, and if not, 
 it is his duty to state what colours, and even patterns, should be avoided. In 
 the majority of instances, however, no regard is paid to the selection of a colour 
 as a key, and less frequently still is it chosen with a reference to the colour 
 and tone of the furniture. 
 
 Vivid colours and strong contrasts are often introduced in house-painting, to 
 the great annoyance of the educated eye. All positive colours are unpleasant 
 
45 
 
 measure, dependent; for, as the mind of youth is partly formed by external 
 associations, so a foundation may be laid for a correct judgment of colour 
 and an elegant taste, by a constant association of the mind with harmony in 
 the very houses they inhabit. 
 
 A disregard of the styles of architecture and their appropriate ornaments is 
 another common fault committed by the house-painter. It arises either from a 
 want of knowledge or a want of skill; the latter is, we believe, the principal 
 cause, for we have never met with an individual, among this class of mechanics, 
 who has possessed a knowledge of architectural forms and decorations without 
 having, at the same time, the ability to represent them. To this ignorance of 
 the art of drawing may be traced the extreme want of propriety in the majority 
 of those pretended decorations which are executed without the assistance of the 
 architect. Anxious to do something more than common, the painter takes 
 ornaments, which he thinks he can represent, and introduces them in his work 
 without regard to their character, and frequently in such a style of art that they 
 would have been better executed by the proprietor of the house, had he not 
 lost the skill he acquired at school after his first quarter’s lesson in drawing 
 
 In the present day, apartments are frequently decorated in styles which require 
 for their execution much skill in drawing and colouring, and especially where 
 imitations of relief are desired upon plain surfaces; but these are not the work 
 of the house-painter. An artist of a higher grade is employed to execute a 
 design in arabesque, or any of those other styles which require a correct eye, 
 a practised hand, and a cultivated taste; and this will continue to be the case 
 until the house-painter himself forms a higher standard of excellence than that 
 of spreading an even coat of paint upon a smooth surface of wood or plaster. 
 Let it not, however, be supposed that, although we condemn the want of 
 knowledge and taste among painters, we have any desire to throw a shade 
 over the talents of those who, by study and laborious practice, have attained 
 their art in all its excellence; our object is, by a comparison of them with others, 
 to stimulate the trade generally to the adoption of a higher standard, and the 
 attainment of greater skill. It is the want of necessary information that has 
 degraded the art; and when this fact is acknowledged, the eye will no longer be 
 offended by the want of propriety in design and colouring, or by the intermixture 
 of ornaments as badly executed as they are injudiciously chosen. 
 
 From the errors, which may be called general, as infecting works of all 
 classes, and destroying the effect of the best design, however perfectly executed, 
 we may descend to some particulars which are not less important. Without 
 
 N 
 
48 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE PRODUCTION OF COLOURS. 
 
 Having explained the philosophy of colours, and the principles which 
 regulate their harmonious combination, it may be desirable to state, but 
 with as much brevity as possible, the circumstances under which they are 
 produced. In doing this, our object will be more to draw the attention of 
 the reader to the subject, than to satisfy his curiosity; for the volume itself 
 would not be sufficiently ample to comprehend an abstract of all the facts 
 concerning the production of colour which have been accumulated by the 
 research of the experimental philosopher. 
 
 Wherever the eye is turned it is impressed with colour. Almost every 
 object in nature is coloured, and but few artificial compounds are destitute of 
 the same property. This is true in whatever manner these objects are viewed, 
 whether by transmitted or reflected light; and the eye itself, under some 
 peculiar circumstances, seems to originate similar appearances. When we 
 commence this study, we are lost in the vastness and complication of the 
 phenomena which are on every hand presenting themselves ; and long for 
 some means of arranging them so as to comprehend the general causes before 
 we enter upon a minute examination. As the uninitiated lover of nature 
 would examine with attentive wonder a large and varied collection of shells, 
 and after many futile attempts to arrange them in some order to facilitate 
 his study, would close his efforts by making as many genera as species; so 
 he who commences the study of colours from the phenomena of nature would 
 probably find a new and distinct cause for almost every phenomenon. Should 
 t e naturalist, however, offer his' assistance to the collector of shells, and 
 se ecting the most characteristic specimens of each genus, guide the delighted 
 ent in the arrangement, the difficulties which had so rapidly crowded 
 would as quickly disappear, and that which had seemed confusion 
 won e presented in the most wonderful order, each specimen being no 
 longer considered as an individual, but a portion of a perfect system. So 
 
47 
 
 if unrelieved, and vivid colours should never be used by the house-painter except 
 to give a greater richness and splendour of effect; and they must, even then, 
 he used sparingly, and be subdued by suitable media. The cool-toned colours 
 are invariably the most pleasing to the eye, and may be used by the painter with 
 less fear than any others. In the introduction of contrasts much care, experience, 
 and study, are requisite to produce the necessary effect. They are frequently 
 employed to heighten the intensity of one colour and to subdue another. In the 
 choice of the media by which these colours are united, a considerable knowledge 
 of chromatics is required, for it is by them that the greatest distinctions are 
 reconciled. The contrasted colours should also have a suitable relation in hue, 
 tint, and shade. Supposing, for instance, that two colours are chosen to be used 
 in contrast, the hues must be first selected, and then the tint of one must be made 
 to approach as nearly to light as the other does to shade. Colours may be well 
 chosen as regards their hues, but if their tints be neglected, a weak and faded 
 appearance will still be the result. 
 
 We cannot close this general review of some of the errors common to the 
 present system of house-painting, without remarking that a want of variety is not 
 the least. It arises from conscious ignorance and its necessary attendant, timidity. 
 Knowledge can alone correct this fault; and the requisite information we have 
 attempted to give in these pages. 
 
 
50 
 
 example, the air when viewed in small quantities is colourless; but the vast 
 canopy of sky which surrounds us has a deep blue colour. This colour cannot 
 of course be considered as a property of space, and is therefore attributed to 
 the atmosphere, which has so light a hue that it cannot be detected in small 
 quantities, but becomes evident in large masses. 
 
 For this and similar phenomena Goethe accounts by a different theory. 
 Light, however colourless, he argues, that of the fixed stars for example, 
 appears yellow when the medium is thickened. If the density be increased, 
 the light will gradually assume a yellow-red hue, which at last deepens to a 
 ruby colour. If, on the other hand, he says, we look into darkness “through 
 a semi-transparent medium, which is itself illuminated by a light striking on 
 it, a blue colour appears; this becomes lighter and paler as the density of 
 the medimn increases; but, on the contrary, appears darker and deeper the 
 more transparent the medium becomes; in the least degree of dimness short 
 of absolute transparence, always supposing a perfectly colourless medium, this 
 deep blue approaches the most beautiful violet.” 
 
 To a great variety of natural appearances this very simple theory may be 
 applied, and will give rational explanations, which will, to many minds, appear 
 satisfactory. We may in this manner account for the blue colour of moun¬ 
 tains when seen at a distance; the yellow or red colour of the luminaries 
 when seen through an atmosphere loaded with vapours ; the colours of fogs, and 
 the red hues of a morning or evening sky. 
 
 The origin of colour in dense non-transparent bodies, which may be said to 
 have in an especial manner individual and permanent colours deserving to be 
 classed among their more essential qualities, we have already attempted to 
 explain. Upon all substances light falls, and by it the eye is made sensible 
 of their existence. When the light impinging upon the surface of bodies is 
 absorbed, they appear black; and when only certain classes of coloured rays 
 are absorbed, the colour of the object will be that of the reflected rays. 
 
 The production of colour by refraction has been explained with so much 
 fulness in the first chapter of this work, that it will not be necessary to 
 add much to our previous account of the phenomenon. We shall therefore 
 chiefly confine our attention to the theory proposed by Goethe, for the 
 ex planation of the production of colour in this curious but common phenomenon; 
 at the same time directing the attention of the reader to Mr. Eastlake’s 
 translation of “ the Theory,” and the valuable notes with which he has 
 enriched his author. 
 
49 
 
 by the assistance of philosophy, the student of colour is relieved from the 
 consideration of each phenomenon as a distinct and separate appearance, and is 
 directed to refer every individual instance to some general known principles; 
 or if none of these will account for it, to discover in what particulars it 
 differs, and to what causes these differences may he assigned. It is our 
 desire in this chapter thus to assist our readers, and prepare them for the 
 study of the causes which are active in the production of colour; but at the 
 same time we would strongly recommend them the perusal of some treatise 
 on the science of optics for a more ample explanation than it would be 
 proper for us to attempt. 
 
 Colours are produced by the refraction, absorption, dispersion, and inflexion 
 of light, and also by thick and thin plates, and by fibres and grooved surfaces. 
 To these causes of colour may be added that of polarization, a subject of 
 great interest, but requiring an extent and depth of research unsuited to the 
 character of these pages. Of the other sources of colour, and of its production 
 in the eye, we may give such a general account, as shall enable the reader 
 to investigate those varieties observed in natural phenomena, and constantly 
 presented to the attention of the thoughtful. 
 
 The propriety of a division of colours into two classes will be readily per¬ 
 ceived. There are those which may be called permanent, and are usually 
 described as characteristic of the bodies to which they belong; and there are 
 those which are transient, appearing as the accidents of matter, if we may so 
 speak, throwing a fleeting but vivid glow over the phenomena in which they 
 appear. Both of these attract attention, and solicit research. 
 
 Every substance in nature may be said to have a colour, and in a 
 description of the varieties of matter colour is mentioned as a special property. 
 In the recognition of substances colour is one of the principal guides, associated 
 with the perception of other qualities less easily described. It would not be 
 difficult to find two substances having precisely the same hue, and yet so 
 unlike in appearance that a child would be able to detect the difference. The 
 colour however is, notwithstanding, a peculiarity by which both are known, 
 and could they be dressed in other hues, they would be no longer recognized 
 by those best acquainted with their qualities without the aid of some other 
 sense than that of sight. 
 
 Some of those phenomena which are usually considered to arise from the 
 inherent property of colour in the object by which the appearance is presented, 
 are attributed by Goethe to the mere circumstance of density. Thus, for 
 
 o 
 
52 
 
 observed if any other transparent substance were used instead of glass, or if 
 any other kind or variety of transparent glass than that used were employed. 
 The amount of refraction, however, is not the same with all media, but each 
 transparent medium has its own index of refraction, so that the prismatic 
 image formed by flint glass would not be thrown on the same spot as one 
 produced from a prism of quartz or any other transparent substance, the form 
 of the prisms, and the angles at which they are presented to the light, being 
 the same. 
 
 A beam of white light being separated into a number of rays of different 
 colours, each of those rays has its own course through the medium. This 
 separation or dispersion of the coloured rays would seem to depend on the 
 different refrangibilities of the several rays, the red being the least refracted. 
 Now media differ greatly in their power of dispersion, a fact which was dis¬ 
 covered by Mr. Hall, who ascertained that different kinds of glass have different 
 dispersive powers. This gentleman ingeniously applied his discovery to the 
 construction of achromatic telescopes. To prove the truth of this important 
 statement, take two prisms, one of flint glass, and one of crown, of equal 
 refracting angles, and so place these as to receive their spectra on separate 
 screens, and upon comparing them together it will be observed that the flint 
 glass has a greater dispersive power than the crown, or, in other words, its 
 spectrum will be longer than that produced by the crown glass prism. Now 
 it might be supposed that by an alteration of the refracting angle of the crown 
 glass prism, these two kinds of glass might be made to produce the same 
 spectrum, but when we have so changed the angle as to make the deviation of the 
 red ray equal to that of the flint glass, the violet ray will not correspond. If 
 therefore, the two prisms be placed together with their edges turned in opposite 
 directions, the dispersion of the rays will not be corrected; for, although the 
 dispersion of the red ray will be overcome, the violet ray being more refracted 
 by the flint than by the crown glass, will remain as an uncorrected colour. It is 
 possible, however, so to combine two substances, as to obtain a perfect 
 image, and prevent those appearances of colour which would otherwise result 
 from the dispersive power of the medium. 
 
 Another curious and exceedingly interesting class of phenomena now demand 
 our attention. When light passes near the edges of bodies, we have presented 
 to us not only the shadows of those bodies, but also a series of colours supposed to 
 arise fiom the inflexion or diffraction of light. To observe this curious action 
 of bodies upon light, fix any thin object, such as a hair, or a needle, in a 
 
51 
 
 Colour is not the necessary attendant of refraction, for if the surface refracted 
 has no outline, colour is not produced. To illustrate this statement, the author 
 proposes the following experiments. Place a large cube on any larger surface, 
 and look through the glass perpendicularly or obliquely, the unbroken surface 
 opposite the eye appears altogether raised, but no colour exhibits itself. If 
 we look at a pure grey or blue sky, or a uniformly white or coloured wall 
 through a prism, the portion of the surface which the eye thus embraces will 
 be altogether changed as to its position, without our therefore observing the 
 smallest appearance of colour. But when a circumscribed object is displaced 
 by refraction, colour is produced. In proof of this statement take a white 
 disc upon a black ground, and by the use of a convex lens magnify it, and 
 an edge of blue will be seen to surround the object. Instead of a convex 
 glass employ one that is concave, and diminish the object; it will then be 
 surrounded with a yellow edge. In one case the white edge is advanced 
 upon the dark surface, in the other the dark edge advances upon the white 
 surface; and it is, according to Goethe’s theory, only under these circumstances 
 that colour is produced by refraction. 
 
 By an increased displacement of the object the appearance of colour is 
 exhibited in a more striking manner. The conditions under which this is 
 effected, are arranged under the five following heads. 
 
 1. When in looking through parallel media the eye is directed more obliquely. 
 
 2. When the surfaces of a medium are no longer parallel, but form a more 
 or less acute angle. 
 
 3. When the proportion of a medium is increased, whether parallel media 
 be increased in size, or whether the angle be increased, provided it does not 
 attain a right angle. 
 
 4. Owing to the distance of the eye, armed with a refracting medium, from 
 the object to be displaced. 
 
 5. Owing to a chemical property that may be communicated to the glass, 
 and which may be afterwards increased in effect. 
 
 To exhibit the colours produced by refraction, prisms are generally used, 
 and their suitability for this purpose is attributed to the circumstance that 
 they occasion a greater change of place in the object. 
 
 In the first chapter of this volume we have explained the manner in which 
 a ray of light is broken up into its constituent parts during its passage through a 
 glass prism, and the vivid representation of colour which follows. This, as we 
 have stated, is the result of refraction, and we may now remark, would be 
 
54 
 
 If two blades, the edges being perfectly straight, be fixed parallel to each 
 other, with some mechanical arrangement by which the distance between them 
 can be varied and measured, a different result will be observed; for, as soon 
 as they are brought within a short distance from each other, coloured fringes 
 will appear on each shadow, and become larger and more distinct as the 
 distance between the blades diminishes. When, however, they are brought 
 within about the four hundredth part of an inch from each other, the colours 
 entirely disappear, and a shadow is observed dividing the light on the screen 
 into two equal parts. As the blades approach the shadow grows broader, and 
 the light decreases, until upon contact it vanishes. 
 
 M. Fresnel made several discoveries concerning the inflexion of light which 
 are considered to be confirmatory of the undulatory theory. In performing his 
 experiments he was much assisted by the discovery that the fringes might be 
 viewed by an eye-glass without being first received on a screen; for, by 
 adapting a micrometer to his eye-glass, he was enabled to determine the breadth 
 of the shadows and colours to the two hundredth part of a millimeter. 
 
 Dr. Young was the first philosopher who attempted to explain the origin of 
 those fringes of colour which are observed in the interior of the shadow. By 
 him they are supposed to be produced by the interference of two portions of 
 light from the opposite sides of the inflecting bodies. 
 
 Many other interesting experiments have been made upon this subject by 
 Fresnel, Young, Arago, Brewster, and Fraunhofer, especially the last-named 
 philosopher; hut our only object in these pages is to explain the circumstances 
 under which colour may be produced, and not to trace the opinions which 
 have been derived from the circumstances under which they occur. 
 
 When white light is reflected from, or transmitted by, thin plates or films, 
 colour is produced. With this class of phenomena all persons must be well 
 acquainted in the brilliant colours of soap bubbles, and the splendid hues which 
 appear on the cracks of broken glass. They were first observed by the celebrated 
 Boyle in bubbles, and afterwards in glass, which he succeeded in blowing so 
 thin, as to exhibit the same colours. If these colours be carefully observed, 
 they will be found to consist of a regular succession of hues, not in any way 
 dependent on the colour of the material, but evidently resulting from the greater 
 or less degree of thinness in the plate or film by which the light is affected. In 
 explaining the origin of these colours the investigators of optical science have 
 had many difficulties to contend with, and it was in reference to these that 
 1 ewton invented his celebrated theory of the fits of easy reflexion and trans- 
 
small aperture of a window-shutter, through which light is admitted into a 
 darkened apartment, and receive the shadow upon a convenient screen. Three 
 parallel fringes of coloured light will be seen to surround the shadow, decreasmg 
 in intensity in proportion to their distance from the shadow. The following 
 is the order in which the colours appear in the several fringes. 
 
 First Fringe. —Violet, indigo, pale blue, green, yellow, red. 
 
 Second Fringe. —Blue, yellow, and red. 
 
 Third Fringe.— blue, pale yellow, and pale red. 
 
 This singular phenomenon, produced by the inflexion of light, was discovered 
 by Father Grimaldi, about the middle of the seventeenth century. Dr. Hooke, 
 a man of great philosophic genius, appears to have made a similar observation 
 about the same time, and claimed the discovery; but in reference to the priority 
 of discovery, it is only necessary to say that Grimaldi published an account 
 of his observations in his “ De Lumine, Caloribus et Iride, in the year 1666, 
 and Dr. Hooke did not publish his discoveries until a much later period. 
 
 Grimaldi’s first experiment consisted in introducing a ray of light into a 
 darkened apartment, when he observed that the beam of light diffused itself 
 in the form of a cone. An opaque body was then so placed that it might be 
 in the path of the ray; and when the image was received on a piece of white 
 paper, he was surprised at the appearance of streaks of coloured light, each 
 fringe presenting a blue colour on the side next the shadow, and on the opposite 
 side a red. He also observed that the streaks were not all of the same breadth, 
 but became narrower as they receded from the shadow. 
 
 The same observer ascertained that the shadow itself sometimes presents 
 coloured streaks, not unlike the lucid border which surrounds it. These colours 
 were more distinct when a thin narrow plate was used, than when a hair or 
 a needle was introduced as the object, and the number of streaks increased 
 with the breadth of the plate. But with the same plate Grimaldi could at 
 pleasure increase or decrease the number of streaks by varying the distanCg 
 at which the image was received. By various observations he also discovered 
 that the breadth of the colours increased as their number diminished. 
 
 We must here state, that Dr. Hooke arrived, by similar experiments, but 
 performed in a different manner, at nearly the same results as those ascertained 
 by Grimaldi. 
 
 If a large beam of light be admitted into a darkened apartment, through an 
 aperture in which a fine-edged knife blade has been inserted, two streams of 
 light will be observed, which have been aptly compared to the tails of comets. 
 
56 
 
 supposed to be in immediate contact, and around it, rings of various colours, 
 which may easily be divided into systems, of which five or six may be dis¬ 
 tinguished. In enumerating the colours of each system, the observers have, 
 we think, fallen into error in stating all the varieties and gradations of hue 
 produced by their intermixture. Sir John Herschel’s description, which we 
 may here introduce, is less objectionable in this respect than that of any other 
 English author, but is at the same time less simple than it might be made. 
 
 1st System. Black, very faint blue, brilliant white, yellow, orange, and red. 
 
 2nd. Dark purple, or rather violet, blue, green, (a very imperfect yellow 
 green,) vivid yellow, crimson red. 
 
 3rd. Purple, blue, rich grass green, fine yellow, pink, crimson. 
 
 4th. Green (dull and bluish), pale yellowish pink, red. 
 
 5th. Pale bluish green, white pink. 
 
 6th. Pale blue green, pale pink. 
 
 7th. Very pale bluish green, very pale pink. 
 
 Goethe describes them in a very different manner. Around the colourless 
 centre, he says, there is a white space, and then appear various insulated rings, 
 all consisting of three colours, which are in immediate contact with each other. 
 “ Each of these rings, of which perhaps three or four might be counted, is 
 yellow on the inner side, blue on the outer, and red in the centre. Between 
 two rings there appears a silver white interval. The rings which are farthest 
 from the centre are always nearer together: they are composed of red and 
 green, without a perceptible white space between them.” 
 
 Similar coloured fi'inges may be observed on the cracks which are sometimes 
 produced in crystallized transparent bodies, and on the separated plates of 
 laminated mineral substances. 
 
 Colours are formed upon thin plates of condensed aqueous vapour on glass 
 or other transparent substances. Take a piece of clear glass, perfectly clean, 
 and breathe upon it, and if the colours do not immediately appear, wipe off 
 the moisture and breathe upon it again. A series of vivid colours will then 
 be observed as evanescent as the shadowy clouds which fly over a summer 
 sky. This beautiful phenomenon must have been frequently observed upon the 
 moisture condensed on window panes, and is especially striking on the win¬ 
 dows of a closed carriage in frosty weather. 
 
 The colours of soap bubbles are also well known, although it is difficult 
 to ascertain their precise order and arrangement. That the production of colour 
 in this instance is analogous to that in which glasses are used, is evident ; 
 
55 
 
 mission. It is not our intention to advert to the various theories or hypotheses 
 ■which have been proposed by opticians, to account for these and other phenomena, 
 as it would be useless to mention them -without investigating their claims to 
 our credence, -which -would be a labour unsuited to our present undertaking; 
 but -we shall confine ourselves to the explanation of a few experiments in which 
 the production of colours may be conveniently studied. 
 
 Goethe has distinguished seven conditions for the production of colour by 
 thin plates. 
 
 1. When the polished surfaces of hard transparent bodies are in contact. 
 
 2. When a film of condensed vapour covers the surface of glass, or any 
 other transparent body. 
 
 3. When the two former conditions are united. 
 
 4. When bubbles are exposed to the direct rays of light. 
 
 5. When fine pellicles and lamellse, produced by the decomposition of minerals 
 and metals, are acted upon by colourless light. 
 
 6. When metals are raised to high temperatures. 
 
 7. When the surface of glass is beginning to decompose. 
 
 To produce the colours hy glasses, it is sufficient to have any two pieces 
 of glass which can be brought together by pressure, and the experiment may 
 therefore be made either with two convex glasses, one convex and one plane, or 
 with one convex and one concave. In using either of these the colours may be 
 produced by the slightest pressure, but as a near contact is required, the colours 
 will be most vivid when a concave and convex glass are used together, and 
 especially when ground on similar segments, as is the case with the object 
 glasses of achromatic telescopes. It is also worthy of remark, that in making 
 the experiment it is necessary to keep the glasses very clean. In examining 
 the colours view them obliquely, for the more acute the angle under which 
 they are seen, the larger will the circles appear. The object in using the 
 glasses and bringing them close together by pressure, is to examine a thin 
 plate of air, and by the same simple apparatus the colours produced by other 
 fluids may be determined. 
 
 To exhibit the colours in a satisfactory manner, place a large convex glass 
 of long focus, on some convenient surface, and on this place a well-polished 
 plane glass, about three or four inches square, and the mere weight of the 
 glass will be sufficient to produce some colour which may be increased in 
 intensity by pressure. 
 
 In the centre will be observed a black spot, for here the glasses may be 
 
58 
 
 presents a most brilliant display of colours when exposed to the rays of the 
 sun, or any artificial light. Buttons, and various ornaments for ladies’ dresses, 
 are made in this manner. 
 
 When a candle or any other luminous object is viewed through a piece of 
 glass covered with moisture, it will appear surrounded with a series of coloured 
 rings. In the same manner minute fibres, such as those of wool, exhibit 
 coloured rings, which increase with the diameter of the fibres. This fact was 
 applied by Dr. Young, in the manufacture of an instrument called the eriometer, 
 which will measure objects to 30,000th-part of an inch. 
 
 Colours are in many cases produced under circumstances which lead us 
 to attribute their formation to the eye itself. These appearances are presented 
 under various conditions, but they are generally supposed to arise from an 
 infirmity in the organ of sight, and are called accidental colours, or ocular 
 spectra. It is quite true that a certain class of coloured objects do appear 
 when the eye is in a diseased state, and these general terms may be applicable 
 to them; but those which appear?when the eye is in a healthy state, are probably 
 to be traced immediately to the suitability of the eye to the impression of 
 light, and the activity and susceptibility of that organ. 
 
 This subject is of great importance to the artist, having a direct influence 
 upon his pursuits; and may therefore be explained more minutely than has 
 been already done in the casual notices it has received in previous pages. 
 
 We may in the first place observe, that whenever the 'eye has been intently 
 fixed upon any coloured object, so as to receive the impression entirely, it has the 
 power of producing the opposite or complementary colour, when turned to any 
 white surface. This fact has been already mentioned, and requires but little 
 further illustration. 
 
 Take any small coloured object, a red wafer for example, and fix it upon 
 a white ground. Stand at a little distance from the object, and fix the eye 
 intently upon it for a short time, and then turning the eye to a sheet of paper 
 or any other white surface, the complementary colour will be observed; which, 
 in this instance, will be green. The experiment may he made with wafers of 
 different colours, and the spectrum will always be the colour which is its 
 opposite, as shown in the diagram, (page 19.) 
 
 This curious phenomenon is constantly to be observed, and the reader will 
 be surprised if he’ watch the effects in the ordinary circumstances of life, which 
 are for the most part passed without thought, from the very frequency with 
 
57 
 
 for, as a thin plate of air is confined within the surfaces of glass, in the 
 experiment before mentioned, so a thin film of liquid is, in this case, confined 
 between two strata of an elastic substance. Similar phenomena may be ob¬ 
 served on the film which covers stagnant water, on drops of oil floating upon 
 water, and also on water in which lime has been slaked. Another method of 
 producing these colours, mentioned by Goethe, will be found to succeed. Pour 
 a small quantity of aqua-fortis into a flat saucer, and drop into it, from a 
 brush, some of that varnish with which engravers cover their plates in the 
 process of etching. After a slight agitation a film will be formed on the surface 
 of the liquid, upon which beautiful colours will he developed. 
 
 To these instances of the production of colour from thin plates, many others 
 might he added, but the subject has been sufficiently illustrated to enable the 
 reader to perform a few experiments for his own satisfaction and instruction, 
 and he will thus be enabled to account for an extensive series of effects arising 
 from the same cause. 
 
 We are now brought to the examination of another class of phenomena, the 
 production of colour from fibres and striated surfaces. Upon this subject it will 
 not he necessary to enlarge, as the formation of colour under such a condition 
 is analogous to that of thin plates. Our remarks will therefore he confined 
 to the statement of a few simple experiments. 
 
 When light is reflected from, or transmitted through, delicate fibres or striated 
 surfaces, colour is produced. Take a disc of polished silver, and place it in 
 such a position that a ray of light may fall upon it, and reflexion will be the 
 result, hut no colour will be observed. Then take another, in every respect 
 similar, but with a scratched and uneven surface, and a splendid iridescent 
 appearance will be presented, in which the green and red colours will predominate. 
 
 Instead of the roughened silver disc take a piece of plated copper, and wash 
 it with aqua-fortis, so that the surface of the metal may he acted on, and 
 when it is made to reflect light, the same iridescent appearance will be observed. 
 
 Mother of pearl has been long employed in the arts from the possession 
 of this quality, and is an instance of the production of colour by striated 
 surfaces. The changing colours in the plumage of birds may also be traced 
 to the same cause. 
 
 The principle of the production of colour by striated surfaces has been 
 admirably applied by Mr. Barton in the manufacture of the iris*ornaments. This 
 gentleman has invented an instrument for cutting grooves upon steel at a 
 distance apart of from 2000th to 10,000th part of an inch. Steel thus cut 
 
 Q 
 
60 
 
 When the eye is impressed in the same manner with a colourless object, 
 one which is black or white, a spectrum of that object is formed, the light 
 parts being dark in the image, and the dark parts light. This is best observed 
 when the eye is in a state susceptible of every impression. Whiteness or light 
 excites the eye. Darkness has not this effect; but this sensitive organ is 
 formed to receive the rays of light, and is distressed when in darkness for a 
 continued length of time. When the light is in excess, the eye is contracted 
 to exclude some of the more intense rays, but in darkness the pupil is dilated 
 to collect the straggling rays of faint light which may happen to be present. 
 The eye may by degrees accustom itself to either state. Those who work in 
 chalk-pits, for example, are but little distressed by the strong and dazzling 
 light of a summer’s sun, which an eye less accustomed to the strong reflection 
 cannot bear without much inconvenience and pain. So, on the other hand, a 
 prisoner who has been long immured in a dark cell is affected by a light so 
 faint, that those who are accustomed to the ordinary light of day are insensible 
 of its existence. But neither of these individuals could bear a sudden change 
 without much inconvenience, and even endangering the organ of sight. So 
 strongly does the ordinary daylight affect those who have been long deprived 
 of its genial influence, that it is many days before the individual regains the 
 power of viewing things in faint lights without pain. 
 
 It will then appear that the eye is excited by light, and that in darkness 
 it remains in a passive state, and to this a certain class of spectral appearances 
 may be traced. If on waking from sleep in the morning, the eye be fixed 
 upon the window-sash, relieved by the partially illuminated sky, and when 
 impressed by the object, be turned to some spot perfectly dark, the image will 
 be continued, for those portions of the retina which have been acted on by 
 the light continue in an excited state, while those on which the image of the 
 bars fell, were protected, and remain passive. A curious difference of result 
 will be observed if the eye be turned to a light grey surface, instead of towards 
 a surface perfectly dark; for an image the reverse of the other will be observed, 
 one m which the panes will appear black, and the bars light. This is readily 
 explained. The parts of the retina on which the image of the bars fell, remain 
 in a state of perfect repose, and are therefore influenced by the faint light 
 from the grey surface, while those parts which had been acted on by the 
 light are distressed, and are consequently unaffected by the more feeble rays. 
 
 It will here be necessary to state, that in performing this class of experiments, 
 the eye must not be exposed to the light for too long a period, or the retina 
 
59 
 
 which they occur. But the experience of most persons will suggest occasions 
 when a remarkahle or striking instance has happened in his own experience. 
 Many persons have the habit, when thinking intensely, of fixing the eye upor, 
 some object in the room where they happen to be, and at such a time they 
 may have witnessed, with a feeling approaching to alarm, the appearance of 
 the complementary colour. Those who have worn green or other coloured 
 spectacles must also have witnessed a similar effect. 
 
 To the same cause Goethe attributes a curious phenomenon, which has long 
 attracted the attention of the observers of nature. Certain flowers are said to 
 be phosphorescent, and to give out bright coruscations after sun-set. “ On the 
 19th of June, 1799,” he says, “late in the evening, when the twilight was 
 deepening into a clear night, as I was walking up and down the garden with 
 a friend, we very distinctly observed a flame-like appearance near the oriental 
 poppy, the flowers of which are remarkable for their powerful red colour. 
 We approached the place, and looked attentively at the flowers, but could 
 perceive nothing further, till at last, by passing and repassing repeatedly, while 
 we looked sideways on them, we succeeded in renewing the appearance as often 
 as we pleased. It proved to be a physiological phenomenon, and the coruscation 
 was nothing hut the spectrum of the flower in the compensatory blue green colour. 
 
 “ In looking directly at a flower, the image is not produced, but it appears 
 immediately, as the direction of the eye is altered. Again, by looking sideways 
 on the object, a double image is seen for a moment, for the spectrum then 
 appears near and on the real object. 
 
 “ The twilight accounts for the eye being in a perfect state of repose, and 
 thus very susceptible; and the colour of the poppy is sufficiently powerful in 
 the summer twilight of the longest days to act with full effect, and produce a 
 compensatory image. I have no doubt these appearances might he reduced to 
 experiment, and the same effect produced by pieces of coloured paper. Those 
 who wish to take the most effectual means for observing the appearance in 
 nature, suppose in a garden, should fix the eye on the bright flowers selected 
 for the purpose, and, immediately after, look on the gravel path. This will 
 be seen studded with spots of the opposite colour. The experiment is practicable 
 on a cloudy day, and even in the brightest sun-shine, for the sun-light, by 
 enhancing the brilliancy of the flower, renders it fit to produce the compen¬ 
 satory colour sufficiently distinct to he perceptible even in a bright light. 
 Thus, peonies produce beautiful green, marigolds vivid blue spectra. 
 
62 
 
 few seconds changed. No sooner, however, had it hecome entirely red, than the 
 edge began to assume a blue appearance; and when the whole of the image was 
 blue another change came over it, for the edge became dark and colourless, and 
 the entire surface was soon brought into the same state. The image then became 
 fainter, and diminished in size until it disappeared. In this experiment we 
 have an instance, says the author, of the manner in which the retina recovers 
 itself by a succession of vibrations after it has received a powerful external 
 impression. 
 
 In the introduction of these few general remarks upon the production of colour, 
 we shall perhaps he charged with a deviation from the immediate object of this 
 volume. It is true, that for the practice of house painting the information 
 contained in this chapter is not absolutely necessary, but it cannot be either 
 uninteresting or unimportant to those whose business it is to watch and study, 
 for the improvement of their art, the production of colour under all circumstances. 
 Feeling, however, that the subject is only accessory, and not directly 
 applicable to the pursuits of the artist, we have given hut a general and brief 
 description of the production of colour by various physical causes, and would 
 therefore again recommend the further investigation of the subject; and, at 
 the same time, enforce upon the attention of the reader, the fact that it is only 
 by a continued and minute observation of natural phenomena that he can obtain 
 a knowledge of the appropriate application of colour. 
 
61 
 
 will, by a sympathetic action, be equally affected over its entire surface. The 
 duration of these spectra will vary according to the spectator’s power of vision. 
 
 When the eye is fixed upon a dazzling colourless object, the image will be 
 retained for a long period. The experiment made by Sir Isaac Newton is 
 generally known. This philosopher, anxious to ascertain the effect that would 
 be produced by looking for a time on a bright object, fixed his right eye upon 
 the image of the sun, reflected from a looking-glass. From this object he 
 turned to a dark corner of his room, and there observed a bright spot, 
 encircled by rings of colour, or, to use his own expression, a phantom of light 
 and colours. Having injudiciously repeated the experiment three times, the 
 image became so permanent that he was compelled to shut himself in a dark 
 chamber, for three or four days, before he could recover the use of his eyes 
 and could then recall the image at pleasure. ' 
 
 Experiments of a similar kind were, at a later period, performed by Epinus 
 who observed that the colour of the spectrum was not the same when the 
 eye was fixed on white paper, as when shut. Dr. Brewster repeated these 
 experiments, receiving the impression on the left eye only, and he observed 
 the same change of colour as had been previously noticed by Epinus. He also 
 remarked, that when the right eye was uncovered it gave a coloured spectrum 
 a fact which confirmed Newton’s statement; but in addition to this he ascertained 
 that the coloured spectrum observed by the right eye was the reverse of that 
 presented by the left. 
 
 From an observation made by Goethe it appears that the colour of the spectrum 
 varies according to the ground against which it is viewed. He happened to 
 be in a forge one evening when a mass of iron at a red heat was placed on 
 an anvil From the iron he looked accidentally into an open coal-shed, and a 
 arge red image was observed; but as he turned towards the light boards of 
 which the shed was constructed, the image appeared half green, half red 
 according as it had a light or dark ground. 
 
 To the same author we are indebted for an experiment which may be easily 
 repeated by those whose eyes will bear the exertion. Having darkened a room, 
 he admitted a beam of light through an opening which could be closed at pleasure, 
 ree inches in diameter. The light was received on a white surface, and he 
 then fixed his eyes fora few seconds upon the bright circle thus formed. The 
 opening being closed, he looked towards the darkest part of the room, and there 
 observed a circular image, the centre of which was bright and colourless, and 
 e border red. The red colour rapidly spread, and the entire image was in a 
 
64 
 
 verditer, blue verditer, and mineral green; from mercury, vermilion; and from 
 cobalt, Antwerp and Thenard’s blue, and the zaffars or sky blues. The sulphate 
 of zinc is used as a drier. 
 
 Were we to attempt a description of all the substances which enter into the 
 composition of pigments, in their general relations to each other, we should far 
 outstep the bounds which ought to circumscribe our path of investigation. To 
 limit our inquiries, and at the same time to communicate information calculated 
 for the general reader, is difficult; yet such is the object we have presented to 
 ourselves. The formation of many colours involves abstruse chemical theories, 
 which are not easily explained; and there are some results in this branch of 
 manufacture for which the chemist himself is unable to account. Every science, 
 also, has a language of its own, and its phraseology is not unfrequently a 
 stumbling-block in the path of the student. With these difficulties we have to 
 cope in our attempt to explain the manufacture of colour, without an opportunity 
 of fairly meeting them by explicit definitions It is, notwithstanding, possible 
 to communicate much valuable information to the general reader, and, by chiefly 
 regarding the principles, to enter with some degree of minuteness into an investi¬ 
 gation of the subject. This we shall endeavour to do with as much brevity and 
 perspicuity as possible in the following pages. 
 
 THE WHITES. 
 
 Although the various pigments which come within the general designation, 
 “ the whites,” may appear to require but a short notice, they are of the greatest 
 importance; for they necessarily form a ground to receive all colours, and by 
 admixture with them produce the various tints used not only in house-painting, 
 but in the higher branches of art. Many pigments are in themselves too trans¬ 
 parent to be of any value to the painter; but when mixed with a white receive 
 a sufficient body ; in fact, we may say that it is white which renders all colours 
 serviceable. The white pigment most used in oil painting has lead for its base, 
 and is manufactured in large quantities by different processes, the most important 
 of which will be explained; and it is known in commerce by the name of ceruse, 
 or white lead. This is the only metallic white in extensive use. There are 
 many pigments which have earthy bases well adapted for distemper colour, but 
 they are rarely used with oil. The most important of these are Bougival white, 
 Brian 5 on, Spanish, Moudon, and Rouen whites, the composition and manufacture 
 of which we shall endeavour to explain. 
 
63 
 
 CHAPTER VI1. 
 
 THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND MANHFACTURE OF COLOURS. 
 
 A FEW years since, artists, even those who had obtained great celebrity for their 
 works, and artificers of all classes, were satisfied with the possession of mere 
 manual skill, scarcely ever entertaining a wish to be acquainted with the 
 subjects incidental to their professions or trades. But in the present day, no 
 man can reasonably expect eminence unless he be well acquainted with all those 
 branches of knowledge which are indirectly connected with his pursuits. Hence 
 it becomes necessary, in such a work as that we are now presenting to the public, 
 to enter with some particularity into a description of the manufacture of the 
 colours, oils, varnishes, and other materials employed by the painter; and even 
 to describe the construction of his tools. It cannot be said that this information 
 is absolutely necessary for the practice of the art; but it is certainly useful, and 
 gives the artist an opportunity of providing against those physical and chemical 
 causes of injury or decomposition which may impair or destroy his work. An 
 intelligent or inquisitive mind cannot feel satisfied without this knowledge; for 
 the questions will ever present themselves, what is the nature and composition 
 of the substance which I am using ? how is it made ? and what is the probability 
 of its retaining its colour'? No apology therefore will, we are sure, be required 
 for the introduction of this and the three following chapters. 
 
 That the reader may thoroughly understand the manufacture of colours, it 
 is necessary that he should be acquainted with some of the properties of the 
 substances from which they are produced. Nearly all the colours employed by 
 the house painter are made from metallic compounds, and chiefly from lead, iron, 
 copper, arsenic, mercury, chromium, cobalt, and zinc. From lead, in some cases 
 combined with chromium, we obtain the white lead of commerce, Naples yellow, 
 red lead, litharge, chrome yellow, and chrome green; iron, when chemically 
 treated, gives the ochres, Prussian blue, sienna, the Venetian and mineral reds, 
 the mineral yellows, and some browns; from copper and arsenic we obtain green 
 
66 
 
 ■which, when weighed, will give the quantity contained in the ten grains of lead 
 originally subjected to the assay. 
 
 The lead of commerce sometimes contains iron, which is very injurious to 
 the formation of a pure white pigment. To detect the presence of this metal, 
 the lead proposed for sale should he carefully tested, which may be done in a 
 manner similar to that already described. The lead must be first brought into 
 a state of solution, as when the presence of silver is suspected, and the solution 
 which remains, after precipitation by the hydrochlorate of soda, may be con¬ 
 centrated by gentle evaporation. A few drops of the solution of prussiate of 
 potass should be then added, and if a greenish or a prussian blue colour be 
 produced, iron is certainly present. When this metal exists in the metal used 
 for forming the carbonate of lead, it gives a yellowish tinge to the pigment, and 
 greatly detracts from the beauty of the colour. 
 
 Sulphur is sometimes found in the lead of commerce. It may be easily 
 detected in the following manner. Take a piece of lead, about three or four 
 grains, and, placing it on a piece of charcoal, cover it with carbonate of soda. 
 Reduce the metal into a liquid state by the flame of a blowpipe, and when a bead 
 of the lead and flux is produced, drop it into distilled water in a test tube. By 
 the application of heat a solution may be formed, which, when filtered, should 
 be tested with a solution of the acetate or nitrate of lead; if a brownish tinge 
 be produced in the liquid, the analyzer may be certain that sulphur is present. 
 Another method of testing the presence of sulphur is to touch the lead with a 
 drop of muriatic acid, and if an offensive smell, such as that caused by rotten 
 eggs, should be detected, there will be a sufficient indication of the existence 
 of sulphur in combination with the metal ; and the manufacturer may be certain 
 that the lead is not sufficiently pure for the purpose to which he intended to 
 apply it. 
 
 Having described the method by which the most common and injurious 
 impurities in metallic lead may be detected, we will now proceed to give some 
 idea of the process of manufacturing the white lead of commerce, as adopted in 
 foreign manufactories, as well as in those of our own country. 
 
 At the manufactories of Bleyberg, where a white lead of very superior quality 
 is produced, owing to the lead being very pure, and not contaminated with iron, 
 the following process is adopted. The lead is cast into thin sheets, of about 
 one twenty-fourth of an inch in thickness, which are then doubled over square 
 slips of wood, or rolled so as to expose as much of the surface as possible. 
 
65 
 
 White Lead. —The ceruse, or white lead of commerce, is a combination of 
 lead and carbonic acid. In the manufacture of this substance, there are many 
 peculiar processes and manipulations, and scarcely any two makers adopt precisely 
 the same modes; for they all differ slightly in the form of the apparatus, or in 
 the application of heat. But the object is the same in all cases, the formation 
 of a white carbonate of lead, by exposing thin sheets of metallic lead to the 
 fumes of acetic acid, in a temperature of from eighty-six to ninety degrees. 
 
 The selection of the metal for manufacturing white lead is of the greatest 
 importance ; for if it be not pure the carbonate will not be perfectly white. The 
 lead mines generally contain silver, and if this metal exist, in the most minute 
 proportion, in the metal used for forming white lead, the product will not be 
 without colour, as the silver is converted, during the process of making white 
 lead, into an acetate or carbonate with the lead itself, and is of course intimately 
 mixed with that metal. These salts of silver, when exposed to the air and 
 light, have the property of turning black; but being mixed with the carbonate 
 of lead, produce a greyish tinge throughout the entire mass, thus depriving the 
 white lead of the appearance it would have were it in a state of purity. Should 
 the presence of silver be suspected in lead, the purchaser or manufacturer may 
 assay it in the following manner. Take ten grains of the lead, and placing them in 
 a small white glass flask, pour thereon pure nitric acid, diluted with twice its 
 weight of distilled water ; about half an ounce of the dilute acid to the ten 
 grains of lead. To facilitate the solution of the lead, hold the flask over the 
 flame of a spirit or naphtha lamp, and if all the metal be not dissolved with that 
 quantity of acid, add a little more by degrees until a perfect solution is made, 
 which may, when cold, be filtered through white blotting paper. To this clear 
 solution add some sulphate of soda, dissolved in distilled water, and filtered; a 
 white precipitate, which is sulphate of lead, will be thrown down. The pre¬ 
 cipitate may be collected on a filter, and the liquid, which will be a clear solution, 
 should be received in a small porcelain capsule. When the solution has been 
 evaporated to one-half, pour it into a test tube of sufiicient capacity, and test it 
 with a solution of hydrochlorate of soda, that is, common salt. If any white curdy 
 appearance be produced, it will be an indication of the presence of silver; but, 
 to be more certain of the result, carefully collect the precipitate, and having 
 added a few grains of carbonate of soda, expose it to the heat of a blowpipe on a 
 piece of charcoal. When the compound is fused, an effervescence will ensue, the 
 flux will sink into the charcoal, and a small globule of silver will remain behind. 
 
 s 
 
68 
 
 If the Professor examines this subject a little more closely, we imagine he will 
 find the constituents of carbonic acid in the decomposition of the acetic acid, 
 without searching for them in stable litter or exhausted tan. 
 
 Many other methods have been proposed for the preparation of white lead, 
 and numerous patents have been at different times taken out by sanguine specu¬ 
 lators. In the year 1821, Mr. John Sadler obtained a patent for the manufacture 
 of white lead, by decomposing the subacetate of lead, in solution, by a stream 
 of carbonic acid; which gas, combining with a portion of the lead, causes the 
 precipitation of a carbonate, leaving a supernatant liquor of acetate of lead. It 
 now, however, appears, that all those carbonates of lead which are formed by 
 precipitation take, more or less, a crystalline form; that is to say, each molecule 
 or atom has a definite geometric shape, with sides and angles, which prevents the 
 substance, when employed as a pigment, from spreading easily under the brush, 
 and even from combining homogeneously with the oils employed in painting. 
 The carbonates thus formed cannot therefore be made to cover a space equal to 
 that of the same pigment prepared by slow corrosion. 
 
 In 1826, a patent was granted to Mr. Groves for the manufacture of a sulphate 
 of lead. This gentleman employed for the manufacture, sulphuret of lead, or 
 common native galena, and treated it with nitrate of potass and sulphuric acid. 
 By this means he formed a sulphate, which is a pure white pigment, incapable of 
 being discoloured; but it cannot be used with the same facility as the carbonate, 
 on account of the extreme density of its molecules. 
 
 The carbonate of lead, as brought into the market, is frequently adulterated 
 with chalk, that is, carbonate of lime; plaster of Paris, or sulphate of lime; and 
 the sulphate of barytes; all these are very common ingredients, and may be 
 severally detected in the following manner. Dissolve a few grains of the white 
 lead in dilute nitric acid, and to the clear solution add sulphuret of ammonia; a 
 black precipitate, which is the sulphuret of lead, will be thrown down. The 
 supernatant liquor, when clear, may be tested with oxalate of ammonia, and if a 
 white precipitate fall, it denotes the presence of chalk, or carbonate of lime. If 
 the whole of the carbonate of lead does not dissolve in nitric acid, but leaves an 
 insoluble white powder, we may suspect the presence of sulphate of lime, or 
 barytes; or it may be a portion of sulphate of lead. To determine whether it 
 is the latter substance, mix it with a small portion of carbonate of soda, and fuse 
 it before the blowpipe, on a piece of charcoal. When decomposition has taken 
 place, a globule of lead will be formed, if that metal be present; and if it does 
 not reduce with the soda, it is composed either of lime or barytes. 
 
67 
 
 These rolls of sheet lead are thea suspended in strong wooden boxes prepared 
 for the purpose, a small portion of vinegar and wine lees being previously placed 
 in the bottom of the box. When a number of these have been made ready, 
 they are conveyed to the stove-room, where the lead is exposed to the corrosive 
 vapours of vinegar, or in other words, acetic acid, during a period of about fifteen 
 days, at a temperature of eighty-six degrees Fahrenheit. If the process be 
 carefully managed, as much carbonate of lead will be produced during this time 
 as will be equal to the metallic lead employed, that is to say, for 300 parts of 
 lead an equal quantity of carbonate of lead, or ceruse, will be obtained. Some 
 metal, however, remains, which is returned to the melting pots, and again produced 
 in sheets. The carbonate thus formed, when shaken from the lead, is thoroughly 
 washed in large cisterns of wood, which are divided into different compartments, 
 so as to separate the finer from the grosser portions. When thoroughly washed, 
 it is dried in vessels of a convenient form, and is then ready for the market. 
 The white lead in the last compartment is esteemed the best, and on the continent 
 is termed silver white. 
 
 Other processes are employed in this country, but the principal difference 
 consists in the mode of obtaining a sufficient heat. The following method is 
 very generally adopted. The sheet lead is so rolled up in coils as to expose as 
 great a surface as possible, and each coil is then placed in an earthen pot, which 
 has a ledge in the inside on which the lead rests without touching the sides of the 
 vessel. Vinegar is then poured in to such a height that it may nearly touch the 
 lead. The pots being thus charged, are imbedded in stable litter, and left, on the 
 average, for a period of about two months. The heat arising from the fermentation 
 of the bed, causes the lead to be surrounded by the acetic vapour which is thrown 
 off, and an oxide of lead is formed, which combines with the carbonic acid, forming 
 a carbonate of lead, or ceruse. It is removed from the surface of the metallic 
 lead in encrusted cakes of uneven surface, sometimes showing signs of crystalli¬ 
 zation, arising from the presence of a portion of the acetate of lead with the 
 carbonate. These cakes, after being separated from the remaining metallic 
 lead, are levigated in water to the requisite degree of fineness, and when dried 
 are brought into the market as an article of commerce. Professor Tingry informs 
 us that the lead is oxidized by the vinegar, and receives its carbonic acid from 
 the fermentation of the substances of which the hot-bed is composed. This 
 theory we are greatly inclined to doubt. If the vinegar only oxidizes the lead, 
 as Professor Tingry states, what becomes of its remaining constituent parts ? 
 
bnsq t(i 
 
 ^-r^r- • 
 
 , ■'■ ■'■■ • 
 
 —■ :* i'*’ 
 
 
 
 r.'Oul 
 
70 
 
 white. It is usually sold in the form of small pyramidal drops; hut in its 
 composition does not much differ from the ceruse. It is, in fact, a carbonate of 
 lead of superior purity, more care being taken in the washing, levigation, and 
 other processes of manufacture. This is the colour commonly used by artists; 
 and being employed in works of time and value, the manufacturer should be 
 exceedingly cautious in the choice of the lead from which it is produced, as 
 any alloy or impurity must inevitably cause a diminution of brightness in the 
 pigment. The water used for washing should also be carefully tested, as it 
 frequently contains large quantities of lime, and sometimes traces of the hydro- 
 sulphurets, both of which are injurious to the pigment; the former, in regard to 
 its density, and the latter, in relation to its brilliance. 
 
 Krems, or Cremnitz White.— The pigment called Krem’s white is a pure 
 ceruse; but a great variety of preparations, composed of heterogeneous substances, 
 are commonly brought into the market, and sold under the same name. A mere 
 mention of all these preparations would occupy a greater space than their merits 
 deserve, and we shall therefore refer to only one or two. That which is the 
 best is formed of oxide of tin, oxide of zinc, and pure clay. It is too expensive 
 to be used by the house-painter,. but is useful to the artist, for it is a perfect 
 colour, and is not liable to any change from the action of the atmosphere, or the 
 vapours with which it may on occasions be loaded. The worst of these prepara¬ 
 tions is, that which is composed of the oxide of bismuth; a substance which is 
 altogether unfit for use as a pigment, being much more liable to change and 
 discolouration than the most common ceruse. 
 
 In the preparation of the Krem s white, it is in the first place necessary that 
 the metallic lead employed in the manufacture should be perfectly free from silver, 
 which is difficult to be obtained. Great care also is required in the various 
 processes by which the metallic lead is converted into a carbonate. The mode 
 in which the manufacture is performed differs, it is true, from that adopted in 
 this country in making the ceruse, and it is probable that the carbonate thus ob¬ 
 tained is more perfect, as it is more quickly produced; but the extraordinary care, 
 the avoidance of every source of discolouration, and the extreme fineness of the 
 produce, tend, more than any other causes, to give the Krem’s white that supe¬ 
 riority to othei preparations of carbonate of lead which it is allowed to possess. 
 
 In the manufacture of the Krem’s white, the heat of a stove is substituted for 
 the stable dung. It has, however, been found that when this is done it is 
 necessary to provide a supply of carbonic acid. The lead plates, which are about 
 
69 
 
 White lead is one of the most important pigments in house-painting. It has the 
 property of combining readily with the oils, and of forming a smooth surface, when 
 employed by the painter, spreading easily under the brush. While it fills the pores 
 of wood, it supplies a means of producing a surface of any colour that may be re¬ 
 quired, and its durability and protecting properties render it invaluable as an article 
 of economy, comfort and luxury. To the artist it is indispensable; it forms the 
 grounds of nearly all his colours, and without it he could not avail himself of those 
 varied and beautiful tints which are now so easily formed by an experienced work¬ 
 man. With its aid, he is able to employ many colouring matters, and to produce tints 
 from them which could not otherwise be obtained. The innumerable tints and 
 hues of blue, green, red, crimson, yellow, brown, and other colours, depend on the 
 admixture of ceruse, or carbonate of lead, with a colouring matter; and the same 
 substance, by its combination with black, forms various tints of grey, and the 
 pearl whites: in fact, it may be termed the vehicle of colour. When ground 
 with oil, and in a state of paste, it forms a valuable and durable cement, imper¬ 
 vious to heat, cold, and water; indeed, its uses to the painter and in the arts 
 are too numerous to be mentioned. Until it is required for use, it should be 
 carefully kept covered from air, light, and dust, and should never be employed in 
 places where foetid smells arise; for any gas or vapour containing sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, however minute the proportion, will tarnish its brilliance. In many 
 gems and paintings of value this discolouration of the white lead is common, 
 and has been produced by their exposure to noxious vapours. The parts which 
 were painted white, and the lighter tints, are thus converted into sulphuret of 
 lead, which gives a dull metallic-looking surface that entirely destroys the beauty 
 of the painting. Several of the finest old pictures were in this state; and it 
 was for a long time thought that no means could be discovered of restoring the 
 original tint. Various processes were tried; but all were found to injure, 
 more or less, the painting. Baron Thenard, however, ultimately succeeded in 
 restoring those blemished works of art to their original state, by means of the 
 oxygenated water, which, when applied to paintings injured by exposure, converts 
 the lead coloured sulphuret into a permanent white sulphate, and causes a vivid 
 restoration by the formation of a new pigment. In a snbsequent part of this 
 chapter we shall give the method of preparing the oxygenated water, which must 
 be an article of paramount importance to the artist, the connoisseur, and the 
 public. 
 
 Flake White. —There is an article of commerce called by colourmen flake 
 
 T 
 
72 
 
 
 2. The cretaceous and aluminous -whites, which are natural earths, containing 
 chalk and clay, possessing more body than the former, and consequently covering 
 a larger surface. They also work more freely under the brush. They are 
 principally used in distemper, for which they are best suited, but are occasionally 
 employed in oil. 
 
 3. The aluminous whites, or pure argillaceous earths, which are used in oil 
 and turpentine, as well as distemper, and cover a larger surface than either of 
 the former. They are much used on the continent as cheap paints for rooms, 
 and retain their colour; but always look poor on wood, even when three or four 
 coats are applied. 
 
 Bougival White. —That pigment called Bougival white is an argillaceous 
 and chalky earth, found at Marly, near Paris, and in many parts of Normandy 
 and Auvergne. It is an excellent colour for painting in distemper, having a 
 much greater body than the pure chalk whites, and is used with greater facility, 
 producing a rich and even surface. The practical painter may assume as a 
 general rule in the selection of whites for distemper painting, that the more 
 pure the argillaceous matter contained in the pigment, the better it will spread 
 under the brush, and the richer wdll be the surface produced. Bougival white 
 belongs to our second class of earthy pigments, being a combination of argil¬ 
 laceous and cretaceous earths, or, in other words, its component parts are pure 
 clay and chalk. 
 
 Brian^on White.— Brian^on white takes its name from the locality where it 
 is found. It is an earth containing a large portion of pure clay, mixed with 
 carbonate of lime, and sometimes with particles of ferruginous matter. It is 
 prepared for the arts by treating it with vinegar, which dissolves the chalky 
 matter, and the oxide of iron, which is not unfrequently present as an accidental 
 substance, and leaves a pure white clay, which is dried for use. In this state it 
 may be used for oil painting, as it has a tolerably good body, and is not liable 
 to change. 
 
 Spanish White. Spanish white is a pure clay, and is brought into the 
 market in the form of small rolls, about two inches and a half long, by one inch 
 and a quarter in diameter. When required in a state of great purity, it should 
 be washed in vinegar, to separate the particles of chalk which may be inter¬ 
 mixed. It may be used in oil painting, and with varnish; but, before it can be 
 
71 
 
 the twelfth of an inch in thickness, are placed in deal boxes, as already explained, 
 and thus exposed to the united action of the vapour of vinegar and carbonic acid 
 gas. The vessels are charged with vinegar to within about three inches of the 
 plates, which are arranged in the form of chevrons upon lath, and the carbonic 
 acid is obtained by the addition of the lees of wine, or tartaric acid, or by the 
 immersion of a piece of marble. The boxes being closed, are placed upon a 
 square hot air-tube, and kept at a proper temperature, so that the vinegar may 
 sufficiently, but not too rapidly, evaporate. In about fifteen days, the process is 
 complete. The subsequent washing, to remove all impurities, is performed in a 
 manner similar to that already described. 
 
 The theory of the formation of ceruse is one of great difficulty, and has not 
 yet been explained by chemists. The necessity which is said to exist for the 
 supply of carbonic acid, in the manufacture of the Krem’s white, still further 
 confuses us, and has induced many writers and eminent chemists to believe that 
 the carbonic acid is procured from the dung or tan used, in this country, in the 
 manufacture of white lead. For this supposition we can, at present, discover no 
 other reason than that it is difficult to explain its formation in any other manner. 
 The vapours which arise from animal matter during its fermentation are, no doubt, 
 numerous, and among them the hydrosulphurets are not the least important. 
 This method of obtaining the required temperature is, therefore, most objection¬ 
 able, and that the lead is converted into a carbonate by its means is extremely 
 doubtful. M. Merimee states, that he performed two experiments, from which he 
 deduces that the carbonic acid is supplied by the stable litter; but they do not ap¬ 
 pear so satisfactory as could be desired. Upon a vessel containing vinegar, he placed 
 plates of lead, and covered the whole with a bell-glass, which he luted to a suitable 
 stand. Another apparatus was prepared in the same manner, but some pieces of 
 marble were added to the vinegar for the formation of carbonic acid. In the former- 
 case, acetate of lead was produced, and in the latter carbonate, as might be 
 expected; but the atmospheric air being excluded, the experiments do not fairly 
 lead to the conclusion that the carbonic acid in the manufacture of cei-use 
 necessarily arises from the stable litter. 
 
 Whites with Earthy bases. —Various other whites, having earthy bases, 
 are used by the painter; a few in oil, but the greater number in distemper. 
 They may be classed in three sections. 
 
 1. The cretaceous or chalk whites, which are unfit for use with oil, but may 
 be employed in distemper. 
 
74 
 
 potass in a state of solution. It is called satin white, and is much used hy 
 paper-stainers. 
 
 Moudon, or Morat White. —This pigment is similar in composition to 
 Spanish white, being a pure argillaceous earth. It occurs in the Pays de Vaud, 
 Switzerland, and also at Moudon and Morat, from which places it derives its 
 name. It is used extensively in paper-hanging manufactories; and mixes well 
 with white lead, with which it forms a pearl colour, and the darker greys of con¬ 
 siderable lustre. 
 
 Rouen White. —Rouen white is another argillaceous and calcareous earth 
 used in distemper. 
 
 THE YELLOWS. 
 
 The yellow colours may be divided into three classes. 1. Those deriving their 
 colour from metallic bases, as chrome, Montpelier and Naples yellow, orpiment, 
 massicot, and the ochres. 2. Those receiving their colouring matter from 
 vegetable bases, such as the Dutch pinks, yellow lakes, wood and turmeric lakes. 
 3. Those derived from animal substances, as gall yellow. 
 
 I. The yellows obtained from mineral substances. 
 
 Montpelier, Mineral, or Patent Yellow. —This colour was for many 
 years under the protection of a patent, and every means was taken to prevent the 
 secret from being known; but its preparation has now become the property of 
 the public. It is a compound of the oxide and chloride of lead. In Gray’s 
 Supplement to the Pharmacopoeia, we have the following formula: Common salt, 
 one cwt., litharge, four cwts.; these are to be ground in water, at a gentle heat, 
 the loss by evaporation being supplied by occasional additions of water. During 
 this process decomposition takes place. Litharge is a compound of oxygen and 
 lead; common salt is composed of soda and muriatic acid, now termed hydro¬ 
 chloric, which is composed of chlorine and hydrogen. If, therefore, we trace the 
 nature of the decomposition, we shall find that when the oxide of lead is brought 
 into contact with the hydrochlorate of soda, the hydrogen of the acid combines 
 with the oxygen of the oxide, in the proportions which form water; the chlorine 
 disengaged from the hydrogen combines with the lead, and forms a chloride, 
 while the soda, the base of the common salt, remains in solution in a caustic 
 state. When this decomposition is duly formed, and the residue thoroughly 
 
73 
 
 safely employed in this way, it should be perfectly desiccated. Spanish white is 
 frequently adulterated with chalk. To detect the presence of this substance, 
 place a small portion of it in a glass, and pour upon it a few drops of dilute 
 nitric acid; if the pigment be pure, there will be no effervescence ; but if that 
 effect be observed, there is certainly an admixture of chalk, which renders it 
 unfit for all purposes where oil or varnish is employed. 
 
 Gypsum, or Sulphate of Lime. —Gypsum is a native sulphate of lime. Its 
 uses in the arts are extensive. After it has been calcined and reduced to powder, 
 it has the property of solidifying again with water, and of retaining the shape of 
 the moulds or vessels in which the solidification takes place. Hence it is used 
 for casting figures, ornaments, and various sculptured decorations for rooms. It 
 combines with wax and oil, and with white lead. A mixture may be made of 
 these ingredients which will rival alabaster in whiteness and transparency. 
 Figures cast hollow in a composition of sulphate of lime, white lead, and wax, 
 and filled, when solid, with sulphate of lime in a creamy state, will retain, for a 
 long period of time, the weight and coldness of marble, and appear more agree¬ 
 able and mellow to the eye than the natural stone. 
 
 The sulphate of lime is also used as a pigment in distemper. When thus 
 employed it is mixed with a large portion of water, and kept in a state of 
 agitation, that there may be the necessary division of particles. Size is then 
 added to give it consistence, and in this state it forms a valuable whitewash for 
 apartments. 
 
 Satin White. —Sulphate of lime is the principal ingredient of a compound 
 colour called satin white. This pigment is prepared from rock lime in the 
 following manner: Eight pounds of rock lime are placed in a pan, capable 
 of containing about eight gallons of water, and upon it that liquid is poured, 
 until the consistency of the lime is destroyed. The pan is then filled with 
 water, and the lime thoroughly mixed with it. When a slight settlement 
 is formed, the liquid is strained through a hair sieve; and the process is 
 repeated until about six gallons of the mixture or milk of lime is obtained. 
 In another vessel, eight pounds of alum are dissolved in six gallons of water, and 
 the two liquids are then mixed, being well agitated with a wooden spatula for 
 the space of half an hour. After an interval of about three hours, the agitation 
 is again commenced. The solution is then allowed to stand for twelve hours, and 
 is fit for use. This white is a ‘compound of sulphate of lime and alumina with 
 
 u 
 
76 
 
 of character. It may be readily formed by projecting iodine on fused lead, and 
 then grinding the produce to an impalpable powder. It may also he made by the 
 union of the nitrate of lead and hydriodate of potass. A double decomposition is 
 the result, causing the formation of water and the nitrate of potass, while the 
 iodide of lead is precipitated as a yellow powder. This chemical change may¬ 
 be made evident by a brief description. The nitrate of lead is formed of lead and 
 nitric acid, and the latter is composed of oxygen and nitrogen. The hydriodate 
 of potass is composed of hydriodic acid, which consists of hydrogen and iodine, 
 and potassium in the state of an oxide. Now, when these substances are united, 
 the oxygen and nitrogen of the nitric acid combine with the oxygen and potassium, 
 forming nitrate of potass; the iodine of the hydriodic acid combines with the lead, 
 and forms iodide of lead; while the hydrogen of the hydriodic acid unites with 
 the oxygen of the lead, and forms water. This is an interesting example of the 
 mutual decomposition of substances, and the production of new compounds by the 
 action of chemical affinities ; and will explain to the reader, the principles by 
 which the chemist is able to ascertain the effects that will he produced by the 
 union of two or more compound substances, by a knowledge of their affinities, 
 and the proportions in which they unite. 
 
 Chrome Yellow.— The rich pigment known in commerce as chrome yellow, 
 is a chromate of lead. This substance is, as its name imports, a chemical com¬ 
 bination of lead with chromic acid. Now, before we attempt to explain the 
 nature, physical properties, and uses of this compound, it will be necessary that 
 the chemical characteristics of the substances from which it is procured should be 
 thoroughly understood. 
 
 Chromate of iron is the mineral from which chromium, the oxides of chrome, 
 and the chromates, are most readily and economically procured. It is a natural 
 salt of iron, and is found in considerable quantities in a rock called serpentine, on 
 the Caii hills near Baltimore, at Portsoy in Banffshire, and in the islands of 
 Unst and Fetlar in Scotland. Its constituent parts, according to Haiiy, are, 
 oxide of iron 34.7, oxide of chrome 43, alumina 20.3, and silica 2. Another 
 variety of the chromate of iron is found in Siberia, and consists, according to the 
 analysis of Laugeir, of oxide of iron 34, oxide of chrome 53, alumina 11, silica 
 1, and 1 of manganese. 
 
 Chromium exists in nature combined with many other substances besides iron. 
 It is found in a mineral called the red lead ore of Siberia. It has also been 
 detected in the emerald; indeed, it is to the presence of the oxide of chrome that 
 
75 
 
 washed from the caustic soda, it is placed in vessels for calcination, and heat is 
 gradually applied, until it assumes a fine yellow colour. This pigment is per¬ 
 manent, and was much used before the discovery of chrome. It is very bright, 
 and possesses much body. If fused, and allowed to cool slowly, it forms beautiful 
 striated crystals, which, view'ed in a proper light, are richly resplendent with 
 colour. 
 
 Naples Yellow. —The preparation of this colour was for many years kept a 
 profound secret; and the larger quantity of the pigment brought into the market 
 was manufactured by a Neapolitan, from which circumstance it derives its name. 
 In Italy it is called gialloline. It is a compound of the oxide of lead, antimony, 
 and zinc. Ure gives the following formula: Twelve parts of metallic antimony 
 are to he calcined in a reverberatory furnace, along with eight parts of red lead, 
 and four parts of the oxide of zinc. These mixed oxides, being well rubbed 
 together, are to be fused, and the mass is to be then broken down into a fine 
 powder. The hue is rich, fresh, and brilliant; but like most other yellows 
 of metallic base, its use has been nearly superseded by that of chrome. 
 
 M. Merimee, in his excellent work on painting in oil, states, that he has re¬ 
 ceived from M. Guimet, the inventor of the artificial ultramarine, a specimen of 
 the yellow of antimony, which has a fine golden tint, more intense than that of 
 Naples yellow. The formula for its preparation is: antimoniate of potass, or 
 diaphoretic antimony, carefully washed, one part; pure minium, two parts. 
 These ingredients must be carefully mixed, and ground upon a marble slab to 
 the consistence of paste, which when dried is reduced to powder, and exposed to 
 a moderate heat, kept within a temperature that will not disengage the oxygen of 
 the lead and antimony, for a period of four or five hours. No doubt is enter¬ 
 tained of the durability of this colour. 
 
 M. Guimet is of opinion that a colour of equal quality might be produced from 
 the deutoxide of antimony and the oxide of lead, as the potass probably serves 
 no other purpose than that of completely oxidizing the antimony, which is indis¬ 
 pensable to the formation of the colour. 
 
 Iodide of Lead. —The iodide of lead is a rich and brilliant yellow pigment, 
 but has not yet been employed to any extent in the arts, and the expense which 
 must always attend its manufacture will probably prevent its general use by the 
 house painter. In the higher class of decorations, however, and in works of art, 
 it will probably be found to possess some advantages over other yellows in point 
 
' t-’ t-(P "yjUjgf 
 
78 
 
 more. Chromium and potass also unite in another proportion, forming a salt 
 which is called the bi-chromate of potass, which is formed of 13 of chromic acid 
 and 6 of potass. The crystals of the bi-chromate of potass are of an exceedingly 
 heautifiil dark orange colour, formed in square tables with bevelled edges, a flat, 
 four-sided prism. It may be easily produced by adding diluted nitric acid to a 
 concentrated solution of the chromate of potass. An orange precipitate will be 
 formed, which dissolves when the temperature of the liquor is raised, and on 
 cooling crystallizes in the forms above described. This salt is remarkable for the 
 regulanty and boldness of its crystals, as well as the splendour of its colour, and 
 elegant and pleasing ornaments may be formed of it if crystallized on shapes.’ It 
 
 IS from this salt we obtain, in the readiest manner, the useful pigment called 
 chrome yellow. 
 
 The reader will now be prepared to understand the manufacture of this salt on 
 a arge scale. A quantity of the best chromate of iron must be first obtained; 
 and It IS worthy of remark that the variety which is richest in chrome may be 
 istinguished by the uneven vitreous appearance it presents when broken, and by 
 Its somewhat metallic lustre. Its colour is between steel grey and iron black; 
 but It looked at in an oblique position it should have a violet bronze hue, which 
 m mates its richness. Those pieces which appear slaty and dull should be re¬ 
 jected, as the use of them would not recompense the chemist for the manufac¬ 
 ture of the bi-chromate of potass, the salt he is supposed to require. The 
 chromate of iron being suitably chosen, must be reduced to a fine powder and 
 sifted, and afterwards mixed with about one third of its weight of the nitrate of 
 potass, which IS the saltpetre of commerce. The perfect mixture of these substances 
 a matter of great importance, for the decomposition which is required would 
 otherwise be only partial, and a great loss of time, of expense, and of product 
 
 flowerpots are filled with the mixture, and are severally inverted in pairs, one 
 he top of the other. These pots are then carefully packed in rows, generally 
 
 twen y. An equal number are then piled upon the top of these, and so on until 
 
 ptcedZVe “™ber of ^lots. A layer of charcoal is 
 
 Lefulirnaek 7" Ti. 7 and on this the pots are 
 
 on the e being luted 
 
 communicator ih draught hole, and the heat is speedily 
 
 0 he coke, so that in a short time the whole is brought to an 
 
77 
 
 the gem owes its resplendent colour. In various aerolites, or meteoric stones, it 
 
 has also been detected. r , ■ a 
 
 Vauquelin, an eminent French chemist, was the discoverer of chromium and 
 
 most of its combinations. He was first led to suspect the presence of this then 
 unknown substance in an aerolite, but did not at the time accurately define its 
 characters. Being subsequently engaged in the analysis of the emerald, he again 
 met with results similar in many respects to those he had before observed when 
 analyzing the meteoric stone. This caused him to investigate more accurately 
 the origin of these appearances, and he at last discovered that the emerald owed 
 its colour to the oxide of a new metal, to which he assigned the name chromium, 
 from the Greek word colour. 
 
 Chromium has not yet been found native in a metallic state. It is a metal 
 which has a great affinity for oxygen, with which it combines in various propor¬ 
 tions forming oxides. Its first combination is the protoxide, composed, according 
 to Berzelius, of chromium, 100, and oxygen, 42.633, which being reduced to his 
 atomic numbers is represented by 351.82 of the metal + 150 oxygen == 501.82. 
 Of this substance, which is very important in manufactures, we shall have 
 occasion to speak more fully when describing the green colours. The deutoxide 
 of chromium, which is the next combination of the metal with oxygen is a bnl- 
 hant brown powder, and, according to Berzelius, is formed of 100 metal -i- 56.8^4 
 oxygen, and by his formulse appears to consist of two atoms of chiomium 
 
 351.82 X 2 = 703.64 + 4 oxygen = 400. 
 
 The third combination of chromium and oxygen is termed the tritoxide. 1 
 combines with most of the salifiable bases, and forms a genus of salts termed 
 chromates. Berzelius gives its prime equivalent 6.5, which consists of 3.5 
 
 chromium, and 3.0 oxygen. , . . 
 
 Having examined the nature of chromium, and its combinations with oxygen, 
 
 and having found that the tritoxide acts as an acid, combines with various bases, 
 and forms the salts termed chromates, we must now proceed to investigate the 
 most important of its combinations, or at least those which have relation to the 
 
 manufacture of colours. , 
 
 The salt which first claims our attention is the chromate of potass, a combina¬ 
 tion of chromic acid and potass, which unite in the following proportions: chromic 
 acid 6.5, potash 6 = 12.5. This salt is capable of crystallization, and assumes 
 the form of a four-sided prism terminated by dihedral summits; its co oui is a 
 bright yellow, and its taste cooling and metallic. Water, at a temperature of 60 
 degrees, dissolves about half its weight of this salt, and boiling water consi era y 
 
80 
 
 canary colour are chiefly composed of it, with a slight admixture of the 
 
 of the same metal. The hi-chromate of lead may be formed by boiling a solution 
 
 of chromate of potass on carbonate of lead, a constant agitation being kept up. 
 
 It is of a full red colour, and has great body. 
 
 We cannot leave this subject without noticing the extraordinary directions or 
 the manufacture of the chromate of lead, in a work which bears the name of 
 Professor Tingry of Geneva. The student is there told to commence his opera¬ 
 tions by dissolving two pounds of the chromate of iron in water. Many have, 
 we do not doubt, made the attempt, and all, we are sure, have failed, for it is a 
 
 substance which is insoluble in water. 
 
 It is scarcely to be supposed that such a direction could have been given by a 
 chemist so eminent as Professor Tingry, but is, probably, the emendation of some 
 ignorant or careless person, who has taken upon himself the task of making 
 “ additions and improvements.” 
 
 It is worthy of notice, that the hue of the chromate of lead will vary from a 
 fine clear yellow to that of an orange, according to the temperature of the water 
 in which the precipitate is made. The finest yellows are generally produced from 
 the nitrate of lead. The lighter shades may be obtained by mixing a solution of 
 alum or sulphuric acid with the chromate of potass, before it is added to the 
 solution of lead. The orange colours are best obtained when the chromate of 
 potass is in the neutral state, or that of a subchromate. 
 
 The chrome yellow is not considered to be a permanent colour, and the greater 
 the proportion of oxide of lead contained in it, the less the probability of its 
 remaining unchanged. By the admixture of alumina, however, it is rendered far 
 more permanent. 
 
 The introduction of the chrome yellow as a colour in house painting has been 
 attended with many advantages. Before this colour was known, the ochres were 
 chiefly employed, which are not only inferior in tint, but much larger quantities 
 are required to produce the same effect. Many of our readers will remember the 
 time when one or two men were constantly employed by the tradesman in 
 grinding ochres, and preparing other materials, which are now delivered into his 
 hands by the manufacturer fit for immediate use. These advantages have been 
 derived from the successful application of chemistry to the production of new 
 colours, and the improvement of those before known. Nor is it to be forgotten 
 that, while these improvements have been made, cheapness has also been an 
 object, so that, as is well known to the house painter, a penny expended for the 
 chrome yellow will do as much work as a shilling’s worth of ochre. 
 
79 
 
 intense heat. The damper is opened or shut according to circumstances, so as 
 to secure a proper temperature, which should be continued for about six hours. 
 When sufficiently cold, the pots are taken out of the furnace, and their contents 
 removed. The substance thus produced consists of chromate of potass, oxide of 
 iron, alumina, and silex. 
 
 The next process is to extract the chromate of potass, which is done in the 
 following manner: The masses removed from the pots are first roughly powdered, 
 and lixiviated with hot water, until no tinge of yellow can be observed. The 
 lixiviations are concentrated by evaporation, and on cooling, yellow crystals of the 
 chromate of potass are formed. The method of procuring the bi-chromate has 
 been already explained. 
 
 The chromate of potass being obtained, the chromate of lead is easily prepared; 
 for it is the result of a double decomposition, which cannot fail to be effected when 
 the substances are presented to each other. A perfectly clear and pure solution 
 of the acetate of lead is poured, by degrees, into a clear solution of chromate of 
 potass; and to secure the perfect mixture of the two substances, they are kept 
 for some time in a state of agitation. A fine yellow precipitate is immediately 
 thrown down, and this is the chromate of lead; the acetic and chromic acids 
 having exchanged bases, the acetic acid of the lead combining with the potass, 
 and the chromic acid combining with the lead, so that by this mutual decomposi¬ 
 tion two new compounds are formed, viz., acetate of potass, and chromate of lead, 
 as shown in the following table; 
 
 Acetate of Lead. 
 Chromate of Potass. 
 
 The samples of chrome yellow brought into the market vary greatly in intensity 
 and in hue, presenting all the various tints from a deep orange to a pale canary, 
 and are accordingly distinguished in commerce. Those varieties which have a 
 reddish yellow or deep orange, colour are nearly pure chromates of lead, or are 
 mixed with the bi-chromate of lead; those hues which have a less intensity con¬ 
 tain a large proportion of the carbonate of lead, while those which have a 
 
82 
 
 In Saxony it has been made in large quantities. A due proportion of sulphur 
 and arsenic are placed in an iron vessel, mounted with a conical head, and the 
 mixture is sublimed. Thus prepared, it is found in masses of a glassy appearance, 
 of a lemon colour. 
 
 SuLPHURET OF Cadmium. —THs pigment resembles orpiment in its colour. 
 It may be obtained by precipitating a solution of cadmium with sulphuretted 
 hydrogen gas, or an alkaline hydrosulphuret. It is said that the colour may be 
 used without fear of any change, which will greatly recommend it to the artist, 
 if this statement he found correct. Orpiment cannot be used with any pigment 
 which has lead for its base, for the sulphur which is in combination with the 
 arsenic has less affinity for that metal than for lead, so that, when these substances 
 are brought into contact, a sulphuret of lead is formed, which is, as already 
 stated, of a dark, greyish colour. The same, we fear, would be the result if the 
 sulphuret of cadmium and a preparation of lead were used together. This fact 
 detracts from the value of the pigment; hut it is still useful, and can be 
 employed for many purposes, its peculiar character being borne in mind. 
 
 II. The Yellows ohtained from Vegetable Matter. 
 
 Many vegetable substances, such as turmeric, woad, and French berries, have 
 the property of giving their colouring matter to chalky and aluminous earths. 
 These pigments are various in hue, shade, and brilliancy, and are very important 
 in nearly all applications of the art of colouring. Some are fugacious; but there 
 are others which resist the action of light, and heat at ordinary temperatures, for 
 a considerable period of time. We shall endeavour to describe the preparation 
 and uses of the most important of these colours. 
 
 Indian Yellow.— This pigment is prepared from the colouring matter of a 
 large shrub, called memecylon tinctorum, a native of Bengal. It is manufactured 
 at Calcutta, and is a brilliant yellow lake of considerable durability. 
 
 Gamboge. This substance is a gum resin, and is imported into Europe 
 from the East Indies. It has long been used as a water colour, and is found to 
 have considerable durability. There is some difficulty in making it miscible in 
 oils, but this is done, and by some artists it is used, although common opinion is 
 decidedly against it, as it is supposed to darken with age. It is, however, exten- 
 
81 
 
 The Ochres. —The ochres are natural productions, being found in mineral 
 masses, frequently several feet in thickness, and chiefly consist of argillaceous 
 matter coloured by iron, in various states of combination. The iron generally 
 appears as a hydrate, or, in other vrords, as an oxide combined with water. When 
 the ochres are analyzed, they are commonly found to consist of alumina and silica, 
 with the colouring matter, and sometimes a trace of magnesia. They vary in 
 colour from a pale, sandy yellow to a brownish red; hut the greater the proportion 
 of clay the brighter will be the colour. To prepare them for the use of the 
 painter, they are ground under millstones, and the finer parts are separated from 
 the grosser by washing. Spanish brown, Indian red, Venetian red, and the 
 yellow ochres, have nearly the same composition, the difference of colour arising 
 from the state in which the iron is combined with the other constituent parts. 
 The red varieties are coloured by the peroxide or carbonate of iron. The yellow 
 ochres become red when calcined; but the finest reds are made from those which 
 are brown in the bed. 
 
 The ochres are, in commerce, divided into two classes, the yellow and the red. 
 We have thought it desirable, for the assistance of the painter, to form a classifi¬ 
 cation in this chapter, founded upon the colours, and not upon the bases ot 
 pigments; and although there is but little difference in the composition of the 
 ochres of different colours, it will be desirable to retain this arrangement, which 
 may be done without invading the unity of the subject. 
 
 The yellow ochres are principally used as distemper colours, though some of 
 them have been extensively employed in oil painting, and are still preferred to 
 all other colours for the imitation of wainscot and some light woods. The several 
 varieties of ochre are distinguished by different names, such as the Dutch, 
 English, Bristol, and Oxford. 
 
 Umbre .—The name umbre, given to a variety of ochre, is derived from Umbria, 
 a place in Italy, where it is found; the best specimens of this substance, however, 
 are brought from Turkey and the island of Cyprus. It is said to contain 
 manganese, as well as argillaceous earth and iron. 
 
 Orpiment. —This is a pigment which is found perfectly formed in its native 
 state, generally crystallized in oblique, rhomboidal prisms. That variety called 
 golden orpiment is chiefly brought from Persia, in yellow masses of lamellar 
 texture, and possessing great brilliance. It is composed of sulphur and arsenic, 
 and was known to the Homans, who called it auripigmentum, of which its present 
 name is a corruption. Much of that brought into the market is manufactured. 
 
 Y 
 
84 
 
 them from the acquisition of more valuable substances. To this mineral they 
 consequently gave the name cobalt, and so little were the properties of the now 
 valuable metal known, and so little was it esteemed, that it was employed for 
 mending the roads in the neighbourhood of the mines. 
 
 In the year 1802, M. Thenard was desired by Count Chaptal, then Minister of 
 the Interior, to direct his attention to such investigations as might tend to improve 
 the manufacture of colour. Among other important discoveries, he succeeded in 
 forming a beautiful blue colour from the combination of the phosphate of cobalt 
 and alumina, which still bears his name. The following formula is given by its 
 inventor for its manufacture: To a solution of the phosphate of soda, add a 
 solution of the nitrate of cobalt, and a mutual decomposition will follow, the 
 nitrate of soda in solution, and the phosphate of cobalt as a precipitate. Let this 
 precipitate he then mixed with eight times its weight of gelatinous alumina, after 
 which spread the compound in thin layers on plates, and when dry reduce it to 
 powder. When it has been exposed to a red heat for half an hour in a covered 
 crucible, it will on cooling possess a brilliance of colouring almost equal to 
 ultramarine. If the colour should not have a sufficiently vivid hue, it denotes that 
 a portion of the oxygen from the cobalt has been driven off. To correct this 
 fault, reduce it again to powder, and mixing with it a small portion of the tritoxide 
 or red oxide of mercury, submit it to the action of a strong heat. It may be 
 desirable to state, that the gelatinous alumina is prepared by precipitating a 
 solution of alum with carbonate of soda. 
 
 The cobalt blue is a beautiful colour, and in permanence only inferior to the 
 ultramarine. It works well both in water and in oil. 
 
 Smalt. Smalt is a beautiful blue pigment, frequently possessing a richness 
 and lustre of hue little inferior to ultramarine. It consists of glass stained by the 
 oxide of cobalt, and afterwards ground to an impalpable powder. In the improved 
 methods of manufacture, the silicate of cobalt is used for staining glass, and 
 also for painting on earthenware. It may be formed by double decomposition 
 from the silicate of copper and sulphate of cobalt. To form the sulphate of 
 cobalt, take the common cobalt ore, and roast it gradually until it cease to give 
 off fumes, an impure, black oxide will remain. Mix this substance with con¬ 
 centrated sulphuric acid, and form it into a paste. Then expose it to a moderate 
 heat, and raise the temperature gradually until it is at a cherry red, in which 
 state it must be kept for about an hour. The sulphate thus obtained must be 
 powdered, dissolved in water, and filtered. A solution of the carbonate of potass 
 
83 
 
 
 sively employed in lacquering, and by gilders in colouring their size. It dissolves 
 in spirits of wine, forming a deep, orange red solution. In this state it stains 
 marble of a beautiful citron yellow colour. The extract of gamboge is the 
 gamboge precipitated from the spirituous solution by the addition of water.. 
 
 The Yellow Lakes. —The yellow lakes are tinctures of vegetable substances, 
 combined with aluminous or calcareous earth as a base. Their characters differ 
 according to the nature of the vegetable matter employed as the colouring- 
 substance. Turmeric yields a colour which is very fugacious. It is prepared by 
 treating the root with a solution of soda or potass; the solution is then filtered, 
 and a solution of alum is added as long as any precipitate falls : the Hquid being 
 poured off, the precipitate is washed, and formed into small pyramidal buttons 
 by pressing it, in a pasty state, through the stem of a funnel, with a piece of stick. 
 This colour is much used in distemper and in paper staining. Excellent yellow, 
 lakes are made from quercitron bark and broom flower. Of the other yellow 
 lakes it is not necessary to speak, as they are all formed in nearly the same 
 manner. It may be worthy of remark that if a solution of tin be employed in the 
 manufacture of the yellow lakes, the colour will incline to a lemon hue, and when 
 the acetate of copper is employed, a greenish hue will be obtained. 
 
 THE BLUES. 
 
 The blues are an interesting class of colours; for the manufacturer has suc¬ 
 ceeded in producing them with an extraordinary degree of richness and intensity. 
 They are not very numerous, and can be easily produced in small quantities by 
 the student; a course of study we should strongly recommend to all who are 
 anxious for an acquaintance with the manufacture of colours, for it will be found 
 that more information will be derived from a series of experiments than from 
 many books. 
 
 Thenakd’s, or Cobalt Blue.— Many of the mineral blues are exceedingly 
 rich, but none are more important to the painter than those which derive their 
 colour from cobalt. This metal does not receive its name from any known 
 property, but from an old German superstition. The miners of that country 
 believe in the existence of a demon of the mines, whom they call Cobalus. It 
 was the pleasure and business of this fiend to thwart the efforts of the miners, 
 and among other freaks he was supposed to throw down large masses of a mystical 
 and intractable ore, for the purpose of creating impediments, and of preventing 
 

86 
 
 for use in any situation where a permanent colour is required. The verditer 
 obtained from the mineral already mentioned does not retain its colour, hut 
 frequently assumes a greenish hue both in oil and water. 
 
 M. Pelletier has given, in the Annales de Chimie,* several processes for the 
 manufacture of blue verditer; hut the one we have described is preferable to any 
 other. The beauty and intensity of the colour depend upon the judicious admix¬ 
 ture of the quick lime and the precipitate. As a distemper colour for inferior 
 work, it may be employed with advantage as a cheap pigment, hut is quite unfit 
 for use as an oil colour. 
 
 Ultramarine. —This colour is so brilliant, that any attempt to describe it 
 would fail, for no phraseology can give an idea of its peculiar refulgence. In the 
 presence of all other blues, it seems to be possessed of an internal fire, and 
 glows with a radiance which mocks every other colour. The purer sorts of 
 ultramarine have a positive redness, which, however, does not appear in the body 
 itself, but seems to radiate around it, and is probably caused by some peculiar 
 action of the colour upon the retina of the eye. This is still more extraordinary 
 when we consider its composition; for it is found to consist of alumina, silex, soda, 
 and sulphur, and, therefore, is not even a metallic compound, unless the sulphur 
 be in combination with the metallic bases of the earths we have named, forming 
 sulphurets of those metalloids. 
 
 Ultramarine is produced from a mineral called lapis lazuli, or lazulite, a stone 
 found in China, Persia, and Great Bucharia. It is a variegated blue mineral, 
 and has white and gold coloured veins like some marbles, and bears a high polish., 
 According to Klaproth, it consists of 46 parts of silica, 14.5 of alumina, 28 of 
 carbonate of lime, 6.5 of lime, 3 of oxide of iron, and 2 of water. But according 
 to the analysis of MM. Clement and Desormes, it consists of silica 34, alumina 
 33, sulphur 3, soda 22. Iron, carbonate of lime, and other substances, were 
 detected by these chemists, but were not supposed to enter into combination with 
 the other minerals as component parts, but to be accidentally mixed. 
 
 From the lazulite the ultramarine is prepared in the following manner: The 
 stone is first broken to pieces, and the white veins are separated as much as 
 possible. Those parts which have the finest colour are then collected, and being 
 brought to a red heat in a crucible are thrown into cold water. The stone being 
 thus prepared for grinding, the fragments are removed from the water, and reduced 
 to an impalpable powder in an iron mortar. It is then passed through a fine 
 
 * Vol. XIII. p. 47. 
 
85 
 
 must then be gradually added to separate any remaining portion of the oxide of 
 iron, and the remaining solution will contain the sulphate of cobalt. 
 
 The silicate of potass is prepared in the following manner: Ten parts of 
 potass are carefiilly mixed with fifteen parts of finely ground flints or sand, and 
 one part of powdered charcoal. The mixture is melted in a crucible of brick 
 clay, an operation which requires steady ignition for five or six hours. The mass 
 when melted and pulverized may be easily dissolved in boiling water, by adding a 
 little at a time of the glass, which should be previously ground. The filtered 
 solution is colourless. 
 
 The precipitate formed by the mi.xture of the two solutions is the silicate of 
 cobalt, a substance admirably suited for painting on porcelain. 
 
 Egyptian Azure.— In the Philosophical Transactions for 1815, Sir Humphry 
 Davy has described the composition of a colour which he calls Egyptian azure. 
 It may be produced by the following process: Take fifteen parts by weight of 
 carbonate of soda, twenty of powdered opaque flints, and three of copper filings. 
 These must be heated together in a strong fire for about two hours. The mass 
 when powdered produces a fine deep sky blue, similar to the blue used by the 
 ancient artists of Egypt and Italy. It is generally supposed to be a permanent 
 colour, and to be fit for use either in distemper or oil; but some artists doubt the 
 propriety of employing it with oil. It derives its name from the colour employed 
 by the Egyptians on the walls of their temples, and on the mummy cases. Count 
 Chaptal discovered it in a shop at Pompeii. The Egyptian blue of modern times 
 has not the permanence of character of that manufactured by the ancients. It is 
 said that a great improvement has been made in the manufacture of this colour, 
 by mixing powdered glass, coloured by copper green, with nitrate of potass, and 
 then submitting it to a strong heat, but of a temperature not sufficient to melt it. 
 The colour thus produced is a brilliant light blue; but if the substances should 
 be combined by fusion, a green colour would be produced. 
 
 Verditer.— The blue verditer is supposed to be made from a mineral called 
 the lapis armenus, found in the Hungarian mountains ; but the larger quantity of 
 that sold in the market is a preparation of chalk coloured with copper, and is 
 utterly useless. This factitious pigment is formed by adding nitrate of copper in 
 solution to a solution of pure lime. By the mixture of these two substances, a 
 blue precipitate is thrown down, and this, when dried, is ground with lime, and 
 sold as blue verditer. It is sometimes used by the house painter; but it is unfit 
 
 z 
 
88 
 
 been tested by many eminent chemists, and has been spoken of as one by which 
 an ultramarine scarcely inferior to that of the lazulite can be obtained, although 
 some modifications are thought desirable by the manufacturer. 
 
 Prussian Blue.— This pigment is a compound of Prussic acid, potass, and 
 iron. It is of a dark, intense, and clear blue colour, and may be readily produced 
 by decomposing the prussiate of potass with a salt of iron, generally the sulphate. 
 It is extensively employed in the arts; but although a powerful colour, is inferior 
 in permanence, as in all other qualities, to ultramarine, and becomes darker in 
 both oil and water. 
 
 Prussian blue was discovered in the year 1704 by accident. One Diesbach a 
 manufacturer, when precipitating a solution of alum to obtain a white powder as 
 a base for lake, used some potass given to him by Dippel, by whom it had been 
 rectified with animal oil, and, instead of producing a white precipitate, collected 
 one that was blue. Dippel being informed of this result, commenced an ex¬ 
 amination of the cause, and at last succeeded in the manufacture of Prussian blue- 
 but the process was for a long time kept secret. In the year 1724, it was dis¬ 
 covered by Woodward, and by him made known to the public. 
 
 The Prussian blue is manufactured in the following manner: The first step 
 in the process is to manufacture the prussiate of potass, which is done by fusing 
 the potass of commerce with blood or some other refuse of animal substance; 
 equal parts of potass and dried blood are generally thought preferable. When 
 these are thoroughly mixed by fusion, in pots prepared for the purpose, being 
 brought to a red heat and pasty consistence, the mass is removed from the pots 
 and allowed to cool. About eight parts of water are then poured on the fused 
 matter, and the solution, when filtered, will be of a yellow colour, and is an 
 impure solution of the prussiate of potass. Another solution is then formed, for 
 which two parts of alum and one of sulphate of iron are employed. These are 
 dissolved in about eight or ten parts of water, and the mixture is filtered or 
 allowed to settle. On mixing these two solutions together, a double decomposi¬ 
 tion ensues; the iron combines with the prussic acid of the prussiate of potass, 
 and the sulphuric acid of the sulphate of iron combines with the potass of the 
 prussiate, forming a sulphate of potass, while the prussiate of iron, or Prussian 
 blue, is thrown down, the sulphate of potass being held in solution. On the 
 other hand, a similar decomposition occurs with the alum, and the superabundant 
 carbonate of potass existing mixed with the solution of the prussiate of potass. 
 By this means, a sulphate of potass is formed, and the alumina or base of the 
 
87 
 
 sieve, and ground with water upon a porphyry slab. When dry, the powder thus 
 produced is incorporated with a resinous compound formed of 40 parts of rosin, 
 20 of white wax, 25 of linseed oil, and 15 of Burgundy pitch. The powder 
 and resinous compound are united in such proportions that a pliant paste is 
 produced. These substances being united by heat are poured when in a 
 melted state into cold water, and well kneaded, and when formed into rolls, 
 are removed to another vessel of cold water, where they remain about a fort¬ 
 night. The paste is then pressed in a close vessel of water, and the blue 
 powder of the lazulite being separated falls to the bottom of the vessel. This 
 process is continued in fresh water as long as any colour can he extracted; hut the 
 colour first obtained is of course the most brilliant and most valuable. The 
 powders thus procured are then thoroughly washed in successive waters to remove 
 any impurities, and especially any portion of resinous matter; they are then 
 digested in alcohol, and should there be any reason to believe that any portion 
 still remains, it may he removed by digestion with ether. 
 
 When no more colour can he abstracted by the use of cold water, the resinous 
 mass is slightly alkalised with soda, at a temperature of about a hundred and 
 fifty degrees, and colour is again produced; but the powder thus obtained is much 
 inferior to that collected by former processes. This is called in commerce, 
 ultramarine ashes. 
 
 The ultramarine of commerce is frequently adulterated with cohalt or Prussian 
 blue; but it is easy to ascertain whether any specimen presented for sale he pure; 
 for although it can hear a red heat without losing its rich hue, the application of 
 acids is instantly followed by a deprivation of all colour. To test the purity of 
 this substance, it is, therefore, only necessary to throw upon it a small quantity 
 of nitre, and if it he unadulterated, the colour will he destroyed, and a yellowish- 
 grey, earthy matter wdll he left. 
 
 It was long supposed that the rich colour of the ultramarine was occasioned 
 by the presence of iron; hut MM. Clement and Desormes, in their experiments, 
 succeeded in producing ultramarine in which iron was not found. 
 
 In consequence of a premium of 6000 francs, offered in France by the Society 
 for Promoting Discussions in Science, for a process of making an artificial 
 ultramarine, equal to that produced from the lazulite, the attention of chemists 
 was drawn to the subject, and the work has been successfully accomplished by 
 M. Guimet, who has received the prize, and at the same time by M. Gmelin, 
 who has published his process in the Annales de Chimie.* This process has 
 
 * Tome XXXVII. p. 411. 
 
90 
 
 1. The Reds obtained from Mineral Substances. 
 
 Cinnabar, or Vermilion. —Cinnabar is a native red sulphuret of mercury, 
 and has a bright scarlet colour. It is found in the quicksilver mines of Hungary, 
 Saxony, Bavaria, and Almaden in Spain, it is also brought from China, Japan, 
 and Mexico. 
 
 The same substance, when produced by artificial means, is called vermilion, 
 and is extensively used in the manufacture of sealing wax, and in small quantities 
 as a pigment. It is formed, by gradually adding to one part of sulphur, five or 
 six parts of mercury. This mixture takes a blackish hue, and is called ethiops, 
 or the black sulphuret of mercury; but when reduced to powder and sublimed, 
 it becomes a brownish red crystallized mass, which is the bisulphuret of mercury. 
 AVhen reduced to a powder, it assumes a scarlet colour. Upon the application 
 of a moderate heat, it will evaporate without leaving a residuum, a fact which 
 will be found useful in an attempt to ascertain whether it has been adulterated 
 by red lead. 
 
 This method of producing vermilion is exceedingly simple, but it has been 
 found that when it is reduced to a fine powder by grinding, something more is 
 required to give it that bright tone possessed by the Chinese vermilion. What 
 this process should be is not to the present moment decided. Some manufacturers 
 grind the powder with urine, and then boil it for a considerable time. Some 
 treat it with nitric acid and.dhus, for want of a precise information as to the 
 change to be produced, each person adopts some favourite method of his own. 
 
 The Dutch have been long celebrated for the superiority of the vermilion 
 manufactured by them, and notwithstanding every attempt which has been made 
 to produce a substance of equal colour by other nations, especially the French, 
 it is scarcely to be denied that their manufacture is to be preferred. It may 
 therefore be interesting to state the process said to be adopted in Holland, as 
 published by M. Tuckert, apothecary to the Dutch Court, in one of the early 
 volumes of the Annales de Chimie. 
 
 “ The establishment in which I saw, several times, the fabrication of sublimed 
 sulphuret of mercury, was that of Mr. Brand at Amsterdam, beyond the gate of 
 Utrecht; it is one of the most considerable in Holland, producing annually from 
 three furnaces, by means of four workmen, 48,000 pounds of cinnabar, beside 
 other mercurial preparations. The following process is pursued here; —The 
 ethiops is first prepared by mixing together 150 pounds of sulphur with 1080 
 pounds of pure mercury, and exposing this mixture to a red heat in a flat polished 
 iron pot, one foot deep, and two feet and a half in diameter. It never takes fire. 
 
89 
 
 alum is precipitated. These two precipitates, prussiate of iron and alumina, 
 being produced at the same instant of time, are intimately mixed, and together 
 form a substance of a brilliant and intense blue colour, which is the Prussian 
 blue of commerce: and which, when washed and dried, is fit for the use of the 
 painter. In purchasing Prussian blue, the painter will find the advantage of 
 knowing that it should he light in the hand, and adhere to the tongue. It is, 
 like all other pigments, much adulterated by the manufacturer. If it effervesce 
 when touched with an acid, chalk has been introduced; if it become pasty in 
 boiling water, it has been adulterated with starch. The finer sorts, when rubbed 
 gently by a polished surface, present a reddish hue, approaching to the colour of 
 copper, and have a metallic lustre. 
 
 Blue Ashes. —This pigment is a hydrated carbonate of copper, and is used 
 in decorative painting, but is by no means permanent. The first process in the 
 preparation of this colour is the precipitation of a solution of copper by the 
 carbonate of potass. To effect this, some care is required; for if the tempera¬ 
 ture be too high, the precipitate will be crystallized, and if too low, pale and 
 pasty. In this manner a carbonate of copper is formed, which will be of a green 
 colour. The next process is to convert it into the blue pigment. To effect this, 
 take two pounds of good quicklime, and having slaked it, and brought it to the 
 consistence of milk, add ten ounces of sal ammoniac in a state of powder, and 
 mix them thoroughly by stirring. This must be allowed to stand until it has 
 cooled, when about four and twenty pounds of the carbonate of copper should he 
 added. The mixture must then stand for a day, and the precipitate may be washed 
 and dried. The temperature of the compound during the operation is of the 
 greatest importance; for, should it be raised too high, the hydrate would be decom¬ 
 posed, and a black oxide be formed. 
 
 THE REDS. 
 
 Having explained the manufacture of the yellow and blue colours, we have 
 next, in following out our design of taking the primitive before the secondary- 
 colours, to consider the several varieties of the red pigments brought into the 
 market for the use of the artists. These are produced from mineral, vegetable, 
 and animal substances, and will be described under two classes, first, those which 
 derive their colouring matter from mineral substances, and secondly, those which 
 are obtained from vegetable or animal matter. 
 
 2 A 
 
92 
 
 As the mercurial vapour is exceedingly injurious to the workmen, every pre¬ 
 caution should .he taken in the construction of the shops, to secure a perfect 
 ventilation. A good current of air to the chimney, is of the utmost importance. 
 To prevent the workman from inhaling the vapour over the fire, it is desirable 
 to fit the glass rod with which the mixture is stirred to a long staff, and to add 
 the potass with a spoon of sufficient length to keep him away from the rising 
 vapour. 
 
 Vermilion is a valuable pigment, being, when pure, bright and permanent. 
 It is, however, too commonly adulterated with red lead, and ought, in all cases, 
 to be tested, which is best done by the application of heat, before it is used 
 by artists in works intended to outlive the passing day. The pure colour has 
 a more crimson tint than that which has been adulterated. 
 
 Periodide of Mercury has a scarlet colour, brighter than vermilion. 
 It is chiefly used in water colour painting, and is frequently called geranium 
 red. It is made from the iodide of zinc. To form this substance, place some 
 finely powdered zinc with iodine and distilled water in a mattrass, and by 
 a gentle heat' the iodine will be united to the mercury, forming an iodide of 
 that metal. To this add a solution of the perchloride of mercury, and a bright 
 coloured precipitate will he immediately thrown down, which is the perchloride 
 of mercury. This powder being well washed is fit for use. It is a vivid 
 scarlet colour, hut is not durable, and cannot be trusted. Mr. Fielding says, 
 that “ in tint it is almost too vivid for agreement with other colours, and the 
 artist will do well to avoid it, until a more certain preparation can he made.” 
 
 The Red Ochres, or Red Oxides of Iron. —The red ochres differ hut 
 little from the yellow in chemical composition; indeed, the former are chiefly 
 made by calcining the latter. The nature of the change is well exhibited 
 in the rust of iron, which has first a yellow tint, hut assumes a reddish hue 
 upon exposure to the air. The red ochres, which are more properly of a 
 brown red colour, are also found native, especially in ancient volcanic districts; 
 and these are prepared, like the yellows, by grinding and lixiviation. Rich 
 and beautiful varieties are found in Auvergne, in the South of France. They 
 also occur in districts which cannot he strictly called volcanic, and are found 
 in various parts of England, especially on the Mendip hills and in some localities 
 of Monmouthshire. It will he desirable to mention one or two varieties of the 
 red ochres of commerce. 
 
91 
 
 provided the workman understands his business. The black sulphuret, thus 
 prepared, is ground, to facilitate the filling with it of small earthen bottles 
 capable of holding about twenty-four ounces of water; and thirty or forty of 
 these bottles are filled beforehand to be ready when wanted. Three large 
 subliming pots or vessels, made of very pure clay and sand, are previously 
 coated over with a proper lute, and allowed to dry slowly. These pots are 
 set upon three furnaces hound with iron hoops, and they are covered with a 
 kind of iron dome. The furnaces are constructed so that the flame may 
 freely circulate and play upon the pots, over two thirds of their height. The 
 subliming pots having been set in their places, a moderate fire is kindled in 
 the evening, which is gradually augmented until the pots become red. A 
 bottle of the black sulphuret is then poured into the first of the series, next 
 into the second and third, in succession; but eventually, two, three, or even 
 more bottles may be emptied in at once; this circumstance depends on the 
 stronger or weaker combustion of the sulphuret of mercury thus projected. 
 After its introduction, the flame rises four and sometimes six feet high; when 
 it has diminished a little, the vessels are covered with a plate of iron, a foot 
 square, and an inch and a half thick, made to fit perfectly close. In this 
 manner, the whole materials which have been prepared, are introduced in the 
 course of thirty-four hours into the three pots; being for each pot three hundred 
 and sixty pounds of mercury and fifty of sulphur; in all four hundred and 
 ten pounds.” 
 
 During the process of sublimation, the mass is stirred about every quarter 
 of an hour. When the process is complete, the pots are broken to pieces, 
 to remove the vermilion encrusted upon them, generally amounting to about 
 four hundred pounds, so that there is a loss of about sixty pounds on each 
 vessel. The lumps are then ground with water between horizontal stones, 
 and the paste is pressed through sieves and dried. The rich tone of the 
 Chinese vermilion is obtained, by adding, before sublimation, one per cent of 
 the sulphuret of antimony, and by digesting the product, when ground, first 
 in a solution of the sulphuret of potass, and then in diluted muriatic acid. 
 
 A fine vermilion, it is said, has been obtained by Bucholz, by digesting 
 in a sand bath one part of sulphur with three parts of mercury, in six pints 
 of water, adding potass as may be required. The longer the heat is continued, 
 the more strong will be the carmine tint of the pigment. When the colour 
 required has been produced, the vermilion is thrown into a vessel of water 
 and washed, till all the sulphuret of potass is removed. 
 
;is . He tak«fc u» ibe cunsfia^sv^®** •«» ‘^' 
 
 • \“.Mi. ■ \ ^nf'f! ettt^ntM>f sir •_£► cbiin 
 
 Ihe ■‘'>'v!:;u.^rt 'ff(>r» inhaliacf rt}.’-.v> • r 
 r’,- .''.i; i Hid wtb «!:- .h tbe TOmur ■>■ n. ■• 
 
 !>ot’-5l'^h >: suo!'!: ■ ; «trf5ici.ent fenc' fi • !^e : 
 
 is a Taluabic pigiaeiit, :i»*ini^, ifhcn pure, --■ ■ 
 
 », too caBimonlv a(ljii^*ia(/ it withl Te<t lead-^r'- '-*5!* 
 
 \(f :. !,. wbicb-'is by i)t<- apphi'w’.iori of bt-v,?. v ./ir* li 
 
 iV •>'■■■■ Tfr-bs inteinlcd to outlive '.bi jv.s»ij!g day. ^Ihr; f - - 
 r fer-r.ior ?',!> than.th^vt «Mch ha-; Ik-gi. 
 
 ■|f};;;iODn.B ov Tlitacx'Rv Has' & toarbt c.ck ;r. bnj’.'t: .r-: . ’■ l 
 •Hf -M ’biiiVy ')f5f\‘ n wstcr t.-lc-'ir rr;:.i:iling,; Bnd i.s frrfjrciriiv '■>:■■ ■■•■ •■'•■ 
 
 f jt is biads- frsjja.-tbe iodi if To fo’rn sHis Ant- ' < - ■ ■ i 
 
 powdcTid lip' "'■llh kaii;,. .'mi i^Tlllcd Ti.-.tcr >r; ,. • ' 
 
 tic bca;.'tliq HaJia* “ill' i/f ubi.!’*; w liic. nerrury, it;:’ u:.. '. -i- ■ 
 
 irfial. ’I'n il'.ia ae .1 xuitiSion uf tH.f j>ir»i i.*:; _•» - • . 
 
 yf.d : ..'if.'Jj ih.:'--,li'v.-n. v.bid--■.^' ■ •.'■ ' 
 
 fe:: Hi:/ r "ff; Ivi.n:-’ —nil U.Jfhrtl ;; ff 'i . ' ^ 
 
 • * * * rt ^-birablf. .i.iu i.-ann V .’■ 1 : . - 
 
 ■ . ; r- ----(i !>)J“ Si ‘ . , :• 
 
 .% i t _‘*1 ’ bt;» • .i' •-• 
 
 t 
 
 . ; .rnrvf lJ. 
 
 ^ e^l, tli.j !i;;.i;.r riT* fliitiiv 
 
 . . ■ V* . at . rii.lT,?.' )h' ne'!* ' d 
 
 ‘Tl . ,' ■ ’ t'O'.. ,,;>t f-fc.'Hi'T'"-' " 'i ■ '"■. •■ 
 
 • h arc 'I.or-: r-v,'. , ii\ i a 
 
 >-■• -t)-- «>.. bill i.ir.fi iit'.'li 
 
 i' • SS •* «c t\y rv;!jtr; 'if I'; -. irf. 'I'htJ 
 
 -.Jyi-.-if. !;i-..-! ria- fcaimi 
 i.-'f'V-!:,. ' bi ftoi'x: loc9bu#» 
 
 i'ot vp.ricUe> oC ^jb*. r 
 
ifiSaifa 
 
94 
 
 This colour is not considered to have a requisite degree of permanence, and 
 is but little used by artists. 
 
 II. The Reds obtained from Animal and Vegetable Substances. 
 
 The pigments which consist of a colouring matter, derived from animal or 
 vegetable substances, combined with an earthy base, are known by the general 
 term lakes. The word seems to have been derived from lac, the substance 
 from which this class of colours was first made. The word lake when used 
 in a limited sense, may he said to signify that class of colours more commonly 
 known as crimsons, hut in its more general application it includes all colours 
 of an animal or vegetable origin, united to an earthy base. Some are green, 
 some yellow, and others red; the last mentioned are the most abundant, and 
 to them we shall in this place principally refer. 
 
 In the manufacture of the lakes the formation of the white body is to he 
 first considered. It usually consists of a pure alumina, hut a mixture of alumina 
 and chalk is sometimes employed. A simple mode is to dissolve alum in a 
 solution of the colouring matter. The precipitate is then formed by the addition 
 of soda or potass, the former is to be preferred. Care must be taken that the 
 alkali he not in excess, for a purplish hue will be given to the reds, and the 
 yellows will become orange or brown. 
 
 All the lakes, except the madders, may be said to want permanence. The 
 inferior lakes are made from Brazil wood, but a very rich and bright colour 
 may he obtained from this substance by the addition of ammonia. M. Merimee 
 is of opinion that Titian used this colour in the drapery of J oseph of Arimathea, 
 in the picture of the Entombing of Christ. Lac lake is more permanent than 
 that obtained from cochineal, and is supposed to have been used by many of 
 the ancient masters. A very bright scarlet lake is made by the addition of 
 vermilion to cochineal, but it is one of the least permanent colours, as may 
 be supposed from the known effect of lead on the cochineal dye. The kermes 
 has been used in dyeing purple and crimson, and many pieces of tapestry 
 prepared with this colour still retain much of their original brightness. It 
 has therefore been thought probable that a good lake might be made from 
 it, although not yet employed by the manufacturer. 
 
 Carmine is said to be the discovery of a Florentine monk, who being 
 engaged in the preparation of some medicine in which cochineal was used, 
 observed a bright red precipitate. For the sale of this as a colour, his convent 
 
93 
 
 Indian Red, or Persian Ochre. —This pigment varies greatly in tint, hut 
 is always more or less purple. It is a permanent colour, both in water and 
 oil, hut is too expensive for general use in house painting. In the Transactions 
 of the Society of Arts, (vol. 46,) an account is given of a red earth sold at 
 Quebec, at threepence per pound, which is said to be quite equal to Indian 
 red. It is obtained from the Magdalen island, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
 
 Venetian Red. —The Venetian red is obtained in the neighbourhood of Venice, 
 from which circumstance it derives its name. It is composed of argillaceous earth 
 and oxide of iron. It is a permanent and useful colour. 
 
 Terra de Sienna. —This pigment is brought from Sienna in Italy. It is a 
 beautiful brown orange colour, and very transparent when applied in painting, 
 which quality it retains after it has been burned, although it then assumes a 
 redder hue. It is used by the grainer in his imitations of mahogany, and is 
 employed by the artist in water colours to produce the autumnal tints. With 
 blue it forms a faded green. 
 
 An Artificial Red Ochre. —We may here mention an artificial ochre which 
 may be manufactured from iron. If the peroxide of iron, which is formed by 
 the distillation of the sulphate, be gradually heated until it is brought to a 
 great intensity of temperature, its full red colour will be augmented in richness, 
 inclining to purple; and a hue will be produced very similar to that of the Persian 
 ochre, and equally bright, if properly calcined and washed. The brown ochre 
 may be formed by precipitating iron in a state of solution by the subcarbonate 
 of soda, or muriate of potass. This is an important and lasting colour, and 
 is supposed to have been much used by Titian, Vandyke, and other old masters. 
 Mixed with white it forms a fine carnation tint. 
 
 There are many other varieties of red ochre, among which we might especially 
 mention the Light Red, which is made by calcining a yellow or brown ochre, 
 and is an exceedingly useful colour both in water and oil, being permanent 
 and drying well; but it would be useless to even enumerate all the kinds 
 which are brought into the market. 
 
 Realgar, or Red Orpiment.— This pigment differs chemically from orpi- 
 ment, which has been already described, in the proportion of sulphur. In 
 volcanic districts it is sometimes found native, hut that which is brought into 
 the market is made by subliming orpiment and sulphur. In the mass it is 
 of a bright scarlet colour, but when levigated it assumes an orange red tint. 
 
 2 B 
 
96 
 
 of carmine. There are several modes of employing this metal in the prepa¬ 
 ration of the colour; but an experiment performed in the presence of M. 
 Merimee may be preferred, although there is some uncertainty as to the 
 substances that were used. The person who made the experiment adopted 
 every artifice to prevent him from knowing the materials employed, but it 
 will not be difficult, as he states, to supply those details which it was 
 intended to hide from him. 
 
 “A pound of ground cochineal was put into a copper vessel well tinned; 
 after boiling for a quarter of an hour, two drachms of a substance resembling 
 cream of tartar (probably the salt of sorrel) were added to it, which caused 
 a strong effervescence: the vessel was then taken off the fire, and the mixture 
 immediately filtered through a silken sieve: after this liquid was drawn off 
 clear another liquid was thrown into it, in which a little carmine had been 
 infused, no doubt to disguise its true colour; this addition immediately changed 
 the colour of the decoction from a dull crimson to a bright blood colour. 
 The mixtui’e was then twigged for some minutes with a little broom of fine 
 osier twigs, and passed through a filter of close linen: the carmine remained 
 on the filter; and I took some for trial which I found very good. 
 
 “ It appeared to me that the liquor which was thrown on the decoction 
 of cochineal contained nitro-muriate of tin, which instantly changed the crimson 
 of the cochineal to scarlet. I think it also contained alum, and as the union 
 of these two salts produce a whitish tint which would have discovered the 
 solution of tin, a little carmine was added to the mixture to disguise it.” This 
 process is curious, from the quickness with which the carmine seems to have 
 been thrown down fit for use. 
 
 Carmine is a brilliant colour, but cannot long resist the action of a strong 
 light. It is seldom used in oil painting, except when flowers are introduced. 
 It is sometimes adulterated with vermilion, but this substance may be detected 
 by dissolving the suspected pigment in liquor ammonia. The carmine will be 
 taken up by the ammonia, and the vermilion will appear as a sediment at the 
 bottom. 
 
 Madder Lake. —The introduction of madder as a colour both in dyeing 
 and painting, may be considered as a highly important step in the progress 
 of the arts, and a more ^han passing notice of the substance, its qualities and 
 uses, will therefore be expected by the reader. It will not, however, be 
 possible to devote so much attention to the subject in these pages as may 
 
95 
 
 afterwards became famous. The manufacture of carmine was long kept secret, 
 and even in the present day the best methods of preparing it are unknown, 
 except to those who have been fortunate enough to make the discovery. 
 
 Carmine is a colouring principle, found in the body of a small insect called 
 the cochineal. When properly prepared and quite pure, it is of a lustrous 
 purplish red colour. It is said that in the manufacture of the colour, the 
 character of the water is of no small importance. At the national manu¬ 
 factory of tapestries at the Gobelins at Paris, there is a small, narrow and 
 dirty ditch, and the houses on each side are occupied by the dressers of sheep¬ 
 skins. The water of this ditch is used by them in various parts of their art, 
 and thus becomes animalized, if we may so speak. Now it has been found 
 that this water possesses peculiar properties in dyeing the reds at the Gobelins, 
 for the workmen cannot obtain the lustrous appearance of the Turkey reds unless 
 that water be used. We have been informed, by a manufacturer of carmine, 
 that the finest colour is always obtained with tainted water, a statement which 
 confirms the general opinion, that the production of a rich colour greatly 
 depends upon the use of a suitable solvent. 
 
 There are many methods of manufacturing carmine, one or two of which 
 may be mentioned. 
 
 1. Boil in river or rain water a pound of powdered cochineal, and to this 
 add four or five drachms of the subcarbonate of soda and potass. When this 
 liquor has been boiled for a quarter of an hour, add eight or ten drachms of 
 alum, and when the solution has been effegted, take the vessel from the fire. 
 In about half an hour, draw it off into clean saucers, and after it has stood for 
 about a week, the carmine will be found deposited at the bottom. This deposit 
 must then be carefully dried, and is fit for use. 
 
 2. Madame Cenette, of Amsterdam, it is said, forms carmine by the aid of 
 the acidulated oxalate of potass, better known as the salt of sorrel. Take six 
 pails of river water, and when boiling add two pounds of the best cochineal 
 in powder. Let the boiling be continued for about two hours, and add three 
 ounces of refined saltpetre, and, a few minutes after, four ounces of the salt of 
 sorrel. Continue the boiling after this for ten minutes, and remove the vessel 
 from the fire. When the liquid has stood for about four hours it may be 
 drawn off into saucers, or any other shallow vessels. In about three weeks 
 the carmine will be deposited, and the liquid being removed, the colour must 
 be dried in the shade, when it will be in a state fit for use. 
 
 3. A solution of tin is used in some of the processes for the manufacture 
 
98 
 
 The process which should be adopted in the manufacture of madder lake 
 is not as yet determined. Every manufacturer has probably some method of 
 his own, but without attempting to describe the peculiarities of practice, it will 
 be sufficient to explain the mode most commonly adopted. The first process 
 is to remove the fawn-coloured matter by frequent washings with alkaline 
 water. This being done, a warm solution of alum water is poured upon the 
 root, and a bright scarlet hue is quickly obtained, and a rose-coloured lake 
 is precipitated by the addition of an alkali. But, as all the fawn-coloured 
 matter is not removed by previous washings, the colour will be in some degree 
 injured without great care. The alum water is used hot, to extract the dye 
 as quickly as possible: the same effect would be produced if the solution were 
 used cold, but a much greater length of time would be required. 
 
 It has been stated in a previous page that the character of the water has a 
 great influence upon the colour of carmine, and the observation may be extended 
 to all the lakes. In the manufacture of madder lake, the softest water is to 
 be preferred. 
 
 The madder lakes are not unfrequently adulterated, and this may always 
 be suspected when they have a crimson hue. Cochineal is chiefly used for 
 this purpose. From what has been already stated, the reader will have little 
 difficulty in testing the purity of any of these colours that may be placed in 
 bis hands; and as the alkaline carbonates do not touch the madder dye, 
 they will be found suitable tests. Boil the suspected colour in a weak solution 
 of carbonate of soda, and, throwing it upon a filter, well wash it; and if the 
 colour be thus moved, it will be evident that it is not a pure madder lake. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Orange is that colour produced by the intermixture of yellow and red, and is 
 readily formed by the painter of any hue that may be required. Many of the 
 pigments which are called red are in fact orange, and among these we may 
 mention even that which has been called by way of distinction red lead. It is, 
 however, worthy of remark, that in the process of manufacture, the hue of a 
 pigment may be so changed, that two specimens or varieties, bearing the same 
 narne, may be of different colours. The name which is given to a pigment may, 
 in one respect, be considered a matter of small importance, but when it is 
 remembered, that a large class of workmen obtain their notions of colour from 
 the names of the pigments they use, this error will be no longer entertained. 
 It would be injudicious to change the names which are now commonly received. 
 
97 
 
 be considered necessary for the full description of the experiments which have 
 been made. The reader will rather be directed to the results than the means 
 by which they have been obtained, and should a more extensive acquaintance 
 with the subject be required, reference may be made to the interesting investi¬ 
 gations of M. Merimee, and to the article Madder in Ure’s Dictionary of Arts 
 and Manufactures. 
 
 Madder is the root of a plant, known to botanists as the Eubia tinctorium. 
 In selecting such roots as are best suited for the manufacture of the colour, 
 the small ones are preferred. When gathered, they are dried either in the sun 
 or in stoves, and after several processes, the ligneous fibre, which is the only 
 part used for the extraction of colouring matter, is reduced to powder. 
 
 Madder yields a matter of a pure red colour, and of a more lasting character 
 than any other animal or vegetable substance. It has been long known and 
 employed, for Pliny informs us that purpurissimum was made by staining a 
 white earth, called creta argentaria, with madder. 
 
 Count Chaptal found in Pompeii a fine rose-coloured lake, which he had 
 no doubt was extracted from madder, when engaged in analysing some colours 
 found in the ruins of that city. Previous to the introduction of cochineal it 
 was used by painters; and Neri, who wrote in the year 1612, gives 
 a description in a work called “ Dell’ Arte Vetraria,” of the mode in which 
 it was manufactured. When carmine came into use, madder probably ceased 
 to be employed for a considerable period. But, in 1754, Margraaf discovered 
 a process of extracting the red colouring matter by alum, and precipitating it 
 with subcarbonate of potass. In the year 1826, the Societe Industrielle of 
 Mulhausen offered premiums for the best essays upon madder, to consist of 
 original analytical investigations. Much valuable information at this and at 
 a subsequent period was thus obtained, and the attention of some eminent 
 practical chemists was directed to the subject. 
 
 There is some difficulty in obtaining the red colouring matter of madder, for 
 the root contains another substance of a fawn or dun colour, the intermixture 
 of which would destroy its value. The fawn-coloured matter, however, is 
 readily dissolved in slightly alkaline water, which does not at all affect the 
 red. The root also contains a large quantity of gummy and saccharine matter. 
 Some idea may be formed of the quantity of the fawn-coloured dye contained 
 in madder by boiling the root in water containing subcarbonate of soda. A 
 brown-coloured solution of a deep hue, like strong coffee, will be quickly 
 obtained. 
 
 2 c 
 
100 
 
 The Purples. 
 
 The purples introduced in decoration are, for the most part, formed by the 
 intermixture of two pigments, a blue and a lake, but a few pigments of a 
 purple colour have been manufactured for the use of the artist, and deserve 
 notice in this place. Purple was so highly esteemed by the ancients, that 
 it was considered a representative of royalty, the regal robes being formed of 
 stuffs coloured with that dye. Hence arose in the time of the Greek emperors 
 the phrase, ‘ born in the purple.’ It has ceased to be the exclusive property 
 of royalty, but is now not less esteemed as a rich and gorgeous colour. The 
 imperial purple of the Romans was extracted from a shell fish, the Buccinum 
 lapillus. The cochineal lakes, when treated with an alkali, especially ammonia, 
 produce brilliant but evanescent purples. 
 
 Purple of Cassius. —The Purple of Cassius is a metallic and vitrifiable 
 colour, and may be prepared by the following process:—Take pure gold and 
 dissolve it by the aid of heat in nitro-muriatic acid. To avoid an excess of 
 acid, which would discolour the precipitate, evaporate the solution gently nearly 
 to dryness. Then take the chloride of gold which remains, and dissolve it in 
 cold water. A solution of tin must be then made, at a low temperature. The 
 following is the best method of forming a solution of tin:—^To one part of nitric 
 acid add two parts of muriatic acid; dilute this liquid with a considerable quantity 
 of water, and introduce small pieces of pure tin foil until the action upon the 
 tin ceases, and the solution be saturated. In this operation the greatest caution 
 is necessary to keep the solution cold, so that if the chemical action of the acid 
 should raise the temperature, the vessel containing the solution should be 
 plunged into cold water. Now pour, drop by drop, the chloride of gold into 
 the solution of tin, and a bright purple precipitate will be thrown down, which 
 is the purple of Cassius. When this has been collected and washed, it is fit 
 for use. 
 
 This pigment, until lately, has been used only by the enamel painter and 
 glass Stainer, but when combined with alumine and calcined in the same manner 
 as cobalt, a rich pigment for the use of the oil painter is formed, and one, it 
 is said, which will bear the action of strong light. From what has been said, 
 it will appear that the purple of Cassius is a combination of the oxides of 
 gold and tin. 
 
 Tritoxide of Iron. —In the vitriol manufactories of Nordhausen, in Germany, 
 
t 
 
 99 
 
 and the attempt to introduce a new nomenclature would probably fail were it 
 made; but, the advantages to be derived from such a change will be obtained, 
 if the house-painter be convinced that his notions of colour must not be formed 
 on the names which happen to be given by the manufacturer to his pigments. 
 The principal orange colours are massicot and minium, but we may also mention 
 the orange chromate of lead and the orange vermilion. 
 
 Massicot. —Massicot is a protoxide of lead, and when pure has a dull orange 
 colour, but it varies greatly in hue, from a light yellow to a rich gold colour. 
 Before the introduction of Naples yellow it was much used by painters, but 
 is now seldom employed. It is considered a permanent colour in itself, but 
 cannot be safely introduced with other pigments. The massicot of commerce 
 is generally made by calcining ceruse. 
 
 Minium, or Red Lead. —There is some difference of opinion among chemists 
 as to the chemical composition of this substance. It is spoken of by Dr. Henry, 
 Mr. Brand, and other eminent writers, as a deutoxide of lead. Dr. Dalton con¬ 
 siders it to be formed of one atom of oxygen and six of protoxide; and Dr. 
 Ure says, “ it is a peculiar oxide of lead, consisting of two atoms of the pro¬ 
 toxide and one of the peroxide, but, as found in commerce, it always contains 
 a little extra protoxide, or yellow massicot.” 
 
 Minium is made by calcining massicot in a reverberatory furnace with a slow 
 fire, taking care to rake it over frequently during the process, so as to bring 
 every portion in contact with the atmosphere, for the absorption of oxygen. 
 After it has been calcined it is ground in a paint mill. A kind of minium 
 called mineral orange, is made by calcining ceruse. 
 
 Minium is extensively used by the house-painter. It is sometimes adulterated 
 with brick dust, which is best detected by treating the suspected colour with 
 diluted nitric acid—the brick dust will remain undissolved. 
 
 Orange Chromate of Lead.— This pigment is not so bright as minium, 
 nor is it a perfectly permanent colour, and must therefore be used cautiously 
 by the artist 
 
 Orange Vermilion is, as will be supposed from its name, a preparation 
 of mercury. It is a warm and powerful colour, with a good body; works 
 well in oil, and is a good drier. 
 
N». 6 
 
 1 ^. 
 
 ■ •' i* .' 
 
102 
 
 thrown down, which must he several times well washed with warm water. 
 One pound six ounces of the pigment will he produced from the quantities 
 of its component substances already mentioned. By analysis it is found to 
 consist of oxide of copper 28.51, arsenious acid 71.46. 
 
 By adopting this process, there is some difficulty in obtaining precisely the 
 same hue in all cases, on account of the variable quantity of alkali contained 
 in the potass, and a loss in one of the ingredients is scarcely to be avoided. 
 To obtain a more constant colour, the arsenic in powder should he dissolved in 
 warm water and added to the sulphate of copper. The precipitate is then formed 
 by the addition of a solution of potass. To ascertain whether the colour will 
 he such as is required, it may be tested in a wine glass. If too yellow, more 
 of the sulphate of copper must be added to the solution. The usual proportion 
 is one part of arsenic to ten of the sulphate of soda. The precipitate will be 
 of a paler hue when made from cold solutions than from warm. 
 
 The colours in which arsenic enters as a component part are considered to 
 be wanting in permanence, but this objection does not apply to Scheele’s green. 
 
 Verdigkis. —Verdigris (Vert de gris) is a fine permanent bluish green colour, 
 known to chemists as the subacetate of copper. It is made in large quantities 
 at Montpellier, Grenoble, and other places in the South of France, by spreading 
 the husks of grapes upon plates of copper. By fermentation the acetic acid is 
 combined with the copper, forming upon the surface a green rust, which is 
 verdigris or the subacetate of copper. Dr. Ure has given an interesting and 
 particular account of this domestic manufacture, which it will be desirable to 
 extract for the benefit of those who have not an opportunity of consulting the 
 Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures. “ The copper used in this manufacture 
 is formed into round sheets from twenty to twenty-five inches in diameter, by 
 one twenty-fourth of an inch in thickness. Each sheet is then divided into 
 oblong squares, fi-om four to six inches in length by three broad, and weighing 
 about four ounces. They are separately beaten upon an anvil, to smooth their 
 surfaces, to consolidate the metal, and to free it from scales. The refuse of 
 the grapes, after the extraction of their juice, formerly thrown on to the dunghill, 
 is now preserved for the purpose of making verdigris. It is put loosely into 
 earthen vessels, which are usually sixteen inches high, fourteen in diameter at 
 the widest part, and about twelve at the mouth. The vessels are then covered 
 with lids, which are surrounded by straw mats. In this situation the materials 
 soon become heated, and exhale an acid odour; the fermentation beginning at 
 
101 
 
 the Stilphuric acid is prepared from sulphate of iron, better known as the green 
 copperas of commerce. The residue in the retorts after distillation, is a tritoxide 
 of iron, which is a powder of a purplish red colour. When this substance has 
 been washed, dried, and calcined at a white heat, it assumes a permanent, rich 
 purple hue, and forms a useful pigment for the artist and enamel painter. This 
 is the only purple, with the exception of that just mentioned, which can be 
 used in fresco painting. 
 
 Madder Purple. —Mr. Field proposes, in his “ Chromatography,” the use 
 of a madder purple, which he speaks of as being richer, and more durable and 
 transparent, than the purple of Cassius. 
 
 The Greens. 
 
 Artists are accustomed to form the various tints of green by the admixture 
 of yellow and blue, as being more convenient than the use of different pigments, 
 and having the advantage of confining them to a fewer number of colours. 
 The house-painter also finds this practice the most convenient in some instances, 
 but there are others which almost compel him to use a manufactured colour. 
 “ The artist,” says an eminent teacher, “ will find it much better to compound 
 his green tints from the various yellows, browns, and blues, than to encumber 
 his palette with too many colours, especially as they are seldom of the tint 
 that he wants, without an admixture; and in most cases the whole colour is 
 as readily compounded as the admixture.” To the artist, however, it cannot 
 be unimportant to know the composition and manufacture of the colours which 
 he may sometimes have occasion to employ, and to the house-painter it is a 
 necessary branch of information. The green pigments most commonly employed 
 are Scheele’s green, verdigris, Vienna or Brunswick green, malachite and mountain 
 green, the oxide of chrome, and green earth. 
 
 Scheele’s Green. —The pigment known as Scheele’s green derives its name 
 from the celebrated chemist by whom it was discovered. It is an arsenite 
 copper. The following is the process by which it is commonly prepared;— 
 Take two pounds of the carbonate of potass and dissolve it, with eleven ounces 
 of white arsenic, in two gallons of boiling water. Then dissolve two pounds 
 of crystallized sulphate of copper in warm water, and filter both the solutions. 
 Then add the arsenical solution to the solution of copper, in small quantities, 
 keeping it well stirred during the process. A rich green precipitate will be 
 
 2 D 
 
104 
 
 scraped off with a knife. At each operation every vessel yields from five to 
 six pounds of verdigris, in a fresh or humid state; which is sold to wholesale 
 dealers, who dry it for exportation. For this purpose they knead the paste 
 in wooden troughs, and then transfer it to leathern bags, a foot and a half 
 long, and ten inches in diameter. These hags are exposed to the sun and 
 air till the verdigris has attained a sufficient degree of hardness. It loses 
 about half its weight in this operation; and it is said to be knife-proof, when 
 this instrument, plunged through the leathern bag, cannot penetrate the loaf 
 of verdigris.” 
 
 The distilled verdigris of commerce is a super-acetate of copper. One part 
 of verdigris is dissolved in two parts of acetic acid. The solution is then allowed 
 to stand, and the clear liquor being poured off, vinegar is added to the residuum, 
 and another saturated solution being formed, is added to that previously obtained, 
 and the whole is slowly evaporated. The crystallization is then effected upon 
 a suitable mould. The crystals are of a rhomboidal form and of a beautiful 
 green colour, and quite transparent. A purer colour is prepared from this 
 substance than from the common verdigris, and one which has been extensively 
 used in the arts. 
 
 ScHWEiNFURTH, ViENNA, OR BRUNSWICK Green. —This colour was dis¬ 
 covered in the year 1814, by MM. Rusz and Sattler of Schweinfurth, and 
 from that place derives its name. For some time the composition of this 
 pigment was kept secret; but in the year 1822, Professor Liebig, a chemist 
 well known for his admirable works on the analysis of organic bodies and 
 many original discoveries, made known the process of manufacture, and about 
 the same time Braconnot published another method of producing the same 
 substance. 
 
 The following is the process recommended by Liebig;—Take equal quantities 
 of verdigris and white oxide of arsenic. Boil in a copper vessel some distilled 
 vinegar, and in it dissolve the verdigris, and form a watery solution of the 
 oxide of arsenic. When these two solutions are mixed, an olive green precipitate 
 is thrown down, and acetic acid is disengaged. This precipitate is then collected 
 and re-dissolved in distilled vinegar, and when boiled, a new granular precipitate 
 of a bright green colour is formed. The liquid being drawn off, the colour is 
 carefully washed. The boiling need not be continued for a period of more 
 than a few' minutes. “ As fine a colour is produced by ebullition during five or 
 six minutes, as is obtained at the end of several hours, by mixing the two 
 
103 
 
 the bottom of the cask, and gradually rising till it actuate the whole mass. At 
 the end of two or three days the manufacturer removes the fermenting materials 
 into other vessels, in order to check the process, lest putrefaction should ensue. 
 The copper plates, if new, are now prepared by rubbing them over with a linen 
 cloth dipped in a solution of verdigris, and they are laid up along side of one another 
 to dry. If the plates are not subjected to this kind of preparation, they will 
 become black, instead of green, by the first operation. When the plates are 
 ready, and the materials in a fermenting state, one of them is put into the 
 earthen vessel for four and twenty hours, in order to ascertain whether it be 
 a proper period to proceed to the remaining part of the process. If, at the 
 end of this period, the plate be covered with an uniform green layer, concealing 
 the whole copper, every thing is right; but if, on the contrary, liquid drops 
 hang on the surface of the metal, the workmen say the plates are sweating, 
 and conclude that the heat of the fermented mass has been inadequate; on 
 which account another day is allowed to pass before making a similar trial. 
 When the materials are finally found to be ready, the strata are formed in the 
 following manner:—-The plates are laid on a horizontal wooden grating, fixed 
 in the middle of a vat, on whose bottom a pan full of burning charcoal is 
 placed, which heats them to such a degree, that the women who manage this 
 work are obliged to lay hold of them frequently with a cloth to lift them out. 
 They are in this state put into earthen vessels, in alternate strata with the 
 fermented materials, the uppermost and undermost layers being composed of 
 the expressed grapes. The vessels are covered with their straw mats, and left 
 at rest. From thirty to forty pounds of copper are put into one vessel.” At 
 the end of a period, varying from ten to twenty days, the vessels are opened, 
 to ascertain whether the operation be complete, Avhich is known by the whiteness 
 of the materials if that be the case. If detached glossy crystals be perceived 
 on the surface of the plates, “ the grapes are thrown away, and the plates are 
 placed upright in a corner of the verdigris cellar, one against the other, upon 
 pieces of wood laid on the ground. At the end of two or three days they are 
 moistened, by dipping in a vessel of water, after which they are replaced in 
 their former situation, where they remain seven or eight days, and are then 
 subjected to momentary immersion, as before. This alternate moistening and 
 exposure to air is performed six or eight times, at regular intervals of about 
 a week. As these plates are sometimes dipped into damaged wine, the workmen 
 term these immersions, one wine, two wine, &c. By this treatment the plates 
 swell, become green, and covered with a stratum of verdigris, which is readily 
 
106 
 
 through the agency of heat. The chromate of mercury has at common tempe¬ 
 ratures a fine red colour, hut when raised to a dull red heat parts with a portion 
 of its oxygen and its mercurial oxide. For the formation of the oxide of chrome, 
 it is exposed to the heat of a reverberatory furnace in a retort, and when raised 
 to a sufficient temperature decomposition is effected, the oxygen being disengaged 
 in its gaseous state, and the mercury vaporized, though afterwards condensed by 
 a suitable arrangement: the oxide of chrome remains in the receiver. According 
 to M. Dulong, the purest chromate of mercury is not the best suited for the 
 production of an oxide of chrome, with a green colour adapted for painting, 
 for a finer green is obtained when a little oxide of manganese and chromate 
 of potass are present. 
 
 M. Delasaigne has discovered another mode of producing the oxide of chrome, 
 which is more economical and more easily performed than that already mentioned. 
 It consists in calcining in a closed crucible equal parts of sulphur and chromate 
 of potass. A greenish substance is thus produced, which is well washed with 
 a lye to dissolve the sulphate of potass formed during the process. The oxide 
 of chrome is precipitated, and after several washings may be obtained quite pure. 
 
 Terra Verte, or Green Earth. —There are several natural earths of a 
 green colour, which have been employed by artists. The most common of these 
 is that found on Monte Baldo, in the vicinity of Verona. Klaproth analyzed 
 this mineral, and found it to consist of silex 53; oxide of iron 28; magnesia 2 ; 
 potass 10; water 6. A similar substance is also found in other places, but 
 that from Verona is most esteemed by artists, who speak of it as an excellent 
 colour. It was much used by the old masters, and in some of their paintings 
 has evidently darkened by age. 
 
 Brown. 
 
 The colours which are classed under the general term browns are an important 
 series to the artist, but are little employed by the house-painter. They are 
 derived from mineral, vegetable, and animal substances, and an acquaintance 
 with their composition and manufacture will be both interesting and important. 
 Our notice of them must, however, be brief, although it will probably be found 
 sufficient for the purposes of the reader, as it will give a general knowledge, 
 and be, at the same time, sufficiently minute to enable those who study by 
 experiment, to form the colours for their own instruction and amusement. 
 
105 
 
 boiling solutions, and allowing the whole to cool together. In the latter case 
 the precipitate, which is slight and flocky at first, hecomes denser hy degrees; 
 it next betrays green spots, which progressively increase, till the mass grows 
 altogether of a crystalline constitution, and of a still more heautiful tint than 
 if formed hy ehullition.” 
 
 The following process is that recommended hy M. Braconnot:—Dissolve six 
 parts of the sulphate of copper in warm water; and to this add hy degrees and 
 slowly, a solution of six parts of the white oxide of arsenic, and one part of 
 potass. A greenish yellow precipitate will he observed when the effervescence 
 has subsided. Then add three parts of acetous acid, and in a few hours, the 
 precipitate being acted upon hy the acid, a nevr deposit of a fine green colour 
 will be produced. The liquid is then poured off, and the colour is carefully 
 washed and dried. 
 
 According to the experiments of M. Ehrmann, Schweinfurth green consists 
 of oxide of copper 31.666; arsenious acid 58.699; and acetic acid 10.294. 
 It is a brighter and far more heautiful colour than Scheele’s green, but is, 
 like it, a rank poison, and must therefore be used with peculiar care to prevent 
 accidents. 
 
 M.vlachite, or Mountain Green. —This substance is a native carbonate 
 of copper. The term malachite has been applied to those solid masses which 
 are produced from water containing carbonic acid and a solution of the oxide 
 of copper. The mountain green is the same substance, found in the state of 
 powder. Both these have probably been used in the arts for many ages. 
 Malachite was used hy the ancients for the manufacture of costly ornaments, 
 many of which are now preserved in our museums of curiosities. By analysis it 
 is found to consist of carbonic acid 18.5; deutoxide of copper 72.2; water 9.3. 
 It is a rich and bright green. 
 
 The carbonate of copper may he produced artificially, but has not so bright 
 a colour as the malachite. It is made hy adding the suh-carhonate of potass 
 to a solution of copper. 
 
 The Oxide of Chrome. —This substance is found as a natural production, 
 but in quantities too small to supply the demand for it in the arts. It is chiefly 
 employed in dyeing and porcelain painting, and nearly all that is brought into 
 the market is produced by artificial means. 
 
 The oxide of chrome is prepared by the decomposition of chromate of mercury, 
 
 2 E 
 
108 
 
 then mix with it a sufficient quantity of mastic varnish, to reduce it to a proper 
 consistence. 
 
 “ It may also be prepared,” says M. Merimee, “ in the following manner:— 
 Venice turpentine 15 grains; gum lac 60; Asphaltum 90; drying oil 240; 
 white wax 30. The gum lac is first dissolved in the turpentine, by adding fifteen 
 grains at a time, and allowing it to melt before the other portion is added; the 
 asphaltum is then to he mixed in like manner, by degrees; the linseed oil, having 
 been heated near to the boiling point, is also by degrees mingled with the 
 rest; the wax is then added. Before the mixture cools, it should be thrown 
 on the stone, and well worked with the muller and knife. Thus prepared, 
 the bitumen will dry in one day, equal to flake white; but as a skin will 
 form on the surface of the mass, this must he prevented by placing it into a 
 tin cylindrical vessel, covered with a disc of the exact diameter of the interior. 
 By pressing this disc, in which is a small hole, the bitumen oozes out, and 
 then the hole is closed with a wooden peg, so as to prevent the air from 
 coming in contact with the surface of the liquid. In this way it may be 
 preserved soft for a long time. A greater degree of solidity would be given 
 to the bitumen if it were dissolved in amber varnish: sixty grains of this 
 varnish should be substituted for turpentine. The gum lac will dissolve readily 
 in the varnish.” 
 
 Asphaltum is a beautiful brown colour, but is liable to crack, and especially 
 when freely used in glazing. This, however, may be probably much prevented, 
 by the adoption of some improved mode of preparation. 
 
 Brown from Prussian Blue.— By exposing Prussian blue to a sudden 
 and strong heat for a short period of time, it will, when crushed, he found 
 to have partly a black and partly a yellow-brown colour. From the expe¬ 
 riments of M. Bouvier, who first published this process, the change of colour 
 cannot be effected in that sort which is manufactured in England, from which 
 M. Merimee deduces that a blue containing much alumine must be employed, a 
 substance of which that manufactured in England has but little. We have, 
 however, met with specimens of English Prussian blue, in which this change 
 of colour has been readily effected. The colour thus formed is very transparent, 
 a quick drier, and permanent. 
 
 Mummy. —The substance called mummy is obtained from the tombs of Egypt, 
 
107 
 
 Raw Umber.— This substance is brought from Cyprus, where it occurs in 
 beds with brown jasper. It is a massive mineral, of an olive brown colour, 
 which becomes darker when calcined. It consists chiefly of the oxide of man- / 
 ganese, the oxide of iron, silex, and alumina. It is a useful colour, both in 
 oils and in water, hut is, in the present day, most used in the latter vehicle. 
 
 An objection has been made to its use, because it becomes darker by age. A 
 knowledge of this fact is important, but it must not he considered a reason 
 for its entire rejection. 
 
 Cassel and Cologne Earths.— These substances are supposed, by mine¬ 
 ralogists, to be lignites, or earthy matter, resulting from the decomposition of 
 vegetables. However this may be they are bituminous, or, in other words, 
 contain a large quantity of bitumen. Mr. Fielding, speaking of Cologne 
 earth, says, “ it has something of the taste of oak-bark, and appears to he the 
 produce of wood that has lain long in the earth. It is found in England in 
 the Mendip-hills, and other places, hut the German is to be preferred. This 
 colour has most of the properties of Vandyke brown. The snuff-makers on 
 the continent use more of this substance for colouring and adulterating their 
 snuffs than is consumed by artists, although as a colour it has- always been 
 in estimation.” These earths become lighter when long exposed to the air, 
 which is a great objection to their use, hut this may be prevented by mixing 
 them with those colours which are permanent. M. Merimee mentions a cir¬ 
 cumstance which shows the importance of following this recommendation. I 
 remember to have seen, he says, a head, the brown hair of which had been 
 painted with a mixture of this colour, and white for the light, but this was 
 darker than the parts painted with the earth unmixed, for the white had fixed 
 the colour. 
 
 Vandyke Brown.— This substance is a bituminous earth, generally found 
 in the vicinity of hogs, and other places where vegetable matter is in a state 
 of rapid decay. As a colour, it is highly esteemed by artists, but it can he 
 used only with the strongest drying oils. 
 
 Asphaltum. —Asphaltum, or bitumen, is a substance found on the surface 
 of the Dead Sea, and collected in various states of combination in all parts 
 of that desolate and melancholy district in which the lake Asphaltites is situated. 
 
 The common method of preparing bitumen is to dissolve it in turpentine, and 
 
110 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Manufacture of Oils and Varnishes. 
 
 Having explained, as fiilly as seemed necessary, for the purpose of our work, 
 the composition, manufacture, and qualities of pigments, we must now proceed 
 to notice the vehicles hy which they are to he applied to prepared surfaces, 
 and the varnishe^s hy which they are to be protected from the action of light 
 and of atmospherical changes. Colours must be employed in a moist and 
 liquid state, and the fluids chiefly used for this purpose are the fixed oils, 
 turpentine, and water, which are then called vehicles by painters. These sub¬ 
 stances are used in various combinations and in different proportions, according 
 to the fancy of the artist, some persons choosing one vehicle and some another. 
 The object, however, is the same in all cases, to give a body or consistence 
 to the pigment, so that it may fonn a full and enduring film upon the surface 
 to which it is applied. Water and spirituous substances are not in their simple 
 state adapted for this purpose, for they evaporate entirely when exposed to the 
 atmosphere for a sufficiently long period, and leave the pigment as a dry dis¬ 
 united film, there being no medium to connect and bind together the particles 
 of which it consists. The painter, therefore, when he mixes his colours in 
 such fluids, adds a glutinous substance, such as beer, milk, size, or varnish, 
 so as to give it the necessary consistence. The oils are the best, and may 
 perhaps he called perfect vehicles, but they are not well suited for this purpose. 
 The linseed, nut, and poppy, are preferred, and even these have a property 
 which is disadvantageous to the painter, that of retaining their moisture for 
 a long time, which defect is remedied by artificial means. 
 
 Certain oils also enter largely into the composition of varnishes; in fact, the 
 house-painter and artist are as much dependent, for the durability of their 
 works, on the purity and quality of the vehicles and varnishes they use as upon 
 the pigments themselves. It will, therefore, he desirable that the reader should 
 be informed of the chemical constitution of the oils generally, and the qualities. 
 
109 
 
 and is the produce of the decomposition of embalmed bodies. It contains bitumen, 
 but does not crack like that substance, and is, in every respect, a better colour. 
 
 Brown Pink. —This colour, which is made from French berries {rhamnus 
 infectorius), is but little esteemed by artists, for it is a bad drier, and wants 
 permanence. The mode of manufacture is by precipitation with alum; but it 
 has been suggested, with great propriety, that the colour would be much 
 improved by precipitation with the acetate or sulphate of copper. 
 
 Black. 
 
 All the blacks used in painting are varieties of carbon, and differ chiefly 
 from each other in the substances from which they are produced. The most 
 important are bone-black, ivory-black, blue-black, coffee and lamp-black, and 
 Indian ink. 
 
 Bone-Black is produced by calcining bones in a close vessel, and afterwards 
 grinding to powder on a slab. Ivory-Black is made in the same manner, from 
 the dust and parings of the substance from which it is named. Both these colours 
 are permanent, but are remarkably bad driers. The bone-black has a somewhat 
 warmer tone than that produced from ivory, which is most esteemed by painters, 
 although commonly much adulterated with the former. 
 
 Blue-Black is a charcoal, made by calcining, in a closed vessel, the shells 
 of stone fruit, such as apricots, peaches, and nuts, to which may be added tbe 
 cuttings of vines, and other new woods. Spanish Black is made from cork; 
 Coffee-Black from the husks of coffee. 
 
 Lamp-Black is a term applied to all those blacks produced by burning 
 oleaginous or resinous substances, such as oil, tallow, turpentine, and tar. The 
 manufacture consists in collecting the carbon thrown off during combustion. 
 Lamp-black is a bad drier, and is also objected to by some artists upon other 
 grounds, but it will be sufficient to state, that it is produced by various means, 
 and consequently tbe several varieties differ considerably in quality. 
 
 2 F 
 
112 
 
 riments made on fatty substances, M. Chenvreuil, and others, discovered that they 
 consist of two distinct substances, severally called oleine and stearine. 
 
 We may now proceed to speak more particularly of the fixed oils, used by 
 the painter. 
 
 Linseed Oil. —This is almost the only oil used by the house-painter. It 
 is obtained from the seed of flax, and in greatest purity by cold pressure, but 
 may be procured in larger quantities, and not much inferior in quality, by a 
 steam heat of about 200° F. It has a brownish colour, but this is in a great 
 measure lost by keeping. It has also been found that it dries better when it 
 has been kept for some time, but is generally used with a drier. The colour 
 is derived from the pellicle which covers the grain, and is soluble in oil. 
 
 The importance of linseed oil to the painter, chiefly arises from its small 
 amount of colour, and its drying property. The rapidity with which it dries 
 when boiled, and especially when boiled with the oxide of zinc or lead, gives 
 it a value above all other vehicles. When boiled with the oxide of lead or 
 zinc, it is called linseed oil varnish. It has always some colour and greater 
 consistence than the oil itself, and in the course of twenty-four hours is converted 
 into a hard substance, when spread in a thin layer over a plain surface. 
 
 Chemists have endeavoured to ascertain the nature of the change in linseed 
 oil when passing into the state of a varnish. It is generally supposed that the 
 oil obtains an additional supply of oxygen, and a portion of the oxide; but 
 Professor Liebig states that, from some experiments he has recently made on 
 the subject, “ the transformation of linseed oil into varnish is based on the 
 elimination of substances which oppose oxidation.” According to his opinion, 
 some foreign substance is present, and prevents the contact of oxygen. I shall 
 not decide, he says, whether this substance should be called mucilage; it results, 
 at all events, from the vegetable albumen of the seed employed for the extraction 
 of the oil. 
 
 “ The following investigation,” says the same author, “ will, perhaps, be suflicient 
 to justify the opinion which attributes the transformation of linseed oil into 
 varnish, to a purification of the oil, the sole condition of its solidifying in the 
 air. If mere boiling augments, as we know it does, this property, it is still 
 farther increased when we add to the boiling oil oxide of lead, acetate of lead, 
 or oxide of zinc. Boiling at a high temperature gradually destroys the mucilage]; 
 there occurs a solution of the oxide of lead, and the formation of a compound, 
 which remains dissolved in the excess of oil.” 
 
Ill 
 
 in particular, of those employed in painting, before any attempt be made to 
 describe their use as vehicles or varnishes. 
 
 The Oils. 
 
 Oils have been divided into two classes, the fixed, and the essential, or volatile. 
 The oils of the latter class are sometimes called the distilled, hut this term is 
 not absolutely correct, for they are frequently obtained by mere mechanical 
 pressure. It may, however, • be observed that the essential oils are generally 
 procured by distillation at the temperature of boiling water, hut not the fixed 
 or fat oils. 
 
 The Fixed Oils are abundant in both animal and vegetable structures, and 
 are similar in composition to other fatty substances, being chiefly formed of 
 carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. These oils are sometimes found in seeds, some¬ 
 times in the kernels of fruits, and occasionally in the root or bark of plants. 
 
 The fixed oils when exposed to the action of the atmosphere gradually thicken, 
 and some of them become quite hard. Those which undergo this change without 
 leaving a stain on paper when applied to it, are called drying oils, and of these 
 the most important are the linseed, nut, and poppy oil, which are extensively 
 used in painting, and will he particularly described in a subsequent page. 
 Those of the fixed oils which do not thus harden are unctuous, and are 
 so called. 
 
 The fixed oils are preferred to all other substances as vehicles for colour, 
 for they spread evenly and easily under the brush, and leave when dry a 
 glutinous matter, which hinds the particles together. The colour is thus made 
 more tenacious than when water or any other fluid is used, and less liable to 
 be injured by atmospheric causes. Of these there are some, which, as already 
 remarked, dry more readily than others, and are consequently especially valuable 
 to the painter. The want of this quality may be in some degree corrected by 
 artificial means, hut it is important that the oil itself should possess the property. 
 Oils intended for the use of the painter should also he colourless, or they will 
 give a fictitious hue to the pigments with which they are employed. The cold 
 drawn, or expressed oils, have less colour than those which are extracted by 
 heat, but they do not generally dry so quickly. With the oxides of lead the 
 fixed oils form a paste, which has strong drying qualities; and with potass 
 and soda, they produce soaps. 
 
 The chemical constitution of the fixed oils was long unknown, but by expe- 
 
114 
 
 may be beneficial. The oil is then to be filtered, or to be kept warm long 
 enough to settle, which will require about twelve hours.” To those who are 
 interested in chemical inquiries concerning the oils generally, the original article 
 is well worthy of attention. 
 
 Nut Oil.— The oil obtained from the nut of the hazel or the walnut is 
 transparent, limpid, and almost colourless. It is much used by artists, and 
 can be employed as a medium for the most delicate colours. 
 
 Olivette, or Oil of Poppies. —This is a colourless oil, but less drying 
 in its quality than either of the preceding, for which reason it is not so frequently 
 used by artists as it would otherwise be, for in every other respect it is preferable 
 to nut oil. The poppy is extensively cultivated in Flanders, and the oil was 
 much used in the Flemish school. 
 
 Drying Oils.— In our account of linseed oil and its uses, we have described 
 one process by which its drying properties may be greatly augmented. But 
 many other methods have been proposed and are used, some of which it will 
 be desirable to mention. Several of the oxides and metallic salts have the 
 property of rendering the fixed oils more drying. Among the substances most 
 commonly employed, we may mention litharge, white vitriol, and sugar of lead, 
 to which may also be added several resins as forming varnishes, such as mastic, 
 lac, and copal. In all drying oils, however, litharge is the principal ingredient. 
 The following process is considered to be preferable to any other:— 
 
 Take any weight of oil and add one eighth part of litharge reduced to powder, 
 so as to insure a perfect solution. Place this mixture in an earthen vessel over 
 a slow fire, and stir it frequently, taking care to watch it that it may not, by 
 a too rapid ebullition, flow over the vessel. After a short period, scum will 
 begin to rise in large quantities, and as long as this remains the heat must be 
 continued. When the scum disappears, the oil has been brought to a proper 
 state, and a pellicle will be formed on the surface, which, when the vessel 
 has been removed from the fire, will be thrown down, and with it the uncom- 
 bined litharge. The oil is then poured off into suitable vessels, and has a 
 brownish hue, but this is in a great measure lost when it has stood for a 
 few days. 
 
 Another method of combining the litharge with the oil is by long-continued 
 trituration. A yellowish substance of much consistence is thus produced. It 
 
113 
 
 M. Liebig states, that he has proved, by experiment, the linseed oil varnish 
 to be prepared in the best and simplest manner by the use of the subacetate 
 of lead. This substance is carefully mixed with linseed oil, by stirring, at the 
 ordinary temperature. After the mixture has stood for some time, a white slimy 
 deposit, containing the oxide of lead, will be thrown down, and the supernatant 
 oil will be Converted into ah excellent varnish. “ The following proportions 
 are well adapted for its preparation in the large way :•—There are poured into 
 a suitable vessel, on 500 grammes of subacetate of lead, 2600 grammes of rain¬ 
 water, and when the solution is completed, 500 grammes of finely levigated 
 litharge are added: the solution of the litharge may be accelerated by exposure 
 to a moderate heat, and by frequent stirring. When no more bracteas of litharge 
 can be seen, it may be considered as finished. There is formed in this operation 
 a brilliant white deposit, which may be either left in the liquor, or separated 
 from it by filtration. Solution may be effected in a quarter of an hour, by 
 boiling; but, if no heat be employed, the mixture must be left to itself for 
 several days. The solution obtained, serves for the preparation of 10 kilogrammes 
 of varnish; it is diluted with its own volume of water; and 10 kilogrammes of 
 linseed oil, into which five hundred grammes of levigated litharge have been 
 distributed, are added by degrees, stirring frequently. By renewing, three or 
 four times, the contact of the lead solution with the oil, by repeated stirrings, 
 and then leaving the mixture to clarify in a warm place, the yellowish and 
 clear varnish is obtained floating on the aqueous liquid, in which is found the 
 white deposit, and of which there has been a question. The filtered aqueous 
 solution contains all the acetate of lead first employed: it may be used for all 
 subsequent preparations, instead of a fresh solution of acetate of lead, after five 
 hundred grammes of litharge have again been dissolved in it.” 
 
 We may here observe that Mr. Charles Watt has proposed, in an excellent 
 periodical Work called “ The Chemist,” from which the account of M. Liebig’s 
 experiments has been obtained, the use of a dilute solution of chromic acid to 
 extract the colour from linseed and other vegetable oils. “ As, however,” he 
 says, “ in these oils the oxide of chrome combines with the glutinous matter 
 they contain, I have found it better to add to the solution a little muriatic 
 acid, which entirely prevents that effect; but I do not approve of more than 
 just enough for the purpose, and I prefer adding it at the end of the operation, 
 as it then combines with the oxide of chrome, without injuring the oil. The 
 oil is then to be washed with water, to free it from any acid; and, it may here 
 be observed, that in the bleaching as well as washing, a temperature of 120° F. 
 
 2 G 
 
116 
 
 lii the preparation of drying oils, whatever materials may he adopted, caution 
 will be required. The degree of heat and its uniform application must be studied, 
 or colour will be given to the preparation. , It has been recommended that the 
 drying materials should be tied in a bag, and suspended in the oil by a thread 
 attached to a stick supported on the edge of the vessel, but a careful application 
 of heat will render this doubtful expedient unnecessary. The fixed oils do not 
 boil at a temperature less than 600° F., but before they are brought into this 
 state they give off a very inflammable vapour, which circumstance should make 
 those who attempt to manufacture drying oils very careful in their manipulations. 
 It should always be done in a situation where no danger could result from the 
 inflammation of the oil. Should this happen, the experimenter must not throw 
 Water upon the fluid, under the hope of extinguishing the flame, for an explosion 
 would certainly ensue;—the safest plan is to put over the vessel some cover, 
 which will prevent the access of the air, without which the combustion cannot 
 continue. The garlic is used to show when a sufficient degree of heat has been 
 communicated, for which purpose a feather may be employed, as it will then 
 appear burnt and shrivelled, in the same manner as when held in a flame. 
 
 The Essential Oils.— The essential or volatile oils are obtained from aniTTial 
 or vegetable matter, chiefly from the latter, and by the process of distillation, 
 The properties of these oils are exceedingly different from those of the class 
 already described. They are caustic and odorous, and have little consistence. 
 Some of them possess strong medical qualities. They are contained in various 
 parts and in different organs of vegetables. Some plants have the essentia] 
 oil peculiar to them distributed throughout their entire structure, in others it 
 is confined to the bark, the leaves, the flower, the epidermis of the fruit, or 
 some particular vessels. The essential oils are usually extracted by distillation. 
 To facilitate this process, water is introduced into the still with the plant whose 
 essential oil is required, and at the boiling point the oil is generally volatilized, 
 the watery vapour being present. The aqueous vapour and the vapour of the 
 oil are condensed in the refrigerator, and the two substances are separated. 
 
 The essential oils are rarely to be met with quite pure, being much adulterated 
 before they are brought into the market, and as they are all more or less soluble 
 in alcohol, this substance is extensively used in the adulteration. To ascertain 
 whether any specimen of oil contains the spirits of wine, pour a small quantity 
 of the suspected liquid into a glass vessel, containing water, and if the oil has 
 been thus adulterated, a milky emulsion will be formed, and the oil thus separated 
 
115 
 
 will clear itself if allowed to stand for a few days, or it may be strained 
 through blotting paper. The colour which remains will be thrown off by 
 exposure to light. 
 
 It is said that a good drying oil, suitable for many light colours, may be 
 formed, by adding small pieces of lead, or lead filings to linseed and the other 
 oils. They should be thus kept for a few days, and occasionally shaken together, 
 that the oil may act better upon the metal. This liquid is colourless, and 
 dries well. 
 
 It is not necessary to mention all the various processes employed by painters 
 and others in the preparation of drying oils, and as the best modes of making 
 them have been spoken of, it is scarcely requisite that any others should be 
 mentioned. But, there is no better mode of correcting the evils which result 
 from an injudicious practice, than by placing the erroneous modes in contrast 
 with more simple and scientific principles. So numerous are the substances, 
 and so strange the mixtures recommended in books, that it is surprising any 
 practical men can place confidence in them; for they generally know, from 
 experience, that the methods which are the most simple are the most effective. 
 The few following processes will give the reader some idea of the uncertain 
 state in which the art of making drying oils is at the present time. 
 
 I. To four pounds of linseed oil add one and a half ounces of white vitriol, 
 and six ounces of litharge reduced to fine powders. Place these over a slow 
 fire till the scum ceases to rise. Let the liquid stand for four or five hours 
 to cool, and afterwards pour it off, leaving the fatty sediment at the bottom. 
 In a few weeks it will be clear enough for use. 
 
 II. To eight pints of oil add twelve ounces of litharge, and one ounce of each 
 of the following substances, white lead, acetate of lead, and white vitriol, calcined 
 and reduced to powder. To these a head of garlic, sliced, is to be added. Keep 
 the liquid in a state of gentle ebullition till no scum rises, when the liquid 
 will have a reddish and the garlic a brown colour. When taken from the 
 fire and allowed to cool, the pellicle formed on the surface will be precipitated, 
 and when the oil has been kept for a time, it will be clearer and much improved 
 in quality. 
 
 III. Another recipe is—one and a half ounce of litharge, and half an ounce 
 of white vitriol to one pint of linseed oil. 
 
 IV. For common work, some painters use the proportion of one and a half 
 pound of red lead to one gallon of linseed oil, and this is probably one of the 
 most judicious processes in general use. 
 
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118 
 
 for paint, and in the preparation of varnishes. That which is sold in the shops 
 is commonly adulterated with a fixed oil, hut it is easy to detect whether this 
 has been done or not, for if a piece of paper he moistened with that which is 
 impure, it will be found to have a stain when dry, hut will he perfectly free 
 from any oily mark if there has been no adulteration. 
 
 There are several varieties of turpentine in the market, and of these it will 
 be desirable to give a short account. 
 
 1. The common turpentine is a yellowish white substance, of the consistence 
 of honey. It is extracted from the Pinus abies, and Pinus silvestris. It consists 
 of rosin, with 5 to 25 per cent, of turpentine. The manufacturers state that it 
 is simply the turpentine obtained from the pine and purified, but there can he 
 little doubt that it is much adulterated with a fixed oil. 
 
 2. The Venice turpentine is extracted from the Pinus larix, and is brought 
 . from Hungary and Switzerland. It is said to contain from 18 to 25 per cent. 
 
 of oil. Much of that which is sold in the English market as Venice turpentine 
 is made by mixing equal weights of black resin and turpentine together. 
 
 3. The French turpentine is obtained from the Pinus maritima, and contains 
 about 12 per cent, of oil. 
 
 4. Strasbourg turpentine is extracted from the Pinus picea, and yields 3.3.5 
 per cent, of oil. 
 
 5. The turpentine of Canada, or Canada balsam, is extracted from the Pinus 
 Canadensis and balsamea. 
 
 A small quantity of succinic acid is found, we believe, in all varieties of 
 turpentine, and hence it is that the oil reddens litmus paper. When the oil 
 has been repeatedly rectified it is found to consist of 84.60 carbon, 11.735 
 hydrogen, and 3.67 oxygen. 
 
 Oil of Spike. —This oil is obtained from the flower of a large species of 
 lavender, commonly grown in the province of Languedoc, and in many parts 
 of England. It is obtained, like the other essential oils, by distillation. It 
 was once extensively employed by the house-painter, but its use has been 
 superseded by the oil of turpentine. As a vehicle for enamel colours it is 
 much esteemed, and its property of dissolving copal renders it exceedingly 
 useful in the manufacture of varnishes. 
 
 Oil of Rosemary. —This oil is obtained from the Rosmarinus officinalis, the 
 plant whose name it bears. It has less body than the oil of spike, and has 
 
 V. 
 

 117 
 
 will float on the top of the liquid, so that the quantity of pure oil, and conse¬ 
 quently of spirit, may he measured. 
 
 The essential oils have the property of dissolving the fat oils; and they 
 are sometimes used in adulteration. If any expressed oil he present it 
 may he detected, hy adding to the preparation about three times its volume 
 of spirits of wine, which will take up the essential oil, leaving the other free 
 from its former combination. This fraud may he detected in another manner. 
 A pure essential oil leaves no stain on white paper when allowed to evaporate 
 on that substance, hut should a fat oil be present a stain would be produced. 
 
 Essential oils of different qualities are sometimes mixed, the cheap with those 
 of greater value. This kind of adulteration is less easily detected than those 
 already mentioned, but it may generally he done by the smell. Turpentine is 
 most commonly used for this purpose, hut if a cloth, moistened with the 
 suspected liquid, he exposed for a short time to the air, or to the heat of a • 
 fire, the peculiar smell which belongs to the oil will be lost, and the strong 
 effluvia of the turpentine will he detected. If the two essential oils united 
 together, so differ from each other in specific gravity, that one is lighter and 
 one heavier than water, they may he separated by mechanical means, for if 
 they he well shaken for a time, they will range themselves in the order 
 of their specific gravities, that is to say the water will he found between the 
 two oils. 
 
 There are only four essential oils employed hy the painter, the oils of 
 turpentine, spike, rosemary, and petroleum: of these a short description must 
 be given. 
 
 Oil of Turpentine. —This substance, sometimes called the essence or spirits 
 of turpentine, is distilled from the rough turpentine of commerce, which exudes 
 from trees of the fir family. It is a colourless fluid, or should it have a slight 
 amber hue it may he removed by mixing with it a little powdered quick-lime. 
 The colouring matter is combined with the lime when the vessel is well shaken, 
 so as to mix the lime thoroughly with the fluid, and both are precipitated, leaving 
 the turpentine perfectly without colour. It is also a strong, penetrating fluid, 
 and possesses a peculiar odour, which is, to most persons, exceedingly unpleasant. 
 Nearly all the volatile oils combine with spirits of wine as already stated, hut 
 turpentine is a very sparing soluble in alcohol. It may be made to dissolve in 
 this spirit by heat, but as the spirit cools the liquids are in part separated. 
 
 Turpentine is used extensively in various manufactures, but chiefly as a vehicle 
 
 2 H 
 
120 
 
 combined with the oils in the formation of varnishes. Without this information 
 a very incomplete knowledge would he obtained of the subject we are attempting 
 to explain. 
 
 The Bitumens, Kesins, and other Substances employed in the 
 Manufacture of Varnishes. 
 
 The substances which enter into the composition of varnishes, in addition 
 to those already mentioned, are not numerous, and may therefore be described 
 with all necessary particularity without exceeding the limits to which we are 
 compelled to confine our subjects in this volume. They may all be comprised 
 under the two general terms bitumen and resin. Both these classes of substances 
 are of an inflammable nature, and have many properties in common; the former, 
 however, are of mineral, and the latter of vegetable origin. 
 
 The Bitumens. —The term bitumen includes a considerable number of sub¬ 
 stances, differing greatly in consistence and external qualities, but all of them 
 being highly inflammable. Among those which are fluid, we may mention 
 naphtha, and Barbadoes tar; and among those which are solid, asphaltum, the 
 ela.stic bitumen, and the mineral tallow. It is of the asphaltum we shall 
 speak in particular, as a substance which enters into the composition of some 
 varnishes. 
 
 Asphaltum.— This curious mineral substance greatly resembles pitch in its 
 external appearance. It is hard and brittle, has a vitreous fracture, and is soluble 
 in turpentine, and the drying oils. It is a principal ingredient in the manufacture 
 of those dark varnishes called japans. It is found in large quantities upon the 
 Dead Sea, or Lake Asphaltites. According to the experiments made by various 
 chemists it appears that asphaltum, when treated with different solvents, yields 
 three distinct substances. Alcohol, when it is made to act upon it, dissolves 
 a yellow resin equal to 5 per cent, of the weight. The residue, when treated 
 with ether, gives a brown resin, equal to 70 per cent, of the weight of asphaltum. 
 That which remains, is very soluble in turpentine, or in the oil of petroleum. 
 The asphaltum is therefore supposed to consist of three resinous principles, of 
 different natures, but they are all dissolved by turpentine, nut, or linseed-oil. 
 It^ consists, like organic bodies, of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but men of 
 science are by no means agreed in assigning its origin. Asphaltum is extensively 
 employed in the preparation of hydraulic cements, as well as for the manufacture 
 
119 
 
 a stronger action upon copal, so that it is better suited for the manufacture 
 of a certain class of varnishes. It is commonly adulterated with turpentine, 
 hut this fraud may he at once detected, by the addition of anhydrous alcohol, 
 which has the property of dissolving the oil of rosemary, and consequently sets 
 free the turpentine. 
 
 Oil of Petroleum.— Naphtha, rock-oil, or oil of petroleum, is frequently 
 found in volcanic districts, issuing from beneath the surface of the earth. It 
 is an essential oil, prepared in the great laboratory of terrestrial nature. Springs 
 have been discovered on the shores of the Caspian Sea, and among the rocks 
 of Italy. At Yananghoung, upon the River Erawaddy, in the Birman Empire, 
 there are no less than five hundred and twenty petroleum springs, which issue 
 from a blue clay soaked with oil, and resting upon strata of roofing slates. Each 
 spring yields annually 173 casks of 950 pounds each. There are many other 
 places from which rock-oil is obtained, but that which is brought from Persia 
 is most esteemed. It has the property of combining with strong alcohol, and 
 dissolves most of the resins, fats, and wax. It is often adulterated with turpentine, 
 which may he detected by the addition of strong sulphuric acid, as that sub¬ 
 stance gives to the liquid a reddish brown colour, and increases its density. 
 
 The odour of this, as of nearly all other essential oils, is somewhat disagreeable, 
 but the unpleasant effluvia need not be any longer an objection to its use, for 
 M. de Saussure has discovered a very simple mode of destroying the smell, without 
 changing, in any respect, its other properties. This process consists in adding, in 
 small portions, the sulphuric acid of commerce, and allowing the two substances to 
 remain in contact for several days, frequently shaking the vessel which contams 
 them. A black precipitate is thrown down, and this is found to be a combination 
 of sulphuric acid, and the odorous principle of the oil. A small quantity o 
 free acid will be found in the clear liquid when drawn off, but this may be 
 neutralized by saturating the liquid with a solution of caustic potass, oi 
 
 quick-lime. , 
 
 This brief sketch of the manufacture and properties of the oils employeu 
 
 by the painter as vehicles, or in the preparation of varnishes, will put the 
 reader in possession of the most important facts concerning these substances, 
 so far as relates to their use in the arts. We might now proceed to describe 
 the manufacture of varnishes, and to notice a few of the vehicles used by artists, 
 but before this can he done, with advantage to the reader, it will be necessary 
 to give some account of the bitumens, resins, and other substances which are 
 
122 
 
 amber is of vegetable origin, and may, therefore, with propriety, be classed 
 among the resinous bodies. 
 
 Amber is much harder than the other resins. It is fused at a temperature 
 higher than that required to dissolve copal. An excellent varnish is made by 
 dissolving it in dryin g linseed-oil. The varnish in which it enters as a com¬ 
 ponent part, has, of course, a brownish hue, and can therefore be only used 
 for dark colours. 
 
 Gum Anime. —This substance, which derives its name from the number of 
 insects it contains, exudes from the courbaril tree, a native of Cayenne, and 
 various parts of South America. It is of a pale yellowish brown colour, and 
 resembles copal in its general appearance, but is more brittle. It is not dissolved 
 by alcohol, nor by caoutchoucine, but it is converted into a tremulous jelly, by 
 a mixture of these two substances in equal parts. It is softened by heat, and 
 may be brought into a liquid state: a white vapour is then given off, which if 
 condensed in water will be found to contain succinic acid. It is dissolved in 
 oil at a high temperature, and it is also taken up by turpentine; but the 
 solution will appear muddy until the insoluble matter which gives it colour 
 is thrown down. 
 
 Copal.— Copal is the hardest, and to the varnish manufacturer the most 
 valuable, of all the resins. There are two species in the market: one is obtained 
 from the Ehus copallinum, a native of Spanish America, and the other exudes 
 from the Elaeocarpus copalifer, a native of the East Indies. Another variety, 
 it is said, grows upon the coasts of Guinea. In the copal of commerce is 
 found a portion of resinous substance, which has nearly the same appearance 
 as the copal, but melts at a much lower degree of heat. The varnish makers 
 are said to distinguish this from the other parts of the resin, by its greater 
 whiteness and globular structure. 
 
 Copal is readily dissolved in ether, and also in equal quantities of caoutchoucine 
 and alcohol. Before it can be used in the manufacture of varnish it is necessary 
 to remove an opaqire crust, which is always found upon it, and is probably pro¬ 
 duced by the united action of the atmosphere and water. For this purpose the 
 gum is soaked in a strong lye for about two days, and when dried and broken 
 up, the opaque covering is thrown off. Another advantage is gained by this 
 process, for those parts which are softer than the others are thus made to adhere 
 to the things which they touch, and are easily removed. By this separation the 
 
121 
 
 of certain varnishes, and it has of late come into use as a material in an artificial 
 paving stone. 
 
 The Resins are, like the bitumens, either solid, or liquids of great 
 consistence; they are also inflammable, and soluble in alcohol and the oils. 
 Upon examination, each one is found to be a natural mixture of several 
 distinct substances, which may he taken up separately by different solvents; 
 thus, for example, one principle will be found soluble in ether, another in 
 alcohol, and a third in turpentine. Resin is a proximate principle in almost 
 all vegetable substances. Some varieties exude spontaneously from plants, or 
 are discharged by artificial incisions through the hark into the wood of the 
 tree, while others are extracted by the action of heat and alcohol. They are 
 in nature very numerous, hut our attention will he entirely confined to those 
 which are employed in the manufacture of varnishes. 
 
 Amber. —This substance is found as a mineral, hut has all the properties of 
 a vegetable product, and so strongly resembles the resins in external characters 
 and in chemical composition, that it may he classed with them. It consists, 
 like them, of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and in nearly the same proportions. 
 AVhen brought into a flame it ignites, and burns entirely away. It is generally 
 of a yellowish colour, and has a resino-vitreous texture. It is not of modern 
 formation, hut is discovered in true geological strata, and is a relic of the 
 ancient world. It is said to belong to the great marine formation of the 
 tertiary group, and is found in nodules of various sizes in the sands, and other 
 strata of the plastic clay series. All naturalists are agreed in the opinion that 
 it is of vegetable origin, for of this there is abundant evidence. Its very form 
 gives some indication of its production, for the larger pieces have the appearance 
 as though they had been in a liquid and flowing state. But we have a still 
 more conclusive evidence of the fact in the enclosure of insects and other organic 
 structures, which, from the transparency of the substance, are quite distinguishable. 
 From the examination of these insects, by celebrated entomologists, it appears 
 that they chiefly belong to those classes which live in the bark of trees, or 
 frequent the trunks for food, but they more resemble the insects of tropical 
 than of temperate climes. Amber is also found in ligneous deposits, which 
 leads to the probable supposition that it was the resin of those vegetable 
 substances which are now presented to us as masses of lignite. From these 
 considerations, then, it will appear probable, if not absolutely certain, that 
 
 2i 
 
124 
 
 parent substance, of a red colour, but the colouring matter is easily removed. 
 The Siam lac is preferred to all others. It is extensively employed in the 
 manufacture of sealing-wax, as well as of varnish. 
 
 The Varnishes. 
 
 We may now proceed to an explanation of the manner in which the various 
 kinds of varnish are made; and if the reader has acquainted himself with the 
 facts already stated, in reference to the substances which enter into their compo¬ 
 sition, he will have no difficulty in following the account we are about to give. 
 
 Varnishes are made by dissolving a resinous matter in spirits of wine, oil, 
 or some other fluid. The objects for which they are applied, are to give a 
 hard and transparent covering to the substances over which they are spread, 
 and to protect them from moisture and the action of the atmosphere. When 
 they are applied to painted surfaces they should be devoid of colour, or at least 
 be of such a tint as shall heighten rather than detract from the effect intended 
 to be produced by the artist. As it is very difficult to obtain a colourless varnish, 
 those which have a yellow hue are to be preferred, for although they impart 
 some tint to the painting they cover, they are less injurious than any other. 
 There are, however, some spirit varnishes which are colourless, and they are 
 extensively used by the house-painter and cabinet maker, but are not fit for 
 all purposes in decoration, and are unsuited to the artist. Varnishes should 
 also have the property of spreading evenly and readily under the brush, and 
 of drying quickly. Those authors who have written for the direction of artists, 
 have stated, as a univ.ersal maxim, that the varnish employed upon a picture, 
 should have, as nearly as possible, the same character as the vehicle with 
 which it was painted, so that the action of heat, moisture, and the atmosphere, 
 may affect both similarly; if mastic has been employed to any extent as a 
 vehicle, then the painting should be covered with mastic varnish ; if copal, 
 then copal varnish should be used. The house-painter having no occasion for 
 any other vehicles than oil and turpentine, seeks for a varnish which will 
 dry quickly, and is in general less careful about its other properties than 
 the artist. 
 
 Before we proceed to explain the composition of the varnishes, it will be 
 desirable to give a general view of the mode of manufacture on a large scale, and 
 to mention those cautions which are absolutely necessary in a process attended 
 
123 
 
 varnish maker is able to melt those parts together which dissolve at about the 
 same temperature. 
 
 Mastic is a gum obtained from a species of lentil tree, called the Pistacea 
 lentiscus, which is common in the isles of the Archipelago, and especially 
 abounds in Chios. In the Levant it is chewed by the inhabitants, and the 
 larger portion of that collected in Chios, which is most esteemed, is sent to 
 the Grand Seignior, and is used in the seraglio. It is transparent and odorous, 
 occurs in the form of drops, and softens in the mouth. 
 
 With a heat equal to that of boiling water it liquifies. In alcohol it is 
 partially dissolved, and the solution has a cloudy appearance. Mastic consists 
 of two resins, one of which is soluble in weak alcohol, and the other only in 
 the strongest. It is perfectly soluble in the fixed and volatile oils. To the 
 varnish maker it is an invaluable substance. 
 
 Sandarach. —This substance, in its external appearance, greatly resembles 
 mastic. It is transparent, of a yellow colour, and occurs in drops. It is the 
 produce of a small tree of the coniferous family called the Thuya articulata, 
 a native of northern Africa, and said to be especially abundant round Mount 
 Atlas. Although it, externally, greatly resembles Mastic, in every other respect 
 it differs from that important resin. It does not soften in the mouth, and 
 dissolves readily in alcohol, hut not in the oil of turpentine. At a moderate 
 heat it melts in the fixed oils, but a high temperature is required for a perfect 
 combination. It is said to consist of three distinct resins. Reaumur states 
 that, having steeped it in spirits of wine, he has dissolved it in the oil of 
 spike; but Merimee repeated the experiment without success. 
 
 Lac. —There is one other resinous substance used by the varnish maker, 
 which it will he necessary to mention; and it may be placed distinct from 
 all others, as being of animal origin. This substance is sometimes improperly 
 called gum-lac; but is in fact produced by an insect, called the Coccus ficus. 
 This insect is found on the Ticus religiosa, the Ehamnus jujuba, and other 
 plants, natives of Siam, Assam, Bengal, and Malabar. In November or 
 December, we are informed, the insects are produced from the eggs, and 
 soon after fasten themselves to the hark of the shrub by a transparent glu¬ 
 tinous liquid, which continues to increase to the end of March. In this the 
 eggs are enveloped, and it is the stick lac of commerce. Lac is a hard, trans- 
 
126 
 
 assistant should be ready with a piece of old carpet to place over the mouth 
 of the boiling pot, should the varnish be ignited during the mixture, which not 
 unfrequently happens ; but if the air be thus excluded, the fire will be soon 
 extinguished. When the gum pot is emptied, half a gallon of turpentine is 
 poured in, and with it the pot is washed out. When wiped out, eight pounds 
 of gum are placed in it, and when fused, the oil is added as in the former 
 instances. After this, there is a third run, as the process is called by the 
 workmen, so that at last there will be eight gallons of oil and twenty-four 
 pounds of gum in the boiling pot. The pot is then placed over a brisk fire, 
 until a scum covers the entire surface of the liquid, and begins to rise, when it 
 is removed to the ash bed, and a small quantity of driers is gradually added. 
 When the scum has gone down, the pot is again placed on the fire, and the 
 remainder of the driers are added. “In general, if the fire be good, all the 
 time a pot requires to boil, from the time of the last gum being poured in, is 
 about three and a half or four hours; but time is no criterion for a beginner 
 to judge by, as it may vary according to weather, the quality of the oil, the 
 quality of the gum, the driers, or the heat of the fire; therefore, about the third 
 hour of boiling, try it on a bit of glass, and keep it boiling until it feels strong 
 and stringy between the fingers. It is then boiled sufficiently to carry it on the 
 ash bed, and to be stirred down until it is cold enough to mix, which will 
 depend much on the weather, varying from half an hour, in dry, frosty weather, 
 to one hour, in a warm summer’s day.” About fifteen gallons of turpentine 
 are added, and the varnish will then be sufficiently thick, if the materials be 
 good, and the gum be properly fused. But it is well to be assured of this ; 
 and it is, therefore, desirable to pour a little into a saucer, when twelve gallons 
 of turpentine have been introduced, and to add more if necessary. 
 
 In the manufacture of varnish, much will depend upon the preparation of the 
 oil. Supposing that a good linseed oil has been chosen, it is still necessary 
 that it should be prepared for the use of the varnish maker. A copper pan, 
 holding from sixty to eighty gallons, properly set, over a suitable furnace, is 
 filled to within a few inches of the brim with linseed oil, and a gentle, but 
 increasing heat is applied, which is continued for about two hours. As long as 
 scum rises, it is removed by the attendant, and when this has ceased, the boiling 
 should be continued for about three hours. To separate the mucilage, the best 
 calcined magnesia is added in small quantities, about a quarter of an ounce for 
 every gallon of oil. When this has been done, the oil is boiled for another 
 hour, and the fire is then quenched with water, a cover being previously placed 
 
125 
 
 with much danger to the property of the manufacturer, and the persons of his 
 workmen. 
 
 In selecting a building for the manufaeture of varnish, it must he remembered 
 that it should be so far distant from any other building as not to endanger them 
 in the event of fire upon the premises, which is not an uncommon occurrence. 
 To diminish the destructive effect of a fire, when it does happen, the manufactory 
 itself should be constructed of those materials which are least injured by exposure 
 to intense heat, and are not combustible,—in fact it should be made fire-proof. 
 A building about eighteen feet long, and twelve feet wide, will be found suf¬ 
 ficiently large, as we are informed by a practical person, for the annual manu¬ 
 facture of four thousand gallons of varnish. In addition to this, warehouses 
 will of course be required for the reception of the materials employed in the 
 manufacture, and of the varnishes when prepared for the market. These should 
 be as far from the manufactory as possible, and especially where large stocks are 
 kept, as a security from fire. 
 
 Now, supposing the building to be furnished with the necessary fire-places, 
 the workman may at once proceed in the manufacture of the varnish. Mr. Neile 
 has given in the Transactions of the Society of Arts, vol. 49, an account of the 
 manipulations, which we might extract; but an abstract of his description will 
 be better suited to the character of this book. 
 
 Eight gallons of oil being put into the boiling pot, a fire is lighted, and 
 one is also, at the same time, kindled in the gum furnace, and eight pounds of 
 copal are placed in the gum pot, as many bags, each containing eight pounds, 
 as may be required in the intended process, being placed ready for the workman. 
 In about twenty minutes, the gum will be entirely fused, when it will become 
 quite clear, like oil; but this will depend upon the briskness of the fire, and 
 the attention of the workman, for the gum will require frequent stirring. 
 While the gum is on the fire, the assistant brings the oil to a temperature 
 approaching to boiling, and when this has been done, the pot is removed to the 
 ash bed, and three ladles-full of oil are put into the copper pouring jack, which 
 is placed on the iron plate at the back of the gum pot, to be kept hot until 
 required for use. When the gum is nearly fused, the assistant raises the oil 
 jack, and, when directed, pours in the hot oil, after which, the boiling is continued 
 until the substances are thoroughly united. The same quantity of oil is then 
 again placed in the pouring jack, and an equal amount into a spare tin. Three 
 gallons and a half of oil will still remain in the boiling pot, and into this the 
 contents of the gum pot are emptied. When the workman begins to pour, the 
 
 2 K 
 
128 
 
 which could not be dissolved because of their size; but this may be done by 
 prolonging the ebullition: the varnish would, of course, become more coloured 
 by remaining longer exposed to the fire. It would, therefore, be better, pre¬ 
 vious to the operation, to pass the pulverized copal through a silken sieve, or 
 still better, to grind it well with oil before it is put into the mattrass: this will 
 certainly quicken the operation, and, consequently, the varnish will be less 
 coloured. 
 
 The mattrass might be placed in a sand-bath, and allowed to remain there 
 without being stirred until the whitish vapours begin to fill up the cavity, 
 and the oil, mounting in foam, would be in danger of rushing out of the 
 vessel; but in this case, the operation would be much slower, and the fire 
 must be much stronger, to bring the sand up to the degree of heat required. 
 I have tried to produce this combination in a silver vessel, but did not succeed ; 
 for the external air prevented the re.sin from heating, and it was merely softened, 
 though coloured strongly. It is, therefore, better to employ a mattrass in which 
 the heat is strong, and kept nearly equal; but to give more certainty to the 
 operation, I would advise that no more than one or two ounces of copal should 
 be dissolved at a time. Should it be necessary to melt several pounds, recourse 
 must be had to the process already described. 
 
 Having explained the process of manufacturing varnishes, it will not be 
 necessary to describe all the several varieties which are brought into the 
 market, and employed in the arts, and especially as the account we are giving 
 is more intended to explain the process generally to those interested in the art 
 of house-painting, than to direct the varnish maker in his trade. Every substance 
 may be called a varnish which, when spread over a painted surface, has the 
 property of bringing out the colours; and, by forming a thin transparent coating, 
 protects them from the action of the atmosphere. They may, therefore, be said 
 to be almost innumerable, for a great variety of substances may be employed, 
 and these may be united in extremely different proportions. Varnishes made 
 of resins have been known and used from very ancient times, for when the 
 arts were flourishing in Greece, they were known in India, China, and other 
 oriental countries; and were, no doubt, employed by the Greek artists also; 
 although a different opinion has been formed by some writers, founded upon 
 a passage in the writings of Pliny, where he states that Apelles was indebted 
 for his fame as a painter to the use of a liquid which he calls atramentum. 
 But, whatever opinion may be entertained, concerning the knowledge of this 
 subject possessed by the ancient Greeks, other nations have possessed the art of 
 
 v. 
 
127 
 
 over the copper to prevent the access of dust. It is then uncovered, and allowed 
 to remain several hours, after which it is drawn off, and stands for two or three 
 months, when it will be perfectly clear. The bottoms are only fit for use in 
 the preparation of black paint. 
 
 In melting copal, there is much danger of the ignition of the vapour which 
 rises from it, for, if a single spark from the fire came in contact with it, this 
 would be the result. One of the most experienced of the French manufacturers 
 has contrived an apparatus, from the suggestion of M. Merimee, by which 
 the possibility of the ignition of the vapour is prevented, and the unpleasant 
 odour is destroyed. The gum is melted in a mattrass, and in the neck of this 
 vessel a tin or copper tunnel about two feet in length is inserted. The upper 
 end of this tube is partially closed with iron wire, or probably with wire gauze, 
 and is inflamed on the upper surface, where it burns like common coal gas. A 
 still better plan is to use a curved tube; for the vapour being condensed in it, 
 the volatile oil of copal may be collected, a substance which, when rectified, will 
 be found useful for many purposes. A double object is effected by this 
 process,—the prevention of accidents by fire, and the unpleasant smell of the 
 disengaged vapour. 
 
 Copal varnish may be made, in small quantities, in a glass mattrass, with 
 a short neck. “This is to be filled,” says M. Merimee, “about two thirds 
 with a mixture containing five parts of nut oil and one part of copal, finely 
 powdered. To prevent any risk in approaching the fire, and to manage the 
 process carefully, the neck of the mattrass must be fastened by iron wire 
 to the end of a long forked stick. Thus prepared, the operator holds the 
 mattrass over a furnace filled with ignited charcoal, without any flame, and care 
 must be taken not to bring it forward too suddenly. When the oil has acquired 
 a heat superior to boiling water, the copal is seen in agitation, ascending to the 
 surface of the liquid, the temperature rises progressively, the resin ascends in a 
 greater volume, and vapour begins to leave the aperture of the vessel; by 
 degrees this becomes abundant, and fills all the vase, the surface of the oil 
 tumefies like milk when about to boil, and it would evaporate in foam if the 
 vessel were not removed a little from the fire. This is the moment at which 
 the copal begins to dissolve; the oil changing to a state of vapour, has acquired 
 the proper degree of heat to effect that object; and, by giving gently a rotatory 
 motion to the mass, the white vapours and scum soon disappear, and the fire 
 being clearly seen through the liquid, indicates that the operation is complete. 
 
 When the copal has not been well ground, some small lumps will appear. 
 
130 
 
 one just described is greatly improved by keeping. When good, it will be 
 sufficiently dry in twenty-four hours to bear the impression of the finger. 
 
 Sheldrake’s Copal Varnish. —This varnish is made of two ounces of 
 copal, the same quantity of spirits of ammonia, two drachms of camphor, and 
 one pint of rectified oil of turpentine. It is prepared in a vessel partly stopped, 
 but so that the heated vapour may escape. It is then made to boil gently over 
 a brisk fire, the ebullition being kept up so that the hubbies may be counted as 
 they rise. When the solution of the copal has been completed, the vessel must 
 be allowed to stand unopened until it is quite cold. 
 
 Colourless Copal Varnish.— The choice of the copal is of the greatest 
 importance in the manufacture of this varnish. To ascertain what pieces are 
 suited for use, it is customary to test them with pure essential oil of rosemary, 
 and to select those which are softened by immersion. Eeduce the pieces of gum 
 that may he chosen, to powder, and sift it through a fine sieve. Having 
 placed it in a suitable glass vessel, in quantity not more than half an inch 
 in thickness, add about the same bulk of the oil of rosemary, keeping up a 
 continual agitation until the gum is dissolved. To thin the varnish thus 
 formed, mix with it pure alcohol, a few drops at a time. When it has stood 
 three or four days, it will be quite clear, and may be decanted for use. This 
 varnish takes an excellent polish, and may be used on either wood or metal, 
 and is not unsuited for fancy articles made of pasteboard. 
 
 A Gold-coloured Copal Varnish. —Take two ounces of essential oil of 
 lavender, and when hot, add, in small quantities, one ounce of powdered copal. 
 Stir the ingredients till the solution is effected, and then add hot, and in small 
 quantities, six ounces of turpentine. 
 
 A few general remarks on the manufacture of copal varnish may he now 
 added. It is of importance that the gum should be broken up, for the more 
 perfect the fusion the greater will be the quantity and the strength of the 
 varnish. The boiling should be long continued, and with regularity, for upon 
 this will much depend the ease with which it works under the brush. The 
 gum and oil should be boiled, as already stated, until the mixture is stringy, 
 but this must not be done suddenly, for this will make the varnish less 
 durable, flow less teadily, and require a greater proportion of turpentine. 
 
varnish making for different purposes, and in modern times the varieties have so 
 increased in number that every manufacturer has formulee of his own. It will, 
 therefore, appear quite unnecessary that we should encumber these pages with 
 more examples than may be required to give the reader some notion of the sub¬ 
 stances generally employed, and the proportions in which they are commonly used. 
 
 1. The Varnishes in which Copae is the principal ingredient. 
 
 Copal Varnish for Paintings. —A good copal varnish for fine paintings 
 may be made in the following manner:—Take eight pounds of the best pale 
 copal, and having reduced it to a fluid state by heat, add, in small quantities, 
 two gallons of hot drying oil. Boil this mixture till it is stringy. Three 
 gallons of turpentine must then he added, while the mixture is very hot. Then 
 strain it, and should the varnish be too thick, add as much oil as may be 
 necessary, before it is quite cold. Much vapour will rise during the mixing of 
 the turpentine, but this is not to be regarded, as the varnish will be brighter, 
 work more freely, and dry harder. 
 
 A House Painter’s Varnish. —A good house painter’s varnish may be 
 formed as follows:—Take eight pounds of the second sorted African copal, and 
 to this add, in the manner already described, two gallons and a half of clarified 
 oil. These are to be hoUed till very stringy, when the following substances 
 must be added:—A quarter of a pound of dried copperas, and the same of 
 litharge, with five and a half gallons of turpentine. This varnish, when strained, 
 is to be mixed while hot, with one made of eight pounds of second sorted gum 
 anime; two and a half gallons of clarified oil; a quarter of a pound of sugar 
 of lead and litharge; and five and a half gallons of turpentine. 
 
 A Picture Varnish. —A picture varnish is sometimes made from three 
 hundred parts of hard copal, to so much of drying oil as may be thought 
 necessary, varying from one hundred and twenty-five, to two hundred and 
 twenty-five parts, and five hundred of turpentine. The several ingredients are 
 added to each other in the manner already described. The chief danger in the 
 manufacture of these varnishes is, in the addition of the turpentine, the vapour 
 of which is liable to catch fire. As the oil is always more or less coloured when 
 it is raised to near the boiling point, the turpentine is sometimes added to the 
 melted copal, and it is in this way that the whitest varnishes are made. The 
 
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132 
 
 The object in this operation is to separate the spirit which unites with the 
 water, leaving the resin and wax in combination, which may then be formed 
 into balls, or rolls, and be kept for any time. When required for use, melt 
 this substance in an equal part of drying oil, at a slow heat, and bring it to 
 the necessary consistence in the usual way. 
 
 Another method of manufacturing this substance is, to add to a mastic varnish, 
 formed of equal parts of mastic and turpentine, nut or poppy oil, in the necessary 
 proportions, and one-eighth part of the acetate of lead. Boil this lightly, and 
 pour it into water. It must then be occasionally stirred, and the water be 
 poured off and renewed, until all the uncombined acetate is dissolved. 
 
 To accelerate the solution of mastic in oil of turpentine, it is desirable to 
 grind the resin, or break it into small pieces, although it very readily dissolves. 
 If a mastic varnish contain an excess of oil, it is liable to crack. Artists generally 
 prefer it to copal, on account of its being colourless, but the fear of its cracking 
 is an objection to some persons. The advantage in the manufacture of the best 
 copal varnishes is, that the impure parts are not soluble in turpentine, so that a 
 transparent solution is formed. 
 
 3. Varnishes in which Gum Anime is the principal ingredient. 
 
 A Wainscot Varnish. —A good wainscot varnish may be made from two 
 pounds of gum anime and three gallons of clarified oil. These must be boiled 
 till very stringy, and then a quarter of a pound of litharge, a quarter of a 
 pound of dried sugar of lead, and five and a half gallons of turpentine must 
 be added. The mixture must then be strained, and is ready for immediate use. 
 
 Mahogany varnish is made with the same substances, and with nearly the 
 same proportions, but a small portion of gold size is often added. 
 
 Varnishes made of gum anim6 do not retain their colour so well as those 
 formed of copal, nor have they the same fluidity and softness. Copal varnish, 
 however, requires a much longer time to dry, and it has therefore become 
 customary to add a portion of gum anime varnish to it, when required for the 
 use of the coachmaker and decorator. In describing the manufacture of a 
 copal varnish for fine paintings, the proportions of the ingredients have 
 been stated. 
 
131 
 
 The proportion of oil used in the manufacture of copal varnish must depend 
 on the species of varnish to be made, and the purposes for which it is to be 
 employed. If a quickly drying varnish be required, it is desirable to add about 
 two parts of linseed oil at first, and then, before it cools, two other parts of 
 white drying oil. But, if a varnish of small drying qualities be desired, and 
 one which mixes well with colours, four or five parts of linseed oil to one 
 of resin may be employed. A varnish for pictures, when perfectly dry, may 
 be made of one part of oil to two of copal, brought to its proper consistence 
 by the addition of turpentine. The greater the proportion of oil the tougher will 
 be the varnish, and the less liable it will be to crack. If the gum be introduced 
 in excess, the varnish will be more solid, and it will dry more quickly than 
 when the quantity of oil is greater. The quantity of driers is also to be carefully 
 regarded, for if a substance employed to give the varnish a strong drying 
 quality, be introduced in too great a proportion, it will also produce an 
 unnecessary and injurious opacity, and the varnish will be unfit for use over 
 light colours. 
 
 2. The Varnishes in which Mastic is the principal ingredient. 
 
 A Mastic Varnish.— A fine mastic picture varnish may be made in the 
 following manner: — Put into a four-gallon tin bottle five pounds of sorted 
 mastic. To this add two pounds of glass, broken up to about the size of 
 barley corns, well washed and dried, and two gallons of pure colourless tur¬ 
 pentine. Cork the vessel, placing a piece of fine leather over the cork, and 
 roll it backward and forward until all the gum is dissolved, which will require 
 about four hours. The varnish should then be strained through muslin, into 
 another tin bottle, where it should remain exposed to the atmosphere, but 
 protected from dust, for a period of eight or nine months, when it will be ready 
 for use. 
 
 Flanders Varnish. —Flanders varnish is chiefly composed of mastic, and 
 may, therefore, be described in this place. Dissolve grain mastic in alcohol, 
 by the application of a slow heat, and a thick, muddy liquid will be produced, 
 but, after it has stood for a short time, the impurities will be precipitated, 
 and a clear liquor be left. Wax must be then added, in the proportion of 
 about one-eighth, and the fusion be made in a water bath. The mixture 
 must then be thrown into cold water, and worked with two wooden spatulas. 
 

134 
 
 add to it an equal quantity of turpentine, and mix the two substances thoroughly. 
 In this manner a clear crystal varnish is formed, which will be fit for use 
 in a few days, if kept at a gentle warmth. 
 
 Caoutchouc Varnish.— Since the properties of caoutchouc have been made 
 known, it has been brought into extensive use in the arts, and among other 
 purposes, it has been employed in the manufacture of varnish. Caoutchouc 
 varnish is of great value in its application to those substances which are required 
 to have a degree of elasticity. It is produced by adding an equal weight of 
 boiling linseed oil to the gum in a liquid state. This mixture being made, 
 an equal weight of turpentine is added ; and when the varnish has been 
 strained, it will be fit for use. It dries slowly; and this is, in many cases, 
 an objection to it; but if caoutchoucine be used instead of caoutchouc, it 
 will dry more quickly. 
 
 Milk of Wax. —This substance is said to be similar to that used by the 
 Eomans, for the preservation of their fresco paintings, and was that with which 
 the paintings on the walls of Herculaneum and Pompeii were covered. Take 
 any quantity of white wax, and having melted it in a porcelain vessel, add an 
 equal quantity of spirits of wine. Having mixed these substances thoroughly, 
 pour out the compound upon a large marble slab, and work it with a muller 
 into a paste, adding as much spirits of wine, in small quantities, as may be 
 necessary. Then add water, in the same way, to about four times the weight 
 of the wax, and when strained it will be fit for use. The method of employing 
 this substance is somewhat different from that of other varnishes. It is first 
 spread evenly with a brush, and when dry is fused, on the surface of the 
 colour, by a large hot iron, called a salamander. It is then rubbed with 
 a linen cloth, which brings out the colours with great brilliance and 
 transparency. 
 
 Best Brunswick Black.— Take forty-five pounds of asphaltum, and boil it 
 for about six hours. In another vessel boil six gallons of linseed oil for the 
 same period, adding to it, while boiling, about six pounds of litharge. Then 
 pour the oil into the vessel containing the asphaltum, and boil the mixture 
 until it has such a consistence that it may be worked into hard pills. When 
 it is cool, add about twenty-five gallons of turpentine, and it will be soon fit 
 for use. 
 
133 
 
 4. Varnishes in which Amber is the principal ingredient. 
 
 Amber Varnish. —An excellent pale varnish is made from amber, and one 
 which works freely, and is very hard and durable. Take six pounds of picked 
 pale amber, and having fused it, add two gallons of clarified oil. These must 
 be boiled together, till the compound is very stringy. Mix with this four 
 gallons of turpentine. The addition of a little copal varnish is said to increase 
 its hardness and durability. 
 
 These are a few of the varnishes manufactured from copal, mastic, and gum 
 anime. The number might be greatly increased, hut it is only necessary that 
 the reader should he informed of the composition of those which are in most 
 common use, and these are described as illustrations of the process of manufacture. 
 For the qualities of his varnishes the painter is greatly dependent upon those 
 from whom he purchases, but there are few articles in which the public is 
 less deceived than in these. 
 
 5. Varnishes in which Sandarach is the principal ingredient. 
 
 Sandarach is chiefly used in the manufacture of spirit varnishes; and in our 
 description of these, the reader will find an account of some of those in 
 which it is employed. 
 
 6. Varnishes in which Lac is the principal ingredient. 
 
 Cabinet Lac Varnish. —A varnish for cabinet makers may be made of 
 the following substances:—Pale shell lac seven hundred and fifty parts; mastic 
 sixty-four; and alcohol ninety per cent. The solution must be made without 
 heat. The varnish has always a muddy appearance, and is so used by the 
 workman. 
 
 In conclusion we may add a few formulae for the manufacture of some useful 
 varnishes in common use, which the house-painter may be sometimes called 
 upon to employ. 
 
 Miscellaneous Varnishes. 
 
 Varnish for Maps, Drawings, &c. —Take a bottle of Canada balsam, and 
 place it sufiiciently near the fire to bring it to a perfectly liquid state. Then 
 
 2 M 
 
136 
 
 prevent vaporisation. To the capital of the still a stuffing box is applied, 
 through which is passed a stirring rod, that has a winch at the top, and a 
 cross piece at the bottom. By constantly turning this the solution is greatly 
 facilitated, and the completion of the process may be known by the ease with 
 which the rod will then move. During this operation, some of the spirit will 
 be necessarily vaporised and condensed, and must be added to that which remains 
 in the still, in combination with the resin, if the proper proportions have been 
 selected to commence with. When the varnish is removed from the still it 
 must be strained through a suitable sieve, and then be allowed to stand until 
 it is quite clear. If the varnish be required for immediate use, it must be 
 strained through some porous paper, which will separate all the small particles 
 that are not held in perfect solution by the spirit. 
 
 White Sandarach Varnish.— An excellent white varnish may be made 
 from sandarach, with a small proportion of other resins. Take two hundred 
 and fifty parts of sandarach; sixty-four of mastic; thirty-two of elemi resin; 
 sixty-four of Venice turpentine ; and eighty-five per cent, of alcohol. When 
 the resins are perfectly dissolved, add sufficient turpentine to bring the varnish 
 into a proper state for working easily with the brush. This is an excellent 
 varnish, but not sufficiently hard to bear polishing. 
 
 A Hard White Spirit Varnish may be made in the following manner:— 
 Take five pounds of sandarach, and place it in a four-gallon tin bottle, with 
 two gallons of spirits of wine, sixty over proof. Cork the vessel, and keep 
 its contents in agitation by rolling, or otherwise, until all the resin is dissolved. 
 When the solution is perfect, strain the liquor, and add about two quarts of 
 pale turpentine varnisb. Mix them thoroughly, and the varnish will be fit 
 for immediate use. If the varnish is to be kept, the vessel must be well 
 corked, to prevent the access of the atmospheric air. 
 
 A Sandarach Spirit Varnish.— A useful sandarach spirit varnish, suitable 
 for wainscots, and other painter’s work, may be made from the following 
 ingredients. Six ounces of gum sandarach; two ounces of shell lac; four ounces 
 of resin; four ounces of powdered glass; four ounces of clear turpentine ; 
 thirty-two ounces of pure alcohol. 
 
 Spirit "Varnish for Cabinet Makers.— A varnish frequently employed 
 
135 
 
 Common Brunswick Black.— Take twenty-eight pounds of common black pitch, 
 and the same quantity of asphaltum, and boil them together for eight or ten hours, 
 so as to disengage, as much as possible, the gases they contain, and other 
 substances which would be injurious to the varnish. After boiling all day, 
 this composition may be allowed to stand during the night. In the morning 
 it may be again boiled, and then mixed, in the usual manner, with eight gallons 
 of boiled oil; after which, ten pounds of litharge, and an equal quantity of red 
 lead, should be added. Then boil, till the composition has such a consistence 
 that it may be rolled into hard balls, which will be in about three hours. By 
 the addition of twenty gallons of turpentine the varnish will be ready for 
 the use of the painter. It is chiefly employed for rough iron and engi¬ 
 neering work. 
 
 Iron Work Black. —A good varnish, for iron work, may be made in the 
 following manner:—Take forty-eight pounds of asphaltum, and having boiled 
 it two hours, add seven pounds of red lead, an equal weight of litharge, three 
 pounds of dried copperas, and ten gallons of boiled oil. Having introduced 
 these, in small quantities, boil two hours more, and add eight pounds of dark 
 gum, and twenty gallons of hot oil. After boiling again for two hours it must 
 stand to cool, and thirty gallons of turpentine may be then added, to bring the 
 varnish to a proper consistence. It is much used by coach builders, and other 
 workmen who employ iron extensively in their manufactures. 
 
 We must now proceed to a description of another class of varnishes, those 
 in which spirit is used as a solvent, instead of oil. 
 
 Spirit Varnishes. —In the manufacture of spirit varnishes more care is 
 required, if possible, than in the preparation of varnishes of the other class. 
 The danger of fire is always great, and may occur in spite of the care exer¬ 
 cised by the maker, so that the buildings in which he exercises his trade 
 should be distinct from all others, and every precaution should be used to 
 prevent accident; but still more caution is required when alcohol is an 
 ingredient in the manufacture. 
 
 Spirit varnishes are often made in a common still, the necessary heat being 
 supplied by a steam or water bath. The resinous substances and spirit are 
 usually placed together in the still, in the proper proportions. When the alcohol 
 reaches the boiling point the heat must be lowered, and so regulated as to 
 
138 
 
 Another vehicle is made of equal parts, by weight, of gum mastic and sugar 
 of lead, ground very fine in oil. If it preserved all its original beauty, says 
 Mr. Fielding, it would make one of the most agreeable vehicles with which we 
 are acquainted, but many pictures which we know to have been painted with 
 it have very greatly changed from their original hue, therefore it cannot he 
 recommended when permanence is desired. 
 
 In various other forms and proportions varnish is used as a vehicle. These 
 varieties are described by authors who have written for the instruction of 
 young artists, and need not be repeated in these pages. 
 
 From this short description of the manufacture and quality of varnishes, the 
 reader will be able to gather some information concerning the propriety of 
 their application under the circumstances in which he may have occasion to 
 employ them. It is impossible, however, to read attentively the various formulae 
 which are given in this chapter, without perceiving that this branch of manu¬ 
 facture is not built on any broad scientific principle. Had we filled our pages 
 with the almost innumerable recipes which are to be found in the pages of 
 writers on varnishes, this would have been still more evident; but no man 
 can commence the study of this subject, without feeling painfully conscious 
 that the art is, in the full sense of the word, empirical, and that it requires a 
 close scientific investigation. 
 
137 
 
 by cabinet makers is made from pale shell lac and mastic, seven hundred and 
 fifty parts of the former, and sixty-four of the latter, dissolved in ninety per 
 cent, of alcohol. The solution is made without the aid of heat, and by means 
 of frequent stirring. 
 
 The Use of Varnishes as Vehicles. —Before we close this chapter it may 
 be desirable that we should make a few remarks on the use of varnishes, as 
 vehicles of colour, but this we shall do as briefly as possible, for it is a subject 
 more interesting to the artist than the house-painter. The same vehicle is not 
 used by all artists, as is well known, and even the great masters have employed 
 different substances. Some artists employ turpentine alone, and thus obtain a 
 great purity in the lighter hues and tints, but fail to give a sufficient adhe¬ 
 siveness to their colours. To correct this evil other painters employ equal 
 quantities of turpentine and linseed oil,, adding a small portion of bees-wax, 
 which was the custom of Wilson, the celebrated landscape painter. Other- 
 artists use boiled oil, with from half to an equal quantity of mastic varnish, 
 which substances are easily mixed, by merely shaking the vessel in which 
 they are contained. This vehicle is called maguilp, and has a strong consistence. 
 By many painters it is very highly esteemed. 
 
 A substance, called Italian varnish, is also much used by many foreign artists, 
 as a vehicle. It is made from two parts of linseed or nut oil, and one part 
 of finely ground litharge, which must be quite pure; if any portion of the oxide 
 of copper be present, a greenish hue will be given to the compound. About 
 a sixth part of pure white wax may then be added, to give the necessary con¬ 
 sistence. To insure the perfect union of all the parts, the substance is ground 
 on a slab with a muller. Before it is used, it must be mixed with mastic 
 varnish, which prevents its frothing under the brush. It flows freely, and 
 gives great transparency to the colours. 
 
 English varnish is frequently used by the artist in glazing. It is a compound 
 of mastic varnish, with some drying oil, which holds litharge in solution. It 
 has the consistence of a strong jelly, but may be made more or less Arm according 
 to the amount of litharge and the strength of the varnish. M. Merimee recom¬ 
 mends, that a drying oil prepared without fire, should be used instead of the 
 brown drying oil, and that a mastic which has a full body should be chosen; 
 for, he says, if the essential oil be small in proportion to the resin, the drying 
 quality will be less active, and the operations can therefore be carried on in 
 painting much longer, without being interrupted by the vehicle becoming too thick. 
 
 2 N 
 
140 
 
 produces the effect by withdrawing the water from its combination; the latter, 
 by combining with the gelatine, and forming an insoluble compound, which 
 is in all its properties analogous to leather. 
 
 Glue is the substance most commonly employed when gelatinous properties 
 are required. The manufacture of glue is an extremely simple process, for it 
 merely consists in boiling the animal matter from which the gelatine is to be 
 extracted, in warm water. Different qualities of glue are obtained according 
 to the time when the solution is drawn off. Supposing the boiler to be filled 
 with the necessary animal matter, and water as a solvent, heat is applied so 
 as to keep up a constant but low ebullition, and when the solution is sufficiently 
 strong to form a gelatinous mass, it is drawn off, and allowed to stand till it 
 is cool. Fresh water is then added, and another solution is formed, but the 
 glue made from this is not equal in quality to that produced by the previous 
 boiling. In the manufacture of Dutch glue, which was much preferred by 
 workmen to all other kinds, there are always two boilings, and hence there 
 are two qualities, but English glue is all of the same quality, the solution 
 being always made in one boiling. As, however, the whole of the gelatine 
 is not extracted in one operation, hot water is poured upon the residuum, and 
 the liquor obtained from the second boiling, is added to the next solution. 
 In all cases, when the solution has been made of sufficient consistence, it is 
 drawn off into a vessel, where it is allowed to remain for four or five hours 
 to settle, and is then poured into square wooden boxes. In less than four 
 and twenty hours the glue is sufficiently congealed to be turned out of the 
 boxes, and is then cut horizontally by wires, fixed in a wooden frame and 
 guided by rulers, and vertically, where required, by a moist knife. These 
 pieces are then laid upon nets, stretched on wooden frames, and are turned 
 frequently until quite dry. This process of drying is one of some difficulty, 
 and requires considerable care to prevent injury to the material. The light- 
 coloured glue, with a bright fracture, is preferable to all other kinds. 
 
 Isinglass has been mentioned as a glutinous substance, and one occasionally 
 empiloyed by the house-painter. It is a semi-transparent matter, of a darkish 
 white colour, and is a nearly pure, gelatine. It is prepared from the sound or 
 air bladder of the sturgeon, the cod, and other fish, but that which is made 
 from the former is most highly esteemed. The mode of preparing it by the 
 fishermen, on the shores of the Caspian Sea, where the sturgeon is chiefly 
 obtained, simply consists in steeping the air bladder in water, and then removing 
 the external coat, after which it is twisted into that shape in which it is brought 
 
139 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Miscellaneous Articles employed by the House-Painter. 
 
 There are but few articles in addition to those already described, required by 
 the house-painter in the exercise of his trade, and these might be passed over 
 without remark were we not anxious to excite and satisfy the curiosity of the 
 reader upon every subject connected with this important but long neglected 
 art. In the subsequent chapters we shall have occasion to allude to the use 
 of size, putty, and gold-leaf, in the preparation of work for painting; and it is 
 our intention to make, in this chapter, a few remarks on the manufacture of 
 these substances, that the workman may not be ignorant of any of the materials 
 he is using in his trade. The workman who employs an article the composition 
 of which he does not thoroughly understand, is liable to many errors in its 
 application, and is likely to use it in such a way and under such circumstances 
 that it may altogether fail in the purpose for which it is intended, and may 
 even become positively injurious. Where this cannot be the result, and in 
 cases where the well-informed workman has no practical advantage over his 
 companion, who is ignorant, knowledge gives a superiority which is acknowledged 
 by others and enjoyed by the possessor. 
 
 Size. —Size is a solution of isinglass, glue, or any other substance which 
 chiefly consists of gelatinous matter. It is employed by the painter for many 
 purposes, which wull be explained in subsequent parts of this work. 
 
 Gelatine is a substance obtained from the skin, bones, cartilages, muscles, 
 and membranes of animals. Its most remarkable character, or at least that by 
 which it is most evidently detected, is its solubility in hot water, and subsequent 
 conversion into a jelly on cooling. According to analysis, it consists of carbon, 
 in the proportion of 47.88; hydrogen 7.91; oxygen 27.22. When in a state 
 of solution, it may be precipitated by either alcohol, or tannin; the former 
 

 
142 
 
 Gold is distinguished among metals for its ductility and malleability, and is, 
 therefore, peculiarly suited for manufacture into thin leaves. Gold may, in 
 fact, he beaten into a leaf not more than the 282,000th part of an inch in 
 thickness, and one grain is made to cover 56f square inches. This truly 
 wonderful effect is entirely produced by beating; and silver, platinum, or 
 copper, may he reduced to a thin sheet in the same manner. The purest gold 
 is employed in the manufacture of the leaf; for any alloy hardens it, and 
 renders it less malleable. In the production of the leaf there are four pro¬ 
 cesses,—casting, forging, lamination, and heating. 
 
 The first process is that of casting. The gold is melted with borax in a 
 crucible, and then cast in iron moulds called ingot moulds, each ingot weigh¬ 
 ing about two ounces. When the metal is sufficiently hardened, it is turned 
 out of the mould, and placed in hot ashes, which has the effect of softening 
 it: this process is called annealing. 
 
 When the ingot is cold, it is beaten with a forging hammer, and reduced 
 to the thickness of about one-sixth of an inch. This process, however, is in 
 some cases omitted. The lamination is effected by powerful cylindrical rollers, 
 which reduces the metal to a thin riband of such a thickness that a square 
 inch will weigh about six and a half grains. 
 
 The heating, which is the last process, is the most important, and that 
 which most requires our attention. The gold beater, when he receives the 
 riband of metal, cuts it with shears into small squares about an inch each. 
 “ These squares are piled over each other in parcels of one hundred and fifty, 
 with a piece of fine calf skin vellum interposed between each, and about 
 twenty extra vellums at the top and bottom. These vellum leaves are about 
 four inches square, on whose centre lie the gold lamin® of an inch square. 
 This packet is kept together by being thrust into a case of strong parchment 
 open at the ends, so as to form a belt or band, whose open sides are covered in 
 by a second case drawn over the packet at right angles to the first. Thus the 
 packet becomes sufficiently compact to bear beating with a hammer of fifteen 
 or sixteen pounds weight, having a circular face nearly four inches in 
 diameter and somewhat convex, whereby it strikes the centre of the packet 
 most forcibly, and thus squeezes out the plates laterally. The beating is 
 performed on a very strong bench or stool framed to receive a heavy block of 
 marble, about nine inches square on the surface, enclosed upon every side by 
 wood work, ■ except the front, where a leather apron is attached, which the 
 workman lays before him to preserve any fragments of gold that may fall 
 
141 
 
 into the English market. It is dried in the sun, and whitened with the fumes 
 of sulphur. 
 
 “ In some districts of Moldavia,” says Dr. Ure, “ another process is followed. 
 The skin, the stomach, the intestines, and the swim bladder of the sturgeon 
 are cut in small pieces, steeped in cold water, and then gently boiled. The 
 jelly thus obtained is spread in thin layers to dry, when it assumes the appear¬ 
 ance of parchment. This being softened in a little water, then rolled into 
 cylinders, or extended into plates, constitutes an inferior article. The swim- 
 bladder of the cod and many other fishes, also furnishes a species of isinglass, 
 but it is much more membranous and less soluble than that of the sturgeon.” 
 
 Isinglass, of which a large quantity is brought into the English market, is 
 an almost pure gelatine. It is used for a great variety of purposes, both in 
 the preparation of articles of food and in many of the arts. 
 
 Putty. —Putty is an article which the house-painter has very frequent occasion 
 to use, and the manufacture of which he generally understands. It is employed 
 for stopping any small indentations upon the surface of wood, previous to painting. 
 It has the property of hardening with time, and although perhaps not the best 
 substance that could be used, in all cases, it is generally found sufficient for 
 the purposes of the house-painter. 
 
 Putty is so simple in its composition, that it is frequently made by the 
 workman who uses it. It consists of finely powdered whitening mixed with 
 linseed oil so as to form a stiff paste, which is well beaten and thoroughly 
 mixed, and is thus made extremely smooth and tenacious. White lead is 
 sometimes added; but it is very doubtful whether any of those qualities which 
 render it useful to the painter, are improved by the union of this substance. 
 
 Gold Leaf. —Metallic leaf is often used by the house painter to cover the 
 knots which appear on the wood he is about to paint. Knots in wood are 
 sometimes killed, to use the term of the workman, by a cement which will 
 be described in a future page, but this mode is not always effective, for stains 
 will often appear notwithstanding the precautionary measures that have been 
 employed. That which exudes from the knot, however, and passes through 
 the cement, would be effectually stopped by a metallic surface, and, for this 
 purpose, gold or silver leaf is employed. There are also other purposes for 
 which metallic leaf is sometimes used by the painter, so that a short descrip¬ 
 tion of its manufacture seems to be necessary. 
 
 2 o 
 
144 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 The Manufacture of the House Painter’s Combs and Brushes. 
 
 In the practice of any art, the possession of suitable and well-constructed 
 tools is scarcely second in importance to that of obtaining a good and proper 
 material. The truth of this statement will be admitted by all artizans ; and 
 we use that word to include every person who is engaged in producing, whether 
 for pleasure or profit, that which cannot he effected without a skfll similar to 
 his own. One branch of knowledge connected with every trade, must, therefore, 
 he an acquaintance with the tools which are used in it; and yet it must he 
 admitted that the knowledge obtained is little more than could be derived by 
 an intelligent stranger from a short conversation with a workman. How they 
 are constructed is never an object of inquiry ; and hence it is that incon¬ 
 venient and inefficient tools are used from year to year, and, in many cases, 
 from century to century, not without complaint it is true, hut without any 
 serious attempt to improve them. To the same cause, we may attribute the 
 curious but acknowledged fact, that the improvements occasionally introduced 
 in the manufacture of the tools used in those employments appropriately called 
 handicrafts, do not proceed from the workmen, but from some ingenious person 
 who is employed in the manufacture of the tools, and who is prompted by 
 curiosity or a hope of emolument to correct the evils of which the workmen 
 complain. It is, we are convinced, of the greatest importance that the attention 
 of the artizan should be directed to this subject; for no person is so well 
 suited to direct the construction of tools as the man who is in the habit of 
 using them. Whatever art we may practise, it should be our aim to be 
 as independent as possible of the ingenuity or skill of others ; and surely 
 he cannot be considered in this happy state, who is totally ignorant of the 
 construction of the tools he is employing, and is, consequently, unable to 
 improve them, when he finds them inefficient for his purposes. 
 
out of the packet.” When the gold is by this beating extended to the full 
 
 size of the vellum, the sheets are severally cut into four squares. These are 
 
 again piled up in the manner already described; but skins prepared from ox 
 gut are placed between them instead of vellum. The remaining process is so 
 well described by Dr. Ure, from whose work we have already quoted, that it 
 would be useless to employ other words than those he has furnished. “The 
 second course of beating is performed with a small hammer about ten 
 
 pounds in weight, and is continued until the leaves are extended to the size 
 
 of the skins. During this period, the packet must be often folded, to render 
 the gold as loose as possible between the membranes, otherwise the leaves are 
 easily chafed and broken. They are once more spread on a cushion, and 
 subdivided into four square pieces by means of two pieces of cane, cut to very 
 sharp edges, and fixed down transversely on a board. This rectangular cro.ss 
 being applied on each leaf with slight pressure, divides it into four equal portions. 
 These are next made up into a third packet of convenient thickness, and 
 finally hammered out to the area of fine gold leaf, whose average size is from 
 three to three and a half inches square. The leaves will now have obtained 
 an area one hundred and ninety-two times greater than the plates before the 
 hammering began. As these were before an inch square, and seventy-five of 
 them weighed an ounce ( - 6^ x 75 = 487|) the surface of the finished leaves 
 will be 192 -|- 75 = 14,400 square inches or one hundred square feet per 
 ounce troy. This is by no means the ultimate degree of attenuation, for an 
 ounce may be hammered so as to cover one hundred and sixty square feet; 
 but the waste incident in this case, from the number of broken leaves, and 
 the increase and nicety of the labour, makes this an unprofitable refinement.” 
 The leaves are, after the last beating, placed in small books of soft paper, 
 each sheet of paper being previously rubbed with red chalk to prevent the 
 gold leaf from adhering to it. In this way it is bought in shops. Silver, 
 copper, and platinum leaf is made in the same manner; but different manu¬ 
 facturers slightly modify the process, as will be found by consulting any work 
 written on the subject. 
 
146 
 
 larger and coarser, and has three or four ties, whereas the stock-brush has 
 never more than two. 
 
 These are the only brushes employed by the house-painter for common 
 work; hut in graining and marbling, a greater variety of tools and of superior 
 quality are necessary. As this is an art requiring much attentive study and 
 some natural talent, the character of the work produced even in the hands of 
 the best artist must greatly depend on the suitability and quality of the tools. 
 An accurate acquaintance with these may therefore be considered as the 
 foundation of the art, and must be acquainted by all who are about to 
 attempt this branch of house-decoration. 
 
 The rubbing-in brush is similar to the ground-brush, and serves the same 
 purpose to the grainer as that brush does to the painter in plain colours. 
 The modeller, so called because it is that with which the character of a wood 
 is obtained, is a flat brush of superior quality, varying in size from one to 
 six inches. Some modellers are made of camels-hair, and some of hogs-hair. 
 The camels-hair brushes are used for satin-wood and mahogany, in which 
 it is necessary to take out a sharp light, and a soft brush enables the artist 
 
 to obtain a cleaner face on his work. The hogs-hair brushes are well 
 
 adapted for maple and rosewood, in which the lights are less bold, and more 
 softened out of the dark shades. The hair of a modeller is from half an 
 inch to two and a half inches in length, according to the size of the brush 
 and the nature of the work for which it is to be used. The cost of a 
 camels-hair modeller is about a shilling an inch, and the hogs-hair about 
 sixpence. 
 
 The brush used for giving an uniform and smooth face to a piece of 
 graining or marbling, is called a softener. It is generally about five inches 
 in width, and the hair is from two and a half to three inches long. It 
 consists of a treble row of ties, about the size of large camel-hair pencils, 
 of which there are commonly seven in each row. For woods, the finest 
 
 badgers-hair is used; and, for marbles, the best white hogs-hair. The latter 
 
 has been but recently introduced, but is much approved of by experienced 
 workmen. The greatest objection to the badgers-hair brushes is the circum¬ 
 stance of their being soon clogged up when working in oil colour. 
 
 The finishing brush is called an over-grainer, and is made of sable, camels- 
 hair, or hogs-hair. The sable brush is used for the finest work, such as 
 imitations of maple and satin-wood; the camels-hair is more suited for mahogany, 
 oak-root, and pollard-oak; the hogs-hair for rosewood, elm, elm-root, and 
 
145 
 
 The tools employed by the house painter are few in number, and exceedingly 
 simple in their construction; and there is, perhaps, less need of altering 
 tliem than those of any other artizan. They consist of brushes and combs, 
 and are made of all the sizes and shapes which can be required by the 
 workman. But, although there seems no immediate opportunity of improve¬ 
 ment, the intelligent reader will be anxious to know the various purposes for 
 which they are employed, and the mode in which they are manufactured, and 
 this information we shall attempt to give in the following pages of this chapter. 
 
 Brushes. —The brushes used by the house-painter are of two kinds, the 
 round and the flat, and are made of various sizes and of different substances, 
 according to the nature of the work to be performed. The substances most 
 commonly used in the manufacture of the house-painter’s brushes are sable, 
 camels-hair, and hogs-hair; the several varieties are known by different 
 names, according to the purposes for which they are employed, and of these 
 it will be necessary to give a general description. 
 
 The brush called a duster is the commonest kind that is made for the use 
 of the house-painter. It is a large round brush, and is used for sweeping 
 away the dust or dirt that may be hanging on the face of the work, previous 
 to painting. It is made of hogs-hair and whalebone, and of the latter there 
 is usually a very large proportion. Ground-brushes, so called because the 
 ends or tips of the hair are rubbed down, are similar in appearance and 
 manufacture to the dusters, but should be entirely composed of hogs-hair of 
 fine quality. An inferior article is frequently offered for sale under this name, 
 but the painter will soon be able to detect whether whalebone has been 
 employed, for that substance may be easily split into a number of distinct 
 threads, which cannot be done with hair. The ground-brushes are made of 
 all sizes, and are used by the painter according to the work to he performed. 
 The dusters, when they have been for some time in use, may be employed 
 as paint brushes, for inferior kinds of work, as the rough and sharp ends of 
 the hair are then worn down. 
 
 The small brushes with which window-sashes are painted, and mouldings 
 picked in, are called sash-tools. They are made of the same hair as the 
 ground-brushes, from which they differ only in size. 
 
 The broad flat brush, used for colouring walls and ceilings in distemper, 
 are called stock-brushes. The plasterer uses a similar brush, but it is both 
 
 2 p 
 
148 
 
 less liable to break than those which are stained; but he must in a great 
 measure depend upon the character of the maker for a good article. They 
 are in price about threepence half-penny an inch. 
 
 Combs are sometimes made of cork and leather, the latter being generally 
 preferred. These are cut out by the grainer, of such shapes and sizes as he 
 may require for his work. The sole of a shoe, which has been much worn, 
 is an excellent material. Leather combs are chiefly used for dark wainscot, 
 but are especially useful in graining ceilings, as they bend easily to the 
 mouldings. They are made by simply notching the edge of the leather, leaving 
 a narrower or wider tooth as required. In graining a low ceiling for example, 
 the teeth of the comb must be narrow; in preparing one which is high they 
 must be wide. 
 
 Combs are made of various materials, such as wood, horn, bone, tortoise¬ 
 shell, ivory, and sometimes metal. To prepare a piece of horn, bone, or 
 tortoise-shell, for the comb-manufacturer, it must be softened and pressed 
 between moulds, and as it hardens it will permanently assume the shape 
 required. It is then reduced by a file or rasp, and the situation of the teeth 
 is marked. The cutting of the teeth is performed with a double saw, formed 
 of very thin but well-tempered slips of steel. The steel slips are mounted in 
 a suitable stock, at such distances as may be required for the cutting of the 
 comb. Another method of making combs- is by circular saws in a lathe. 
 But the most recent improvement is that proposed by Mr. Lyne, and consists 
 in cutting the teeth with chisels by pressure. The contrivances adopted in 
 this process are exceedingly ingenious, and the mode itself is preferable to 
 all others. 
 
147 
 
 wainscot. Over-grainers are made from one to six inches wide, and the 
 hair is fixed in a tin ferule. The sable and camels-hair, are from one and a 
 half to two inches long, and the hogs-hair from four to five. The hogs- 
 hair brushes are found to he exceedingly suitable for some kinds of work, 
 from their having a greater stiflhess and elasticity than other hairs, and 
 from being sufficiently long to enable the workman to carry a good sweep, 
 and thus better imitate the grain of certain kinds of wood. 
 
 Quill tools are made of fine hogs-hair, and are in every respect similar 
 to pencils, but are larger. They are used in graining pollard oak, and oak- 
 root. Pencils of various sizes and kinds are used in both graining and 
 marbling. 
 
 To have his tools fit for use, the painter must be careful to keep them 
 clean. When a brush has been used in oil colours, it should be first well 
 washed in turpentine, and then in soap and water, afterwards cleansing it 
 thoroughly in pure water, before it is put away. When distemper colour 
 has been used, it will be sufficient to wash the brush in soap and water, 
 afterwards cleansing it with pure water. Painters, however, are not so careful 
 of their tools when they have been working in distemper, although it is 
 certain that by this precaution the brushes last longer and better keep the 
 spring, which is essential to a good tool. 
 
 In the manufacture of brushes of all kinds, the most important object is 
 to fix the hairs in such a manner that they may not be loosened by use. A 
 patent was taken out by a Mr. Mason in 1830, for a better method of fixing 
 bundles or knots of hair into the stock or handle of brushes. The method 
 before in use was that of drilling holes into the stock, and the improvement 
 consists in forming grooves of that form called dovetail, or in other words 
 wider at the top than at the bottom. One end of each bundle of hair being 
 dipped into cement is forced into the groove, and the bundle itself is pressed 
 into an oval form, which causes the extremity to spread out into the wider 
 part. This is the greatest if not the only improvement that has been made 
 in the manufacture of brushes. 
 
 Combs.— Combs are used by the painter in imitating the grain of wood. 
 They are usually made of bone, and vary in size from one to five inches, but 
 may be constructed to order of any width that is required. The teeth are 
 generally from two to two and a half inches in length. In selecting combs, 
 the workman generally takes those which are of a uniform colour, as being 
 

No. 10 
 
 

a 
 
 150 
 
 force up the paint from the surface it covers, blisters will be formed, and 
 the paint will peel off, to the great and permanent detriment of the work. 
 This will be especially the case when it is exposed to the more powerful 
 and direct rays of the sun; hut under all circumstances the painter must be 
 cautious not to commence his work upon a substance which contains any 
 degree of moisture. Instances of the effects produced by a disregard of this 
 indispensable precaution might easily be adduced, hut every person who has 
 directed his attention to the subject of building, must be acquainted with many 
 of a similar nature to those which we should mention were it necessary. 
 
 When new wood is to be painted, the first process is that which is called 
 knotting, the object of which is to prevent a stain upon the finished work, 
 by the passage of the turpentine contained in the knot, through the several 
 coats of paint. There are many methods of effecting this, some of which are 
 found to be more efficacious than others, hut they will all require description. 
 The most common mode of knotting is to cover the defective part with 
 a composition formed of red-lead, and a small proportion of white-lead, and 
 whitening made into a thin paste with size. Japanner’s gold-size is some¬ 
 times used instead of the common size, but the latter is usually and we 
 might perhaps say always, found sufficient, for when there is any doubt it 
 applies to the composition altogether, and not to the mode of preparing it. 
 Knots are sometimes covered with gold-leaf, and this is a very certain pre¬ 
 ventive, so that in the best work it is almost universally adopted. Another 
 mode is to cut out the knot to the depth of about a quarter of an inch, 
 and to fill up the hole thus made with a hard stopping, composed of 
 white-lead, and one third part of japan, with sufficient quantity of turpentine 
 to make a stiff putty. In about a quarter of an hour, this composition 
 will become hard, but it is desirable that it should be left for four and 
 twenty hours, when it may be rubbed down. A smooth surface being 
 obtained, it may be painted over with certainty. The workman must he 
 careful to paint the opening made by cutting away the knot before he applies 
 the composition, for it will otherwise have no adherence, but fall out imme¬ 
 diately it becomes dry. 
 
 Priming is the next process, which consists in covering the surface to be 
 painted with a first coat, consisting of white-lead, with a small proportion of 
 red-lead in linseed-oil. A small quantity of some drier is also introduced. 
 Ihis must be done before stopping the work, for if the putty used in the 
 process of stopping be introduced before the first coat of colour is laid on, it will 
 become quite loose when dry. 
 
149 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 House-Painting in Plain Colours. 
 
 The various processes of painting in plain colours are so simple that a short 
 description will he sufficient for an explanation of the art, hoth for the reader 
 who may examine these pages for the mere purpose of gaining a knowledge 
 of house-painting as a matter of curiosity, and for him who studies them with 
 the intention of giving a practical application to the information he may acquire. 
 To explain the subject in a manner intelligible to every reader, it will he 
 desirable to state in the first place what ought to be done in painting new 
 work, and then to explain the methods which should he adopted in work which 
 has been before painted. This division of the subject will greatly facilitate 
 our descriptions, and at the same time enable the reader better to understand 
 the nature of the processes that are adopted, and their necessity. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to remark that no surface is in a fit state to receive 
 paint which is not perfectly dry. This is a fact universally acknowledged by 
 all painters, and yet in practice strangely or criminally neglected. It is not 
 an uncommon thing to see the walls of good rooms blistered by the injudicious 
 application of oil colour before they were dry, and this so frequently happens 
 that it is almost impossible to avoid the conclusion that in many instances 
 the painter has been induced to commence his work merely for the sake of 
 obtaining an engagement and making a profit, without any regard to the 
 ultimate injury inflicted upon his employer. In the case of walls which 
 have been stuccoed for paint, it is easy to detect whether they are sufficiently 
 dry or not, but it is not always possible to determine whether the wood-work 
 has been sufficiently seasoned. The effect, however, will be in both cases 
 the same. The surface of the material, w'hether it he wood or plaster, 
 being covered by paint, the moisture which is contained within it is prevented 
 from escaping, for it is impervious. It will, therefore, after a short time, 
 
 2 Q 
 
152 
 
 reader as to the mode in which the work should be performed, but no amount of 
 reading can make a workman. He may he directed as to the mode of proceeding, 
 but nothing else than practice can enable him to become a painter. The hints we 
 have thrown out are in themselves valuable and of constant application, and may 
 be said to comprise the principles of the art. We have already explained the 
 necessity of having a substance thoroughly dry before it is painted, and it is equally 
 important that every coat of paint should be quite hard before another is applied, 
 and more especially when the work is at all exposed to the sun. The painter will 
 soon be able to detect by inspection whether his work is in a fit state for colouring in 
 oil; hut in applying the first coat it may always be known with more certainty, for 
 the paint will be absorbed by the wood or plaster, when the material is quite dry. 
 
 Having described the manner of painting new work with any number of coats, 
 it will be necessary to explain the mode of proceeding when it is required to cover 
 a surface which has been before painted. The stiles of doors and shutters are 
 sometimes in such an exceedingly greasy state, as to prevent the application of oil 
 colour; under such circumstances they should be washed with turpentine. Sup¬ 
 posing the work to be in a tolerable condition, the first process is to rub it down 
 with pumice and water, until a perfectly smooth and even surface has been obtained. 
 If it should he from any cause in such a state as to prevent this being done at a 
 moderate cost, so as to make when finished a good piece of work, the paint must 
 be entirely removed. There are two modes of doing this. The paint is sometimes 
 burnt with hot irons, and then scraped off. It may also be done by the application 
 of American potass. This alkali is mixed with water so as to form a paste, and 
 the surface is covered with it. Immediately the paint is softened, the potass must 
 he washed off with hot water, and the paint be scraped until it is entirely removed. 
 In the use of this substance there must be great care, for if it be allowed to enter 
 the wood, it will effectually destroy the paint which may be subsequently 
 applied, often making its appearance through four or five coats of colour, years 
 after the work has been completed. It is, however, the best and cleanest way 
 when well managed. * 
 
 The second colouring, a term which is always applied to the first coat in old 
 work, is composed of white lead, oil, and turpentine, with the pigment required 
 for the colour that may be wanted. Some painters use two-thirds of turpentine 
 and one-third of oil; others employ three-fourths of turpentine and one-fourth of 
 oil. It is not possible to use oil alone, in painting upon old work, for the paint 
 would not then harden completely, and be always liable to peel off. In all the 
 subsequent coats of colour, the painter proceeds as in new work. 
 
151 
 
 A smooth and finished surface being obtained by stopping, a second coat must 
 be given to the work. This second coat consists of white lead and oil, with about 
 one-fourth part of turpentine. If it he intended that the work should have four 
 coats of paint, it will be desirable that there should he in the second, some 
 approach to the colour required; hut if only three are to he given, it will he indis¬ 
 pensable. It will not he expected that we should give any direction as to the 
 mode of applying the colour, hut it may he stated as a general direction, that the 
 panel should he covered with a brush not too full of paint, and in “ laying it off,” 
 there cannot be too little in the brush, or it will ooze out in one place as it is 
 taken up in another. 
 
 When the second coat is thoroughly dry and hard, the work should he rubbed 
 down with glass paper, and thoronghly examined to ascertain whether any stopping 
 or facing be required. Work which is to have three coats and flatting, must he 
 grounded with a colour a few shades darker than that in which it is to be finished. 
 The flatting must always be lighter than the ground, or it wonld, when finished, 
 appear to consist of a series of shades and stripes. The colour used in flatting 
 is mixed with turpentine, which is, by exposure to the air, evaporated, leaving a 
 thin coat of pigment. Hence it is that if the gronnd were lighter than the 
 flatting, it would shine through, hut being darker, a uniform colonr is obtained 
 upon the finished surface. The flatting should therefore he, when dry, a shade 
 lighter than the ground. The ground .colour should he prepared with at least 
 two-thirds of oil, and, of course, the other third turpentine. If it he intended to 
 apply fonr coats, the third 'should be worked with a little more turpentine than 
 would otherwise he required; for a uniform glossy surface is necessary to flat 
 upon, and two coats of strong oil colour cannot he placed one on the other. 
 
 Flatting is performed with white lead and turpentine, to which a little copal 
 varnish is sometimes added. When any ornamental design is to he painted on 
 work which has been flatted, the introduction of copal is absolutely necessary, for 
 the colour would otherwise sink into the work, and he less easily applied. 
 Flatting must always be executed quickly, and the brush should not be carried 
 across the panel, or at all events not more than once. The less the work in flatting, 
 the better will it appear when finished. The object of flatting is to prevent 
 the gloss or glaze which always attends work executed in oil, or in other wor 
 obtain a flat, dead appearance. But the advantage is not confined to the 
 appearance of the colour, for it hides all the defects in the wood or ot er 
 material that is painted. But when there is much work in the flatting, shades 
 are produced, and the dead, unglazed surface is not obtained. 
 
 These general remarks upon the process of house-painting, will direct t e 
 
154 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 On the Imitation of Woods and Marbles. 
 
 It was customary in ancient times, and indeed the practice is still adopted 
 among some nations, to decorate the houses of the noble and the rich with 
 costly woods and marbles. The propriety of this mode of decoration is 
 admitted by the most refined nations of Europe; but in this and some other 
 countries, the art of graining has been brought to such perfection, that it is 
 now no longer necessary to incur an enormous cost in obtaining substances which 
 may be so well imitated, as to evade the detection of an experienced eye. 
 It is even doubtful whether it would be desirable to select many of the fancy 
 woods for house decoration, in preference to the imitations which are produced 
 by modern artists, if they could be obtained at the same cost; for not only would 
 many of them be unsuited as regards their properties, but a more equal character 
 is obtained by graining. If the real wood were employed, it would not be 
 possible to select all the best specimens; but the grainer takes these for his 
 models, and produces throughout that which may in one sense be called a 
 flattering representation of the thing which is imitated. 
 
 The improvements which have been made in the art of graining, and the small 
 cost at which it is executed, have been the means of introducing it into almost 
 all modern dwellings. The painter who is not capable of this branch of his 
 business must therefore feel himself almost ignorant of his trade, and however 
 long he may have attempted to practise it, he must either begin to study this art, 
 or be content to acknowledge himself less skilful than other workmen in his 
 own calling, and continue to take the inferior, and consequently less profitable 
 parts of house-decoration. To those who are studying the art of imitating woods 
 and marbles, the following remarks will be of great assistance, for although 
 excellence cannot be attained without long practice, much time will be saved, and 
 many disappointments be avoided, by adopting a proper course of study. We 
 shall therefore first explain with some particularity, the mode universally adopted 
 in all graining, taking wainscot, which although the most difficult to execute with 
 
153 
 
 Claircoling consists in using a colour with size instead of oil, and it is some¬ 
 times, though very improperly, used instead of a coat of oil paint. The object 
 of those who employ size in this manner, is to save one or two coats of paint, 
 which it does by preventing the colour from sinking into the wood or plaster. 
 This mode of performing work is so objectionable, that we might without 
 impropriety omit the mention of it altogether, but on the other hand there may 
 be an advantage in explaining it, so as to enable the reader to detect any impo¬ 
 sition which may be attempted. The work, if new, is first primed and then 
 claircolled, after which it is painted in the usual manner. If it be applied to old 
 work, it is used instead of rubbing down, and two coats of oil colour upon the 
 claircoling will make it look as well as three coats upon work which has 
 been properly rubbed down. The use of size, or a colour in size, as a 
 
 ground for oil painting, is objectionable, because the paint will always peel 
 off, and frequently chip. It is done in inferior work for the sake of cheap¬ 
 ness, but the painter who adopts it in any case without fully informing his 
 employer of the objections to it which we have mentioned, is guilty of 
 injustice, if not of deception; for, although it may enable him to perform his 
 work at a very low price, it is ultimately injurious. 
 
 The painter is sometimes required to prepare a very defective and uneven 
 surface for painting, and in this case it is necessary that he should be 
 
 acquainted with the best mode of proceeding. New wood or plaster, is 
 expected to be in a fit state, but surfaces which have been before painted 
 
 are often so rough that if they were painted again without some pre¬ 
 
 paration, the best work would be unsatisfactory. If, for example, the 
 walls of a dining-room or any other apartment, had been blistered by the 
 application of oil-colour before the walls were dry, they could not be re-painted 
 until prepared, for by the peeling off of part of the colour the surface would 
 be uneven. The same effect may result from a variety of other causes. The 
 cement used in such cases in filling up, consists of Oxford ochre, japanners 
 gold-size, and turpentine. It is not an uncommon thing to use three or four 
 coats of this substance upon the second coat of oil-colour, in the best work, 
 and especially in drawing-rooms which are to be very highly finished; for 
 when it is carefully rubbed down, a fine glassy surface is obtained. In 
 graining maple and satin-wood, which show every defect of surface, this 
 process is peculiarly advantageous. Coach bodies are prepared in the 
 
 2 R 
 
 
 same manner. 
 
156 
 
 pencil moistened -with turpentine, the parts thus wetted being immediately rubbed 
 with flannel. 
 
 The next process is that of glazing. This colour consists of Vandyke brown 
 and raw sienna, with beer as a medium, and they are mixed on the palette. The 
 panel is first moistened with beer, and the colour is then put in as dark as may 
 be required, the shades being thrown across the work. Some grainers prefer to 
 lay in the whole panel, and take out the lights with a sponge. The work is 
 then softened with a brush called a softener, from the purpose for which it is 
 employed, as already described. When the work is quite dry, it is over-grained 
 with the same colour. Care must be taken that the over-grainer is not too full of 
 colour, and the brush must be drawn in a straight line down the panel. When 
 this surface has been softened, the work will be complete. 
 
 Dark Oak. Specimen No. 9. 
 
 The ground for dark oak is fonned of white lead, ochre, and umber. The 
 mode of graining is the same as that we have described for wainscot. The 
 graining colour is made from Vandyke brown and burnt umber. 
 
 Pollard-Oak. Specimen No. 4. 
 
 The ground for pollard-oak is formed of white lead, stained with burnt 
 ochre. The graining colour consists of burnt umber and burnt sienna. 
 
 Pollard-oak is always grained in distemper, and the following is the mode 
 of proceeding. Moisten the panel with beer, stained to the colour required. 
 Then take a suitable tool, and lightly draw it up the panel, taking care so 
 to vary the line as to leave room for the centres or knots. A flat hogs-hair 
 brush is found to he most convenient for this purpose. The knots, which 
 are always thrown into clumps, are formed with a quill-tool, by turning it 
 quickly round when full of colour. The over-graining is the next process, 
 and this is thrown round the knots. When softened, the work will he 
 complete. 
 
 Rosewood. Specimen No. 2. 
 
 The ground for rosewood is formed of burnt ochre, chrome-yellow, and a 
 small quantity of scarlet-lake, to give brightness. It is always grained in 
 distemper, and the graining colour is made with vandyke-brown and blue- 
 
155 
 
 taste, is the most common, as the example; and then proceed to describe the 
 peculiarities of practice in the several kinds of wood which are more or less 
 frequently introduced. 
 
 1. The Process of Graining some Woods. 
 
 Wainscot. Specimen No. 1. 
 
 New work must always have at least three coats of paint, before a ground is 
 prepared for the graining; and it is always advisable to have four, if the sum to 
 he expended will admit of this slight increase in the cost. If the work has been 
 before painted, two or three coats will he found sufficient. The ground, which 
 does not in any respect differ from the previous coats of painting, must he brought 
 up to that colour which is characteristic of the wood to he imitated. The ground 
 for wainscot consists of white lead and such a proportion of ochre as may be found 
 necessary to give the tint required. 
 
 Graining wainscot in oil .—The graining colour consists of oil and turpentine in 
 equal quantities, stained with Turkey umber to such a tint and shade as may be 
 required. To this a little bees-wax is added for the purpose of giving consistence 
 to the colour, so that the ridges which are formed by the combing, may be 
 retained. If the bees-wax were not added, the colour would spread, and a 
 uniform surface be formed by the flowing liquid as soon as the tool was removed. 
 The method of proceeding is to cover the panel with the graining colour, and then 
 to comb it. The most common and the best way, is to form the wave with the 
 first comb, and to draw the second and third comb straight. But there are some 
 workmen who form a waving line with all the three combs. There is another 
 method of graining wainscot by the use of only two different sized combs, 
 beginning with the coarsest. To take out the lights which give the character 
 to the wainscot, a piece of cloth or leather is placed over the thumb, and the 
 colour is removed in such places and masses as the taste of the painter may 
 direct. 
 
 Graining wainscot in distemper .—The graining colour for wainscot in dis¬ 
 temper, is made of turpentine, Paris-white, and umber, with a small proportion 
 of turpentine varnish, which serves the same purpose as the wax in the graining 
 colour for wainscot in oil. When a panel is covered with it, the combing is 
 performed in the manner already described, but it must be done without loss of 
 time, as it dries very quickly. The lights are then taken out with a camels-hair 
 

158 
 
 of the dark line. When the work has been softened, it is grained over the 
 feather, in the same manner as mahogany. The character of satin-wood may 
 be described as a composition between maple and mahogany—the modelling 
 is that of maple, the feather that of mahogany. 
 
 Maple. Specimen No. 6. 
 
 The ground for maple is formed of white-lead, chrome yellow, and a small 
 quantity of vermilion. It is always grained in distemper, and the graining 
 colour consists of raw sienna and Indian red. The panel is first laid over 
 with beer and colour, and the modeller is then drawn down the face of the 
 work, in a waving direction, leaving the open space where the heart of the 
 ■wood is intended to be introduced, rather darker than the other parts. In 
 modelling maple, the pressure of the hand must be regulated by the taste of 
 the workman. Where the weight of the hand is withdrawn, dark shades are 
 left. The eyes are formed by placing the tips of the fingers upon the work 
 while wet, after which it is well softened. When the colour is dry, which 
 will be in a few minutes, the heart of the wood is put in with a sable or 
 camels-hair pencil, Indian red being used as the colour. The sable over* 
 grainer, when charged 'with colour, is combed, a common pocket hair-comb 
 being suitable for the purpose, and the tool is thus divided into a number of 
 small pencils. In this state, it is drawn down the panel, by the side of the 
 heart, and well softened. A small circle is afterwards formed round the eyes, 
 with a camels-hair pencil, with over-graining colours, and the work is 
 then complete. 
 
 Sycamore. Specimen No. 7. 
 
 Sycamore is sometimes used for the stiles of doors, when the panels 
 are grained maple. This is not an universal practice, and in the present 
 day can scarcely be called a common one; but as it is oocasionally adopted, it 
 will be desirable to describe the mode of graining this wood. 
 
 The ground for sycamore is formed of chrome-yellow, with such a pro¬ 
 portion of white-lead as shall give the colour required. The graining colour 
 consists of raw sienna and burnt umber. The modeller is drawn down the 
 panel with sudden and quickly repeated jerks of the hand. The work is 
 then softened across the panel, and when dry it is over-grained in nearly the 
 same style as the feather of mahogany. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 •V. 
 
157 
 
 I 
 
 black, the latter in a very small proportion. The panel is first covered with 
 beer and a little colour. The dark lines and shades are then put in with a 
 tool, a sufficient open space being left for the grain. The lights are wiped 
 out, where required, with a sponge, and the work well softened. When the 
 work is quite dry, the grain is introduced witli a small grainer, the direction 
 of the lines being varied so as to form the characteristic curves, taking care 
 to prevent the grain from passing over the dark shades. The necessity of 
 this will be at once perceived, by an examination of any good specimen of 
 the wood, for although the grain may curve and come up to a dark shade 
 on one side, it does not continue in the same direction, or with the same 
 regular curve on the other. The fine graining is put in with a small 
 camels-hair pencil, and in the wider spaces with a fine grainer. 
 
 Mahogany. Specimen No. 3. 
 
 Mahogany is usually grained in distemper. It may be done in oil, but 
 takes a much longer time, and the appearance when finished is not better 
 than that which is executed with beer, as the medium of colour. The 
 |)rocess, however, is the same in both cases, so that our description of the 
 
 mode of graining in distemper will be equally applicable to that in oil. 
 
 The ground is formed of chrome-yellow and burnt ochre, brought to the 
 colour required by the addition of white-lead. The graining colour is formed 
 of Vandyke brown and burnt sienna, in equal quantities. Lay over the 
 panel with the graining colour, and proceed to form the feather, which is 
 done with a sponge, taking out sufficient lights on both sides, leaving the 
 centre quite full. Then, with a small modeller, form the centre of the 
 
 feather, and soften the work with the brush that is used for that purpose. 
 The over-graining is performed with the same colour. 
 
 Satin-Wood. Specimen No. 5. 
 
 The ground is formed of white-lead, and a pale chrome yellow. The 
 
 graining colour, which is always distemper, is formed of raw sienna, with a 
 very small quantity of Indian red. Cover the panel with beer and colour, 
 
 of the tint required, and proceed to form the feather with a sponge, in the 
 
 same manner as mahogany, but keeping it smaller and finer than in that 
 
 wood. The modeller is then drawn down the panel, to break the even edge 
 
 2s 
 
160 
 
 Ash. Specimen No. 12. 
 
 The ground for ash is the same as that we have described for oak—it 
 consists of white-lead stained with ochre. When it is to be grained in dis¬ 
 temper, the graining colour is formed of black and Vandyke. With this the 
 panel is over-spread, and the character is taken out with a modeller. The 
 heart of the wood is then softened, and the whole is over-grained with the 
 same colour. 
 
 If the ash is to be grained in oil, the panel is covered in the same manner, 
 hut the heart is taken out with a cloth or leather, drawn tightly over the 
 thumb. A suitable comb is then worked in a straight line down the panel, 
 as in over-graining. When this has been done, a splitting comb is drawn 
 sharply from angle to angle, taking care not to pass over the heart. The 
 object of this is to break the straight grain of the former combing. From 
 the description we have given of the mode of graining, as well as from an 
 examination of the woods, it will he evident that oak and ash are very similar, 
 and their imitations differ only in the mode of combing. The oak is formed 
 by a waving line, divided by the straight combing; the ash by a straight 
 line, divided by a line from angle to angle, so that if the straight line in 
 ash were not split by the transverse combing, it would have the appearance 
 of oak. 
 
 Cedar. Specimen No. 13. 
 
 The ground for graining cedar is composed of white lead and Indian red, with 
 beer as a medium. The graining colour is formed of lake. Lay over the panel 
 a light tint of the colour, and with the tool commonly employed for this purpose, 
 introduce the dark shades similar to those in common deal, but of a different 
 bolour, keeping them soft toward the sides. While the colour is wet, draw the 
 ove'r-grainer gently down it, and again soften the edges. When dry, form the 
 centre with a camel’s-hair pencil, and put in the knots with japanner’s gold-size 
 and burnt umber. 
 
 Cedar is rarely introduced by the house-decorator, but from the specimens we 
 have seen, we have little doubt that it would, in many situations, be found 
 exceedingly effective, even in large masses. In one instance with which we are 
 acquainted, a bold staircase was painted in cedar, and the effect was in every 
 respect satisfactory. 
 
159 
 
 Zebra Wood. Specimen No. 8. 
 
 The ground for zebra wood is formed of Venetian red, chrome yellow, and 
 umber; the graining colour, of black and umber. The panel is first laid over 
 with a light glaze of the graining colour in water, for no beer is used in the 
 imitation of zebra wood. When the glaze is partly set, the wave or centre is 
 formed with the over grainer. In seven or eight hours the work will be dry, and 
 the whole panel, excepting the centre, which must be left light, is then again 
 glazed in the same manner, and softened. 
 
 Walnut. Specimen No. 10. 
 
 The ground for walnut is formed of white lead, ochre, and Venetian red; 
 the graining colour of Vandyke brown. The panel is first laid over with beer 
 and the colour required. When the work is dry, dip the over-grainer into beer 
 containing a little colour, and comb it. Then form the heart with a quick 
 sweep, and soften it with the brush commonly employed for that purpose. This 
 throws up not only the colour which was last put on, but also the one beneath 
 it. Having proceeded thus far, put in the dark shades by the side of the feather 
 with a quill tool, softening as usual. When this is dry, lay over all the work 
 with a very thin colour, and flog it gently, which may be done with the softener, 
 striking with the flat side of the brush. The face of the work is then drawn 
 up with the end of the tool, which completes the process of graining walnut. 
 
 Tulip Wood. Specimen No. II. 
 
 The ground for tulip wood is formed of burnt ochre with white lead, the 
 latter being used in all cases to form the colour of the tint required. The 
 graining colour consists of two parts of Indian red, and one part of Vandyke 
 brown. First damp the panel, laying on a little colour, and with a small grainer, 
 form a grain similar to that of rosewood. Then produce dark lines down the 
 sides of it, and sponge the ground between them, so as to obtain the necessary 
 lights. The graining is performed in a straight line down the panel. These 
 various processes being carefully performed, damp the panel with colour, and beat 
 it with the edge of the softener. 
 
162 
 
 have been expended to purchase them, and even national resources have been 
 exhausted to obtain the stones which decorate the insignia of royalty. 
 
 The same love of ornament and desire for distinction, have induced nations 
 and individuals to erect large buildings, of expensive materials, of so lasting 
 a nature, that there was a probability of their enduring the united influence 
 of the elements of destruction for ages, without injury or decay. For this 
 purpose, the Egyptians constructed of granite their enormous monuments, 
 which awe the spectator by their very vastness; and the Greeks, who were 
 more anxious for elegance and chasteness of design than for magnitude, of 
 marble. In more modern times, coarser stones have been employed in 
 construction, and the most beautiful and varied materials have been selected 
 for interior decoration. Marbles, of exquisite richness, have been discovered, 
 and these have been introduced for various purposes in building, but chiefly 
 for the walls of staircases, halls, and saloons, as well as floors, chimney-pieces, 
 and articles of ornament. 
 
 It is difficult to give any precise or definite meaning to the term marble, 
 but it may be stated generally that those limestones are so called to which 
 a fine polish can be given. They are not confined to any part of the 
 geological series, but are found among the tertiary, secondary, and primitive 
 rocks. Nor is there any peculiar character distinguishing the marbles of one 
 series from those of another. 
 
 The close-grained coloured marbles, suitable for use in the decoration of 
 buildings, are chiefly obtained from primitive and tertiary districts, but they are 
 found, although comparatively rare, among the secondary rocks. The forest 
 marble of England lies beneath the sands and sand-stones of the upper oolite, 
 and has been extensively prepared in Oxfordshire for architectural purposes. 
 The colours with which many marbles are beautifully variegated, proceed 
 from the intermixture of the oxides of iron; but copper, horn-blende, and 
 other substances, occasionally enter into their composition as the colouring 
 matter. 
 
 Marbles have been divided into eight classes, and those who are studying 
 them with a view to imitation, will perhaps find an advantage in taking 
 this classification as a guide to their observations. 
 
 1. The Uni-coloured Marbles, which are always either white or black. 
 
 The celebrated Parian and Pentelic marbles, so much used by the ancients, 
 are of this class. The Parian marble is of a yellowish white colour, and 
 from it some of the noblest works of the ancients were carved, among which 
 
161 
 
 Hare-Wood. Specimen No. 14. 
 
 The ground for hare-wood is a light grey; the graining colour, sienna, and 
 a little blue-black. The panel is first laid over with the colour, and the 
 lights are taken out with a sponge. When the work has been softened 
 and is quite dry, it is grained, first in a straight line down the panel, and 
 then across in a slightly waving direction. 
 
 King-Wood. Specimen No. 15. 
 
 The ground of king-wood is formed of Venetian red and yellow ochre. The 
 graining colour is made of black and Vandyke, in equal proportions. With 
 this the panel is covered, and the heart is taken out with a sponge, in the 
 same manner as rosewood. It is then softened up and down the panel. 
 When the knots have been taken out, which is also done with a sponge, the 
 work is softened with a badger tool, and the panel is over-grained. The 
 knots are then joined, or set into one another, which completes the process. 
 
 II. The Process of Imitating some Marbles. 
 
 Man, who has, by an intelligent examination of nature, guided by want 
 and curiosity, found in the mineral constitution of the earth, the vegetables 
 which furnish it, and the creatures w'ho inhabit it, all that is necessary for his 
 existence and civilization, collects from the same sources the objects best 
 suited to administer to his pride. From the chieftain of a horde of barbarians, 
 to' the monarch of a civilized European nation, all men who have been placed 
 by birth, circumstances, or talent, above their fellow-men, are anxious for some 
 exterior display of their advantages, and among other means of exhibiting their 
 superiority, deck themselves in clothing or ornaments, of such value, that they 
 cannot be obtained by those of inferior rank; or appropriate to themselves the 
 sole possession of some thing or property of things, which, from its connexion 
 with sovereignty or title, derives a fictitious value. The ornaments most 
 esteemed, have been those collected from the mineral kingdom, which furnishes 
 a wonderful variety of beautiful forms and resplendent colours. These gems 
 have, among all civilized nations, been so highly esteemed, that large fortunes 
 
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164 
 
 the marbles of which they constitute the principal part. These animal 
 remains are generally presented in the form of grey or white spots, with 
 regularly disposed marks in the centre. The pietra stellaria of Italy is 
 entirely composed of madrepores, and extensively used in the country where 
 it is found. 
 
 4. Shell Marbles. 
 
 In this class of marbles, Brard, who proposed the arrangement to which we 
 now refer, included only those which contained a few shells. The Kilkenny 
 marble belongs to this class, as also many of those brought from Derbyshire, 
 and other parts of England. 
 
 5. The Liimachelli Marbles. 
 
 The Lumachelli marbles are those which are entirely composed of shells. 
 There are but few of them that can be employed in decoration, and the painter 
 is never required to imitate them. 
 
 6. Cipolin Marbles. 
 
 The Cipolin marbles are those which contain veins of greenish talc; “ their 
 fracture is granular and shining, and displays here and there plates of talc.” 
 
 7. Breccia Marbles. 
 
 The Breccia marbles consist of a variety of angular fragments, united by 
 some common base or cement. The verde antique is a marble of this class, 
 the fragments consisting chiefly of serpentine, and the cement of talc and 
 limestone. That variety is most esteemed in which the cement is of a grass 
 green colour, and the fragments black, without the intermixture of red spots. 
 The antique African Breccia is one of the most beautiful of all known marbles; 
 it has a black ground, and the fragments are of a grayish white, red, and 
 purple colour. In the Veronese there are some fine Breccia marbles, especially 
 that obtained near the village of Bretonico; it consists of yellow, yellowish 
 white, and rose-coloured fragments. 
 
 8. Puddingstone Marbles. 
 
 These are conglomerates of rounded fragments of rock. They are not very 
 commonly found, and are seldom introduced in decoration. 
 
 If the painter will study marbles in reference to the classification which we 
 have attempted to illustrate and explain, he will find that his labour is much 
 abridged, and his success will be more certain. If the finest works of the 
 masters must be studied by him who aims at excellence in the arts, so the 
 most beautiful specimens of marble must be carefully examined by the painter 
 who hopes to imitate them with correctness and spirit. The examination of small 
 
163 
 
 we may mention the Medicean Venus. The Pentelic marble was obtained 
 from Mount Penteles, near Athens, and closely resembles the Parian, but has 
 a finer grain, and is sometimes disfigured by green stripes, produced by the 
 presence of green talc. The Parthenon and other of the finest structures of 
 Greece, were built of Pentelic marble. A very hard marble, of a pure white 
 colour, was obtained by the ancients from Scios, Lemnos, and some other 
 islands of the Grecian archipelago, and was very* highly esteemed, being 
 susceptible of a fine polish, and having a close texture. The white marble of 
 Carrara was also used by the ancients, and from the works executed in it, 
 which remain to this day, it appears to retain its colour better than the 
 Parian. The finest quality is now exceedingly rare. The principal quarries 
 are at Pianello and Polvazzo. 
 
 The black antique marble is a much more intense black than any modern 
 limestone, but is now only known in the sculptured fragments found at Eome. 
 Those modern marbles which most nearly approach it, are those of Como, and 
 of Bergamo, both of which are susceptible of a fine polish. A useful black 
 marble is found at Ashford and Monsaldale, in Derbyshire. A fine marble of 
 the same kind has also been found at Crayleath, in the county of Down. 
 
 2. The Variegated Marbles. 
 
 The ancients did not employ so many variegated marbles as the moderns, 
 but those which were chosen by them are exceedingly beautiful. The Egypturo, 
 or red-antique marble, is of a deep blood-red colour, with white streaks and 
 spots. There is a colossal statue of Marcus Agrippa, carved from this marble, 
 in the Grimani Palace, at Venice, which was brought from the Parthenon at 
 Rome. A yellow marble, with black markings, was also much used by the 
 ancients. Many excellent marbles are found in Sicily, of which the Sicilian 
 jasper is the most esteemed. The Italian marbles are exceedingly numerous, 
 and are generally preferred to all others. The Verona is of a yellowish 
 red colour; the Margorre, found in several parts of the Milanese, is of a 
 bluish colour, with browm veins; the Sienna, or Brocatello di Sienna, is a 
 yellow marble, with veins of a bluish red and purple colour. The English 
 marbles are chiefly obtained from Derbyshire and Devonshire; and those 
 from the latter county are distinguished by a singular variety and inter¬ 
 mixture of colours. 
 
 3. Madreporic Marbles. 
 
 Some of the strata forming the crust of the earth, are known to have been 
 the produce of madrepores, and their remains give a peculiar appearance to 
 
»V:- -fir 
 
 
 <- i • ' - / 
 
166 
 
 the more accurate imitation of nature, which is secured by the diversity in 
 the colour of the ground, and the variety in the disposition of the veining. 
 Whether we have given a too flattering description of this new style of 
 marbling, the reader himself will judge, by an examination of the illustra¬ 
 tions in this and the preceding part of our work. 
 
 General Remarks on the Imitation of Marbles. 
 
 To a person unacquainted with the process of imitating marbles, and who 
 examines a specimen produced by a good painter, the art must appear one of 
 great complexity and extremely ditflcult to be acquired. There is, perhaps, 
 no branch of house-decoration which requires a greater knowledge of colours 
 or more taste than marbling; but there is so close a resemblance between the 
 execution of all varieties of marble, that when the painter is able to imitate 
 one, he will find but little difficulty with the others. The mode of working 
 is the same in all, but the colours vary; and, in adjusting these, the young 
 painter finds himself most perplexed. His task, however, will be the easier 
 if he first study the art of balancing bis colours, so as to obtain a pleasing 
 effect in whatever manner bis work is to be viewed. The ultimate appro¬ 
 priation of the thing painted is of the utmost moment, in deciding upon the 
 manner in which the work is to be done. Thus, in painting a column or 
 pilaster, in imitation of a marble, the base and lower portion of the shaft 
 should be darker than the superior parts, so as to give the appearance of a 
 greater solidity, and the work on each side of a pilaster, or round the entire 
 circumference of a column, should be equal, but without sameness. A person 
 who watches the workman, may wonder when he sees the first stroke of the 
 pencil, where the second will fall, and what will be the form of the line; but 
 the painter himself, if be be master of his art, has the finished work present 
 to his imagination, and knows how one line will succeed another, and the 
 means by which the ultimate harmony of the colours will be secured. The 
 importance of studying the harmony of the colours will therefore be evident, 
 but we may take an illustration from the fictitious marble called agate. In 
 painting this substance, four colours are introduced, green, brown, yellow, and 
 red. Now take a number of pieces of cloth of these colours, and place them 
 together promiscuously, and as there is no order there will be no harmony. 
 Then take a panel, and apply to it the same colours in pigments, and having 
 done this, sprinkle a little turpentine upon them, with a sash-tool, and the 
 
165 
 
 hand specimens, however beautiful, is not sufficient, for if the attention be 
 confined to these, the artist will certainly fail to obtain that variety of structure 
 and colour which so peculiarly distinguishes those marbles which he is called 
 upon to imitate. There is no sameness in nature; there are generic and 
 specific resemblances,—similarities, but no identities. Man, the most perfect of 
 all created terrestrial existence, is an instance of the truth of this remark ■ 
 most wonderful are the diversities of form as well as of countenance; yet the 
 similarities are so striking, that from the gross body and sensual expression 
 of the half-brutalized Australian, to the graceful contour and intellectual eye 
 of the ancient Greek, there is a resemblance too strong to admit of the 
 possibility of disuniting them. Descending from the animate and intellectual 
 to matter in its inertness, we might point out the same general resemblance 
 and individual dissimilarity in mineral substances, but the reader may himself 
 trace these characteristics in all that he sees. 
 
 To imitate the marbles with success and spirit, the painter must devote 
 much time and attention to the art, for without these every attempt will fail. 
 But as there are few workmen who will do this, it has been found neces¬ 
 sary to prepare papers in imitation of the various styles of marble, so that 
 persons residing at a distance from the metropolis, and in situations where 
 good painters cannot be engaged, may obtain the imitations they require. 
 The extensive introduction of marhle papers has led to a corresponding 
 improvement in their preparation. We are bound in justice to state that 
 above all others, we prefer the specimens produced by Messrs. Saunders and 
 Woolley, who have prepared the illustrations for the latter numbers of this work. 
 The mode in which these marble papers are produced, has not been made 
 known. They are for many purposes exceedingly useful, but we give a pre¬ 
 ference to those which are produced by the brush, although in some respects 
 these have the advantage. We have been particularly struck by the variation 
 in the colour and tone of the ground, so as to admit of a natural shading, 
 which we have never seen attempted by hand. There is also a perpetual 
 change in the character and colour of the veining, that gives a freedom 
 and natural appearance, contrasting strongly with the sameness of character 
 too evident in the productions of the brush. The smoothness of surface in 
 the finished paper, renders it unnecessary to rub down the work, as is 
 always requisite in the marbles produced by hand. And, in addition to 
 these obvious advantages, there are those of a saving in time and expense. 
 But, above all, that which most recommends these papers to our notice, is 
 
 2 u 
 
168 
 
 formed of white and black, and made a little lighter than the ground. This 
 colour is made up with maguilp, and is well tempered, that it may not set on 
 the hand. To the maguilp is added mastic varnish, fat oil, and a very small 
 quantity of boiled oil. With this colour, which is made four or five shades 
 darker than the ground, the character of the marble is formed, a flat hog’s- 
 hair tool being used for the purpose. The darker parts are then introduced, 
 and the colours are blended with a hog’s-hair softener, which is worked the 
 long way of the panel. The light greys are then heightened with a pencil, 
 white-lead being used for the purpose, so as to give a stronger and bolder 
 character. These are the several processes, but in the execution of the work 
 the painter must be regulated by his taste and knowledge of the principles 
 of harmony, and carefully blend and balance his colours, so that the finished 
 work may present an entire and distinct character. 
 
 There is a grey marble which may be readily mistaken for dove, but requires 
 a different process in painting. The ground, which is a light grey, is made 
 of black and white. The work is first laid over with maguilp, as in the 
 imitation of dove-marble, but instead of taking the dark lines up and down, 
 they are thrown into a diagonal direction. This being done, the colours are 
 blended with a hog’s-hair softener, moving the brush in every direction. 
 Instead of taking a white colour to harmonize with the darks, the character 
 is introduced in a rough manner, and the colours are blended with a softener, 
 which gives great transparence to the work. To heighten the work, a more 
 opaque colour is used, with a pencil, and gently softened with a badger. 
 Having proceeded thus far, a little turpentine and pure white are mixed 
 together, and the work is sprinkled with a clean brush, which has the effect 
 of blending the tints; and the entire surface is then again softened. 
 
 Verde Antique. Specimen No. 2. 
 
 Black is the ground for Verde Antique. Mix, in a small pot, blue and 
 yellow, so as to form a brownish green, suitable for the marble. The painter 
 must then provide himself with two or three quill feathers. Having mixed 
 some of the colour upon a pallet, form the character of the marble with the 
 feather, afterwards finishing the work where required with a pencil. Then 
 with a pencil and a lighter green colour, heighten the tone, by a few indis¬ 
 criminate touches in such parts as may seem necessary. 
 
 The Egyptian Verde Antique is a variety of this marble, and may be 
 
167 
 
 colours will run into each other, and by blending produce a harmo¬ 
 nious admixture. 
 
 It may seem a strange assertion, but it is deserving of consideration,—that 
 nature must not be followed too closely, for she sometimes indulges in ’freaks, 
 which present appearances so unusual, that if they were imitated, the imitations’ 
 would appear caricatures, and expose the painter to the reproach of those who 
 had been less constant or less successful observers than himself. The artist 
 frequently witnesses a colouring in clouds which he cannot attempt to intro¬ 
 duce upon his canvas, and forms which, when reduced to his miniature repre¬ 
 sentations, would give to his drawings a grotesque and even ridiculous appearance. 
 So, also, there are in marbles, or rather in some specimens of marble, characters 
 which it would be extremely injudicious to introduce in any imitation. In 
 Sienna, for example, a grey streak or vein will be frequently seen crossing 
 the slab in one direction, and a bright yellow one in another. These must 
 be considered defects, as regards the purpose for which the marble is used 
 in decoration, and ought not therefore to be imitated. There may also be a 
 sharpness or abruptness in a marble, which is not altogether unpleasant, but 
 which in an imitation would, from want of a sulScient transparence, be 
 exceedingly disagreeable. In all such matters, the painter must be guided by 
 his own taste and knowledge of colours. If he has neither the quality of 
 mind, nor the information, it will be impossible for him to succeed as a painter 
 of marbles. A man who is master of the art, can always arrange in his mind 
 the character he is about to represent, before he has even coloured his work; 
 and if he be anxious for success does so, although he may find it necessary 
 or rather desirable, in the progress of the work, to change in some degree 
 the character; in the same manner as an artist, who, when he has formed his 
 first .sketch, improves it by a more appropriate grouping, or by giving a more 
 striking attitude to his principal figures. 
 
 These general remarks will guide the young painter in the study of his 
 art, and we may now proceed to explain the manner in which the several 
 marbles are imitated. 
 
 Dove-Marble. Specimen No. 1. 
 
 The ground for dove-marble is a warm grey, formed of black, white, and a 
 small proportion of red. 
 
 The first process is to lay over the work with a transparent grey colour. 
 
the work must be thrown into character, which is done with a yellowish grey 
 colour, by introducing it round the red masses, as may be seen in the 
 specimen. The work must then be heightened with a pure jvhite colour. The 
 peculiar ribbon structure, or waving line, must he afterwards introduced, which 
 is done with the feather of a quill, and has the effect of uniting the red and other 
 colours. This is performed with a pure white-lead, mixed with turpentine, 
 gold-size being introduced in sufficient quantity to give it the necessary binding 
 quality. The work is finished with a pencil, in light and characteristic touches. 
 
 The Egyptian green chiefly differs from the verde antique in the introduction 
 of the black masses of colour, which may be seen in the specimen. The ground 
 is generally an invisible green, made of black and yellow. When the ground 
 is dry, lay over nearly the entire surface with a suitable green, varying the 
 
 exposed. When stones are cut and polished, they are frequently so trans¬ 
 parent that we seem to look beneath the surface, and crystallized masses 
 may he observed distinct from the substance which forms the matrix. These 
 crystalline bodies may present their sides, or may be cut angularly, thus 
 giving a singular variety of form and great transparence to the mass. To 
 imitate this, the painter must display all his skill. The inexperienced will 
 at first find some difficulty, and probably make many abortive attempts, hut 
 
 This marble derives its name from its black ground and its gold-coloured 
 veins. There are three colours in black and gold, and to balance them is 
 the greatest difficulty in imitating the marble. The character of the marble 
 is introduced in a colour which blends the qualities of yellow, umber, and 
 
 which forms the character. A third and still lighter tone of colour is lastly 
 
169 
 
 distinguished by its more blotchy character. The old fashioned mode of 
 preparing this marble is probably the best. Take a sheet of paper and cut 
 It m strips, leaving on one edge an uncut band, so that it may be rolled up 
 and form a kind of brush. Dip the ends of this brush into a suitable blue 
 colour, and flog the work. Then, with the feather of a quill, form the 
 diversity of character, using a thinner colour so as to obtain a greater depth 
 or transparence. The veins are next introduced with a pencil, in a touchy 
 style, so as to produce the effect. No instruction can be given which will enable 
 the painter to imitate the character of the several marbles; it is only by obser¬ 
 vation and long-continued practice that the art can be acquired. 
 
 A Variety of Sienna Marble. Specimen No. 3. 
 
 The marble called Sienna differs greatly in character, and this specimen is 
 introduced to show how a skilful painter may vary the character, so as to 
 obtain an appearance in every way true to nature, and yet differing from the 
 marbles in common use. 
 
 The ground for this variety of Sienna is a yellow, somewhat darker than 
 that in common use. The character is formed in a transparent colour, com¬ 
 posed of burnt sienna and umber, and applied with the feather of a quill, as 
 in verde antique. This being done, the spaces are filled in with a darker 
 transparent colour, and the whole is finished with a pencil, a still darker 
 colour being employed. This is an excellent subject for practice, and one 
 which might be introduced, with much effect, in work where a warm tone of 
 colour is required, and is for many purposes even preferable to the Sienna in 
 more common use for architectural decoration. 
 
 Jaspar. Specimen No. 4. 
 
 Jaspar is a fancy marble, and is never introduced in large masses, except 
 in imitation. The ground may be made of any colour that is suitable to the 
 style of work or the situation, but is commonly grey or a yellowish stone 
 colour. The ground being dry, lay over a certain portion of the work with 
 an opaque colour, formed of burnt sienna, and a little Indian red. In about 
 half an hour it will be sufiiciently set, and the work must then be sprinkled with 
 maguilp and turpentine, a clean brush being used for that purpose; and, 
 wherever the moisture falls large spots will be formed. When this is dry, 
 
 2 X 
 
172 
 
 tinged with yellow. While this is wet, the character is formed with a black 
 crayon, and blended with the colour by a softener. The painter then forms 
 a suitable colour on his pallet, with raw sienna, burnt sienna, and other 
 colours; and it is worthy of remark that in this stage of the work he dis¬ 
 plays his taste, by the selection and introduction of the colours, for upon this 
 choice the success of every future operation depends. The spaces left open by the 
 crayon are then filled in with a colour tending to raw sienna, and the several 
 colours are blended together in the usual manner. When this is dry, the 
 shades are thrown in with a darker colour. The work is then glazed with 
 white, and when badgered is complete. 
 
 Some painters, in finishing sienna, spot it with a pure white, but so many 
 neglect this process that it can scarcely be called a common custom. We 
 would strongly recommend those who are beginning to imitate this marble, 
 after they have examined the best productions of other men, to paint from a 
 number of the best specimens they can obtain, before they adopt any 
 particular style. 
 
 Agate. Specimen No. 10. 
 
 Oil white is the ground for agate. The character of the marble is formed 
 with a quill, rather long in the feather, in a transparent crimson colour, 
 produced by the union of lake and white. When this is dry, the work is 
 again covered in the same manner with a darker colour containing more 
 lake. The character is then followed out, and a greater variety introduced 
 with a bright medium tone of green, formed by the mixture of blue and 
 yellow. With a sash-tool, dipped in maguilp and turpentine, the work is 
 then sprinkled, and all the three colours before used are introduced in places 
 with a pencil, so as to heighten the tone and give effect to the work. 
 
 Grey Granite. Specimen No. 11. 
 
 The house-painter very rarely attempts to imitate any other than the common 
 fine-grained granites. The term granite was used in a very indefinite sense, 
 and in fact signified any granular stone, but it has now a more restricted 
 meaning. Granites commonly consist of mica, quartz, and hornblende, or 
 feldspar, and two of these minerals are always present, being necessary to 
 compose the rock. Some varieties of granite contain large crystals or frag¬ 
 ments of feldspar, quartz, or hornblende, and these are, as specimens, by far 
 
171 
 
 introduced, to give the required relief. With the middle of these three 
 tints, the small veining k put in, and this is frequently made to finish the 
 work. In the heat specimens of this marhle, however, the work is cut up 
 with hlack after the introduction of the veining, so as to throw the yellow 
 masses into more determined figures. When this is dry, the omitted spaces 
 are filled in with a deep grey colour, about two shades lighter than 
 the hlack. 
 
 Brocatilla. Specimen No. 7. 
 
 The ground for hrocatilla is a light warm yellow, of the same tone as that 
 commonly used for sienna, and is formed of ochre and white-lead. Take raw 
 and burnt sienna, and with maguilp make a transparent colour, of the tone 
 required for the marhle when finished. With this colour lay over the work, 
 and, in a few minutes after the colour has set, sprinkle it with maguilp and 
 turpentine, using a sash-tool for the purpose. This will cause the yellow 
 ground to flow. Then shade the larger blots with a light yellow colour, 
 to show the angular fragments, and give greater depth. A suitable colour, 
 formed of Prussian blue and vermilion, is then prepared, and with a pencil 
 it is used to vein round the angular parts, taking care not to carry the 
 dark lines through the blots. 
 
 Norwegian Slate. Specimen No. 8. 
 
 The ground for this marble is a grey, tending to amber, and is formed of 
 black, white, and umber. When the ground is dry, form the character of 
 the marble with a feather, in a grey colour, slightly darker than the ground, 
 so as to produce the necessary transparence. Take, then, a still darker colour, 
 and with a feather give the cross shade, so as to obtain depth on the larger 
 parts of the work. The veins which have been left unfinished by the feather, 
 must then he carried out with a pencil in the same colour, and this will 
 complete the imitation. 
 
 Sienna. Specimen No. 9. 
 
 Sienna marble has a great variety of character. One slab will have a 
 dark hue tending to umber, and another from the same quarry will he a 
 bright yellow. In the imitations, however, the ground is commonly made of 
 a light yellow. The ground being dry, the work is laid over with maguilp. 
 

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174 
 
 very similar to the Napoleon. The ground is a light green, and when this 
 is dry, the character is introduced with a feather, in a green colour, darker 
 than the ground, and slightly stained with umber. The work is afterwards 
 retouched with the feather, in a colour containing more umber, and the veins 
 are carried out with a pencil. 
 
 Eed Porphyry. Specimen No. 15. 
 
 The ground for that marble which is called red porphyry, is a dark reddish 
 brown, formed of vermilion and black. Then, with a sash-tool, sprinkle the 
 work, with a colonr formed of vermilion, and sulEcient white-lead to reduce 
 the brilliance of the red, taking care that it shall not run on the work, but 
 present every spot distinctly. This being done, the work must be again 
 sprinkled, and in the same manner, with a still lighter colour. 
 
 The Swiss porphyry is considered the most valuable. The ground is black, 
 and it is imitated by the painter in the manner already described, a black 
 and vermilion forming a colour about two shades lighter than the ground 
 being used in sprinkling the work. 
 
 The ground for the Swedish porphyry is a greyish stone colour, formed of 
 white, black, and umber. This being dry, lay over the work with a thin 
 maguilp, and sprinkle it with a suitable grey colour. This process is repeated 
 with the same colour, containing more black and a little red, but the sprinkling 
 is done more fully, that the colours may run into each other. A white, 
 stained with red, is then used in the same manner. 
 
 We have now described the process by which the painter imitates the 
 various woods and marbles commonly introduced in the decoration of 
 houses. The information here given, when combined with the observation 
 at all times necessary to give a complete acquaintance with any art, will 
 enable the reader to judge as to the manner in which the painter has per¬ 
 formed his work, and whether he has done all that is necessary to give the 
 required effect. Those who read with an intention to practise the art, may 
 find many hints which will be of value, not only as preventing an erroneous 
 mode of execution, but also as directing them to that which is established by 
 the experience of the most successful workmen. 
 
the most beautiful. For the imitation of these, greater skill and care would 
 be required, than for the more common varieties, and we have seldom 
 seen them attempted. In all the granites introduced by the painter, the 
 same mode is adopted, the colour of the ground being alone changed, so that 
 our description for grey granite is equally applicable to those of other colours. 
 
 When the grey ground is dry, sprinkle the work fully with a darker colour, 
 formed of white and black, and then in the same manner with pure white. 
 It is not often that an attempt is made to imitate the sparkling appearance of 
 the mica, but when this is done, it is hy throwing upon the work while 
 wet, minute fragments of talc. 
 
 White Veined Marble. Specimen No. 12. 
 
 This is one of the most common marbles, and the painter has frequent 
 occasions to imitate it, but it rarely requires much skill to distinguish between 
 the stone and the imitation. It is generally supposed to be a very easy 
 matter to imitate white veined marble, but it requires a good painter to 
 do it well. 
 
 The ground for this marble is a pure white. This being dry, mix white- 
 lead in turpentine and maguilp, and with it lay over the work. While the 
 colour is wet, form the veins with a number-two black crayon, and with a 
 hog’s-hair softener blend the veins with the ground. This is the manner in 
 which white veined marble is imitated, but simple as it is, requires the 
 exercise of considerable skill. 
 
 Napoleon. Specimen No. 13. 
 
 The ground for Napoleon or Boulogne sandstone, is formed of red and 
 umber, with white-lead, to produce the tint required. This being dry, form 
 the character with a feather, and then introduce, in the same manner, a darker 
 colour, so as to produce the necessary variety. The veins which are left 
 unfinished by the feather, are then carried out with a pencil, and this 
 completes the process. 
 
 Green Lava. Specimen No. 14. 
 
 The green lava is a fictitious marble, taken in all probability from some 
 rariegated specimen of lava, coloured by copper. It is painted in a manner 
 
 2 Y 
 
176 
 
 little understood. No one, however, can doubt that many important chemical 
 facts were known to the Egyptians, and other nations of antiquity, or that the 
 manufacture of colours occupied the attention of the learned. 
 
 As it is essential that the difference between the knowledge of the ancients 
 and that of the present day should he thoroughly understood, it may be 
 desirable that we should further attempt to illustrate the state of scientific 
 knowledge at these periods. The Egyptians (and of them we speak as one 
 of the earliest nations possessing scientific knowledge which has descended 
 to our own day,) practised many arts, and among others painting, which depend 
 on certain chemical facts. No one, however, imagines, nor is there the slightest 
 reason to suppose, that they were so acquainted with the elementary principles 
 of bodies, and the laws by which these principles are combined, that by a 
 mere exercise of reason they could foretell the phenomena which would result 
 from presenting one substance to another. Their knowledge was empirical, 
 and was obtained by fortuitous incidents. By the accidental combination of 
 two substances a third was formed, which was discovered to be useful for 
 certain purposes, and was therefore manufactured; but why the decomposition 
 or combination took place, why the newly-formed substance was suited to the 
 purpose for which it was employed, and what were the chances of its con¬ 
 tinuance in that state, they were unable to discover. 
 
 Now, in the present day, we are not left to any rude conjecture, as to the 
 results which will follow the combinations of bodies, or the causes by which 
 the compounds are formed. The composition and qualities of all the most 
 common substances in nature and art have been ascertained, and the chemist 
 can, in most cases, predict, with certainty, the results which will follow when 
 two compound bodies are brought into contact. The principles of the science 
 being thus known, should any discovery be lost, which the art of printing 
 renders almost impossible, it might be easily restored, but in the time of 
 the Egyptians, the loss would be equivalent to the annihilation of so much 
 knowledge. Every discovery was the result of an accident, and if the dis¬ 
 coverer should from any motive be induced to keep it for his own personal 
 use, it would remain unknown to the world until another accident revealed 
 it. The manufacture of colours, as employed by the ancients, was acquired 
 in this manner; and it must be allowed that most of them were permanent 
 and well suited to the purposes for which they were employed, hut of their 
 composition we are to the present day exceedingly ignorant, and chiefly from 
 the cause already mentioned. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 The History of House-Painting. 
 
 It is probable that the formation of colours engaged the attention of inquisitive 
 men from a very early age in the history of our species. The circumstances 
 which led to their use have been already mentioned, and it is not now 
 our intention to enter that wide field of speculation which is opened to 
 us, when we leave the path of history. Allusion, however, must be made to 
 the state of the arts among the nations of antiquity, and it will therefore be 
 necessary to define, with as much precision as possible, the condition of the 
 science upon which the art of painting chiefly depends. 
 
 Some of our readers may doubt the propriety of applying the term “ scientific 
 men” to any class of persons among ancient nations, since the knowledge 
 acquired even by the wisest, except upon astronomy, was, in all probability, 
 obtained by accident, rather than by deductions drawn from ascertained laws 
 or principles of nature. But the epithet is, we believe, strictly applicable to 
 all those who study physical effects, in reference to the causes which produce 
 them; for science is but a classification of that knowledge derived from the 
 study of nature, and, how limited soever the knowledge may be, it forms, 
 when combined in a system, a science; and, those who are acquainted with 
 it, or endeavour to add to the facts already ascertained, may be with propriety 
 called scientific men. But the term is at the same time liable to some mis¬ 
 conception, and may be supposed to convey the notion that the knowledge 
 of physical causes and effects was classified by the wise men of old, in the 
 same manner as by the philosophers of modern times. Geometry and arithmetic, 
 as pure sciences, and astronomy and optics, as sciences of observation, were 
 thus understood by the ancients, but the sciences which depend almost entirely 
 upon experiment, such as chemistry, were in a most imperfect state, being 
 little more than a combination of a few facts, the connexion of which was but 
 
178 
 
 world, whether we consider man in an ignorant, semhbarbarous state, or as 
 an intellectual being, capable of appreciating the beauties of nature, and with 
 an extensive knowledge of things, which we believe to have been his real 
 condition;—in whatever state he may have been, he must have had frequent 
 occasions to represent the forms of things, and the advance from drawing to 
 painting was perfectly natural and obvious. That this was the first means of 
 communicating information to persons at a distance, and of recording events, 
 is certain, from the fact that hieroglyphics were invented before letters. We 
 have an instance of this adoption of drawing in the place of a written language, 
 in the South American Indians. When the Spaniards arrived on thdr coasts, 
 this remarkable people, emerging from a state of absolute barbarism, were 
 accustomed to the use of a rude hieroglyphical language, and informed them 
 king Montezuma of the advent of the strangers, by a painting of them in their 
 foreign costumes, and their not less remarkable ships. 
 
 The fables which have been invented to account for the introduction of 
 drawing and painting, are altogether unworthy of credence. According to 
 one of these accounts, the art commenced with a young female, who drew 
 the profile of her lover upon the wall of her hut; while another traces it to 
 shepherds, who marked upon the earth the form of the shadows thrown by 
 the sun, as a pleasing pastime to relieve the monotony of their indolent 
 employment. 
 
 In the first city built by man, of which we have any authentic records, 
 paintings were introduced partly perhaps as a decoration, but chiefly to 
 commemorate the exploits or qualities of those who reigned in it. The walls 
 of Babylon, we are informed, were painted with representations of hunting 
 scenes and combats, and in these, Semiramis was exhibited on horseback, 
 striking a leopard with a dart, and Ninus as wounding a lion. It has been 
 supposed, with some probability, that these figures were painted on the 
 bricks at the time of their manufacture, and afterwards fixed by burning. 
 This notion is supported by a remarkable passage in the writings of 
 Diodorus Siculus. 
 
 The Egyptians possessed the art of painting, which they probably derived 
 from the Ethiopians. At the time of the expulsion of the shepherd kings, 
 which was before the birth of Moses, the paintings at Thebes were executed, 
 and these are universally esteemed the most beautiful specimens of Egyptian 
 art. At a subsequent period, when the priests made it entirely subservient 
 to the purposes of the national superstition, and especially when the practice 
 
177 
 
 The extension of scientific knowledge, and its diffusion among all classes, 
 render the introduction of bad and futile colours into the market very common. 
 The painter of the present day is indeed liable to great deception, which 
 enhances the importance of chemical knowledge to him, as offering the only- 
 means of giving permanence to his works. The Egyptian and other artists 
 of antiquity had no choice of pigments, but such only were presented to them 
 as were found to be durable in nature; in the present day, every manufacturer 
 has an interest in producing that which will enable him to compete with others 
 in trade; and the durability of the colour, for a term of more than a few years, 
 is, in most cases, an object of no moment. The existence of an inferior class 
 of colours is therefore the necessary result of the scientific knowledge we 
 possess; while the permanent character of those used by the ancients may be 
 accounted for from their timidity in the use of a substance not thoroughly 
 tested by time, as they possessed no scientific knowledge which enabled them 
 to determine its qualities by other means. 
 
 These facts must be borne in mind whenever we attempt to determine the 
 state of the art of painting among the nations of antiquity, for many difficulties 
 will otherwise present themselves which it will be almost impossible to solve. 
 Nor must it be forgotten, that, in our researches into antiquity, the know-ledge 
 possessed in those times has descended to us by but few channels, and these 
 have too often polluted the stream. In meandei’ing through the dry deserts 
 of ages, it has lost not only in freshness but in quantity, so that after a 
 long and laborious research for a river, we discover an unimportant stream. 
 
 Our principal object will be to trace the history of house-painting, but we 
 
 shall find it necessary to give some latitude of meaning to this expression. 
 It would be undesirable, and it is almost impossible, to confine our attention 
 to the manner in which buildings were painted, for it is scarcely less necessary 
 to a full examination of the subject, to ascertain the connexion of painting 
 with all those arts, which, from their domestic or public use in buildings, 
 may be considered to belong to the decorator. The materials which are 
 
 required for the adequate performance of this portion of our work are easily 
 procured, but some skill will be required in collecting and arranging them, 
 so as to form a combination of facts and deductions which shall have a 
 graceful proportion, and be not less useful than curious. 
 
 Great uncertainty exists as to the time when the art of painting was 
 
 invented, and the nation by whom it was first used. Nor is this to be 
 considered in any way a matter of surprise. In the earliest ages of the 
 
 2 z 
 
180 
 
 if 
 
 chapters described with great minuteness, but painting is nowhere mentioned. 
 Moses, however, was acquainted with the art, and even of the existence of 
 pictures among the nations who inhabited Canaan, for in the thirty-third 
 chapter of the hook of Numbers he instructs the Israelites concerning them;— 
 “ When ye have passed over Jordan into the land of Canaan, then ye shall 
 dri\e out all the inhabitants of the land from before you, and destroy all 
 
 their pictures, and destroy all their molten images, and quite pluck down all 
 
 their high places.” In the writings of Ezekiel, whose prophecy is supposed 
 to have been delivered between the years 595 and 575 before the Christian 
 era, and who was carried captive to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, with 
 Jeconiah king of Judah, and three thousand of the principal inhabitants, 
 there is an allusion to the paintings upon walls, but whether they were 
 common among the Jews, or only seen by him among the Babylonians, it is 
 impossible to determine. The most remarkable passage is in the dghth 
 chapter: “ So I went in and saw: and behold every form of creeping things, 
 and abominable beasts, and all the idols of the house of Israel, pourtrayed 
 upon the wall round about. A court in Jerusalem was the locality of the 
 
 vision, and it is not improbable that the scene brought to the imagination 
 
 and impressed on the memory of Ezekiel was one which had a real existence 
 in the holy city, or it may have been a representation of the idolatries which 
 he constantly witnessed among the Babylonians, and intended as a symbolical 
 representation of the mental condition of the Jews. 
 
 At later periods, the Jews probably adopted many of the customs of the 
 nations who successively obtained power over them, and in the apocryphal 
 book of Maccabees, which was probably written only a few years before the 
 commencement of the Christian era, we have a distinct allusion to the painting 
 of houses, which was probably done after the manner adopted by the Romans. 
 
 “ For as the master builder of a new house must care for the whole building, 
 but he that undertaketh to set it out and paint it, must seek out fit things 
 for the adorning thereof: even so I think it is with us.” It is, however, 
 useless to occupy our time with conjectures as to the condition of an art in 
 ages of which but few relics are preserved, and concerning whose public and 
 domestic habits we have but little information. We .shall, therefore, at once 
 descend to those periods of which we have some record, either by the speci¬ 
 mens which have been seen in modern times, or are described in the pages 
 of historians who are worthy of our confidence and respect. 
 
 Pliny says, that painting was unknown until long after the fall of Troy, 
 
179 
 
 of the art became hereditary, and the son was compelled to follow the 
 pursuits of the father, it greatly degenerated, and was only employed for the 
 representation of sacred objects. The best specimens of Egyptian painting 
 were therefore on the walls of Thebes, and must have been executed 1,900 
 years before Christ. The style, however, was never changed. All their 
 works exhibited the same want of knowledge in the application and harmony 
 of colours;—drawing alone was considered, and it must be allowed that in 
 form and expression the Egyptians were not unsuccessful. The sameness of 
 character in their works of art is mentioned by Plato, who says that the 
 pictures in his day differed in no respect from those which were produced in 
 the earliest ages of Egyptian history. 
 
 To determine the manner in which painting was introduced in the public 
 and private buildings of the Egyptians is now impossible, but it is by no 
 means improbable that the interior walls and perhaps ceilings of some apart¬ 
 ments in the temples were decorated with hieroglyphical or emblematical 
 designs. The same uncertainty prevails as to the application of the art 
 among other eastern nations, and as regards its state it is known to have 
 been even inferior to that of the Egyptians. 
 
 There has been some doubt whether the Jews were at all acquainted with 
 the art of painting, but it is scarcely possible to imagine them thus ignorant 
 after a long residence in Egypt, during which period they must have 
 acquainted themselves with all the habits and customs of the nation they 
 served. It is much more probable that the practice was discountenanced 
 from religious motives. In the thirty-first chapter of Exodus there is a 
 relation of the call of Bezaleel to the work of the tabernacle, but painting 
 is not named or alluded to as a part of his employment. “ And I have 
 filled him with the spirit of God in wisdom, and in understanding, and in 
 knowledge, and in all manner of workmanship, to devise cunning works, to 
 work in gold, and in silver, and in brass, and in cutting of stones, to set 
 them, and in carving of timber, to work in all manner of workmanship.” 
 In the thirty-fifth chapter of the same book there is a further allusion to 
 the works which were to be performed by Bezaleel and Aholiab, and in 
 addition to the subjects already enumerated they were “ to work all manner 
 of work of the engraver, and of the cunning workman, and of the 
 embroiderer, in blue, and in purple, in scarlet, and in fine linen, and of the 
 weaver, even of them that do any work, and of those that devise cunning 
 work.” The various decorations of the tabernacle are in the following 
 
ijjLUJLaxnin 
 
182 
 
 It was with Phidias, who flourished about 450 b. c., that the Grecian art, 
 properly so called, commenced. This artist, whose statues have never yet 
 been excelled, began his public career as a painter, hut was chiefly engaged 
 in sculpture. He lived at a period when Grecian liberty was blooming, and 
 when the confidence inspired by the overthrow of the Persian invaders, was 
 stirring the minds of the wise and virtuous to new developments of excellence. 
 With a mind stored with all the useful knowledge of his age, and an 
 unequalled taste, he commenced his pursuits with enthusiasm, and instantly 
 threw into his work that attribute of genius which has been designated 
 “ the ideal.” Cicero has finely drawn a character of him, which, applied to 
 any other man, might be called eidogy. “Phidias cum faceret Jovis formam 
 aut Minerva;, non contemplabatur aliquem aequo similitudinem duceret; sed 
 ipsius in mente insidebat species pulchritudinis eximia queedam, quam intuens 
 in eaque defixus ad illius similitudinem artem et animum dirigebat.” 
 
 When Phidias had raised the arts into high estimation among the Greeks, 
 the candidates for fame became more numerous. We have not forgotten that 
 our present business is to trace the application of the art to the decoration 
 of buildings; nor must the reader imagine that we are deviating from the 
 path by which that information is to be obtained. All the arts of the 
 Greeks were made subservient to the decoration of their public buildings. 
 For that purpose their artists laboured, and the state expended its resources; 
 so that the biography of every artist is in fact, a contribution to the history 
 of the decorative art in the state to which he belonged. It is for this reason 
 that we shall attempt to give a brief account of tbe lives of the most cele¬ 
 brated Greek artists and their works, before we enter upon a description of 
 the several styles of painting. 
 
 Paneenus, the brother of Phidias, was a painter of merit, and his works 
 were highly esteemed by his contemporaries. The battle of Marathon was 
 one of his principal paintings, and must have been a work of importance, 
 for he introduced in it the figures of some of the principal combatants,— 
 Miltiades, Callimachus, and Cynegyrus, among the Greeks; Datis and 
 Artaphernes among the Persians. He also painted the wall which surrounded 
 tbe statue of Jupiter Olympius, at Elis. The subjects were. Atlas sustaining 
 heaven and earth, relieved by Hercules; figures of Theseus and Pirithous; 
 emblematical representations of Greece and Salamis; Ajax reproached by 
 Cassandra; Hercules and the Nemeean Lion; Hippodamia, daughter of 
 Qinomaus, and her mother; Prometheus chained, with Hercules coming to 
 
181 
 
 
 and that drawing was first practised by Ardices of Corinth, and Thelephanes 
 of Sicyon. But this author contradicts himself, for in another place he informs 
 us that the art of painting had arrived at perfection in the time of Eomulus, 
 for it was about that period Candaules, king of Lydia, bought of Bularchus 
 a picture, and gave the painter in return its weight in gold. Hence it is 
 evident, he says, “ that the origin and beginning of the art was of much 
 higher antiquity, and those painters who used hut one colour, lived a long 
 time before, although it is not recorded in what age they flourished.” We 
 are, however, in possession of evidence which enables us to refer the beginning 
 of the art to a much earlier age than that named by Pliny, as a period in 
 which painting did not exist. Homer himself alludes to tapestry, the invention 
 of which cannot have preceded the art of drawing, and gives such a description 
 of the designs borne on the shields of his heroes, as to leave no doubt of 
 their being painted. But our authorities carry us to a still higher antiquity. 
 The allusions to the art in the books of Moses, the painted mummy cases of 
 the Egyptians, and the walls of Babylon and Thebes, fix its origin at a period 
 long antecedent to the Grecian era. Troy was taken 1184 years before Christ, 
 but the walls of Thebes were probably painted 1900 years before the com¬ 
 mencement of the Christian era, so that painting was known at least 716 
 years before the taking of Troy, and 993 years before the Homeric poems 
 were written. 
 
 If we again turn to Pliny for information, we are informed that before the 
 time of Cleophantus the Corinthian, the Greek painters, or more properly 
 draughtsmen, drew their figures with coal, hut that this artist introduced a 
 colour formed of the powder of a red brick. This style was called by the 
 Greeks jj-ovo^pwixa, or single coloured, and upon this they present their claim 
 to be considered the inventors of colour, although it is evident that the Baby¬ 
 lonians and Egyptians painted in red and other colours a thousand years before 
 the date of their pretended discovery. The Grecian school of painting may be 
 said to have commenced with Phidias, about 450 b. c., but the names of two 
 men who improved the art, and lived before him, have been preserved, and may 
 be mentioned. Eumarus, an Athenian painter, was one; and he seems to have 
 made some great improvements in the mode of drawing the human figure of 
 both sexes. The other was Cimon of Cleone, who succeeded in throwing his 
 figures into attitudes, and by his knowledge of anatomy successfully intro¬ 
 duced the muscles and veins of the human body. His draperies, also, were 
 drawn more correctly, the folds and inequalities of surface being shown. 
 
 3 A 
 
184 
 
 embraced, but his success and reputation were in all probability still more 
 the result of the care with which he finished his pictures, and his practice 
 of destroying all those of his works which fell short of that which he 
 intended. 
 
 Zeuxis, who has been so extolled by the ancients that we may consider him 
 one of the most distinguished of the Grecian painters, was born in Heraclea, 
 but whether it was a city of that name in Macedon, or the one near Cretona 
 in Italy, cannot now be ascertained. He studied under either Demophilus or 
 Neseas, but the talents of these artists we have no means of determining. 
 As a man, his character is unworthy of our esteem, for although he seems 
 to have disregarded wealth, when he had obtained a competence, every act 
 of his life was dictated by a most absurd vanity, which knew no bound. It 
 is recorded of him, that when in the zenith of his fame, honoured and 
 applauded through Greece as the greatest master of his art, he appeared at 
 the Olympic games in a mantle, on which his name was embroidered in gold. 
 Even the liberality with which he bestowed his works upon various states 
 was the offspring of his pride, for when he refused payment, it was with the 
 assertion that no money was an adequate remuneration for his pictures. We 
 have, however, less to do with his character as a man, than his qualities as 
 a painter. 
 
 “ The doors that Apollodorus had opened,” says Pliny, “ Zeuxis boldly 
 marched through, about tbe ninety-fiftb olympiad, daring every thing the pencil 
 could do, and carrying it to the greatest glory.” Apollodorus himself, who 
 was mortified at being outdone by a youthful rival, pays a high tribute to 
 his genius, when he says of him that he moulded to his own use all 
 previous inventions, and stole the graces of the best masters. Archelaus, tbe 
 king of Macedon, became his patron and friend, and engaged him to paint 
 several pictures for his palace. Socrates said, that the monarch by expending 
 large sums of money on his house, had induced men from all parts of the 
 world to come and see his palace, but none thought of visiting its owner 
 except those who were allured by his presents, and these were not among 
 the most virtuous of men. 
 
 The greatest works of this artist seem to have been two female figures, 
 one of Helen, and another of Penelope. The circumstances under which the 
 former was painted have been recorded by Cicero. Zeuxis was invited by 
 the inhabitants of Cretona to paint a number of pictures for tbe temple of 
 Juno, and the price which was to be given for them, and the other conditions 
 
183 
 
 his assistance; Prometheus delivered by Hercules; Achilles supporting the 
 dying Penthesilea; and the two Hesperides bearing golden apples. 
 
 Polygnotus flourished about thirty years after Pansnus, that is, 420 b. c. 
 He was the son of Aglaophon, a painter, and was born at Thasos, an island 
 in the Aegean sea. He is said to have made great improvements in his art, 
 and was very successful in his attempts to give life and expression to the 
 human countenance, which he did by opening the mouth, and displaying the 
 passions. His draperies, also, were more light and flowing than those of his 
 predecessors, which enabled him to give a better representation of the female 
 form. Polygnotus was engaged in decorating the Hot/ciA?;, at Athens, a 
 gallery so called from the variety of its embellishments, and the hall at 
 Delphi. His subjects were scenes connected with the Trojan war. Por this work 
 he refused to accept any remuneration, but he received that which was probably 
 to him the highest reward, the thanks of the Amphictyonic council on behalf of 
 the commonwealth; and a decree was at the same time passed, that he should 
 be supported at the public expense, wherever he might travel. One of his 
 pictures was preserved in the gallery of Pompey at Rome. It represented a 
 man on a scaling ladder, with a target in his hand, and was so painted, that 
 no one could determine whether he was ascending or descending. 
 
 Mycon was the contemporary of Polygnotus, and was engaged to paint a 
 part of the same building upon which, as we have already stated, Polygnotus 
 was employed. He is chiefly known to us as having introduced some new 
 colours, and made improvements in the materials of his art. He made a new 
 black pigment from some part of the vine, and introduced Attic ochre into his 
 pictures. 
 
 Apollodorus flourished 410 b. c. He is described by Pliny as the first 
 artist who, by the intrinsic excellence of his pictures was able to fix the 
 admiration of those who beheld his works. “ Neque ante eum tabula ullius 
 ostenditur quee teneat oculos.” His most celebrated pictures, or at least those 
 to which the highest character is given by Pliny, were a priest at his devo¬ 
 tions, and Ajax struck with fixe from heaven. According to Plutarch, he was 
 called the shade painter by his contemporaries, from the circumstance of his 
 being the first to observe that the colours of bodies should be retained, even 
 under a depth of shade, but Quinctilian gives this honour to Parrhasius. He 
 was the first painter, says a writer in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, “ who 
 carried the disposition of light and shade, and chiaro oscuro, to any degree of 
 perfection,” He possessed, no. doubt, a genius for the art which he had 
 
186 
 
 said, by Pliny, to have been the first who observed the rules of accurate 
 symmetry, in portraying the human figure, which it seems to have been the 
 practice even of his most celebrated contemporary to disregard. His peculiar 
 excellences consisted in his designs and his outlines, in the first sketching 
 and exterior lines of his pictures, which Pliny regards as the most difficult 
 part of the art. He excelled, also, in the expression of character, respecting 
 which Xenophon has preserved a dialogue between him and Socrates, which 
 the latter turns to moral uses. He is said to have first delicately painted 
 the hair, and to have disposed it in tresses, so as to add to the beauty, or 
 to assist in the general expression of his figures. He painted, also, most 
 inimitably, the lips and mouth, touching them with peculiar sweetness and 
 finishing them with singular grace. But, in general, he was defective in the 
 filling up, in the shading and colouring of the masterly outlines which he 
 drew. His sketches and outlines, many of which he left without filling up, 
 both on tablets and parchment, became in after times the studies of youthful 
 painters.” 
 
 Descriptions have been left us of many of the finest paintings produced 
 by Parrhasius, some of the subjects of which may be mentioned. His greatest 
 work was an allegorical painting of the genius of the Athenians, in which 
 he endeavoured to “embody all the wayward and contradictory passions and 
 feelings; the stupendous greatness, and the singular weaknesses; the admirable 
 tastes, and the contemptible jealousies, of that most strange yet most interesting 
 people.” He is said to have been peculiarly happy in his representations of youth 
 and childhood, which might indeed be conjectured froin the number of his sub¬ 
 jects in which they were introduced; a nurse with an infant in her arms, and a 
 priest attended by a child with a censer, were probably not the least beautiful of 
 his paintings. Beside these, many others have been recorded by the ancient his¬ 
 torians; a man in armour running, to which figure he gave an air of weariness, 
 as if oppressed by the load which covered him—a man in armour undressing, 
 exhibiting a feeling of exhaustion—two boys, with innocence and a freedom 
 from care, strongly marked upon their countenances—a Bacchus with Venus 
 standing over him—a group of figures representing ^neas. Castor, and Pollux; 
 and another of Telephus, Achilles, Agamemnon, and Ulysses. A third group, 
 in which the figures of Meleager, Hercules, and Perseus, were introduced, 
 was preserved at Rhodes, with the most superstitious reverence, and a degree 
 of sanctity was attributed to it, under the supposition that the tablet on which 
 it was painted had been three times struck with lightning, and the colours 
 
185 
 
 necessary between the parties, were arranged. But, upon his arrival in the 
 city, he informed the inhabitants that he did not intend to paint more than 
 one picture, a figure of Helen, to which new stipulation they seem to have 
 willingly consented, from the peculiar excellence of his female figures. From 
 five of the most beautiful maidens in the city he painted and produced a 
 picture which seems to have been the admiration and envy of all Greece. 
 The same circumstances are mentioned by Pliny, but he says that it was for 
 the people of Agrigentum that the painting was undertaken. In the time of 
 Pliny, there was a Helen by this artist at Borne, under which were written 
 some verses from Homer, (II. III. v. 156,) which Pope has translated or 
 rather paraphrased: 
 
 “ They cried, No wonder such celestial charms 
 For nine long years have set the world in arms. 
 
 What winning graces ! what majestic mien ! 
 
 She moves a goddess, and she looks a queen!” 
 
 The last verse, if correctly translated, would read, “ For she resembles the 
 immortal gods.” His Penelope must have been a fine picture, to have merited 
 the encomium which has been passed upon it, as possessing “ a modesty 
 which was more impressive than a lesson on morality.” The subjects of his 
 other paintings were Marsyas bound to a tree, preserved in Rome, his Alcmena, 
 representing the infant Hercules strangling the serpents in his cradle; the 
 Centaurs, which Lucian has well described; and a wrestler, beneath which 
 he in the distension of his vanity inscribed a verse, that it was easier to envy 
 than to imitate. But his greatest work was Jupiter seated on his throne, 
 and receiving the adoration of the gods. 
 
 Zeuxis lived to a great age, and is said to have died of laughter, at a 
 picture of an old woman, which he had himself painted. 
 
 Parrhasius, who was born at Ephesus, and received the elements of his 
 art from Evenor, his father, lived about 400 b. c., and was the contemporary 
 and rival of Zeuxis. It is stated that these two celebrated artists had on 
 one occasion a trial of skill. Zeuxis had painted a bunch of grapes, which 
 was so good an imitation of the fruit, that the birds came and pecked at 
 it. Certain of success, he requested his rival to withdraw the curtain 
 which concealed his work, when, to his astonishment, he found that the 
 supposed curtain was a painting by Parrhasius. His character, as an artist, 
 is well described by a writer in the Encyclopeedia Metropolitana. “ He is 
 
 3 B 
 
188 
 
 was understood than expressed. The sacrifice of Iphigenia was probably his 
 most successful production. In his design, he represented the virgin, robed 
 in innocence and calm resignation, standing before the altar, surrounded by 
 her relatives and friends, in whose countenances he exhibited all the gradations 
 of grief. This passion was carried to its height, consistent with a manly and 
 noble deportment, in the countenance of Menelaus her uncle; but the face 
 of Agamemnon, still more deeply agitated by the unhappy fate of his daughter, 
 was hidden in the drapery of his robe. Another instance is given us of the 
 ingenuity with which he managed his subjects. Having drawn a Cyclops to 
 a small size, some contrivance was necessary to give the figure its gigantic 
 and monstrous magnitude, and for this purpose he introduced satyrs measuring 
 his thumb with rods. The scanty information concerning this artist to be 
 collected in the works of the ancients, only prompts our desire for further 
 acquaintance with him, which, alas, there is no hope of ever attaining. There 
 was, perhaps, no picture of antiquity more worthy of preservation, had Time 
 studied the merits of artists, than the picture of a prince by Timanthes, once 
 preserved in the temple of Peace at Rome, which was so perfect in pro¬ 
 portion, and so majestic in its air, that it was a form which the noblest of 
 the gods might have been proud to wear. 
 
 Of Eupompus less is known than of Timanthes: with him, however, com¬ 
 menced the Sicyonian school. Before the time of this artist, there were but 
 two distinct styles, the Grecian or Helladian, and the Asiatic; but in conse¬ 
 quence of his works, the former was divided into the Sicyonian and Attic, 
 the works produced by the natives of all the towns of Asia being known 
 under the general designation of Ionian. Pamphilus, the master of Apelles, 
 was his pupil. The paintings exhibited by Ptolemy Philadelphus, were 
 almost entirely of the Sicyonian school, and it has been supposed that it 
 survived all others. The most celebrated painting by Eupompus, was a con¬ 
 queror in the games, holding the branch of a date tree. 
 
 Pamphilus was a native of Amphipolis, a city on the borders of Macedonia 
 and Thrace. He was a man of philosophic mind, of great literary attain¬ 
 ments, and profoundly acquainted with the mathematics of his day. He 
 established a school at Sicyon, but would take no pupil for a less sum than 
 a talent of silver, for which he engaged to continue his instructions ten 
 years. During his residence in Sicyon, he raised the arts into the highest 
 repute, and ultimately succeeded in having a law passed for the instruction 
 of the citizens in the arts of design, during their youth. The same decree 
 
187 
 
 reniaiiied uninjured. But, of all liis pictures, none were perhaps more worthy 
 of his pencil than the figure of Theseus, by which he obtained his freedom 
 of the city of Athens, not even excepting his Archigallus, which Tiberius 
 kept in his bed-chamber, and valued at the price of sixty thousand sesterces. 
 
 It is impossible to consider the subjects upon which the pencil of Parrhasius 
 was employed, and the character given to his works by the ancients, without 
 perceiving that he must have been an artist of genius; and from the choice 
 of subjects in which the innocence and simplicity of childhood formed a prin¬ 
 cipal feature, it would be almost impossible to believe that he could have been a 
 man of reprobate and cruel mind. Yet Pliny informs us, that in his moments 
 of leisure, he relaxed his mind by a representation of subjects of immoral 
 tendency. It has also been asserted, that, in order to depict with a more 
 vivid reality the sufferings of Prometheus, he caused an Olynthian captive to 
 be put to death by torture. This tale, however, is not corroborated either 
 by the concurrent testimony of authors, or by the character of his works. 
 He was a man too much under the government of superstition and pride, which, 
 together, drove him to the very verge of that precipice which separates the 
 highest efforts of mind from frightful insanity. That he was vain, is evident, 
 from his having attached a variety of ennobling epithets to his name, and from 
 his having claimed a descent from Apollo. That he was afflicted with mono¬ 
 mania appears from his assertion, that Hercules had appeared to him in 
 visions, to enable him to take a correct portrait. The latter anecdote reminds 
 us of the peculiarities of Blake, our late esteemed and talented countryman. 
 
 Allusion has already been made to a competition between Parrhasius and 
 Zeuxis, in which the former obtained the advantage. But there was a more 
 equal trial of skill, which he afterwards accepted with Timanthes. A subject, 
 in this instance, was chosen—it was the indignation of Ajax on the adju¬ 
 dication of the arms of Achilles to Ulysses—and the painting by Timanthes 
 was greatly preferred. To a man who possessed so much self-esteem, and 
 traced his origin to a god, this must have been a most vexatious and depre¬ 
 ciating failure, but “ he consoled himself by affecting to lament the fate of 
 Ajax, a second time overcome by his inferior.” 
 
 Timanthes was an artist of whom we desire to have more information, 
 for he appears to have not only surpassed all his contemporaries in depth 
 of feeling, and the ingenuity with which he treated his subjects, but also 
 in his appeal to the fancy of those who viewed his designs. In his works, 
 says an eminent historian, as in the descriptions of Homer and Milton, more 
 
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 ■ w-.-' ui: surwMtruisKi.-by 
 
 ^ iWsgBBiUte^ 
 
 '''■■•■ ■’ ■ - 57 : -lli.*1(8^ 
 
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 iiix'with hirf, vfhi''7t, aini.. (hwe ttj no. h-.>n?. (if evei bdfe'jiiKr. . 
 
 r ry) .'.'f Hoi;(|iot> more Woiiny ef |SS!K!irs?atiynf. hsi! "'iiiie 
 
 _,<dtii ir l.be pic(r;-.e a princ!' 'ty Tunsrithes. '-uce 
 .-'i' y.i K.-:!Sm:' T-'hic.h iO perts-cl l!> P’O'- 
 
 y:(< . laiesiiy i!j iu aji', di.-it ;i v.H.hi a .form, ■whi-.ii the aot)ie#v-V;t 
 
 V*et*!i jttoud !.:• wccir. '■, ,, i,; ■... 
 
 kaown titan of 'I'injaDthes; Ivim, hoV.-es'er; ‘eoitv 
 
 ; - .ikfore the time of Ihk'.-art&t,- there but 
 
 or Helltwlian, and the i4aetia; .but b conse- 
 ifr fomor was dividcti into ’tba Siej’OttiaH .itnd Attic,' 
 the naiives oi *11 the towia of known 
 
 ■Jttjkfo of Ionian. Pamphilu*. Ihe master of i'ij.ellct. 
 : jadntintrs - j^ tlfaijed fay- Ptokihy PluisKielpkiisi wei^' 
 ;Sicyoman school, and it has hotf ^iopposcu that it 
 aiQ«t. LvJebrateii paijrtiag by Kupouip'.ttu «.;»» a-eatp 
 facing tfaj Jtranch of a dale tree. ■ ' 4 
 
 Atspbipolis, a city on tk* tKmIei* (jC Sitwaittonia 
 f .yhilMsopkic n.inii af pAat ktentif 
 i®kd - with the antitemanies tff h»'.:<lB3f,';f.y'Sle 
 .would take uo]pti|^f(ir a ■law .-j l OMf r-iifan 
 h >. n> conttaA^^a iaslnwliaitii kti 
 
 .'Kklv-ju.'o T/, r- .c-ytiir ■ h# 'iiv«d, ||||^^^ t^ent 
 
 ue- a. 
 

confined the arts to the free inhabitants of the state; they were considered 
 too ennobling for slaves, and were therefore forbidden to them. The same 
 laws were afterwards passed in nearly all the Grecian states. 
 
 Pamphilus painted several pictures, which were very highly esteemed by 
 the Greeks. The subjects of some of these have been recorded, and we may 
 mention the Heraclidee with olive branches, soliciting the assistance of the 
 Athenians — the battle before Phlius, and the victory of the Athenians — a 
 family picture, and the vessel of Ulysses on the sea. 
 
 From what we have here said, it will appear, that about 400 b. c. there 
 were, in Greece, a number of extraordinary painters, all of them perhaps 
 contemporaries, yet in the relations to each other of masters and pupils. 
 The age in which Apollodorus lived, was also distinguished by the works of 
 Zeuxis and Timanthes, and Eupompus and Pamphilus of Sicyon; to which 
 may be added those of Euphranor of Corinth, and Nicias of Athens, as well 
 as of others, whose names only have descended to our day. 
 
 Euphranor, the Corinthian, was celebrated as a sculptor, as well as a 
 painter. He wrote a work on symmetry and colours. The subjects of his 
 most celebrated paintings were the twelve gods, and Theseus. Of the latter, 
 he may he supposed to have entertained an opinion extremely flattering to 
 his vanity, if we may believe the assertion, that he boasted his Theseus had 
 fed on flesh, but that of Parrhasius on roses. 
 
 Nicias, the Athenian, excelled in colouring and in his female figures. His 
 Andromeda, lo, and Calypso, were considered master-pieces of art, but his 
 design of the Necromantia of Homer was his chief work. For the latter 
 picture, Attalus, king of Pergamos, offered a sum equal to twelve thousand 
 pounds, hut the artist rejected the money, and presented it to his 
 native city. 
 
 In this brief account of some of the most celebrated Greek artists and 
 their works, we have paid but little attention to Pliny’s pretended epochs 
 of art. “ The Greek historians, from whom he copied this part of his 
 work,” says Dr. Gillies, whose remarks on this subject are worthy the con¬ 
 sideration of all who record the progress of the arts, “ found it convenient at 
 every pause in their narrative to give some account of men who had dis¬ 
 tinguished themselves in the arts and sciences, of whom they had no opportunity 
 to make mention in recording public transactions, and relating wars and nego- 
 ciations. The sera of every peace furnished a proper resting-place to the 
 historian, from which he looked back and collected the names worthy to be 
 
 3 c 
 
190 
 
 handed down to posterity. Every such eera, therefore, Pliny, and after him 
 Winkelmann, have considered an epoch of art; not reflecting that arts do not 
 suddenly arise and flourish, and when they once flourish do liot suddenly 
 decay, since the mind long retains the impulse which it has received; and 
 the active powers of man, when once directed to their proper objects, are 
 not easily lulled to repose.” 
 
 Before the art of painting lost its vigour in Greece, another race of artists 
 arose, among whom Apelles, Aristides, Nichomachus, and Protogenes, were 
 the most celebrated. Apelles, ‘the god of high finish and grace,’ as he has 
 been called, was born at Cos, and was universally considered the greatest of 
 all the Greek painters. Pliny, speaking of him, says, he enriched the art 
 more than all his predecessors. His most remarkable power was that of 
 giving to his pictures an inimitable grace. He was the contemporary of 
 Protogenes, and the rival artists may he supposed to have had some degree 
 of the jealousy so common among painters. But Apelles was of a gentle 
 mind, and graceful in his manners, and though conscious of his superiority 
 in some particulars, was always willing to bestow praise, when it was due, 
 upon others: an instance of this is recorded on the occasion of his visit to 
 Protogenes. Being anxious to form an acquaintance with that artist, he 
 sailed for Ehodes, where Protogenes resided. When he called, the painter 
 was from home, but seeing a large table, set in a frame, ready for a picture, 
 he drew upon it, in colour, a fine line, saying to the woman who kept the 
 house, “ Tell thy master that he who made this line inquired after him.” 
 Upon seeing the line. Protogenes knew that none other than Apelles could 
 draw with so much beauty, but having drawn upon the same tablet another 
 and still finer line, in a different colour, ordered the woman to give it to 
 his visitor, when he again called. Apelles blushed to see himself thus outdone, 
 but with another colour drew a third line, still more graceful and true to 
 nature, so as to leave no room for a fourth. Protogenes confessed the 
 superiority of Apelles, and with haste sought to give him a welcome and 
 friendly entertainment. This table was long preserved, but was at last con¬ 
 sumed in the fire which destroyed the palace of the Caesars, on the Palatine 
 hill. It is not our object to write a minute account of this wonderful artist, 
 or it would be easy to fill many pages with the interesting tales which have 
 been left concerning him, by Pliny and other writers. But we must not 
 omit the fact, that although richly endowed by nature, he well knew that 
 practice alone could give him success in his art, and so assiduous was he. 
 
 # 
 
191 
 
 that his constant daily application originated the proverb, “ nulla dies sine 
 linea,”—not a day without a line. 
 
 Apelles painted some of the most valued works of the Greeks. His 
 Venus Anadyomene was his most celebrated production, but it was painted 
 on wood, and in the time of Augustus was found to have been destroyed 
 by insects. Among his other works we may mention a few subjects:— 
 Venus rising out of the sea—Alexander with a thunderbolt—Calumny—the 
 priests of Diana at Ephesus—Clytus arming for battle—and the procession 
 of Megabyzus. 
 
 After the age of Apelles and his contemporaries the art of painting greatly 
 declined; and the Grecian school may be said to have died with these 
 artists. Of their lives and works we shall not speak in this place, but 
 pi'oceed to make that use of the infoi*mation collected in the few preceding 
 pages for which it has been introduced. "We have traced the progress of 
 painting among the Greeks, by a brief biography of some of their most 
 celebrated artists; we have described the subjects upon which their pencils 
 were employed; and we have stated generally, that all the greatest works 
 were intended for the decoration of public buildings, or the residences of 
 the illustrious and wealthy; but it still remains to explain the manner in 
 which these works were executed, and how they were introduced for the 
 purpose of decoration. 
 
 The pictures of the Greeks were painted either on tabular pieces of some 
 hard substance, such as larch, fir, and box-wood; or upon the walls and 
 ceilings of buildings; and thus the art was divided into tabular and mural 
 painting. As the Greek artists were unacquainted with the use of oil as a 
 medium of colour, their pictures necessarily wanted that permanence which 
 its introduction has given to the productions of the modern brush, and they 
 have consequently been entirely lost; nor would they have been sufficiently 
 enduring to have encouraged the artist to paint, or to excite the taste of the 
 nation which so amply awarded their authors, had the climate been less 
 favourable. 
 
 There were two modes of painting—-one was encaustic, or painting with a 
 colour prepared with wax; and the other was distemper, or a colour prepared 
 with glue. In all mural painting, whether encaustic or distemper, brushes 
 were used; but in encaustic on wood a metal point, called a stylus, was 
 employed. The tables, or tabular blocks, to be painted, seem to have been 
 covered with wax, and upon this yielding surface the design was drawn with 
 
192 
 
 the stylus, in a manner similar to our etching. “ At a sale of antiquities in 
 London,” says a writer in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in some excellent 
 remarks upon Grecian art, “there was a regular Greek tablet, with a wax 
 ground, and a stylus attached to it, as boys hang slate-pencils to their slates, 
 and a sentence of Greek actually half cut. The word ypacjxo being used 
 for painting, design, or writing, makes the instrument the same in either 
 case. The tablet was like a slate; the middle had been planed smooth, and 
 the frame was left round it. The progress of the Greeks is very interesting, 
 and shows how the mind gradually advances in the imitation of reality, and 
 rests impatiently on mere outline as a representation of nature. After a certain 
 time, the early artists, when they had drawn an outline, ventured to colour it 
 inside with black. This mode of imitation was called aKiaypa(j)ia, and the 
 
 painting aKiaypapp-ara, or skiagrams, from (nua, shade, and to draw. 
 
 Our black profiles and whole figures, seen in shop-windows, are the skiagrams 
 of the ancient Greeks. This was held as a great step, and the painter who 
 could fill up a face or a figure with black was hailed as a man eminent in 
 
 art. After a little time came the genius with more extended views, who 
 
 invented the povoypapp,a, or monogram, from povos, only, and ypa(j)(d, to 
 draw; that is, to define by line only, without a shadow. Next came the man 
 who had nerve to try a positive colour. Pliny has preserved his name— 
 Cleophantus of Corinth. He ground up a red brick, and therefore the Greeks 
 claimed the invention of colour, although the Chaldeans had painted men red 
 on the walls of Babylon, and so had the Egyptians on their tombs, nearly 
 one thousand years before them. This discovery was called povoy^pcepa, or 
 monochrom, single-coloured, from povos, alone, and ypcopa, colour; and this 
 was their first attempt at imitating flesh. Next came the white ground, (the 
 gesso of the Italians, and lime and plaster of the Egyptians,) covered with 
 wax. From one colour, naturally enough, came the others; for if brick 
 produced red, earths, burned or natural, would produce other colours; and 
 polychrom, from ttoAw, many, and ypcopa, colour, was formed.” In this 
 gradual manner the tablet painting of the Greeks arose; from a simple 
 etching upon a layer of wax, to the most perfect representation of subjects, 
 real or ideal, in all the harmony of colours. This description, however, has 
 only reference to the mode of preparing the tablet, and the successive 
 improvements made in that style of painting. We have yet to consider the 
 manner of preparing the colours; but it will first be necessary to make a 
 few remarks upon painting on walls. 
 
It has been asserted by many writers that the Greeks never painted in 
 fresco; and it may be reasonably doubted whether this style was ever adopted, 
 except in the introduction of some architectural ornaments. In fresco the 
 colours are applied to the wet plaster; and by sinking into the material, 
 they, in fact, become a part of it. • But all colours cannot be thus applied, 
 being destroyed by contact with the lime; and as these colours were more 
 frequently used than any others by the ancients, it is probable that the 
 Greeks commonly painted in stucco, that is, upon the dry plaster. 
 
 It has been doubted whether the Greeks were acquainted with the use of 
 the brush; but, independent of the consideration that it would have been 
 impossible for them to have painted in distemper without this instrument, we 
 might be warranted in forming an opposite conclusion, from its use among other 
 nations, and the necessity for it in many of the most common purposes of life. 
 The ark, in which a remnant of the human race was preserved at the time 
 of the great universal catastrophe, was pitched inside and out; and how this 
 could have been done without brushes it is impossible to imagine. The 
 Egyptians, we know, painted with them; and they were not less necessary to 
 the Greeks, as they had ships which needed protection from the destroying 
 influence of an alternate exposure to water and the atmosphere. It is true 
 that Pliny speaks of the mode of boiling the wax, and painting the ships 
 with it, which, he says, is a lasting mode, so that neither the sea, wind, nor 
 sun can destroy the wood thus protected, as being the method last discovered; 
 but if we admit his statement, as to the date of the discovery, it cannot be 
 denied, that, when it became the customary process, brushes must have been 
 required. 
 
 This brings us to the last inquiry, the process of painting in encaustic; 
 r, in other words, the application of wax in colours, by the Greek artists; 
 and this is the most difficult and most disputed subject. Paintings upon 
 walls were, without doubt, commonly done in distemper, and afterwards 
 varnished: but as the encaustic mode was sometimes adopted, we have 
 instances of encaustic mural paintings in the records of the works of many 
 Greek artists, hut we may especially mention the walls of Thespiee, which 
 were painted by Polygnotus, and which Pausias was employed to repair; but 
 the latter artist failed, being unaccustomed to the use of the brush; from 
 which it would appear, that Polygnotus painted his designs in encaustic 
 with a brush; or, in other words, that the wax was mixed with his colours. 
 If this view can be entertained, which we believe to be a correct one, the 
 
 3 D 
 
194 
 
 Greeks, though ignorant of oil as a medium of colour, were in possession of 
 that which was the best substitute; and pictures may have been produced 
 not unworthy of the encomiums which their poets, historians, and philosophers, 
 passed upon them—not elegant outlines daubed with colours in mosaic, as 
 we are apt to imagine them—but works of art, which Phidias might admire, 
 and which were worthy of the inimitable taste of Apelles, a name still 
 esteemed as the personification of grace and beauty. 
 
 In those cases where the colours where known to be fugacious, varnish 
 was applied, which consisted of warm punic wax, tempered with oil. When 
 the varnish was dry, it was heated by the fire of the chafing dish, which 
 was indispensable to a Greek artist, until it sweated, and was then rubbed 
 with wax tapers, and polished with white napkins. This method was called 
 Kavats, and to all encaustic pictures the term eveKavcrev, hurnt in, was applied. 
 
 There are four methods of encaustic painting, as stated by an author whom 
 we have already quoted. 1. The colours might be mixed with wax, and 
 thinned with a liquid, when required for use. 2. Wax of different colours 
 might be placed on ivory, and united by working them together with sufiicient 
 heat. 3. The wax might be boiled and used hot with the colours. 4. The 
 wax might be employed as a varnish in the mode already described. 
 
 From these few general remarks, it may be doubted whether the 
 
 moderns have not much depreciated the art of painting, as it existed 
 
 among the Greeks. Is it not unreasonable to suppose that a people who 
 possessed the exquisite works of Phidias, the noblest sculptures ever produced 
 by the hand of man, works which the greatest artists of all ages have 
 viewed with a feeling allied to reverence, and with a despair of imitating, 
 should be satisfied with such unmeaning daubs as we seem to attribute 
 to them? and is it not still more improbable that Phidias himself, and 
 Apelles, who possessed a genius not inferior, should be content with such an 
 unsatisfactory if not despicable art? The Greek artists were applauded by 
 Socrates as the wisest of men. jEsop spent much of his time in their painting 
 rooms, and they were the companions of the greatest intellects of their age. 
 Their works were associated with the sculptures we so much admire, which 
 could not have been permitted had they not been executed in a better style 
 than is commonly imagined to have distinguished them. It is, perhaps, saying 
 more than will be admitted by many writers of the present day, but justified 
 by the well-known taste of the Greeks, that the temple in which the Elgin 
 marbles were the inferior architectural ornaments, and in which the Minerva 
 
195 
 
 of Phidias was erected, was no doubt painted in a style in no respect inferior to 
 the general construction of the building, and the unequalled marble it contained. 
 
 But we must now turn to the productions of another people, and it seems 
 necessary that we should make a few remarks upon the state of painting 
 among the Etruscans, before we direct the attention of the reader to the 
 decorations of the Romans. 
 
 It is universally admitted, that the arts rose to a higher state among this 
 people than the surrounding nations, and that they were the first to introduce 
 them into Italy; but who the Etruscans were, and by what means they 
 acquired their knowledge, is still a matter of doubt and dispute among 
 scholars. They inhabited a district or province of Italy, which was separated 
 on the north from Liguria, by the river Macra; on the east, from Umbria, 
 by the river Tiber; on the west, it was bounded by the Tuscan Sea; and 
 on the side of Cisalpine Gaul by the Apennines. This people were called 
 by the Greeks Tyrrhenians, or Tyrsenians, but their native appellation was 
 Rasena. “ The ancient Roman terms,” says Niebuhr, “ were Etruria for the 
 country and Tusci for the people; that of Etruscus did not come into use till 
 after Cato’s time, though subsequently it became the more usual in the lan¬ 
 guage of books. But the old name must have continued prevalent in the 
 mouth of the people, for under the later emperors the name Tuscia, which 
 had never before been used in writing, was applied to the country, and in 
 the middle ages passed into Toscana, whence Toscani.” 
 
 When all the other inhabitants of Europe were sunk in barbarism, this 
 remarkable people were possessed of a high state of civilization, and practised, 
 with a success which is the wonder of modern times, the arts of design. 
 From them the Romans in all probability derived their laws, customs, 
 religious fables, and learning. 
 
 According to Herodotus, the Etruscans derived their origin from a colony 
 of Lydians, who, driven from their native country by famine, wandered long 
 to find a suitable home, and at last settled in a part of Italy, and gave 
 themselves the name of Tyrrhenians, from Tyrrhenus the conductor of their 
 emigration. Other ancient writers agree with Herodotus, from whom their 
 information was in all probability derived, in tracing the Etruscans to a 
 colony of Lydians. The modems, however, have, from various considerations, 
 been dissatisfied with the account given by the father of Greek history, and 
 have endeavoured to establish theories which appear to them to account more 
 satisfactorily for the facts which have been collected. To trace all these 
 
196 
 
 opinions, many of which are wild and unfounded, would not he consistent 
 with the character of this work, yet it is not desirable that we should pass 
 the subject over without some remarks, although they must necessarily be 
 brief and general. 
 
 Dempster, a writer who did much to place the Etruscan antiquities before 
 us in a right light for careful examination, supposes that previous to the 
 immigration of the Lydians, there was a native and aboriginal race occupying 
 Etruria, and that the Lydians, as well as other colonies from Thessaly and 
 Arcadia, united with the aboriginal inhabitants, forming a new and inde¬ 
 pendent nation. With this opinion, many other authors have coincided, but 
 attribute the advance of the arts among them to an early connexion with 
 the Phenicians, or the Egyptians, while others maintain that they were of 
 Egyptian descent. 
 
 Miiller, dissatisfied with all these opinions, traces their knowledge and 
 ci\dlization entirely to an early intercourse with the Greeks, independent of 
 whom, according to some scholars, there was nothing great, nothing good. 
 “ It remains,” he says, “ that we regard the Tuscan nation as an original 
 peculiar people of Italy; their language is widely different from the Greeks, 
 the names of their gods are not those which we find among the earliest 
 Greeks, whom we call Pelasgi, and which passed from them to the 
 Hellenes: there is much too in the doctrine of their priests, entirely foreign 
 to the Greek theology. But it appears to have been the fate of this nation, 
 which never displayed any independent civilization, but only adopted that of 
 the Greeks, to have been indebted for its first impulse towards improvement 
 to a Greek, or at least half Greek tribe. The Tuscans themselves, in their 
 native legends, referred their polity and civilization to the maritime town of 
 Tarquinii, and the hero Tarchon, both probably only variations of the 
 Tyrrheni. Here it was that the much-dreaded Pelasgians of Lydia landed 
 and settled, bringing with them the arts which they had acquired at home 
 or on their way. For the first time the barbarous land saw men, covered 
 with brass, array themselves for battle at the sound of the trumpet; here 
 first they heard the loud sound of the Lydo-Phrygian flute, accompanying 
 the sacrifice, and perhaps witnessed, for the first time, the rapid course of 
 the fifty-oared ship. As the legend in its propagation from mouth to mouth 
 swells beyond all bounds, the whole glory of the Tuscan name, even that 
 which did not belong to the colonists, attached itself to the Tarchon, the 
 disciple of the Tages, as the author of a new and better era in the history 
 

 
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 197 
 
 of Etruria. The neighbouring Umbrians and Latins named the nation, which 
 from this time began to increase and diffuse itself, not from the primitive 
 inhabitants hut from these new settlers. For since, in the Euguhine tables, 
 Tursce occurs along with Tuscom and Tuscer, it is impossible not to conclude 
 that from the root Tur have been formed Tursicus, Turscus, Tuscus, as from 
 the root Op, Opscus and Oscus, so that rvpprjvot or rvparjvoL and Tusci are 
 only the Asiatic and Italian forms of one and the same name.” 
 
 Niebuhr, the best authority on classical history of modern, and perhaps 
 of any other times, considers the opinions which have been entertained con¬ 
 cerning the origin of the Etruscans to be erroneous; hut as we cannot enter 
 more fully into a consideration of this perplexing but interesting question, 
 we at once refer the reader to his History of Home, for more ample infor¬ 
 mation; and proceed to make a few remarks on the state of the arts among 
 them, more particularly that of painting. 
 
 The Etruscans, to whom the Komans were indebted for their future 
 greatness, so well improved their natural talents for the arts, during a long 
 period of peace, that their works are even in the present day admired as 
 the productions of great skill and knowledge. They appear to have 
 
 excelled in modelling, and their pottery was superior to that of any other 
 ancient nation. In architecture and painting, they were also eminently ■ 
 successful. There are many specimens of Etruscan workmanship in this 
 
 country, and all our readers have probably been struck, when examining 
 them, with the remarkable delicacy and beauty of outline which distinguishes 
 the figures upon their vases and other productions. They are, for the 
 
 most part, red figures on a black ground, but we have no room from this 
 circumstance to doubt of their possessing an adequate knowledge of colours. 
 The walls of the houses and tombs were decorated with paintings, which 
 were executed with a skill and taste, nothing inferior to the works of the 
 Komans, at a later period. The colours are bright and striking, and the 
 designs are far superior to what might have been anticipated from any 
 nation of so great antiquity. To those who may be interested in the study 
 of Etrurian history and antiquities, Mrs. Hamilton Gray s Tour to the 
 
 Sepulchres of Etruria will he a valuable acquisition, and we cannot perhaps 
 better illustrate the style of decoration adopted by the inhabitants than by 
 quoting her description of the painting in the Grotto del Triclinio, in the 
 
 ruined city of Tarquinia:— 
 
 “ In the picture in the middle wall are three couches, each containing a 
 
 3 E 
 
198 
 
 man and a woman, and in front of two of these are tables covered with 
 vases, while in front of the other is a large vessel, out of which wine is 
 poured into smaller vessels, to he handed round to the guests. There is a 
 sort of buffet at the side filled with tazze and vessels of various forms. The 
 richness and beauty of the party-coloured coverings of the tables and of the 
 couches are remarkable; as well as the splendid festal dresses of the guests, 
 and their crowns of ivy and olive. An attendant, richly dressed, plays on 
 the flute, while a naked boy serves the tables, having in one hand a small 
 vase, and in the other an instrument, with w'hich he is studiously sprinkling 
 
 the meats with salt, or some other condiment. The guests are turning 
 
 towards each other in various attitudes and with lively gestures, and seem 
 much more occupied with the pleasures of society than with those of the 
 
 table. But the feast is already begun, for one of the ladies is in the act 
 
 of eating an egg, while the gentleman next her is emptying a tazza to her 
 health. The ladies are adorned with rich necklaces and bracelets. Ointments, 
 and perfumes also, so essential to the luxurious habits of the ancients, are 
 not wanting to this banquet. The clatter of the dishes and the smell of the 
 
 meats, have attracted to the feast a tame cat, a partridge, and a cock, which 
 
 are assiduously picking up the crumbs of good things. Above the couches, 
 hang crowns or chaplets, with which the guests at the end of the enter¬ 
 tainment used to adorn their heads, necks, and arms, when they took their 
 luxurious siesta, or further indulged in the pleasures of the goblet. The 
 feast being concluded, the dance commences. The ballet consists of eight 
 persons, and the musicians are two, a player on the lyre and one on the 
 
 double flute, but even they take a part in the dance. The prima danzatrice 
 
 moves her hands as if she had castanets, while the last holds a wreath of 
 ivy, with which most of them are crowned. They are all handsomely 
 buskined, and accompany the dance with a lively movement of the head 
 and arms, which reminded me of the tarantula. The dresses of these dancers 
 are of the most splendid material, embroidered with minute stars, and adorned 
 with party-coloured garnitures: their necks are ornamented with costly collars, 
 their ears with pendants, and their arms with bracelets. The youths are 
 divided from the dancing girls by olive and myrtle trees, covered with 
 chaplets, in the branches of which are perched various birds; while hares, 
 wolves, deer, and other animals, are jumping up to the stems, or gambolling 
 below in evident enjoyment of the feast. The vase, placed on the ground, 
 is filled with wine, to be drank by the dancers in honour of Bacchus.” 
 
199 
 
 This picture is extremely interesting, from the insight it gives us into the 
 manners and habits of the Etruscans, as well as their knowledge of the arts, 
 and painting in particular. In other pictures, discovered by modern travellers, 
 we may read the domestic history of this remarkable people, while the style 
 of execution, and the character of the designs, point out in every case the 
 relative age. 
 
 It is a singular fact, that almost the only records of the paintings of ancient 
 nations, preserved for modern times, with the exception of those in the buried 
 cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, which may be said to have been entombed 
 by a great effort of nature, are those in the sepulchres. In the tombs of the 
 people of Egypt we find the best records of their skill, and the same is true 
 in Etruria, but the latter bring more vividly before us the manners of the 
 inhabitants. Nor is it of their habits only that we gain information from the 
 study of these pictures, their superstitions and religious belief are recorded in 
 the same manner. On a frieze, in the Grotto del Cardinale, is painted a 
 procession of souls going to judgment, from which it is evident that the 
 Etruscans believed in a future state, and in the doctrine of rewards and 
 punishments. One group in particular is mentioned by Mrs. Gray. It 
 represented the soul of a person whose character was doubtful. He is drawn 
 to the judgment seat in a car, by two winged genii, one of which is an evil 
 and the other a good spirit, both of whom are contending for the possession. 
 The spirits are distinguished by a cothurnus, or buskin, of the form sacred 
 among the Etruscans to immaterial existence, and by their wings. The evil 
 genii are painted black. In the tombs of Tuscania a sarcophagus was found 
 containing the skeleton and armour of one of the chiefs of the family of 
 Velthuri. Among a variety of other articles, found in the tomb, there was 
 a pair of loaded dice; and, on both sides of the sarcophagus, there was a 
 representation of a human sacrifice, which, we fear, was but too common 
 among all the nations of antiquity. 
 
 The interest which is felt by all those who are engaged in researches 
 among the tombs of Etruria is constantly excited by new discoveries, which 
 give a more perfect view of the character, manners, and civilization, of the 
 Etruscans. Not long since Signor Avolta discovered in a Tarquinian tomb 
 the body of an ancient Etrurian king, clothed in armour, and crowned with 
 gold, having a shield, arrow, and spear, by his side. He gazed on the 
 body for a period of five minutes, when it crumbled to dust, leaving only 
 the metallic substances entire. 
 
200 
 
 The Egyptian character of the paintings upon the Tarquinian tombs, is 
 particularly mentioned by travellers. “ It is singular,” says Mrs. Gray, 
 “ that the men represented in these tombs are all coloured red, exactly as 
 in the Egyptian paintings in the tombs of the Theban kings. Their eyes 
 are very long, their hair bushy and black, their limbs lank and slender, 
 and the facial line, instead of running, like that of the Greeks, nearly 
 perpendicular, projects remarkably, so that in the outline of their face they 
 bear a strong resemblance to the negro or Ethiopian figures of Egyptian 
 paintings. They vpear, round their ancles, rings as ornaments, and armlets 
 on their arms. Shawls, of oriental patterns, are also worn by both male and 
 female. Many of those engaged in the sports have only a wrapper of linen 
 round their loins. Some have boots of green leather, reaching behind to the 
 calf of the leg.” 
 
 The Etrurians possessed, no doubt, many valuable records of their own 
 history, but these have been unfortunately lost, and those of the ancient 
 historians who had an opportunity of availing themselves of these treasures, 
 neglected to do so. Of their language we are in the present day almost 
 entirely ignorant, for no more is known concerning it than its alphabet, and 
 that it was written, like the eastern languages, from right to left. It has 
 been asserted, that there was a great analogy between it and the Hebrew 
 and the Phoenician; but, unless some double inscription, in Greek or other 
 known tongue, and in the Etruscan, be discovered, there is no hope of our 
 ever being able to translate any of the numerous inscriptions which remain. 
 Niebuhr is of opinion, that the Etruscans derived their alphabet immediately 
 from the Phoenicians. This conclusion, he says, could not be deduced from 
 the mode of writing from right to left, but it is evident, from the omission 
 of the short vowels, and the practice of noting the double consonants by 
 a single letter, as well as from the absence of the vowel o. They did not, 
 however, follow the Phoenicians in designating numbers by letter, but 
 adopted that mode of notation which has been called the Homan numerals. 
 
 The Etruscans are said to have invented tragedy, and many such compo¬ 
 sitions once existed in the language. In other branches of literature they 
 are also supposed to have excelled. Their scientific knowledge was as 
 varied as that of other nations, whose names are known and honoured 
 among us. Their mode of subdividing time was peculiar, and yet remarkably 
 accurate, a fact which does not cause any surprise to those who are 
 acquainted with the universal belief in astrology, which prevailed among 
 
all the ancient nations. This mode of divination was probably adopted by 
 the Etruscans, for we find their aruspices making known in the year 666 
 u.c. that the secular year of the Etruscans was drawing to a close, and that 
 the nation would soon be destroyed, which was in truth the case. The mode 
 of divination more commonly adopted was that by the entrails of victims, 
 and lightning, the latter being a secret among them. 
 
 From this brief account of the Etruscans, and the antiquities which have 
 been discovered, we may learn that they were in a high state of 
 civilization, and practised the arts, particularly painting, with great success. 
 Whatever may have been their origin, their earliest works have a strong 
 resemblance to those of Egypt, hut in later periods they introduced more 
 grace and elegance into their designs, and caught some of the beauty which 
 pervades every production of the Grecian school. They indulged in the use 
 
 of strong and positive colours, and were destitute of that knowledge of 
 
 the harmony and contrast of colours which gives so much reality and life 
 to all the modern works of art. Painting was introduced in the decoration 
 of houses and tombs, and it is probable that the mode did not much differ 
 from that which was practised in after ages in Pompeii; for Roman art 
 was, as we have already mentioned, drawn from Etruria. 
 
 When we turn to examine the state of art among the Romans, we are 
 surprised to find an entire destitution of native talent. During the whole 
 period of the existence of Rome as a great empire, and ultimately as the 
 
 arbitrator and governor of the destiny of nations; professing to be as far 
 
 superior to all other people in the practice of the arts as in moral and 
 physical courage, there did not exist a single painter of such eminence as 
 to warrant the transmission of his name to posterity, as worthy association 
 with the artists of Greece. It is not, we think, difficult to account for this 
 singular fact. The Romans were, essentially, a turbulent and cruel people, 
 who delighted in the exercise of physical strength and prowess, and in the 
 early periods of their history certainly esteemed the arts unworthy of their 
 regard and beneath their patronage; nor would they, in all probability, ever 
 have paid the slightest attention to them had they not administered to their 
 national vanity. We look in vain to the works of the Romans for any new 
 adaptation of the principles of taste discovered by the Greeks. Their best works 
 were produced by Etruscan and Greek artists, who adopted the styles 
 peculiar to their native countries; but, although they followed the standards 
 of excellence, to which their minds had been directed by patriotism and early 
 
 3 F 
 
202 
 
 associations, they had lost their genius or skill with their liberty, and departed 
 from the simplicity and grace which distingnished the works of their ances¬ 
 tors in happier times. When the Romans began to patronize the arts, and 
 the best informed and most talented men among them cultivated painting 
 and architecture, the works of the Greek painters, or more properly the best 
 copies of them, were collected, and as the demand increased, the copies were 
 multiplied. 
 
 With this view of the Roman character, and of the condition of the arts 
 of design in the days of Roman magnificence and conquest, every one must 
 coincide who will carefully examine the claims of their works upon our estimation, 
 and the circumstances under which they were produced. “ After the conquest of 
 Greece,” says an excellent writer on painting, “ and the removal of the 
 arts and artists to Rome, the genius of painting seems to have left the 
 world. The Roman school of painting and sculpture is scarcely worth a 
 single thought. In the last years of the republic the art sunk rapidly. 
 Augustus tried to revive it, hut though the pupils and descendants of the 
 illustrious dead attempted to second his views, and though the writings of 
 Apelles, Euphranor, and Pamphilius, were all in existence, and their prin¬ 
 ciples known and acted upon, genius was no where to be found. That 
 divine spark, with its attendant whisper, unseen, hut not unheard, which 
 ever attends the gifted who are born for great objects, whether it supported 
 Columbus amid the storms of the Atlantic, Alexander as he plunged into 
 Asia, Napoleon as he rushed into Italy, Wellington at Waterloo, Michael 
 Angelo when he painted the Sistine Chapel, Raffaelle when he entered the 
 Vatican, or Phidias when he adorned the Parthenon; that supernatural 
 incomprehensible something which inspires hope, ‘ when the whole world 
 seems adverse to desert,’ was gone from the earth like the glory which 
 had blazed in the temple. All that the savage, splendid, imperial Romans 
 could do, all the honours and riches they had to confer, were bestowed 
 in vain.” 
 
 We must, however, turn from this general consideration of the art of 
 painting, to a more particular account of its introduction in the decoration 
 of public and private buildings. The circumstance which probably first 
 attracted the attention of the Romans to painting as an art worthy of their 
 encouragement and patronage,—for we do not believe that they ever practised 
 it extensively,—was the exhibition by Valerius Messala, of a picture of the 
 battle in which he defeated Hiero. This was in the year 489 u. c. Previous 
 
203 
 
 to this period, painting was probably entirely confined to the decoration of 
 houses, but in what manner it was so used it is difficult to determine The 
 walls of buildings were, we think, painted with figures, for at a later'period 
 Vitruvius complains of the introduction of a new style, which had taken the 
 place of the representations of shepherds and gods, with which the walls had 
 been before decorated. The art was afterwards employed for scenic repre¬ 
 sentations, and not till then was it duly appreciated by the Eomans. 
 
 In the time of Augustus, or at a period not long precedent, the style of 
 decoration now called arabesque was introduced, and it was of this that 
 Vitruvius complained as being contrary to nature, and therefore utterly 
 unworthy of the esteem in which it appears to have been held. But, what¬ 
 ever may be the impropriety of the style itself, the introduction of it in 
 Roman decoration gives us a favourable impression of the improvements 
 which had been made in the art. But the Romans had no just appreciation 
 of the truly beautiful in nature, and although always advancing in the arts 
 during the short period in which they may be said to have existed as a 
 nation, were constantly wandering into by-paths in search of some thing 
 more showy and luxurious than could be found in the more direct pursuit 
 of beauty and elegance. Both Pliny and Vitruvius complain that the noble 
 and rich were fonder of gold and glitter than purity of design, or pathos of 
 expression, or perfection of form, overwhelmed with colour from all the 
 countries of the earth, with double the advantages of Polygnotus, Zeuxis, 
 and Aristides. But it was probably in the baths, both public and private, 
 that the Romans expended all the resources of colour, the walls of which 
 were decorated with gorgeous paintings, either in the grotesque style, now 
 called the arabesque, or in representations of ancient fables, suited to the 
 object of the building. 
 
 Prom what we have here stated, it will be understood that we consider 
 the Romans to have been patrons of the art of painting in the later periods 
 of their history, but we doubt whether the art was ever followed by the 
 citizens themselves. This is partly to be attributed to their national 
 character, and partly to the ease with which they were able to obtain the 
 best paintings and painters of the nations they had conquered. We may 
 form some idea of the wholesale importation of Greek paintings, from the 
 statement that in the triumphal procession of Paulus riUmilius there were 
 two hundred and fifty chariots filled with statues and pictures. 
 
 In the seventy-ninth year of the Christian era the city of Pompeii, with 
 
204 
 
 Herculaneum and the surrounding country, were destroyed hy an earthquake. 
 After an entombment of about seventeen hundred years, the ashes with which 
 the former city was covered were removed, and an ancient Roman town was 
 presented to our examination. With regard to it, all those agents which 
 so silently hut certainly destroy the proudest with the meaner specimens of 
 human ingenuity and skill, suspended their operations. Had Pompeii been 
 deserted by its inhabitants at the commencement of the Christian era instead 
 of having been covered by the ashes of Vesuvius, and left, uninjured or 
 untouched hy man, to the quiet influence of natural causes, the sunshine 
 and the rain, the change of seasons and temperature, it would have been 
 now, if any relic had remained, a mass of unintelligible ruin, a fit subject 
 for the speculations of a self-styled antiquary, but for the illustration of the 
 history and manners of the people by whom it was inhabited, and the nation 
 of which they formed a part, utterly useless. To the Pompeii which has 
 been dug out of the cinders of Vesuvius we are indebted for a more accurate 
 acquaintance with the habits of the Roman people, their mode of building 
 and their style of decoration, than could have been communicated by the most 
 elaborate and detailed description of their best writers, had they left us a 
 description of the impressions produced on their own minds. We walk now 
 in the streets of an ancient Roman city, we enter the houses, view the 
 accommodations, observe the instruments and utensils, as they were left by 
 their owners, examine the temples, and wander among the tombs, and 
 with a slight effort of the imagination we may people it with its ancient 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Pompeii was once a place of considerable importance, and is often mentioned 
 hy the Latin authors, who speak of it as a sea-port. Previous to that awful 
 catastrophe hy which it was buried, it was much injured, and almost destroyed, 
 hy an earthquake, in the reign of Tiberius, which more or less affected the 
 whole of Campania, and, before these evils could be repaired, it was nearly 
 levelled hy a violent storm. The loss of property hy the inhabitants of Pompeii 
 was so great, and their sufferings so severe at this time, that Tiberius was induced 
 to give them some assistance from the royal treasury. Workmen were engaged 
 in repairing the buildings at the very moment that it was overwhelmed; and the 
 ruinous state in which some of them are found, is to be attributed to the 
 injury they received at that period, and not to the convulsion by which the 
 city was buried. 
 
 Of all the public buildings none are perhaps more interesting to us, in 
 
tracing the application of the art of painting to the decoration of buildings, 
 than the Temple of Venus, or as it has been supposed by some authors, the 
 Temple of Bacchus. We will quote Mr. Donaldson’s description: “ In extent 
 this is the largest temple near the Forum, and in magnificence of decoration, 
 taken as a whole, appears to have eclipsed every other edifice. The court, 
 between the walls, is one hundred feet wide, by one hundred and eighty feet 
 long; a noble range of columns surrounded the whole area, rendered still 
 more imposing by numerous pedestals and statues: in the centre is the cella 
 of the temple, which was once adorned with a magnificent peristyle, elevated 
 almost nine feet above the pavement of the court, and to which a broad 
 flight of marble steps afforded an easy access. The walls of the court are 
 covered with paintings of the most interesting description. They are in vivid 
 colours, and represent generally landscapes, views of country houses, interiors 
 of rooms, with male and female figures; in several compositions figures are 
 drawn, sporting among themselves, sacrificing to Priapus, contending with 
 crocodiles, or occupied in domestic duties; nor must we omit a painting of 
 Hector, tied to the car of Achilles, and one of Agamemnon and Achilles. 
 
 “ At the end of the court, opposite the entrance, is a small chamber, 
 which possesses an invaluable picture of Bacchus and Silenus, the former 
 holding the thyrsus in one hand and a vase in the other; Silenus appears 
 with his lyre instructing the god. For some years the temple was supposed, 
 upon the evidence of this picture, to be dedicated to Bacchus. But the 
 fragments of two statues of Venus, and a very remarkable inscription, have 
 given reason for the adoption of the present name.” 
 
 Taking this description of the decoration of the Temple of Venus at Pompeii 
 as a general illustration of the manner in which the public buildings, and the 
 religious edifices in particular, were finished, it would appear that the walls were 
 painted with a variety of subjects, and that these were not alw’ays selected 
 with so close a regard to the purpose for which the building was erected, as we 
 should think necessary. This mode of decoration could not be generally adopted 
 in the present day; not from any want of propriety in the style itself, but 
 from its costliness. We are accustomed to the works of the best artists, not 
 only in public exhibitions but in the houses of the middle classes; and any 
 productions inferior to these would be viewed without pleasure if introduced in 
 stucco. To obtain the works of the most admired artists, in general deco¬ 
 ration, a great cost must be incurred, if indeed they could be at all induced 
 to expend their time upon works of this class. Among the Greeks and 
 
 3 G 
 
206 
 
 Romans, the best artists were thus employed—it was their proper pursuit; 
 and upon the walls of their public buildings they exhibited all their skill, 
 from feelings of devotion and patriotism, as well as from a consciousness 
 that they had no opportunity so available of exhibiting their talent and of 
 earning the rich reward of praise, which was the principal if not only 
 encouragement to their exertion. 
 
 Of the decoration of the dwelling-houses of the Romans, we should have 
 had but little information, had our knowledge depended entirely upon the 
 obscure hints and passing allusions of their writers. In the ancient Pompeii, 
 however, our curiosity is fully satisfied, for we there enter their houses, and 
 by personal observation determine the question which was so full of difficulty 
 before this city was restored from its grave. 
 
 The Romans, whose national characteristic was a love of display and 
 ostentatious grandeur, expended their talents and wealth upon their public 
 buildings. The habitations of the lower classes were mean and inconvenient, 
 which was one cause of their spending so much time abroad, and in places 
 of public resort. The houses of the higher classes, however, though generally 
 small, and limited in convenience, except those establishments called villas, 
 were frequently decorated in the most costly manner. The rooms were 
 commonly arranged round small open courts, and were finished in a style 
 consistent with the purpose for which they were to be employed. Generally 
 speaking, they were commodious in size: the pavements were formed of 
 mosaics, and the walls were painted in appropriate designs. The latter were 
 frequently divided into compartments, separated by ornamental designs, and 
 in them were represented landscapes, or figures. In all these paintings there 
 is a great want of perspective, and the colours are too positive to please a 
 modern eye, red, blue, and yellow, being predominant. It was a common 
 plan to paint on a black ground, and the effect is pleasing. The grotesque, 
 a style of decoration which, according to Pliny, was introduced by Ludius, 
 a painter who lived in the reign of Augustus, is very common at Pompeii. 
 These ornaments, although justly blamed by reason, as exceedingly ridiculous, 
 are frequently executed with much grace and elegance. 
 
 Without entering more at large upon this subject, we will close our brief 
 review of the style of house-painting adopted by the Romans, with another 
 quotation from Mr. Donaldson’s work on Pompeii, a passage which brings 
 the subject fully before the mind of the reader. 
 
 “ The paintings which decorate both the exterior and interior of the 
 
207 
 
 houses of Pompeii, shed a lively and striking character over those edifices 
 peculiar to them. The capricious arrangement of design, variety of deco^ 
 ration, brilliancy of colour, and boldness of execution, concur to render these 
 paintings worthy the interest they excite. It is supposed, that the practice 
 of colouring the walls of houses was general even in the time of Tarquin • 
 but, until the reign of Augustus, it does not appear that the pretensions of 
 the early Romans went beyond a simple tint. Under that emperor, however, 
 art assumed a bolder aspect, and a depraved taste prevailed of colouring the 
 walls with panels of varied colours, interspersed with landscapes, animals, and 
 figures, until the primitive^ simplicity degenerated to a most luxurious profusion. 
 The Pompeians appear to have admired gaudy colours to excess; and even 
 when the walls of the court, the hall, or the temple, were divided into 
 apparent courses of stone, each block was painted with the most vivid tints. 
 More generally, the walls were divided, above a lofty marble plinth, into 
 simple compartments, the ground of which was some dark tint, enclosed in 
 lines of a lighter colour, and the centre occupied by a panel, or a small 
 object, such as a bird, an animal, or instrument. The walls of gardens, or 
 open porticoes, were sometimes decorated to the height of three or four feet, 
 with a trellis, above which arose shrubs, trees, and flowers, interspersed with 
 numerous birds of the rarest plumage. A third species combined more com¬ 
 plex subjects, and the introduction of a certain capricious and artificial system 
 of architectural arrangement, composed of slender pillars, diminutive entab¬ 
 latures, and pedestals, with the addition of figures, festoons, birds, reptiles, 
 and creeping lichens.” 
 
 In the reign of Constantine every inducement was held out to the artist, 
 but there was then a destitution of all that talent which was required to raise 
 Constantinople to the dignity which the emperor so earnestly desired; and 
 the views which were entertained by the Christians of that day, would 
 have repressed it had it been in existence, although large sums were ready 
 to be expended. Palaces were erected at an enormous cost; churches were 
 reared, and baths and other public buildings were established. For all these, 
 paintings were required, and especially for the churches, in which pictures of 
 Christ, the virgin, and the apostles, were suspended. It was the time of a 
 great movement. Christianity, which had for many years been the mark for 
 scorn and persecution, had been grafted upon paganism; the prejudices of 
 men had been worn down by time, and in Syria, as well as in Italy, the 
 minds of men were busied in carrying out the vast, the baneful compromise 
 
208 
 
 of truth, which had, it is true, produced a momentary unanimity, but was des¬ 
 tined in future ages, to throw a deep and almost death-like shadow over the 
 Christian church. The works of preceding ages were removed or destroyed; in 
 part to establish the new capital as the museum of art, as well as the centre 
 of the monarchy, and in part to banish all recollection of former idolatry, with 
 the objects to which worship had been paid. The destruction of the fine 
 statues and paintings, many of which were the most worthy productions of 
 the ancient Greek artists, may be traced to a spirit of fanaticism and prose- 
 lytism, but the buildings in which these were deposited were thrown down, 
 to provide suitable materials for the construction of the new capital. Hence 
 we find that the noblest structures of Rome furnished parts of those erected 
 in Constantinople. One of the earliest instances of this appropriation of the 
 sculptures of former ages, is in the arch of Constantine, for the erection of 
 which, stones were taken from the arches of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, as 
 well as from other buildings at Rome. 
 
 “ When the liberal arts,” says Ciampini, “ were, together with the Roman 
 empire, rapidly declining, so great a corruption and barbarity prevailed, that 
 columns, bases, and capitals, carved with the most exquisite art, were every 
 where cut out from the noblest buildings of the ancient emperors. To them 
 were added shapeless masses, formed by those new masons, .j'ather than archi¬ 
 tects, and these were heaped one upon another, to the disgrace of the art, 
 and with rude and sordid barbarity. Hence in those edifices may be seen at 
 one and the same time, many things which contradict one another ; such, for 
 instance, cis columns of the same order, some with Corinthian, some with 
 Ionic bases, and capitals of both sorts; the pavements, covered partly with 
 sacred, and partly with profane inscriptions, some of them mutilated, and 
 some of them incomplete; one and the same frieze or architrave, sometimes 
 very skilfully wrought, sometimes altogether barbarously hewed out, rather than 
 carved. Of this, the arch dedicated by the senate and people of Rome to 
 Constantine, is an instance, where the unskilfulness of that age is manifest, 
 since statues taken from the arch of Trajan, and cornices, columns, and 
 perhaps the very symmetry of the whole, borrowed tjience, have been cor¬ 
 rupted by these masons with barbarous carvings, which they have placed on 
 the bases, and above the curves of the arches, and elsewhere. From the 
 conjunction of works so dissimilar, the ignorance of those artificers who 
 flourished in the age of Constantine will most evidently appear, in proportion 
 as these unskilful embossments of a later age are compared with the very 
 
exquisite carvings of the preceding times. How great injury architecture, as 
 well as the other arts, had suffered from the hand of time, is plain from 
 these facts, since, in the fourth century, when some sparks of the former 
 skill were still remaining, it had already fallen so much from its ancient 
 dignity.” 
 
 Mosaics were at this time the favourite decorations in all buildings, and 
 after Claudius had introduced mosaic pictures in Indian patterns, which style 
 was previously confined to the decoration of pavements, an effect was sought 
 even in this manner. It is scarcely possible to imagine men professing archi¬ 
 tecture, or the patronage of it, with the finest specimens of Greek art before 
 them, the sight of which has been sufficient to rouse the sleeping spirit of 
 the arts from a death-like slumber, so utterly lost to the appreciation of beauty 
 and grace, as to descend to the paltry trifling of painting mosaic pictures 
 upon the walls of the most celebrated edifices of the age. Yet there is 
 abundant evidence to prove that this was constantly done; and to mention 
 but one instance, Commodus ordered a portrait of Piscennius Niger to be 
 painted in mosaic on a wall in a room of his palace. This style of decora¬ 
 tion may in fact, be considered as one of the peculiarities of the Grseco- 
 barbaro architecture, by which characteristic name, the architecture of the 
 period is known. During the reign of Justinian it was ordered, that encaustic 
 painting, being common and vulgar, should not he used on the walls and 
 ceilings of the public buildings, but that mosaic, marble, and gold, should 
 be invariably employed; thus fixing, as it were, by a royal decree, the 
 degradation of the arts. 
 
 There was great activity among the architects and builders in the reign of 
 Justinian, for if we may believe the statement of Vegetius, more than five 
 hundred architects were employed by this emperor, in various parts of the 
 kingdom, in restoring the buildings which had fallen to decay, and in erecting 
 new ones in the various provinces acquired from the emperor of the West. 
 The church of Santa Sophia was built during the reign of Justinian, and it 
 was upon its completion that he uttered the exclamation, “ I have surpassed 
 thee, O Solomon!” The cupola and pavement were finished in mosaic, but 
 the walls were decorated with paintings. 
 
 It is evident, from all the records of the age, that after the government 
 had been removed from Rome to Constantinople, the fall of the arts was 
 greatly accelerated. The darkness which soon after fell upon society, and the 
 destitution of all taste which produced a love of the gaudy and glittering 
 
 3 H 
 
 
210 
 
 styles of decoration, to which we have alluded, were not perhaps absolutely 
 the results of the establishment of the western capital, hut the convulsions 
 which the empire at that time suffered hastened the previously rapid fall of 
 the artificial civilization of the Eoman people. When all the adventitious 
 circumstances which threw a ray of glory around the Roman name- were 
 withdrawn, it was at once perceptible that the people were as unsuited to 
 sustain as to practise the arts. The character of the patron has in all cases 
 a strong influence upon the character of the artist, which extends even to 
 the modification, if not the entire change of the powers of genius. We have 
 a mournful instance of this in the Greek artists, who, when employed by 
 the Romans, lost much of the energy and spirit of their predecessors; and 
 although the love of grace and beauty was never entirely eradicated from 
 the minds of this remarkable people, the artists of the later ages insensibly 
 imbibed enough of the Roman taste to lessen the excellence of their own 
 genius. In all the works of the Greek painters, however, there was evidence 
 of an innate love of the beautiful. They were frequently employed in 
 painting pictures of Christ for the churches, and they usually represented 
 some attribute allegorically. The Saviour was, therefore, painted as a beautiful 
 youth, crushing a lion beneath his feet, or as a young shepherd among his 
 flock, carrying the lambs in his arms. This mode of representation, however, 
 was not that which the fathers of the church in the fifth and sixth centuries 
 thought most suitable for the decoration of religious structures, and they 
 consequently ordered that he should be painted in the agony of the 
 cross. But such a subject was not suited to the character of the Greeks, 
 and although they followed the injunction of the church, Christ was painted 
 on the cross with a smile of triumph, which produced a feeling in the 
 spectator inconsistent with the gloomy fanaticism of the age. 
 
 We must now pass over that long period of history during which the 
 arts remained in a state of stupor, and proceed to make a few remarks upon 
 the use of painting in decoration, after the introduction of oil colours, chiefly 
 confining our attention to the progress of the art in our own country. 
 
 It has been long supposed that painting in oil was discovered by John 
 Van Eyck, at the beginning of the fifteenth century, but from various 
 documents which have in our own day been discovered, there is much reason 
 to doubt the truth of this assertion. M. Merimee, to whose excellent work 
 we have already referred, in a previous part of this book, is of opinion that 
 Van Eyck deserves the honour which has been so long awarded to him. 
 
211 
 
 Some learned men, he says, “have maintained that this art was practised 
 long before the era in which that painter lived. But, supposing they could 
 demonstrate the truth of their assertions, stiU we are not bound to conclude 
 that Van Eyck had any knowledge of whatever attempts may have been 
 made in that way before his time; and he cannot he deprived of the merit 
 attached to a discovery like this, so important to the arts. One thing, 
 however, is quite clear, which is, that in the time of Van Eyck, the arts 
 had made such progress that the discovery of painting in oil could not have 
 been much longer delayed. This event was in some degree inevitable; and 
 it is surprising^ that the invention did not take place at the same time in 
 all those countries where the arts were successfully cultivated. At that period 
 the artists all painted in distemper, or, as it is commonly called, body colours, 
 and they afterwards coated their pictures with varnish, which communicated 
 a transparency and brightness to the colours, defending them, at the same 
 time, against the injurious action of the atmosphere.” 
 
 It appears, however, from the Close Rolls, that oil painting was used in 
 decoration in the reign of Henry the Third of England, in the year 1239. 
 
 The Rotuli Litterarum Clausarum, or Close Rolls, are a series of parchment 
 rolls, commencing with the sixth year of the reign of King John, anno Domini 
 1204, on which are recorded or enrolled, all mandates, letters, and writs, of 
 a private nature. They are denominated Close, in contradistinction to another 
 series of rolls called Patent. The entries registered on the Close Rolls, are 
 letters addressed in the king s name to individuals, for special and particular 
 purposes, and were folded, or closed up, and sealed on the outside with the 
 greut seal.” 
 
 In these Close Rolls is found an order issued by King Henry, in the year 
 1239, ordering the payment of money for material and labour, in painting 
 the queen’s chamber, at Westminster; and from the mention of oil and varnish, 
 it may he fairly inferred, that the former substance was used as a medium 
 of colour. 
 
 “ The king to his treasurer and chamberlains greeting. Deliver of our 
 treasure to Odo the goldsmith and Edward his son, one hundred and seventeen 
 shillings and ten pence, for oil, varnish, and colours bought, and for pictures 
 made in the chamber of our queen, at Westminster, from the octaves of the 
 Holy Trinity, in the twenty-third year of our reign, to the Feast of St. 
 Barnabas, the Apostle, in the same year, namely, for fifteen days.” 
 
 What these pictures were cannot now be determined, but of the style of 
 
decoration we shall presently be able to give some account. It seems, however, 
 probable, as Mr. Britton suggests, that these preparations were made for the 
 queen’s accouchement, as her first son Edward was horn on the 16th of June, 
 1239, five days only after the last date mentioned in the record. 
 
 Henry the Third lived much at his palace in Westminster, and during the 
 whole of his reign exerted his power, as well as drained his exchequer, to 
 raise Westminster to an importance greater than even London itself. This 
 is evident, from his frequent and severe exactions upon the citizens of London, 
 and especially from that unjust order by which he established St. Edwards 
 Fair, at Westminster, and compelled them to shut their shops for fifteen days 
 and carry their merehandize thither, that the duties levied by the abbot of 
 Westminster upon the goods exposed for sale, might aid the building of 
 the Abbey. We cannot with Walpole justify the prodigality and oppression of 
 this monarch, by an exhibition of his skill in the choice of men, who by the 
 exercise of their arts have thrown a ray of glory over this otherwise 
 unfortunate reign ; hut we may ask with that author, “ who will own that 
 he had not rather employ Master William and Edward of Westminster to 
 paint the Gestes of the kings of Antioch, than imitate the son in his 
 barbarities in Wales, and usurpations in Seotland"?” 
 
 From the Close Rolls and other records of this age, it appears that, during 
 the reign of Henry the Third many additions were made to the palace of 
 Westminster, and the style of decoration was improved. Immediately after 
 his return from the unfortunate expedition to France, he commenced the erec¬ 
 tion of a large chamber which was called the Chamber of the Holy Cross. 
 For this work a mandate was issued to the sheriff of Kent, to purchase and 
 send to Westminster with all possible speed, one hundred barge loads of grey 
 stone; and in May, 1244, an order was given to the treasurer and chamber¬ 
 lains, to pay Edward of Westminster nineteen hundred and forty-nine pounds 
 thirteen shillings and five pence halfpenny, which he had expended in the 
 erection “of a new chamber near our Hall at Westminster, and of our 
 conduit, and in other works there, which we enjoined him to have 
 constructed.” 
 
 In 1245, Henry commenced the rebuilding of the Abbey Church of West¬ 
 minster, and Matthew Paris has pointed out the manner in which this noble 
 work was executed. “The king,” he says, “moved by his devotional 
 regard for St. Edward, commanded that the church of St. Peter at West¬ 
 minster should he enlarged; and the old walls, with the tower of the eastern 
 
213 
 
 part being overthrown, were constructed anew and more handsomely, by 
 artificers, whom the king at his own cost procured; the new work being 
 fitted to the residue or western part.” On the thirteenth of October, 1269, 
 the Abbey was first opened for the performance of divine worship, and at 
 that time the eastern part, with the choir, to some distance beyond the 
 transept, was completed. The remains of Edward the Confessor were then 
 removed “into ye chapell at ye backe of ye hygh aulter, and there layde in 
 a ryche shrine.” 
 
 The decoration of rooms at this period, chiefly consisted in painting the 
 walls with representations of sacred subjects or scenes from history; but 
 there are not unfrequent allusions to paintings in representation of a curtain. 
 In 1236, for instance, an order was given to the king’s treasurer “to have 
 the king’s great chamber at Westminster, painted of a good green colour in 
 the manner of a curtain; and in the great gable of the same chamber to 
 have painted this motto, 
 
 ‘ Ke ne dune ke ne tine, ne pret ke desire 
 
 And to have the king’s little wardrobe painted green like a curtain, so that 
 the king on his first coming there may find the above-mentioned chamber 
 and wardrobe painted and ornamented as directed.” 
 
 In August, 1250, another order was given concerning the decoration of the 
 great chamber at Westminster. It is addressed to Odo the goldsmith, who 
 is commanded to put aside the picture which was being painted “beneath 
 the large historical picture of the said chamber, with the scrolls containing 
 the figures and representations of lions, birds, and other beasts, and to paint 
 it green after the manner of a curtain, or hanging, so that the effect of the 
 great history may be kept unimpaired.” 
 
 Historical paintings were commonly introduced in the decoration of rooms, 
 and those subjects were chosen which seemed to the proprietor most suited 
 to the purposes for which the room was to be employed, or those in which 
 he took most interest. Henry the Third frequently selected subjects from the 
 siege of Antioch, in which his uncle Richard had so much distinguished 
 himself. In the twenty-first year of his reign, a mandate was issued for 
 painting the wainscot of his chamber under the chapel at the palace of 
 Clarendon, in Wiltshire, with the history of Antioch, and the single combat 
 of king Richard. In the year 1251, an order was given to Edward of 
 Westminster to paint “the low chamber in the king’s garden;” and from the 
 
 3 I 
 
214 
 
 circumstance of its being afterwards called the Antioch chamber, the subjects 
 were probably selected from the events which attended the siege of that place. 
 
 In 1237 an order was given for the painting the queen’s chamber behind 
 
 her chapel, which gives us a further illustration of the decorations of the 
 
 period. The walls of the private chamber of that chamber were to be 
 wainscoted, and the chamber itself lined, and a list or border to be made, 
 “ and well painted with images of our Lord and angels, with incense pots.” 
 It was also ordered that the four evangelists should be painted in the 
 chamber, and a crystal vase be provided for relics. In the previous year, 
 a border was ordered for the back of the king’s seat, in the Chapel of St. 
 Stephen, at Westminster, and also at the back of the queen’s seat in another 
 part of the chapel, of a green colour. In a mandate dated the fourteenth of 
 
 August, 1250, we have a still more interesting fact communicated, for it 
 
 brings before us the manner in which the chapel itself was painted. It was 
 tested at Bridgewater, and ordered Edward of Westminster “ to cause pictures 
 of the Apostles to be painted around the walls of St. Stephen’s Chapel, and 
 on the western side the day of judgment; and, in like manner, to have the 
 figure of the blessed Virgin Mary painted on a tablet or panel; so that the 
 whole may be ready at the king’s coming.” 
 
 Edward the Eirst was, like his father, a great builder, and a patron of the 
 arts, though his desire of conquest, and the unjust wars it produced, prevented 
 him from giving them that continued and active encouragement which they 
 would otherwise have received from him. During this reign many noble 
 ecclesiastical structures were raised, and the general style of decoration was 
 perhaps in some degree improved. In 1292 and the two following years, 
 some extensive works were in progress at Westminster. “ The wages of 
 the painters in those years,” says Mr. Brayley, “ were as follows:—Master 
 Walter, the principal painter, was paid fourteen pence a day, the others 
 smaller sums, in general from seven pence to three pence a day. Two 
 individuals, Andrew and Giletto, probably Italians, had conjointly six and 
 eight pence for six days, and eight shillings in another week for the 
 same time. 
 
 “ Among the articles charged in these accounts, are several which clearly 
 demonstrate that painting in oil colours formed a part of the decorations that 
 were in progress. Oil, and cole, and varnish, with white and red-lead, 
 vermilion, and azure, and sinople, are repeatedly mentioned; together with 
 gold and silver {leaf), of which considerable quantities were used. These 
 
215 
 
 articles, as Mr. Hawkins has remarked, ‘ could not have been wanted for 
 mere house-painting; ’ and hence, as well as from the length of time the 
 artists were employed, he judiciously infers, ‘that the paintings were not 
 even heraldic hearings (exclusively) hut human figures; either portraits or 
 ideal representations, and historical subjects, such as were afterwards painted 
 on the walls when the chapel was rebuilt by Henry the Third ’ 
 
 ‘‘From the prices mentioned in these rolls, it appears that'a ‘pottle of 
 oil cost five pence or six pence; a pound of red-lead two pence; a pound 
 of white-lead three halfpence, or a penny three farthings; a pound of size 
 three pence halfpenny; a quartern of azure one shilling; a pound of red 
 varnish three pence halfpenny and four pence; a quartern of sinople one 
 shilling; a pound of green five pence halfpenny; one hundred (probably 
 books) of gold leaf three shillings and four pence; one hundred of silver 
 leaf SIX pence; and a quartern of vermilion (probably of a hundred weight) 
 six shillings and five pence.’ . ^ 
 
 ‘In the reign of Edward the First an attempt was made to render the 
 castles, which had before been constructed entirely with a view to defence 
 more suitable as places of habitation. Not only were large halls introduced 
 for the purpose of feasting the retainers of the lord, but a great variety 
 of small apartments, which were decorated with historical paintings, tapestry, 
 and various carvings. These small rooms were sometimes very numerous, 
 and ornamented m different styles, according to the purpbses for which 
 they were to be employed, and the persons by whom they were to be 
 occupied. 
 
 “Adjoining to, or nearly connected with the hall, was a spacious room, 
 usually having a bay window, which looked into the quadrangle or court! 
 Here the lord received his family or special guests before dinner, and retired 
 into it when that^ ceremony was finished. It was adorned with the richest 
 tapestry, and cushions of embroidery, by the ladies themselves, and was dis¬ 
 tinguished as the presence or privy chamber. For the females of the family 
 there was another similar apartment, in which they passed their time, and 
 which was dedicated to their occupations and amusements, known as my 
 lady’s bower or parlour, where they received visitors.” Edward the First 
 constructed a large hall at the Castle of Conway, which was one hundred 
 and twenty-nine feet long, thirty-one feet wide, and twenty-two feet high. 
 These large halls, which became common in all the residences of the 
 nobility, were built sufficiently large for a knight to ride up to the dais 
 
216 
 
 or high table, in the manner practised in the coronation feast. To this 
 Chancer refers; 
 
 “ In at the halle dore al suddenlie 
 There came a knight upon a stede, 
 
 And up he rideth to the highe horde.” 
 
 From these remarts it must not be supposed that the rooms in castles 
 were not painted before the reign of Edward the First. More attention was 
 then paid to the comfort of the inmates, but such rooms as were formed, 
 were decorated with every attention to their elegance, if not convenience. In 
 the year 1233, and the seventeenth of Henry the Third, a precept was issued 
 to the sheriff of Southampton, which was as follows: “Precept to the sheriff 
 of Southampton; that he shall cause the king’s chamber wainscot in the 
 castle of Winchester, to be painted with the same pictures as formerly, and 
 that he shall account for the cost.” From this it is evident that the 
 liainting of the walls in castles, was of even an earlier date than the 17th 
 year of Henry the Third. 
 
 Wainscoting also, was common at this period. In the Close Rolls we find 
 the following order, addressed to Henry Pateshull, the king’s treasurer. “ We 
 order that you have the chancel of the blessed Virgin Mary, in the church 
 of St. Peter in the baily of our Tower of London, and the chancel of St. 
 Peter within the said church, to be well and properly wainscoted, for the 
 space of four feet beyond the stalls erected for the use of ourself and queen, 
 and that the said stalls be painted with a small figure of the Virgin Mary 
 standing in her shrine,—the figures of the Saints Peter, Nicholas, and 
 Catherine, the beam beyond the altar of St. Peter, and the small crucifix 
 with its figures, to be painted anew with fresh colours. And that ye like¬ 
 wise cause two pictures to be painted with the best colours, with the 
 histories of St. Nicholas and St. Catherine at the altar of the said saint, 
 in the said church, with two fair cherubims standing to the right and left of 
 the crucifix, and having a cheerful countenance, and also a marble font, 
 having pillars of marble neatly carved.” 
 
 It may also be mentioned, that a style of decoration which may be con¬ 
 sidered still more elegant, prevailed at this period,—that of studding the 
 ceilings and walls of rooms and chambers, with stars of gold, in apartments 
 upon a ground of green or blue. Representations of such chambers are 
 found in many illuminated manuscripts. An order for such a decoration is 
 in existence, dated 22 Henry the Third. “ Precept to the sheriff of South- 
 
217 
 
 ampton, that he cause the chamber at Winchester to be painted of a green 
 colour, and with stars of gold (and compartments) in which may be painted 
 histories from the Old and New Testament.” 
 
 The preservation of the records of the reign of Henry the Third, has been 
 of great importance in aiding us to trace the progress of the art of decora¬ 
 tion, for the notices of the works carried on during the reign of the first 
 and second Edward, are comparatively few and uncertain, but it may be 
 safely concluded that the styles adopted by their predecessor were not 
 unknown to the workmen of their day. 
 
 The reign of Edward the Second was peculiarly unfavourable to the progress 
 of the arts. This is not to be entirely traced, as some persons suppose, to the 
 circumstance that a strong feeling of rebellion against the monarch, or more 
 properly his favourites, was working in the minds of all classes of the com¬ 
 munity ; for it has happened, on more than one occasion, that the noblest 
 productions of the imagination have had their birth when society has been 
 disturbed by internal commotions. Genius is not developed in the uniform 
 tameness of every-day life; it requires the spring of some strong internal 
 emotion, and this is most commonly the result of external circumstances. 
 Men of lively fancy, and strong imagination, too frequently resort to trifling 
 and even mean expedients, to create those outward impressions favourable to 
 an exhibition of their powers; but it is chiefly under the pressure of great 
 occasions that men attempt and perform great works. That which is true 
 of individuals is equally so of nations. It is not a state of wavering dis¬ 
 satisfaction that is favourable to the progress of the arts, for that is a condition 
 of mind unfit for the advance of society, either in virtue or refinement. 
 When a nation is agitated by a public struggle for advancement, the 
 strongest efforts are made by all great minds towards the perfection of their 
 favourite pursuits. But there was nothing of this kind during the reign of 
 the second Edward. The energies of society were not peculiarly great, nor 
 would the improvements as viewed by posterity have been in any degree 
 striking, had the monarch been less the object of public contempt and 
 dissatisfaction. So strangely was his character distinguished by its weakness, 
 that no one act of his life can be mentioned as redeeming him from the 
 entire dominion of vice. Immediately after the death of his father, though 
 under the bond of the most solemn oath to prosecute the Scottish war, he 
 returned into England, when he had advanced into Scotland no further than 
 Cumnock, in Ayrshire; and having recalled his abandoned favourite. Piers 
 
 3 K 
 
218 
 
 de Gaveston, who had been justly banished, freely gave him both wealth 
 and title, conferring on him the earldom of Cornwall and the lordship of 
 the Isle of Man. It is not our province to trace the history of this foolish 
 and profligate prince, or to describe the characters of those favourites who 
 hastened his ruin, and justly bear a part of the obloquy which is attached 
 to all who were engaged in the consummation of that tragic scene which 
 terminated his existence; but the following extract from an authentic manu¬ 
 script, in old French, is too characteristic to be omitted in any allusion to 
 the qualities of mind which distinguished Edward the Second. 
 
 “ Paid to the king himself to play at cross and pile (tossing up) by the 
 hands of Richard de Herewith, receiver of the treasury, \2d. 
 
 “ Paid to Henry, the king’s barber, for money which he lent to the king 
 to play at cross and pile, 5s. 
 
 “ Paid to Piers Barrard, usher of the king’s chamber, for money which 
 he lent to the king, and which he lost at cross and pile, to Mons. Robt. 
 Wattewylle, Qd. 
 
 “ Paid to James de St. Albans, the king’s painter, who danced on a table ' 
 before the king, and made him laugh heartily, being a gift by the king’s 
 own hands, in aid of him, his wife, and children, 50s. 
 
 “ Paid at the lodge at Walmer, when the king was stag hunting there, to 
 Morris Ken, of the kitchen, because he rode before the king, and often 
 fell from his horse, at which the king laughed heartily; a gift, by 
 command, 20s.” 
 
 But, although the character of the monarch and of the period, was 
 unfavourable to the strong development of any of the fine arts, some 
 extensive architectural works were in progress during his reign. The 
 restoration of St. Stephen’s Chapel was commenced, and large sums of 
 money were expended both at the palace and at Westminster. “ The little 
 hall at Westminster,” according to a roll belonging to the king’s remem¬ 
 brancer’s ofiice, “ which was burnt in the time of the king’s father, was 
 y , completely repaired and new raised, and the walls of the same hall, both 
 within and without, were provided with corbels, of Caen and Reygate 
 freestone. The gables were heightened and coped, and the walls in many 
 parts strengthened and embattled, and the upper masonry was bound together 
 with large iron ties, with tinned heads, on account of the great weight and 
 size of the timbers.” 
 
 There are many reasons to suppose that tapestry and embroidered cloths 
 
219 
 
 were extensively employed in decoration during the reign of Edward the 
 Second and among o her reasons we might mention the circumstance of 
 
 heir being used in large quantities in the hall and other apartments at 
 
 Westminster, at the time of the coronation of his son. Brayley and Britton 
 have given, in their History of the Ancient Palace and Je Houses of 
 
 Parliament at We^minster, a translation of part of a roll preserved in 
 
 the Augmentation Office, intituled “ Contrarotulus Johannis de Eervbv Con 
 trarotulatoris Thom® de Useflete Clerici Magn® Garderob® Regis per 
 eundem Regem et Concilium deputati, de diversis rebus emptis et expensis 
 circa Coronacionem dicti Dom. Regis Edw. tercii a Conquestu, in Ecclesia 
 beati Petri Westm’ et in Palacio ejusd. videlicet primo die Februarii, 
 anno regni sui primo; ut patet infra.” In this interesting record we have 
 an account of the various articles employed in the decoration of the hall and 
 church at the coronation of Edward the Third. One or two items we will 
 extract, as the reader will probably obtain from them a better conception 
 of the style of decoration, than from any description we should give, which 
 would be in fact only a transcript of the author’s imagination, and would 
 probably greatly differ Irom that which the several readers may themselves 
 form from the perusal of the document itself. 
 
 The ornament of the king s seat on the day of his coronation, in the 
 church of Westminster;— 
 
 “ For the fitting up and ornament of the seat of King Edward the Third, 
 on the day of his coronation in the church of Westminster, February the 
 first, in the first year of his reign: viz., cloth of gold, with diaper work 
 on silk, cloth of gold on linen, samite, velvet, tapestry, with cushions for 
 the chamber, used for the royal seat of Edward the Third, by the survey 
 and testimony of John de Feriby, appointed clerk for this purpose, by the 
 seneschal and treasurer of the household;—for tapestry, of different colours, 
 to cover the timber-work of the king’s seat, twenty-one tapestries. 
 
 “ The same day, for cloth of gold on silk, to hang around the same seat, 
 on every side, and for ornamenting the bench of the seat, six cloths and 
 one quarter. 
 
 “ The same day, for a veil or curtain to be stretched above over the king’s 
 head, sitting on the chair in the royal seat, with cords of gold and purple 
 linen, two cloths. 
 
 “ The same day, for chamber cushions, for the king’s feet, sitting in the 
 chair, five cushions. 
 
220 
 
 “ The same day, to hang between the cloths of gold and silk before 
 mentioned, around the royal seat, at the sides and borders, cloth of gold 
 on linen, twenty-two cloths. 
 
 “ Item, of striped cloth (pannus tartarus radiatus), for the same, one cloth. 
 
 “ The same day, of strong lawn, for the same, six pieces.” 
 
 The ornaments of the king’s chamber, before his taking the order of 
 knighthood, were as follows:— 
 
 “ For the fitting up, and ornamenting the king’s chamber, in his palace, 
 at Westminster, on the last day of January; the night before he received 
 the order of knighthood: viz., with red tapestry, and shields of the king’s 
 arms in the corners, five pieces. 
 
 “ The same day, for cushions of new samite, for the king’s chapel, 
 three cushions. 
 
 “ For cushions of the same, for the chamber, after the king is knighted, 
 six cushions. 
 
 “ For bancours, for the same chamber, ornamented with different shields: 
 viz., four red, with green borders, one green, and four murrey and blue, 
 nine bancours. 
 
 “ Item, for bancours, for the chamber before mentioned, ornamented with 
 tapestry, and shields in the corners, with the king’s arms, three bancours.” 
 
 Painting of walls in oil colours and stained glass, were also common 
 decorations during the reign of Edward the Third. Of the use of oil in 
 painting at this period there chnnot be the slightest doubt; the accounts 
 which have reached our own day, of the decorations of St. Stephen’s Chapel, 
 which were commenced about the year 1350, are on this disputed point 
 perfectly satisfactory; the following extracts giving the materials used in 
 the decoration of St. Stephen’s Chapel, and their prices, from Rolls in the 
 25th of Edward the Third, that is the year 1351, have been published by 
 the authors already quoted, but cannot be, with propriety, omitted -in this 
 place, and will be peculiarly interesting to those for whom we are attempting 
 to trace the progress of house-painting. 
 
 “ June 26. To John Lyghtgrave, for six hundred leaves of gold, for 
 painting the tablements of the chapel, at 5s. per hundred, ^61. 10s. 
 
 “ To the same, for twelve leaves of tin, for the liessers (borders) of the 
 said tablements. Is. 
 
 “ For cole and squirrels’ tails, for the painting of the chapel, 3(1. 
 

 
 2^ 
 
 
 lietijk'en llie'dotfii cf gold 
 , % 
 
 a^ks and borders, cloth of gold 
 
 i t, . , ■^'3 K» 1*^1 »5>l, 
 
 v«. ..r': - ck3U>li.>- 
 
 ' vtnfpl fwfaati* urt^ms radinha), fisr ther'aarao, ant ctoth" 
 
 ** Tht r 4 !««#, ?yr the Ra«ac, six I * “ 
 
 rfy- viSt^^lHS Ilf S%'s cliMsiber, Jidiire bis, tsKroc the older of p-’ 
 
 . dir B|)(, *nd M-tiaiKsitiag the chamber, ia bis palac^^!^ 
 
 *Tiwtti'iii • •;^nii the Hm day of JanaoTy^ the ci^^^befibe he recffved , 
 tk-' irAS of ei*., with red tatsea^, tad of the*w.L:6 
 
 It ll-s H>rBers, fire pieces. . - ^ ’ 
 
 " 'i'he xasf^ day, for cushions of new SMaite, JBt the ki*^ ehspel, 
 three caiib>ofl(|. 4ir ' , 
 
 ■ Far cusbious' of die SEoae, for the- cliamber, ie king Is knigl«^ 
 six ciuhlons. ■;. *■ 
 
 , " I'or banconrs, for^he same chamber, ornamiepled with, diiferent-^hic^ 
 
 \is., four ff4i “with grees holders, one green, mid foax morrey andt’blue, 
 nine baiJCoUrs. .. ■^ - ‘ ,*, 
 
 * Item, for b^cours, for the ebamber bg^re mentioned,, ornament^ with 
 tapestry, aail sBieUts in tbe comers, with the ftng’s arms, three bancours." 
 
 Painting' of walls in oil colours and stained glass, were alfo common 
 decoration^ during , the reign ifef Edward tha Third. Of the use of tnl. in . 
 painting at this [iprlod dtcre eSnnot be ^ slightest doubt; ‘ihe accotmte 
 which have rcacttei^ our'own day,,'of ih^g^onitions of St. Stephaj^ Clhapel, 
 which were commenced about- the year l-^', arc oo tins, dispute^ point 
 j'iCTft ctjy satis&ttory; the *fDUowl»g ext^s giving the nj'^cfiai* aaed nc 
 the r^omtaor. of St. .Stephen's Cha..f(. their-]^ cb 8, 'from ♦ the 
 
 2.5th. of Edwi^'the Tlabd, that w the i^ar, 1^1, has*- W's 
 the mdhoi' hot yannot ^.^U\ bvtt ja dtxr 
 
 place,, 1 ^ ttoibhe pK^diiily infcrestijag to tl>«4^b fe 
 
 tn trace the pr<^«3M. hotuHx^iaiming'. # . * • . ' 
 
 • June 26, T<y', Jw6s -fcr '^1%^ - of ffoid. for 
 
 Minting the-ta^emci^ ^kt'vhap*^ ^ lOs. ' ^^ 
 
 . forvf<iMlye Ic.^v* ^ (b6TU4i^ of the 
 
 said tablements, U. , 
 
 ‘‘ Por-<olh aid §yuin«J*’ tail*, fut. Ike 
 
 'HI -» ‘ \ 
 
 o’- 
 
 
 
 •Vw-St-' 
 

221 
 
 “July 11. For nineteen pounds of white lead, for priming, at 4(f. per lb., 
 6s. 4<f. 
 
 “July 18. To John Matfrey, for sixty-two pounds of red lead, at ^d. per lb., 
 £\. 5s. 10<f. 
 
 “To Master H. de St. Albans, for four flagons of painters’ oil for the 
 painting of the chapel, 16s. 
 
 “ July 25. To the same, for two flagons of cole, for the painting of the 
 said chapel, 2d. 
 
 “ To the same for half a pound of teynt, for the painting of the chapel, 2s. 
 
 “ Aug. 8. To the same, for a pound and a half of oker, 3<i. 
 
 “ To the same, for two small earthen jars to put the colours in, 
 
 “ For half a pound of cynephe,^ for the painting of the upper chapel, 17s. 3d. 
 “ Aug. 15. To Lonyn de Bruges, for six and a half pounds of white 
 varnish, at 9d. per lb., 4s. lO^d, 
 
 “ Sept. 5. To Hugh de St. Albans, for half a pound of red lead, 8d. 
 
 “To the same, for three pounds of azure, ^1. 10s. 
 
 “ For thirty peacocks’ and swans’ feathers, and squirrels’ tails, for the 
 painters’ pencils, 2|d. 
 
 “ For one pair of shears to cut the leaves of tin, 2d. 
 
 “ Sept. 19. For one pound of hog’s hair, for the painters’ pencils. Is. 
 
 “ For nineteen flagons of painters’ oil, at 3s. 4d. per flagon, £3. 3s. 4d. 
 
 “ To John Lyghtgrave, for six hundred leaves, at 4s. 6d. per hundred, 
 £1. 7s. 
 
 “ For half a pound of cotton, for laying on the gold, 7|d. 
 
 “ Sept. 26. To John Tynbetere, for twelve dozen leaves of tin, 12s. 
 
 “ Oct. 3. To John Lyghtgrave, for fifty-one pounds of white lead, for the 
 painting of the chapel, at 2§d. per pound, 10s. 7Jd. 
 
 “ To the same, for two thousand three hundred and fifty leaves of gold 
 for the same painting, at 4s. 6d. per hundred, £5. 5s. 9d. 
 
 “ To the same, for three pounds of azure, at 10s. per lb. £1. 10s. 
 
 “ To the same, for one pound of sinople, £1. 10s. 
 
 “ To the same, for two pounds of vermelon, 3s. 4d. 
 
 “ Oct. 10. For cole and peacocks’ and swans’ feathers, for the works of 
 the chapel, 2§d. 
 
 “ To John Lyghtgrave, for fifty-three pounds of white lead, at S^d. per ib., 
 15s. 5d. 
 
 3 L 
 
222 
 
 “ To the same, for forty-three pounds of red lead, at M. per lb., 14 a Gd. 
 
 “To the same, for three pounds of white lead, 1^. 
 
 “ To the same, for two thousand six hundred and fifty leaves of gold, for 
 the paintings of the chapel, at 4s. per hundred, £5. 6s. 
 
 “ Oct. 17. To Wm. de Hamelamsted for one cwt., two qrs., two pounds of 
 tin for the king’s works there, at ^61. 2s. per cwt., Jl. 13s. 5d. 
 
 “ Nov. 7. To Wm. Alemand, for nine hundred leaves of gold for the 
 paintings of the chapel, at 4s. per hundred, Jl. 16s. 
 
 “ Nov. 14. To the same, for seven hundred leaves of gold for the painting 
 of the tabernacles of the chapel, Jl. 8a 
 
 “To Margaret Piebaker, for half a pound of cynopre of the chapel, 10s. 
 
 “ To Master H. de St. Albans, for two pounds of cynopre from Montpellier, 
 at 8s. per lb., 16s. 
 
 “To the same, for fifty-two pounds of white varnish, at 8d. per lb., 
 ^1. 14s. 8d. 
 
 “ Nov. 21. To John Matfray, for two pounds of azure, at 7a per lb. 14s. 
 
 “ To George Cosyn, for two pounds of vermelon, for the same, at Is. 8d. 
 per lb., 3s. 4d. 
 
 “ Dec. 5. To John Lightgrave, for three pounds of vermelon, at 2s. 
 per lb., 6 a 
 
 “ 1352. Jan. 2., To John Lambard, for two quatern of royal paper for 
 the painters’ patrons. Is. 8d. 
 
 “For one pair^of scales, to weigh the different painters’ colours. Is, 
 
 “ Jan. 9. To John Tynbeter, for six dozen and eight leaves of tin, for 
 the pryntes (stamps?) for the painting of the same chapel, 6s. 8d.’’ 
 
 The mode which was at this time adopted to obtain journeymen painters, 
 was one which would in the present day but ill accord with the feeling of 
 independence and personal freedom which happily exists in every rank of 
 society, in- the lower not less than the higher. For the execution of the 
 works at St. Stephen’s chapel, however, authority was given to Hugh de 
 St. Albans, the master of the painters, to impress such workmen as he might 
 require, and to compel them to serve at the king’s wage. The precept, tested 
 by the king himself, at Westminster, on the 18th of March, 1350, although 
 already quoted in several modern works, must be here introduced. 
 
 “ The King to all and singular the sheriffs, mayors, bailiffs, officers, and 
 his other lieges, as well within liberties as without, to whom, &c., greeting;— 
 
223 
 
 “Know ye, that we have appointed our beloved Hugh de St Alhans 
 master of our paintprs assigned for the works to be executed at our chapel’ 
 at our palace at Westminster, to take and choose as many painters and other 
 workmen as may be required for performing those works, in any places where 
 It may seem expedient, either within liberties or without, in the counties of 
 Kent, Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, and Sussex; and to cause those workmen 
 to come to our palace aforesaid, there to remain in our service, at our wages 
 so bng as may be necessary. And, therefore, we command you to be coun¬ 
 selling and assisting this Hugh in doing and completing what has been stated, 
 as often and in such manner as the said Hugh may require.” 
 
 “ In the year 1363, the 37th of Edward the Third, a similar authority 
 was given to William de Walsyngham; and from the punishment which was 
 annexed to a disregard of the king’s precept, it may be supposed that some 
 difficulty had been experienced in obtaining workmen at former periods. 
 
 “ The King to all and singular the sheriffs, &c., greeting;_ 
 
 “ Know ye that we have appointed our beloved William de Walsyngham 
 to take so many painters in our city of London (the fee of the church 
 excepted) as may he sufficient for our works in St. Stephen’s chapel, within 
 our palace of Westminster, and to bring them to our palace aforesaid, for 
 our works, at our wages, there to remain as long as may be requisite; and 
 to arrest all who shall oppose or prove rebellious in this matter, and commit 
 them to our prisons, until we shall otherwise have ordered their punishment 
 And, therefore, we command you that you should be assisting the said 
 William, in executing and fulfilling all things before mentioned with your aid 
 and counsel, as often and in the manner in which, by the said William on 
 our account, you may he required.” 
 
 The domestic decoration of the period during which Edward III. and 
 Richard II. occupied the throne of England, was almost entirely confined to 
 painting the walls with historical pictures, or hanging tapestries and rich 
 cloths upon them. Time has left hut few records of this age, although it 
 has preserved many of a much higher date; but still we are acquainted with 
 many of the subjects that were chosen. In a chamber of the royal palace 
 at Westminster, all the warlike histories of the Bible, as being the parts best 
 suiting the character of the age, were painted with great skill, and explained 
 by a series of texts written in French. Another chamber was painted with the 
 exploits of Richard I. in the Holy Land; and it is said, that in the palace of 
 Winchester, the entire biblical history was painted in admirable design. All 
 
224 
 
 these were, without doubt, painted in oil colours, and probably in a higher 
 
 style of art than we are willing to allow as belonging ta that age. 
 
 Historical paintings, and the working of tapestries, were known in this 
 country as early as the dynasty of the Saxons. “.Among the furniture of 
 their rooms,” says Mr. Sharon Turner, “we find hangings, to he suspended 
 on the walls, most of them silken, some with the figures of golden birds in 
 needlework, some woven, and some plain. Their love of gaudy colouring was 
 in these as apparent as in their dress; for Aldhelm says, if finished of one 
 
 colour uniform, they would not appear beautiful to the eye. In the tenth 
 
 ■century, Edelfleda, the widow of Brithnod, Duke of Northumberland, presented 
 to the church at Ely a curtain on which she had represented the martial 
 exploits of her late husband, ‘ to preserve the memory of his great valour 
 and virtueshut whether this was executed in painting or in needlework, 
 may be considered doubtful. All historians, however, agree that even in the 
 seventh century, the art of weaving animal figures and foliage in cloths, and 
 of embroidering them afterwards, was known, if, indeed, it was not then 
 commonly practised. From this period to the reign of Elizabeth, tapestries 
 were held in high estimation as hangings for rooms, and were even sufficiently 
 valuable to be the gift of a king, and associated with the disposal of baronial 
 residences and large estates. Thus we find that Richard the Second conveyed 
 to Thomas Holland, Duke of Kent, the castl^^t Warwick and other posses¬ 
 sions, and with them ‘that suit of arras hangmg which contained the history 
 of the famous Guy, Earl of Warwick.’ Tapestry, representing sacred events, 
 or legends, were hung behind the high altar in churches, and it was for this 
 purpose that many of the noble dames of antiquity presented their works to 
 ecclesiastical superiors, cheered in their laborious tasks by the belief that they 
 were by such acts facilitating their ultimate safety in a future world, and a 
 blessing in this. 
 
 Two very remarkable men lived in the reign of Richard the Second, and 
 as they were both connected with that art the progress of which we are 
 tracing, they may with propriety be mentioned; one was Geoffrey Chaucer, 
 the father of English poetry; the other William of Wykeham, the father of 
 English architecture. Chaucer appears to have been introduced at court in 
 the reign of Edward the Third, and for a long time to have enjoyed royal 
 favour, and to have been intrusted with some secret negociations beyond sea. 
 On the 13th of July, 1389, he was appointed, by a writ tested at Windsor, 
 clerk of the works at the palace of Westminster, the tower of London, and. 
 
the mews near Charing Cross. Twelve months after this, he was ordered 
 to proceed to the restoration of the Collegiate Church at Windsor, which was 
 then in a state of ruins. It has been doubted whether Chaucer possessed 
 the knowledge requisite for the fulfilment of those duties which must devolve 
 upon a clerk of the works, but there does not seem any reason to suppose 
 that he was unacquainted with the art of building, for it is hardly probable 
 that he would have been selected for the office without the requisite informa¬ 
 tion, as there was no lack of means to provide for him by those who were 
 his patrons. If we might indulge imagination, it would be curious to trace 
 the intercourse between such minds as Geoffrey Chaucer and William of 
 Wykeham, whose name as bishop of Winchester and chancellor of England, 
 we should have heard with indifference; but as the designer and author of 
 the noblest specimens of architecture in England, will ever be held in reverence. 
 
 The civil commotion and dissatisfaction which disturbed society during 
 what may be called the middle ages of British history, offer to the historian 
 no other records than those of wars and contentions, and all those degrading 
 vices which are ever their attendants. The improvements which had been 
 made in the domestic manners and habits of the people were rather invaded 
 and depressed than nurtured and encouraged. The proud circumstance of 
 war, the daring ambition of nobles, the insolence of their retainers, and the 
 sufferings of the people, fill up the catalogue of events. We may therefore 
 pass over a period so barren of interest to the painter, whose art chiefly 
 flourishes when society is in repose, or at least in a condition susceptible 
 of improvement. 
 
 In the reigns of Henry the Seventh and his successor, the same style of 
 decoration was adopted as had prevailed in former ages. Historical paintings 
 on walls, tapestries, rich hangings, and painted glasses, were the most 
 remarkable features. Extensive mansions were at this period erected, in 
 which the characteristic details of the castles of a former age were not 
 entirely lost, but a much greater attention to comfort was secured. “ Such 
 palaces as King Henry the Eighth erected after his own devise,” says 
 Harrison, “ do represente another kind of patterne, which, as they are 
 supposed to excell all the rest that he found standinge in this realme, so 
 they are, and shall be, a perpetual precedent unto those that do come after 
 to follow in their works and buildings of importance. Certes, masonrie did 
 never better flourish in England than in his time.” 
 
 In the reign of Henry the Eighth the Florentine architecture was so far 
 
 3 M 
 
226 
 
 introduced as to be greatly intermixed with the native style, which may he 
 traced to the encouragement given in that reign to Italian artists. In the 
 succeeding reigns it obtained a predominance, and in the time of James the 
 First the debased Roman architecture of the middle ages was revived. 
 
 To trace the slight changes which were made in the style of house¬ 
 painting, during the subsequent years, unto the present time, is unnecessary. 
 The historical painting which had prevailed in earlier ages became uncommon 
 after the reign of James the First, and the execution of interior designs in 
 fancy woods, from which the art of graining arose, was adopted. In our 
 own day, the painting on panels, in imitation of the French styles, has 
 been revived, and the entire art of house-painting has received improve¬ 
 ments greater than at any former period. The decoration of houses is 
 now distinguished by a refinement and elegance which do not in any 
 degree belong to the styles of former periods. With the improvements 
 which have been introduced in the internal decoration of houses, must be 
 associated the invention of paper-hangings, which were first intended as 
 imitations of the tapestries and figured stuffs so commonly employed in 
 earlier ages. Flock papers, according to Beckman, were invented by Jerome 
 Langer, who obtained a patent, dated 1st of May, 1634. The French, 
 however, have laid claim to the invention, in favour of one Francois, who 
 is said to have practised the art in the year 1620, at Rouen. But, whoever 
 may have been the inventor, and whenever they may have been introduced, 
 it is certain that the use of them has greatly facilitated the domestic 
 improvements of the age. All the styles of former periods are now more 
 or less employed, but that which is most common consists in covering the 
 walls with a paper printed in pattern, and painting the joiners’-work in either 
 plain colours or in imitation of expensive or admired woods. By the adoption 
 of this mode of finishing rooms, the residences of all classes are rendered 
 more convenient, comfort is secured for the cleanly poor at a small cost, 
 and elegance for the rich. 
 
227 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 
 
 The subjects which have come under our notice in considering the art of 
 house painting are numerous; but the immediate dependence of one upon the 
 other, must be evident to every attentive and thoughtful mind. The know¬ 
 ledge required by a decorator Who wishes to understand his business, may be 
 divided into four sections. 
 
 He will first require to be informed as to the circumstances under which 
 colour is produced, and the means by which the sensation is conveyed to 
 the mind. Connected with this is the question of the harmony or discord 
 of colours, and the origin of the pleasure or dissatisfaction with which we 
 view them. These are purely philosophical inquiries; but they form the 
 foundation of a successful practice, and cannot be neglected by even those 
 who have experience and an accurate and cultivated eye to guide them. The 
 first part of this work has, therefore, been devoted to a consideration of these 
 important questions ; and although they have not been so fully examined 
 as some of our readers might desire, they have, perhaps, been sufficiently 
 illustrated to assist them in future investigations, and may be perused, if not 
 studied, by those who would disregard a more profound examination. 
 
 In the second part of this work, we have endeavoured to explain die manu¬ 
 facture of colours, oils, and varnishes, and the tools employed by the house 
 painter. An allusion to the science of chemistry could not be in this part 
 avoided. It was not sufficient to state that in the admixture of two substances, 
 a third is produced, and that the third is used as a pigment. Such barren 
 information would be entirely destitute of interest to every person; the question 
 would constantly present itself. Why is the effect produced, and to what agency 
 can we trace the decomposition of the two substances, and the subsequent 
 reunion of their component parts in the formation of new compounds? Of 
 such knowledge the whole science of chemistry consists, and the force which 
 
228 
 
 regulates all compositions is that of affinity ; so that the science itself is the 
 doctrine of elective attractions. For the benefit of those who are unacquainted 
 with the science on which the manufacture of pigments entirely depends, it 
 has been found necessary to illustrate incidentally the doctrines to which we 
 have alluded, and thus to prepare the mind of the reader for the statement 
 of facts which would otherwise have been misunderstood. Whether the attempt 
 has been successful or not, the reader will judge for himself; and he will be 
 best able to decide, who has had no previous knowledge of chemistry. 
 
 An acquaintance with the philosophy of colours, and the manufacture of 
 pigments, cannot he considered absolutely necessary to the house painter; for he 
 may be able to cover a panel with paint, or to imitate the grain of a wood and 
 the veins of a marble without a knowledge of either, but he will execute his 
 work with less taste, and we might add, with less skill. The mechanical 
 operations of house painting are described in the third part of this work ; 
 and the reader will there find many important hints derived from the expe¬ 
 rience of practical men, and the observation of the author, which will be most 
 useful, if introduced in his own practice. 
 
 The book closes with a brief history of the art of painting. The author 
 has, in this part of his work, attempted, as far as was possible, to confine his 
 attention to house painting; but the history of the arts of design is so intimately 
 connected with this subject, that it was found impossible to separate them 
 entirely. The account which he has given is but a sketch, but it is also 
 one which the reader himself may fill up by a perusal of the many important 
 historical records and memoirs to which allusion has been made. 
 
 The author may be blamed by some of his readers for having spoken with 
 what they may consider unnecessary severity of the want of information among 
 house-painters as a class, upon all the subjects connected with their pursuits. 
 It cannot, however, be denied that they are generally less informed than other 
 artisans, although at the same time we acknowledge that there are individuals 
 whose knowledge of their art, and taste in the practice of it, entitle them to 
 the highest respect. These individuals, or at least many of them, have, 
 during the last few years, shaken off their visible connexion with the class to 
 which they belong, and have called themselves decorators. For a time this 
 may separate them from the workmen whom they are evidently anxious to 
 avoid, but a name cannot long be a protection to the educated classes from the 
 invasion of the ignorant. It is more wise to instruct the uninformed than to 
 separate them from the class to which they belong. The elements of the 
 
knowledge they require, we have endeavoured to collect in this volume; and 
 if we have heen severe in our animadvei’sions upon those to whom our book 
 is addressed, it has been to excite that desire for knowledge which has long 
 acted beneficially among other artisans. 
 
 The prices paid for painters’ work, and the mode of measuring it, are 
 subjects which do not come under our consideration. The value of work 
 must depend upon the manner in which it is done ; and much is it to he 
 regretted that the surveyor does not make a more marked distinction than is 
 customary ; as an adequate remuneration for superior work would have the 
 effect of exciting the workman to the improvement of his art. The mode of 
 measurement between the employer and the employed, is, perhaps, more fair 
 than in many other departments of artificers’ work ; but in all valuations of 
 labour, the parties concerned greatly if not entirely depend upon the capa¬ 
 bilities and judgment of the surveyor. ^ 
 
 The author is not unconscious of the defects of this book, -put at the same 
 time he hopes that it will be found of some value to the art on which it 
 treats; and if it should in any degree aid its progress, by establishing in the 
 minds of workmen the necessity of study and observation, his object will be 
 attained, and his labour repaid. 
 
s' 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Accidental colours . 
 
 . 23,68 
 
 Active colours 
 
 . 33 
 
 Adaptation, want of in design 
 
 42 
 
 Agate, imitation of 
 
 . 172 
 
 Amber 
 
 121 
 
 -varnish 
 
 . 133 
 
 Anim^, the gum 
 
 122 
 
 Antioch chamber, decoration of . 
 
 . 213 
 
 Antiquity of house painting , 
 
 1 
 
 Apartments, aspect of . 
 
 44 
 
 Apelles, works of 
 
 190 
 
 Apollodorus, works of . 
 
 . 183 
 
 Arabesque, origin of. 
 
 213 
 
 Arch of Constantine 
 
 . 218 
 
 Architectural styles, study of 
 
 45 
 
 Arrangement of colours . 
 
 17 
 
 Ash, graining of 
 
 15 
 
 Asphaltum 
 
 107, 120 
 
 Azure, the Egyptian . 
 
 85 
 
 B. 
 
 
 Babylon, walls of 
 
 . 178 
 
 Barytes in white lead . 
 
 68 
 
 Bed-rooms, decoration of 
 
 . 43 
 
 Bitumen 
 
 107,120 
 
 Black, characters of 
 
 . 39 
 
 -and gold, imitation of 
 
 170 
 
 Blue, the Prussian 
 
 . 83 
 
 —, the cobalt 
 
 88 
 
 -ashes 
 
 . 89 
 
 -black . 
 
 109 
 
 -, characters of 
 
 . 28 
 
 Bone black . 
 
 109 
 
 Bougival, white . 
 
 . 72 
 
 Breccia marbles 
 
 164 
 
 Brianpon white . 
 
 . 72 
 
 Brocalilla di Sienna . 
 
 163 
 
 ■ ■ -, imitation of . 
 
 • 171 
 
 Brown, the Vandyke 
 
 107 
 
 -, from Prussian blue 
 
 . 108 
 
 -pink. 
 
 109 
 
 Brunswick green 
 
 . 104 
 
 ■ black 
 
 134 
 
 Brushes, varieties of 
 
 . 145 
 
 -, among the Greeks , 
 
 193 
 
 Building, origin of 
 
 1 
 
 c. 
 
 Page 
 
 Cadmium, sulphuret of . . • 82 
 
 Caoutchouc varnish . . • .134 
 
 Carrara marble .... 163 
 
 Carmine . . • • .94 
 
 Cassel earth ..... 107 
 
 Cassius, purple of ... • 100 
 
 Cedar, graining of . . . • 160 
 
 Cement, for facing .... 153 
 
 Ceruse ..... 67 
 
 Character of apartments. . . .42 
 
 Chaucer, a clerk of works . . . 224 
 
 Christ, early paintings of . . • 210 
 
 Chromatic scale .... 91 
 
 Chrome yellow . . . . .76 
 
 - , oxide of . . . . 105 
 
 Chromium, combinations of . • ,77 
 
 Cimon of Cleone .... 181 
 
 Cinnabar . . . . .90 
 
 Cipolin marbles .... 164 
 
 Claircoling ..... 153 
 
 Close Rolls . . . . .211 
 
 Cobalt blue . . . • .83 
 
 Coffee black .... 109 
 
 Cologne earth . . . . .107 
 
 Colour, origin of ... . 2 
 
 -, used in decoration . . .2 
 
 — - ', not a necessary property . . 5 
 
 -, produced by density . . .50 
 
 Coloured ray ..... 8 
 
 Colourless copal varnish .... 130 
 
 Colours, chiefly metallic compounds . . 63 
 
 - , choice of in dress . . .29 
 
 -, harmony of . . . . 17 
 
 -, in nature . . • .48 
 
 -, the permanent ... 49 
 
 - , qualities of . . . .32 
 
 ■ ■, three primitive . . . 10 
 
 ■ -, the transient . . . .49 
 
 Combs, manufacture of . . . 147 
 
 Constantine and Christianity . . . 207 
 
 Constantinople, foundation of . . 207 
 
 Cool colours , . . . .33 
 
 Copal ...... 122 
 
 Copal varnish ..... 129 
 
 Copper, arsenite of . . * . 101 
 
 -, carbonate of . . . .105 
 
 - , subacetate of . . . 102 
 
 Cremnitz white . . . . .70 
 
INDEX. 
 
 231 
 
 D. 
 
 Decorations in Pompeii 
 Decorators, occupation of 
 Dining halls of middle ages . 
 Dining-rooms, decoration of 
 Disregard of uses 
 Dove-marble, imitation of 
 Drawing-rooms, decoration of 
 Drying oils 
 
 Dusters .... 
 Dwelling-houses in Pompeii 
 
 E. 
 
 Edward the First, buildings of 
 Edward the Second, character of 
 
 -- " , works of 
 
 Edward the Third, coronation of 
 
 -, paintings on walls 
 
 --j pi-ice of materials 
 
 -- - ■. I, wages of painters 
 
 Egyptian azure . 
 
 ■' " colours 
 
 -green, imitation of 
 
 Egyptians, knowledge of the . 
 Encaustic painting among the Greeks 
 Essential oils. 
 
 Etruscans, origin of 
 
 -, pictures of 
 
 Eumanus, the Athenian painter 
 Euphranor, the works of 
 Eupomjms, the works of. 
 
 F. 
 
 Fashionable colours . 
 
 Fixed oils 
 Flake white . 
 
 Flanders varnish 
 Flatting 
 
 Fresco painting of the Greeks 
 Fresnel, on inflexion of light 
 Furniture, to be studied . 
 
 G. 
 
 Gamboge 
 
 Gelatine, nature of 
 Glue, manufacture of 
 Goethe’s theory of colour 
 Gold-coloured varnish 
 Gold-leaf, manufacture of 
 —■ , use of 
 
 Graining 
 Granite, the grey" 
 
 Greek pictures . 
 
 Green, the characters of 
 
 -the Brunswick , 
 
 -earth . 
 
 -lava, imitation of 
 
 -, the mountain 
 
 -, Scbeele’s manufacture of 
 
 Grey-granite, imitation of 
 Grimaldi on inflexion of light 
 Ground brushes 
 Groves’, Mr., white lead . 
 
 Gum anim5? 
 
 Gypsum . 
 
 H. 
 
 Halls, painting of 
 Hare-wood, graining of. 
 
 Harmony of colours . 
 
 Henry III., decorations in reign of 
 Henry VII., decorations in reign of . 
 Henry VIII., decorations in reign of 
 Herschel on absorption of light 
 Historical paintings in rooms 
 Homer, tapestry mentioned by 
 Hooke, Dr. on inflexion of light 
 House-painter’s varnish 
 House-painting, state of . 
 
 ----, no treatise on 
 
 Hues of colours . 
 
 I. 
 
 Ignorance of house-painters . 
 
 Indian yellow 
 Iron, chromate of . 
 
 -, tritoxide of 
 
 Iron-work, black 
 Isinglass, manufacture of 
 
 J. 
 
 Japanners’ gold size 
 Jaspar, imitation of . 
 
 Jews, paintings of 
 Justinian, the arts in reign of 
 
 K. 
 
 Key in colouring 
 
 -colour, choice of 
 
 King-wood, graining of . 
 
 Knotting . . . . 
 
 Krems white 
 
 Lac . 
 
 — varnish 
 Lamp black . 
 
 Language of Etruscans . 
 Lead, carbonate of . 
 
 -, chromate of 
 
 -, deutoxide of . 
 
 -, iodide of . 
 
 -, protoxide of . 
 
 Leading colours 
 Libraries, decoration of 
 Light, a fluid per se 
 
 -, absorption of . 
 
 -, composition of 
 
 -, decomposition of 
 
 -, dispersion of 
 
 -, inflexion of . 
 
 -, influence of on colours 
 
 -, moves in right lines 
 
 -, refraction of 
 
 -, undulatory theory of 
 
 -, velocity of 
 
 Lime, in white lead . 
 
 -, sulphate of 
 
 Linseed oil . 
 
 Lumachelli marbles 
 
 150 
 
 169 
 
 179 
 
 209 
 
 i :■ 
 
 
232 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 M. 
 
 Madder late 
 
 Madreporic marWes 
 
 Mahogany, imitation of 
 
 Malachite 
 
 Maple, imitation of 
 
 Marbles, imitation of 
 
 Massicot 
 
 Mastic 
 
 -varnish . 
 
 Media, density of 
 Melody of colours 
 Mercury, periodide of 
 Milk of wax 
 Mineral yellow 
 Minium . 
 
 Modellers 
 Moikure, effect of 
 Mosaics, origin of 
 Moudon white . 
 
 Mountain green 
 Mummy 
 Mycon, works of 
 
 N. 
 
 Naples yellow . 
 
 Napoleon, imitation of 
 National colours 
 Newton’s experiments on light 
 New work, painting of : 
 Nicias, the works of . 
 Norwegian slate, imitation of 
 Nut oil . 
 
 O. 
 
 Oak, the dark, imitation of 
 
 -, the pollard 
 
 Ochres, the yellow 
 ■ ■•, %e red 
 
 Ocular spectra . 
 
 Odo the goldsmith . 
 
 Oil, the linseed . 
 
 — the nut 
 
 — of petroleum 
 —- of poppies 
 
 — of rosemary . 
 
 — of spike . 
 
 — of turpentine 
 Oil-painting, discovery of 
 Oils, the drying 
 
 -the essential 
 
 -the fixed . 
 
 -the manufacture of 
 
 Old work, painting of 
 Olivette 
 
 Opposition of colours 
 Orange colour 
 
 - vermilion 
 
 Orpiment 
 
 Over-grainers 
 
 P. 
 
 Paintings of the Greeks 
 Pamphilius, works of 
 
 Page 
 
 96 
 
 163 
 
 157 
 
 105 
 
 168 
 
 166 
 
 99 
 
 123 
 
 131 
 
 7 
 
 21 
 
 92 
 
 134 
 
 74 
 
 99 
 
 146 
 
 149 
 
 208 
 
 74 
 
 105 
 
 108 
 
 183 
 
 . 74 
 
 173 
 29 
 8 
 
 . 150 
 
 189 
 . 171 
 
 114 
 
 156 
 
 156 
 
 81 
 
 92 
 
 23 
 
 213 
 
 112 
 
 114 
 
 119 
 
 114 
 
 118 
 
 118 
 
 117 
 
 210 
 
 114 
 
 116 
 
 111 
 
 110 
 
 162 
 
 114 
 
 21 
 
 39 
 
 99 
 
 81 
 
 146 
 
 191 
 . 188 
 
 I Pansenus, works of . 
 Paper-hanging, invention of 
 Parian marble 
 Parlours, decoration of . 
 Parrhasius, the works of 
 Passive colours 
 Patent yellow 
 Pearl, the colours of 
 Pentelic marble 
 Periodide of mercury 
 Permanent colours . 
 Petroleum, oil of 
 Phidias, the works of 
 Picture varnish 
 Pleasure from colours 
 Pollard oak 
 Polygnotus, works of 
 Pompeii, destruction of . 
 
 -importance of 
 
 Potass, chromate of 
 Prices in reign of Edward I 
 Priming 
 Prussian blue 
 Pudding-stone marbles . 
 Purj)le, characters of 
 
 -, madder 
 
 -of Cassius . 
 
 Putty, manufacture of . 
 
 Quill tools ' 
 
 Q 
 
 R 
 
 Raw umber 
 Realgar 
 
 Red antique marbles 
 
 — characters of 
 
 — gives idea of warmth 
 
 — the Indian 
 
 — ochre 
 
 ■ ■■. » , the artificial 
 
 — orpiment 
 
 — oxide of iron 
 
 — the Peruvian 
 
 — porphyry, imitation of 
 
 — tlie Venetian 
 Refraction of light 
 Removing paint 
 Resins 
 
 Retina affected by light 
 Richard II., decorations in 
 Roman art, character of 
 
 -decline of 
 
 Rosemary, oil of 
 Rosewood, imitation of 
 Rouen white 
 Rubbing in brush . 
 
 me of 
 
 S 
 
 Sadler’s patent white lead 
 Sandarach . 
 
 -varnish 
 
 Santa Sophia, the church of 
 Sash tools 
 
 Page 
 182 
 . 226 
 162 
 . 43 
 
 185 
 . 33 
 
 74 
 . 57 
 
 163 
 92 
 49 
 
 . 118 
 182 
 . 129 
 
 27 
 . 156 
 183 
 . 204 
 204 
 . 77 
 
 214 
 . 150 
 
 88 
 . 164 
 
 37 
 
 . 101 
 100 
 . 141 
 
 147 
 
 107 
 
 93 
 
 163 
 
 36 
 
 28 
 
 93 
 
 92 
 
 93 
 93 
 92 
 92 
 
 174 
 
 92 
 
 6 
 
 152 
 
 121 
 
 60 
 
 224 
 
 201 
 
 208 
 
 118 
 
 156 
 
 74 
 
 146 
 
 68 
 
 123 
 
 136 
 
 209 
 
 145 
 

 
 index. 
 
 Satin white 
 
 -wood, imitation of 
 
 Scheele’s green 
 Schweiufurth’s green 
 Secondary colours 
 Semiramis, picture of . 
 Sepulchres of Etruria 
 Shades of colour 
 Sheldrake’s copal varnisli 
 Shell marbles 
 Sicilian marble 
 Sienna, a variety of 
 
 -- imitation of . 
 
 Silver found in lead 
 
 Sitting rooms, decoration of 
 
 Size 
 
 Smalt 
 
 Softeners 
 
 Spanish white 
 
 -black 
 
 Spike, oil of . 
 
 Spirit varnishes . 
 
 Stock brushes 
 Suitability of colours 
 Sulphur found in lead 
 Sycamore, imitation of . 
 
 Tablet painting of the Greeks 
 Tapestry, use of 
 Temple at Pompeii . 
 
 Terra de Sienna 
 
 -verte . 
 
 Tertiary colours . 
 
 Thebes, paintings at. 
 Thenard’s oxygenated water 
 blue 
 
 Thin plates 
 
 ---, Goethe on 
 
 Timanthes, works of 
 Tingry on white lead 
 Tint of colours . 
 
 Tone in colouring 
 Transient colours 
 Tulip-wood, imitation of 
 Turpentine, oil of 
 Tyrrhenians, origin of 
 
 Page 
 
 73 
 
 157 
 101 
 104 
 
 19 
 
 178 
 
 197 
 
 18 
 
 130 
 
 164 
 
 163 
 
 169 
 
 171 
 
 65 
 43 
 
 139 
 
 83 
 
 146 
 
 72 
 
 109 
 
 118 
 
 135 
 
 145 
 
 29 
 
 66 
 
 158 
 
 192 
 218, 224 
 205 
 93 
 106 
 19 
 178 
 69 
 83 
 
 54 
 
 55 
 187 
 
 67 
 18 
 18 
 49 
 159 
 117 
 195 
 
 Ultramarine 
 
 Umber 
 
 Vandyke brown 
 Van Eyck, claims of 
 Variety to be studied 
 Varnish for cabinet-makers . 
 
 ■ — house painters 
 
 --maps and drawings 
 
 -pictures 
 
 Varnishes 
 
 Vauquelin’s discovery of chrome 
 Verd antique 
 Verdigris 
 Verditer 
 Vermilion 
 Vienna green 
 
 W. 
 
 Wainscot, imitation of . 
 
 -varnish 
 
 Walnut, imitation of 
 Warm colours 
 Westminster Abbey rebuilt 
 White, characters of 
 —- cheerful to the eye 
 
 -mourning in Ghina . 
 
 —— pigments . 
 
 -Spanish varnish 
 
 -veined marble 
 
 -lead . , 
 
 -adulteration of 
 
 —--discolouring of . 
 
 -use in painting 
 
 Workmen, selection of by Edward III. 
 Wykeham, William of 
 
 Yellow, characters of 
 
 -imperial colour in China 
 
 Yellow-lakes 
 
 Young on coloured fringes 
 
 Zebra-wood, imitation of 
 Zeuxis, the works of 
 
 Page 
 
 85 
 
 81 
 
 107 
 
 210 
 
 47 
 
 136 
 
 129 
 
 133 
 
 129 
 
 124 
 
 77 
 
 168 
 
 102 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 104 
 
 155 
 
 132 
 
 169 
 
 33 
 212 
 
 34 
 28 
 30 
 
 64 
 136 
 173 
 
 65 
 68 
 69 
 69 
 
 222 
 
 224 
 
 159 
 
 184 
 
 London; J. Rider, Printer, 14, Bartholomew Close. 
 
PRINTED FOR T. KELLY, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. 
 
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 Series of Designs for Decorating Apartments, suited to the various Styles of Architecture. 
 By H. W. and A. Arrowsmith. In 30 Nos. at lx. each, and in Parts at 3s. each. 
 
 Just Published, A Reprint of that useful and popular Work, 
 
 THE ENGINEERS’ AND MECHANICS’ ENCYCLOPAEDIA ; compre¬ 
 hending Practical Illustrations of the Machinery and Processes employed in every De¬ 
 scription of Manufacture. With nearly 2000 Engravings. By Luke Hebert, Civil 
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 THE NEW AND IMPROVED PRACTICAL GARDENER, and Modern 
 
 Horticulturist ; exhibiting the latest and most approved Management of Kitchen, 
 Fruit, and Flower Gardens, the Green-house, Hot-house, Conservatory, &c. for every 
 month in the year. Illustrated by numerous Engravings. By Charles Me. Intosh, 
 C.M.C.H.S., late Gardener to the King of the Belgians at Claremont, and now at Dalkeith 
 Palace. In one volume (972 pages), 21s.., or with 40 specimens of choice Flowers, 
 coloured, 26s.; may also be had in parts, plain, at 2s. each, and coloured, 2s. 6^. 
 
 This work, “ the labour and experience of a life devoted to the science of Horticulture^ will be found the most 
 useful assistant, not only to the Amateur, but also to the operative Gardener, ever published. 
 
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